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THE  NEW 
INTERNATIONAL 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 


EDITORS 
DANIEL    COIT    GILMAN,    LL.  D. 

PRfiSIBBNT  OF  JOHNS  HOPKINS  UNIVEBSITT  (1876-1901) 
PBE8IDKNT  OF  CARNEGIE  INSTITUTION 

HARRY  THURSTON  PECK,  Ph.  D.,  L  H.  D. 

PSOFES80B  IN  COLUMBIA  UNITERSITY 

FRANK  MOORE  COLBY,  M.  A. 

LATE  PROFESSOR  OF  ECONOMICS 
IN  NEW  YORK  UNIVERSITY 


VOLUME  XV 


NEW  YORK 

DODD,  MEAD  AND  COMPANY 

1904 


/■'  /^ 


K/^ 


fROMTHC 

^S.mMfCS  ESTATE 
1M3 


Copyright,  1904 
By  Dodd,  Mrad  and  Company 


^//  rtghts  reserved 


HILL  AND  LEONARD,  NEW  YORK  CITY,  U.  S.  A. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  yOLUME  XV. 
COLORED  PLATES 

Faoino  Paob 

ROSKB 168 

Rugs " 2^0 

Sea  Anemones 606 

Seam 610 

Shobb  BrsDs 800 

SiGNAi.  Code,  Inteenational 844 

Snails,  North  American 960 

Serpents,  Foreign  Venomous 962 

MAPS 

Roman  Empire 148 

Russia 242 

St.  Louis 830 

St.   Paul 340 

Samoa 388 

San  Francisco 406 

Scotland 674 

SiAM 814 

ENGRAVINGS 

RoBBiA,  LucA  Dblla  ( <^  Madonna  and  ChBd") 60 

Rockfish,  Sunfish,  etc 82 

Rome  —  The  Colosseum ^    .  136 

Rosa,  Salvator 164 

Rubens,  Peter  Paul  ("The  Descent  from  the  Cross") 210 

RuBus 212 

Saint-Gaudens,  Augustus  ("The  Shaw  Memorial")' 320 

Saint  Mark's,  Piazza,  and  Campanile 336 

Saint  Paul's  Cathedral 340 

Saint  Peter's  Cathedral 344 

Saint  Sophia 348 

Salad  Plants 352 

Salmon  and  Trout 364 

San  Francisco 408 

Sanguinaria  (Bloodroot,  etc.) 410 

Sarto,  Andrea  Del    ("Madonna  with  the  Harpies") 458 

Schiller 512 

ScopAS •. 568 

Sequoia 670 

Seville 702 


IV 

FAaHo  Paqb 

Shakespeare 72G 

Sharks,  Great 742 

Shasta,  Mount 744 

Sheep 760 

Sheep,  Wild,  and  Musk  Ox 762 

Shintoism 776 

Ship        778 

Ship,  Armored •  782 

Shipbuilding        788 

Silk 854 

Silkworm 856 

Skeleton 898 

Snakes,  American  Harmless 962 

Snow 966 


KEY  TO  PRONUNCIATION. 


ft      as  in  ale,  fate.    Also  see  <,  below. 

S        "    **    senate,  chaotic.    Also  see  <,  below. 

ft        **    **   glare,  care. 

ft        "    "    am,  at. 

ft        "    "    arm,  father. 

ft        "    ''   ant,  and  final  a  in  America,  armada, 

etc.    In  rapid  speech  this  vowel  read- 

»  ily  becomes  more  or  less  obscured  and 

like  the  nentral  yowel  or  a  short 

n  (fi). 

0       "    "    final,  regal,  where  it  is  of  a  neutral  or 
obscure  quality. 

•         "    "   aU,fall. 

ft        "    "   eve. 

«         **    "   elate,  evade. 

ft  **  "  end,  pet.  The  characters  i,  4,  and  A 
are  used  for  a  in  German,  as  in  Gftrt- 
ner,  Grftfe,  Hfthnel,  to  the  values  of 
which  they  are  the  nearest  English 
vowel  sounds.  The  sound  of  Sw^ish 
^  ^  is  also  indicated  by  ^. 

•  "  *'  fern,  her,  and  as  t  in  sir.  Also  for  o, 
oe,  in  German,  as  in  GSthe,  Goethe, 
Ortel,  Oertel,  and  for  eu  and  oeu  in 
French,  as  in  NeufchAtel,  Gr^ecoBur; 
to  which  it  is  the  nearest  English 
vowel  sound, 
e  "  ''  agency,  judgment,  where  it  is  of  a  neu- 
tral or  obscure  quality. 
'   ice,  quiet. 

*  quiescent. 
'  ill,  fit. 

*  old,  sober. 
'   obey,  sobriety. 

*  orb,  nor. 
"   odd,  forest,  not. 
'   atom,  carol,  where  it  has  a  neutral  or 

obscure  quality. 
'   oil,  boil,  and  for  eu  in  German,  as  in 

Feuerbach. 
'   food,  fool,  and  as  tf  in  rude,  rule. 
'   house,  mouse. 
'   use,  mule. 
'   unite. 

*  cut,  bMt. 
'   full,  put,  or  as  oo  in  foot,  book.    Also 

for  u  in  German,  as  in  MOnchen, 
MliUer,  and  u  in  French,  as  in 
Buchez,  Bud6;  to  which  it  is  the 
nearest  English  vowel  sound. 

*  urn,  bum. 
'  yet,  yield. 
'  the  Spanish  Habana,  Cordoba,  where  it 

is  like  a  v  made  with  the  lips  alone, 
instead  of  with  the  teeth  and  lips. 
'  chair,  cheese. 


I 
i 

X 

o 
6 
6 

o 


01 

fi 
fi 
a 


ft 
y 


D  as  in  the  Spanish  Almodovar,  pulgada,  whera 
it  is  nearly  like  th  in  English  then, 
this. 

g      "   "   go,  get. 

6  **  "  the  German  Landtag,  and  ch  in  Feuer- 
bach, buch;  where  it  is  a  guttural 
sound  made  with  the  back  part  of  the 
tongue  raised  toward  the  soft  palate, 
as  in  the  sound  made  in  clearing  the 
throat. 

H  as  y  in  the  3panish  Jijona,  g  in  the  Span- 
ish gila ;  where  it  is  a  fricative  some-, 
what  resembling  the  sound  of  h  in 
English  hue  or  y  in  yet,  but  stronger. 

hwr  "  wh  in  which. 

K  **  ch  in  the  German  ich,  Albrecht,  and  g 
in  the  German  Arensberg,  Mecklen- 
burg; where  it  is  a  fricative  sound 
made  between  the  tongue  and  the 
hard  palate  toward  which  the  tongue 
is  raised.  It  resembles  the  sound 
of  h  in  hue,  or  y  in  yet ;  or  the  sound 
made  by  beginning  to  pronounce  a  k, 
but  not  completing  the  stoppage  of 
the  breath.  The  character  k  is  also 
used  to  indicate  the  rough  aspirates 
or  fricatives  of  some  of  the  Oriental 
languages,  as  of  kh  in  the  word  Khan. 

n    as  in  sinker,  longer. 

ng    "   "   sing,  long. 

If  "  "  the  French  bon,  Bourbon,  and  m  in  the 
French  Etampes ;  where  it  is  equiva- 
lent to  a  nasalizing  of  the  preceding 
vowel.  This  effect  is  approximately 
produced  by  attempting  to  pronounce 
'onion'  without  touching  the  tip  of 
the  tongue  to  the  roof  of  the  mouth. 
The  corresponding  nasal  of  Portu- 
guese is  also  indicated  by  n,  as  in  the 
case  of  S&o  Antfto. 

sh    "   "   shine,  shut. 

th     "    "   thrust,  thin. 

TH    "    «   then,  this. 

sh  as  z  in  azure,  and  «  in  pleasure. 
An  apostrophe  [']  is  sometimes  used  to  denote 

a  glide  or  neutral  connecting  vowel,  as  in  tAVl 

(table),  kAz"m  (chasm). 
Otherwise  than- as  noted  above,  the  letters  used 

in  the  respellin^  for  pronunciation  are  to  receive 

their  ordinary  English  sounds. 

When  the  pronunciation  is  sufficiently  shown 

by  indicating  the  accented  syllables,  this  is  done 

without  respelling;  as  in  the  case  of  very  common 

En^rlish  words,  and  words  which  are  so  spelled  as 

to  insure  their  correct  pronunciation  if  they  are 

correctly  accented.     See  the  article  on  PROWUlf- 

CIATION. 


THE  NEW 
INTERNATIONAL 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 


RICE  INSECTS.  The  rice  weevil 
{Calandn  oryzw)  is  a  cosmopolitan 
insect,  which  probably  originated  in 
India  and  has  been  diffused  by  com- 
merce until  it  is  found  in  most  grain- 
growing  ooimtries.  In  the  Southern 
United  States  it  is  known  as  'black  weevil.'  It 
feeds  upon  the  grain  of  rice,  wheat,  com,  barley, 
rye,  oats  and  sorghum,  and  also  infests  such 
breadstuffs  as  crackers  and  cakes,  and  is  frequent- 
ly found  in  flour  and  meal.  It  was  originally  bred 
from  rice,  whence  its  specific  name;  and  it  is 
amenable  to  the  same  bisulphide-of-carbon  treat- 
ment ordinarily  applied  for  other  insects  injuring 
stored  grain.  The  rice  grub  of  the  Southern  United 
States  is  the  larva  of  a  scarabseid  beetle  {Chale- 
pu»  trachypyffua) ,  which  looks  like  the  ordinary 
white  grub.  It  feeds  upon  the  roots  of  upland 
rice,  but  in  fields  which  are  frequently  overflowed 
it  cannot  exist.  The  so-called  Svater  weevil' 
{lAS8orhopiru8  simplex),  however,  does  exist  in 
overflowed  flelds. 

The  rice-stalk  borer  is  the  larva  of  a  crambid 
moth  {Chile  plejadellus) .  The  moth  lays  its  eggs 
in  the  early  summer  upon  the  rice  stalks,  and  the 
young  larvse  bore  into  the  stalks,  working  their 
way  gradually  toward  the  roots.  It  transforms 
to  the  pupa  stage  within  the  stalk,  and  after  five 
or  six  days  the  moth  emerges.  It  is  of  a  very 
pale  yellowish  or  straw  color,  with  golden  fringes 
to  the  front  wings,  and  expands  alM)ut  one  inch. 
Stalks  inhabited  by  the  borer  turn  white,  and  this 
insect  is  responsible  for  a  certain  amount  of  the 
so-called  'white  blast'  of  rice  fields.  The  chinch 
bug  (q.v.)  also  feeds  upon  the  rice  heads,  but  is 
seldom  abundant  enough  to  do  much  damage; 
while  in  the  periods  Mtween  the  overflows  the 
'grass  worm*  (larva  of  Laphygma  frugiperda), 
when  occurring  in  large  numbers,  may  ravage  a 
field.    See  Gbass-Wobm. 

Consult  Annual  Report,  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  (Washington,  1881-82). 
BICH,  Babnabe  (1540T-1620?).  An  Eliza- 
bethan writer.  He  served  in  the  war  with  France 
(1557-58)  and  thereafter,  through  most  of  his 
life,  with  the  army  in  Ireland.  During  his  leisure 
he  learned  French  and  Italian  and  acquired  a 
knowledge  of  the  classics  through  translations. 


He  claimed  to  have  written  thirty-six  books,  of 
which  the  best  known  is  a  series  of  short  stories 
entitled  Riche  his  Farewell  to  Militarie  Profes- 
sion ( 1581 ;  reprinted  by  the  Shakespeare  Society, 
London,  1846).  From  this  collection  Shakespeare 
drew  the  plot  of  Ticelfth  Night.  Afterwards  Rich 
issued  many  romances  in  the  style  of  the 
Euphues,  military  reminiscences,  and  pamphlets 
against  the  Papists  and  tobacco.  Consult  Jusse- 
rand.  The  Novel  in  the  Time  of  Shakespeare 
(London  and  New  York,  1890). 

RICH,.  Claudius  James  (1787-1827).  An 
English  traveler  and  Orientalist.  He  was  bom  at 
Dijon,  France,  of  English  parents.  His  early 
years  were  spent  in  Bristol,  where  he  was  educat- 
ed, and  showed  a  remarkable  aptitude  for  Orien- 
tal languages.  Through  friendly  influence  he  re- 
ceived a  cadetship  in  the  East  India  Company 
service  in  1803,  but  when  his  linguistic  attain- 
ments became  officially  known  he  was  transferred 
to  the  Bombay  civil  service  as  a  writer.  He  was 
ordered  to  proceed  via  Egypt  as  secretary  to  the 
Consul-(]reneral  to  that  country,  but  the  vessel  in 
which  he  traveled  was  burned  in  the  Gulf  of 
Rosas,  Spain.  He  managed  to  escape,  and  after 
many  adventures  in  MalUt,  Italy,  Constantinople, 
Smyrna,  and  the  interior  of  Asia  Minor,  every- 
where familiarizing  himself  with  the  vernaculars, 
he  spent  some  time  in  Egypt.  Disguised  as  a 
Mameluke,  he  traveled  through  Palestine  and 
Syria,  and,  sailing  from  Basra,  reached  Bombay 
in  1807,  where  he  was  welcomed  by  the  Governor, 
Sir  James  Mackintosh.  Four  months  later  he 
married  the  Governor's  daughter  and  was  appoint- 
ed Resident  at  Bagdad,  ^ere  he  remained  six 
years.  He  made  a  valuable  collection  of  coins, 
gems,  manuscripts,  and  material  for  a  history  of 
the  region,  in  1811  visited  the  site  of  Babylon,  in 
1813  sought  recuperation  from  illness  at  (Constan- 
tinople, and  in  1814  journeyed  through  the  Bal- 
kans and  visited  Vienna  and  Paris.  After  his  re- 
turn through  Asia  Minor  to  Bagdad,  he  revisited 
Babylon,  and  for  his  health  traveled  through 
Kurdistan  in  1820.  He  definitely  established  the 
site  of  ancient  Nineveh  (q.v.).  He  died  of 
cholera  at  Shiraz,  in  Persia,  while  assisting  the 
sick.  His  published  writings  include  two 
Memoirs  on  The  Ruins  of  Babylon   (1815  and 


BICH. 

1818),  and  Narrative  of  a  Residence  in  Koordi- 
Stan  and  on  the  Site  of  Ancient  Nineveh,  toith 
Journal  of  a  Voyage  Down  the  Tigris  to  Bagdad, 
and  an  Account  of  a  Visit  to  Shiraz  and  Persepolis 
(2  yols.,  1836),  edited  with  a  biographical  sketch 
by  his  widow.  His  Oriental  collection  was  ac- 
quired by  the  British  Museum. 

BICHy  Edmund.  An  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury.   See  Edmund,  Saint. 

BICH,  John  (1682?-1761).  A  noted  English 
harlequin  and  theatrical  manager.  His  father, 
Christopher  Rich,  had  been  a  manager  of  Drury 
Lane,  and  after  the  death  of  the  elder  Rich,  in 
1714,  the  son  opened  the  new  theatre  in  Lincoln's 
Inn  Fields.  It  was  in  1716  that  he  introduced 
the  performances  in  which,  under  the  name  of 
Lim,  he  himself  acted  the  part  of  Harlequin 
(q.v.).  Before  many  years  tnese  had  developed 
into  the  regular  English  pantomime  (q.v.)  and 
had  become  immensely  popular.  In  1732  he 
opened  the  theatre  of  Co  vent  Garden,  which  he 
continued  to  manage  till  his  death.  In  his  harle- 
quinades Rich  combined  an  extraordinary  agility 
and  pantomimic  gift  w^ith  great  ingenuity  in  de- 
vising novelties  te  attract  the  public.  Consult 
Doran,  Annals  of  the  Stage  (ed.  Lowe,  London, 
1888). 

BICH,  Penelope,  Lady  (c.1562-1607).  The 
object  of  the  poetic  passion  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney's 
sonnets  addressed  to  'Stella.'  She  was  a  daughter 
of  the  first  Earl  of  Essex,  who,  together  with  his 
son  Robert,  Elizabeth's  favorite,  received  kindly 
Sidney's  offer  of  marriage.  But  her  guardian, 
the  Earl  of  Huntingdon,  married  her,  probably 
in  1581,  to  Robert,  Second  Baron  Rich,  appar- 
ently against  her  will.  The  sonnets  Astrophil 
and  Stella,  published  after  this  marriage, 
sneer  at  the  husband's  lack  of  worth  and  of 
ability  to  appreciate  her  w*orth — an  attitude 
toward  Lord  Rich  which  is  also  taken  by  Richard 
Bamfield,  Bartholomew  Yonge,  and  others  who 
wrote  poetry  to  Lady  Penelope.  But  her  marital 
unhappiness  did  not  stop  at  this  stage.  In 
1595,  at  the  latest,  she  had  formed  a  liaison  with 
Lord  Mountjoy,  to  whom  she  bore  three  sons 
and  two  daughters,  and  with  whom,  after  Rich's 
abandonment  of  her,  which  did  not  occur  until 
after  the  execution  of  her  brother  Robert  ( 1601 ) , 
she  lived  openly,  even  before  her  divorce  in  1605. 
After  her  husband's  remarriage  she  married 
Mountjoy,  then  Earl  of  Devonshire,  and  thus 
lost  her  standing  at  Court,  where  she  had  been 
a  great  favorite. 

BICH'ABI)  I.  (1157-99).  Sumamed  Cceub 
DE  Lion,  or  the  Lion-Heabted.  King  of  Eng- 
land from  1189  to  1199.  He  was  the  third  son 
of  Henry  II.  and  his  Queen,  Eleanor,  and  was 
born  at  Oxford,  September  8,  1157.  When  a 
mere  infant  it  was  decided  that  he  should  in- 
herit Aquitaine,  and  he  was  betrothed  to  Alice, 
or  Alicia,  the  youngest  daughter  of  Louis  VII., 
King  of  France.  Like  his  brothers,  Richard  on 
several  occasions  rebelled  against  his  father,  King 
Henry  II.,  and  was  the  most  prominent  figure 
in  the  final  rebellion,  w^hich  hastened  the  death  of 
that  monarch.  Since  the  eldest  son  of  Henry  II. 
had  died,  in  1183,  Richard  succeeded  to  all  the 
possessions  of  his  father.  He  had  taken  the  cross 
in  1187,  on  the  news  of  the  capture  of  Jerusalem 
by  Saladin.  Philip  Augustus,  King  of  France,  had 
done  likewise,  and  in  1190  both  started  on  the 


^  BICHABDI. 

Third  Crusade.  Richard,  in  order  to  prepare 
suitably  for  this  Crusade,  had  borrowed  and  ex- 
torted money  wherever  possible.  The  adminis- 
tration of  England  during  his  absence  was  in- 
trusted to  William  Longchamp  (q.v.),  but  the 
prelate  was  opposed  by  the  King's  brother,  John 
Lackland,  who  gradually  usurped  the  govern- 
ment of  the  country. 

The  Crusade  proved  a  failure  almost  from  the 
start,  chiefly  on  account  of  the  lack  of  harmony 
between  the  two  kings.  After  various  delays 
Richard  reached  Messina  on  September  23,  1190. 
He  tarried  in  Sicily  more  than  half  a  year,  and 
betrothed  his  nephew  Arthur  to  the  infant 
daughter  of  King  Tancred.  The  Sicilian 
throne  was  at  that  time  claimed  by  the  Emperor 
Henry  VI.,  and  the  alliance  with  Tancred,  for 
this  reason,  afterwards  turned  out  a  very  un- 
lucky one  for  Richard.  He  fell  out  with  the 
French  King,  refused  to  marry  his  sister  Alice, 
and  on  April  10,  1191,  sailed  from  Messina, 
carrying  along  with  him  Berengaria  of  Navarre, 
whom  he  married  on  May  12,  1191,  in  the  Island 
of  Cyprus,  where  he  halted  on  his  way  to  Pal- 
estine. The  prodigies  of  personal  valor  which  he 
performed  in  the  Holy  Land  have  made  the  name 
of  Richard  the  Lion-Heart4^  famous  in  romance. 
After  Acre  had  been  captured,  on  July  12,  1191, 
Richard  executed  2700  prisoners  of  war  because 
the  payment  of  their  ransom  was  delayed.  (See 
Crusade.)  He  quarreled  bitterly  with  Thilip 
Augustus,  who  went  home.  After  spending 
months  in  indecisive  contests  against  Saladin, 
Richard  finally  made  a  truce  by  which  Jerusalem 
was  left  in  the  hands  of  the  Sultan.  On  October 
9,  1192,  he  set  out  on  his  return  to  England.  As 
he  was  making  his  way  through  the  dominions 
of  Leopold,  Duke  of  Austria,  he  was  seized  by 
that  prince,  who  had  been  insulted  by  Richard 
while  in  the  Holy  Land,  and  was  handed  over  to 
the  Emperor  Henry  VI.,  who  detained  him  as  a 
captive. 

John,  meanwhile,  ruled  in  England,  and  he  and 
Philip  of  France  had  good  reasons  for  wishing 
that  Richard  should  never  return  to  his  king- 
dom. He  was  finally  released,  however,  after 
paying  a  heavy  ransom  and  agreeing  to  hold  his 
kingdom  as  a  fief  of  the  Empire.  On  March  13, 
1194,  he  found  himself  once  more  in  England. 
His  brother,  John,  who  had  acted  so  treacherous- 
ly toward  him,  he  magnanimously  forgave,  but 
with  Philip  Augustus  he  made  war,  while  he 
left  the  actual  government  to  the  able  adminis- 
trator Hubert  Walter  (q.v.).  He  was  on  the 
whole  victorious  in  his  war  against  France,  but 
was  killed  by  an  arrow  shot  from  the  Castle  of 
Chaluz,  which  he  was  besieging,  and  died  April 
0,  1199.  His  character  has  generally  been 
shown  by  modem  historians  in  a  very  unfavor- 
able light.  Sismondi's  words  are  often  quoted: 
''A  bad  son,  a  bad  brother,  a  bad  husband,  and  a 
bad  king."  This  estimate  is  somewhat  unjust  to 
Richard.  He  was  extremely  generous  to  John; 
there  is  no  trustworthy  evidence  that  he  was  a 
bad  husband;  as  King  he  chose  able  ministers 
and  left  most  of  the  ruling  to  them.  But  he 
did  tax  England  heavily  for  his  expeditions.  He 
was  a  poet  and  well  versed  in  the  knightly  ac- 
complishments of  his  age.  In  the  succeeding  cen« 
tury  he  became  the  hero  of  many  legendary  tales, 
and  he  has  always  been  viewed  in  popular  litera- 
ture as  a  hero  of  romance.  Consult:  Stubbs, 
Constitutional  History  of  England,  voL  i.   (6th 


BIGEABOI.  8 

ed.,  Oxford,  1897) ;  Round,  Feudal  England  (Lon- 
don, 1895) ;  Norgate,  Angevin  Kings  (2  voia., 
ib.,  1887);  Stubbs,  Earlif  Plantagenets  (5th 
ed.,  ib.,  1886)  ;  Toeche,  HeinHoh  VI.  (Leip- 
zig,  1867) ;  Archer,  Crusade  of  Richard  I.  (New 
York,  1889) ;  Bloch,  Forschungen  zur  Politik 
Kaiser  Heinrieh  VI,  (Berlin,  1892).  Sir  Walter 
Soott,  in  Ivanhoe  and  The  Talisman,  has  used 
some  of  the  best-known  legends. 

BICBtABD  H.  (1367-1400).  King  of  Eng- 
land from  1377  to  1399.  He  was  the  second  son 
of  Edward,  the  Black  Prince,  and  Joan  of  Kent, 
and  was  bom  at  Bordeaux  on  January  6,  1367. 
Ma nv  miraculous  stories  arose  in  time  concern- 
ing his  birth,  due  chiefly  to  his  subsequent  un- 
fortunate career.  Richard's  elder  brother  died 
in  1371,  and  his  father  in  1376,  so  that  he  was 
placed  in  the  care  of  his  uncle  John  of  Gaunt 
(q.v.).  On  June  21,  1377,  Edward  III.  died  and 
left  to  the  infant  King  a  country  devastated  by 
plague  and  a  people  oppressed  by  heavy  taxes  due 
to  the  war  with  France  (q.v.).  Parliament,  which 
had  obtained  greater  power  in  the  last  years  of 
Edward  III.'s  reign,  sought  now  to  secure  con- 
trol of  the  government,  but  was  opposed  by  John 
of  Gaunt  and  his  followers.  In  1381  took  place 
the  Tyler  Insurrection  (q.v.),  which  was  caused 
by  an  onerous  capitation  tax.  The  speedy  sup- 
pression of  this  dangerous  rising  was  due  to  a 
considerable  extent  to  Richard's  spirit  and  dar- 
ing. In  1382  Richard  was  married  to  Anne  of 
Bohemia,  and  in  the  same  year  the  King  began 
to  seek  the  downfall  of  the  great  nobles,  who 
controlled  Parliament  and  prevented  the  develop- 
ment of  the  royal  power.  The  next  two  years 
were  occupied  by  a  war  with  France,  with 
which  country  Scotland  was  allied.  For  a  while 
Richard  conducted  the  war  in  Scotland  in  per- 
son, and  Edinburgh  was  burned.  In  the  absence 
of  John  of  Gaimt  in  Spain,  Richard's  youngest 
uncle,  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  put  himself  at 
the  head  of  affairs;  and  an  attempt  which  Rich- 
ard made  to  free  himself  from  control  having 
been  defeated,  several  of  his  counselors  were  put 
to  death,  which  act  was  approved  by  the  Parlia- 
ment of  1388.  In  1389,  however,  Richard,  by  a 
coup  d'etat,  succeeded  in  throwing  off  the  yoke. 
Gloucester,  Warwick,  and  Arundel  were  deprived 
of  their  power.  These  three  nobles,  together  with 
Henry,  fearl  of  Derby,  eldest  son  of  John  of 
Gaunt,  and  Thomas  Mowbray,  Earl  of  Notting- 
ham, had  been  the  nobles  who  had  'appealed'  or 
accused  Richard's  adherents  in  1388.  Hence  they 
are  known  in  history  as  the  'lords  appellant.'  In 
1394  Richard  went  to  Ireland  and  received  the 
submission  of  the  four  'Kings'  of  Meath,  Tho- 
mond,  Leinster,  and  Connaught. 

The  same  year  the  Queen  died,  and  in  1396  a 
marriage  treaty  was  concluded  between  Richard 
and  Isabella,  infant  daughter  of  King  Charles 
VI.  of  Prance.  Gloucester  disapproving  of  this 
marriage,  which  seems  to  have  been  unpopular, 
Richard  caused  him  to  be  privately  arrested,  and 
conveyed  to  Calais,  where  he  either  died  or  was 
murdered.  On  the  meeting  of  Parliament,  the 
Earl  of  Warwick  was  banished,  and  the  Earl 
of  Arundel  beheaded.  A  misunderstanding  hav- 
ing taken  place  between  Henry,  Duke  of  Here- 
ford (formerly  Earl  of  Derby),  and  Mowbray, 
Doke  of  Norfolk  (formerly  Earl  of  Notting- 
ham), the  King,  desirous  to  be  rid  of  both,  sent 
the  former  into  banishment  for  ten  years,  and 
the  latter  for  life.     Byt  Hereford  had  been  as- 


BIOHABDm. 

siduously  cultivating  the  popularity  which  his 
cousin  had  been  as  assiduously  throwing  away, 
and  the  result  became  apparent  in  1399.  On  his 
return,  in  that  year,  from  a  military  expedition 
in  Ireland,  Richard  found  that  Bolingforoke  (as 
Hereford  was  generally  known)  had,  in  his  ab- 
sence, landed  in  England,  that  he  had  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  a  formidable  army, 
and  that  the  Duke  of  York  had  yielded  and  gone 
over  to  his  side.  The  army  which  the  King  had 
with  him  in  Ireland,  also,  no  sooner  landed 
than  it  almost  entirely  passed  over  to  the  in- 
vader. Meeting  the  conqueror  at  Flint  Castle, 
Richard  was  carried  captive  in  his  train  to 
London.  On  September  29,  1399,  he  formally 
resigned  his  crown.  On  the  following  day  the 
resignation  was  ratified  by  Parliament,  and  the 
crown  conferred  on  Bolingbroke  (who  had  as- 
sumed the  title  of  Duke  of  Lancaster),  who  was 
henceforth  known  as  Henry  IV.  (q.v.).  By  order 
of  the  peers,  Richard  was  confined  secretly  in 
various  castles.  In  the  February  following  his 
resignation,  the  nation  was  told  that  he  was  dead, 
and  his  body,  or  what  was  supposed  to  be  it, 
was  brought  with  much  pomp  from  Pontefract 
Castle,  and  shown  to  the  p€K>ple.  There  were 
rumors  afterwards  of  his  being  alive  and  in 
Scotland.  It  is  probable  that  he  was  murdered 
about  February  14,  1400.  Richard  had  ability, 
but  was  verjr  extravagant,  fond  of  pleasure,  and 
subject  to  nts  of  passion.  He  had  some  tasto 
for  literature  and  was  a  patron  of  Gower,  Frois- 
sart,  and  Chaucer.  His  reign  is  important  on 
account  of  the  development  of  the  Privy  Council 
(q.v.)  and  the  active  rOle  played  by  Parliament. 
Furthermore  it  was  during  this  reign  that  the 
work  of  Widif  (q.v.)  bore  fruit  in  the  rise  of  the 
Lollard  (q.v.)  movement.  Consult:  Wallon, 
Richard  II.  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1864) ;  Stubbs,  Con- 
stitutional History,  vol.  ii.  (4th  ed.,  Oxford, 
1896) ;  Pauli,  Chschichie  Englands  (Gotha,  1853- 
68). 

SICHABDin.  (1452-85).  King  of  England 
from  1483  to  1485.  He  was  the  youngest  son 
of  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  and  was  bom  at 
Fotheringay  Castle  on  October  2,  1452.  His  boy- 
hood was  passed  amid  the  struggles  of  the  Wars 
of  the  Roses,  in  which  he  experienced  both  im- 
prisonment and  exile.  In  1461,  after  the  acces- 
sion of  his  brother  Edward  IV.  to  the  throne, 
he  was  made  Duke  of  Gloucester,  although  but  a 
lad  of  nine  years,  and  throughout  the  Wars  of 
the  Roses  he  remained  faithful  to  his  brother, 
rendering  him  most  valuable  assistance.  He 
rejected  the  overtures  of  Warwick,  and  shared 
Edward's  exile  in  1470-71,  and  in  the  latter  year 
he  commanded  the  vanguard  of  the  Yorkist's 
army  at  the  final  victories  of  Bamet  and  Tewkes- 
bury. For  all  these  services  he  was  richly  re- 
warded. In  1469  he  was  made  High  Constable 
of  England,  and  in  1478  Great  Chamberlain,  be- 
sides receiving  numerous  other  grants  and  offices. 
He  stood  highest  in  the  royal  councils,  proving  a 
capable  statesman,  and  in  1480-82  he  conducted 
successful  campaigns  against  the  Scots,  and  as 
Warden  of  the  West  Marches  he  brought  that 
country  into  such  subjection  that  the  Parliament 
of  1483  granted  this  office  to  him  and  his  heirs 
forever. 

Upon  his  death  in  the  same  year  Edward  IV. 
left  to  Richard  the  care  of  his  heir,  Edward  V., 
then  but  thirteen  years  old.  and  the  administra- 
tion   of    his    kingdom.       Richard    was    at    the 


BIGHABDIH.  4 

time  in  the  north,  but  before  his  arrival  at 
London  he  was  recognized  by  the  royal  coun- 
cil as  Protector  of  the  realm.  He  soon  over- 
threw the  impopular  party  of  the  Wood- 
villes,  the  Queen's  relatives,  who  aimed  to 
control  the  Government,  and  finally  impris- 
oned Edward  V.  and  his  younger  brother.  Par- 
liament thereupon  declared  that  he  was  the 
rightful  King,  on  the  groimd  that  Edward  IV.'s 
marriage  with  Elizabeth  Woodville  was  ill^al. 
A  deputation  of  lords  and  commons  presented 
these  conclusions  to  Richard,  who  assumed  the 
crown  on  June  26;  1483.  After  his  accession  the 
King  courted  popularity  with  considerable  suc- 
cess. He  made  a  royal  progress  through  the 
midland  and  northern  coimties,  and  was  eveiy- 
where  received  with  joy  and  loyalty.  While 
Richard  was  thus  engaged  in  the  north,  plots  for 
the  rescue  of  the  captive  princes  were  being 
hatched  in  the  south,  and  to  end  these  conspira- 
cies, Richard  about  this  time  probably  had  his 
prisoners  put  to  death.  The  Duke  of  Bucking- 
ham, who  was  involved  in  these  plots,  thereupon 
planned  a  rebellion  in  favor  of  the  Earl  of  Rich- 
mond, the  Lancastrian  claimant  of  the  throne. 
A  general  uprising  was  planned  for  October  18th, 
which  was  to  extend  throughout  Southern  Eng- 
land and  Wales,  but  the  King's  adherents  re- 
pressed the  insurrection  in  the  south  and  cut  the 
bridges  over  the  Severn.  The  heavy  autumn 
rains  prevented  Buckingham  from  crossing  the 
river  from  the  Welsh  side,  and  the  same  storms 
frustrated  the  intended  invasion  by  Richmond. 
Buckingham  was  taken  prisoner  and  executed. 

The  remainder  of  Richard's  brief  reign  was 
spent  in  preparations  for  the  final  struggle  with 
Lancaster.  By  wise  laws  and  politic  acts  he 
sought  to  win  the  affections  of  the  people,  and 
by  extensive  military  preparations  to  baffle  the 
expected  invasion.  In  order  to  unite  the  Yorkist 
party,  Richard  intended  to  marry  his  son  and 
heir  to  Elizabeth,  the  eldest  daughter  of  Edward 
IV.,  and  on  the  death  of  his  son  he  proposed 
marrying  her  himself,  but  was  obliged  to  re- 
nounce tnis  plan  on  account  of  popular  opposi- 
tion. On  August  7,  1485,  the  Earl  of  Richmond 
landed  at  Milford  Haven,  and  was  joined  by  the 
Welsh  chieftains  in  his  advance  on  Shrewsbury. 
Richard  hastened  to  meet  him,  and  the  hostile 
armies  faced  each  other  on  Bosworth  Field. 
When,  however,  Richard  ordered  the  attack  he 
foimd  his  troops  half-hearted,  and  the  Stanleys, 
whom  he  had  summoned  to  his  aid  from  Lan- 
castershire,  joined  the  enemy.  The  result  was 
that  Richard  was  defeated  and  slain  (August  22, 
1485),  and  the  Earl  of  Richmond  became  King  of 
E^land  as  Henry  VII. 

There  has  been  much  discussion  over  the  char- 
acter of  Richard  III.  The  chroniclers  of  the  fol- 
lowing reign,  from  whom  we  have  derived  our 
knowledge  of  him,  wrote  to  please  the  Tudors. 
They  pictured  him  as  a  monster,  both  physically 
and  morally,  and  the  genius  of  Shakespeare  has 
fixed  this  conception  in  the  public  mind.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  undersized  and  a  himchback, 
with  his  left  shoulder  lower  than  the  right.  His 
look  was  said  by  Polydore  Virgil  to  he  full  of 
malice  and  deceit,  and  by  Sir  Thomas  More  to 
be  warlike  and  hard-favored.  But  contemporary 
portraits,  of  which  several  survive,  show  a 
thoughtful,  anxious  fa<^,  and  no  trace  of  de- 
formity. A  hunchback  could  not  have  performed 
the  feats   of  valor  which   he   accomplished  at 


BIGEABD  m. 

Bamet,  Tewkesbury,  and  Bosworth.  But  of  his 
unscrupulous  character  there  can  be  no  doubt, 
although  many  of  the  accusations  of  his  eoemies 
are  unfounded.  He  and  his  brother  Glarenoe 
were  said  to  have  caused  the  death  of  Edward, 
the  heir  of  the  House  of  Iiancaster,  after  the 
battle  of  Tewkesbury.  But  even  if  this  be  true 
there  were  many  similar  executions  in  the  Wars 
of  the  Roses.  There  is  nothing  to  prove  that  he 
caused  the  murder  of  Henry  VL,  or  had  any  part 
in  the  accusation  and  conviction  of  his  brother 
Clarence.  From  all  these  deaths  Edward  IV^ 
and  not  Richard,  was  chief  beneficiary.  The 
murder  of  his  two  nephews  in  the  Tower  was, 
however,  quite  generally  ascribed  to  Richard's 
orders,  and  probably  with  more  reason.  But  of 
the  supposed  murder  of  his  wife  there  is  little 
likelihood.  Whatever  his  moral  character,  he 
was  certainly  a  ruler  of  great  ability.  His 
management  of  the  Scotch  war  and  his  govern- 
ment of  the  nortii  before  his  accession  to  the 
throne  broi^ht  him  the  greatest  popularity,  and 
his  legislation  after  his  accession  to  the  throne 
was  wise  and  beneficent. 

BiBUOGBAPHT.  Letters  and  Papers  of  the . 
Reigns  of  Richard  III,  and  Henry  VII:,  ed. 
James  Gairdner  (Rolls  Series,  1861-63),  which 
are  the  most  important  of  the  sources.  Among 
the  Tudor  historians,  consult:  More,  History 
of  King  Richard  III.  (new  ed.,  Cambridge, 
1833) ;  Virgil,  AnglicB  Historiarum  Libri  XXVII. 
(new  ed.,  Leyden,  1861) ;  Fabyan,  The  New 
Chronicles  of  England  wnd  France  (London, 
1811);  Ross,  Historia  Regum  AnglioB  (Oxford, 
1716).  The  best  modem  account  of  his  reign  is  by 
Qairdner,  Life  and  Reign  of  Richard  III.  (Cam- 
bridge, 1898) .  The  most  elaborate  defense  of  Rich- 
ard's character  is  Legge,  The  Unpopular  King: 
Life  of  Richard  III.  (London,  1835) :  The  question 
of  the  murder  of  the  princes  was  discussed  by 
Markham  in  the  English  Historical  Review,  vol. 
vi.  (London,  1891),  wh<i  believed  Henry  VII.  com- 
mitted the  deed.  He  was  answered  by  Gairdner 
in  the  same  periodical  and  same  volume. 

BICHABB  II.  An  historical  tragedy  by 
Shakespeare,  written  probably  in  1595,  and  en- 
tered on  the  Stationers*  Register  in  1697.  Ex- 
cepting the  adapted  plays  on  Henry  VI.,  it  is  the 
earliest  of  the  historical  plays,  and  the  first 
printed.  It  was  probably  the  play  acted  the 
night  before  Essex's  rebellion  in  1601.  The  sug- 
gestive deposition  scene  made  it  unpopular  at 
Court,  and  it  was  suppressed  by  the  censorship, 
being  first  printed  in  the  Fourth  Quarto  in  1608. 
Several  older  plays  on  Richard  II.  had  been 
written,  but  were  hot  used  by  Shakespeare.  The 
chief  source  of  the  tragedy  was  Holinshed's 
Chronicle,  and  its  model  was  Marlowe's  Edward 
11.  Among  the  historical  plays,  it  stands  as  a 
prologue  to  the  dramas  of  Henry  IV.  and  V. 

BICHABD  m.  An  historical  tragedy  by 
Shakespeare,  written  about  1595,  and  entered 
in  the  Stationers*  Register  in  1597,  shortly  after 
RicJiard  II.  An  older  plav,  The  True  Tragedy 
of  Richard  III.,  was  published  in  1594,  but  from 
this  Shakespeare  took  only  two  lines.  He  fol- 
lowed Holinshed's  Chronicle  (1577),  who  took 
the  sombre  picture  of  Richard  from  Sir  Thomas 
More's  History  of  Richard  III,  Traces  of  a 
weaker  hand  can  be  detected,  and  it  is  supposed 
that  Marlowe  helped  in  the  early  part  of  the 
play,  which  was  finished  and  later  revised  by 
Shakespeare.     Historically  it  follows  closely  on 


BXCHABDITL 


BICHABD& 


Heniy  VI.  and  completes  the  series  dealing  with 
the  Wan  of  the  Roses. 

BXCHABD,  Earl  or  Cornwall  (1200-72). 
King  of  the  Bomans  (of  Germany)  from  1257  to 
1272.  He  was  the  second  son  of  King  John  of 
England  by  Isabella  of  Angoulftne.  In  1225  he 
was  created  Earl  of  Ck>mwall  by  his  brother 
Henry  ILL  In  the  same  year  he  led  a  successful 
expeution  into  Gascony.  In  1240  he  went  on  a 
enisade,  but  accomplished  little  because  hindered 
by  lack  of  support  from  the  military  orders.  He 
received  many  grants  from  the  King  at  various 
times,  and  anuussed  enormous  wealth,  mainly 
through  the  possession  of  the  tin  mines  of  Corn- 
wall, which  gave  him  great  power  in  political 
matters.  In  1253  and  1254  he  was  Regent  of 
England.  (See  Henbt  IH.)  In  1257  Richard 
was  elected  by  some  of  the  Grerman  princes 
King  of  Germany,  Alfonso  X.  of  Castile  (q.v.) 
being  elected  by  a  rival  parj^.  Richard  was 
crowned  at  Aiz-la-Chapelle.  He  gradually  won 
recognition  throughout  the  Rhineland,  but  not 
elsewhere.  In  1250  he  was  forced  to  return  home 
to  raise  money,  and  took  an  oath  to  observe  the 
Provisions  of  Oxford  (q.V.) .  In  the  great  struggle 
which  took  place  between  Henry  UI.  and  his 
nobles,  Richard  at  first  acted  the  part  of  a 
mediator;  subsequently,  however,  he  took  a  de- 
cided part  with  his  brother  asainst  the  party 
which  was  headed  by  Simon  de  Montfort,  and  on 
May  14,  1204,  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  that 
leader  at  the  battle  of  Lewes.  Montfort  shut 
him  up  in  Kenilworth  Castle,  from  which  he  was 
released  after  the  battle  of  Evesham  in  1265. 
The  murder  of  his  eldest  son,  Henry  of  Almaine, 
by  the  son  of  Simon  de  Montfort,  hastened  his 
death,  which  occurred  on  April  2,  1272.  Con- 
sult: Koch,  Richard  von  Cornwall,  1209-67 
(Strassburg,  1888) ;  Lorenz,  Deutsche  Oeschichte 
im  IS.  undH.  Jahrhundert  (Vienna,  1863-67); 
Schimnacher,  Die  letzten  Hohenstaufen  (Gl5t- 
tingen,  1871). 

BICHABD  DE  BU^Y.    See  Bubt,  Richabd 

DE. 

BICHABD  OF  CTBENCESTEB  (1335T- 
1401?).  An  early  English  chronicler.  little  is 
known  of  his  life.  He  was  probably  bom  about 
1335,  and  in  1355  was  a  monk  in  the  Benedictine 
monastery  of  Saint  Peter's,  Westminster,  where 
he  spent  his  life,  and  died  in  1400  or  1401.  He 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  early  British 
and  Anglo-Saxon  history  and  antiquities,  and  is 
said  to  have  visited  many  libraries  and  ecclesias- 
tieal  establishments  in  England  in  the  prosecu- 
tion of  his  investigations.  In  1391  he  obtained 
a  license  from  his  abbot  to  make  a  pilgrimage 
to  Jerusalem.  Richard's  principal  work  is  the 
Speculum  Hietoriale  de  Qestis  Kegum  Anglue,  in 
four  books,  covering  the  period  447-1066.  It  is 
a  compilation  and  not  very  carefully  done.  Con- 
sult the  edition  from  the  copy  in  the  public 
library,  Cambridge,  by  Mayer  in  the  Rolls  Series 
(2  vols.,  London,  1863-60).  A  treatise  on  the 
ancient  State  of  Crreat  Britain,  Rioardus  Corinen* 
sis  de  Situ  Britannue  (Copenhagen,  1757),  was 
long  accepted  as  a  genuine  work  of  Richard,  but 
is  now  conceded  to  have  been  a  forgery  by  Charles 
Bertram. 

BICHABD  OF  SAIKT  VICTOB  (  M1737). 
A  scholastic  and  mystical  theologian,  bom  in 
Scotland.  He  entei^  the  cloister  of  the  Angus- 
tiiuan  canons  of  Saint  Victor,  near  Paris,  under 


its  first  abbot,  who  died  in  1155,  and  rose  to  be 
prior  in  1162.  His  numerous  writings,  collected 
in  Migne,  Patrologia  Latina,  czcvi.,  may  be  di- 
vided into  ezegetical  (in  which  he  follows  the 
alle^rical  and  mystical  interpretation),  dog- 
matic, and  miscellaneous.  In  the  second  the 
masterpiece  is  the  six  books  on  the  Trinity;  in 
the  third  appear  his  letters.  Like  other  mystics, 
he  considers  divine  fifrace  as  the  ultimate  source 
of  knowledge,  and  the  hig^iest  object  of  study  is 
God  Himself.  Consult:  J.  B.  Haur^au,  Histoire 
de  la  philosophie  scholdstique  (Paris,  1872-80) ; 
Kaulich,  Die  Lehren  des  Hugo  und  Richard  von 
Saint  Victor  (Prague,  1864). 

BICH^ABDS,  Bbinlet  (1817-85).  A  British 
pianist  and  composer,  bom  at  Carmarthen, 
Wales.  A  student  at  the  Ro^al  Academy  of 
Music,  London,  he  won  the  Kmg's  scholarship 
there  in  1835  and  in  1837,  and  soon  became 
known  as  a  lecturer  on  Welsh  music,  and  as  a 
pianist.  He  taught  in  the  Royal  Academy,  and 
composed  an  orchestral  overture  which  was  per- 
formed in  Paris  in  1840,  and  in  London  the  fol- 
lowing year;  supplementary  songs  for  the  Eng- 
lish production  of  Auber's  Crown  Diamonds 
(1846),  besides  pianoforte  pieces,  part-songs,  and 
sacred  solos. 

BICHABDS,  Ellen  HsNBiETrA  (Swallow) 
(1842—).  An  American  sanitary  chemist,  bom 
at  Dunstable,  Mass.  She  studied  at  Vassar 
(1867-70),  and  then  entered  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology  as  a  special  student.  In 
1875  she  married  Robert  Hallowell  Richards 
(q.v.),  and  in  1884  she  was  appointed  instructor 
in  sanitarv  chemistry  in  the  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology. She  wrote:  Chemistry  of  Cooking  and 
Cleaning  (1882);  Food  Materials  and  Their 
Adulterations  (1886);  Home  Sanitation  (1887, 
with  Talbot) ;  The  Cost  of  Living  (1809) ;  and 
Air,  Water,  and  Food  (1900). 

BICHABD6,  Joseph  William  (1864—).  An 
American  metallurgist,  bom  in  Oldbury,  Eng- 
land. He  graduated  at  Lehigh  University  m 
1886,  and  returned  there,  after  courses  in  Heidel- 
berg and  Freiburg,  as  assistant  professor  of 
mineralogy  and  metallurgy.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  United  States  Assay  C!onunission  in  1897, 
and  attained  prominence  as  a  legal  expert  in 
chemical  and  metallurgical  cases.  He  wrote 
Aluminum  (1887). 

BICHABDS,  RoBEBT  Hallowell  (1844—). 
An  American  mining  engineer  and  metallurgist. 
He  was  bom  at  Crardiner,  Maine,  graduated  at 
the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  in 
1868,  and  in  1871  was  appointed  its  professor 
of  mining  and  metallurgy.  Richards  built  up 
the  laboratories  in  these  two  courses;  invented 
jet  pumps  for  use  in  physical  and  chemical 
laboratories  (1873),  and  ore  separators  for  Lake 
Superior  copper  (1881)  and  Virginia  iron.  In 
1901  he  published  Ore  Dressing. 

BICHABDS,  Theodobe  William  (1868—). 
An  American  chemist,  bom  in  Germantown,  Pa., 
a  son  of  the  artist  William  Trost  Richards 
(q.v.).  He  was  educated  at  Haverford  College 
and  at  Harvard,  where,  after  studies  in  Germany, 
he  became  assistant  professor  of  chemistry  in 
1894.  Richards  was  a  member  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences  and  a  special  student  of 
the  atomic  weights  of  the  metals. 

BICHABDS^  Thomas  Addison  (1820-1900). 
An  American  landscape  painter,  bom  in  London. 


BICHABDS. 


He  came  to  the  United  States  in  1831  with  his 
parents,  who  first  settled  in  Georgia.  They  re- 
moved to  New  York  City  in  1845,  where  Richards 
afterwards  lived,  and  where  he  studied  at  the 
National  Academy  of  Design.  In  1858  he  was 
made  director  of  the  Cooper  Union  School  of 
Design  for  Women,  and  in  1867  became  professor 
of  art  in  the  University  of  New  York.  He  was 
elected  to  the  National  Academy  of  Art  in  1851. 
He  was  also  known  as  an  illustrator,  and  wrote 
several  works  on  art^  and  some  illustrated  hand- 
books of  travel. 

BICHABDS,  William  (1792-1847).  An 
American  missionary.  He  was  born  at  Plainfield, 
N.  J.,  graduated  at  Williams  College  in  1819, 
and  pa^ed  to  the  Theological  Seminary  at  And- 
over.  In  1822  he  w^as  sent  as  a  missionary  to 
the  Sandwich  Islands,  and  by  the  close  of  1830 
the  native  church  numbered  nearly  300  com- 
municants. In  1838  Mr.  Richards  added  to  his 
regular  religious  duties  the  offices  of  interpreter, 
translator,  and  chaplain  to  the  King.  He  visited 
England  and  several  other  foreign  courts  as  spe- 
cial ambassador,  and  after  his  return  in  1845 
became  Minister  of  Public  •  Instruction,  having 
care  of  all  schools.  Catholic  and  Protestant,  and 
occupying  a  seat  in  the  King's  Privy  Council. 
Consult  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  American  Pulpit 
(New  York,  1866). 

BICHABDS,  William  Trost  ( 1833— ) .  An 
American  landscape  and  marine  painter,  bom  in 
Philadelphia.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Weber,  in  his  na- 
tive city,  and  aften^'ards  traveled  and  studied  in 
Europe.  He  exhibited  at  the  Royal  Academy 
and  the  Salon,  and  became  an  honorary  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Design.  His  marine  pictures 
are  especially  popular,  and  he  is  a  skillful,  if 
somewhat  monotonous,  painter  of  water.  His 
works  include:  "On  the  Coast  of  New  Jersey" 
(1883),  in  the  Corcoran  Gallery,  Washington; 
and  "The  Bell  Buoy,"  in  the  Pennsylvania  Acad- 
emy of  Fine  Arts.  There  are  also  several  of 
his  landscapes  and  marines  in  the  Metropolitan 
Museum  of  Art,  in  New  York  City. 

BIOH^ABDSON,  Sir  Benjamin  Ward  ( 1828- 
96).  An  English  physician  and  author.  He  was 
born  at  Somerby,  in  I^-eicestershire,  and  was  early 
apprenticed  to  the  surgeon  of  his  native  town. 
In  1850  he  became  a  licentiate  of  the  Faculty  of 
Physicians  and  Surgeons  of  Glasgow,  and  later 
received  the  degrees  of  A.M.  and  M.D.  at  Saint 
Andrews.  He  devoted  his  attention  particularly 
to  sanitary  matters  and  to  methods  of  alleviating 
pain,  for  the  latter  object  introducing  at  least  14 
anicsthetics,  including  methylene  bichloride  and 
the  use  of  ether  spray.  For  his  services  in  this 
direction  he  was  knighted  in  1893.  Among  his 
numerous  works,  which  are  by  no  means  confined 
to  medical  subjects,  are  The  Health  of  Nations 
(1887)  and  National  Health  (1890). 

BICHABDSOir,  Charles  (1775-1865).  An 
•English  lexicographer.  He  studied  law,  but  he 
early  gave  up  that  profession.  For  many  years 
he  kept  a  school  at  Clapham,  near  London.  This 
he  gave  up  in  1827  to  devote  himself  wholly  to 
the  study  of  language.  In  1853  he  was  granted 
a  civil  list  pension  of  £75  a  year.  As  a  phi- 
lologist he  was  a  follower  of  John  Home  Tooke 
(q.v.).  In  1818  he  contributed  to  the  Enn/clo- 
pasdia  Metropolitana  the  first  parts  of  an  English 
.lexicon,  afterwards  enlarged  to  tlie  New  English 
Dictionary   (pub.  in  30  parts,  1835-37;  supple- 


6  BICHABB80N. 

ment  added  in  1856),  long  the  standard  English 
dictionary  for  England.  It  also  had  a  wide  sale 
in  the  United  States.  Though  about  as  faulty  as 
a  dictionary  could  be,  it  has  furnished  better- 
equipped  lexicographers  with  many  quotations. 
An  abridged  edition  appeared  in  1839.  Rich- 
ardson also  published:  Illustrations  to  English 
Philology  (1815);  On  the  Study  of  Language 
(1854) ;  and  other  books  on  language.  He  con- 
tributed to  the  Gentlemen's  Magazine  and  Notes 
and  Queries.  Richardson  was  sharply  criticised 
by  Noah  Webster  in  Mistakes  and  Oorreetions 
(1837). 

BICHABDSON,  Charles  FkAifcis  (1851--). 
An  American  literary  critic  and  historian.  He 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1871,  was  on 
the  editorial  staff  of  the  Ind^endent  (1872-78) 
and  the  Sunday-School  Times  (1878-80),  editor 
of  Good  JAterature  (1880-82),  and  afterwards 
professor  of  English  in  Dartmouth  College.  His 
books  include:  A  Primer  of  American  Literature 
(1876) ;'  The  Cross,  a  volume  of  poems  (1870) ; 
The  Choice  of  Books  ( 1881 ) ;  and  an  elaborate 
account  of  American  Literature  (1887-88).  In 
1902  he  edited  the  Amheim  edition  of  Poe's 
works. 

BICHABBSON,  Clifforo  (1856—).  An 
American  chemist,  bom  at  Worcester,  Mass.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1877.  As  assistant  chem- 
ist to  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture ( 1878-87 )  and  as  inspector  of  asphalts  and  ce- 
ments in  the  engineering  department  at  Wash- 
ington, he  wrote  Government  reports  on  cereals 
( 1883-86) ,  on  spices  and  condiments  ( 1887 ) ,  and 
on  asphaltum  ( 1894) .  He  became  a  member  of  the 
Association  of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists, 
and  contributed  to  the  Proceedings  of  that  body. 
In  1896  he  was  appointed  superintendent  of  tests 
to  the  Barber  Asphalt  Paving  Company,  of 
Long  Island  City,  N.  Y. 

BICHABBSONy  Ernest  Cushiko  (I860—). 
An  American  librarian  and  author,  bom  at  Wo- 
bum,  Mass.  He  graduated  at  Amherst  in  1880, 
pursued  special  courses  at  Washington  and  Jef- 
ferson College,  and  studied  theology  at  the  Hart- 
ford Theological  Seminary,  where  he  taught  and 
was  librarian  from  1883  until  1890,  when  he  was 
appointed  librarian  at  Princeton.  He  was  chosen 
vice-president  of  the  American  Library  Associa- 
tion, contributed  to  Earner's  Jahresheriehte  der 
Geschichtstoissenschaft,  edited  Hieronymus  und 
Gennadius  de  Viris  Inlustribus  (1896),  and  wrote 
Influence  of  the  Golden  Legend  on  the  Culture- 
History  of  the  Middle  Ages  (1887) ;  Faust  and 
the  Clementine  Recognitions  (1894)  ;  and  other 
works  upon  historical  and  literary  subjects,  be- 
sides numerous  articles  of  interest  to  specialists 
in  library  work.  His  lectures  before  the  New 
York  State  Library  School  Association  were  pub- 
lished in  1901  under  the  title,  Classification,  The- 
oretical and  Practical. 

BICHABDSON,  Henry  Hobson  (1838-86). 
An  American  architect,  born  at  Priestley's  Point, 
Saint  James's  Parish,  La.  He  graduated  at  Har- 
vard in  1850,  traveled  in  Europe,  studied  archi- 
tecture at  the  Beaux-Arts,  during  a  portion  of 
his  course  was  employed  in  the  offices  of  a  Gov- 
ernment architect,  and  having  returned  to  the 
•United  States  in  1865,  began  the  active  practice 
of  his  profession  in  1866  as  a  member  ol  the 
firm  of  Gambrill  &  Richardson  of  New  York 
City.     In  1875  he  removed  to  Brookline, 


BICHABDSON. 

He  was  a  member  of  the  American  Institute  of 
Architects,  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts 
and  Sciences,  of  the  Arch«ological  Institute  of 
America,  and  an  honorary  and  corresponding 
member  of  the  Royal  Institute  of  British  Archi- 
tecta.  Among  the  more  important  structures 
designed  by  him  are  Trinity  Church,  Boston,  es- 
pecially notable  for  its  large  central  tower;  the 
Brattle  Street  Chmrch  of  Boston,  remarkable  also 
for  a  fine  tower  ornamented  with  a  frieze  of 
colossal  sculptures;  the  City  Hall,  Albany,  N. 
Y.;  the  New  Law  School  for  Harvard  University; 
the  Allegheny  County  buildings,  at  Pittsburg, 
Pa.;  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  Cincinnati,  Ohio; 
and  niunerous  public  library  buildings  ai^  rail- 
way stations.  He  established  the  successful  use 
in  American  architecture  of  the  Romanesque 
styles  of  Southern  France,  Auvergne  in  particu- 
lar. It  has  been  said  that  no  modern  architect 
more  fully  understood  the  value  of  sculpture  in 
its  application  to  buildings,  and  in  the  repose  of 
his  manner  he  is  noteworthy  among  recent  de- 
signers. His  distinguishing  qualities  are  breadth, 
unity,  and  simplicity;  his  principal  defects  an 
occasional  carelessness  of  technique,  and  a  ten- 
dency toward  a  grotesque  manifestation  of  large- 
ness and  strengUi.  His  influence  on  his  profes- 
sion in  the  United  States  was  very  great,  and  his 
work  may  be  considered  to  represent  the  nearest 
approach  to  a  definite  American  style.  In  his 
Brookline  workrooms  he  trained  many  students. 
Consult  the  biography  by  Van  Rensselaer  (Bos- 
ton, 1888). 

BIGHABDSOIT  James  (1809-51).  An  Eng- 
lish traveler  and  philanthropist,  bom  in  Lincoln- 
shire. He  early  became  interested  in  the  sup- 
pression of  the  African  slave  trade,  and,  under  the 
patronage  of  the  English  Anti-Slavery  Society, 
edited  a  newspaper  at  Malta.  He  soon  deter- 
mined, however,  to  visit  the  interior  of  Africa 
in  order  to  learn  the  causes  of  the  slave  trade, 
and,  if  possible,  its  remedy.  He  accordingly  en- 
tered Morocco,  but  was  unable  to  penetrate  the 
interior.  In  1845  he  succeeded  in  reaching 
Ghadames  and  Ghat.  On  his  return  to  England 
in  1847  he  was  aided  by  the  Government  in  fit- 
ting out  an  expedition,  and  in  March,  1850,  ac- 
companied by  two  Germans,  Barth  and  Overweg, 
he  left  Tripoli,  with  the  intention  of  exploring 
Lake  Tchad.  At  Damerghou  the  three  explorers 
separated,  h<^uig  to  meet  again  on  the  shores 
of  the  lake.  But  while  still  two  weeks'  journey 
from  the  rendezvous,  Richardson  was  prostrated 
by  fever  and  died  at  Un^uratona  on  March  4, 
1851.  His  papers,  including  his  journal  down  to 
February  21st,  were  published  under  the  title, 
Mismon  to  Omtral  Africa,  1850-51,  Under  the 
Order  of  Her  Majesty's  C^ovemment  (1853). 
Riehardsan  also  wrote  Travels  in  Morocco 
(1860)  and  Travels  in  the  Desert  of  Sahara, 
1845-46  (1848). 

BIGHASDSON,  John  (1787-1805).  A  Brit- 
ish Arctic  explorer  and  naturalist,  born  at  Dum- 
fries, Scotland.  He  was  educated  in  the  academy 
of  his  native  town  and  studied  medicine  at  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  where  he  obtained  a 
surgeon's  diploma  in  1807.  The  same  year  he 
entored  the  Royal  Navy  as  assistant  surgeon,  and 
was  present  at  the  battle  of  Co^^nhagen.  Subse^ 
quently  he  served  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  on  the 
Baltic  and  North  Sea  stations;  afterwards  in 
Canada,  and  in  1815  in  Georgia^  having  charge 


BICHABD80N. 

of  the  hospital-ship  for  the  sick  and  wounded  of 
the  brigade.  In  1816  he  received  his  M.D.  degree 
from  Edinburgh  University  and  in  1819  was  ap- 
pointed surgeon  and  naturalist  to  the  overland 
Polar  expedition  under  Franklin.  In  1825-27  he 
accompanied  Franklin  in  his  overland  expedition 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie,  and  by  orders  of 
the  Admiralty  was  detached  to  survey  the  coast 
between  that  river  and  the  Coppermine.  In  1846 
Richardson  was  knighted.  Two  years  later  he 
was  appointed  to  command  the  search  for  his 
former  traveling  companion,  Sir  John  Franklin, 
of  whom  nothing  had  been  heard  for  upward  of 
two  years.  On  March  25,  1848,  Richardson,  ac- 
companied by  Dr.  Rae,  left  Liverpool  and  trav- 
eled via  New  York,  Montreal,  and  the  Canadian 
lakes  to  look  for  the  missing  expedition  between 
the  Mackenzie  and  Coppermine  rivers.  Reaching 
the  headwaters  of  the  Mackenzie,  they  descended 
the  river  to  its  mouth  and  then  turned  eastward 
by  Capes  Bathurst  and  Parry.  With  immense 
labor  through  dangerous  drift-ice  the  party 
reached  Cape  Heame,  where  they  were  obliged 
to  abandon  the  boats,  and  after  twelve  days* 
fatiguing  march,  through  half-frozen  swamps  and 
over  hills  covered  with  snow,  they  succeeded  in 
gaining  Fort  Confidence,  at  the  north  point  of 
Great  Bear  Lake.  Here  Richardson  spent  the 
winter  in  scientific  observations,  and,  leaving  Dr. 
Rae  in  command,  returned  to  England  in  1849,  re- 
suming his  duties  at  Haslar.  In  1855  Richardson 
resigned  his  office  and  devoted  himself  to  literary 
work  at  Grasmere,  where  he  died  June  5, 1865. 

Richardson  contributed  largely  to  the  account 
of  Franklin's  first  expedition  (London,  1823) ; 
and  to  that  of  the  second  expedition  (ib., 
1828).  His  most  important  workis  are:  Fauna 
Boreali-Americana  ( 1829-37 ) ;  An  Arctic  Search- 
ing Ewpedition:  A  Journal  of  a  Boat  Voyage 
Through  Rupert's  Land  and  the  Arctic  Sea 
( 1851 ) ;  The  Polar  Regions  ( 1861 ) . 

BICHABD80N,  Samuel  (1689-1761).  An 
English  novelist,  bom  in  Derbyshire.  His  fitther 
was  a  joiner,  who  desired  to  educate  his  son 
for  the  Church ;  but  this  he  could  not  afford,  so 
at  the  age  of  sixteen,  with  such  an  education  as 
a  country  school  could  furnish,  the  young  man 
went  to  London,  where  he  became  apprentice  to 
one  John  Wilde,  a  printer.  In  the  discharge  of 
his  duties  he  was  exact  and  careful,  and  on  the 
expiration  of  his  apprenticeship  he  became  fore- 
man. In  1719  he  started  as  a  printer  on  his 
own  account,  first  in  Fleet  Street,  and  soon  after- 
wards in  Salisbury  Court;  and  on  finding  his 
success  assured,  he  married  Martha,  daughter  of 
Allington  Wilde — not  Richardson's  former  mas- 
ter. In  1754  he  became  master  of  the  Sta- 
tioners* Company  and  in  1760  he  purchased  the 
half  interest  of  the  patent  of  King's  printer. 
He  died  Julv  4,  1761. 

Till  he  had  turned  fifty  Richardson's  re- 
lations with  literature,  except  in  the  way  of 
printing,  were  of  the  most  slight  and  amateur 
kind;  but  in  1740,  a  year  after  two  book- 
sellers, Rivington  and  Osborne,  had  proposed 
to  him  that  he  should  write  a  volume  of  fa- 
miliar letters  as  patterns  for  youths  and 
maidens  in  the  country,  Richardson  surprised 
the  world  with  his  Pamela,  which  had  instant 
and  great  success.  Hughes  may  have  given  Rich- 
ardson a  hint  for  his  Pamela  in  a  story  told  in 
the  Spectator  (375).    Its  continuation,  to  which 


BICHABB80K. 

the  author  was  stung  bj  the  issue  of  a  pretended 
sequel,  entitled  Pamela  in  High  Life,  was,  how- 
ever pronounced  much  inferior.  Pamela  sug- 
gested to  Fielding  his  Joseph  Andrews^  origi- 
nally conceived  as  a  parody  of  Richardson's 
somewhat  prudish  moralities.  The  satire  was 
not  appreciated  by  Richardson,  and  he  never  for- 
gave Fielding.  In  1747-48  Richardson  issued,  in 
eight  volumes.  The  History  of  Clarissa  Harloioe — 
by  common  consent  his  masterpiece— a  work 
which  in  its  progress  to  completion  aroused  the 
most  intense  interest.  His  third  and  last  great 
work.  The  History  of  Sir  Charles  Orandison,  was 
published  in  1753.  As  a  whole,  this  is  less  in- 
teresting, and  in  his  representation  of  the  life 
of  the  fashionable  classes,  of  which  he  had  no 
clear  personal  knowledge,  the  writer  succeeds  but 
indifferently.  Richardson  had  some  knowledge  of 
architecture.  He  has  also  been  said,  but  ground- 
lessly,  to  have  studied  at  Christ's  Hospi&l.  Of 
the  classic  languages  he  had  no  more  than  a 
smattering.  Ihiring  his  boyhood  at  least  he 
seems  to  have  been  ^shful  and  to  have  cared  lit- 
tle for  games^  but  he  liked  well  to  read  when  he 
had  the  time.  He  was  a  worthy  apprentice  and 
a  good  master,  cautious,  moral,  and  kind.  He 
helped  poor  authors  and  was  praised  by  Dr. 
Johnson  for  having  'taught  the  passions  to  move 
at  the  command  of  virtue."  Richardson  dwelt 
for  a  while  in  a  country  house  at  North  End, 
Hammersmith.  Here  he  composed  most  of  his 
novels. 

Richardson's  method  of  minute  elaboration  is 
somewhat  wearisome.  Moreover,  the  epistolary 
form  which  he  chose,  though  it  had  certain  ad- 
vantages, led  to  novels  of  immense  length.  But 
there  are  singular  sources  of  attraction  in  the 
depth  and  simplicity  of  Richardson's  sentiment, 
his  profound  knowledge  of  the  heart,  and  his 
mastery  of  elemental  emotion,  and  in  virtue  of 
the  overwhelming  effects  of  pathos  in  which  the 
interest  of  his  Clarissa  culminates,  a  place  must 
be  assigned  him  among  the  potent  masters  of  gen- 
uine tragic  passion.  His  specialty  lies  in  subtle 
analysis  of  the  feminine  hearty  and  in  this  par- 
ticular field  he  has  hardly  been  surpassed.  It 
seems  to  have  been  his  instinct  to  cultivate  a 
curious  sort  of  passionless  confidential  intimacy 
with  women;  throughout  life  he  was  the  centre 
of  a  circle  of  female  friends  and  admirers,  who 
came  to  him  with  their  little  delicate  secrets,  as 
to  a  kind  of  lay  father  confessor;  and  the  fruits 
of  his  nice  observation  of  them  he  has  given  us 
to  the  full  in  his  novels.  Richardson  is  thus  the 
first  outright  psychologist  in  English  prose  fic- 
tion. He  also  created  great  character  types,  as 
Lovelace  and  Clarissa.  His  popularity  was  very 
great,  both  in  England  and  on  the  Continent. 
He  shaped  the  novel  for  a  half  century,  and  is 
still  a  force.  Consult  his  works  edited  by  Leslie 
Stephen  (12  vols.,  London,  1883),  and  by  Phelps 
with  Life  (New  York,  1901);  Compendium, 
edited  by  Barbauld  (6  vols.,  London,  1804); 
Thomson,  8,  Richardson:  A  Biographical  and 
Critical  Study  (ib.,  1900) ;  Dobson,  Richardson 
(New  York,  1902) ;  Texte,  Jean-Jacques  Rous- 
seau et  le  cosmopolitisme  littiraire  au  XVII I^me 
siiole  (Paris,  1895),  translated  into  English  as 
Jean  Jacques  Rousseau  and  the  Cosmopolitan 
Spirit  in  Literature  (London,  1899).    See  Novel. 

BICHABDBON,  William  Adaks  (1821-96). 
An   American    jurist,    bom    at   T^ngsborough, 


8  BICHEIJE17. 

Mass.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1843,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1846.  In  1855  he 
was  appointed  to  revise  the  Massachusetts  Stat- 
utes, and  subsequently  edited  the  annual  supple- 
ments to  the  State  General  Statutes.  In  1869 
he  became  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  United 
States  Treasury,  in  1871  visited  Europe  as  agent 
for  the  sale  of  the  United  States  funded  loan, 
and  in  1873  became  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 
In  1885  he  was  appointed  Chief  Justice  of  the 
Court  of  Claims,  and  at  one  time  he  was  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  Georgetown  Law  School.  He  pub- 
lished: The  Banking  Laws  of  Massachusetts 
(1855);  Practical  Information  Concerning  the 
Debt  of  the  United  States  (1872);  National 
Banking  Laws  (1872) ;  and  History  of  the  Court 
of  Claims  (1882-85). 

BICHABBT^  rlK^&rt,  Chbistxan  Ernst 
(1831-92).  A  I)anish  poet  and  dramatist,  bom 
in  Copenhagen,  noted  for  deep  and  refined  feel- 
ing, and  spiritual  and  patriotic  fervor.  He  was 
a  pastor.  His  comedy  Declarations  (1851)  was 
followed  by  Short  Poems  ( 1861 ) ;  Pictures  and 
Songs  ( 1874 ) ;  Fifty  Poems  ( 1878 ) ;  King 
and  Constable,  a  musical  drama  (1878) ; 
Spring  and  Autumn,  poems  (1884);  and  Mis- 
cellaneous Poems  (1891).  The  Holy  Land  (3d 
ed.  1889)  was  the  fruit  of  a  trip  to  the  Orient. 
His  Samlede  Digto  (or  Collected  Poeme)  were 
published  in  three  volumes  in  1894. 

BICHBLIEtr^  r6'sh«-l5S^  or  -ly^,  A  river  of 
Canada  (also  called  Chambly,  Saint  John,  and 
Sorel).  It  is  the  outlet  of  I^ike  Champlain  and 
flows  into  the  Saint  Lawrence  River  at  Sorel 
on  Lake  Saint  Peter,  and  has  a  straight  course  of 
80  miles,  ranging  from  1000  feet  to  1^  miles  in 
width,  through  a  picturesque  and  historic  coun- 
try (Map:  Quebec,  C  5).  It  is  navigable  to 
Chambly,  whence  a  canal  to  Saint  John  obviates 
the  rapids  lying  between. 

BICHELIE17,  r^h'lye^,  Abmand  Eicmanuel 
DU  Plessis,  Duke  de  (1766-1822).  A  French 
statesman^  grandson  of  Marshal  Richelieu  ( 1696- 
1788),  bom  in  Paris  and  educated  at  the 
College  of  Plessis.  He  left  France  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Revolution,  entered  the  Russian  ser- 
vice, under  Suvaroff,  and  became  lieutenant-gen- 
eral. Alexander  I.  made  him  Governor  of  Odessa 
in  1803,  but  after  a  brilliant  administration  there 
he  returned  to  France  in  1815  to  form  a  new  Min- 
istry under  Louis  XVIII.  His  influence  with  the 
allied  powers  enabled  him  to  secure  the  with- 
drawal of  their  troops  from  France,  and  he  was 
chief  of  Cabinet  until  1818,  when  he  resigned  on 
account  of  his  unsuccessful  attempt  to  change 
the  electoral  law,  according  to  his  promise  to 
the  powers.  He  was  recalled  in  1820,  retired 
within  two  years,  and  died  shortly  afterwards, 
the  last  of  his  name.  Consult  D'Asfeld,  Voyages 
et  souvenirs  du  due  de  Richelieu  (Paris,  1827). 

BICHELIEU,  Armand  Jean  Duplbssis,  Duke 
de,  Cardinal  (1585-1642).  An  eminent  French 
statesman,  born  in  Paris,  September  5,  1585. 
He  was  educated  for  the  army  at  the  Coll^  de 
Navarre,  but  turned  to  the  study  of  theology 
in  order  that  he  might  succeed  his  elder  brother 
as  Bishop  of  Lucon.  This  he  was  able  to  do  on 
the  latter's  retirement  in  1606,  and  on  April  16, 
1607,  the  youthful  prelate  was  consecrated  at 
Rome  in  the  presence  of  Pope  Paul  V.  He  de- 
voted himself  with  earnestness  to  the  work  of  his 


BICHBLIEn. 

diocese  and  was  successful  as  a  preacher  and 
administrator.  As  one  of  the  representatives  of 
the  clergy  at  the  States-General  in  1614  he 
attracted  the  notice  of  the  Queen  mother,  Maria 
de'  Medici,  by  an  address  delivered  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  young  King,  Louis  XIIL  He  was 
made  one  of  the  Court  almoners,  and  later,  in 
1610,  entered  the  Boyal  Council  as  Secretary  for 
War  and  Foreign  Affairs.  The  overthrow  of 
Concini  and  the  party  of  the  Queen  mother,  and 
the  rise  of  the  royal  favorite,  De  Luynes,  to 
power,  sent  Richelieu  temporarily  back  to  his 
bishopric.  De  Luynes  died  in  1621,  while  car- 
rying on  a  campaign  against  the  Huguenots, 
leaving  the  kingdom  in  great  disorder.  The 
nobility  were  in  revolt  and  strengthening  them- 
selves in  the  provinces,  the  Huguenots  were  in 
arms,  and  the  influence  of  France*  in  Europe 
was  threatened  by  the  growing  ascendency  of  the 
House  of  Austria.  Reconciled  to  her  son,  mainly 
through  the  diplomacy  of  Richelieu,  who  had 
remained  her  trusted  counselor,  Maria  de'  Medici 
obtained  for  the  latter  a  cardinal's  hat,  and  in 
1624  he  was  recalled  to  the  council.  He  soon 
became  the  chief  Minister  of  State  and  retained 
that  poet  until  the  end  of  his  life — ^the  real  head 
of  France  in  everything  but  name.  In  bringing 
about  the  reconciliation  Richelieu  had  been 
greatly  assisted  by  the  Capuchin  Father  Joseph 
(q.v.),  who  remained  afterwards  his  confidential 
assistant. 

The  new  Minister's  first  important  measure 
was  the  arrangement  of  a  marriage  between  the 
King's  sister,  Henrietta  Maria,  and  the  Prince  of 
Wales,  afterwards  Charles  I.  This  assured  friend- 
ly relations  with  England.  It  was  necessary  iur 
Richelieu  to  suppress  the  Huguenots  as  a  po- 
litical faction,  to  reduce  the  disturbing  nobles  to 
obedience,  and  to  restore  the  prestige  which 
France  had  won  under  Henry  IV.  in  the  affairs 
of  Europe.  While  carrying  out  the  first  of 
these  objects  he  made  alliances  with  and  gave 
encouragement  to  the  Dutch  and  German  ene- 
mies of  the  Catholic  House  of  Austria.  He  re- 
garded the  Protestants  at  home  or  abroad  wholly 
with  the  eye  of  a  statesman,  and  had  no  re- 
ligious prejudices.  As  the  power  of  the  Cardinal 
increased  Maria  de'  Medici  became  antagonistic. 
The  King  trusted  him  implicitly,  but  never  liked 
him  personally,  and  always  was  restive  under 
the  mastery  of  this  greater  mihd.  Richelieu's 
policy  was  directed  toward  a  unified  system  of 
administration  in  France,  and  in  foreign  affairs 
his  chief  aim  was  to  humble  the  power  of  the 
Austrian  and  Spanish  Hapsburgs.  Richelieu  was 
instrumental  in  bringing  Gustavus  Adolphus 
(q.v.)  into  Germany,  and  during  the  later  years 
of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  France  was  an  active 
ally  of  the  Protestant  cause  in  the  field.  (See 
Thibtt  Yeabs'  Wab.)  In  1628  the  rebellious 
Huguenots  were  put  down  and  La  Rochelle 
was  taken,  after  a  siege  of  fifteen  months,  during 
which  Richelieu  commanded  in  person  with  great 
ability.  After  this  triumph  he  showed  the  qual- 
ity of  his  statesmanship  by  his  liberality  and 
clemency  toward  the  conquered.  In  Italy  France 
combated  Austria  and  Spain  in  the  War  of  the 
Mantuan  Succession  (1628-31),  and  Richelieu's 
diplomacy  secured  the  recognition  of  the  claims 
of  Charles  of  Nevers.  The  ill  will  of  the  Court 
nobles  whom  Richelieu's  influence  had  deprived 
of  power  over  the  weak  King  showed  itself  in  f  re- 


9  BICHELIEn. 

quent  conspiracies  against  the  Cardinal.  Gas- 
ton of  Orleans,  brother  of  Louis  XIIL,  played 
a  leading  part  in  these  plots,  which  Richelieu, 
thanks  to  his  system  of  espionage,  punished  re- 
lentlessly. The  so-called  conspiracy  of  Chalais 
ended  in  death  for  some  of  the  leaders  and 
imprisonment  for  others.  A  second  great  con- 
spiracy, headed  by  the  Queen  mother,  reached 
its  crisis  on  November  11,  1630,  when  Riche- 
lieu himself  had  almost  given  up  the  strug- 
gle. The  King  refused  him  an  audience, 
but  Louis  having  withdrawn  to  Versailles,  the 
Cardinal  succeeded  in  seeing  him  there,  over- 
came the  influence  of  his  enemies,  demonstrated 
his  necessity  to  France,  and  irrevocably  fixed 
his  ascendency.  The  day  became  Known,  from 
the  discomfitura  of  tiie  conspirators,  as  'the  day 
of  dupes.'  In  1631  the  Duke  of  Montmorency 
<q.v.)  rose  against  the  Cardinal,  only  to  perish 
on  the  scaffold.  In  the  last  years  of  his  life  Riche- 
lieu crushed  the  rising  of  the  Count  of  Soissons 
and  defeated  the  conspiracy  of  Cinq-Mars  (q.v^). 
The  later  administration  of  Richelieu  formed 
an  important  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  consti- 
tution of  France  and  in  her  foreign  relations. 
By  a  succession  of  vigorous  and  effective  meas- 
ures he  succeeded  in  breaking  down  the  political 
power  of  the  great  families  of  France  and  making 
the  King  an  absolute  ruler.  The  policy  of  war 
against  Austria  and  Spain  vindicated  itself  in  its 
ultimate  results,  which,  however,  Richelieu  did 
not  live  to  see. 

The  character  of  Richelieu  is  one  of  those 
that  moralists  and  historians  delight  to  discuss. 
There  is  no  question  but  that  he  was  unscrupu- 
lous in  the  means  that  he  used.  There  is  e^uidly 
no  question  that  he  used  these  means  with  a 
singleness  of  purpose  for  what  he  believed  to 
be  the  good  of  France  and  his  King.  His  policy 
was  successful  in  developing  the  greatness  and 
the  power  of  France,  but  burdensome  imposi- 
tions were  necessary  to  meet  the  enormous  ex- 
penditures it  entailed,  and  the  unchecked  abso- 
lutism that  he  fastened  upon  the  country  was 
in  the  long  run  a  misfortune.  What  the  France 
of  his  day  justly  feared,  as  a  result  ,  of 
the  melancholy  experiences  of  two  generations, 
was  anarchy  and  a  powerless  executive.  That 
danger  Richelieu  averted,  but  he  went  too  far 
toward  the  other  extreme.  The  variety  and 
scope  of  his  talents  were  remarkable.  His 
writings  fill  several  volumes,  and  some  of 
them  have  much  merit.  Of  the  later  ones  his 
Testament  politiqiLe  and  his  M^moires  are  most 
important.  He  also  indulged  in  lighter  literary 
diversions,  and  in  the  drama,  but  left 
nothing  noteworthy.  He  was  a  liberal  patron 
of  literature,  and  to  him  France  owes  the  found- 
ing of  the  French  Academy.  (See  Institute  of 
France.)  The  Palais  Cardinal,  later  known  as 
the  Palais  Royal,  was  his  Paris  residence.  He 
was  as  capable  a  military  commander  as  he  was 
a  churchman,  a  civil  administrator,  and  a  diplo- 
mat. At  the  siege  of  La  Rochelle  he  is  said  to 
have  been  his  own  engineer-in-chief.  His  Lettres, 
instructions  diplomatiques,  etc.,  were  edited  by 
d'Avenal  (8  vols.,  Paris,  1853-77). 

Bibliography.  Leclerc,  Vie  du  cardinal  de 
Richelieu  (Paris,  1694  and  repeatedly)  ;  Jay,£rt«- 
toire  du  ministdre  de  Richelieu  (ib.,  1816) ; 
Bazin,  Histoire  de  France  sous  Louis  XIII,  (ib., 
1846) ;  Caillet,  Uadministration  en  France  sous 


BICHELIEtr.  10 

le  miniatire  du  cardinal  de  Richelieu  (ib.,  18G0) ; 
Martineau,  Le  cardinal  de  Richelieu  (ib.,  18G5) ; 
Ranke,  in  Franzoaische  Oeachichte,  voIb.  ii.  and 
V.  (Leipzig,  1876-77);  TopiH,  Louis  XI I L  ct 
Richelieu  (Paris,  1885) ;  d'Avenel,  Richelieu  et 
la  monarohie  abaolue  (ib.,  1884-90) ;  Dussieux, 
Le  cardinal  de  Richelieu  (ib.,  1885) ;  Fagniez, 
Le  p^6  Joseph  et  Richelieu  (ib.,  1894)  ;  Hano< 
teaux,  Histoire  du  cardinal  de  Richelieu  (ib., 
1893-96) ;  and  Perkins,  Richelieu  and  the  Growth 
of  French  Power  (London,  1900). 

BICHELIETT,  Louis  FRANgois  Abmand  du 
Plessis,  Duke  de  (1696-1788).  A  marshal  of 
France,  bom  in  Paris,  a  grandnephew  of  the 
great  Cardinal.  He  took  an  active  part 
in  Court  intrigues  and  was  comrade  and  assistant 
to  Louis  XV.  in  his  love  affairs.  As  a  soldier 
he  distinguished  himself  at  Fontenoy.  He  was 
made  marshal  in  1748,  Governor  of  Guyenne  in 
1755,  and  won  great  renown  in  the  taking  of 
Port  Mahon,  Minorca,  in  1756.  He  succeeded 
Marshal  D'Estf^s  as  commander  in  Hanover, 
where  he  enriched  himself  by  pillage  and  per- 
mitted his  troops  to  do  the  same.  His  later 
days,  as  his  earlier,  were  occupied  with  the  dis- 
sipations of  the  royal  circle  at  Paris.  He  was  a 
witty,  if  not  a  wise  man,  and  the  friend  and  pro- 
tector of  Voltaire,  but  better  known  for  his 
patronage  of  Du  Barry  and  for  his  utter  lack  of 
seriousness.  His  memoirs  were  edited  by  Sou- 
lavie  in  1793;  and  he  is  prominent  in  most  other 
memoirs  of  the  period.  Consult  Faur,  Vie  priv6e 
du  fnar4chal  de  Richelieu  (Paris,  1792). 

SICHEPIN,  rteh'pftN',  Jean  (1849-).  A 
Fk^nch  poet,  novelist,  and  dramatist.  He  was 
bom  at  M^^ah,  in  Algeria,  February  4, 
1849.  For  a  while  he  was  a  sailor,  and  he  fought 
as  a  rifleman  in  the  Franco-German  wars.  He 
at  first  studied  medicine  and  then  entered  the 
Ecole  Normale  in  Paris.  After  an  apprentice- 
ship in  journalism,  fiction,  and  drama  he 
published  (1876)  La  chanson  des  gueuw, 
for  the  frank  immorality  of  which  he  was  fined 
600  francs  and  imprisoned  one  month.  In  prison 
he  wrote  Les  mortes  hizarres  (1877).  Among 
later  works  are  the  poems  Les  caresses  (1877), 
Les  hlasph^es  (1884),  La  mer  (1886),  Mes 
paradis  (1893);  the  stories  La  Olu  (1881); 
Bro/ves  gens  (1888)  ;  the  plays  Nana  8ahih 
(1882),  Monsieur  Scapin  (1886),  Le  flihustier 
(1888),  Par  le  glaive  (1892),  Les  truands 
(1889).  Richepin  is  a  romantic,  and  a  poet  and 
notably  a  dramatist  of  talent.  Par  le  glaive  is 
a  noble  and  beautiful  drama  written  in  fin^, 
sonorous  Alexandrines. 

BICHEB,  r^'shft^,  Eomond  (1560-1631).  A 
French  theologian,  bom  at  Chaource,  Aube.  He 
was  made  a  doctor  of  theology  by  the  Sorbonne, 
and  taught  belles-lettres,  rhetoric,  and  philosophy 
in  the  college  of  Cardinal  Le  Moine,  of  which 
he  became  director  in  1594.  The  following  year 
he  came  forward  prominently  as  the  chief  oppo- 
nent of  the  Jesuits,  who  in  their  turn  attacked 
his  work  De  Ecclesiastica  et  Politica  Potest  ate 
(1611),  and  he  was  forced  to  resign  as  syndic  of 
the  Sorbonne  in  1612.  He  was  summoned  to  ap- 
pear before  the  Inquisition  at  Rome,  and  was 
imprisoned  on  his  return  to  Paris,  but  was  re- 
leased. He  made  his  defense  in  Historia  Con- 
ciHorum  Generalium  (1683),  and  Eistoire  du 
Sffndioai  de  Richer  (1753),  both  published  post- 
humously.    He  also  wrote  De  Analogia,  Causis 


BICH  HIIX. 

Eloqucnliof    et    LingwB    Patrice     Locupletandw 
Methodo  (1601),  and  other  works. 

BICHEB,  Paul  (1849—).  A  French  neu- 
rologist, born  at  Chartres.  He  was  educated 
in  Paris,  from  1882  to  1895  was  director  of  the 
laboratory  connected  with  the  Salpetrifere  clinic 
of  nervous  diseases,  and  in  1898  was  elected  to 
the  Academy  of  Medicine.  He  wrote  Etudes 
cliniques  sur  la  grande  hysterie  (*1886,  crowned 
by  the  Institute),  but  he  is  perhaps  better  known 
for  his  connection  with  art  and  anatomy.  A 
pupil  of  Charcot,  and  a  draughtsman  of  some 
ability,  he  published  in  collaboration  with  his 
master,  Les  demoniaques  dans  Part  (1886)  and 
Les  dijformes  et  les  malades  dana  Part  (1889)  ; 
and,  alone,  an  Anatomie  artistique  (1890), 
which  was  crowned  by  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts 
and  by  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  Physiologic 
artistique  de  Vhomme  en  mouvcment  ( 1895) . 

BIGHBT,  ri'shA',  Alfred  (1816-91).  A 
French  surgeon,  bom  at  Dijon.  He  rose  rapidly 
in  his  profession,  became  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Medicine  in  1865,  did  good  service  in 
the  ambulance  corps  in  the  siege  of  Paris,  and  in 
1873  was  commander  of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 
Lon^  professor  of  clinical  surgery,  Richet  wrote 
Traits  pratique  d'anatomie  mMico-chirurgicale 
(1857),  and  among  special  treatises,  Legons 
cliniques  sur  les  fractures  de  la  jambe  ( 1875). 

BICHET,.  Charles  (1850—).  A  French 
physiologist,  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
born  and  educated  in  Paris,  was  a  prom- 
inent member  of  the  French  Biological  So- 
ciety (1881  et  seq.),  and  received  in  1879  a 
prize  from  the  Institute  for  his  monograph, 
Preprint 4s  chimiques  et  physiologiques  du  sue 
gastrique.  In  1887  he  succeeded  Bi^clard  as  pro- 
fessor of  physiology  in  the  medical  faculty  of 
the  University  of  Paris,  and  in  1899  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Medicine.  His 
works  include:  a  translation  of  Harvey  on  the 
circulation  of  the  blood  (1879)  ;  L'homme  et 
Vintelligence  (1884;  2d  ed.  1890);  Esaai  de 
paychologie  g^n^rale  (1888;  2d  ed.  1892;  Rus- 
sian translation  in  1889  and  Polish,  1890)  ;  and 
a  Dictionnaire  de  physiologic  (1899). 

BICH^FIELD  SPBINOS.  A  village  in  Otsego 
County,  N.  Y.,  35  miles  southeast  of  Utica,  near 
Canadarago  Lake,  and  on  the  Delaware,  Lacka- 
wanna and  Western  Railroad  (Map:  New 
York,  E  3).  The  mineral  springs  of  the 
vicinity  are  noted  for  their  medicinal  proper- 
ties, and  are  much  frequented.  Beautiful  scen- 
ery and  attractive  drives  are  to  be  noted  here. 
There  are  manufactures  of  Scotch  caps  and  knit 
goods.  Though  settled  as  early  as  1758,  Rich- 
field Springs  did  not  become  a  summer  resort 
until  1820.  Population,  in  1890,  1623;  in  1900, 
1537. 

BICH  HILL.  A  city  in  Bates  County,  Mo., 
85  miles  south  by  east  of  Kansas  City,  on  the 
Missouri  Pacific '  and  the  Kansas  City,  Fort 
Scott  and  Memphis  railroads  (Map:  Missouri, 
B  3 ) .  It  is  situated  in  the  mineral  belt  of  south- 
west Missouri,  in  the  section  noted  for  its  ex- 
tensive coal  fields.  Rich  Hill  carries  on  con- 
siderable trade  in  farm  produce  and  live  stock, 
and  has  zinc  and  lead  smelting  works,  machine 
shops,  manufactures  of  vitrified  brick  and  tile, 
and  flour  mills.  Population,  in  1890,  4008;  in 
1900,  4053. 


UCHTBtrCTO.  11 

BICGBIBT7CT0,  rish'I-btik'tA.  A  town  and 
port  of  entry  of  Kent  County,  New  Brunswick, 
Can.,  on  Richibucto  Harbor  and  on  the  Inter- 
Canadian  Railway,  25  miles  east  of  Kent  Junc- 
tion (Map:  New  Brunswick,  E  3).  It  is  the 
eastern  terminus  of  the  Kent  Northern  Railway. 
It  has  shipbuilding,  lumber,  and  fishing  indus- 
tries.   Population,  in  1901,  4000. 

BICH^KOHD.  A  city  of  Bourke  County, 
Victoria,  Australia,  constituting  a  suburb  of 
Melbourne  (q.v.).  Population,  in  1889,  37,650; 
in  1901,  37,722. 

BIGHXOND.  A  town  in  Surrey,  England,  8 
miles  west-aouthwest  of  London,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Thames  (Map:  England,  F  5).  It 
is  a  favorite  summer  resort  for  Londoners.  The 
rich  and  beautiful  scenery  of  the  vicinity  is  seen 
with  advantage  from  the  Terrace,  which  stretches 
along  the  brow  of  the  hill,  on  the  slopes  and 
summit  of  which  the  town  is  built.  The  banks 
of  the  Thames  are  studded  with  villas,  and 
around  the  town  are  numerous  nurseries  and 
kitchen  gardens.  As  Schene  or  Sheen,  Richmond 
was  a  royal  residence  from  the  time  of  Edward  I. 
until  the  reign  of  James  II.  To  the  southeast 
of  the  town  is  Richmond  Park  (q.v.),  pre- 
sented to  the  citizens  of  London  by  Charles  I. 
in  1634.  Richmond  was  not  incorporated  until 
1890,  but  had  been  favored  with  a  progressive 
vestry  which  established  a  water  supply,  public 
baths,  and  a  free  library.  The  municipality  has 
built  a  fine  town  hall,  artisans'  dwellings,  tech- 
nical school,  and  isolation  hospital,  and  main- 
tains cemeteries,  sewage  works,  and  pleasure 
grounds.  Population,  in  1891,  26,875;  m  1901, 
31,677.  Consult:  Chancellor,  Historical  Rich- 
mond  (London,  1885) ;   Gamett,  Richmond  (ib.. 


EICHMONB. 


BICHKOHD.  A  city  and  the  coimty-seat  of 
Wavne  County,  Ind.,  69  miles  east  of  Indian- 
apolis, on  the  Whitewater  River,  here  crossed  by 
iron  bridges,  and  on  the  Pittsburg,  Cincinnati, 
Chicago  and  Saint  Louis,  the  Grand  Rapids  and 
Indiana,  and  the  Cincinnati,  Richmond  and 
M uncle  railroads  (Map:  Indiana,  E  3).  It  is 
the  seat  of  Earlham  College  (Orthodox  Friends), 
opened  in  1847,  and  has  the  Morrison -Reeves 
Library  (public)  with  27,000  volumes,  and  the 
Richmond  Law  Library.  The  Eastern  Indiana 
Hospital  for  the  Insane  is  here,  also  Saint 
Stephen's  Hospital,  and  homes  for  orphans  and 
for  women.  There  are  fine  public  school  build- 
ines,  including  a  large  high  school,  and  among 
other  public  edifices  of  note  are  the  city  hall  and 
the  county  court-house.  Glen  Miller  Park  com- 
prises about  135  acres.  The  yearly  meeting  of 
the  Orthodox  Friends  of  Indiana  is  held  in 
Richmond,  The  city  is  the  commercial  centre  of 
a  fertile  agricultural  section,  and  is  important 
alHo  for  its  manufactures,  which,  in  the  census 
year  of  1900,  represented  capital  to  the  amount 
of  $5,175,000,  and  had  an  output  valued  at  $5,- 
282,000.  The  chief  products  include  threshing 
machines,  traction  engines,  grain  drills,  lawn 
mowers,  carriages  and  wagons,  steam  engines  and 
boilers,  church  furniture,  desks,  pianos,  brick, 
paper,  paper  bags,  flour,  sawed  lumber,  etc.  Laid 
out  in  1816,  Richmond  was  incorporated  two 
years  later  as  a  town,  and  in  1840  received  a  city 
charter.  It  is  situated  on  the  old  National  Road. 
Population,  in  1890,  16,608;  in  1900,  18,226. 


BIGHHOND.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Madison  Countv,  Ky.,  50  miles  southeast  of 
Frankfort,  on  the  Louisville  and  Nashville  and 
other  railroads  (Map:  Kentucky,  G  3).  It  is 
the  seat  of  the  Madison  Female  Institute.  Farm- 
ing and  the  breeding  of  horses  constitute  the 
principal  industries.  Population,  in  1890,  5073; 
in  1900,  4653. 

SICHMOND.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Ray  County,  Mo.,  40  miles  east  by  north  of 
Kansas  City,  on  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa 
Fe  Railroad  (Map:  Missouri,  B  2).  It  is  situ- 
ated in  a  region  engaged  in  agriculture,  cattle- 
raising,  and  coal-mining,  and  manufactures  flour 
and  lumber  products.  The  Woodson  Institute  is 
here.    Population,  in  1890^  2895;    in  1900,  3478. 

BICHMOND.  The  largest  city  of  Virginia 
and  a  port  of  entry,  the  State  capital  and 
county-seat  of  Henrico  County,  116  miles  south 
by  west  of  Washington,  D.  C.  (Map:  Virginia, 
G  4).  It  is  situated  on  the  James  River,  127 
miles  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  at  the  head  of 
tidewater.  The  rapids  here  have  a  fall  of  100 
feet  in  6  miles  and  furnish  an  immense  water 
power.  A  canal  extends  around  the  rapids,  pro- 
viding means  for  navigation  by  smaller  vessels 
for  a  considerable  distance  above  the  city.  Sev- 
eral bridges  span  the  James,  connecting  with 
Manchester  and  other  suburbs.  There  are  steam- 
ship lines  to  Atlantic  coast  ports,  and  the  rail- 
road facilities  comprise  the  Southern  Railway, 
the  Atlantic  Coast  line,  the  Seaboard  Air  Line, 
the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio,  the  Norfolk  and  West- 
em,  and  other  roads. 

The  site  of  Richmond  is  of  great  natural 
beauty.  It  is  regularly  laid  out  on  a  succession 
of  low  hills  that  rise  from  the  northern  bank 
of  the  James,  the  highest  point  reaching  an  alti- 
tude of  250  feet  above  the  sea.  The  area  is  about 
5^  square  miles.  More  than  three-fourths  of 
the  total  street  mileage  (120  miles)  is  paved, 
macadam  and  Belgian  blocks  being  used  m  the 
more  important  thoroughfares.  The  parks  and 
cemeteries  of  Richmond  and  its  monuments  are  of 
especial  interest.  The  public  park  system,  with 
an  aggregate  area  of  376  acres,  includes  Reser- 
voir Park  of  300  acres  on  the  western  bounds 
of  the  city;  Monroe,  Gamble's  Hill,  Jefferson, 
Marshall,  and  Chimborazo  parks^  besides  the 
Capitol  Square.  Capitol  Square,  on  Shockoe 
Hill  in  the  heart  of  Richmond,  is  12  acres  in 
extent.  Here  is  situated  the  State  Capitol 
(1785-96),  modeled  at  the  suggestion  of  Thomas 
Jefferson,  after  the  Maison  Carrte  at  Ntmes.  In 
the  Capitol  are  busts  and  portraits  of  many 
eminent  men,  including  the  celebrated  marble 
statue  of  Washington  by  the  French  sculptor 
Houdon  in  the  rotunda.  There  are  also  in  the 
square  the  new  State  Library,  used  mainly  as 
an  office  building,  the  Governor's  mansion,  and 
the  old  Bell  House.  On  the  grounds,  near  the 
Capitol,  is  a  splendid  monument  to  Washington. 
Statues  of  Henry  Clay  and  'Stonewall*  Jackson 
by  Hart  and  Foley,  respectively,  also  adorn  Capi- 
tol Square. 

In  Monroe  Park  are  a  statue  of  General  Wick- 
ham  and  the  site  of  the  Jefferson  Davis  Monu- 
ment. Gamble's  Hill  Park  is  noteworthy  for  the 
splendid  view  it  affords.  It  overlooks  the  fa- 
mous Tredegar  Iron  Works  and  the  river  with 
the  historic  Belle  Isle  and  other  islands.  On 
Libby   Hill    (Marshall   Park)    stands   the   Con- 


BICHMOND. 


12 


BICHMOND. 


federate  Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  Monument.  This 
elevation  also  commands  a  ^ood  view  of  the 
James  and  its  islands  and  bridges.  In  Chimbo- 
razo  Park  (29  acres)  was  a  well-known  Con- 
federate hospital.  A  fine  road  leads  from  this 
park  to  the  National  Cemetery,  two  miles  to  the 
southeast  of  the  city.  Next  in  importance  after 
the  Washington  Monument  is  the  equestrian  sta- 
tue of  General  Robert  E.  Lee  in  Lee  Circle.  The 
Jefferson  Monument  and  the  Howitzer  Monument 
also  are  worthy  of  note.  Hollywood  Cemetery 
is  the  most  interesting  in  Richmond.  It  is  the 
burial  place  of  many  famous  persons,  as  well  as 
of  18^000  Confederate  soldiers  in  honor  of  whom 
is  a  rough  pyramidal  monument  of  granite. 
Other  cemeteries  are  Riverview,  Mount  Calvary, 
and  Oakwood,  the  last  also  having  several  thou- 
sand Confederate  Soldiers'  graves.  The  National 
Cemetery  contains  6553  graves,  5700  of  unknown 
dead. 

The  City  Hall,  facing  Capitol  Square  on  the 
north,  ranks  with  the  Capitol  among  the  public 
buildings  of  Richmond.  It  is  a  handsome  struc- 
ture of  granite  with  a  tower  180  feet  high.  It 
cost  $1,500,000.  Other  edifices  of  importance  are 
the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  the  post-office,  the 
State  penitentiary,  the  Soldiers'  Home,  and  the 
new  depot  of  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  and  the 
Seaboard  Air  Line.  Among  historic  buildings 
are  the  Old  Stone  House,  the  oldest  in  Richmond; 
Saint  John's  Church  (1740) ;  the  'White  House 
of  the  Confederacy,'  which  now  serves  as  a  re- 
pository for  Confederate  relics;  General  Lee's 
residence,  the  home  of  the  State  Historical  So- 
ciety; the  Masonic  Temple,  dating  from  1785; 
and  Chief  Justice  Marshall's  house.  The  Valen- 
tine Museum  has  more  than  100,000  archaeologi- 
cal specimens,  many  objects  of  historic  interest^ 
and  an  art  collection.  Richmond  is  the  seat  of 
Richmond  College  (Baptist),  opened  in  1832; 
Union  Theological  Seminary  (Presbyterian), 
opened  in  1812;  the  Medical  College  of  Virginia; 
the  University  College  of  Medicine;  and  the 
Women's  College.  The  institutions  for  colored 
students  include  the  Hartshorn  Memorial  College, 
and  Virginia  Union  University  (Baptist),  opened 
in  1800.  There  are  also  a  number  of  private 
schools,  and  the  Mechanics'  Institute,  which  has 
been  recently  installed  in  a  new  building.  The 
State  library,  with  nearly  100,000  volumes,  is 
the  largest  in  the  city.  Other  important  col- 
lections are  the  Rosemary  Public  Library,  the 
State  Law  Library,  and  that  belonging  to  the 
Virginia  Historical  Society.  Amon^  the  chari- 
table institutions  are  the  Old  Dominion  Hospital, 
Virginia  Hospital,  Saint  Luke's  Hospital,  the  Eye, 
Nose,  Ear,  and  Throat  Infirmary,  Retreat  for  the 
Sick,  Sheltering  Arms,  and  the  City  Almshouse 
and  Hospital. 

Richmond  is  an  important  industrial  and  com- 
mercial centre.  Its  commercial  interests  are 
confined  almost  entirely  to  a  wholesale  and  job- 
bing and  retail  trade,  its  foreign  commerce  hav- 
ing amounted  in  1901  to  only  $111,173.  The  job- 
bing trade  in  the  same  year  amounted  to  $41,375,- 
000,  and  the  retail  trade  at  $14,000,000.  Bank 
clearings  for  1901  aggregated  nearly  $2,000,000. 
Plans  are  imder  way  for  deepening  the  channel  of 
the  James  from  Richmond  to  the  sea,  so  as  to 
provide  a  minimum  depth  of  22  feet  at  mean  low 
tide.  This  improvement  will  add  considerably  to 
the  commercial  advantages  of  the  city.  As  an 
industrial  centre,  Richmond  ranks  first  in  the 


State,  its  tobacco  and  iron  interests  being  of 
primary  importance.  It  is  one  of  the  leading 
tobacco  markets  in  the  United  States,  the  tobac- 
co industry  being  represented  by  stemming  and 
rehandling  establishments,  and  by  manufactories 
of  chewing  and  smoking  tobacco,  snuff,  cigars, 
and  cigarettes.  The  iron  interests  include  foun- 
dries and  machine  shops,  locomotive  works,  car- 
axle  and  railroad  spike  works,  and  nail,  horse- 
shoe, and  agricultural  implement  works.  Flour 
and  fertilizers  also  are  manufactured  extensively. 
Other  products  are  boxes,  carriages  and  wagons, 
lumber  (cedar,  woodenware,  hubs  and  spokes, 
etc.),  tin  roofing,  tin  tags,  baking  powder,  paper, 
twine,  meat  juice,  trunks  and  bags,  hats,  etc. 
Some  shipbuilding  is  carried  on.  The  various 
industries  in  the  census  year  1900  possessed 
$20,849,000  capital,  and  an  output  valued  at 
$28,901,000. 

The  municipal  government,  under  a  charter  of 
1870,  revised  in  1891  and  1892,  is  vested  in  a 
mayor,  elected  every  two  years;  a  bicameral 
council;  and  administrative  officers,  most  of 
whom  are  elected  by  the  council  in  joint  session. 
A  number  of  important  officials  are  chosen,  how- 
ever, by  popular  vote.  Richmond  spends  annual- 
ly for  maintenance  and  operation  about  $1,262,- 
000,  the  chief  items  being:  interest  on  debt, 
$376,000;  the  gas  works,  $137,000;  schools, 
$125,000;  the  police  department,  $105,000;  the 
fire  department,  $93,000;  streets,  $92,000;  chari- 
table institutions^  $43,000;  municipal  lighting, 
$35,000;  the  water-works,  $34,000.  The  actual 
income  for  the  fiscal  year  19()2  was  more  than 
$1,600,000.  The  water-works  and  the  gas-works 
are  the  property  of  the  municipality.  The  gas 
plant  cost  $994,000  and  now  has  80  miles  of 
mains.  The  water-works  system  cost  $2,323,500 
and  includes  103  miles  of  mains.  There  are  two 
reservoirs  with  a  storage  capacity  of  52,000,000 
gallons,  and  a  daily  pumping  capacity  of  24,000,- 
000  gallons.  The  net  debt  of  the  city  in  1902 
was  $6,610,582;  the  assessed  valuation  of  real 
and  personal  property  was  $71,117,607. 

The  population  of  Richmond  in  1800  was  5737; 
in  1850,  27,570;  in  1860,  37,910;  in  1870,  51,038; 
in  1880,  63,600;  in  1890,  81,388;  in  1900,  85,050. 
The  total  population  in  1900  included  2865  per- 
sons of  foreign  birth  and  32,230  of  negro  descent. 

In  1609  Capt.  John  Smith  bought  from  the 
Indians  a  tract  of  land  near  the  site  of  Richmond 
and  founded  a  settlement  which  he  called  'None 
Such.'  In  1645  Fort  Charles  was  built  in  the 
vicinity,  and  near  here  in  1676  Nathaniel  Bacon 
(q.v.)  defeated  the  Indians  in  the  'battle  of 
Bloody  Run.'  By  grants  in  1675  and  1687,  CoL 
William  Byrd  obtained  possession  of  the  land  in 
this  district,  and  in  1733  his  son.  Col.  William 
Evelyn  Byrd,  laid  out  a  town  which  he  named 
Richmond.  In  1742  Richmond  was  incorporated. 
In  Saint  John's  Episcopal  Church  in  1775,  Patrick 
Henry  made  his  famous  speech,  closing  with  the 
words,  "Give  me  liberty  or  give  me  death."  Rich- 
mond became  the  capital  of  the  State  in  1779,  and 
in  1782  it  was  chartered  as  a  city.  On  Janu- 
ary 5,  1781,  a  small  English  force  under  General 
Benedict  Arnold  entered  the  place  and  destroyed 
all  the  warehouses  and  public  buildings.  In 
1788  the  convention  which  ratified  the  Federal 
Constitution  for  Virginia  met  in  Saint  John's 
Church.  The  'Virginia  Resolutions'  of  1798-99 
were  passed  at  Richmond,  and  here,  in  1861,  Vir- 
ginia formally  adopted  the  Act  of  Secession.  From 


BIGHXOKD.  Id 

Maj,  1862,  to  April,  1865,  Richmond  was  the 
capital  of  the  Confederacy,  and  as  such  was  the 
objective  point  of  the  Federal  forces,  which 
fought  fifteen  pitched  battles  and  at  least  twenty 
skirmishes  in  the  effort  to  capture  it.  On  April 
2,  1865,  it  was  evacuated  by  the  Confederates, 
who,  by  order  of  General  Ewell,  set  fire  to  the 
warehouses  and  destroyed  the  greater  part  of  the 
business  portion  of  the  city.  The  Federal  forces 
entered  the  place  on  the  day  after  its  evacuation. 
Consult:  a  sketch  by  Henry,  in  Powell,  Historic 
Totcna  of  the  Southern  States  (New  York,  1900) ; 
"Richmond  Since  the  War,"  in  8oribner*s  Monthly 
(ib.y  1877) ;  and  Wood,  The  IndustHes  of  Rich- 
mond (Richmond^  1886), 

BIGHXOm)^  Chabias  Lennox,  third  Duke 
of  (1735-1806).  An  English  diplomat  and  states- 
man. He  was  bom  in  London,  and  succeeded  to 
the  peerage  on  the  death  of  his  father,  the 
second  Duke,  in  1750.  He  was  educated  at  West- 
minster School,  later  proceeding  to  Leyden  Uni- 
versity, where  he  graduated  in  1753.  He  entered 
the  army,  saw  active  service  in  France,  and  was 
mentioned  for  his  bravery  at  the  battle  of  Minden 
in  1759,  where  he  served  as  colonel  of  his  regi- 
ment. He  received  a  Court  appointment,  but, 
disagreeing  with  George  III.,  resigned  and  joined 
the  opposition  Ministry.  In  1765  he  was  sent 
to  Paris  as  Ambassador  Extraordinary,  became 
a  Privy  Ouncilor,  and  the  following  year  was 
appointed  Secretary  of  State  for  the  South.  He 
was  a  strong  supporter  of  the  American  colonies 
in  their  demands  for  redress  of  grievances;  in 
1770  he  introduced  conciliatory  resolutions  which 
were  carried  by  a  majority,  and  in  1775  during  a 
debate  on  American  affairs  defended  the  attitude 
of  the  colonists,  declaring  that  their  resistance 
was  ''neither  treason  nor  rebellion,  but  perfectly 
justifiable  in  every  possible  political  and  moral 
sense."  In  1778  he  moved  the  resolution  for 
the  withdrawal  of  the  troops  from  America. 
In  1782  he  received  the  appointment  of  master- 
general  of  ordnance  with  a  Cabinet  seat,  and  was 
created  a  knight  of  the  Garter.  He  was  rein- 
stated in  royal  favor,  and  his  later  career  was 
marked  by  subserviency  to  Court  interests. 

BICHKOITD,  Dean  (1804-66).  An  American 
capitalist,  bom  in  Bernard,  Vt.  He  opened  a  pro- 
duce business  in  Buffalo  in  1842,  became  wealthy, 
and  held  office  in  several  corporations.  He  took 
an  active  interest  in  railways  and  was  influential 
in  securing  the  consolidation  of  the  several  cor- 
porations that  later  constituted  the  New  York 
Central  Railroad.  Of  this  railroad  he  became 
vice-president  in  1853  and  from  1864  imtil  his 
death  was  president.  In  politics  he  was  an  active 
Democrat,  and  though  he  refused  to  accept  any 
public  office,  he  was  for  several  years  the  chair- 
man of  the  Democratic  State  Committee  and  the 
leader  of  his  party  in  New  York  State. 

TUCBMOKD,  GsoBGB  (1800-96).  An  English 
portrait  painter,  bom  in  Brompton.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  the  Royal  Academy,  and  became  a  mem- 
ber of  ilk  ^yal  Academy  in  1867.  He  painted 
portraits  of  many  of  his  celebrated  contempo- 
raries, such  as  Dr.  Keble,  the  Earl  of  Elgin,  Sir 
Moses  Montefiore,  and  Lord  Salisbury.  His  early 
work  was  influenced  by  William  Blake,  whom  he 
greatly  admired.  Many  of  his  portraits  are  in 
water  color  and  crayon,  but  he  also  painted  in 
oil,  and  did  some  work  in  sculpture. 


BIOHTES. 

BICHXOKD,  Le»h  (1772-1827).  An  English 
writer  and  evangelical  divine,  bom  in  Liverpool. 
He  graduated  at  Trinity  (College,  Cambridge 
(1704),  was  ordained  to  the  curacy  of  Brading 
and  Yaverland  in  the  Isle  of  Wight  (1700) ;  be- 
came chaplain  to  the  Lock  Hospital,  London 
(1805),  and  the  same  year  rector  of  Turvey  in 
Bedfordshire.  He  was  an  earnest  evangelical 
preacher.  Between  1800  and  1814  he  contributed 
to  the  Christian  Ouardian  three  famous  village 
tales— "The  Dairyman's  Daughter,"  "The  Young 
Cottager,"  and  "The  Negro  Servant."  All  three 
were  reprinted  in  1814  as  The  Annals  of  the  Poor, 
Before  1840  4,000,000  copies  of  the  Dairyman's 
Daughter  had  been  issued  in  nineteen  languages. 
Richmond  published  also  Fathers  of  the  English 
Church,  and  after  his  death  appeared  Domestic 
Portraiture.  Consult  the  Life  by  Grimshaw 
(London,  1828;  ed.  by  G.  T.  Bedell,  Philadelphia, 
1846). 

RICHMOND,  Sir  WnxiAM  Blake  (1843-). 
An  English  historical  and  portrait  painter,  bom 
in  London.  He  was  the  pupil  of  Sir  Frederick 
Leighton,  and  his  works  belong  to  the  order  of 
classic  genre  made  popular  by  Leighton  and 
Alma-Tadema.  They  include  "Amor  Vincit 
Omnia,"  and  "An  Audience  in  Athens  During  the 
Representation  of  the  Agamemnon"  (1885,  in 
the  Birmingham  Gallery).  He  also  painted  sev- 
eral portraits  of  celebrities.  He  was  Slade  pro- 
fessor at  Oxford  from  1878  until  1883,  became 
an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1888,  and 
was  knighted  in  1807.  He  designed  and  super- 
intended the  mosaic  decoration  of  the  interior  of 
Saint  Paul's  Cathedral,  London. 

BICHTEB,  riK'tSr,  Aemiijus  Ludwig  (1808- 
64).  A  German  jurist,  bom  at  Stolpen,  Saxony, 
and  educated  at  Leipzig.  His  Corpus  Juris  Ca- 
nonici  (1833-30)  led  to  his  being  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  law  in  Leipzig,  and  he  held  subsequently 
similar  positions  at  the  universities  of  Marburg 
and  Berlin.  He  also  served  as  councilor-in-chief  of 
the  consistory  and  Privy  Councilor  of  the  Gov- 
ernment. Richter  is  considered  the  founder  of 
a  new  school  of  Church  law — ^the  so-called  'Ber- 
liner Kanonisten-Schule.'  His  publications  in- 
clude: Beitrage  zur  Kenntnis  der  Quellen  des 
canonischen  Rechts  (1834) ;  Canones  et  Decreta 
Concilio  Tridentini  (1853);  and  Lehrhuch  des 
kathoUschen  und  evangelischen  Kirchenrechts 
(1842-86),  which  is  considered  a  most  important 
contribution  to  Church  law  literature. 

BICHTEBy  EuGEN  (1838—).  A  German  poli- 
tician^ bom  in  Dtlsseldorf ,  and  educated  at  Bonn, 
Heidelberg,  and  Berlin.  In  1864  his  election  as 
burgomaster  of  Neuwied  was  not  confirmed  be- 
cause of  his  liberal  views.  He  resigned  from  his 
^vemmental  post  and  settled  in  Berlin  as  a 
journalist.  He  was  elected  to  the  North  German 
Diet  in  1867,  to  the  Prussian  House  of  Deputies 
in  1860,  and  m  1871  to  the  Reichstag,  where  he 
was  a  leader  of  the  Progressists  and  later  of 
the  Radicals.  Intensely  individualistic,  he  at- 
tracted attention  by  his  opposition  to  State  con- 
trol of  railroads,  increase  of  war  budgets,  an 
Imperial  colonial  policy,  and  protectionism. 
Richter's  opposition  to  Bismarck  was  particular- 
ly bitter.  His  political  attitude  sometimes 
placed  him  in  opposition  to  his  own  party, 
and  the  Frejtsinnige  Zeitung,  founded  by  him  in 
1885,  was  on  man^  subjects,  especially  on  social 
reform,   in    direct   contradiction   to  the   other 


EICHCTR. 


U 


BICHTXS. 


papers  of  the  party.  He  wrote :  Politiaches  ABC 
Buck  (1879-98)  ;  Die  Irrlehren  der  SozialdemO' 
kratie  (1890)  ;  Sosnaldemokratische  Zukunfta- 
hilder  (1891;  in  English,  1892);  Jugenderinne- 
rungen  ( 1892 )  ;  and  Im  alien  Reiohatag,  Erin^ 
nerungen   (1894). 

BICHTEBy  GusTAV  (1823-84).  A  distin- 
guished German  figure  and  portrait  painter,  born 
in  Berlin.  He  began  his  studies  at  the  academy 
there  under  Eduard  Holbein,  then  was  a  pupil 
of  Cogniet  in  Paris,  and  studied  in  Rome  until 
1849.  The  brilliant  technical  qualities  of  his 
^'Raising  of  Jairus's  Daughter"  (1850,  National 
Gallery,  Berlin),  painted  by  commission  of  King 
Frederick  William  IV.,  aroused  great  enthusi- 
asm on  its  exhibition,  but  this  and  a  large 
oil  painting  of  the  ''Building  of  the  Pyramids" 
(1859-72,  Maximilianeum,  Munich),  ordered  by 
the  King  of  Bavaria,  suffer  from  theatrical 
pathos,  and,  recognizing  the  limitations  of  his 
talent,  Richter  confined  himself  thereafter  to 
the  depiction  of  single  figures,  and  to  portrait- 
ure, in  which  he  was  eminently  successful.  The 
first  of  a  series  of  portraits  of  aristocratic 
beauties  was  that  of  'Trincess  Carolath,"  which 
created  a  sensation  in  1872.  Of  several  family 
groups,  reflecting  the  artist's  own  domestic 
happiness,  two  called  "Ewiva!"  the  painter 
with  his  first-bom,  and  "Maternal  Hap- 
piness," the  painter's  wife  (youngest  daughter 
of  Meyerbeer)  with  their  younger  boy,  were 
among  the  gems  of  the  exhibition  in  1874.  From 
the  last  decade  of  his  life  date  his  maturest 
works,  in  which  he  combined  a  thorough  charac- 
terization with  the  purely  pictorial  qualities. 
The  splendid  portrait  of  a  "Banker's  Wife" 
(1876)  was  followed  by  that  of  "Countess 
Kftrolyi"  (1878),  which  distanced  all  his  former 
efforts,  but  was  surpassed  in  its  turn  by  the 
well-known  ideal  portrait  of  "Queen  Louise" 
(1879,  Cologne  Museum).  Mention  should  be 
made  also  of  the  portraits  of  "Emperor  William 
I."  (1876  and  1877),  "Empress  Auguste"  (1878), 
and  "General  Count  von  Blumenthal"  (1883, 
unfinished,  National  Gallery,  Berlin).  The 
Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York,  contains  a 
figure  of  "Victory." 

BICHTEB^  Hans  (1843—).  An  Austrian, 
musical  conductor,  born  in  Raab,  Hungary, 
where  his  father  was  kapellmeister.  In  1853  he 
became  a  chorister  in  the  Court  Chapel  at 
Vienna,  and  be^an  his  musical  studies  at  the 
Conservatory.  From  the  year  1866  dated  his  in- 
timacy with  Wagner,  who  in  1868  secured  him  the 
appointment  of  chorus-master  at  the  Munich 
Opera.  Two  years  later  he  conducted  Lohengrin 
at  Brussels,  and  from  1871  to  1875  served  as  ka- 
pellmeister at  the  Budapest  National  Theatre. 
He  conducted  the  concerts  of  the  Vienna  Gesell- 
Bchaft  der  Musikfreunde  for  several  seasons,  gave 
many  important  concerts,  and  in  1876,  alternate- 
ly with  Wagner,  conducted  the  Nihelungen  per- 
formances at  Bayreuth.  In  1877  he  commenced 
the  annual  Richter  Concerts,  in  London,  which 
were  among  the  most  important  musical  events 
of  the  country.  He  was  chosen  in  1877  as  the 
chief  conductor  of  the  Bayreuth  Festival.  He 
conducted  also  the  Lower  Rhenish  festivals,  and 
most  of  the  important  English  festivals. 

BICHTEB,  JoHANN  Paul  ^biedbich,  usually 
called  by  the  name  he  chose  himself,  Jean  Paul 


( 1763-1825) .  The  most  widely  known  of  GeraiAii 
humorists.  He  was  born  at  Wunsiedel,  a  village 
in  Upper  Franconia.  In  1779  he  began  to  attend 
tile  gymnasium  at  Hof .  Soon  his  father  died,  leav- 
ing his  wife  and  Jean  Paul  to  be  cared  for  by 
Jean  Paul's  grandparents  at  Hof.  On  their 
death  the  mother  and  son  were  penniless,  and 
had  to  make  what  shift  they  could  while  Jean 
Paul  studied  at  the  gymnasium.  In  1781 
he  went  to  Leipzig  to  study  theology,  but  he  soon 
fell  under  the  influence  of  Rousseau  and  of 
English  humorists  and  satirists.  He  had 
earlier  beguiL  to  make  a  collection  of  jests  and 
anecdotes.  Finding  no  opening  as  a  teach- 
er, he  turned  to  literature.  The  Enoomium 
Morias  of  Erasmus  set  him  to  writing  his  Lob  der 
Dummheit,  but  his  book  found  no  publisher  till 
after  his  death.  In  his  anonymously  published 
Oronldndische  Prozease  (1783)  he  satirized  au- 
thors, women,  theolcugians,  ancestral  pride,  etc., 
but  his  satire  fell  rather  flat.  Poverty  soon  drove 
him  to  fiee  from  Leipzig  to  avoid  his  creditors 
( 1784) .  The  next  three  years  ( 1784-87)  he  spent 
in  reading,  hack  writing,  and  desultory  rambling. 
Then  some  parents  were  induced  to  trust  him  with 
the  education  of  their  children,  and  for  nine  years 
he  practiced  his  original  pedagogic  theories,  writ- 
ing the  while  some  clever  satires,  Auswahl  aus  dee 
Teufels  Papieren  (1789)  ;  FAlbeU  Reise  (1796) ; 
the  more  famous  idylls  Schulmeister  Wuz  (1793), 
and  Quintua  Fxxlein  (1796)  ;  translated  by  Car- 
lyle,  1827 ) ,  and  the  novels,  Die  unaichihcure  Loge 
(1793),  and  Beaperua  (1794,  trans.  1866).  Hea- 
perua  attracted  the  attention  of  Charlotte  von 
Kalb,  who,  in  1796,  invited  Richter  to  Weimar, 
where  Goethe  received  him  with  cool  politeness, 
as  did  Schiller  at  neighboring  Jena,  his  influence 
being  contrary  to  their  own  aspirations  for  a 
classical  Gennan  literature.  Herder's  welcome 
was  warm,  and  Charlotte  von  Kalb  tendered  her 
heart  with  her  hand,  Weimer  society  being  in 
those  days  still  'imperfectly  monogamous.' 

In  the  first  flush  of  his  good  fortune  Richter 
wrote  BVumen-y  Fruoht-  und  DomenaUicke,  oder 
Eheatand,  Tod  und  Hockzeit  dea  Armenadvokaten 
Siebenhaa  (1796-97,  trans.  1844,  1871,  1877) ;  and 
Daa  Kampanerthal  (1797),  wearisome  reflections 
on  immortality.  He  fascinated  the  Weimar 
ladies  with  his  conversation,  and  more  still  by 
his  sympathetic  listening  smile.  He  returned  to 
Hof  in  1797,  only  to  take  wing  for  a  longer  fli^t 
to  Weimar,  Leipzig,  and  Berlin,  where  he  married 
Caroline  Mayer  (1801).  After  three  years  of 
wedded  wandering  he  settled  in  Bayreuth.  Here 
he  passed  the  rest  of  his  life,  twenty-one  yearsi-in 
harmless  eccentricity.  The  rather  futile  novel 
Titan  ( 1801-03 )  had  already  appeared.  The  first 
fruit  of  Bayreuth  was  the  uneven  and  unfinished 
Flegeljahre  (1804-06),  showing  the  influence  of 
Goethe's  Wilhelm  Meiater,  with  passages  of 
charming  description,  humorous  satire,  and  deli- 
cate fancy  that  suggest  Laurence  Sterne.  This  is 
Richter's  last  work  of  pure  imagination  that  one 
is  not  glad  to  forgive  and  forget.  But  in  his  last 
years  he  made  valuable  contributions  to  pedagogy 
in  Levana  (1807),  to  art  in  his  Vorachule  der 
Aeathetik  (1804),  and  to  politics  in  his  DAm- 
merungen  fUr  Deutachland  (1809),  and  Faeten- 
predigten  (1810-12),  continued  with  redoubled 
scorn  in  1817.  Levana ,  though  disconnected  and 
unfinished,  was  full  of  fruitful  suggestion,  espe- 
cially in  its  portions  dealing  with  the  education 
of  women.     Goethe  praised  it  warmly  for  "the 


BICHTEBb  15 

boldest  Tirtues,  without  the  least  excess/'  The 
Aesthetik  is  valuable  chiefly  lor  its  keen  analy- 
sis of  humor  and  happy  praise  of  wit.  It  doses 
with  a  glowing  eulogy  of  Herder  and  is  a  frag- 
mentary development  of  his  theory.  The  politi- 
cal papers,  the  most  virile  and  practical  of 
Richier'a  works,  were  bold  denunciations  of  Napo- 
leon and  the  German  sycophants,  whereas  those 
of  1817  held  up  to  even  more  merited  shame 
the  German  princes  who  mocked  the  promises 
by  which  they  had  regained  power.  Disease 
troubled  the  peace  of  Richter's  last  years.  He 
traveled  much,  and  might  to  advantage  have 
writieii  less.  He  died  in  Bayreuth  November  14, 
1826.  An  Autobiography  appeared  in  1826. 
Though  for  a  time  widely  popular,  and  still 
highly  prized  by  a  few,  Richter  was  without 
lasting  influence  on  the  currents  of  German  liter- 
ature. 

Richter's  Works  are  edited  in  34  vols.  (Berlin, 
1860-62),  and  in  60  parts  (ib.,  1879  et  seq.) .  There 
18  a  continuation  to  the  Autobiography  by  Otto 
and  FSrster  (Breslau,  1827-33) ;  a  Biograph- 
igcher  Kommentar  by  Spazier  (Leipzig,  1833). 
Consult  also:  F5rster,  Denkumrdigkeiten  (Mu- 
nich, 1863),  and  the  Correspondence  of  Richter 
with  Otto  (Berlin,  1829-33),  Charlotte  von  Kalb 
(ib.,  1882),  Jacobi  (ib.,  1828),  and  Voss  (Heidel- 
berg, 1833) ;  Vischer,  Kritische  G&nge,  vol.  i. 
(Stattgart,  1873)  ;  Nerrlich,  Jean  Paul,  sein  Le- 
hen  and  seine  Werke  (Berlin,  1890) ;  Carlyle's 
Miscellaneous  Essays,  vols.  i.  and  iii.  (Boston, 
1839)  ;  De  Quincey's  Life  of  Richter  (London, 
1845)  ;  J.  Mtlller,  Jean  Paul  und  seine  Bedeu- 
tung  filr  die  Gegenwart  (Munich,  1894)  ;  id.,  Die 
Seelenlehre  Jean  Pauls  (ib.,  1894)  ;  id.,  Jean- 
Paul  Studien  (ib.,  1899)^  and  the  selections  from 
his  writings  by  Lady  Chatterton  (London,  1859). 

BIGHTEB,  LuDWio  (1803-84).  A  German 
landscape  painter,  etcher,  and  draughtsman,  and 
one  of  the  greatest  illustrators  of  all  times.  He 
was  bom  in  Dresden,  the  son  of  the  engraver 
Karl  August  Richter  (1778-1848),  who  first  in- 
structed nim.  After  his  return  from  a  sojourn 
in  Rome  (1823-26),  he  was  appointed  instructor 
in  the  school  of  drawing  at  the  porcelain  factory 
in  Meissen  and  in  1836  at  the  Bhresden  Academy, 
where  he  ccmtinued  as  professor  from  1841  to 
1877.  The  interest  of  his  uneventful  life  centres 
witiiin  the  circle  of  his  art.  As  a  painter 
Richter  aimed  at  a  thorough  blending  of  the 
figure  element  with  the  landscape  and  may  be 
judged  by  the  following  examples:  **Valley  of 
Amalfi"  (1824),  "Bay  of  Salerno"  (1826), 
**Harvest  Procession  in  the  Campagna"  (1833), 
a  composition  in  the  vein  of  Claude  Lorrain, 
**Evening  Landscape  with  Worshipers"  (1842), 
all  in  the  Leipzig  Museum;  "Ferry  at  the 
Schreckenstein"  (1836),  "Bridal  Procession  in 
Springtime"  (1847),  both  in  Dresden  Gallery; 
and  "View  in  the  Riesengebirge"  (1839),  in 
the  National  Gallery,  Berlin.  Among  his 
240  etchings  are  about  140  views  in  Sax- 
ony, others  of  Salzburg,  Rome,  and  the  Cam- 
pagna.  His  individuality  as  a  great  artist 
is  revealed,  however,  neither  through  his  brush 
nor  his  burin,  but  in  his  3000  or  more 
drawings  for  the  woodcut,  of  which  he  is  to  be 
counteo,  with  Adolf  Menzel,  one  of  the  most 
influential  reivers.  His  first  contribution  in 
that  line,  of  25  drawings,  to  Das  malerische  and 
romantische  Deutschland  was  followed  by  the 
illustrations  to  Marbach's  Deutsche  VolksoUcher 


RICKETS. 


(1838),  to  DuUer's  Qeschichte  des  deutschen 
Volks  (184Q),  to  The  Vicar^of  Wakefield  (1841), 
to  Mus&ns's  VolksmArohen  (1842),  and  to  nu- 
merous other  fairy  tales,  to  the  Ooethe  Album 
(1855),  to  Schiller's  Olocke  (1857),  and  by 
those  cyclical  publications  which  reveal  the 
most  brilliant  side  of  the  artist's  inexhaustible 
fancy,  such  as  ^'Beschauliches  und  Erbauliches" 
(1851);  "Kinderleben"  (1852);  "Fttrs  Haus" 
(1858-61)  ;  "Der  gute  Hirt"  (1860) ;  "Unser  tag- 
lich  Brot"  (1866) ;  and  "Bilder  und  Vignetten" 
(1874).  An  eye  disease  put  a  stop  to  the  prac- 
tice of  his  art  in  1874,  and  after  retiring  from 
his  professorship  in  1877  he  was  pensioned.  He 
died  at  Loschwitz,  near  Dresden.  Consult 
his  autobiography,  Lebenserinnerungen  eines 
deutschen  Malers,  edited  by  his  son  Hein- 
rich  (10th  ed.,  Frankfort,  1900);  the  mono- 
graphs by  Hoff  (Dresden,  1877),  Erler  (Leipzig, 
1897),  and  Mohn  (Bielefeld,  1898)  ;  also  Pecht, 
Deutsche  KUnstler,  i.  ( Nordleingen,  1877); 
Springer,  in  Zeitschrift  fur  bildende  Kunst 
(Leipzig,  1883)  ;  Atkinson,  in  Art  Journal  (Lon- 
don, 1885) ;  and  Llitzow,  Die  vervielfaltigende 
Kunst  der  Qegenwart  (Vienna,  1886). 

SICHTHOFEK,  rlKt^G'fen,  FIebdinand, 
Baron  (1833 — ).  An  eminent  German  traveler, 
geologist,  and  geographer,  bom  at  Karlsruhe,  in 
Silesia.  He  studied  in  Breslau  and  Berlin,  trav- 
eled in  Eastern  Asia  and  Oceanica  ( 1860-68) ,  and 
after  a  short  stay  in  California  explored  Japan 
and  China.  In  1875  he  was  named  professor  of 
geology  at  Bonn,  and  after  three  years  in  a  chair 
of  geography  at  Leipzig,  in  1886  became  a  professor 
in  the  University  of  Berlin.  In  1902  he  became 
director  of  the  newly  founded  Institut  fttr 
Meereskunde.  His  chief  works  include:  Qeog- 
nostische  Beschreibung  von  Predazzo  (1860); 
The  Natural  System  of  Volcanic  Rocks  (1867) ; 
Letters  on  China  (1870-72);  China  (1877-83); 
Atlas  von  China  (1885)  ;  Methoden  der  heutigen 
Geographic  (1886);  and  Bchantung  und  seine 
Eingangsp forte  Kiautschou  (1898).  In  English 
he  published:  The  Comstock  Lode  (1865); 
Principles  of  the  Natural  System  of  Volcanic 
Rocks  ( 1867 )  ;  and  Letters  to  the  Shanghai 
Chamber  of  Commerce   (1869-72). 

BICnCEB,  rls^-mSr  ( ?-472).  A  Roman  gen- 
eral of  the  Western  Empire.  His  father  was 
a  Suevian  chief,  and  his  mother  a  daughter  of 
Wallia,  King  of  the  Visigoths.  He  was  brought 
up  at  the  Roman  Court,  rose  rapidly  in  the 
army,  and  defeated  the  Vandals  in  a  naval 
battle  near  Corsica,  and  in  a  land  fight  near 
Agrigentum  (456).  Immediately  after  this  he 
attacked  Avitus,  who  had  been  proclaimed  Em- 
peror of  the  West,  defeated  him  at  Placentia, 
and  put  Majorianus  in  his  place.  In  461  he 
deposed  Majorianus  and  crowned  Libius  Severus, 
and,  after  managing  the  Empire  himself  during 
an  interregnum  of  a  year  and  a  half,  brought 
Anthemius  to  the  throne  (467).  In  472  he 
quarreled  with  Anthemius,  and,  deposing  him, 
made  Olybrius  King,  but  died  himself  a  little 
more  than  a  month  after,  having  been  the  real 
power  in  Italy  for  sixteen  years. 

BICIlTCrS.    See  Castor  Oil. 

BICE'ABEES,  or  ABICABAS,  ft-re^c&r&z. 
A  tribe  of  Pawnee  Indians.    See  Abikaba. 

BIGXETS,  or  BACHITIS  (from  wrick, 
MDutch  ucricken,  Dutch,  LGer.  Krikkcn,  to  move 


BICXETa  16 

to  and  fro).  A  disease  of  nutrition,  the  chief 
feature  of  which  is  An  alteration  m  the  growth 
of  the  hones  hy  which  they  become  enlarged  at 
their  extremities  and  so  soft  that  they  are  bent 
and  distorted  by  muscular  action  and  the  weight 
of  the  body.  It  is  essentially  a  disease  of  chil- 
dren, occurring  as  a  rule  between  the  age  of  one 
and  two  years.  The  causes  are  improper  and  in* 
sufficient  food,  and  bad  hygienic  surroundings. 
The  faults  of  diet  from  which  infants  are  likely 
to  develop  rickets  are:  (1)  deficient  quality  of 
milk  from  ill  health,  and  malnutrition  of  the 
nursing  mother  or  unduly  prolonged  lactation; 
(2)  the  substitution  for  the  mother's  milk  of 
artificial  foods  which  contain  a  high  percentage 
of  starch  and  too  little  fatty  and  proteid  matter. 

The  symptoms  develop  gradually  and  almost 
imperceptibly.  The  child  is  restless  at  night  and 
during  sleep  perspires  profusely  about  the  head 
and  neck.  It  is  very  sensitive  to  pressure  upon 
the  limbs,  often  screaming  when  merely  touched. 
The  muscles  are  soft  and  flabby  and  gastric  indi- 
gestion and  intestinal  disturbances  set  in,  ac- 
companied by  swelling  of  the  abdomen  and  colic. 
Characteristic  and  remarkable  changes  in  the 
bones  develop.  The  joints  become  thickened,  and 
nodules  form  at  the  junction  of  the  ribs  with  the 
costal  cartilages,  constituting  what  is  called  the 
*rosary*  or  'beading  of  the  ribs.'  Defective  ossi- 
fication is  also  seen  in  the  skull,  where  the  fonta- 
nelles  are  large  and  slow  in  closing.  The  teeth 
do  not  appear  until  the  eleventh  or  twelfth 
month,  instead  of  the  sixth  or  seventh,  and  pre- 
sent many  irregularities  in  the  order  of  their 
eruption.  As  the  disease  progresses  the  bones 
grow  softer  aiid  various  deformities  of  the  head, 
spine,  limbs,  chest,  and  pelvis  are  brought  about 
by  muscular  contraction  and  the  superincumbent 
weight  of  the  body.  The  child  becomes  'pigeon- 
breasted'  and  bow-legged.  (See  Leo.)  The  ner- 
vous system  may  be  seriouslv  affected,  and  rick- 
ety children  are  peculiarly  liable  to  convulsions, 
and  a  spasmodic  affection  of  the  larynx  known 
as  laryngiamua  stridultu. 

Rickets  is  a  recoverable  disease  in  the  sense 
that  it  does  not  directly  cause  death  and  the 
process  of  bone-softening  ceases  after  a  time,  al- 
though it  may  have  produced  permanent  de- 
formity. Rickety  children  are  especiallv  pnme 
to  severe  bronchitic  attacks  by  which  death  is 
often  brought  about.  The  treatment  is  essential- 
ly hygienic  and  dietetic.  The  child  should  be 
suitably  clothed,  and  receive  an  abundant  supply 
of  fresh  air  and  proper  food.  Starchy  materials, 
for  the  digestion  of  which  the  infant's  secretions 
are  not  yet  prepared,  should  be  excluded  from  the 
diet,  and  cow's  milk,  to  which  lime  water  and  a 
little  cream  may  be  added,  should  constitute  the 
sole  food.  As  the  infant  approaches  the  second 
year,  beef  juice,  cbicken  brqth,  or  gravy  may  be 
added  to  the  dietary,  and  at  a  later  age  a  little 
meat,  eggs,  and  custard  may  be  given.  The  most 
valuable  medicine  is  cod-liver  oil,  given  two  or 
three  timfes  a  day  after  a  meal,  in  doses  propor- 
tioned to  the  child's  age.  Phosphorus,  syrup 
of  the  iodide  of  iron,  and  preparations  of  lime 
such  as  the  lacto-phosphate  are  also  of  value 
in  certain  cases.  While  the  bones  are  soft  walk- 
ing should  be  discouraged.  Deformities  of  the 
limbs  remaining  after  the  disease  is  cured 
may,  if  extreme,  be  remedied  by  surgical  pro- 
cedures. 


BICOCHBT. 


BIOK^TTS,  James  Bbewebton  ( 1817-87  )• 
An  American  soldier,  bom  in  New  York  City.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1839,  and  after  re- 
ceiving his  commission  as  lieutenant  of  artillery 
served  in  the  Mexican  War.  At  the  outbreak  of 
the  Civil  War  he  participated  in  the  defense  of 
Washington  and  at  Bull  Run  (July  21,  1861) 
was  wounded  and  taken  prisoner.  On  his  release 
eight  months  later,  he  returned  to  duty  with  the 
grade  of  brigadier-general  and  took  part  in  the 
second  battle  of  Bull  Run.  Later  he  led  a  di- 
vision in  the  Virginia  and  Maryland  campaigns, 
and  at  Antietam  lost  a  third  of  his  troops.  He 
participated  in  the  Virginia  campaign  in  the 
spring  of  1864,  but  in  July  was  ordered  north  to 
join  in  the  defense  of  Washington,  which  was 
then  threatened  b^  General  Early,  and  partici- 
pated, under  Sheridan,  in  the  pursuit  of  Early 
through  the  Shenandoah  Valley.  At  Cedar 
Creek  (October  10,  1864),  where  he  commanded 
a  corps,  he  received  a  wound  which  disabled 
him  for  the  winter.  He  was  brevetted  major- 
general  in  the  Regular  Army  March  13,  1865, 
and  from  July,  1865,  until  April,  1866,  when  he 
was  mustered  out  of  the  volunteer  service,  he 
commanded  a  district  in  Vii^ginia.  In  January, 
1867,  he  was  retired  from  the  regular  service 
with  the  rank  of  major-general. 

BICXOICAir,  Thomas  (1776-?).  An  English 
architect  and  writer  on  architecture.  He  was 
professor  of  architecture  in  the  Liverpool  Acad- 
emy, and  is  chiefly  known  from  the  fact  that  in 
his  work.  Attempt  to  Diacriminate  the  Styles  of 
Architecture  in  England  from  the  Conquest  to  the 
Reformation  ( 1817 ) ,  he  first  gave  to  the  periods  of 
English  medieval  arcMtecture  the  names  Nor- 
man, Early  English,  Decorated,  and  Perpendicu- 
lar, which  have  been  used  ever  since. 

BICO^  r«^6,  Mabtin  (c.1850— ).  A  Spanish 
landscape  aAd  marine  painter,  bom  in  Madrid. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Frederigo  de  Madraso  in 
Madrid,  where  he  obtained  a  scholarship  which 
enabled  him  to  study  in  Paris  and  Rome.  There 
are  two  representative  works  by  him  in  the 
Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York  City,  "The 
Grand  Canal,  Venice,"  and  an  "Italian  Garden.'^ 
He  painted  in  the  manner  of  Fortuny.  His  pic- 
tures have  fine  architectural  backgrounds,  and 
his  color  is  brilUant  and  pleasing.  He  received 
a  second-class  medal  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of 
1889,  and  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1878. 

BICOCHET^  rlk'6-shft'  (of  uncertain  etymol- 
ogy). In  military  fire  tactics,  this  term  describes 
a  method  of  gun  fire,  in  which  the  gun  is  fired  at 
a  low  angle,  and  the  missile  rebounds  from  the 
flat  surface  over  which  it  is  traveling.  In  shelter 
trenches,  rifle  pits,  redoubts,  and  other  field  forti- 
fications rocks  and  stones  are  very  carefully  cov- 
ered with  earth  to  avoid  the  possibility  of  deflect- 
ing the  enemy's  fire.  It  has  been  found  that  many 
of  the  more  serious  rifle-shot  wounds  inflicted  on 
both  sides  during  the  British-Boer  War  of  1890- 
1902  were  the  result  of  accidental  ricochet  fire, 
and  not  of  explosive  or  dum-dum  bullets,  as  at 
first  charged.  When  spherical  projectiles  were  used 
in  naval  guns  they  were  allowed  to  strike  short 
and  ricochet  rather  than  run  any  risk  of  going 
over  the  enemy,  for  spherical  projectiles  are  not 
deflected  laterally  by  striking  the  surface  of 
water  at  a  low  angle,  nor  do  they  tend  to  rise 
after  ricochet.    Rifled  projectiles  are  sharply  de- 


iEtlCOCHET.  17 

fleeted  upon  striking  water  and  they  frequently 
rise  from  the  water  surface  at  an  angle  very 
much  greater  than  the  striking  angle;  conse- 
quently ricochet  is  avoided  in  modern  gun  fire. 
See  GuNiVEBY. 

SIGOBB,  r«-kOr^,  or  BIGABD,  John.  An 
American  lawyer,  said  to  have  heen  a  native  of 
New  York  State,  who  went  to  Hawaii  in  October, 
1^43,  and  the  next  year  was  appointed  Attorney- 
General  of  the  island  kingdom.  In  1845  the  Ha- 
waiian L^islature  authorized  him  to  draft  a 
series  of  acts  organizing  the  five  executive  de- 
partments of  the  Government:  Interior,  Foreign 
Affairs,  Finance,  Public  Instruction,  and  Attor- 
ney-General. It  also  adopted  changes  in  the  Con- 
stitution of  1840  affecting  the  Privy  Ck)uncil 
and  the  judiciary,  which  he  proposed.  In  1846 
and  1847  it  accepted  the  statute  laws  that  he 
drew  up,  and  these  continued  until  the  revolu- 
tion to  be  the  basis  of  Hawaii's  civil  code.  His 
services  in  shaping  Hawaiian  institutions  during 
their  Normative  period  were  very  valuable.  He 
left  the  islands  in  1847. 

BIGOBJD,  Phiupfk  (1800-89).  A  French  sur- 
geon, bom  at  Baltimore.  He  went  in  1820  to 
Paris,  where  he  was  attached  in  succession  to  the 
Hotel-Dieu  under  Dupuytren,  and  to  the  Piti6 
under  Lisfranc.  He  graduated  in  medicine  in 
1826,  and  after  practicing  in  the  provinces,  in 
1828  he  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  delivered  two 
annual  courses  of  lectures  at  the  Piti4  on  surgi- 
cal operations,  and  was  appointed  surgeon-in- 
chief  to  the  hospital  for  venereal  diseases.  This 
poet  he  held  with  brilliant  success  till  his  retire- 
ment in  October,  1860.  He  won  a  world-wide 
reputation  in  his  specialty.  In  1831  he  became 
surgeon-in-chlef  of  the  Hospital  du  Midi  in  Paris. 
For  his  suggestions  on  the  cure  of  varicocele  and 
on  the  operation  of  urethro-plasty  he  received  in 
1842  one  of  the  Montyon  i>rizes.  In  1862  he  was 
appointed  physician  in  ordinary  to  Napeoleon  III., 
and  in  1869  consulting  surgeon  to  the  Emperor, 
having  already  on  August  12,  1860,  been  raised 
to  the  distinction  of  commander  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor.  In  1871  he  was  made,  for  his  services  in 
the  ambulance  corps  during  the  siege  of  Paris, 
grand  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  His  works 
are  numerous,  the  more  important  of  them  being: 
De  Vemploi  des  speculum  (1833);  TraiU  des 
maladies  v^nMennes  (1838);  Lettres  aur  la 
eyphilis  (1851). 

BIDDIiE  (AS.  rwdeU,  rcBdeUe,  from  rmdan, 
to  council,  interpret,  read,  (3oth.  ga-redan,  OHG. 
mtan,  Ger.  raten,  to  council;  perhaps  connected 
with  Lat.  reri,  to  think,  or  with  OChurch  Slav. 
raditi,  to  be  anxious,  Skt.  r&dh,  to  be  successful) . 
The  definition  in  obscure  terms  of  a  well-known 
object)  which  the  person  addressed  is  required  to 
name.  In  modem  times  the  enigma  usually 
makes  a  witticism  or  pun;  but  anciently  it  had 
a  character  more  serious.  The  themes  of  riddles 
were  often  natural  objects,  like  the  sun,  moon, 
wind,  or  rainbow,  and  the  presentation  had  some- 
thing of  a  mythologic  character.  Knowledge  of 
this  sort  was  considered  to  imply  a  measure  of 
wisdom  which  was  in  accordance  with  the  early 
inclination  to  express  truth  in  a  mystical  man- 
ner, rather  than  in  straightforward  and  simple 
speech.  Thus  Samson,  in  order  to  show  his  in- 
telligence, propounded  a  riddle  to  the  Philistines. 
Riddle-guessing  was  often  made  to  form  a  game, 
in  which  one  side  asked  questions,  and  the  other 


BIDDLE. 


side  responded;  and  such  contest  might  be  the 
subject  of  wagers.  According  to  mythology  the 
stake  was  often  life  or  honor.  Such  was  the 
case  in  the  riddle  proposed  by  the  Sphinx  to 
<Edipus:  ''What  is  that  which  has  foiir  feet  in 
the  morning,  two  at  noon,  and  three  at  night?"  to 
which  the  answer  was:  ''Man."  So  Old  Norse 
poetry  makes  Odin  enter  into  a  riddling  contest 
with  the  giant  Vafthrudnir,  in  which  the  latter 
perishes.  In  the  Alvts-mAl,  the  prize  of  the  con- 
test is  the  daughter  of  the  god  Thor.  Of  these 
contests  we  have  a  survival  in  the  English  ballad 
of  the  Elfin-knight,  where  a  maid  saves  herself 
from  an  evil  spirit  by  guessing  his  riddles.  So 
in  modem  nursery  lore,  a  nurse  will  put  to  a 
child  riddles  to  be  guessed  on  penalty  of  a  forfeit. 

BII>a)IiE,  Albebt  Gallatin  (1816—).  An 
American  lawyer  and  author,  bom  in  Monson, 
Mass.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1840,  and 
in  1848-49  served  in  the  State  Legislature.  In 
1859  he  defended  the  Oberlln  slave-rescuers,  and 
in  1861-63  was  in  Congress  as  a  Republican.  He 
was  engaged  by  the  State  Department  to  assist  in 
prosecuting  John  H.  Surratt  for  his  part  in  the 
assassination  of  President  Lincoln.  In  1877  he 
was  appointed  law-officer  of  the  District  of 
Columbia,  and  subsequently  practiced  at  Wash- 
ington. For  a  time  he  was  head  of  the  law  de- 
partment at  Howard  University.  He  wrote  sev- 
eral stories  of  early  Ohio  life,  such  as  Bart 
Ridgely  (1873)  and  The  Sugar-Makers  of  the 
West  Woods  (1885);  a  Life  of  Benjamin  F. 
Wade;  and  Recollections  of  War  Times,  1860-65. 

BIDDLE,  Joseph  Esmoitd  (1804-59).  An 
English  divine  and  lexicographer.  He  was  born 
at  Bristol,  educated  at  Saint  Edmund  Hall,  Ox- 
ford, where  he  graduated  in  1828,  after  which 
he  resided  at  Ramsgate.  Here  he  taught  private 
pupils,  prepared  for  his  master's  degree,  and  be- 
gan the  first  of  his  important  works  in  lexi- 
cography. After  his  ordination  in  1830  he  held 
many  curacies,  his  last  incumbency  being 
Saint  Peter  and  Saint  James's,  Leckhampton, 
Gloucester,  which  he  held  from  1840  until  his 
death.  He  was  select  preacher  at  Oxford  in  1834 
and  in  1854 ;  and  in  1852  he  delivered  the  Bamp- 
ton  lectures^  his  theme  being,  Natural  History  of 
Infidelity  and  Superstition  in  Contrast  toith 
Christian  Faith.  He  translated  Scheller's  Lewi- 
con  Totius  Latinitatia  (1835),  published  a  Com- 
plete English-Latin  Dictionary  (1838),  and  A 
Copious  and  Critical  Latin-English  Lexicon, 
founded  on  the  Dictionaries  of  Dr.  W.  Freund 
(1849).  He  was  the  author  of  a  History  of  the 
Papacy  to  the  Period  of  the  Reformation  (1854). 

BIDDLE,  Matthew  Bbown  (1836—).  "An 
American  clergyman,  educator,  and  author,  born 
in  Pittsburg,  Pa.  After  his  graduation  at  Jef- 
ferson College,  Pa.,  in  1852,  he  studied  theology 
at  the  New  Brunswick  Seminary  and  elsewhere 
until  1859,  and  then  went  to  Heidelberg.  He  was 
adjunct  professor  of  Greek  in  Jefferson  College 
in  1857-58,  had  pastoral  charges  successively  in 
two  Dutch  Reformed  churches  of  N^w  Jersey  in 
1861-69,  and  afterwards  was  appointed  professor 
in  the  Hartford  Theological  Seminary,  which  he 
left  in  1887  to  take  the  chair  of  New  Testament 
exegesis  in  the  Western  Theological  Seminary, 
Allegheny,  Pa.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Ameri- 
can committee  for  New  Testament  revision,  was 
also  a  reviser  of  the  Westminster  Confession  of 
Faith,  and  from  1877  to  1881  prepared  Notes  on 


BIDDLB. 


18 


BEOaWAY. 


the  International  Sunday-School  Lessons  (1877- 
81). 

BIDEATTy  r^'dy.  A  waterway  formed  by  the 
lake,  river,  and  canal  of  the  same  name  in  the 
Province  of  Ontario,  Canada  (Map:  Ontario,  H 
2).  The  lake  is  situated  from  42  to  60  miles 
south-southwest  of  Ottawa,  and  is  drained  by 
the  Rideau  River,  which  falls  into  the  Ottawa 
River  at  the  city  of  Ottawa.  The  canal,  built 
between  1826  and  1834  for  military  purposes, 
connects  Ottawa  with  Kingston  on  Lake  Ontario 
by  way  of  the  river  and  lake  and  by  connections 
with  Mud  Lake  and  the  Cataraqui  River.  It  is 
126^  miles  long,  has  a  navigable  depth  of  4^^ 
feet,  and  47  locks.  Its  importance  has  declined 
since  the  advent  of  railways. 

BIDEING,  rld^g,  William  Hbnbt  (1853 
— ).  An  American  journalist  and  writer  of 
books  for  young  people,  born  in  Liverpool,  Eng- 
land. After  coming  to  the  United  States  he 
wrote  for  various  newspapers  until  1881,  when  he 
became  a  member  of  the  editorial  staff  of  the 
Youth's  Companion.  From  1887  to  1889  he  was 
joint  editor  of  the  North  American  Revievo.  His 
publications  include:  A-Saddle  in  the  Wild  West 
(1879)  ;  Stray  Moments  Moith  Thackeray  (1880)  ; 
Boys  in  the  Mountains  (1882)  ;  Boys  Coastwise 
(1884);  Thackeray's  London  (1885);  and  The 
Boyhood  of  Living  Authors  (1887). 

BIDEB.  An  American  political  term  denot- 
ing a  legislative  measure  which,  if  left  to  stand 
alone,  is  likely  to  be  rejected  by  one  branch  of 
the  Legislature  or  vetoed  by  the  President,  but  in 
order  to  be  carried  through  is  attached  to  an 
appropriation  or  other  bill  whose  enactment  is 
assured.  The  practice  is  an  encroachment  up- 
on the  independence  of  the  executive,  especially 
in  the  case  of  the  President,  who  is  not  allowed 
to  veto  parts  of  an  appropriation  bill.  In 
many  of  the  States  efforts  have  been  made 
to  abolish  the  practice  by  providing  that  no  bill 
shall  contain  matter  relating  to  more  than  one 
subject,  which  shall  be  indicated  clearly  in  the 
title,  and  by  providing  further  that  the  Governor 
may  veto  parts  of  an  appropriation  bill.  A  rule 
of  the  United  States  House  of  Representatives  in 
1888-89  prohibited  the  tacking  of  riders  to  ap- 
propriation bills. 

BIDOAWAYy  rlj'a-wft,  Henry  Bascom  ( 1830- 
95).  An  American  Methodist  Episcopal  minister 
and  educator^  born  in  Talbot  County,  Md.,  and 
educated  at  Dickinson  College.  After  holding 
various  pastorates  he  was  appointed  in  1882  pro- 
fessor in  the  Garrett  Biblical  Institute  (Evans- 
ton,  111. ) ,  of  which  he  became  president  two  years 
afterwards.  He  published  biographies  of  Alfred 
Cookmcm  (1871),  Bishop  Edkoard  8,  Janes 
(1882),  Bishop  Beverly  Waugh  (1883),  and 
Bishop  Matthew  Simpson  (1885). 

BIDGE,  Majob  (c.1770-1839).  A  noted 
Cherokee  chief,  bom  at  Hiwassee  town,  near  the 
present  Columbus,  in  East  Tennessee.  Having 
been  formally  initiated  as  a  warrior  at  the 
age  of  twelve,  he  took  an  active  part  in  the 
border  warfare  along  the  Tennessee  frontier. 
Shortly  after  1794  he  was  elected  to  a  seat  in  the 
tribal  council.  He  opposed  cessions  of  tribal  ter- 
ritory in  1804  and  1805,  and  took  a  firm  stand 
against  the  doctrines  of  the  Shawano  prophet, 
who  preached  resistance  to  the  Government.  In 
the  Creek  War  of  1813-14  he  led  a  detachment  of 


Cherokee  volunteers  to  the  aid  of  General  Jack- 
son, and  rendered  effective  service,  whence  he  was 
called  Major.  Together  with  19  others,  he  signed 
the  Treaty  of  New  Echota,  in  1835,  which  bound 
the  entire  Cherokee  nation  to  remove  beyond  the 
Mississippi.  The  treaty  was  opposed  by  John 
Ross,  and  by  the  entire  Cherokee  ooimcil,  but 
notwithstanding  repeated  protest,  it  was  carried 
through,  and  the  entire  tribe  was  deported  to  the 
Indian  Territory,  losing  nearly  4000  by  death 
in  the  journey,  which  occupied  all  of  the 
winter  of  1838-39.  On  June  22,  1839,  a  few 
months  after  their  arrival,  Major  Ridge,  his  son 
John,  and  Elias  Boudinot,  three  principal  signers 
of  the  treaty,  were  killed  at  their  homes  by  men 
sent  for  the  purpose,  in  accordance  with  an  old 
Cherokee  law  which  fixed  the  death  penalty  for 
attempting  to  sell  tribal  lands  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  entire  nation. 

BIBOE^  WmjAM  Pett  (c.l860— ).  An  Eng- 
lish novelist,  bom  at  Chartham,  near  Canter- 
bury. He  was  educated  in  the  Birkbeck  Insti- 
tute, lived  in  the  country  until  1880,  and  wrote 
nothing  before  1890.  Both  in  manner  and  mat- 
ter he  follows  Dickens,  and  is  especially  happy 
in  portraying  cockney  humor.  His  books  in- 
clude: A  Clever  Wife  (1895);  Secretary  to 
Bayne,  M.  P.  (1897);  Mord  Em'ly  (1898);  A 
Son  of  the  State  (1899)  ;  A  Breaker  of  the  Laws 
(1900);  Outside  the  Radius  (1900);  and  Lost 
Property  (1902). 

BIDGKWAY.  A  borough  and  the  county-seat 
of  Elk  County,  Pa.,  119  miles  east  by  south  of 
Erie;  on  the  Clarion  River,  and  on  the  Pennsyl- 
vania and  the  Buffalo,  Rochester  and  Pittsburg 
railroads  (Map:  Pennsylvania,  C  2).  The  court- 
house, representing  an  expenditure  of  $60,000,  is 
a  noteworthy  feature  of  the  borough.  There  is  a 
public  library.  Ridgway  is  the  centre  of  a  lum- 
bering and  farming  district,  and  is  interested 
chiefly  in  manufacturing  flour,  leather,  iron,  clay, 
and  lumber  products,  railroad  snow  plows,  and 
machine  tools.  Population,  in  1890,  1903;  in 
1900,  3515. 

BIDGWAY,  RoBEBT  (1850— ) .  An  American 
ornithologist,  bom  in  Mount  Carmel,  111.  Through 
his  early  interest  in  birds  he  became,  while  a 
boy  of  fourteen,  a  correspondent  of  Spencer  F. 
Baird,  who  recommended  his  appointment  as 
zodlogist  on  the  Clarence  King  geological  ex- 
ploration of  the  fortieth  parallel  (1867-69).  In 
the  report  of  the  expedition  published  by  the  Gov- 
ernment in  1877,  Ridgway  wrote  the  section  on 
ornithology,  and  he  had  made  collections  not 
only  of  bird  skins,  nests,  and  eggs,  but  of  rep- 
tiles and  fishes  observed  between  Sacramento 
Cal.,  and  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah.  In  1880  he 
was  appointed  curator  of  the  Division  of  Birds 
in  the  United  States  National  Museum  at  Wash- 
ington, and  he  became  one  of  the  founders, 
and  afterwards  president  of  the  American  Or- 
nithologists' Union.  He  collaborated  with 
Baird  and  Brewer  by  writing  the  technical  parts 
in  A  History  of  North  American  Birds  (3  vols., 
1874)  and  in  The  Water  Birds  of  North  America 
(1884),  and  he  classified  the  birds  brought 
from  Alaska  by  the  Fish  Commission  in  1889. 
His  other  publications  include:  A  Nomenclature 
of  Colors  for  Naturalists  (1886);  Manual  of 
North  American  Birds  ( 1887) ;  and  The  Birds  of 
North  and  Middle  America,  in  €ight  volumes, 
which  began  to  appear  in  1901.     This  work  is 


SIDGWAY. 


19 


•RTTjiT^fg^ir^Ti, 


scientifically  the  most  important  publication  ever 
prepared  for  the  region  named,  and  one  of  the 
most  valuable  works  on  ornithology  in  existence. 

SIDIHO.    See  Hobsemanship. 

BIDIHO  (from  Icel.  prifjungr,  third  part, 
from  fripi,  third,  from  frir,  three;  the  loss  of  the 
initial  th  is  due  to  the  faulty  division  of  North- 
thriding,  8outh-thriding  as  North-riding,  South- 
riding),  or  Tktthing.  A  term  applied  to  the 
three  parts  into  which  Yorkshire,  England,  is  di- 
vided, termed  respectively  East,  West,  and  North 
Riding.  Other  counties  besides  York  had  and 
still  have  subdivisions  other  than  the  common 
hundred.  In  Kent  the  hundreds  are  grouped  to- 
gether in  Lathes  or  Lests ;  and  in  Sussex  in 
Rapes.  Lincolnshire,  like  Yorkshire,  was  former- 
ly divided  into  Ridings.  Consult  Stubbs,  Coiv- 
9titutional  History  of  England,  vol.  i.  (6th  ed., 
Oxford,  1897). 

^BTDIKGEB,  r^ding-5r,  Johann  Euas  (1698- 
1767).  A  famous  German  animal  draughtsman, 
etcher,  and  painter.  He  was  born  at  Ulm,  was 
first  instructed  there  by  Christoph  Resch,  then 
studied  under  Johann  Falk,  and  then  by  Rugendas 
in  Augqburg.  His  hunting  scenes  were  in  great  de- 
mand and  in  the  representation  of  the  fetag  no 
other  artist  could  compete  with  him.  A  fine  speci- 
men of  a  "Stag  Pursued  by  Dogs"  is  in  the  Cassel 
Gallery;  the  Grosvenor  Gallery,  London,  has 
"Three  Stags;*'  the  Schwerin  Gallery,  "Bears  in 
a  Wilderness"  (1710)  ;  but  his  oil  paintings  are 
very  rare  and  he  is  best  known  through  his  draw- 
ings and  etchings,  a  complete  list  and  descrip- 
tion of  whiefa  may  be  found  in  the  artist's  Life, 
by  Thienemann  (with  three  supplements,  Leipzig, 
1866-76).  His  engraving  of  the  "Lion  Hunt," 
after  Rubens,  is  in  the  Dresden  Museum.  His 
sons  Mabtin  Elias  (1730-80)  and  Johann 
Jakob    (1735-84)  engraved  after  his  designs. 

SUKIjEY,  Nicholas  (c.  1600-55).  Bishop  of 
London  and  one  of  the  leading  English  reformers. 
He  was  educated  at  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge, 
at  the  Sorbonne,  Paris,  and  at  Louvain.  He 
eame  under  the  notice  of  Archbishop  Granmer, 
and  received  various  appointments  from  him. 
After  1536,  the  year  of  the  death  of 
his  uncle  Robert,  who  had  paid  the  expenses  of 
his  education  and  who  was  an  orthodox  Roman 
Catholic,  Ridley  openly  espoused  the  reformed 
faith.  By  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  he 
had  renounced  his  belief  in  the  doctrine  of  tran- 
substantiation,  and  he  influenced  Cranmer  in  the 
same  direction.  During  the  reign  of  E4ward  VI. 
Ridley  became  very  prominent.  He  was  named 
Bishop  of  Rochester  in  1547.  He  took  part  in  the 
depositions  of  Bishops  Bonner  and  Gardiner,  and 
himself  became  in  1550  Bonner's  successor  as 
Bishop  of  London.  He  also  took  part  in  the  first 
revision  of  the  prayer-book  in  1548,  and  assisted 
in  drawing  up  the  41  articles,  afterwards  reduced 
to  39.  On  the  death  of  Edward  VI.  he  warmly 
espoused  the  cause  of  Lady  Jane  Grey  (q.v.), 
but  wlien  this  proved  a  speedy  failure  he  was 
compelled  to  submit  to  Queen  Mary.  Ridley  was 
at  once  committed  to  the  Tower,  and  though 
every  opportunity  was  given  to  recant,  he  re- 
fused. In  1554  he  was  removed  to  Oxford  for 
trial,  found  guilty  in  1555  of  the  capital  offense 
of  heresy,  and  on  October  16,  1555,  he  was  burnt 
at  the  stake,  together  with  Latimer,  in  front  of 
Balliol  College.  Ridley^s  Works,  which  are  chief- 
ly polemical,  have  been  published  together  with 


a  Life,  by  Christmas,  for  the  Packer  Society 
(London,  1841). 

BnyPATH,  John  Clabk  (1840-1900).  An 
American  historian  and  educator,  bom  in  Put- 
nam County,  Ind.  He  graduated  at  Asbury  (now 
DePauw)  University  in  1859,  taught  at  Thorn- 
town  Academy,  Ind.,  and  at  Baker  University, 
Baldwin  City,  Kan.,  and  was  elected  in  1869  pro- 
fessor of  English  literature,  in  187.1  of  belles-let- 
tres and  history,  in  Asbury  University,  of  which 
he  became  vice-president  ten  years  later.  He  re- 
signed in  1885.  His  writings,  chiefly  populariza- 
tions of  historical  matter,  are  his  Aoademio  His- 
tory of  the  United  States  (1874-75);  Popular 
History  of  the  United  States  ( 1877 ) ;  Qrammar 
School  History  (1876)  ;  Inductive  Orammar  of 
the  English  Language  (1878-79) ;  Monograph  on 
Alexander  Hamilton  (1880)  ;  Life  and  Work  of 
Garfield  (1881-82);  Life  of  James  G.  Blaine 
(1884);  History  of  Texas.  (1884);  Cyolopcsdia 
of  Universal  History  (1880-85);  The  Great 
Races  of  Mankind  (1892);  Christopher  Colum- 
bus (1890)  ;  a  poem.  The  Epic  of  Life  (1894)  ; 
and  one  or  two  other  volumes.  He  also  compiled 
a  Library  of  Universal  History,  and  helped  to 
edit  the  People's  CydopcBdia,  His  last  and  prob- 
ably most  widely  circulated  work,  a  History  of 
the  United  States  (in  8  vols.),  was  completed 
shortly  before  his  death. 

BIEBECKITE,  rS^k-It  (named  in  honor  of 
Emil  Riebeck,  a  German  traveler  of  the  nineteenth 
century) .  One  of  the  numerous  varieties  of  amphi- 
bole.  It  is  a  sodium-iron  silicate  crystallizing 
in  the  monoclinic  system,  has  a  vitreous  lustre, 
and  is  black  in  color.  It  occurs  among  the  older 
rocks,  such  as  granite  and  syenite,  especially  on 
the  island  of  Socotra,  in  the  Indian  Ocean. 

BIEDEI^  r^del,  Kabl  (1827-88).  A  German 
musician.  He  was  bom  at  Kronenberg,  near 
Elberfeld,  studied  at  Krefeld  with  Karl  Wilhelm, 
and  entered  the  conservatory  at  Leipzig,  in  which 
he  became  a  teacher  of  piano  and  theory.  In 
1854  he  established  a  society  for  the  performance 
of  ancient  church  music  which  became  famous 
as  the  Riedel-Verein  under  his  leadership 
and  that  of  Kretschmar.  Upon  the  death  of 
Brendel,  Riedel  became  president  of  the  AUge- 
meiner  deutscher  Musikverein.  His  composi- 
tions, mostly  chorales  for  male  voices,  are 
vigorous  and  original ;  but  his  real  claim  to  fame 
rests  on  his  gift  of  organization,  his  thorough- 
ness, and  especially  his  masterly  editing  of  such 
old  works  as  that  of  Prfttorious,  which  he  prac- 
tically discovered. 

BIEDESEL,  T^dez^l,  Fbiedbich  Adolph, 
Baron  (1738-1800).  A  German  soldier  in  Amer- 
ica, bom  at  Lauterbach,  Hesse.  He  studied 
at  Marburg,  served  under  Prince  Ferdinand  of 
Brunswick  during  the  Seven  Years'  War,  and  in 
1776  took  command  of  4000  Brunswick  troops 
hired  by  Great  Britain  for  service  against  the 
American  colonies.  He  landed  at  Quebec  in  June, 
joined  Burgoyne's  expedition,  fought  bravely  at 
the  first  battle  of  Saratoga  (September  19,  1777), 
and  surrendered  with  his  commander  (Oc- 
tober 17th).  He  remained  a  prisoner  for  over 
two  years  together  with  his  wife.  He  was  ex- 
changed in  1780,  put  in  command  of  the  Britirii 
forces  on  Long  Island,  and  returned  to  Germany 
in  1783.  He  was  made  a  lieutenant-general  in 
1787,  and  commanded  the  Brunswickers  in  Hol- 
land.    He     died     at     Brunswick.     His     wilc^ 


RTBtT^TCpHRTf, 


20 


SIEHL. 


Fbiedkbike  Chablotte  Luise  (1746-1808),  came 
with  her  husband  to  America  and  left  an 
interesting  account  of  their  American  adven- 
tures. The  Memoirs,  Letters,  arid  Journals  of 
Major-Oeneral  Riedesel  During  His  Residence  in 
America  (Albany,  1868)  and  Letters  and  Jour- 
nals by  Lady  Riedesel  (ib.,  1867),  both  trans- 
lated and  edited  by  Stone,  are  among  the  most 
valuable  material  for  the  history  of  Burgoyne's 
campaign. 

BIEFSTAHL,.  refstftl,  Wilhelm  (1827-88). 
A  German  landscape,  genre,  and  architectural 
painter,  bom  at  Neustrelitz,  Mecklenburg.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Wilhelm  Schirmer  at  the  Berlin 
4cademy,  subsequently  studied  nature,  traveling 
extensively,  and  visited  Rome  in  1869-70,  1874, 
and  1877.  In  1870-73  he  was  professor  at  the 
School  of  Art  in  ICarlsruhe  and  in  1876-77  its 
director,  after  which  he  settled  in  Munich.  He 
at  first  painted  landscape  pure  and  simple,  as 
finely  exemplified  by  "Northern  Heath"  (1850), 
"Village  Graveyard"  (1854),  and  others,  and 
afterwards  supplied  his  scenery  with  figures,  to 
which  he  gradually  gave  greater  prominence,,  ex- 
celling in  harmonious  combinations  of  both.  Ad- 
mirable specimens  of  this  kind  are:  "Devotions 
of  Passeier  Shepherds  in  the  Fields"  ( 1864,  gold 
TBedal,  Berlin),  "All  Souls'  Day  at  Bregenz" 
(1860),  "Missionaries  m  the  Rh«tian  Alps" 
(1884),  all  in  the  National  Gallery,  Berlin; 
"Wedding  Procession  in  Bavarian  Alps"  (1866), 
in  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York ;  "Blessing  of 
the  Alps"  ( 1881 ) ,  Leipzig  Museum.  Reminiscent 
of  Italy  are  "Funeral  Procession  in  Front  of  the 
Pantheon"  (1871),  Dresden  Museum;  "Proces- 
sion Through  the  Forum  Romanum"  (1879  and 
"The  Anatomical  Theatre  at  Bologna"  (1880), 
Leipzig  Museum;  replica  (1883),  Dresden  Mu- 
seum. Consult:  Berlepsch,  in  Zeitschrift  fur 
hildende  Kunst  (Leipzig,  1890) ;  Holland,  in 
Allgemeine  deutsche  Biographic,  xxviii.  (Leipzig, 
1889) ;  and  Rosenberg,  Die  Berliner  Malerschule 
(Berlin,  1879). 

BIEGEL,  T^geh  Hebman  (1834-1900).  A 
German  art-historian,  born  at  Potsdam.  He  gave 
up  the  study  of  law  for  that  of  art,  was  director 
of  the  museum  and  docent  at  the  university  in 
Leipzig  in  1868-71,  then  became  director  of  the 
museum  and  professor  at  the  Polytechnicum  in 
Brunswick.  His  highly  valued  writings  com- 
prise: Cornelius,  der  Meister  der  deutschen  Ma- 
lerei  (1866);  Deutsche  Kun^studien  (1868); 
Italienisohe  Blatter  (1871) ;  Oeschichte  des  Wie- 
derauflehens  der  deutschen  Kunst,  etc.  (1874- 
75) ;  Kunstgeschichtliche  Vortrdge  und  Aufsatze 
( 1877 ) ;  BeitrAge  zur  niederldndischen  Kunstge- 
schichte  (1882) ;  Oeschichte  der  Wandmalerei  in 
Belgien  seit  1856  (1882) ;  Die  hildenden  Kunste 
(1896);  Beitrage  zur  Kunst geschichte  Italien» 
(1898). 

BIEGEBy  re^gSr,  Fbanz  Ladislaus  (1818- 
1903).  A  Bohemian  statesman,  bom  at  Semil 
and  educated  for  the  bar  at  Prague.  He  entered 
the  Government  service,  but  his  career  was  cut 
short,  as  he  was  prosecuted  for  his  political 
ideas.  The  lawsuit  increased  his  popularity, 
and  in  1848  seven  districts  elected  him  Dep- 
uty. He  became  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Slavic  Party  in  the  Austrian  Reichsrat.  During 
the  reactionary  period  which  followed  the  revo- 
lution he  took  no  further  part  of  impor- 
tance  in    politics   until    1860.      In   the   mean- 


time, he  occupied  himself  with  the  pen  as  a 
political  weapon,  writing  Slaves  d^Autriche 
(1860),  and  with  Kober  founding  the  Bohemian 
encyclopedia,  Sloumik  nauBn^  (1859-74).  In 
1861,  with  his  father-in-law,  the  historian  Pa- 
lacky,  he  became  a  leader  of  the  Czech  National 
Party,  both  as  a  member  of  the  Bohemian  Diet 
and  as  a  Deputy  to  the  Vienna-Reichsrat.  In 
1863  he  dictated  the  "policy  of  abstention,"  by 
which  the  Reichsrat  was  left  without  a  Czech 
representation,  and  he  thenceforth  led,  with  the 
aid  of  the  Ultramontanes  and  Feudalists,  the  agi- 
tation for  Bohemian  autonomy.  During  the 
Taaffe  regime,  after  the  Czechs  had  reentered  the 
Reichsrat,  Rieger  supported  the  Government,  and 
became  the  head  of  the  Old  Czechs.  His  conserva- 
tism alienated  the  more  radical  wing  of  the  na- 
tional party  (Young  Czechs),  who  gradually 
gained  supremacy,  both  in  the  Bohemian  Diet  and 
the  Austrian  Reichsrat.  Toward  the  end  of  his 
life  Rieger's  infiuence  on  national  affairs  largely 
waned.  In  1897  he  was  made  a  baron  and  called 
into  the  Austrian  House  of  Peers. 

BipiGO  Y  ITCTfiEZy  r^&'gd  «  n^ny&th,  Ra- 
fael DEL  (1785-1823).  A  Spanish  revolutionist, 
bom  at  Oviedo,  in  Asturias.  He  joined  in  the  pa- 
triot movement  against  France  which  followed 
the  usurpation  of  the  Spanish  throne  by  Joseph 
Bonaparte.  Captured  by  the  French,  he  was  a 
prisoner  imtil  1814,  when  he  visited  Germany 
and  England.  He  was  leader  of  the  military  in- 
surrection which  broke  out  in  January,  1820,  and 
which  brought  about  the  restoration  of  the  Span- 
ish Constitution  of  1812.  He  became  field-mar- 
shal and  Captain-(3reneral  of  Aragon,  and  in  1822 
was  president  of  the  Cortes.  He  ardently  opposed 
French  intervention  in  1823,  met  the  soldiers  of 
the  Holy  Alliance  at  the  head  of  the  Army  of 
Malaga,  was  wounded,  taken  prisoner,  and  handed 
over  to  the  royal  authorities.  He  was  tried  as 
a  traitor,  and  put  to  death  at  Madrid,  Novem- 
ber 7,  1823.  A  hymn  which  he  wrote,  called  after 
him  the  "Hymn  of  Riego,"  became  a  popular  rev- 
olutionary song,  and  is  now  the  national  anthem. 
Consult:  Riego,  Memoirs  of  Riego  and  His  Fam- 
ily (London,  1824) ;  Nard  and  Piral,  Vida  milt- 
tar  e  politioa  de  Riego  (Madrid,  1844). 

BIEHL,  rgl,  Alois  (1844—).  A  German  phi- 
losopher, bom  at  Bozen,  Tyrol.  He  studied  at 
Vienna,  Innsbruck,  and  .Munich,  and  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  philosophy  at  Gratz  in 
1873.  Afterwards  he  held  similar  chairs  at  Frei- 
burg, Keil,  and  Halle.  Like  Laas  and  Ave- 
narius,  he  belongs  to  the  German  group  of  posi- 
tivists.  Riehl  is  well  known  as  a  logician,  as 
a  critic  of  modem  English  logic,  and  as 
author  of  Beitrage  zur  Logik  (1892).  His 
philosophical  criticism  is  to  be  found  in  Der 
philosophische  Kritizismus  ( 1876-87 )  ;  Moral 
und  Dogma  (1871) ;  Ueher  v>issenschaftliche  und 
nichtwissenschaftliche  Philosophic {ISSS) ;  Bruno 
(1889;  2d  ed.  1900);  Fr.  Nietzsche  (1897;  3d 
ed.  1901) ;  and  Zur  Einfuhrung  in  die  Philosophic 
der  Qegenwart  (1903). 

BIEHI^  Wilhelm  Heinbich  (1823-97).  A 
German  historian  of  civilization  and  novelist, 
bom  at  Biebrich,  and  educated  at  Marburg, 
Tubingen,  Bonn,  and  Geissen.  In  1846  he  en- 
tered journalism  on  the  staff  of  the  Karls- 
ruher  Zeitu/ng;  then  founded  the  Badischer  Land- 
tagsbote;  and  after  his  election  to  the  German 


BIBBZi. 


21 


BIBKAHIT. 


National  Assembly  in  1848,  edited  the  Nm- 
sauisehe  allffemeine  Zeiiung,  In  1854  he  went  to 
Munich  as  professor  of  economics,  and  five  years 
afterwards  was  transferred  to  a  chair  of  histoiy 
of  literature.  He  is  better  known  as  the  author 
of  valuable  sketches  of  the  history  of  civilization, 
and  of  novels  and  tales  based  on  these  same  his- 
torical studies,  but  of  such  literary  excellence 
that  In  the  short  story  he  ranks  only  below 
Heyse  ampnff  modem  German  writers.  Riehl's 
works  include  yaiur^eBchichie  dea  Volkes  ( 1861- 
69;  in  many  editions) ;  Die  Pfdlzer  (1857) ;  Kul- 
iuratudien  aus  drei  Jahrhunderten  (1859;  6th 
ed.,  1896);  MusikaUache  Charakterkdpfe  (1863- 
77);  Aua  der  Ecke  (1876);  3d  ed.  1890);  Le- 
hensT^iael  (1888) ;  Religiose  Studien  emea  Welt- 
kindes  (1894);  and  posthumously  a  romance 
Ein  ganzer  Mann  (1897). 


[iy  T^-ISV,  Louis  (1844-86).    Leader  of  the 
so-ealled  "Riers  Rebellion'  in  Canada.     He  was 
bom   at  Saint  Boniface,  Manitoba,  and  was  of 
Indian    and    French-Canadian    descent.     He    is 
said  to  have  been  educated  for  the  priesthood 
in  a  Boman  Catholic  seminary  at  Quebec,  but  he 
did  not  take  orders.    He  first  came  into  promi- 
nence as  the  leader  of  the  rebellion  that  broke 
out  in  1869.    In  that  year  upon  the  purchase  of 
the  Northwest  Territory  from  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company  by  the  Canadian  Government  the  'me- 
tis,'   or    half-breeds,    of    that    section    became 
alarmed  lest  they  should  lose  some  of  their  rights, 
and  especially  the  title  to  their  lands,  and  formed 
a  'council'  to  insist  upon  their  claims.    Of  this 
'council'  Riel  was  secretary  and  John  Bruce  pres- 
ident; but  Riel  was  the  actual  leader  of  the  move- 
ment.   On  November  2d  the  malcontents  refused 
to  allow  Willianr  McDougall,  who  had  been  ap- 
pointed Lieutenant-Governor,  to  enter  the  Terri- 
tory, and  on  the  same  day  Riel  took  possession 
of  Fort  Gary.    The  'council'  then  issued  a  procla- 
mation  to  the   settlers   calling   upon  them   to 
send    representatives    to    a    convention,     which 
on  December   1   issued  a  'Bill  of  Rights,'  and 
later    formed    a    provisional     Government,    of 
which   Riel  became  President.     A  considerable 
number  of  persons  who  opposed  the  new  Gov- 
ernment  were   seized   and    imprisoned,    and   by 
Riel's  order  one  of  these,  named  Thomas  Scott, 
was  executed.    Attempts  at  a  peaceful  settlement 
of  the  difficulties  having  failed,  the  Dominion 
Government  determined  to  put  down  the  rebellion 
by  force  of  arms.    Accordingly,  in  the  summer  of 
1870  Colonel  Wolseley    (afterwards  Sir  Garnet 
Wolseley,    commander-in-chief    of    the    British 
Army)    was  dispatched  with  a  force  of  about 
1400  men  to  the  seat  of  trouble.    Finding  resist- 
ance hopeless,  Riel  and  some  of  his  associates 
fled  to  the  United  States,  where  he  remained  for 
some  time.  In  1873  and  again  in  1874,  his  friends 
elected  him  to  the  Dominion  Parliament  for  the 
district  of  Provencher,  and  in  the  latter  year, 
despite  the  fact  that  a  reward  of  $5000  had  been 
offered  for  his  capture,  he  attempted  to  take  his 
seat,  but  was  expelled,  and  in  Od:ober  a  warrant 
of  outlawry  was  issued  against  him.    In  1877  he 
was  confined  for  a  time  in  a  lunatic  asylum  in 
(Juebec,  but  the  next  year  he  was  again  at  large 
and  is  thought  by  some  to  have  entered  into  a 
conspiracy  with  tiie  Fenians  for  the  conquest  of 
the   Northwest.      Later    he   went   to    Montana, 
whence  in  1884  he  was  invited  by  French  half- 
breeds  living  near  the  forks  of  the  Saskatchewan 


to  come  and  assist  them  in  forcing  the  (Sovem- 
ment  to  settle  their  claims  to  certain  land  grants 
and  to  give  them  certain  other  rights.  Riel  ac- 
cepted their  invitation,  and  in  the  following 
March  was  made  President  of  the  provisional  Gov- 
ernment, which  was  established  at  Saint  Laurent. 
Troops,  however,  were  dispatched  against  the 
rebels,  and  the  'main  stronghold  of  Batoche  was 
taken  by  General  Middleton.  Riel  himself  was 
sopn  afterwards  captured,  and  in  July  was 
brought  to  trial  at  R^gina  for  high  treason.  His 
lawyers  pleaded  in  his  defense  that  he  was  in- 
sane, and  this  plea  was  to  a  certain  extent  borne 
out  by  peculiar  religious  ideas  that  he  had  an- 
nounced; but  he  was  nevertheless  condemned  to 
death,  and  on  November  16,  1886,  was  hanged. 
Consult  B^g,  Hiatary  of  the  Red  River  Trochlea 
(Toronto,  1871),  and  the  same  author's  Hiatory 
of  the  Northu>eat  (ib.,  1896). 

BIEMAW,  re^m&n,  Geobo  Fbdcdsich  Bebn- 
HA8D  (1826-66).  One  of  the  foremost  Ger- 
man mathematicians  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, particularly  in  the  field  of  geometry. 
He  was  bom  at  Breselens,  near  Daanen- 
berg,  in  Hanover.  He  studied  mathematics 
at  G5ttingen  and  Berlin,  and  received  his 
doctor's  degree  at  the  former  university  in  1861, 
his  thesis  ^ing  a  well-known  contribution  to  the 
theory  of  functions,  Orundlagen  fUr  allgemeine 
Theorie  der  Funktionen  einer  vef^&nderlichen 
complewen  Chnoaae.  Three  years  later  he  was 
made  privat-docent  at  GOttingen,  then  (1867) 
adjunct  professor,  and  finally  (1869),  on  the 
death  of  Dirichlet,  full  professor.  His  introduc- 
tion of  the  notion  of  geometric  order  into  the 
theory  of  Abelian  functions,  and  his  invention 
of  the  surfaces  which  bear  his  name,  led  to  great 
and  rapid  advance  in  the  function  theory.  To 
him,  also,  ii^  due  (1864)  a  new  system  of  non- 
Euclidean  gfK)metry,  ranking  with  that  of  Lobat- 
chevsky  and  Bolyai  (see  Geohetbt),  a  system 
which  he  made  known  in  his  thesis,  Ueher  die 
Hypotheaen,  welche  der  Oeometrie  sm  Orunde 
liegen  (published  posthumously,  Leipzig,  1867). 
Riemann's  writings,  besides  those  already  men- 
tioned, are :  Vorleaungen  iiher  Schwere,  EVektrissi- 
t&t  und  Magnetiamua  (1876;  2d  ed.  1880,  both 
posthumous) ;  Partielle  Differentialgleiohungen 
(1869;  4th  ed.  1900-01,  both  posthumous); 
Mechanik  dea  Ohrea;  Elliptiache  Functioneni, 
Vorleaungen  mit  Zua&tzen  (1899) ;  and  his  Oe- 
aatntnelte  tnathematiache  Werke  und  iciaaen- 
aohaftHcher  Nachlaaa,  edited  by  H.  Weber  and 
Dedekind  (1876;  2d  ed.  1892;  French  trans., 
1898).  He  also  contributed  several  memoirs  on 
surfaces,  which  were  published  in  the  Atmalen 
and  in  CrelWa  Journal,  For  the  life  of  Riemann, 
consult  his  (^eaammelte  Werke;  Schering,  Bern- 
hard  Riemann,  zum  Oeddchtniaa.  For  an  elemen- 
tary explanation  of  Riemann's  surfaces,  consult: 
Dur^,  Theory  of  Functiona  (Eng.  trans.,  Phila- 
delphia, 1896) ;  HolzmUller,  Einfuhrung  in  die 
Theorie  der  iaogonalen  Verwandtachaften  und  der 
CowformaX-Ahhildungen   (Leipzig,   1882). 

BIEMANK,  Hugo  (1849-).  A  German 
writer  on  music,  bom  at  Grossmehlra, 
near  Sondershausen.  He  was  educated  in  theory 
by  Frankenberger,  studied  the  piano  with  Barthel 
and  Ratzenberger,  studied  law,  and  finally  phi- 
losophy and  history  at  Berlin  and  Tubingen. 
After  serving  in  the  Franco-(3erman  war  he  en- 
tered the  Leipzig  CJonservatory.  Both  as  con- 
ductor and  teacher  at  Bielefeld,  he  was  most 


•BTEiTAirar. 


22 


vamoL 


aoiiTe  until  1878,  when  he  became  university 
lecturer  on  music  at  Leipzig.  As  the  much-de- 
sired appointment  at  the  Conservatory  did  not 
follow,  he  went,  in  1880,  as  teacher  of  music 
to  Bromberg;  and,  from  1881  to  1890,  was 
teacher  at  the  Hamburg  Conservatory.  After  a 
short  career  at  the  Sondershausen  Conservatory 
he  went,  in  1890,  to  the  Conservatory  at  Wies- 
baden. Near  the  close  of  1895  he  returned  to 
Leipzig  as  lecturer  at  the  university.  In  1901  he 
became  professor.  Besides  composing  many  piano- 
forte pieces,  songs,  a  pianoforte  sonata,  six  son- 
atinas, a  violin  sonata,  and  a  quartet  for  strings, 
he  furnished  after  1870  many  critical,  sesthetical, 
theoretical,  and  historical  papers  for  journals. 
He  also  compiled  a  popular  and  eminently  sound 
Muaik'Leankon  (1882;  5th  ed.  1899;  £ng,  trans., 
1893-96). 

BIEMENSCHNEIDEB,  re^men-shnl'dSr,  THr 
ICAK  (c.1460-1531).  A  German  sculptor  of  the 
Renaissance.  He  was  born  at  Osterode,  in  the 
Harz  Mountains,  and  in  1843  appears  at  WUrz- 
burg  as  a  journeyman  carver.  He  soon  became 
one  of  the  most  influential  citizens,  being 
elected  Burgomaster  in  1520.  In  the  re- 
ligous  troubles  during  the  following  years 
Riemenschneider  was  the  head  of  the  reforming 
element  and  sided  with  the  peasants  during  the 
Peasant  War.  When  the  reaction  came  in  1525 
he  was  expelled  from  the  council,  and  from  this 
time  until  his  death  in  1531  he  lived  in  retire- 
ment. His  principal  works  include  the  monu- 
ment to  Eberhard  of  Grumbach,  in  the  Church 
of  Rimpar  (near  Wtirzburg)  ;  "Adam  and  Eve" 
(1493)  on  the  south  portal  of  the  Liebfrauen- 
Icirche  at  Wtirzburg,  and  the  statues  of  Christ, 
John  the  Baptist,  and  the  Apostles  on  the  but- 
tresses of  the  same  church  (1500-06);  a  Ma- 
donna and  the  tomb  of  John  l^rithemius  in 
the  Neumflnsterkirche  (1493);  the  portrait 
statues  of  the  Bishops  Rudolf  of  Scheeren- 
burg  and  Lorenz  von  Bibra  in  the  Cathedral. 
His  masterpiece  is  the  monument  to  the  Emperor 
Henry  II.  and  his  wife  Kunigunde  in  the  Bamberg 
Cathedral  ( 1496-1613) .  Other  well-known  works 
are  the  '^Bewailing  of  the  Body  of  Christ"  ( 1608) , 
a  group  in  the  church  of  Heidingsfeld,  and  his 
last  work  (1505),  a  high  relief  of  the  same  sub- 
ject in  the  church  of  Aiaidbrunn. 

Consult  his  biography  bv  K.  Becker  (Leipzig, 
1849),  and  A.  Weber  (Wttrzburg,  1888),  and 
the  heliotype  edition  of  his  works  by  Streit 
(Berlin,  1888). 

BIEMEB,  r^m§r,  Fbiedrich  Wilhelh  ( 1774- 
1845) .  A  German  scholar  and  literary  historian, 
bom  at  Glatz.  He  studied  theology  and  philology 
at  Halle,  was  a  tutor  in  the  family  of  Wilhelm 
von  Humboldt  (1801-03) ,  and  then  for  nine  years 
lived  with  Goethe  as  his  literary  assistant  and 
his  son's  tutor.  In  1812  he  became  professor  at 
the  Weimar  gymnasium;  from  1814  to  1820  he 
was  assistant  librarian,  and  from  1837  to  his 
death  he  was  librarian-in-chief  at  Weimar. 
Riemer  published  some  poetry,  a  Greek  lexicon 
(1802-04),  and  Mitteilungen  iiher  Goethe  (1841). 
He  edited  Goethe*s  correHpondence  with  Zetter 
(1833-34),  and  his  own  letters  were  published  in 
two  voliunes,  Brief e  von  und  an  Goethe  (1846) 
and  in  Au«  dem  Goethehauae  (1892,  edited  by 
Heitmttller). 

UENZI,  r6-6n'z^,  Cola  di  (c.1313-54).  A 
Roman  popular  leader.    He  was  bom  at  Rome. 


Until  his  twentietii  year  he  lived  among  the 
peasants  of  Anagni;  then  he  returned  to  his 
native  city,  where  he  studied  grammar  and  rhet- 
oric and  read  the  Latin  classics.  The  assassina- 
tion of  his  brother  by  a  Roman  noble  finally  de- 
termined him  to  deliver  the  city  from  the  barbar- 
ous thralldom  of  the  barons.  He  assumed  the 
significant  title  of  'consul  of  orphans,  widows, 
and  the  poor.'  In  1343  he  was  appointed  by  the 
heads  of  the  Guelph  party  spokesman  or  orator  of 
a  deputation  sent  to  the  Papal  Court  at  Avignon 
to  beseech  Clement  VI.  to  return  to  Rome  in  order 
to  protect  the  citizens  from  the  tyranny  of  their 
o|)pressors.  Here  he  formed  a  close  friendship 
with  Petrarch,  through  whose  assistance  he  ah- 
tained  a  favorable  hearing  from  his  Holiness,  who 
appointed  him  notary  to  the  city  chamber.  In 
April,  1344,  Rienzi  returned  to  Rome;  but 
reform,  he  found,  was  impossible  without  revolu- 
tion. During  three  years  he  loudly  and  openlv 
menaced  the  nobles,  who,  thinking  him  mad, 
took  no  steps  to  crush  him.  At  last  on  May  90, 
1347,  surrounded  by  100  horsemen  and  accom- 
panied by  the  Papal  legate,  Rienzi  delivered  a 
magnificent  discourse  and  proposed  a  series  of 
laws  for  the  better  government  of  the  community, 
which  were  unanimously  approved.  The  aristo- 
cratic senators  were  driven  out  of  the  city,  and 
Rienzi  took  the  title  of  'tribune  of  liberty,  peace, 
and  justice,'  and  chose  the  Papal  legate  for  his 
colleague, 

Rienzi  dispatched  messengers  to  the  various 
Italian  States,  requesting  tl^m  to  send  deputies 
to  Rome  to  consult  for  the  general  interests  of 
the  peninsula,  and  to  devise  measures  for  its 
unification.  These  messengers  were  everywhere 
received  with  enthusiasm,  and  on  August  1,  1347, 
200  deputies  assembled,  in  the  Lateran  Church, 
where  Rienzi  declared  that  the  choice  of  an  Em- 
peror of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  belonged  to 
the  Roman  people,  and  summoned  Louis  the  Ba- 
varian and  Charles  of  Luxemburg,  who  were  then 
disputants  for  the  dignity,  to  appear  before  him. 
The  step  was  wildly  impolitic.  The  Pope  was 
indignant  at  the  transference  of  authority  from 
himself  to  his  subjects ;  and  the  barons  gathered 
together  their  forces  and  renewed  their  devasta- 
tions. After  ineffectual  resistance  Rienzi  re- 
signed his  functions  and  withdrew  from  Rome. 
His  tenure  of  power  had  lasted  only  seven 
months.  In  the  solitudes  of  the  Neapolitan  Apen- 
nines, Rienzi  joined  an  Order  of  Franciscan  Per- 
mits, and  spent  nearly  two  years  in  exercises  of 
piety  and  penitence — ^all  the  while^  however, 
cherishing  the  hope  that  he  would  one  day  'de- 
liver* Rome  again.  This  ambition  made  him 
readily  listen  to  a  brother  monk,  who  declared 
that  Rienzi  was  destined,  by  the  help  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  IV.,  to  introduce  a  new  era  of 
happiness  into  the  world.  Rienzi  betook  himself 
at  once  to  Prague,  and  announced  to  the  Em- 
peror that  in  a  year  and  a  half  a  new  hierarchy 
would  be  established  in  the  Church,  and  under 
a  new  Pope  Charles  would  reign  in  the  west  and 
Rienzi  in  the  east.  Charles  put  the  'prophet'  in 
prison,  and  then  informed  the  Pope  of  the  mat- 
ter. In  July,  1351,  Rienzi  was  transferred  to 
Avignon,  where  proceedings  were  opened  against 
him,  and  he  was  condemned  to  death,  but  his 
life  was  spared  and  the  next  two  years  were 
spent  in  easy  confinement  in  the  French  Papal 
city. 

Meanwhile  at  Rome  the  great  families  were 


USH2L 


3d 


BISTI. 


more  faetl<ms,  mere  anarchical,  more  desperately 
fond  of  spilling  blood  than  ever;  and  at  last 
Innocent  VL  sent  Cardinal  Albomoz  to  refetab- 
lish  order.  Rienzi  was  released  from  prison, 
and  accompanied  the  CardinaL  In  August,  1354, 
haying  borrowed  money  and  raised  a  small  body 
of  soldiers,  he  made  a  sort  of  triumphal  entry 
into  Rome,  and  was  received  with  universal  ac- 
clamations. But  misfortune  had  debased  his 
character;  he  abandoned  himself  to  good  living, 
and  his  once  generous  sentiments  had  given  place 
to  a  hard,  mistrustful,  and  cruel  disposition. 
The  barons  refused  to  recognize  his  government 
and  fortified  themselves  in  their  castles.  The 
war  against  them  necessitated  the  incurring 
at  heavy  expenses.  In  two  months,  Rienzi's  rule 
becoming  intolerable,  an  infuriated  crowd  sur- 
rounded him  in  the  Capitol  and  put  him  to 
death.  Consult :  Papencordt,  Cola  di  Rienzo  und 
seine  Zeit  (Hamburg,  1841)  ;  Auriac,  Etude  his- 
torique  sur  Nicole  Rienzo  (Paris,  1888) ;  Rodo- 
canachi.  Cola  di  Rienzo  (ib.,  1888)-. 


I,  DBB  Letztb  deb  TBiBtTNEN.  An  Opera 
in  five  acts,  text  and  music  by  Richard  Wagner, 
first  produced  at  Dresden,  October  20,  1842.  The 
libretto  is  founded  upon  Bulwer's  novel  of  the 
same  title,  whose  story  it  follows  in  the  essential 
particulars.  It  is  the  last  of  Wagner's  works 
in  the  purely  operatic  style,  for  tnereafter,  in 
the  Flying  Dutchman,  Tannhauaer,  Lohengrin, 
and  the  Ring,  Wagner  adhered  more  and  more 
rigidly  to  his  music-drama  principles.  The  music 
is  characterised  by  melody,  and  a  series  of  dra- 
matie  climaxes  whose  treatment  is  reminiscent 
of  the  Meyerbeer  school. 

BIBFEKHAUSEK,  re^pen-hou'sen,  Fbanz 
(1786-1831)  and  Johannes  (1789-1860).  Ger- 
man painters  and  engravers,  bom  at  Gdttingen, 
sons  and  pupils  of  Ernst  Ludwig  Riepenhausen 
(1769-1840,  favorably  known  throngh  his  en- 
gravings after  Hogarth).  In  1804  they  studied 
under  Tischbein  at  the  Academy  in  Cassel,  then 
in  Dresden,  and  in  1807  went  in  Tieck's  com- 
pany to  Rome,  where  they  settled  permanently 
and  devoted  themselves  chiefly  to  the  study  of 
Raphael's  works.  Beside|  many  religious  paint- 
ings they  produced  conjomtlv  the  "Glorification 
of  Raphael,''  and  for  the  Guclph  Hall  at  Hanover 
"Henry  the  Lion  Protecting  Frederick  Baiba- 
rossa  Against  the  Romans."  They  also  collabo- 
rated in  drawings  to  Goethe's  Fctust,  in  episodes 
from  the  life  of  Charlemagne,  in  14  etchings, 
illustrating  the  "Life  and  Death  of  Saint  Gen- 
evieve" (1806),  a  Oeschichte  der  Malerei  in  Ital- 
ten,  with  24  outline  drawings  after  Italian  mas- 
ters before  Perugino  (1810),  and  a  series  of 
drawings  after  the  paintings  of  Polygnotos  at 
Delphi,  according  to  Pausanias.  After  the  death 
of  Franz,  Johannes  published  a  "Vita  di  Raffael- 
lo"  in  14  plates,  for  which  they  had  composed  the 
drawings  together,  and  also  executed  several  large 
paintings  such  as  "Raphael's  Death"  (1836), 
'^Destruction  of  the  Cenci  Family"  (1839),  and 
others.  Consult  Andreeen,  Die  deuisehen  MaleT' 
Radirer  des  neunzehnten  Jahrhunderts  (Leipzig, 
1872). 


rCs,  Ferdinand  (1784-1838).  A  Ger- 
man composer,  bom  at  Bonn.  He  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Franz  Ries  (1755-1846),  a  musical 
director  at  Bonn.  He  studied  piano  with 
Beethoven,  his  father's  friend,  from  1801  to 
1805    at    Vienna,    and    became    prominent    by 


his  compositions  and  by  his  Biographieohe 
Notizen  aher  L.  Beethoven  (1838).  As  a  pi- 
anist he  was  most  successful  in  his  many  con- 
cert tours  through  England,  France,  Russia,  and 
Scandinavia.  He  was  town  musical  director  at 
Aix-U-Chapelle  from  1834  to  1836.  He  wrote 
three  operas:  Die  Rduberhraut  (1828),  Liska 
(1831),  and  Sine  Nacht  auf  dem  Libanon;  two 
oratorios,  Der  8ieg  des  Olauhens  and  Die  Kdnige 
Israels;  overtures,  S3rm phonies,  string  quartets, 
violin  sonatas,  and  a  trio  for  two  pianos  and  a 
harp. 

BIESAy  rg^z&.  A  town  and  railway  centre  in 
Saxony,  on  the  Elbe,  33  miles  by  rail  northwest 
of  Dresden.  A  large  bridge  of  iron  and  stone 
here  spans  the  river  (Map:  Grermany,  E  3).  The 
town  has  a  public  library  and  a  municipal  hos« 
pital,  and  various  special  schools.  Tne  har.. 
bor  is  good  and  possesses  ample  shipping  facili- 
ties, and  Riesa  is  consequently  the  centre  of 
important  shipbuilding  interests  and  of  a  large 
trade,  including  fish,  oil,  coal,  Imnber,  grain, 
iron  ore,  etc.  Sandstone,  which  is  quarri^  ex- 
tensively, is  also  shipped.  There  are  rolling  mills 
and  many  other  manufactories.     Population,  in 

1900,  13,477. 

BIESE^  T^ze,  Alexander  (1840—).  A  Ger- 
man classical  scholar,  bom  and  educated  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Main.  Besides  his  excellent 
editions  of  Varro's  Satirw  Menippew  (1865),  of 
the  Anthologia  Latina  (1869-70;  2d  ed.  1894),  of 
Ovid  (1871-77),  of  the  Historia  Apollonii  Regis 
Tyri  (1871,  2d  ed.  1893),  of  Catullus  (1884,  with 
commentary),  and  of  Phaedrus  (1885),  he  pub- 
lished a  suggestive  essay,  Idealisierung  der  Na- 
turvdlker  des  Nordens  in  den  griechen  und  ro- 
misehen  Litteraturen  (1875),  and  two  mono- 
graphs on  early  German  history,  Das  Rheinland 
in  der  Rotnerzeit  (1889)  and  Das  Rheinische 
Oermanien  in  der  antiken  Litteratur  (1892). 

BIESEKEBy  T^ze-n^T,  Johann  Heinricb 
(1734-1806).  A  German  cabinet-maker,  born  at 
Gladbach,  Rhenish  Prussia.  Early  in  life  he  went 
to  Paris  and  entered  the  workshop  of  Johann 
Franz  Oeben  (died  1766,  a  pupil  of  BouUe  and 
prot^g^  of  Madame  de  Pompadour),  after  whose 
death  he  married  his  widow,  carried  on  his  busi- 
ness and  was  received  as  master  into  the  Paris 
guild  in  1768.  Specimens  of  Riesener's  work,  in 
the  style  of  Louis  XV.,  executed  for  the  royal 
palaces,  may  be  seen  at  Fontainebleau,  Trianon, 
Compi^^e,  and  in  the  Muste  du  Mobilier  Na- 
tional, Paris,  while  the  majority  of  it  was  sold 
abroad,  particularly  into  England,  in  consequence 
of  the  Revolution. 

BIBSENOEBIBOE,  r^zen-ge-Urge  (Ger., 
giant  mountains).  The  highest  range  of  the 
Sudetic  Mountains  (q.v.). 

BIESI,  r«-&^z6.  A  town  in  the  Province  of 
Caltanissetta,  Sicily,  situated  near  the  Salso, 
14^^  miles  south  of  Caltanissetta  (Map:  Italy, 
J  10).  There  are  sulphur  mines  and  a  trade  in 
wine  and  olive  oil.     Population   (commune),  in 

1901,  14,944. 

BIETI,  r^a't^.  A  town  in  the  Province  of 
Perugia,  Italy,  situated  on  the  Velino,  45  miles 
northeast  of  Rome  (Map:  Italy,  G  5).  It  is 
well  built  and  surrounded  by  walls.  The  fif- 
teenth-century cathedral  has  a  monument  by 
Thorvaldsen.  There  are  an  old  castle,  a  bishop's 
seminary,  a  gymnasium,  a  lyceum,  a  technical. 


SIETI. 


school,  and  a  public  library  of  30,000  volumes. 
The  chief  trade  is  in  wine,  oil,  and  fruit.  Rieti, 
the  ancient  Reate,  was  a  noted  city  of  the  Sabines. 
Population  (commune),  in  1901,  17,977. 

BIETSCHEL,  rechM,  Ebnbt  (1804-61).  An 
eminent  German  sculptor,  founder  of  the  Dresden 
school  of  plastic  art.  Born  at  Pulsnitz,  Saxon 
Lusatia,  December  15,  1804,  he  underwent  the 
severest  privations  in  his  youth,  and  began  his 
artistic  training  at  the  Dresden  Academy,  in  1820, 
still  contending  with  extreme  poverty,  imtil  he 
won  prizes  for  his  drawings,  w^hich  were,  more- 
over, bought  for  the  academy  as  models  to  be 
copied.  In  1826  he  became  the  pupil  of  Ranch,  in 
Berlin,  and  in  1827  was  granted  a  stipend  by  the 
Saxon  Government,  of  which,  however,  he  did  not 
avail  himself  for  the  purpose  of  visiting  Italy  un- 
til 1830,  after  having  assisted  his  master  in  the 
completion  of  various  works,  notably  of  the  monu- 
ment to  King  Max  I.  at  Munich,  in  1829.  From 
Italy  he  returned  to  Berlin  in  1831,  and  in  1832 
was'  appointed  professor  at  the  academy  in  Dres- 
den, where  he  resided  until  his  death,  February 
21,  1861. 

Rietschel's  first  work  of  importance  was  the 
"Monument  of  King  Frederick  Augustus  I.*' 
(1829-39),  in  the  Zwmger  at  Dresden,  but  simul- 
taneously he  worked  on  the  twelve  great  reliefs, 
illustrative  of  the  "Main  Epochs  of  Civilization" 
(1835-38),  in  the  Aula  of  Leipzig  University. 
Next  came  the  admirable  group  in  high  relief,  in 
the  pediment  of  the  Opera  House  in  Berlin 
(1844),  with  the  "Muse  of  Music"  in  the  centre, 
and  from  about  the  same  time  dates  "The  Christ 
Angel,"  a  beautiful  relief,  widely  known  through 
reproductions,  and  presented  bv  the  master  to 
the  Art  Union  of  Dresden.  The  first  work  to 
give  evidence  of  RietschePs  accomplished  master- 
ship, and  to  demonstrate  his  peculiar  tendency  in 
art,  was  the  famous  "Pietft"  (c.l847),  constitut- 
ing the  finest  ornament  of  the  Friedenskirche  at 
Potsdam.  Among  his  best  creations  are  to  be 
numbered  the  statues  of  "Thaer,"  the  agricul- 
turist (1850),  at  Leipzig,  and  of  "Lessin^'' 
(1853),  at  Brunswick,  a  truly  classical  example 
of  realistic  portrait  sculpture.  In  1852  he  began 
the  "Emblematic  Sculptures"  on  the  exterior  of 
the  Dresden  Museum,  the  cornice  of  which  he  also 
adorned  with  statues  of  "Pericles,"  "Phidias," 
•'Giotto,"  "Dttrer,"  "Holbein,"  and  "Goethe."  In 
the  meanwhile  he  also  modeled  the  heroic-size 
"Goethe-Schiller  Monument"  (erected  1857)  for 
Weimar,  and  in  1857  fashioned  his  celebrated  bust 
of  "Ranch,"  unsurpassed  probably  by  any  por- 
trait bust  of  the  century.  This  was  followed  by 
the  "Quadriga"  (I860),  with  the  magnificent 
figure  of  "Brunonia,"  for  the  ducal  palace  at 
Brunswick,  executed  in  copper  by  Howaldt.  In 
the  same  year  was  unveiled  the  masterly  statue 
of  "Weber"  at  Dresden.  For  the  Walhalla, 
Regensburg,  he  executed  the  busts  of  "Luther," 
"Elector  Augustus  II.,"  besides  other  busts  and 
relief  portraits.  Of  his  last  and  most  elaborate 
production,  the  "Luther  Monument"  at  Worms, 
he  was  only  able  to  finish  the  figures  of  Luther 
and  Wiclif,  while  the  completion  of  his  design 
was  intrusted  to  his  pupils  Donndorf  and  Kietz 
(1868).  A  collection  of  casts  and  models  of  all 
his  works  is  preserved  in  the  Rietschel  Museum 
at  Dresden.  Consult  his  Autobiography,  edited 
and  supplemented  by  Oppermann  (Leipzig, 
1873) ;  Pecht,  Deut9che  Kunstler,  i.  (NSrdlingen, 


24  KIFLB-BIBB. 

1877)  ;    and  Brieftoechsel  snoUehen  Raueh  vmd 
Rietschel  (Berlin,  1890-91). 

BIETZy  rets,  Julius  (1812-77).  A  German 
conductor  and  composer,  bom  in  Berlin.  He 
studied  the  'cello  under  Schmidt,  Bemhard 
Romberg,  and  Gans;  and  when  sixteen  years 
old,  joined  the  orchestra  of  the  Kdnigstftdter 
Theater,  for  which  he  wrote  the  music  to 
Holtei's  play  Lorbeerhaum  und  Bettelatah. 
In  1834  he  was  appointed  assistant  conductor  at 
the  DQsseldorf  Opera  under  Mendelssohn,  whom 
he  succeeded  the  following  year.  In  1847  he  was 
called  to  Leipzig  as  theatre  kapellmeister  and 
conductor  of  the  Singakademie.  In  1848  he  suc- 
ceeded Mendelssohn  as  conductor  of  the  C^wand- 
haus  concerts  and  as  teacher  of  composition  at 
the  Gonservatoiy.  He  was  called  to  Dresden  in 
1860  to  succeed  Reissiger  as  Court  kapellmeister. 
Here  he  conducted  the  opera  and  afterwards  un- 
dertook the  direction  of  the  Royal  Conservatory. 
As  a  composer  he  belongs  to  the  younger 
classic  school  and  was  strongly  opposed  to  the 
Neo-German  movement.  Among  his  works  are 
the  operas,  D(w  Madchen  aus  der  Fremde  (1833) 
and  Jery  und  Bately  (c.l840) ;  three  symphonies, 
several  overtures  to  plays,  fiute  sonatas,  violin  son- 
atas, motets,  masses,  psalms,  and  a  quantity  of 
other  church  music.    He  died  at  Dresden. 

•RTEZTiEK,  rets^Sr,  Siegmund  von  (1843—). 
A  German  historian,  bom  in  Munich.  He  was  edu- 
cated there,  became  a  docent  in  1869,  and  after 
ten  years  as  head  of  the  archives  and  library  of 
Donaueschingen  was  made  court  and  city  librar- 
ian in  Munich,  in  1883,  and  director  of  the 
Maximilianeum  in  1885.  His  works,  dealing  for 
the  most  part  with  Bavarian  history,  include: 
Das  Herzogtum  Bayem  zur  Zeit  Heinricha  dea 
Ldwen  (1867,  with  Heigel),  Der  Kreuegug 
Kaiser  Friedriohs  I,  ( 1870) ,  the  great  Geschichte 
Bayems  (1878-99),  Die  hayrisohe  Politik  im 
Sohmalkaldisohen  Kriege  (1895),  and  Qesohichte 
der  Hecoenprozesse  in  Bayem  (1896). 

BIFF,  The  (Er-Rif).  A  name  given  to  the 
mountain  region  bordering  the  north  coast  of 
Morocco  from  Ceuta  eastward  nearly  to  the 
borders  of  Algeria  add  included  in  the  Atlas 
system.  The  rugged  coast,  the  principal  projec- 
tion of  which  is  Cape  Tres  Forcas,  is  almost 
without  harbors.  The  inhabitants  are  pure  Ber- 
bers in  blood.  In  the  French  conquest  of  Algeria 
they  were  not  molested,  and  they  are  said  to  live 
in  a  state  of  chronic  revolt  against  the  Sultan 
of  Morocco.  They  were  formerly  noted  for 
piracy.  The  people  imderstand  or  speak  Arabic 
only  to  a  very  slight  extent,  Shleh  or  Shluh  being 
their  native  tongue.  They  are  said  to  be  untrus^ 
worthy. 

BIFLE-BIBD,    or   Rifleman.     An   Austra- 
lian bird  of  paradise  {PtHoris  paradiseus),  with 
a  long  curved  bill,  and  in  size  about  equal  to  a 
large  pigeon.    The  upper  parts  are  velvety  black, 
tinged   with  ^  purple ;    the   under   parts   velvety 
black,  diversified  with  olive-green.     The  crown 
of  the  head  and  the  throat  are  covered  with  in- 
numerable little  specks  of  emerald  green,  of  most 
brilliant  lustre.    The  tail  is  black,  the  two  cen- 
tral feathers  rich  metallic  green.     The  female    . 
is  much  more  plainly  coior^.     The  name  was  , 
given  by  early  Australian  settlers  in  allusion  to  ^ 
the  resemblance  between  the  plumage  of  the  male 
and  the  uniform  of  a  familiar  rifle  brigade. 


BIFLBXAN. 


35 


BIGAS. 


BIFTiKirATf  AND  BIFLE  C0BP8.  Formerly, 
the  term  Yifleman  designated  an  infantry  soldier 
armed  and  equipped  so  as  to  be  capable  of 
greater  mobility  and  more  effective  marksman- 
ship than  was  possible  with  the  ordinary 
infantry  soldiers  of  the  line.  Modem  condi- 
tions, however,  demand  that  all  regiments  alike 
possess  these  qualities,  so  that,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  uniform,  the  rifleman  of  to-day  differs  in 
no  material  way  from  his  comrade  in  the  line. 
Throughout  the  armies  of  Europe  the  rifle  regi- 
ments are  dressed  in  uniforms  of  black,  dark 
green,  or  some  other  shade  of  inconspicuous  color. 
In  E^land,  the  Rifle  Brigade,  King's  Royal 
Rifles,  Irish  Rifles,  and  Scottish  Rifles  (see  Cam- 
EBONiAJVS)  constitute  the  entire  rifle  establish- 
ment of  the  Regular  Army,  and  are  all  distin- 
guished by  their  dark  green  uniforms,  varied  only 
by  the  facings,  or  the  tartan  trews  of  the  Cam- 
eronians.  The  term  rifleman  is  frequently  used 
as  being  synonymous  with  sharpshooter  (q.v.)^ 
but  such  is  no  longer  the  case.  When  in  1779  the 
volunteer  citizen  soldier  became  an  integral  fac- 
tor in  English  national  defense,  he  was  spoken  of 
as  a  rifleman,  and  his  regiment  as  a  volunteer 
corps.  His  uniform  was  gray,  the  particular 
shade  of  which  has  since  been  known  as  rifle- 

In  the  United  States  Army,  the  pre§mment 
characteristics  of  the  soldier,  whether  mounted 
or  dismoimted,  have  ever  been  those  of  the  rifle- 
man. The  tactics  employed  by  the  Ck)lonial8 
against  the  British  were  later  developed  by  long 
experience  in  Indian  fighting,  so  that  the  ability 
to  skirmish  and  shoot  became  marked  charac- 
teristics of  the  frontier  sgldier.  The  mounted 
rifleman  is  a  product  of  comparatively  recent 
military  development.    See  Mounted  Infantbt. 

BIFLIKO.    See  Obdnange;  Small  Abm^. 

SIET  VALLEY.  A  depression  in  the  earth's 
crusts  formed  by  a  vertical  displacement  of  the 
strata.  In  some  instances  there  is  a  single  line 
of  displacement,  along  which  the  strata  on  one 
side  have  been  depressed,  but  quite  often  there 
are  a  series  of  faults  running  in  parallel  direc- 
tions and  dividing  the  strata  into  blocks  which 
show  the  effects  of  differential  movement.  The 
depressions  thus  formed  may  be  occupied  by  riv- 
ers or  lakes  and  in  time  they  lose  their  character- 
istic sharp  contours,  taking  on  the  appearance 
of  ordinary  erosional  valleys.  Rift  valleys  are 
common  in  mountainous  districts  all  over  the 
world.  The  Great  Basin  region,  particularly  in 
southeastern  Oregon,  affords  many  fine  examples 
and  those  occupi^  by  the  great  lakes  of  Central 
Africa  are  especially  noteworthy. 

BIG  (of  a  vessel).    See  Ship. 

BIGA,  re^g&.  A  seaport  of  Russia,  capital  of 
the  Grovemment  of  Livonia  and  the  seat  of  the 
Governor-General  of  the  Baltic  Provinces,  sit- 
uated on  the  Dtina,  about  10  miles  above  its 
mouth  in  the  Gulf  of  Riga,  3fl3  miles  southwest 
of  Saint  Petersburg  (Map:  Russia,  B  3).  The 
old  town  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Dfina  has  the 
appearance  of  a  mediseval  German  town,  while 
the  suburbs,  which  contain  the  bulk  of  the  popula- 
tion, are  largely  modem.  Riga  possesses  com- 
paratively few  ancient  buildings.  There  may  be 
noted  the  Domkirche,  founded  originally  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  but  rebuilt  in  the  sixteenth 
and  containing  one  of  the  largest  organs  in  the 


world;  and  the  Church  of  Saint  Peter,  with  a 
steeple  440  feet  high. 

Tlie  castle,  now  the  residence  of  the  Governor- 
General  and  the  seat  of  the  administration,  the 
house  of  the  Black  Heads,  the  exchange,  the  guild 
houses,  and  the  theatre  may  also  be  mentioned. 
Riga  is  better  provided  with  educational  and 
charitable  institutions  than  most  Russian  cities. 
It  has  a  polytechnicum  with  over  1400  students, 
a  seminary  for  priests,  a  school  of  navigation,  and 
a  municipal  museum.  It  occupies  the  third  rank 
among  the  seaports  of  Russia  and  the  second 
among  the  Baltic  seaports. 

Riga  is  also  an  important  industrial  centre. 
The  chief  manufactures  are  machinery,  railway 
cars,  lumber,  leather,  candles,  tiles,  glass,  tobacco 
products,  etc.,  the  annual  value  of  its  manufac- 
tures exceeding  $30,000,000.  The  principal  har- 
bors of  Riga  are  those  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dtlna 
and  the  Miihlgraben,  nearer  to  the  city.  Lighter 
craft  go  up  to  the  city  by  the  canalized  river. 
The  harbor  is  frozen  for  a  considerable  part  of 
the  year  and  is  not  well  protected.  Riga  has 
latterly  grown  in  commercial  importance.  The 
average  value  of  its  annual  exports  rose  from 
about  $26,000,000  for  the  period  of  1891-95  to 
over  $36,000,000  for  the  period  of  1896-1900; 
while  the  imports  increased  from  about  $13,000,- 
000  in  1891-95  to  nearly  $27,000,000  in  1896- 
1900.  The  principal  exports  are  cereals,  flax  and 
flaxseed,  eggs,  and  lumber ;  and  the  chief  imports, 
machinery,  cotton,  coal,  and  groceries.  The  popu- 
lation rose  from  169,329  in  1881  to  282,943  in 
1897.  About  50  per  cent,  of  the  population  is 
German. 

Riga  was  founded  by  Albert  L.  Bishop,  of  Livo- 
nia, in  1201.  An  episcopal  see  was  established 
here,  which  soon  was  erected  into  an  archbishop- 
ric. The  town  attracted  many  colonists  from 
Germany  on  accoimt  of  the  commercial  privi- 
leges granted  to  it  by  its  foimder,  and  became  a 
flourishing  member  of  the  Hanseatic  League.  Its 
burghers  were  involved  in  conflicts  with  the  arch- 
bishops, who  sought  to  hold  the  city  under  their 
temporal  power,  and  with  the  Teutonic  Knights. 
About  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  Riga 
passed  into  the  possession  of  the  King  of  Poland. 
Soon  after  the  archbishopric  was  abolished 
In  1621  the  city  was  taken  after  a  long  siege 
by  Gustavus  Adolphus  of  Sweden.  It  passed 
to  Russia  in  1710.  Consult:  Neumann,  Das  mit- 
telalterliche  Riga  (Berlin,  1892);  Tobien,  Er- 
gehniaae  der  Rigaer  HandelstatiaHk,  1866-91 
(Riga,  1893)  ;  Mettig,  Oeschichte  der  Stadt  Riga 
(Riga,  1895)  ;  Der  8tadt  Riga  (Riga,  1901). 

BIGA,  Gulf  of.  An  inlet  of  the  Baltic  Sea, 
extending  in  a  southern  direction  between  the 
governments  of  Esthonia,  Livonia,  and  Courland 
(Map:  Russia,  B  3).  It  is  about  100  miles  long 
and  over  70  miles  wide.  Its  water  is  less  salty 
than  that  of  the  Baltic  Sea.  The  gulf  never 
freezes  over  entirely  and  is  ice  free  for  about 
two-thirds  of  the  year  along  the  coast.  At  its 
southeastern  comer  it  receives  the  River  Dfina. 
At  the  entrance  to  the  gulf  lie  the  islands  of 
Oesel,  Dago,  and  Mohn. 

BIGASy  or  BHIGAS,  re'gfts,  KoNSTANTmos 
(1754-98).  A  Greek  patriot  and  poet,  born  at 
Velestinos  (ancient  Pherse) .  Until  1790  he  was  in 
the  employ  of  the  Hospodar  of  Wallachia  and 
then,  joining  the  revolutionary  party,  attempted, 
first   to    form   an   anti-Turkish   committee   in 


BIGAft. 

Vienna,  and  then  at  Venice  to  influence  Bona- 
parte in  behalf  of  Hellenic  independence.  He  was 
imprisoned  by  the  Austriand  and  surrendered  to 
the  Turks,  who  executed  him  at  Belgrade.  His 
eollected  songs  were  published  in  1814  and  the 
Greek  paraphrase  of  the  Marseillaise  is  attributed 
to  him.  Consult  the  Life  by  Perrhaivos  (Athens, 
1860). 

BIGADOOK  (Fr.  rigodon,  rigandon,  said  to  be 
named  after  Rigand,  a  French  dancing  master). 
A  lively  dance  of  French  origin.  It  was  popular 
in  the  time  of  Louis  XIII.,  and  was  introduced 
into  England  toward  the  last  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  The  rigadoon  had  an  unusual  jumping 
step,  and  the  music  in  },  or  common  time,  was 
spirited. 

BIGAUB,  r6'g«',  Stephen  Peteb  (1774-1839). 
An  English  astronomer  and  historian  of  mathe- 
matics. He  was  bom  at  Richmond  in  Surrey,  of 
Huguenot  refugees,  and  was  educated  at  Exeter 
College,  Oxford,  where  he  became  lecturer  on  ex- 
perimental philosophy  and  Savilian  professor 
of  geometry  in  1810.  He  succeeded  his  father  as 
observer  to  the  King  at  Kew  (1814)  and  followed 
Abraham  Eobertson  as  Savilian  professor  of  as- 
tronomy in  1827.  In  Radcliffe  Observatory, 
which  came  under  his  charge  at  this  time,  he 
discovered  important  manuscripts  of  Bradley  and 
of  Harriot  and  many  other  papers.  Rigaud  pub- 
lished :  The  Miscellaneous  Works  and  Correspond- 
ence of  Dr.  Bradley  (1831,  with  memoir;  2d  ed. 
1833),  An  Historical  Essay  on  the  First  Publi- 
cation of  Newton's  'Principia'  (1838)  ;  and  The 
Correspondence  of  Scientific  Men  of  the  Seven- 
teenth Century  (1841,  edited  by  his  son;  recited 
by  De  Morgan,  1862). 

BIG^Yy  Elizabeth.  The  maiden  name  of  th'^ 
English  author  Lady  Elizabeth  Eastlake  ( q.v. ) . 

BIGa)ONy  Sidney  (1793-1876).  A  Mormon 
elder.  He  was  born  in  Saint  Clair  township,  Al- 
legheny County,  Pa.  He  was  pastor  of  a  Baptist 
church  in  Pittsburg  (1822)  and  afterwards  was 
a  minister  of  the  Disciples'  Church  in  Ohio.  It 
has  been  claimed  that  here  he  became  acquainted 
with  a  romance  of  prehistoric  America,  written 
in  1812  by  Solomon  Spaulding,  an  eccentric  Con- 
gregational minister  in  Ohio,  and  that  this  was 
the  'source,  root,  and  inspiration'  of  the  Book 
of  Mormon.  The  claim  has  not  been  substan- 
tiated, and  there  is  no  positive  evidence  against 
the  statement  of  Joseph  Smith  that  he  met  Rig- 
don  for  the  first  time  in  December,  1830.  Rig- 
don  was  closely  associated  with  Smith  after  the 
latter's  removal  to  Ohio  (1831),  and  accom- 
panied him  to  Missouri  and  Nauvoo,  where  he 
was  one  of  the  three  presidents  of  the  new 
Church.  He  refused  to  acknowledge  the  authority 
of  Brigham  Young  after  the  death  of  Smith,  was 
excommunicated  for  contumacy,  and  returned  to 
Pittsburg,  but  never  gave  up  his  Mormon  faith. 
He  died  at  Friendship,  N.  Y. 

BIGG^  James  Habbison  (1821—).  An  Eng- 
lish clergyman  and  educator,  born  at  Newcastle- 
on-Tyne.  He  was  educated  at  Old  Kingswood 
School  and  entered  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Min- 
istry in  1846.  In  1868  he  became  principal  of 
the  Wesleyan  Training  College,  Westminster, 
London.  He  was  English  correspondent  of  the 
New  York  Christian  Advocate,  and  for  several 
years  was  on  the  staff  and  afterwards  became 
sole  editor  of  the  London  Quarterly  Revieic,    His 


d6  EIGGfi. 

works  include:  Wesleyan  Methodism  and  Con- 
gragationalism  Contrasted  (1852)  ;  Modem  An- 
glican Theology  (1857,  1859,  1880)  ;  The  Church- 
manship  of  John  Wesley  (1868,  1878,  1886) ;  The 
JAving  Wesley  (1875,  1891);  Dr,  Pusey,  His 
Character  and  Life  Work  (1883);  and  Oxford 
High  Anglicanism  and  Its  Chief  Leaders  (1895, 
1899). 

BIGGING  (from  n<7,  from  Norweg.,  dialectic 
Swed.  rigga,  to  rig;  probably  connected  with  AS. 
wrSon,  ONorthumb.  tcria,  archaic  Eng.  trry,  to 
cover).  The  rigging  of  a  vessel  includes  all  the 
ropes  and  chains  used  to  support  or  operate  her 
masts,  yards,  booms,  gaffs,  sails,  etc.  It  is  of 
two  kinds,  standing  rigging  and  running  rigging. 
The  former  is  semi-permanent  and  chiefly  con- 
sists of  supports  to  the  masts  such  as  shrouds, 
stays,  backstays,  etc.  When  once  in  position 
these  are  not  moved  except  when  they  require 
slight  adjustment  or  renewal.  Yards,  gaffs,  and 
booms  have  some  standing  rigging  for  their  sup- 
port or  for  other  purposes.  Standing  rigging  is 
usually  of  wire  or  hemp  rope;  if  the  former  it 
is  commonly  painted,  or  galvanized,  or  both;  if 
of  hemp,  it  is  tarred.  For  further  preservation 
standing  rigging  is  parceled  (wrapped  with 
tarred  or  painted  canvas)  and  served  (wrapped 
closely  with  marline  or  spun  yam).  The  running 
rigging  of  a  ship  comprises  the  moving  or  mov- 
able ropes  which  are  used  to  operate  the  yards, 
gaffs,  booms,  and  sails,  or  to  raise  and  lower  the 
upper  masts,  hoist  weights,  and  the  like.  Such 
ropes  are  chiefly  of  manila  fibre,  but  some  are 
of  untarred  hemp  or  cotton  and  others  of  flexible 
wire  or  chain.  The  most  important  ropes  of  the 
running  rigging  are  the  braces  (used  to  swing 
the  yards  or  keep  them  properly  pointed),  the 
halliards  (used  to  hoist  the  yards  or  sails),  and 
the  gear  attached  to  the  sails  (q.v.),  such  as 
sheets,  clewlines,  buntlines,  etc^  See  Sail;  also 
Ship. 

BIGGS,  EuAS  (1810-1901).  An  American 
missionary  and  linguist.  He  was  born  at  New 
Providence,  New  Jersey,  graduated  at  Amherst 
0)llege  in  1829,  and  at  Andover  Theological  Sem- 
inary in  1832.  The  same  year  he  was  ordained 
a  Presbyterian  missionary  and  entered  the  serv- 
ice of  the  American  Board.  The  first  six  years 
of  his  missionary  career  were  spent  in  Athens 
and  Argos.  In  1838  he  was  transferred  to  Smyr- 
na, and  in  1853  to  Constantinople,  where  he 
continued  in  the  service  of  the  American  Board 
until  his  death.  Between  1856  and  1858  he  vis- 
ited America  and  during  this  time  superintended 
the  publication  of  his  Armenian  Bible  and  taught 
in  the  Union  Theological  Seminary.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  committee  appointed  by  the  Brit- 
ish and  Foreign  Bible  Society  and  the  American 
Bible  Society  to  prepare  the  publication  of  the 
Turkish  Bible  in  both  Arabic  and  Armenian  ver- 
sions, which  was  aecomplished  in  1878;  and 
again  a  member  of  the  revising  committee  who 
prepared  a  version  suitable  to  the  needs  of  com- 
mon readers,  issued  in  1886.  He  published  A 
Manual  of  the  Chaldee  Language,  Containing  a 
Grammar,  Chrestomathy,  and  a  Vocabulary, 
(1832,  and  subsequent  editions)*;  Orammatical 
Notes  on  the  Bulgarian  Language  (1844)  ;  Gram- 
mar of  the  Modem  Armenian  Language,  vnth  a 
Vocabulary  (1847);  Grammar  of  the  Turkish 
Lafiguage  as  Written  in  the  Armenian  Character 
(1856)  ;  Translation  of  the  Scriptures  into  the 


BIGGS. 


27 


BIGHTa 


Uodem  Armenian  Language,  with  the  aid  of  na- 
tive scholars  (1853,  and  subsequently)  ;  Transla- 
tion of  the  Scriptures  into  the  Bulgarian  Lan- 
guage, assisted  by  native  scholars  and  the  Rev. 
Albert  L.  Long  (1871)  ;  A  Harmony  of  the  Gos- 
pels, in  Bulgarian  (1880);  A  Bible  Dictionary, 
in  Bulgarian    (1884). 

BIQCH3,  James  Stevenson  (1853—).  An 
American  Presbyterian  theologian^  bom  in  New 
York  City.  He  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1874, 
and  after  two  years  at  Leipzig  and  Tttbingen 
entered  Auburn  Theological  Seminary.  There  he 
graduated  in  1880,  and  in  1884,  after  a  pastorate 
at  Fulton,  N.  Y.,  became  adjunct  professor  of 
biblical  Greek.  In  1892  he  was  appointed  to  the 
chair  of  biblical  criticism  and  New  Testament. 
His  publications  include  The  Bible  in  Art 
{ 1895)  and  A  History  of  the  Jetcish  People  Dur- 
ing the  Maccahean  and  Roman  Periods  (1900). 

SIOGS,  Stephen  Retukn  (1812-83).  A  mis- 
sionary among  the  American  Indians,  bom  in 
Steufaenville,  Ohio.  He  was  educated  at  the  Rip- 
ley (Ohio)  Latin  School,  Jefferson  College,  and 
the  Western  Theological  Seminary  at  Allegheny, 
and  in  1837  was  commissioned  missionary  at 
Fort  Snelling.  During  the  early  years  of  his 
work  he  found  time  to  publish  lesson  books  in 
Dakotah,  and  to  prepare  the  manuscript  for  his 
Grammar  and  Dictionary  of  the  Dakotah  Lan- 
guage, which  was  published  by  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  (1852).  In  1883  his  Dakota-English 
Dictionary  was  published  by  the  Bureau  of 
Ethnology. 

BIGHIy  r^gd.  A  mountain  of  Switzerland. 
See  RiGi. 

"BlOrHlf  AuousTO  ( 1850— ) .  An  Italian  phys- 
icist. He  was  bom  in  Bologna  and  was  edu- 
cated at  the  university  of  that  town.  After  hold- 
ing various  positions  in  the  Physical  Institute, 
he  was  called  to  be  professor  of  physics  at  the 
University  of  Palermo,  and  was  then  elected 
professor  of  physics  in  the  University  of  Bo- 
K^na,  Italy.  Professor  Kighi  has  devoted  himself 
almost  entirely  to  the  field  of  electricity  and  mag- 
netism. His  researches  in  regard  to  the  connec- 
tion between  the  magnetization  of  bismuth  and 
other  substances  and  their  conduction  of  heat 
and  electricity  are  classical.  Immediately  after 
the  discovery  by  Hertz  of  the  physical  methods 
for  the  investigation  of  electro-magnetic  waves 
Righi  took  up  this  line  of  work  and  made  many 
important  advances.  It  was  in  the  elaboration 
of  certain  methods  due  to  Professor  Righi  and  by 
simple  changes  in  his  apparatus  that  Marconi 
succeeded  in  making  use  commercially  of  electric 
waves  in  wireless  telegraphy  (q.v.). 

BIGHT  (AS.  riht,  Goth,  raihts,  OHO.  reht, 
Ger.  recht,  right;  connected  with  Lat.  rectus, 
Av.  raita,  right,  straight,  Skt.  rju,  right,  and 
with  Lat.  regere,  to  direct,  rule,  Ok.  dpiyeiv^ 
oregein,  to  stretch  out),  The.  In  European  poli- 
tics, the  name  generally  given  to  conservative 
parties  in  the  national  assembly.  See  Political 
Pabties. 

BIGHT  OP  WAY.     See  Way. 

BIGHTS,  Ctvil.  In  the  most  general  sense, 
rights  secured  to  the  individual  by  civil  or 
municipal  law.  As  thus  employed  the  phrase  is 
nearly  identical  with  l^^al,  as  distinguished  from 
moral  or  merely  abstract  rights.  It  does  not  in 
a  given  case  necessarily  comprehend  all  the  privi- 
Tou  XV.— 8. 


leges  of  citizenship,  still  less  the  privileges  which 
]>olitical  philosophers  may  claim  as  incident  to 
citizenship.  Thus  the  rights  to  life,  to  liberty,  and 
to  the  pursuit  of  happiness,  asserted  in  the 
American  Declaration  of  Independence,  are  civil 
rights  only  in  so  far  as  they  are  defined  and  pro- 
tected by  the  Constitution  and  laws  of  the  United 
States.  Further  than  that  they  are  merely  rhe- 
torical and  philosophical  claims  as  to  the  right- 
ful position  of  the  individual  in  organized  society. 

The  expression  'civil  rights*  thus  includes  the 
rights  which  people  have  and  are  legallv  capable 
of  enforcing  against  one  afiother,  as  well  as  those 
rights  which  individuals  may  assert  and  defend 
against  the  State.  It  is  sometimes  employed  in 
a  more  limited  sense,  as  referring  only  to  the 
latter  class  of  rights,  such  as  are  asserted  in  the 
Declaration  of  Rights  made  by  the  Lords  and 
Commons  of  England  at  Westminster  in  1688 
and  presented  to  William  of  Orange  and  Mary, 
his  wife,  as  the  conditions  of  their  accession  to 
the  throne,  the  Bill  of  Rights  passed  by  the  Brit- 
ish Parliament  in  1689,  such  provisions  of  law 
as  are  embodied  in  the  first  ten  amendments  to 
the  Federal  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
and  corresponding  or  similar  provisions  in  the 
constitutions  of  the  several  States.  These  pro- 
visions relate  to  the  religious  freedom  of  the 
citizen,  to  liberty  of  speech  and  of  the  press,  to  the 
ri^ht  to  assemble  and  petition  for  the  redress  of 
grievances,  to  the  right  to  bear  arms,  to  the  pro- 
tection of  the  individual  against  arbitrary  arrest, 
to  the  guarantee  of  an  orderly  administration  of 
justice,  to  the  right  of  habeas  corpus,  and  to 
security  against  arbitrary  interference  with  prop- 
erty and  the  like. 

In  the  United  States  the  phrase  *civil  rights*  is 
employed  in  a  specific  sense  to  denote  the  rights 
intended  to  be  secured  by  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  amendmente  to  the  Federal  Constitu- 
tion, adopted  in  1868  and  1870  respectively,  and 
by  certain  acts  of  Congress  and  of  the  Legisla- 
tures of  the  several  States  to  the  same  effect. 
These  constitutional  provisions  and  legislations 
were  a  part  of  the  reconstruction  policy  of  the 
Government  and  were  intended  to  secure  the  re- 
cently emancipated  slaves  in  their  freedom  and  in 
the  exercise  of  the  rights  of  citzenship  which  had 
been  conferred  upon  them.  The  more  important 
provisions  of  the  two  amendments  referred  to 
are  (1)  those  forbidding  the  States  to  make  or 
enforce  any  law  which  shall  abridge  the  privi- 
leges or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the  United 
States,  or  to  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty, 
or  property  without  due  process  of  law,  or  to 
deny  to  any  person  the  equal  protection  of  the 
laws ;  ( 2 )  that  providing  for  the  reduction  of  the 
representation  of  a  State  in  Congress  in  propor- 
tion to  the  number  of  its  male  citizens  over 
twentv-one  years  of  age  who  are  denied  the  right 
of  suffrage;  and  (3)  that  which  declares  that  the 
right  of  the  citizens  of  the  United  States  to 
vote  shall  not  be  abridged  by  the  United  states 
or  by  any  State,  on  account  of  race,  color,  or 
previous  condition  of  servitude. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  these  provisions 
of  the  Constitution  have  failed  of  their  object 
and  that  they  have  done  little  to  secure  to  the 
negro  in  America  the  civil  rights  to  which  they 
refer.  As  to  the  second  provision  above  enumer- 
ated, no  effort  has  been  made  by  the  National 
Government  to  enforce  it.  The  third  provision  has 
been  generally  evaded  in  the  Southern  States,  and 


&I0HTS. 


28 


BIOHTS. 


in  some  of  them  the  negro  has  been  effectually  ex- 
cluded from  the  suffrage  by  constitutional  and 
statutory  provisions  prescribing  strict  educational 
or  property  qualifications  for  the  exercise  of  the 
right  to  vote. 

The  first  provision,  which  aims  to  secure  to 
all  citizens  equality  of  rights  and  privileges, 
though  not  as  completely  futile  as  the  others  to 
which  reference  has  been  made,  has  had  a  very 
limited  effect.  Being  by  its  terms  restricted  to 
the  acts  of  States,  it  does  not  extend  to  the 
acts  of  individuals,  even  though  they  be  State 
officials  in  the  performance  of  their  public  duties. 
Thus  a  statute  of  West  Virginia  providing  that 
juries  should  be  composed  of  'white  male  citi- 
zens' is  in  conflict  with  the  constitutional  pro- 
vision, and  therefore  void;  but  the  act  of  a 
county  judge  in  habitually  excluding  negroes 
from  the  juries  which  he  was  authorized  by  law 
to  select  from  the  citizens  of  the  county  at  large 
was  not  controlled  by  the  provision  in  question. 
Then,  too,  the  operation  of  the  provision  has 
been  more  restricted  by  judicial  construction,  as 
in  the  decision  that  a  statute  forbidding  the  in- 
termarriage of  whites  and  blacks  was  not  within 
the  condemnation  of  the  Constitution,  as  the 
amendment  in  question  was  designed  to  secure 
rights  of  a  civil  and  political  nature  only  and 
not  social  or  domestic  rights.  It  has  also  been 
held  that  the  amendment  does  not  add  to  the 
privileges  and  immunities  of  citizens,  but  only 
protects  those  which  they  already  have.  Thus  it 
does  not  extend  the  franchise  nor  the  right  to 
serve  on  juries  to  negroes  or  to  women  who  do 
not  already  possess  it. 

These  illustrations  show  that  the  civil  rights 
legislation  of  the  nation  at  large  has  been  of 
little  effect.  The  more  immediate  and  complete 
jurisdiction  of  the  several  States  over  their  citi- 
zens, however,  renders  legislation  of  this  char- 
acter when  enacted  by  them  much  more  effica- 
cious. Several  of  the  Northern  States  have  ac- 
cordingly passed  effective  civil  rights  laws  of  the 
general  tenor  of  the  constitutional  provisions 
above  considered,  but  aimed  at  individual  rather 
than  governmental  interference  with  such  rights. 
Thus  in  many  of  the  States  railroad  and  other 
transportation  companies,  hotels^  theatres,  school 
boards,  etc.,  are  forbidden  to  discriminate  against 
persons  because  of  their  color  or  previous  condi- 
tion of  servitude,  and  such  laws  have  been  found 
to  be  reasonably  capable  of  enforcement.  The 
strong  sentiment  of  the  decade  immediately  fol- 
lowing the  Civil  War  has  to  a  considerable  extent 
abated,  however,  and,  though  the  negro  is  still 
far  from  the  enjoyment  of  the  civil  rights  of  his 
white  fellow-citizens,  the  demand  for  such  legis- 
lation as  that  above  described  has,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  twentieth  century,  well  nigh  died  out. 
This  is  probably  due  in  a  measure  to  a  growing 
conviction  that  such  rights  are  rather  to  be  won 
by  the  growth  of  intelligence,  virtue,  and  indus- 
tiy,  than  gained  by  legislation. 

BIGHTS,  Declabation  and  Bill  of.  A  state- 
ment of  the  fundamental  rights  of  the  English 
nation  prepared  by  the  convention  which  called 
the  Prince  and  Princess  of  Orange  to  the  throne 
of  England  after  the  Revolution  of  1688,  and 
which  was  imposed  on  William  and  Mary  as  a 
condition  of  their  succession  to  the  crown.  This 
declaration,  drawn  up  by  a  committee  of  the 
Commons,  and  assented  to  by  the  Lords,  began 
by  declaring  that  King  James  II.  had  committed 


certain  acts  contrary  to  the  laws  of  the  realm. 
The  King,  by  whose  authority  these  unlawful  acts 
had  been  done,  had  adbicated  the  throne ;  and  the 
Prince  of  Orange  having  invited  the  estates  of  the 
realm  to  meet  and  deliberate  on  the  security  of 
religion,  law,  and  freedom,  the  Lords  and  Com- 
mons had  resolved  to  declare  and  assert  the 
ancient  rights  and  liberties  of  England. 

This  declaration  of  rights  was  presented  to 
the  Prince  and  Princess  of  Orange  at  Whitehall, 
and  accepted  by  them  with  the  crown.  Being 
originally  a  revolutionary  instrument,  drawn  up 
in  an  irregular  assembly,  it  was  considered 
necessary  that  it  should  be  turned  into  law.  The 
declaration  of  rights  was  therefore  brought  for- 
ward in  the  Parliament,  into  which  the  conven- 
tion had  been  turned,  as  a  bill  of  rights,  and 
passed  the  Commons;  but  an  amendment  pro- 
posed in  the  Lords  regarding  the  settlement  of 
the  crown  on  the  issue  of  the  Princess  Sophia,  in 
the  event  of  Mary,  Anne,  and  William  all  dying 
without  issue,  led  to  several  ineffectual  confer- 
ences between  the  two  Houses,  which  ended  in 
the  measure  being  dropped.  The  bill  was,  how- 
ever, reintroduced  in  the  following,  session  of 
Parliament  (1689)  without  the  proposed  amend-, 
ment,  when  it  passed  both  Houses,  and  obtained 
the  royal  assent — ^a  clause,  however,  being  added, 
which  originated  in  the  House  of  Lords,  to  the 
effect  that  the  kings  and  queens  of  England 
should  be  obliged,  on  coming  to  the  throne,  in 
full  Parliament  or  at  the  coronation,  to  repeat 
and  subscribe  the  declaration  against  transub- 
stantiation,  and  that  a  king  or  queen  who  should 
marry  a  Roman  Catholic  would  be  incapable  of 
reignmg  in  England,  and  his  or  her  subjects 
would  be  absolved  from  their  allegiance.  The  coro- 
nation provisions  in  the  Declaration  of  Rights 
have  been  closely  adhered  to  in  England  ever 
since  the  days  of  William,  but  recent  enactments 
of  Parliament  (1901)  have  rendered  it  possible 
to  make  certain  modifications  in  the  coronation 
oath,  whereby  Roman  Catholics  may  not  be  of- 
fended, especially  in  the  declaration  against 
transubstantiation.  The  text  of  this  declaration 
may  be  found  in  Adams  and  Stephens,  Select 
Documents  of  English  Constitutional  History 
(New  York,  1901). 

BIGHTS,  Legal.  In  attempting  to  define  a 
legal  right,  juristic  writers  lay  more  or  less  stress 
upon  the  following  points:  (1)  A  legal  right  is 
a  power  or  complex  of  powers  accorded  by  the 
law  to  a  person,  natural  or  ideal.  The  person  to 
whom  a  right  is  accorded,  in  whom  it  is  'vested,* 
is  sometimes  termed  the  'person  of  inherence.' 
( 2 )  A  legal  right  implies  a  general  duty  of  all 
other  persons  not  to  interfere  with  its  exercise. 
If  a  right  entitles  its  holder  to  demand  from  a 
particular  person  a  special  forbearance  or  a 
special  act,  a  special  duty  rests  upon  that  per- 
son. The  persons  upon  whom  duties  rest,  or 
against  w^hom  rights  run,  are  sometimes  termed 
'persons  of  incidence.'  (3)  From  the  correspond- 
ence of  rights  and  duties  it  results  that  the  law 
may  create  rights  by  implication,  by  imposing 
general  pr  special  duties.  (4)  Rights  are  lim- 
ited powers.  Unlimited  powers  belong  ©nly  to 
the  sovereign,  the  State.  (5)  Rights  protect  in- 
terests. The  interests  protected  may  be  public 
or  private  or  mixed. 

It  is  not  always  admitted  that  every  legal 
right  implies  a  corresponding  general  duty  of 
non-interference.    It  is  often  asserted  that  obli- 


BJOHTa 


20 


&IOBTS  07  HAN. 


gations  which  are  rights  in  personam  (q.v.), 
calling  for  acts  of  forbearance  from  par- 
ticular' persons,  imply  no  duties  resting  upon 
other  persons.  Interference  between  obligors  and 
obligees  is,  however,  possible;  and  in  some  cases 
the  law  affords  remedies.  The  question  is  of 
practical  importance,  because  the  theory  that  the 
rights  of  a  creditor  (e.g.  those  of  an  employer) 
have  no  protection  against  the  acts  of  third  per* 
sons  tends  to  impede  the  development  by  the 
ccMirts  of  adequate  remedies  for  interference  with 
Buch  rights. 

If  all  rights  run  against  all  members  of  the 
community,  it  is  unnecessary  and  confusing  to 
assert  this  especially  of  rights  in  rem  (q.v.). 
Properly,  speaking,  the  substantive  right  in  rem 
has  no  personal  incidence  until  it  is  infringed. 
The  infringement  begets  a  remedial  right  which 
ha&  personal  incidence. 

The  right  in  its  personal  incidence  was  termed 
by  the  Romans  act  to,  and  is  termed  in  English 
law  ^right  of  action.'  The  Grerman  law  uses  the 
word  *ciaim*  {Anspruch) . 

By  substantive  rights  we  mean  those  rights 
which  constitute  part  of  the  normal  legal  oraer. 
Purely  personal  rights  (life,  liberty,  physical  in- 
tegrity, reputation,  etc.),  family  rights,  rights 
in  rem,  and  rights  in  personam  which  impose 
upon  the  person  of  incidence  no  duty  except  of 
forbearance — all  these  rights  contemplate  the 
maintenance  of  a  certain  state  of  affairs. 
As  long  as  the  contemplated  state  of  af* 
fairs  is  maintained,  these  rights  are  satis- 
fied. When  it  is  disturbed,  remedial  rights 
come  into  existence.  The  prime  remedial  right, 
which  every  legal  system  recognizes,  is  that 
of  defense  against  wrongful  aggression.  Early 
law  gives  further  rights  of  self-help,  but  in  every 
highly  developed  system  these  are  greatly  re- 
stricted. The  private  person  whose  right  has 
been  violated  is  regularly  referred  for  redress  to 
the  courts;  his  remedial  rights  are  rights  of 
action  in  the  narrower  sense.  If  the  invasion  of 
the  right  is  also  a  crime,  the  modem  State  exacts 
penalty  of  its  own  motion. 

When  substantive  rights  in  personam  impose 
upon  the  person  of  incidence  a  positive  duty,  e.g. 
to  pajT  money  or  to  do  something,  the  right  is 
unsatisfied  until  the  duty  is  performed.  In  such 
a  case  a  remedial  right  (right  of  action)  exists 
side  by  side  with  the  substantive  right  from  the 
outset".  This  distinction  is  of  importance  in  the 
law  of  prescription  or  limitation  of  actions  (doc- 
trine of  actio  nata).  Some  writers  assert  that 
in  these  cases  there  is  no  substantive  right  that 
is  distinguishable  or  separable  from  the  remedial 
right,  but  this  is  not  the  view  held  by  the  Eng- 
lish courts. 

Logically  remedial  rights  are  a  consequence  of 
substantive  rights:  'where  there  is  a  right  there 
is  a  remedy.'  Historically  substantive  rights 
have  been  defined  gradually  by  the  development 
of  remedies  to  meet  particular  wrongs. 

The  essential  elements  of  rights  related  as 
means  and  ends  are  power  and  interest.  These 
elements  are  separable.  Power  may  be  held  by 
one  person  in  the  interest  of  another  or  of  others. 
This  is  the  aspect  which  family  rights — rights  of 
husbands,  fathers,  and  guardians — assume  in 
highly  developed  law.  This  is  the  position  as- 
signed in  English  law  to  executors  and  adminis- 
trators. This  is  also  at  every  legal  system  the 
position  of  the  corporation.    The  legal  power  is 


held 
tion. 


by  the  ideal  or  juristic  person,  the  corpora- 
The  interest  may  be  that  of  the  members, 
as  in  the  ordinary  private  corporation;  or  it  may 
be  that  of  the  public,  or  of  a  section  of  the  public, 
as  in  the  charitable  corporation,  in  the  State,  ana 
in  all  the  subdivisions  of  the  State.  In  all  these 
cases  of  separation  of  power  and  interest,  the 
'legal  right'  is  in  the  natural  or  ideal  person  who 
holds  the  power,  and  the  'equitable  right'  in  the 
persons  whose  interests  are  represented — ^the 
beneficiaries. 

Corporations,  unless  prohibited  by  statute,  may 
hold  legal  rights  when  the  corresponding  interest 
is  that  of  another  corporation.  Tnis  is  the  origin 
of  the  popular  term  'trust,'  now  loosely  applied 
to  all  extensive  industrial  and  financial  combina- 
tions. A  State  may  hold  power  in  the  interest 
of  other  than  its  members.  During  the  period 
intervening  between  the  Spanish-American  treaty 
of  peace  and  the  establishment  of  the  Cuban  Re- 
public, the  United  States,  as  the  Supreme  Court 
affirmed,  held  the  sovereignty  of  Cuba  in  trust. 

When  a  private  person,  natural  or  juristic, 
holds  a  legal  right  which  subserves  not  only  the 
interest  of  the  holder,  but  a  public  interest  also 
(mixed  interest),  such  private  person  or  corpora- 
tion is  in  reality  a  quasi  trustee.  The  right  held 
is  said  to  be  'affected  with  a  public  use,'  and  its 
exercise  is  subjected  to  public  control. 

The  distinction  between  private  and  public 
rights  is  based  on  the  character  of  the  interest 
subserved  rather  than  on  the  legal  position  of 
the  person  who  exercises  the  power.  When  a 
citizen  is  exercising  his  right  of  voting  we  do  not 
term  him  a  public  officer,  but  he  is  exercising  a 
public  right.  When  the  State  or  any  public  cor- 
poration holds  property  as  a  financial  investment 
or  enters  into  a  contract,  the  rights  accruing  to 
the  State  should  be  treated  as  private  rights. 
This  is  the  theory  of  the  civil  law  (State  as 
fiscus),  but  not  of  the  English  law  as  regards 
the  sovereign  nor  of  the  American  law  as  regards 
the  nation  or  the  several  States.  In  Anglo- 
American  law,  however,  the  correct  theory  is 
applied  in  the  case  of  other  public  corporations; 
and  in  our  law  we  are  working  toward  the  correct 
practice  through  the  establishment  of  courts  of 
claims.  For  literature,  consult  the  works  re- 
ferred to  under  Jubispbudence  ;  see  also  Jus- 
tice; Law;  Natubal  Law. 

BIGHTS,  Natural.    See  Natubal  Law. 

BI0HTS  OF  MAN.  The  term  applied  to  a 
group  of  fundamental  rights  embodied  in 
a  famous  declaration  adopted  by  the  French 
National  Assembly  on  August  26,  1789.  It  was 
drawn  up  principally  bv  Dumont  in  response  to 
the  suggestion  contained,  in  several  of  the  cahiera 
that  in  order  to  prevent  the  recurrence  of  abuses 
a  clear  statement  of  the  rights  of  the  individual 
should  be  prepared  and  given  the  sanction  of  the 
estates.  It  declares  that  all  men  are  born  and 
remain  equal  in  rights;  that  social  distinctions 
can  be  founded  only  on  the  general  good;  that 
law  is  the  expression  of  the  general  will  and 
every  citizen  has  a  right  to  participate  in  its 
enactment  either  personally  or  through  his  repre- 
sentative; that  public  burdens  should  be  borne 
by  all  members  of  the  State  in  proportion  to 
their  ability;  that  the  elective  franchise  should 
be  extended  to  all ;  that  no  one  should  be  accused, 
arrested,  or  imprisoned  except  according  to  due 
process  of  law;  that  no  one  should  be  disturbed 
on  account  of  his  religous  opinions;  that  the  free 


BIOHTS  OF  HAN. 


interchange  of  ideas  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
rights  of  the  citizen  and  hence  every  one  may 
freely  write,  speak,  or  print  without  interference 
although  subject  to  responsibility  for  abuse  of  the 
right;  that  all  citizens  have  a  right  to  decide  per- 
sonally or  through  their  representatives  as  to  the 
necessity  of  public  contributions,  to  know  how 
they  are  applied,  etc.  The  declaration  aroused 
general  enthusiasm  throughout  France  and  ap- 
peared in  modified  form  in  the  succeeding  French 
constitutions  down  to  1848,  and  has  served  as  a 
model  for  similar  declarations  in  other  Conti- 
nental countries.  Louis  XVI.  under  the  pressure 
of  the  events  of  October  5,  after  first  refusing, 
was  induced  to  support  it.  Much  of  the  political 
philosophy  embodied  in  the  French  declaration 
had  appeared  in  the  American  Declaration  of 
Independence  and  in  the  famous  Virgina  bill  of 
rights  of  1776.  The  principles  embc^ied  in  the 
Rights  of  Man  were  attacked  by  Edmund  Burke 
in  his  Reflections  on  the  French  Revolution  and 
characterized  as  a  declaration  of  anarchy.  It 
was  in  reply  to  Burke's  views  that  Thomas 
Paine  (q.v.)  wrote  his  Rights  of  Man,  for  which 
he  was  prosecuted  in  London  for  libel  and  found 
guilty.  For  the  text  of  the  French  Declaration 
consult  Robinson,  Readings  in  European  History 
(New  York,  1903) ;  consult,  also,  Abbott,  Rights 
of  Man  (ib,,  1902). 

BIOHT  WHALE.  The  Greenland  whale 
{BaUgna  mysticetus),  the  foremost  of  the  whale- 
bone whales,  so  called  because  it  was  considered 
by  the  early  whalemen  of  the  North  Atlantic 
the  'right'  or  'proper'  whale  among  the  various 
species  they  encountered.  See  Plate  of  Whales 
and  Colored  Plate  of  Mammalia. 

BIOI,  r«^g6,  or  BIQHI.  An  isolated  moun- 
tain on  the  border  of  the  cantons  of  Schwyz  and 
Lucerne,  Switzerland,  between  lakes  Lucerne  and 
Zug  (Map:  Switzerland,  G  1).  Altitude,  6905 
feet.  It  commands  extensive  views  of  some  of 
the  finest  Swiss  scenery.  Two  rack-and-pinion 
railways  lead  up  to  the  summit.  The  entire 
mountain  is  covered  with  pastures  and  woods. 
Consult  Tttrler,  Der  Rigi  (Lucerne,  1893). 

BIOIB  BODY.     See  Mechanics. 

BFOOB  MOB^nS  (Lat.,  stifTness  of  death), 
or  PosT-MoBTEM  EiGiDiTT.  A  peculiar  evanes- 
cent stiffening  of  all  the  muscles  of  the  body 
which  occurs  shortly  after  death.  Both  the  vol- 
untary and  involunt4iiry  muscles  are  aifected.  The 
condition  begins  immediately  after  all  indications 
of  irritability  to  mechanical  or  electrical  stimu- 
lation have  ceased,  but  before  putrefaction  sets 
in.  It  affects  the  neck  and  lower  jaw  first,  then 
the  upper  extremities,  extending  from  above 
downward,  and  finally  reaches  the  lower  limbs. 
Rigor  comes  on  more  rapidly  after  muscular 
activity,  is  hastened  by  warmth  and  retarded  by 
cold.  When  death  is  the  result  of  acute  diseases, 
and  the  muscles  are  well  nourished,  muscular 
irritability  is  prolonged,  and  rigor  mortis  sets  in 
late,  and  persists  for  as  much  as  two  or  three 
days.  On  the  contrary,  when  death  occurs  from 
chronic  or  exhausting  disease,  rigidity  commences 
early  and  passes  off  rapidly.  Paralyzed  muscles 
are  not  exempt  from  rigor  mortis  provided  the 
paralysis  has  not  been  attended  with  excessive 
wasting  of  the  muscular  tissue.  During  the 
passage  of  a  muscle  into  rigor  mortis  heat  is  de- 
veloped, carbonic  acid  is  liberated,  and  the  reac- 
tion of  the  tissue  becomes  acid  instead  of  alka- 


80  RTT«EY. 

line.  The  cause  of  post-mortem  rigidity  is  now 
believed  to  be  chemical,  namely,  the  coagula- 
tion and  separation  of  the  muscle  plasma.  See 
Muscle. 

BIO- VEDA,  r!g^  vaM&.  The  oldest  and  moat 
important  of  the  four  Vedas.    See  Veda. 

BllSy  r€s,  Jacob  August  (1849—).  An 
American  journalist  and  author,  bom  at  Ribe, 
Denmark.  He  was  educated  in  the  Ribe  Latin 
School  and  came  to  the  United  States  in  1870. 
He  had  a  varied  experience  as  carpenter,  ooal- 
miner,  farm  laborer,  cabinet-maker,  traveling 
salesman,  and  newspaper  reporter,  became  editor 
of  the  South  Brooklyn  News  for  a  group  of  poli- 
ticians, and  afterwards  bought  and  for  a  time 
managed  the  paper.  In  1877  he  began  reportorial 
work  for  the  New  York  Tribune  and  soon  became 
police  reporter  for  that  paper.  Subsequently  he 
was  for  many  years  police  reporter  for  the  New 
York  Sun.  He  became  prominent  in  tenement- 
house  and  school  reform  in  the  congested  regions 
of  lower  New  York,  and  aided  greatly  in  the 
movement  which  introduced  parks  in  those  sec- 
tions. In  1896  and  1897  he  was  executive  offi- 
cer of  the  Good  Government  clubs,  and  in  1897 
became  secretary  of  the  New  York  Small  Parks 
Ck)mmission.  The  results  of  much  of  his  study 
among  the  poorer  classes  were  presented  in  his 
well-known  volume.  How  the  Other  Half  Lives 
(1890).  Other  works  by  him  are:  Out  of  Mul- 
berry Street,  a  collection  of  fiction  (1896);  A 
Ten  Years*  War  (1900)  ;  and  the  autobiography. 
The  Making  of  an  American  (1901),  first  pub- 
lished serially  in  The  Outlook. 

BIKWA,  rlk^vA,  or  BUKWA,  or  Lake  Leo- 
pold. A  lake  basin  in  German  East  Africa  lying 
in  a  branch  of  the  Rift  Valley,  50  miles  east  of  the 
southern  end  of  Lake  Tanganyika  (Map:  Africa, 
H  5).  Length,  about  100  miles;  width,  30.  High 
and  steep  mountains  surround  it.  In  the  diy 
season,  however,  the  greater  part  oi  the  baain 
is  a  dry  plain.  It  has  no  outlet,  and  its  water  is 
saline.  The  lake  is  rapidly  drying  up.  It  was 
discovered  in  1880  by  Thomson. 

"RVLEY,  Chables  Valentine  (1843-96).  A 
distinguished  entomologist,  bom  in  London,  Eng- 
land. He  studied  at  Dieppe  and  Bonn,  and  in 
1860  came  to  the  United  States.  In  1868  he  was 
appointed  State  entomologist  of  Missouri  and  he 
began  with  B.  D.  Walsh  the  publication  of  The 
American  Entomologist.  In  1877  he  was  appointed 
a  member  of  the  entomological  commission  to 
investigate  the  locust  plague  in  the  West,  and  in 
1878  he  became  United  States  entomologist,  in 
which  capacity  he  served  until  1894,  except  dur- 
ing the  years  1879  and  1880.  In  1884  he  became 
curator  of  insects  in  the  United  States  National 
Museum,  to  which  he  presented  his  collections. 
His  publications  were  very  numerous.  They  in- 
clude the  nine  Annual  Reports  on  the  Insects  of 
Missouri  (1868-77);  Potato  Pests  (1876);  Lo- 
cust Plague  in  the  United  States  (1877);  and 
Annual  Reports  of  the  Entomologist  of  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  (1878,  1881-94). 

Riley  w^as  ranked  as  the  foremost  economic 
entomologist  of  his  time.  He  organized  the 
Division  of  Entomology  of  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  and  was  identified  with 
the  great  progress  made  by  the  United  States 
in  the  discovery  of  remedies  for  injurious  insects. 
Fis  work  on  the  grapevine  phylloxera  gained 
him  many  honors  from  the  French  Government. 


BILEY. 


81 


KIHXEB. 


In  the  field  of  general  biology  he  is  known  by  his 
paper  "On  the  Causes  of  Variation  in  Organic 
Forms,"  published  in  the  Proceedings  of  the 
American  AseociaHon  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science  for  1888. 

KILST,  James  Whitcomb  ( 1853— ) .  A  pop- 
ular American  poet  and  public  reader,  who  first 
came  into  public  notice  as  "Benj.  F.  Johnson,  of 
Boone."  Riley's  father  was  a  well-to-do  lawyer 
of  Greenfield,  but  the  son,  instead  of  following 
the  law,  worked  first  as  a  sign-painter,  and  after- 
wards joined  a  company  of  strolling  actors,  for 
whom  he  used  to  remodel  songs  and  write  plays. 
His  fame  rests  in  part  on  his  brilliant  gift  of 
mimicry.  In  1873  he  got  a  position  on  the  staff 
of  the  Indianapolis  Journal,  to  which  paper  his 
first  verses  were  contributed  in  1875.  Much  of 
his  verse  is  written  in  the  so-called  'Hoosier'  dia- 
lect, but  many  of  his  most  beautiful  compositions 
are  in  pure  English.  The  dialect  poems  deal  with 
scenes  of  simple  life,  and  are  liked  for  their  hu- 
mor, pathos,  originality,  and  sincerity,  and  for  the 
feeling  for  Indiana  character  which  they  contain. 
Riley  is  also  a  genuine  poet  of  childhood.  His 
first  book  of  verse  appeared  in  1883,  entitled. 
The  Old  Swimming-Hole  and  'Leven  More  Poems, 
by  Benj.  F.  Johnson,  of  Boone,  and  since  then  the 
volumes  have  been  numerous.  Among  them  are : 
The  Boss  CHrl^  a  Christmas  Story,  and  Other 
Sketches  (1886),  in  prose;  Character  Sketches 
and  Poems  (1887);  Afterwhiles  (1888);  Old- 
Fashioned  Roses  (1888)  ;  Pipes  o*  Pan:  at  Zekes- 
hury  (1889) ;  Rhymes  of  Childhood  (1890) ;  The 
Flying  Islands  of  the  Night  (1891) ;  Neighborly 
Poems  ( 1891 ) ;  An  Old  Sweetheart  of  Mine 
(1891);  Ch-een  Fields  and  Running  Brooks 
(1803);  Poems  Here  at  Home  (1893);  Arma- 
zindy  (1894);  A  Child  World  (1896);  The 
Rubaiyat  of  Doc.  Sifers  (1899);  Home  Folks 
( 1900) ;  and  the  Book  of  Joyous  Children 
(1902). 

BIMBAXn),  rftN'b^,  Jean  Abthub  ( 1854-91 ) . 
A  French  poet  and  adventurer,  connected  wiUi 
the  Symbolist  movement  in  French  literature.  He 
was  bom  at  Charleville  (Ardennes),  and  was 
sent  to  a  good  school.  He  began  to  write  verses 
as  a  child,  and  ceased  to  write  them  at  nineteen. 
In  1871  he  went  to  Paris,  and  there  the  'Parnas- 
sians,' above  all  Verlaine,  welcomed  the  pre- 
ooeiouB  author  of  the  Batteau  Ivre,  His  connec- 
tion with  the  Commune  forced  him  to  leave 
France  shortly  after  this  date,  and,  accompanied 
by  Verlaine,  he  went  to  England  and  Belgium, 
where  he  had  a  violent  quarrel  with  his 
friend,  an  account  of  which  he  published  in 
Une  saison  en  enfer  (1873).  In  1880  he  went 
to  North  Africa,  where  he  became  a  trader  with 
headquarters  at  Harrar  and  Shoa.  By  1890 
he  had  accumulated  a  fortune  and  was  ready  to 
return  to  France,  and  to  resume  writing,  but  a 
tumor  had  developed  on  his  knee,  and  he  died 
at  a  hospital  in  Marseilles  after  the  amputa- 
tion of  the  leg.  His  poems  were  published  in 
Paris  in  1886,  by  Verlaine,  who  thought  the 
author  of  them  dead,  and  they  attracted  much  at- 
tention. The  Illuminations  contains  his  sonnet 
on  the  vowels,  and  the  few  other  poems  that 
make  him  one  of  the  most  original  of  French 
poets.  His  works  were  collected  by  his  brother- 
in-law,  Pateme  Berrichon,  who  also  gives  a 
sketch  of  his  life  in  Vie  de  Jean-Arthur  Rimbaud 
(1898).    Consult:  Whibley,  "A  Vagabond  Poet," 


in  Blackwoods  (Feb.,  1899),  and  Symons,  "Ar- 
thur Rimbaud,"  in  the  Saturday  Review  (May, 
1898). 

BIMBAULT,  EowABD  Fbaivcis  (1816-76). 
An  English  musical  writer  and  editor,  bom  in 
London.  His  father  was  Stephen  Francis  Rim- 
bault,  an  organist  and  composer,  and  from  him 
he  received  part  of  his  instruction.  In  addition 
to  this,  he  was  a  pupil  of  Samuel  Wesley  and  Dr. 
Crotch.  In  1838  he  began  to  give  lectures  on 
English  musical  history,  and  two  years  after- 
wards, with  E.  Taylor  and  W.  Chappell,  he  found- 
ed the  Musical  Antiquarian  Society.  He  was 
lecturer  at  the  Liverpool  Royal  Institute,  at  the 
Collc^ate  Institute,  and  at  the  Edinburgh  Philo- 
sophic Institute.  He  produced  only  a  few  works, 
the  operas  The  Fair  Maid  of  Islington  (1838) 
and  The  Castle  Spectre  (1839),  a  cantata,  Coun- 
try Life,  and  a  number  of  songs  of  which  Happy 
Land  is  the  favorite.  In  addition  to  these,  he 
wrote:  Who  Was  Jack  Wilson,  the  Singer  of 
Shakespeare's  Stagef  (1846)  ;  Bibliotheca  Madri- 
galiana  (1847)  ;  The  Early  English  Organ-Build- 
ers and  Their  Works  (1864);  and  J.  S,  Bach 
(1869). 

RTIfcfNl,  r6^m6-n6  (anciently  Ariminum),  A 
city  in  the  Province  of  Forll,  Italy,  situated  on 
the  Marecchia,  near  the  Adriatic,  70  miles  south- 
east of  Bologna  (Map:  Italy,  G  3).  Rimini 
has  regular  streets,  well-built  houses,  and  many 
fine  churches.  The  thirteenth-century  Qothic 
cathedral  was  rebuilt  in  the  Renaissance  style 
of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  interior  is  em- 
bellished with  all^orical  figures  and  frescoes. 
The  city  has  a  town  hall  with  a  picture  gallery; 
an  archfBological  museum;  and  a  library  of 
33,000  volumes.  There  are  a  technical  school 
and  a  school  of  navigation.  Among  the  objects 
of  interest  are  the  well-preserved  marble  bridge 
of  Augustus  over  the  Marecchia,  a  triumphal 
arch,  and  the  remains  of  an  amphitheatre. 
The  port  of  Rimini  is  crowded  with  ves- 
sels engaged  in  the  fisheries,  which  em- 
ploy nearly  half  the  population.  The  other 
mdustries  are  silk-spinning,  salt-refining,  and 
the  manufacture  of  glass,  rope,  and  furniture. 
Population  (commune),  in  1881,  37,078;  in  1901, 
43,203.  Rimini  was  founded  by  the  Umbrians. 
It  became  an  important  city  under  the  Romans, 
and  was  the  terminus  of  two  great  roads  leading 
from  Rome.  Here,  in  b.c.  49,  Julius  Cssar  began 
the  war  which  made  Rome  /in  empire.  In  the 
thirteenth  century  Rimini  passed  under  the  rule 
of  the  powerful  family  of  Malatesta  (q.v.),  who 
were  dispossessed  by  Cesare  Borgia  in  1600; 
then  for  25  years,  1>eginning  with  1503,  it  was 
subject  to  Venice.  It  was  a  Papal  possession 
from  1528  to  1797,  and  from  1815  to  1860.  The 
Council  of  Rimini,  held  in  359,  condemned  the 
teachings  of  Arius. 

BIMINI,  Fbancesca  da.  See  Fbancesca  da 
Rimini. 

BIM^MEB,  William  (1816-79).  An  Ameri- 
can sculptor,  born  in  Liverpool,  England.  He 
studied  medicine,  but  became  a  sculptor  and  lec- 
turer on  art  subjects.  He  delivered  the  first 
course  of  lectures  on  art  before  the  Lowell  Insti- 
tute of  Boston,  and  gave  courses  also  at  Harvard 
University,  and  (1870)  at  the  National  Academy 
in  New  York  City.  In  1866-70  he  was  director  of 
the  School  of  Design  of  Cooper  Institute,  New 
York.    His  sculptures  include  a  colossal  ^anite 


BIMMEB. 


82 


BIN0. 


head,  "Saint  Stephen,"  "Osiris,"  "The  Falling 
Gladiator,"  and  a  statue  of  Alexander  Hamilton 
(Boston).  He  published  a  volume  on  the  Ele- 
ments of  Design  (1864). 

BIMMOK.  The  name  of  a  Syrian  deity  who 
had  a  temple  in  Damascus,  according  to  II.  Kings 
V.  xviii.  The  word  also  occurs  in  proper 
names,  although  in  such  cases  it  is  frequently  dif- 
ficult to  decide  between  the  name  of  the  god  and 
the  word  for  pomegranate  (Heb.,  rimmon).  Rim- 
mon  is  now  identified  with  the  Babylono-Assyrian 
storm-god  Ramman,  who  is  also  thought  to  be 
the  same  as  the  Syrian  Hadad.  See  Hadad; 
Hamman. 

BIM^SKY-KOB^SAKOFFy  Nicholas  Andre- 
YEVITCH  ( 1844 — ) .  A  Russian  musician  and  com- 
poser, born  at  Tikhvin,  in  the  Government  of 
Novgorod.  He  became  connected  with  the  vari- 
ous important  national  musical  organizations, 
and  threw  his  infiuence  toward  the  encourage- 
ment and  development  of  a  national  Russian 
music.  With  BalakireiT  he  was  conductor  of  the 
Imperial  Orchestra  and  the  Russian  Symphony 
concerts.  His  compositions,  which  are  permeated 
with  the  Russian  spirit,  include  operas,  sympho- 
nies, church  music,  and  arrangements  of  Russian 
folk-songs.  He  also  wrote  an  important  theoreti- 
cal treatise  on  harmony. 

BIKALDO,  r^nai'dft  (Fr.  Renaud,  Regnault) , 
The  bravest  of  the  sons  of  Aymon  (q.v.).  He 
figures  prominently  in  the  Orlando  FuHoso,  Or- 
lando Innamorato,  Gerusalemme  Liherata,  Re- 
naud  de  Montauhan,  and  other  early  romances, 
French  and  Italian. 

BIKALDO  BINALDINI,  re'nAlde'n*.  A 
noted  robber  romance  by  Christian  August  Vul- 
pius  (1798),  which  was  translated  into  many 
languages.  It  is  the  prototype  of  innumerable 
romances  in  the  same  field.  A  revised  edition  by 
Gildemeister  appeared  in  1890. 

BINDFLEISCHy  rint^fiish,  Geobo  Eduard 
VON  ( 1836 — ) .  A  German  pathologist,  born  in  KS- 
then  and  educated  at  Heidelberg  and  WQrzburg. 
In  1856  he  went  to  Berlin  to  work  under  Vir- 
chow,  and' in  1861  became  Heidenhain's  assistant 
in  histology  at  the  University  of  Breslau.  After 
a  short  stay  in  Zurich  he  became  professor  at 
Bonn  in  1865  and  in  1874  at  Wttrzburg, 
where  a  splendid  pathological  institute  was  built 
under  his  direction.  He  studied  especially  the 
diseases  of  the  skin,  and  urged  the  scrofulous 
character  of  pulmonary  tuberculosis.  Rindfleisch*s 
chief  writings  are  Lehrhuch  der  patkologischen 
Oeicehelehre  (1866-69)  and  Elemente  der  Patho- 
logie  (1883),  which  were  both  translated  into 
French. 

BINE'HABT,  William  Henbt  (1825-74). 
An  American  sculptor,  bom  near  Union  Bridge, 
Carroll  County,  Md.  He  did  his  first  work  as  a 
sculptor  while  a  stone-cutter  in  a  quarry  on  his 
father's  farm.  In  1855  he  went  to  Florence, 
Italy,  and  in  1857  he  returned  to  Baltimore, 
where  he  executed  numerous  busts  and  the  two 
statuettes,  an  "Indian"  and  a  "Backwoodsman," 
which  act  as  supports  for  the  clock  in  the  House 
of  Representatives.  He  returned  to  Italy  in  1858, 
settling  at  Rome,  where  he  died.  In  1872  his 
marble  statue  of  Cliief  Justice  Taney  was  erected 
at  Annapolis;  there  is  a  replica  in  Mount  Ver- 
non Square,  Baltimore.  He  also  completed  the 
great  bronze  doors  of  the  Capitol  at  Washington, 


which  Crawford  left  unfinished  at  his  death. 
His  works  may  best  be  studied  in  the  Corcoran 
Art  Gallery,  Washington,  and  in  the  Peabody 
Institute,  Baltimore.  The  former  possesses  his 
"Atalanta,"  "Latona  and  Her  Children,"  "Diana," 
"Apollo,"  "Endymion,"  and  "Rebecca;"  in  the 
latter  are  the  works  left  in  the  sculptor's  studio 
at  his  death,  and  his  "Clytie  Forsaken  by  Apol- 
lo," which  is  considered  his  masterpiece. 

At  his  death  he  bequeathed  his  property  to  tWo 
trustees,  W.  T.  Walters  and  B.  F.  Newcomer, 
by  whose  skillful  management  it  was  augmented 
to  $100,000.  The  administration  of  this  fund 
was  then  given  over  to  the  Peabody  Insti- 
tute. Scholarships  for  the  encouragement  of 
young  sculptors  in  Paris  and  Rome  were  estab- 
lished and  in  other  ways  the  art  of  sculpture  was 
promoted. 

BIN0  (AS.  hring,  OHG.  hring,  ring,  Ger. 
Ring,  ring;  connected  either  with  0(ihurch  Slav. 
krangU,  circle,  or  with  Gk.  KpUos,  krikos,  ring,  or 
Skt.  Srnkhala,  chain).  In  the  arts,  a  solid  bar 
returning  into  itself,  or  a  more  flexible  body  of 
similar  general  form,  always  of  comparatively 
small  cross-measurement.  The  finger-ring  is  the 
most  important  form.  The  form  worn  in  ancient 
times  was  especially  the  signet-ring;  and  this 
was  often  worn  with  a  string  going  through  the 
stone  and  around  the  finger.  To  replace  this 
string  by  a  gold  or  silver  or  bronze  wire  was  an 
obvious  convenience.  When  once  the  signetrring 
was  established  in  popular  favor  It  became  so  mucli 
a  matter  of  course  that  bronze,  or  even  cheaper 
material,  was  used,  while  the  signet  was  often 
made  of  glass.  It  was  also  an  obvious  resource 
to  engrave  upon  the  metal  chaton  without  in- 
serting any  stone  whatever.  Gold  signet-rinss 
of  this  entirely  metallic  sort  are  common  both  in 
the  collections  of  antique  and  those  of  recent  Ori- 
ental finger-rings.  Several  rings  made  entirely 
of  glass  have  ^n  found  in  the  islands  of  the 
Mediterranean,  and  the  central  gem,  the  chaton, 
is  often  a  glass  cameo,  either  really  cut  with  the 
drill  and  wheel,  or  a  mere  cast  of  an  original. 

The  connection  of  the  finger-ring  with  the  mar- 
riage ceremony  is  not  essentially  a  Christian 
custom,  having  been  practiced  by  the  Jews,  and 
also  among  pagan  peoples,  like  the  Norsemen. 
The  ring  is  blessed  by  the  priest  and  placed  upon 
the  third  finger,  from  which  a  vein  is  supposed 
to  go  directly  to  the  heart. 

The  divided  ring,  so  arranged  that  one  person 
could  wear  it^  and  that  it  might  also  be  divided 
into  two  complete  rings,  has  been  used  for  be- 
trothals. Other  , finger-rings  are  made  which 
consist  of  several  hoops  linked  together  so  that 
they  cannot  be  separated,  but  will  drop  into  a 
chain,  and  are  then  capable  of  being  brought  to- 
gether and  worn,  although  it  is  a  puzzle  to  fit 
them  into  place. 

Many  savage  tribes,  and  semi-civilized  peoples, 
as  in  India,  load  the  limbs,  fingers,  and  eten  the 
toes  with  rings.  They  are  often  mentioned  in 
the  Bible  as  being  used  by  the  Jews'  and  other 
Oriental  peoples,  not  only  for  sealing  and  pur- 
poses of  ornament,  but  as  talismans  to  avert  evil 
and  bring  good.  The  Mohammedans  to-day  wear 
rings  inclosing  verses  from  the  Kotan.  Egyp- 
tian rings  were  often  engraved  with  ata  image  of 
the  scarab.  In  Greece  every  freeman  wore  a 
ring  of  gold,  silver,  or  brass,  except  the  Spartans, 
who  wore  rings  of  iron.    The  latter  custom  pre- 


BIKO. 


88 


BIKG  OF  THB  NIBELXTKOBV. 


Tailed  also  in  Bonie  under  the  Republic.  Under 
the  Empire  to  wear  a  gold  ring  was  the  special 
priTilege  of  the  senators,  but  afterwards  it  was 
extended  to  the  knights,  and  under  Justinian  it 
was  permitted  to  all  freemen.  The  Romans  prac- 
ticed *the  most  extravagant  luxury  with  rings, 
and  engraved  gems  were  especially  common. 
Among  Celtic  and  Germanic  tribes  rings  were  worn 
on  fingers,  wrists,  and  ankles,  and  especially  as 
torques,  a  kind  of  elaborate  collar  about  the 
neck.  The  knights  of  the  Middle  Ages  wore  iron 
rings  about  the  neck,  arms,  and  legs  as  a  symbol 
of  a  vow,  upon  the  fulfillment  of  which  the  ring 
was  removed. 

Many  quaint  customs  in  regard  to  rings  sur- 
vive from  the  Middle  Ages  and  even  from  earlier 
periods.  Oamp-rings,  supposed  to  heal  that  ail- 
ment, were  blessed  by  tne  King,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  healing  of  the  'King's  evil.' 
Poison-rings,  like  the  one  used  by  Hannibal  in 
his  suicide,  contained  a  layer  of  poison,  and  the 
Italian  annulo  del  morto  was  a  refined  means  of 
assassination  during  the  Middle  Ages.  The  ring 
played  an  important  part  in  the  principal  Vene- 
tian state  ceremony,  the  yearly  marriage  of  the 
republic  with  the  Adriatic.  From  the  Bucentaur, 
the  Doge  cast  a  ring  into  the  sea,  in  token  of  its 
subjection  to  the  Republic.  The  celebrated  fiah- 
erm€in*s  ring,  used  by  the  Pope,  is  engraved  with 
the  picture  of  Saint  Peter  in  a  boat,  and  the  name 
of  the  reigning  pontiff.  With  such  a  ring  all  the 
Papal  briefs  since  the  thirteenth  century  have 
becm  sealed.  Upon  the  Pope's  death  his  ring  is 
broken  and  another  is  presented  to  his  successor 
by  the  city  of  Rome.  The  ring  plays  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  coronation  of  a  king,  and  in 
the  investiture  of  bishops.  Before  the  invention 
of  coinage  rings  were  used  as  mone^,  as  is  re- 
corded of  the  Egyptians,  Israelites,  and  the  Ger- 
man and  Celtic  peoples  of  Europe,  and  to  this 
day  copper  rings  are  used  by  African  traders. 

Consult:  King,  Antique  Oema  and  Rings  (Lon- 
don, 1872)  ;  Jones,  Finger-Ring  Lore  (ib.,  1876)  ; 
Schneider,  Die  Gestaltung  dea  Ringes  vom  Mit- 
ielalter  hia  in  die  Neuzeit  (Mayence,  1878)  ;  Ed- 
wards, History  and  Poetry  of  Finger-Ringa  (New 
York,   1880). 

"BJNQy  Max  ( 1817-1901) .  A  German  novelist, 
bom  at  Zauditz,  near  Ratibor,  and  educated  at 
Breslau  and  Berlin.  He  practiced  medicine  un- 
til 1848,  and,  after  two  years  at  Breslau,  settled 
in  Berlin.  In  his  novels,  which  are  very  numer- 
ous, he  deals  with  modem  social  questions,  and 
displays  keen  observation  of  human  nature  and 
ability  to  portray  vividly  scenes  of  want  and 
misery.  Chief  among  his  works  are:  Die  Kinder 
Gottea  (1862)  ;  Verirrt  und  Erloat  (1856)  ;  John 
Milton  und  aeine  Zeit  (1B67)  ;  Roaenkreuzer  und 
Illuminaten  (1861)  ;  O^tier  und  Qvtzen  (2d  ed. 
1871)  ;  8ieg  der  lAehe  (1886) ;  and  Streher  und 
Kompfer  (1888). 

BINO  AND  THE  BOOK,  Thk.  A  poem  by 
Robert  Browning  (1869).  A  book  recording  an 
old  murder  in  Rome,  bought  by  the  poet,  sug- 
gested the  plan,  while  the  ring  is  the  circle  of 
evidence  about  the  theme.  Pompilia,  a  young 
girl,  is  married  to  an  elderly  Count  Guido  Fran- 
ceschini.  Each  is  deceived  as  to  the  other's 
wealth,  and  Pompilia  is  cruelly  treated.  She 
finally  escapes  to  join  her  adopted  parents  under 
the  eare  of  a  priest,  Caponsacchi.  Guido  pur- 
Bues  them  and  murders  Pompilia  and  her  parents. 


The  story  of  the  tragedy  is  told  in  ten  versions  by 
the  actors,  by  the  city,  by  certain  officials,  and  by 
the  Pope,  making  a  poem  of  20,000  lines.  The 
finest  parts  are  the  monologues  of  Pompilia,  the 
priest,  and  the  Pope. 

BINGKBILLEB  OULL  (so  called  from  the 
colored  ring  about  the  beak).  A  small  gull 
widely  distributed  throughout  the  interior  of 
North  America  and  along  the  coasts.  The  ^n- 
eral  color  is  light  pearl-blue,  the  outer  wmg- 
quills  black,  the  feet  and  bill  greenish,  and  the 
bill  encircled  at  the  angle  with  a  broad  band  of 
black.  This  gtiil  breeds  in  colonies  upon  north- 
ern sea-beaches  and  on  the  shores  of  the  lakes  of 
the  Northwestern  States  and  Canada,  and  mi- 
grates southward  in  winter. 

BINGBONE.  A  circle  of  bony  matter  around 
the  horse's  coronet,  most  common  in  the  fore 
legs  of  draught  horses  with  short  upright 
pasterns,  but  occasionally  also  on  the  hind  limbs 
of  lighter-bred  horses.  Excessive  work  on  hard 
roads  is  the  most  commonly  attributed  cause; 
proper  rest  and  nourishment  are  the  best  preven- 
tives. 

SINGKDOVE.  The  largest  and  most  common 
of  European  wild  pigeons  {Columba  palumbua), 
which  is  characterized  by  a  white  spot  on  each 
side  of  its  neck,  forming  a  nearly  continuous 
ring.    See  Pigeon. 

SINGBD  PABBOT.  Any  one  of  the  small 
long-tailed  Oriental  parrakeets  of  the  genus 
Palseornis,  especially  the  ring-necked  parrakeet 
{PaUgomia  torquatua),  which  ranges  from  India 
to  Cochin-China^  where  it  often  does  great  dam- 
age to  grain  crops.  Its  general  hue  is  green,  and 
the  neck  of  the  male  is  ornamented  with  a  rose- 
red  collar,  incomplete  in  front,  above  which  is  a 
black  ring  incomplete  behind.     See  Pabbakeet. 

BIN0  MONEY.  At  an  early  stage  of  society, 
prior  to  the  invention  of  coinage,  but  after  the 
inconveniences  of  direct  barter  had  been  discov- 
ered, the  precious  metals,  formed  into  rings,  were 
used  as  a  medium  of  exchange.  The  use  of  ring 
money  among  the  Egyptians  is  proved  by  repre- 
sentations in  their  wall  paintings.  The  gold  or 
silver  rings  were  formed  of  a  wire  or  bar  of 
metal  bent  into  a  circle,  but  not  quite  united  at 
the  extremities,  so  that  they  could  be  made  into 
a  chain,  from  which  portions  could  be  detached 
at  pleasure.  It  seems  probable  that  the  indi- 
vidual loops  were  not  adjusted  to  a  particular 
weight,  but  that  each  bundle  of  loops  amounted 
in  the  aggregate  to  a  particular  weight.  The 
ring  money  of  the  East  found  its  way  at  an  early 
period  to  Western  Europe  and  the  British 
Islands. 

BING-NECXED  8KAKE.  A  harmless 
American  snake  {Diadophia  punctatua),  about 
15  inches  long,  blue-black  above  and  orange-yel- 
low below,  with  a  yellow  ring  about  the  neck. 

BIKG  OF  THE  KIBELXTNGEN.  A  tetral- 
ogy of  music  dramas,  by  Richard  Wagner,  com- 
prising Daa  Rheingold,  Die  WalkurCf  Siegfried, 
and  Ootterdiimmerung.  The  story  is  taken  from 
the  Nibelungenlied,  but  contains  more  of  the  Norse 
than  German  elements.  The  plot  of  Wagner  con- 
cerns the  magic  nugget  of  gold  in  possession  of 
the  three  Rhine  maidens.  He  who  shall  forswear 
love  and  fashion  the  nugget  into  a  ring  shall 
gain  supreme  power  in  the  world.  In  the  Rhein- 
gold, Alberic,  the  Nibelung,  seizes  the  gold,  hav- 


BUra  OF  THE  KIBELUNaEN. 


84 


BIKGWOBM. 


ing  renounced  love,  and  he  fabricates  the  mighty 
ring.  He  also  causes  the  magic  Tarnhelm  (cap) 
to  be  made.  Wotan,  chief  of  the  gods,  has 
promised  to  give  Fr^ia  to  the  Giants  for  building 
his  castle.  They,  however,  accept  in  lieu  the  treas- 
ure which  Alberic  has  amassed  by  means  of  the 
ring.  The  maddened  Alberic  curses  the  ring  and 
its  possessor.  In  the  Walkure,  Siegmund  draws 
the  fateful  magic  sword  from  the  tree-tnmk,  and 
wins  the  love  of  Sieglinde.  Brunhilda  disobeys 
Wotan  by  trying  to  shield  Siegmund  in  his  mortal 
contest  with  the  lawful  Hunding  and  thus  having 
favored  Siegmund's  union  with  Sieglinde,  the 
mother  of  the  future  Siegfried.  Brunhilda  is 
condemned  by  Wotan  to  helpless  sleep,  encircled 
by  fire.  In  Siegfried,  the  hero  at  length  appears, 
having  been  reared  by  Mimi,  the  Nibelung.  He 
forges  a  magic  sword  (Needful),  and  kills  the 
dragon  which  guards  the  fateful  ring  after  which 
Wotan  had  lusted  and  thus  foredoomed  the  reign 
of  the  gods.  Siegfried  also  kills  Mimi,  who  had 
intended  to  betray  him.  A  bird  tells  him  of  the 
sleeping  Brunhilda  surrounded  by  fire.  He  seeks 
the  spot,  plunges  through  the  fire,  finds  the  Val- 
kyrie and  wins  her.  In  Ootterdammerung,  Sieg- 
fried gives  her  the  ring  on  his  setting  out  for 
fresh  exploits,  but  keeps  his  wonderful  sword 
and  the  Tarnhelm.  Through  magic,  he  falls  in 
love  with  Gutrune,  and  proposes  to  give  Brun- 
hilda to  Gunther.  Siegfried  wrests  the  ring  from 
Brunhilda.  She  perceives  his  faithlessness  and 
consents  to  his  murder  by  those  jealous  of  him. 
Hagen  kills  him,  and  the  desparing  Valkyrie 
mounts  the  funeral  pyre  with  the  dead  Siegfried. 
The  Rhine  daughters  regain  the  ring  and  the 
Valhalla  bums. 

BINChOTTZEL,  or  MooB  Blackbibd.  A  Eu- 
ropean thrush  {Merula  torquata),  well  known 
in  the  less  frequented  parts  of  Great  Britain, 
where  it  does  great  harm  to  ripening  fruit.  It 
is  blackish  brown,  each  feather  edgea  with  gray, 
and  is  conspicuously  marked  with  a  white  cres- 
centic  throat-patch,  from  which  it  receives  its 
name.  In  its  notes,  manner  of  nesting,  and  be- 
havior generally  it  is  much  like  an  American 
robin. 

BIKO-PLOVEB.  A  plover  of  the  typical 
genus  ^gialitis,  the  species  of  which  are  char- 
acterized among  other  peculiarities  by  the  dark 
ring  or  gorget  around  their  necks.  The  Ameri- 
can ringed  plover,  or  'ringneck'  {JEgialiiia  aemi- 
palmata)  is  dispersed  in  summer  all  over  North 
America  and  breeds  throughout  Canada.  An- 
other species  often  called  *ring-plover'  by  the 
gunners  is  the  piping  plover  {^gtalitia  me'loda). 
Consult  CJoues,  Birds  of  the  Northwest  (Wash- 
ington, 1874). 

BINGhSNAKE.  The  common  snake  of  Great 
Britain  (Tropidonotus  natriw) ,  so  called  because 
of  the  collar-like  whitish  markings  behind  the 
head.     See  Wateb- Snake. 

BINGH3TBAS8E,  rlng^strSLs-se  (Ger.,  King 
Street).  A  broad  boulevard  encircling  what  was 
the  inner  city  of  Vienna  and  containing  a  large 
number  of  magnificent  public  buildings.  On  or 
near  it  are  situated  the  exchange,  imiversity, 
museums,  houses  of  Parliament,  the  Court  the- 
atres, the  town  hall,  the  new  Imperial  palace, 
and  several  parks. 

BINGhTAILED  laXTAITA.  An  iguana  {Cy- 
dura  carinata)  of  Jamaica,  especially  numerous 


iu  the  hills  near  Kingston,  which  is  about  four 
feet  in  total  length,  and  olive-green,  with  the 
tail  marked  with  blackish  bands.  These  iguJuuiB 
feed  mainly  on  grass,  are  timid,  galloping  to  the 
trees  on  the  least  alarm,  and  are  uneatable,  on 
account  of  a  most  disagreeable  odor. 

BIKGWALT,  rlng^valt,  Babtholomaus 
(1530-99).  A  German  didactic  poet,  bom  in 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  In  1578  he  became  pastor 
of  a  Protestant  congregation  at  Langenfeld.  He 
wrote  some  church  hymns,  of  which  all  caught 
the  swing  of  the  popidar  poetry  of  the  time,  and 
one  beginning  '*Herr  Jesu  Christ,  du  hdchstes 
Gut"  is  still  well  known.  They  were  republished 
in  1858.  But  he  is  more  at  home  in  didactic 
poetry,  in  which  he  decries  the  evils  of  the  day, 
even  those  within  the  Protestant  bod^.  Die  lau- 
tere  Wahrheit  (1585)  is  an  enchiridion.  Die 
christliche  Wamung  des  treuen  Eckarts  (1588) 
with  its  hero,  who  describes  heaven  and  hell, 
gave  Ringwaldt  a  rare  opportunity  for  satire 
and  the  lK)ok  was  long  popular.  A  third  work, 
Speculum  Mundi  (1592),  is  cast  in  dramatic 
form  and  in  greater  degree  portrays  contempo- 
rary manners.  Consult  Hoffmann  von  Fallers- 
leben,  Ringioaldt  und  Schmolck  (Breslau,  1833). 

BIKGWOBM.  A  contagious  parasitic  skin 
disease  due  to  the  trichophyton  fungus.  It  at- 
tacks the  scalp,  the  body,  and  the  beard,  and 
according  to  its  location  is  denominated  tinea 
tonsurans,  tinea  circinata,  and  tinea  sycosis.  All 
three  forms  are  exceedingly  contagious  and 
spread  by  contact,  and  by  the  use  of  hats,  brushes, 
combs,  towels,  and  razors  in  common.  Ringworm 
of  the  scalp  usually  begins  in  the  form  of  small 
circumscribed  patches,  the  skin  of  which  is  more 
or  less  raised,  pink,  swollen,  and  covered  with 
branny  scales.  As  the  disease  progresses  the 
patches  become  the  seat  of  vesicles  and  pustules. 
The  hair  follicles  are  affected,  and  the  hairs  are 
seen  to  be  broken  off  short,  twisted  and  bent, 
and  if  placed  under  the  microscope  may  be  ob- 
served to  be  quite  opaque,  and  converted  into  a 
mass  of  fungus  spores.  As  a  result  of  the  loss 
of  hair,  baldness,  more  or  less  complete,  but  tem- 
porary, exists  over  areas  sometimes  as  large 
as  a  silver  dollar.  Itching  is  a  constant  symp- 
tom. Sometimes  inflammation  is  severe,  with 
the  formation  of  a  boggy  swelling,  which  exudes 
pus  at  many  points.  This  condition  is  known  as 
kerion  and  is  apt  to  result  in  permanent  bald- 
ness of  the  part  affected. 

Ringworm  of  the  body  occasionally  co-exists 
with  tinea  tonsurans,  but  often  occurs  alone. 
The  disease  begins  as  a  small  reddish,  scaly  spot 
of  papules,  at  first  irregular  in  shape,  but  soon 
assuming  a  circular  form.  As  the  area  increases 
in  size  the  papules  change  to  vesicles.  The  spot 
heals  in  the  centre  as  it  spreads  at  the  periphery. 
This  variety  of  ringworm  affects  the  face,  neck, 
and  arms  most  frequently.  Tinea  sycosis,  or 
ringworm  of  the  beard,  is  sometimes  called  ^ar- 
ber^s  itch.'    See  Itch. 

The  essential  point  in  the  treatment  of  the 
varieties  of  ringworm  affecting  the  hairy  portions 
of  the  body  is  to  apply  to  the  roots  of  the 
hair  one  of  the  various  parasiticides,  but  before 
this  can  be  done  the  hair  must  be  removed.  This 
is  done  by  shaving  the  affected  areas  and  pulling 
out  the  loosened  and  diseased  stumps  with  a  pair 
of  forceps.  Crusts  and  scales  must  be  loosened 
with  hot  water  or  oily  applications.  Among  the 
parasiticides  which  act  most  effectively  are  sul- 


BorawoBM. 


85 


BIO  DE  JA2OiIB0. 


phur  ointment,  mercurial  ointments,  and  iodine, 
carbolic  acid,  and  caustic  potash  alone  or  in 
various  combinations.  During  the  treatment  of 
ringworm,  especially  that  affecting  the  head, 
great  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  its  spread 
to  other  children. 

BIKK,  HmnicH  Johannes  (1810-93).  A 
Banish  explorer,  bom  at  (Copenhagen.  He  studied 
natural  science,  acted  as  mineralogist  to  the 
(hilatea  expedition  around  the  world  in  1845- 
47,  and  from  1848  to  1851  explored  Northern 
Greenland.  There  he  foimd  his  life  work.  From 
1857  to  1871  he  was  inspector  of  Southern 
Greenland;  then  for  ten  years  he  was  director  of 
the  island's  trade  at  Copenhagen;  and  in  1882  he 
removed  to  Christiania.  He  wrote:  Die  Nioko- 
hariachen  Inseln  { 1847 )  ;  Chnonland,  geographisk 
og  8tatistisk  heskrevet  (1852-57;  Eng.  trans., 
1877);  E8kim<nske  Eventyr  og  Sagn  (1866-71, 
English,  1876)  ;  The  Eskimo  Tribes,  Their  Dis- 
tribution and  Characteristics  (1887-91);  and 
QronlAndere  og  Danske  i  Oronland  (1888). 

BIO  AGTTSAJr,  rg^d  &-gC!5^8&n.  A  river  of 
Mindanao,  Philippine  Islands  (Map:  Philippine 
Islands,  K  11).  It  rises  in  the  southeastern 
comer  of  the  island  and  flows  northward  along 
the  western  base  of  the  eastern  coast  range,  pass- 
ing in  its  middle  course  through  several  lakes 
and  emptying  into  the  Bay  of  Buttian  through  a 
large  delta.  It  is  the  third  largest  river  of  the 
archipelago,  the  distance  in  a  straight  line  from 
its  source  to  its  mouth  being  125  miles.  Its 
valley  is  very  fertile  and  populous,  the  largest  ^ 
the  many  towns  on  its  banks  being  Buttlan. 

BIOBAHBA,  re'A-bam^,  or  BoiiVAB.  The 
capital  of  the  Province  of  Chimborazo,  Ecuador, 
situated  on  the  road  from  Qaito  to  Guayaquil, 
95  miles  south  of  the  former  and  almost  at  the 
foot  of  the  volcano  of  Chimborazo,  9100  feet 
above  sea  level  (Map:  Ecuador,  B  4).  It  is  one 
of  the  most  ancient  and  historic  towns  of  Ecua- 
dor, and  contains  the  ruins  of  an  Inca  palace. 
Completely  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1797, 
it  is  now  well  laid  out,  and  has  a  handsome  new 
cathedral.    Population,  12,000. 

BIO  BBANOO,  brfionc6.  The  largest  tribu- 
tary of  the  Rio  Negro  (q.v.). 

BIO  CXTABTO,  kw&r'tA.  A  town  of  Argentina, 
in  the  Province  of  C6rdoba,  situated  on  the  Trans- 
Andean  Railroad  200  miles  west  of  Rosario 
(Map:  Argentina,  E  10).  It  is  surrounded  by 
orchards  and  is  ^e  principal  market  for  large 
grazing  districts.    Population,  in  1895,  13,812. 

BIO  DE  JAHEIBO,  Port,  pron.  r^'o  dk  zh&- 
n&^^ro.  An  important  State  of  Brazil,  situated 
on  the  southeastern  coast  and  bounded  by  the 
State  of  Espirito  Santo  on  the  northeast,  Minas 
Geraes  on  the  northwest,  ^o  Paulo  on  the  south- 
west, and  the  Atlantic  on  the  southeast  (Map: 
Brazil,  J  8).  Area,  excluding  the  Federal  Dis- 
trict, 26,630  square  miles.  The  climate  is  moder- 
ate and  healthful  in  the  elevated  portions,  but  hot 
and  unhealthful  in  the  lowlands  along  the  coast. 
Rio  de  Janeiro  is  well  wooded,  and  forest  pro- 
ducts both  in  the  shape  of  timber  and  drags 
figuie  prominently  among  the  exports.  The  chief 
agricultural  product  is  coifee.  About  70  per 
cent,  of  the  coffee  goes  to  the  United  States. 
Sugar  is  cultivated  along  the  coast.  In- 
dustrially Rio  de  Janeiro  is  one  of  the  most  ad- 
vanced of  the  Brazilian  States.     It  has  a  large 


number  of  cotton  and  woolen  mills  and  sugar 
refineries,  and  a  greater  railway  mileage  in  pro- 
portion to  its  area  than  any  other  State  of 
Brazil.  In  1896  it  had  more  than  1200  miles. 
Population,  876,884  in  1890,  and  estimated  at 
1,227,575  in  1900.  Rio  de  Janeiro  is  with  the 
exception  of  the  Federal  District  the  most  dense- 
ly populated  of  the  Brazilian  States,  having  a 
densitv  of  about  50  per  souare  mile.  Most  of 
the  inhabitants  are  of  mixea  origin.  The  capital 
is  Petropolis  (q.v.). 

BIO  BE  JAHEIBO.  The  capital  and  largest 
city  of  Brazil,  situated  on  the  west  side  of  the 
entrance  to  the  Bay  of  Rio  de  Janeiro;  latitude 
22**  54'  S.,  longitude  43^  lO'  W.  (Map:  Brazil, 
J  8).  The  location  is  exceedingly  picturesque. 
The  landlocked  bay,  which  runs  inland  for  17 
miles,  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  forest- 
covered  mountains  whose  spurs  penetrate  into 
the  heart  of  the  city.  The  narrow  entrance 
and  the  islands  lying  inside  of  it  are  fortified. 
The  city  itself  stretches  for  15  miles  along  the 
shore,  and  from  its  nucleus  at  the  inner  end  of 
the  entrance  it  spreads  out  in  long  arms  reach- 
ing far  into  the  valleys  and  up  the  hillsides. 
This  nucleus  is  the  old  city,  and  forms  the 
business  quarter.  It  is  laid  out  in  square  blocks 
with  long,  narrow  streets.  The  largest  square  in 
this  section  is  the  Praca  da  Acclama^o,  with  a 
beautiful  garden.  Another  park,  the  Praca  15  de 
Novembro,  is  surrounded  by  some  of  the  finest 

gublic  buildings  in  Brazil,  such  as  the  mint,  the 
enate  house,  and  the  city  hall.  In  this  neighbor- 
hood also  is  the  former  Imperial  Palace,  now 
occupied  by  the  National  Museum.  The  most 
conspicuous  church  is  the  Candelaria,  with  two 
larj^e  towers  and  a  cupola.  The  principal  edu- 
cational institutions  are  the  great  national  li- 
brary with  247,000  volumes  and  many  manu- 
scripts, the  National  Museum,  the  botanical  gar- 
den, the  Historical  and  Geographical  Institute, 
and  the  observatory.  There  are  also  a  medical 
school,  a  polytechnic  institute,  a  conservatory  of 
music,  and  various  commercial,  industrial,  scien- 
tific, literary,  and  art  academies. 

Public  charities  are  well  provided  for.  There 
are  institutes  for  the  blind  and  the  deaf  mutes, 
a  large  insane  asylum,  and  several  well-equipped 
hospitals,  that  of  Santa  Casa  da  Misericoniia 
being  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world.  The  public 
works,  however,  are  somewhat  inferior.  There 
are  an  extensive  system  of  electric  street  rail- 
ways and  a  good  water  supply  brought  by  aque- 
ducts from  the  mountains.  The  drainage  sys- 
tem, however,  is  not  serviceable.  This  fact,  to- 
gether with  the  hot  and  humid  climate,  renders 
the  city  still  an  unhealthful  place.  Though  yel- 
low fever  has  decreased,  there  were  still  nearly 
1000  cases  of  it  in  1899. 

Rio  de  Janeiro  derives  its  chief  importance 
from  its  commerce.  The  manufactures  are  rel- 
atively unimportant,  and  are  represented  chiefly 
by  textile  and  flour  mills.  The  harbor  is  abso- 
lutely safe,  and  is  provided  with  extensive  dock 
facilities.  The  shipping  and  trade  have,  how- 
ever, decreased  not  a  little  during  the  past  de- 
cade. In  1896,  1535  vessels  of  2,469,628  tons  en- 
tered; in  1900  only  843  vessels  of  1,522,754  tons 
entered.  The  total  value  of  imports  in  1896  was 
$61,386,000,  and  in  1900  $45,985,320.  The  chief 
imports  are  cereals,  coal,  textiles,  and  machinery. 
The  exports  in   1900  amounted  to  $42,805,000. 


BIO  DE  JANXIBO. 


86 


BIOJA. 


The  leading  export  is  coffee,  of  which  4,066,734 
bags  of  132  pounds  each  were  exported  in  1897, 
and  2,658,990  in  1900.  The  population  of  the 
Pederal  District  (formerly  called  the  Municipio 
Neutro),  which  includes  the  city  and  its  suburbs, 
was,  in  1890,  674,972,  and  in  1900,  779,000. 

The  first  settlement  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  was 
made  by  the  French,  who  built  a  fort  on  one  of 
the  islands  of  the  harbor  in  1655,  but  were 
driven  out  by  the  Portuguese  in  1567.  The  city 
itself  was  founded  in  1567.  In  1640  it  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Dutch,  who  held  it  for  a  short  time. 
In  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  it  suc- 
ceeded Bahia  as  the  capital  of  Brazil.  From 
1808  to  1821  it  was  the  residence  of  the  Court 
of  Portugal.  Consult:  Allain,  Rio  de  Jcmeiro, 
quelques  donn^es  sur  la  oapitale  (Paris,  1885)  ; 
Rio  Janeiro,  Archive  do  diatricto  federal  (Rio 
de  Janeiro,  1894-97). 

BIO  DE  LA  PLATA,  6k  1&  pWik.  See 
Plata,  Rio  de  la. 

BIO  DE  OBO,  5^rd.  A  Spanish  possession  on 
the  west  coast  of  the  Sahara  Desert,  extending 
from  Cape  Bojador  to  Cape  Blanco,  400  miles, 
and  bounded  on  the  north  by  Morocco,  and  on 
the  south  by  French  Sahara  (Map:  Africa,  C  2). 
The  Spanish  territory  extends  about  250  miles 
inland,  the  eastern  boundary  being  fixed  by  a 
Franco- Spanish  convention  in  1901.  It  is  an  arid, 
rocky  and  sandy  plateau,  about  1000  feet  high, 
and  covered  with  a  scant  growth  of  esparto  grass 
near  the  sea,  though  there  are  a  number  of  oases 
in  the  interior.  The  climate  is  very  dry  and  hot, 
the  temperature  sometimes  reaching  120^.  The 
inhabitants  are  mixed  tribes  of  Mohammedan 
Berbers  and  negroes,  obtaining  -a  scanty  subsist- 
ence by  raising  cattle,  sheep,  and  camels.  The 
only  Spanish  settlement  is  at  Rio  de  Oro,  on  a 
low  peninsula  near  the  centre  of  the  west  coast. 
The  Governor  here  is  under  the  Governor  of  the 
Canary  Islands.  Vessels  from  the  latter  exploit 
the  fishing  grounds  along  the  coasts.  Population, 
estimated  (1903),  100,000. 

BIO  GBANDE,  gr&n'd&.  One  of  the  head- 
streams  of  the  Paran&  River  (q.v.). 

BIO  OBANDZ;,  or  Rio  Grande  del  Nobte. 
A  river  of  the  Southwestern  United  States.  It 
rises  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  southwestern 
Colorado,  and  flows  first  south  through  New 
Mexico,  then  southeast  on  the  boundary  oetween 
Mexico  and  "texas,  and  empties  into  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  after  a  course  of  1800  miles  (Map: 
Texas,  D  5).  Its  upper  course  passes  through 
rocky  gorges  in  which  it  forms  rapids  and  cata- 
racts, and  lower  down  it  becomes  a  shallow 
stream  frequently  obstructed  by  sand-bars.  The 
greater  part  of  it  lies  in  an  arid  region,  and  in 
New  Mexico  its  waters  are  largely  drawn  off  for 
irrigation,  so  that  during  the  dry  season  the 
river  dries  up  for  a  considerable  distance  above 
and  below  El  Paso.  In  its  lower  course  it  is 
subject  to  serious  floods.  It  becomes  navigable 
for  small  boats  about  450  miles  from  its  mouth. 
Near  the  latter  lies  the  town  of  Brownsville,  and 
opposite  to  it  the  Mexican  town  of  Matamoras. 
Consult  Stevens,  The  Valley  of  the  Rio  Orande 
(New  York,  1864). 

BIO  GBANDE  DE  CAGAYAN,  d&  kft'g&- 
yftn^  The  largest  river  of  Luzon,  Philippine 
Islands.  It  rises  on  the  Caraballo  Rur  in  Central 
Luzon  and  flows  northward  200  miles  through  a 
magnificent  valley,  which  is  becoming  an  im- 


portant tobaooo-producing  region  (Map:  Philip- 
pine Islands,  F  2).  It  empties  through  the 
north  coast  into  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  is  naviga- 
ble for  light-draught  steamers. 

BIO  OBANDE  DE  MINDAKAO,  m&i'dA- 
nft'd.  The  largest  river  of  the  Philippine  Archi- 
pelago.   See  PuLANQUi. 

BIO  GBAKDE  DO  BELMONTE,  d6  bdl- 
mdn't&.    A  river  in  Brazil.    See  Jequitinhonha. 

BIO  GBANDE  DO  NOBTE,  nOr^U.  A  north- 
eastern State  of  Brazil,  bounded  by  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  on  the  north  and  east,  the  State  of  Para- 
hyba  on  the  south,  and  Cear&  on  the  west 
(Map:  Brazil,  K  5).  Area,  22,190  square  miles. 
The  interior  is  elevated  and  sparsely  watered; 
the  coasts  are  low  and  slightly  indented.  The 
chief  river  la  the  Piranhas.  The  climate  is  hot, 
but  not  unhealthful.  Rio  Grande  do  Norte  is  one 
of  the  poorest  States  of  Brazil  in  regard  to  natu- 
ral resources.  Ck)tton,  coffee,  and  su^r  are 
raised  to  a  limited  extent  and  cattle-raising  is 
also  engaged  in.  The  population  in  1890  was 
268,273.    The  capital  is  Natal  (q.v.). 

BIO  GBANDE  DO  STTL,  sTRH.  The  southern- 
most State  of  Brazil,  bounded  by  the  State  of 
Santa  Catharina  on  the  north,  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  on  the  east,  Uruguay  on  the  south,  and 
Argentina  on  the  west  (Map:  Argentina,  G  9). 
Area,  91,250  square  miles.  The  chief  rivers  are 
the  Jacuhy,  which  falls  into  the  LagOa  dos 
Patos,  and  the  Ibicuhy,  a  tributary  of  the 
Uruguay.  The  climate  is  temperate  and  health- 
ful. The  mean  temperature  varies  from  about 
63°  to  66° ;  frosts  and  snow  are  not  infrequent 
in  the  more  elevated  parts,  while  fever  is  almost 
unknown.  The  chief  occupation  is  cattle-raising. 
Mining  of  zinc,  amethysts,  and  agates  is  also 
carried  on  to  some  extent.  The  chief  product  and 
export  of  the  State  is  dried  meat.  There  are 
a  number  of  cotton,  woolen,  and  linen  mills, 
soap  factories,  and  other  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments. The  commerce  is  quite  extensive  and 
the  annual  exports  amount  to  over  $33,000,000. 
The  commercial  centre  is  the  State  capital,  Porto 
Alegre.  The  State  is  well  provided  v,ith  trans- 
portation facilities.  The  population  in  1890  was 
897,465  and  in  1900  it  was  estimated  at  968,231. 
Rio  Grande  do  Sul  was  colonized  mostly  by  (Jer- 
mans.  The  foreign  population  amounts  to  about 
50  per  cent,  of  the  total. 

BIO  GBANDE  DO  SXTL.  The  chief  port  and 
former  capital  of  the  State  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul, 
Brazil,  situated  at  the  outlet  of  the  LagOa  dos 
Patos  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean  (Map:  South 
America,  D  6).  The  town  lies  in  a  barren,  sandy 
plain,  but  has  a  safe  harbor  suitable  for  vessels 
of  15  feet  draught.  The  entrance,  however,  is 
obstructed  by  sand  bars.  The  city  is  connected 
by  rail  with  Pelotas,  and  by  steamers  with  Porto 
Alegre  at  the  northern  end  of  the  lake.  It  ex- 
ports beef  and  other  cattle  products,  manioc,  and 
Paraguay  tea.    Population,  19,000. 

BIOJA^  rft-^HA,  La.  A  northwestern  prov- 
ince of  Argentina,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Province  o?  Catamarca.  on  the  east  by  Cfirdoba, 
on  the  south  by  San  Luis,  and  on  the  went  by 
San  Juan  and  Chile  (Map:  Argentina,  D  9). 
Area,  34,546  square  miles.  The  climate  is  very 
dry,  and  irrigation  is  generally  necessary.  Wheat, 
com,  lucerne,  and  wine  are  the  chief  agricultural 
products,  and  some  stock-raising  is  carried  on.  La 


BIOJA.  87 

Rioja  contains  copper,  sulphur,  silver,  gypsum, 
salt,  graphite,  and  coal,  the  mineral  most  exploit- 
ed being  copper.  The  population  in  1895  was  69,- 
602.  The  capital  is  La  Rioja,  situated  at  tl^e 
foot  of  Mount  Belasco,  and  connected  by  rail 
with  Gatamarca  and  the  southeastern  provinces. 
It  contains  a  college  and  a  normal  school,  and 
had  a  population  in  1895  of  6627. 

BIOJA,  FBANCI8CX)  DE  (c.1584-1659) .  A 
Spanish  poet,  bom  in  Seville.  He  distinguished 
himself  as  a  classical  scholar  at  the  univer- 
sity of  his  native  town,  and  afterwards  took 
orders  and  became  canon  in  the  Seville  Cathedral. 
The  Count  of  Olivarez,  a  friend  of  Rioja, 
called  him  to  Madrid  about  1614,  and  he  re- 
mained at  the  Court  some  time.  After  the  death 
of  Philip  III.  he  returned  again  and  was  made 
royal  librarian  and  chronicler  by  Olivarez,  whom 
he  afterwards  followed  into  exile  (1643).  His 
last  years  were  spent  in  Seville  and  Madrid, 
where  he  was  a  member  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion. The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  that  of 
Barrera,  who  published  the  Poesiaa  ( 1867 ) ,  and 
Adieionea  d  las  poeaias  de  D.  Fra/ncisco  de  Biofa 
(1872). 

BIOMy  r*-6N'.  The  capital  of  an  arrondisse- 
ment  in  the  Department  of  Puy-de-D6me,  France, 
picturesquely  situated  on  a  hill,  9  miles  north 
of  Clermont-Ferrand  (Map:  France,  K  6).  It  is 
built  of  dark  lava,  and  its  domestic  architecture 
of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  and  of 
the  Renaissance  period  and  its  churches.  Saint 
Amable  dating  from  the  eleventh  century,  Notre- 
Dame-du-Marthuret  from  the  fifteenth  century, 
and  the  fourteenth-century  Sainte-Chapelle,  are 
of  especial  interest.  Linen,  leather,  and  brandy 
are  manufactured.  Riom  was  the  capital  of  Au- 
vergne  during  the  fourteenth  century.  Popula- 
tion, in  1901,  11,061. 

BIOK.  A  river  of  Caucasus,  Russia,  rising  in 
the  Government  of  Kutais.  It  flows  in  a  western 
direction,  passes  Kutais,  and  enters  the  Black  Sea 
at  Poti.  Total  length,  about  200  miles.  It  is 
navigable  for  50  miles.  The  Rion  is  the  ancient 
Phasis. 

BIO  ITEGBO.  T^6  nft'gr^  (Sp.,  black  river). 
The  largest  north  tributa^  of  the  Amazon.  Its 
upper  course  is  generally  considered  to  be  the 
Guainia,  which  rises  in  the  southeastern  part  of 
Colombia  and  fiows  east  to  the  Venezuelan  bound- 
ary, then  southeast  into  Brazil  (Map:  Brazil,  E 
4).  Here  it  is  joined  by  the  Uap6s,  which  rises 
on  the  eastern  C^ordillera  of  the  Andes  in  the  cen- 
tral part  of  Colombia,  and  fiows  in  an  east-south- 
east direction  until  it  joins  the  Amazon  through 
a  great  inland  estuary  50  miles  above  the  mouth 
of  the  Madeira.  The  largest  tributary  is  the 
Rio  Blanco  or  White  River,  which  rises  on  the 
border  of  Guiana  and  flows  south  to  the  main 
stream.  In  Venezuela  the  Guainia  receives  the 
Cassiquiare,  an  arm  sent  out  by  the  Ori- 
noco. The  total  length  of  the  Rio  Negro  with 
the  Uapte  is  about  1400  miles.  The  whole 
river  system  flows  through  a  vast  forest  region 
which  is  but  little  explored.  The  upper  courses 
are  navigable  for  long  distances.  At  its  mouth 
in  the  Amazon  it  is  1%  miles  wide,  and  100  feet 
deep  at  low  water,  so  that  ocean  steamers  can 
at  all  tunes  go  directly  to  Manftos,  the  great  out- 
let for  the  rubber  collected  along  the  ba^cs.  Con- 
sult Wallace,  Travels  on  the  Amazon  and  Rio 
Negro   (London,  1889). 


BIOT. 

BIO  NEOBO.  A  river  of  Argentina,  forming 
the  conventional  northern  boundary  of  Patagonia 
(Map:  Argentina,  £  11).  It  is  foi'med  by  two 
headstreams,  the  Limay  and  the  Neuquen,  both 
of  which  rise  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Andes. 
It  flows  southeast  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and 
its  length  up  to  Lake  Nahuel«Huapi  (q.v.)  is 
about  600  miles,  through  nearly  the  whole  of 
which  distance  it  is  navigable,  though  there  are 
dangerous  reefs  in  several  places.  On  its  lower 
course  there  are  several  settlements,  chief  of 
which  is  Viedma. 

BIO  NEGBO.  A  territory  of  Argentina,  in 
Patagonia,  bounded  by  the  Territory  of  Pampa 
on  the  north,  Chile  and  the  Territory  of  Neuquen 
on  the  west,  the  Territory  of  Chubut  on  the  south, 
and  the  Province  of  Buenos  Ayres  and  the  Atlan- 
tic Ocean  on  the  east  (Map:  Argentina,  D  11). 
Its  area  is  estimated  at  75,924  square  miles. 
The  southwestern  portion  belongs  to  the  region 
of  the  Andes,  while  the  remainder  is  occupied  by 
a  plateau.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Rio  Negro  and 
its  tributary  the  Limay,  and  there  are  also  a 
number  of  lakes.  A  very  small  portion  of  the 
territory  is  cultivated;  the  raising  of  sheep,  cat- 
tle, and  horses  is  the  leading  industry.  Popula- 
tion, in  1895,  9241.    Chief  town,  Viedma. 

BIOBBAN;  n^Or-dan  or  rfir'dan,  Patrick 
WiLUAM  (1841 — ).  A  prelate  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  He  was  bom  at  Chatham,  New 
Brunswick.  He  studied  at  Notre  Dame,  Ind.,  and 
at  Paris  and  Louvain,  Belgium,  in  which  latter 
country  he  was  ordained  priest  in  1865.  Return- 
ing to  America,  he  became  onef  of  the  faculty  of 
the  Theological  Seminary  of  Saint  Mary's  of  the 
Lake,  Chicago,  as  professor  of  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory and  canon  law.  Somewhat  later  he  gave  in- 
struction in  dogmatic  theology.  He  was  pastor 
at  Woodstock,  111.,  in  1868,  and  the  same  year 
removed  to  Joliet,  111.,  where  he  remained  until 
1871,  when  he  assumed  the  rectorship  of  Saint 
James's  Church,  Chicago,  In  1883  he  was  ap- 
pointed titular  Bishop  of  Cabasa  and  coadjutor 
with  the  right  of  succession  to  the  See  of  San 
Francisco.  The  following  year  the  Archbishop, 
Joseph  S.  Alemany,  resigned^  and  Monsignor  Rior- 
dan  became  Archbishop. 

BIOT  (OF.  riot,  ryot,  riote,  riotte,  Fr.  riotte. 
It.  riotta,  riot;  of  unknown  etymology).  A  form 
of  criminal  offense  against  the  public  peace,  con- 
sisting in  the  assembly  of  three  or  more  persons 
with  intent  mutually  to  assist  each  other  against 
any  one  who  shall  oppose  them  in  the  execution 
of  some  enterprise  of  a  private  nature,  and  after- 
wards actually  executing  the  same  in  a  violent 
and  turbulent  manner  to  the  terror  of  the  peo- 
ple, whether  the  act  intended  were  itself  lawful 
or  unlawful.  (Hawkins,  Pleas  of  the  Crown,  ch. 
65.)  At  common  law  the  offense,  unless  it  re- 
sulted in  some  more  serious  crime,  was  a  misde- 
meanor; but  in  case  the  riot  caused  loss  of  life  or 
serious  bodily  injury,  the  rioter  might  be  pun- 
ished for  the  felony  committed. 

If  the  riotous  enterprise  is  of  a  public  nature, 
in  that  it  is  directed  toward  the  Government  with 
the  purpose  of  overthrowing  or  destroying  it,  the 
offense  is  treason  (q.v.).  The  assembly  need  not 
be  planned  by  the  rioters  in  advance.  It  is 
enough  to  constitute  the  crime  if  there  is  the 
actual  assembly  resulting  in  the  tumultuous  ex- 
ecution of  the  private  enterprise.  The  crime  may 
be  committed  also  if  the  rioters  do  not  specifically 


BIOT.  88 

intend  to  tetrify  others,  if  such  is  the  natural 
or  necessary  consequence  of  their  riotous  acts. 

When  there  is  an  assembly  of  three  or  more 
persons  for  some  riotous  purpose  under  such 
circumstances  as  to  give  rise  to  a  reasonable  ap- 
prehension on  the  part  of  others  of  a  breach  of 
the  peace,  although  no  actual  public  disturbance 
does  result,  the  offense  is  known  as  unlawful 
assembly.  If  some  steps  are  taken  toward  the 
execution  of  the  unlawful  or  riotous  purpose 
which,  however,  fall  short  of  actual  public  dis- 
turbance, the  offense  is  known  as  a  rout.  Thus 
if  these  persons  assemble  for  the  purpose  of  as- 
saulting another  in  the  public  street  of  a  city, 
they  are  guilty  of  unlawful  assembly.  While 
on  their  way  to  the  place  of  attack  or  making 
other  active  preparations  for  the  attack  they  are 
guilty  of  rout,  and  upon  the  execution  of  their 
purpose  by  committing  the  public  assault  they 
are  guilty  of  riot. 

The  definition  of  the  crime  and  its  punishment 
are  now  generally  regulated  by  statute. 

BIOT  ACT.  An  English  statute,  1  Geo.  I., 
st.  2,  c.  5  (1716),  which  provided  that  if  twelve 
persons  or  more  were  unlawfully  assembled  and 
disturbing  the  peace,  any  sheriff,  under-sheriff, 
justice  of  the  peace,  or  mayor,  might  by  proclama- 
tion command  them  to  disperse,  and  that  if  they 
refused  to  obey  and  remained  together  for  the 
space  of  one  hour  after  such  proclamation,  all 
participating  in  the  assembly  were  guilty  of 
felony.  The  statute  has  not  been  generally  re- 
enacted  in  the  United  States,  where  the  usual 
provision  of  the  criminal  law  and  police  regula- 
tions have  been  found  an  adequate  protection 
against  rioters. 

BIFABIAN  BIGHTS.  The  legal  rights  of 
owners  of  land  containing  a  w^atercourse  or 
bounded  by  one,  to  its  banks,  bed,  and  waters. 
By  the  common  law,  in  the  absence  of  express 
limitations  to  the  contrary,  an  owner  of  land 
immediately  adjacent  to  a  non-navigable  stream 
owns  the  bed  of  the  stream  utqtie  ad  filum,  that 
is,  to  the  middle  thread  or  centre  of  the  stream. 
A  riparian  owner,  has  the  right  to  make  a  reas- 
onable use  of  the  waters  of  a  stream  adjoining  his 
property.  This  right  is  liberally  construed,  but 
will  not  extend  to  using  all  the  water,  even 
though  he  consume  it  all  without  waste.  He 
cannot  divert  the  stream,  or  so  pollute  its  waters 
as  to  interfere  with  the  rights  of  those  below 
him  on  the  stream.  The  most  effective  remedy 
of  a  riparian  owner  where  another  makes  an  un- 
reasonable or  unlawful  use  of  the  waters  of  the 
stream  is  by  injunction,  and  this  gives  ample  op- 
portunity for  a  court  of  equity  to  consider  all 
the  circumstances.  See  such  titles  as  Rivebs; 
FiLUM  Aqu^;  Accbetion;  Aixuvion,  etc.,  and 
consult  the  authority  referred  to  under  Waters. 

BIP'LBY.  A  town  in  Derbyshire,  England, 
10  mjles  northeast  of  Derby  (Map:  England,  E 
3).  It  has  manufactures  of  silk  and  lace,  and 
mines  of  coal.    Population,  in  1901,  10,100. 

BIPLEY,  Eleazeb  Wheelock  (1782-1839). 
An  American  soldier,  prominent  in  the  War  of 
1812.  He  was  born  in  Hanover,  N.  H.,  graduated 
at  Dartmouth  in  1800,  studied  and  practiced  law, 
removed  to  Portland,  Me.,  was  one  of  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  District  of  Maine  in  the  General 
Court  of  Massachusetts  in  1810-11,  serving  as 
Speaker  in  the  latter  year,  and  in  1812  was 
elected  to  the  State  Senate.    On  the  outbreak  of 


BIFLET. 


the  War  of  1812  he  entered  the  United  States 
Army  as  a  lieutenant,  and  by  suooeseive  promo- 
tions became  a  colonel  in  March,  1813,  a  briga- 
dier-general in  April,  1814,  and  soon  afterwards, 
by  brevet,  a  major-general.  He  was  wounded 
in  the  attack  on  York  (now  Torcmto),  Can.;  led 
the  Second  Brigade  of  General  Jacob  Brown's 
army  in  the  battles  of  Chippewa  and  Lundy's 
Lane;  and  after  the  latter  battle,  both  Brown 
and  Scott  being  wounded,  he  exercised  the  chief 
command.  He  occupied  and  fortified  Fort  Erie, 
distinguished  himself  in  the  defense  of  that  fort 
on  August  15,  1814,  and  on  September  17th  was 
severely  wounded  while  leading  a  sortie.  (See 
FoBT  Ebie.)  He  resigned  from  the  army  in  1820, 
removed  to  New  Orleans,  La.,  practiced  law 
there,  was  elected  to  the  Louisiana  Legislature, 
and  from  1835  until  his  death  was  a  member  of 
Congress. 

BIPLEYy  Geoboe  (1802-80).  An  American 
scholar  and  critic,  born  in  Greenfield,  Mass.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1823,  was  an  instructor 
there,  studied  theology,  and  was  ordained  in 
1826.  He  remained  in  Boston  until  1841,  busy- 
ing himself  with  philosophical  speculations,  was 
gradually  drawn  into  the  Transcendental  circle, 
wrote  on  metaphysics  and  education,  and  endeav- 
ored to  further  the  knowledge  of  Ocnitinental  lit- 
eratures by  a  series  of  translations.  On  leav- 
ing his  pulpit,  he  became  a  prime  mover  in  the 
socialistic  experiment  of  Brook  Farm  (q.v.). 
When  this  association  failed  (1847)  Ripley  went 
to  Flatbush,  L.  I.,  and  in  1848  he  settled  in  New 
York  City.  He  was  the  joint  editor  with  C.  A. 
Dana  (q.v.)  of  Applet(m*B  "New  American  Cyclo- 
pcBdia  (1857-63),  and  of  the  new  edition  of  that 
work  (1873-76).  He  also  worked  on  the  sUff  of 
The  Tribune,  chiefly  as  literary  critic,  and 
brought  its  reviews  up  to  a  high  standard.  His 
first  wife  died  in  1861,  and  in  1865  he  married  a 
German  of  Parisian  education,  after  which  be 
traveled  much,  and  became  the  centre  of  a 
brilliant  literary  circle,  exerting  thus  the  most 
genial  and  helpful  influence  of  his  life,  greater 
in  what  he  inspired  others  to  do  than  in  what  he 
himself  accomplished.  The  translations  of  For- 
eign Standard  Literature  (14  vols.,  1838-42) 
were  his  most  important  publications  and  in 
their  time  had  great  influence.  Consult:  Froth- 
ingham,  Oeorge  Ripley ,  in  the  "American  Men  of 
Letters"  (Boston,  1882)  ;  Swift,  Brook  Farm 
(New  York,  1900),  which  has  a  bibliography; 
and  see  Tbanscendentausm. 

BIPLBY,  Henby  Jones  (1798-1875).  An 
American  Baptist  divine  and  biblical  scholar. 
He  was  bom  at  Boston,  Mass.,  and  educated  at 
the  Boston  Latin  School  and  Harvard  College. 
After  finishing  his  theological  course  at  Andover 
in  1819  he  became  an  evangelist  among  the  South- 
ern slaves.  One  year  excepted,  he  continued  these 
labors  until  1826,  when  he  entered  the  faculty 
of  the  Newton  Theological  Seminary,  as  professor 
of  biblical  literature  and  pastoral  duties.  From 
1860  to  1865  he  was  engaged  in  private  literary 
work  at  Newton  and  gave  instruction  to  freedman 
preachers  at  Savannah,  Ga.  In  1866  he  returned 
to  Newton  Seminary  as  librarian,  and  from  1872 
to  1875  served  as  associate  professor  of  biblical 
literature.  His  writings  include:  A  Memoir  of 
Rev.  Thomas  8.  Winn  (1824)  ;  Christian  Baptism 
(1833);  Sacred  Rhetoric  (1849);  Eitclusiveness 
of  the  Baptists  (1867) ;  Church  Polity  (1867). 


SIPLEY.  89 

BIFI^ET,  James  Wolte  (1794-1870).  An 
American  soldier,  born  in  Windham  County, 
Connecticut.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1814,  was  commissioned  second  lieutenant  of  ar- 
tillery, and  was  assigned  to  duty  on  the  northern 
frontier,  where  he  took  part  in  the  defense  of 
Sackett's  Harbor.  In  1817-18  he  served  under 
Jackson  during  the  Seminole  War  and  the  in- 
vasion of  Florida,  and  in  1832-33  commanded  the 
Garemment  forces  in  Charleston  Harbor,  at  the 
time  of  the  Nullification  movement  in  South 
Carolina.  In  1832  he  was  promoted  to  be  cap- 
tain and  in  1838  to  be  major  of  ordnance.  In  1848 
he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  brevet  Heutenant- 
eolonel.  In  1854  he  was  transferred  to  the  Water- 
town  Arsenal,  and  in  1861,  after  bein^  assigned 
to  Tarious  other  duties,  he  was  commissioned  brig- 
adier-general and  appointed  chief  of  ordnance 
of  the  United  States  Army.  As  the  Federal 
foioes  had  then  no  heavy  rifled  cannon,  he  imme- 
diately ordered  the  conversion  of  old  smooth- 
bores and  the  manufacture  of  Parrott  guns.  In 
1863  be  was  retired  from  active  service,  and  was 
appointed  inspector  of  fortifications  on  the  New 
£^gland  coast,  a  position  which  he  continued  to 
fill  until  within  a  year  of  his  death.  At  the  close 
of  the  Civil  War  in  1865  he  was  brevetted  major- 
general  in  the  Regular  Army  'for  long  and  faith- 
ful services.' 

RIFLEY,  WnxiAM  Zebina  (1867—).  An 
American  economist  and  sociologist,  bom  at  Med- 
ford,  Mass.  He  studied  civil  engineering  at  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  but  then 
devoted  himself  to  economics,  studying  that 
branch  for  two  years  at  Columbia,  where  in  1893 
he  became  lecturer  in  sociology.  In  1895  he  was 
named  professor  of  economics  and  of  sociology  in 
the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology.  His 
publications  include  A  Financial  History  of 
Virginia,  1609-1776  (1893)  and  the  Lowell  Lec- 
tures, Races  of  Europe  (1900).  He  was  vice- 
president  of  the  American  Economic  Association 
in  1898  and  in  1900-01,  and  in  the  last  year 
was  made  special  agent  on  transportation  to  the 
United  States  Indiwtrial  Commission. 

SIPOH,  rip^on.  An  episcopal  city  in  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  England,  22  miles  northwest 
of  York  (Map:  England,  £  2).  The  market- 
place is  spacious,  and  has  in  its  centre  an  obelisk 
90  feet  high.  The  cathedral,  the  oldest  part 
of  which  dates  from  the  twelfth  century,  is 
cmciform,  measures  270  by  87  feet,  and  is  sur- 
mounted by  two  uniform  towers,  and  also  by  a 
central  tower.  The  Saxon  crypt  dates  from  the 
seventh  century.  Trinity  Church  is  a  fine  cruci- 
form edifice  in  early  English.  The  principal  in- 
dustries are  machine-making,  tanning,  malting, 
and  braas  and  iron  founding.  There  are  also 
several  flour-mills  and  varnish  factories.  Ripon 
was  formerly  noted  for  its  woolen  manu- 
factures, and  for  the  'true  steel  of  Ripon 
rowels'  or  spurs.  The  place  received  the  name 
of  Inhrypum  from  a  monastery  established 
in  660;  in  678  it  was  created  a  see.  It  suffered 
from  the  Danes,  Normans,  and  Scots,  and  during 
the  Civil  War  was  occupied  by  the  Parliamen- 
tarians, but  was  retaken  by  the  Royalists  in  1643. 
Population,  in  1901,  8225. 

BIPOH.  A  city  in  Fond  du  Lac  County,  Wis- 
consin, 22  miles  west  by  north  of  Fond  du  Lac,  on 
the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  and  the  Chica^, 
Milwaukee  and  Saint  Paul  railroads.    It  is  the 


BIPPEBDA. 


seat  of  Ripon  College,  opened  in  1853,  and  has  a 
public  library.  The  centre  of  a  productive  re- 
gion, Ripon  has  flouring  mills,  grain  elevators, 
creameries,  a  wood-working  factory,  wagon  and 
buggy  works,  knitting  mills,  pickling  works,  and 
glove  and  mitten  manufactories.  Ripon  was  set- 
tled in  1844  and  incorporated  in  1858.  Popula- 
tion, in  1900,  3818.  Consult' Mapes,  History  of 
the  City  of  Ripon  (Milwaukee,  1873). 

BIPOK,  Fbedebick  John  Robinboit,  Earl  of 
(1782-1859).  An  English  statesman.  He  was 
bom  in  London,  the  son  of  Baron  Grantham,  and 
was  educated  at  Harrow  and  at  Saint  John's  Col- 
lege, Cambridge.  He  became  private  secretary  to 
the  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  Lord  Hardwicke, 
and  in  1806  was  elected  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. He  became  a  Lord  of  Admiralty  in  1810, 
and  Privy  Councilor  in  1812.  In  the  latter  year 
he  became  vice-president  of  the  Board  of  Trade. 
In  1823  he  was  made  Chancellor  of  the  Ex- 
chequer and  in  that  office  carried  through  many 
important  financial  reforms.  In  1827  he  was 
promoted  to  the  House  of  Lords  with  the  title  of 
Viscount  Goderich,  and  in  the  same  year,  after 
having  been  for  a  short  time  Secretary  of  State 
for  the  Colonies,  he  was  called  to  form  a  Cab- 
inet. His  administration  was  feeble,  and  in 
June  of  1828  he  retired.  He  served  in  Lord 
Grey's  Cabinet  (1830-34)  as  Secretary  of  State 
for  the  Colonies,  and  was  an  advocate  of  the 
second  Reform  Bill.  He  became  Lord  Privy  Seal 
in  1833  and  was  created  Earl  of  Ripon.  In  1834 
he  hastened  the  fall  of  the  Cabinet  by  his  resigna- 
tion, and  he  continually  attacked  the  financial 
policy  of  the  Melbourne  Cabinet.  In  1841  he  was 
made  president  of  the  Board  of  Trade  and  in 
1843  became  president  of  the  Board  of  (Dontrol 
of  Indian  affairs,  from  which  he  retired  in  1846. 

His  son,  Gbobok  Fbederick  Samuel  Robinsoit, 
First  Marquis  of  RipOn  (1827 — ),  was  bom  in 
London;  served  in  the  diplomatic  corps;  entered 
the  House  of  Commons  as  Viscount  Goderich  in 
1852;  became  Under  Secretary  for  War  in  1859 
and  Secretary  in  1863;  was  made  Secretary  of 
State  for  India  in  1866,  and  was  Lord  President 
of  the  Council  from  1868  to  1873.  In  1871  he  was 
chairman  of  the  joint  committee  on  the  Treaty 
of  W^ashington.  From  1880  to  1884  he  was  Vice- 
roy of  India,  and  made  himself  very  unpopular 
among  the  English  and  greatly  loved  by  the 
natives  because  of  his  favoritism  for  things 
Hindu.  He  was  Secretary  for  Colonies  from  1892 
to  1895. 

BIPOIT  COtiLEOE.  A  coeducational,  unde- 
nominational institution  at  Ripon,  Wis.,  founded 
in  1851  as  Brockway  College  and  opened  in  1853. 
The  present  name  was  assumed  in  1863.  It  was 
founded  by  the  Winnebago  Convention  of  Presby- 
terian and  Congregational  Churches.  This  Con- 
vention relinquished  control,  giving  it  into  the 
care  of  an  independent  board  of  trustees  in 
1868.  The  larger  part  of  the  institution  is  the 
college  proper,  in  which  the  B.  A.  degree  is  given 
on  completion  of  four  years'  work  in  any  of  a 
number  of  groups  of  studies.  There  is  also  a 
preparatory  school  and  a  conservatory  of  music 
and  art.  The  college  has  a  library  of  11,000  vol- 
umes, an  endowment  of  $212,000,  an  income  of 
$20,000,  and  six  buildings  valued,  with  the 
pounds,  at  $150,000. 

BIPPEBDA,  r^p-pftr'dA,  John  William, 
Baron,  later  Duke  of  (1680-1737).     A  political 


AIPPEBBA.  40 

adventurer.  He  was  born  in  Groningen,  Holland, 
and  at  an  early  age  entered  the  Dutch  army.  In 
1716  he  became  Ambassador  to  Madrid;  there 
he  followed  his  friend  Alberoni  and  turned  Cath- 
olic. He  was  thereupon  intrusted  by  the  Span- 
ish (lOvemment  with  the  direction  of  commerce 
and  industry,  and  became  a  favorite  of  King 
Philip  V.  and  his*  consort,  Elizabeth  Famese. 
In  November,  1724,  Ripperda  went  to  Vienna  and 
there  concluded  in  1726  a  treaty  of  alliance  be- 
tween Spain  and  the  Emperor  Charles  VI.  Upon 
his*  return  to  Madrid  in  December,  1726,  Rip- 
perda was  created  duke  and  made  Prime  Minister. 
But  neither  Spain  nor  Austria  was  able  to  fulfill 
the  terms  of  the  treaty,  and  in  consequence  Rip- 
perda was  dismissed  from  office  on  May  14,  1726. 
He  feared  for  his  life  and  fled  to  the  palace  of 
Stanhope,  the  English  Ambassador,  and  dis- 
closed diplomatic  secrets.  The  Spanish  authori- 
ties thereupon  seized  him  and  confined  him  in 
the  citadel  of  Segovia.  He  escaped  after  two 
years,  went  to  Holland,  and  became  a  Protestant 
again.  After  a  life  of  adventure  in  several  coun- 
tries, he  appeared  in  the  service  of  the  Sultan  of 
Morocco,  and  became  a  devout  Mohammedan.  He 
led  an  army  against  Spain,  but  was  defeated  at 
Ceuta  in  1733,  and  was  exiled  to  Tetuan,  where 
he  died.  Consult:  Moore,  Lives  of  Cardinal 
Alberoni  and  the  Duke  of  Ripperda  (London, 
1814) ;  Syveton,  Une  cour  et  un  aventurier  au 
XVlIIhne  aiide:  baron  de  Ripperda  (Paris, 
189^)  ;  Philippson,  The  Age  of  the  European 
Balance  of  Pou?er  (Eng.  trans.,  Philadelphia, 
1902). 

BIFPI#E  XARXS.  Undulatory  marks  seen 
on  the  sand  of  the  seashore  or  on  the  surface  of 
sand  dunes  and  often  on  the  surface  of  snow 
drifts.  Similar  undulations  also  occur  on  soft 
bottoms  at  a  depth  of  many  feet  beneath  the 
surface  of  lake  or  sea  water.  In  the  former  cases 
the  ripple  marks  are  produced  essentially  by  the 
a(H;ion  of  the  wind,  which  is  thrown  into  an  un- 
dulatory motion  by  the  slightest  obstacle ;  when 
such  motions  are  set  up  the  snow  or  sand  that  is 
carried  by  the  wind  is  deposited  in  such  a  way 
that  the  ripples  reproduce  the  movements  of  the 
air.  At  the  bed  of  an  ocean  or  lake  the  move- 
ment of  the  water  may  produce  ripples  by  a  pre- 
cisely analogous  process.  Tidal  sand  ripples, 
cloud  ripples,  ana  wind  ripples  are  shown  by- 
photographs  in  Nature  for  April  26,  1901. 

BIPTON,  John  (1761-1836).  An  English 
Baptist  minister.  He  was  bom  at  Tiverton;  be- 
came a  Baptist  minister  in  London,  1773,  and  so 
continued  till  his  death  there.  He  edited  The 
Baptist  Annual  Register  (1790-1802),  which  has 
numerous  biographical  sketches  of  denomination^ 
al  interest,  and  he  left  behind  him  many  works 
which  were  purchased  by  the  British  Museum  in 
1870.  His  most  noteworthy  service  was  as  editor 
of  a  hymn  book  (London,  1787;  3l8t  ed.  1844), 
which  was  long  in  use  and  which  has  been  pro- 
nounced one  of  the  most  important  and  influen- 
tial ever  made. 

BIP  VAN  WINKLE.  A  character  in  one  of 
the  tales  in  Washington  Irving's  Sketch  Book 
(1819),  a  good-natured,  intemperate  Dutchman, 
who  sleeps  for  twenty  years  in  the  Catskill 
Mountains,  and  returning  to  his  home,  finds 
evervthing  changed.  The  first  dramatized  form 
of  the  story  was  produced  in  1828,  followed  by 
many  others,  until  in  1866  Boucicault,  with  sug- 


BI8TIC. 


gestions  from  Joseph  Jefferson,  produced  the 
version  which  Jefferson  made  famous,  first  per- 
formed in  London  in  1866. 

BISE  OF  THE  DTTTCH  BEPtlBLIC,  The. 
A  history  of  Holland  by  John  Lothrop  Motley 
(1866),  from  the  abdication  of  Charles  V.,  1666, 
to  the  assassination  of  William  of  Orange  in 
1684.  The  story  is  told  with  dramatic  intensity, 
being  almost  an  epic  with  William  of  Orange,  for 
whom  Motley  was  an  unqualified  partisan,  as 
hero. 

BISH'AKGEB,  William  (c.1260-c.1312). 
An  English  chronicler,  born  probably  in  the  vil- 
lage of  Richangles  in  Suffolk.  He  joined  the 
Benedictine  monks  of  Saint  Albans  Abbey  about 
1271.  His  chronicle  Narratio  de  Bellis  apud 
Lewes  et  Evesham,  continues  the  history  of  Mat- 
thew Paris,  and  gives  a  valuable  account  of  the 
Barons'  Wars  from  1268  until  1267,  with  high 
praise  for  Simon  de  Montfort,  It  was  edited  by 
J.  O.  Halliwell-Phillipps  for  the  Camden  Society 
in  1840.  Other  works  credited  to  him  include 
WiUelmi  Rishanger  Monachi  8.  Albani  Chronica 
(1272-1806)— the  last  part  of  which  he  could 
not  have  written.  It  was  edited  by  Riley  for  the 
Rolls  Series,  in  1866. 

BISHI,  rVsU;  8kt,  pron.  r"sh*  (Skt.  m, 
seer;  connected  with  Av.  sraH,  uprightness)^  The 
title  given  to  the  poets  of  the  Vedic  hymns,  who 
were  supposed  to  have  received  their  divine  in- 
spiration through  the  sense  of  sight.  The 
Sanskrit  texts  generally  give  seven  as  the  num- 
ber of  these  sages,  although  the  Puranas  (q.v.) 
mention  nine,  and  Manu  (q.v.)  enumerates  ten. 
At  a  later  period  the  term  was  applied  to  certain 
classes  of  ascetics.  In  the  Hindu  system  of 
astronomy,  the  seven  rishis  form  the  constellation 
of  Ursa  Major. 

BISING  ST7N,  Ordeb  of  the.  A  Japanese 
civil  and  military  order  with  eight  classes,  found- 
ed by  the  Mikado  Mutsu  Hito  in  1876.  The  dec- 
oration consists  of  the  national  emblem,  a  rising 
sun  composed  of  32  white  rays,  with  a  central 
red  medallion,  and  is  suspended  by  green  leaves 
and  three  blossoms  of  the  Paulovnia  ^om  a  white 
ribbon  edged  with  red. 

BISK  (OF.,  Fr.  risque,  Sp.  riesgo,  risk;  prob- 
ably connected  with  Sp.  rt«co,  steep  rock,  Lat. 
resecare,  to  cut  off,  from  re-,  back  a^in,  anew  -f 
secare,  to  cut).  In  insurance  law,  this  word  is 
used  to  describe  ( 1 )  the  obligation  of  an  insurer ; 

(2)  the  chance  or  hazard  that  the  peril  insured 
against  may  occur  and  the  insurer  be  held  liable ; 

( 3 )  the  probable  or  anticipated  cause  from  which 
the  loss  may  occur  and  against  which  the  insured 
person  is  indemnified;  and  (4)  the  property  or 
person  which  is  the  subject  of  the  insurance.    See 

iNSUBANCE. 

The  term  is  also  employed  in  connection  with 
the  law  of  sales,  both  of  real  and  personal  prop^ 
erty,  to  describe  the  chance  that  the  goods  may  be 
destroyed  before  delivery.    See  Sale. 

BISTid,  ris'tlch,  John  (1831-99).  A  Servian 
statesman,  bom  in  Kragujevac.  He  studied  at 
Berlin,  Heidelberg,  and  Paris,  and  began  his  of- 
ficial career  in  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior,  under 
Prince  Alexander  Karageorgevitch.  In  1858 
he  wa«  made  secretary  to  the  embassy  sent  to 
Constantinople  by  Milosh  Obrenovitch  and  be- 
came Servian  representative  at  the  Porte  (1861- 
67 ) .  In  the  latter  year  he  was  appointed  Servian 


BI8TIC. 


41 


BITCHIE. 


Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  and  when  Michael  Ob- 
renovitch  was  assassinated  he  was  the  envoy  sent 
from  the  provisional  Grovernment  at  Belgrade  to 
bring  Prince  Milan  from  Paris.  From  1868 
to  1872,  during  the  minority  of  Prince  Milan,  he 
was  a  member  of  the  council  of  regency.  In  1872- 
73  he  was  Premier  and  Minister  of  Foreign  Af- 
fairs. He  held  the  same  offices  in  1875  and  1876- 
80  as  leader  of  the  Liberals  in  alliance  with  the 
radical  Nationalists.  In  this  capacity  he  guided 
the  national  policy  during  the  wars  with  Turkey 
in  1876  and  1877-78,  the  ultimate  result  of  which 
was  that  Servia  secured  absolute  inde- 
pendence and  added  territory.  He  went  out  of 
office  in  1880,  but  remained  the  leader  of  the 
Liberal  party  in  the  national  Parliament  and 
was  an  active  supporter  of  a  Pro-Russian  policy. 
In  1887-88  he  was  once  more  Premier.  Risti^ 
was  at  the  head  of  the  regency  from  King  Milan's 
abdication  (1889)  to  King  Alexander's  assump- 
tion of  power  (1893).  He  died  in  Belgrade, 
September  4,  1899.  He  was  the  author  of  sev- 
eral works  on  the  foreign  policy  of  Servia. 

BISTOBl^  r^st</r^  Adelaide  (1822-).  A 
celebrated  Italian  tragic  actress.  She  was  bom 
at  Cividale,  where  her  parents  were  strolling 
players.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  she  was  playing 
in  Francesca  da  Rimini,  and  in  a  few  years  she 
became  the  leading  Italian  actress,  a  universal 
favorite  because  of  her  beauty  and  grace  as  well 
as  her  talents.  Her  marriage  in  1847  with  the 
Marquis  Capranica  del  Grillo  (who  died  in  1861) 
temporarily  interrupted  her  dramatic  career;  but 
after  two  years  she  returned  to  the  stage,  and 
appeared  at  Rome  in  Alfieri's  tragedy  of  Myrrha. 
The  French  attack  on  the  city  caused  her  for  a 
time  to  desert  the  theatre  for  the  hospital,  where 
she  employed  herself  assiduously  in  nursing  the 
wounded.  After  having  acted  for  several  years 
at  Rome  and  Turin  with  immense  success,  she 
presented  herself  before  a  French  audience  in 
1855,  when  Rachel  was  in  the  height  of  her  fame, 
a  proceeding  considered  as  a  challenge  by  the 
first  Italian  actress  to  the  first  Frendi  actress. 
Even  in  Paris  she  obtained  a  triumph,  notably  in 
Legouv^'s  Medea,  which  had  been  rejected*  by 
Rachel.  Two  of  her  other  great  rOles  were  Schil- 
ler's Mary  Stuart  and  Giacometti's  Elizabeth. 
In  London,  in  1856,  she  met  with  great  success 
as  Lady  Macbeth.  She  visited  the  United  States 
in  1866,  1875,  and  1884-85.  Consult  her  auto- 
biography, Ricordi  e  sttidj  artistici  (Turin,  1887 ; 
Eng.  trans..  Studies  and  Memoirs,  a  Biog- 
raphy, Boston,  1888)  ;  Boutet,  A  Ristori  (Rome, 
1899. 

BITASDANDO,  r§'t&r-dftnMd.  A  term  in 
music,  indicating  that  the  passage  to  which  it 
applies  is  to  be  played  slower  and  slower,  with 
a  steady  retard. 

BITCHLK,  Tlch%  Alexander  Hat  (1822-95). 
An  American  engraver  and  painter,  bom  in  Glas- 
gow, Scotland.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Sir  William 
Allen  at  the  Royal  Institution,  Edinburgh,  and 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1841.  He  worked 
both  as  a  painter  and  as  an  engraver  in  Canada 
for  a  short  time,  and  then  settled  in  New  York 
City,  where  he  was  elected  to  the  National  Acad- 
emy in  1871.  His  mezzotint  engravings  are 
particularly  well  known.  They  include  plates 
after  Huntingdon's  "Lady  Washington's  Recep- 
tion Day"  and  Barley's  "On  the  March  to  the 
Sea."    His  oil  paintings  include  "Mercy  Knock- 


ing at  the  Gate"  (1860) ;  "Fitting  Out  Moses  for 
the  Fair"  (1862),  and  several  portraits. 

BITCHIE,  Anna  Cora  Mowatt  (1819-70). 
An  American  actress.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
S.  G.  Ogden,  of  New  York,  but  was  bom  at 
Bordeaux,  France.  She  was  married  at  fifteen 
years  of  age  to  James  Mowatt,  a  New  York 
lawyer.  After  appearing  in  private  theatricals, 
then  in  public  reaaings,  she  studied  for  the  stage 
and  made  her  d4but  in  The  Lady  of  Lyons  at  the 
Park  Theatre  in  1845.  Later  she  toured  with 
£.  L.  Davenport  in  the  United  States  and  went 
with  him  to  England,  where  she  appeared  in  1847 
in  Manchester,  then  in  London^  and  became  lead- 
ing lady  at  the  Marylebone  Theatre,  acting  with 
him  throuffh  many  engagements.  Her  husband 
having  diea  abroad,  she  returned  to  America,  and 
in  1853  retired  from  the  stage.  In  1854  she  ipar- 
ried  W.  F.  Ritchie,  editor  of  the  Richmond  Eao- 
aminer.  He  died  in  1868,  and  she  thenceforth 
resided  in  England  and  corresponded  for  Ameri- 
can newspapers.  She  was  the  author  of  several 
plays,  among  them  Fashion  (produced  in  1845) 
and  Armani  (1847),  and  a  number  of  novels, 
of  which  may  be  mentioned  The  Fortune- 
Teller  (1842),  Evelyn,  or  a  Heart  Unmasqued 
(1845),  and  Fairy  Fingers  (1865).  Consult 
also  her  Autobiography  of  An  Actress  (Boston, 
1854). 

BITCHIE,  Anne  Isabella  (1838—).  An. 
English  author,  the  eldest  daughter  of  Thack- 
eray. She  was  born  in  London,  and  was  educated 
in  Paris.  She  married  her  cousin,  Richmond 
Ritchie,  in  1877.  Her  works  consist  of  novels 
and  critical  studies,  written  in  a  graceful,  lucid, 
style,  which  show  skill  in  character  drawing,  and 
which  are  full  of  discriminating  touches  and  keen 
observation.  They  include  The  Story  of  Elizabeth 
(1863),  The.  Village  on  the  Cliff  (1865),  and 
a  notable  edition  of  the  works  of  Thackeray 
(1898). 

BITCHIE,  Chables  Thomson  (1838—).  An 
English  statesman,  bom  in  Dundee.  He  became 
a  well-known  merchant  in  London,  from  1874  to 
1885  sat  in  Parliament  for  the  Tower  Hamlets 
as  a  Ck)nservative,  and  from  1855  to  1892  for  Saint 
George's-in-the-East.  In  1885-86  he  was  secre- 
tary to  the  Admiralty,  in  1886-92  president  of 
the  Local  Grovernment  Board,  in  which  capacity 
he  accomplished  important  reforms  in  provincial 
administration,  and  in  1895-1900  was  president 
of  the  Board  of  Trade.  He  became  Secretary  of 
State  for  the  Home  Department  in  1900,  and,  in 
1902,  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  which  office 
he  resigned  in  1903.  In  1895  he  was  elected 
member  for  Croydon. 

BITCHIE,  David  Geobge  (1853—).  A  Scotch 
philosopher,  bom  at  Jedburgh,  and  educated  at 
Edinburgh  University  (1869-74)  and  at  Balliol 
College,  Oxford  (1874-78).  He  was  fellow  of 
Jesus  College  from  1878  to  1894,  being  tutor  at 
that  college  from  1881  and  at  Balliol  from  1882 
to  1886,  and  in  1894  became  professor  of  logic  and 
metaphysics  at  Saint  Andrews.  For  the  year  1898- 
99  he  was  president  of  the  Aristotelian  Society. 
Ritchie  contributed  several  articles  on  Greek 
philosophy  to  Chambers's  Encyclopcedia  and  on 
various  subjects  to  Palgrave's  Dictionary  /of 
PoUtioal  Economy;  edited  Early  Letters  of  Jane 
Welsh  Carlyle  (1889);  and  published  Dartoin^ 
ism  and  Politics  (1889),  Principles  of  State  In- 
terferenoe  (1891),  Darwin   and   Hegel    (1893), 


BITGHIE. 


42 


BITSCHL. 


yatural  Bights    (1895),  Political    and    Social 
Ethics  (1902),  and  Plato  (1902). 

BITGHIE^  Thomas  (1778-1854).  An  Ameri- 
can journalist,  born  in  Essex  County,  Virginia. 
After  studying  medicine  and  doing  some  teaching 
he  removed  to  Richmond  and  became  editor  of 
the  Examiner  in  1804.  He  changed  its  name  to 
Enquirer,  and  remained  its  editor  and  pro- 
prietor till  1846,  when  at  the  request  of  the  Presi- 
dent he  gave  it  up  to  his  sons  and  removed  to 
Washington.  There  he  founded  the  Union  as  the 
official  organ  of  Polk's  Administration.  In  1849 
he  retired  and  spent  his  last  years  in  Richmond. 
He  was  a  States- rights  Democrat  and  a  bom 
editor,  full  of  pugnacity  and  Scotch  stubborn- 
ness. He  made  the  Enquirer  a  power  through 
the  Union,  and  was  himself  an  important  figure 
in  contemporary  politics. 

BITE  (Lat.  ritus,  custom;  connected  with 
riti,  way,  usage,  ri,  to  flow) .  A  religious  act  per- 
formed according  to  an  established  order,  de- 
termined by  rule  and  usage.  In  established  re- 
ligions, worship  must  be  carried  on  in  a  specified 
manner,  by  particular  persons,  and  at  special 
times  and  places,  while  its  conduct  requires  train-  * 
ing  in  the  celebrant,  who  usually  belongs  to  an 
order  of  priests.  The  hymns  of  the  Rig  Veda,  as 
compared  with  Hindu  faiths  of  subsequent  ages, 
show  incomparably  greater  directness  and  sim- 
plicity. From  these  and  similar  cases  it  has  been 
inferred  that  acts  of  worship  were  originally  not 
limited  by  prescribed  form,  but  might  take 
place  at  any  time  and  be  performed  by  any 
individual  at  his  own  pleasure.  If  this  doctrine 
were  accepted  the  history  of  rites  would  be 
relatively  modem.  Recent  investigations,  how- 
ever, have  placed  a  different  face  on  the  matter; 
in  North  America,  at  least,  aboriginal  worship 
appears  to  have  been  ritualistic  to  an  extraordi- 
nary degree.  The  Navahos,  for  example,  possess 
elaborate  ceremonies,  of  which  many  are  of  nine 
days'  duration.  So  complicated  are  these,  that 
to  become  a  chanter  is  the  task  of  many  years, 
and  no  one  person  can  perfectly  know  more  than 
one  rite.  These  offices  are  performed  primarily 
in  order  to  heal  the  sick,  but  have  also  the  seconda- 
ry purpose  of  securing  temporal  blessings  of  all 
sorts,  of  bestowing  amusement  and  social  pleas- 
ure, and  in  general  of  gratifying  religious  emo- 
tions. Other  ceremonies  are  efficacious  in  plant- 
ing, harvesting,  building,  war,  nubility,  marriage, 
travel,  and  rain-bringing.  In  their  celebration 
means  are  employed  which  answer  to  the  ele- 
ments of  ritual  in  other  continents,  such  as 
prayer,  sacrifice,  singing,  dancing,  incense,  music, 
painting,  procession,  and  casting  of  sacred  meal. 
In  the  ordering  of  the  service  the  most  minute 
accuracy  is  required;  for  example,  use  is  made 
of  'kethawns,'  or  plumed  prayer-sticks,  which 
are  conceived  as  conveying  messages  to  the  gods. 
Each  of  these  wands  has  its  own  special  symbol- 
ism, must  be  offered  in  a  particular  manner,  and 
laid  in  a  particular  direction,  so  as  to  convey  its 
tidings  to  one  special  deity.  When  the  bearer  of 
the  sacrifice  leaves  the  lodge,  he  proceeds  in  a 
direction  leading  toward  a  selected  place;  after 
he  has  deposited  his  offering,  he  turns  to  the 
right  and  returns  by  a  sunwise  path.  He  must 
not  cross  the  trail  taken  in  coming,  must  not 
cross  an  ant-hill,  and  must  run  during  the  whole 
of  his  route.  In  the  course  of  the  ceremony  songs 
are  chanted,  which  are  traditional,  having  been 


handed  down  by  word  of  mouth  perhaps  for  cen- 
turies; these  must  be  known  with  exactness,  for 
any  error  made  in  singing,  even  to  the  misplac- 
ing of  a  single  vocable,  will  be  fatal  to  the  efficacy 
of  the  rite.  The  songs  are  not  isolated,  but  di- 
vided into  groups,  which  must  follow  in  estab- 
lished order,  and  each  has  a  place  in  its  own 
group  which  must  not  be  changed,  under  penalty 
of  divine  displeasure,  and  the  officiating  priest 
is  obliged  to  remember  this  place,  though  the 
scries  may  contain  some  two  hundred  or  three 
hundred  pieces.  During  the  function,  each  day 
and  each  night  has  its  own  ordained  duties. 
Although  the  performances  of  the  Navahos  may 
excel  in  precision  and  variety,  yet  the  same 
character  of  ritualism  seems  to  belong  to  Indian 
tribes  through  North  and  South  America.  If  not 
found  among  any  particular  race,  the  deficiency 
may  be  attributed  either  to  imperfect  record,  or  to 
the  social  conditions  which  have  brought  into 
abeyance  an  earlier  ceremonial  religion. 

The  qiuestion  presents  itself,  how  far  the 
principles  applicable  to  American  ritual  may 
be  taken  to  represent  general  early  religious 
custom.  For  the  answer  to  this  inquiry  material 
is  as  yet  hardly  accessible.  It  may  be  affirmed, 
however,  that  the  evidence  accessible  seems  to 
imply  that  the  Indian  ritual  was  typical.  Among 
the  Australians  all  tribes  appear  to  have  elabo- 
rate ceremonies,  exhibiting  many  similar  features. 
Throughout  Africa  full  and  detailed  accounts 
have  not  yet  been  obtained  representing  the 
tribal  ceremonies  in  which  correspondence  would 
be  looked  for.  Early  Egyptian  art  makes  it 
clear  that  before  the  construction  of  the  first 
pyramids  there  existed  elaborate  rites,  in  which 
stories  of  gods  were  acted  out  in  dance,  song, 
masquerade,  and  procession.  Although  Greek 
and  Roman  literature  has  failed  to  preserve  de- 
tailed accounts  of  local  worship,  it  is  certain 
that  every  district  and  temple  at  one  time  had 
its  own  mysteries,  sacred  dramas,  and  exact  ob- 
servance of  ceremony. 

BITES,  Congregation  of.  A  committee  of 
cardinals  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  founded 
by  Pope  Sixtus  V.  (1585-1590).  The  number  of 
members  has  varied  from  time  to  time.  They  are 
assisted  by  consultors  and  minor  officials.  It 
takes  cognizance  of  the  liturgy,  the  rites  per- 
taining to  the  sacraments,  the  rubrics  of  the 
missal  and  breviary,  the  ceremonies  of  the  Church 
in  its  public  functions,  such  as  the  feasts,  the  due 
reception  of  exalted  personages,  in  order  to  se- 
cure uniformity  and  reasonable  consistency,  and 
the  canonization  of  saints.  The  congregation 
meets  at  the  house  of  the  prefect,  who  is  the 
senior  cardinal  of  the  congregation;  but  it  has 
an  office,  the  Palazzo  della  Cancelleria  Apostolica, 
Rome.  Consult  Bangen,  Die  romiscke  Curie 
(Mttnster,  1854). 

BITSCHL,  rich'l,  Albkecht  ,(1822-89).  A 
Qerman  Protestant  theologian,  the  founder  of 
one  of  the  most  important  schools  of  theological 
thought  of  the  present  time.  He  was  bom  in 
Berlin.  His  boyhood  was  spent  in  Stettin,  his 
father  having  been  Bishop  and  general  superin- 
tendent of  the  Evangelical  Church  in  Pomerania 
from  1827.  He  studied  at  Bonn,  Halle,  Heidel- 
berg, and  Tfibingen.  In  1846  he  became  doeent 
at  Bonn,  professor  extraordinary  of  theology 
in  1852,  and  full  professor  in  1859.  In  1864 
he   was   called   to   GSttingen,   where   he   died, 


SITSCHL. 


43 


BATEKHOTTSE. 


March  20,  1889.  Ritschl  ranks  high  both 
as  an  historian  and  as  an  exegete,  but  he 
IB  most  widely  known  as  a  theologian. 
His  theology  was  of  the  subjective  type.  He 
was  filled  with  a  desire  to  know  the  essence  of 
Christianity  apart  from  what  he  termed  its  *ac- 
cidents.'  Man  and  his  spiritual  needs  became  the 
centre  of  his  system.  He  claimed  that  the  first 
prerequisite  of  theological  culture  was  a  clear 
understanding  of  the  Christian  idea  of  reconcilia- 
tion, and  this,  with  the  accompanying  doctrine 
of  justification,  was  at  one  time  the  burden  of 
his  teaching.  His  thought,  however,  may  be  said 
to  have  been  in  a  state  of  continual  flux.  He 
passed  through  every  stage  of  current  religious 
thought,  and,  though  widely  learned,  he  had  no 
sense  of  proportion  in  doctrine.  Yet  he  furnished 
a  rare  fimd  of  suggestion  to  his  pupils,  and,  espe- 
cially in  his  later  years  at  Gdttingen,  gathered 
about  him  a  circle  of  enthusiastic  and  devoted 
disciples.  Aside  from  lectures,  addresses,  ser- 
mons, and  numerous  reviews,  Ritschl's  most  im- 
portant publications  were:  Die  Entstehung  der 
altkatholischen  Kirche  (1850;  2d  ed.  1857); 
Ueher  das  Verhflltnia  des  Bekenntnisses  zur 
Kirche  (1854);  Die  chriatliche  Lehre  von  der 
Rechtfertigung  und  der  Veraohnung  (1870- 
74;  3d  ed.  1888-89;  Eng.  trans.  1872-1900); 
Bchleiermach€r*8  Reden  Uher  die  Religion  und 
ihre  Nachwirkung  auf  die  evangeliache  Kirche 
Deutsdhlanda  (1874)  ;  Unterricht  in  der  chriat- 
liehen  Religion  (1875;  5th  ed.  1895);  Ge- 
schichte  dee  Pietismua  (1880-86)  ;  Theologie  und 
Metaphysik  ( 1881 )  ;  Fides  Implicita  ( 1890 ) . 
Two  volumes  of  Oesammelte  Aufaatze  were  pub- 
lished after  his  death  (1893-96). 

The  RrrscHLiAN  School  of  Theology  grew  out 
of,  but  does  not  uniformly  reflect,  the  teaching  of 
Ritschl.  Strictly  speakmg,  it  is  a  movement 
rather  than  a  school,  and  it  has  been  aptly  de- 
scribed as  an  organic  evolution.  Its  develop- 
ment is  incomplete  and  there  is  wide  divergence 
of  views  among  its  members.  It  may  be  de- 
scribed from  one  point  of  view  as  Christianity 
apart  from  creeds  and  from  another  as  theistic 
altruism.  Its  watchwords  are :  "  Theology  with- 
out metaphysics"  and  ''From  ethics  to  religion." 
Like  Ritschl,  it  resents  the  metaphysical  nomen- 
elature  in  which  the  great  Christian  verities  have 
been  expressed,  and  also  claims  that  men  should 
first  be  incited  to  work  in  the  kingdom  of  God 
and  thus  reach  out  from  that  vantage  ground  to 
the  religious  thought  of  the  kingdom.  It  claims 
that  preaching  should  be  disburdened  of  such 
doctrines  as  the  Trinity,  the  Incarnation,  and 
the  Atonement,  and  that  the  gospel  miracles,  the 
resurrection  of  Jesus  C^lirist,  and  the  unpleasant 
fact  of  sin  should  be  thrust  into  the  background 
of  all  teaching,  so  as  not  to  keep  men  of  intelli- 
gence and  culture  fronf  embracing  dThristianity. 
The  tendency  of  the  movement  is  away  from  over- 
defining  and  in  favor  of  great  liberty  and  elas- 
ticity of  thought  and  expression.  The  Ritschl  ians 
attempt,  by  surrendering  the  supernatural  ele- 
ment in  religion,  as  a  concession  to  modem  crit- 
ical thought,  and  by  abandoning  all  discus- 
sions of  metaphysical  questions  in  theology, 
to  save  belief  in  Christ  and  in  human  re- 
demption as  "judgments  of  worth  or  value,*' 
which,  thou^  not  actually  capable  of 
theoretic  proof,  are  yet  the  very  essence 
of  religious  life  and  knowledge.  The  move- 
Vou  XV.-4. 


ment  is  widespread  and  influential;  its  disciples 
hold  chairs  in  the  principal  German  universities; 
the  spirit  of  their  teaching  has  penetrated  Conti- 
nental theology  and  made  its  influence  felt  widely 
in  England  and  America. 

BiBLiOGBAPHT.  The  life  of  Ritschl  has  been 
written  by  his  son,  Otto  Ritschl,  professor  at 
Bonn  (Freiburg,  1892-96).  Works  treating 
of  his  teaching  and  the  Ritschlian  school  are 
numerous ;  the  following  may  be  moitioned,  most 
of  which  contain  extensive  bibliographies:  Pflei- 
derer,  Die  Ritachlsche  Theologie  kritiach  heleuch- 
tet  (Brunswick,  1891);  Schoen,  Lea  originea 
hiatoriquea  de  la  theologie  de  Ritachl  (Paris, 
1893) ;  Mielke,  Daa  System  Alhre'cht  Ritschls 
(Bonn,  1894) ;  Denny,  Studies  in  Theology  (Lon- 
don, 1894) ;  Orr,  The  Ritschlian  Theology  and 
the  Evangelical  Faith  (New  York,  1899) ;  Swing, 
The  Theology  of  Albrecht  Ritachl,  with  Instruc- 
tion in  the  Christian  Religion,  translated  from 
the  4th  German  edition  (ib.,  1901) ;  Brown,  The 
Essence  of  Christianity  (ib.,  1902) ;  Garvie,  The 
Ritschlian  Theology,  Critical  and  Constructive 
(ib.,  1902). 

RITSCHL,  Fbiedbich  Wilhelm  (1806-76). 
A  German  philologist.  He  was  bom  at  Gross- 
vargula,  in  Thuringia,  April  6,  1806.  He  stud- 
ied at  Leipzig  under  Hermann,  and  from  1826  to 
1829  at  Halle.  In  1833  he  was  called  to  Breslau 
as  extraordinary  professor.  In  1834  he  became 
full  professor,  and  he  spent  the  winter  and 
spring  of  1836-37  on  a  tour  through  Italy.  In 
1839  he  went  to  Bonn  as  professor  of  clas- 
sical literature  and  rhetoric.  His  first  literary 
works  were  devoted  to  the  Greek  grammarians, 
as  the  edition  of  Thomas  Magister  (Halle,  1832), 
the  treatise  De  Oro  et  Orione  (1834),  and  the 
Die  Alewandrinischen  Bihliotheken  und  die  Samm- 
lung  der  Homerischen  Oedichte  durch  Pisistratus 
(1838),  prove;  but  by  far  his  greatest  work  is 
his  edition  of  Plautus  (1848-53).  Subsequently 
he  devoted  himself  to  a  systematic  treatment  of 
Latin  inscriptions,  with  the  view  of  illustrating 
the  history  of  the  Latin  language,  and  published 
a  long  series  of  epigraphical  studies,  followed  in 
1862  by  his  monumental  folio  Prisccs  Latinitatis 
Monumenta  Epigraphica.  He  died  November  8, 
1876.  His  life  has  been  written  by  Ribbeck  (2 
vols.,  Leipzig,  1879-81)  and  Mttller  (Berlin 
1877). 

BIT^SON,  Joseph  (1752-1803).  An  English 
antiquary,  bom  at  Stockton-on-Tees.  He  studied 
law,  and  practiced  as  conveyancer.  Afterwards 
he  was  appointed  high  bailifi'  of  the  liberty  of  the 
Savoy  (1784),  a  position  he  held  for  life.  He 
was  a  man  of  learning,  but  of  peculiar  disposi- 
tion, and  a  savage  critic.  Warton,  Johnson, 
Steevens,  Malone,  Bishop  Percy,  Pinkerton,  and 
others  were  the  subjects  of  his  bitter  pen.  His 
works  include:  Observations  on  Warton* s  Three 
First  Volumes  of  the  History  of  English  Poetry 
(1782) ;  Cursory  Criticisms  (1792)  ;  Bibliograph- 
ica  Poetica:  a  Catalogue  of  English  Poeta  of  the 
XIL-XVIL  Centuries  (1802);  Ancient  Eng- 
lish Metrical  Romancea  (1892) ;  and  several  col- 
lections and  anthologies.  Consult:  Haslewood. 
Some  Account  of  the  Life  and  Publications  of  the 
late  Joseph  Ritson,  Esq.  (1824),  and  Nicholas, 
Ijetters  of  Joseph  Ritaon,  Eaq.,  with  a  Memoir 
(1833). 

BrFTENHOTTSE,  David  (1732-96).  An 
American  astronomer  and  maker  of  astronomical 


BITTEKHOTTftL 


44 


HITTEB. 


instruments,  bom  in  Pennsylvania.  When  12  years 
old,  he  inherited  a  small  library  containing  a  few 
works  on  mathematics  and  among  them  New- 
ton's Principia,  In  1751  he  adopted  clock-mak- 
ing as  a  profession.  He  soon  established  a  repu- 
tation as  an  astronomer  and  instrument-maker 
of  unusual  ability,  and  in  1763  was  engaged  to 
determine  the  boundary  line  since  known  as 
Mason  and  Dixon's  line,  for  which  he  used  in- 
struments of  his  own  construction.  He  was  sub- 
sequently called  upon  to  settle  the  boundaries 
between  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania, 
and  several  other  States.  Soon  after  he  made 
two  orreries,  one  for  Princeton  College  and  one 
for  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  Ritten- 
house  was  appointed  by  the  American  Philosoph- 
ical Society  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus, 
June  3,  1769.  After  1770  he  lived  in  Philadel- 
phia, and  was  a  member  of  the  convention  that 
framed  the  first  State  Constitution.  He  also 
served  as  the  first  State  Treasurer  (1777-89)  and 
director  of  the  Philadelphia  mint  (1792-95).  He 
was  professor  of  astronomy  in  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  (1779-82),  and  was  a  member  of 
many  learned  societies,  including  the  American 
Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  the  Royal  So- 
ciety of  London,  and  the  American  Philosophical 
Society,  of  which  he  was  president  after  Frank- 
lin's death  (1791).  Host  of  his  scientific 
papers  appeared  in  the  Transactions  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society.  Consult  the 
Memoir  by  William  Barton   (1813). 

BIT^EB,  August  ( 1826— ) .  A  German  civil 
engineer,  bom  at  Lttneburg,  and  educated  at  the 
Polytechnic  Institute  at  Hanover,  and  at  Got- 
tingen.  He  was  a  practicing  engineer  for  Fome 
time,  in  1856  became  teacher  of  mechanics  ind 
construction  of  machinery  at  Hanover,  in  the 
Polytechnic  Institute,  and  in  1870  became  pro- 
fessor in  the  School  of  Technology  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle.  He  is  best  kno\\Ti  as  the  author  of 
Ritter's  method  of  reckoning  arches  for  bridges 
and  roofs.  He  wrote  Elementary  Theory  and 
Calculation  of  Iron  Bridges  and  Roofs  (German, 
1863,  5th  ed.  1894;  Eng.  by  Sankey,  1879), 
Lehrbuch  der  technischen  Mechanik  (1864;  7th 
ed.  1896),  Lehrbuch  der  Ingenieur- Mechanik 
(1874-76),  and  Lehrbuch  der  analytischen  Me- 
chanik (2d.  ed.  1883). 

BITTEB,  Karl  (1779-1859).  An  eminent 
German  geographer.  He  was  bom  at  Qued- 
Hnburg,  Prussia,  in  1779,  and  was  educated 
in  the  famous  school  of  Salzmann  at  Schnepfen- 
thal  and  at  Halle  University.  His  earliest  geo- 
graphical studies  were  printed  in  a  paper  pub- 
lished for  the  young,  and  attracted  wide  atten- 
tion. His  six  maps  of  Europe  were  published  in 
1806  and  his  Geography  of  Europe^  in  two  vol- 
umes, five  years  later.  In  1816  he  completed  in 
Berlin  the  first  volume  of  Die  Erdkunde,  his 
monumental  geographical  work,  and  a  part  of  it 
was  published  in  the  following  year.  The  whole 
of  the  first  volume  did  not  appear  until  1832,  and 
the  following  volumes  were  issued  from  the  press 
in  rapid  succession.  Die  Erdkunde  is  the  fullest 
encyclopaedia  of  geographical  lore.  In  this  work 
Ritter  unfolded  and  established  the  treatment  of 
geography,  as  a  study  and  a  science,  which  has 
been  indorsed  and  adopted  by  all  geographers.  He 
presented  the  earth's  surface  in  its  relations  to 
nature  and  to  man  and  as  the  foundation  of  the 
study   of   the   physical   and   historical    sciences. 


All  the  physical  geographies  of  to-day  pro- 
foundly show  the  influence  of  Ritter's  writings. 
His  position  as  a  teacher  became  as  eminent  as 
his  rank  as  a  geographer.  Many  of  Ritter's  writ- 
ings were  printed  in  the  Monatsberichte  of  the 
Berlin  Geographical  Society,  and  in  the  Zeitschrift 
fUr  allgemeine  Erdkunde,  His  Oeschichte  der 
Erdkunde  und  der  Entdeckungen  (1861),  All- 
gemeine Erdkunde  (1862),  and  Europa  (1863) 
were  published  posthumously.  Some  of  his 
works  have  been  translated  into  English  by  W.  L. 
Gage:  Comparative  Geography  (1865),  and  The 
Comparative  Geography  of  Palestine  and  the 
Sinaitic  Peninsula  (1866).  Consult  the  Life  by 
W.  L.  Gage  (Edinburgh,  1867)  and  Kramer 
(Halle,  1864;  2d  ed.  1875). 

BITTEB,  Fb^d^bic  Louis  (1834-91).  A 
German-American  composer,  born  in  Strassburg. 
He  studied  under  Moritz,  Hauser,  and  Schlet- 
terer.  In  1856  he  came  to  the  United  States, 
resided  for  some  years  in  Cincinnati,  where  he 
founded  the  Cecilia  and  Philharmonic  socie- 
ties, and  in  1861  removed  to  New  York  City 
and  conducted  the  Sacred  Harmonic  and  Arion 
societies.  In  1867  he  organized  a  musical  fes- 
tival, which  he  conducted  in  New  York,  and  was 
soon  after  appointed  professor  of  music  at  Vas- 
sar  College,  which  post  he  held  till  his  death. 
He  published  many  songs,  orchestral,  church, 
and  pianoforte  music,  and  several  musical  works, 
including  History  of  Music  (1870-74),  Music  in 
England  (1883),  and  Music  in  America  (1883). 
He  died  in  Antwerp. 

BITTEB,  Heinbich  (1791-1869).  A  German 
historian  of  philosophy.  He  was  bom  at  Zerbst, 
Anhalt,  November  21,  1791;  studied  theolo^ 
and  philosophy  at  Halle,  GOttingen,  and  Berhn, 
and  in  1824  was  created  professor  extraordinarius 
at  Berlin  University.  In  1833  he  accepted  a  call 
to  the  university  at  Kiel,  and  went  thence  in 
1837  to  Grottingen.  His  great  work,  Oeschichte 
der  Philosophic  (Hamburg,  1829-53;  2d  ed., 
vol.  i.-iv.,  1836-38),  is  still  of  value.  In  addition 
he  wrote  works  on  logic,  metaphysics,  and 
ethics.  Ritter  was  largely  influenced  by  Schleier- 
macher.    He  died  February  3,  1869. 

BITTEB,  Henby  (1816-53).  A  Canadian 
genre  painter,  born  at  Montreal.  He  studied  un- 
der Groger  in  Hamburg  and  under  Karl  Ferdi- 
nand Solm  at  Dilsseldorf.  Among  his  charac- 
teristic and  finely  colored  episodes  from  the  life 
of  sailors  and  fishermen,  showing  the  influence 
of  Rudolf  Jordan,  the  most  prominent  are: 
"Braggart  in  Sailor's  Tavern"  (1841);  "Offer 
of  Marriage  in  Normandy"  ( 1842,  Leipzig  Muse- 
um) ;  "Drowned  Son  of  the  Pilot"  (1844,  Ra- 
venft  Gallery,  Berlin)  ;  "Poacher  Before  Justice 
of  the  Peace"  (1847),  his  largest  painting; 
"Prairie  Fire"  (1851,  ^unsthalle,  Hamburg); 
"The  Son's  Last  Letter"  (1852,  Kunsthalle, 
Bremen)  ;  and  "Middy's  Sermon"  (1853,  Cologne 
Museum ) . 

BITTEB,  Paul  (1829—).  A  German  archi- 
tectural painter  and  etcher,  born  at  Nuremberg. 
He  was  deaf  and  dumb  from  the  fourth  year  of 
his  life.  A  pupil  of  Heideloff,  he  engraved  for 
publishers  in  Bierlin,  Stuttgart,  and  Nuremberg. 
About  1870  he  took  up  painting  in  oil  and  ac- 
quired considerable  reputation  with  his  interiors 
and  street  views  of  Nuremberg,  richly  supple- 
mented with  historical  figures,  such  as  "Interior 


! 


BITTEB. 


45 


BITUALISM. 


of  Church  of  St.  Lawrence"  (1874) ;  the  "Schone 
Briiimen"  (1880);  "Entry  of  Procession  with 
the  Crown  Jewels  into  Nuremberg  in  1424" 
(1883,  City  Hall,  Nuremberg) ;  "Entry  of  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus  in  1632"  (1886);  "Emperor 
Matthias  Leaving  the  Kaiserburg  in  1612" 
(1890)  ;  and  "Monument  of  Saint  Sebaldus."  In 
1888  the  title  of  royal  professor  was  conferred  on 
him.  His  brother  Lobenz  ( 1832 — ) ,  bom  at  Nu- 
remberg, pupil  of  Heideloff,  also  painted  (chiefly 
in  water  colors)  and  etched  numerous  architec- 
tural views  in  his  native  city  and  some  subjects 
from  North  Italy. 

BITTEBSHATTS;  rit^tSrs-hous,  Emcl  (1834- 
97).  A  German  lyrist,  bom  at  Barmen.  His 
poetry,  marked  by  simple  feeling,  fine  diction, 
and  original  matter,  won  great  popularity.  The 
best  known  of  his  works  are:  Oedichte  (1856; 
8th  ed.  1891)  ;  Am  Rhein  und  heim  Wein  (1884; 
3d  ed.  1893);  Buck  der  Liedenachaft  (1886); 
and  In  Bruderliebe  und  Brudertreue  (1893). 

BITTTAI«  (Lat.  ritualis,  relating  to  rites,  from 
ritus,  rite;  connected  with  Skt.  ri<t,  course,  cus- 
tom, from  rf,  to  flow).  The  name  of  one  of  the 
service  books  of  the  Roman  Church,  in  which  are 
contained  the  prayers  and  order  of  ceremonial 
employed  by  priests  in  the  administration  of  cer- 
tain of  the  sacraments  and  other  offices  of  the 
Church.  Substantially  in  its  present  form  it 
dates  from  the  Council  of  Trent,  which  directed 
a  revision  of  all  the  different  rituals  then  in  ex- 
istence. 

BITTJAIjISM.  a  term  popularly  applied  to 
the  remarkable  development  of  Church  ceremonial 
which  grew  out  of  the  Oxford  Movement  (q.v.) 
and  gathered  about  the  service  of  the  Holy  Com- 
munion, in  the  Church  of  England.  The  ritualistic 
movement  may  be  said  to  date  from  1863,  or  even 
earlier.  There  were  Church  riots  in  East  Lon- 
don springing  from  this  cause  in  1859.  The  as- 
sertion of  the  doctrine  of  the  Real  Presence  (see 
Lobd's  Suppeb)  and  its  concomitant,  the  Euchar- 
istic  Sacrifice,  resulted  in  a  marked  development 
of  ceremonial.  It  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that 
a  present-day  'high  celebration'  of  the  Holy 
Eucharist  in  an  'advanced*  church  is  character- 
ized by  a  detailed  and  elaborate  ceremonial  with 
which  the  earlier  Tractarians  had  no  acquaint- 
ance. The  chief  warrant  for  the  new  ritual 
is  found  in  what  is  known  as  the  "Ornaments 
Rubric"  (q.v.)  in  the  English  Prayer  Book.  But 
the  ritualistic,  so  called,  find  additional  sanction 
for  their  ceremonial  in  the  language  of  Canon 
XXX.  of  1603,  which,  they  assert,  esteblishes  the 
unity  of  the  C!!hurch  of  England  with  other 
•branches*  of  the  Catholic  CJhurch  and  gives  them 
the  right  to  use  all  ceremonies  which  are  primi- 
tive and  catholic.  They  further  contend  that  in 
the  36th  article,  on  "The  Consecration  of  Bishops 
and  Ministers,"  it  is  expressly  declared  that  the 
old  Latin  ordination  services  of  the  time  of 
Edward  VI.  contain  nothing  'superstitious  or  un- 
godly,' that  a  celebration  of  the  Holy  Commun- 
ion, according  to  the  liturgy  of  1549,  formed  an 
integral  part  of  these  ordination  services,  and 
that  such  a  celebration  involved  the  use  of  all 
sorts  of  pre-Reformation  rites  and  ceremonies — 
all,  in  fact,  that  are  contended  for  by  the  ad- 
vanced school  at  the  present  day.  They  also  cite 
in  support  of  their  practices  the  numerous  lists 
of  ornaments  found  in  the  ancient  records  of 
parish  churches  in  Edward  VI.'s  time  and  the 


inventories  taken  by  a  commissioner  appointed  in 
1552,  which  "specify  a  number  of  appliances  and 
usages  over  and  above  those  mentioned  in  the 
first  Prayer  Book  of  Edward  VI."  They  contend, 
in  fact,  that  every  vestment,  ornament,  and  mov- 
able thing  used  in  the  church  services  before  the 
Reformation  and  every  ceremony  involved  in  its 
use  are  now  perfectly  legal,  unless  expressly  for- 
bidden or  by  implication  done  away  with  by 
rubrical  or  other  proper  authority.  The  result 
is  the  complete  transformation  of  the  Church's 
worship  as  it  was  celebrated  in  the  middle  of  the 
last  century.  The  'six  points'  of  ritual  are 
insisted  upon.  These  are  the  Eucharistic  vest- 
ments (see  Costume,  Ecclesiastical)  ;  the  east- 
ward position  for  the  celebrant  at  the  altar;  the 
use  of  unleavened  or  wafer  bread;  the  mixed 
chalice;  incense;  and  altar  lights. 

In  England  several  attempts  have  been  made 
to  suppress  these  ritualistic  practices.  In  1867 
the  Government  appointed  a  commission  "to  in- 
quire into  the  rubrics,  orders,  and  directions  for 
the  regulation  of  the  conduct  of  public  worship." 
In  1874  the  Public  Worship  Regulation  Act  was 
passed.  Its  object,  as  expressly  declared  by  the 
Prime  Minister,  Disraeli,  was  to  "put  down  Rit- 
ualism," and  its  most  significant  provision  was 
the  appointment  of  a  State-made  judge  before 
whom  ritual  cases  might  be  brought.  In  1890, 
before  Archbishop  Benson  and  his  episcopal  as- 
sessors, Bishop  King  of  Lincoln  was  tried  for 
unlawful  practices  in  the  celebration  of  Holy 
Communion.  The  specifications  were  allowing 
two  lighted  candles  on  the  altar,  mixing  water 
with  the  wine,  assuming  the  eastward  position, 
permitting  the  Agnt^  Dei  to  be  sung,  making  the 
sign  of  the  cross  at  the  benediction,  and  taking 
part  in  a  ceremonial  ablution  of  the  sacred 
vessels.  On  strict  legal  grounds,  all  of  these 
except  the  sign  of  the  cross  were  upheld,  at  least 
with  qualifications.  An  appeal  was  made  to  the 
Privy  Council,  which  sustained  the  Archbishop. 
In  1899  the  legality  of  the  ceremonial  use  of 
lights  and  incense  and  the  reservation  of  the 
Sacrament  was  argued  before  the  Archbishops  of 
Canterbury  and  York,  and  the  decision  was  ad- 
verse to  the  ancient  practices. 

But  legislation  has  practically  failed  of  its  ob- 
ject. Several  English  clergy  went  to  prison 
rather  than  obey  the  mandates  of  a  secular  court 
in  things  spiritual.  The  interference  of  the 
State  in  the  teaching  and  practice  of  the  Church 
was  resented  and  firmly  resisted.  Even  the  arch- 
bishops' decisions  were  held  to  be  but  'opinions,' 
and  any  weight  attaching  to  them  was  deemed 
moral  rather  than  legal.  The  movement,  as  rep- 
resented by  the  English  Church  Union,  under 
the  leadership  of  Lord  Halifax,  has  gone  steadily 
on.  The  advanced  school  has  been  recognized 
by  the  Government  in  the  sielection  of  a  certain 
number  of  bishops  from  its  ranks.  The  com- 
prehensiveness of  the  national  Church  has  been 
admitted.  Most  of  the  practices  in  debate  have 
been  either  explicitly  or  tacitly  recognized.  The 
onus  of  the  solution  of  the  difficult  problem  of 
ritual  rests  largely  upon  the  bishops,  and  their 
fatherly  counsels  generally  result  in  the  suppres- 
sion of  extreme  practices. 

In  the  American  CJhurch  the  absence  of  any 
connection  with  the  State  has  made  the  history 
altogether  different.  But  the  advance  in  ritual 
on  the  one  side  and  the  opposition  to  it  by  eccle- 
siastical means  on  the  other  have  run  a  similar 


BITTTALISM. 


46 


BIVES. 


course.  The  controversy  raged  most  hotly  be- 
tween 1865  and  1880,  and  numerous  attempts 
were  made  to  obtain  definite  l^islation  on  the 
subject.  In  the  absence  of  any  detailed  pre- 
scription in  ritual  matters^  the  advanced  school 
contended  that  the  law  of  the  Church  of  England 
held  good  in  her  daughter  Church.  In  1874  a 
canon  was  passed  by  the  General  Convention 
which  made  it  the  duty  of  the  bishops  to  proceed 
against  any  minister  accused  of  introducing  un- 
authorized ceremonies  or  practices  setting  forth 
erroneous  or  doubtful  doctrines,  especially  the 
elevation  or  adoration  of  the  elements  in  Holy 
Communion,  and  all  other  like  acts  not  author- 
ized by  the  rubrics  of  the  Prayer  Book.  But  the 
canon  was  practically  a  dead  letter  from  the  first, 
and,  as  in  England,  ritual  observances  which 
fifty  years  earlier  would  have  raised  a  tempest 
of  opposition  are  now  common  among  the  most 
moderate  churchmen.  The  movement  in  favor  of 
a  more  ceremonial  conduct  of  divine  worship  has 
spread  far  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Anglican 
Communion,  and  among  Presbyterians  (especial- 
ly in  Scotland),  Methodists,  and  other  Protestant 
bodies,  there  have  been  numerous  instances  of  the 
introduction  of  ceremonies  hitherto  unheard  of, 
all  tending  in  the  same  direction.  Consult :  Mac- 
Coll,  The  Reformation  Settlement  (London, 
1899) ;  several  essays  in  Shipley,  ed.,  The  Church 
and  the  World  (ib.,  1866)  ;  Walker,  The  Ritual 
Reason  Why  (ib.,  1867) ;  Gladstone,  The  Church 
of  England  and  Ritualism  (ib.,  1876) ;  Parry, 
Report  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Ritual  (ib., 
1867) ;  Balfour,  "How  the  Ritualists  Harm  the 
Church,"  in  North  American  Review  ( New  York, 
1899);  Barry,  "What  is  Ritualism?"  and  Cor- 
rance,  "The  Development  of  Ritualism,"  in  Con- 
temporary Review  (London,  1898)  ;  Gallwey, 
Twelve  Lectures  on  Ritualism  (ib.,  1879)  ;  Ros- 
coe,  ed..  The  Bishop  of  Lincoln's  Case  (ib.,  1891 ) . 

BIVAL8,  The.  A  comedy  by  Richard  Brins- 
ley  Sheridan,  produced  January  17,  1776.  On 
its  first  representations  it  was  almost  a  failure, 
but  it  has  since  held  the  stage  more  successfully 
than  most  eighteenth-century  plays.  It  has  more 
action,  though  less  brilliancy,  than  The  School 
for  Scandal,  The  rivals  are  Bob  Acres  and 
Beverly  (Captain  Absolute),  who  contend  for 
Lydia  Languish.  Acres  challenges  Captain  Ab- 
solute by  Sir  Lucius  CTrigger,  but  finding  he 
is  a  friend,  declines  to  fight.  Mrs.  Malaprop, 
with  her  delightful  blunders,  supplies  a  large 
part  of  the  humor  of  the  play. 

BIVAS,  rg'vfts.  The  capital  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Rivas,  Nicaragua,  50  miles  southeast  of 
Managua  (Map:  Central  America,  E  5).  It  is 
the  centre  of  a  rich  cacao-producing  region,  and 
manufactures  and  exports  chocolate.  It  occupies 
the  site  of  the  ancient  Indian  town  of  Nicarao. 
Population,  in  1895,  12,000. 

BIVAS,  Angel  Perez  de  Saavedra,  Duke  of 
(1791-1865).  A  Spanish  soldier,  statesman,  and 
poet,  bom  in  Cordova.  He  entered  the  army  in 
1807,  and  fought  through  the  Spanish  war  of 
independence,  retiring  from  the  service  in  1815. 
He  participated  in  the  revolution  of  1820,  was 
Secretary  of  the  Cortes  in  1821,  and  was  forced 
to  leave  the  country  in  1823,  residing  in  Eng- 
land, Malta,  and  France.  He  returned  to  Spain 
in  1834,  came  into  possession  of  the  ducal  title 
of  Rivas,  and  became  Minister  of  the  Interior  in 
1836.    He  was  again  forced  into  exile  from  1837 


to  1843.  Then  he  was  for  five  years  Spanish 
Ambassador  at  Naples.  He  was  afterwards 
Ambassador  at  Paris  (1856),  and  at  Florence 
(1860).  His  fame  as  a  national  poet  began  in 
1813  with  the  publication  of  Ensayos  p^iiooa. 
Other  works  of  his  are  the  epics  Florinda  (1825) 
and  El  moro  esposito  (1834),  the  plays  Tanto 
vales  cuanto  tienes  (1834),  Don  Alvaro  (1835), 
and  La  morisca  de  Alajuar  (1842),  and  the  Hi9- 
toria  de  la  suhlevacidn  de  Ndpoles  (1848).  His 
Ohras  completas  have  been  edited  by  his  son. 

BIVE,  r^v,  De  La.    See  De  La  Rive. 

BIVE-DE-GIEBy  r^v'de-zh«V.  A  town  in 
the  Department  of  Loire,  France,  on  the  Gier,  19 
miles  southwest  of  Lyons  (Map:  France,  L  6). 
It  is  in  one  of  the  best  coal  fields  in  France,  and 
has  over  fifty  coal  mines,  also  iron  works,  glass 
works,  and  silk  factories.  Exports  are  facili^ted 
by  canal  communication  with  Givors,  on  the 
Rhone.    Population,  in  1901,  16,087. 

BlVlf-  (rS'v&O  KING,  JuuE  (1859—).  An 
American  pianist  bom  of  French  parents  in  Cin- 
cinnati. She  studied  under  William  Mason  and 
S.  B.  Mills  in  New  York,  Carl  Reinecke  in  Leip- 
zig, and  Liszt  in  Weimar.  Her  d^but  occurred 
in  Leipzig  in  1873.  The  following  year  she  re- 
turned to  Cincinnati  and  in  1875  appeared  at  a 
Philharmonic  concert  in  New  York.  She  subse- 
quently gave  many  concerts  with  the  Thomas 
and  Seidl  orchestras  and  became  well  known  as 
a  brilliant  concert  pianist.  Her  compositions 
are  for  the  piano,  and  enjoy  considerable  popu- 
larity. 

BIVEB  (OF.  riviercy  Fr.  rivi^e,  from  ML. 
riparia,  shore,  river,  fem.  sg.  of  Lat.  riparius, 
relating  to  a  shore,  from  rtpa,  shore) .  A  natural 
drainage  line  on  the  land,  which,  in  addition  to 
carrying  off  the  surface  water,  always  bears  a 
load  of  mineral  matter  in  suspension  and  solu- 
tion. The  water  supply  is  derived  from  the  rain 
or  melting  snow  and  from  underground,  whence 
it  reaches  the  surface  by  seepage  or  in  the  form 
of  springs.  It  is  this  latter  source  of  supply 
which  causes  so  many  rivers  to  maintain  their 
flow  even  when  no  rain  has  recently  fallen.  The 
load  of  mineral  matter  is  obtained  partly  by  solu- 
tion in  the  passage  of  the  water  through  the  soil 
or  rock,  partly  by  the  mechanical  wearing  or  cor- 
rosion of  the  stream  bed,  and  partly  by  the  sup- 
plies furnished  by  the  rain-wash  and  weathering 
of  the  valley  sides.  In  the  course  of  this  run- 
off the  water  forms  a  valley  which  varies  in  size 
and  characteristics.  Usually  this  valley  is  on 
the  surface  of  the  land,  though  occasionally  be- 
neath the  surface,  as  in  Mammoth  Gave  of  Ken- 
tucky. 

Most  rivers  flow  from  higher  country  into 
lakes,  or  into  the  sea ;  but  in  arid  countries  many 
streams  terminate  on  the  land  because  the  river 
water  sinks  into  the  ground  and  evaporates.  The 
W^estern  United  States  offers  many  illustrations 
of  these  conditions.  In  such  arid  regions  the 
large  rivers  that  are  fed  by  a  permanent  supply 
from  the  mountains  are  often  able  to  maintain 
their  course  across  even  desert  regions.  The  Nile 
of  Egypt  and  the  Colorado  of  Utah  and  Arizona 
are  illustrations  of  such  rivers. 

From  the  headwaters  to  the  mouth  a  river  has 
a  slope  which  varies  from  one  part  to  another. 
Ordinarily  the  steepest  slope  is  near  the  head 
and  the  most  jjentle  near  the  mouth,  where  the 
stream  commonly  flows  quietly  through  a  flood 


BIVEB. 


47 


BIVEB. 


plain.  This  dUOference  in  slope  is  due  to  the 
fact  that,  in  the  normal  development  of  its  val- 
ley, a  stream  does  its  earliest  and  most  ef- 
fective work  near  the  lower  portion,  where  the 
volume  is  greatest,  while  the  rills  and  creeks  of 
the  headwaters  have  had  less  time  for  their 
work.  They  also  have  less  water  with  which  to 
work,  and,  being  higher,  they  have  a  greater  task 
to  perform  in  cutting  down  their  slope.  Hence 
the  headwater  streams  may  be  vigorously  at  work 
excavating  their  valleys  long  after  the  lower 
course  has  been  reduced  to  its  jn-ofile  of  equilib- 
rium— ^that  is,  the  easiest  slope  down  which  the 
river  water  with  its  sediment  load  may  pass. 

The  condition  of  the  river  slope,  the  valley 
form,  and  most  of  the  peculiarities  of  rivers  de- 
pend in  such  large  measure  upon  the  stage  in 
development  which  the  river  has  reached  in  its 
task  cdf  vaUey  formation  that  it  seems  quite  es- 
sential, in  attempting  to  give  an  adequate  state- 
ment of  the  variations  in  rivers,  that  we  should 
first  of  all  consider  the  question  of  river-valley 
development. 

Let  us  imagine  a  new  land  for  the  first  time 
exposed  to  the  air.  The  rain  that  fell  upon 
it  would  run  off  down  the  easiest  slope  and 
quickly  carve  a  channel  which  would  necessarily 
be  steep-sided.  Such  a  condition  as  this  is  illus- 
trated in  southern  Florida,  where  the  raised  sea 
bottom  is  so  level  that  the  run-off  is  retarded 
and  the  rivers  expand  into  many  shallow  lakes 
and  swamp  tracts.  It  is  also  illustrated  on  the 
coastal  plains  of  Texas,  where  shallow,  steep- 
sided  valleys  are  cut  in  the  soft  strata  of  the 
low-lying  plains. 

At  the  same  time  that  the  river  is  rapidly 
excavating  along  its  bed,  the  weather — rain,  frost, 
etc — is  much  more  slowly  attacking  the  valley 
walls;  but  so  long  as  a  stream  can  cut  along  its 
channel  the  deepening  will  proceed  with  much 
more  rapidity  than  the  widening.  That  is  to 
say,  the  valley  form  will  be  that  of  a  gorge. 
When,  however,  the  stream  has  reached  the  limit 
of  its  power  to  cut  vertically,  that  is  when  it  has 
reached  its  base  level,  the  slow  process  of  broad- 
ening under  the  action  of  weathering,  being  in 
excess,  reduces  the  slope  of  the  valley  walls. 
Therefore  the  river  valley  broadens  out.  Natur- 
ally the  rate  of  broadening  of  a  valley '  will 
vary  according  to  many  conditions,  two  of 
the  most  important  of  which  are  the  nature 
of  the  rock  and  the  climate.  Many  of  the 
scenic  features  of  river  valleys  depend  upon 
the  influence  of  rock  structure  in  retard- 
ing or  accelerating  weathering.  The  Colo- 
rado Cafion  of  Utah  and  Arizona  furnishes 
numerous  examples  of  this;  and  it  also  stands 
as  a  type  of  the  effect  of  climate  in  retarding 
valley  development.  The  Colorado  is  topographi- 
cally a  young  stream,  but  its  valley  is  much  less 
broad  and  much  steeper  than  it  would  be  had 
it  been  formed  in  a  moist  climate. 

In  the  course  of  excavation  a  river  excavates 
more  rapidly  in  the  soft  than  in  the  hard  layers. 
It  therefore  locally  so  increases  its  slope  as  to 
introduce  rapids  or  even  falls  in  its  course.  The 
Niagara  gorge  and  falls  offer  an  excellent  illus- 
tration of  this  phase.  There  are  numerous  other 
causes  for  waterfalls  than  this  most  common 
one;  for  example,  the  two  Yellowstone  falls  oc- 
cur where  two  hard  vertical  dikes  occur  in  the 
softer,  partly  decomposed  lava.  The  Yosemite 
falls  are  apparently  due  to  excavation  of  the 


main  Yosemite  valley  by  a  glacier  which  passed 
down  that  valley;  and  in  the  Alps  and  the  fiords 
of  Norway  falls  of  similar  origin  abound.  Where 
lava  flows  have  interfered  with  the  stream 
courses  waterfalls  have  resulted  by  the  action  of 
the  river  in  excavating  a  new  valley  in  the  lava, 
as  at  the  Shoshone  Falls  of  Idaho  and  Spokane 
Falls  of  Washington. 

The  glacial  interference  with  rivers  is  respon- 
sible also  for  the  lakes  which  abound  in  Northern 
Europe  and  America.  It  is  to  this  cause  that 
the  peculiarities  of  the  Saint  Lawrence  system, 
by  which  there  are  alternate  expansions  of  water 
and  narrow  river-like  stretches,  are  due.  The 
importance  of  these  lake  expanses  of  rivers  is 
not  confined  to  their  usefulness  in  navigation; 
they  also  serve  to  regulate  the  flow  of  water. 
The  rise  of  a  few  feet  in  a  lake  requires  a  long 
time  for  the  corresponding  discharge  into  the 
river  to  be  completed.  This  checks  the  floods 
and  furnishes  an  explanation  of  the  fact  that 
such  a  river  as  the  main  stream  of  the  Saint 
Lawrence  system  is  free  from  destructive  floods. 
A  lake  also  acts  as  a  filter  to  river  water,  and  the 
outflowing  stream  is  therefore  practically  free 
from  all  mineral  load  excepting  that  held  in 
solution.  By  this  means  the  river  has  its  power 
of  excavation  greatly  decreased,  since  the  tools 
with  which  it  works  in  corrasion  are  rock  frag- 
ments in  suspension.  It  thus  happens  that  the 
outlets  of  lakes  are  rarely  deep  valleys  of  erosion. 

Ordinary  rivers  are  subjected  to  variations  in 
the  depth  of  water  and  in  the  quantity  of  dis- 
charge per  minute.  With  the  rapid  melting  of 
the  snow  in  spring,  or  at  times  of  heavy  rains, 
the  volume  of  the  river  is  greatly  increased  and 
its  erosive  power  is  very  much  greater  than  at 
ordinary  times.  In  a  large  river  with  many 
branches  a  great  rise  is  usually  the  result  of  the 
combination  of  marked  increases  in  the  volume  of 
water  supplied  by  numerous  branches.  At  such 
times  the  river  commonly  rises  until  the  channel 
is  no  longer  able  to  hold  it.  Spreading  out  over 
the  surrounding  country,  it  fioods  the  land,  and, 
instead  of  a  single  thread  of  water,  there  may  be 
a  vast  sheet  miles  in  width,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
lower  Mississippi  valley.  When  the  flood  sub- 
sides a  thin  layer  of  sediment  is  left  behind,  and 
this,  in  the  course  of  time,  builds  up  a  broad  flat 
plain,  known  as  the  flood  plain  (q.v.),  whose 
level  is  just  below  that  of  the  level  of  the  ordi- 
nary floods.  The  fiood-plain  soil  is  so  fertile 
and  productive  that  river  fiobd  plains  are  among 
the  most  densely  populated  parts  of  the  earth; 
and  for  protection  from  the  floods  the  people 
have  found  it  necessary  to  build  levees  to  confine 
the  river  to  its  channel.  Such  control  of  rivers 
cannot  be  made  permanently  successful,  since  the 
sediment  that  accumulates  on  the  fiood  plain  is 
then  in  part  deposited  in  the  channel,  thus  build-  . 
ing  it  up.  After  a  while,  therefore,  the  river 
must  leave  its  higher  channel  for  the  low  ground 
to  one  side.  It  is  because  of  the  frequent  changes 
of  this  sort  in  the  Yellow  River  of  China,  accom- 
panied by  terrible  destruction  of  life  and  prop- 
erty, that  the  Yellow  River  has  been  called 
'China's  Sorrow.'    See  Inundation. 

The  fiood  plains  of  rivers  often  merge  into  a 
delta  (q.v.).  In  fact,  some  flood-plain  sections, 
as  the  lower  Nile,  were  first  built  as  deltas. 
Wherever  a  stream  carries  sediment  into  the 
sea  the  accumulation  that  settles  tends  to  pro- 
duce a  delta;  and  if  the  coast  line  remains  at  a 


BIVEB. 


48 


BIVEB  BBETHBEN. 


uniform  level  long  enough,  or  if  it  is  slowly 
rising,  a  delta  will  actually  be  built.  But  where 
the  movement  of  the  land  is  downward,  or  has 
recently  been  one  of  subsidence,  deltas  cannot  be 
expected.  This  explains-  the  absence  of  deltas  in 
Northeastern  America  and  Northwestern  Europe, 
and  accounts  for  the  many  bays,  estuaries,  and 
fiords;  for  in  these  sections  the  lowering  of  the 
land  has  drowned  the  seaward  ends  of  the  val- 
leys and  transformed  them  into  arms  of  the  sea. 
Thus  the  lower  Hudson  below  Troy  is  for  150 
miles  an  estuary  and  not  a  true  river.  The  true 
Hudson  is  the  portion  from  the  Adirondacks  to 
Troy,  and  that  below  may  be  called  a  tidal  river. 
By  the  mineral  load  which  rivers  carry,  im- 
portant work  is  being  performed.  A  large 
variety  of  alkalies  and  salts  is  held  in  solution 
and  much  of  it  is  carried  to  the  sea.  It  is  the 
carbonate  of  lime  obtained  by  the  action  of  the 
water  on  the  land  that  supplies  the  materials  used 
by  sea  animals  in  the  construction  of  their  shells. 
This  river  load  is  therefore  important  in  making 
possible  the  coral  reefs  of  the  present  and  the 
beds  of  limestone  formed  in  ancient  geological 
time.  Since  the  river  water  carries  small  quanti- 
ties of  salt  to  the  sea^  and  since  it  must  be  left 
behind  when  vapor  rises  into  the  air  from  the 
water  surface,  it  seems  probable  that  the  salt- 
ness  of  the  sea  is  due  to  this  action  of  rivers. 
The  mechanical  burden  of  the  stream  is  partly 
suspended  in  the  river  water,  though  immense 
quantities  are  pushed  along  the  bottom  in  the 
form  of  fine  silt,  sand,  gravel,  and  stones,  ac- 
cording to  the  velocity  of  the  water.  Some  of 
this  is  temporarily  lodged  in  the  quieter  por- 
tions of  the  stream,  and,  as  we  have  seen,  on  the 
flood  plains  and  deltas;  but  since  it  is  journeying 
toward  the  sea,  much  of  it  eventually  reaches 
that  goal,  and  there  it  is  accumulated,  often 
after  being  worked  over  and  distributed  by  waves, 
tides,  and  currents.  It  is  from  this  source  that 
the  sedimentary  rocks  which  form  so  large  a  por- 
tion of  the  continents  were  once  derived  by  the 
wearing  down  of  ancient  lands,  the  transporta- 
tion of  ancient  rivers,  and  deposition  in  the  early 


From  these  facts  it  is  evident  that  the  work  of 
rivers  must  be  of  great  importance  in  the  change 
of  the  form  of  the  land.  They  are  operating 
now  and  have  been  working  through  such  long 
periods  of  past  time  that  their  results  have  been 
tremendous.  It  is  estimated  that  8,370,000  tons 
of  mineral  matter  in  solution  are  every  year  re- 
moved by  running  water  from  the  surface  of 
England  and  Wales.  At  this  rate  the  surface  of 
the  country  would  be  lowered  one  foot  in  12,978 
years  as  a  result  of  solution  alone.  The  Missis- 
sippi River  carries  in  suspension  or  by  dragging 
sediment  to  the  amount  of  j-^  of  the  total 
weight  of  the  water.  The  river  annually  carries 
into  the  sea  a  quantity  of  mud  which  would 
make  a  prism  268  feet  in  height  with  a  base  of 
one  square  mile.  About  150,000,000  tons  of  dis- 
solved mineral  matter  is  also  annually  carried 
into  the  sea  through  the  Mississippi.  See 
Erosion. 

In  the  course  of  this  vast  denudation  rivers 
are  subjected  to  many  changes,  some  of  them  of 
an  accidental  kind,  such  as  thofie  described  above 
as  due  to  glaciation,  etc.,  others  due  to  their  nor- 
mal development.  Among  the  latter  changes  the 
most  important  is  that  group  which  results  from 


the  changes  of  divides.  There  is  a  battle  in  prog- 
ress between  the  headwaters  of  opposing  streams. 
The  one  that  has  the  most  rapid  slope  to  the  sea, 
or  the  greatest  rainfall,  or  the  softest  rock  to 
excavate,  has  an  advantage  over  a  less  favorably 
situated  opponent.  It  will  push  the  divide  back 
in  consequence.  Most  often  this  is  accomplished 
by  a  very  slow  backward  eating,  but  occasionally 
a  successful  stream  taps  a  large  headwater  of 
an  opposing  system  and  bodily  leads  it  into  its 
own  drainage  system.  Such  rivers  have  been 
called  river  pirates.  It  has  apparently  been  by 
such  headwater  changes  that  the  rivers  which 
now  cross  the  Appalachians  through  watergaps, 
like  the  Delaware,  Susquehanna,  and  Potomac, 
have  eaten  their  way  back  to  the  westward  side 
of  this  mountain  system. 

BiBLiOGBAPHT.  For  the  statistics  of  river  sys- 
tems, consult  Murray,  *'0n  the  total  Annual  Rain- 
fall on  the  Land  of  the  Globe,  and  on  the  Relation 
of  Rainfall  to  the  Annual  Discharge  of  Rivers," 
in  8ootti8h  Oeographioal  Magazine  (Edinburgh, 
1887)  ;  for  matters  pertaining  to  irrigation,  es- 
pecially in  the  United  States,  consult  the  Report 
of  the  ComnUasion  of  Irrigation^  U.  8-  Congress, 
1899,  and  the  Annual  Reports  of  the  Hydrog- 
rapher,  U,  8.  Geological  8urvey  (Washington)  ; 
on  the  question  of  riparian  rights,  Higgins,  Trea- 
tise on  the  Law  Relating  to  the  Pollution  and 
Obstruction  of  Watercourses  (London,  1877)  ; 
for  special  information  with  reference  to  the  Mis- 
sippi  River,  Morrill,  "The  Floods  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River,"  in  M'eather  Bureau  Reports  of  the 
Mississippi  River  Commission  (Saint  Louis)  ;  for 
a  general  physiographic  or  geological  history 
of  rivers.  Greenwood,  Rain  and  Rivers  (London, 
1876)  ;  Russell,  Rivers  of  North  America  (New 
York,  1898);  id..  River  Development  (London, 
1898)  ;  Davis,  *'Seine,  Meuse,  and  Moselle,"  in 
National  Geographic  Magazine,  vol.  vii.  (Wash- 
ington, 1896).  Consult  also  various  articles  in 
the  Report  of  the  International  Inland  Naviga- 
tion Congress  (The  Hague,  1895)  ;  the  Report  of 
the  International  Congress  on  Irrigation  (Paris, 
1900)  ;  and  the  authorities  referred  to  under  the 
articles  on  the  various  rivers.  See  Geologt; 
Geography  ;  Physiography,  etc. 

BIVEB  BBETHBEN,  The.  The  name  ap- 
plied to  a  group  of  Christian  bodies  supposed  to 
be  of  Mennonite  origin.  They  originated  in  a 
colony  of  Swiss  who  settled  near  the  Susquehanna 
River  in  eastern  Pennsylvania  in  1750.  During 
the  revival  of  1770  congregations  were  formed 
among  the  converts,  with  Jacob  Engle  as  their 
first  pastor.  In  many  points  of  their  faith  and 
practice  the  River  Brethren  resemble  the  Men- 
nonites  and  in  part  also  the  Dunkards.  They 
baptize  by  trine  immersion;  observe  foot-washing 
as  a  religious  rite;  use  the  kiss  of  greeting  be- 
tween persons  of  the  same  sex;  teach  non-resist- 
ance and  non-conformity  to  the  world;  inculcate 
plainness  in  dress  and  living;  abstain  from  polit- 
ical activity,  although  they  do  not  neglect  the 
regular  duties  of  good  citizens;  are  strict  in  the 
observance  of  the  Sabbath ;  and  endeavor  to  order 
their  lives  according  to  the  precepts  of  the 
Bible.  Three  branches  of  the  River  Brethren  are 
recognized:  (1)  The  Brethren  in  Christ,  the 
largest  and  having  the  most  complete  organiza- 
tion, with  district  conferences  and  a  General  Con- 
ference which  meets  annually.  They  are  most 
numerous  in  Pennsylvania,  Kansas,   and  Ohio, 


BIVEB  BBETHBEN.  49 

and  have  churches  also  in  Illinois,  IndiaQa,  Iowa, 
Michigan,  New  York,  and  Canada.  According  to 
the  statistics  compiled  for  the  Church  Directory 
of  1902,  they  have  in  the  United  States  124  minis- 
ters and  2866  communicants.  The  Evangelical 
Vi9itor,  semi-monthly  (Harrisburg,  Pa.),  is  the 
periodical  organ  of  this  Church.  The  Brethren 
have  missions  in  Buluwayo  and  the  Transvaal, 
South  Africa;  the  Baukuna  district,  Bengal,  and 
the  Poona  district,  India ;  in  all  of  which  15  mis- 
sionaries are  engaged;  and  two  missionaries  at 
Hidalgo,  Texas.  (2)  The  Old  Order  of  Yorker 
Brethren  was  constituted  of  churches  which, 
on  a  division  taking  place  in  1862,  adhered 
to  the  original  doctrine  and  practice.  Most 
of  these  churches  were  in  York  County,  Pa., 
whence  the  name  'Old  Yorker.'  Other  churches 
are  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Iowa.  (3)  The 
United  Zion*s  Children  originated  in  a  di- 
vision which  occurred  in  Dauphin  County,  Pa., 
in  1853.  Retaining  the  old  confession  of  the 
Brethren  unchanged,  they  differ  from  the  other 
branches  in  certain  matters  of  administrative 
and  formal  detail.  Their  churches  are*  all  in 
the  State  of  Pennsylvania.  Their  name  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  given  to  the  River  Brethren 
because  they  baptized  their  first  converts  in  the 
Susquehanna  River. 

SIVEB-CBAB.  A  crab  of  the  genus  Thel- 
phusa,  inhabiting  fresh  water,  and  having  the 
carapace  quadrilateral,  the  antenns  very  short. 
One  species  {Thelphuea  depressa),  the  *grancio' 
of  the  Italians,  is  very  common  in  the  south  of 
Europe,  around  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Other 
species  are  common  in  Palestine  and  other  warm 
countries. 

BTVEBHEAD.  The  county-seat  of  Suffolk 
County,  N.  Y.,  70  miles  east  of  New  York  City, 
on  Great  Peconic  Bay,  and  on  the  Long  Island 
Railroad  (Map:  New  York,  H  5).  It  is  in  an 
agricultural  region  and  manufactures  woolens, 
paper,  carriages,  soap,  and  lumber  products. 
Population,  in  1900,  4503. 

BIVEB  BAISINy  Massacre  of.  See  French- 

TOWN. 

BIVEBS,  Navigable  and  Non-Navigable.  In 
law  a  distinction  is  made  between  the  rights  of 
the  public  in  rivers  which  are  deemed  navigable 
and  those  which  are  deemed  non-navigable.  All 
navigable  waters  are  subject  to  the  public  right 
of  navigation  and  under  certain  circumstances  to 
other  valuable  rights,  but  the  public  has  no 
right  in  non-navigable  rivers,  they  being  general- 
ly subject  to  private  ownership  of  the  riparian 
owners.    See  Ripabian  Rights;  Waterooueses. 

At  common  law  all  rivers  were  deemed  to  be 
navigable,  and  therefore  subject  to  the  public 
right  of  navigation,  in  which  the  tide  rose  and 
fell.  Owing  to  the  difference  in  physical  char- 
acter of  the  rivers  in  the  United  States  from 
those  of  Qreat  Britain,  the  rule  of  the  civil  law 
has  been  applied  in  the  United  States,  and  all 
rivers  are  deemed  to  be  navigable  which  are  in 
fact  navigable  and  which  afford  a  channel  for 
valuable  commerce.  To  constitute  a  river  navi- 
gable in  the  legal  sense,  the  commerce  carried 
upon  it  must  be  essentially  valuable  in  character 
and  the  river  must  be  a  natural  watercourse, 
not  one  constructed  by  artificial  means.  Public 
r%ver8  are  those  which  are  deemed  to  belong  ex- 
clusively to  the  public.  The  rights  of  the  public 
in  rivers  of  this  class  are  substantially  the  same 


BIVEBS. 

as  the  rights  of  the  public  in  the  sea,  namely, 
the  right  of  navigation,  fishing,  bathing,  and  the 
right  to  take  sand  and  seaweed,  water  and  ice. 
Within  this  class  are  comprised  generally  all 
tidal  rivers,  and  in  many  States  all  rivers  having 
natural  capacity  for  navigation  or  fiotage.  As 
semi-puhlic  rivers  may  be  classed  all  non-tidal 
rivers  which  are  in  fact  navigable,  which  are 
deemed  to  be  subject  to  private  ownership — 
which  ownership,  however,  is  subject  to  the  pub- 
lic easement  of  navigation.  The  riparian  owners 
are  deemed  to  be  owners  of  the  bed  of  the  stream 
ad  filum  aquce;  but  their  ownership  is  subject 
to  the  public  right  to  navigate  the  river,  and  in 
some  States  to  other  similar  public  easements. 
Navigable  rivers  not  tidal  are  deemed  to  be  semi- 
public  in  Connecticut,  Delaware,*  Georgia,  Illi- 
nois, Kentucky,  Massachusetts,  Maryland,  Mon- 
tana, New  Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  New  York, 
North  Carolina,  Ohio,  Rhode  Island,  South  Caro- 
lina, Vermont,  and  Wisconsin. 

While  all  public  rivers  are  subject  to  the  right 
of  navigation,  the  right  extends  only  to  the  use 
of  the  rivers  for  purposes  of  navigation  up  to  the 
normal  high -water  mark.  The  right  to  navigate 
does  not  include  a  public  easement  to  use  the 
shores  of  the  river  for  towage  or  wharfage,  al- 
though such  use  may  be  incidental  to  navigation. 
Rivers  within  or  flowing  through  a  State  are 
subject  to  the  legislative  control  of  that  State. 
This  right,  however,  is  subject  to  the  power  of 
Congress  to  regulate  commerce,  and  any  legisla- 
tive act  inconsistent  with  the  acts  of  Congress 
for  the  purpose  of  regulating  commerce  is  void. 
In  case  of  rivers  running  between  two  States,  both 
States  have  jurisdiction  over  them.  In  the  United 
States,  by  the  Constitution  and  acts  of  Congress, 
the  admiralty  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States 
District  Courts  extends  over  all  navigable  rivers 
which  are  used,  or  capable  of  being  used,  as  high- 
ways of  commerce  and  by  themselves,  or  by  con- 
necting bodies  of  water,  form  a  continuous  navi- 
gable waterway  between  States  or  from  a  State 
to  a  foreign  country.  Consult:  Hunt,  The  Law 
of  Boundaries  and  Fences  (4th  ed.,  London, 
1896)  ;  Coulson  and  Forbes,  The  Law  Relating 
to  Waters  (2d  ed.,  London,  1892)  ;  Gould,  The 
Law  of  Waters  (3d  ed.,  Chicago,  1900).  See 
Admibalty;  Maritime  Law;  Watebcoubse; 
Bridges,  The  Law  Relating  to. 

BIVEBS.  A  title  borne  by  three  English- 
men prominent  in  the  fifteenth  century. 
Richard  Woodville,  the  first  Earl  Rivers  ( ? — 
1442),  was  a  favorite  of  Henry  V.  The  King 
appointed  him  seneschal  of  Normandy;  after- 
wards he  was  chamberlain  to  the  Regent  Bed- 
.  ford  and  lieutenant  of  Calais.  His  son  Richard 
(  ? — 1469)  married  Jacquetta  of  Luxemburg,  the 
widowed  Duchess  of  Bedford,  about  1436.  He 
was  a  famous  fighter,  and  was  created  Baron 
Rivers  in  1448.  His  politics  were  Lancastrian 
until  1461,  when  he  joined  the  York  side  and 
acquired  great  influence  by  the  marriage  of  his 
daughter  Elizabeth  to  King  Edward  IV.  in  1464. 
He  was  made  Constable  of  England  in  1467.  In 
his  efforts  to  overthrow  the  Nevilles  of  Warwick, 
who  represented  the  old  nobility,  he  and  one  of 
his  sons  were  captured  and  executed  at  North- 
ampton in  1469.  His  son  Anthony,  second  Earl 
Rivers  (c.1442-83),  known  as  Baron  Scales  dur- 
ing his  father^s  lifetime,  shared  all  King  Ed- 
ward's diversities  of  fortune,  and  remained  his 
trusted  friend  after  his  return  to  power.    At  the 


BIVEBa  60 

King's  death,  Gloucester,  afte^ards  Richard 
III.,  became  Protector  of  the  kingdom.  Actuated 
by  desire  to  get  possession  of  the  person  of  the 
young  King  Edward  V.,  Gloucester  arrested 
Rivers,  who  was  governor  of  the  prince,  and  he 
was  beheaded  on  a  charge  of  treasonable  designs. 

BIV^BSIDE.  The  county-seat  of  Riverside 
County,  Cal.,  65  miles  east  by  south  of  Los 
Angeles;  on  the  Santa  Ana  River,  and  on  the 
Southern  Pacific,  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa 
Fe  and  the  San  Pedro,  Los  Angeles  and  Salt 
Lake  railroads  (Map:  California,  £  5).  It  is 
noted  for  its  beautiful  streets  and  surroundings. 
Magnolia  and  Victoria  avenues  in  particular  are 
lined  with  magnificent  shade  trees  and  extend  for 
several  miles  through  orange  groves.  The  city 
has  a  handsonle  court  house  and  a  public  library. 
Riverside  is  the  centre  of  one  of  the  richest 
orange-growing  sections  in  the  world,  and  lemons 
also  are  extensively  cultivated.  The  first  settle- 
ment was  made  in  1870  and  the  city  was  in- 
corporated in  1883.    Population,  in  1900,  7973. 

BIVESy  rev,  Alfred  Landon  ( 1830-1903) .  An 
American  engineer,  son  of  William  Cabell  Rives, 
United  States  Minister  to  France,  bom  in  Paris. 
He  studied  at  the  Virginia  Military  Institute  and 
the  University  of  Virginia,  and  in  1854  graduated 
at  the  Paris  Ecole  des  Ponts  et  Chauss^es.  He 
was  assistant  engineer  on  the  Capitol  building  in 
Washington,  worked  on  the  Washington  aqueduct 
and  on  governmental  improvements  of  the  Poto- 
mac River,  and  in  the  Civil  War  became  colonel 
of  engineers  in  the  Confederate  army.  Then  he 
became  an  engineer  of  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio 
Railroad,  vice-president  and  general  manager  of 
the  Mobile  and  Ohio  Railroad,  and  afterwards  of 
the  Richmond  and  Danville  Railroad,  and,  after 
acting  as  superintendent  of  the  Panama  Railroad, 
was  chief  engineer  of  the  Cape  Cod  Canal.  His 
daughter  is  the  Princess  Troubetzkoy  (Am^lie 
Rives). 

BIVES^  AutuE,  Princess  Troubetskoy  ( 1863 
— ).  An  American  author,  bom  in  Richmond, 
Va.  She  early  began  to  write  stories,  some  of 
which  were  published  in  the  Atkmtic  Monthly, 
Her  first  collection  of  tales,  published  in  1888, 
was  called  A  Brother  to  Dragons,  cmd  Other 
Old-Time  Stories,  This  was  followed  by  Virginia 
of  Virginia  (1888),  and  The  Witness  of  the  Sun 
(1889).  In  1889  she  created  a  marked  sensation 
by  The  Quick  or  the  Dead,  and  in  the  same  year 
published  Herod  and  Mariamne,  a  Drama,  in 
verse.  Among  her  later  works  are :  According  to 
St.  John  (1891),  a  novel;  Barbara  Dering 
(1892);  Athelwold  (1893);  and  Tarns,  The 
Sand-Digger  (1893).  In  1888  Miss  Rives  mar- 
ried John  Armstrong  Chanler  of  New  York,  from 
whom  she  was  subsequently  divorced.  She  then 
became  the  wife  of  Prince  Pierre  Troubetskoy  of 
Russia,  and  lives  in  Virginia. 

BIVES,  William  Cabell  (1793-1868).  An 
American  political  leader  and  diplomat,  bom  in 
Nelson  CJoimty,  Va.  He  was  educated  at  Hamp- 
den-Sidney  and  William  and  Mary  colleges,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  early  became  one 
of  the  prominent  Democrats  of  Virginia,  was  a 
member  of  the  State  Constitutional  Convention 
in  1816,  of  the  State  Legislature  in  1817-19  and 
in  1822,  and  of  Congress  from  1823  to  1829.  He 
was  Minister  to  France  from  1829  to  1832,  when 
he  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate,  from 
which  he  resigned  in   1834.     He  was   reelected 


BxvjJsBE* 


in  1835,  and  remained  in  the  Senate  until  1845. 
He  was  again  Minister  to  France  from  1849  to 
1853,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Peace  Conference 
at  Washington  in  1861,  and  afterwards  of  the 
Confederate  Provisional  Congress  and  of  the  first 
and  second  regular  Confederate  (Congresses.  He 
published  an  excellent  History  of  the  Life  and 
Times  of  James  Madison  (3  vols.,  1859-68) ; 
The  Life  and  Character  of  John  Hampdeti 
(1845) ;  and  Ethics  of  Christianity  (1855). 

BIVET  (OF.  rivet,  rivect,  from  OF.,  Fr.  river, 
to  clench,  from  Icel.  rifa,  to  stitch  together).  A 
metal  pin  for  connecting  two  plates  of  metal  in 
boiler  and  tank  making,  iron  shipbuilding,  and 
steel  bridge  and  structural  work.  To  use  the 
rivet  it  is  heated,  inserted  in  the  punch  or  drill 
holes  of  the  two  plates,  and  the  projecting  un- 
headed  end  hammered  to  a  hemispherical  head. 
The  heading  process  may  be  performed  by  hand 
or  by  pneumatic  percussive  riveting  machines,  or 
by  squeezing  the  rivets  between  the  dies  of  pneu- 
matic, steam,  or  hydraulic  riveting  machines. 
(See  Metal- Working  Machinery  and  Pneu- 
matic Tools.  )  Small  steel  rivets  are  often  head- 
ed when  cold,  and  copper  rivets  and  rivets  of  the 
other  soft  metals  are  never  heated. 

BTVETING  MACHINES.  See  Metal- Work- 
ing Machinery. 

BJYIERA,  r^'yib'SL^Tk,  The  popular  designa- 
tion of  the  narrow  but  beautiful  coast  line  of 
Italy  and  France,  mainly  around  the  Gulf 
of  Genoa.  The  eastern  half  of  the  Riviera — 
Kiviera  di  Levante— extends  from  Spezia  to 
Genoa;  the  western  half — ^Riviera  di  Ponente — 
from  Genoa  to  Nice  in  France,  or  as  far  as  Hy^res. 
The  Riviera  is  distinguished  by  its  magnificent 
scenery,  and  by  its  mild  climate,  which  each  win- 
ter attracts  thousands  of  sojourners  of  all  classes, 
more  especially  to  the  numerous  famous  resorts 
along  the  western  coast — Cannes,  Nice,  Mentone, 
Monte  Carlo,  San  Remo,  etc.  The  scenery  is 
rather  more  bold  and  wildly  picturesque  on  the 
east  coast,  and  the  vegetation  is  not  so  rich  and 
attractive  there  as  along  the  Ponente.  Along  the 
western  Riviera  from  Nice  to  Genoa  winds  the 
celebrated  Corniche  road.  The  Riviera  is  oc- 
casionally visited  by  earthquakes,  the  last  having 
been  in  1887.  Consult:  L«nth6ric,  The  Riviera, 
Ancient  and  Modern  (trans.,  London,  1895)  ; 
Hare,  The  Rivie^ras  (ib.,  1897) ;  HSrstel,  "Die 
Riviera,"  in  Land  und  Leute,  vol.  xi.  (Biele- 
feld, 1902)  ;  Macmillan,  The  Riviera  (London, 
1886). 

BTVrilBEy  ri'vyar',  Briton  (1840—).  An 
English  animal  and  figure  painter,  bom  in  Lon- 
don. He  was  the  son  and  pupil  of  William  Ri- 
viere (1806-76),  one  of  the  family  of  artists  who 
taught  drawing  at  Cheljtenham  and  Oxford. 
Young  Riviere  first  exhibited  at  the  Academy  in 
1858,  and  his  early  work  was  influenced  by  the 
Pre-Raphaelites.  Afterwards  he  graduated  at 
Oxford  (1867).  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Academy  in  1881.  The  combined  animal 
and  figure  subjects  of  Riviere  attracted  atten- 
tion, but  his  "Circe"  (1871)  and  "Daniel" 
(1872)  were  the  first  of  his  notable  large  paint- 
ings. These  were  followed  by  "Persepolis" 
( 1878,  his  masterpiece) ,  "In  Manus  Tuas  Domine" 
(1879),  "A  Mighty  Hunter  Before  the  Lord" 
(1891),  "Beyond  Man's  Footsteps"  (1894,  in  the 
National  Gallery),  and  "To  the  Hills"   (1901). 


SIVIEBE.  51 

He  has  been  called  the  greatest  English  animal 
painter  since  Landseer. 

BIVltSE  DU  LOXTP^  rft'vyftr'  dg  1755  (EN 
BAS).     A  town  in  Canda.     See  Fbasebville. 

B1V16bE  DXT  liOXTP  (EN  Haut).  A  town* in 
Canada.    See  Louiseville. 

BIVlftllES  DXT  SUD,  dv  syd.  A  French 
colonial  possession  in  Africa.  See  Fbench 
Guinea. 

BTV^IHCKrON,  James  (c.  1724- 1802).  A 
noted  Tory  journalist  of  New  York  in  the  Revolu- 
tion. Rivington  early  acquired  wealth  as  a  book- 
seller in  his  birthplace,  London,  lost  it  at  New- 
market, emigrated  to  Philadelphia  (1760),  and 
thence  to  New  York  (1761),  where  he  had  a 
bookshop  in  Wall  Street.  In  1773  he  began  to 
publish  The  New  York  Oaxetteer,  or  the  dm- 
necticut,  Neto  Jersey,  Hudson  River,  and  Quebec 
Weekly  Advertiser,  bitterly  attacking  the  Revolu- 
tionary movement  and  its  leaders  till  Captain 
Isaac  Sears,  of  the  Sons  of  Liberty,  came  (1775) 
from  Connecticut  to  New  York  with  76  horsemen, 
destroyed  Rivington's  press,  and  cast  his  type  into 
bullets.  After  a  Congressional  investigation 
Rivington  was  permitted  to  return  to  his  house, 
but  he  thought  it  wise  to  visit  England,  where 
he  was  appointed  King's  printer  for  New  York, 
and  returned  thither  in  1777  to  publish  Riving- 
ton's  New  York  Loyal  Gazette,  a  title  presently 
changed  to  Royal  Gazette.  About  1781  Rivington 
turned  spy  for  Washington,  and  on  the  evacua- 
tion of  New  York  changed  the  title  of  his  paper 
to  Rivington's  New  York  Gazette  and  Universal 
Advertiser,  but  he  had  lost  public  confidence.  His 
paper  cea»ed  to  exist  in  1783  and  his  declining 
years  were  passed  in  obscure  poverty. 

KTVOUy  re'v6-l6.  A  village  in  Italy,  in  the 
Province  of  Verona,  on  the  river  Etsch,  13  miles 
northwest  of  Verona,  noted  as  the  scene  of  a  vic- 
tory gained  by  Napoleon  over  the  Austrians  under 
Alvinczy,  January  14-15,  1797.  His  services  in 
the  battle  gave  Massena  (q.v.)  the  title  of  Duke 
of  RivoU   (1807). 

BIVOLI,  r^'y6'W,  Rue  de.  One  of  the  most 
noted  streets  of  Paris,  running  from  the  Place  de 
la  Concorde  to  the  Rue  Saint  Antoine.  The  west- 
em  end  of  the  street  contains  many  of  the  most 
attractive  shops  of  the  city,  and  is  lined  on  the 
north  side  with  arcades  for  several  blocks,  facing 
the  Louvre  and  the  Tuileries  Gardens.  It  was 
begun  in  1802,  was  completed  in  1865  at  a  large 
cost,  and  received  its  name  in  honor  of  Napoleon's 
victory  at  Rivoli  in  1797. 

RTX,  Juijan  Walbbidoe  j[1850— ).  An 
American  landscape  painter,  born  at  Peacham, 
Vt.  He  began  to  paint  landscapes  in  1875,  and 
was  self-taught,  studying  directly  from  nature. 
His  subjects  are  chosen  from  all  parts  of  Amer- 
ica and  his  treatment  has  in  eveiy  case  been 
remarkable  for  variety.  No  two  paintings  from 
his  brush  represent  the  same  viewpoint,  and  he 
is  noticeably  free  from  mannerism.  One  of  his 
most  characteristic  pictures  is  "St.  John  Harbor*' 
(1903),  a  marine,  which  shows  fine  cloud  and 
sky  effects.  Other  works,  all  in  private  collec- 
tions in  Baltimore,  New  York,  Rochester,  and 
South  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  include,  "Sunset,  Califor- 
nia Coast,"  "High  Tide,  Coast  of  Maine,"  "The 
Woodland  Spring,  Mike  Marr's  Camp,  Moosehead, 
Maine,"    "Breezy   Afternoon,"    "Solitude,"   "Old 


BIZAL. 

Oaks,"  "Twin  Oaks,"  "Noonday,"  and  "A  Breezy 
Day." 
BJYAD,    T^-^df,     A   town   of  Arabia.      See 

RiAD. 

BIZAI^  r^-thaK.  A  province  of  Central  Luzon, 
Philippine  Islands  (Map:  Luzon,  F  8).  It 
was  formed  in  1901  by  the  consolidation  of  the 
former  provinces  of  Manila  and  M6rong  (the  city 
of  Manila  being  excluded  as  a  separate  munici- 
pality), and  lies  north  of  Laguna  de  Bay  and 
east  of  Manila  Bay.  Its  area  is  1048  square 
miles.  The  northern  part  is  mountainous  and 
covered  with  forests;  the  southern  portions  are 
low  and  alluvial,  and  subject  to  destructive 
floods  from  the  Laguna.  The  province  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  Pftsig  River.  The  chief  agricultural 
product  is  the  betel,  but  rice,  sugar,  corn,  and 
tobacco  are  also  raised.  The  estimated  popula- 
tion in  1901  was  246,940,  almost  wholly  Tag&log. 
The  capital  is  P&sig  (q.v.). 

BIZAIiy  Jost  (1861-96).  A  Filipino  patriot 
and  writer.  He  was  born  at  the  pueblo  of  Ca- 
lamba.  Province  of  Laguna,  Luzon,  of  Tagftlog 
parentage;  studied  under  the  Jesuits  at  Ma- 
nila; went^o  Madrid  in  1882  for  the  purpose 
of  studying  medicine;  received  the  degree  of  doc- 
tor of  medicine  and  philosophy  at  the  university 
there,  and  subsequently  studied  in  Paris,  Heidel- 
berg, Leipzig,  and  Berlin,  devoting  his  attention 
particularly  to  surgery,  ethnology,  linguistics,  and 
philology.  He  acquired  a  more  or  less  extensive 
knowledge  of  seven  languages-  became  markedly 
proficient  in  optical  surgery,  and  made  a  careful 
study  of  the  history,  institutions,  and  customs  of 
various  European  countries.  He  early  came  to 
realize  the  disadvantages  under  which  his  race 
labored  in  the  Philippines  and  the  oppression 
to  which  it  was  subjected,  and  in  1886  published, 
in  Spanish,  a  novel.  Noli  me  Tangere,  in  which  he 
exposed  and  denounced  the  Spanish  administra- 
tion of  the  islands  and  in  particular  gave  a  start- 
ling picture  of  the  alleged  bigotry,  rapacity,  and 
cruelty  of  the  religious  Orders.  This  book 
aroused  the  animosity  of  the  Spanish  officials,  by 
whom  Rizal  was  virtually  forced  to  leave  the 
islands  within  a  few  months  after  his  return  in 
1887.  Rizal  then  spent  some  time  in  Japan,  Lon- 
don, and  on  the  Continent  of  Europe,  and  in  1891 
published  El  filihusterismo,  a  sequel  to  Noli  me 
Tangere.  Besides  endeavoring  to  further  the 
cause  of  his  people  by  his  writings,  he  was  in- 
strumental in  organizing  the  "Liga  Filipina," 
which  has  for  its  object  the  expulsion  of  the 
friars,  the  securing  of  the  liberty  of  association 
and  of  the  liberty  of  the  press,  and  the  obtaining 
of  political  concessions  similar  to  those  which 
have  been  granted  to  Cuba.  The  Government 
in  Luzon  had  rigidly  prohibited  the  circulation 
of  any  of  Rizal's  writings,  but  in  1892  he 
ventured  to  return  to  Manila  under  a  vir- 
tual promise  from  the  Governor-General  that 
he  should  be  allowed  to  live  there  in  safety. 
Upon  his  arrival,  however,  he  was  almost  imme- 
diately arrested,  was  nominally  convicted  of  hav- 
ing helped  to  organize  the  secret  and  revolution- 
ary society  known  as  the  Katipunan,  and  was 
banished  to  Dapitan,  Mindanao.  In  1896  he  vol- 
unteered to  act  as  a  physician  in  Cuba,  where  a 
violent  epidemic  of  yellow  fever  was  raging;  but 
was  seized  while  on  his  way,  was  brought  back 
to  Manila,  and  there,  after  a  mock  trial,  was 
shot,  December  30,  1896,  as  a  traitor.    His  in- 


BIZAL.  52 

fluence  among  the  Filipinos  was  enormous,  and 
his  abilities  were  such  that  he  has  been 
ranked  by  some  writers  as,  in  many  respects, 
perhaps  the  ablest  man  the  Malay  race 
has  produced.  The  novel  Noli  me  Tangere 
was  translated  into  English  by  Gannett  as 
Friars  and  Filipinos  and  published  in  New 
York  in  1900.  Consult:  Blumentritt,  Biography 
of  Dr.  Jos6  Rizal  (Eng,  translation,  Singapore, 
1898);  Clifford,  *The  Story  of  Jos4  Rizal,  the 
Filipino,"  in  Blackxoood's  Magazine,  vol.  clxxii. 
(Edinburgh,  1902)  ;  and,  for  an  attempted  justi- 
fication of  the  Spanish  officials.  La  masonizaci6n 
de  Filipinas:  Rizal  y  su  ohra  (Barcelona, 
1897). 

BIZ'ATJS,  r^-tsa'vs-  The  real  name  of  the 
Dutch  theologian  usually  called  Albert  Harden- 
berg  (q.v.). 

BIZEH,  r^z©'.  A  port  in  the  Vilayet  of  Tre- 
bizond,  Asiatic  Turkey,  situated  40  miles 
east  of  Trebizond  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  J  2). 
It  is  now  known  chiefly  for  its  healthful  climate 
and  picturesque  surroundings,  which  make  it  pop- 
ular as  a  summer  resort.  It  manufactures 
scarfs  and  linen  cloths.     Populationf  about  2500. 

BIZZI,  r^t's^  Antonio  (c.l430.c.l497).  An 
Italian  sculptor,  born  in  Verona.  He  was 
probably  the  son  and  pupil  of  Pietro  Rizzi,  with 
whom  he  worked  on  the  monument  of  the  Doge 
Francesco  Foscari  (1467)  in  the  Church  of  the 
Frari,  Venice.  The  statues  of  Adam  and  Eve 
(c.1471)  on  the  grand  stairway  of  the  Doge's 
palace  are  remarkable  for  their  lifelike  attitudes. 
Rizzi  was  plainly  influenced  by  the  Renaissance 
movement  in  his  great  monument  to  the  Doge 
Niccold  Tron  (1479-76)  in  the  Frari,  an  elabo- 
rate work  with  many  life-size  flgures,  medallions, 
and  reliefs.  Rizzi  was  the  engineer  of  the  Re- 
public in  the  war  against  the  Turks  (1483-1490) 
and  was  afterwards  principal  architect,  and  re- 
built a  portion  of  the  Doge's  palace  which  had 
been  destroyed  by  fire. 

BIZZIO,  r6t'sft-6,  or  BICCIO,  David  (c.1533- 
66).  A  favorite  of  Mary  Stuart,  Queen  of  Scots. 
He  was  born  near  Turin,  Italy,  and  came  to  Scot- 
land in  an  embassy  sent  by  the  Duke  of  Savoy. 
As  he  possessed  a  good  voice,  the  Queen  selected 
him  for  the  quartet  in  her  private  chapel.  He 
rapidly  rose  in  favor,  and  in  time  became  her  sec- 
retary and  chief  counselor,  but  there  is  no  proof 
that  his  relations  with  Mary  were  ever  of  a  crim- 
inal nature  or  that  he  was  a  Papal  agent.  Rizzio's 
haughty  demeanour  aroused  the  nobles  and  they 
made  use  of  the  jealousy  of  Darn  ley,  Mary's  hus- 
band, to  form  a  conspiracy  for  the  purpose  of 
killing  the  hated  foreigner.  The  moving  spirit 
of  the  affair  was  probably  William  Maitland  of 
Lethington,  whom  Rizzio  had  practically  super- 
seded as  Secretary  of  State  in  1565.  The  Pro- 
testant leaders  were  also  glad  to  get  rid  of  the 
Catholic  favorite.  On  Saturday  evening,  March 
9,  1566,  the  conspirators  broke  into  Mary's  cham- 
ber in  Holyrood  Palace,  Edinburgh,  dragged  out 
Rizzo,  and  murdered  him.  The  Queen  afterwards, 
when  she  regained  power,  caused  Rizzio  to  be 
buried  with  great  honors.  Consult  Ruthven,  tfar- 
rative  of  Riccio's  Murder  (Edinburgh,  1836). 
See  Mary  Stuart. 

BOACH  (OF.  roche,  rosse,  Fr.  roche,  from 
MDutch  roch,  LGer.  ruche,  Ger.  Roche,  AS. 
reohhe,  Lat.  raja,  roach,  ray) .    A  small  cyprinoid 


BOAD. 

fish  {Leuciscus  rutilus)  plentiful  in  the  lakes 
and  streams  of  Northern  Europe,  and  similar  to 
the  bream  (q.v.).  It  may  exceed  a  foot  in 
length.  The  upper  parts  are  clear  green,  with 
blue  reflections,  the  lower  parts  silver}'  white, 
and  the  fins  reddish.  It  often  gathers  into  large 
schools  and  is  an  angler's  fish,  but  not  much  es- 
teemed for  the  table.  An  American  minnow,  the 
golden  shiner  {Abramis  chrysoleucus) ,  is  some- 
times called  roach.  See  Plate  of  Dace  and  Min- 
nows. 

BOACH,  John  (1815-87).  An  American  ship- 
builder, bom  at  Mitchelltown,  County  Cork,  Ire- 
land. When  fourteen  years  of  age,  he  emigrated 
to  America.  After  working  in  the  Howell  Iron 
Works  in  New  Jersey,  he,  with  two  fellow  work- 
men, established  a  foundry  near  New  York.  Soon 
afterwards  he  bought  out  his  partners,  and  in 
1868  bought  the  Morgan  Iron  Works.  Four 
years  later  he  thought  the  Rainer  shipyards  at 
Chester,  Pa.,  and  soon  became  known  as  one  of 
the  foremost  of  American  shipbuilders.  Among 
the  114  iron  ships  constructed  at  his  yards  were 
several  war  vessels,  including  the  Chicago,  the  At- 
lanta, the  Boston,  and  the  Dolphin.  The  rejec- 
tion of  this  last  vessel  by  the  Government  in 
1885  led  him  to  make  an  assignment.  The  ship- 
yards were  soon  reopened,  however,  under  the 
management  of  his  son,  John  6.  Roach. 

BOAD  (AS.  rdd,  from  ridan,  ORG.  ritan,  Ger. 
reiten,  to  ride;  connected  with  Olr.  riad,  ride, 
Gall,  reda,  wagon).  A  way  of  communication  by 
land  between  two  or  more  points,  generally  for 
vehicular  trafiic.  Roads  have  developed  with 
commerce  and  travel,  and  particularly  with 
war,  conquest,  and  military  control  of  distant 
countries.  Strabo  mentions  three  great  high- 
ways running  out  from  ancient  Babylon.  The 
earliest  systematic  roadmaking  is  credited  to 
the  Carthaginians,  but  the  great  road-builders 
of  olden  times  were  the  Romans.  The  Appian 
Way  (q.v.),  begun  by  Appius  Claudius,  b.c.  312, 
appears  to  have  been  the  earliest  notable  piece 
of  permanent  road  work.  In  general  Roman 
roads  were  built  in  straight  lines,  regardless  of 
ordinary  grades,  and  were  paved  to  a  great  depth, 
the  several  layers  of  stone  and  concrete  sometimes 
aggregating  three  feet  in  thickness. 

One  of  the  earliest  English  road  laws  was 
passed  by  Parliament  in  1285.  It  directed  that 
all  trees  and  shrubs  be  cut  down  to  the  distance 
of  200  feet  on  either  side  of  roads  between  market 
toAvns,  to  prevent  the  concealment  of  robbers  in 
them.  The  first  toll  for  the  repair  of  roads  was 
levied  by  the  authority  of  Edward  III.,  in  1346, 
on  roads  which  now  form  part  of  the  streets  of 
London.  In  1^5  an  act  was  passed  requiring 
each  parish  to  select  two  surveyors  of  highways 
to  keep  them  in  repair  by  compulsory  labor;  at 
a  later  period,  in  place  of  the  compulsory  labor, 
the  ^statute  labor  tax'  was  substituted. 

In  France,  Louis  XII.  ordered  an  inspection  of 
and  report  on  the  roads  of  the  kingdom  in  1508, 
while  late  in  the  same  century  Henry  IV.  ap- 
pointed the  'Great  Waywarden  of  France.'  In 
1556  a  stone  road  15  feet  wide  was  built  from 
Paris  to  Orleans,  with  about  20  feet  of  unpaved 
public  way  on  each  side.  France  appears  to  have 
been  the  leader  in  modern  road  construction,  but 
it  was  soon  surpassed  by  England,  and  gave  up 
its  own  for  the  English  macadam  system  of  road 
improvements.     By  1776  Tresaguet  had  evolved 


BOAD. 


63 


BOAD. 


a  system  of  improved  road  construction  in  many 
respects  similar  to  that  now  widely  used 
throughout  the  world.  First  of  all,  Tresaguet 
prepared  a  curved  bed,  or  earth  foundation,  for 
his  stonework,  parallel  with  and  about  10  inches 
below  the  finished  surface  of  the  proposed  road- 
way. Instead  of  laying  his  large  stones  flat  he 
set  them  on  edge,  broke  their  upper  edges  off  to 
an  even  surface,  then  covered  this  stone  founda- 
tion with  another  hand-laid  course  of  stone, 
smaller  than  the  first,  and  with  its  edges  also 
hammered  off.  Finally,  he  put  on  a  third  layer 
of  stones,  broken  to  about  the  size  of  an  English 
walnut,  and  spread  by  a  shovel.  The  hardest 
stone  was  chosen  for  the  surface  layer.  This 
general  system  was  continued  in  France  until 
1820.  In  that  year  the  plan  worked  out  by  Mac- 
adam in  England  was  introduced  in  France,  and 
in  1830  it  was  officially  adopted  in  the  latter 
country.  It  involved  comparatively  little  change 
except  in  the  foundation,  as  will  be  seen  from  the 
description  of  Macadam's  work,  further  on. 

Macadam  and  Telford  (qq.v.) , whose  names  have 
been  applied  to  the  two  rival  systems  of  broken- 


6rvyel  and  Chalk 


OWl     Roman. 


CC/TTfffTf" 


JStoffs. 


French,  Prior  +o  1764-. 


TeVford,  early  19tf  Cen+ury. 


Macadam,  early  19^ Century. 
Mo&sachuseH-s  Shxndard  Macadam., 

THE  DKVELOPMRNT  OF  BROKKN  STORE  BOADWATB. 

stone  road  construction  now  practiced  for  nearly 
a  century,  were  both  Scotchmen,  bom  within  a 
year  of  each  other  (1756  and  1757,  respectively). 
Although  both  of  th»e  great  engineers  built  hun- 
dreds of  miles  of  broken -stone  road  construction 
on  modifications  of  the  French  plans  already  de- 
scribed. Macadam  departed  further  from  his  mod- 


els. Telford  retained  the  single  course  of  large 
stone  on  edge,  introduced  in  France  by  Tresa- 
guet, but  he  placed  them  on  the  bed  of  a  level 
trench,  and  secured  a  curved  surface  to  his  road- 
way by  using  larger,  or  taller,  stones  at  the  cen- 
tre than  at  the  sides.  Over  these  large  stones, 
in  some  cases,  he  spread  a  layer  of  gravel  1  inch 
deep;  then  he  finished  the  roadway  with  about 
6  inches  of  broken  stone.  Macadam  used  noth- 
ing but  broken  stone  from  the  finished  surface  of 
the  earth  foundation,  at  the  same  time  raising 
the  stone  bed  above  the  earth  at  each  side,  instead 
of  sinking  it  in  a  trench.  The  latter  change  was 
designed  to  facilitate  drainage.  Macadam's  en- 
tire system  was  founded  on  perfect  drainage  and 
on  the  thorough  compacting  of  the  angular  frag- 
ments of  broken  stone  into  one  solid  mass. 
See  KoAD  and  Stbeet  Machineby. 

Prior  to  1800  there  were  few  roads  in  the 
United  States  that  deserved  to  be  characterized 
as  improved.  In  1796  Francis  Baily,  in  his 
Journal  of  a  Tour  in  Unsettled  Parts  of  North 
America,  wrote  that  "there  is  at  present  but  one 
turnpike  road  on  the  continent,  which  is  be- 
tw^een  Lancaster  and  Philadelphia,  a  distance  of 
sixty -six  miles,  and  is  a  masterpiece  of  its  kind; 
it  is  paved  with  stone  the  whole  way,  and  over- 
laid with  gravel,  so  that  it  is  never  obstructed 
during  the  most  severe  season.''  The  road  was 
built  by  a  company,  chartered  in  1792.  At  the 
start  it  consisted  of  boulders  rolled  in  belter 
skelter  and  filled  between  and  above  with  earth 
and  gravel.  Heavy  rains  reduced  the  road  to  a 
dangerous  condition.  It  is  said  that  the  road  was 
afterwards  macadamized.  This  was  only  one  of 
many  toll  roads,  distributed  over  the  United 
States,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  any  of  the 
other  early  ones  could  lay  claim  to  having  been 
macadamized.  Another  toll  road,  built  in  whole 
or  in  part  before  1800,  extended  from  the  Shenan- 
doah Valley,  in  Virginia,  westward  to  Kentucky. 
It  was  built,  and  as  late  as  1895  it  was  said  still 
to  be  owned  by  the  Wilderness  Turnpike  Company. 
Although  many  attempts  were  made  to  secure 
road  construction  by  the  National  Government  in 
the  early  days  of  the  Constitution,  the  only  such 
work  of  importance,  if  not  the  sole  example,  was 
the  National  Road  (see  Cumbebland  Road) 
from  Cumberland,  Md.,  westerly  800  miles  to 
Vandalia,  111.  The  original  plan  was  to  build  a 
road  from  the  Atlantic  coast  to  the  Ohio  River. 
The  road  had  a  total  width  of  80  feet,  and  was 
macadamized  to  a  width  of  30  feet.  As  settle- 
ment proceeded,  corduroy,  or  log-surfaced  roads, 
were  built  across  dangerously  wet  and  soft 
stretches,  and  with  the  advent  of  the  saw  mill, 
plank  roads,  particularly  for  the  toll  ways,  be- 
came common  in  some  sections.  When  new,  or 
when  kept  in  good  repair,  plank  roads  were  a 
vast  improvement,  but  they  were  expensive  to 
maintain  and  liable  to  get  badly  out  of  order. 

After  the  wave  of  internal  improvements  had 
swept  over  the  various  States  of  the  Union,  or 
from,  say,  1835-40,  on,  road  construction  gener- 
ally became  a  purely  local  matter,  except  where 
turnpike  companies  built  long  stretches  of  toll 
roads.  The  advent  of  railways  rapidly  lessened 
the  demand  for  extensive  single  lines  of  high- 
ways. "Working  out  the  road  tax  "  instead  of 
paying  the  tax  in  money  and  having  the  money 
laid  out  by  experienced  road-builders,  was  the 
rule,  and  poor  roads  were  the  result.    The  rapid 


BOAD. 


54 


BOAD. 


increase  in  urban  population,  in  general  prosper- 
ity, and  in  municipal  improvements,  which  fol- 
lowed the  Civil  War,  was  largely  responsible  for 
the  beginning  of  improved  city  streets.  These 
led  to  better  roads,  and  from  better  roads  it  was 
only  a  step  to  the  agitation  for  good  roads  that 
assumed  such  great  proportions  in  the  United 
States  from  about  1890  onward.  This,  in  turn, 
was  largely  due  to  the  widespread  use  of  the  bi- 
cycle. Prior  to  the  general  movements  for  good 
roads  some  towns  in  Essex  County,  N.  J.,  began 
to  improve  their  streets.  In  1868  Orange,  N.  J., 
laid  a  16-inch  Telford  road  and  in  1871  Essex 
County,  in  which  Orange  is  situated,  began  the 
construction  of  an  improved  system  of  country 
roads. 

Road  Laws — Development  op  Good  Roads. 
In  1889  a  general  county  road  law  was  passed 
by  the  New  Jersey  Legislature.  This  permitted 
counties,  after  certain  legal  formalities,  to  issue 
bonds  for  broken  stone  or  hard  road  construction 
and  to  assess  one-third  of  the  cost  upon  property 
abutting  on  the  line  of  the  road.  In  1891  New 
Jersey  passed  a  State  Aid  or  State  Highway  law, 
which  was  the  beginning  of  systematic  road  im- 
provement in  the  United  States  under  the  direc- 
tion of  State  officials  and  with  the  aid  of  State 
funds.  The  law  being  defective,  it  was  refinact- 
ed  in  1892,  and  on  December  27  of  that  year  the 
State  of  New  Jersey  paid  $20,662  to  Middlesex 
County  to  help  meet  the  cost  of  10.55  miles  of 
broken-stone  roads.  This  was  the  first  money 
paid  by  the  State  under  the  amended  act,  and  the 
first  direct  State  aid  to  the  good  roads  move- 
ment. Most  of  this  work  was  done  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  New  Brunswick  and  Plainfield.  At  first 
the  commonwealth  was  represented  by  the  presi- 
dent of  the  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  but  after 
May,  1894,  the  work  was  entrusted  to  an  offi- 
cial known  as  the  State  Commissioner  of  Public 
Roads.  Under  the  act  the  cost  of  road  construc- 
tion is  divided  as  follows:  The  State  pays  33.3 
per  cent.,  abutting  property-owners  10  per  cent., 
and  the  counties  in  which  the  improvements  are 
located  pay  the  remainder.  The  initiative  rests 
with  the  owners  of  property  abutting  on  the  road 
in  question,  two-thirds  of  whom  must  petition 
the  County  Freeholders  for  the  improvement. 
That  body  carries  out  the  work,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  County  Engineer  and  subject  to  the 
approval  of  the  State  Commission.  In  1899  the 
act  was  amended  so  that  petitions  may  be  filed 
with  and  work  done  by  townships,  as  well  as  by 
counties.  To  the  close  of  October  31,  1900,  the 
total  mileage  of  roads  built  under  the  New  Jersey 
State  Aid  Law  was  532  and  the  State's  contribu- 
tion (one-third  of  the  total  cost)  had  been  $865,- 
319,  or  about  $1600  per  mile.  The  State  appro- 
priations have  ranged  from  $75,000  to  $150,000 
a  year — in  1899.  Some  of  the  money  was  spent 
for  general  roads,  but  most  of  it  was  put  into 
broken-stone  roads. 

The  example  set  by  New  Jersey  has  been  fol- 
lowed by  several  other  States,  notably  Massachu- 
setts. In  fact,  Massachusetts  is  now  in  many  re- 
spects the  leader  in  the  movement  for  highway 
improvements  under  intelligent  State  direction, 
aided  by  State  funds.  Its  Legislature  appointed 
a  committee  to  investigate  the  subject  in  1892, 
or  the  next  year  after  the  first  New  Jersey  State 
Road  Act,  and  in  1893  it  established  a  State 
Highway  Commission  of  three  members.     Appro- 


priations for  actual  construction  were  not  made 
until  1894.  To  the  close  of  1900  a  total  of  296 
miles  of  State  highways  had  been  improved  under 
the  Massachusetts  Act  of  1893,  and  the  State 
had  appropriated  more  than  $3,500,000  for  the 
work.  Of  this  sum  one-fourth  was  to  be  repaid 
to  the  State,  with  interest  at  3  per  cent.,  and 
within  at  least  six  years.  The  counties  were  to 
collect  the  one-fourth  by  taxation.  In  1900 
Massachusetts  appropriated  $500,000  for  State 
roads  (one-fourth  to  be  repaid  to  it  eventually), 
and  in  addition  it  provided  $6,000  for  the  sal- 
aries of  the  three  commissioners,  $17,060  for  en- 
gineers and  clerks,  and  $5,440  for  traveling 
expenses  and  incidentals,  making  a  total  of 
$28,500  for  salaries,  engineering,  and  the  like, 
besides  the  $500,000  for  construction.  In  1899 
it  appropriated  a  like  sum  and  in  1898  half  the 
amount,  making  $71,300  in  addition  to  the 
$3,500,(H)0  already  named.  Prior  to  the  special 
appropriations  the  various  expenses  of  the  com- 
mission came  out  of  the  construction  fund.  The 
popularity  of  the  plan  in  Massachusetts  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  to  the  close  of  1900  274  towns 
and  25  cities  had  petitioned  for  a  total  of  1,334 
miles  of  improved  roads,  or  more  than  four  times 
as  much  as  the  commission  had  been  able  to  build. 
Beginning  with  1900  the  cost  of  repairs,  up  to 
$50  a  mile  in  each  year,  is  to  be  assessed  on  the 
towns  in  which  the  road  is  located.  The  Massa- 
chusetts Legislature  of  1900  made  provision 
for  an  expenditure  of  5  per  cent,  of  its  total 
appropriation,  or  $20,000  in  that  year,  for  grad- 
ing and  minor  improvements  in  small  towns 
which  had  not  yet  received  State  aid.  During 
the  year  1900  the  average  cost  of  a  standard 
mile  of  macadamized  road  was  $8,957.  This 
is  for  a  width  of  15  feet  of  stone,  a  depth  gen- 
erally of  6  inches,  and  a  shoulder  3  feet  wide  on 
each  side.  It  also  includes  painted  guard  rails 
at  all  steep  embankments,  and  culverts  of  ma- 
sonry, iron,  or  vitrified  clay,  wherever  needed. 
It  should  be  understood  that  the  improvements 
are  all  on  existing  roads  and  do  not  include 
acquiring  land  or  laying  out  and  grading  new 
roadways. 

Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  and  New  York 
have  also  tried  the  State  road  aid  plan.  Rhode 
Island  repealed  its  law  in  1899.  In  Connecticut 
the  work  began  in  1895  and  has  been  growing 
in  popularity  ever  since.  In  1895-96  the  ex- 
pense of  improving  roads  was  divided  equally 
between  the  State  and  the  counties  and  towns 
in  which  the  roads  were  located.  In  1897-98  it 
was  divided  equally  between  the  State  and  the 
various  towns.  In  1899-1900  the  small  towns 
paid  one-fourth  and  the  large  towns  one-third 
the  coast,  the  State  paying  the  rest.  The  di- 
viding line  between  large  and  small  towns  is 
an  assessed  valuation  of  $1,000,000.  From  1896 
to  1900  State  aid  was  given  in  159  of  the  168 
towns  of  the  State,  and  in  1900  there  were  ap- 
plications from  153  towns.  The  total  amount 
available  to  the  close  of  1900,  including  State 
and  local  funds,  had  been  $1,317,550.  Connecti- 
cut appropriations  may  be  expended,  in  part, 
for  grading  and  improving  dirt  roads. 

New  York  adopted  the  State  aid  plan  in  1898, 
but  was  sparing  in  its  apjtropriations,  and  con- 
tributed only  $250,000  from  1898  to  1900,  in- 
clusive. The  State  pays  one-half  the  cost  of 
road   improvements,   the  rest  being  divided  be- 


SOAD. 


55 


BOAD. 


tween  the  county  in  which  the  road  is  located 
and  the  abutting  property-owners.  In  case  the 
latter  petition  for  the  improvement,  they  pay 
S5  per  cent,  of  the  total  cost;  otherwise,  only 
15  per  cent.  In  1900  an  act  was  passed  requir- 
ing towns  to  keep  the  State  roads  in  repair, 
under  the  direction  of  the  State  Engineer.  That 
official  passes  on  all  applications  for  State  aid 
and  is  in  charge  of  the  work.  To  the  close  of 
1900  New  York  had  built  53^  miles  of  State 
road,  and  surveys  and  estimates  for  404  miles 
were  under  way.  The  State  Engineer  is  em- 
powered to  build  telford,  macadam,  gravel,  or 
other  kinds  of  roads. 

Vermont  appointed  a  State  Highway  Commis- 
sion of  three  members  in  1894,  reappointed  it 
in  1896,  and  in  December,  1898,  created  the 
office  of  State  Highway  Commissioner.  The  com- 
mission of  1892-96  seems  to  have  had  no  powers 
or  duties  save  of  investigation  and  advice,  but 
it  did  some  educational  work  and  issued  two  re- 
ports. The  Commissioner  under  the  law  of  1898 
supervises  the  expenditure  of  the  State  road 
tax  and  is  empowered  to  provide  experts  to  give 
instruction  in  road-making.  Other  States  than 
thoee  named  have  made  more  or  less  extended 
inquiries  relating  to  aid  in  road  construction. 
The  work  is  largely  educational,  since  a  vast 
expenditure  would  be  required  to  macadamize 
all  the  roads  of  even  the  smaller  States.  The 
plan  generally  pursued  is  to  improve  either  high- 
ways between  important  towns,  or  notoriously 
bad  pieces  of  road.    Often  the  two  are  combined. 

In  mentioning  educational  work,  the  Road  In- 
quiry Division  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  should  not  be  overlooked.  For 
several  years  past  much  has  been  done  at  Wash- 
ington to  collect  and  disseminate  information 
relating  to  the  benefits  of  good  roads  and  how 
they  may  be  best  and  most  cheaply  built  and 
maintained.  Numerous  bulletins  on  the  subject 
have  been  issued,  and  sample  stretches  of  im- 
proved roads  have  been  built  in  different  sec- 
tions, notably  in  conjunction  with  the  State 
agricultural  experiment  stations. 

The  essentials  of  good  roads  are:  (1)  Proper 
location;  (2)  easy  grades;  (3)  a  smooth,  hard, 
durable  wearing  surface.  In  the  case  of  new 
roads  there  is  little  or  no  excuse  for  poor  loca- 
tion, and  no  danger  of  it  if  the  advice  of  a  good 
road  engineer  is  sought  and  followed.  Ideal 
grades  should  not  exceed  a  rise  of  1  foot  in  33^ 
of  horizontal  distance,  which  is  known  as  a 
3  per  cent,  grade.  Telford  allowed  a  rise  of  1  in 
30,  and  French  engineers  permit  1  in  20,  but 
this  is  for  smooth  broken-stone  roads. 

The  only  classes  of  wearing  surface  for  im- 
proved roads  considered  in  this  article  are 
gravel  and  macadam.  (For  wood,  brick,  and  stone 
block  and  sheet  and  block  asphalt,  see  Pave- 
MKNT.)  Gravel,  spread  in  layers  and  well  rolled, 
makes  a  very  good  road  surface,  but  one  that 
is  rather  expensive  to  maintain.  Gravel  should 
be  screened  to  free  it  from  earth  and  to  sort  out 
for  use  the  stones  ranging  from  about  %  to  1^ 
inches  in  diameter.  The  stones  should  be  as 
angular  as  possible.  A  mixture  of  iron-bearing 
clay  is  desirable  to  bind  the  gravel  together. 
Smooth  beach  or  river  gravel  should  be  avoided, 
but  some  or  all  of  it  may  be  crushed  and  used 
where  nothing  else  can  be  found.  The  lines  be- 
tween the  macadam  and  telford  roads  are  not 


drawn  so  hard  and  fast  as  they  once  were.  The 
tendency  seems  to  be  to  use  telford,  or  a  founda- 
tion of  large  stone,  where  the  ground  is  yielding 
or  the  traffic  very  heavy.  The  stones  are  placed 
by  hand,  as  close  together  as  may  be.  The  pro- 
jections above  the  desired  depth  are  broken  off 
with  hammers,  after  which  two  or  more  layers 
of  broken  stone  are  spread  and  rolled,  each 
separately.  Whatever  the  number  of  layers,  the 
top  one  is  composed  of  fine  screenings,  both  to 
fill  the  interstices  in  the  layer  below  and  to 
give  a  smooth  surface.  The  proper  sizes  for 
broken  stone,  and  whether  or  not  clay,  loamy 
earth,  sand,  or  some  other  material  to  fill  the 
spaces  between  the  stone  and  help  to  bind  the 
stone  together,  should  be  used  is  a  mooted  ques- 
tion. There  is  much  to  be  said  in  favor  of 
having  the  fragments  as  homogenous  as  pos- 
sible, both  in  size  and  hardness,  and  relying 
upon  the  roller  so  to  pack  the  stone  as  to  leave 
no  voids.  Such  voids  as  would  be  thus  left 
might  well  be  filled  as  completely  as  possible 
with  some  material.  There  are  obvious  advan- 
tages in  having  this  done  by  the  smaller  sizes  of 
broken  stone.  Some  authorities  strongly  advo- 
cate fine  gravel  and  sand  for  filling  the  inter- 
stices. Careful  sprinkling  of  the  upper  layer  of 
stone  is  essential,  but  if  too  much  water  is  used 
it  will  penetrate  to  and  soften  the  earth  beneath, 
thus  causing  settlement  in  spots  and  an  irregu- 
lar surface.  The  Massachusetts  Highway  Com- 
mission uses  screens  of  %,  1^,  and  2%  inches. 
Stones  between  2%  and  1%  inches  in  size  are 
placed  at  the  bottom;  those  between  1^  and  % 
inch  come  next;  and  the  screenings  last.  Each 
of  the  three  layers  is  rolled  separately  and  the 
last  is  sprinkled  before  it  is  rolled.  The  best 
material  for  broken-stone  road  surfaces  in  Amer- 
ica is  generally  considered  to  be  basaltic  or  trap 
rock.  Some  limestones  serve  the  purpose  well. 
Carefully  selected  field  stones,  if  of  a  kind  that 
will  break  into  angular  pieces,  often  give  good 
results.  In  general,  any  stone  used  for  macadam 
or  telford  roads  should  be  tough,  fine-grained, 
and  not  readily  acted  upon  by  acids  or  the 
weather. 

Good  drainage  is  an  essential  of  all  road  and 
street  construction.  Water  falling  on  the  surface 
is  removed  by  giving  the  road  a  proper  inclina- 
tion, both  longitudinally  and  transversely,  and 
conveying  it  to  natural  watercourses.  Culverts 
of  masonry,  vitrified  clay,  or  iron  pipe  are  em- 
ployed where  open  channels  are  impracticable, 
both  to  carry  the  water  from  the  road  sur- 
face and  for  natural  watercourses  beneath  the 
roadway.  W^here  roads  pass  through  wet  land, 
underdrains  are  necessary  to  keep  the  earth  dry 
beneath  the  road  surface.  These,  also,  may  be  of 
stone  or  some  kind  of  pipe,  placed  in  the  middle 
of  the  road,  at  the  side,  or  running  from  the 
centre  to  one  or  both  sides,  according  to  local 
conditions. 

Maintenance  of  roads  is  no  less  important 
than  their  construction,  but  this  fact  is  yet 
to  be  learned  in  most  parts  of  America.  Ameri- 
can engineers  know  how  to  build  good  roads, 
but  can  rarely  secure  the  money  necessary  to 
maintain  them,  although  money  so  spent  is  saved 
in  the  end.  There  are  two  methods  of  maintain- 
ing broken-stone  roads — ^the  constant  and  the 
intermittent  road  repair  system.  In  the  former 
the  roads  are  divided  into  sections,  each  in 
charge  of  one  or  more  men.     Broken  stone  is 


BOAD. 

provided  at  convenient  intervals  of  space  and 
applied  to  ruts  and  depressions  as  rapidly  as 
they  occur.  In  the  other  method,  few  repairs 
are  made  for  a  number  of  years.  When  the  road 
becomes  badly  worn  a  new  dressing  of  stone  is 
applied.  There  is  also  an  intermediate  plan  of 
large  patching.  Before  applying  new  metaling, 
as  the  broken  stone  is  called,  the  upper  portion 
of  the  worn  roadway  is  often  loosened  to  a 
depth  of  1  or  2  inches,  by  means  of  teeth  or 
other  picking  devices,  attached  to  road-rollers 
(see  Road  and  Street  Machineby),  or  by  hand. 
The  loosened  surface  is  sprinkled  and  rolled 
much  the  same  as  in  new  construction.    The  dust 


56       BOAD  AND  STBEET  MACHINEBY. 

BOAD^  Law  of  the.    See  Rules  of  the  Road. 

BOAD  AND  STBEET  MACHINEBY.  Un- 
der this  head  may  be  included  the  various  imple- 
ments, other  than  hand  tools,  used  in  construct- 
ing and  maintaining  roads  and  streets,  with  the 
exception  of  such  apparatus  as  is  peculiar  to  the 
construction  of  asphalt  pavements.  (See  Pave- 
ment). Ordinary  plows  and  scrapers  for  loosen- 
ing and  moving  the  natural  earth  surface  in  the 
preparation  of  the  roadbed  need  no  extended 
description.  Scrapers  of  this  sort  are  either  drag 
or  wheel  J  according  to  whether  their  bottoms 
rest  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  when  their  loads 
are  being  moved,  or  whether  the  whole  scraper  is 


BOAD  MACHINE. 


and  mud  that  inevitably  form  on  macadam  roads 
should  be  swept  or  scraped  oflf,  as  the  case  may 
be,  and  until  the  dust  seems  uncontrollable  it 
may  be  laid  by  sprinkling.  Wide  tires  for  all 
heavily  loaded  vehicles  lessen  the  wear  of  roads; 
and  they  are  required  by  law  in  some  sections. 

BiBLiOQBAFHY.  Cousult  the  authorities  named 
under  Pavemeint,  particularly  Aiken,  Byrne,  and 
Maxwell;  also  Shaler,  American  Highways  (New 
York,  1896),  which,  besides  being  a  good  and  re- 
liable presentation  of  the  subject,  is  somewhat 
specific  as  to  the  work  of  the  Massachusetts 
Highway  Commission;  Rockwell,  Roads  and 
Pavements  in  France  (New  York,  1896),  a  brief 
review  by  an  American  of  the  notable  system  of 
French  road  maintenance;  Codrington,  Mainte- 
nance of  Macadamized  Roads  (London  and  New 
York,  2d  ed.,  1892),  which  gives  British  mainte- 
nance practice  in  detail,  but  is  not  up  to  date; 
Gillette,  Economics  of  Road  Construction  (New 
York,  1901),  discusses  methods  and  costs  of  con- 
struction; Judson,  City  Roads  and  Pavements 
(Oswego,  N.  Y.,  1894)  ;  Special  Consular  Reports 
on  Streets  and  Highways  in  Foreign  Countries, 
vol.  iii.  (Washington,  D.  C,  1891;  reprinted  in 
1897)  ;  Roy  Stone,  'New  Roads  and  Road  Legisla- 
tion in  the  United  States  (New  York,  1894)  ; 
Jenks,  Road  Legislation  for  the  American  State 
(Baltimore,  1889)  ;  Road  Inquiry  Bulletins  of 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture; 
and  reports  of  the  Massachusetts,  Connecticut, 
and  New  Jersey  Highway  Commissions,  and 
(from  1898)  of  the  State  Engineer  of  New  York, 
and  of  the  Ontario  Provincial  Instructor  in 
Roadmaking.  See  Pavement;  Road  and  Street 
Machinery;  Street. 

BOAD  (in  law).    See  Highway. 


mounted  on  and  conveyed  between  two  wheels. 
There  is  another  class  of  scraper,  more  properly 
called  a  road  machine,  which  consists  oi  a  long 
inclined  blade,  generally  of  steel,  mounted  diag- 
onally between  two  pairs  of  wheels,  and  capable 
of  vertical  adjustment  so  as  to  vary  its  cutting 
depth  and  also  permit  it  to  conform  to  the  angle 
of  the  road  surface.  These  machines  are  drawn 
by  horses  and  throw  the  earth  from  the  side  to- 
ward the  centre  of  the  road.  Another  machine 
used  in  road  construction  is  known  as  a  grader, 
or  grader  and  ditcher.  It  loosens  the  earth  by 
means  of  a  plow  mounted  between  two  sets  of 
wheels,  lifts  it  onto  a  converging  belt,  and  dumps 
it  into  the  roadway,  the  waste  banks  at  the  side, 
or  into  a  wagon  for  removal  to  some  more  distant 
point. 

Road  Rollers  are  largely  used  to  compact 
roads  formed  by  embankments;  to  solidify  road- 
beds whether  in  cut  or  fill,  in  order  to  give  as 
unyielding  a  foundation  as  possible  to  surfacing 
of  more  durable  material;  and  finally  for 
compressing  broken  stone  or  asphalt  and  for 
bringing  the  various  classes  of  block  pavements 
to  a  firm  bed  and  regular  surface.  The  steam 
rollers  are  equipped  with  boilers  and  driving 
engines;  the  horse  rollers  consist  of  little  but 
the  rollers  themselves.  The  rollers  proper,  in 
both  classes,  consist  of  one  or  more  revolving 
hollow  iron  cylinders,  resembling  very  broad 
wheels,  mounted  on  an  axis.  The  axis  is  attached 
to  the  front  end  of  the  driving  engine  or,  in  the 
case  of  horse  rollers,  a  frame  supporting  a  seat  is 
mounted  on  the  axis  and  over  the  roller  and  a 
pole  and  whiffletree  are  attached  to  the  front  of 
the  frame.  The  weight  of  rollers  ranges  from 
2^4  to  20  tons,  steam  rollers  being  the  heaviest. 


BOAB  AND  STBEET  MACHINEBY. 


57 


BOADS  AKB  BAILBOAD& 


Stone  ob  Rock  Crushers  are  used  to  break 
stone  into  small  sizes  for  macadam  or  the  upper 
portion  of  telford  roads  and  for  use  in  preparing 
concrete.  (See  Grinding  and  Cbushinq  Ma- 
chinery.) Screens  are  for  separating  broken 
stone  into  various  sizes.  (See  Ore-Dressino. ) 
Further  operations  connected  with  getting  out 
stone  for  road  work  are  treated  under  Quarry- 
ing. Stone-spreaders  are  used  to  distribute 
broken  stone  in  layers  of  regular  thickness  on 
road  surfaces.  The  machine  consists  of  a  wagon, 
on  which  is  mounted  a  box  whose  forward  end 
may  be  raised  to  give  the  bottom  any  desired 
slope,  and  of  a  trailing  box  reaching  to  the 
ground,  having  a  scraper  attached  to  its  bottom 
and  rear.  By  adjusting  this  scraper  the  depth 
of  the  stone  may  be  regulated  at  will. 

Sprinklers  are  used  to  moisten  earth  and 
stone  used  in  road  construction,  and  to  lay  the 
dust  on  completed  streets.  Their  most  common 
form  is  a  cylindrical  tank,  mounted  on  four 
wheels,  and  with  the  sprinkler  proper  attached 
to  the  rear  of  the  wagon.  The  sprinkler  is  a 
perforated  tube,  or  tubes,  ad  lusted  to  throw  the 
water  ©ut  in  a  snray,  or  shower,  at  the  rear  and 
aides.  Sometimes  special  street  railway  cars  are 
equipped  with  sprinklers,  for  watering  the  por- 
tion of  the  streets  between  and  for  a  little  space 
each  side  of  the  tracks.  About  1895  a  street-car 
sprinkler  w^as  introduced  which  waters  a  half  of 
the  full  width  of  the  street  at  a  time,  by  means 
of  a  swinging  arm  attached  to  the  side  of  the  car. 

ScBAFists  FOR  CLEANING  STREETS  are  employed 
to  remove  stiff  mud  from  roads  and  streets,  and 
particularly  from  broken-stone  roads.  They  con- 
sist of  a  series  of  steel  or  iron  teeth,  or  long 
curved  blades  3  to  5  inches  wide,  attached  to  a 
framework  in  such  a  manner  that  they  will  yield 
to  and  pass  over  irregularities  in  road  and  street 
surfaces  without  tearing  up  the  stone  or  other 
material.    They  pile  up  the  mud  at  one  side. 

Street  Sweepers  of  many  types  are  employed 
to  collect  street  dust  and  dirt  for  removal.  Most 
of  them  consist  of  a  revolving  broom,  mounted 
diagonally  beneath  and  at  the  rear  of  a  four- 
wheeled  truck.  The  ordinary  sweepers  throw  the 
dirt  out  to  one  side,  in  a  continuous  heap  or  row. 
In  recent  years  various  pick-up  svoeepers  have 
been  invented  and  to  a  rather  limited  extent 
introduced.  Most  of  them  throw  the  dirt  onto  a 
conveyor  actuated  by  the  revolutions  of  the  axis 
of  the  wagon,  and  one  type  picks  up  the  dirt  by 
means  of  an  exhaust  fan,  driven  by  an  engine 
mounted  on  the  machine.  Nearly  all  the  sweep- 
ing machines  are  drawn  by  horses,  including  the 
one  just  described,  but  toward  the  close  of  the 
nineteenth  century  the  introduction  of  self-pro- 
pelled sweepers  was  begun. 

ScABiFiERS,  for  loosening  the  surface  of  macad- 
amized roads  prior  to  re-surfacing,  are  used  quite 
extensively  in  England.  They  consist  of  teeth, 
tines,  or  drills,  attached  to  a  special  machine  or 
to  a  road  roller  in  such  a  way  as  to  tear  up  the 
surface  to  a  slight  depth,  by  actions  similar  to 
plowing,  drilling,  or  nammer  blows,  according 
to  the  machine.  In  the  United  States  the  same 
end  is  attained  by  fastening  spikes  to  steam  road- 
rollers,  or  by  means  of  specially  shaped  plows. 

The  use  of  broken  stone  for  road  surfaces  de- 
pends veiy  largely  upon  the  development  and  use 
of  two  of  the  classes  of  machinery  described  in 
this  article,  road-rollers  and  stone-crushers.  The 
first  practical  road-roller  was  made  in  France,  in 


1787,  by  M.  de  Cessart,  Inspector-General  of 
Bridges  and  Roads.  It  was  made  of  cast  iron, 
was  three  feet  in  diameter  and  eight  feet  wide. 
In  1817  a  road- roller  was  patented  in  England 
by  Philip  H.  Clay,  and  in  1825  another  English 
patent  on  a  road-roller  was  granted  to  John 
Biddle.  Various  writers  place  the  beginnings  of 
the  continuous  use  of  road-rollers  in  lx)th  France 
and  England  during  the  period  1830-40.  Some 
credit  the  French  engineers  with  being  pioneers 
in  this  respect,  in  1820.  Steam  road-rollers, 
which  have  now  largely  replaced  horse  rollers 
where  the  use  of  the  former  is  feasible,  were  first 
patented  in  France  early  in  1869,  by  Louis  Le- 
moine,  of  Bordeaux.  A  roller  weigh  mg  ten  long 
tons  (22,400  pounds)  was  immediately  built.  It 
was  used  in  Bordeaux,  and  in  1860  it  was  also 
used  in  Paris.  In  1863  W.  Clark,  of  Calcutta, 
India,  and  W.  F.  Batho,  of  Birmingham,  Eng- 
land, patented  a  steam  road-roller,  and  in  1864  a 
machine  built  after  their  patent  was  shipped 
from  Birmingham  to  Calcutta.  Several  other 
rollers  of  this  type  followed  in  England,  the  most 
successful  of  which,  judging  from  its  subsequent 
wide  adoption,  was  that  of  Aveling  and  Porter, 
of  Rochester,  England.  This  firm  seems  to  have 
combined,  in  1865,  a  road  traction  engine  with 
rollers,  substituting  the  latter,  on  very  broad 
wheels,  for  the  ordinary  wheels  of  the  engine. 
In  1867  the  same  firm  made  a  30-ton  (67,200 
pounds)  roller  for  Liverpool,  a  weight  which  is 
now  considered  excessive.  Since  1880  several 
American  steam  rollers  have  been  introduced. 

The  first  stone-crushing  machine  was  invented  in 
by  Eli  Whitney  Blake  (q.v.),  of  Connecticut,  in 
1852-57.  It  was  introduced  in  England  in  1860 
and  has  since  been  used,  with  or  without  modi- 
fications, all  over  the  world.  It  was  a  jaw 
crusher.  Other  types  of  crushers  have  been  in- 
troduced since  then,  but  few,  if  any,  have  been 
so  extensively  used.  See  Grinding  and  Crush- 
ing Machinery;  Ore-Dressing ;  Pavements; 
Quarry,  Quarrying  ;  and  Road.  Consult :  Byrne, 
Highway  Construction  (New  York  and  London, 
1900)  ;  and  Aitken,  Roadmaking  and  Maintenance 
(London  and  Philadelphia,  1900). 

BOAD-BTJNNEB.  A  curious  and  interesting 
ground-cuckoo  {Geococcyx  Calif ornianus)  of  the 
Southwestern  United  States,  also  called  *chapar- 
ral-cock,*  *snake-killer,'  and  'paisano.*  It  is 
nearly  two  feet  long,  of  which  the  tail  is  about 
one-half.  The  plumage  is  bronzy  or  coppery 
green,  changing  to  dark  steel  blue  on  the  head, 
everywhere  except  on  the  rump  streaked  with 
white  or  tawny;  under  parts  soiled  whitish, 
streaked  with  black  on  the  throat,  breast,  and 
sides.  The  road-runner  is  notable  for  its  swiftness 
of  foot,  for,  aided  by  its  wings,  it  is  said  to  equal 
the  speed  of  a  horse.  It  is  almost  omnivorous,  but 
reptiles  and  mollusks  form  a  large  part  of  its 
diet.  The  nest  is  a  flimsy  structure  of  twigs  in 
a  bush,  and  the  white  eggs  are  6  to  9  in  number. 
Like  other  cuckoos,  the  incubation  begins  as  soon 
as  one  &gg  is  laid,  so  that  fresh  eggs  and  young 
birds  may  be  found  in  the  same  nest.  It  is  said 
that  road-runners  can  be  domesticated,  and  then 
make  very  interesting  pets.  Another  species 
( Geococcyx  afflnis )  inhabits  Southern  Mexico  and 
Guatemala.  Consult  Cooper,  Birds  of  Cali- 
fornia (San  Francisco,  1870).  See  Plate  of 
Cuckoos. 

BOADS  AND  BAILBOADS,  Military. 
Military    roads    are    of    two    general    classes: 


BOADS  AKB  BAII1BOAD& 


58 


BOAHOXE. 


those  incidental  to  the  advance  of  civil- 
ization and  the  development  of  a  new  oountrv, 
as,  for  example,  in  the  case  of  the  many  roaas 
constructed  by  army  officers  during  the  develop- 
ment of  the  western  and  central  portion  of  the 
United  States,  and  such  as  are  now  being  con- 
structed in  places  in  the  Philippines.  These 
roads  are  simply  such  modifications  of  ordinary 
country  and  macadamized  roads  as  seem  to  best 
suit  the  purposes  in  hand.  Frequently  their 
main  object  is  to  keep  up  a  line  of  communica- 
tion for  the  supply  of  permanent  garrisons  in 
time  of  peace.  The  second  class  comprises  new 
roads  and  repairs  to  existing  roads  incident  to 
the  active  operations  of  an  army.  These  are 
sometimes  short  pieces  of  road  built  to  furnish 
communication  to  and  between  different  parts  of 
camps  and  fighting  lines  where  they  are  used 
for  a  period  extending  from  several  days  to 
months,  and  the  roads  necessary  for  the  move- 
ment of  an  army  and  used  perhaps  but  once. 
There  are  many  excellent  examples  of  work  of 
this  kind  by  the  United  States  Army  in  the  Civil 
War.  Some  of  the  commanding  generals  organ- 
ized pioneer  companies  in  each  regiment  whose 
special  duty  it  was  to  keep  the  roads  and  bridges 
in  proper  shape  for  the  movement  of  the  army. 
The  work  consisted  generally  in  such  repairs  to 
existing  dirt  roads  as  would  make  them  capable 
of  standing  the  passage  of  a  large  body  of  troops 
with  its  trains.  It  will  readily  be  seen  that  m 
such  cases  makeshift  methods  were  followed  that 
would  not  be  tolerated  imder  other  circum- 
stances. Frequently  tolerable  results  were  se- 
cured by  placing  on  the  roads  brush,  cornstalks, 
and  similar  material  which  were  boimd  together 
sufficiently  to  permit  of  temporary  use,  but  which 
eventually  probably  left  the  road  in  as  bad  if  not 
worse  condition  than  before  they  were  used.  A 
favorite  method,  where  applicable,  was  to  cordu- 
roy the  road.  This  was  done  if  timber  were  ac- 
cessible by  cutting  down  trees  and  saplings,  lay- 
ing a  line  of  logs  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  road 
and  covering  them  with  small  saplings  placed 
across  the  road.  These  were  fastened  down,  and, 
if  time  afforded,  were  smoothed  on  top  or  covered 
with  dirt.  Many  modifications  of  this  method 
have  been  used.  Instead  of  saplings,  brush  is 
sometimes  boimd  together  in  bimdles  and  used 
similarly. 

Where  sawed  timber  could  be  quickly  and 
easily  procured,  roads  have  been  planked  in  the 
same  manner.  An  enormous  quantity  of  this 
class  of  work  was  done  by  Sherman's  army  in 
marching  northward  from  Savannah  in  the  Civil 
War.  It  is  evident  that  the  method  of  repair  of 
a  road  under  such  circumstances  must  depend 
almost  entirely  on  the  material  at  hand.  It  is 
usually  out  of  the  question  to  metal,  or  put  stone 
on  the  road,  as  is  done  in  macadamized  roads  for 
regular  use.  Still  gravel  is  sometimes  at  hand 
and  can  be  used  for  the  purpose.  Where  time 
affords,  the  roads  should  always  be  carefully  con- 
structed according  to  approved  methods.  (See 
Road.)  In  view  of  the  temporary  character  of 
military  roads,  greater  slopes  are  permissible 
than  in  roads  to  be  used  for  longer  periods.  It  is 
usually  considered  admissible  to  increase  the 
length  of  the  road  from  15  to  25  feet  for  the  pur- 
pose of  saving  a  foot  of  vertical  height.  Rarely 
less  than  8  feet  width  should  be  given.  If  the 
road  is  not  made  wide  enough  to  permit  the  pas- 
sage of  vehicles  at  all  points,  turnouts  for  this 


purpose  should  be  established  at  convenient  in- 
tervals. 

The  longer  movements  of  armies  are  made  by 
rail  or  steamboat  and  in  the  early  stages  of  war, 
during  the  mobilization  of  the  army  and  the 
forwarding  of  its  equipment  and  supplies,  the 
railroad  occupies  a  position  of  prime  importance. 
In  the  wars  of  the  future  it  will,  of  necessitj, 
play  a  very  important  part  in  all  operations, 
whether  offensive  or  defensive.  The  objective 
railroad  points  are  usually  the  large  railroad 
centres,  junctions,  etc.,  the  great  objective  point 
being  the  frontier,  for  throughout  Continental 
Europe  railroads  are  built  as  much  for  strategi- 
cal reasons  as  for  purely  commercial  purposes, 
so  that  their  general  direction  is  toward  the 
frontiers,  fortified  places,  magazines,  general  sup- 
ply stations,  and  important  points  of  rendezvous. 
The  military  powers  of  Europe  include  the  per- 
sonnel of  railroads  in  their  national  military 
scheme  of  defense,  so  that  on  the  call  for  mobili- 
zation the  railroad  employee  at  once  becomes  a 
component  part  of  the  military  forces.  So  far  as 
possible  in  a  country  like  the  United  States,  the 
operation  is  kept  in  the  hands  of  the  officers  and 
employees  of  the  road.  During  the  Civil  W^ar  the 
repairs  made  to  roads  by  the  military  authorities 
became  a  matter  of  great  importance,  so  much  so 
that  special  construction  corps  were  organized  for 
the  maintenance  of  certain  pieces  of  roads.  The 
most  important  railroads — ^thoee  known  to  carry 
the  principal  supplies  for  the  Northern  Army — 
were  frequently  attacked  and  damaged  in  many 
places.  Systematic  provision  was  made  for  the 
material  most  likely  to  be  used.  The  maintenance 
of  the  road  proper,  excepting  at  bridges,  was  of 
course  simple.  The  difficulty  experienoied  with 
bridges  is  referred  to  under  the  head  of  Bridges, 

MiLITABT. 

BOAN  ANTELOPE.  One  of  the  largest  and 
finest  antelopes  of  Central  Africa  (Hippotragus 
equinus),  related  to  the  oryx,  and  called  'bastard 
gemsbok'  by  the  Boers.  It  slinds  more  than  four 
and  a  half  feet  high  at  the  withers,  and  varies 
from  bright  roan-color  to  various  tints  of  gray  or 
brown,  with  the  face  dark-brown,  broken  by  a 
broad  white  streak  in  front  of  each  eye,  and  a 
white  nose.  The  horns  of  the  bucks  are  massive, 
heavily  ringed,  and  sweep  backward  in  a  scim- 
itar-like curve  which  may  measure  from  33  to  42 
inches.  This  species,  though  widely  distributed, 
was  never  very  numerous,  nor  inclined  to  gather 
into  large  herds.  Consult  authorities  cited  under 
Antelope.    See  Plate  of  Antelopes. 

TLOANKEf  r6'&n^  The  capital  of  an  arron- 
dissement  in  the  Department  of  Loire,  France, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Loire,  which  is  here 
navigable,  42  miles  northwest  of  Lyons  by  rail 
(Map:  France,  L  5).  Its  streets  are  wide,  and 
its  houses  handsome.  The  chief  structures  are 
the  bridge  over  the  Loire,  the  public  library,  and 
the  college  buildings.  Roanne  manufactures 
muslins,  calicoes,  and  woolen  and  other  fabrics. 
Ship-building  is  carried  on.  It  has  numerous 
Gallo-Roman  remains.  Population,  in  1901,  34,- 
901. 

BOANOKE,  r5'a-n6k^  A  river  formed  in 
southern  Virginia  by  the  union  of  the  Dan  nnd 
the  Staunton,  which  rise  in  the  Blue  Bidge 
(Map:  Virginia,  F  6).  It  flows  in  a  winding 
southeast  course  of  260  miles  through  a  fertile 
and  picturesque  valley  in    northeastern    North 


SOAVOXB. 


60 


BOBBZA. 


f>Twli«^  and  empties  into  Albemarle  Sound.  Its 
length,  including  the  Staunton,  is  460  miles,  and 
it  is  nayigable  lor  steamers  150  miles  to  Weldon. 
BOAHOXE.  A  city  in  Roanoke  County,  Va., 
56  miles  west  of  Lynchburg;  on  the  Roanoke 
River,  and  on  the  Norfolk  and  Western  Railroad 
(Map:  Virginia,  D  4).  It  is  picturesquely  situ- 
ated in  the  vicinity  of  the  Blue  Ridge  Mountains, 
and  has  the  Virginia  College  (female),  Rebekah 
Sanitarium,  and  law  and  public  libraries.  Hoi- 
lins  Institute,  a  large  women's  college  under  Bap- 
tist control,  is  six  miles  distant  to  the  north. 
Roanoke  is  mainly  interested  in  railroading,  hav- 
ing extensive  construction  and  repair  shops  of 
the  Norfolk  and  Western  Railroad.  Industrial- 
ly, the  city  ranks  sixth  in  the  State,  the  value  of 
its  products  in  the  census  year  of  1900  having 
been  $5,710,000.  The  most  important  manufac- 
tures are  cars,  locomotives,  flouring  and  grist 
mill  products,  bridges,  hydraulic  engines,  agri- 
cultural implements,  lumber,  brick,  cigars  and 
tobacco.  The  government  is  vested  in  a  mayor, 
chosen  bienniaUy,  and  a  imicameral  council.  In 
1880  Roanoke,  then  called  the  town  of  Big  Lick, 
had  a  population  of  only  639.  In  1884  it  was 
chartered  as  a  city  under  its  present  name. 
Papulation,  in  1890,  16,159;  in  1900,  21,495. 

BOAHOKB  COIiliEGE.  A  coeducational  col« 
lege  at  Salem,  Va.,  incorporated  in  1853  as  suc- 
cessor to  the  Virginia  Institute.  It  remained 
open  during  the  war,  though  without  endow- 
ment, and  has  since  had  a  rapid  development. 
In  addition  to  the  coll^^te  department,  with 
partially  elective  courses,  leading  to  the  degree 
of  B.A.,  partial,  preparatory,  and  commercial 
courses  are  offered.  The  attendance  in  1903  was 
164,  with  a  faculty  of  11  instructors.  The  li- 
braiy  contained  22,000  volumes.  The  endowment 
was  $60,000,  the  income  $14,000,  and  the  value 
of  the  grounds  and  four  buildings  was  $100,000. 

BOAVOKB  ISLAND.  An  island  off  the 
coast  of  North  Carolina,  forming  part  of  Dare 
County  and  separated  from  the  mainland  by 
Croatan  Sound.  It  is  noted  as  the  site  selected 
by  Sir  Walter  Ralegh  (q.v.)  in  his  attempt  at 
colonization  in  1585-87.  On  February  8,  1862, 
a  Union  force  under  General  Bumside  captured 
the  Confederate  garrison. 

BOABIHO  {larynffiamus  paralyticus),  A 
disease  of  the  horse,  usually  caused  by  the  pres- 
sure of  an  inflamed  or  hypertrophied  bronchial 
g^and  which  interferes  with  the  proper  functions 
of  the  left  recurrent  lamygeal  nerve.  In  the  case 
of  genuine  'roaring*  medical  treatment  is  of  no 
avail,  but  in  the  earlier  stages  of  the  disease  a 
eourse  of  iodide  of  potassiiun  is  strongly  advo- 
cated where  the  cause  of  the  trouble  is  to  be  at^ 
trtt>uted  to  disease  of  the  lymphatic  glands. 

BOABIHGl  BUCKIE,  The  name  among 
British  people,  especially  in  Scotland,  for  the 
local  species  of  Fusus,  a  large  spiral  (conch) 
■hell  which,  when  held  to  the  ear,  furnishes  a 
muffled  roaring  sound  which  children  are  told  is 
the  sound  of  the  sea  in  which  the  creature  lived. 
Really  it  is  the  audible  reverberation  of  the 
otherwise  inaudible  sound  of  the  rushing  of  the 
Mood  in  the  internal  ear. 

BOA8TIN0  (in  metallurgy).    See  Coffeb. 

BOB^AXfO  (Sp.,  r&halo,  Catalan  Uoharro,  name 
for  the  European  bass,  probably  from  lat.  lahruSy 
lahro9,  from  Oh.  Xifipa^,  lahraa^  sea-wolf,  from 
▼«*  XT.-6. 


\dfipo9,  Idbroa,  furious,  fierce,  greedy).  Any  of 
several  fishes  of  the  tropical  shores  of  America 
resembling  sea-bass,  but  set  apart  in  the 
family  Centropomidse.  All  are  robust^  dark-col- 
ored fishes,  from  two  to  four  feet  in  length,*  and 
several  kinds  are  of  great  importance  in  the  local 
markets.  The  most  valuable  in  the  West  Indies 
and  along  the  Spanish  Hain  is  the  species  Cm^ 
tropomus  undecimalia,  called  also  'snook*  and 
'brochet-de-mer.' 

BOBBEB-FLY.  Any  one  of  the  dipterous  in- 
sects of  the  family  Asilidse.  These  are  strong, 
hairy,  active,  predatory  files,  which  are  very  nu- 
merous and  always  conspicuous,  fiying  with  a 
darting  motion  and  preying  upon  many  different 
kinds  of  insects.  They  are  rather  slender,  but 
extremely  strong,  and  are  furnished  with  a  large 
tapering  hard  beak  inclosing  a  sharp  lancet 
which  is  thrust  out  and  cuts  a  severe  wound  in 
the  body  of  the  insect  captured.  The  tip  of  the 
beak  is  bearded  with  stiff  bristles  which  hold  it 
securely  in  the  wound  into  which  it  is  crowded. 
They  destroy  very  many  injurious  insects,  but  are 
noted  enemies  of  the  honey-bee. 

SOBBEB  SYNOD.    See  Ephesus,  <3oimoiL8 

OF. 

SOBBEBY  (OF.  rohlerie,  roheriey  from  rob- 
her,  roher,  to  rob,  from  ML.  raubare,  from  OHG. 
roulOn,  Ger.  rauhen,  Goth.  &f-ra«5^  AS.  rdafian, 
Eng.  reave;  connected  with  Lat.  rumpere,  to 
'  break,  Skt.  lup,  to  break,  plunder) .  In  sub- 
stance robbery  is  an  aggravated  form  of  larceny, 
although  at  common  law  it  is  treated  as  an  inde- 
pendent offense.  It  consists  in  the  larcenous 
taking  of  personal  property  which  is  on  the  per- 
son of  another,  or  under  the  immediate  protec- 
tion of  his  person,  accomplished  by  means  of 
violence  or  intimidation.  The  offense  is  thus 
both  a  crime  against  property  and  against  the 
person.  The  mere  force  required  in  the  asporta- 
tion of  the  property  taken  is  not  sufficient  to 
make  the  crime  robbery.  Thus  pocket-picking 
by  stealth,  or  even  snatching  money  from  the 
open  hand  when  there  is  no  resistance,  is  simple 
larceny.  Threats  which  do  not  amount  to  threats 
of  personal  violence  are  not  sufficient  to  consti- 
tute the  taking  robbery,  as  when  one  induces 
another  to  give  up  property  by  threats  of  criminal 
prosecution  or  to  injure  his  reputation  by 
slanderous  statements.  It  has  been  held  other- 
wise, however,  when  the  threat  was  to  prosecute 
for  an  unnatural  offense.  The  violence  need  not 
be  offered  to  the  person  giving  up  his  property, 
but  if  offered  to  a  person  related  to  him  by  blood 
or  marriage,  and  money  or  property  be  extorted 
for  the  purpose  of  protecting  such  relative  from 
immediate  personal  violence,  the  offense  is  rob- 
bery. If  the  taking  is  accomplished  without 
threat  or  violence,  the  use  of  violence  as  a  means 
of  retaining  possession  of  the  stolen  property 
will  not  make  the  crime  robbery.  At  common 
law  robbery  was  a  felony  punishable  by  death. 
It  is  still  deemed  a  felony,  and  is  now  punishable 
in  England  and  the  United  States  by  penal  servi- 
tude. See  Labceny.  Consult  the  authorities 
referred  to  under  Criminal  Law. 

BOB^IA,  Della.  a  celebrated  family  of 
Florentine  sculptors  and  ceramists  of  the  Renais- 
sance, that  flourished  for  nearly  one  hundred  and 
fifty  years.  Its  earliest  and  most  widely  knowit 
member  was  Luga  della  Robbia  (1399-1482), 
sculptor  and  originator  of  the  famous  terra-ootta 


BOBBIA. 


60 


BOBBIA. 


productions  bearing  his  name.  He  was  bom  in 
li'lprence,  the  son  of  Simone  di  Marco  della  Rob- 
bia,  a  shoemaker,  and  was  early  apprenticed  to  a 
goldsmith.  This  craft  he  soon  relin<}uished  to 
work'  in  bronze  and  marble,  and  attained  great 
eminence  as  a  sculptor,  producing  in  both  ma- 
terials a  series  of  superior  works,  by  which  his 
artistic  standard  must  primarily  be  estimated, 
although  he  owes  his  imiversal  popularity  chiefly 
to  his  process  of  enameling  terra-cotta  figures. 

Of  his  life  we  know  very  little.  He  may,  as 
Baldinucci  states,  have  received  his  training  in 
sculpture  from  Ghiberti,  but  while  his  plastic 
work  bears  witness  to  a  diligent  study  of  that 
master's  creations,  it  also  shows  an  open  eye 
and'  equally  receptive  feeling  for  the  radically 
different  art  of  Donatello.  His  individuality  lies 
in  the'  admirable  equipoise  between  the  idealism 
of  the  one  and  the  realism  of  the  other,  having 
in  common  with  Ghiberti  the  exalted  feeling  of 
beauty,'  the  tasteful  arrangement  and  easy  flow 
of  drapery,  and  with  Donatello  the  serious  ob- 
servation of  nature  and  vivid  characterization. 
This  is  manifest  in  the  master's  earliest  work 
known  to  us,  the  world-famed  ''Siii^ng  Galler- 
ies" (1431-40),  ten  panels  in  high  relief,  with 
groups  of  children  singing,  dancing,  and  playing 
upon  musical  instruments,  equally  remarkable 
for  their  truth  and  naturalness  and  for  their 
grace  of  movement  and  form— easily  Luca's 
master  creation — executed  for  one  of  the  organ 
galleries  in  the  Duomo  and  now  in  the  Cathedral 
Museum.  His  other  works  in  marble  comprise 
two  unflnished  reliefs  of  the  "Deliverance  and 
Crucifixion  of  Saint  Peter"  (1438),  in  the  Bar- 
gello;  the  eight  allegorical  reliefs  of  **The  Liberal 
Atts  and  their  Representatives"  (1437-40),  on 
the  north  side  of  the  Campanile;  the  "Taber- 
nacle" (1442),  in  Santa  Maria,  at  Peretola;  and 
the  **Tomb  of  Benozzo  Federighi,"  Bishop  of 
Fiesole  (1457-68),  in  San  Francesco  di  Paola, 
on  the  Via  Bellosguardo,  outside  Florence.  The 
most  laborious  task,  however,  on  which  Luca  was 
engaged  in  the  cathedral,  was  the  execution  of  the 
bronze  door  of  the  north  sacristy  (1446-67), 
with  reliefs  of  the  "Evangelists,"  the  "Fathers 
of  the  Church,"  etc.,  each  subject  with  attendant 
angels,  the  whole  modeled  with  exquisite  grace 
ai^d  unassuming  dignity,  one  of  the  most  perfect 
productions  in  bronze  oif  the  Quattrocento. 

Meanwhile  Luca  had  already  entered  upon  the 
second  phase  of  his  activity  and  given  to  the 
world  .another  new  and  beautiful  art.  Discour- 
aged at  his  slender  profits  in  the  fashioning  of 
such  works,  he  endeavored  to  discover  some  new 
material,  more  plastic  and  capable  of  bein^ 
made  as  durable  as  stone.  After  many  experi- 
ments he  succeeded,  by  coating  his  figures  of 
clay  with  a  stanniferous  enamel,  in  producing 
worJcs  almost  indestructible  and  very  attractive 
in  color.  He  was  not  the  inventor  of  impervious 
glaze^  which  had  been  known  and  used  in  Italy 
for  .two.  centuries  or  more;  but  its  application  to 
sculpture  in  terra-cotta  and  that  of  the  latter  to 
architectural  decoration  was  original  with  Luca, 
and  sufficiently  justifies  his  claim  to  the  title  of 
inventor  and  the  immense  vogue  of  the  almost 
countless  productions  in  enameled  terra-cotta,  at- 
tributed to  him,  in  and  out  of  Italy. 

Among  his  numerous  representations  of  the 
Virgin  and  Child,  of  infinite  variety,  one  of  the 
finest  is  the  "Madonna  Between  Lily-Bearing 
Angels,"  over  a  shop  in  the  Via  delP  Agnolo  (see 


illustration),  and  of  four  preserved  in  the  Bar- 
gello,  the  "Madonna  Adored  by  Angels"  -(from 
San  Pierino  on  the  Mercato  Vecchio)  and  the 
"Madonna  del  Fiore"  are  of  superior  ohann. 
Very  ornamental  are  the  "Five  Great  Medallions" 
in  pale  blue  on  a  richly  patterned  ground  in 
the  vaulting  of  the  mortuary  chapel  of  the  Cardi- 
nal of  Portugal,  in  San  Miniato,  completed  in 
1466  and  the  last  of  his  works  on  record.  Out 
of  Florence  there  is  especially  noteworthy  the 
tympanum  of  the  "Madonna  and  Four  Saints" 
(1449-52),  over  the  portal  of  San  Domenioo,  at 
Urbino,  and  in  non-Italian  museums  are  to  be 
noticed  three  large  circular  reliefs,  two  with 
allegorical  figures  of  'Temperance"  and  "Faith," 
and  one  with  the  **Virgin  and  Child,"  in  the 
Mus6e  de  Cluny,  Paris ;  a  huge  polychrome  medal- 
lion with  the  "Arms  of  King  Ren6  of  Anjou"* 
(1442),  and  a  "Monk  Writing,"  in  the  South 
Kensington  Museum,  London;  while  the  twelve 
majolica  plaques,  emblematic  of  the  months,  at- 
tributed to  Luca,  in  the  same  collection,  show 
little  affinity  with  his  work.  In  the  Berlin 
Museum,  a  thorough  study  of  the  master's  taste' 
and  skill  in  arrangement,  his  truth  and  variety 
of  characterization,  is  afforded  by  several  original 
reliefs  of  the  Virgin  and  Child  and  a  number  of 
cast  reproductions  of  truly  human  aspect.  It 
should  be  mentioned  that  Luca  never  repeated- 
his  subjects,  producing  in  every  instance  an  en- 
tirely new  creation.  In  what  high  esteem  Luca 
was  held  by  his  contemporaries  is  attested  by  his 
election,  in  1471,  to  the  presidency  of  the  Artists' 
Guild,  which  honor,  however,  he  declined  on  the 
score  of  his  great  age  and  increasing  infirmities. 
From  1446  to  his  death  on  February  20,  1482, 
he  led  a  peaceful  existence  with  his  two  orphaned 
nephews  whom  he  had  adopted  as  his  sons. 

He  left  a  worthy  successor  to  continue  hia 
work  in  his  nephew  and  pupil  Andbea  della. 
RoBBiA  (1437-1528).  Although  inferior,  to  Luca 
in  power  and  grandeur  of  conception,  Andrea  was 
an  artist  of  exquisite  ta^te  and  feeling,  the  celestial 
charm  of  his  youthful  Madonnas  reminding  oiie 
of  Mino  da  Fiesole.  Unlike  his  uncle,  he  con- 
fined himself  to  works  in  terra-cotta,  with ,  a 
single  exception,  existing  in  the  rich  marble  altar- 
piece  in  Santa  Maria  delle  Grazie,  outside 
Arezzo.  Besides  his  many  and  varied  figures  of 
the  Madonna,  of  which  three  may  be  seen  in  the 
Bargello,  he  has  left  us  hardly  anything  mote 
pleasing  than  those  famous  medallions  with  th^ 
"Bambini,"  on  the  facade  of  the  Spedale  degli 
Innocent i"  (Foundling  Hospital)  in  Florence, 
each  of  the  fourteen  babes  in  swaddling  clothes 
a  life-like  image  of  infant  loveliness,  with  an 
individuality  of  its  own.  (See  illustration  to 
Bambino.)  Here  also,  within  the  court,  over 
the  door  to  the  chapel,  is  a  graceful  lunette  with 
the  "Annunciation."  Among  five  ei^odlent  reliefs 
in  the  Cathedral  of  Arezzo,  the  most  remarkable 
is  a  retable  of  the  "Trinity."  The  fine  altar^ 
piece  with  the  "Coronation  of  the  Virgin/*  ini  ih&' 
Monastery  of  L'Osservanza,  near  Siena,  tiesetv^s' 
especial  notice.  At  Prato,  where  many  of  hid 
best  works  may  still  be  seen,  there  is  particularly 
noteworthy  the  tympanum  with  a  half-length 
"Madonna  Between  Saints  Stephen  and  Law- 
rence" (1489),  over  the  principal  entrance  to- the 
cathedral.  One  of  his  finest  works  is  the  IfiTge 
retable  of  the  "Last  Judgment"  (1501),  in  San 
Girolamo,  at  Volterra.  The  Berlin  Museum  con^ 
tains  a  "Madonna  and  Saints,"  a  masterpiece  in 


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BOBBIN 

his  early  manner,  and  a  small  "Amranciation," 
nniqtte  in  its  rich  coloring;  and  the  Metropolitan 
Museum,  New  York,  has  a  beautiful  large  re- 
table  of  the  "Assumption"  (c.l480),  a  character- 
istic specimen  of  Andrea's  art. 

Of  his  seven  tons,  four  worked  with  him  and, 
after  his  deaths  continued  to  produce  the  Robbia 
ware.  GiovANin  (1469-C.1529),  the  eldest,  chiefly 
assisted  his  father,  and  many  pieces  attributed 
to  the  latter  are  probably  by  Giovanni.  An 
early  example  of  his  independent  work  is  the 
magnificent  '^Lavabo"  (font,  1497),  in  the  sac- 
rist of  Santa  Maria  Novella,  Florence.  He  is 
proved  an  artist  of  superior  merit  by  the  large 
altarpiece  of  the  "Adoration  of  the  Holy  Child" 
(1521),  in  the  Bargello,  but  his  most  elaborate 
production  is  the  polychrome  frieze,  representing 
the  "Seven  Works  of  Mercy"  (1525-29),  in  the 
Ospedale  del  Geppo,  at  Pistoja. — ^Luga  (1475- 
c.  1560),  the  Younger,  is  remembered  by  a  beauti- 
ful  tile  pavement,  made  in  1518  under  Raphael's 
supervision  in  the  upper  story  of  the  Loggie  in 
the  Vatican. — Gibolamo  (1488-1566)  was  an 
architect  and  sculptor,  went  to  France  in  1528 
and  was  employed  by  the  royal  family,  notably 
by  Francis  I.,  for  whom  he  built  and  decorated 
externally  with  reliefs  in  Robbia  ware  the 
ChAteau  de  Madrid,  in  the  Bois  de  Boulogne. 

Bibliography.  On  the  entire  family  and 
school,  consult  the  monographs  by  Barbet  de 
Jouy  (PariB,  1855),  Cavallucci  and  Molinier 
(lb.,  1884),  Reymond  (Florence,  1897),  and 
Burlainacchi  (London,  1900) ;  also  Bode,  in 
Dolune^  Kunsi  und  KUnsiler  Italiens,  i.  (Leipzig, 
1879)  ;  id.,  Flarentiner  Bildhatier  der  Renaia- 
sance  (ib.,  1902) ;  Van  Rensselaer,  in  The  Ameri- 
can Architect,  xvii.  •  (Boston,  1885);  "Luca 
della  Robbia  and  His  School,"  in  The  Church 
Quarterly  Review,  xxi.  (London,  1886)  ;  Steg- 
mann,  "Die  Bildhauerfamilie  della  Robbia,"  in 
GeymUller-Stegmann,  Die  Architektur  der  Renais- 
tance  in  Toscana  (Florence,  1885-96);  and 
Vasari,  Lives,  et<^.,  trans,  and  ed.  by  Blashfield 
and  Hopkiiis,  vol.  i.  (New  York,  1896). 

BOBBINS,  WiLFOBD  Lash  (1857—).  An 
American  clergyman  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church,  bom  in  Boston.  He  graduated  at  Am- 
herst  in  l8dl,  studied  at  the  Cambridge  (Mass.) 
Divinity  School  (B.D.  1889),  was  ordained  priest 
in  1884,  and  held  a  parochial  charge  at  Lexington, 
Mass.  In  1887  he  became  ^ean  of  All  Saints 
Catliedral  Church,  Albany,  N.  Y.,  and  in  1903 
was  elected  dean  of  the  General  Theological  Sem- 
inary, New  York  City.  He  was  known  for 
his  pulpit  utterances  prior  to  the  appearance  of 
his  Essay  Toward  Faith  (1901)  and  A  Christian 
Apologetic  ( 1902 ) ,  works  much  read  in  England 
as  well  as  in  the  United  States. 

BOB^EBT,  Fr.  pron.  rft'bftr'  (c.1054-1134). 
Duke  of  Normandy  from  1087  to  1106.  He  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Duke  William  II.  (later  Wil- 
liam I.  of  England),  and  early  in  life  showed 
great  skill  in  arms,  but  also  habitual  care- 
lessness and  indolence.  His  father  refused  to 
give  him  any  share  in  the  government,  and  Robert 
repeatedly  rebelled  against  him.  On  the  death 
of  William,  in  1087,  he  received  Normandy  as  his 
inheritance.  His  rule  was  weak  in  the  extreme 
and  he  involved  himself  in  quarrels  with  his 
brothers  William  II.  of  England  and  Henry 
(later  Henry  I.) .  Finally  in  1096  Robert  assumed 
the  cross,  and  pledged  his  duchy  to  William  for 


61  BOBEBT  n. 

five  years  for  ten  thousand  marks.  In  the 
crusade  Robert  proved  to  be  at  his  best  and  he 
became  one  of  the  heroes  of  the  expedition.  After 
the  capture  of  Jerusalem  (1099),  the  royal  crown 
was  offered  to  him,  but  he  refused,  and  returned 
to  Normandy,  arriving  there  in  1100.  William 
II.  was  dead,  and  so  Robert  was  released  from  his 
pledge,  but  he  was  soon  engaged  in  war  with 
Henry  I.  Finally  Henry  invaded  Normandy,  and 
at  the  battle  of  Tinchebray,  September  29,  1106, 
Robert  was  defeated  and  captured.  He  was  kept 
in  confinement  for  the  rest  of  his  life,  dying  at 
Cardiff,  February  10,  1134.  Consult  Freeman, 
History  of  the  Norman  Conquest  (6  vols.,  Ox- 
ford, 1867-79). 

BOBEBT  1.,.  THx  Devil  ( ?-1035).  Duke  of 
Normandy  from  1028  to  1035.  He  was  a  son 
of  Duke  Richard  II.,  and  succeeded  his  brother 
Richard  III.  as  Duke  of  Normandy.  He  com- 
bined cruelty  and  unscrupulousness  with  energy, 
audacity,  and  a  handsome  figure.  He  humiliated 
his  vassals,  and  conquered  districts  from  his; 
neighbors.  He  espoused  the  cause  of  Count  Bald- 
win IV.  of  Flanders  against  his  son;  of  Henry 
I.  Of  France  against  his  mother  Constance;  and 
of  his  nephews  Alfred  and  Edward  of  England 
against  Canute  of  Denmark.  In  1033  he  under- 
took a  pilgrima^  to  Jerusalem,  as  a  penance  for 
his  sins.  He  died  in  1035  while  on  his  return, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  natural  son  William, 
later  the  conqueror  of  England.  Many  legends 
arose  concerning  him,  like  that  embodied  in  the 
novel.  La  vie  du  terrible  Robert  le  Didble,  lequel 
fut  aprds  Vhomme  de  Dieu,  which  appeared  at 
Paris  in  1496.  Consult  Richomme,  Origines  de 
Falaise,  etc.  (Falaise,  1851). 

BOBEBT  n.  (971-1031).  A  king  of  France, 
son  of  Hugh  Capet,  whom  he  succeeded  on  the 
throne  in  996.  He  was  educated  by  Gerb^  of 
Rheims,  was  a  scholar  and  a  poet,  and  especially 
prominent  as  a  composer  and  hymn-writer,  and 
gained  the  surname  ^The  Pious."  His  nde  was 
weak  and  imfortunate.  and  the  country  suffered 
frcnn  the  Papal  interdict  laid  upon  the  King  be- 
cause of  his  marriage  with  Bertha  of  Burgundy, 
his  cousin.  He  put  her  away  in  1004  and  married 
Constance  of  Aries,  daughter  of  Guillaume 
Taillefer  of  Toulouse,  a  selfish  and  ambitious 
woman.  Consult  Pfister,  Etudes  sur  le  r^gne  de 
Robert  le  Pieux  (Paris,  1885). 

BOBEBT  I.  King  of  Scotland,  better  known 
as  Robert  Bruce  (q.v.). 

BOBEBT  II.  (1316-90).  King  of  Scotland 
from  1371  to  1390.  His  father  was  Walter,  the 
Steward  of  Scotland,  and  his  mother  Marjory, 
daughter  of  Robert  Bruce.  During  the  reign  of  his 
uncle,  David  II.,  he  was  one  of  the  most  prominent 
of  the  patriotic  nobles  of  Scotland,  acting  as 
Regent  or  joint  Regent  during  three  different  per^ 
iods,  and  he  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Halidon 
Hill  (1333)  and  Neville's  Cross  (1346).  On  the 
death  of  David  he  obtained  the  crown,  and  became 
the  founder  of  the  Stewart,  or  Stuart,  dynasty,  in 
virtue  of  the  law  of  succession  adopted  by  the 
coimcil  of  estates  held  in  1318.  Partly  from  dis- 
position and  partly  from  the  infirmities  of  age, 
Robert  proved  a  peaceable,  inactive  ruler,  llie 
wars  waged  with  England  after  1377  were  con- 
ducted by  the  powerful  barons,  particularly  the 
Earls  of  Douglas,  Mar,  and  Moray.  These  con- 
tests, which  consisted  to  a  large  extent  of  border 


BOBS&T  n. 


ca 


AOBB&T-SLBXr&T. 


raids^  caiised  great  suffering  on  both  sides. 
The  chief  incidents  of  Robert's  reign  were 
the  attack  on  Scotland  by  an  English  military 
and  naval  force  under  the  command  of  the  Duke 
of  Lancaster  (see  John  of  Gaunt)  j  the  invasion 
of  King  Richard  II.  himself  in  1385,  which 
wasted  the  land  as  far  as  Edinburgh  and  Fife; 
and  the  retaliatory  expedition  of  the  Scotch 
in  1388,  when  two  armies  invaded  and  devastated 
England.  The  smaller  body  on  its  return  home 
won,  though  at  the  expense  of  the  life  of  its 
gallant  leader,  James,  Earl  of  Douglas,  the 
brilliant  victory  of  Otterbum.  (See  Chevy 
Chase.)  In  1389  the  estates  practically  deposed 
Robert  by  making  his  son  guardian  of  the  king- 
dom. Robert  di^  at  his  castle  of  Dundonald, 
in  Ayreshire,  May  13,  1390.  Consult:  Tytler, 
History  of  Scotland,  various  editions;  Stuart, 
History  of  the  Stuarts  (London,  1798). 

BOBEBT  III.  (c.1340-1406).  King  of  Scot- 
land from  1390  to  1406.  He  was  the  son  of 
Robert  II.  He  was  ori^nally  called  John,  Earl 
of  Carrick,  but  changed  his  name  on  his  accession 
to  the  throne  in  order  to  continue  the  name 
held  by  his  father  and  grandfather.  His  inepti- 
tude as  a  ruler  virtually  placed  the  reins  of 
government  in  the  hands  of  his  ambitious  brother, 
Robert,  Earl  of  Fife,  whom,  in  1398,  he  created 
Duke  of  Albany.  The  latter  in  1402  probably 
brought  about  the  death  of  the  King's  eldest  son, 
the  Duke  of  Rothesay,  because  he  was  in  danger 
of  being  ousted  from  control.  The  principal 
events  in  Robert's  reign  were  the  invasion  of 
Scotland  in  1400  by  Henry  IV.,  of  England,  and 
the  retaliatory  expedition  of  the  Scotch,  which 
resulted  in  the  complete  defeat  of  the  invaders 
at  Homildon  Hill  (q.v.).  Robert  died  at  Rothe- 
say, April  4,  1406,  from  grief,  as  is  said,  because 
his  remaining  son,  later  James  I.  (^.v.),  was 
captured  by  the  English  while  on  his  way  to 
France.  Sir  Walter  Scott,  in  the  Fair  Maid  of 
Perth,  has  used  some  historical  and  traditional 
incidents  of  Robert's  reign.  Consult  authorities 
cited  under  Robebt  II. 

BOBEBT,  Christopher  Rhinelandeb  (1802- 
78).  An  American  philanthropist,  born  at 
Brookhaven,  Long  Island.  After  five  years  as  a 
shipping  clerk  in  New  York  he  removed  to  New 
Orleans,  where  he  entered  business  for  himself. 
In  1830  he  returned  to  New  York  and  founded 
the  firm  of  Robert  &  Williams,  of  which  he  con- 
tinued the  senior  member  until  his  retirement 
from  active  business  in  1862.  At  the  time  of  the 
Crimean  War  he  visited  Constantinople  and  be- 
came interested  in  the  subject  of  higher  education 
in  the  Turkish  Empire.  In  1860  he  invited  the 
Rev.  CUyrus  Hamlin  (q.v.)  to  visit  the  United 
States  for  the  purpose  of  raising  funds  to  endow 
a  college  on  the  Bosporus  and  he  himself  sub- 
scribed $10,000.  The  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
soon  afterwards,  however,  made  it  impossible  to 
krouse  general  interest  in  the  project,  so  Mr. 
Robert  undertook  to  carry  it  through  alone. 
Until  his  death  in  1878  he  provided  the  running 
expenses  of  the  college,  and  in  his  will  left  it  one- 
fifth  of  his  estate,  his  benefactions  aggregating 
more  than  $400,000. 

BOBEBT,  ri/bgrt,  Karl  (1850-).  A  Ger- 
man archsBologist  and  classical  philologist,  pro- 
fessor in  the  University  of  Halle.  He  was 
bom  at  Marburg.  His  most  important  pub- 
lioations    are:      Eratosthenis    Oatasterismorum 


Beliquiw  (1878) ;  BUd  und  Lied  (1881) ;  Antike 
Sarkophag-Reliefa  (1890);  Studien  zur  llias 
(1901).  He  was  also  co-editor  of  Hermes  and 
reviser  of  Preller's  Orieohische  Mythologie,  4th 
ed.  voL  i.  (1893). 

BOBEBT,  rd'har",  Leopold  (1794-1835).  A 
Swiss-French  genre  painter,  bom  at  Les  Espla- 
tures,  near  La  Chaux-de-Fonds,  Switzerland.  Ho 
studied  engraving  with  Girardet,  and  painting 
under  David  and  Gros.  He  went  to  Italy  in  1818, 
and  began  what  proved  to  be  a  popular  series  of 
pictures  from  brigand  life.  Afterwards  he 
painted  Italian  peasants,  such  as  "The  Neapoli- 
tan Improvisator"  (1824),  "Peasant  Women  of 
the  Campagna"  (1824),  and  "Festival  of  the 
Madonna  deir  Arco"  (1827),  all  in  the  Louvre. 
His  works  are  large  figure  compositions,  laelung 
spontaneity,  hard  in  color,  and  with  academic 
precision  of  line.  Robert  was  the  first  to  paint 
subjects  from  contemporary  life  when  everything 
classic  was  the  fashion.  For  this  reason  he  has 
been  claimed  by  the  Romanticists,  but  he  re- 
mained at  heart  a  Classicist.  He  committed  sui- 
cide in  Venice  in  1835.  Consult  Deltelnae, 
Notice  sur  la  vie  et  les  ouvrages  de  lAopold 
Robert  (Paris,  1838). 

BOBEBT  B'ABBBISSEL,  darn>r6'seK.  l^e 
founder  of  the  Order  of  Fontevrault  (q.v.). 

BOBEBT  BE  LUZABCHES  (M223).  A 
French  architect  of  the  Gothic  period.  His  name 
is  derived  from  his  birthplace  in  the  He  de 
France,  of  which  school  of  architecture  he  was  a 
lay  member.  In  1220  he  was  entrusted  by  Evrard 
de  Fouilly,  Bishop  of  Amiens,  with  the  recon- 
struction of  the  cathedral,  which  had  been  de- 
stroyed by  fire  two  years  previously.  He  furnished 
the  general  plan  and  directed  the  work,  beginning, 
contrary  to  custom,  with  the  nave.  At  the  time 
of  his  death  at  Amiens,in  1223,  the  nave  and 
south  side  of  the  transept  had  been  carried  to 
the  height  of  several  meters.  His  plans  were,  in 
the  main,  followed  by  his  successors,  Thomas  de 
Cormont  and  his  son  Renaud,  and  we  may  there- 
fore ascribe  to  him  the  general  constructive  fea- 
tures of  the  cathedral,  which  represent  the  high- 
est and  most  perfect  development  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture in  France.  The  school  of  architecture 
which  he  founded  at  Amiens  became  one  of  the 
most  influential  in  France,  and  its  influence  radi- 
ated throughout  Europe.  In  Germany,  for  in- 
stance, the  Cathedral  of  Cologne  is  modeled  upon 
that  of  Amiens. 

BOBEBT-FLETJBY,  flS'r^,  Joseph  Nicholas 
(1792-1890).  A  French  historical  painter,  bora 
at  Cologne.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Girodet,  Gros,  and 
Horace  Vernet  at  Paris,  where  he  settled  in  1826, 
after  studying  also  for  some  time  at  Rome.  In  or- 
der to  make  his  paintings  historically  accurate,  he 
made  deep  studies  of  the  period  to  be  represented, 
even  adopting  the  technical  qualities  of  the  paint- 
ing of  the  epoch  represented.  His  most  important 
works  include  "Charles  V.  in  the  Monastery  of 
Saint  Yuste"  (1857),  "Massacres  of  Saint  Bar- 
tholomew" (1833),  the  "Religious  Conference  at 
Poissy"  (1840),  "Jane  Shore"  (1850),  and  the 
"Pillage  of  a  Jew's  House,  Venice"  (1866),  the 
last  three  in  the  Luxembourg  Museum.  His  son, 
Tony  Robebt-Fleury  (1838 — ),  an  historical 
genre,  and  portrait  painter,  was  a  pupil  of  Paul 
Delaroche  and  L^n  Cogniet.  In  1870  he  won  the 
grand  medal  of  honor  for  the  'Xast  Day  of  Cop- 


BOBBBT-K.BTmY. 

iDth,"  which  was  afterwards  selected  to  illuBtrate 
French  art  in  the  Luxembourg,  as  well  as  in  the 
Universal  Exposition,  1878.  Among  other  works 
are  "The  Old  Women  of  the  Piazza  Navona, 
Borne"  (1867,  Luxembourg),  "Danaids,"  '*Ma- 
zarin  and  His  Nieces,"  and  the  "Musical  Cardi- 
nal." 

BOBEBT  LE  BIABLE,  r6^ftr^  le  dy&^r.  An 
opera  by  Meyerbeer,  produced  in  1831,  based  upon 
the  character  of  Robert  L,  the  Devil  (q.v.)>  Duke 
of  Normandy. 

BOBEBT  07  OLOTTCESTEB,  glds'tSr.  An 
English  (metrical)  chronicler,  of  whom  nothing 
is  known,  except  that  he  was  alive  about  the  time 
of  the  great  battle  of  Evesham  ( 1266) .  The  verse- 
chronicle  bearing  his  name  is  a  history  of  Eng- 
land. It  exists  in  two  recensions,  which  vary  but 
little  down  to  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Henry  I. 
(1135).  From  this  date  they  differ  greatly,  the 
one  continuation  being  much  longer  than  the 
other.  Robert  of  Gloucester  is  usually  credited 
with  the  longer  continuation  and  may  have  writ- 
ten the  original  portion.  The  shorter  continua- 
tion is  apparently  from  another  hand.  The  older 
portion  was  derived  mainly  from  Geffrey  of 
Monmouth,  Henry  of  Huntington,  and  William  of 
MalmeiA>ury.  Thus  only  the  longer  continua- 
tion has  value  as  an  historical  document, 
and  the  valuable  part  is  that  which  deals 
with  the  Barons'  War  under  Henry  III.,  and 
aa  a  whole  the  chief  interest  in  the  chronicle 
is  linguistic.  It  is  in  the  dialect  of  Gloucester- 
shire, with  which  district  the  author  shows  mi- 
nute familiarity.  The  principal  extant  manu- 
scripts are  the  Harleian^  the  Cottonian,  the  Cam- 
bridge, and  the  Bodleuin.  The  chronicle  was 
edited  by  Heame  (Oxford,  1724;  reissued 
1810),  and  by  Aldis  Wright  for  the  Rolls  Series 
(2  vols.,  London,  1887). 

BOB^BBTS,Benja]cin  Stone  (1811-75).  An 
American  soldier,  bom  at  Manchester,  Vt.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1835,  and  became 
first  lieutenant  in  July,  1837,  but  in  1839  resigned 
from  the  army.  He  then  became  a  civil  engineer, 
built  the  Champlain  and  Ogdensburg  Railway, 
and  in  1842  assisted  in  constructing  the  Russian 
railway  system.  In  May,  1846,  he  reentered  the 
United  States  Army  as  first  lieutenant  of  mount- 
ed rifles,  served  under  General  Scott  in  the  Mexi- 
can War,  and  was  brevetted  major  for  gallantry 
at  Chapultepec,  and  lieutenaut-colonel  for  ser- 
vices at  Matamoros  and  the  Pass  of  Galaxara. 
During  the  CivU  War  he  served  for  a  time  in  New 
Mexico  as  commander  of  the  Southern  District, 
and  in  July,  1862,  was  made  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers.  He  was  then  transferred  to  Vir- 
ginia, where,  as  chief  of  cavalry  and  acting  in- 
spector-general, he  fought  at  Cedar  Mountain, 
Rappahannock  Station,  and  the  second  battle  of 
Ball  Run.  He  was  next  sent  to  the  Northwest, 
where  he  commanded  an  expedition  against  the 
Chippewa  Indians.  In  1864  he  was  made  chief  of 
cavalry  in  the  Department  of  the  Gulf,  and  early 
in  1865  was  put  in  command  of  the  District  of 
West  Tennessee.  In  March  of  the  same  year  he 
was  brevetted  brigadier-general  in  the  Regular 
Army.  In  1866  he  was  appointed  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  the  Third  Cavalry,  and  from  1868  to 
1870  was  professor  of  military  science  at  Yale. 
He  was  the  inventor  of  the  Roberts  breech-load- 
ing rifle. 


68  BOBBBS& 

BOBEBTSy  BsNJAHO  Trrus  (1823-93).  An 
American  divine,  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Free 
Methodist  Church,  born  in  Leon,  N.  Y.,  and 
educated  at  Wesleyan  University,  where  he  grad- 
uated in  1848.  For  ten  years  he  was  a  member 
of  the  Genesee  Conference  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  and  prominent  among  a  body  of 
strictly  Wesleyan  reformers  whose  criticism  of 
modem  conditions  he  voiced  in  the  Northern 
Independent  in  1857.  This  article  was  adjudged 
a  slander  and  Roberts  was  expelled  from  the 
Church  (1858).  In  1860,  with  Joseph  McCreery 
and  others,  he  formed  the  Free  Methodist  Church, 
with  changes  of  creed  and  government  from  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  and  special  stress 
on  the  necessity  of  total  abstinence,  plainness 
of  dress,  and  so  on.  Roberts  was  general  superin- 
tendent of  the  new  denomination  (1860-93),  and 
president  of  its  seminary  in  North  Chili,  N.  Y. 
He  founded  and  edited  The  Earnest  Christi<in 
(1860-93),  and  edited  The  Free  Methodist  (1886- 
90). 

BOBEBTS,  Chasiics  Gboboe  Douglas  (1860 
— ).  A  Canadian  poet  and  story  writer,  bom 
at  Douglas,  near  Fredericton,  New  Brunswick.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Fredericton  Collegiate 
School,  and  at  the  University  of  New  Brunswick. 
For  a  short  time  he  edited  Goldwln  Smith's 
newspaper,  The  Week,  of  Toronto  (1883-84),  and 
was  professor  of  English  and  French  literature 
in  Kmg's  College,  Nova  Scotia  (1885-87),  and 
of  economics  and  international  law- (1887-95). 
He  resigned  to  devote  himself  wholly  to  litera- 
ture. In  1897  he  became  associate  editor  of  the 
IlliAStrated  American,  of  New  York.  His  volumes 
of  verse  comprise  Orion  and  Other  Poems  ( 1880) , 
In  Divers  Tones  (1887),  Ave:  An  Ode  for  the 
Shelley  Centenary  (1892) ,  Songs  of  the  Gomm^m 
Day  ( 1893) ,  7^  Book  of  the  Native  { 1897) ,  New 
York  Nocturnes  (1898).  His  prose  includes  The 
Canadians  of  Old,  from  the  French  of  de  Crasp^ 
(1889),  Appleton*s  Canadian  Guide  (1890),  The 
Raid  from  Beausijour  { 1894) ,  Reuhe  Dare's  Shad 
Boat  (1895),  Around  the  Cam/p  Fire  (1896), 
Earth's  Enigmas  (1896),  A  Hisiory  of  Canada 
( 1897 ) ,  The  Forge  in  the  Forest  ( 1897 ) ,  A  Sister 
to  Evangeline  (1898),  By  the  Marshes  of  Minos 
(1900),  The  Heart  of  the  Ancient  Wood  (1900), 
The  Kindred  of  the  Wild  (1902),  and  Barbara 
Ladd  ( 1902) .  Roberts  is  one  of  the  very  few  who 
have  written  about  wild  life  without  forsaking 
truth.  His  work  shows  not  only  understanding, 
but  imagination.    See  Canadian  Litebatubb. 

BOBEBTS,.  David  (1796-1864).  An  English 
landscape  and  architectural  painter,  bom  at 
Stockbridge,  near  Edinburgh.  He  studied  at  the 
Trustees'  Academy,  Edinburgh,  and  began  his 
career  as  scene-painter  for  Glasgow,  Edinburgh, 
and  London  theatres,  but  executed  no  pictures  of 
merit  until  after  his  first  tour  of  the  Continent 
in  1824.  Afterwards  he  traveled  extensively  in 
Europe  and  in  the  East,  devoting  himself  par- 
ticularly to  architecture  and  interiors.  In  1841 
he  was  made  Royal  Academician.  Roberts  pro- 
duced works  in  both  oils  and  water-colors. 
Among  the  former  are  "Interior  of  the  Cathedral, 
Burgos,"  and  the  "Church  of  Saint  Paul  at 
Antwerp,"  National  Gallery;  "Antwerp  Cathe- 
dral," London  City  Gallery;  and  "Sunset  in 
Rome,"  Edinburgh  National  Gallery.  The  South 
Kensington  Museum  has  several  of  his  water- 
colors,  including  the  "Great  Temple  of  Edfou, 


BOBEBT&  64 

Egyipi"  (1838),  "FyramidB  from  the  NUe" 
(1846),  and  a  "Gateway,  Spain."  As  a  result 
of  his  travels  Roberts  published  several  series  of 
lithographed  sketches  (1839>59),  the  best  known 
of  which  are  Sketches  in  Holy  Land  and  Syria 
and  Italy,  Historical,  Classical,  and  Picturesque* 
His  strength  lies  in  a  fine  feeling  for  architec- 
tural effect,  and  in  good  detailed  drawing  rather 
than  in  color. 

BOBEBTS,  Edmund  (1784-1836).  An  Amer- 
ican diplomat,  bom  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.  At  the 
age  of  sixteen  he  went  to  South  America,  and 
upon  the  death  of  a  relative  took  charge  of  a 
large  English  mercantile  house  at  Buenos  Ayres. 
After  living  in  London  for  a  while  he  returned 
to  the  United  States,  and  in  1832  was  sent  by 
President  Jackson  as  an  envoy  to  Slam,  Cochin- 
China,  and  other  coimtries  of  the  Far  East  for 
the  purpose  of  making  commercial  treaties.  He 
returned  in  1834  after  successfully  treating  with 
Siam  and  Muscat,  and  in  1835  he  started  upon 
a  second  embassy,  with  Japan  as  the  ultimate 
goal.  Illness  overtook  the  expedition  and  Rob- 
erts died  at  Macao,  China,  June  12,  1836,  where 
he  was  buried.  He  narrated  the  history  of  his 
first  expedition  in  Embassy  to  Eastern  Courts 
(1837).  Consult:  Ruschenberger,  A  Voyage 
Around  the  World,  Including  an  Embassy  to 
Muscat  and  Siam  (Phikidelphia,  1838)  ;  Foster, 
AmericoMi  Diplomacy  in  the  Orient  (Cambridge^ 
1903). 

BOBEBTS,  Ellis  Henbt  (1827—).  An 
American  journalist  and  financier,  bom  in  Utica, 
K.  Y.,  and  educated  at  Yale.  From  1851  to  1890 
he  was  editor  and  for  several  years  was  pro- 
prietor of  the  Utica  Morning  Herald,  a  Whig  and 
subsequently  a  Republican  paper.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  State  Legislature  in  1867,  and  of 
Congress  from  1871  to  1875,  was  Assistant  Treas- 
urer of  the  United  States  from  1889  to  1893,  and 
wus  president  of  the  Franklin  National  Bank, 
New  York  City,  from  1893  to  1897,  when  he  be- 
came Treasurer  of  the  United  States.  He  pub- 
lished Qovemment  Revenue  (1884),  and  "Neto 
York,  The  Planting  and  Growth  of  the  Empire 
State  (1887),  in  the  "American  (Commonwealth 
Series." 

BOBEBTS,  Sir  Fbedebick  Sleigh,  Earl  Rob- 
erts of  Kandahar,  Pretoria,  and  Water  ford  (1832 
— ).  An  eminent  British  soldier,  son  of  General 
Sir  Abraham  Roberts,  bom  at  Cawnpore,  in  In- 
dia, on  September  30,  1832.  He  was  educated 
at  Eton,  at  the  Royal  Military  College  at  Sand- 
hurst, and  at  the  college  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, at  Addiscombe.  At  the  close  of  1851  he 
received  a  commission  in  the  Bengal  Artillery, 
and  was  sent  to  Peshawur,  near  the  frontier  of 
Afghanistan,  where  he  served  until  1857. 
During  the  Sepoy  Mutiny,  he  actively  partici- 
pated in  the  reduction  of  Delhi,  in  the  second 
relief  and  the  siege  of  Lucknow,  and  in  the  relief 
of  Agra  and  of  Cawnpore,  and  was  awarded  the 
Victoria  Cross.  In  1863  he  participated  in  the 
Umbeyla  campaign  and  in  1867  became  assistant 
quartermaster-general  of  the  Bengal  brigade 
which  took  part  in  the  Abyssinian  War. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  Afghan  War  in  1878, 
though  only  a  major  in  his  regiment,  he  was 
major-general  commanding  in  his  division,  that 
of  Peshawur,  and  was  selected  to  command  one 
of  the  three  columns  organized  to  invade  the 
enemy's    country,    being    ordered    to    advance 


B0BEBT8. 

through  the  Kuram  Valley  to  the  Shutargardan 
Pass.  On  December  2d,  at  the  Peiwar  Kotal, 
the  summit  of  the  pass  leading  from  the  Kuram 
Valley  into  Afghanistan,  Roberts  defeated  a 
greatly  superior  force  of  the  enemy.  In  Octo- 
ber, 187.9,  he  defeated  a  large  force  of  Afghans, 
near  Kabul,  and  took  that  city.  In  December, 
after  a  series  of  combats,  he  found  it  necessary 
to  evacuate  Kabul,  and  collected  his  forces  in  a 
fortified  position  at  Shirpur.  Here  he  beat  back 
the  enemy  and  reentered  the  Afghan  capital  be- 
fore the  close  of  the  month.  In  1880  he  per- 
formed a  memorable  march  from  Kabul  for  the 
relief  of  Kandahar,  which  he  entered  on  August 
31st.  On  the  following  day  he  dispersed  the 
army  of  Ayub  Khan,  thus  bringing  the  war  to  a 
dose.  After  the  British  disaster  at  Majujba 
Hill,  Roberts  was  sent  to  South  Africa  as 
commander-in-chief.  Before  his  arrival,  how- 
ever, peace  had  been  concluded.  He  was 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Madras  Army  from 
1881  until  1885,  when  he  became  commander- 
in-chief  in  India.  In  1893  he  was  recalled  to 
Europe  and  from  1895  until  1899  was  in  com- 
mand of  the  forces  in  Ireland.  In  the  latter  year 
he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  in  South 
Africa.  He  marched  successfully  to  the  relief  of 
Kimberley,  and  on  February  27th,  at  Paardeberg, 
a  force  of  Boers  imder  Cronje  was  compelled  to 
surrender.  On  March  13th  Roberts  entered 
Bloemfontein,  the  iMipital  of  the  Orange  Free 
State,  and  on  May  28  formally  annexed  the 
Free  State  to  the  British  Empire.  On  June  5th 
he  occupied  Pretoria,  and  on  October  25th  for- 
mally annexed  the  Transvaal.  A  few  weeks  later, 
thinking  the  war  practically  over,  he  returned 
to  England,  where  he  was  decorated  with  the  new 
Order  of  Merit,  raised  to  the  rank  of  earl  and 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  British 
Army.  Lord  Roberts  published  The  Rise  of  Well- 
ington (1896),  and  Forty -one  Years  in  India 
(1897),  an  autobiography.  For  a  more  detailed 
account  of  his  services  in  the  Boer  War,  see 
South  Apbican  Wab. 

BOBEBTS,  HowABD  ( 1843— ) .  An  American 
sculptor,  born  in  Philadelphia.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  tfoseph  A.  Bailly  at  the  Pennsylvania  Acad- 
emy of  Fine  Arts,  and  afterwards  studied  in 
Paris  imder  Dumont  and  Gumery.  His  works  in- 
clude: "Hester  and  Pearl"  (1872),  a  statuette; 
**La  Premiere  Pose"  (1876);  "Hypatia,"  and 
"Lot's  Wife,"  both  statuettes ;  a  statue  of  Fulton 
in  the  Capitol  at  Washington,  and  numerous 
busts. 

BOBEBTS,.  Isaac  Phillips  (1833—).  An 
American  agriculturist  and  educator.  He  was 
born  in  Seneca  County,  N.  Y.  He  became  super- 
intendent of  the  college  farm  at  the  Iowa  State 
Agricultural  College,  and  secretary  of  the  board 
of  trustees  (18(59),  and  in  1870  was  elected  pro- 
fessor of  agriculture.  He  was  awarded  the  de- 
gree of  master  of  agriculture  C1875)  by  this  col- 
lege. In  1873  he  was  elected  professor  of  agri- 
culture in  Cornell  University,  in  which  institu- 
tion be  became  dean  of  the  College  of  Agriculture 
(1874)  and  director  of  the  college  and  of  the 
United  States  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
(1888).  In  1903  he  became  professor  emeritus 
of  agriculture  in  the  university.  For  many  years 
he  was  assistant  editor  of  the  Country  Gentleman, 
and  contributor  to  the  columns  of  other  leading 
agricultural  journals.    His  published  works  in- 


B0BEBT8. 

dude:  The  Fertility  of  the  Land  (1898) ;  The 
Farfnatead  (1900);  The  farmer's  Business 
Hand-Booh  (1903) ;  and  The  Horse  (1904). 

&OBEBTS,  MoBLET  (1857—).  An  English 
novelist  and  journalist,  born  in  London,  and  edu- 
cated at  the  Bedford  Grammar  School  and  at 
Owens  College,  Manchester.  In  1874  he  went  out 
to  Australia,  where  he  worked  as  a  laborer  on 
the  railroads  and  in  the  bush.  Before  1887  he 
served  as  a  sailor  on  several  merchant  ships,  and 
saw  many  phases  of  Anglo-Saxon  life  in  the 
South  Seas,  throughout  North  America,  and  in 
South  Africa.  His  experiences  enrich  his  many 
tales  of  adventure.  Good  specimens  are  A  Son 
of  Empire  (1899)  and  The  Plunderers  (1900), 
giving  an  account  of  a  sort  of  Jameson  raid  on 
the  treasury  of  the  Shah  of  Persia.  The  Colossus 
(1899)  has  as  characters  well-known  politicians, 
as  Cecil  Rhodes,  thinly  disguised  under  fictitious 
names.  Other  romances  are :  The  Western  Aver- 
nns  (1887)  ;  In  Low  Relief  (1890)  ;  Red  Earth 
(1894) ;  The  Master  of  the  Silver  Sea  (1895)  ; 
Maurice  Quain  ( 1897 ) ;  Strong  Men  and  True 
( 1897) ;  The  Descent  of  the  Duchess  ( 1900)  ;  The 
Fugitivea  (1901)  ;  a  voltune  of  verse  called  iSTon^s 
of  Energy  (1891)  ;  Immortal  Youth  (1902) ;  and 
The  Way  of  a  Man  (1902). 

&OBBBTS,OranMilo  (1815-98).  An  Ameri- 
can jurist  and  (governor,  bom  in  Laurens  Coun- 
ty, S.  C.  He  graduated  at  the  University  of 
Alabama  in  1836,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1837,  practiced  law  for  some  time,  and  in  1841 
removed  to  the  Republic  of  Texas.  After  the 
admission  of  Texas  to  the  Union  in  1846  he 
served  until  1851  as  a  district  judge.  In  1857 
he  was  elected  an  associate  justice  of  the  Texas 
Supreme  Court.  In  1862  he  became  colonel  of 
the  Eleventh  Texas  Volunteers,  and  saw  active 
service  with  the  Confederate  forces  west  of  the 
Mississippi  until  1864,  when  he  resigned  his 
commission  to  become  Chief  Justice  of  the  Texas 
Supreme  Court.  Displaced  during  the  recon- 
struction period,  he  was  active  in  the  new  con- 
stitutional convention  in  1866,  and  in  the  same 
year  was  elected  United  States  Senator,  but  po- 
litical disabilities  prevented  his  taking  his  seat. 
In  1874  he  again  became  CThief  Justice  of  the  State 
and  he  remained  on  the  bench  until  he  was  elected 
Governor  in  1878.  He  was  reelected  in  1880,  and 
declined  a  third  term  in  1882.  From  1883  until 
1893  he  was  a  professor  of  law  in  the  State  Uni- 
versity. He  was  the  author  of  A  Description  of 
Texas  ( 1881 ) ;  Elements  of  Texas  Pleading 
(1891)  ;  and  Our  Federal  Relations  (1892),  a 
statement  of  the  Southern  side  of  the  slavery  con- 
troversy. 

BOBEBTS,  Sir  William  (1830-99).  An  Eng- 
lish physician,  bom  at  Bodedem,  Wales,  and  edu- 
cated at  University  College,  London.  After 
studying  in  Paris  and  Berlin  he  became  house 
surgeon,  and  in  1855  full  physician  to  the  Man- 
ch^er  Royal  Infirmary — a  post  which  he  held 
until  1883.  He  was  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety, received  the  Cameron  prize  in  1879,  and 
on  his  coming  to  London  became  a  fellow  of  Lon- 
don University.  The  use  of  predigested  foods  for 
the  nutriment  of  invalids  was  introduced  into 
England  by  him  and  he  was  an  authority  on  diet. 
Roberts  wrote :  Blood  Corpuscles  Under  Influence 
of  Solutions  of  Magenta  and  Tannin  (1863),  in 
which  'Roberts's  maculs'  were  described ;  Urinary 
and  Renal  Diseases  (1865;  4th  ed.  1885) ;  Diges- 


65  B0BEBTS-AU8TEN. 

tive  Ferments   (Lumleian  Lectures,  1880) ;  and 
Dietetics  and  Dyspepsia  (1885), 

BOBEBTS,  WnxiAM  Chables  ( 1832— ) .  An 
American  Presbyterian  minister  and  educator, 
bom  near  Aberystwith,  Wales.  He  graduated  at 
Princeton  University  in  1855,  and  at  Prineeton 
Theological  Seminary  in  1858,  and  in  that  year 
became  pastor  of  a  church  in  Wilmington,  Del. 
Afterwards  he  had  charge  of  churches  in  Colum- 
bus, Ohio,  and  Elizabeth,  N.  J.  From  1880  until 
1886  he  was  correseponding  secretary  of  the 
Board  of  Home  Missions,  New  York  City,  and 
again  from  1892  until  1898.  In  1886-92  he  was 
president  of  Lake  Forest  University,  Chicago, 
and  in  1898  was  made  president  of  Centre  Col- 
lege, Ky. 

BOBEBTS,  William  Henry  (1844—).  An 
American  Presbyterian  clergyman,  born  at  Holy- 
head, Wales.  He  graduated  at  the  College  of 
the  city  of  New  York  in  1863  and  at  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary  in  1873.  Meanwhile  he 
had  been  statistician  in  the  United  States  Treas- 
ury Department,  and  assistant  librarian  of  Con- 
gress. In  1878-86  he  was  librarian  at  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary.  From  1886  until  1893  he 
was  professor  in  Lane  Theological  Seminaiy,  Cin- 
cinnati, Ohio.  His  works  include:  History  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church  (1888);  The  Presby- 
terian System  (1895) ;  and  Lav?s  Relating  to  Re- 
ligious Corporations  (1896). 

BOBEBTS,  William  MiLNOB  (1810-81).  An 
eminent  American  civil  engineer,  born  in  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.  He  began  his  service  as  an  engineer 
in  1825,  when  he  became  a  member  in  a  minor 
capacity  of  the  engineer  corps  engaged  in  the 
construction  of  the  Union  Canal  of  Pennsylvania. 
From  1827  to  1831  he  was  engaged  on  the  im- 
provement of  the  Lehigh  Railroad  Canal;  from 
1831  to  1835  was  senior  assistant  engineer  in  the 
construction  of  the  All^heny  Portage  Railroad, 
and  from  1835  to  1837  was  chief  engineer  of  the 
Lancaster  and  Harrisburg  Railroad,  acting  in 
1836  and  1837  as  chief  engineer  of  the  Cumber- 
land Valley  Railroad  as  well.  In  1838-40  he  was 
chief  engineer,  in  the  State  service,  of  the  exten- 
sion of  the  State  canals  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
during  1841-44  was  engaged  successively  on  the 
enlargement  of  the  Welland  Canal  of  Canada 
and  the  Erie  Canal  of  Pennsylvania.  From  1857 
to  1865  he  lived  in  Brazil,  constructing^  during 
this  time  the  Dom  Pedro  Segundo  Railroad. 
From  1869  to  1879  he  was  chief  engineer  of  the 
Northern  Pacific  Railroad,  and  during  this  peri- 
od was  a  member,  also,  of  various  important 
engineering  commissions.  He  died  of  yellow  fever 
on  July  14,  1881,  in  the  Province  of  Minas 
Crcraes,  Brazil. 

BOBEBTS- AUSTEir,  Sir  William  (1843- 
1902).  An  English  metallurgist,  educated  at  the 
Royal  School  of  Mines.  He  was  appointed  chem- 
ist of  the  mint  in  1870;  in  1880  succeeded  Percy 
as  professor  of  metallurgy  in  the  Royal  School  of 
Mines;  and  during  the  hist  year  of  his  life  was 
deputy  master  of  the  mint  ad  interim.  His  most 
important  work  was  in  the  study  of  alloys,  and 
his  reports  (1891,  1893,  1897,  1899)  developed 
the  system  of  the  cooling  curve,  showed  the  sig- 
nificance of  metallic  freezing  points,  and  in  gen- 
eral greatly  advanced,  the  molecular  theory  of 
alloys.  Roberts- Austen  improved  the  pyrometer, 
making  it   photographically  self-recording,  and 


BOBEBTS-AXrSTEir. 


deyiaed  methods  for  several  new  alloys,  among 
them  that  of  gold  and  aluminum. 

BOB^BTSON^  Agnes.  An  English  actress. 
See  BouciCAULT,  ifrs.  Dion. 

BOBBBTBONy  Fbedebick  William  (1816- 
53).  One  of  the  most  famous  of  English  preach- 
ers. He  was  bom  in  London,  February  3, 1816,  and 
was  educated  at  Edinburgh.  After  a  year  spent 
in  the  study  of  law,  at  the  age  of  twenty-one 
he  was  entered  at  Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  to 
study  for  the  ministry,  and  immediately  on  his 
graduation  in  1840  he  was  ordained  deacon.  His 
first  curacy  was  that  of  Saint  Maurice  and  Saint 
Mary  Kalendar,  Winchester;  but  his  health 
failed  at  the  end  of  a  year  and  he  was  forced 
to  seek  rest  on  the  Continent.  His  next  curacy 
was  at  Christ  Church,  Cheltenham,  where  he 
remained  four  years,  and  then  again  sought  rest 
in  the  Tyrol.  In  1847  he  went  to  Saint  Ebbe's, 
Oxford,  and  from  there,  in  August  of  the  same 
year,  to  Trinity  Chapel,  Brighton.  This  was  the 
dcene  of  his  most  successful  labors,  and  he  is 
familiarly  known  as  ^Robertson  of  Brighton.' 
But  he  was  not  strong,  and  the  work  was  hard. 
In  1852  he  gave  signs  of  failing  health,  and  he 
died  the  following  year. 

Robertson  was  a  man  of  singular  beauty  and 
strength  of  character.  He  inherited  military 
Spirit  and  was  celebrated  for  the  soldierly  quali- 
ties of  courage,  sel^deYotion,  and  adherence  to 
duty.  Theologically  he  began  as  a  moderate  Cal- 
vinut  of  the  Evangelical  type,  but  he  became 
dissatisfied  with  Evangelicalism  during  his  four 
years  at  Cheltenham,  and  after  a  bitter  struggle 
embraced  opinions  which  antagonized  the  ortho- 
doxy of  his  day  and  marked  him  as  a  'Broad' 
churchman.  At  one  time,  in  the  early  days  of 
his  ministry,  he  cultivated  the  ascetic  life  with 
great  rigidity,  but  broke  down  under  the  physical 
strain.  He  was  preeminently  a  preacher  rather 
than  a  theologian,  and  his  fame  rests  almost 
exclusively  upon  his  sermons  and  addresses  at 
Brighton,  which  have  been  published  in  many 
editions.  In  his  character  and  his  preaching  he 
appealed  to  thoughtful  men  of  all  classes  in  so- 
ciety and  of  all  shades  in  religious  belief.  The 
devotion  of  the  workingmen  of  Brighton  to  him 
was  pathetic.  He  practically  founded  their  in- 
stitute and  they  found  in  him  a  friend  and 
brother.  The  handsome  monument  erected  to  his 
memory  in  the  cemetery  at  Brighton  bears  on 
one  of  its  faces  their  tribute  to  his  memoir  in 
the  bronze  medallion  which  they  placed  on  their 
benefactor's  tomb.  Consult  the  Life  and  Letters 
of  F,  W.  Robertson,  edited  by  Stopford  Brooke 
(London,  1865). 

BOBEBTSOK,  Geobge  Cboom  (1842-92).  A 
Scottish  philosopher,  bom  at  Aberdeen.  He 
took  his  degree  of  M.A.  at  the  University  of 
Aberdeen  (1861),  where  he  formed  a  lasting  and 
helpful  friendship  with  Prof.  Alexander  Bain 
(q.v.),  and  continued  his  philosophical  studies 
at  University  College,  London,  and  in  France 
and  Germany.  After  holding  a  minor  appoint- 
ment in  Greek  at  Aberdeen,  he  was  elected  ( 1866) 
professor  of  mental  philosophy  and  logic  in  Uni- 
versity College.  This  position  he  held  till  just 
before  his  death.  In  spfte  of  ill  health,  Robert- 
son exerted  a  great  influence  on  his  time.  He 
was  the  first  editor  of  Mind^  and  wrote  important 
articles  for  the  ninth  edition  of  the  Encyclopopdia 
Briiannica,     His   contributions   to   Mind  were 


66  BOBEBTBOK. 

edited  with  a  memoir  by  Professor  Bain  under 
the  title  Philosophioai  Remains  (Londcm  and 
Edinburgh,  1804)  ;  and  two  volumes  of  his  lec- 
tures at  University  College  from  1870  to  1B02 
were  edited  from  notes  by  Rhys  Davids  under  the 
titles  Elements  of  Cfeneral  Philosophy  and  Ble- 
ments  of  Psychology  (London,  1806).. 

BOBEBTSON,  James  (1725-88).  An  Eng- 
lish soldier,  Grovemor  of  New  York  during  a 
part  of  the  Revolutionary  War.  He  was  bom 
in  Fifeshire,  and  while  a  young  man  entered 
the  army  as  a  private.  He  served  in  America  in 
the  French  and  Indian  War,  first  as  major  in 
the  Royal  American  Troops;  then  as  deputy 
quartermaster,  and  finally  as  lieutenant-colonel 
in  the  campaign  against  Ticonderoga.  After  l^e 
war  he  became  barrack  master  in  New  York 
City,  and  is  said  to  have  acquired  a  forttme  by 
clipping  the  coin  used  in  buying  supplies  and 
by  other  unscrupulous  methods.  He  was  pro- 
moted colonel  in  1772,  was  with  the  British 
army  during  the  siege  of  Boston,  and  com- 
manded a  brigade  at  the  battle  of  Long  Island. 
He  was  made  a  major-general  in  1770^  and  in 
the  same  year  was  appointed  civil  Governor  of 
New  York.  His  administration  was  arbitrary 
and  corrupt,  and  by  his  actions  he  alienated 
many  who  were  still  favorable  to  the  royal  cause. 
In  1781  he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  in 
Virginia,  but  owing  to  the  arrival  of  Oom^raUis 
in  that  province,  he  returned  to  New  York.  He 
died  in  London.  Consult  Jones,  History  of  New 
York  During  the  Revolutionary  War,  edited  by 
De  Lancey  (New  York,  1870). 

BOBEBTSON,  James  (1742-1814).  An 
American  pioneer,  bom  in  Brunswick  County, 
Va.,  whence  his  parents  early  removed  to  North 
Carolina.  In  1770  he  crossed  the  Allegbanies 
with  Daniel  Boone,  and  lived  for  a  time  on  the 
Watauga  River.  He  returned  to  North  Carolina, 
and  in  1771  led  a  party  of  settlers  to  the 
Watauga  r^on,  and  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Watauga  Association  (q.v.).  When  this 
region  was  found  to  be  a  part  of  the  Cherokee 
lands  of  North  Carolina,  Robertson  went  as  com- 
missioner to  the  Indians.  With  John  Sevier 
(q.v.)  and  forty  men  he  withstood  a  fierce  at- 
tack on  the  fort  by  the  Indians  under  Oconostota. 
In  1778  he  joined  Richard  Henderson  (q.v.)  in 
the  settlement  of  a  large  tract  of  land  on  the 
Cumberland,  and  founded  Nashborough  (the 
present  city  of  Nashville).  Cn  the  formation  of 
the  'Compact'  in  1780  he  was  elected  chairman 
of  the  board  of  'General  Arbitrators'  or  'Notables' 
and  colonel  of  the  forces.  Robertson  was  almost 
constantly  engaged  in  Indian  battles,  led  the 
Cold  Water  Expedition  in  1785,  and  invaded 
the  Indian  country.  On  the  organization  of 
Tennessee  as  a  Territory  in  1701,  he  became 
brigadier-general  of  the  western  or  Miro  district. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  convention  to  form  a 
State  Constitution  in  1786,  and  afterwards  acted 
as  Indian  agent  He  was  a  State  Senator  in 
1708,  and  a  trustee  of  the  Davidson  Academy 
(Cumberland  College)  in  1803.  In  1805,  as  spe- 
cial agent  to  the  Chickasaws,  he  secured  by  tiie 
compact  of  July  23d  the  cession  of  much  of  their 
land,  and  the  same  year  secured  the  Choctaw 
lands  in  Mississippi.  He  was  afterwards  called 
upon  to  arbitrate  differences  arising  from  con- 
fusion of  boundaries.  During  the  War  of  1812 
he  did  much  to  prevent  the  Indians  from  joining 
the  British.    Consult:  Putnam,  Life  and  Times  ^ 


Oen*  JameB  Rohertson  (Nashvilk,  1859) ;  and 
Roosevelt^  Wmnitig  of  the  West  (New  York, 
1880-96). 

BOBBBTSOK^  Jamss  Cbaioib  (1813-82).  An 
English  clergyman  and  historian.  He  was  bom 
at  Aberdeen,  graduated  from  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  in  1834,  and  was  ordained  in  1836. 
He  began  literary  work  during  his  early  clerical 
appointments  and  his  first  b^k,  How  Shall  toe 
Cfmform  to  the  Liturgy  (1843),  showed  the  lib- 
eral tendencies  of  his  mind,  bi  1846  he  became 
▼icar  of  Bekesboume,  and  canon  of  Canterbury 
In  1859,  retaining  this  office  to  the  time  of  his 
death;  from  1864  to  1874  he  was  professor  of 
ecclesiastical  history  at  King's  College,  London. 
His  works,  more  notable  for  accurate  learning 
than  for  literary  style,  comprise  a  History  of 
the  Christian  Church  from  the  Apostolic  Age  to 
the  Reformation  (1874-75) ;  Becket,  a  Biography 
(1859)  ;  Plain  Lectures  on  the  Growth  of  the 
Papal  Power  (1876) ;  editions  of  Heylyn's  His- 
tory of  the  Reformation  (1849);  Bargrave*s 
AleoBanier  VII,  and  the  College  of  Cardinals 
(1866)  for  the  Canadian  Society;  and  Materials 
far  the  History  of  Archbishop  Thomas  Beeket 
(6  vols.,  1875-82)  for  the  Master  of  the  Rolls. 
Volimie  yL  of  the  last,  being  uncompleted  at  his 
death,  was  finished  by  Dr.  J.  Brigstocke  Shep- 
paxd. 

BOBEBTSOVy  James  Logie  (pen-name, 
Hugh  Haububton  )  ( 1846— ) .  A  Scottish  Terse- 
writer,  bom  at  Milnathort,  Kinross-shire.  He 
took  the  degree  of  M.A.  from  the  Uniyersity  of 
Edinburafa  in  1872,  with  honors  in  English  litera- 
ture. He  became  first  English  master  in  the 
Ladies'  College  at  Edinburgh  (1891).  Travels 
in  Scandinavia  furnish  him  descriptive  themes 
for  some  of  his  verse,  but  his  best  poems  are 
short  pastorals  in  the  Scottish  dialect.  His  pub- 
lished volumes  are  mainly  Poems  (1878) ;  Orel- 
lana  and  Other  Poems  (1881);  Our  Holiday 
Among  the  HUls  (conjointly  with  his  wife, 
1882);  Horace  in  Homespun  (1886;  new  ed. 
1900);  Oehil  Idylls  (1891);  Adaptations  from 
Dunbar  (1895);  The  White  Angel,  and  Other 
Stories  ( 1886) ;  For  Puir  Auld  Scotland  ( 1887) ; 
In  Scottish  Fields  (1890) ;  and  Furth  in  Field 
(1804).  His  editorial  work  concerns  the  poems 
of  Allan  Ramsay  (1887),  Thomson  (1891), 
Seott  (1894),  and  Bums  (1896),  and  the  Select 
Chaucer  (1902). 

BOBEBTSOV,  Joseph  (1810-66).  A  Scottish 
antiquary  and  historian.  He  was  bom  at  Aber- 
deen; was  educated  at  Marischal  College,  Aber- 
deen, and  was  apprenticed  to  the  law,  which  he 
gave  up  for  literature.  He  bore  the  chief  hand 
in  the  formation  of  the  Spalding  Club  for  prints 
ing  the  historical  and  literary  remains  of  the 
northern  counties  of  Scotland  (1B39) ;  edited,  in 
turn,  the  Aberdeen  Constitutional,  the  Glasgow 
Constitutional,  and  the  Edinburgh  Courant;  and 
was  appointed  historical  curator  in  the  Edin- 
burgh Kegister  House  (1853).  Robertson's  work 
comprises  Delicics  Literarite  (1839),  a  volume  of 
table-talk;  Illustrations  of  the  Topography  and 
Antiquities  of  Aberdeen  and  Banff  (4  vols.,  1842- 
69)  ;  Diary  of  Gen,  Patrick  Chrdon,  16S5-99 
(1862);  Inventories  of  Jewels,  Dresses,  Furni- 
ture, Books,  and  Paintings  Belonging  to  Queen 
Mary  (Bannatyne  Club,  1863) ;  and  Concilia 
Eceleeta  Scoticana,  1225-1559  (Bannatyne  Club, 
1866),  a  work  displaying  immense  research  in 


67  BOBBBTflOir. 

the  ecclesiastical  history  of  Scotland.  To  the 
Quarterly  Review  (June,  1849)  Robertson  con- 
tributed a  valuable  essay  on  Scottish  Abbeys  and 
Cathedrals,  Consult  the  Memoir  prefixed  to  this 
last  work  (Aberdeen,  1891). 

BOBBBTSON,  Thomas  William  (1829-71). 
An  English  dramatist.  He  was  bom  at  Newark- 
on-Trent,  of  a  family  connected  with  the  theatre 
for  several  generations.  Mrs.  Kendal  (q.v.) 
was  his  yoimgest  sister.  During  his  childhood 
and  youth  he  was  an  actor  in  the  provincial  com- 
pany of  which  his  father  was  manager.  He 
went  to  London  in  1848  and  became  a  writer  for 
the  magazines;  for  a  time,  too,  he  continued 
upon  the  stage,  and  in  1856  he  married  an  act- 
ress, Miss  Burton.  His  first  play,  A  Night's 
Adventure,  was  produced  by  Farren  at  the  Olym- 
pic Theatre  in  1851.  His  first  important  suc- 
cess, however,  was  David  Garriok,  which  was 
brought  out  in  1864,  and  with  Sothem's  acting 
had  afterwards  a  long  nm.  His  Society  was 
produced  by  the  Bancrofts  at  ^he  Prince  of 
Wales'  Theatre  in  1865.  His  reputation  chiefly 
rests  upon  the  series  of  comedies  which  succeeded 
it,  including  Ows  (1866),  Caste  (1867),  Play 
( 1868 ) ,  School  ( 1869 ) ,  and  M.  P.  ( 1870 ) .  These 
are  exhibitions  of  modem  social  life,  with  an 
element  of  satire  directed  at  its  artificialities. 
The  epithet  'teacup  and  saucer  school'  of  drama, 
which  was  applied  by  a  critic  to  Robertson's 
work,  is  suggestive  of  its  limitations.  He  was 
also  the  author  of  a  novel  called  David  Garrick, 
and  of  other  fiction.  His  death  occurred  in  Lon- 
don on  February  3,  1871.  Consult:  The  Prind- 
pal  Dramatic  Works  of  Thomas  WilUam  Robert- 
son, with  Memoir  by  his  Son  (London,  1889) ; 
Pemberton,  Life  and  Writings  of  T,  W.  Robert- 
son (ib.,  1893) ;  Cook,  Nights  at  the  Play  (ib., 
1883)  ;  Clement  Scott,  The  Drama  of  Yesterday 
and  To-Day  (ib.,  1899). 

BOBEBTSON^  William  (1721-93).  A  well- 
known  Scottish  historian,  bom  in  the  parish  of 
Borthwick,  Midlothian.  Robertson  was  educated 
at  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  and  in  1741  he 
was  licensed  to  preach.  In  1746  he  was  elected 
to  the  General  Assembly,  but  he  gave  most  of  his 
time  to  historical  studies.  In  1759  he  published 
his  celebrated  History  of  Scotland,  which  was  an 
immediate  success,  and  brought  the  author  con- 
siderable praise  as  well  as  various  positions  of 
dignity.  The  work  itself  is  noted  for  sobriety 
and  fairness  as  well  as  for  literary  excellence. 
In  1762  Robertson  was  made  principal  of  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  and  in  1763  he  was 
elected  moderator  of  the  Greneral  Assembly,  in 
which  position  he  displayed  great  abilities  as  an 
administrator.  Besides  his  History  of  Scotland 
he  published  in  1769  the  History  of  the  Reign  of 
Charles  V.,  which  is  considered  at  present  to  be 
his  best  work.  In  1777  appeared  a  History  of 
America,  and  in  1784  a  work  on  the  knowledge 
the  ancients  had  of  India.  Personally  Robertson 
was  a  genial  man  possessing  great  conversational 
powers  and  having  a  large  circle  of  friends.  His 
writings  are  elegant  and  sonorous,  but  lack  nat- 
uralness and  vigor.  All  of  his  histories,  however 
meritorious  they  were  at  the  time  of  their  publi- 
cation, have  now  been  superseded.  Robertson's 
works  have  been  published  repeatedly,  the  best 
edition  being  in  eight  volumes  (Oxford,  1826). 
Consult:  Stewart,  An  Account  of  the  lAfe  and 
Writings  of  William  Robertson  (Edinburgh, 
1801-02) ;  Gleig,  An  AocQunt  of  the  Life  and 


BOBBBTSON* 


68 


BOBBSPIEBBE. 


Wriimga    of    William    Rohertaon    (Edinburgh, 
1812). 

BOBEBTBON,  William  H.  (1823-98).  An 
American  politician,  born  in  Bedford,  Westches- 
ter County,  N.  Y.  He  received  an  academic  edu- 
cation, studied  law,  and  b^an  practice  in  his 
native  town.  His  political  career  began  in  1849 
with  his  election  as  a  Whig  to  the  State  Assem- 
bly. In  1854  he  was  elected  to  the  State  Soiate, 
and  in  the  same  year  was  elected  ooimty  judge  of 
Westchester  (bounty,  and  remained  on  the  toich 
until  1866.  He  allied  himself  with  the  Republi- 
can Party  at  its  organization,  and  in  1866  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Fortieth  Congress.  From 
1872  to  1881  he  was  again  a  member  of  the  State 
Senate.  In  1881  his  appointment  as  collector  of 
the  port  of  New  York  by  President  Garfield, 
whose  'nomination  he  had  been  largely  instru- 
mental in  securing,  by  leading  a  part  of  the  New 
York  delegation  at  the  national  convention  in 
1880  to  desert  the  Grant  column,  caused  a  serious 
split  in  the  Republican  Party.  His  nomination, 
made  without  consulting  the  wishes  of  the  two 
Republican  Senators,  Roscoe  Conkling  (q.v.)  and 
Thomas  C.  Piatt  (q.v.),  was  confirmed  by  the 
Senate,  and  led.  to  the  resignation  of  the  two 
Senators  from  that  body.  In  the  bitter  struggle 
between  the  'Stalwart'  and  'Half-Breed'  factions 
which  followed,  Robertson  was  active  in  the 
campaign  that  resulted  in  the  election  of  new 
Senators  in  the  place  of  Conkling  and  Piatt. 
Judge  Robertson  held  the  coUectorship  until 
1885,  when  he  resumed  his  law  practice,  and  in 
1888  was  again  elected  to  the  State  Senate. 

BOBEBVAI^  r^OAr'vAK,  GnxES  Pebsoitne 
i»:  (1602-75).  A  French  mathematician,  bom  at 
Roberval,  whence  the  name  by  which  he  is  com- 
monly called.  After  four  years'  study  in  Paris  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy  at  the  Col- 
lege Gervais  (1631),  and  in  1633  succeeded  Morin 
in  the  chair  of  mathematics  at  the  Coll^  de 
France,  a  position  which  he  retained  till  his 
death.  He  was  an  eager  fighter  and  quarreled 
bitterly  with  Cavalieri,  insisting  on  the  priority 
of  his  own  discovery  of  the  methods  of  the  in- 
divisibles, although  he  published  nothing.  Des- 
cartes he  attacked  because  his  method  of  con- 
structing tangents  appeared  about  the  same  time 
as  his  own;  and  with  Torricelli  he  carried  on  an 
angry  polemic  as  to  which  first  discovered  the 
method  for  determining  the  area  of  a  cycloid. 
He  is  best  known  from  the  Robervallian  lines, 
which  he  discovered,  curves  of  infinite  length 
inclosing  a  finite  space.  He  also  occupied  him- 
self with  mechanics  and  physics,  and  is  the  in- 
ventor of  a  balance  bearing  his  name.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  since  its 
foimdation  in  1666.  Gallois  collected  his  writ- 
ings and  published  them  in  the  Recueil  of  the 
French  Academy  of  Science  (1693). 

BOBBBVAL,  Jean  Francois  de  la  Roque, 
Sieur  de  (c.1600-?).  A  French  colonist  in 
Canada,  bom  in  Picardy,  France.  After  the 
return  of  Jacques  Cartier  (q.v.)  from  his  first 
voyage  in  1536,  Roberval  was  commissioned 
by  Francis  I.  to  lead  an  expedition  to  Canada 
for  the  purpose  of  making  new  discoveries,  and 
probably,  of  establishing  a  settlement,  he  being 
appointed  lieutenant-general  and  Cartier  cap- 
tain-general. Roberval  sailed  in  April,  1542-- 
Cartier  having  preceded  him  by  almost  a  year — 
arrived  at  Newfoundland  on  June  7th,  and  win- 


tered at  Cape  Rouge,  his  followers  suffering 
terribly  from  starvation  and  cold.  After  Jiine, 
1543,  when  he  seems  to  have  started  for  the 
'Province  of  Seguenay,'  all  authentic  record  of 
him  is  lost.  According  to  Thevet,  his  friend,  he 
returned  to  France  and  was  killed  in  Paris;  ac- 
cording to  other  accounts  he  died  at  sea. 

BOBESPIEBBEy  rdb'sp^ftr^,  AuGUSTm  Bon 
Joseph  (1764-94).  The  younger  brother  of 
Mazimilien  Robespierre,  bom  at  Arras.  He  VFaa 
educated  at  the  College  Louis-le-Grand  at  Parifi, 
and  then  began  the  practice  of  law  at  Arras..  He 
embraced  the  ideas  of  the  French  Revolution,  and 
after  holding  a  local  office  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  National  Convention.  In  general 
he  followed  the  policy  of  his  brother.  As  a 
Deputy  on  mission  he  was  present  at  the  siege  and 
capture  of  Toulon,  where  he  recognized  the 
genius  of  Bonaparte,  whom  he  made  one  of  bis 
intimates.  On  his  return  to  Paris  he  tried  to 
influence  his  brother  to  milder  measures,  but 
finally  acquiesced  in  the  sterner  policy  and  vol- 
untarily shared  his  brother's  fortunes  on  the  9th 
Thermidor.    He  was  guillotined  July  28,  1794. 

BOBBSPIEBBE,  Maximiuen  Mabie  Isidobe 
(1758-94).  A  French  Revolutionary  leader. 
He  was  bom  at  Arras  May  6,  1758,  the  eldest  of 
the  four  children  of  Maximilien  Barthfilemi 
Francois  de  Robespierre  and  Jacqueline  Margue- 
rite Carraut.  After  some  time  spent  in  the  col- 
lege at  Arras,  Maximilien  was  given  a  scholar- 
ship by  the  Bishop  of  Arras  which  enabled  him 
to  complete  his  educaticm  in  the  College  Louis-le- 
Grand  at  Paris.  His  brilliant  career  as  a  student 
gave  him  a  reputation  which  proved  of  no  little 
value  upon  his  return  to  Arras  in  1781  to  begin 
the  practice  of  his  profession.  His  patron,  the 
Bishop,  appointed  him  criminal  judge  of  the 
diocese  of  Arras  in  March,  1782,  but  he  soon  re- 
signed the  place  rather  than  pronounce  a  death 
sentence.  His  literary  tastes  secured  him  an 
election  to  the  Academy  of  Arras  in  1783,  and 
led  him  to  compete,  though  with  slight  success, 
for  prizes  offered  by  the  provincial  academies. 
That  he  was  reckoned  one  of  the  wits  and  dandies 
of  the  town  is  shown  by  his  membership  in  a  con- 
vivial society,  the  Rosati,  of  which  Camot  was 
also  a  member.  The  summons  of  the  States- 
General  aroused  him  as  it  did  himdreds  of  his 
fellows  to  political  activity.  Taking  the  popular 
side,  he  wrote  pamphlets,  engaged  in  discussions, 
and  above  all  took  care  to  look  after  his  own  for- 
times.  He  was  elected  fifth  Deputy  of  the  Third 
Estate  of  the  Province  of  Artois. 

Entering  the  States-General  at  the  age  of 
thirty-one,  he  was  almost  unknown  and  without 
a  personality  that  would  command  attention,  so 
that  in  the  reports  of  the  early  sessions  the 
Parisian  journalists  referred  to  him  simply  as  'a 
Deputy.*  Always  adopting  the  popular  and  radi- 
cal view,  he  spoke  frequently,  with  such  care 
in  preparation  and  with  such  earnestness  of  man- 
ner that  he  soon  overcame  the  defects  of  a  shrill 
voice,  small  stature,  pale  nervous  face,  and  twitch- 
ing eyes  partly  concealed  by  greenish  glasses, 
which  he  constantly  raised  and  lowered  as  he  de- 
livered his  long  and  polished  periods  with  meas- 
ured accents.  His  former  school  friend  Caniille 
Desmoulins  took  pleasure  in  acting  as  the  self- 
appointed  press  agent  of  the  brilliant  young 
radical,  and  the  pages  of  the  R&oolutions  de 
France  et  de  Brahant  made  the  name  of  Robe- 


BOBESPIEBBE. 


69 


BOBBSPIEBBB. 


Sierre  familiar  throughout  France.  Miraheau 
BO  noted  him  and  pr^icted,  "That  young  man 
believes  what  he  says ;  he  will  go  far."  But  un- 
til the  death  of  Mirab€»iu  he,  like  others,  was  over- 
shadowed by  the  greatest  of  the  Revolutionists* 
It  was  not  until  May,  1791,  that  Robespierre  be- 
gan to  exercise  a  real  influence.  *In  that  month 
he  pronounced  his  discourse  favoring  the  abolition 
of  the  death  penalty,  and  carried  his  unwise  mo- 
tion excluding  from  the  future  Legislative  As- 
aen^ly  all  members  of  the  Constituent  Assem- 
bly. During  the  summer  of  1791  he  opposed  Bar- 
nave,  Duport,  and  Lameth  in  the  conservative 
revision  of  the  Constitution  of  1791.  During 
these  two  years,  however,  Robespierre's  most 
important  activity  was  not  in  the  Assembly,  but 
in  the  Jacobin  Club.  (See  Jacobins.)  He  set 
about  making  himself  the  acknowledged  head 
of  the  dub,  and  the  leader  of  the  peo- 
ple of  Paris.  His  triumph  was  made  complete 
when  the  conservatives  were  forced  to  withdraw 
from  the  club  and  organize  themselves  as 
the  Feuillants  (q.v.).  His  success  in  winning 
the  Parisian  populace  to  his  support  was  demon- 
strated on  September  30,  1791,  at  the  adjourn- 
ment of  the  Constituent  Assembly,  when  he  and 
Potion  were  crowned  by  the  people  as  the  true 
and  incorruptible  patriots.  For  a  few  months 
he  held  the  office  of  public  prosecutor,  which  he 
resigned  because  of  the  Girondist  attacks.  In  his 
defense  he  started  a  journal  called  he  Defenseur 
de  la  Conatitution,  continued  as  Lettres  d  mes 
Commetianis  after  the  opening  of  the  Convention. 
Still  the  leading  exponent  of  the  radical  views, 
he  used  his  position  in  the  Jacobin  Club  to  an- 
tagonize the  Girondists,  especially  in  their  war 
policy.  Marat  was  opposing  the  war  as  contrary 
to  the  interest  of  the  State;  Robespierre's 
grounds  were  rather  humanitarian.  Though  a 
demagogue  who  was  daily  swaying  the  people  of 
Fans  by  his  eloquence  in  the  Jacobin  Club,  he 
was  not  a  man  of  action,  and  remained  quiescent 
while  the  bolder  spirits  like  Danton  and  Santerre 
directed  the  movement  of  June  20  and  of  August 
10,  1792,  and  it  was  only  after  the  success  of  the 
latter  day  that  he  appeared  at  the  city  hall  to 
take  his  place  as  a  member  of  the  Insurrection- 
ary Commune.  No  direct  guilt  attaches  to 
Robespierre  for  the  great  crime  of  the  Parisian 
mob,  the  prison  massacres  of  September;  still  he 
was  at  that  moment  the  popular  hero  and  leader, 
and  was  a  few  days  later  elected  as  the  first 
Deputy  from  Paris  in  the  new  National  Conven- 
tion. 

In  the  Convention  Robespierre  was  the  recog- 
nized leader  of  the  radical  popular  party,  now 
known  as  the  Montagnards,  and  from  the  first 
was  denounced  by  the  Girondists  as  a  blood- 
thirsty demagogue.  Of  great  importance  was  his 
famous  speech  on  the  King's  trial,  in  which  he 
carefully  and  clearly  stated  the  logical  position 
of  the  Convention,  and  proclaimed:  "Loifis  ought 
to  perish  rather  than  a  hundred  thousand  virtu- 
ous citizens;  Louis  must  die,  that  the  country 
may  live."  By  this  speech  and  by  his  attitude 
throughout  the  trial  Robespierre  completely  out- 
generaled the  Girondists,  whom  he  forced  to  take 
what  for  them  was  an  illogical  position  and  vote 
for  the  execution  of  the  King.  His  generalship, 
which  took  advantage  of  the  mistakes  and  per- 
sonal dislikes  of  the  Girondists,  also  won  to  his 
side  Dantpn,  Billaud-Varenne,  and  the  other 
strong  men  of  action.    Though  the  French  nation 


seemed  on  the  point  of  being  destroyed  by  the  for- 
eign foe,  the  Girondists  continued  their  idle  de- 
bates, clung  to  dreams  of  an  impossible  federal- 
ism, and  persisted  in  their  bickerings  and  their 
personal  attacks  upon  Robespierre  and  Danton. 
Danton  and  the  men  of  action  who  had  hitherto 
preferred  the  company  of  the  Girondists  lost 
patience  and  were  ready  to  turn  ix>  Robespierre, 
whom  they  regarded  as  a  fanatic,  but  not  yet 
dangerous.  Taking  advantage  of  these  circiun- 
stances,  Robespierre  in  one  of  his  characteristic 
speeches  arraigned  the  Girondists  on  AprijL  10, 
1793.  It  was  a  struggle  to  the  death,  but  its 
outcome  was  certain  from  the  moment  that  Ban- 
ton  and  his  followers  joined  Robespierre.  The 
coup  d'6tat  of  May  3l8t  and  June  2d  was  the 
work  of  the  men  of  action,  but  the  victory  was 
that  of  Robespierre. 

Robespierre  was  not  a  member  of  the  First 
Committee  of  Public  Safety  and  was  not  one  of 
the  original  members  of  the  Second  or  Great 
Committee  of  Public  Safety,  but  was  chosen  to 
replace  Gasparin,  who  resigned  July  27,  1793. 
With  the  other  members  he  was  continued  on  the 
Committee  until  his  arrest  exactly  one  year  later 
on  the  fateful  Ninth  of  Thermidor.  The  name  of 
Ro5espierre  has  ever  been  almost  synonymous 
with  the  Committee,  and  both  Robespierre 
and  the  other  members  gave  currency  to 
the  notion  that  he  ran  the  Committee;  but 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  other  members  were 
the  workers  and  never  allowed  Robespierre  to  in- 
terfere with  them,  and  finally  overthrew  him  be- 
cause he  attempted  to  make  his  reputed  control 
of  the  Committee  a  reality.  Virtually  the  Great 
Committee  of  Public  Safety  (see  French  Revo- 
lution) was  a  semi-official  Ministry,  of  which 
Robespierre  was  Prime  Minister  without  port- 
folio. He  was  the  most  valuable  man  on  the  Com- 
mittee, for,  though  he  did  none  of  the  routine  work 
and  rarely  appeared  at  its  sessions,  he  was  the 
one  member  who  was  known  outside  of  the  Con- 
vention and  who  had  a  national  reputation;  he 
was  the  ideal  patriot,  the  'virtuous,'  the  'incor- 
ruptible;' and  under  his  sgis  the  steady,  clear- 
headed, industrious  men  of  action  toiled  quietly, 
relentlessly,  successfully  to  save  France  from 
the  foes  and  perils  that  beset  her.  The  notion  of 
Robespierre  as  a  bloodthirsty  demon  who  daily 
breathed  forth  threatenings  and  slaughter  is  a 
total  misconception;  the  truth  is  that  the  Com- 
mittee was  convinced  that  the  only  way  to  ac- 
complish its  task  of  saving  France  was  by  a  gov- 
ernment of  terror  which  should  silence  or  de- 
stroy every  foe  of  the  nation.  To.  the  working 
members  of  the  Committee  like  Carnot  and  Bil- 
laud-Varenne the  Terror  was  simply  a  business 
affair ;  to  Robespierre  it  was  a  necessary  prepara- 
tion for  the  reign  of  virtue  foreshadowed  in  the 
Gospel  according  to  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau,  whose 
prophet  he  was.  Robespierre  was  neither  the 
dictator  of  the  Committee  nor  yet  its  dupe.  He 
consciously  assumed  his  share  of  the  responsi- 
bility for  its  acts,  he  defended  its  policies  in  set 
speeches  in  the  Convention  and  before  the  Jacobin 
Club,  and  he  personally  carried  throu^^  the 
Convention  one  of  the  acts  which  contributed 
most  to  make  the  Terror  an  orgy  of  blood:  the 
decree  of  October  29,  1793,  by  which  after  a  trial 
of  three  days  it  was  made  possible  for  the  jury 
of  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal  to  declare  that 
they  were  convinced  of  the  guilt  of  the  accused 
even  though  they  had  not  heard  the  defense. 


BOBBSPIEBBE. 


70 


BOBIK. 


Robespierre  was  the  only  member  of  the  Com- 
mittee who  had  a  definite  policy  for  the  future, 
who  dared  to  dream  of  and  plan  for  better  days 
for  France.  In  personal  life  and  principle  a 
Puritan,  in  religion  a  deist,  in  aU  things  a  true 
believer  in  Rousseau,  this  he  preached,  for  this 
he  labored,  and  in  preparation  for  this  he  would 
destroy  the  vicious.  His  notions  were  clarified  by 
his  disgust  at  the  follies  and  mummeries  of  the 
Worship  of  Reason,  and  by  his  abhorrence  for  the 
members  of  the  Commime  of  Paris  who  were  the 
authors  of  violent  and  evil  measures.  At  these 
men,  Hubert  (q.v.)  and  his  fellows,  he  would 
strike  the  first  decisive  blow.  With  the  aid  of 
Gamille  Desmoulins  and  Danton,  who  also  detest- 
ed the  extravagances  of  the  H6bertists,  he  was 
able  to  send  Hubert  and  eighteen  others  to  the 
guillotine  after  a  trial  that  was  a  parody  of 
justice.  Danton,  Camille  Desmoulins,  and  the 
Dantonists  were  the  next  victims,  because  they 
laughed  at  the  notions  of  Rousseau,  because  they 
saw  that  the  Terror  had  done  its  work  and  that 
the  time  had  come  to  exercise  clemency,  and  be- 
cause Danton  was  a  possible  rival  to  be  feared 
both  by  Robespierre  and  by  the  Committee.  On 
April  5,  1749,  Danton  perished,  a  victim  of  ]iis 
own  greatness,  and  of  the  injustice  and  fanaticism 
of  his  enemies — ^the  men  who  were  most  indebted 
to  him.  After  the  death  of  Danton  and  his 
friends,  the  work  of  destroying  the  vicious  went 
or  more  rapidly,  and  after  Couthon  had  carried 
the  outrageous  decree  of  June  10th  accelerat- 
ing the  procedure  of  the  Revolutionary  Tribimal, 
200  victims  a  week  were  sacrificed  to  the  guillo- 
tine. In  the  meantime  Robespierre  was  busy  in- 
augurating his  reign  of  virtue  by  instituting  the 
Worship  of  the  Supreme  Being.  On  May  7th 
he  delivered  his  famous  speech  in  the  Conven- 
tion on  the  relation  of  religion  and  morality  to 
republican  principles,  after  which  the  Convention 
decreed  a  festival  of  the  Supreme  Being,  which 
took  place  on  June  8th  with  Robespierre,  then 
president  of  the  Convention,  acting  as  the  pontiff 
of  the  new  religion. 

One  more  hecatomb  of  victims  would  clear 
away  the  remaining  leaders  who  stood  in  the  way 
of  the  reign  of  virtue.  At  these,  some  of  whom 
were  his  associates  in  the  Committee  or  in  the 
Convention,  Robespierre  planned  to  strike.  But 
it  was  one  dreamer  against  twenty  men  of  action, 
and  the  dreamer  failed.  After  a  prolonged 
absence  from  the  Convention  and  the  Commit&e, 
Robespierre  appeared  in  the  Convention  on  July 
26,  1794,  and  delivered  one  of  his  carefully  pre- 
pared speeches  intended  to  preface  and  justify 
the  destruction  of  his  foes.  The  next  day  Saint- 
Just,  his  fearless  and  vigorous  supporter,  ap- 
peared in  the  tribune  to  secure  the  passage  of 
the  measure  of  proscription.  Stormy  scenes  fol- 
lowed, but  at  last  the  intended  victims,  Barras, 
Tallien,  and  the  men  of  action  from  the  Commit- 
tee, with  the  skillful  aid  of  Bardre  (q.v.),  secured 
the  arrest  of  Robespierre,  and  his  younger  brother 
Augustin,  Couthon,  Saint-Just,  and  Le  Bas. 
All  was  not  over,  however,  for  Henriot  with  the 
National  Guards  of  Paris  rescued  Robespierre 
gtkd  his  friends  and  installed  them  at  the  City 
Hall.  Had  Robespierre  been  able  to  decide  quick- 
ly and  act  quickly,  he  might  still  have  won;  but 
indecision  and  inactivity  gave  his  foes  time  to 
act  and  to  attack  him  in  the  City  Hall.  In  the 
affray  Robespierre  shot  himself  or  was  shot  in 
the  jaw,  his  brother  leaped  from  the  window  and 


broke  his  leg,  and  Le  Bas  committed  suicide.  The 
Convention  reassembled  and  declared  Robec^ierre 
and  his  friends  and  Henriot  and  the  members  of 
the  Commune  of  Paris  outlaws.  This  was  the 
famous  Revolution  of  the  Ninth  of  Thermidor. 
On  the  next  day  these  men  were  all  brought  be- 
fore the  Revolutionary  Tribunal  and  identified 
and  immediately  guillotined. 

Robespierre's  private  character  was  above  re- 
proach ;  his  manners,  dress,  and  tastes  were  those 
of  a  gentleman  of  the  Ancien  Regime;  his  oratory 
depended  for  its  success  upon  his  elaborately 
finished  style,  upon  his  logic,  and  above  all  upon 
his  earnestness;  on  several  occasions  he  mani- 
fested a  political  ability  of  no  mean  order. 
Equipped  as  a  philosopher  of  the  Ancien  Regime, 
he  came  upon  the  field  after  the  day  of  philosophiz- 
ing had  passed  and  when  the  day  of  action  bad 
dawned.  For  this  reason  he  failed  and  in  his  fail 
dragged  a  multitude  to  destruction. 

BiBLiOGSAPHT.  Hamel,  Hiatoire  de  Robe- 
spierre (Paris,  1865-67),  is  the  authoritative 
work,  though  inclined  to  be  eulogistic.  Au- 
lard,  Lea  orateura  de  la  Legislative  et  de  la  Conr 
vention  (Paris,  1885-86),  deals  with  Robespierre 
as  an  orator,  while  his  most  important  speeches 
are  published  in  Morse-Stephens,  Principal 
Speeches  of  the  Orators  and  Statesmen  of  the 
French  Revolution  (Oxford,  1892).  Consult,  also, 
Belloc,  Robespierre  (London,  1902). 

BOBIN  (originally  a  quasi-proper  name),  or 
Robin  Redbreast.  A  name  given  affectionately 
in  the  first  instance  to  a  familiar  little  European 
song-bird,  which  especially  endears  itself  to  the 
people  by  coming  around  the  house  and  bams 
in  winter;  and  later  applied  to  the  most  com- 
mon and  familiar  of  American  thrushes,  because 
of  its  friendly  association  with  man,  and  its  red 
breast.  The  European  robin  is  technically  a 
warbler,  of  the  family  Sylviide.  It  is  about  5.57 
inches  in  length,  and  of  a  remarkably  round, 
plump  form.  (See  Plate  of  Wrens,  Warblers, 
ETC.)  The  general  color  is  olive-brown,  and  the 
reddish-orange  breast  is  a  conspicuous  charac- 
teristic, particularly  of  the  male.  The  redbreast 
is  a  native  not  only  of  Europe,  but  of  the  western 
temperate  parts  of  Asia,  and  of  Northern  Africa. 
In  the  northern  parts  of  Europe  it  is  migratory, 
but  never  congregates  in  flocks.  The  attachment 
of  pairs  seems  to  extend  beyond  the  mere  breed- 
ing season  (early  spring),  and  to  be  stronger 
than  in  most  birds.  The  nest  is  made  of  moss, 
dead  leaves,  and  dried  grass,  lined  with  hair, 
often  placed  a  little  above  the  ground  in  a  bush,  or 
in  ivy  on  a  wall ;  the  eggs,  5  U>  7  in  number,  are 
white  spotted  with  pale  reddish  brown.  In  win- 
ter the  redbreast  seeks  the  neighborhood  of 
human  habitations  more  than  in  summer,  and 
becomes  more  bold  and  familiar.  Its  food  ordi- 
narily consists  of  worms,  insects,  and  berries; 
and  it  readily  becomes  a  pensioner  at  any  door 
or  window  to  which  it  is  invited  by  the  spread- 
ing of   cpimbs. 

The  American  robin  {Merula  migratoria)  is 
the  largest  and  most  numerous  of  our  thrushes, 
and  closely  related  to  the  European  blackbird 
(q.v.).  It  is  10  inches  long,  olive-gray,  the  top 
and  sides  of  the  head  black,  the  chin  and  throat 
white  with  black  streaks,  and  the  under  parts 
orange.  The  female  is  of  duller  hues.  Large 
flocks  are  to  be  seen  in  the  Southern  States  in 
winter,  where  great  numbers  are  killed  for  the 


BOBXV. 

taUe.  The  robin  is  a  lively  bird  and  a  general 
favorite.  The  nest  is  built  in  trees  or  on  rafters, 
stumps^  or  fence-posts,  of  coarse  grass  and  reeds, 
plastered  internally  with  mud  and  lined  with 
fine  grasses.  The  eggs  are  4  to  5  in  number,  uni- 
form greenish-blue.  Two  broods  are  produced 
in  a  year.  Its  food  consists  chiefly  of  worms  and 
insects,  but  it  enjoys  berries  and  fruit,  and  often 
makes  sad  havoc  among  cherries.  The  song  of 
the  robin,  especially  in  the  late  afternoon  or 
early  evening,  is  very  sweet  and  melodious,  and  it 
is  a  familiar  friend  on  village  lawns,  where  it 
searches  for  earthworms  and  cutworms  with 
great  zeal  and  cunning.  A  closely  allied  robin 
is  found  in  Lower  California,  known  as  the  Saint 
Lucas  robin  {Merula  canfinis).  It  is  much 
paler  and  a  trifle  smaller  than  the  common  robin. 
The  Or^;on  robin  {Hesperocichla  ncevia)  is  a 
nearly  allied  species,  called  in  books  the  varied 
thrush.  The  under  parts  are  orange-brown,  but 
there  is  a  broad  black  band  across  the  breast. 
This  species  is  abundant  in  the  Pacific  Coast 
region  from  Alaska  to  Mexico. 

BOBBIN  ABAIB^  called  Aileen  Abooit,  or 
£li£EN  Aboon.  a  song  based  on  the  old  Irish 
melody  "Eileen  Aroon,"  which  dates  back  to  the 
fifteenth  or  sixteenth  century.  The  air  has 
been  repeatedly  claimed  by  the  Scotch  and  the 
Welsh,  but  is  undeniably  of  Irish  origin.  Boiel- 
diea  introduced  it  into  his  Dame  BUinche,  and 
Beethoven  arranged  it  for  voices  with  pianoforte, 
violin,  and  violoncello  (op.  108).  Many  songs 
iprere  written  to  the  old  air,  including  Bums's 
"PhUlis  the  Fair,"  ''Had  I  a  Cave,"  and  Moore's 
*'Srin,  the  Smile  and  the  Tear  in  Thine  Eye." 

BOBJJf  GOOIXFELLOW.  A  supernatural 
being  belonging  to  English  folklore  and  men- 
tioned by  Siakespeare  and  his  contemporaries. 
According  to  A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream 
Robin  is  described  as  zealous  in  performance  of 
household  tasks  for  the  sake  of  favorites,  but 
inclined  to  play  tricks  on  those  with  whom  he 
is  offended,  or  merely  for  his  own  diversion.  He 
is  said  to  take  numerous  shapes,  into  which  he 
changes  himself  at  will.  He  can  also  appear  as 
a  fire,  and  in  this  latter  aspect  is  identical  with 
the  imaginary  being  called  Will  o'  the  Wisp,  or 
Jack  o'  Lantern.  He  is  further  identified  with 
the  fairy  Puck,  originally  a  term  applied  to 
elves  in  general.  The  conduct  ascribed  to  Robin 
is  not  so  much  peculiar  to  his  individuality  as 
common  to  a  class  of  similar  spirits  connected 
with  the  household,  who  were  supposed  to  assist 
in  domestic  labors,  such  as  cleaning  the  habita- 
tion, spinning,  and  weaving,  and  who  received  a 
sort  of  worship,  being  regularly  provided  with 
sacrificial  offerings  of  food. 

BOBnr  HOOD.  A  legendary  English  outlaw. 
See  Hood,  Robin. 

BOB^ISB,  Benjamin  (1707-51).  An  English 
mathematician  and  military  engineer,  bom  at 
Bath.  In  1728  he  confuted  a  dissertation  by 
Jean  Bernoulli,  which  attempted  to  establish 
Leibnitz's  theory  on  the  laws  of  motion,  a  victory 
which  gained  him  considerable  reputation.  For 
some  years  he  taught  pure  and  applied  mathe- 
maties,  but  later  became  an  engineer,  devoting 
himself  to  the  construction  of  mills  and  bridges, 
and  commenced  the  series  of  experiments  on  the 
resisting  force  of  the  air  to  projectiles,  which 
has  gained    him   much   celebrity.     In   1734   he 


71  BOKKdOJU. 

demolished,  in  a  treatise  entitled  A  Disooune 
Concerning  the  Certainty  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton's 
Method  of  Fluwions,  the  objections  brought  by 
Bishop  Berkeley  against  Newton's  principle  of 
ultimate  ratios.  His  valuable  work,  Neto  Prin- 
ciples of  Gunnery  (1742),  produced  a  complete 
revolution  in  the  art  of  gunnery.  In  this  Robins 
suggested  two  new  methods  for  estimating  the 
velocity  of  balls.  He  also  discovered  and  ex- 
plained the  curvilinear  deflection  of  a  ball  from 
a  vertical  plane.  He  wrote  several  dissertations 
on  the  experiments  and  was  in  1747  awarded  the 
Copley  medal.  In  1749  he  was  appointed  en- 
gineer-in-general to  the  East  India  Company  and 
planned  the  defenses  of  Madras.  His  mathe- 
matical works  were  collected  after  his  death,  and 
along  with  the  details  of  his  latest  experiments 
in  gunnery  were  published  under  the  title. 
Mathematical  Tracts  (1701).  Robins  also  re- 
vised and  edited  Anson's  Voya^  Round  the  World 
(1740-44),  and  contributed  extensively  to  the 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society. 

BOBIK  SNIPE.  A  gunner's  name  locally  ap- 
plied to  various  red-breast  shore  birds,  espe- 
cially to  the  dowitchers  (q.v.).  See  Plate  of 
Beach  Bibds. 

BOBONSON^  Agnes  Mabt  Feances  (Mme. 
DucLAUX,  formerly  Mme.  Dabmestetbb)  (1867 
— ).  An  English  poet  and  essayist,  bom  at 
Leamington,  February  27,  1857.  She  studied  at 
University  College  for  seven  years,  devoting  her- 
self specially  to  Greek  literature.  In  18^  she 
married  James  Darmesteter,  the  Orientalist,  re- 
maining in  Paris  after  his  death  in  1894.  In  1901 
she  married  Professor  Duclaux,  director  of  the 
Pasteur  Institute.  Among  her  works  are :  A  Hand- 
ful of  Honeysuckles  ( 1878)  ;  The  Crowned  Hip- 
poly  tus^  translation  of  Euripides  ( 1881 ) ;  Arden, 
a  novel  (1883)  ;  Emily  Bronte  (1883) ;  The  New 
Arcadia  (1884);  An  Italian  Garden  (1886); 
Songs,  Ballads,  and  a  Garden  Play  (1888) ;  End 
of  the  Middle  Ages  (1888)  ;  Retrospect  (1893) ; 
A  Mediaeval  Garland  (1897);  Froissart,  in  the 
"Grands  ^rivains  francais"  series  (1897);  Life 
of  Renan  (1897;  in  French,  1898) ;  La  Reine  de 
Navarre  (1900) ;  Grands  Scrivains  d^outremanche 
(1901).  Much  of  her  work  is  scattered  through 
the  Revue  de  Paris  from  1898  onward. 

BOBINSON,  Benjamin  Lincoln  (1864—). 
An  American  botanist,  bom  at  Bloomington,  111. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1887,  and  studied  at 
Strassburff  and  Bonn.  In  1892  he  was  appointed 
curator  of  the  Gray  Herbarium  at  Harvard,  and 
in  1900  became  Asa  Gray  professor  of  systematic 
botany  there.  He  is  best  known  for  his  work  of 
classification  and  as  collaborator  and  editor  of 
Gray's  Synoptical  Flora  of  North  America  (1878- 
97). 

BOBINSON,  Beveblet  (1723-92).  An  Ameri- 
can Loyalist,  bom  in  Virginia.  He  was  the 
son  of  John  Robinson,  president  of  the  Council 
of  Virginia  in  1734.  He  served  as  major  under 
Wolfe  at  Quebec  in  1759,  and  soon  afterwards 
gained  possession,  through  marriage  with  a 
daughter  of  Frederick  Phil  ipse,  of  large  tracts  of 
land  in  New  York.  At  first  he  sided  with  the 
colonists  against  England,  but,  disapproving  of 
the  separation,  he  removed  to  New  York  in  1776 
and  organized  the  Loyal  American  Regiment,  of 
which  he  became  colonel.  Later  his  property, 
together  with  that  of  his  wife,  was  confiscated 


BOBIKSOK. 

by  the  State  of  New  York.  His  country  house 
was  the  scene  of  Arnold's  preliminary  arrange- 
ments for  the  surrender  of  West  Point,  Robinson 
himself  being  implicated  in  the  plot.  After  the 
war  he  retired,  first  to  New  Brunswick  and 
later  to  Thombury,  Eng.,  where  he  lived  until 
his  death.    ' 

BOBINSON,.  Chiles  (1818-94).  The  first 
Governor  of  the  State  of  Elansas.  He  was  born 
in  Hardwick,  Mass.,  studied  for  a  time  in  Am- 
herst College,  and  in  1843  graduated  at  the 
Berkshire  Medical  School.  Six  years  later  he 
accompanied  an  emigrant  train  across  the  plains 
to  California.  He  settled  in  Sacramento,  and  re- 
mained there  for  two  years  working  as  a  miner, 
as  a  restaurant  keeper,  and  as  editor  of  the 
Settler's  and  Miner's  Tribune.  In  1850  he  was 
elected  to  the  Legislature,  in  which  he  proved 
an  able  champion  of  the  settlers,  and  also  did 
much  to  prevent  California  from  becoming 
a  slave  State.  Returning  to  Massachusetts, 
he  edited  the  Fitchburg  News  for  two  years, 
and  in  1854  was  chosen  by  the  Emigrant's 
Aid  Society  to  go  to  Kansas  and  help  save  that 
Territory  for  freedom.  He  quickly  became  the 
leader  of  the  Free-State  Party,  and  was  made 
chairman  of  the  Executive  Committee  and  com- 
mander of  the  Kansas  Volunteers.  It  was  his 
policy  to  avoid  any  resistance  to  the  United 
States  Government,  but  to  ignore  the  laws  passed 
by  the  bogus  pro-slavery  Legislature  of  1855. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the  ^Wakarusa 
War,'  and  in  1855  was  a  member  of  the  To- 
peka  Convention  which  drew  up  a  free-State 
constitution.  In  the  following  year  he  was 
elected  Governor  under  this  Constitution,  but  was 
arrested  on  a  charge  of  treason  and  usurpation 
of  office.  He  was  indicted  by  the  Federal  Grand 
Jury,  but  after  an  imprisonment  of  several 
months  he  was  tried  for  usurpation,  and,  being 
acquitted,  was  released.  Two  years  later  he 
was  reelected  Governor  by  the  Free-State  Party; 
in  1859  he  was  again  reelected  under  the  Wyan- 
dotte Constitution,  and  in  1861  he  became  the 
first  Governor  of  the  State.  He  bequeathed  most 
of  his  property  to  his  wife,  but  stipulated  that  on 
her  death  it  should  go  to  the  Kansas  State  Uni- 
versity, which  owes  its  existence  very  largely 
to  their  efforts.  He  published  The  KanscLS  Con- 
fliot  (New  York,  1892).  Consult:  Blackmar, 
Charies  Robinson  (Topeka,  1900) ;  Spring,  Kan- 
sas (Boston,  1885),  in  the  "American  Common- 
wealth" series. 

BOBINSON,  Charles  Setmoub  (1829-99). 
An  American  clergyman,  bom  at  Bennington, 
Vt.  He  studied  at  Williams  College  and  at  the 
Union  Seminary,  but  completed  his  theological 
studies  at  Princeton  in  1855.  For  five  years 
thereafter  he  preached  at  the  Park  Presbyterian 
Church  at  Troy,  N.  Y.,  then  removed  to  the  First 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Brooklyn  and  remained 
until  1868,  when  he  took  charge  of  the  American 
chapel  in  Paris,  which,  during  his  term,  he  con- 
verted from  a  preaching  station  into  an  organ- 
ized church.  At  the  opening  of  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War  he  left  Paris,  but  returned  for  a 
few  months  following  the  suppression  of  the 
Commune  in  1871  to  reorganize  what  remained 
of  the  congregation.  Returning  to  America,  he 
served  successively  the  Madison  Avenue  and  the 
Thirteenth  Street  Presbyterian  churches.  New 
York.    His  works  are  chiefly  of  a  religious  char- 


72  BOBINSOir. 

acter,  though  his  travel  and  study  in  Egypt 
give  an  archaeological  interest  to  The  Pharaohs 
of  the  Bondage  and  the  Exodus  ( 1887) .  It  is  as 
an  editor  of  hymn  collections  that  he  is  known 
outside  his  church  connections.  His  successive 
hymnals.  Songs  of  the  Church'  (1862),  Songs 
for  the  Sanctuary  (1865),  Psalms,  Hymns,  and 
Spiritual  Songs  (1874),  and  Laudes  Domini 
(1884),  have  been  widely  used. 

BOBINSON,  Edwabd  (1794-1863).  An 
American  biblical  scholar,  born  at  Southington, 
Conn.  He  graduated  at  Hamilton  College,  Clin- 
ton, N.  Y.,  in  1816.  Later  he  studied  at  Ando- 
ver,  Mass.,  and  at  Halle  and  Berlin.  On  his 
return  to  the  United  States  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor extraordinary  of  sacred  literature  at 
Andover;  but  in  1833  his  health  broke  down  and 
he  moved  to  Boston,  where  he  remained  until 
1837.  when  he  was  appointed  professor  of  biblical 
literature  in  Union  Theological  Seminary.  This 
ofiSce  he  continued  to  hold  until  his  death.  He 
twice  traveled  in  Palestine,  in  1838  and  again  in 
1852,  with  the  famous  missionary  the  Reverend 
Eli  Smith.  The  result  of  their  first  visit  was 
published  in  a  work  entitled  Biblical  Researches 
in  Palestine  and  Adjacent  Countries  (3  vols.; 
Boston  and  London,  1841;  German  ed.,  Halle, 
1841 ) .  The  work  was  republished  in  1856  with 
some  additions  after  the  second  visit.  He  edited 
and  translated  Buttman's  Oreek  Qrammar 
(1823;  3d  ed.  1851)  ;  Oesenius'  Hebrew  Lexicon 
(1836;  6th  ed.  1854)  ;  Greek  and  English  Lexi- 
con of  the  New  Testament  (1836;  2d  ed.  1847)  ; 
Oreek  Harmony  of  the  Gospels  (1845;  2d  ed. 
1851)  ;  English  Harmony  of  the  Gospels  (1846). 
He  founded  the  Biblical  Repository,  in  1631  and 
edited  it  for  four  years.  In  1843  he  established 
the  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  Consult  Hitchcock,  The 
Life,  Writings,  and  Character  of  Edward  Robin- 
son (New  York,  1863). 

BOBIKSON,.  EzEKiEL  Oilman  (1815-94).  An 
American  clergyman  and  educator,  bom  at  Attle- 
boro,  Mass.,  and  educated  at  Brown  University 
and  at  Newton  Theological  Seminary.  After  his 
ordination  he  preached  at  Norfolk,  Va.,  until 
1845,  when  he  removed  to  Cambridjge,  Mass.,  but 
soon  relinquished  the  active  ministry  and  ac- 
cepted the  chair  of  Hebrew  and  biblical  inter- 
pretation in  the  Western  Theological  Seminary 
at  Covington,  Ky.  In  1850  he  became  pastor  of 
the  Ninth  Street  Baptist  Church,  Cincinnati, 
but  three  years  later  was  appointed  professor  of 
theology  in  Rochester  Theological  Seminary  and 
in  1860  was  made  its  president.  After  twelve 
years  of  service  he  was  called  to  the  presidency 
of  Brown  University.  In  1889  he  retired  from 
this  post  on  accoimt  of  age  and  impaired  health. 
In  1893  he  became  professor  of  ethics  and  apolo- 
getics in  Chicago  University  and  continued  there 
until  his  death.  His  eminence  as  a  preacher  and 
thinker  placed  him  among  the  foremost  in  his 
denomination.  Ihiring  his  residence  at  Rochester 
he  edited  the  Christian  Review  from  1859  to 
1864.  He  also  published  a  revision  of  the  Eng- 
lish translation  of  Neander's  Planting  and  Train- 
ing of  the  Christian  Church  (1865) ;  Tale  Lec- 
tures on  Preaching  (1883).;  and  a  text-book  on 
ethics,  Principles  and  Practice  of  Morality 
(1888). 

BOBINSON,  Sir  Frederick  Philipse  (1763- 
1852).  An  English  general,  son  of  the  loyalist 
Beverley  Robinson,  bom  at  Philipse  Manor,  near 


BOBIKSOir. 

New  York  City.  In  1777  he  entered  his  father's 
Loyal  Regiment,  fought  at  Horaeneck  and  at 
Stony  Point,  where,  in  July,  1779,  he  was  taken 
priaoner,  was  released  in  Novemher,  1780,  and 
in  September,  1781,  was  present  at  the  capture 
of  New  London.  At  the  close  of  the  Revolution 
his  property  was  confiscated  and  he  went  to 
£n^land.  Robinson  saw  service  in  the  West  In- 
dies in  1794,  becoming  a  major  in  September  of 
that  year,  and  in  1812,  against  Wellington's 
wishes,  was  sent  with  the  rank  of  colonel  to  the 
Peninsula,  where  he  commanded  a  brigade  and 
distinguished  himself  by  intrepid  bravery  at  Vi- 
toria  and  San  Sebastian  and  at  the  Nive,  being 
several  times  wounded.  In  1814  he  was  promoted 
to  the  rank  of  major-general,  and  he  was  sent  in 
the  same  year  to  Canada  with  a  brigade.  He  took 
part  in  the  attack  on  Plattsburg  and  bitterly 
resented  General  Prevost's  order  to  retire.  He 
was  knighted  in  1815,  and  for  a  few  weeks  in 
that  year  acted  as  provincial  Governor  of  Upper 
Canada,  whence  in  1816  he  was  transferred  to  the 
West  Indies.    Robinson  became  general  in  1841. 

BOBIHSON,  HenbtCbabb  (1775-1867).  An 
English  man  of  letters.  He  was  bom  at  Bury 
Saint  Edmunds,  and  was  early  apprenticed  to  a 
lawyer  in  London.  He  studied  on  the  Continent, 
acquired  a  thorough  knowledge  of  German  phi- 
losophy and  literature,  and  made  the  acquamt- 
ance  of  Schiller,  GoeUie,  Wieland,  and  others. 
In  1808  he  became  special  Spanish  correspondent 
of  the  London  Tipies,  of  which  he  subsequently 
beeame  a  regular  editorial  writer  and  literary 
critic.  Among  his  literary  friends  were  Words- 
worth, Lamb,  Coleridge,  Southey,  Flaxman, 
Clarkson,  and  Charles  G.  Loring,  a  leader  of 
the  Boston  bar.  He  was  a  brilliant  conversa- 
tionalist and  raconteur.  Brief  selections  from 
his  Diary  and  Correspondence  were  published  by 
Sadler  (1869).  He  was  a  liberal  patron  of  art 
and  education,  was  one  of  the  first  members  of 
the  Athenieum  Club,  and  was  one  of  the  foimders 
of  the  Flaxman  Gallery  and  of  the  University 
College,  London. 

BOBrNSON,  Sir  Hebcuixb  Gbobob  Robebt, 
Baron  Rosmead  (1824-97).  A  British  colonial 
Governor.  He  was  educated  at  Sandhurst,  and 
soon  left  the  army  for  office  in  the  Irish  Board 
of  Public  Works,  where  he  proved  an  able  ad- 
ministrator during  the  famine  of  1846.  In  1855 
he  left  Montserrat  to  become  Governor  of  Saint 
Christopher,  and  five  years  afterwards  was 
knighted  for  the  introduction  of  coolie  labor, 
and  transferred  to  Hong  Kong.  Afterwards  he 
was  appointed  Governor  of  Ceylon  (1865),  of 
New  South  Wales  (1872),  and  of  New  Zealand 
(1879) ;  in  1880  he  succeeded  Sir  Bartle  Frere 
as  High  Commissioner  of  South  Africa,  a  post 
which  he  held  until  1889.  His  policy  was 
strongly  in  favor  of  responsible  colonial  govern- 
ment, and  the  success  of  his  first  administration 
was*  evidenced  by  his  reappointment  in  1895. 
But  he  broke  openly  with  (5ecil  Rhodes  at  the 
time  of  the  Jameson  raid,  and  in  his  anxiety 
to  arrange  the  release  of  the  raiders  refused 
Chamberlain's  order  to  settle  immediately  the 
status  of  the  Uitlanders.  His  influence  proba- 
bly postponed  the  outbreak  of  hostilities.  Robin- 
son l>ecame  Baron  Rosmead  a  year  before  his 
death. 

BOBIHSOVy  James  Habvet  (1863-).  An 
American   historian,  bom  at  Bloomington,  HL 


78  BOBIKSOir. 

He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1887,  took  post- 
graduate courses  there  and  at  Freiburg,  and  in 
1891  became  lecturer  on  European  history  at 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  Four  years 
afterwards  he  was  chosen  professor  of  history  at 
Columbia,  but  still  kept  ud  his  connection  with 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania's  Translations 
and  Reprints  from  the  Original  Sources  of  Euror 
pean  History,  in  which  he  edited  papers  on 
French  history  under  Napoleon,  and  in  the  period 
following,  and  on  (jlerman  constitutional  and 
religious  history.  With  Rolfe  he  published,  in 
1898,  Petrarch,  the  First  Modem  Scholar  an^ 
Man  of  Letters,  For  the  year  1900-01  Robinson 
was  acting  president  of  Barnard  College. 

BOBIKSOK,  John  (c.1576-1625).  The  min- 
ister of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers.  He  was  bom 
probably  in  Gainsborough,  Lincolnshire,  Enff- 
land,  and  was  educated  at  Corpus  Christi  C^- 
lege,  Cambridge.  He  took  orders  in  the  Church 
of  England,  and  worked  near  Norwich,  but  was 
suspended  for  non-conformity  by  the  Bishop 
about  1603.  He  became  a  Separatist  soon  after 
and  united  himself  with  a  congregation  at 
Scrooby.  After  several  unsuccessful  attempts 
to  emigrate  this  congregation  reached  Amster- 
dam between  April  and  August,  1608.  Here 
Robinson  was  chosen  pastor.  They  removed  to 
Leyden,  reaching  there  in  May,  1609.  Robinson 
bought  a  large  house,  together  with  three  friends, 
and  lived  as  pastor  of  a  growing  Separatist  con- 
gregation. He  carried  on  many  controversies 
with  Anglican  and  Puritan  opponents,  and  ex- 
erted a  strong  influence  over  the  English  exiles 
in  Amsterdam.  The  prosperity  of  the  congrega- 
tion was  pronounced,  but  Robinson  foresaw  that 
there  was  no  final  hope  of  permanence  for  his 
Church  in  Holland.  Therefore,  together  wtih 
Cushman,  Bradford,  Brewster,  and  others,  he  or- 
ganized a  movement  to  emigrate  to  America, 
which  was  consummated  by  the  removal  of  the 
majority  of  the  stronger  members  to  Plymouth 
in  1620.  Robinson  remained  behind  with  the 
weaker  and  older  members,  hoping  to  follow  th^ 
majority  in  time.  He  was  hindered,  chiefiy  by 
the  financial  supporters  of  the  movement  in 
England,  who  feared  his  principles  of  separation. 
He  died  in  Leyden  and  was  buried  March  4,  1625, 
in  Peter's  Church.  Robinson  was  one  of  the 
strongest  champions  of  the  Separation  from  the 
Church  of  England,  a  movement  which  grew  into 
the  system  of  Independency  and  Congregational* 
ism.  He  was  a  man  of  such  personal  force  that 
he  could  master  the  tendencies  to  disintegration 
in  the  movement  and  build  the  ideal  into  a 
stable  institution.  He  is  truly  regarded  as 
the  founder  of  Congregationalism.  The  loca- 
tion of  the  house  in  which  he  lived  in  Leyden 
is  marked  by  a  tablet  and  a  beautiful  bronze 
memorial  is  aflSxed  to  the  Peter's  Church  where 
he  is  buried.  His  works  were  collected  and  pub- 
lished in  three  volumes  with  an  introductory  bio- 
graphical study,  by  Robert  Ashton  (London  and 
Boston,  1851).  His  most  important  publications 
were:  A  Justification  of  Separation  from  the 
Church  of  England  (1610);  Of  Religious  Com- 
munion (1614);  and  Essays  or  Observations 
Divine  and  Moral  (1625;  several  subsequent  edi- 
tions). Consult  the  biography  by  Davis  (Boston, 
1903). 

BCBUSfSOVf  Sir  John  Charles  (1824—). 
An  English  art  critic,  bom  in  Nottingham.    He 


BOBINdOir. 


7i 


BOBDTdOir. 


was  educated  in  his  natiye  city  and  studied  art  in 
Paris  under  Drolling.  In  1847  he  was  made  head- 
master of  the  Government  Bchool  of  Art  at  Han- 
ley,  and  in  1862-69  he  was  superintendent  of  the 
art  collections  of  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Mu- 
seum. During  this  time  he  carried  out  a  system 
of  loan  exhibitions  from  the  main  museiun 
through  the  provincial  museums,  and  collected 
many  of  the  art  treasures  of  the  institution. 
From  1882  until  1901  he  was  Her  Majesty's  Sur- 
veyor of  Pictures.  His  works  include:  Descrip- 
tive Catalogue  of  the  Dra^cingg'  of  the  Old  Mas- 
ters in  the  Collection  of  Malcolm  of  Poltallock 
(1869) ;  A  Critical  Account  of  the  Drawings  of 
Michaelangelo  a/nd  Raffaelle  in  the.  University 
Galleries  (1870) ;  and  Memoranda  on  the  Madon- 
na dei  Gandelabri  of  Raffaele  (1878). 

BOBIKSON,  John  Cleveland  (1817-97).  An 
American  soldier,  bom  in  Binghamton,  N.  Y. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1839,  and  served 
with  distinction  under  Generals  Taylor  and  Scott 
in  the  Mexican  War.  In  1853  and  1854  he 
served  against  the  Indians  in  Texas,  and  in  1857 
and  1858  was  with  the  expedition  sent  out  to 
Utah  against  the  Mormons.  When  the  Civil  War 
broke  out,  he  was  in  command  of  Fort  McHenry 
at  Baltimore,  and  prevented  it  from  being  seized 
by  Confederate  sympathizers.  Afterwards  he  was 
engaged  in  the  work  of  mustering  in  troops  at 
Columbus,  Ohio,  and.  Detroit,  Mich.,  and  in  Sep- 
tember, 1861,  became  colonel  of  the  First  Michi- 
gan Volimteers.  In  the  following  April  he  was 
promoted  to  be  brigadier-general,  commanded  a 
brigade  at  Newport  News,  and  then  was  made 
a  brigade  commander  in  Kearny's  division  of  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac.  He  fought  with  that  army 
in  the  Peninsular  campaign,  at  Fredericksburg, 
Chanoellorsville,  Gettysburg,  and  in  the  battles 
of  the  Wilderness.  At  Spottsylvania  Court 
House,  while  leading  a  charge  of  his  division, 
he  received  a  wound  which  necessitated  the  ampu- 
tation of  his  left  leg  and  thus  incapacitated  him 
from  further  service  in  the  field.  In  1872  he  was 
elected  Lieutenant-Governor  of  New  York.  In 
1877  and  again  in  1878  he  was  chosen  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Grand  Arm^  of  the  Republic,  and 
in  1887  he  was  made  president  of  the  Society  of 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac 

JBOBIKSOll',  Lucius  (1810-91).  An  Ameri- 
can political  leader,  bom  at  Windham,  N.  Y. 
He  received  an  academic  education,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1832.  In  1840  he  removed  to 
New  York  City,  but  in  1855  he  gave  up  his  law 
practice  and  retired  to  a  farm  in  Chemimg 
County.  In  1859  as  the  Republican  candidate, 
but  with  Democratic  aid,  he  was  elected  to  the 
State  Assembly,  and  in  the  following  year  was  re- 
elected. In  1861  he  was  elected  State  Comptrol- 
ler on  the  Union  Combination  ticket  by  an  un- 
?i«cedented  majority,  and  in  1863  was  reelected, 
'en  years  later  he  was  again  elected  Comptroller, 
this  time  on  the  Democratic  ticket,  but  he  re- 
signed the  next  year  to  accept  the  office  of  Gov- 
ernor. In'  1879  he  was  renominated  for  Gov- 
ernor by  the  Democratic  Party,  but,  owing  to  the 
hostility  of  Tammany  Hall,  was  defeated. 

BOBINSON,  RoBEBT  (1735-90).  An  English 
preacher  and  hymn-writer,  born  at  Swaffham,  in 
Norfolk.  After  attending  two  grammar  schools, 
he  was  apprenticed  (1749)  to  a  London  hair- 
dresser. He  continued  his  education  by  himself; 
and,  coming  under  the  influence  of  Whitefield,  he 


began  to  preach.  In  1761  he  became  minister  at 
the  Stone  Yard  Baptist  Chapel  in  Cambridge 
built  a  new  church  (1764),  and  drew  large  con- 
gregations. He  lived  at  different  villages  in  the 
neighborhood,  where  he  augmented  his  small  sti- 
pend by  farming  and  by  trade  in  corn  and  coal. 
Though  nominally  a  Baptist,  Robinson  was  very 
liberal  in  his  religious  views;  he  became  in  fact 
a  Unitarian.  Robinson  was  a  bold  and  racy 
preacher  and  writer.  Among  his  works  are: 
A  Plea  for  the  Divinity  of  Our  Lord  (1776),  the 
arguments  of  which  he  afterwards  regarded  as 
untenable;  a  translation  from  the  French  of 
Jacques  Saurin's  Sermons  (two  sermons,  1770;  5 
vols.,  1784) ;  a  translation  of  Jean  Claude's 
Essay  on  the  Composition  of  a  Sermon  (1778- 
79) ;  A  History  of  Baptism  (ed.  by  George  I^er, 
1790) ;  and  many  other  miscellaneous  pamphlets 
on  theological  questions  and  the  slave  trade.  He 
also  wrote  several  hymns,  of  which  two  are  of 
great  beauty:  "Come  Thou  Fount  of  Every  Bless- 
ing" and  ''Mighty  God,  while  Angels  Bless  Thee." 
Consult :  Memoirs  of  Life  and  Writings,  by  Dyer 
(London,  1796) ;  and  Miscellaneous  Works,  ed., 
with  memoir,  by  Flower  (Harlow,  1807). 

BOBINSON,,  Stuabt  (1814-81).  A  clergyman 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church.  He  was  bom  at 
Strabane,  near  Londonderry,  Ireland,  came  to 
America,  and  was  graduated  at  Amherst  College 
in  1836.  He  studied  at  the  Union  Theological 
Seminary,  Prince  Edward,  Va.,  and  at  Princeton 
Seminary  before  taking  up  his  pastorate  at 
Kanawha  Salines,  W.  Va.,  in  1841.  From  here  he 
removed  to  FranJcfort,  Ky.,  then  to  Baltimore, 
and  in  1856  became  professor  of  Church  polity 
and  pastoral  theology  in  the  Presbyterian  The- 
ological Seminary  at  Danville,  Ky.  In  1858  he 
assumed  the  pasterate  of  the  Second  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Louisville,  Ky.,  and  edited  The  True 
PreAyterian,  a  paper  which  was  suppressed  by 
the  military  authorities  on  the  charge  of  the 
disloyalty  of  its  editer,  who  thereupon  removed 
to  Toronto  and  remained  there  until  the  close  of 
the  war.  In  1866  he  was  expelled  from  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  meeting  in  Saint  Louis,  as  a 
member  of  the  Louisville  Synod  that  had  adopted 
the  'Declaration  and  Testimony,'  a  paper  pro- 
testing against  the  political  deliverances  of  th6 
five  preceding  General  Assemblies  as  'unwise,  un- 
constitutional, and  unscriptural.'  In  1869  the 
Synod  of  Kentucky  under  his  lead  united  with 
the  General  Assembly  of  the  Southern  Presbyte- 
rian Church  and  chose  him  their  moderator. 
Later  he  was  prominent  in  framing  the  constitu- 
tion and  promoting  the  success  of  the  General 
Presbyterian  Alliance.  He  published :  Slavery  as 
Recognized  in  the  Mosaic  Civil  Law,  and  as 
Recognized  also  and  Allowed,  in  the  AhrahanUc, 
Mosaic,  and  Christian  Church  (1866),  and  Dis- 
courses of  Redemption  (1866). 

BOBIKSON,  Theodobe  (1852-96).  An  Ameri- 
can landscape  painter  of  the  Impressionist  School, 
bom  at  Irasburg,  Vt.  He  studied  under  Carolus 
Duran  and  Cr4r6me  in  Paris,  and  afterwards  at 
Giverney  with  the  Impressionist  Monet.  Upon 
his  final  return  to  America  he  devoted  himself 
with  great  success  te  Delaware  and  Hudson  River 
Canal  scenery.  Robinson  was  one  of  the  foremost 
representatives  of  the  Impressionist  School  (q.v.) 
in  America,  but  such  was  the  effect  of  his  early 
training  that  he  rendered  form  in  a  way  easy  to 
understend.     His  works  are  mostly  in  private 


BOBDTSOir. 


78 


pOMttsion.  Among  the  best  known  are:  '*A 
Brid^,"  ''In  the  Sunlight"  (1892),  Grand  Union 
Hotel,  New  York;  "Washing  Day,"  "On  the  Tow- 
Path,"  and  "Afternoon  Shadows"  (1894) ;  "West 
Kiver  Valley,"  and  "October  Afternoon,"  ex- 
hfl»ited  at  the  National  Academy  (1896).  Bob- 
inacm  died  in  New  York  City,  April  2,  1896. 

BOBIHSONy  Therbse  Albebtine  Luise  (pen- 
mune  Tai^ti,  composed  from  the  initials  of  her 
maiden  name)  (1797-1870).  A  cosmopolitan  au- 
thoress, daughter  of  Prof.  Ludwig  H.  Yon  Jakob. 
She  was  bom  at  Halle,  Germany,  lived  for  a  time 
with  her  father  in  Russia;  married  (1828)  Prof. 
Edward  Robinson  (q.v.),  the  American  biblical 
lehoiar;  accompanied  him  to  the  United  States, 
where  she  studied  the  languages  of  the  aborigines. 
Mrs.  Robinson  wrote  extensiyely  both  in  English 
and  in  German.  Among  her  publications  are 
German  translations  (under  the  signature  Ernest 
Berthold)  of  SooU's  Black  Dwwrf  and  Old  Mor- 
ioHtjf  ( 1822) ;  P«yc^,  a  volume  of  tales  (1824) ; 
a  German  translation  of  Servian  folk-songs 
(1825-26);  CharakterUtik  der  VoUcslieder  ger- 
mammiher  yaiumen  (1840) ;  Die  Unechtheit  der 
lAeder  Oseiane  ( 1840) ;  Die  Colonieation  wm  Neu- 
England  (1847);  tales  in  German — Heloiee, 
Life'e  Dieeipline,  and  The  EmleSf  translated  into 
English  by  her  daughter  (1860-53) ;  a  volume  of 
rsviewB,  entitled  Hiaiorical  View  of  the  Lanr 
gmagee  and  Literature  of  the  Slavic  Nations 
(1860) ;  Fifteen  Tears,  a  Picture  of  the  Last 
Century  (1870).  Her  Gesammelte  JioveUen  ap- 
peared in  two  volumes  in  1874. 

BOBINBOV,  William  Callthan  (1834—). 
An  American  lawyer  and  educator,  bom  in  Nor- 
wich, Conn.  He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  in 
1854,  and  at  the  Gkneral  Theological  Seminary, 
New  York  City,  in  1857,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1864.  For  some  time  he  was  lecturer  and 
professor  of  law  in  Yale  University.  In  1895  he 
was  elected  dean  of  the  law  schools  of  the  Catho- 
lie  University  of  America,  Washington,  D.  C. 
While  practicing  law  in  New  Haven  he  had  been 
judge  of  the  Cify  Court  (1869-71),  judge  of  the 
Oofurt  of  Common  Pleas  (1874-76),  and  a  mem- 
ber of  the  L^slature  of  Connecticut.  His  works 
include:  Elementary  Law  (1882),  a  widely  used 
text-book;  Law  of  Patents  (1890) ;  and  Elements 
of  American  Jurisprudence  (1900). 

BOBIHSON,  William  Ebigena  (1814-92). 
An  Irish-American  journalist  and  politician,  bom 
in  Unagh,  County  Tyrone,  Ireland.  After  ob- 
taining a  classical  education,  he  emigrated  to  the 
United  States.  He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1841, 
then  became  associate  editor  of  the  New  York 
Tribune^  and  from  1844  to  1848  was  its  Wash- 
ington correspondent,  writing  under  the  nom  de 
plume  of  'Richelieu.'  He  subseauently  edited  sev- 
eral other  papers,  and  from  1854  to  1862  prac- 
ticed law  in  New  York.  In  the  latter  year  Presi- 
dent Lincoln  appointed  him  assessor  of  internal 
revenue  for  the  Third  New  York  District,  and 
after  holding  this  office  for  four  years,  he  was  in 
1866  elected  to  Congress,  where  by  his  determined 
advocacy  he  secured  the  passage  in  1868  of  a  bill 
protecting  abroad  the  rights  of  naturalized  as 
well  as  native-bom  citizens.  Previous  to  this 
(1847)  he  had  taken  an  Important  part  in  or- 
ganizing a  movement  for  the  relief  of  Ireland, 
during  the  great  Irish  famine,  and  had  secured 
the  passage  of  the  bill  sending  the  United  States 
wmnhip  Macedonian  with  provisions  to  his  na- 
^    You  xy.-«. 


tive  land.    He  was  reelected  to  Congress  in  1880 
and  1882. 

BOBINSOK  CBU80E.  A  romance  by  Daniel 
Defoe  (1719),  founded  on  the  actual  adventures 
of  Alexander  Selkirk  during  his  four  years'  resi- 
dence in  the  island  of  Juan  Fernandez.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  famous  and  at  the  same  time 
most  plausible  of  all  stories  of  adventure,  has 
been  translated  into  several  lan^ages,  and  has 
enjoyed  an  undiminished  popularity.  For  special 
study,  the  reprint  edited  by  Austin  Dobson  (Lon- 
don, 1883),  with  a  bibliography,  may  be  men- 
tioned. 

BOB  BOY.  The  popular  name  of  Bobert 
MacGregor  or  Campbell  (1671-1734),  a  cele- 
brated Scottish  outlaw.  He  was  bom  in  Bu- 
chanan Parish,  Stirlingshire,  and  was  the  second 
son  of  Donald  MacGregor  of  Glengyle,  by  a 
daughter  of  Campbell  of  Glenneaves.  In  Ga!elie» 
the  name  Roy  signifies  red^  and  was  applied  to 
him  from  his  ruddy  complexion  and  color  of 
hair.  Rob  Roy  assumed  tne  maternal  name  of 
Campbell  in  consequence  of  the  outlawry  of  the 
clan  MacGregor  bv  the  Scottish  Parliament.  He 
received  a  fair  eaucation  and  in  his  youth  was 
distinguished  for  his  skill  in  the  use  of  the  broad- 
sword, in  which  the  uncommon  length  of  his  arms 
was  of  much  advantage.  Like  many  of  the  Hi^- 
land  proprietors  of  the  period,  he  was  engaged  in 
grazing  and  rearing  black  cattle  for  the  B^lish 
marked  but  his  herds  were  so  often  stolen  by 
raiders  that,  to  protect  himself,  he  maintained  a 
party  of  armed  men,  also  protecting  his  neighbors' 
flocks,  in  return  for  whicn  he  levied  a  tax  which 
went  under  the  name  of  'black  mail.'  By  mar- 
riage he  acquired  the  estates  of  Craig  Royston 
and  Inversnaid,  near  the  head  of  Loch  Lomond. 
In  consequence  of  losses  incurred  in  unsuccess- 
ful speculations  in  cattle,  for  which  he  had  bor- 
rowed money  from  the  Duke  of  Montrose,  his 
estates  were  seized  by  the  Duke.  Rendered  des- 
perate by  his  misfortunes,  Rob  Roy  collected  a 
band  of  about  20  followers,  and  made  open  war 
upon  the  Duke,  sweeping  away  all  the  cattle  of 
a  district,  and  intercepting  the  rents  of  his 
tenants  notwithstanding  the  vicinity  of  the  gar- 
risons of  Stirling,  Dumbarton,  and  Glasgow. 
His  exploits  have  been  immortalized  by  Sir  Walter 
Scott  in  his  novel  Rob  Roy,  written  in  1817. 
In  1722  he  submitted  to  the  authorities,  and 
was  imprisoned  in  Newgate,  and  in  1727  was  sen- 
tenced to  transportation  to  Barbadoes,  but  was 
reprieved.  He  retired  to  Balquhidder,  where  he 
died. 

BOB^ABTy  Amy.  A  character  in  Scott's 
Kenilworth,  secretly  married  to  the  Earl  of 
Leicester.  All  was  about  to  be  revealed  to  Eliza- 
beth during  the  revels  at  Kenilworth,  when  Amy 
was  lured  back  to  Cummor  Place,  by  Vamey,  the 
Earl's  accomplice,  and  was  killed  by  falling 
through  a  trap-door. 

BOB^ON,  Stuavt  (1836-1903).  An  Ameri- 
can comedian.  He  was  born  at  Annapolis,  Md., 
his  real  name  being  Robson  Stuart.  He  made  his 
d^but  at  the  Baltimore  Museum  in  1852,  but 
though  his  part  then  was  serious,  his  voice  and 
manner  unintentionally  made  it  laughable,  and 
he  wisely  determined  to  devote  himself  to  comedy, 
in  which  he  quickly  met  with  success.  His  CSap- 
tain  Crosstree  in  the  burlesque  of  Black-Eyed 
Susan  is  one  of  his  best-remembered  characters. 
In  1877  he  made  a  hit  in  Our  Boarding  House 


BOBSON. 


76 


BOCHAMBEATT. 


with  W.  H.  Crane  (q.v.)  and  the  two  established 
a  partnership  which  lasted  till  1889.  They  suc- 
■oessfnlly  revived  several  of  Shakespeare's 
comedies,  but  their  most  popular  production  was 
Bronson  Howard's  play  The  Henrietta  (1888- 
89).  After  parting  with  Crane,  Robson  starred 
in  The  Henrietta,  She  Stoops  to  Conquer,  The 
Meddler,  and  other  pieces.  He  died  April  29, 
1903.  .  Consult:  McKay  and  Wingate,  Famous 
American  Actors  of  To-Day  (New  York,  1896)  ; 
Strang,  Famous  Actors  of  the  Day  in  America 
(Boston,  1900). 

BOBUSTi;    rA-b^s't*,    Jaoopo.      See    Tinto- 

KETTO. 

BO^Y,  Henby  John  (1830—).  An  English 
educator,  born  at  Tamworth.  He  was  educated 
at  Bridgworth,  and  Saint  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, where  after  his  graduation  he  was  tutor 
and  lecturer  from  1853  until  1861.  There  he 
published  Remarks  on  College  Reform  (1858). 
Afterwards  he  was  master  at  Dulwich  College  for 
four  years,  and  from  1866  until  1868  he  was 
professor  of  jurisprudence  at  University  College, 
London.  In  1890-95  he  was  a  member  of  Par- 
liament from  Eccles.  His  works  include  a  Cfram- 
mar  of  Latin  Lan^iMi^(  1871-74)  and  an  Introduc- 
tion to  Justinian's  Digest  ( 1884),  a  very  valuable 
work. 

BOC  (Ar.  rukhkh,  from  Pers.  rukh,  hero, 
rhinoceros,  roc).  A  marvelous  bird  of  Arabic 
legend.  It  was  so  large  that  it  could  easily  carry 
off  elephants,  and  Sindbad  the  Sailor  records  his 
coming  upon  the  egg  of  the  bird,  measuring  50 
paces  in  circumference.  The  home  of  the  mon- 
ster was  localized  in  ^iadagascar,  and  this  gives 
a  clue  to  one  of  the  roots  of  the  tradition.  That 
island  was  the  home  of  a  large  prehistoric  bird 
(the  iEpyornis,  q.v.),  of  which  fossil  eggs  have 
been  discovered,  measuring  13  inches  in  length. 
In  the  Babylonian  mythology  the  storm-god  Zu 
was  represented  in  the  form  of  a  bird,  the  idea 
arising  from  the  bird-like  masses  of  clouds  gath- 
ering at  the  storm.  Like  traditions  of  such  a 
cosmical  bird  are  to  be  found  in  Indian,  East 
Indian,  Persian,  and  Egyptian  mythology.  Con- 
sult :  Yule's  notes  to  his  Marco  Polo  ( London, 
1871);  and  Lane's  Arabian  Nights  (ib.,  1838- 
40). 

BO^CA,  Julio  A.  (1843-).  A  South  Ameri- 
can statesman.  President  of  Argentina.  He  was 
bom  at  Tucuman.  In  1880  he  was  elected  to  the 
Presidency  by  the  Federalist  Party,  but  had  to 
terrorize  Buenos  Ayres  and  Corrientes  before  he 
could  enter  on  his  administration,  in.  which  the 
currency  was  debased  and  the  national  debt 
greiatly  increased.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother-in-law,  Juarez  Olman  (q.v.),  in  1886, 
who  was  soon  displaced  by  Pellegrini,  and  imder 
this  reformer  Roca  held  a  Cabinet  post.  In  1895 
he  became  Vice-President  and  at  the  next  election 
was  chosen  President  for  the  term  1898-1904. 

BOGAMBOLE  {Allium  scorodoprasum) ,  A 
North  European  plant  closely  related  to,  larger 
than,  and  resembling  garlic  in  habit,  like  which 
,it  is  sometimes  cultivated  and  used. 

•  BOOH,  r6k,  Saint  (c.l295-c.l327).  A  popu- 
lar saint  of  the  French  Church,  the  patron  of 
those  sick  of  the  plague,  and  specially  honored 
by  physicians  and  hospitals.  He  was  born  of 
noble  family  at  Montpellier.  He  undertook  a 
pilgrimage  to  Rome  at  a  time  when  pestilence 


was  raging  in  Italy  and  devoted  himself  to  tHe 
care  of  the  sick  in  different  places.  At  Piacenza 
he  was  himself  smitten  and  dragged  himself  to  a 
neighboring  forest,  where  a  dog  is  said  to  have 
brought  him  food  daily  till  his  recovery.  He  re- 
turn^ to  Montpellier,  where  he  was  thrown  into 
prison  as  a  spy,  and  died  about  1327.  His  day 
is  August  16th. 

BOCKAMBFiA'D',  r^'shftN^by,  Jean  Bafcistb 
DoNATiEN  DB  ViMEUB,  Couut  de  ( 1725-1807 ) .  A 
French  soldier,  bom  July  1,  1725,  at  VendOme, 
where  his  father^  a  general  in  the  French  Army, 
was  Governor.  He  was  educated  for  the  Church 
at  Blois,  but  in  1742  became  a  comet  in  the 
army.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the  War  of 
the  Austrian  Succession,  and  at  its  close  had  at- 
tained the  rank  of  colonel.  In  1749  he  succeeded 
his  father  as  Gk)vemor  of  Venddme.  He'  com- 
manded his  regiment  in  the  Minorca  Expedition 
of  1756,  distinguished  himself  in  the  capture  of 
Port  Mahon,  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  brig- 
adier-general, and  served  with  credit  in  the  cam- 
paigns of  the  Seven  Years'  War  in  Germany.  In 
1769  he  became  inspector-general  of  the  French 
Army  and  in  1780  lieut^ant-general.  In  the 
latter  year  he  was  sent  at  the  head  of  6000 
French  regulars  to  cooperate  with  Washington 
against  the  English  in  America,  and  landed  at 
Newport  on  July  10th.  The  French  fleet  under 
De  Temay,  which  had  accompanied  Rochambeau's 
army,  was  soon  afterwards  blockaded  in  Narra- 
gansett  Bay,  and  Rochambeau,  unwilling  to  aban- 
don De  Temay,  was  kept  inactive,  in  Rhode  Isl- 
and for  an  entire  year.  Rochambeau's  forces. left 
Rhode  Island  in  July,  1781,  marched  across  Con- 
necticut, and  joined  Washington  on  the  Hudscm. 
On  August  19th  the  combined  forces  began  their 
famous  southward  march  to  Yorktown,  where 
they  joined  Lafayette's  little  army  by  September 
18th.  On  October  19th  Comwallis  was  forced  to 
surrender.  During  the  entire  campaign  Rocham- 
beau placed  himself  wholly  imder  Washington's 
command,  and,  according  to  his  instructions, 
acted  as  though  his  troops  were  simply  a  part  of 
the  American  army.  In  recognition  of  their 
services  Congress  voted  the  thanks  of  the  nation 
to  Rochambeau  and  his  troops.  Returning  to 
France  early  in  1783,  Rochambeau  was  appointed 
Governor  of  Picardy  and  Artpis,  and  in  1791  was 
made  a  marshal.  He  was  in  sympathy  with  the 
Revolutionary  movement  in  France  at  the  out- 
set, and  for  a  time  was  commander  of  the 
Northern  Army,  but  the  excesses  of  the  ]Sevo- 
lutionary  leaders  caused  him  to  retire  in  dis- 
gust in  July,  1792.  He  was  imprisoned  dur- 
ing the  Reign  of  Terror,  and  only  escaped 
the  guillotine  by  the  fall  of  Robespierre 
in  1794.  Subsequently  he  was  released  and  was 
restored  by  Napoleon  to  his  rank  and  estates. 
He  died  at  Thov6,  May  10,  1807.  He  published 
M6moires  militaires,  historiques  et  politiques  de 
Rochambeau  (Paris,  1809).  A  part  of  the  first 
volume,  translated  into  English  by  M.  W.  E. 
Wright,  was  published  under  the  title  MSmoirs 
of  the  Marshal  Count  de  Rochambeau  Relative  to 
the  War  of  Independence  of  the  United  States 
(1838).  Rochambeau's  correspondence  from  his 
arrival  at  Newport  to  the  close  of  the  Virginia 
campaign  has  been  printed  in  Daniel,  Histoire  de 
la  participation  de  la  France  ^  V4tablissement 
des  Etats  Unis  d'AmMque,  vol.  v.  (Paris,  1892). 
A    brief    anonymous    work    entitled    Journal 


BOCHAKBBAir. 


77 


BOOHBFOBT. 


dea  €^p4ration9  dtt  corps  franpais  sous  le 
comtnandemeni  du  comie  de  Rochamheau, 
which  has  been  tnuislated  into  £nglish  and  pub- 
lished in  several  forms,  has  been  attributed  to 
him,  and  he  is  supposed  to  have  inspired  if  not 
actually  collaborated  in  the  'Work  of  Francoise 
S0111I4,  Hisioire  des  troubles  de  VAmMqtie  an" 
glaiae  (Paris,  1787). 

BXHJHfDALE.  A  manufacturing  town  in 
Lancashire,  England,  11  miles  north-northeast  of 
Manchester  (Map:  England,  D  3).  The  parish 
church  dates  from  the  twelfth  century.  There  is 
a  free  grammar  school  founded  in  1565.  The 
town  hall  is  a  fine  building.  Rochdale  is  note- 
worthy in  economic  history  as  the  scene  of.  the 
first  successful  experiment  in  co5peration.  (See 
RocHDAUc  PiONEEBS.)  Woolen  manufactures 
were  introduced  by  a  colony  of  Flemings  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  III. ;  cotton  is  manufactured  and 
there  are  a  number  of  iron  foundries  and  machine 
works.  There  is  a  considerable  trade  in  coal  and 
stone.  Rochdale  is  mentioned  in  Domesday  as 
Reeedam,  Its  first  charter  was  granted  by  Rich- 
ard I.  John  Bright  was  a  native  of  Rochdale; 
a  bronze  statue  to  his  memory  is  one  of  the 
town's  monuments.  Population,  in  1891,  76,160; 
in  1901»  83^100.  Consult:  Fishwick,  History  of 
Rochdale  (Rochdale,  1889) ;  Mattley,  Annals  of 
Rochdale  (ib.,  1899).   • 

BOCHDAI.E  PIOKEEBS  (Rochdale  Society 
of  Equitable  Pioneers).  An  organization  of  flan- 
nel weavers  of  Rochdale,  Lancashire,  England, 
founded  in  1844,  the  first  to  attain  distinction  in 
the  coSperative  movement.  There  were  28  mem- 
bers, each  subscribing  for  one  share  of  stock,  a 
total  of  £28,  and  this  not  all  paid  in.  The  sec- 
ond year  there  were  74  members  and  a  capital 
stock  of  £181.  A  small  store  was  opened  and  the 
necessaries  of  life  sold  to  members  idmost  at  cost. 
Within  twenty-five  years  the  society  had  a  mem- 
bership of  over  5560  and  a  stock  of  £81,232.  The 
small  store  expanded  into  numerous  shops  and 
manufactories,  and  a  hospital,  reading  rooms,  a 
large  library,  and  classes  in  arts  and  sciences 
were  established.  The  store  was  managed  in  the 
name  and  for  the  advantage  of  the  working-class 
purchasers.  The  town  savings  bank  failed  soon 
after  the  organization  of  the  companv,  which 
thereupon  practically  took  the  place  of  the  bank. 
During  the  early  years  the  promoters  served  with- 
out recompense,  but  afterwards  salaried  officials 
were  employed.  The  profits  were  divided.  After 
paying  all  expenses  and  a  dividend  of  5  per  cent. 
on  the  capital  stock,  2.5  per  cent,  of  the  balance 
was  allotted  to  the  educational  fund,  and  the  re- 
mainder was  distributed  among  the  members  in 
proportion  to  their  purchases.  The  society  has 
not  only  been  a  great  success,  but  it  has  stimu- 
lated the  co5perative  movement  throughout  Eng- 
land. Ck>nsult:  Jones,  Cooperative  Production 
(Oxford,  1894)  ;  Holyoake,  The  History  of  Co- 
operation in  Rochdale  (London,  1879) ;  Potter, 
The  Cooperative  Movement  (ib.,  1891).  See 
Ok>febation. 

BOGHE  (Pr.,  rock),  Rock  Alum,  or  Ro- 
HAif  Alum,  a  potash  alum  originally  from 
Civita  Vecchia,  Italy,  near  where  it  is  said  to 
occur  native,  but  also  made  from  alunite,  and 
highly  prized  by  dyers  owing  to  its  freedom  from 
iron  sulphate.  The  name  is  also  frequently  given 
to  common  alum  artificially  colored,  as  by  Arme- 
nian bole  or  Venetian  red. 


BOGHE,  Sir  Botle  (1743-1807).  An  Irish 
politician.  In  early  life  he  entered  the  army, 
and  saw  service  in  America.  He  sat  in  the  Irish 
Parliament  from  1777  until  the  Union,  uniformly 
supporting  the  eovemment,  in  return  for  which 
he  was  made  a  oaronet  and  received  a  pension. 
He  contributed  not  a  little  to  the  bringing  about 
of  the  Union;  but  his  fame  chiefly  rests  upon 
his  reputation  as  an  inveterate  perpetrator  of 
'bulls*  of  the  true  Irish  variety. 

BOCHE^  James  Jeffbet  (1847—).  An 
American  poet  and  journalist  of  Irish  stock.  He 
was  bom  in  Montmellick,  Queens  Oounty,  Ire- 
land. In  his  infancy  his  parents  emigrated  to 
Prince  Edward  Island,  where  he  was  educated 
in  Saint  Dunstan's  College.  In  186Q  he  went  to 
Boston,  Mass.,  where  he  engaged  in  commerce  and 
in  1883  joined  the  editorial  staff  of  the  Pilot,  then 
edited  by  John  Boyle  O'Reilly.  In  1890  Roche  be- 
came its  editor-in-chief.  His  writings  include: 
Songs  and  Satires  ( 1887) ;  Ballads  of  Blue  Water 
(1896);  The  Vase,  and  Other  Brio-a-Brae 
(1900);  Life  of  John  Boyle  O'Reilly  (1891); 
and  The  Story  of  the  Filibusters  (1891). 

BOCHE,  rdsh,  Tbo^lus  de  Mesoouat,  Marquis 
de  la.  A  French  explorer  and  colonizer,  born  in 
Brittany,  France,  about  the  middle  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  In  1598  he  bargained  with  Heniy 
IV.  to  colonize  New  France.  He  was  made 
lieutenant-general  of  Canada,  Hochelaga,  New- 
foundland, and  Labrador,  and  of  the  acljacent 
countries  "not  possessed  by  any  Christian 
prince."  Having  ^fathered  an  expedition  lamly 
composed  of  convicts  from  the  prisons,  in  1698 
he  set  sail  with  these  in  a  small  vessel  and  ex- 
plored the  country  about  the  mouth  of  the  Saint 
Lawrence.  Upon  Sable  Island  he  left  the  con- 
victs, 40  in  number,  intending  to  transfer  them 
afterwards  to  the  mainland,  but  his  vessel  wfts 
driven  by  a  tempest  back  to  France,  and  it  was 
not  until  1603  that  the  12  survivors  were  taken 
off  by  Chefdhdtel.  Consult:  Champlain's 
Voyages,  in  vol.  viii.  of  the  Publications  of  the 
Prince  Society  (Boston,  1878-82)  ;  and  Parkman, 
Pioneers  of  New  France  (ib.,  1866;  later  ed. 
1897). 

BOCHEFOBT,  rAsh'fdr^.  A  fortified  seaport 
and  naval  arsenal  in  the  Department  of  Cha- 
rente-Inf^rieure,  France,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Charente,  nine  miles  from  the  sea,  and  18 
miles  southeast  of  La  Rochelle  (Map:  France,  £ 
6) .  It  is  surrounded  by  ramparts,  and  protected 
by  forts  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  is  a  clean, 
well-built  town.  The  harbor  is  one  of  the  three 
largest  in  France.  Rochefort  has  fine  wharfs, 
extensive  magazines,  dock-yards,  cannon  foun- 
dries, and  large  bread  and  biscuit  stores. 
The  most  celebrated  of  its  many  institutions 
are  the  marine  hospital,  founded  in  1787,  and  the 
general  civil  college.  Shipbuilding  is  the  most 
important  industry,  and  some  furniture  is  manu- 
factured. Rochefort's  rise  from  a  fishing  village 
dates  from  1666,  when  Louis  XIV.  chose  it  for  a 
naval  station  and  Vauban  planned  its  fortifica- 
tions. While  waiting  at  the  neighboring  He 
d'Aix  for  a  chance  to  escape  from  Rochefort  to 
America,  Napoleon  surrendered  to  the  British. 
Population,  in  1901,  36,468. 

BOCHEFOBT,  Victob  Henbi,  Count  de  Roche- 
fort-Lucay  (1830 — ).  A  French  journalist  and 
politician,  bom  in  Paris.  He  was  educated  at 
the  College  of  Saint-Louis  and  shortly  after  hia 


BOCHEVOBT. 


78 


graduation  he  found  employment  in  a  Govern- 
ment office.  In  1863  Rochefort  became  one  of  the 
editors  of  the  Figaro,  and  in  1866  began  a  series 
of  mordant  attacks  on  the  Napoleonic  Govern- 
ment which  aroused  the  hostility  of  the  authori- 
ties until  the  publisher  dropped  Rochefort  from 
the  editorial  sieiff.  The  repeal  of  the  most  arbi- 
trary restrictions  on  the  press  in  1868  enabled 
Rochefort  to  start  La  Lanteme,  a  weekly  which 
soon  obtained  an  immense  circulation.  Con- 
victed of  disrespect  toward  the  Government  and 
sentenced  to  a  year  in  prison,  a  fine  of  10,000 
francs,  and  deprivation  of  civil  and  political 
rights,  Rochefort  escaped  to  Brussels,  where  he 
continued  the  publication  of  La  Lanteme,  In 
1869  he  was  elected  to  the  Legislative  Assembly. 
He  showed  himself  as  hostile  as  ever  to  the  Gov- 
ernment; published  La  Marseillaiae,  and  was 
again  sent  to  prison,  but  on  the  downfall  of  the 
Empire  he  regained  his  liberty  and  was  for  a 
short  time  member  of  the  Government  of  Na- 
tional Defense.  After  the  capitulation  of  Paris, 
January,  1871^  he  founded  Le  Mot  d'Ordre, 
which  defended  Gambetta's  policy.  He  believed 
that  Thiers  was  unfriendly  to  a  republic,  and 
threw  in  his  lot  with  the  Commune.  Roche- 
fort was  arrested,  tried,  and  in  1873  sent  to 
the  penal  colony  of  New  Caledonia.  He  es- 
caped in  1874,  returned  and  revived  the  Lan- 
teme in  Geneva.  The  general  amnestv  of  July, 
1880,4>ermitted  his  return  to  Paris,  where  he  es- 
tablished a  journal  named  L'Intransigeant.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1885, 
but  resigned  the  following  year.  In  1888  Roche- 
fort played  a  prominent  part  in  the  political 
agitation  caused  by  the  movement  in  favor  of 
CKneral  Boulanger,  whom  he  earnestly  supported, 
and  with  whom,  in  1889,  he  suffered  exile.  He 
returned  to  Paris  after  the  amnesty  of  1896.  He 
published  Les  woentures  de  ma  vie  (Paris,  1896). 

BOGHEFOX7CAX7LD,  rdsh'fSS'ky.  See  La 
Rochefoucauld. 

BOCHE70X70ATJi:j>-LIAKCOnBT,  W1BLN% 
kSSr'.     See  La  Rochefougauld-Liancoubt. 

BOCHEGBOSSE,  rteh'grAs^  Geobges  (1859 
— ).  A  French  painter,  bom  at  Versailles.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Jules  Lefdbvre  and  Boulanger. 
His  themes  are  generally  historical,  and  he  treats 
them  in  an  emotional,  naturalistic  style,  with  a 
distinct  reveling  in  the  horrible.  **Vitellius" 
(1882),  "Andromache"  (1883),  "La  Jacquerie" 
(1886),  "The  Fall  of  Babylon"  (1891),  and 
"The  Death  of  the  Emperor  Geta"  (1899)  are 
examples  of  his  energetic  but  sensational  and 
often  brutal  painting.  In  quite  another  style  and 
beautiful  in  color  is  his  "Knight  Among  the 
Flowers"  (1894,  in  the  Luxembourg). 

BOCHELLE,.  rd'sh^K,  La.  The  capital  of  the 
Department  of  Charente-Inf^rieure,  France,  a 
seaport  and  first-class  fortress,  situated  on  a 
bay  on  the  western  coast,  290  miles  by  rail  from 
Paris  and  120  miles  from  Bordeaux  (Map: 
France,  E  5).  It  is  a  well-built  town  surrounded 
by  a  line  of  fortifications  over  three  miles  in 
circumference.  Its  harbor  is  one  of  the  best  on 
the  coast.  The  most  interesting  building  of  the 
town  is  the  town  hall,  dating  from  1486-1607, 
with  beautifully  carved  belfries,  a  richly  deco- 
rated exterior,  and  a  statue  of  Guiton,  Mayor  of 
La  Rochelle  during  the  siege  by  Richelieu.  The 
cathedral  is  a  Grecian  structure  of  the  eighteenth 
century.   Other  interesting  buildings  are  the  ex- 


B00HB8TSB. 

change,  the  palaia  de  justice,  and  the  quaint 
House  of  Henry  II.  The  old  episcopal  palace  now 
contains  a  library  of  over  46,000  volumes  and 
about  1000  manuscripts,  and  a  picture  gallery 
with  paintings  by  Corot,  Rousseau,  and  other 
modem  French  artists.  There  are  a  lycfie,  a  theo- 
logical seminary,  a  training  school  for  teachers, 
an  academy  of  art,  an  archsBoIogical  museum, 
and  a  botanical  garden.  The  chief  products  are 
sardines,  porcelain  and  glass  wares,  textiles, 
sugar,  etc.  There  is  some  shipbuilding  and  trade 
in  agricultural  products  and  groceries.  Popula- 
tion, in  1891,  26,808;  in  1901,  31,559. 

La  Rochelle  is  first  mentioned  as  Rupella  in 
981.  It  was  fortified  and  endowed  with  some 
privileges  by  William  IX.  of  Aquitaine,  and  its 
franchises  were  further  increased  with  its 


ing  under  the  rule  of  England,  as  a  part  of  the 
dowry  of  Eleanor,  wife  of  Henry  rlantagenet. 
In  1224  Louis  VIII.  of  France  obtained  poeses- 
sion  of  it.  From  the  fourteenth  century  to  the 
seventeenth  La  Rochelle  had  a  representative 
form  of  government  and  occupied  a  pnHninent 
commercial  position.  As  a  stronghold  of  Cal- 
vinism it  became  a  target  for  attacks  both  by 
land  and  by  sea,  and  withstood  a  siege  of  six 
and  one-half  months  by  the  Catholic  army  in 
1573,  which  terminated  in  a  treaty  by  which  the 
Huguenots  were  granted  liberty  of  worship.  The 
activity  of  La  Rochelle  at  the  head  of  the 
Huguenot  party  provoked  Cardinal  Richelieu  to 
crush  the  town.  Accordingly,  La  Rochelle  was 
invested  by  a  strong  army  on  August  15,  1627, 
and  after  a  siege  of  over  fourteen  months  dur- 
ing which  two  English  fleets  were  repulsed  by 
the  besieging  army  and  the  population  dwindled 
from  18,000  to  5000,  the  town  capitulated  on 
October  28,  1628.  Its  fortifications  were  restored 
by  Vauban,  but  the  town  never  recovered  its 
former  importance.  Ck>nsult  Barbot,  Bistoire  de 
la  Rochelle  (Paris,  1886-90). 

BOCHELLB  SALT.  The  popular  name  of 
the  double  tartrate  of  sodium  and  potassium, 
having  the  formula  KNaC«H40,  +  4H,0.  It  was 
discovered  in  1672  by  a  Rochelle  apothecary 
named  Seignette.  It  occurs,  when  pure,  in  color- 
less transparent  prisms,  generally  eight-sided, 
and  in  taste  it  resembles  common  salt.  It  is  pre- 
pared by  neutralizing  acid  potassium  tartrate 
with  a  hot  solution  of  sodium  carbonate. 
This  salt  is  a  mild  and  efficient  laxative,  less 
disagreeable  to  the  taste  than  most  of  the  saline 
purgatives. 

BOCH^STEB.  A  city  and  river-port  in 
Kent,  England,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Med- 
way,  26  miles  east-southeast  of  London  (Map: 
England,  G  5).  Together  with  Chatham  (q.v.) 
and  Strood,  it  forms  one  large  town.  The  cele- 
brated cathedral  is  306  feet  long.  The  nave 
and  crypt  are  Norman,  and  the  choir  and  tran- 
septs early  English.  The  castle,  crowning  an 
eminence,  is  a  solid  and  massive  Norman  keep. 
In  1883  it  was  purchased  by  the  city,  and  its 
grounds  were  turned  into  a  public  garden  over- 
looking the  Medway.  The  city  owns  water- 
works, markets,  and  a  library,  and  provides  for 
technical  education.  There  are  naval  and  mili- 
tary establishments  in  the  city,  and  manufac- 
tures of  oil  and  oil  cake,  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments, and  traction  engines.  Rochester  is  the 
ancient  Durobrivse.  The  bishopric  of  Rochester 
was  founded  in  604.     Population,  in  1901,  30,- 


BOCHBBITBB. 


79 


B0CHB8TE&. 


000.      Consult    Palmer,    Rocheiter    Cathedral 
(Londoii,  1897). 

BOGHB8TE&.  A  city  in  Strafford  County, 
N.  H.,  52  miles  southwest  of  Portland,  Maine,  on 
the  Oocheoo  River,  and  on  the  Boston  and  Maine 
and  the  Portland  and  Rochester  railroads  (Map: 
New  Hampshire,  K  8).  It  has  a  public  library. 
The  annual  fair  held  here  is  very  largely  at- 
tended. Shoes,  woolen  goods,  brick,  and  lumber 
products  constitute  the  most  important  manu- 
factures. Excellent  water  power  for  the  various 
establishments  is  derived  from  the  Cocheco 
River.  The  population,  in  1890,  was  7396; 
in  1900,  8466.  Rochester  was  incorporated  as  a 
town  by  royal  charter  in  1722,  but  was  not  set- 
tled until  six  years  later.  In  1891  it  was  char- 
tered as  a  city.  Consult  McDuffee,  History  of 
the  Town  of  Rochester  (Manchester,  N.  H., 
1892). 

SOGHE8TEB.  The  county-seat  of  Monroe 
County,  N.  Y.,  and  the  third  largest  city  of  the 
State,  69  miles  east  by  north  of  Buffalo  (Map: 
New  York,  C  2).  It  is  situated  seven  miles 
from  Lake  Ontario,  and  is  nearly  bisected  by  the 
Genesee  River,  which  flows  through  a  deep,  pre- 
cipitous gorge  in  the  northern  part  of  the  city. 
In  three  falls  and  several  rapids  it  makes  a  total 
descent  of  257  feet  within  the  municipal  limits. 
The  upper  falls,  95  feet  high,  are  near  the  centre 
of  the  city.  Ten  bridges  span  the  river,  one  of 
which  is  212  feet  high  and  990  feet  long.  The 
aqueduct  (848  feet  long  and  45  feet  wide) 
by  which  the  Erie  Canal  crosses  the  river 
is  also  a  noteworthy  engineering  feature.  Among 
the  railroads  that  enter  Rochester  are  the  New 
York  Central  and  Hudson  River,  the  West  Shore, 
the  Erie,  the  Lehigh  Valley,  the  Pennsylvania, 
the  Rome,  Watertown  and  Ogdensburg,  and  the 
Buffalo,  Rochester  and  Pittsburg. 

Tlie  site  of  the  city  is  level  and  elevated,  its 
altitude  being  about  500  feet  above  the  sea  and 
263  feet  above  Lake  Ontario.  Its  total  area  is 
18  square  miles.  Rochester  is  well  laid  out.  The 
streets  are  broad  and  regular,  and  in  the  resi- 
dential district  are  very  beautiful.  Here  the  de- 
tailed residences,  the  abundance  of  shade  trees, 
and  lawns  and  gardens  are  well  worthy  of  note. 
The  total  mileage  of  streets  is  about  325,  of 
which  126  miles  are  paved,  asphalt,  granite,  and 
Belgian  blocks  and  macadam  being  mostly  used. 
The  parks  and  cemeteries  are  of  special  interest. 
In  addition  to  a  number  of  small  parks  and 
squares  in  various  parts  of  the  city,  there  are 
the  Genesee  Valley  Park,  the  largest  in  area 
(340  acres),  the  East  and  West  Seneca,  and 
Highland  parks.  The  Genesee  Valley  Park  and 
Seneca  Park  are  on  the  (jrenesee  River,  the  latter 
being  situated  on  both  banks.  They  are  noted 
for  their  wild  picturesqueness.  In  Seneca  Park 
(East)  are  zoological  gardens.  Highland  Park 
has  an  extensive  collection  of  low-growing  trees 
and  shrubs.  Washington  Square  contains  the 
Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  Monument.  The  public 
park  system  includes  692  acres.  Among  the 
cemeteries,  the  most  noteworthy  is  Mount  Hope, 
established  in  1838.  Frederick  Douglass  is  buried 
here.  A  statue  to  his  memory  was  erected  in 
1898  in  one  of  the  city  squares.  Many  charming 
summer  resorts  on  the  shore  of  the  lake  are  con- 
nected with  the  city  by  electric  roads,  as  well  as 
by  splendid  driveways.  The  street  railway  sys- 
tem now  reaches  considerably  beyond  the  city 
limits,  and  plans  have  been  projected  for  its 


extension  as  far  as  Syracuse  to  the  east  and 
Niagara  Falls  and  Buffalo  to  the  west. 

The  court-house,  of  granite,  completed  in  1896, 
is  prominent  among  the  public  buildings.  Other 
structures  of  note  are  the  city  hall,  the  post- 
office,  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  the  State  arse- 
nal, the  Powers  Hotel,  the  Powers  Building,  the 
Masonic  Temple,  the  Free  Academy,  the  East 
Side  and  West  Side  High  Schools,  the 
Genesee  Valley  Club  House,  the  Wilder  Build- 
ing, the  German-American  Building,  and  the 
Granite  Building.  There  are  a  number  of 
charitable  and  penal  institutions.  The  West- 
em  New  York  Institution  for  Deaf  Mutes  is 
here,  as  are  also  a  State  Industrial  School  and  a 
State  Hospital  for  the  Insane.  Besides  the  Mon- 
roe Coimty  Penitentiary  and  the  County  Alms- 
house, there  are  many  private  charities,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  the  Old  Ladies'  Home, 
hospitals,  asylums,  etc.  Rochester  is  the  seat 
of  the  University  of  Rochester  (Baptist),  opened 
in  1850,  Rochester  Theological  Seminary  (Bap- 
tist), opened  in  1851,  and  Saint  Bernard's  Semi- 
naiy  (Roman  Catholic),  opened  in  1893.  The 
University  of  Rochester  and  the  Rochester  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  though  under  the  same  denomi- 
national control,  have  no  direct  relation  with 
each  other.  The  Wagner  Memorial  (Ik>llege  is  the 
most  prominent  of  the  schools  for  secondary  edu- 
cation. The  Mechanics'  Institute,  founded  in 
1885,  is  similar  in  scope  to  the  Armour  Institute 
of  Chicago.  It  has  been  recently  installed  in  a 
new  buildmg,  costing  $250,000.  Its  students 
number  more  than  4000.  The  Reynolds  Library 
with  more  than  50,000  volumes,  the  Central  Li- 
brary with  35,000,  and  the  Law  Library  with 
21,000,  are  the  largest  collections  of  books  in  the 
city,  aside  from  those  belonging  to  the  educa- 
tional institutions. 

Rochester  is  primarily  a  manufacturing  city. 
It  is,  nevertheless,  the  distributing  centre  for  a 
highly  productive  agricultural  section,  and  car- 
ries on  considerable  lake  commerce  through  its 
port,  Charlotte,  on  Lake  Ontario  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Genesee.  The  foreign  trade  of  the  Genesee 
customs  district  in  1901  was  valued  at  $2,123,000, 
of  which  more  than  $1,280,000  was  exports.  The 
immense  water  power  afforded  by  the  Genesee 
River  at  this  point  has  given  Rochester  the  name 
Tower  City.'  This  natural  advantage  has  con- 
tributed largely  to  the  industrial  prominence  of 
the  city.  The  water  power  is  electrically  de- 
veloped. In  1901  these  works  were  equipped  to 
furnish  30,000  horse  power,  and  a  considerable 
expansion  of  the  system  was  then  in  prospect. 
Once  noted  for  its  extensive  flour-milling  inter- 
ests, Rochester  now  is  best  known  for  its  pro- 
duction of  photographic  apparatus  and  optical 
instruments,  though  the  output  of  these  is  less 
in  value  than  that  of  several  other  of  its  many 
industries.  It  is  widely  known  also  for  its  ex- 
tensive nurseries,  some  fifty  establishments  being 
in  the  city  and  vicinity.  In  the  census  year  1900, 
capital  to  the  amount  of  $49,086,000  was  invested 
in  the  various  manufacturing  industries.  The 
value  of  the  products  was  $69,130,Q00.  Roches- 
ter is  third  in  importance  among  the  industrial 
cities  of  the  State.  The  leading  manufactures 
are  men's  clothing,  boots  and  shoes,  foundry  and 
machine  shop  products,  tobacco,  cigars  and  cigar- 
ettes, flouring  and  grist  mill  products,  malt  li- 
quors, furniture,  photographic  apparatus  and 
materials,  and  optical  goods.    Thm  are  also  in 


B00HE8TEB. 


80 


B0CHE8TER. 


Rochester  several  conoems  that  rank  amonff  the 
largest  in  the  world  in  their  respective  Tines. 
These  include  a  preserving  establishment,  a  but- 
ton factory,  lubricating  oil  works,  a  cider  and 
vinegar  plant,  and  a  manufactory  of  folding-box 
machinery. 

Rochester  is  a  city  of  the  second  class  and  as 
such  is  governed  imder  the  regular  charter  pro- 
vided by  legislative  enactment.  This  charter 
became  operative  on  January  1,  1900.  The  gov- 
ernment is  vested  in  a  mayor  and  common  council 
elected  every  two  years,  and  in  various  adminis- 
trative departments,  for  further  explanation  of 
which  see  paragraph  on  Administration  imder 
Albajxy.  The  comptroller,  treasurer,  police  jus- 
tice, assessors,  and  supervisors  are  chosen  by 
popular  election;  other  officials  are  appointed  by 
the  mayor.  The  city  clerk  is  elected  by  the  com- 
mon council.  The  city  spends  annually  for 
maintenance  and  operation  about  $2,916,350,  the 
principal  items  being:  schools,  $703,285;  interest 
on  debt,  $319,000;  municipal  lighting,  $225,000; 
the  fire  department,  $244,387 ;  the  police  depart- 
ment, $204,800;  streets,  $190,000;  ash  and  garb- 
age removal,  $111,000;  water-works,  $110,000; 
charitable  institutions,  $95,000.  The  net  debt 
of  the  city  in  1902  was  $10,246,018;  the  as- 
sessed valuation  of  real  and  personal  property, 
$116,448,973.  The  water- works,  which  have  cost 
$7,463,129,  are  owned  and  operated  by  the  muni- 
cipality. There  are  in  all  348  miles  of  mains. 
Two  systems  are  in  operation — a  gravity  system 
for  drinking-water,  deriving  its  supply  from  lakes 
some  30  miles  south  of  the  city,  and  a  direct 
pumping  system  taking  water  from  the  Genesee 
River.  The  direct  system  is  used  for  manufactur- 
ing purposes,  for  the  fire  department,  etc.  These 
works  have  a  daily  capacity  of  7,000,000  gallons. 
In  connection  with  the  gravity  system  are  a 
storage  reservoir  and  a  distributing  reservoir, 
possessing  capacities  respectively  of  63,500,000 
and  22,500,000  gallons. 

The  population  of  Rochester,  in  1820,  was 
2063;  in  1850,  36,403;  in  1870,  62,386;  in  1880, 
89,366;  in  1890,  133,896;  in  1900,  162,608.  The 
total,  in  1900,  included  40,748  persons  of  foreign 
birth  and  601  of  negro  descent. 

Rochester  was  permanently  settled  in  1810  on 
land  owned  by  Nathaniel  Rochester,  William 
Fitzhugh,  and  Charles  Carroll,  all  of  Maryland. 
The  first  frame  dwelling  house  was  built  two 
years  later.  Until  1822  the  village  (incorporated 
in  1817)  was  known  as  Rochesterville,  and  in 
1834  the  city  of  Rochester  was  chartered. 
The  opening  of  the  Erie  Canal  in  1825  gave 
a  great  impetus  to  the  growth  of  the  place. 
Rochester  was  the  centre  of  the  Anti-Masonic 
excitement  from  1826  to  1835,  William  Morgan 
having  been  a  resident  of  the  city  before  his 
abduction  from  Batavia.  (See  Axti-Masgn.) 
In  1849  the  famous  'Rochester  Rappings'  at- 
tracted widespread  attention  and  gave  rise  to 
modem  spiritualism  in  the  United  States.  Be- 
fore the  Civil  War  Rochester,  being  the  home  of 
Myron  Holley  and  Frederick  Douglass,  was 
prominent  in  the  anti-slavery  struggle,  and  it 
was  here  that  Seward,  in  1858,  made  the  famous 
speech  in  which  he  spoke  of  the  impending  'ir- 
repressible conflict  between  opposing  and  endur- 
ing forces.'  Consult:  Parker,  Rochester,  A  Story 
Historioal  (Rochester,  1884) ;  History  and  Com- 
fneroe  of  Rochester  (New  York,  1894). 


BOCHESTEB.  A  borough  in  Beaver  County, 
Pa.,  25  miles  northwest  of  Pittsburg;  on  the 
Ohio  River,  at  its  junction  with  the  Beaver,  and 
<m  railroads  of  the  Pennsylvania  system  (Map: 
Pennsylvania,  A  3).  It  has  valuable  advanta^ 
as  an  industrial  centre,  being  situated  in  a  dis- 
trict producinggas,  oil,  coal,  fire  chiy,  and  build- 
ing stone.  The  manufactures  include  glass 
(tumblers,  cut  glass,  bottles),  pottery,  brick, 
stoves,  fiour,  and  lumber  products.  Population, 
in  1890,  3649;  in  1900,  4688. 

BOCHESTEB,  Henbt  Wilmot,  Earl  of 
(c.1612-58).  An  adherent  of  Charles  I.  and 
Charles  II.  For  his  part  in  the  plot 
against  the  Long  Parliament  he  was  ex- 
pelled from  the  Commons.  In  the  Civil  War  he 
sided  with  the  King,  and  defeated  W^aller  at 
Roundway  Do^^  in  1643,  and  again  in  1644  at 
Cropredy  Bridge,  but  because  of  his  intrigues 
and  the  hostility  of  Prince  Rupert  and  of  Lord 
Digby  was  deprived  of  his  command.  He  retired 
to  France  and  became  an  intimate  friend  of 
Charles  II.,  whom  he  rescued  several  times  by 
his  skillful  disguises.  He  was  made  Earl  c4 
Rochester  in  1652,  was  ver^  successful  in  dip- 
lomatic errands  to  the  Contment,  and  took  part 
in  most  of  the  Royalist  plots  against  Cromwell. 

BOCHESTEB.  John  Wilmot,  second  Earl  of 
(1647-80).  An  English  poet,  wit,  and  courtier. 
He  was  bom  at  Ditchley,  Oxfordshire.  He  en- 
tered Wadham  College,  Oxford,  when  only  twelve 
years  old;  and  at  fourteen,  by  titular  privilege, 
was,  with  other  persons  of  rank,  made  M.A.  by 
Lord  Clarendon.  After  traveling  in  France  and 
Italy,  he  became  attached  to  the  Court,  and  rose 
high  in  favor  with  Charles  II.,  who  made  him 
one  of  the  gentlemen  of  the  bedchamber  and 
comptroller  of  Woodstock  Park.  His  wit  and  love 
of  pleasure  made  him  a  favorite  of  a  dissolute 
court;  he,  however,  incurred  the  displeasure  of 
the  King,  and  was  committed  to  the  Tower,  for 
the  forcible  abduction  of  a  celebrated  beauty  and 
heiress.  Miss  Mallett,  who  was  rescued  by  her 
friends,  but  whom  he  subsequently  married  be- 
fore he  was  twenty  years  old.  He  wrote  prose 
and  verse  with  facility,  and  Anthony  Wood 
speaks  of  him  as  the  greatest  scholar  among  the 
nobility  of  his  day ;  but  as  he  grew  older  he  gave 
less  of  his  time  to  study,  and  more  to  wine  and 
vicious  companions.  His  health  became  under- 
mined by  excess  and  he  died  at  the  age  of  thirty- 
two.  Bishop  Burnet  wrote  an  interesting  account 
of  his  death  under  the  title  of  Some  Passages  of 
the  Life  and  Death  of  John,  Earl  of  Rochester 
(1681),  from  which  it  appears  that  he  sincerely 
repented  his  dissolute  course.  His  published 
works  include  many  love-songs,  an  elegant  Imita- 
tion of  Horace  on  Lucilius,  a  Satire  Against  Man, 
in  which  he  is  much  indebted  to  Boileau,  and  an 
Essay  on  Nothing, 

BOCHESTEB,  Laubence  Htde,  Earl  of 
(1641-1711).  An  English  statesman,  son  of  the 
historian  Clarendon.  He  entered  Parliament  at 
the  Restoration,  acted  on  several  diplomatic  mis- 
sions, and  in  1679  became  First  Lord  of  the  Treas- 
ury and  Privy  Councilor.  In  1681  he  was  made 
Viscount  Hyde.  In  the  same  year  he  negotiated 
the  secret  subsidy  from  France  and  in  November 
became  Earl  of  Rochester.  On  the  accession  of 
James  II.  he  became  Lord  Treasurer.  On  account 
of  his  opposition  to  the  King^s  Catholic  policy, 
and  for  his  stand  as  an  English  churchman,  hq 


BOCHESTER. 


81 


BOCK 


was  dismissed  in  1687,  with  a  large  pension.  In 
1689  Rochester  was  in  ill  favor  with  Mary  owing 
to  his  support  of  the  suggestion  of  a  regency,  but 
regained  her  favor  by  his  later  diplomacy,  was 
readmitted  to  the  Privy  Council  in  1692,  and  in 
1700  became  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland  and 
practically  Premier.  After  William's  death 
Anne's  trust  in  him  was  undermined  by  the 
Marlboroughs,  and  he  returned  to  power  again 
only  in  1710.  Rochester  edited  his  father's  Bis-' 
tory  of  the  Great  Rebellion  (1702-04). 

BOGHESTEBy  NATHAmEi.  (1752-1831).  An 
American  soldier  and  manufacturer,  bom  in 
Westmoreland  County,  Va.,  whence  he  early  re- 
moved to  Granville  County,  N.  C.  Rochester 
was  a  member  of  the  Committee  of  Safety  in  1775, 
and  of  the  Provincial  Congresses  in  1775  and 
1776.  During  the  Revolutionary  War  he  super- 
intended'the  manufacture  of  arms  at  Hillsboro, 
and  at  its  close  removed  first  to  Philadelphia  and 
afterwards  to  Hagerstown,  Md.  In  1802  with 
Carroll  and  Fitzhngh  he  bought  the  'Hundred 
Acre  Tract,'  now  in  the  centre  of  the  city  of 
Rochester.  He  removed  to  Dansville,  N.  Y.,  in 
1810  and  established  a  paper  mill,  and  again  re- 
moved to  Bloomfield.  In  1817  he  was  secretary 
of  a  convention  at  Canandaigua  to  urge  the 
completion  of  the  Erie  Canal.  In  1818 
he  removed  to  the  village  of  Rochesterville 
(the  future  Rochester),  which  had  been  named 
in  his  honor.  He  succeeded  in  securing  the 
passage  of  the  bill  creating  the  new  county  of 
Monroe  in  1821.  Consult  Rochester,  Early  His- 
tory  of  the  Rochester  Family  in  America  (Buf- 
falo, 1882). 

BOCHE8TEB,  UmvEBSiTT  of.  A  oollegiate 
institution  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  establish^  in 
1850  under  Baptist  auspices.  Since  1900  women 
have  been  admitted  as  students.  The  work  of  the 
university  is  arranged  in  three  courses — classical, 
philosophical,  and  scientific — leading  to  the  bache- 
lor's degree.  In  1903  the  students  numbered  245 
and  the  faculty  20.  The  campus  and  five  build- 
ings with  equipment,  including  a  library  of 
38,595  volumes,  were  valued  at  $501,568;  the 
college  property  was  estimated  at  $1,357,263;  the 
endowment  was  $765,000,  and  the  income  $51,009. 

BOGHE-SUB-TOK,  rdsh'syr'yON^  La.  The 
capital  of  the  Department  of  Vend6e,  France, 
picturesquely  situated  on  a  hill  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Yon,  38  miles  south  of  Nantes  (Map: 
France,  E  5).  It  was  a  village  of  800  inhabi- 
tants when  Napoleon  selected  it  for  the  capital  of 
the  department  and  named  it  Napoleon-Vendee. 
Its  feudal  castle  was  dismantled  by  order  of 
Louis  XIII.  Its  ruins  formed  a  quarry  for  the 
building  of  the  modem  town  for  which  Napoleon 
I.  decreed  an  appropriation  of  3,000,000  francs. 
There  are  an  ^uestrian  statue  to  Napoleon  I. 
and  a  museum  containing  some  good  paintings. 
Population,  in  1900,  13,629. 

BOCHOW,  r5K^d,  Ebebhabd  von  (1734-1805). 
A  German  philanthropist  and  educational  re- 
former, bom  in  Berlin.  His  military  career  hav- 
ing been  cut  short  in  the  earliest  campaigns  of 
the  Seven  Years'  War  by  wounds  in  each  hand, 
he  devoted  himself  to  popular  education, 
and  in  1773  built  a  school  at  Rekahn, 
and  another  at  Krahne  in  1799.  In  both  he  was 
greatly  assisted  by  Bruns.  Rochow  favored  State 
schools  and  compulsory  attendance.  His  method, 
especially  adapted  for  country  schools;  founded 


on  a  fairly  correct  idea  of  the  growth  of  the 
mental  faculties,  and  urging  that  only  the  actu- 
ally useful  should  be  taught,  was  set  forth  in 
1772  under  the  title  Versuch  einea  8chulbuchea 
fur  Kinder  der  Landleute,  and  the  system  was 
put  into  practice  in  his  juvenile  writings,  of  which 
Der  Bauemfreund  (1776)  is  best  known.  Rochow's 
correspondence  was  published  by  Jonas  (Berlin, 
1884)  and  selections  from  his  works  by  Qansen 
(Paderbora,  1894).  Consult  Pohlisch,  Die  pada- 
gogischen  Verdienste  des  Domherm  von  Rochow 
(Zwickau,  1894). 

BOCK  (AS.  rocc,  OF.  roc,  roche,  Pr.  roche, 
from  ML.  roca,  rocca,  rock;  probably  from  Ir., 
Gael,  roc,  Bret,  rooh,  rock).  A  portion  of  the 
solid  earth.  Rocks  are  composed  of  mineral  mat- 
ter, although  some  have  an  organic  origin.  In 
contrast  with  minerals  they  are  more  complex, 
heing  aggregates  of  minerals,  usually,  though  not 
always,  containing  a  number  of  different  mineral 
species.  This  number  may  be  ten  or  more, 
though  in  rare  cases  rocks  represent  a  single  min* 
eral;  and  there  are  seldom  more  than  two  or 
three  component  minerals  which  are  present  in 
large  quantity. 

Rocks  Classified  Genetically.  As  respects 
their  origin  rocks  fall  into  three  grand  divisions^ 
viz. :  ( 1 )  Sedimentary,  clastic,  or  aqueous  rocks ; 
(2)  massive  or  igneous  rocks;  and  (3)  meta-^ 
morphic  rocks.  Of  these  divisions  the  first  in- 
cludes the  more  diverse  types  and  no  single 
name  has  been  found  sufficiently  comprehensive 
to  include  them  all.  The  most  abundant  and 
widely  distributed  class  within  this  division  is 
that  of  the  true  sedimentary  or  clastic  rocks, 
which  are  made  up  of  sediment  or  detritus  de- 
posited in  water.  If  laid  do^n  upon  the  ocean 
bottom  rocks  of  this  class  are  described  as 
marine,  examples  of  which  are  mud-stones  or 
shales  (q.v.),  and  some  limestones  (q.v.) ;  if  de- 
posited along  shore,  littoral,  of  which  conglom* 
erate  (q.v.)  and  sandstone  (q.v.)  are  examples; 
and  if  deposited  in  lakes,,  lacustrine,  or  if  in 
streams,  fluviatile,  as,  for  example,  silt.  Water* 
in  the  form  of  ice  has  likewise  been  largely  in- 
strumental in  transporting  and  depositing  rock 
materials  such  as  gravel,  sand,  and  clay.  Again^ 
water  confined  within  the  outer  zone  of  the 
earth's  crust  through  solution  and  subsequent 
deposition  in  crevices  and  other  openings  has 
produced  the  rocks  known  as  veins  (q.v.)  or 
veinstones,  which,  though  comparatively  small 
in  bulk,  are  yet  of  great  importance  as  the  re- 
pository of  the  valuable  metals.  These  are  the 
aqueous  rocks  in  the  restricted  sense.  In  arid 
regions  the  wind  has  been  an  important  agent  in' 
transporting  rock  material  and  producing  de- 
posits which  are  designated  seolian  accumulations 
(q.v,).  Such  a  deposit  is  that  of  the  loess  (q.v.) 
of  China. 

Massive  or  igneous  rocks  are  the  product  of 
consolidation  from  cooling  of  a  molten  mass  or 
magma.  The  consolidation  may  have  occurred 
below  the  earth's  surface  either  in  subterranean 
reservoirs — batholites  (q.v.),  laccolites  (q.v.), 
or  bosses — producing  rock  masses  more  or 
less  equally  developed  as  respects  their  several 
dimensions;  or  the  consolidation  may  have  oc- 
curred within  a  fissure  forming  a  comparatively 
thin  rock  wall  bounded  by  plane  surfaces — dike 
(q.v.).  In  either  of  the  above  cases  the  rock 
formed  is  said  to  be  of  intrusive  origin.  If  the 
molten  mass  reached  the  surface  of  the  earth- 


BOCK 


82 


BOCKBTBTiTiBBw 


before  oonsolidation  and  was  poured  out  either 
as  a  broad  layer  (sheet)  or  as  a  stream,  the  rock 
produced  is  described  as  of  extrusive,  effusive,  or 
volcanic  origin.    See  Igneous  Rocks. 

The  division  of  metamorphic  rocks  is  com- 
posed of  types  developed  from  processes  of  alter- 
ation out  of  originally  igneous  or  sedimentary 
rocks,  but  it  includes  not  only  those  rocks  which 
may  be  traced  to  the  one  class  or  the  other,  but 
also  those  the  origin  of  which  is  in  doubt.  To- 
gether the  several  types  of  this  division  are  de- 
scribed under  the  name  crystalline  schists, 
of  which  gneiss  (q.v.),  schist  (q.v.),  and  phyl- 
lite  (q.v.)  are  the  most  abundant  members.  See 
Metamobphic  Rocks. 

Unaltered  sedimentary  rocks  are  further  sub- 
divided into  those  of  mechanical,  chemical,  and 
organic  origin.  Of  the  first  mentioned  class  are 
the  greater  number — ^the  true  sediments  and  the 
solian  deposits.  Sand  and  gravel,  greensand, 
loess  (q.v.),  clay,  breccia  (q.v.),  conglomerate 
(<]l*^*)9  ^aywacke  (q.v.),  and  shale  (q.v.)  have 
this  derivation.  Of  chemical  origin  are  the  silice- 
ous sinters  such  as  are  to-day  forming  about  the 
geysers  in  the  Yellowstone  National  Park;  the 
calcareous  sinters  of  caverns  in  limestone,  in- 
cluding stalactites,  travertine  (q.v.),  veinstones, 
deposits  of  gypsum  (q.v.),  and  limonite  (q.v.), 
and  the  many  rocks  of  concretionary  structure 
known  as  o51ite  (q.v.).  Of  organic  origin  are 
chalk  (q.v.),  flint  (q.v.),  shell  limestone,  and 
chert  (q.v.).  Marl  (q.v.),  cement  rock,  litho- 
graphic stone  (q.v.),  and  the  several  varieties  of 
peat  (q.v.)  and  coal  (q.v.)  have  also  an  organic 
origin.  The  larger  masses  of  compact  limestone 
(q.v.)  and  magnesian  limestone  or  dolomite 
(q.v.)  are  known  to  have  an  organic  and  gen- 
erally also  a  marine  origin,  but  the  exact  man- 
ner of  their  formation  is  a  problem  regarding 
which  there  are  many  opinions.  The  calcareous 
ooze  which  is  now  forming  over  the  deep-sea 
bottoms  is  comjjosed  almost  entirely  of  the  tests 
of  pelagic  organisms,  whereas  such  structures  are 
found  in  the  rocks  only  in  chalk,  a  formation  of 
comparatively  rare  occurrence.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  the  compact  limestones  which  are  so 
generally  composed  of  crystals  of  calcite  are 
produced  from  the  resolution  of  the  remains  of 
these  organisms  now  collecting  upon  the  sea 
bottom,  perhaps  even  at  the  bottom  of  the  •cean 
in  the  layers  beneath  the  deposit  of  ooze.  It  is 
certain  that  a  deposit  of  compact  limestone  is 
forming  directly  from  water  in  the  Everglades 
of  Florida;  and  it  is  inferred  that  this  process 
is  a  more  or  less  widely  distributed  one.  Lime- 
stones may,  however,  form  from  the  evaporation 
of  an  inclosed  sea,  as  has  happened  in  past  geo- 
logical ages  within  the  area  of  the  Western 
United  States. 

MscHAiacAL  Sediments  Classified  on  Basis 
OF  Composition.  The  great  class  of  mechanical 
sedimentary  rocks  are  classified  on  the  basis  of 
their  dominant  constituent  as  arenaceous  or 
siliceous  rocks,  argillaceous  rocks,  and  calcareous 
rocks.  The  first  mentioned  rocks  contain  much 
quartz  or  silica ;  those  of  the  second  class  abound 
in  clayey  material,  the  base  of  which  is  a  sili- 
cate of  alumina  and  hydrogen  (kaolin  or  china 
clay)  (q.v.),  while  the  class  of  the  calcareous 
rocks  are  essentially  composed  of  carbonate  of 
calcium,  or  of  calcium  and  magnesium  in  the 
form  of  the  minerals  calcite,  aragonite,  or  dolo- 
mite.   Arkose,  graywacke,  sandstone,  conglomer- 


ate, sand,  and  gravel  are  the  more  abundani 
siliceous  sedimentary  rocks.  Representatives  of 
the  argillaceous  rocks  are  argillite  or  mudatone, 
shale,  clay,  mud,  and  silt.  Marl  and  calcareous 
shale  are  calcareous-argillaceous  sediments  and 
form  a  transitional  member  connecting  the  argil- 
laceous with  the  calcareous  sedimentary  rocks. 
Under  the  calcareous  sediments  are  included 
limestone  and  dolomite,  chert,  etc  See  AbbnagE' 
ous  Rooks;  Aaouxaceous  Rocks;  Caixiabbous 
Rocks. 

BiBLiOGBAPHT.  DiUcr,  'The  Educati<mal  Series 
of  Rock  Specimens,"  Bulletin  No,  150,  United 
States  Oeological  Survey  (Washington,  1898)  ; 
Kemp,  Hand-Book  of  Books  for  Use  Without  the 
Microscope  (New  York,  1896)  ;  Harker,  Petrol- 
ogy for  Students  (Cambridge,  England,  1895). 

BOCK  BADOEB,  or  Rock  Rabbit.  See 
Htbax. 

BOGX  BABS.  A  gamy  and  excellent  bass 
{Amhloplites  rupestris)  of  the  Northern  States 
and  Mississippi  Valley,  called  also  'redeye'  and 
'goggle-eye.'  It  is  a  foot  long,  olive  green,  with 
a  brassy  tinge  and  much  dark  mottling,  and  a 
black  spot  on  each  scale,  fonning  interrupted 
stripes,  the  young  irregularly  barred  and 
blotched.  These  bass  are  found  in  clear  streams 
and  lakes,  where  they  keep  about  rocks  or  sunken 
logs.    See  Plate  of  Bass. 

BOCK  BUTTEB.  A  name  given  to  a  variety 
of  the  mineral  halotrichite.  It  is  a  yellowish 
butter-like  substance  that  is  foimd  as  an  elBo- 
rescence  or  exudation  from  some  alum  slates, 
notably  those  at  Hurlet  and  Campsie,  near  (xlas- 
gow,  Scotland,  and  at  Rossville,  Richmond  Coun- 
ty, N.  Y.  It  is  called  also  mountain  butter.  The 
name  has  likewise  been  applied  to  certain  varie- 
ties of  the  mineral  c^rismatite. 

BOCK-COCK.  A  South  American  bird,  more 
usually  called  cock-of-the-rock  (q.v.).  It  is  a 
type  of  the  genus  Ruficola,  but  was  formerly  in- 
cluded among  the  related  pipras. 

BOCK-CBAB.  An  indefinite  ^neral  name 
for  a  variety  of  crabs  customarily  living  on  rocky 
bottoms,  as,  along  the  New  England  coast,  the 
Jonah  crab.  The  name  belongs  rather  to  the 
family  Cancridae,  in  which  belong  more  common 
edible  crabs  than  to  any  other  group. 

BOCK  CBYSTAL.  A  Colorless,  transparent 
variety  of  crystallized  quartz.  The  name  is 
applied  chiefly  to  the  massive  varieties,  such  as 
Brazilian  pebble,  which  is  used  for  lenses;  but  it 
also  includes  the  small  distinct  crystals  which 
are  sold  as  imitations  of  the  diamond  and  are 
called  variously  Bristol  diamonds,  Lake  •George 
diamonds,  etc.  The  name  is  likewise  sometimes 
extended  to  the  violet  variety  of  quartz  or  ame- 
thyst, to  the  red  variety  or  Bohemian  ruby  or 
Silesian  ruby,  to  the  yellow  variety  or  citrine  or 
false  topaz,  and  to  the  brown  variety  or  smoky 
quartz.  Specimens  are  sometimes  found  con- 
taining inclusions  of  hair-like  or  needle-like 
crystals  of  other  minerals  such  as  actinolite, 
asbestos,  epidote,  gOthite,  hornblende,  rutile,  tour- 
maline, etc.,  which  are  called  variously  by  the 
names  of  Cupid's  arrows,  Cupid's  nets,  Thetis's 
hair-stonCf  Venus's  hair-stone,  etc. 

BOCK-DOVE.  A  vdld  dove  of  Western  Eu- 
rope {Columha  livia).    See  PiOBOW. 

BOCKEVELLEB^  John  Davison  (1839 — ). 
An  American  capitalist,  bom  in  Richford,  Tioga 


ROCKFISH,   SUNFISH.    ETC. 


®  S;^^ 


1.  SAND  CU8K  (Ophldion  elongatus). 

2.  ORANQE  ROCKFISH  (Sebastodes  pinnlaer). 
8.  PELAQIC  SUNFISH  (Ranzania  truncata). 


4.  COMMON  SEA  SUNFISH  (Mola  mola). 

5.  TREEFISH  (Sebastodes  serrlceps). 

6.  ROSEFISH  (Sabastes  marinus). 


Oonnty,  N.  Y.  When  twelve  years  old  he  wm 
taken  ifj  his  parents  to  Cleveland,  Ohio,  where 
he  was  educated  in  the  public  schools,  and  at  six- 
teen became  a  clerk  in  a  commission  house.  In 
1868  he  embarked  in  the  commission  business 
himself  with  a  partner  named  Clark.  Both  mem- 
bers of  the  firm  were  resourceful  and  clever  at 
driving  bargains,  and  their  success  was  immedi- 
ate. In  1862  they  became  associated  with  Sam- 
uel Andrews,  an  expert  oil  refiner,  and  under 
the  firm  name  of  Andrews,  Clark  A  Company, 
engaged  extensively  in  the  oil  business.  William 
lU^efeller,  a  brother,  was  admitted  to  partner- 
ship, and  a  new  company,  William  Rockefeller 
k  Oo.,  was  formed,  which,  in  1865,  built,  at 
Cleveland,  a  large  refinery,  known  as  the  Stand- 
ard Oil  Refinery.  The  next  extension  was  the 
formation  of  an  eastern  branch  at  New  York, 
with  Henry  M.  Flagler  as  an  additional  partner. 
In  1870  the  several  firms  were  combined  under 
the  name  of  the  Standard  Oil  Company,  with  a 
capital  of  $1,000,000.  Of  the  combination  John 
D.  Rockefeller  was  the  president  and  controlling 
spirit.  From  this  time  on  all  his  energies  were 
bent  toward  obtaining  control  of  the  oil  business 
of  the  entire  country.  To  accomplish  this  it  was 
necessary  to  obtain  control  not  only  of  the  out- 
put of  the  oil  fields,  but  of  the  means  of  trans- 
portation, and  Rockefeller  devised  a  systematic 
scheme  of  making  arrangements  with  the  rail- 
roads whereby  the  Standard  Oil  Company,  by  a 
system  of  rebates,  should  be  given  preferential 
shipping  rates,  that  would,  in  time,  render  com- 
petition next  to  impossible.  With  this  end  in 
view  a  cooperative  concern  known  as  the  South 
Improvement  Company  was  organized,  but  so 
great  was  the  opposition  that  it  was  soon  dis- 
solved, and  less  open  methods  to  the  same  end 
were  adopted.  Gradually  the  Standard  Oil  Com- 
pany absorbed  or  drove  out  of  business  most  of 
its  principal  rivals,  and  its  influence  or  alliance 
with  the  railroads  became  closer.  In  1882  John 
D.  Rockefeller  organized  the  Standard  Oil  Trust, 
but  after  a  ten  years'  existence  it  was  dissolved. 
Since  then  the  various  companies  have  been  oper- 
ated separately,  but  all  are  imder  the  manage- 
ment of  Rockefeller,  whose  control  of  the  oil 
business  is  as  complete  as  though  he  had  but  one 
company  to  look  after.  In  the  intervals  of  a 
busy  career  Rockefeller  found  time  to  devote  to 
religious,  benevolent,  and  educational  institu- 
tions^particularly  those  connected  with  the  Bap- 
tist Church.  In  1892  he  founded  and  endowed 
the  University  of  Chicago,  the  full  title  of  which 
is  "The  University  of  Chicago,  founded  by  John 
D.  Rockefeller.''  To  this  institution  in  1003  he 
bad  given  in  all  more  than  $6,600,000.  He  also 
gave  largely  to  other  institutions.  His  gifts  for 
education,  which  aggregate  a  greater  sum  than 
has  ever  before  been  contributed  by  a  single  per- 
son to  such  purposes,  have  been  mostly  condi- 
tional upon  the  raising  of  a  similar  amount  by 
the  institution  benefit^. 
BOCKXT.    See  Artillebt;  PrBOTECHinr;  Sio- 

NAUlfO  AND  TOfOBAPHINO,  MlUTABT;   SIGNALS, 

Mabine. 

BOCXXT.     See  Dame's  Vioust. 

BOOXnSH.  The  name  of  a  variety  of  fishes 
which  haunt  rocky  places.  In  the  Eastern  States 
the  term  is  applied  to  (1)  the  striped  bass 
{Roecu9  lineatua),  (2)  the  rock  bass  (q.v.),  (3) 
the  yeUow-finned   grouper    {Myctioperoa   vene- 


88  BOOXJrOBD  OOLLBOS* 

fiosa)  of  Florida  and  southward,  which  it  about 
three  feet  long  and  clear  olive  green,  with  light 
green  and  orange-brown  markings,  and  (4)  to  a 
familiar  killifish  {Fundulus  majalU), 

On  the  Pacific  Coast  'rockfish'  is  a  general 
name  for  a  large  group  of  marine  shore-fishes  of 
the  family  Scorpienidfle,  of  which  about  thirty 
genera  and  250  species  are  known.  Many 
bring  forth  their  young  alive,  the  fry  at  birth 
being  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length.  The 
typical  rockfishes  of  California  are  those  of  the 
genus  Sebastodes,  of  which  56  species  are  recog- 
nized by  Jordan  and  Evermann,  who  mono- 
graphed the  group  with  much  detail  in  their 
Fishes  of  North  and  Middle  America  (Washing- 
ton, 1898).  On  the  average  they  are  about  15 
inches  long  and  weigh  2  or  3  poimds.  Most  of 
them  are  of  brilliant  hues,  with  striking  mark- 
ings. Nearly  all  of  these  fish  are  fair  eating  and 
furnish  the  principal  part  of  the  marine  market 
supply  of  California.  Consult:  Goods,  Fishery 
Industries,  sec.  i.  (Washington,  1884) ;  Eicen- 
mann  and  Beeson,  "Revision  ...  of  the  Bub- 
family  Sebastinie,"  in  Proceedings  of  the  No- 
tional  Museum,  vol.  xvii.  (Washington,  1894) ; 
Jordan  and  Evermann,  American  Oame  and  Food 
Fishes  (New  York,  1902).  Compare  RosEnsn; 
Gboufeb. 

BOCK^OBD.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Winnebago  County,  111.,  87  miles  west  by  north 
of  Chicago,  on  Rock  River,  here  spanned  by  sev- 
eral bridges,  and  on  the  Chicago  and  North- 
western, the  Illinois  Central,  the  Chicago,  Bur- 
lington and  Quincy,  and  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee 
and  Saint  Paul  railroads  (Map:  Illinois,  0  1). 
It  is  divided  by  the  Rock  River  and  covers  a 
total  area  of  about  eight  square  miles.  In  the 
eastern  section  are  the  handsome  building  and 
grounds  of  Rockford  College  for  Women.  A  pub- 
Ifc  library  with  more  than  35,000  volumes  oc- 
cupies a  fine  structure,  the  gift  of  Andrew 
Carnegie.  Memorial  Hall  and  the  City  and 
Saint  Anthony's  hospitals  are  among  other  prom- 
inent features  of  the  city.  The  Ransom  Medical 
and  Surgical  Sanitarium  is  two  miles  distant  to 
the  north,  and  the  Broughton  Sanitarium  is  at 
the  city  limits  on  the  south.  Good  water-power 
and  excellent  transportation  facilities  have  con- 
tributed largely  to  Rockford's  industrial  and 
commercial  importance.  In  the  census  year  of 
1900  there  was  invested  in  the  various  industries 
capital  amounting  to  $27,971,613.  The  total 
production  was  valued  at  $48,871,596.  Furniture, 
hosiery  and  knit  goods,  foundry  and  machine- 
shop  products,  agricultural  implements,  clothing, 
and  harness  constitute  the  leading  manufactures. 
The  government  is  vested  in  a  mayor,  chosen 
biennially,  and  a  unicameral  council.  The  city 
spends  annually  for  maintenance  and  operation 
about  $378,000,  the  principal  items  being: 
Schools,  $105,000;  streets,  $58,000;  water-works, 
$53,000;  fire  department,  $36,000;  municipal 
lighting,  $22,000;  interest  on  debt,  $20,000;  po- 
lice department,  $20,000.  Rockford  was  settled 
in  1834,  laid  out  in  1836,  and  chartered  as  a  city 
in  1852.  It  was  enlarged  by  the  annexation  of 
suburbs  in  1890.  Population,  in  1890,  23,584;  in 
1900,  31,051. 

BOCKFOBD  COLLEGE.  An  undenomina- 
tional institution  for  the  higher  education  of 
women  at  Rockford,  111.,  founded  in  1849.  It 
had  in  1902  property  valued  at  $173,000,  with 
grounds  and  buildings  worth  $135,000,  an  endow- 


BOOXFOBD  COLLEGE. 

ment  of  $123,976,  and  an  income  of  $21,324.  Its  li- 
brary contained  about  6000  volumes.  The  depart- 
ments are  collegiate,  preparatory,  music,  and  art, 
with  a  total  attendance  of  138  and  a  faculty  of  20. 

BOCKHAMPTOK.  A  seaport  town  of  Liv- 
ingstone County,  Queensland,  Australia,  on  the 
Fitzroy  River,  380  miles  north  of  Brisbane  by 
rail  (Map:  Australia,  G  7).  It  is  the  outlet  for 
a  large  portion  of  Central  Queensland  and  the 
port  of  the  Morgan  gold  field.  It  is  a  well-built 
town,  with  wide  and  shaded  streets,  fine  govern- 
ment buildings,  a  town  hall,  botanical  gardens, 
etc.  A  bridge  1160  feet  long  spans  the  river. 
Its  harbor  for  ocean  steamers  is  at  Port  Alma,  36 
miles  below,  but  vessels  of  1500  tons  ascend  to  the 
city.  Population,  in  1891,  11,629;  in  1900,  15,461. 

BOCK  HILL.  A  city  in  York  County,  S.  C, 
80  miles  north  of  Columbia,  on  the  Southern  and 
the  Ohio  River  and  Charleston  railroads  (Map: 
South  Carolina,  C  2 ) .  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
Winthrop  Normal  and  Industrial  (Allege  of 
South  Carolina,  a  State  institution  for  women. 
Cotton,  farm  produce,  and  fruit  are  extensively 
cultivated  in  the  surrounding  district.  Its 
industries  include  cotton  mills,  a  large  buggy 
factory,  a  flour  mill,  brick  plants,  sash,  door, 
and  blind  manufactories,  and  foundries  and  ma- 
chine shops.  The  city  is  the  headquarters  of  the 
Catawba  Power  Company,  which  is  electrically 
developing  8000  horse-power  on  the  Catawba 
River,  five  miles  distant.  Population,  in  1890, 
2744;  in  1900,  5485. 

BOCXOBGDLL,  William  Woodville  (1854—). 
An  American  diplomat,  traveler,  and  author, 
bom  in  Philadelphia.  In  1884  he  was  ap- 
pointed second  secretary  of  the  American 
legation  at  Peking,  the  next  year  he  was 
promoted  to  secretary,  and  in  1886  he  was 
appointed  charge  d'affaires  in  Korea.  Between 
1888  and  1892  li^  made  two  long  journeys  through 
China,  Mongolia,  and  Tibet.  In  1893-94  he  was 
chief  clerk  in  the  United  States  Department  of 
State,  in  1894  he  was  appointed  Third  Assistant 
Secretary  of  State,  and  in  1896  was  promoted 
to  First  Assistant  Secretary.  He  was  United 
States  Minister  to  Greece,  Rumania,  and  Servia 
from  1897  to  1899,  when  he  became  director  of 
the  Bureau  of  American  Republics.  His  pub- 
lished works  include:  Explorations  in  Mongolia 
and  Tibet  (1893)  ;  Diary  of  a  Journey  Through 
Mongolia  and  Tibet  in  1891  and  1892  (1894); 
The  Land  of  the  Lamas  ( 1891 )  ;  The  Life  of  the 
Buddha  and  the  Early  History  of  His  Order 
(1884) ;  Notes  on  the  Ethnology  of  Tibet  (1895) ; 
and  Report  of  W.  W,  Rockhill,  Late  Commis- 
sioner to  China  (1901). 

BOCK  HIND.  One  of  the  groupers  {Epine- 
phelus  Adscensionis) ,  well  known  throughout  the 


BOCK   HTKD. 


Western  Atlantic  and  common  in  rocky  places 
about  all  the  West  Indian  coasts  and  islands, 
where  it  is  known  as  'cabra  mora,'  and  is  re- 


84  BOCK  ISLAND. 

garded  as  the  best  market  fish  of  its  kind.  It  is 
about  18  inches  long,  clouded  greenish  gray, 
everywhere  spotted  with  orange,  and  with  five 
dark  roundish  blotches  along  the  back.  See 
Gboupeb. 
BOCXHOPFBB.    See  Penguin. 

BOCK^NGHAMy  Chables  Watson-Went- 
woBTH,  second  Marquis  of  (1730-82).  An  Eng- 
lish statesman.  He  was  educated  at  Westminster 
School  and  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge.  Be- 
longing to  an  old  Whig  family,  he  received  many 
honorary  offices,  and  in  1750  succeeded  his  father 
in  the  peerage.  In  1765  Rockingham  was.;  se- 
lected as  Prime  Minister,  the  chief  men  in  hi? 
Cabinet  being  (Ik>nway,  the  Duke  of  Grafton,  and 
the  Duke  of  Newcastle.  The  Government  was  not 
a  strong  one,  but  it  is  famous  on  account  of  its 
repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act  and  the  passing  of  othei' 
measures  which  conciliated  the  American  Col- 
onies. In  1766  the  Ministry  resigned  and  Rock- 
ingham for  many  years  was  an  opponent  of  the 
King's  policy  and  throughotit  showed  friendship 
for  America.  On  the  resignation  Of  Lord  North 
in  1782  Lord  Rockingham  again  became  Prime 
Minister.  The  principal  men  this  time  in  his 
Cabinet  were  Fox  and  Shelbume.  Rockingham 
died  on  July  1st,  within  a  little  more  than  three 
months  after  his  installation.  Though  not  a  man 
of  great  abilities,  Rockingham  was  held  in  esteem 
by  all,  and  his  general  acceptability  was  the 
cause  of  his  selection  on  two  occasions  as  Prime 
Minister.  Consult :  Albemarle,  Memoirs  of  Rock- 
ingham (2  vols.,  London,  1852-53) ;  Leclr^,  His- 
tory of  England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  ( New 
York,  1878). 

BOOKING  STONES.  Masses  of  rock  so  finely 
poised  as  to  move  backward  and  forward  when 
pushed  1^  the  hand.  They  are  generally  formed 
of  granite  as  being  the  stone  that  most  easily 
resists  general  decomposition.  The  wearii^  away 
of  the  lower  portions  is  usually  the  combined  re- 
sult of  the  sand-blast  action  of  the  wind  and 
sand  and  the  disintegrating  action  of  frost  or  the 
effect  of  lichens  which  disintegrate  the  feldspar 
immediately  below  and  contribute  to  the  wasting 
of  the  rock.  In  ancient  times  rocking  stones  were 
used  as  a  means  of  divination.  Among  the 
famous  rocking  stones  is  the  Logan  Rock,  near 
the  Land's  End  in  Cornwall,  whose  weight  is  com- 
puted to  be  between  70  and  00  tons,  and  that  at 
Island  Magee,  on  BrowTi's  Bay,  County  Antrim, 
Ireland,  which  is  popularly  believed  to  tremble  or 
rock  at  the  approach  of  sinners  and  malefactors. 
The  largest  rocking  stone  is  that  of  Tandil,  Ar- 
gentine Republic. 

BOCK  ISLAND.  A  city  and  the  county-seat 
of  Rock  Island  County,  111.,  180  miles  west  by 
south  of  Chicago,  on  the  Mississippi  River  and 
the  Hennepin  Canal,  and  on  the  Chicago,  Rock 
Island  and  Pacific  and  its  Rock  Island  and 
Peoria  branch,  the  Chicago,  Burlington  and 
Quincy,  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  Saint  Paul, 
and  other  railroads  (Map:  Illinois,  B  2).  It  is 
the  seat  of  Augustana  College  (Lutheran) 
opened  in  1860,  and  has  a  public  library  with 
more  than  14,000  volumes.  On  the  island  of 
Rock  Island,  near  the  city,  is  the  United  States 
arsenal  and  armorv,  covering  an  area  of  nearly 
1000  acres  and  costing  about  $10,000,000.  There 
are  railroad  and  highway  bridges  from  the  city 
to  the  island,  which  in  turn  is  connected  with 
Davenport,  Iowa,  by  a  fine  highway  and  railway 


BOCK  ISLAND. 


bridge,  built  by  the  United  States  Government. 
A  second  railroad  bridge  across  the  Mississippi 
connecta  the  western  parts  of  the  two  cities.  An 
important  railway  centre,  Rock  Island  also  has 
large  commercial  and  industrial  interests.  The 
dam  in  the  Mississippi,  constructed  by  the  Fed- 
eral Government,  furnishes  extensive  water-power 
for  manufacturing.  The  products  of  the  various 
establishments  include  farm  implements,  stoves^ 
brick,  lumber,  carriages,  soap,  beer,  oilcloth, 
sash,  doors,  and  blinds.  The  government,  under 
the  revised  charter  of  1879,  is  vested  in  a  mayor, 
elected  every  two  years,  and  a  unicameral  coun- 
cily  and  in  administrative  officials.  Rock  Island 
was  settled  in  1836,  and  was  first  incorporated  in 
1841.  Population,  in  1890,  13,634;  in  1900,  19,- 
493. 

BOCK^LAin).  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Knox  County,  Maine,  60  miles  south  of  Bangor, 
on  an  inlet  of  Penobscot  Bay,  and  on  the  Maine 
Central  Railroad  and  the  Bangor  and  Boston 
steamboat  line  (Map:  Maine,  E  7).  Among  the 
features  of  the  city  are  the  public  library  of 
6000  volumes,  the  United  States  Government 
building,  and  the  county  court-house.  A  large 
harbor  and  excellent  shipping  facilities  contribute 
to  Rockland's  importance  as  a  commercial  centre. 
The  city  is  noted  for  its  extensive  lime-burning 
works  and  shipbuilding  yards,  and  has  also 
manufactures  of  brick,  carriages,  and  cigars. 
The  granite  quarries  of  the  vicinity  have  fur- 
nished materials  for  United  States  Government 
buildings.  Population,  in  1890,  8174;  in  1900, 
8150.  Originally  a  part  of  Thomaston  and  sep- 
arately incorporated  as  East  Thomaston  in  1848, 
Rockland  received  its  present  name  in  1850,  and 
was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1854.  Consult  Eaton, 
History  of  Thomaston,  Rockland,  and  South 
Thomaston  (Hallowell,  1865). 

BOCKIaAND.  a  town  in  Plymouth  County, 
Mass.,  18  miles  south-southeast  of  Boston,  on  the 
New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford  Railroad 
(Map:  Massachusetts,  F  3).  It  has  some  manu- 
factures, of  which  shoes,  tacks,  and  nails  are 
the  most  important.  There  is  a  public  library 
with  10,000  volumes.  Originally  a  part  of  the 
town  of  Abington  of  the  old  Plymouth  Colony, 
Rockland  was  incorporated  as  a  separate  town  in 
1874.    Population,  in  1890,  5213;  in  1900,  5327. 

BOCK  07  AGES.  The  title  of  a  celebrated 
hymn  written  by  Augustus  Toplady  in  1776. 

BOCK  PLANTS.  Plants  whose  natural  habi- 
tat is  asspciated  with  areas  of  rock.  With  the 
exception  of  marine  forms  (see  Benthos),  rock 
plants  may  be  classed  generally  under  the  head 
xerophytes  (q.v.).  Some  authors  hold  that  the 
calcareous  elements  of  limestone  determine  one 
type  of  vegetation,  and  siliceous  rocks  another. 
Hence,  rock  plants  have  been  divided  into  cal- 
careous plants  and  siliceous  plants.  But  most 
authors  contend  that  the  differences  which  arise 
are  more  closely  connected  with  the  physical 
structures  and  properties  of  the  rocks  than  with 
their  chemical  features,  since  certain  considera- 
tions indicate  that  neither  the  chemical  nor  phys- 
ical properties  directly  determine  all  of  the  dif- 
ferences in  distribution. 

BOCKTOBT.  A  town  in  Essex  County,  Mass., 
four  miles  northeast  pf  Gloucester,  on  the  At- 
lantic Ocean,  and  on  the  Boston  and  Maine  Rail- 
road (Map:  Massachusetts,  F  2).  It  has  the 
Rockport  and  Pigeon  Cove  public  libraries.    The 


85  BOCKVIIiLE. 

village  of  Pigeon  Cove,  which  comprises  the 
northern  part  of  the  town,  has  some  reputation 
as  a  summer  resort.  Rockport  is  engaged  in 
agriculture  and  fishing,  and  is  noted  for  its  ex- 
tensive quarries  of  granite.  Isinglass  is  the 
leading  manufactured  product.  The  United 
States  Grovemment  is  constructing  a  breakwater 
which  will  greatly  improve  the  harbor  here. 
Population,  in  1890,  4087;  in  1900,  4602.  First 
settled  in  1697  and  incorporated  as  a  parish  in 
1754,  Rockport  formed  part  of  Gloucester  until 
1840.  It  then  became  a  separate  town  and  re- 
ceived its  present  name  in  place  of  the  former 
one,  Sandy  Bay.  Onsult  Marshall,  History  of 
the  Town  of  Rockport  (Rockport,  1888). 

BOCKPOBT.  A  port  and  the  county-seat  of 
Aransas  County,  Texas,  159  miles  southeast  of 
San  Antonio,  on  Aransas  Bay,  the  terminus  of  the 
San  Antonio  and  Aransas  Pass  Railroad  (Map: 
Texas,  F  6).  Rockport  has  considerable  trade 
in  fish,  oysters,  ^me,  and  wool.  Excellent 
bathing  facilities  give  the  town  some  reputation 
as  a  summer  resoix.  Population,  in  1890,  1069; 
in  1900,  1153. 

BOCK  PTABMIOAN.    See  Ptabmigan, 

BOCK  BABBIT.    See  Htrax. 

BOCK  SALT.    See  Salt. 

BOCK  SNIPE.  An  American  gunner's  name 
for  the  purple  sandpiper  (q.v.). 

BOCK  SOAP,  or  Safonite.  A  soft,  clay-like, 
hydrated  aluminum-magnesium  silicate  that  is 
found  massive,  and  is  of  a  white  or  light  gray 
color.  It  is  greasy  to  the  touch,  adheres  to  the 
tongue,  and  is  easily  cut  with  a  knife.  It  is 
used  for  crayons  by  painters. 

BOCK  SPBING6.  A  city  in  Sweetwater 
County,  Wyo.,  268  miles  west  of  Laramie,  on 
the  Union  Pacific  Railroad  (Map:  Wyoming,  £ 
5).  Coal  is  extensively  mined  in  the  vicinity. 
Population,  in  1890,  3406;  in  1900,  4363. 

BOCK^TBO  (properly,  Rackstraw) ,  William 
Smtth  (1823-95).  An  English  musical  writer, 
bom  at  North  Cheam,  Surrey.  He  studied' 
at  the  Leipzig  Conservatory  imder  Mendels- 
sohn, Plaidy,  and  Hauptmann.  In  London  he 
taught  piano  and  singing.  After  1891  he  lived 
in  London,  where  he  gave  lectures  at  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Music.  He  wrote  a  standard 
Life  of  Handel,  and  a  biography  of  Jenny  Lind,' 
the  Artist,  in  collaboration  with  Canon  Scott- 
Holland,  and  composed  a  sacred  cantata.  The 
Good  Shepherd  (1886),  a  ballet,  Flora's  Path 
(1891),  overtures,  and  songs.  He  was  an  au- 
thority on  ecclesiastical  music. 

BOCK  SWALLOW.    See  Crag  Mabtin. 

BOCK  TB0X7T.  A  family  of  carnivorous  sea- 
fishes  (Hexagrammidse)  of  the  North  Pacific- 
They  are  mostly  of  large  size,  live  in  kelp  about 
rocks,  and  furnish  good  food,  although  their  flesh 
and  bones  have  a  greenish  tinge,  whence  they  are. 
sometimes  called  'greenlings.*  One  species  of 
great  importance  in  the  Aleutian  Islands  among 
several  related  Alaskan  'greenfish'  is  the  so-called 
'Atka  mackerel,'  which  is  about  18  inches  long, 
is  handsomely  colored,  exceedingly  numerous, 
and  of  excellent  food  qualities.  The  best  known 
of  these  fishes,  however,  is  the  bodieron  (q.v.). 

BOCK'VILLB.  A  city  in  Tolland  County, 
Conn.,  15  miles  northeast  of  Hartford,  on  the 
Hockanum  River  and  on  the  New  York,  New 


BOGXVUiLE. 


86 


BOGKY  XOUITTAIKS. 


Hayen  and  Hartford  Railroad  (Map:  Ck)miecti- 
cut,  F  2).  The  Hockanum  River  makes  a  total 
descent  of  more  than  250  feet  through  Rockville, 
affording  excellent  water-power.  The  indusCrial 
establishments  include  cotton  and  woolen  mills, 
silk  mills,  knitting  mills,  envelope  factories,  etc. 
There  are  high  school  and  public  libraries.  Set- 
tlers came  to  the  vicinity  of  Rockville  as  early 
as  1721,  but  the  village  proper  dates  from  about 
1840.  It  was  charter^  as  a  city  in  1889.  Popu- 
lation, in  1890,  7772;  in  1900,  7287. 

BOCKWEED.    See  PHi£OPHTCEiiB ;  Seaweed. 

BOCK  WBEK.  A  singular  little  wren  {SaU 
pinctes  ohsoletus)  of  the  Southwestern  United 
States,  which  lives  among  the  loose  rocks  of  the 
mountain  sides,  where  it  places  its  large  globular 
nest  upon  a  ledge  or  within  some  crevice.  It 
creeps  and  skips  about  with  the  furtive  activity 
of  a  wild  mouse,  and  in  spring  utters  a  loud, 
sweet,  and  beautiful  song,  somewhat  like  that 
of  the  mocking  wren.  Consult  Goues,  Birds  of 
the  Colorado  Valley  (Washington,  1878). 

R0CE7  MOXTNTAIir  liOGTTST.  See  Lo- 
cust. 

BOCKY  MOITHTAINS.  A  name  here  used 
to  indicate  the  assemblage  of  mountain  ranges 
which  form  the  'backbone'  of  North  America. 
They  begin  at  the  south  in  Ccsitral  Mexico,  and 
extend  northward  across  the  United  States  and 
Canada  to  near  the  coast  of  the  Arctic  Ocean. 
On  the  east  they  are  bordered  from  near  Vera 
Cruz,  Mexico,  to  the  valley  of  the  Mackenzie, 
by  the  Great  Plateaus,  or  (^reat  Plains  as  more 
commonly  termed;  and  on  the  west,  within  the 
United  States,  by  the  Great  Basin  region  which 
reaches  from  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Cali- 
fornia northward  into  Canada,  and  separates 
them  from  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade 
Mountains.  The  west  border  in  Canada  is  less 
well  known  and  as  seems  probable  less  sharply 
defined  than  is  the  portion  just  referred  to,  but 
may  be  taken  at  least  provisionally  as  coinciding 
with  the  west  border  of  the  Crold  Moimtains  of 
Canada. 

The  unsatisfactory  condition  of  the  nomencla- 
ture at  present  applied  to  the  larger  physio- 
graphic features  of  North  America  is  illustrated 
above  by  the  rather  vague  limits  it  is  necessary 
to  assign  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  same 
condition  is  also  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  Can- 
ada the  term  Rocky  Moimtains  is  restricted  to 
the  east  range  of  the  series  of  uplifts  to  which 
it  is  applied  in  the  United  States.  To  the  west 
of  the  range  thus  designated,  in  Canada,  and 
separated  from  it  by  a  broad  valley  some  700 
miles  long,  trending  north  and  south,  are  the 
Gold  Mountains,  consisting  principally  of  the  Sel- 
kirk, Purcell,  Columbia,  and  Caribou  ranges.  The 
term  'Canadian  Rockies'  is  in  current  use,  how- 
ever, and  includes  all  of  the  mountains  in  Can- 
ada, which  are  a  direct  northward  continuation 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains  of  the  United  States. 

To  the  south  of  the  United  States  the  Rocky 
Mountains  include  the  tableland  of  North-central 
Mexico,  with  its  numerous  rugged  mountain 
ranges  and  intervening  valley,  all  of  which  trend 
in  a  general  north  and  south  direction. 

The  length  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  chain  from 
north  to  south  is  some  4000  miles,  and  its  width 
between  400  and  600  miles.  Within  its  borders 
are  several  mountain  systems,  as  will  be  shown 
below,  and  a  large  number  of  individual  ranges, 


together  with  several  large  plateaus,  numerous 
valleys,  'parks,'  cafions,  etc.,  as  well  as  multitudes 
of  peaks,  ridges,  mesas,  and  buttes.  In  fact,  it 
contains  typical  representatives  of  nearly  every 
known  topo^aphic  form.  Considered  in  refer- 
ence to  origm,  the  topographic  forms  mentioned 
include  elevations'  produced  by  the  upheaval, 
folding,  and  faulting  of  sedimentary  and  other 
i;ocks,  and  also  mountains  due  to  volcanic  erup- 
tions, and  still  others  produced  by  igneous  in- 
trusions, and  an  endless  array  of  secondary  fea- 
tures resulting  from  erosion  or  earth  sculpture. 
One  of  the  most  conspicuous  features  of  the 
chain,  and  one  which  has  been  used  as  a  basis  for 
dividing  it  into  two  portions,  is  the  presence  in 
Wyoming  of  a  broad  plateau  trending  east  and 
west,  known  as  the  Laramie  Plains.  This 
plateau,  with  a  general  elevation  of  about  7000 
feet,  reaches  from  the  Grand  Plateau  in  the  east 
nearly  to  the  Great  Basin  in  the  west  and  sepa- 
rates the  northern  from  the  southern  Rockies. 
This  great  'pass'  was  chosen  for  the  route  of  the 
Union  Pacific  Railroad,  the  first  of  the  several 
transcontinental  railroads  now  in  operation. 
The  several  ranges  composing  the  southern 
Rockies  are  for  the  most  part  arranged  with 
their  larger  axes  in  a  general  north  and  south 
direction,  while  the  trend  of  the  northern  Rockies, 
as  well  as  of  their  component  ranges,  is  in  gen- 
eral northwest  and  southeast. 

Within  the  United  States  the  portion  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  to  the  north  of  the  Laramie 
Plains  has  been  termed  the  Stony  Mountains,  a 
revival  of  the  name  applied  to  them  by  Lewis 
and  Clark,  during  their  historic  explorations  in 
1804-06;  and  the  portion  of  the  southern  Rockies, 
situated  principally  in  Colorado,  northern  New 
Mexico,  eastern  Utah,  etc.,  has  been  designated  as 
the  Park  Mountains.  These  two  systems  of 
ranges  are  the  best  known  portions  of  the  chain 
of  which  they  form  a  part,  and  together  with  the 
southern  portioli  of  the  Canadian  Rockies  must 
of  necessity  be  taken  as  representative  of  its  en- 
tire extent. 

The  Stony  Moimtains  contain  among  their 
leading  topographic  features  many  important 
mountain  ranges.  In  Wyoming  the  representative 
uplifts  are:  The  Big  Horn  range,  which,  extend- 
ing from  near  the  centre  of  the  State  about  150 
miles  northward,  ends  in  Montana.  It  is  due 
principally  to  a  single  ^eat  upward  fold  in 
the  rocks;  the  east  slope  is  precipitous  and  the 
west  slope  gently  inclined.  The  crest  line  has  an 
elevation  of  from  8000  to  13,000  feet,  and  Cloud 
Peak,  the  culminating  point,  rises  13,165  feet 
above  the  sea.  The  Wind  River  range,  in  the  west- 
central  part  of  the  State,  presents  a  fine  series 
of  rugged  peaks  along  its  crest,  at  least  a  dozen 
of  which  have  elevations  in  excess  of  11,000  feet, 
the  highest  being  Fremont  Peak,  13,790  feet.  The 
Teton  range,  near  the  northwest  border  of  the 
State,  is  the  boldest  and  probably  the  finest  of 
the  series,  and  culminates  in  the  Grand  Teton,  a 
spine-like  peak,  rising  13,691  feet  above  the  sea 
and  7000  feet  above  Jackson  Lake,  from  which  it 
may  be  seen  to  the  erreatest  advantage.  The 
Wind  River,  Teton,  and  other  neighboring  ranges, 
situated  principally  in  northwest  Wyoming,  rise 
from  a  region  some  15,000  square  miles  in  area, 
which  has  a  general  elevation  in  excess  of  8000 
feet  and  is  only  exceeded  in  extent  among  the 
regions  of  similar  elevation  in  North  America 
by  the  central  part  of  the  Park  Mountains.  From 


BO0K7  XOTnVTAIHa 


87 


BOOST  xotnraAiHa 


this  mountainoas  plateau  of  Wyoming,  and  sup- 
plied principally  by  the  melting  of  the  mow  on 
the  lofty  ranges,  the  Yellowstone  River  flows 
eastward  to  join  the  Missouri,  and  the  Snake 
River  flows  westward  and  unites  with  the  Colum- 
bia; the  many  head-branches  of  these  two  impor- 
tant waterways  adjoin  along  the  continental  di- 
vide. In  central  Idaho  there  is  a  great  region  of 
sharp,  serrate  peaks,  the  character  of  which  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  name  of  the  main  or  Sawtooth 
range,  by  estimate  about  13,000  feet  high.  Topo- 
graphically this  rugged  region  extends  northwest 
and  is  known  in  part  as  ^e  Bitter  Root  and  the 
Corar  d'Altee  Moimtains,  which,  although  not  re- 
markable for  their  height,  are  of  great  extent  and 
important  on  account  of  their  mines,  forests,  and 
fine  scenery.  In  Montana  there  are  also  several 
distinct  and  important  ranges,  among  which 
there  are  not  less  than  23  peaks  that  exceed 
10,000  feet  in  height  above  the  sea  and  rise  from 
6000  to  8000  feet  above  the  neighboring  valleys. 

To  the  east  of  the  Big  Horn  Mountains  and 
separated  from  them  by  a  portion  of  the  Great 
Plateaus,  150  miles  wide,  are  the  Black  Hills, 
which  in  a  general  view  are  included  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  These  hills  are  due  to  a  dome- 
like elevation  of  the  generally  horizontal  rocks 
underlying  the  Great  Plateaus,  measuring  about 
80  by  160  miles,  which  if  uneroded  would  have  a 
height  of  some  7000  feet  above  the  surrounding 
plain.  Erosion  has  cut  deeply  into  the  uplift, 
however,  and  produced  a  rugged  topography,  es- 
pecially in  its  central  part,  where  granitic  rocks 
are  exposed.  The  culminating  summit,  Harney 
Peak,  has  an  elevation  of  7216  feet  and  rises 
about  2700  feet  above  the  surrounding  plain. 

The  Park  Mountains,  situated  to  the  south  of 
the  Wyoming  Plateau,  are  composed  of  many 
distinct  ranges  having  a  north  and  south  trend, 
to  which,  however,  a  marked  exception  is  fur- 
nished by  the  Uintah  range  in  southwest  Wyo- 
ming and  northeast  Utah,  which  consists  of  a 
deeply  dissected  east  and  west  fold  or  broadly 
uplifted  plateau.  Intervening  between  several  of 
the  adjacent  ranges,  especially  in  Colorado,  there 
are  wide,  nearly  flat-bottomed  valleys  which  owe 
their  leading  characteristics  to  the  depth  of  the 
deposits  of  d^bns  swept  into  them  from  the 
bordering  uplands  by  streams  and  the  wind. 
These  valleys  are  known  as  'parks'  and  suggested 
the  name  for  the  mountain  system  in  which  they 
occur.  Typical  examples  are  furnished  by  North, 
Middle,  South,  and  San  Luis  parks  in  central 
Colorado,  the  broad  generally  level  floors  of 
which  have  elevations  ranging  from  7000  to 
fWOO  feet. 

Among  the  numerous  ranges  of  the  Park 
Mountains  in  Colorado  are  the  Front  or  Colorado 
range,  in  view  from  Denver,  the  Saguache,  Elk, 
San  Juan  ranges,  etc.  A  conspicuous  feature  in 
the  relief  is  the  generally  great  elevation  and  the 
large  number  of  lofty  summits.  The  area  above 
an  elevation  of  10,000  feet  is  much  larcfer  than 
any  other  region  with  a  similar  altitude  m  North 
America.  Among  the  host  of  magnificent  moun- 
tain peaks  there  are  more  than  30  which  exceed 
14,000  feet,  but  their  height  is  seldom  fully  ap- 
preciated, owing  to  the  elevation  of  the  neighbor- 
ing valleys,  which  reduces  their  visual  height  to 
about  one-half  of  their  total  elevation  above  the 
sea.  Of  this  multitude  of  magnificent  individual 
momitains  or  peaks,  as  many  of  them  are  termed, 
the  best  known  and  perhaps  most  representative 


are,  with  their  elevations  expressed  in  feet: 
Gray's  Peak,  14,341;  Mount  Harvard,  14,326; 
Mountain  of  the  Holy  Cross,  14,006;  Moun^  Lin- 
coln, 14,297 ;  Long's  Peak,  14,271 ;  Mount  Prince- 
ton, 14,196;  Pike's  Peak,  14,108;  Uncompahgre 
Peak,  14,289;  and  Mount  Yale,  14,187.  In  the 
opinion  of  many  observers  the  most  magnificent 
mountain  mass  in  the  Park  Mountains,  largely 
on  account  of  its  isolation,  is  Sierra  Blanca,  in 
southeast  Colorado,  14,465  feet. 

The  Park  Mountains  extend  west  into  Utah 
and  there  include  the  bold  Wasatch  range,  with 
a  culminating  summit  nearly  12,000  feet  above 
the  sea.  This  range  is  in  view  from  Ogden  and 
Salt  Lake  City  and  presents  a  wonderfully  bold 
escarpment  to  the  west,  which  sharply  defines 
the  west  border  of  the  Rocky  Moimtains  for  a 
distance  of  some  200  miles. 

To  the  southwest  of  the  as  yet  indefinitely  de- 
termined border  of  the  Park  Mountains  is  a 
series  of  high  plateaus  termed  collectively  the 
Colorado  Plateaus,  situated  principally  in  Ari- 
zona, western  New  Mexico,  and  southern  Utah, 
which  have  elevations  ranging  from  7000  to 
8000  feet,  and  have  been  deeply  dissected  by  the 
Colorado  River  and  its  tributaries.  The  explora- 
tions of  J.  S.  Newberrv.  J.  W.  Powell,  and  C.  E. 
Dutton  in  this  land  of  remarkable  cafions  have 
made  it  one  of  the  best  known-  and  to  geologists 
and  geographers  most  instructive  i>ortions  of 
the  I&ky  Mountain  region. 

In  New  Mexico  ihe  mountains  are  lower  than 
in  Colorado,  and  the  several  ranges  and  numerous 
isolated  volcanic  mountains  are  separated  by 
broad  deeply  filled  valleys.  These  same  charac- 
teristics of  the  relief  extend  southward  into 
Mexico,  where  the  Rocky  Moimtains  terminate 
and  are  succeeded  by  a  series  of  lofty  volcanoes, 
and  by  the  western  portion  of  the  Antillean  Cor- 
dillera, in  which  the  major  structural  features 
are  folds  and  faults,  trending  east  and  west. 

Geologically  the  Rocky  Mountains  present  a 
wide  range  in  reference  especially  to  the  age  of 
the  rocks  and  to  the  structure  of  the  numerous 
ranges.  All  of  the  larger  divisions  of  geological 
history  from  the  Archean  to  recent  times  are 
represented.  Granite,  gneiss,  schist,  and  related 
rocks  usually  referred  to  the  Archaean  occur  es- 
pecially in  the  axial  portion  of  many  of  the 
ranges,  as  the  Front  or  Colorado  range,  the 
Saguache,  etc.,  in  Colorado,  the  Black  Hills,  Bijj 
Horn,  Teton,  etc.  The  older  recognized  sedi- 
mentary rocks  belong  to  the  Algonkian  period 
and  consist  largely  of  quartzites.  In  the  Xewis 
and  Livingston  of  Montana  rocks  of  this  age  have 
yielded  interesting  remains  of  large  crustaceans 
related  to  Eurypierus,  which  belong  to  the  oldest 
Imown  fauna  of  the  earth.  In  sandstone  of 
Ordovician  (Lower  Silurian)  age  near  Cafion 
City,  Colo.,  the  oldest  known  fossil  fishes  have 
been  found.  Carboniferous  rocks,  principally  ma- 
rine limestone,  occur  widely  throughout  both  the 
Stony  and  Park  Mountains.  At  several  localities 
in  Colorado  and  Wyoming  rocks  of  Jura-Trias 
age  have  yielded  lar^  quantities  of  bones  belong- 
ing to  gigantic  extinct  reptiles.  Marine  sedi- 
ments of  Cretaceous  age,  particularly  in  Mon- 
tana, are  frequently  crowded  with  beautifully 
preserved  shells,  and  particularly  a  great  variety 
of  cephalopods.  Tertiary  rocks,  consisting  prin- 
cipally of  the  sediments  of  lakes  and  occurring 
for  the  most  part  in  the  valley,  contain  the  bones 
of  many  genera  of  extinct  mammals,  some  of 


BOOKY  MOUNTAINa 


88 


BOCXY  MOUlTTAINa 


them  of  large  size  and  remarkable  cliaracter.  In 
beds  of  similar  age,  consisting  largely  of  volcanic 
dust,  at  Florissant,  Colo.,  immense  numbers  of 
fossil  insects  have  been  obtained,  and  near  Green 
River  in  Wyoming  soft  shales  are  crowded  with 
the  remains  of  fishes.  Fossil  plants,  particularly 
)f  Lower  Cretaceous,  Jurassic,  and  Tertiary  times, 
are  also  abundant.  Valuable  coal  seams  of  Cre- 
taceouJB  and  Tertiary  age  occur  at  many  locali- 
ties. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  facts  concerning 
the  geological  structure  of  the  Bocky  Mountains 
is  the  presence  of  a  series  of  abrupt  folds  along 
their  eastern  border  in  which  the  horizontal 
strata,  several  thousand  feet  thick,  underlying 
the  Great  Plateaus,  are  bent  upward.  Renmants 
of  these  same  beds  spared  by  erosion  occur  in 
several  of  the  ranges  to  the  west  of  the  Front 
range,  at  an  elevation  of  5000  or  6000  feet  above 
the  portions  not  affected  by  mountain-building 
forces.  At  many  localities  along  the  east  base  of 
the  Front  range,  from  New  Mexico  northward  far 
into  Canada,  the  abrupt  folding  of  the  rocks  is 
shown  by  the  nearly  vertical  position  of  the 
eroded  border  of  the  strata  remaining.  At  times 
the  folds  were  overturned  eastward,  so  that  the 
beds  in  their  eroded  basal  portions  dLip  westward. 
In  northern  Montana  a  still  more  intense  move- 
ment resulted  in  the  fracturing  of  the  rocks  in 
an  overturned  fold,  producing  a  nearly  horizontal 
fault  or  thrust  plain,  in  connection  with  which, 
as  reported  by  Bailey  Willis,  Algonkian  rocks 
were  carried  seven  miles  eastward  and  rest  on 
Cretaceous  strata. 

In  general  the  various  ranges  composing  the 
•  Rocky  Mountain  chain  are  due  to  upward  folds 
or  anticlinals  in  sedimentary  and  igneous  rocks, 
and  the  elevation  of  plastic  magmas  now  repre- 
sented by  granite,  gneiss,  schist,  etc.,  in  their 
central  portions.  In  general,  also,  as  shown  by 
the  north  and  south  trend  of  the  longer  axes  of 
the  folds,  the  direction  in  which  the  force  acted 
which  caused  the  rocks  to  bend  was  east  and 
"West.  The  principal  movements  which  upraised 
the  mountains  occurred  at  the  close  of  the  Meso- 
zoic,  as  is  shown  by  unconformities  between  Meso- 
zoic  and  Tertiary  beds. 

The  upheaval  of  the  mountains  was  followed 
by  erosion.  Nearly  all  of  the  scenic  features 
which  now  attract  the  eye  are  due  to  the  work 
of  streams  and  glaciers  which  have  deeply  sculp- 
tured the  upheaved  mountain  blocks.  The  broad 
valleys,  including  the  parks  of  Colorado,  etc., 
are  due  to  the  upraising  of  their  bordering  moun- 
tains; but  the  cafions,  such  as  the  Yellowstone, 
Arkansas,  Colorado,  and  other  streams  flow 
through,  are  the  result  of  abrasion  by  the  d^ris- 
charged  rivers  themselves.  The  infinitely  varied 
secondary  valleys  and  cafions  and  the  multitude 
of  gorges,  gulches,  amphitheatres,  and  other 
similar  incised  features  of  the  relief  are  due  to 
erosion,  while  the  countless  mesas,  buttes,  pin- 
nacles, etc.,  which  rise  above  the  general  level 
of  the  surrounding  country  are  remnants  of 
ancient  uplands  spared  by  the  erosive  agencies. 
Erosion  or  earth  sculpture  has  also  brouirht  out 
the  characteristic  features  of  the  Black  Hills  in 
which  the  ;nore  re^i^tant  rocks  stand  in  relief  and 
the  weaker  beds  underlie  valleys,  and  has  given 
to  the  several  regions  of  'bad  lands'  their  unique 
topography.  In  addition  to  the  numerous  ranges 
due  to  lateral  pressure  and  consequent  upward 
folding  there  are  many  elevations  due  to  volcanic 


agencies.  Mountains  built  by  volcanic  eruptions 
are  numerous  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,.  To  this 
class  belong  San  Francisco  Mountain  and  Mount 
Taylor,  situated  farther  east,  in  sight  of  which 
there  are  a  large  number  of  'volcanic  necks'  ex- 
posed by  the  removal  of  the  craters  which  once 
inclosed  them.  East  of  the  Front  range  in  New 
Mexico,  and  well  out  in  the  Great  Plat^us,  there 
are  a  number  of  conspicuous  volcanic  craters,  of 
which  the  leading  example  is  Mount  Capulin, 
2750  feet  high  above  the  surrounding  plain,  and 
with  a  crater  on  its  summit  nearly  a  mile  in 
diameter.  The  Spanish  Peaks,  in  southeastern 
Colorado,  furnish  admirable  examples  of  the  deep 
erosion  of  large  volcanic  mountains.  Colorado, 
Wyoming,  and  Montana  are  almost  wholly  with- 
out recent  volcanic  craters,  but  in  W^estern  Wyo- 
ming and  extending  across  southern  Idaho  are  the 
basaltic  lavas  of  the  Snake  River  Plains,  one  of 
the  most  wonderful  exhibits  of  its  kind  in  the 
world,  associated  with  which  there  are  numerous 
volcanic  craters.  In  the  region  of  Yellowstone 
Park  there  are  great  accumulations  of  rhyolitic 
lava,  of  older  date  than  the  basalts  of  Idaho,  but 
still  retaining  some  of  their  volcanic  heat,  as  is 
made  manifest  by  the  numerous  hot  springs  and 
geysers.  Associated  with  volcanic  eruptions  is 
the  injection  from  below  of  molten  or  plastic 
magmas  into  the  rigid  rocks  composing  the 
outer  portion  or  'crust'  of  the  earth.  These  in- 
trusions in  part  occupy  fissures  and  form  dikes, 
but  at  times  were  forced  between  stratified  beds 
and  produced  intruded  sheets  of  igneous  rocks, 
perhaps  many  scores  of  square  miles  in  area,  and 
under  other  conditions  formed  cistern-like  in- 
trusions termed  laccoliths,  which  raised  the  rocks 
above  into  domes.  In  the  Rocky  Mountains  there 
are  numerous  examples  of  each  of  these  varieties  of 
igneous  intrusions,  many  of  which  have  been  laid 
bare  by  erosion.  Of  these  the  most  remarkable  are 
the  laccoliths  forming  the  Kenry  Mountains  in 
southern  Utah,  where  several  intrusions  in  previ- 
ously horizontal  rocks  elevated  domes  measuring 
three  to  five  miles  in  diameter  and  from  a  few 
hundred  to  fully  7000  feet  high.  These  moun- 
tains furnished  the  type  of  a  class  of  uplifts  not 
previously  recognized.  Other  similar  laccolithic 
mountains  occur  in  southwest  Colorado,  and 
about  the  Black  Hills  in  South  Dakota,  and  have 
been  recognized  elsewhere. 

Perennial  snow  banks  and  miniature  glaciers 
occur  in  the  mountains  of  Colorado  and  on  the 
Teton  range  in  Wyoming.  In  northern  Montana 
small  glaciers  are  frequent,  and  in  the  Canadian 
Rockies  form  a  conspicuous  feature  in  the  mag- 
nificent scenery.  The  best  known  is  perhaps 
Illicilliwaet  glacier,  near  Glacier  House,  on  the 
line  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railroad.  Other 
glaciers  occur  in  the  higher  portions  of  the  moun- 
tains throughout  Alberta.  The  glaciers  are  all 
of  the  Alpine  type,  and  from  Montana  northward 
are  remnants  of  great  ice  sheets  which  covered 
the  mountains  during  the  Glacial  epoch.  Many 
of  the  more  conspicuous  features  in  the  North 
Rockies,  such  as  the  deep,  steep-sided  valley, 
with  rounded  or  U-shaped  bottoms,  numerous 
lakes  and  side  alcoves  from  which  the  streams 
descend  in  cascades,  are  due  to  the  former  gla- 
ciers which  flowed  away  from  the  several  ranges. 
The  summit  portions  of  the  Big  Horn,  Teton,  and 
other  ranges  in  Wyoming  are  glaciated,  as  is  also 
a  large  area  in  the  -region  of  great  mountains  in 
Colorado.    Nearly  all  of  the  numerous  and  fre- 


BOCKY  MOX717TAIK8. 


89 


&OCXY  MOTXJrrAIK& 


quently  ezoeedingly  beautiful  lakes  of  the  Rockj 
Mountain  region  are  due  to  the  work  of  glacial 
ice.  Those  near  the  crests  of  the  higher  ranges 
are,  for  the  most  part,  rock-basins,  while  those 
at  lower  altitudes,  and  especially  the  long,  nar- 
row lakes  in  the  larger  valleys,  are  held  by 
morainal  dams. 

.  The  chief  industry  throughout  the  Rodcy 
.Mountains  from  Alaska  to  Mexico  is  mining, 
and  silver,  gold,  copper,  and  coal  are  the  leading 
products.  Next  in  importance  is  stock-raising, 
and  particularly  cattle-raising,  for  which  the  nu- 
tritious bunch  grass,  growing  mostly  below  the 
lower  limit  of  the  forests,  furnishes  abundant 
nourishment.  In  recent  years,  however,  over- 
grazing has  greatly  injured  the  natural  pas- 
Xnre  lands  south  of  Montana.  Agriculture  is 
<kl  local  importance,  and  with  certain  exceptions, 
jBostly  in  western  Idaho  and  adjacent  portions  of 
Washington,  is  dependent  on  irrigation.  All 
through  the  region  from  the  central  part  of 
jBritum  Columbia  to  Central  Mexico  there  are 
ranches,  mining  camps,,  villages,  and  cities.  At 
present  seven  railroads,  six  in  the  United  States 
and  one  in  Canada,  cross  the  chain,  and  another 
to  the  north  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railroad  is 
projectted.  In  Mexico  the  main  avenues  of  traffic 
run  north  and  south  through  the  intermontane 
valleys,  as  is  s^own  by  the  Mexican  Central 
Railway,  which  connects  Ciudad  Juarez,  opposite 
£1  J?aso,  Texas,  with  the  City  of  Mexico,  a  dis- 
tance of  over  1000  miles.  .  These  several  rail- 
roads and  their  numerous  branches  make  acces- 
sible nearly  all  portions  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
region,  except  the  extreme  north  and  the  exces- 
sively rugged  western  portion  of  the  tableland  of 
Mexico.  At  the  far  north,  however,  a  new  centre 
of  industry  has  developed  in  the  Klondike  region. 
The  forests'  of  the  mountains  are  economically 
important,  not  only  as  a  source  of  lumber,  but 
klso  because  they  serve  lo  regulate  the  flow  of 
streams  used  for  irrigation.  For  these  reasons 
Si  forest  reserves,  with  a  total  area  of  over 
^8,000  squat-e  miles,  have  been  established  in  the 
portion  of  the  Rocl^*  Mountains  belonging  to  the 
United  States,  and  similar  provisions  have  been 
made  in  Canada. 

Among  the  economic  assets  of  the  Rocky  Moim- 
iains  should  also  be  included  their  magnificent 
scenery  and  healthful  and  in^dgorating  climate. 
Although  thousands  of  people  visit  them  eaeh 
year  in  search  of  health  and  recreation,  the  great 
benefits  to  be  reaped  in  these  directions  are  as 
yet  only  partially  appreciated.  The  portions 
taost  attractive  to  travelers  tfre  the  Yellowstone 
National  Park  -and  the  Orand  Cafion  of  the  Colo- 
rado, each  of  which  is  unrivaled  in  its  class. 

Flora.  THe  Rocky  Mountains  constitute  one 
lof  the  great '  floral  regions  of  North  America. 
With  the  exception  of  southern  New  Mexico  and 
Arizona,  which  belong  botanically  to  the  Mexican 
Plateau,  and  the  extreme  northern  portion,  whose 
flora  is  still  but  little  known  and  merges  with 
that  of  the  Pacific  Coast,  the  flora  of  the  whole 
Rocky  Mountain  region  is  essentially  homogene- 
ous at  corresponding  altitudes.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  region  is  markedly  different  from  the 
Eastern  or  Appalachian  region.  Scarcely  20  per 
cent,  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  plants  are  found  in 
the  East,  and  of  these  most  belong  to  the  species 
common  to  both  hemispheres.  The  Rocky  Moun- 
tain flora,  however,  includes  numerous  species 
found  in  the  contiguous  regions,  and  is  especially 


allied  to  that  of  the  California  or  Sierra  Nevada 
region.  Within  certain  altitudes  forests  occur 
throughout  the  Rocky  Mountain  region.  The 
upper  limit  of  tree  growth,  or  cold  timber  line, 
rises  toward  the  south,  having  an  elevation  of 
9000  feet  on  the  international  boundary  and 
11,000  to  12,000  feet  in  Colorado.  In  the  Stony 
and  Park  Mountains  and  thence  southward  there 
is  also  a  lower  limit  of  tree  growth,  determined 
mainly  by  lack  of  humidity.  As  far  north  as 
Idaho  and  southern  Wyoming  the  larger  valleys 
are  below  this  dry  timber  line,  but  in  Canada  the 
forests  are  continuous  across  moimtain  and  val- 
ley. The  forests  of  the  whole  region  are  over- 
whelmingly coniferous,  and  with  the  exception  of 
two  alpine  junipers  none  of  the  coniferous  trees 
are  common  to  the  Appalachian  region,  though 
the  latter  has  closely  allied  corresponding  species, 
some  of  which  have  been  erroneously  identified 
with  those  of  the  Rockies.  There  are  about  10 
pines,  and  the  most  characteristic  tree  of  the 
whole  region  is  the  Western  yellow  pine  {Pinus 
ponderosa).  The  nut  pine  {Pinua  edulia)  and 
the  Pinus  Chihuahua  are  the  chief,  species  con- 
fined to  the  southern  portion,  while  the  moun- 
tain pine  {Pinus  monticola)  and  the  black  pine 
{Pinus  Murrayana)  are  found  chiefiy  in  the 
north.  Of  the  spruces  the  Picea  Engelmanni  is 
the  most  common  throughout  the  region,  though 
generally  seeking  higher  altitudes  (nearly  9000 
feet  in  the  south).  Other  spruces,  notably  the 
Picea  Columbiana,  are  more  common  in  the  north, 
and  a  northern  habitat  is  also  preferred  by  the 
firs  (A hies  grandis  and  nohHis ) ,  the  Western  ^em- 
lock  {Tsuga  Mertensiana) ,  and  the  tamarack 
{Laria  Americana).  Shrubby  conifers,  such  as 
junipers,  are  found  chiefly  in  the  arid  south- 
western ranges  and  above  the  timber  line.  The 
deciduous  forests  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  axe  of 
small  extent  and  poor  in  species.  There  are  six 
species  of  oak,  but  all*  rather  small  and  scrubby, 
and  the  other  deciduous  tree  families  are  simi- 
larly ill  represented.  Sycamores,  the  New  Mexi- 
can locust,  and  mulberries  grow  in  the  south,  and 
the  rivers  throughout  the  region  are  lined  with 
Cottonwood,  balsam  poplar,  and  willows.  On 
the  level  plateaus  the  predominating  fiora  is  of 
the  sage-brush  type,  represented  by  the  genera 
Artemisia,  Atriplex,  Eurotina,  and  Bigelovia,  but 
in  the  southwest  the  plains  are  nearly  desert, 
with  the  characteristic  desert  fiora.  Above  the 
timber  line  the  Alpine  flora  closely  resembles  the 
flora  of  the  Arctic  region.  Among  all  the  flower- 
ing plants  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  the  families 
best  represented  are  in  the  order  named)  the 
Compositse,  Graminese,  Papilionaces,  Cyperaoe®, 
RanunculaceflB,  Cichoriacee,  Polygonacese,  Ona- 
gracese,  and  Umbellifene.  Of  these  the  flrst  two 
together  include  about  25  per  cent,  of  all  the 
species. 

Fauna.  It  was  the  opinion  of  the  earlier 
students  of  animal  life  in  North  America  that 
the  Rocky  Mountains  were  the  central  and  essen- 
tial part  of  a  peculiar  fauna  representing  the 
'Central'  zoSgeographical  region  embr&cing  the 
whole  elevated  territory  between  the  Great  Plains 
and  the  base  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  It  appears, 
however,  that  such  a  distinction  does  not  exist; 
that  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  peculiar  only  in 
such  features  as  depend  upon  altitude  and  are 
correlated  with  climate  and  vegetation  as  locally 
determined  by  height  above  the  sea  and  conse- 
quent low  temperature.    The  fauna  of  aU  North 


AOOXT  KOTOTTAIKS. 


90       BOCXY  KOTTNTAIV  SXrBBBOIOV. 


America  is  remarkably  diffuse  and  uniform,  so 
that  it  is  considered  indivisible  by  any  wfll- 
marked  distinctions;  nevertheless  certain  cones 
of  life  roughly  bounded  by  summer  isothermal 
lines  have  been  recognized  as  Boreal,  Hudsonian, 
Canadian,  AHeghanian,  Carolinian,  etc.,  in  suc- 
cession from  north  to  south.  These  are  repro- 
duced in  the  Rocky  and  other,  high  ranges  of  the 
West.  The  height  above  the  general  base- 
level  at  which  such  life-zones  will  be  found  de- 
pends upon  the  latitude.  Thus  at  the  northern 
extremity  of  the  range,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
3fackenzie,  not  only  the  summits  but  the  base 
of  the  range  are  within  the  'Boreal  zone;'  but  at 
the  southern  extremity  in  New  Mexico,  the  base 
exhibits  a  Carolinian  or  even  warmer  t3rpe  of 
fauna,  and  one  must  climb  13,000  or  14,000  feet 
to  find  upon  the  peaks  Arctic  weather,  and  Arctic 
plants  and  animals.  It  is  in  these  restricted 
summit  areas  that  one  finds  the  animals  peculiar 
to  the  region;  in  the  valleys  and  parks  there  is 
little  that  is  distinctive.  It  is  only  when  one 
has  risen  considerably  that  local  specialties  begin 
to  appear.  Thus  in  a  medium  latitude  (say  Mon- 
tana) at  about  9000  feet,  one  rises  above  the  sage- 
brush, the  Douglas  fir,  and  the  black  pine,  with 
their  host  of  valley  and  plain  animals,  and  into 
forests  of  Alpine  fir,  white-bark  and  Engel- 
mann's  pines,  which  indicate  a  climate  equiva- 
lent to  that  about  Hudson  Bay.  Here  are  breed- 
ing snow-birds  (Junco),  the  nut-cracker,  Canada 
jay,  kinglet,  and  other  northerly  birds.  This 
s>ne  extends  to  the  timber  line  and  forms  the 
normal  upward  limit  of  the  wapiti,  moose,  and 
mule  deer ;  the  grizzly  and  black  bears ;  the  wol- 
verine, many  mice,  squirrels,  and  the  smaller  car- 
nivores that  prey  upon  them.  At  and 
near  the  timber  line  one  begins  to '  find 
among  the  stunted  trees  and  plants  animals 
which  do  not  come  lower  down,  but  spend 
their  lives  altogether  there  and  upon  the 
treeless  summits  above  it,  and  these  are  the 
really  characteristic  mountain  animals;  and  yet 
with  very  few  exceptions  (the  sewellel  is  most 
conspicuous)  they  are  the  same  as  those  of  sub- 
arctic America  generally  or  of  the  high  ranges 
of  the  Pacific  Coast,  or  different  only  in  specific 
details.  Such  among  the  larger  animals  are  the 
bighorn,  and  the  ^cky  Moimtain  white  goat 
(qq.v.) .  The  former  is  practically  a  drcumpolar 
form,  and  the  latter  is  numerous  at  sea-level  in 
the  far  north,  but  is  scarce  in  the  United  States. 
The  bighorn  is  still  to  be  found  as  far  south  as 
San  Francisco  Peak  in  Arizona.  Along  with  these 
two  game  animals  are  several  small  ones  peculiar 
to  the  heights.  One  of  the  most  characteristic  is 
the  pika  (Lagomya  prinoepa) ;  another  is  the 
lemming  mouse  {Phenaoomya  arophilua),  an  Arc- 
tic form  that  burrows  in  the  moss  of  the  Alpine 
meadows;  and  a  third  the  whistler,  a  marmot 
(Arotomys) ,  inhabiting  these  heights  only  toward 
the  north.  This,  with  a  weasel,  which  descends 
in  winter,  when  the  small  animals  are  hibernat- 
ing or  living  upon  their  stores  in  underground 
burrows,  and  when  the  sheep  have  migrated  be- 
low the  snow  line  in  order  to  find  browse  and 
pasturage,  constitutes  the  list  of  peculiarly  Rocky 
Mountain  mammals.  On  the  heights,  however, 
breed  certain  birds,  as  species  of  ptarmigan,  the 
rosy  finches  {Leucosticte) ,  and  an  occasional 
golden  eagle  or  great  owl. 

The  general  list  of  animals  of  the  lower  levels 
of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  is  a  very  long  one, 


and  includes  many  which  are  distinguished  as 
local  or  ge(^praphic  races  or  subspecies  of  more 
widely  distributed  forms.  The  bison,  pronghom, 
and  the  white-tailed  deer  range  throughout  the 
valleys  and  climb  the  heights  to  a  considerable 
altitude  in  simimer,  and  in  the  north  caribou  are 
common;  but  the  bison  is  extinct,  the  wapiti  re- 
mains only  from  northwestern  Wyoming  north- 
ward, and  the  pronghom  is  scarce.  Among  the 
carnivores,  erizzly  and  black  bears,  the  puma, 
wildcat,  wolverine,  otter,  marten,  fisher,  long- 
tailed  weasel,  black-footed  ferret,  badger,  strips 
and  spotted  skunks,  red  fox,  kit  fox,  raccoon,  and 
cacomixl  make  a  long  list  attractive  in  early 
days  to  trappers.  An  extensive  catalogue  of  ro- 
dents includes  a  large  number  of  local  species 
of  mice,  wood-rats  and  voles,  the  beaver  (now 
greatly  reduced),  muskrat,  and  several  hares,  one 
or  two  of  which  are  peculiar;  and  many  species 
or  races  of  burrowing  'gophers,'  and  of  arboreal 
and  terrestrial  squirreb.  The  same  principles 
apply  to  the  birds,  of  which  about  400  species 
and  varieties  have  been  recorded  as  occurring 
in  the  central  Rocky  Mountain  rc^on,  of  which 
about  250  are  known  to  breed  there.  A  goodly 
list  of  reptiles  and  batrachians  and  fishes  may 
be  compiled,  the  last  group  distinguished  by  the 
predommance  of  salmonoias.  Several  species  of 
the  Pacific  coast  salmon  r^ularly  reach  the 
Rocky  Mountains  by  ascending  the  Columbia, 
Fraser,  and  more  northerly  rivers.  Insects 
abound  and  this  region  is  the  headquarters  of 
the  locust  tribe  in  America. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  what  is  most 
peculiar  in  the  fauna  of  the  Rocky  Moimtain 
region  has  been  derived  from  the  north,  and 
leads  back  to  the  Glacial  period,  when  the  pre- 
glacial  boreal  faima  was  pressed  southward  by 
the  slow  cooling  and  final  refrigeration  of 
Canada.  When  the  ice  slowly  melted  imder  the 
restoration  of  warmer  conditions  a  large  rejp- 
resentation  of  this  Arctic  fauna  found  upon  uie 
summits  a  local  continuance  of  the  cool  climate 
favorable  to  it,  and  has  remained  there,  often  in 
the  south  isolated  upon  peaks  which  it  cannot 
leave,  and  where  it  has  survived  in  limited  colo- 
nies cut  off  from  the  north.  This  history  (which 
was  also  that  of  the  Coast  ranges)  and  the  bar- 
riers afforded  by  the  breadth  of  high,  dry  plains 
to  the  eastward,  account  for  the  greater  likeness 
of  the  Rocky  Mountain  fauna  on  the  whole  to  tiie 
Pacific  than  to  the  Atlantic  side  of  the  continent. 

BiBUOGBAPHY.  United  8tatw  Oeographioal  and 
Geological  Survey  of  the  Rooky  Mountaina 
(Washington,  1868  et  seq.) ;  McClure,  Three 
Thoumnd  Milee  Through  the  Rocky  Mountains 
(Philadelphia,  1869) ;  Farmer,  The  Reeouroea  of 
the  Rocky  MountainSf  Mineral,  Graaing,  Agricul- 
tural, and  Timber  (Cleveland,  1883);  Ingersoll, 
The  Creat  of  the  Continent  (Chicago,  1885) ; 
Coulter,  Manual  of  the  Botany  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  Region  (New  York,  1885) ;  Parkman, 
The  Oregon  Trail  (ib.,  1886) ;  Shaler,  Nature 
and  Man  in  America  (ib.,  1802) ;  Sivers,  Amer- 
ica (Leipzig,  1894). 

BOCKT  HOTTirrAIK  SHESP. ,  See  Big- 
horn. 

BOCKT    MOUNTAIK    STXBBEGIOK.      A 

zo5geographical  subdivision  of  the  Nearctic 
region,  embracing  the  mountainous  country  be- 
tween the  North  American  plains  and  the  sum- 


BOCXY  MOTTHTAIK  BtTBBBQIOK. 


uits  of  the  Siena  Nevada  and  northern  Coast 
ranges. 

BOGKT  MOUNTAIN  TB0X7T.    See  DoiXT 

VABDCIf  TBOUT. 

BOGKT  MOTTNTAIN  WHITE  OOAT.     A 

£oat-antelope  (Oreamnua  montanuM)  of  the 
higher  mountains  of  Western  North  America. 
The  outer  hair  is  long,  especially  about  the  fore 
quarters,  and  has  beneath  it  a  woolly  underfur. 
It  stands  about  three  feet  high  at  the  shoulders, 
which  are  somewhat  arched  or  humped,  while  the 
head  is  carried  low.  The  nose  is  hairy,  there  is 
a  beard,  and  the  horns,  present  in  both  sexes,  are 
slender,  smooth,  backward-curving,  eisht  to  ten 
inches  long,  and  black,  which  is  also  the  color  of 
the  small  hoofs.  The  nearest  relatives  of  this 
animal  are  the  chamois  and  serow,  but  its  ap- 
pearance is  very  different  from  that  of  either. 
Its  home  is  the  summits  of  the  mountains  from 
the  'high  sierras'  of  California  and  the  central 
Bocky  Mountains  to  Alaska,  but  it  has  become 
rare  south  of  British  Columbia.  Its  long  silky 
coat,  which  the  Indians  were  wont  to  weave  into 
curious  blankets,  and  its  pure  white  and  highly 
protective  color,  indicate  a  snowy  habitat,  and 
this  animal  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  glacial  peaks 
and  the  great  snow-fields  alone,  rarely  coming 
down  even  as  low  as  the  timber-line,  but  finding 
its  foliage  among  the  alpine  pastures  that  border 
the  glaciers.  It  climbs  with  astonishing  agility, 
picks  its  way  along  cliffs  and  ledges  where  the 
gales  blow  the  snow  away  as  fast  as  it  falls,  or 
feeds  upon  the  highest  grassy  slopes,  so  steep  that 
they  are  last  to  hold  the  snowfall  of  winter 
and  earliest  to  be  swept  clean  by  the  spring  ava- 
lanches. It  moves  in  beaten  trails,  often  the  only 
means  the  hunter  has  of  following  it,  and  in  some 
narrow  nlaces  the  treadin^r  of  countless  hoofs 
for  countless  generations  has  actually  worn  deep 
paths  in  the  solid  granite.  Their  flesh  is  ^ood  eat- 
ing, and  their  hides  command  a  large  price  when 
well  made  into  robes  or  rugs.  Two  kids  are 
usually  produced  in  the  spring  and  remain  with 
the  parents  until  the  next  spring,  forming  a 
family  party  which  moves  about  in  company,  but 
no  large  flocks  are  ever  found.  Consult:  Stone 
and  Cnim,  American  Animals  (New  York,  1902) ; 
Baillie-Grohman,  Fifteen  Yeara*  Sport  .  •  • 
in  the  Hunting  Grounds  of  Western  America 
(London,  1900).    See  Plate  of  Goat- Antelopes. 

BOCCKGO  (Pr.,  apparently  coined  from  ro- 
eaille,  rockwork,  from  roche,  ML.  roca,  rock). 
The  name  given  to  a  late  and  fantastic  branch 
of  the  Renaissance  which  prevailed  in  France, 
Germany,  and  other  parts  of  Central  Europe 
during  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  and  the 
first  half  of  the  succeeding  century.  It  was  really 
a  sub-species  of  the  Barocco  style  of  architecture 
and  decoration,  which  took  but  slight  hold  in 
Italy.  It  played  extravagant  tricks  with  de- 
sign, showing  no  restraint  in  its  caprice:  fond 
of  rustic  work  and  outdoor  effects,  it  reveled  in 
rockwork,  fountains,  gardens,  pavilions,  and  vil- 
las. It  broke  all  the  rules  of  proportion,  design, 
and  composition  drawn  up  by  the  purists  of  the 
Renaissance,  and  aimed  at  broken  and  curved 
lines  and  surfaces,  irrational  details,  and  incon- 
gruous masses. 

fiOCSOIy  rft'krwIL^    The  capital  of  an  arron- 
dissement  in  the  Department  of  Ardennes,  France. 
15  miles  northwest  of  M^zi^res,  situated  on  an 
Toi»  XV.-7. 


91  BODBEBTTTd. 

extensive  plateau  1300  feet  above  the  sea,  sur- 
rounded by  the  Forest  of  Ardennes  (Map:  France, 
L  2).  Population,  in  1901,  2176.  It  is  memo- 
rable for  the  victory  gained  by  the  Buke  of  En- 
ghien  (the  Great  Cond^)  over  the  Spaniards,  May 
19,  1643,  in  which  battle  a  century's  reputation 
for  invincibility  enjoyed  by  the  Spanish  infantry 
was  destroyed. 

BOD  (AS.  red,  OHQ.  ruota,  Ger.  Jtute;  pos- 
sibly  connected  with  Lat.  rudis,  staff,  radius,  rod, 
staff,  spoke,  semidiameter,  Skt.  rudh,  to  grow). 
A  measure  of  length  equivalent  to  5^  yar<&,  also 
called  a  pole.  In  surveying  (q.v.),  an  instru- 
ment used  in  taking  levels.     See  Enoineerutg 

I178TBUMENTS. 

BOD,  rftd,  Edouard  (1857—).  A  French  au- 
thor, bom  at  Nyon,  Switzerland.  He  studied 
philology  at  Bonn  and  Berlin,  went  to  Paris  and 
Decame  (1884)  editor  of  La  Revue  Contempo- 
raine.  In  1887  he  was  chosen  professor  of  com- 
parative literature  at  Geneva,  but  he  soon  re- 
signed, returning  to  Paris  and  literature.  In 
1899  he  visited  the  United  States  on  a  lecture 
tour.  His  first  novels  are  naturalistic,  Odte-d- 
edte  (1882),  La  femme' de  Henri  Vanneau 
(1884).  With  La  sacrifUe  (1892)  Rod  passed 
under  the  influence  of  Tolstoy,  though  affected 
somewhat  by  Benan  and  Bourget.  This  appears 
most  clearly  in  Michel  Tessier  (1893-94),  but 
also  in  Les  rochers  blancs  (1895),  Pdre  et  fils 
(1897),  Pastor  Naudi^'s  Young  Wife  (trans. 
1899),  and  Au  milieu  du  chemin  (1900).  His 
critical  work  is  represented  by  such  books  as 
Dante  et  Stendhal  (1889),  Les  Allemands  d  Paris 
(1880),  and  Etudes  et  nouvelles  itudes  sur  le 
JUIXime  siMe  (1888  et  seq.). 

BODAS,  r(/D&s.  A  town  of  the  Province  of 
Santa  Clara,  Cuba,  55  miles  west  of  the  city  of 
that  name.  Its  chief  productions  are  sugar  and 
fruits.    Population,  in  1899,  3390. 

BODBEBTUS,  rAd-b«r^tvs,  Johann  Kabl 
(1806-75).  A  German  economist,  founder  of  the 
scientific  or  conservative  school  of  socialism.  He 
was  born  August  12,  1805,  in  Greifswald,  where 
his  father  was  a  professor  of  Roman  law.  He 
studied  law  at  Gottingen  and  Berlin,  and  served 
from  1827  to  1832  in  the  Prussian  justiciary. 
By  1837  he  had  formulated  his  social  platform, 
and  in  that  year  published  Die  Forderungen  der 
arheitenden  Klassen,  Elected  to  the  National 
Assembly  in  1848,  he  was  Minister  of  Education 
in  the  Auerswald-Hansemann  Ministry  for  a 
fortnight,  and  in  1849  was  a  leader  of  the  Left 
Centre.  The  last  twenty  years  of  his  life  were 
spent  in  retirement.  Socialism,  as  defined  by 
Rodbertus,  was  to  be  a  gradual  evolution,  hence 
his  acquiescence  in  a  monarchy,  and  his  break 
with  the  Democrats  as  a  political  party.  He  re- 
garded the  social  ({uestion  as  a  purely  eco- 
nomic one.  His  principal  doctrines  are  these: 
The  workman's  share  of  the  nation's  industrial 
income  tends  constantly  to  decline ;  land  rent  and 
interest  are  the  result  of  the  exploitation  of  the 
working  classes;  the  present  shares  in  the  dis- 
tribution of  wealth — rent,  profits,  interest,  and 
wages — ^are  not  entirely  the  result  of  permanent, 
universal  economic  forces,  but  the  result  of 
historical  evolution  and  the  prevailing  legal 
system;  financial  and  commercial  crises  are 
due  to  a  non-adjustment  of  production  and  con- 
sumption;   the    laborer's    purchasing    power    is 


BODBEBTUa 


92 


BODENTIA. 


small  and  the  capitalist  and  landlord  classes,  in- 
stead of  increasing  their  consumption  of  luxuries, 
invest  their  savings  in  new  factories,  and  in 
otherwise  increasing  the  means  of  production, 
with  the  inevitable  result  that  commodities  of 
common  consumption  are  produced  in  excess — 
the  great  cause  of  crises.  Rodbertus  died  in 
1875.  His  works  include:  Zur  Erkenntnis  un- 
sever  ataataunrthschaftlichen  Zustande  (1842); 
Soziale  Brief e,  addressed  to  Julius  von  Kirch- 
mann  (1850-51)  ;  Der  Normalarheitatag  (1871) ; 
and  Beleuchtung  der  sooialen  Frage  (1875).  Eiis 
statement  of  his  theory  of  crises,  contained  in 
his  Soziale  Briefe,  has  appeared  in  an  English 
translation  under  the  title  of  Overproduction 
and  Crises  (New  York,  1898).  CJonsult  the 
sketch  in  Stegmann  and  Hugo,  Handbuch  des 
Sozialismus  (1897);  Jantsch,  RodJ>ertus  (Stutt- 
gart, 1899). 

BODD,  Sir  James  Rennell  (1858—).  An 
English  diplomatist  and  verse  writer.  He  was 
educated  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  where  he  won 
the  Newdigate  prize  with  a  poem  on  Sir  Walter 
Ralegh  (1880).  Entering  the  diplomatic  ser- 
vice (1883),  he  held  various  appointments  at 
Berlin,  Athens,  Rome,  and  Paris.  In  1893  he 
was  placed  in  charge  of  the  British  agency  at 
Zanzibar  and  was  present  at  the  skirmishes  at 
Pumwani  and  Jongeni.  In  1894  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  Cairo,  as  principal  secretary  to  the 
British  kgency  in  Egypt.  In  1897  he  was  sent 
on  the  important  mission  to  King  Menelik  of 
Abyssinia.  For  his  distinguished  services  he 
received  a  C.B.  on  his  return  and  was  knighted 
in  1899.  His  volumes  of  verse  comprise  Bongs 
of  the  South  (1881),  Poems  in  Many  Lands 
(1883),  Feda  and  Other  Poems  (1886),  The  Un- 
known Madonna  (1888),  The  Violet  Crown  and 
Songs  of  England  (1891),  and  Ballads  of  the 
Fleet  (1897).  These  books  form  a  body  of  flu- 
ent verse  often  very  beautiful.  We  may  cite 
"The  Daisy,"  "Good  Bye,"  and  the  various  do- 
mestic pieces  in  the  Songs  of  England,  In  prose, 
Rodd  has  published  Frederick,  Crown  Prince  and 
Emperor y  a  biography  (1888),  an4  Customs  and 
Lore  of  Modern  Greece  (1892). 

BODEy  rdd,  Jacques  Piebbe  Joseph  (1774- 
1830).  A  French  violinist,  bom  at  Bordeaux. 
He  studied  under  Fauvel  in  his  native  place,  and, 
later,  under  Viotti  at  Paris.  At  the  opening  of 
the  Conservatoire,  in  1794,  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  the  violin.  In  1800  he  was  appointed 
solo  violinist  to  Napoleon.  In  1803  he  went 
with  Boieldieu  to  Russia,  where  he  remained  for 
five  years  as  solo  violinist  to  Alexander  I. 
Afterwards,  at  Vienna,  Beethoven  wrote  for  him 
the  Romance,  Op.  50.  He  went  back  to  Paris  in 
1828,  but  was  unfavorably  received  and  made  his 
final  withdrawal  to  Bordeaux.  He  wrote  13 
violin-concertos;  the  important  and  much-used 
"24  caprices  en  forme  d'^tudes,  dans  les  24  tons 
de  la  gamme;"  etudes;  and  3  books  of  violin 
duos.  His  compositions  are  still  highly  regarded 
by  violinists.    He  died  at  Bordeaux. 

BODENBEBG,  rSMen-bftrK,  Julius  (1831 
— ) .  A  German  author,  bom  of  a  Jewish  family 
named  Levy,  at  Rodenberg,  in  Hesse.  He  studied 
law  at  Heidelberg,  Gottingen,  Marburg,  and  Ber- 
lin, but  devoted  himself  to  literature  and  to 
travel,  and  edited,  at  Berlin,  first  the  Bazar  and 
then  the  Salon,  until,  in  1874,  he  founded  the 
important  Deutsche  Rundschau,  of  which  he  re- 


mained editor.  He  i>ubli8hed  in  verse,  Sonnetie 
fur  Schleswig-Holstein  (1851),  Konig  Harolds 
Totenfeier  (1853;  3d  ed.  1856),  and  Lieder  und 
Oedichte  (1863;  5th  ed.  1880);  sketches  of  life 
and  travel;  several  romances.  Die  neue  SUnd- 
flut  (1865),  Von  Qottes  Qnaden  (1870),  Die 
Grandidiers  (2d  ed.  1881),  Herm  Schellhogens 
Ahenteuer  (1890);  and  a  biography  of  Fran2 
Dingelstedt  (1891).  Consult  the  memoirs,  Erin- 
nerungen  aus  Jugendzeit  (1899). 

BOa)ENBOITGHy  Theophilus  Francis  ( 1838 
— ).  An  American  soldier  and  author,  bom  in 
Easton,  Pa.,  and  educated  in  private  schools  and 
at  Lafayette  College.  He  was  appointed  second 
lieutenant  of  the  Second  United  States  Dragoons 
in  1861;  was  on  duty  in  the  Cavalry  School  of 
Practice,  and  served  in  the  campaigns  of  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac.  He  lost  his  right  arm  at 
Winchester.  He  served  after  the  war  as  in- 
spector-general in  Kansas  and  as  major  of  the 
Forty-second  Infantry.  He  was  retired  in  1870 
as  colonel  of  cavalry,  because  of  wounds  received 
in  line  of  duty.  In  1871  he  became  deputy  gov- 
ernor of  the  Soldiers'  Home,  Washington,  D.  C; 
was  assistant  inspector-general  of  New  York 
State  (1888-90),  and  from  1890  to  1901  chief  of 
the  Bureau  of  Elections,  New  York  City.  He 
wrote  From  Everglade  to  Canon  unth  the  Second 
Dragoons  (1875),  Afghanistan  and  the  Anglo- 
Russian  Dispute  (1885),  Uncle  Sam's  Medal  of 
Honor  (1886),  Autumn  Leaves  from  Family 
Trees  (1892),  and  Sahre  and  Bayonet  (1897). 
He  contributed  articles  on  military  science  to 
The  New  International  Encyclopcedta. 

BODEKTIA,  r6-den'shI-&  (Neo-Lat,  from 
Lat.  rodentia,  nom.  pi.,  sc.  animalia,  animals, 
from  pres.  part,  of  rodere,  to  gnaw;  con- 
nected with  Skt.  rada,  tooth).  The  lai^eet 
known  order  of  mammals,  the  rodents,  or 
gnawers,  containing  20  or  more  families  com- 
prising several  thousand  species,  distributed 
throu^out  the  world,  possibly  excepting  Aus- 
tralia and  New  Zealand.  The  largest,  the  capy- 
bara,  is  not  as  large  as  a  hog,  while  some, 
as  the  mice,  are  minute.  The  order  is  distinc- 
tively characterized  by  its  dentition,  especially 
by  the  total  absence  of  canines  and  the  paramount 
importance  of  the  front  teeth  or  incisors.  These 
are  usually  two  in  each  jaw,  separated  by  a  con- 
siderable vacant  interval  from  the  molars.  They 
are  very  large,  reach  far  back  into  the  skull,  and^ 
continue  to  grow  from  persistent  pulps  as  fast  as 
their  tips,  or  cutting  edges,  are  worn  away.  They 
are  coated  on  the  front  with  hard  enamel,  and 
as  the  softer  dentine  of  the  remainder  of  the 
tooth  wears  away  more  rapidly,  the  cusp  of  each 
tooth  takes  a  chisel-like  edge,  and  its  sharpness 
is  maintained.  In  some  groups  the  molar  teeth 
are  also  perennial,  and  grow  from  persistent 
pulps.  Another  interesting  fact  is  that  in  many 
groups,  such  as  that  of  the  rats  and  mice,  there 
are  no  milk-teeth.  The  molar  teeth,  of  which  there 
are  usually  three  on  each  side,  one  in  each  jaw, 
have  flat  crowns  with  ridges  of  enamel,  which 
make  them  highly  effective  as  grinders.  -  The 
stomach  is  simple;  the  intestines  are  very  long; 
the  csecum  is  often  large,  sometimes  larger  than 
the  stomach  itself.  The  brain  is  not  large,  and 
that  of  some  rodents  is  nearly  smooth,  but  in 
many  families  exhibits  a  considerable  degree  of 
convolution.  The  rodents  are  not  generally  dis- 
tinguished for  sagacity,  although  some  of  them. 


as  the  beainer,  exhibit  remarkable  instincts.  They 
bear  important  relationships  to  mankind,  chiefly 
as  pests  highly  injurious  to  agriculture  or  ob- 
noxious to  the  housekeeper;  but  some  yield 
Faluable  furs,  or  are  useful  in  other  ways.  The 
living  rodents  are  grouped  in  two  suborders,  ac- 
cording to  the  arrangement  of  the  incisor  teeth. 
In  the  suborder  Dupliddentaia,  which  includes 
only  hares,  rabbits,  and  pikas,  there  are  a 
pair  of  small  accessory  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw* 
back  of  the  functional  pair.  In  the  otiier  sub- 
order, Simpliddentttta,  there  are  only  two  incisors 
in  earch  jaw.  This  suborder  includes  three  sec- 
tions: (1)  Hystricomorpha,  containing  rodents 
with  tibia  and  fibula  distinct,  a  hairy  muzzle, 
and  20  teeth;  (2)  Myomorpha,  rodents  with  tibia 
and  fibula  united,  a  naked  muzzle,  and  16  teeth; 
(3)  Sciuromorpha,  rodents  with  tibia  and  fibula 
distinct,  a  naked  muzzle,  and  20  or  22  teeth.  See 
Hake;  Pika;  Pobgupine;  Rat;  Squibbel. 

FoBsn.  Rodents.  The  rodent  order  probably 
arose  some  time  during  the  earlier  Eocene  in 
North  America,  as  typical  rodents  are  found  in 
the  Middle  Eocene,  and  by  the  end  of  the  Eocene 
period  all  the  great  groups  of  the  order  were 
differentiated.  The  probability  is  that  the  rodents 
arose  from  the  early  Insectiyora.  It  is  note- 
worthy that  as  yet  no  intermediate  forms  have 
been  found  to  connect  the  two  great  rodent 
groups,  the  Simplicidentata  and  the  Dupliciden- 
tata^  and  a  diphyletic  origin  is  possible. 

The  rodents  very  early  imderwent  a  remark- 
ably wide  geographical  distribution  and  by  the 
end  of  the  Eocene  they  were  represented  in  North 
and  South  America^  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  and 
some  existing  groups  seem  to  have  been  much 
more  widely  distributed  than  at  present.  The 
Dnplicidentata  are  represented  at  the  base  of  the 
Miocene  in  both  Europe  and  North  America  by 
the  existing  families  Lagomyidse  and  Leporidse, 
and  no  extinct  families  are  known.  Of  the  Sim- 
plicidentata the  squirrels  occur  first  in  the  Upper 
Eocene  of  Europe,  and  later  in  the  White  River 
beds  of  the  Lower  Miocene  of  North  America. 
The  earliest  of  the  beavers  (Steneofiber)  occurs 
in  the  White  River  formation  and  in  the  Miocene 
of  Europe.  The  porcupine-like  forms  attained 
their  greatest  development  in  South  America. 
The  rats  and  mice  first  appear  in  the  Upper 
Eocene  of  Europe  in  the  genus  Cricetodon,  and 
in  North  America  Eumys  of  the  Lower  Miocene  is 
an  early  representative.  Although  nearly  all  the 
rodents  have  been  quite  small,  there  are  notable 
exceptions  in  Megomys  of  the  South  American 
Pampeean  formation,  a  form  ''nearly  as  large  as 
an  ox,"  and  in  Castoroides  Ohioticua,  a  North 
American  rodent  which  must  have  equaled  the 
black  bear  in  size.  This  animal  has  been  errone- 
ously described  as  a  giant  beaver,  but  its  rela- 
tionship to  the  porcupines  is  now  known  to  be 
closer.  Consult:  Flower,  Mammals  Living  and 
Extinct  (London,  1891);  Beddard,  Mammalia 
(ib.,  1902) ;  Waterhouse,  Mammalia^  vol.  ii. 
(ib.,  1848)  ;  Coues  and  Allen,  Monographs  of 
Xorth  American  Rodentia  (Washington,  1877). 

BOIKEBIC  (T-C.711).  King  of  the  Visigoths 
in  Spain  from  708  or  709  to  711.  He  became 
King  after  the  overthrow  and  death  of  Witiza, 
and  according  to  one  account  the  sons  of  Witiza 
joined  with  some  malcontent  Visip^othic  nobles — 
among  whom  was  a  ()ount  Julian — and  sum- 
moned to  their  aid  the  Arab  chief  who  had  just 
finished  the  conquest  of  Mauretania.    Others  as- 


03  BOBGBBS. 

sert  that  the  country  groaned  imder  the  tyran- 
nical government  of  Roderic,  that  his  licentious 
behavior  had  disgusted  many  of  his  nobles,  and 
that  the  people  were  ripe  for  a  revolution  when 
the  Moslem  invasion  took  place.  Both  are  agreed 
as  to  the  time  and  mode  of  the  invasion ;  but  the 
Arab  historians  brand  Count  Julian  with  treach- 
ery, as  not  only  voluntarily  surrendering  Ceuta, 
the  key  to  the  country,  but  actually  guiding  the 
Berbers  and  Arabs  under  Tarik  into  Spain.  A 
landing  was  effected  at  Algeciras  in  711;  and  in 
spite  of  vigorous  opposition  from  the  (Jovemor 
of  Andalusia,  Tarik  marched  on,  routing  Rode- 
ric's  chosen  cavalry,  which  had  been  sent  to 
oppose  him.  Roderic  hastened  at  the  head  of  an 
army  to  oppose  the  invaders,  who  had  been  re- 
enforced  from  Africa  and  by  rebels.  The  two 
armies  met  near  Jerez  de  la  Frontera,  and  in 
July  the  decisive  battle  was  fought.  It  is  prob- 
able that  the  Christians  would  have  been  vic- 
torious but  for  the  treachery  of  the  King's  Cothic 
enemies.  The  Saracens  won  a  complete  victory, 
which  opened  the  way  to  the  speedy  conquest  of 
Spain.  Roderic's  fate  is  unknown,  and  many 
legends  have  been  current  about  his  end.  Con- 
sult Saavedra,  Estitdio  sohre  la  invasion  de  lo8 
Arahea  (Madrid,  1895). 

BODEBICK  DHU,  do?^.  In  Scott's  Lady  of 
the  Lake,  an  outlaw  chieftan,  overcome  and  made 
prisoner  by  Fitz-James. 

BODEBICK  BANDOM.  A  novel  by  Tobias 
Smollett  (1748).  The  hero,  a  selfish  bully,  has 
adventures  in  many  lands,  during  his  hard  life 
in  the  navy  and  on  shore,  some  of  which  is 
autobiographical.  Tom  Bowling  and  Jack  Rat- 
tlin  are  amusing  naval  characters,  and  the  story, 
though  coarse,  is  spirited  and  entertaining. 

BODEBIGO,  rdd'e-re^g6.  In  Shakespeare's 
Othello,  a  Venetian,  in  love  with  Desdemona,  and 
used  by  lago  to  further  his  own  purposes. 

BODEZ,  rd'dgs'  or  rtRT-.  The  capital  of  the 
Department  of  Aveyron,  France,  situated  on  the 
crest  and  slope  of  a  hill,  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
Aveyron,  148  miles  northwest  of  Montpellier  by 
rail  (Map:  France,  J  7).  Its  streets  are  steep, 
narrow,  winding,  and  dirty;  but  the  promenades 
around  the  town  are  pleasant.  The  cathedral, 
with  a  lofty  clock-tower,  is  a  Gothic  structure, 
dating  from  the  thirteenth  century.  Other  note- 
worthy buildings  are  the  restored  Romanesque 
Church  of  Saint  Amans,  the  modem  Church  of 
the  Sacred  Heart,  the  bishop's  palace,  several 
mediseval  houses,  and  the  Renaissance  Hotel 
d'Armagnac.  There  are  ruins  of  a  Roman  amphi- 
theatre and  a  restored  Roman  aqueduct  supplies 
the  city  with  water.  A  variety  of  woolen  cloths 
are  manufactured,  cheese  of  a  highly  esteemed 
quality  is  made,  and  there  is  a  large  trade  in 
cattle  and  mules.  Rodez  is  the  ancient  Sego- 
dunum,  the  capital  of  a  Gallic  Arvemian  tribe, 
the  Rutheni,  whence  the  mediaeval  Latin  name, 
Rutena,  and  the  modern  name.  It  was  the  capi- 
tal of  the  old  County  of  Rouergue.  Population, 
in  1901,  16,106. 

BODGEBSy  r6j'Srz,  Christopher  Raymond 
Ferry  (1819-92).  An  American  naval  officer. 
He  was  bom  in  Brooklyn,  and  in  1833  entered 
the  navy  as  a  midshipman.  He  saw  active 
service  against  the  Seminole  Indians  in 
1839-41,  and  in  the  Mexican  War.  From  1859 
to  1861  he  was  commandant  of  midshipmen  in 
the  Naval  Academy.     At  the  b^inning  of  the 


BODGfi&S. 


04 


BOBIir. 


Civil  War  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
frigate  Wabash  and  rendered  his  first  important 
service  at  Port  Royal  (November,  1861).  In 
March,  1862,  he  commanded  an  expedition  to 
Saint  Augustine  and  Saint  Mary's  River,  and  at 
the  capture  of  Fort  Pulaski  had  charge  of  the 
naval  forces  operating  in  the  trenches.  In  the 
attack  on  Charleston  (1863)  he  was  fleet-captain. 
He  afterwards  commanded  the  steam  sloop  Iro- 
quota  and  the  Franklin,  and  was  on  special  ser- 
vice in  Europe  until  1872,  when  he  was  made 
chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Docks  and  Yards.  He  was 
superintendent  of  the  Naval  Academy  from  1874 
to  1878,  and  held  the  same  office  for  some  time  in 
1881.  During  his  naval  service  he  rose  to  the 
grade  of  rear-admiral  (1874).  In  1881  he  was 
retired. 

BODGEBS,  John  (1771-1838).  An  American 
naval  officer,  born  in  Harford  Coimty,  Md.  He 
entered  the  naval  service  in  1708  as  a  lieutenant, 
and  was  executive  officer  of  the  frigate  Constella- 
Hon  under  Captain  Truxton  at  the  time  the 
French  frigate  L*Insurgente  was  captured  off 
Nevis,  February  9,  1799.  For  his  conduct  in  this 
action  he  was  promoted  to  a  captaincy.  In 
May,  1803,  he  commanded  the  John  Adams  in 
the  Mediterranean.  In  1804  he  commanded  the 
Congress  at  Tripoli,  in  the  squadron  imder  Cap- 
tain Barron,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1805.  After 
peace  was  declared,  he  sailed  to  Tunis,  where  he 
dictated  terms  of  peace  to  the  Bey.  His  action 
while  on  the  President,  with  the  British  man-of- 
war.  Little  Belt  (May  17,  1811),  as  the  result  of 
an  attempt  on  his  part  to  effect  the  rescue  of  an 
impressed  American  seaman,  widened  the  breach 
then  existing  between  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States.  In  1812,  war  having  been  declared 
by  the  United  States,  Commander  Rodgers  was 
placed  in  command  of  a  squadron  consisting  of 
the  President,  United  States,  Congress,  Hornet, 
and  Argus,  and  meeting  the  British  ship  BeU 
videra,  chased  her,  and  a  running  fight  followed — 
the  first  battle  of  the  war — ^in  which  Rodgers  was 
wounded  by  the  bursting  of  a  gun  in  his  vessel, 
the  President,  On  a  cruise  soon  afterwards,  he 
captured  a  number  of  British  merchantmen,  and 
also  the  packet  Suoallow,  which  carried  $200,000 
in  specie.  In  1814  he  was  ordered  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  new  frigate  Ouerriere,  and  rendered 
valuable  aid  in  the  defense  of  Baltimore.  From 
1815  to  1824  he  was  president  of  the  Board  of 
Naval  Commissioners,  and  in  1823  was  acting 
Secretary  of  the  Navy.  From  1824  to  1827  he 
had  command  of  the  squadron  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean. After  his  return  he  again  served  as  Navy 
Commissioner  until  1837. 

B0DGEB8,  John  (1812-82).  An  American 
naval  officer,  son  of  John  Rodgers  (1771-1838), 
bom  in  Harford  County,  Md.  He  entered  the  navy 
as  a  midshipman  in  1828,  and  saw  active  service 
in  the  Seminole  War.  During  the  years  1852-55 
he  commanded  Government  exploring  expeditions 
in  the  North  Pacific  and  Arctic  oceans.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  ordered  to  the 
West,  where  for  a  time  he  superintended  the 
building  of  ironclads.  He  then  joined  the  Port 
Royal  expedition  and  on  May  15,  1862,  com- 
manded the  Galena  in  the  bombardment  of  Fort 
Darling.  A  few  months  later  he  was  promoted 
to  be  captain  and  on  June  17,  1863,  while  com- 
manding the  monitor  Weehawken,  he  fought  and 
captured  the  Confederate  ironclad  Atlanta,  thus 


earning  the  rank  of  commodore.  In  1870  Eod- 
gers  was  given  command  of  the  Asiatic  squad- 
ron, and,  while  on  the  coast  of  Korea,  was  fired 
upon  by  two  forts,  which  he  promptly  bombarded 
and  captured.  From  1877  until  his  death  he  was 
superintendent  of  the  United  States  Naval  Ob- 
servatory at  Washington,  and  in  1863  he  was 
chosen  one  of  the  fifty  active  members  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Sciences. 

BODOr,  rb'dSjn^,  Auguste  (1840—).  A 
French  sculptor,  the  chief  master  of  the  modem 
Naturalistic  School.  He  was  bom  near  the 
Pantheon  in  Paris  of  a  poor  family.  His 
only  general  education  was  at  a  school  in 
Beauvais,  kept  by  an  uncle.  When  fourteen  years 
old  he  entered  the  famous  Petite  Ecole  in  Paris, 
where  many  of  the  most  eminent  French  artists 
have  begun  their  special  training.  He  failed  to 
gain  admission  to  the  Ecole  des  Beaux- Arts,  and 
studied,  without  much  advantage,  at  the  school 
of  Barye  in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  supporting 
himself  by  assisting  plaster  and  papier-machi 
workers.  At  the  age  of  twenty-two  he  modeled 
an  extraordinary  head,  called  the  ''Broken  Nose," 
which  is  still  one  of  the  most  powerful  and  char- 
acteristic of  his  works.  In  1863  Rodin  entered 
the  service  of  Carrier-Belleuse,  and  remained  with 
him  until  the  beginning  of  the  Franco-German 
War.  During  the  siege  of  Paris  he  served  in 
the  National  Guard,  and  after  the  war  he 
went  to  Brussels,  where  he  was  extensively  em- 
ployed in  architectural  decoration,  his  most  im- 
portant works  there  being  two  large  groups  for 
the  Exchange. 

Returning  to  Brussels  after  a  short  visit  to 
Italy  in  1876,  where  he  was  profoundly  impressed 
by  the  works  of  Donatello  and  ^chelangelo, 
he  made  an  extraordinary  statue,  the  "A^ 
of  Brass,"  which  he  took  with  him  to  Paris  m 
1877,  and  exhibited  in  the  Salon  of  that  year.  It 
was  received  most  enthusiastically  by  the  younger 
sculptors,  but  condemned  by  the  more  conserva- 
tive on  account  of  its  radical  qualities.  Before 
the  exhibition  of  1878  Rodin  modeled  some  su- 
perb decorative  heads  for  the  Trocad4ro  Palace. 
This  work  and  a  bust  of  "Saint  John,"  which 
Rodin  exhibited  in  1879,  won  for  him  the  patron- 
age and  warm  friendship  of  Turquet,  Under- 
Secretary  of  Fine  Arts,  through  whose  in- 
stmmentality  the  "Age  of  Brass"  was  bought  for 
the  State,  and  was  cast  in  bronze  and  placed  in 
the  Luxembourg  gardens.  Some  of  the  vases 
which  Rodin  hsui  designed  for  Carrier-Belleuse, 
art  director  of  the  Sfevres  manufactory,  were 
placed  in  the  Sevres  Museum.  In  1880  Rodin 
completed  his  statue  of  "Saint  John  Preaching," 
perhaps  the  most  powerfully  realistic  work  of 
modem  times,  which  was  bought  for  the  Luxem- 
bourg gallery. 

In  the  same  year  Turquet  secured  for  him  a 
commission  for  a  bronze  door  for  the  Mus6e  des 
Arts  Decoratifs.  This  great  work,  which  was  ex- 
hibited in  1844  (in  1902  still  unfinished),  is 
eighteen  feet  high  and  twelve  feet  wide  and  is 
covered  with  figures  suggested  by  Dante's  Inferno, 
whence  its  name,  "La  porte  de  Penfer."  Next  in 
importance  among  his  works  is  the  monument  to 
the  six  "Bourgeois  de  Calais,"  who,  in  1347,  of* 
fered  themselves  as  a  sacrifice  to  appease  the 
wrath  of  Edward  III.  of  England,  a  work  for 
which  he  received  the  commission  in  1883.  In  its 
intense   naturalism   and   dramatic  energy,   thia 


BODIV. 


work  18  the  culmination  of  the  genius 
of  Bodin,  if  not  of  modern  sculpture.  He  also 
ezeeuted  a  number  of  perfect  busts  of  great 
power,  among  which  are  those  of  Legros,  Dalou, 
Victor  Hugo,  and  Rochefort.  In  recent  years  he 
has  produoed  some  works  of  great  interest,  like 
*The  Kiss"  and  the  monument  to  Claude  Lor- 
rain.  Others,  however,  like  the  statues  of  Victor 
Hugo  and  Balzac,  have  shown  great  eccentricity, 
if  not  actual  deterioration.  There  was  a  compre* 
hensiye  exhibition  of  all  his  works  at  the  Paris 
Exhibition  of  1900. 

Consult:  Bartlett,  "Auguste  Rodin,  Sculp- 
tor," an  excellent  series  of  articles  in  American 
Architect,  vol.  xxv.  (1889);  also  Maillard,  Au- 
guete  Bodin,  statuaire  (Paris,  1899) ;  ''Rodin  et 
son  oeuvre,"  in  La  Plume  (ib.,  1900) ;  Brown- 
ell,  Modem  French  Art  (New  York,  1901). 

BODITASy  rd-de^y&z.  A  degraded  and  out- 
cast race  in  Ceylon,  regarded  by  some  as  a 
branch  of  the  Veddahs  (q.v.). 

BOiyiCAN,  Thomas  Jefferson  (1815-71). 
An  American  soldier,  bom  at  Salem,  Ind.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841,  and  from  that 
time  until  his  death  was  continuously  employed 
at  various  Government  arsenals  or  on  ordnance 
boards,  rising  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel 
of  ordnance  and  brevet  brigadier-general  in  the 
Regular  Army.  He  invented  the  method  of  cool- 
ing gun-castings  from  the  inside  and  the  pris- 
matic powder  for  use  in  large  cannon.  He  pub- 
lished Reports  of  Ewperimenta  on  the  Propertiee 
of  Metal  for  Cannon  and  on  Cannon  Potoder 
(1861). 

BODICAH  OXnir.    See  Abtillebt;  Obdnancb. 

BOIVNET,  Cjssab  (1728-84).  An  American 
patriot,  bom  at  Dover,  Del.  From  1775  to 
1758  he  was  high  sheriff  of  Kent  County,  and 
then  became  justice  of  the  peace  and  judge  of  the 
lower  courts.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Stamp 
Act  Congress  in  1765,  was  Speaker  of  the  Dela- 
ware Assembly  from  1769  to  1774,  and  was  chair- 
man of  the  Delaware  Committee  of  Safety  and  of 
the  State  Convention  in  1774.  In  1774-76  he  was 
one  of  Delaware's  representatives  in  the  Conti- 
nental Congress,  where  he  was  a  strong  advocate 
of  independence,  and  was  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
Declaration.  Having,  in  1775,  been  made  a  col- 
onel and  later  a  brigadier-general  of  the  State 
militia,  he  served  under  Washington  in  1777, 
becoming  a  major-general  of  militia  in  Septem- 
ber. From  1778  to  1782  he  was  President  of 
Delaware. 

BODVET,  Geobge  Bbtdges,  first  Baron  Kod- 
ney  (1719-92).  An  English  admiral.  Entering 
the  English  navy  in  1732  as  King's  letter-boy,  he 
became  lieutenant  in  1739  and  post  captain  in 
1742,  and  won  his  first  honors  through  his  bril- 
liant participation  in  Hawke's  victory  of  October 
14,  1747,  over  theFrench  fleet  under  L'Etendufere. 
Having  rendered  valuable  services  in  the  English 
West  Indies  in  1761-62,  he  was  in  the  latter  year 
advanced  to  the  vice-admiralty,  and  in  1764  made 
a  baronet.  In  1779,  at  the  time  of  the  alliance  of 
Spain  with  France  against  England,  Rodney,  now 
admiral  received  command  of  the  fleet  at  the 
Leeward  Islands  station,  with  instructions  also  to 
relieve  Gibraltar,  besieged  by  the  Spanish.  After 
capturing  seven  Spanish  ships  of  war  bound  for 
Cadiz,  be  fell  in,  January  16,  1780,  with  the 
Spanish  admiral  I^ngara,  off  Cape  St,  Vincent. 


96  BOS. 

Of  the  Spanish  fleet  five  vessels  were  cap- 
tured and  two  destroyed.  Having  accom- 
plished the  relief  of  Gibraltar  and  Minorca, 
he  quitted  the  Mediterranean,  crossed  the  Atlan- 
tic to  the  station  of  his  new  command,  and  won 
an  indifferent  victory,  near  Martinique,  over  the 
French  fleet  under  the  Count  de  Guichen.  The 
victory  upon  which  his  fame  mainly  rests  was 
that  won  over  the  French  fleet  under  De  Grasse, 
off  Dominica,  April  12,  1782.  The  battle  was 
more  obstinately  contested  than  any  other  en- 
gagement of  the  war,  being  kept  up  without  in- 
termission for  nearly  twelve  hours.  De  Grasse 
was  totally  defeated,  and  made  prisoner.  Bod- 
ney's  victory  saved  Jamaica  and  ruined  the  naval 
power  of  France  and  Spain.  Meanwhile  in  Eng- 
land the  North  Ministry  had  fallen,  and 
the  Rockingham  Ministry  had  sent  Admiral 
Pigot  to  supersede  Rodney  for  political  rea- 
sons, before  news  of  his  great  victory  had 
reached  London.  As  a  reward  for  his  services  he 
was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Rodney,  and 
given  a  pension  of  £2O0io  per  annum  for  himself 
and  his  successors.  He  lived  in  retirement  for 
the  rest  of  his  life  and  died  May  23,  1792.  Con- 
sult: Mundy,  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Ad' 
miral  Lord  Rodney  (London,  1830) ;  Hannay, 
Rodney  (ib.,  1891). 

BOBOSTO,  r6-d68'tA.  A  town  in  the  Vilayet 
of  Adrianople,  European  Turkey,  situated  on  the 
north  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  78  miles 
west  of  Constantinople  (Map:  Turkey  in  Europe, 
F  4).  It  is  surrounded  by  beautiful  gardens, 
and  has  many  mosques,  several  Christian 
churches,  and  a  Greek  school.  Population,  about 
20,000,  nearly  half  of  them  Greeks. 

BODBIGtTEZ,  rd-dre^gSs.  A  small  volcanic 
island  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  about  370  miles  east 
of  the  British  island  of  Mauritius  (q.v.),  of 
which  it  is  an  administrative  dependency  (Map: 
World,  Eastern  Hemisphere,  L  27) .  It  covers  an 
area  of  about  40  square  miles,  and  has  a  good 
climate  and  a  rich  flora.  There  is  a  safe  harbor 
on  the  northern  coast.  Population,  in  1901,  3163, 
chiefly  settlers  from  Mauritius. 

BOD^WELL,  John  Medows  (1808-1900).  An 
English  Orientalist,  bom  at  Barham  Hall,  Suf- 
folk, and  educated  at  Bury  Saint  Edmimds  and  at 
(jonville  and  Caius  College,  Cambridge.  He  took 
holy  orders  and  for  fifty-seven  years  was  rector 
of  Saint  Ethelburga's,  Bishopsgate.  Rodwell  was 
an  accomplished  Hebrew  and  Arabic  scholar  and 
translated  the  Koran  (1861;  2d  ed.  1876— the 
best  English  version),  the  Book  of  Job  (1864; 
2d  ed.  1868),  and  Isaiah  (1881;  2d  ed.  1886), 
as  well  as  liturgies  from  the  Coptic  (1866)  and 
from  Ethiopic  manuscripts  (1864). 

BOE,  Edward  Payson  (1838-88).  An  Ameri- 
can clerg3m3an  and  novelist,  bom  in  Moodna, 
Orange  County,  N.  Y.  Illness  caused  him  to  leave 
Williams  College  before  graduation,  but  he  after- 
wards received  a  bachelor's  degree,  studied  at 
Auburn  and  Union  Seminaries,  and  in  1862-65 
was  a  chaplain  in  the  volunteer  service.  He 
was  from  then  until  1874  pastor  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church  at  Highland  Falls,  N.  Y.,  after 
which  he  gave  himself  up  to  lecturing,  writing, 
and  fruit  culture.  His  first  novel,  Barriers 
Burned  Away  (1872),  a  story  suggested  by 
the  Chicago  fire,  was  followed  by  Play  and  Profit 
in   My   Garden    (1872)    and   many  novels,   all 


BOE. 


96 


BOEBUCK. 


very  popular  in  the  United  States,  many 
of  them  reprinted  in  England,  and  some 
translated  into  German.  Of  these  the  chief 
are  What  Can  She  Do?  (1873),  Opening 
a  Chestnut  Burr  (1874),  From  Jest  to  Earn- 
est (1876),  Near  to  Nature's  Heart  (1876), 
A  Knight  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  (1877),  A 
Face  Illumined  (1878),  A  Day  of  Fate  (1880), 
His  Bomher  Rivals  (1883),  A  Young  Qirl's  Woo^ 
ing  (1884),  An  Original  Belle  (1885),  Driven 
Bach  to  Eden  (1886),  He  Fell  in  Love  with  His 
Wife  (1886),  The  Earth  Trembled  (1887).  He 
wrote  also  Success  toith  Small  Fruits  (1880)  and 
Nature's  Serial  Story  (1884).  Consult  E.  P. 
Roe,  Reminiscences  of  His  Life,  hy  his  sister,. 
Mary  A.  Roe  (New  York,  1899). 

BOEy  Fbancis  Asbubt  (1823-1901).  An 
American  naval  officer,  bom  in  New  York  City. 
He  graduated  at  the  Naval  Academy  in  1848,  in 
1849  was  dismissed  from  the  service  for  disobedi- 
ence, but  was  reinstated  in  1860,  and  saw  his  first 
active  service  in  1864  against  Chinese  pirates. 
As  executive  officer  he  was  on  the  Pensacola  in 
its  run  down  the  Potomac  in  1861,  and  he  was 
with  Farragut  in  1862  and  1863.  In  1864,  com- 
manding the  SassacuSy  Roe  fought  a  sharp  duel 
with  the  Albemarle  and  forced  its  retreat. 
Toward  the  close  of  the  w^ar  he  was  on  duty  in 
the  Great  Lakes.  He  was  sent  on  a  special  mis- 
sion to  Mexico  in  1867,  received  the  surrender 
of  Vera  Cruz,  and  showed  himself  an  able  diplo- 
mat. He  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  rear-ad- 
miral in  1884,  and  retired  in  1886. 

BOE^  Richard.    See  Doe,  John. 

BOE,  Sir  Thomas  (c.1668-1644).  An  English 
diplomat,  born  at  Low  Leyton,  Essex,  and  edu- 
cated at  Magdalen  College,  OxTord.  He  studied 
in  France  besides,  and  lived  at  Court  in  Eliza- 
beth's last  years.  In  1610,  five  years  after  he 
was  knighted.  Prince  Heniy  fitted  him  out  for  a 
voyage  of  discovery.  Roe  sailed  up  the  Amazon 
and  along  the  coast  to  the  Orinoco,  and  made 
two  more  voyages  in  the  'Indies,*  searching  for 
gold.  The  East  India  Company  sent  him  as  am- 
bassador to  the  Mogul  in  1616.  His  successful 
negotiations  are  described  in  his  Journal,  pub- 
lished in  1626.  In  1621  he  was  sent  to  Con- 
stantinople, and  then  described  the  Ottoman 
Empire  as  'irrecoverably  sick.'  His  mission  was 
successful,  as  was  one  undertaken  in  1629  to 
mediate  between  Sweden  and  Poland,  and  another 
in  1638-41  at  the  Diet  of  Ratisbon.  The  Alexan- 
drian manuscript  of  the  Greek  Bible,  now  in  the 
British  Museum,  and  an  Oriental  collection  pre- 
sented to  the  Bodleian  Library,  were  brought  to 
England  by  him. 

BOEBEB,  r6a)5r,  Pbiedbich  (1819-1901).  A 
German  author,  bom  in  Elberfeld.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Wupperthal  group  of  poets  in  his 
youth.  His  Lyrische  und  epische  Oedichte 
(1878)  met  with  great  success,  but  he  is  better 
known  as  a  dramatist,  the  author  of  Tristan  und 
Isolde  (1864;  revised  1886),  i8fop^om«be  (1884), 
Borsenringe  (1891),  and  Antike  Lustspiele 
(1892).  His  further  works  include  Marionet- 
ten,  a  romance  (2d  ed.  1886),  and  Litteratur 
und  Kunst  im  Wupperthal  (1886). 

BOEBLHTO,  rS^ling,  John  Augustus  (1806- 
69).  An  American  engineer.  He  was  born  at 
Mtthlhausen,  Prussia,  and  studied  civil  engineer- 
ing at  the  Polytechnic  School  of  Berlin.    In  1831 


he  came  to  America  and  settled  near  Pittsburg, 
Pa.  He  was  made  assistant  engineer  on  the 
slack-water  navigation  of  the  Beaver  River.  Af- 
ter similar  engagements  in  other  places,  he  waa 
appointed  to  survey  the  route  across  the  Alle- 
ghanies  adopted  by  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad. 
He  then  began  the  manufacture  of  wire  rope,  and 
in  1844-46  replaced  the  wooden  aqueduct  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Canal  across  the  Allegheny 
River  by  a  suspension  aqueduct.  Afterwards 
he  constructed  the  Monongahela  suspension 
bridge  at  Pittsburg,  and  from  1848-60  four 
suspension  aqueducts  on  the  Delaware  and 
Hudson  Canal.  He  established  his  works  at 
Trenton,  N.  J.,  and  in  1861  began  the  great  sus- 
pension bridge  over  the  Niagara  River.  In  1867 
he  began  the  Cincinnati  suspension  bridge,  which 
has  a  clear  span  of  1067  feet.  His  last  enter- 
prise was  the  bridge  across  the  East  River,  con- 
necting Brooklyn  and  New  York.  The  designs 
were  completed  and  work  had  begun  on  the 
bridge  when  Mr.  Roebling  died  from  the  result 
of  an  injury  he  had  received  while  directing  the 
construction.  He  published  Long  and  Short  Span 
Bridges  (1869).    See  Bbidge. 

ROEBLING,  Washington  Augustus  (1837 
— ).  An  American  civil  engineer,  son  of  John 
A.  Roebling.  He  was  born  at  Saxonburg,  near 
Pittsburg,  Pa.,  graduated  at  Rensselaer  Polytech- 
nic Institute,  Troy,  in  1867,  worked  under  his 
father  on  the  Allegheny  Suspension  Bridge,  and 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War  entered  the 
Federal  army  as  a  private  in  the  Sixth  New  York 
Artillery.  Save  for  the  first  year  of  his  enlist- 
ment, he  was  on  staff  duty.  After  the  surren- 
der of  Yorktown  he  built  a  1200- foot  suspension 
bridge  across  the  Rappahannock.  In  the  second 
Bull  Run  campaign  he  built  a  bridge  at  Harper's 
Ferry  across  the  Shenandoah  River.  While  re- 
connoitring from  a  balloon,  he  is  said  to  have 
first  discovered  Lee's  movement  from  Fredericks- 
burg toward  Pennsylvania.  On  retiring  from  the 
army  he  undertook  the  completion  of  the  Cin- 
cinnati and  Covington  bridge.  Having  spent 
some  time  in  Europe  studying  pneumatic  foun- 
dations, in  1869  he  succeeded  to  the  complete 
charge  of  the  construction  of  the  great  New  York 
and  Brooklyn  Bridge.  He  considerably  changed 
his  father's  plans,  especially  by  increasing  the 
size  of  the  anchor  plates.  His  devotion  to  the 
work  and  especially  his  almost  continuous  stay 
in  the  compressed-air  caissons  proved  too  much 
for  an  already  weakened  constitution,  and  from 
1873  to  the  completion  of  the  bridge  in  1883  he 
had  to  direct  the  work  from  his  sick-room.  After 
1883  he  settled  in  Trenton,  as  head  of  the  wire 
business  established  by  his  father. 

ROEBUCK,  John  Abthub  (1802-79).  A 
British  politician.  He  was  bom  at  Madras, 
India,  and  passed  his  youth  in  Canada,  where  he 
was  educated.  In  1824  he  went  to  England, 
studied  law,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  at  the 
Inner  Temple  in  1831.  Twice  member  of  Parlia- 
ment for  Bath,  in  1849  he  was  returned  for 
Sheffield,  which  he  represented  till  1868,  and 
again  from  1874  until  his  death.  In  1836,  when 
the  executive  Government  of  Canada  and  the 
House  of  Assembly  of  Lower  Canada  were  at 
variance,  the  latter  body  appointed  Roebuck  their 
paid  agent  in  England — a  position  which  in- 
volved him  in  a  serious  quarrel  with  the  press. 
He  warmly  supported  the  Earl  of  Beaoonsfleld's 


B0EBT7CX. 

policy  during  the  Eastern  crisis  in  1877-78,  and 
in  1878  was  made  a  member  of  the  Privy  Council. 
He  was  an  active  pamphleteer  and  the  author  of 
a  work  on  the  Colonies  of  England  (1849),  and 
of  the  History  of  the  Whig  Ministry  of  1830  (2 
vols.,  1832). 

BO£  DEEB  (AS.  rahd&>r,  from  r^,  OHG. 
r«A,  Ger.  Reh,  Eng.  roe  +  AS.  dear,  Eng.  deer; 
connected  with  Skt.  rekha,  iSkha,  line,  rikh,  likh, 
to  write,  scratch).  A 
European  deer  {Oapreolus 
oaprea) ,  once  plentiful 
throughout  w(M>ded  regions 
as  far  east  as  Persia,  and 
still  to  be  found  wild  in 
thinly  settled  countries. 
The  buck  stands  about  26 
inches  high,  weighs  about 
60  pounds,  and  is  tawny 
brown  in  summer,  more 
dull  and  grizzled  in  winter, 
the  lower  parts  and  around 
the  tail  white;  the  tail  is 
very  short.  The  antlers  of 
the  buck  are  8  or  9  inches 
long,  erect,  round,  very 
rough,  and  have  two  sharp 
tines  (but  no  brow  tine). 
The  roe  is  not  gregarious, 
and  pairs  are  said  to  re- 
main attached  during  life. 
The  voice  resembles  that  of 
sheep,  but  is  shorter  and  more  barking.  Another 
species  of  roe  {Capreolus  pygargus),  rather 
larger  than  the  common  roe,  is  foimd  in  Tartary, 
and  a  third  in  Manchuria.  Consult:  Lydekker, 
Deer  of  All  Lands  (London,  1898) ;  Aflalo,  Sport 
in  Europe  (ib.,  1901). 

BOEDEBEB,  r6'd«-rar^,  Piebbe  Louis,  Count 
(1754-1835).  A  French  administrator  and  his- 
torian, bom  at  Metz.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Third  Estate  in  1789,  and  soon  became  well 
known  as  an  administrative  reformer.  He  be- 
came professor  of  economics  in  1796,  enjoyed 
Napoleon's  favor,  and  in  1806  was  appointed 
Minister  of  Finance  in  the  Kingdom  of  Naples. 
Further  advance  was  hindered  by  his  opposition 
to  the  Continental  blockade.  Roederer  sided 
with  Napoleon  in  the  Hundred  Days  and  took  no 
prominent  part  in  politics  after  the  Second 
Restoration,  although  he  sat  in  the  House  of 
Peers  in  1815  and  after  the  Revolution  of  July, 
1830.  He  wrote:  M^moires  pour  servir  d  Vhis- 
toire  de  Louis  XII,  et  Frani^ois  /.  (1825)  and 
Esprit  de  la  revolution  de  1789  (1831).  His 
complete  works  were  edited  by  his  son  (Paris, 
1853-59). 

BOEDIOEB,  re'dl-gSr,  Emil  (1801-74).  A 
German  Orientalist.  He  was  bom  at  Sanger- 
hausen,  studied  philology  and  theology  at  Halle, 
1821-26  and  became  there  privat-docent  in 
1828.  He  was  appointed  successively  pro- 
fessor extraordinary  (1830)  and  full  pro- 
fessor (1835)  of  Oriental  languages,  and 
in  1860  accepted  a  similar  position  at  Berlin, 
where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life.  Besides 
numerous  papers  on  paleography  and  various 
Oriental  topics  published  mainly  in  the  Zeit- 
schrift  fur  die  Kunde  des  Morgenlandes  and  the 
Zeitschrift  der  deutschen  morgenlandischen  Oe- 
sellschafi,  of  which  his  Litteraturherichte  in 
volumes  ▼.,  viii.,  ix.  and  z.  of  the  latter  deserve 


97  BOEMEB. 

special  mention,  his  main  works  were:  De 
Origine  et  Indole  ArabiccB  Lihrorum  Veteris  Tes- 
tamenti  Eistoricorum  Interpretationis  Lihri  Duo 
(1829) ;  an  edition  of  Lokman's  Fables  {Locmani 
FabukB,  1830;  2d  ed.  1839) ;  Chrestomathia 
Syriaca  (1838;  3d  ed.  by  his  son,  1892)  ;  Versuch 
iiber  die  himjaritischen  Schriftmonumente 
(1841) ;  Wellsteds  Reisen  in  Arabien,  Deutsche 
Bearbeitung  (1842).  He  finished  Gesenius's 
Thesaurus  Linguae  Hebraicce,  which  its  author's 
death  had  left  incomplete,  and  edited  editions 
(14-21)  of  Gesenius's  grammar  (1845-72).  He 
also  assisted  in  the  preparation  of  Payne  Smith's 
Thesaurus  Syriacus. 

BOELAS,  r6-a'Us,  Juan  de  las  (called  El 
LiCENCLADO,  also  £l  Cl£bigo  Roelas)  (1560- 
1625).  A  Spanish  historical  painter,  born  at 
Seville,  of  a  noble  family.  He  studied  painting 
probably  in  Venice,  where  he  was  much  in- 
fluenced by  the  works  of  Titian  and  of  Tintoretto, 
of  whose  style  his  own  is  suggestive.  Although 
he  was  one  of  the  chief  masters  of  Andalusia,  his 
works  were  little  known  out  of  Spain  until  the 
nineteenth  century,  the  finest  of  them  being  at 
Seville,  notably  his  masterpiece,  "The  Transit  of 
Saint  Isidore,"  in  the  Church  of  San  Isidro; 
"Saint  Jago  in  the  Battle  of  Clavigo"  (1609),  in 
the  Cathedral;  and  "The  Martyrdom  of  St.  An- 
drew,** in  the  Museum.  The  Madrid  Museum 
contains  his  "Moses  Striking  the  Rock,"  the  Ber- 
lin Museum  a  "Madonna  Worshiped  by  a  Jesuit," 
and  the  Hermitage,  Saint  Petersburg,  the  "Com- 
munion of  Saint  Theresa." 

BOELOPS,  r5?5'l6s,  Willem  (1822-97).  A 
Dutch  painter,  etcher,  and  naturalist,  bom  at 
Amsterdam.  Having  begun  his  studies  at 
Utrecht,  he  continued  them  at  The  Hague 
under  Hendrik  van  de  Sande-Bakhuyzen  (1795- 
1860).  In  France  he  was  much  influenced  by 
the  painters  of  the  "paysage  intime,**  and  he  also 
roamed. all  over  Holland  choosing  the  subjects 
for  his  paintings,  in  both  oil  and  water  colors, 
most  frequently  from  the  less  known  regions  of 
his  country.  The  Amsterdam  Museum  contains 
a  "View  Near  Abconde"  and  "View  Near  The 
Hague;"  the  Rotterdam  Museum  a  'Tjandscape 
with  Cattle;**  and  the  Li^ge  Museum  a  "Forest 
in  Autumn.*'  Roelofs  was  also  favorably  known 
for  his  researches  in  entomology. 

BOEKEB,  r§'m5r,  Friedbich  Adolf  (1809- 
69).  A  German  geologist,  born  in  Hildesheim 
and  educated  at  Gottingen  and  Berlin.  In  1845 
he  became  instructor  in  mineralogy  and  geology 
at  the  Klausthal  School  of  Mines,  of  which  he 
was  superintendent  from  1862  to  1867.  He  was 
a  pioneer  in  pointing  the  relation  between  Juras- 
sic and  Cretaceous  formations  in  Germany  with 
those  in  the  rest  of  Europe  and  an  authority  on 
the  mountains  of  Northern  Germany.  His  works 
include:  Die  Versteinerungen  des  norddeutschen 
Oolithengebirges  (1835-39)  ;  Versteinerungen  des 
norddeutschen  Kreidegebirges  (1840-49);  and 
Beitrage  zur  geologischen  Kenntnis  des  nordwest- 
lichen  Earzgebirges   (1850-66). 

BOEHEB,  Olaus,  or  Ole  (1644-1710).  A 
Danish  astronomer,  born  at  Aarhus,  Jutland. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Copenhagen  University, 
and  afterwards  accompanied  Picard  to  France, 
and  was  appointed  tutor  to  the  Dauphin  by  Louis 
XrV.  He  became  eminent  in  astronomy  and 
mathematics  and  was  made  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  1672.    He  was  an  asso- 


BOEMElL 


98 


BOGEB  H. 


ciate  of  Picard  and  Cassini  in  many  investiga- 
tions and  discoveries.  Roemer  was  the  first  to 
notice  that  light  does  not  move  through  space 
instantaneously,  but  requires  an  appreciable  in- 
terval of  time  for  its  transmission.  (See  Abeb- 
RATION  OF  Light.)  This  far-reaching  discovery 
is  his  principal  claim  to  fame.  (See  Satel- 
lites.) In  1681  he  returned  to  Denmark  as 
professor  of  astronomy  at  Copenhagen,  held  sev- 
eral public  positions,  and  finally  became  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer. 

BOENTQENy  rgnt'gen,  Wilhelh  Konbad 
( 1846— ) .  A  German  physicist,  born  at  Lennep, 
in  Rhenish  Prussia.  He  received  his  doctor's 
degree  in  1869  at  the  University  of  Zurich,  where 
he  studied  under  Kundt.  He  was  afterwards  pro- 
fessor at  Hohenheim,  Strassburg,  and  Giessen, 
and  in  1885  he  became  professor  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Wttrzburg.  In  1899  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  experimental  physics  at  the  University 
of  Munich,  a  position  which  he  now  holds.  In 
November,  1896,  he  read  before  the  Physico- 
Medical  Society  of  Wttrzburg  a  paper  upon  his 
discovery  of  the  rays  which  bear  nis  name.  For 
this  discovery  he  received  many  honors,  including 
the  Rumford  Medal  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Lon- 
don and  the  Barnard  Medal  of  Columbia  Univer- 
sity, awarded  in  1900  for  the  greatest  discovery  in 
science  during  the  preceding  five  years.  (See 
X-Rats.)  He  published,  chiefly  in  the  Annalen 
der  Physik  und  Chemie,  many  articles  on  various 
physical  subjects,  including  the  properties  of 
crystals,  specific  heat  of  gases,  absorption  of  heat 
ray  in  vapors  and  gases,  electrostriction,  piezo 
electricity,  various  other  electric  and  magnetic 
phenomena,  and  telephony. 

BOEBMOND,  rtRJr'mdnt.  A  town  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Limburg,  in  Netherlands,  situated  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Roer  with  the  Meuse,  28 
miles  northeast  of  Maastricht  (Map:  Nether- 
lands, E  3).  It  contains  a  thirteenth-century 
Romanesque  cathedral,  a  seminary,  and  a  fine 
palace  of  justice.  The  manufactures  of  the  town 
consist  of  woolens,  cotton  goods,  paper,  stone  and 
wood  carvings.    Population,  in  1900, 12,348. 

B0E8EILDE,  r6s^Il-de,  or  BOBXILDE.    A 

town  on  the  island  of  Zealand,  Denmark,  situ- 
ated at  the  head  of  the  Roeskilde  Fjord,  16  miles 
west  of  Copenhagen,  at  the  converging  point  of 
the  three  principal  railroad  lines  of  Zealand 
(Map:  Denmark,  F  3).  It  contains  a  magnifi- 
cent cathedral,  erected  1074-84,  rebuilt  in  the 
twelfth  century,  and  containing  the  tombs  of 
Danish  kings.  Population,  in  1901,  8368.  Roes- 
kilde is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  of  Denmark. 
Previous  to  1443  it  was  the  capital  of  the  king- 
dom and  the  residence  of  the  royal  family,  but 
its  decline  was  consequent  on  the  rapid  growth 
of  Copenhagen,  and  fire  and  the  ravages  of  the 
plague  destroyed  its  prosperity.  A  treaty  was 
concluded  here  in  1668  between  Denmark  and 
Sweden,  in  which  the  former  relinquished  her 
possessions  beyond  the  Sound. 

BOGATION  DAYS  (Lat.  rogatio,  supplica- 
tion, from  rogare,  to  ask).  The  Monday,  Tues- 
day, and  Wednesday  before  Ascension  Day,  so 
called  because  on  these  days  the  litanies  (q.v.) 
are  appointed  to  be  simg  or  recited  by  the  clergy 
and  people  in  public  procession.  The  practice  of 
public  supplications  on  occasions  of  public  danger 
or  calamity  is  traceable  very  early  in  Christian 
use;  but  the  fixing  of  the  days  before  Ascension 


for  the  purpose  is  ascribed  to  Mamertns,  Bishop 
of  Vienne,  in  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,  who, 
on  occasion  of  a  threatened  earthquake  or  other 
public  peril  in  his  city,  ordered  a  public  proces- 
sion and  prayer,  for  the  purpose  of  averting  the 
divine  anger.  The  usage  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  l^ame  general  and  permanent.  The 
form  of  prayer  employed  i&  that  known  as  the 
Litany  of  the  Saints,  In  England,  after  the 
Reformation,  the  recitation  of  the  litanies  upon 
these  days  was  discontinued,  but  the  days  remain 
as  days  of  abstinence  and  prayer  to  obtain  God's 
blessing  upon  the  fruits  of  the  earth;  they  form 
also  a  brief  preparation,  somewhat  analogous  to 
Advent  and  Lent,  before  the  great  festival  of  the 
Ascension. 

BOGEB  (rdj'Sr)  I.  (Rog^r  Guiscard)  (c.l03l- 
1101).  Grand  Count  of  Sicily,  foimder  of  Nor- 
man rule  in  that  island.  He  was  the  youngest  of 
the  sons  of  the  Norman  noble  Tancred  de  Haute- 
viUe  (q-v.).  In  1168,  in  answer  to  the  summons 
of  his  brother,  Robert  Guiscard  (q.v.)  he  went 
to  Italy.  On  his  arrival  he  was  deputed  by 
Robert  to  conquer  Calabria,  an  achievement 
which  was  speedily  executed.  In  1060  he  set  out 
on  an  expedition  against  Sicily,  then  ruled  by  a 
number  of  Saracen  chiefs,  and  by  1191  he  had 
taken  the  most  important  towns,  and  ousted  the 
Saracens  from  the  control  of  the  island.  In  1062  he 
was  invested  by  his  brother  with  Sicily  and  part 
of  Calabria  under  the  title  of  Count.  Roger  di- 
vided the  country  into  fiefs,  which  he  distributed 
among  his  chief  barons,  whose  relations  to  their 
subjects  were  regulated  by  him  with  justice  and 
moderation.  Moreover,  he  extended  his  own  rule 
in  Calabria.  About  1096  he  took  the  title  of 
'grand  count,'  to  distinguish  him  from  his  vassals. 
Roger  was  courted  by  the  most  powerful  princes 
of  Europe.  He  fostered  learning  and  was  very 
tolerant  in  religious  matters,  protecting  the  Sara- 
cens within  his  dominions.  He  supported  Rome 
against  the  Greek  Church,  and  in  1098  Pope 
Urban  II.,  in  recompense  for  his  fidelity  to  the 
Holy  See,  conferrea  the  title  of  Papal  legate 
upon  him  and  his  heirs  forever.  He  died  at 
Mileto,  in  Calabria,  in  July,  1101.  Consult 
Schack,  Oeachichte  der  Normannen  in  SicUien 
(Stuttgart,  1889). 

BOGEB  H.  (c.1097-1164).  Grand  Count  of 
Sicily  from  1101  to  1130  and  King  of  Sicily 
from  1130  to  1164.  He  was  a  son  of 
Roger  I.  (q.v.).  Upon  the  death  of  his  brother 
Simon,  he  became  the  heir  to  Sicily,  and  during 
his  minority  the  government  was  administered 
by  his  mother,  a  princess  of  Montferrat.  When 
Roger  had  taken  the  supreme  authority  into  his 
own  hands,  his  first  care  was  to  extend  his  domin- 
ions. He  compelled  his  cousin  William  to  yield 
up  the  portion  of  Calabria  and  of  the  town  of 
Palermo  which  Robert  Guiscard  had  withheld 
from  his  father;  and  after  the  death  of  William 
(1127)  he  took  possession  of  Apulia  itself. 
Ambitious  of  the  title  of  king,  he  supported  the 
anti-pope  Anacletus,  his  wife's  uncle,  and  received 
from  him  the  title  of  King  of  Sicily,  with  rights 
of  suzerainty  over  the  duchies  of  Naples  and 
Capua.  In  return,  Roger  established  Anacletus 
on  the  pontifical  throne  in  1130.  His  bitter  enemy, 
Inocent  IL,  fell  into  his  hands  in  1139,  and  was 
compelled  to  withdraw  the  excommunications  he 
had  pronounced  against  Roger,  and  to  consent 
to  his  retaining  the  territories  he  had  acquired, 
obtaining  by  these  means  not  only  his  own  lib- 


BOGEB  II. 


99 


BOOEBS. 


eriy,  and  his  recognition  as  lawful  Pope,  but 
also  the  firm  attachment  of  Roger  to  the  Holy  See. 
In  1144  Roger  received  from  Pope  Lucius  II.  the 
right  of  using  the  various  symbols  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal dignity  and  power.  In  1147  he  began  war  on 
the  Byzantine  ^nperor,  Manuel  Comnenus,  who 
had  been  in  the  league  with  the  Pope  and  the 
Elmperor  against  him.  Corfu  was  captured  and 
Gei^imlonia,  Negropont,  Cormth,  and  Athens 
were    pillaged.      He    followed    up    these    sue- 


by  the  capture  of  Tripoli  and  other 
places  on  the  African  coast,  and  afterwards  at- 
tacked the  Zeirides,  leaving  at  his  death  an 
African  dependency  which  stretched  from  Moroc- 
co to  Kairwan.  He  died  at  Palermo,  February 
26,  1154.  His  daughter  CJonstantia  married  in 
1186  the  Emperor  Henry  VI.,  whereby  the  Hohen- 
staufen  succeeded  in  1104  to  the  rule  of  the 
Two  Sicilies.  Consult  Schack,  Oeschichie  der 
Normannen  in  Sieilien  (Stuttgart,  1880). 

BOGEB  OF  WENa)OVEB  (M237).  An 
English  chronicler,  monk  of  Saint  Albans  and  for 
a  time  Pi'ior  to  Belvoir.  He  transcribed  the 
Flares  Historiarum,  a  work  supposed  to  have 
been  compiled  by  John  de  Cella,  and  added  to  it 
an  original  chronicle  from  1180  to  1236.  The 
whole  was  revised  and  extended  to  1250  by 
Matthew  Paris.  The  work  was  edited  by  Coxe 
for  the  English  Historical  Society  (1841-42),  and 
by  Hewlett  in  the  Rolls  Series  (1886-80). 

BOOEBS,  r6fSrz,  Faibman  (1833-1000).  An 
American  civil  engineer,  bom  in  Philadelphia. 
He  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
in  1853,  and  from  1855  to  1871  was  professor 
of  civil  engineering  in  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, of  which  he  was  long  a  trustee.  Rogers 
served  in  the  Civil  War,  in  the  Philadelphia  City 
Cavalry,  and  as  engineer  on  the  staffs  of  General 
Reynolds  and  Gen.  W.  F.  Smith.  He  was  one  of 
the  charter  members  of  the  National  Academy  of 
Sciences.  He  wrote  Terrestrial  Magnetism  and 
the  Magnetism  of  Iron  Ships  (1877;  revised, 
1883). 

BOOEBS,  Henby  Dabwin  (1806-66).  An 
American  scientist,  bom  in  Philadelphia.  He 
studied  at  William  and  Mary  College,  and  in 
1830-31  was  professor  of  chemistry  and  natural 
philosophy  at  Dickinson  College,  and  then  studied 
for  two  years  in  Europe.  After  his  return  he 
lectured  at  Franklin  Institute  in  Philadelphia, 
and  in  1835  became  professor  of  geology  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  The  same  year  he 
made  for  the  Government  of  New  Jersey  a  geo- 
logical and  mineralogical  survey  of  that  State, 
publishing  a  full  report  in  1840.  From  1836  tp 
1842,  and  again  from  1851  to  1854,  he  was  State 
geologist  of  Pennsylvania.  In  1855  he  removed  to 
Edinburgh,  Scotland^  where  the  final  report  of 
his  geological  works  was  published  under  the 
title  The  Geology  of  Pennsylvania,  a  Government 
Survey  (^  vols.,  1858).  From  1857  until  his 
death  he  was  regius  professor  of  natural  history 
in  the  University  of  Glasgow.  Consult  Popular 
Science  Monthly,  vol.  1.  (New  York,  1807). 

BOOEBS,  Henbt  Wade  (1853—).  An  Ameri- 
can jurist,  bom  in  Holland  Patent,  N.  Y.  He 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Michigan  in  1874, 
and  was  appointed  professor  of  law  in  its  law 
school  in  1883.  After  five  years  as  dean  of  the 
same  school  he  was  elected  president  of  North- 
western University  (1800)  and  in  1001  became  a 


member  of  the  Yale  faculty  of  law.  Roeers  was 
chairman  of  the  World's  Congress  of  Jurispru- 
dence and  Law  Reform  at  Chicago  in  1803.  He 
published  Illinois  Citations  (1881)  and  Expert 
Testimony  (1883). 

BOOEBSy  James  Edwin  Thobolo  (1823-00). 
An  English  political  economist,  bom  at  West 
Meon,  Hampshire.  He  was  educated  at  King's 
College,  London,  and  at  Magdalen  Hall,  Oxford, 
where  he  graduated  in  1846.  He  was  ordained 
soon  after  his  graduation,  and  took  part  in  the 
High  Church  movement.  In  1850  he  was  elected 
Tooke  professor  of  statistics  and  economic 
science  at  King's  College,  and  in  1862  was  chosen 
Drummond  professor  of  political  economy  at 
Oxford,  but  failed  of  reelection  to  that  position 
in  1868.  He  then  entered  politics,  and  repre- 
sented Southwark  in  Parliament  from  1880  to 
1885.  In  1888  he  was  reelected  professor  at 
Oxford.  Rogers  was  one  of  the  pioneers  in 
the  study  of  English  economic  history.  His  re- 
searches were  profound,  and  have  furnished  a 
vast  amoimt  of  material  for  later  writers,  al- 
though his  conclusions  suffer  from  a  tendency  to- 
ward extreme  partisanship.  In  his  theoretical 
work  he  was  a  close  follower  of  the  laissez-faire 
school  of  classical  economists,  although  he  re- 
jected some  of  the  more  important  principles  of 
that  school,  such  as  the  Ricardian  theory  of  rent. 
His  principal  works  are :  8iw  Centuries  of  Work 
and  Wages  (1885) ;  History  of  Agriculture  and 
Prices  in  England  (1866,  1887) ;  First  Nine  Tears 
of  the  Bank  of  England  (1887)  ;  The  Economic 
Interpretation  of  History  (1888);  and  The  In- 
dustrial and  Commercial  History  of  England 
(published  posthumously,  1802). 

BOGEBS,  John  (c.1500-55).  An  English 
martyr,  bom  at  Deritend,  near  Birmingham,  and 
educated  at  Cambridge.  After  being  ordained  he^ 
was  a  London  rector,  1532-34,  and  chaplain  to  the 
English  merchants  at  Antwerp,  1534-36,  where  he 
met  William  Tyndale,  and  renoimced  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith.  In  1537  he  became  pastor  of  a 
Protestant  church  at  Wittenberg.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Edward  VI.  he  returned  to  England  by 
invitation  of  Bishop  Ridley,  and  became  rector  of 
Saint  Margaret  Moyses  and  Saint  Sepulchre,  in 
London,  in  1550;  in  1551  he  was  made  prebendary 
of  Saint  Pancras,  Saint  PauPs,  and  rector  of 
Chigwell,  and  in  1553  divinity  reader.  On  the 
Sunday  after  the  entrance  of  Queen  Mary  into 
London  in  1553  he  preached  at  Saint  Paul's  Cross, 
denounced  Popery,  and  urged  upon  the  people  a 
steadfast  adherence  to  the  doctrines  taught  in 
King  Edward's  time.  Summoned  before  the 
Privy  Council,  he  ably  defended  himself,  and 
was  released;  but  on  August  16th  he  was  or- 
dered to  remain  a  prisoner  in  his  own  house, 
and  deprived  of  all  his  emoluments.  On  January 
27,  1664,  he  was  removed  to  Newgate  and  treated 
with  great  severity.  In  January,  1655,  he  was 
tried  before  Gardiner,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  and 
on  January  20  was  condemned  to  be  burned  at 
Smithfield,  London,  which  sentence  was  carried 
out  on  Monday,  February  4th.  He  compiled  the 
first  authorized  English  Bible,  prepared  from 
Tyndale's  manuscript  and  Coverdale's  transla^ 
tion,  which  was  published  under  the  name  of 
Thomas  Matthew.  It  was  printed  at  Antwerp  by 
Jacob  van  Meteren.  Copies  of  it  in  sheets  were 
imported  by  Richard  Grafton  and  sold  in  London 
1537    (latest  edition  1561).     In  Fox's  Martyr- 


BOOEBS. 


100 


BOOEBS. 


ology  are  found  an  account  of  his  examinations 
written  while  in  prison,  and  other  papers. 
Consult  the  Life  by  Chester  (London,  1861). 

BOGEBS^  John  (c.1572-1636).  A  Puritan 
diyine.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge  Univer- 
sity, became  vicar  of  Honingham,  Norfolk,  in 
1592;  vicar  of  Haverhill,  Suffolk,  in  1603,  and 
from  1605  until  his  death  was  vicar  of  Dedham, 
Essex.  He  was  a  forcible  preacher  and  his  pub- 
lications, which  were  valued  highly  by  English 
Puritans,  include  Sixty  Memorials  of  a  Oodly 
Life  (n.d.)  ;  The  Doctrine  of  Faith  (1627); 
Treatise  of  Love  (1629) ;  A  Oodly  and  Fruitful 
Exposition  Upon  All  the  First  Epistle  of  Peter 
(1650).  His  second  son,  Nathaniel  (1598-1655), 
was  educated  at  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated 
M.A.;  became  curate  at  Booking,  Essex,  and  rec- 
tor of  Assington,  Suffolk,  for  five  years,  and  in 
1636  emigrated  to  New  England,  where  he  settled 
at  Ipswich,  Mass.  He  published  a  Letter  Dis- 
covering the  Cause  of  God's  Wrath  Against  the 
Nation  (1644). 

BOGEBS;  John  (1829—).  An  American 
sculptor,  bom  in  Salem,  Mass.  He  received  his 
artistic  training  at  Rome  and  Paris  (1857-59). 
Upon  his  return  to  the  United  States  he  exhibited 
the  "Slave  Auction"  (1860),  which  first  brought 
him  into  prominence,  and  in  1860-65  he  executed 
a  series  of  war  statuette  groups  in  gray  clay, 
among  which  were  the  "Picket  Guard,"  "One 
More  Shot,"  and  ''Union  Refugees."  His  statuettes 
in  green  clay  representing  genre  subjects,  though 
very  popular,  cannot  be  classed  as  serious  works 
of  art.  Among  his  works  of  this  class  are 
"Coming  to  the  Parson"  (1870),  the  "Charity 
Patient,"  and  "Going  for  the  Cows"  (1873). 
Other  statuette  groups  illustrate  passages  from 
Shakespeare,  Irving's  Rip  Van  Winkle,  and  Long- 
fellow's Miles  Standish  ("John  Alden  and  Pris- 
cilla").  His  more  ambitious  efforts  include  the 
equestrian  statue  in  bronze  of  General  Reynolds 
(1881-83)  in  front  of  the  City  Hall,  Philadelphia, 
and  a  bronze  group  of  "Ichabod  Crane  and  the 
Headless  Horseman"  (1887). 

BOGEBS,  Randolph  (1825-92).  An  Ameri- 
can sculptor,  bom  at  Waterloo,  New  York.  When 
twenty-one  years  old  he  went  to  Rome,  and 
studied  with  the  sculptor  Lorenzo  Bartolini  until 
1850,  when  he  returned  to  New  York.  In  1855 
he  went  back  to  Italy  and  remained  there  the 
rest  of  his  life.  During  his  visit  to  New  York 
he  exhibited  some  statues  which  attracted  at- 
tention, among  them  "Nydia,  the  Blind  Girl  of 
Pompeii,"  and  a  "Boy  with  a  Dog."  Among  his 
notable  works  may  be  mentioned  a  statue  of 
"John  Adams"  in  the  cemetery  at  Mount  Auburn, 
near  Boston :  the  bronze  doors  of  the  new  Capitol 
extension  in  Washington,  the  bas-reliefs  of  which 
represent  the  principal  events  of  the  career  of 
Columbus;  the  "Angel  of  the  Resurrection"  for 
the  tomb  of  Col.  Colt,  at  Hartford,  Conn.  ( 1861 ) ; 
and  figures  of  Marshall,  Mason,  and  Nelson  for 
the  Washington  monument  at  Richmond,  Va., 
which  was  left  unfinished  by  Crawford  at  his 
death.  Rogers  was  extensively  employed  on  a 
series  of  colossal  memorial  monuments  for  various 
American  cities,  as  at  Providence,  R.  I.  (1871)  ; 
Detroit,  Mich.  (1873);  and  Worcester,  Mass. 
(1874).  His  other  works  include  a  colossal 
bronze  statue  of  Lincoln  for  Philadelphia  (1871) ; 
the  "Genius  of  Connecticut"  for  the  State  Capi- 


tol in  Hartford;  and  a  statue  of  W.  H.  Seward  in 
New  York  (1876).  Rogers  presented  a  complete 
collection  of  casts  of  his  works  to  the  University 
of  Michigan. 

BOGEBSy  RoBEBT  (1727-84?).  An  American 
soldier,  one  of  the  best  known  figures  in  the  his- 
tory of  American  border  warfare.  He  was  bom, 
of  Scotch-Irish  parentage,  at  Londonderry,  N.  H. 
In  1755,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  French  and  Indian 
War,  he  was  commissioned  captain  of  a  com- 
pany of  rangers,  which,  imder  the  name  'Rogers's 
Rangers,'  soon  became  widely  known.  During 
the  year  1756,  with  Fort  William  Henry  as  his 
base  of  operations,  Rogers  made  thirteen  daring 
raids  into  the  country  about  Ticonderoga.  In  a 
scouting  expedition  to  the  north  of  Ticonderoga  in 
January,  1757,  his  band  was  almost  annihilated 
by  a  greatly  superior  force  of  Indians  and 
Canadians.  Later  Rogers  accompanied  Lord 
Loudon  on  his  abortive  Louisburg  expedition,  and 
in  March,  1758,  he  defeated  a  much  larger  force 
of  the  enemy  near  Ticonderoga.  In  August  he  re- 
pulsed an  attack  of  the  French  under  Marin  near 
old  Fort  Anne.  He  took  part  in  Wolfe's  Quebec 
expedition,  and  later  destroyed  tiie  village  of  the 
Abenakis,  or  Saint  Francis  Indians,  who  had  long 
been  the  scourge  of  the  New  England  frontier, 
though  his  own  force  was  almost  annihilated  be- 
fore he  got  back  to  the  English  outposts.  In 
1760  he  was  with  Amherst  at  the  capture  of  Mon- 
treal, and  late  in  the  year  was  sent  to  Detroit, 
which  capitulated  to  him.  For  some  time  there- 
after he  lived  quietly  in  New  Hampshire,  but  in 
1765  was  in  England,  where  he  published  his 
Journal,  and  also  his  more  popular  Account  of 
North  America.  In  1766  he  was  made  commander 
of  the  post  of  Michilimackinac,  but  two  years 
later  was  sent  in  irons  to  Montreal  on 
a  charge  of  conspiring  to  turn  the  fort  over  to 
the  French.  He  was  acquitted  by  court-martial, 
however,  and  in  1772-73  was  in  the  Algerine  ser- 
vice. At  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolutionary  War 
he  was  suspected  by  the  Patriots  of  being  a  Tory, 
was  arrested  in  Philadelphia  in  1775,  and  was 
turned  over  on  parole  to  the  New  Hampshire 
authorities  by  order  of  Congress,  but  escaped  to 
New  York,  where  he  was  given  a  colonel's  com- 
mission by  Lord  Howe,  and  recruited  the  Loyalist 
regiment  known  as  the  'Queen's  Rangers.'  He 
resigned,  however,  and  went  to  England  in  the 
winter  of  1776-77,  but  returned  to  America  to- 
ward the  end  of  the  war,  and  for  a  time  com- 
manded a  second  Loyalist  regiment,  which  He  re- 
cruited in  Canada.  Although  he  is  generally  said 
to  have  died  in  London  in  1800,  according  to  a 
*family  tradition  his  death  took  place  in  1784.  His 
Jowmal  (1765)  contains  valuable  details  of  the 
French  and  Indian  War.  A  Concise  Account  of 
North  America  (1765),  intended  to  be  a  popular 
account  of  frontier  life,  particularly  of  the 
Indians,  is  a  curious  compound  of  fact  and  fic- 
tion. Rogers  is  also  credited  with  #he  author- 
ship of  a  tragedy  entitled  Ponteach;  or  the 
Savages  of  North  America  (1776). 

BOGEBS,  RoBEET  William  (1864—).  An 
American  Orientalist,  born  in  Philadelphia.  He 
studied  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  at 
Johns  Hopkins,  where  he  graduated  in  1887,  and 
at  Leipzig  and  Berlin.  After  three  years  as 
professor  of  English  Bible  and  Semitic  history  at 
Dickinson  College,  he  was  appointed  to  a  chair 
of  Hebrew  and  exegesis   in  Drew  Theological 


101 


BoansxL 


Seminary.  Hia  chief  publications  are:  Ttoo 
Texts  of  Esarhaddon  (1889);  Inscriptiona  of 
Sennacherib  { 1893 ) ;  Outlines  of  the  History  of 
Early  Babylonia  ( 1895) ;  and  History  of  Baby- 
lonia and  Assyria  (1900). 

BOOEBS,  Samuel  (1763-1855).  An  English 
poety  bom  at  Stoke  Newington,  near  London.  His 
tafite  for  literature  and  the  company  of  literary 
men  awoke  at  an  early  period,  when  he  familiar- 
iaed  himself  with  Johnson,  Goldsmith,  and  Gray. 
In  1786  he  published  his  first  book,  entitled  An 
Ode  to  Superstition,  and  Some  Other  Poems,  fol- 
lowed in  1792  by  Pleasures  of  Memory — the  work 
on  which  his  fame  most  securely  rests.  In  1803 
he  retired  from  active  business  on  an  income  of 
£5000  a  year,  and  built  and  adorned  a  house  in 
Saint  James's  Place  overlooking  the  Green  Park, 
where  he  entertained  many  of  the  literary  men 
of  the  time.  His  breakfasts  became  famous. 
After  settling  here,  he  published  Columbus 
(1810;  privately,  1808),  a  theme  too  large  for 
him.  In  1814  Jacqueline  appeared  in  the  same 
Yoliune  with  Byron's  Lara.  In  1819  he  issued 
Human  Life,  one  of  his  best  poems;  and  in  1822, 
Italy,  To  this  last  poem  a  second  part  was  added 
(1828).  After  this  date  Rogers  wrote  little,  his 
time  being  mainly  devoted  to  dining,  epigram,  and 
anecdote.  In  1850  the  laureateship  was  offered  to 
him,  but  declined.  He  died  December  18,  1865.  No 
name  occurs  oftener  than  his  in  the  literary  annals 
of  the  time.  Possessed  of  a  large  fortune,  he  be- 
friended his  poorer  brethren;  he  obtained  a  pen- 
sion for  Gary  and  a  position  for  Wordsworth,  and 
healed  the  quarrel  between  Moore  and  Byron.  The 
high  place  given  him  as  a  poet  by  his  contempo- 
raries he  has  not  been  able  to  maintain.  Gonsult : 
Dyce,  Recollections  of  the  Table-Talk  of  Rogers 
(London,  1860) ;  Glayden,  The  Early  Life  of 
Rogers  (Boston,  1888) ;  id.,  Rogers  and  His  Con- 
temporaries (London,  1889). 

BOOEBS^  William  Atjoustus  (1832-98). 
An  American  astronomer  and  physicist,  bom  in 
Waterford,  Conn.  He  graduated  at  Brown  Uni- 
versity in  1857,  immediately  became  instructor, 
and  in  1859  professor  of  mathematics  at  Alfred 
University,  where,  from  1866  to  1870,  he  was 
head  of  the  department  of  industrial  mechanics, 
and  then  became  assistant  in  the  Harvard  Ob- 
servatory. There  he  mapped  a  part  of  the  skies 
north  of  the  zenith  and  published  ''Observations" 
in  tiie  Annals  of  the  observatory.  In  1886  he  left 
Harvard  to  become  professor  of  physics  and 
chemistry  at  Colby  College.  Rogers's  most  im- 
portant work  was  in  the  field  of  micrometry  and 
included  the  construction  of  a  dividing  engine  of 
high  precision.  His  copies  of  English  and  French 
standards  of  length,  obtained  in  1880,  are  in 
regular  use  by  American  astronomers. 

BOGEBS,  WILLLA.M  Babton  (1804-82).  An 
American  scientist  and  educator,  first  president 
of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 
He  was  bom  in  Philadelphia,  a  son  of  Patrick 
Kerr  Rogers  (1776-1828),  then  tutor  in  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  from  1819  to  his 
death  professor  in  William  and  Mary  College, 
where  his  son  graduated  in  1822  and  in  1828  suc- 
ceeded him  in  the  chair  of  natural  philosophy  and 
mathematics.  During  the  seven  years  that  he 
held  this  post  he  began  with  his  brother  Henry  a 
minute  stiidy  of  the  ^eoloiry  of  Virginia.  From 
1835  to  1853  as  professor  of  natural  philosophy  in 
the  University  of  Virginia  he  extended  this  work 


and  became  head  of  the  State  Geological  Survey; 
the  Papers  on  the  Geology  of  Virginia  (1884) 
give  the  results  of  this  period,  in  which  he  was 
assisted  by  his  three  brothers,  Robert  Empie 
Rogers  having  become  professor  of  chemistry 
and  materia  medica  at  the  university  in  1842, 
and  Henry  Rogers  being  State  geologist  of  Penn- 
sylvania. As  a  geologist  his  work  was  remark- 
able for  its  conscientious  foundation  on  observed 
facts.  Rogers  removed  to  Boston  in  1853;  as 
inspector  of  gas  and  gas  meters  reformed  the 
system  of  inspection  (1861) ;  and  in  1859  began 
to  urge  the  establishment  of  a  technical  school. 
For  this  institution  he  drew  up  a  scheme  in 
1860,  repeating  the  outline  he  had  made  in  1846, 
and  in  1862  received  a  charter.  In  1865,  after  a 
year  in  Europe  to  study  apparatus,  he  saw  the 
actual  establishment  of  the  Massachusetts  Insti- 
tute of  Technology  (q.v.)  and  was  appointed  its 
president  and  professor  of  physics  and  geology. 
He  introduced  laboratory  instruction  in  physics, 
chemistry,  mechanics,  and  mining.  In  1878, 
after  a  forced  retirement  of  several  years,  he 
returned  to  his  work,  and  in  the  following  year 
succeeded  Joseph  Henry  in  the  presidency  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Sciences.  From  the  presi- 
dency of  the  Institute  of  Technology  he  resigned 
in  1881;  in  the  next  year  he  fell  dead  on  the 
platform  while  making  an  address  to  the  gradu- 
ating class.  Rogers  wrote  Strength  of  Materials 
(1838),  and  Elements  of  Mechcmical  Philosophy 
(1852),  as  well  as  many  papers  for  scientific 
associations.  Consult  his  Life  and  Letters,  edited 
by  his  wife  and  William  T.  Sidgwick  (Boston, 
1897). 

BOOET,  r6'zhA^,  Peteb  Mabk  (1779-1869). 
An  English  physician  and  scholar,  born  in  Lon- 
don. He  studied  medicine  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,  and  removed  to  Manchester,  where 
he  became  physician  to  the  lunatic  asylum,  the 
fever  hospital,  and  the  infirmary.  He  settled  in 
London  in  1808  and  was  long  the  secretary  of 
the  Royal  Society.  Among  his  works  are  Animal 
and  Vegetable  Physiology  (1834),  and  a  The- 
saurus of  English  Words  and  Phrases  (1852), 
which  passed  through  twenty-eight  editions  in 
the  author's  lifetime^  and,  as  edited  by  his  son  in 
1879,  is  still  in  use. 

BOGIEB,  r6'zhy&^  Chables  (1800-85).  A 
Belgian  statesman,  bom  at  Saint-Quentin, 
France.  He  studied  law  at  Li^  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar,  devoting  himself,  however,  with 
greater  zeal  to  journalistic  campaigns  against 
the  Dutch  rule  in  Belgium.  Upon  the  outbreak 
of  the  insurrection  at  Brussels  in  August,  1830, 
Rogier  raised  a  band  of  300  men  and  entered  the 
capital,  where  he  gained  note  as  one  of  the  most 
active  among  the  patriot  leaders.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  provisional  Government  estab- 
lished in  October,  and  after  the  election  of 
Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg  as  King,  in  June,  1831, 
was  made  Governor  of  Antwerp.  He  left  this 
post  in  October,  1832,  to  assume  the  portfolio 
of  the  Interior  in  the  Gk>blet-Devaux  Cabinet,  and 
signalized  his  term  of  office  by  bringing  into  ex- 
istence the  Belgian  railway  system.  He  left  the 
Cabinet  in  1834  for  his  old  position  of  Governor 
of  Antwerp,  but  reentered  the  Ministry  in  1840 
as  head  of  the  Department  of  Public  Works  and 
Education.  The  Ministry  fell  in  1841  and  Rogier 
was  the  leader  of  the  Liberal  Opposition  in  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  till  1847,  when  he  was 
called  upon  to  form  a  Ministry,  in  which  he  held 


BOGIEB. 


102 


BOHZ1F& 


the  portfolio  of  the  Interior.  French  influence 
forced  his  retirement  in  October,  1852,  but  he 
returned  to  power  in  November,  1857,  and  re- 
mained in  office  for  eleven  years,  acting  as  Minis- 
ter of  the  Interior  till  1861,  and  after  that  as 
Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs.  As  Foreign  Minis- 
ter he  conferred  an  inestimable  advanti^  on  his 
country  by  obtaining  the  consent  of  the  great 
powers  to  the  opening  of  the  Scheldt  to  naviga- 
tion. Consult  Descailles,  Charles  Rogier,  1800- 
85  (Brussels,  1896). 

BOHAN,  rd'ilN'.  A  celebrated  French  family 
(named  from  the  little  town  of  Rohan,  in  Brit- 
tany), dating  from  the  twelfth  century,  and 
tracing  its  descent  to  the  royal  and  ducal  line  of 
Brittany.  Its  two  most  noted  members  are  given 
below. 

BOHAN,  Henbi,  Duke  de  (1579-1638).  A 
French  Huguenot  general,  son  of  Duke  Ren4  II. 
and  of  Catherine  de  Parthenay,  noted  as  the 
heroine  of  La  Rochelle,  heiress  of  the  House 
of  Soubise  (q.v.).  He  was  bom  at  the 
Chftteau  de  Blain  in  Brittany.  About  1595 
he  was  sent  to  the  Court  of  Henry  IV., 
and  in  1597  distinguished  himself  at  Amiens 
in  the  King's  presence.  Then  he  spent 
more  than  two  years  in  travel  through  Germany, 
Italy,  Holland,  England,  and  Scotland.  In  1603, 
soon  after  his  return  to  France,  he  was  made 
duke;  two  years  afterwards  he  married  the 
daughter  of  the  King's  great  minister  Sully; 
but  he  .  did  not  come  into  prominence 
until  the  death  of  Henry  IV.,  when  the  leader- 
ship of  the  Protestant  party  fell  to  him. 
At  Saumur  in  1611  he  effected  a  union  of  all  the 
Huguenot  factions;  and  in  the  same  year  he  de- 
cide openly  for  Cond6  against  Maria  de'  Medici, 
with  whom  he  came  to  an  understanding  in  1616. 
But  his  efforts  for  union  were  unavailing,  and, 
upon  the  rising  of  the  Gascons  and  B^amois 
against  the  reSstablishment  of  the  Catholic 
Church  among  them,  he  took  the  field  openly, 
raised  the  siege  of  Montauban  and  forced  the 
signature  of  the  Peace  of  Montpellier  and  the 
confirmation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (1622).  He 
was  made  Marshal  of  France  by  Louis  XIII.,  but 
Richelieu's  policy  was  heedless  of  the  treaty,  and 
the  Protestants  rose  again  in  1625  imder  the  lead 
of  Rohan  and  his  brother,  the  Prince  de  Soubise. 
Peace  was  made  in  1626,  but  the  struggle  was 
soon  renewed,  ending  in  the  triumph  of  the  royal 
cause  (1629).  Rohan  was  named  generalissimo 
of  the  Venetian  troops  in  1631;  then  re- 
turned to  France  and  after  a  brilliant  campaign 
drove  the  Austrians  and  Spanish  from  the  Valtel- 
line  (1635);  and,  after  a  brief  retirement  in 
Geneva,  joined  Bernhard  of  Weimar  in  1638.  In 
that  year  he  was  mortally  wounded  at  Rheinfel- 
den.  Rohan  wrote  Mimoirea  (1644),  describing 
his  three  campaigns  in  France;  an  account  of 
his  travels  in  1598-1600  (printed  1646) ;  Les 
int&riiB  dea  princea  (1666)  ;  Trait4  du  gouveme- 
meni  dea  treize  cantona  (1644);  Diacoura  poli- 
tiquea  (1693)  ;  and  a  fourth  book  of  MSmoirea  on 
the  war  in  the  Valtelline  (1785).  Consult  Lau- 
gel,  Henri  de  Rohan  (Paris,  1889). 

BOHANy  Louis  Ren£  Edouabd,  Prince  de 
(1734-1803).  A  French  cardinal,  bom  in  Paris. 
He  was  bred  to  the  Church,  and  was  made 
Ambassador  to  Austria  in  1772.  He  was  re- 
called in  1774,  having  made  himself  offen- 
flivf  to  Maria  Theresa  by  his  meddlesome  spirit 


and  scandalous  mode  of  life.  He  became 
grand  almoner  of  France,  cardinal  in  1778, 
and  Bishop  of  Strassburg  the  next  year.  He 
was  imprisoned  (1785-86)  for  his  participation 
in  the  affair  of  the  diamond  necklace  (q.v.), 
and  on  his  release  was  dismissed  from  Court  in 
disgrace.  He  was  a  Deputy  to  the  States-Gen- 
eral in  1789,  but  retired  on  account  of  accusa- 
tions of  disloyalty.  He  resigned  the  Bishopric  of 
Strassburg  in  1801. 

BOBDE,  rO^de,  Ebwin  (1845-98).  A  German 
classical  scholar,  bom  in  Hamburg,  and  educated 
at  Bonn,  Leipzig,  and  KieL  In  the  last  named 
of  these  imiversities  he  became  dooent  in  1870 
and  professor  in  1872,  and  from  1876  to  1886 
held  chairs  at  Tttbingen,  Leipzig,  and  Heidelberg. 
He  was  an  authority  on  the  Greek  novel  and  on 
the  Greek  cult  of  ghosts  and  to  these  two  sub- 
jects his  great  works,  Der  grieohiache  Roman 
(1876),  Payche  (1890-94),  and  the  posthumous 
Kleine  Schriften  (1901),  are  devoted.  Rohde 
wrote  Friedrich  Creuzer  und  Karoline  von  Cfun- 
derode  (1896). 

BOHHiXHXTKBy  or  BOHILKHAHDy  r</- 
hll-ktind^  A  division  of  the  United  Provinces  of 
Agra  and  Oudh  (q.v.),  British  India,  occupying, 
together  with  the  native  State  of  Rampur,  an 
area  of  11,824  square  miles.  Population,  in  1901, 
6,010,527.    The  principal  town  is  Bareilly. 

BOHLPSy  rolfs,  Anna  Kathebinb  (Gbeen) 
(1846—).  An  American  novelist,  daughter  of 
J.  Wilson  Green,  a  lawyer  of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
She  married  Charles  Rohlfs  in  1884.  She  was 
educated  at  Ripley  College,  Poultney,  Vt.,  and 
gained  immediate  popularity  by  her  first  novel. 
The  Leavenifforth  Caae  ( 1878) ,  in  which  she  com- 
bined remarkable  ability  in  the  construction  of 
plot  with  considerable  knowledge  of  criminal  law. 
Of  many  later  stories,  all  in  the  same  vein,  the 
best,  are:  A  Strange  Diaappearanoe  (1879) ;  The 
Sword  of  Damoclea  (1881);  Hand  and  Ring 
(1883)  ;  The  Mill  M yatery  {ISSQ) ;  Behind  Closed 
Doora  (1888);  The  Foraaken  Inn  (1890);  and 
The  Filigree  Ball  (1903).  Other  books  are:  Rir 
aivi'a  Daughter,  a  drama  in  blank  verse  (1880) ; 
The  Defenae  of  the  Bride,  a  dramatic  poem,  to- 
gether with  other  verses;  and  a  dramatization 
of  The  Leavenworth  Caae  (1892). 

BOHLFS,  Gerhabd  (1831-96).  A  German 
explorer,  bom  April  14,  1831,  at  V^gesack,  near 
Bremen.  After  serving  in  the  Schleswig-Holstein 
War  in  1849  he  took  up  the  study  of  medicine  and 
from  1855  to  1860  participated  in  the  French 
wars  in  Algeria  as  a  surgeon  in  the  Foreign 
Legion.  In  1861-62  he  explored  Morocco  in  the 
disguise  of  a  Mohammedan,  and  penetrated  the 
desert  hinterland  to  the  oasis  of  Tafilet.  Setting 
out  from  Tangier  in  1863,  he  was  the  first  Euro- 
pean to  reach  and  describe  the  oasis  of  Twat. 
Shortly  after  his  return  to  Germany  in  1865  he 
set  out  again  for  Africa,  this  time  planning  a 
journey  through  the  heart  of  the  Sahara  and  the 
Sudan.  He  traversed  the  desert  from  Tripoli 
to  Lake  Tchad,  visited  the  Central  African  States 
of  Bomu  and  Sokoto,  and,  entering  the  Niger  by 
way  of  the  Benue,  sailed  down  that  stream  to 
Rabba,  whence  he  forced  his  way  through  the  for- 
ests to  the  Guinea  coast.  In  1868  ne  accom- 
panied the  British  expedition  to  Abyssinia  and 
after  1869  explored  Cyrenaica  and  the  oasb  of 
Jupiter  Ammon,  traversing  the  Libyan  desert, 
whither  in«1873-74  he  led  9,  second  expedition, 


EOHXiSB. 


108 


BOLANB. 


equipped  by  the  Khedive  of  i^gypi.  In  1878  he 
flet  out  from  Tripoli  on  a  semi-official  mission  to 
the  Sultan  of  Wadai,  but,  owing  to  the  hostile 
attitude  of  the  deseit  tribes,  was  compelled  to 
turn  back  at  Kufra.  The  long  list  of  his  works 
comprises:  Reiw  durch  Marokko  (1869);  Land 
Ufid  Yolk  in  Afrika  (1870) ;  Von  Tripolia  nach 
Alewandria  (1871);  Quer  durch  Afrika  (1874- 
75) ;  Beitr&ffe  zur  Entdeekung  und  Erforachung 
Afrikaa  ( 1876) ;  Reiae  von  Tripolis  nach  der  Oase 
Kufra  (1881) ;    Quid  Novi  ex  Africa  (1886). 

BOI  IVTVBTOT,  Le  (Fr.,  the  King  of 
Yvetot).  The  title  of  a  poem  by  Biran^r 
( 1813 ) ,  telling  of  the  contented  King  of  the  insig- 
nificant little  medisval  principality  of  Yvetot, 
near  Rouen.  The  King  of  Yvetot's  happy  though 
inglorious  life  was  int^ded  to  satirize  Napoleon's 
insatiable  love  of  glory  for  which  the  nation 
paid  so  heavily.  The  name  has  since  been  used 
of  petty  princes  with  great  pretensions. 

BOI  8'AMTXaB,  rwil  s&'mvz^,  Lb  (Fr.,  the 
King  amuses  himself).  A  drama  by  Victor 
Hugo  produced  in  1832.  The  King,  Francis  I.,  is 
ruled  in  his  excesses  by  his  buffoon  Triboulet, 
whose  daughter  Blanche  he  seduces.  In  re- 
venge Triboulet  plans  the  murder  of  Francis  at 
a  low  tavern  he  frequents,  but  when  he  plunges 
his  victim  in  a  sack,  he  finds  it  is  Blanche  who 
had  followed  her  lover  and  met  her  death.  The 
story  was  used  by  Verdi  as  the  basis  for  the 
libretto  of  his  opera  Rigoleiio  (1851),  Francis 
appearing  as  the  Duke  of  Mantua. 

BOIS  EK  EXHi,  rw&  z&n  n^'z^F,  Les  (Fr., 
Kings  in  Exile).  A  story  by  Alphonse  Daudet 
(1879),  dealing  with  the  misfortunes  of  crowned 
heads,  and  notable  in  its  close  study  of  charac- 
ter  and  motive. 

IBtOJAS,  ryH&s,  FsBiTAinx)  de.  A  Spanish 
writer,  who  flourished  about  1500;  the  author 
of  the  greater  part  if  not  the  whole  of 
the  famous  dramatic  novel  entitled  the  Tragi- 
comedia  de  Calisto  y  MeUhea,  also  known 
as  the  Celestina,  a  work  produced  first  in 
1499.  Nothing  is  known  of  the  life  of  Rojas 
beyond  the  fact  that  he  was  a  bachelor 
of  laws.  According  to  a  statement  made  in  the 
preface  of  the  work  by  Rojas  himself,  he  was 
only  continuing  the  work  of  another  man,  who 
had  written  the  first  act  of  the  Celeatina*  De- 
spite its  title,  the  Gelestina  is  not  a  drama;  it 
is  properly  a  novel  in  dialogue,  and  as  such 
it  had  a  very  great  influence  upon  the  later 
novel  and  drama  of  Spain.  Consult  the  edi- 
tion of  the  Celestina  in  the  Bihlioteca  de  au- 
teres  espaHoles,  vol.  iii.  and  M.  Menendez  y 
Pelayo's  essay  on  Rojas  in  his  Eatudioe  de  crit- 
iea  literaria  (Madrid,  1895). 

BOJAS  ZOBBILLA,  th5-r^y&,  Francisco 
DK  (1607-C.1660).  A  Spanish  dramatist.  He  be- 
longs to  the  second  half  of  the  aiglo  de  oro,  the 
age  of  Calderon,  and  produced  plays  in  collabora- 
tion with  that  illustrious  poet,  with  Velez  de 
Guevara,  and  with  Mira  de  Amescua,  as  well  as 
notable  original  comedies.  He  also  cultivated  the 
sacred  play  or  auto.  The  best  known  of  his 
pieces  is  that  entitled  Del  rey  abajo  ninguno, 
still  interesting  on  the  stage.  Other  noteworthy 
comedies  of  Rojas  are  Lo  que  son  mujeres  and 
Entre  holloa  anda  el  fuego.  He  himself  pub- 
lished two  volumes  of  his  works,  comprising  some 
twenty-four  plays,  in  1640  and  1645.     Some  of 


his  more  important  plays  are  to  be  found  in  the 
Bihlioteca  de  autorea  eapoAolea,  vol.  xzzix.  (Mad- 
rid, 1866). 

BOXITANSXY,  r^'k^tftn'sk*  Kabl,  Baron 
(1804-78).  An  Austrian  pathologist,  bom  in 
K5niggriltz,  Bohemia.  He  studied  medicine  in 
Prague  and  Vienna;  was  appointed  assistant  to 
the  chair  of  pathological  anatomy  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Vienna  in  1828,  and  professor  in  1834, 
retiring  in  1875.  He  occupied  several  municipal 
medical  positions.  In  1869  he  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  Austrian  Academy  of  Sciences.  Roki- 
tansky,  more  than  any  other  one  man,  deserves 
the  credit  of  establishing  the  scientific  study  of 
medicine  upon  the  basis  of  pathological  anat- 
omy. He  published  Handbuch  der  patholog- 
ischen  Anatomic  (3d  ed.  1851-61;  Eng,  trans. 
1^49-52),  which  embodied  his  teachings.  Con- 
sult anonymous  biography   (1874). 

BCyiiAND,  Fr.  pron.  rd'lftN',  The  Song  of. 
An  old  French  epic  poem  or  chanaon  de  geate  of 
the  end  of  the  eleventh  century,  pronoimced  by 
competent  critics  one  of  the  masterpieces  of 
French  literature.  The  work,  consisting  of  4002 
assonant  verses  in  decasyllabic  form,  arranged  in 
laiaaea  or  stanzas  of  varying  length,  takes  its 
name  from  its  chief  character,  Roland,  prefect  of 
Brittany,  and,  according  to  tradition,  nephew  of 
Charles  the  Great.  Nothing  definite  is  known 
concerning  its  author,  though  some  commen- 
tators identify  him  with  a  certain  Turoldua 
mentioned  in  the  last  verse.  The  narrative  of 
the  poem  runs  briefly  as  follows:  Charles,  King 
of  the  French,  has  for  seven  years  successfully 
fought  the  'Saracens'  of  Spain.  News  of  his  vic- 
tories reaches  Marsfle,  commander  of  the  infi- 
dels, who,  fearing  for  his  own  sceptre,  sends  mes- 
sengers to  the  French  to  sue  for  peace.  After 
deliberation,  Charles  appoints  Ganelon,  the  per- 
sonal foe  of  Roland  (here  represented  as  Roland's 
stepfather),  to  arrange  terms  with  Marsfle.  In- 
cited by  his  bitter  hatred  of  Roland,  Ganelon 
seizes  the  opportunity  to  gratify  his  desire  for 
vengeance.  Having  reached  the  'pagan'  court,  he 
artfully  proposes  to  Marsfle  to  betray  the 
French  rearguard  under  Roland  into  Marsfle's 
hands,  when  the  main  army  of  Charles  shall  be 
fairly  on  its  way  home.  The  plan  is  accepted; 
Ganelon  returns  to  CTharles,  and  the  French  army 
crosses  the  Pyrenees  into  France,  while  Roland 
remains  behind  in  the  mountains  with  a  guard 
of  twenty  thousand  men.  At  Roncevaux,  or 
as  the  text  says  Rencesvals  (the  plain  of  Ros), 
he  and  his  valiant  band  are  overwhelmed  by  a 
'pagan'  army  of  twenty  times  their  number.  The 
details  of  this  disaster,  which  Europe  regarded 
during  centuries  as  the  representative  struggle 
of  Christian  against  Moslem,  constitute  the  ker- 
nel and  real  iSauty  of  the  poem.  The  effect  of 
the  drama  is  heightened  by  making  the  heroic 
but  reckless  Roland  in  part  responsible  for  the 
catastrophe.  His  boon  companion  Oliver,  whose 
courage  is  second  only  to  his  prudence,  in  three 
beautiful  laiaaea  (each  on  a  different  assonance) 
beseeches  Roland  to  wind  his  horn  and  bring 
Charles  to  the  rescue.  Only  when  his  doom  is 
complete,  when  his  companions,  the  twelve  peers 
of  France,  including  the  warlike  Bishop  Turpin, 
lie  slain  about  him,  will  Roland  raise  the  horn 
to  his  lips  and  summon  his  liege  with  his  dying 
breath.  The  poem  then  draws  rapidly  to  a  close. 
Charles,  at  whose  prayer  the  Almighty  arrests 


BOLANB. 


104 


BOLANB  BE  LA  PLATIEBE. 


the  sun  in  its  course,  reenters  Spain  on  the  same 
day,  utterly  routs  the  'pagans/  and  returns  to 
France,  sorrowful  but  triumphant.  At  the  tid- 
ings of  Roland's  death,  Aide,  his  betrothed  (Oli- 
ver's sister),  falls  lifeless  at  the  Emperor's  feet. 
Ganelon  is  finally  found  guilty  by  the  'judgment 
of  Heaven'  and  is  condemned  to  be  torn  'limb 
from  limb'  by  infuriated  stallions. 

In  this  form  the  Chanson  de  Roland  was  car- 
ried to  almost  every  nation  in  Europe.  It  was 
put  into  German  verse  by  a  certain  Conrad  about 
1130,  later  into  Norse  prose  and  into  English 
verse;  the  story  early  penetrated  to  Italy;  it  was 
known  to  Dante,  and  after  several  recastings  it 
was  adapted  to  the  national  character  by  the 
poets  Pulci  (Morgante  maggiore),  Boiardo  {Or- 
lando innamorato) ,  Ariosto  {Orlando  furioao), 
and  Bemi  {Orlando  amoroso).  In  Spain  na- 
tional jealousy  displaced  religious  zeal.  Ronce- 
vaux  became  a  Spanish  victory,  and  the  dawn 
of  Spain's  national  gloiy.  Finally  the  legend 
cast  abroad  the  names  of  its  heroes,  some  of 
which  became  localized  in  foreign  parts,  notably 
'Roland'  in  Northern  Germany  about  Bremen. 
The  legend  is  also  the  theme  of  several  operas. 

The  historical  facts  underlying  the  story  are 
told  by  Einhard,  the  biographer  of  Charles  the 
Great.  He  relates  that  on  August  15,  778, 
while  passing  through  a  defile  of  the  Pyre- 
nees, part  of  the  French  army  was  attacked  by 
the  mountaineers,  the  Basques,  who,  owing  to 
their  light  armor,  gained  an  easy  victory.  In 
this  battle  perished  "Eggihard,  provost  of  the 
royal  table;  Anselm,  count  of  the  palace;  and 
Roland  {Hruotlandus) ,  prefect  of  the  March  of 
Brittany."  This  is  the  sole  dictum  of  history 
on  the  hero's  character.  But  two  Latin  works, 
a  chronicle  of  the  twelfth  century  attributed  to 
Turpin,  and  a  poem  De  Prodiiione  Guenonis  of 
the  same  date,  reveal  two  versions  of  the  legend 
preceding  that  represented  by  the  French  poem. 
From  evidence  in  these  works  it  is  held  that  the 
legend  of  Roland  was  first  fashioned  in  Brittany, 
recast  in  Anjou,  and  given  its  present  form  in 
the  country  surrounding  Paris  or  the  lie  de 
France.  The  best  manuscript  of  the  French  poem 
is  the  famous  "Digby  23"  of  the  Bodleian  Li- 
brary, Oxford ;  it  is  apparently  in  the  writing  of 
a  scribe  of  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century. 

As  a  literary  production,  the  Chanson  de 
Roland  is  worthy  to  be  classed  with  the  two  other 
great  mediaeval  epics,  the  Beowulf  and  the  2Vi6e- 
lungenlied.  Doubtless  they  are  both  its  supe- 
riors on  the  aesthetic  and  human  sides;  each  of 
them  is  a  more  or  less  complete  expression  of  a 
past  stage  of  civilization,  whereas  the  Roland 
represents  only  a  part  of  the  French  nation,  the 
feudal  barons.  Yet,  in  its  rough  grace,  it  excels 
them  both  in  directness,  and,  above  all,  in  the 
expression  of  a  national  spirit. 

Bibliography.  Consult:  Seelmann,  Bihlio- 
graphie  de  altfranaosischen  Rolandsliedes  (Heil- 
bronn,  1888).  The  best  editions  of  the  text  are 
by  Gautier  (Tours,  1899)  ;  by  Mttller  (Gottin- 
gea,  1878);  by  Stengel  (Leipzig,  1900).  For 
criticism  consult  especially  G.  Paris,  Podmes  et 
legendes  du  moyen  dge  (Paris,  1900).  Transla- 
tions: J.  O'Hagan  (London,  1880)  in  the  metre 
of  "Christabel;"  Rabillon  (New  York,  1888)  in 
blank  verse;  an  excellent  German  translation  is 
that  of  William  Hertz  (Stuttgart,  1861)  ;  and  by 
far  the  best  in  modem  French  is  the  blank  verse 
translation  of  Joseph  Fabre  (Paris,  1902). 


BOLAND  DE  LA  FLATI^BE,  de  Ik  pl&^- 

tyar',  Jean  Marie  (1734-93).  A  French  politi- 
cian, bom  at  Thizy,  near  Villefranche  (Yonne). 
He  was  early  forced  to  shift  for  himself,  but 
succeeded  in  becoming  an  authority  in  mat- 
ters pertaining  to  industry  and  commerce  and 
received  an  appointment  as  inspector  ordinary  of 
manufactures  at  Amiens.  In  1775  he  met  Marie 
Jeanne  Philipon,  a  young  woman  twenty  years 
his  junior,  of  brilliant  genius  and  fascinating 
beauty,  and  they  were  married  February  4,  1780. 
When  the  Revolution  broke  out  in  1789,  Roland, 
who  was  then  living  at  Lyons,  became  a  decided 
partisan  of  the  movement.  In  1791  he  was  sent 
to  Paris  by  the  municipality  to  present  to  the 
Constituent  Assembly  the  deplorable  condition  of 
the  Lyonnese  weavers.  After  the  dissolution  of 
the  Constituent  Assembly,  he  founded  at  Lyons 
the  Club  Central,  the  members  of  which,  marked 
by  their  attachment  to  constitutional  liberty,  re- 
ceived the  name  of  Rolandins.  Toward  the  close 
of  1791  he  settled  in  Paris,  and  soon  became  one 
of  the  recognized  leaders  of  the  Girondists.  In 
March,  1792,  he  was  appointed  Minister  of  the 
Interior,  a  post  which,  with  the  exception  of 
the  period  between  June  10  and  August  10,  1792, 
he  held  till  January,  1793,  when  he  resigned  in 
despair  of  seeing  moderate  counsels  adopted. 
Upon  the  fall  and  proscription  of  the  Girondists 
he  fled  and  concealed  himself  in  Rouen.  When 
news  reached  him  of  the  execution  of  his  wife, 
he  committed  suicide  at  a  small  village  in  the 
environs  of  Rouen,  November  15,  1793.  Roland 
wrote  and  published  several  memoirs  and  dis- 
quisitions on  branches  of  industry,  the  most  im- 
portant work  being  the  Dictionnaire  des  manu- 
factures et  des  arts  (Paris,  1786-90).  His  let- 
ters to  his  wife  before  they  were  married  have 
also  been  published  in  part. 

BOLAKD  DE  LA  FLATI^SE,  Masie  or 
Manon  Jeanne  Philipon,  Madame  (1754-93). 
A  leader  of  society  at  the  time  of  the  French  Rev- 
olution. She  was  the  daughter  of  Pierre  Gratien 
Philipon,  an  engraver,  and  was  bom  in  Paris, 
March  17,  1754.  At  an  early  age  she  showed  great 
precocity, being  especially  attracted  by  the  works 
of  great  poets  and  moralists.  When  eleven  years 
of  age  she  entered  a  convent  school  in  Paris,  but 
soon  returned  to  her  parents  and  gave  herself  up 
to  fresh  reading  and  study.  She  was  speedily 
attracted  by  the  philosophical  ideas  of  Rousseau 
and  the  Encyclopaedists.  In  1780,  after  a  friend- 
ship extending  over  five  years,  she  married  Jean 
Marie  Roland  de  la  Plati^re,  and  her  subsequient 
career  is  closely  identified  with  his  political  life. 
During  the  Revolution  she  became  prominent  in 
Parisian  literary  and  political  life,  and  her  saUm 
was  frequented  by  Brissot,  Buzot,  P4tion,  and 
other  Girondist  leaders.  After  the  fall  of  the 
Girondists  and  Roland's  flight  from  Paris,  his 
wife  continued  to  support  the  lost  cause.  She 
was  arrested  June  1,  1793,  and  lodged  in 
prison,  where  she  spent  her  time  in  writing 
her  M^moires  (4  vols.,  edited  by  Dauban,  Paris, 
1864).  She  also  composed  four  letters  to  Buzot, 
who  alone  of  her  admirers  had  awakened  deeper 
sentiments  than  those  of  friendship.  Their  mu- 
tual love  had  been,  however,  a  blameless  one. 
After  a  summary  trial  before  the  Revolutionary 
Tribunal,  Madame  Roland  was  led  to  the  guillo- 
tine and  bravely  met  death,  November  8,  1793. 
Consult:    Dauban,   Etude  sur   Madame  Roland 


BOLAliD  DE  LA  PLATIEBE. 


105 


BOIXEB. 


(Fftris,  1864);  Blind,  Madame  Roland  (ib., 
1886)  ;  lAJnj,  Deum  femmes  c^Uhrea  (ib.,  1886) ; 
Sainte-Beuve,  Portraita  de  femmes;  Dobson,  Four 
Frenchwomen  (London,  1890).  Madame  Ro- 
land's Lettres  have  also  been  published  (Paris, 
1867). 

SOUPE,  r6lf,  John  (1585-1622).  An  English 
colonist  in  America,  bom  in  Norfolk,  England. 
He  became  interested  in  the  colonization  of  Vir- 
ginia, and  in  June,  1609,  started  for  the  colony, 
but  was  wrecked  on  the  way,  was  detained  for 
some  months  on  the  Bermuda  Islands,  and  did 
not  reach  Jamestown  until  May,  1610.  He  is 
credited  with  having  been  the  first  Englishman, 
in  1612,  to  introduce  the  cultivation  of  tobacco 
in  Virginia.  He  had  married  an  English  woman 
in  1608,  but  his  wife  had  died  soon  after  her  ar- 
rival at  Jamestown,  and  in  April,  1613,  he  mar- 
ried the  famous  Indian  'princess'  Pocahontas, 
whom  he  took  to  England  in  1616.  After  the 
death  of  Pocahontas,  in  1617,  Rolfe  returned  to 
Virginia,  where  he  again  married,  and  in  1619 
a  member  of  the  Council.    See  Pocahontas. 


ROIiFE,  John  Gabew  (1859—).  An  Ameri- 
can classical  philologist,  bom  at  Lawrence, 
Mass.  He  received  his  bachelor's  degree  from 
Harvard  University  in  1881,  and  attained  the 
doctorate  in  philosophy  at  Cornell  in  1885.  In 
1888-89  he  was  a  member  of  the  American  School 
at  Athens  and  assisted  in  important  excavations 
-  during  that  year.  He  taught  at  Cornell  Uni- 
versity from  1882-85  and  at  Harvard  University 
in  1889-90.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  appointed 
assistant  professor  at  the  University  of  Michigan, 
and  four  years  later  was  made  professor  of  Latin. 
This  office  he  continued  to  hold  until  1902,  when 
he  was  appointed  to  a  similar  position  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  He  became  co-editor 
with  Prof.  Charles  E.  Bennett  of  Comell  of  the 
College  Latin  Series,  and  edited  various  Latin 
texts  for  schools  and  colleges. 

BOUTEf  RoREBT  MoNSET,  Baron  Cranworth. 
See  Cbanwobth. 

BJOUTE,  William  Jaices  (1827—).  An 
American  Shakespearean  scholar  and  educator, 
bom  in  Newburyport,  Mass.  Rolfe  graduated 
BJ^.  at  Amherst  m  1849.  He  taught  in  Mary- 
land, then  at  Wrentham,  Dorchester,  Lawrence, 
and  Salem,  and  from  1862  to  1868  in  Cambrid^, 
Mass.  Having  resigned  this  post,  he  became  eai- 
tor  of  the  Popular  Science  News  and  afterwards 
of  the  Shakespearean  department  of  The  Literary 
World  and  The  Critic.  Early  in  his  career  he 
edited  selections  from  Cvid  and  Vergil,  and,  in 
collaboration,  The  Cambridge  Course  of  Physics 
(6  vols.,  1867-68).  Many  contributions  by  him 
aie  scattered  through  the  North  American  Re- 
view, Harper's  Magazine,  and  other  periodicals. 
His  Shakespearean  work  began  with  an  edition 
of  George  L.  Craik's  English  of  Shakespeare 
(1867).  This  led  to  the  preparation  of  a  com- 
plete edition  of  Shakespeare  (40  vols.,  1870-83), 
a  revision  of  which  began  to  appear  in  1903. 
He  also  edited  the  Select  Poems  of  Goldsmith 
(1875),  of  Gray  (1876),  and  of  Tennyson 
(1884) ;  The  Princess  (1884) ;  Mrs.  Brouming's 
Sonnets  from  the  Portuguese  (1887)  ;  Enoch 
Arden  and  Other  Poems  (1887);  ScotVs  Com- 
plete Poems  (1887) ;  A  Blot  in  the  'Scutcheon 
and  Other  Dramas  of  Browning  (1887) ;  Byron's 
ChUde  Harold  (1887);.  Minor  Poems  of  Milton 
(1887) ;     Maoaulay'a   Lays   of   Ancient    Rome 


(1888);  Wordsworth  (1888);  In  Memoriam 
(1895) ;  Idyls  of  the  King  (1896)  ;  and  a  com- 
plete edition  of  Tennyson  (10  vols.,  1898). 
Other  books  are:  Shakespeare  the  Boy  (1896) ; 
The  Elementary  Study  of  English  (1896) ;  Life 
of  Shakespeare  (1901) ;  and  A  Satchel  Guide  to 
Europe,  published  anonymously  for  twenty-seven 
years. 

BOLL,  rM,  Alfbed  Philippe  (1847—).  A 
French  genre  and  portrait  painter  of  the  Natural- 
istic School,  born  in  Paris.  He  was  the  pupil  of 
Harpignies,  Cr^rOme,  and  Bonnat.  Many  of  his 
subjects  are  taken  from  the  life  of  the  peasant. 
These  include  "The  Strike"  (1880),  in  the  Mu- 
seum of  Valenciennes  and  "Work"  (1885). 
"The  Centenary  of  the  5th  of  May,  1779,  at 
Versailles,"  "War"  (1887),  and  "The  National 
Fete  of  the  14th  of  July,  1880,"  are  other  nota- 
ble canvases,  which  show  his  power  of  depicting 
several  figures  in  action.  He  was  influenced  by 
the  Impressionists  to  the  extent  that  he  rarely 
painted  any  figure  except  out  of  doors.  His 
"In  Normandy"  (1883) ;  "Manda  Lam6trie,  fer- 
mi^re"  (1888),  in  the  Luxembourg;  "The  Exo- 
dus;" and  the  superb  "Woman  with  a  Bull" 
(1889)  are  examples  of  his  delicate  handling  of 
light.  His  skill  as  a  draughtsman  is  best  ex- 
hibited in  "The  Joys  of  Life"  (1892-96),  a 
decorative  painting  in  the  Hdtal  de  Ville,  Paris. 
He  also  painted  portraits.  Consult  Fourcaud, 
L'eeuvre  de  Alfred  Philippe  Roll  (Paris,  1896). 

BOLLE,  r5l,  Richabd,  of  Hampole  (c.1290- 
1349).  An  English  recluse  and  author,  bom  at 
Thornton,  in  Yorkshire.  He  studied  theology  at 
Oxford,  but  he  left  the  university  at  the  age  of 
nineteen,  and  became  a  hermit.  He  moved  about 
in  the  north,  settling  eventually  in  a  cell  at  Ham- 
pole,  near  Doncaster.  He  was  famed  for  his 
learning,  preaching,  and  holy  life.  Rolle  com- 
posed many  treatises  both  in  Latin  and  in  Eng- 
lish, some  of  which  yet  remain  in  manuscript.  His 
English  works,  written  in  the  Northumbrian  dia- 
lect, were  widely  read.  Most  popular  was  The 
Pricke  of  Conscience  (ed.  R.  Morris  for  the  Philo- 
logical Society,  1863) ,  a  poem  of  9624  lines  rhym- 
ing in  pairs.  It  gives  a  complete  view  of  human 
life  from  the  extreme  ascetic  standpoint.  Other 
English  works  by  Rolle  are  a  paraphrase  of  the 
Psalms  and  Canticles  (ed.  by  Bramley,  Oxford, 
1884)  ;  English  Prose  Treatises,  ten  in  number 
(edited  by  Perry  for  the  Early  English  Text 
Society,  London,  1866)  ;  and  the  Miscellames 
edited  by  Horstmann,  under  the  title  Richard 
Rolle  of  Hampole  and  His  Followers  (2  vols., 
London,  1895-96).  Two  of  the  Latin  treatises — 
De  Emendatione  Vitos  and  De  Incendio  Amoris, 
translated  into  English  by  Richard  Misyn  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  were  edited  by  R.  Hardy  for 
the  Early  English  Text  Society  (London,  1896). 
Rolle's  English  works  are  of  great  philological 
interest  as  specimens  of  the  English  written  in 
the  North. 

BOLLEB.  A  bird  of  the  family  Coraciid«, 
related  to  the  broadmouths,  todies,  and  motmots. 
All  the  many  rollers  are  inhabitants  of  the  warm 
and  forested  parts  of  the  Old  World,  and  are 
noted  for  gorgeous  coloring.  They  take  their 
name  from  a  habit  of  tumbling  in  the  air  like  a 
tumbler-pigeon,  and  have  a  curious  habit  of 
tossing  their  food,  which  consists  of  insects  and 
parts  of  plants,  into  the  air,  and  catching  it  in 
their  mouths.    One  only  is  found  in  Europe,  the 


BOLLEB. 


106 


BOLLIKO  MILL. 


common  roller  {Coraciaa  garrula),  a  bird  nearly 
equal  in  size  to  a  jay.  Besides  the  genus  Cora- 
cias,  there  are  the  broad-billed  rollers  of  the  genus 
Eurystomus,  found  in  Africa  and  tropical  Asia, 
and  at  least  four  genera  of  remarkable  rollers 
confined  to  Madagascar. 

BOLLEBS.     See  Road  and  Street  Machin- 

EBY. 

BOLLEB  WOBM,  or  BOLLWOBtf.     The 

larva  of  a  hesperid  butterfly  {Eudamus  proteua), 
which  rolls  the  leaves  of  beans  and  peas  in  the 
Southern  Atlantic  States.  The  large  eggs  are 
laid  upon  the  leaves  in  clusters  of  from  four  to 
six.  The  larva,  which  is  yellow-green  and  has  a 
slender  neck  and  large  head,  cuts  a  slit  in  the 
leaf  from  the  edge,  rolls  the  flap  around  its  body, 
and  works  from  the  inside  of  this  roll  with  its 
soft  parts  perfectly  protected.  When  fully  grown 
it  is  1.5  inches  long,  and  transforms  to  a  chrysa- 
lis within  the  leaf-roll.  The  adult  butterfly  is 
dark  brown,  the  front  wings  having  several  sil- 
very white  spots.  In  a  small  garden  it  may  be 
kept  in  check  by  hand-picking,  but  the  use  of  an 
arsenical  spray  is  necessary  in  large  fields. 

BOI/LETT,  Hermann  (1819—).  An  Aus- 
trian poet  and  art  critic,  bom  in  Baden,  near 
Vienna.  Because  of  the  radical  tone  of  his  po- 
litical poetry,  Fruhlingsboten  aus  Oeaterreich 
(1845),  published  while  he  was  in  Germany,  he 
was  forbidden  to  return  to  Austria,  and  was  later 
expelled  from  several  German  States.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are:  Friache  lAeder  (1848,  2a  ed. 
1855)  ;  Repuhlikaniachea  Liederhuch  (1848) ;  Die 
Kirmes,  a  series  of  songs,  with  music  by  Abt 
( 1854) ;  Offenharungen  (2ded.  1870) ;  and  March- 
engeachiohten  atu  d&m  Lehen  ( 1894 ) .  RoUett  wrote 
some  dramas  and  also  two  valuable  works  on 
art,  Die  drei  Meister  der  Oemmoglyptik  (1874), 
and  Die  Goethe-Bildnisae  (1882). 

BOLLIN,  r^'lftN^  Charles  ( 1661-1741  >.  A 
French  historian,  bom  in  Paris.  He  studied  at 
the  Coll^  du  Plessis,  where,  in  1683,  he  became 
assistant  to  the  professor  of  rhetoric,  and  five 
years  later  he  was  made  professor  of  eloquence 
in  the  College  de  France.  In  1694  he  was 
chosen  rector  of  the  University  of  Paris,  a  dig- 
nity which  he  held  for  two  years,  distinsuishing 
himself  by  many  useful  reforms.  In  1696  he  was 
appointed  coadjutor  to  the  principal  of  the  Col- 
lege de  Beauvais ;  but  being  an  ardent  Jansenist, 
he  was  removed  in  1712,  through  the  influence 
of  his  opponents.  In  1715  he  published  an 
edition  of  Quintilian,  and  in  1726  the  Trait4 
des  4tude8f  his  best  literary  performances.  After 
a  long  life  of  retirement  devoted  to  writing  and 
study,  Rollin  died  in  Paris,  September  14,  1741. 
His  most  famous  work  is  the  compilation,  for- 
merly of  great  popularity,  known  as  the  Hiatoire 
ancienne  (13  vols.,  Paris,  1830-38),  which  has 
frequently  been  reprinted  and  reSdited  both  in 
French  and  in  English,  but  is  of  little  historical 
value.  He  also  began  a  Hiatoire  romaine,  which 
was  completed  by  Crevier  and  other  historians 
after  Rollings  death,  and  was  published  in  9 
volumes  (Paris,  1738-48). 

BOLLIN,  Ledru-.    See  Ledru-Kollin. 

BOLLXSTG  MILL,  An  establishment  provid- 
ed with  machinery  for  working  metal  ingots  into 
rails,  bars,  plates,  rods,  and  structural  shapes  by 
repeatedly  passing  them  when  intensely  hot  be- 
tween   cylindrical    rolls.      The    three    principal 


8 


O 


FiO.  3. 


methods  of  working  metals  are  founding,  forging, 
and  rolling,  and  of  these  three  methods  that  of 
rolling  has  been  chiefly  instrumental  in  extending 
the  use  of  metal  for  structural  purposes  to  its 
present  enormous  dimensions.  The  rolling  miU 
was  invented  by  Henry  Cort,  an  Englishman,  in 
1783,  and  although  wonderfully  developed  in  its 
essential  principle,  the  device 
has  undergone  but  little  change 
since  its  invention.  Rolling  mills 
may  be  classified  as  two-high 
mills,  three-high  mills,  and  four- 
high  mills,  with  their  modifica- 
tions. The  accompanying  dia- 
grams show  the  principle  of  oper- 
ation of  each  of  these  mills.  Fig. 
1   indicates  a   two-high  mill   in  ^^  ^ 

which  the  metal  passes  between 
the  two  rolls  in  the  direction  indicated  by  the 
lower  arrow  and  has  work  done  on  it  and  then 
is  returned  over  the  rolls  as  indicated  by  the 
upper  arrow  for  the  second  pass.  In  the  ihree* 
high  mill,  indicated  by  Fig.  2, 
the  metal  passes  forward  be- 
tween the  bottom  and  middle 

rolls  and  is  returned  between 

»►— ^— >^^  the  middle  and  top  rolls  and 

f       A         has  work  done  on  it  in  both  the 
(  I         forward  and  return  passes.  The 

\,^_^^  four-high  mill,  as  shown  by  Fig. 

0<  **^  3,  consists  essentially  of  two 
two-high  mills  placed  one  above 
the  other  nearly,  and  working 
in  opposite  directions  so  that 
the  metal  is  acted  upon  during 
both  the  forward  and  return 
In  actual  practice  the  four-high  mill  is 
seldom  used.  The  original  mill  invented  by  Cort 
was  a  two-high  mill  operating  as  indicated  by 
Fig.  1.  As  will  be  seen,  the  metal  after  each 
forward  pass  had  to  be  re- 
turned over  the  top  of  the 
mill,  without  any  work  being 
done  on  it,  to  get  it  into  posi- 
tion for  the  next  forward 
pass.  This  operation, 
be  readily  understood, 
tated  a  material  loss  ( 
and  heat  while  the  metal 
being  returned  for  each  suc- 
ceeding pass  throiigh  the  rolls. 
The  nrst  great  improvement  I 
of  the  two-high  mill  was 
signed  to  avoid  these  losses 
and  consisted  in  operating 
the  rolls  by  a  reversing  engine,  which,  as  soon 
as  the  metal  had  completed  the  forward  pass, 
reversed  the  direction  of  the  rotation  of  the 
rolls  and  permitted  the  metal  to  be  returned  be- 
tween them.  The  chief  disadvantages  of  revers- 
ing were  that  more  expensive  engines  were  re- 
quired, the  whole  machinery  had  to  be  heavier 
and  more  costly  in  construction,  and  the  ex- 
pense of  repairs  was  greater.  The  three-high 
mill,  as  will  be  seen  from  Fig.  2,  has  the  great 
advantage  over  the  two-high  mill  that  the  rolls 
operate  all  the  time  in  one  direction.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  metal  has  to  be  lifted  for  each 
return  pass.  In  modem  rolling-mill  practice, 
the  lifting  is  done  by  hand  when  light  material 
such  as  rods,  bars,  hoops,  etc^  is  oeing  rolled 
and  by  machinery  when  the  material  is  heavy. 


__  X) 

a,  it  will   ^^^^^     /"""^ 
i,  neoessi-  f  \  I  1 

s  of  time  (  )  V^     J 

netal  was  \^^^     ^""^ 
•    sue-    ^^..-^    i« 
oils.  A  A 
aent  (  } 

de-  V^ 


Fio.  8. 


BOLUVG  lOLXi. 


107 


BOLLO. 


Ibe  eonfltmetian  of  a  set  or  stand  of  rolling- 
null  rolls  is  quite  simple.  The  rolls  are  made  of 
oliilled  east  iron  turned  to  cylindrical  form  and 
are  joumaled  at  their  ends  in  a  strong  frame  or 
housing  of  cast  iron.  It  is  essential  abore  all 
things  that  this  housing  shall  be  strong  and 
rigid  and  so  constructed  tha^  the  rolls  can  be 
taken  out  and  repaired  or  changed  quickly  and 
easily.  Sometimes  the  rolls  are  so  fixed  and  ad- 
justed in  the  housing  that  their  distance  apart 
ean  be  quickly  increiwed  or  decreased  while  they 
are  in  place,  and  at  other  times  they  are  placed 
in  the  housing  in  a  definite  fixed  position  which 
eannot  be  chuiged  during  operation.  The  hous* 
ing  is  founded  on  a  structure  of  masonry  set  be- 
low the  mill  floor.  In  finishing  mills  for  light 
work  the  engine  is  sometimes  connected  only  to 
one  roll,  the  other  roll  being  tuined  by  the  fric- 
tion of  the  metal  as  it  passes  between  the  two. 
For  heavier  work  both  rolls  are  positively  ope- 
rated direct  from  the  engine.  The  simplest  form 
of  roll  is  a  plain  cylindrical  one  for  rolling  plates. 
For  rolling  nearly  all  other  forms  of  rolled 
shapes  the  metal  has  to  be  confined  laterally,  and 
to  aceomplish  this  the  rolls  are  provided  with 
flrooves  varying  in  shape  according  to  the  finished 
form  it  is  desired  to  secure.  Generally  each  set 
of  rolls  has  two  or  more  grooves,  each  set  of 
which  approaches  closer  to  the  form  of  the  fin- 
ished section  than  the  set  of  grooves  preceding  it, 
and  the  metal  is  passed  through  these  grooves  in 
order.  Conmionly  also  several  sets  of  rolls  are 
onployed,  each  set  of  which  brings  the  piece  closer 
to  its  final  form  than  the  set  preceding.  In  cer- 
tain kinds  of  work  the  several  stands  of  rolls  are 
so  arranged  that  the  rolling  process  is  continu- 
ous. For  example,  in  rolling  round  rods  for  wire- 
drawing, the  billet  from  the  blooming  mill  passes 
through  one  groove,  then  is  looped  and  returned 
through  another,  and  so  on  until  the  final  groove 
of  the  ilnal  stand  of  rolls  produces  the  finished 
rod  of  small  diameter.  In  the  universal  mill 
largely  used  in  rolling  plates  the  metal  is  com- 
prised laterally  by  means  of  a  pair  of  vertical 
rolls  set  close  behind  the  horizontal  rolls.  There 
are  also  special  forms  of  mills  for  rolling  wheel 
tires,  hoops,  and  other  special  shapes. 

The  mills  of  the  Pencoyd  Iron  Works,  at  Pen- 
Goyd,  Pa.,  may  be  described  as  typical  of  modem 
practice.  The  steel  ingots  as  produced  by  the 
steel  plant  (see  Ibon  and  Steel)  are  delivered  by 
electric  traveling  cranes  and  cars  to  the  pit 
furnaces  of  the  blooming  mill,  where  they  are 
subjected  to  the  first  rmling  process  to  reduce 
them  to  blooms  and  billets.  The  blooming  mill 
is  a  two-high  reversing  mill>  and  the  ingots  are 
delivered  to  it  and  manipulated  between  the  dif- 
ferent passes  by  tables^  operated  by  hydraulic 
power  from  a  c^ral  station.  These  tables  raise, 
turn,  and  shift  the  piece  transversely  or  longi- 
tudinally as  desired.  This  mill  is  fed  with  hot 
ingots  by  four  vertical  pit  furnaces  of  the 
regenerative  type  fired  witn  producer  gas,  and 
in  turn  it  supplies  three  finishing  mills  and  an 
axle  forge.  The  principal  part  of  the  product 
goes  to  l£e  beam  mill,  which  is  supplied  with  hot 
blooms.  The  beam  mill  is  placed  in  the  line  of 
the  delivery  of  the  blooming  mill  and  is  served 
with  three  regenerative  heating  furnaces  for  re- 
storing full  working  temperature  to  the  blooms 
on  their  passage  from  the  blooming  mill.  The 
billetB  are  charged  into  and  withdrawn  from 
these  furnaces  ^  maehineiy.  The  beam  mill 
TokZy.-«i 


consists  of  two  distinct  mills,  one  a  roughing  mill 
for  roughly  forming  the  beam  and  the  o&er  a 
finishing  milL  The  roughing  mill  is  a  two-hi^h 
reversing  mill  and  tlie  finishing  mill  is  of  vie 
three-high  type.  The  roughing  mill  is  served 
with  reversing  tables  and  hydraulic  manipulators, 
while  the  finishing  mill  has  traveling  tables  which 
also  have  a  lifting  movement.  The  product  of 
the  finishing  mill  is  delivered  by  live  rollers  to 
saws  and  shears,  thence  to  cooling  beds,  straight- 
ening machines  and  shears,  and  finally  to  the 
storage  yards.  From  the  time  the  ingot  leaves 
the  steel  mill  until  the  finished  beam  is  in  the 
storage  yard  it  is  handled  wholly  by  machinery. 
The  foregoing  is  a  typical  example  of  the  per- 
fection of  modem  rolling-mill  practice  in  produc- 
ing structural  iron  and  steel.  In  rolling  rails 
the  billet  from  the  blooming  mill  passes  Erectly 
to  a  three-high  rail  mill. 

Steel  Shapes.  The  shapes  turned  out  by  the 
modem  rolling  mill  are  limited  only  by  the  fact 
that  they  must  in  each  case  be  of  uniform  section 
throughout  the  length  of  the  piece,  and  the  fact 
that  the  roller  grooves  cannot  be  wider  at  the 
bottom  than  the  top.  The  more  oonmion  stand- 
ard shapes  are  plat^,  flats,  squares,  rounds,  half- 
rounds,  angles,  channels,  I  beams,  Z  bars,  T  iron. 


ITBVCTUBAIi  8TSSL  BHAPSS. 


trough  shapes,  rails,  and  bulb  angles.  In  struc- 
tural work  these  direct  shapes  are  riveted  to- 
gether to  form  the  various  compound  shapes 
used  for  columns  for  buildings,  bridge  members, 
etc  The  literature  on  rolling-mill  construction, 
equipment,  and  practice  exists  almost  wholly  in 
the  shape  of  special  articles  in  the  Proceedings 
of  the  various  en^neering  societies  and  in  the 
columns  of  the  engineering  papers. 

BOI/LOy  Hrolf,  Rolf,  or  Kou  (real  name 
Hbolfe,  known  as  the  Ganger,  or  Walker).  A 
Norse  chieftain  of  whose  early  history  nothing 
definite  is  known.  He  seems  to  have  effected  ex- 
tensive conquests  in  Northwestern  France,  and 
by  the  Peace  of  Clair-en-Epte,  about  912,  he  was 
granted  by  King  Charles  the  Simple  of  France 
the  possession  of  Rouen  and  the  adjacent  terri- 
tory which  he  already  held.  This  was  the  origin 
of  the  Duchy  of  Normandy.  Rollo  was  baptized 
with  many  of  his  companions.  He  divided  his 
lands  among  his  followers,  framed  laws  for  his 
people,  and  made  great  donations  to  the  Church. 
He  was  a  faithful  ally  of  Charles  the  Simple. 
By  successful  wars  he  gradually  extended  nis 
possessions.  About  927  he  associated  his  son 
William  Longsword  with  himself  as  ruler.    He 


BOtLO. 


108 


&OMAIC  LITEBATirBS. 


died  about  931.    Consult  Freeman,  The  Norman 
Conquest,  vol.  i.  (Oxford,  1867).    See  Nobmans. 

BOLLS.  The  records  of  the  ancient  English 
courts.  The  term  originated  at  a  time  when 
bookbinding  was  not  common,  and  it  was  the 
custom  to  write  the  records  of  court  proceedings 
upon  sheets  of  parchment,  which  were  tacked  or 
fastened  together  and  rolled  up.  See  Records, 
Public. 

BOLLS,,  Master  of  the.  See  Master  of  the 
Rolls. 

BOM,  or  BOMANY.     See  Gypsies. 

BOMAGNA,  r6-ma'nyft.  A  territorial  divi- 
sion of  Italy  which  formed  part  of  the  Papal 
States  (q.v.).  It  embraces  the  provinces  of  Bo- 
logna, Ferrara,  Forll,  and  Ravenna. 

BOMAONOSI,  r6'mA-nyo'z^,  Giovanni  Do- 
MENico  (1761-1835).  An  Italian  jurist,  bom  at 
Salsomaggiore.  He  was  educated  at  Piacenza, 
and  became  instructor  in  law  at  Parma  (1803), 
and  in  1806  professor  of  law  at  Padua.  The 
downfall  of  Napoleon  caused  him  to  leave  the 
last  place  and  he  became  professor  of  law  at  the 
University  of  Corfu  in  1824.  Romagnosi  in  his 
teaching  extolled  society  as  the  natural  condition 
of  man^  upheld  the  State  against  the  individual, 
and  repudiated  the  contract  theory  of  the  origin 
of  society.  His  two  most  important  works  are 
the  Oenesi  del  diritto  peruUe  (1786)  and  Intro- 
duzione  alio  atudio  del  diritto  puhhlico  uni- 
versale (1806).  His  Opere  were  published  at 
Florence  in  1832-35.  While  imprisoned  by  the 
Austrians  in  1800,  Romagnosi  is  said  to  have  an- 
ticipated Oersted  in  the  discovery  of  the  magnetic 
needle. 

BOMAIC  (ML.  Romaicus,  from  Gk.  "VmuoXkSs, 
RhOmaikos,  Roman,  Latin,  Byzantine,  from  ^fiifjo/i^ 
RhomS,  Lat.  Roma,  Rome,  later  also  Byzantium) . 
The  vernacular  language  of  modern  Greece.  See 
the  section  on  Modern  Qreek  in  the  article  Greek 
Language. 

BOMAIC  LITEBATTJBE.  The  modem 
Greek  literature.  It  is  commonly  regarded  as  be- 
longing to  the  period  that  begins  after  the  over- 
throw by  the  Turks  of  the  Byzantine  Empire  in 
A.D.  1453.  But  the  beginnings  of  Romaic  litera- 
ture considered  as  the  written  expression  of 
Romaic  speech  must  be  sought  at  least  three  cen- 
turies earlier.  Theodoros  Prodromos  ( Ptochopro- 
dromos),  who  flourished  in  the  first  half  of  the 
twelfth  century,  has  been  considered  the  first 
modem  Greek  writer.  His  begging  poems,  writ- 
ten in  the  so-called  political  verse  and  in  the 
vulgar  language,  are  a  most  interesting  literary 
and  linguistic  monument.  But  Prodromos  is  by 
no  means  the  first  Romaic  writer.  The  popular 
epic  material  out  of  which  the  metrical  romance 
of  Diogenes  Akritas  was  afterwards  constructed 
appears  to  belong  to  an  earlier  period,  and 
Romaic  prose  documents  composed  in  Lower  Italy 
carry  us  back  to  the  tenth  century.  The  metrical 
Chronicle  of  the  Conquest  of  the  Morea,  which 
deals  with  the  foundation  of  the  feudal 
principalities  in  Greece  after  the  Fourth 
Crusade,  was  composed  before  1326.  In  the 
earlier  period,  as  it  may  be  called,  of  Romaic 
literature,  Constantinople,  Cyprus,  and  Crete  ap- 
pear to  have  been  the  chief  centres  of  production. 
Didactic,  erotic,  and  allegorical  poetry,  legal  and 
historical  writings  in  prose,  are  among  the  forms 
of  literature  represented.     To  a  Cretan  poet  of 


Venetian  origin,  Vinoenzo  Oomaro,  who  flourished 
apparently  about  1550,  belongs  with  some  right 
the  title  of  the  modem  Homer.  His  long  roman- 
tic poem  Erotocritos,  in  which,  in  the  medieval 
manner,  the  loves  of  Erotocritos,  the  son  of  an 
Athenian  courtier,  and  AretuBa,  the  daughter  of 
Heracles,  King  o^  Athens,  are  narrated,  is  still 
a  great  favorite  with  the  Greek  populace.  Greek 
prose  writing  from  the  fall  of  Constantinople  to 
the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  repre- 
sents substantially  but  the  oontinuation  and 
propagation  of  the  later  Byzantine  literature  and 
scholarship.  But  during  the  period  of  Turkish 
rule,  particularly  in  Northern  Greece,  a  mass  of 
most  striking  and  interesting  popular  poetry, 
composed  and  transmitted  unwritten,  was  accu- 
mulating. In  this  popular  poetry  the  life,  the 
emotions,  the  superstitions  of  the  Greek  people 
are  reflected.  In  the  so-called  Klephtic  songs,  in 
which  is  vividly  portrayed  the  spirit  of  the  wild 
mountaineers  of  Thessaly  and  Epirus,  who  were 
sometimes    a   sort   of    local    police   in   Turkish 

f)ay,  sometimes  brigands,  we  find  expressed  that 
ove  of  liberty  and  hatred  of  the  oppressor  which 
were  to  culminate  in  the  Revolution  of  1821. 
Noteworthy  among  these  poems  is  the  Quarrel  of 
Olympos  and  Kissavos  (Ossa),  which  was  trans- 
lated, together  with  other  popular  Romaic  poems, 
by  Goethe.  Of  others  of  the  poems  ''love  and 
love's  pain"  is  the  burden;  of  yet  others,  deatn 
and  Charos,  the  modern  Greek  death-god, 
are  the  theme.  The  prophet  of  the  spirit  of  liberty, 
which  was  gaining  greater  power  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  French  Revolution,  was  Rhegas  of 
Velestinos  (Phera)  (1754-98).  Rhegas,  who 
lived  in  the  service  of  the  Greek  Hospodar  of 
Wallachia  and  who  paid  the  price  of  his  patriot- 
ism with  his  life,  is  the  author  of  the  rousing 
war-song,  "On,  sons  of  the  Hellenes!"  The  stir- 
ring poem,  "How  long,  pallicars?"  is  also  com- 
monly ascribed  to  him.  Of  a  different  type  was 
the  man  who  has  been  often  regarded  as  the 
modem  Greek  Anacreon,  Athanasios  Christopulos 
(1770-1847),  who  spent  what  would  seem  to 
have  been  an  epicurean  existence  at  Bucharest, 
imitating  the  Ana<>reontica  in  Romaic  and  trou- 
bling himself  little  about  the  regeneration  of 
Greece.  Noteworthy  also  is  the  satiric  fabulist 
loannes  Velaras  of  Epirus  (1773-1823),  who  was 
physician  to  Veli  Pasha,  son  of  the  infamous  Ali 
Pasha  of  Janina.  Among  the  cultivators  and  de- 
velopers of  Romaic  prose  style,  a  very  prominent 
place  should  be  given  to  the  first  great  modem 
Greek  scholar,  Adaman ties  Korses  ( Coray )  ( 1 748- 
1833 ),  who  left  his  mark  upon  classical,  as  well  as 
modern,  Greek  philology.  He  took  a  middle  posi- 
tion in  the  strife  that  arose  at  the  beginning  of 
the  revival  of  national  life  between  the  purists  and 
the  vulgarists  in  Romaic  speech  and  writing.  The 
current  Greek  style  of  to-day  occupies  in  general 
this  vague  middle  ground,  but  the  most  vital 
and  original  literature  of  the  Greeks  is  still,  in 
poetry  at  least,  in  the  vulgar  tongue. 

It  was  in  this  tongue,  and  in  that  form  of  it 
which  was  current  in  the  Ionian  Islands,  that  the 
great  poet  of  the  Greek  Revolution,  Dionysios 
Solomos,  wrote.  Solomos  is  a  writer  of  real 
and  eminent  genius.  He  was  bom  in  Zante,  in 
1798,  was  educated  in  Italy,  where  he  studied 
law  at  Venice,  Cremona,  and  Padua,  and  de- 
veloped his  literary  knowledge  and  poetic  talent 
by  association  with  the  poets  of  the  day, 
particularly  Monti,  and  by  reading  the  Italian 


BOHAIC  LTEEBAIirBB. 


109 


BOICAINE. 


elanics.  On  hia  return  to  iSante  in  1818  he 
b^gan  to  study  popular  Romaic  poetry  with 
the  practical  help,  it  is  said,  of  an  old  blind 
miBstreL  The  Klephtic  lays  were  a  new  in- 
spiration  to  him.  Perhaps  the  greatest  produc- 
tKm  of  Solomos's  genius  is  his  Hymn  to  Free- 
dam,  the  eompositioa  of  which  was  prompted 
by  the  first  triumphs  of  the  Greek  Revolution. 
Not  the  leaat  striking  passage  in  this  great 
poem  is  that  in  which  the  innumerable  company 
of  the  ghosts  of  those  that  had  been  "slain  by 
Turkish  wrath''  inspire  by  their  imfelt  touch 
the  sleeping  Greek  army  before  Tripolitza.  The 
Hymn  to  Freedom  has  been  set  to  fit  music  and 
is  now  the  national  hymn  of  Greece.  The  poem 
On  the  Death  of  Byron  is  also  a  noble  work, 
though  written  in  a  difficult  and  involved  style. 
Among  the  shorter  poems  of  Solomos  may  be 
mentioned  The  Poisoned  Qirl,  weirdly  pathetic; 
The  BUmd  Girl;  and  the  six  lines — a  true  muU 
turn  in  parvo — on  the  island  of  Psara  after  its 
devastation  by  the  Turks.  Solomos  died  in 
1857,  in  Corfu,  where  he  had  spent  the  latter 
part  of  his  life.  To  what  may  be  called  the 
school  of  Solomos  belong  Julius  Typaldos  of 
Cephalonia  (1814-83)  and  G.  Markoras  of  Corfu 
( 1826 — ) .  A  poet  of  distinct  merit,  who  belongs 
to  the  western  islands,  but  drew  his  inspiration 
as  well  as  his  blood  from  the  hardy  Epirotes,  is 
Aristoteles  Valaorites  of  Santa  Maura  (Leucas) 
(1824-79).  Another  poet,  able  but  too  much 
influenced  by  the  puristic  style,  is  George  Zala- 
kostas  (1805-58).  Of  merit,  too,  as  a  lyric  poet, 
is  Achilles  Paraskhos  (1833-95).  Among  the 
numerous  Greek  poetical  writers  of  lesser  merit 
since  the  Revolution  may  be  mentioned  the  widely 
learned  and  over-classical  Alexander  Rizos  Ran- 
gabes  (Rangab^)  (1810-92),  who  devote4  him- 
self to  various  fields  of  literature,  and  Alexander 
Soutsos  (1808-63),  who  contributed  by  his 
satiric  verse,  to  the  unpopularity  of  the  unfortu- 
nate President  Capodistria.  Demetrios  Bikelas, 
of  whom  more  must  be  said  presently,  is 
better  known  as  a  prose  writer  than  as 
a  poet,  although  he  has  written  graceful 
verse  and  made  poetical  translations  of  a 
number  of  Shakespeare's  plays.  Another  writer 
of  verse  holds  a  unique  place  in  modem 
Greek  literature.  This  is  George  Soures,  who 
for  many  years  published  weekly  a  small, 
four-page,  satirical  paper,  the  "P<afiffit,  roughly 
illustrated  by  himself  and  written  in  clever  dog- 
gereL  His  very  personal,  slashing  satire,  com- 
bined with  poetic  talent,  caused  Soures  to  be 
called  by  some  the  modem  Aristophanes.  In 
dramatic  writing,  as  in  fiction,  the  modem 
Greek  writers  have  for  the  most  part  owed  far 
too  much  to  French  models;  but  the  comedy 
BafiuXuAa,  published  in  1836  by  D.  K.  Byzantios 
(a  painter  by  profession),  in  which  a  comical 
entanglement  is  caused  by  the  failure  of  the 
several  characters  rightly  to  understand  one  an- 
other's dialect  and  which  contains  a  good  deal 
of  clever  satire  on  the  confused  state  of  the 
modem  tongue,  should  not  be  passed  over. 
Worthy  of  mention,  too,  are  the  comedies  of 
Angelos  Vlakhos  (published  1871).  A  very 
prominent  place  in  modem  Greek  fiction. is  held 
by  Demetrios  Bikelas,  who  was  bom  at  Her- 
mopolis,  in  Syra,  in  1835.  His  Airrr^fiara (Stones) 
give  ns  vivid  glimpses  of  the  life  of  the  iEgean 
Iftl^MiAi-    They  have  been  gracefully  translated  in- 


to English  (from  the  French  edition)  by  Opdycke^ 
under  the  title  Tales  from  the  Mgean  (C/hicago, 
1894).  A  brief  but  vivid  picture  of  Western 
Greece  is  presented  in  Bikelas's  letters  to  a 
friend,  entitled  ^Ar6  Nucox6Xewr  e/r  'OXvAir^ar 
{From  Nioopolia  to  Olympia),  which  have  also 
appeared  in  a  French  version.  Here  may  be 
mentioned  as  other  important  modem  Greek 
historical  works  the  elder  Tricoupis's  History  of 
the  CHreek  Revolution  and  Paparrhegopoulos's 
History  of  the  Greek  People,  An  historical 
novelist,  cus  well  as  a  literary  critic  of  keen 
taste  and  sound  judgment,  is  Emmanuel  D. 
Rhoides,  author  of  Udiruraa  'liodvva  {Pope  Joan), 
a  Rabelaisian  historical  satire  published  in  1867. 
Ordinaxy  Greek  journalism,  generally  of  a  very 
inferior  sort,  hardly  falls,  for  the  most  part, 
within  the  scope  of  a  survey  of  modem  Greek 
literature;  but  mention  should  be  made  of  the 
*E^Tia,  an  excellent  literary  journal  published 
at  Athens.  In  the  domain  of  scholarship  the 
Greeks  have  accomplished  much,  notably  in 
archseology  and  philology.  The  National  Uni- 
versity, founded  under  Otho,  the  first  King  of  the 
Greeks,  has  in  its  faculties  men  of  international 
fame.  Among  these  is  the  greatest  living  native 
scholar  in  later  Greek,  Hatzidakes.  Constantine 
Kontos,  who  taught  for  many  years  at  the  uni- 
versity, was  closely  associated  with  the  Dutch 
philologists,  especiallv  Cobet.  The  A^iot 'B^^» 
in  the  composition  aA  which  he  was  assisted  by 
Cobet  and  Badham,  the  T^foffvuctiX  na/wri|/M^tit 
(aiming  at  the  purification  of  the  modern  written 
language),  and  numerous  contributions  to  the 
learned  periodical  'A^ya  are  monuments  of  Kon- 
tos's  great  scholarship. 

BiBLiooBAFHT.  Krumbachcr,  Geschichte  der 
hyzantinischen  lAtteratur  (2d  ed.,  Munich, 
1897;  excellent,  with  very  full  bibliography); 
Nicolai,  Geschichte  der  neugriechischen  lAttera- 
tur (Leipzig,  1876;  valuable  for  bibliography); 
Rangab^,  Pr4cis  d*une  histoire  de  la  litt&rature 
n^o-helUnique  (Berlin,  1877)  ;  Dieter ich,  Ge- 
schichte der  hyzantinischen  und  neugriechischen 
lAtteratur  (Leipzig,  1902).  The  first  and  most 
extensive  collections  of  Romaic  popular  poetry 
are  those  of  Fauriel,  Chants  populaires  de  la 
Gr^ce  modeme  { Paris,  1825 ;  with  French  transla- 
tions, and  an  excellent  Discours  priliminaire) , 
and  Passow,  Popularia  Carmina  Gracias  Reoen- 
tioris  (Leipzig,  1860).  For  modem  Greek  folk- 
poetry,  besides  these  two  collections,  should  be 
consulted:  Stuart-Glennie,  Greek  Folk  Poetry 
(Guildford,  1896;  contains  a  large  number  of 
verse  translations),  and  Abbott,  Songs  of  Mod- 
em Greece  (Cambridge,  1900). 

BOMAINE,  r^-man^  William  (1714-95).  An 
English  clergyman  noted  for  his  'evangelical' 
and  Calvinistic  preaching.  He  was  bom  at 
Heathpool,  the  son  of  a  French  Protestant  ref- 
ugee. He  was  educated  at  the  grammar  school 
of  Houghton,  graduated  at  Christ  dOuirch,  Ox- 
ford, 1734;  was  ordained  in  1738,  and  imme- 
diately obtained  a  curacy  near  Epsom.  In  1748 
he  published  the  first  volmne  of  a  new  edition 
of  Calasio's  Hebrew  Concordance  and  Leaicon, 
the  fruit  of  seven  years'  labor.  The  same  year 
he  was  chosen  lecturer  of  Saint  Botolph's,  in 
London,  and  in  1749  lecturer  of  Saint  Dunstan's- 
in-the-West.  In  1750  he  was  appointed  assistant 
morning  preacher  at  Saint  George's,  but  was 
afterwards    deprived    of    the    situation   by   the 


BOKAIHB. 


110 


fiOXAH  ABT. 


rector^  Dr.  Trebeck,  who  was  Jealous  of  his  popu- 
larity and  averse  to  the  'plainnesB'  of  his  preach- 
ing. His  'evangelicalism'  grew  with  his  years, 
and  at  length,  in  1767,  in  a  sermon  on  The  Lard 
Our  Righteousness,  it  became  so  offensive  to  the 
dons  of  Osiord  that  the  university  pulpit  was  in 
future  closed  against  him.  In  1756  he  became 
curate  and  morning  preacher  at  Saint  Olave's, 
Southwark,  in  1759  at  Saint  Bartholomew  the 
Great,  near  West  Smithfield.  In  1766  he  was 
chosen  by  the  parishioners  rector  of  Saint  An- 
drew of  the  Wardrobe,  and  Saint  Anne,  Black- 
friars,  both  in  London,  an  office  which  he  held 
till  his  death.  His  works  were  republished  in  a 
collected  form,  in  8  vols.,  in  1796,  by  Cadogan, 
with  a  life  of  their  author. 

BOHAN,  ro^miln,  or  BOMAHXT.  A  town  of 
Rumania,  capital  of  the  district  of  the  same 
name,  35  miles  west  by  south  of  Jassy,  near  the 
confluence  of  the  Moldava  and  Sereth  rivers 
(Map:  Balkan  Peninsula,  F  1).  The  bishopric 
of  Roman  dates  from  the  early  fifth  centuiy. 
Population,  in  1899,  14,019. 

BOMAHy  rd-mftn^  Fr.  pron.  rd'mftiv^,  AnvbA 
BiENVENU  (1795-1866).  An  American  political 
leader.  He  was  bom  in  Opelousas  Parish,  La., 
and  was  the  son  of  a  French  Creole  sugar 
planter.  He  graduated  at  Saint  Mary's  College, 
Baltimore,  in  1815,  and  soon  afterwards  settled 
on  a  sugar  plantation  in  Saint  James  Parish,  La. 
From  1831  to  1835  he  was  Governor  of  the  State, 
and  while  holding  that  office  he  brought  about 
the  formation  of  a  State  agricultural  society, 
the  building  of  a  penitentiary  at  Baton  Rouge, 
the  granting  of  $20,000  to  Jefferson  College,  and 
other  important  public  measures.  He  was  again 
Governor  from  1839  to  1843,  and  did  much  to 
prevent  the  repudiation  of  the  State  debt.  In 
1845,  and  again  in  1852,  he  helped,  to  draw  up 
new  State  constitutions.  In  politics  he  was  a 
Whig,  and  he  was  strongly  opposed  to  secession, 
but  as  a  delegate  to  the  Convention  of  1861  he 
acquiesced  in  the  withdrawal  of  the  State  from 
the  Union.  Later  in  the  same  year  he  was  one 
of  the  three  commissioners  sent  to  Washington 
by  the  Confederate  provisional  Government  to 
negotiate  peaceful  separation.  He  was  too  infirm 
to  take  an  active  part  in  the  conflict  that  fol- 
lowed, but  was  a  strong  supporter  of  the  Con- 
federacy. 

BOMAN  ABT.  Although  the  Romans  affect- 
ed to  despise  the  practice  of  the  arts  and  dis- 
played little  artistic  taste  in  their  earlier  his- 
tory, they  developed,  nevertheless,  a  distinctly 
national  art  under  the  late  Republic  and  the 
Empire,  largely  by  the  hand  of  artists  of  Greek 
race,  and  produced  in  architecture  types  which 
have  been  in  use  for  nearly  twenty  centu- 
ries. The  history  of  Etruscan  art  dates  from  the 
period  previous  to  the  campaigns  against  the 
Gredc  cities,  the  conquest  of  which  opened  up 
the  sphere  of  Greek  art  and  ushered  in  the 
Hellenic  period,  which  continued  until  the  time 
of  Augustus.  It  was  during  and  after  the  reign 
of  Augustus  that  the  colossal  undertakings  of 
the  Imperial  period  reached  the  unity  of  a 
national  style  throughout  the  Empire.  The 
century  and  a  half  that  followed  was  the  golden 
age.  The  decay  set  in  before  the  time  of  Sep- 
timius  Severus  and  was  complete  in  the  time  of 
Constantine  except  in  point  of  practical  con- 
structive ability. 


ABCHITBCTUBB. 

Fbe-Roxait.  Central  and  Southern  Italy 
abound  in  ruins  of  elaborately  fortified  cities 
antedating  b.c.  500,  often  more  imposing  and 
complete  than  the  ruins  of  Mycenie  or  Tiryns, 
e.g.  Norba,  AUtri,  and  SegnL  The  eartiest 
temples  (seventh  century)  remotely  resembled 
the  Greek  in  having  a  oella  and  portico,  and 
in  the  use  of  a  primitive  and  clumsy  quasi- 
Doric  order,  the  Tuscan;  but  they  were  built 
chiefiy  of  wood,  with  terra-cotta  ornaments,  frag- 
ments of  which  have  been  found  on  many  sites, 
as  at  Satricum,  Alatri,  and  Falerii.  In  Tuscany 
and  parts  of  Umbria  peopled  by  the  Etruscan 
race  architecture  and  decoration  were  further 
advanced,  though  the  temples  were  mainly  of  the 
type  just  described,  with  terra-cotta  sculptures, 
even  in  Rome  almost  to  the  time  of  the  Empire 
(Temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus).  Underground 
domes  and  vaults  abound.  Especially  noticeable 
are  the  tombs  at  Tarquinii,  Caere,  Clusium 
(Chiusi),  Perugia,  and  other  sites,  of  elaborate 
design  and  sumptuous  interior  decoration,  often 
representing  the  manners  and  customs  of  daily 
life.  It  is  to  the  Etruscans  that  Roman  architec- 
ture owes  its  arches  and  vaults. 

Roman  Aschitectube.  When,  under  the  Re- 
public, pure  Greek  influence  became  firmly  estab- 
lished in  Rome  through  the  conquest  of  South- 
ern Italy,  Greece,  and  Asia,  the  Romans  em- 
ployed Greeks  and  their  pupils  to  put  up  their 
first  stone  and  marble  temples  of  Tuscan,  Doric, 
Ionic,  and  Corinthian  orders  in  place  of  the 
earlier  Etruscan  temples  of  wood  and  terra- 
cotta. But  wood  continued  in  use  for  theatres, 
circuses,  and  amphitheatres  almost  until  the 
Empire.  The  aqueducts  that  dotted  the  Roman 
Campagna  were  the  most  impressive  of  the  works 
of  Republican  Rome.  The  old  Tabularium  on  the 
Capitol,  the  only  remaining  civil  building  of  the 
Republic,  shows  how  the  Romans  had  already 
learned  to  combine  their  native  style  of  arcades 
with  the  Greek  orders.  In  three  stories  of 
arched  openings,  each  arch  is  flanked  by  engaged 
half-columns  supporting  an  entablature  at  each 
stoiy-level.  This  combination  became  classic  and 
was  followed  throughout  the  Empire.  The  thea- 
tre of  Marcellus,  the  Colosseum,  tiie  Basilica,  and 
many  other  buildings  were  erected  after  this 
plan,  using  the  Greek  orders  as  a  decorative  ad- 
junct to  the  Roman  arched  and  vaulted  construc- 
tions. The  use  of  concrete  (q.v.),  which  became 
general  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  enabled  archi- 
tects to  raise  domes  and  vaults  far  larger  than 
would  have  been  possible  with  stone,  and  to  pro- 
duce a  kind  of  architectural  grandeur  never 
dreamed  of  in  earlier  ages.  Internal  spaciousness 
and  loftiness  constituted  a  new  artistic  resource, 
which  the  world  owes  to  the  Romans. 

Tbe  temples  were  no  longer  the  paramount 
monuments.  They  were  built  on  various  plans, 
the  most  common  having  a  high  basement  or 
podium  and  short  cella  with  deep  porch;  they 
were  often  barrel-vaulted  and  without  a  peri- 
style, the  flanks  and  rear  being  adorned  with 
engaged  columns  (Maison  Carrie  at  Ntmes; 
temples  of  Fortuna  Virilis  and  of  Faustina  at 
Rome) .  Some  were  round  (temple  of  Vesta,  with 
encircling  colonnade;  Pantheon  with  rectangular 
porch).  Later  temples  were  of  colossal  sixe, 
like  the  double  temple  of  Venus  at  Rome,  and 
the  temples  at  Baalbek  and  Palmyra.     Upon 


BOXAH  ABT.  Ill  BOXAH  ABT. 

tiieae  templea  the  Romans  carried  purely  omap  domestic  Roman  architecture  of  the  best  period, 

mental  decoration  to  a  far  higher  degree  of  mag-  Pompeii  is  the  great  storehouse,  because  it  pre- 

nifieenoe  than  the  Greeks,  as  in  the  temples  of  sents  a  complete  provincial  citj.    See  Pompbii. 
BaalbdCy   and   those   of   Castor   and   of   Fans-        In  North  Africa  the  French  have  unearthed 

tina  in  Rome.     They  used  the  Corinthian  and  a  series  of  ruined  Roman  cities  of  great  archi- 

Compoeite   in  place  of  the   plainer  Doric  and  tectural  interest.     The  cities  of  Thysdrus,  Suf- 

lonie  orders,  and  adorned  the  interiors  of  their  fetula,  Lambessa,  and  Timgad,  nearly  all  built 

basilioas,  baths,  and  palaces  with  incrustations  between  about  a.d.  130  and  250,  abound  in  mate- 

of  marble   and  mosaics  in  a  great  variety  of  rials  for  study — basilicas,  arches,  temples,  gates, 

coloTS.  fora,  and  tombs.    The  Roman  remains  in  Syria 

But  although  the  Pantheon  (q.v.)  is  one  of  may  be  divided  into  two  classes:  the  reign  of  old 
the  grandest  structures  extant,  it  was  in  their  Syro-Hellenic  culture  from  the  coast  to  the  cities 
civic  bnildingB  that  the  Romans  especially  ex-  of  Damascus,  Antioch,  and  Edessa,  and  the  in- 
celled;  in  their  basilicas,  vast  halls,  sometimes  land  region  along  the  desert  line,  where  the 
op«i,  sometimes  roofed  or  vaulted,  for  all  sorts  Romans  were  first  to  establish  cities.  ( See  Pal- 
of  public  assemblies;  in  their  fora,  their  miles  htra.)  It  is  the  desert  cities  that  have  kept 
of  colonnades  affording  sheltered  passage  through  their  ruins  most  intact — Petra,  Palmyra,  Baal- 
the  streets,  and  in  Uieir  colossal  public  baths  bek  (Heliopolis),  Jerash  (Gerasa),  and  many 
(e^.  of  Caracalla  or  of  Diocletian),  which  could  smaller  towns.  The  colonnades  and  temples  at 
accommodate  many  thousands  of  bathers,  and  Palmyra  of  late  date  are  among  the  most 
whose  courts,  exedras,  and  halls — ^the  latter  of  colossal  of  Roman  ruins.  In  Asia  Minor  the 
ooloeaal  sixe — ^were  adorned  internally  in  the  largest  temple  was  that  of  Hadrian  at  Cyzicus; 
most  sumptuous  manner  with  marble  pavements  all  the  theatres  (except  that  of  Priene)  are 
and  incrustations,  mosaic,  and  delicate  stucco  Roman,  and  that  at  Aspendus  is  the  best  pre- 
relief  in  color.  The  Forum  of  Trajan,  with  its  served  anywhere.  Roman  work  is  often  inter- 
colossal  memorial  column,  arch  of  triumph,  woven  with  Greek,  as  at  Pergamum,  Magnesia, 
basilica,  and  temple,  was  a  stupendous  aggrega-  Aizani,  Ephesus. 

tion  of  architectural  splendor.    The  Roman  tri-        The   buildings   of   Rome  itself   are   too   well 

uraphal    arches    (see   AscH,    TKnricPHAL)    and  known  to  require  enumeration.     Nearly  all  the 

columns   have  set  the  type  for  all  subseauent  types    of    temples    are    well    represented.      The 

works  of  this  kind,  and  Roman  sepulchral  art  ijieatre  of  Maroellus,  the  mausoleum  of  Hadrian, 

was    also    remarkably   successful,   especially    in  the  Colosseum,  the  Roman  Forum,  and  the  later 

tombs  of  moderate  size.     Monumental  splendor,  more  formal  and  regular  Forum  of  Trajan;  the 

grandeur  of  scale,  sumptuousness  of  decoration,  triumphal  arches  of  Titus,  Septimius  Severus, 

the  Romans  achieved  in  architecture  to  a  degree  and  Constantine;  the  sculptured  memorial  col- 

which  has  made  their  work  the  study  and  in-  lunns  of  Trajan  and  Marcus  Aurelius;   scanty 

spiration  of  later  ages.  remains  of  basilicas,  that  of  Maxentius  being 

This  Greco-Roman  style  spread  rapidly  over  the  most  important;  the  Imperial  palaces,  on 
the  whole  Empire.  In  remote  provinces  the  the  Palatine;  the  Tabularium,  the  Senate 
Roman  army  was  employed  in  the  erection  of  House  (S.  Adriano),  the  Admiralty  (Neptu- 
buildings  and  even  entire  cities,  skilled  designers  nium) ;  the  camp  of  the  Prsetorians;  the  Im- 
being  attached  to  each  legion.  New  cities  arose  perial  baths  of  Titus,  Trajan,  Caracalla,  and 
in  l^yria  and  Africa,  with  their  amphitheatres,  Diocletian;  the  unrivaled  tombs  of  the  Via 
theatres,  baths,  and  arches.  The  cities  of  Asia  Appia  and  the  Via  Latina  are  the  most  con- 
Minor  were  so  thoroughly  reconstructed  that  spicuous  examples  of  their  several  types.  Con- 
the  remains  of  their  earlier  Greek  architecture  stantinople  was  the  field  where  the  latest  stage 
have  disappeared  imder  a  mass  of  ruins  of  the  of  Roman  architecture  was  best  displayed,  while 
Roman  period,  full  of  Hellenic  spirit.  Southern  Rome  itself  was  in  decadence.  Its  memorial 
France  became  a  great  centre  of  Roman  culture,  columns  of  Arcadius  and  Theodosius,  its  hip- 
The  Pont  du  Gard,  the  amphitheatre  and  theatre  podrome,  forum,  basilicas,  theatres,  aqueducui, 
at  Arlea,  the  arch  and  monument  at  Saint-Remy,  walls,  were  the  greatest  products  of  the  fourth 
the  theatre  at  Orange,  the  gates,  temple,  baths,  century,  beginning  with  Constantine.  Their  infe- 
and  amphitheatre  at  Nlmes,  are  impressive  works  riority  in  style  as  well  as  construction  is  marked. 
of  the  golden  age,  and  are  better  preserved  than  Roman  architecture  remained  by  no  means  sta- 
the  monuments  of  Rome  itself.  In  Spain  and  tionary  during  the  four  centuries  of  the  Empire, 
in  Rhenish  Germany  are  important  remains,  like  In  constructive  skill,  composition,  and  the  union 
the  Alcftntara  bridge  and  the  Porta  Nigra  at  of  sculpture  with  architecture  there  was  almost 
Treves.  continuous  progress  from  Augustus  to  Trajan, 

In  Italy  itself,  notwithstanding  the  wholesale  when  Roman  art  reached  its  perfection.     Then 

destruction  of  the  Renaissance,  many  works  of  began,  with  Hadrian,  a  decline  in  taste  and  in 

first-class  importance  remain  outside  of  Rome,  constructive  refinement.     But  in  bold,  effective 

too  numerous  to  catalogue  here.     In  Northern  composition  and  daring  construction  there  was, 

and   Central   Italy  we  may  mention  only  the  if  anything,  an  advance:  witness  the  baths  of 

amphitheatre  at  Verona,  the  temple  of  Minerva  Diocletian  and  the  basilica  of  Constantine.    Re- 

at  Assisi,  the  stupendous  ruins  of  the  Villa  of  viewing   Roman    architecture    as    a   whole,    the 

Hadrian  at  Tivoli.    The  south  of  Italy,  especially  world  is  more  indebted  to  it  than  even  to  Greece 

the  region  about  Naples,  has  the  most  interest-  ^o^  fertility  and  variety  of  invention.    We  have 

ing  monuments  outside  of  Rome,  such  as  the  ^^^  f^^^  ^i^^^^  living  on  this  technical  and  ideal 

great    amphitheatres    at    Capua,    Puteoli,    and  inheritance. 

Oasinum  (Gassino)^  the  noble  Arch  of  Trajan  at  sculptubb  and  paintino. 

Benevento,  and  finally  the  unrivaled  rums  at       The  development  of  sculpture  in  Rome  was 

HerculaBeum  and  P<»npeiL    For  both  public  and  relatively  late.     The  chief  incentive  of  Greek 


SOMAN  ABT. 


112 


SOMAN  ABT. 


Bculptuie,  the  decoration  of  temples,  was  origi- 
nally absent  at  Rome,  and  sculpture  for  a  long 
time  found  its  principal  channel  in  portrait  stat- 
ues, required  by  the  ancestor  worship  and  self- 
glorification  of  Roman  citizens.  This  tendency 
was  fostered  by  the  custom  of  keeping  the  images 
of  ancestors  in  the  houses  and  bearing  them  in 
funeral  processions,  and  the  practice  early  arose 
of  erecting  honorary  statues  to  distinguished  citi- 
zens. M^hological  subjects  were  not  much  rep- 
resented until  the  reign  of  Augustus,  but  here 
Greek  originals  were  merely  copied.  At  first 
bronze  was  the  favorite  material,  and  sculpture 
in  the  round  the  only  form  practiced,  but  with 
the  advent  of  Greek  influences  marble  became 
more  common.  The  great  architectural  works 
of  the  Imperial  period,  the  amphitheatres,  baths, 
basilicas,  bridges,  etc.,  called  for  the  decoration 
with  innumerable  statues.  Specially  Roman  are 
those  fine  combinations  of  architecture,  the  tri- 
umphal arches,  commemorative  columns,  and  the 
like,  in  which  the  sculpture  relief  received  a 
development  which  made  it,  next  to  portraiture, 
the  most  characteristic  form  of  Roman  art. 

Etruscan  Epoch.  As  in  the  architecture,  the 
first  influences  in  Roman  sculpture  and  painting 
were  Etruscan.  (See  Etbubia,  paragraphs  on 
ArchcBoloffy  and  Art.)  Recent  discoveries  under 
the  Lapis  Niger  in  the  Roman  Forum  (1899- 
1900)  show  that  as  early  as  the  sixth  century 
B.C.  statuary  and  other  subjects  of  art  were  im- 
ported from  Etruria.  There  are  hazy  traditions 
also  of  Greek  artists  in  Rome,  as  Damophilus  and 
Gorgasus,  who  decorated  the  Temple  of  Ceres  in 
B.C.  493,  but  until  the  end  of  the  third  century 
the  chief  influence  remained  Etruscan.  The  in- 
numerable bronze  statues  with  which  the  Forum 
was  adorned  were  practically  all  of  Etruscan 
origin. 

The  Gbeek  Epoch.  The  conquest  of  the  Hel- 
lenic world,  beginning  with  the  capture  of  Taren- 
ttun  in  B.c.  275,  opened  the  eyes  of  the  Romans 
to  the  charm  of  Greek  sculpture  and  painting, 
and  Rome  soon  became  a  veritable  museum  of 
masterpieces  torn  from  Greek  temples  and 
palaces.  Every  general  brought  back  ship-loads 
of  art  works  as  a  part  of  his  booty.  The  decora- 
tions of  the  Temple  of  Honor  and  Virtue  (B.C. 
207)  were  carried  oflf  from  Syracuse  by  Marcel- 
lus;  those  of  the  Temple  of  Fortune  (b.c.  173) 
were  seized  from  that  of  Juno  Lacinia  on  a  prom- 
ontory between  Crotona  and  Sybaris.  Fulvius 
Nobilior  built  a  temple  to  Hercules  and  the  muses 
as  a  resting  place  for  their  statues  captured  in 
the  ^tolian  War,  and  when  the  rude  Mummius 
took  Corinth  (b.c.  146),  he  gave  his  soldiers  a 
free  hand  to  sack  the  city  of  its  art  treasures. 
The  crude  Etruscan  art  was  eclipsed  and  for- 
gotten, but  the  Romans  could  only  admire — ^not 
imitate — ^the  Greek  works  that  met  them  on  every 
side.  Greek  artists  of  the  later  school  flocked  to 
Rome — ^Pasiteles,  Stephanus,  Menelaus,  Arcesi- 
laus— and  their  works  found  admirers  as  readily 
as  those  of  Myron  and  Praxiteles.  In  fact,  the 
popular  taste  called  rather  for  the  vigorous  and 
the  sensual  than  the  ideal,  and  loved  the  Perga- 
mene  School,  the  *Medici'  Venus,  and  the  Tor- 
tured Marsyas,  which  the  ateliers  of  the  day 
turned  out  in  great  numbers.  The  very  large 
majority  of  ancient  statues  that  fill  our  museums 
are  works  of  this  and  the  following  periods. 

Gbeco-Roman  Epoch.  The  flrst  two  centuries 
of  the  Empire  continued  without  limit  the  repro- 


duction of  Greek  artistic  types;  but  from  the  end 
of  the  Republic  there  grew  up,  almost  unp«r- 
ceived,  a  new  spirit,  which  may  be  called  distinc- 
tively Roman,  and  which  showed  itself  especially 
in  realistic  portraiture  and  in  historical  aculp- 
tured  reliefs.  The  Greek  conception  of  a  por- 
trait statue  or  bust  was  largely  ideal,  as  in  the 
Alexander-heads  of  Lysippus.  Roman  portraiture 
was  a  development  of  Etruscan  art,  and  under  the 
Republic  was  represented  by  the  imagines  mair 
orum,  wax  masks,  which  hung  in  the  atria  of 
noble  houses.  The  ''Young  Augustus"  and  the 
armored  statue  of  the  same  Emperor  from  Prima 
Porta  represent  Roman  portraiture  in  its  moat 
perfect  form,  still  influenced  by  Greek  idealism. 
In  the  "CsBcilius  Incundus"  from  Pompeii,  and  in 
the  busts  of  Nero  and  Caracalla,  we  have  the 
Roman  realism,  which  never  hesitated  to  repro- 
duce personal  peculiarities,  however  revolting. 
The  realistic  tenden<7^  shows  itself  also  in  reliefs 
— at  first  feebly,  as  in  the  noble  sculptures  from 
the  ''Ara  Pacis"  of  Augustus ;  then  more  forcibly 
in  the  Arch  of  Titus  and  the  columns  of  Trajan 
and  Marcus  Aurelius.  Hadrian's  travels  in 
Greece  and  Egypt  caused  a  momentary  idealizing 
and  archaizing  reaction,  shown  in  the  noble 
melancholy  of  the  Antinous  busts  and  in  the 
copies  of  old  Egyptian  motives.  With  the  fall 
of  the  Antonine  dynasty  real  creative  art  began 
to  deteriorate. 

The  course  of  development  in  painting  waa 
similar  to  that  of  sculpture.  It  is  impossible 
to  say  whether  Gorgasos  and  Damophiios  had 
any  influence  on  contemporary  painters.  We 
indeed  know  from  literature  that  temples  were 
decorated  with  frescoes  and  that  pictures  of  the 
victories  of  the  Roman  generals  were  borne  in 
their  triumphal  processions;  as,  for  example,  of 
the  siege  of  Carthage.  Even  the  names  of  paint- 
ers of  Roman  birth  have  been  transmitted,  the 
most  celebrated  being  Fabius  P^ictor  (c.300  B.C.), 
and  the  decorative  painter  'Ludius  (Tadius, 
Studius),  a  contemporary  of  Augustus.  AH  were 
essentially  Greek  in  technique  and  methods,  aa 
is  evident  from  the  few  surviving  works,  which 
follow  the  forms  of  the  Hellenistic  period.  Only 
mural  decorations  survive,  but  we  know  that 
panel  painting  was  also  largely  practiced.  The 
principal  of  these  works  is  noticed  in  the  ap- 
propriate place  in  the  history  of  Greek  painting 
(see  Paiwtinq),  but  in  many  of  the  surviving 
examples  there  is  a  trend  toward  realism  which 
can  only  be  attributed  to  Roman  influence.  Such 
is  the  case  with  the  famous  "Aldobrandini  Mar- 
riage," and  in  the  delicate  garden  scenes,  with 
birds  and  flowers,  in  Livia's  villa  ad  CMlinas; 
while  Pompeian  frescoes  show  the  same  ten- 
dencies under  Alexandrian  influence. 

The  Decline.  There  is  little  to  be  said  of  this 
period.  Previous  tendencies  continued,  but  the 
technique  suffered  a  gradual  decadence  which 
seems  almost  incredible.  Colored  marbles,  and 
even  materials  most  difficult  to  work,  such  as 
granite  and  porphyry,  were  used  for  sculptures, 
the  hardship  involved  in  the  workmanship  seem- 
ing to  compensate  for  the  crudity  of  tne  art. 
\^en  Constantine  built  his  arch,  he  did  not  hesi- 
tate to  cover  it  with  sculptures  stripped  from 
the  earlier  arch  of  Trajan — fine  specimens  of 
Roman  realistic  art  which  stand  out  in  strong 
contrast  with  the  later  reliefs,  puerile  in  concep- 
tion and  execution,  that  were  set  among  them. 
A  few  examples  of  early  Christian  art  are  oon- 


BOMAN  ABT. 


118 


BOMAH  CATHOLIC  CHTJBCH. 


spicuous  in  tlus  period  of  esthetic  decay^  such 
as  the  charming  "Good  Shepherds"  of  the  Lateran 
Museum.  The  same  poverty  of  invention  and 
decline  of  technique  is  evident  in  the  paintings 
of  the  epoch,  from  which  the  Christian  paintings 
of  the  Catacombs  do  not  essentially  differ.  And 
with  the  barbarian  conquest  of  Italy,  all  classi- 
cal art  comes  to  a  sudden  end.  (See  Chbistian 
Aat;  Btzaittine  Abt.)  The  Romans  attained  a 
considerable  degree  of  excellence  in  certain  of  the 
minor  arts,  especially  in  objects  of  luxury.  See 
Jewelbt;  Gems;  Rinq;  Maiojbcrifts,  Illumi- 

NATION  OF. 

Bibliography.  For  a  theoiy  of  Roman  art  in 
its  narrower  sense,  see  Wickhon^l^oman  Art  (Lon- 
don and  New  York,  1900) .  Consult  ahio:  Gentile, 
Storia  dell*  Arte  Romdna  (2d  ed.,  Milan,  1892) ; 
Goodyear,  Roman  and  Medicdval  ArM  Chautauqua 
series,  1897);  von  Sybel,  Weltgeachichte  der 
Kunst  (Marburg,  1888) ;  Von  Falke,  Greece  and 
Rome,  Their  Life  and  Art  ( trans,  by  Browne,  New 
York,  1882) ;  Reber,  History  of  Ancient  Art 
(trans,  by  Clark,  New  York,  1882) ;  Bum, 
Roman  Literature  in  Relation  to  Roman  Att 
(London,  1888). 

The  best  authorities  for  a  technical  and  sys- 
tematic study  of  architecture  are:  Choisy,  L*art 
de  hdtir  chez  les  Remains  (Paris,  1873) ;  and 
Durm,  Die  Baukunet  der  Etrusker  und  Romer 
(Darmstadt,  1885).  Superb  restorations  of  the 
principal  buildings  of  Rome  have  been  published 
by  the  architects  of  the  AcadSmie  de  France  at 
Rome;  that  by  Canina,  Ricerche  aull*  architet- 
tura  dei  tempi  criatiani  (Rome,  1846),  must  be 
used  with  caution.  Friedlflnder,  in  Darstellung 
au9  der  Sittengeechichte  Rome  (Leipzig,  1888- 
90),  and  Guhl  and  Koner,  Das  Leben  der  Orie- 
chen  und  Romer  (Berlin,  1882),  give  good  de- 
scriptions of  the  main  classes  of  buildings  in 
Roman  architecture.  Lanciani's  works.  Ruins 
and  Excavations  of  Ancient  Rome  (New  York, 
1897),  Ancient  Rome  in  the  Light  of  Recent 
Discoveries  (ib.,  1889,  et  seq.),  are  the  most 
available  in  English  for  a  history  and  descrip- 
tion of  ancient  Rome,  for  which  Middleton,  The 
Remains  of  Ancient  Rome  (Rome,  1885),  is  also 
useful. 

For  pre-Roman  art,  consult:  Dennis,  Cities 
and  Cemeteries  of  Etruria  (London,  1878-83) ; 
Fonteanine,  Avanzi  ciclopioi  nella  provincia  di 
Roma  (Rome,  1887) ;  Martha,  L'art  ^trusque 
(Paris,  1889). 

BOXAN  CANDLE.    See  Ptrotbchnt. 

BOICAK  CATHOLIC  CHXTBCH.  That  por- 
tico of  Christendom  which  is  in  commimion  with 
the  Pope.  Considering  such  adherence  to  a  defi- 
nite and  visible  centre  of  unity  absolutely  essen- 
tial, it  regards  itself  as  the  only  legitimate 
Church  of  Christ  in  the  world,  the  only  inheritor 
by  unbroken  tradition  of  the  conunission  and 
powers  given  by  Him  to  His  Apostles.  By  those 
outside  its  pale,  widely  differing  views  are  taken 
of  it,  ranging  from  the  'Branch  Theory*  of  High 
Church  Anglicans  (who  hold  that  it  constitutes 
with  their  own  and  the  Eastern  communions, 
though  outwardly  divide,  one  fundamentally  in- 
tegral Oitholic  Church),  to  the  views  of  some 
extreme  Protestants,  who  believe  it  to  be  an  ut- 
terly corrupt  organization  which  has,  by  its  de- 
partures from  primitive  teaching  and  practice, 
almost  forfeited  the  right  to  the  Christian  name. 
To  the  historical  student,  whatever  his  views, 


the  study  of  its  doctrines  and  acts,  so  intimately 
connected  with  the  story  of  Western  civilization, 
must  always  be  of  great  interest.    Numerous  arti- 
cles throughout  the  Encyclopaedia  give  abundant 
details  as  to  the  doctrine  and  discipline  of  this 
Church,  in  its  relation  to  the  historic  develop- 
ment of  Christianity.     Its  organization  will  be 
found  treated,  for  example,  under  Bishop  ;  Abch- 
BiSHOP;   Cardinal;   Oboebs,  Holt.     Its  sacra- 
mental   teaching    is    given    under    Sacbahent; 
Mass;  Tkansubstantiation ;  and  in  the  articles 
on  each  of  the  sacraments.     Special  doctrines, 
such    as    Infallibility,    Immaculate    (Conception, 
Purgatory,  come  under  their  own  titles ;  and  the 
biographies  of  numerous  popes  and  saints  will 
throw  much  light  on  the  progressive  development 
of  the  Church's  history  throughout  the  centuries. 
The  article  Papacy  has  already  traced,  in  as 
much  detail  as  space  would  allow,  the  history 
of  the  Apostolic  See  of  Rome  down  to  the  Coimcil 
of  Trent.    The  subsequent  historical  survey  may 
best  be  divided  into  two  periods.     The  first  of 
these  really  begins  before  Trent,  with  the  as- 
sembly by  the  Emperor  Sigismimd  of  the  (Council 
of  Basel,  which  initiated  a  fresh  attack  on  the 
Pope's  authority,  and  may  thus  be  taken  to  ex- 
tend from  1431  to  1789,  while  the  second  reaches 
from  the  French  Revolution  to  the  present  day. 
The  first  period  thus  embraces  the  break-up  of  the 
European  family  of  nations,  like-minded  in  re- 
ligious belief,  by  the  outburst  of  the  Protestant 
revolt  to  counteract  which  the  Council  of  Trent 
was  assembled.    It  includes  the  extension  of  the 
faith  to  India,  to  Japan,  and  to  the  New  World 
recently  discovered,  and  ends  with  the  great  over- 
throw of  the  European  comity  of  nations  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution.     After  the 
healing  of  the  Great  Schism  (see  Schism,  West- 
ern) the  Church  had  to  enter  upon  a  contest  if 
possible  yet  more  momentous.  She  had  passed  out 
of  the  period  of  ancient  and  mediscval  into  the 
light  of  modem  history,  with  modem  appliances 
of  printing,  modem  literature  and  art,  improved 
connections,  and  fresh  fields  wherein  to  exercise 
her  activity.     Many  things  contributed  to  make 
the  begirming  of  the  sixteenth  century  a  favor- 
able time  for  a  general  assault  upon  her  doctrine 
and  discipline.     On  the  one  hand,  the  ranks  of 
the   clergy  had  hardly  yet  recovered  from  the 
distressing  effects  of  the   Black  Death.     Men's 
minds  were  still  shaken  by  the  seventy  years' 
exile  of  the  Papacy  to  Avignon  and  the  succeed- 
ing schism.    They  were  accustomed  to  the  inter- 
ference  of   princes   with   the  bishops,   and  the 
curtailment  of  their  liberty  of  intercourse  with 
Rome.    Lastly,  all  the  countries  of  Europe  were 
largely  infected  with  teaching  subversive  of  ec- 
clesiastical authority,  and  were  witnesses  to  the 
relaxation  of  discipline,  neglect  of  the  sacraments, 
deadness  of  religious  life,  and  the  luxury  caused 
by   the    adoption    (under   the    influence   of   the 
Renaissance)  of  heathen  models  among  so  many 
of  the  leading  clergy  and  teachers.    The  details 
of  the  great  revolt  will  be  found  under  Refobma- 
TION ;  while  in  the  article  CouNTEB-REFOBMATioif 
some  account  will  be  found  of  the  results  which 
followed  the  vigorous  putting  into  effect  of  the     ^ 
decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent.      (See  Trent, 
Council  of.)     Shortly  before  the  time  when  the 
religious  troubles  in  Germany  caused  the  loss  of 
so  many  members  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Eu- 
rope, the  discoveries  of  the  Portuguese  in  India 
and  of  the  Spaniards  in  America  had  opened  up 


BOXAH  CATHOLIC  CEUBCH. 


114 


BOXAH  CATHOLIC  CHVBCH. 


fruitful  miasionaiy  fields  from  which  a  host  of 
new  Christians  were  recruited.  The  work 
of  the  missionaries  of  the  first  half 
of  the  sixteenth  oentuiy^  typically  repre- 
sented at  its  sublimest  in  the  lives  of  such 
men  as  Saint  Francis  Xavier  and  Bartolomft  de 
las  Casas,  breathe  the  true  apostolic  spirit. 
After  the  missions  the  most  important  work  of 
the  Church  during  the  sixteenth  century  was  the 
revival  of  education.  This,  like  much  of  the 
missionary  work,  was  due  mainly  to  the  Jesuits, 
who  established  colleges  in  all  the  countries  which 
remained  untouched  by  the  Reformation,  and  also 
in  parts  of  Germany.  Other  teaching  Orders, 
especially  of  women,  took  their  rise  or  were 
revived  in  spirit  at  the  end  of  this  century,  and 
for  the  next  two  hundred  years  practically  mo- 
nopolized such  feminine  education  as  there  was. 

New  elements  were  of  necessity  introduced  into 
the  political  relations  of  the  Church  after  the 
Reformation.  The  final  loss  of  England,  Scot- 
land, and  Scandinavia;  the  consolidation  of  the 
non-Catholic  powers;  the  mercantile  predomi- 
nance acquired  by  Holland,  while  the  power 
of  Venice  and  Genoa  was  waning;  the 
colonial  enterprise  of  Protestant .  England,  at 
the  expense  of  the  interests  of  Spain  and  Portugal; 
the  growth  of  a  mighty  empire  in  the  East  under 
the  Czars,  which  was  ultimately  to  involve  the  de- 
struction of  the  Catholic  Kingaom  of  Poland — all 
these  causes  tended  to  restrict  the  infiuence  of 
the  See  which  had  a  century  earlier  been  ac- 
knowledged as  the  spiritual  head  of  all  Christen- 
dom. Austria  and  Spain  assumed  the  rOle  of 
defenders  of  the  Catholic  Church.  France,  after 
the  crisis  of  the  religious  wars  and  the  sub- 
mission of  Henry  IV.,  became  alternately 
the  principal  support  of  the  Catholic  cause  and 
the  greatest  menace  to  the  Pope's  claims  of 
jurisdiction.  A  succession  of  sagacious  pontiffs 
were  aided  in  their  work  by  a  large  number  of 
saintly  individuals,  whose  lives  drew  men  into 
the  Church  and  confirmed  the  wavering— Saint 
Ignatius,  Saint  Francis  Bor^a,  Duke  of  Gandia, 
&iint  Charl^  Borromeo,  Samt  Francis  de  Sales, 
and  others. 

During  the  seventeenth  century  the  same  forces 
were  at  work  within  the  Church.  The  number 
of  students  in  Jesuit  colleges  increased  before 
1700  to  nearly  200,000.  Foreign  missions  pros- 
pered wonderfully  in  China  (under  Father  Mat- 
thew Ricci,  S.J.),  India,  and  Japan.  The  Reduc- 
tions of  Paraguay  offered  a  shmins  example  of 
the  successful  organization  of  a  Christian  com- 
munity among  recent  converts  from  heathen  bar- 
barism. 

In  Europe,  however,  the  stubborn  spirit  of  Jan- 
senism (q.v.)  for  almost  a  hundred  years  threat- 
ened the  peace  of  the  Church.  Though  it  was 
ultimately  suppressed,  it  left  its  mark  upon  the 
Church  of  France  in  the  spirit  of  Gallicanism, 
which  implies  nationalism  in  ecclesiastical  organ- 
ization and  discipline,  as  opposed  to  the  syd«m 
of  unification  of  all  Christian  peoples  round  the 
one  centre.  (See  Gaujoan  Chubch.)  At  the 
same  time  in  Central  Europe  the  nations  who 
had  separated  themselves  from  this  unity  were 
daily  growing  in  material  prosperity,  and  during 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  the 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  missions  in  America, 
Airica,  and  Asia  were  in  a  great  measure  re- 
placed by  Dutch  Calvinists  and  English  Protes- 
tants.    Prussia  rose  to  be  a  great  Protestant 


State  by  the  side  of  Catholic  Austria.  The 
long  minority  of  Louis  XV.  of  France,  under 
the  regency  of  the  infidel  Duke  of  Orleans,  opened 
the  doors  to  the  spread  of  a  literature  which, 
under  the  general  name  of  the  KncyclopiBdic 
School,  treated  the  most  vital  doctrines  of  Uhria* 
tianity  as  open  questions.  The  dissolute  reign  of 
that  King  and  the  immoral  tone  of  his  Court, 
which  set  the  fashion  for  the  rest  of  Europe,  fo- 
mented a  general  discontent  among  the  masses  in 
France,  which  the  relaxed  discipline  among  the 
clergy  was  unable  te  counteract  and  which  rapid- 
ly spread  throughout  the  rest  of  the  Continent. 
With  the  distinct  object  of  eradicating  Chris- 
tian doctrines,  the  secret  societies  which  had  ob- 
tained increasing  power  in  all  the  courte  of 
Europe  began  by  singlmf  out  for  attack  the 
Society  of  Jesus,  in  which  they  recognized  the 
foremost  champions  of  the  liberties  of  the  Holy 
See  and  of  the  old  faith.  The  war,  which  began 
by  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuite  from  Portugal 
and  Brazil  by  Pombal,  was  carried  on  by  the 
Bourbon  kings  of  France,  *Spain,  and  Naples, 
who  brought  such  pressure  te  bear  on  Pope 
Clement  XIV.  as  to  force  him  in  1773  to  decree 
the  suppression  of  the  Order.  The  removal  of  the 
most  prominent  exponenU  of  religious  education 
had  a  marked  effect  on  the  rising  generation ;  and 
the  attack  on  the  otfa«r  religious  Orders,  and 
eventually  on  the  person  of  the  Pope  himself, 
could  not  be  lon^^  delated.  The  hostility  to  defi- 
nite and  dogmatic  religious  organizations  which 
was  shown  in  many  quarters  during  the  last  half 
of  the  eighteenth  century  found  expression  espe- 
cially in  the  hostile  attitude  of  the  Emperor 
Joseph  II.,  and  reached  ite  culmination  in  the 
decrees  of  the  French  Hevolutionaiy  Assembly. 
Since  then,  even  in  nominally  Catholic  States, 
the  action  of  European  govemmento  has  generally 
been  characterized  by  complete  disregard  of  the 
traditional  principles  which  had  for  many  cen- 
turies infiuenced  their  conduct.  Personal  vio- 
lence was  offered  to  the  Pope  by  Napoleon;  and 
the  nineteenth  century  was  marked  b^  the  loss 
of  the  territorv  which  had  been  subjected  to 
Papal  temporal  jurisdiction,  until  in  1870  the 
last  vestige  of  it,  ouUide  of  the  walls  of  the 
Vatican,  disappeared. 

Yet  in  spite  of  all  these  changes  the  inherent 
vitelity  of  the  Church  has  enabl^  it,  in  the  con- 
cluding period,  to  gain  in  one  direction  what  it 
lost  in  another.  At  the  close  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  when  Pius  VI.  died  in  captivity, 
those  outeide  the  Church  spoke  of  the  end  of  the 
Papacy.  It  was  not  until  after  the  fall  of  Napo- 
leon that  Pius  VII.  was  able  to  carry  on  nis 
sacred  duties  in  freedom.  One  of  his  acte  was  the 
restoration  of  the  Jesuite,  and,  as  before,  they 
spread  rapidly  throu^out  the  world,  until  again 
the  principal  Catholic  schools  came  under  uieir 
charge.  In  France  the  end  of  the  first  quarter 
of  the  century  saw  a  reaction  against  the  ration- 
alism of  the  eighteenth,  and,  under  the  teachings 
of  many  zealous  missionaries,  the  mass  of  the 
people  returned  to  the  faith  of  which  many  of 
them  had  grown  up  in  practical  ignorance. 

In  England  the  famous  Oxford  Movement 
(q.v.)  called  the  attention  of  the  English-speak- 
ing world  to  the  Church's  claims,  and  the  re- 
moval of  the  legal  disabilities  under  which  her 
members  had  rested  for  three  hundred  years  was 
the  prelude  to  the  restoration  of  an  English 
hierarchy  in  1850.    Throughout  the  century  filers 


BOXAV  CATHOLIC  CEXTBOH. 


116 


fiOXAH  CATHOLIC  CHTTBCH. 


wms  a  marked  and  progressive  change  of  attitude 
on  the  part  of  English-speaking  people  toward 
the  Church — a  gradual  disappearance  of  the  bit- 
ter prejudices  which  had  be^  entertained,  and, 
thanks,  in  the  first  instance,  to  Sir  Walter  Scott's 
noTels  especially,  a  growth  of  sympathetic  appre* 
ciaticm  of  the  misunderstood  centuries  before  the 
Keformation.  In  Germany  the  Catholic  revival 
has  been  very  marked,  and  the  attempt  at  repres- 
sion by  the  Prussian  Government  in  the  so- 
called  May  Laws  (see  Kultubkaicpf)  brought 
about  a  political  union  of  friends  of  the  Church 
which  gave  them,  under  the  name  of  the  Centre 
Party,  the  balance  of  power  and  a  prominent 
position  before  the  world.  While  governments 
have  frequently  attempted  a  hostile  or  oppressive 
attitude,  the  work  of  the  Church  has  continued 
to  grow;  especially  where  absolute  religious  free- 
dom prevails,  as  in  the  English-speaking  coun- 
tries, its  development  has  oeen  most  marked. 
Not  only  in  England  and  the  United  States,  but 
in  Australia,  Canada,  India,  and  South  Africa, 
the  Church  is  becoming  one  of  the  most  prominent 
factors  in  modem  life.  Side  by  side  with  the 
gradual  drifting  away  of  most  non-Catholic  re- 
ligious bodies  m>m  their  older  dogmatic  strict- 
ness has  come  an  increasing  appreciation  of  the 
value  of  an  unchanged  and  an  unchangeable  defl- 
niteness  of  religious  belief  such  as  is  furnished 
by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

While  in  many  indifferent  or  purely  administra- 
tive matters  she  has  adapted  herself  to  the  chang- 
ing conditions  of  modem  life,  in  regard  to  the 
great  fundamental  verities  the  Church  admits  no 
possibility  of  change.  Pius  IX.,  for  a  time  de- 
throned and  driven  into  exile  by  the  revolution- 
ary forces  which  swept  over  Europe  in  1848,  only 
six  years  later  defined  as  a  dogma  of  the  faith 
the  belief  of  centuries  in  the  immaculate  concep- 
tion of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary;  in  1864  he 
promulgated  a  condemnation  of  what  were  con- 
sidered, from  the  point  of  view  of  the  Church, 
the  false  doctrines  held  throughout  European  so- 
cieihr,  in  a  document  of  no  uncertain  sound,  the 
Syllabus  of  Errors  (see  Stixabus  Ebbobum).; 
and  in  1869  convoked  a  general  council  to  delib- 
erate on  matters  of  internal  discipline.  Hardly 
had  the  sessions  begun  when  all  predetermined 
matters  of  discussion  were  set  aside  to  consider 
fully  and  eventually  to  define  the  doctrine  of 
Papal  infallibility.  (See  IiVFAiJJBnJTT;  Vati- 
CAK,  CouiTCiL  OF  THE.)  This  doctrine,  carefully 
limited  as  it  is,  crystallizes  in  practical  form 
the  belief  in  a  living  voice  which  shall  speak  with 
authority  on  what  men  need  to  know  for  the  sen- 
eral  guidance  of  their  life  here  and  hereafter. 
On  the  burning  (piestion  of  the  inspiration  of  the 
Bible,  the  Roman  Catholic  (Dhurch,  while  always 
declaring  -the  Scriptures  to  be  in  a  special  and 
particular  sense  toB  word  of  God,  yet  has  never 
committed  herself  to  any  precise  theory  of  the 
manner  of  inspiration,  ana  is  therefore  able  to 
meet  without  alarm  the  questions  raised  bj  the 
so-called  higher  criticism.  A  special  commission 
was  appointed  by  Leo  XIII.  in  1903  to  promote 
advanced  biblical  studies,  taking  into  account 
an  the  material  provided  by  modern  scientific 
criticism. 

The  hierarchy  of  the  Church,  with  the  Pope  at 
its  head,  inbludes  as  his  closest  advisers  the 
College  of  Cardinals  (q.v.),  seventy  in  number 
when  its  ranks  are  full.  There  are  eight  patri- 
ardiatM  of  the  Latin  rite  and  six  of  the  Oriental; 


these  are  nearly  all  practically  titular  digni- 
ties. There  are  178  archbishops  of  the  Latin 
rite  and  19  of  the  Oriental  The  Latin  arch- 
bishops have  648  bishops  in  their  provinces  be- 
sides 84  who  are  immediately  subject  to  the  Holy 
See;  and  there  are  52  bishops  of  the  Oriental 
rite.  These  figures  do  not  include  over  three 
himdred  titular  bishops  (q.v.),  who  are  employed 
as  coadjutors  or  in  missionary  work.  The  prac- 
tical administration  in  detail  is  largely  carried 
on  by  the  Roman  congregations  (q.v.),  especially 
that  of  the  Propaganda.  (See  Missions.)  It  is 
obviously  difficult  to  give  any  precise  figures  for 
the  total  number  of  adherents  of  this  Church. 
The  excellent  authority,  Mulhall,  at  the  end  of 
1898,  estimated  the  Ca&olic  population  of  Europe 
at  148,900,000;  of  America  at  44,100,000;  of 
Asia  and  Africa  at  6,600,000;  and  of  Australia 
at  850:000— making  a  grand  total  of  200,450,000, 
or  almost  one-seventh  of  the  total  population  of 
the  world. 

THB   B0XAI7    OATHOUO   CHT7B0H    IN    THE   UNITED 
STATES. 

The  continuous  and  authentic  history  of  the 
Koman  Catholic  Church  in  the  New  World  opens 
with  the  year  1494,  when  twelve  priests  accom- 
panied Columbus  on  his  second  voyage.  They 
were  subject  to  the  Spanish  See  of  Seville  until 
1512,  when  the  first  American  episcopal  see  of 
San  Domingo  was  created.  In  1622  another  see 
was  established  at  Santiago  in  Cuba,  and  the  See 
of  Mexico  was  added  in  1630.  From  these  latter 
sees  were  evangelized  the  Indians  of  the  north- 
eastern and  southwestern  territories  of  the  pres- 
ent United  States.  The  traces  of  their  work  mav 
yet  be  studied  in  Florida,  New  Mexico,  and  Cali- 
fornia, where  during  the  period  from  the  middle 
of  the  sixteenth  to  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century  Spanish  misisonaries,  chiefiy  Prancis- 
cans,  Dominicans,  and  Jesuits,  established  nu- 
merous (christian  communities,  dependent,  how- 
ever, on  the  authorities  in  Cuba  and  Mexico.  In 
the  same  period  French  missionaries  evangelized 
the  savages  of  the  Saint  Lawrence,  Maine,  north- 
em  New  York,  and  the  Mississippi.  As  early  as 
1634  Jesuit  fathers  were  established  in  the 
oriffinally  Roman  Catholic  colony  of  Maryland, 
and  after  1681  Roman  Catholics  were  tolerated 
by  Penn  and  the  Quakers  in  their  colony  of  Penn- 
sylvania. From  these  latter  centres  derive  the 
actual  Roman  Catholics. of  the  United  States. 
Until  1784  they  were  under  the  spiritual  juris- 
diction of  the  Vicar  Apostolic  of  London,  and 
their  religious  needs  were  ministered  to  by  such 
rare  missionaries  as  could  be  induced  to  cross 
the  ocean. 

The  Revolution  brought  a  change  for  the  bet- 
ter. Religious  and  civil  liberty,  the  civil  dis- 
orders of  Europe,  the  economical  reverses  of  the 
Old  World,  the  attractiveness  of  a  new  and  un- 
trammeled  society,  set  in  movement  a  huge  im- 
migration, of  which  a  great  percentage  was 
Roman  Catholic,  mostly  from  Ireland.  In  1790 
the  See  of  Baltimore  was  created,  and  John  Car- 
roll, a  near  relative  of  the  signer  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  was  made  its  first  bishop. 
There  were  then  about  30,000  Catholics  in  the 
thirteen  colonies,  more  than  one-half  being  in 
Maryland,  and  some  7000  in  Pennsylvania.  By 
the  year  1820  the  Catholics  had  reached  the 
figure  of  a  quarter  of  a  million,  and  in  1840  their 
number  was  calculated  at  about  1,000,000.  The 
increase  of  immigration  trebled  that  number  in 


fiOXAH  CATHOLIC  CHtTBCH. 


116 


BOMAN  CATHOLIC  CHUBCH. 


the  next  two  decades,  and  in  1870  they  were  near- 
ly 6,000,00(K 

The  external  history  of  Roman  Catholicism  in 
the  United  States  during  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury is  not  marked  hy  any  notable  events,  if 
we  except  some  outbreaks  of  intolerance.  It 
has  been  the  history  of  a  voluntary  religious  as- 
sociation growing  at  first  by  accessions  from 
without  and  then  by  its  own  birth  rate.  Its 
internal  activity  has  been  marked  by  the  growth 
of  its  diocesan  system  and  its  clergy,  diocesan 
and  religious;  by  the  building  of  churches  and 
chapels,  the  erection  of  parochial  schools,  col- 
leges, academies,  and  a  university;  by  the  pro- 
vision for  its  own  poor  and  destitute  and  help- 
less; by  an  apologetic  literature  of  newspapers, 
reviews,  and  books.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church 
in  the  United  States  has  had  to  face  problems 
quite  different  from  those  that  await  her  in 
Europe  or  the  Orient.  Her  numbers  are  made  up 
of  many  nationalities,  chiefly  European,  that  dif- 
fer in  racial  temper  and  proclivities,  intellectual 
culture,  hereditary  tendencies,  and  political  past. 
Her  chief  domestic  concern  is  the  amalgamation 
of  these  various  elements  and  the  gradual  for- 
mation of  a  homogeneous  type,  a  task  that  is 
daily  progressing  to  completion.  In  1900  quasi- 
official  figures  placed  the  total  Catholic  popula- 
tion at  10,129,677.  But  absolutely  reliable  fig- 
ures are  not  attainable,  for  a  variety  of  reasons. 
It  is  probable  that  the  number  is  not  far  from 
14,000,000,  if  we  accept  the  decadal  ratio  of 
growth  as  established  by  the  Catholic  historian 
John  Gilmary  Shea.  This  population  is  very 
unevenly  distributed,  by  far  the  greater  part  of 
it  being  found  in  the  larger  cities  and  industrial 
centres,  though  a  rapidly  increasing  percentage 
is  of  native  origin.  From  1850  to  1900,  about 
4,000,000  people,  nearly  all  Roman  Catholics, 
emigrated  from  Ireland,  the  greater  part  of  them 
to  the  United  States.  This  great  wave  of  immi- 
gration has  long  since  fallen  off;  there  came  from 
Ireland  in  1900  only  35,370.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  immigration  from  Italy  has  steadily  increased 
from  21,295  in  1886  to  100,135  in  1900,  while 
again  that  from  Germany  has  shrunk  to  small 
proportions.  In  about  the  same  period,  however, 
the  immigration  from  Austria-Hungary,  which  is 
mainly  Roman  Catholic,  rose  from  56,199  in  1890 
to  114,847  in  1900.  The  membership  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  is,  therefore,  even  yet  notably 
affected  by  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  tide  of  Euro- 
pean immigration.  Among  the  more  famous 
leaders  of  Roman  Catholicism  in  the  United 
States  we  may  count  Archbishop  John  Carroll, 
of  Baltimore,  who  was  sent  by  Congress  to 
Canada  in  1776,  with  Benjamin  Franklin,  Sam- 
uel Chase,  and  Charles  Carroll,  of  Carrollton,  in 
order  to  induce  the  Canadian  Catholics  to  join 
the  Revolutionary  forces;  Bishop  Cheverus,  of 
Boston,  afterwards  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Bor- 
deaux; Bishop  England,  of  Charleston;  Arch- 
bishop Hughes,  of  New  York,  sent  by  President 
Lincoln  as  an  envoy  to  France  and  Spain  during 
the  Civil  War;  Archbishop  Spalding,  of  Balti- 
more. The  principal  events  of  general  interest 
within  the  last  two  decades  are  the  Plenary 
Council  of  Baltimore  (1884),  the  Catholic  Con- 
gress (1889),  the  foundation  of  the  Catholic  Uni- 
versity at  Washington  (1889),  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Apostolic  Delegation  at  Wash- 
ington (1893). 

ADicmiSTBATioir.   The  Roman  Catholic  Church 


in  the  United  States  is  part  of  the  organic  whole 
of  Catholicism,  and  as  such  is  subject  to  the 
same  central  legislative  and  executive  authority 
as  all  other  national  churches — ^the  Bishop  of 
Rome.  He  exercises  therein  a  jurisdiction  that 
is  recognized  as  of  divine  origin,  immediate,  apos- 
tolic, and  ordinary.  This  holds  good  not  only  in 
matters  of  doctrine,  but  also  in  matters  of  dis- 
cipline; the  Pope  is  the  final  court  of  appeal  in 
all  matters  of  a  spiritual  or  religious  character. 
In  detail,  the  Papal  authority  is  partly  written, 
partly  of  daily  application — interpretative,  execu- 
tive, le^slative.  The  basis  of  government  is  the 
Canon  Law  (q.v.),  as  considerably  modified  by 
the  Council  of  Trent,  and  since  then  by  the  nu- 
merous decisions  and  interpretations  of  Roman 
congregations,  as  well  as  by  Papal  rescripts,  and 
the  special  legislation  for  missionary  countries 
and  circumstances.  Nevertheless,  there  remains 
much  in  this  code  of  laws,  in  the  shape  of  prin- 
ciples and  spirit,  which  is  unchanged  and  un- 
changeable, and  therefore  common  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States  with  all 
other  parts  of  Catholicism. 

The  Church  in  the  United  States  is  divided 
into  provinces  and  dioceses.  Each  province  is 
presided  over  by  an  archbishop.  Each  diocesan 
bishop,  however,  is  quite  independent  within  his 
own  territory.  The  archbishop  presides  over  pro- 
vincial synods,  at  meetings  of  his  suffragan  bish- 
ops, and  exercises,  in  some  well-defined  cases,  a 
certain  authority  of  supervision.  Each  diocese, 
moreover,  is  provided  with  a  chancery  and  the 
requisite  ofiicials  to  carry  on  the  canonical  gov- 
ernment of  the  faithful.  The  dioceses  are  divided 
into  parishes  and  missions,  whose  pastors  are 
appointed  by  the  bishop.  The  bishop  is  provided 
with  a  council  of  priests,  partly  of  his  own  selec- 
tion, partly  chosen  by  the  diocesan  clergy.  This 
council,  however,  though  it  represents  the  cathe- 
dral chapter,  has  only  a  consultative  character; 
its  consent  is  not  requisite  to  the  validity  of 
episcopal  acts.  It  is  the  right  and  duty  of  the 
bishop  to  visit  canonically  all  parishes  and  mis- 
sions, see  to  the  observance  of  the  canons  and 
other  ecclesiastical  legislations,  and  execute  his 
own  or  superior  judicial  decisions.  Where  the 
bishop  does  not  proceed  by  his  own  authority,  as 
in  many  details  that  concern  religious  Orders, 
he  acts,  since  the  Council  of  Trent,  as  del^ate  of 
the  Holy  See.  Within  his  diocese  the  creation, 
division,  and  reunion  of  parishes;  the  site,  style, 
and  cost  of  all  churches ;  the  contracting  of  debts 
for  parochial  purposes;  the  building  and  con- 
ducting of  schools,  convents,  academies;  the  life 
and  works  of  the  clergy,  diocesan  and  religious, 
and  of  the  communities  of  women,  are  subject  to 
the  bishop. 

Since  the  third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore, 
the  nomination  of  episcopal  candidates  belongs 
to  certain  of  the  clergy  or  the  diocese,  under  the 
supervision  of  the  archbishop,  and  eventually  of 
the  bishops  of  the  province.  The  diocesan  con- 
suitors  and  the  'irremovable'  rectors  of  parishes 
in  the  vacant  diocese  select  three  names  that  are 
ticketed  as  'most  worthy,'  Very  worthy,'  and 
'worthy'  of  the  office  {dignissimus,  dignior, 
dignus).  These  names  are  sent  to  the  Prefect 
of  the  Propaganda  after  a  meeting  of  the  arch- 
bishop and  his  suffragans,  in  which  said  names 
are  either  approved  or  rejected,  in  whole  or  in 
part.  Reason  for  the  latter  action  must  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  Roman  authorities,  witii  whom  lies 


BOXAH  CATHOLIC  CHtTBCH. 


117  fiOXAH  CATHOLIC  HKANCIFATIOW* 


the  final  choice.  The  delay,  except  in  extraor- 
dinajy  circoinstaiicee,  is  usually  from  three  to 
six  months,  during  which  time  an  administrator 
is  appointed  by  the  archbishop  of  the  province. 

The  bishop  must  appoint  a  vicar-general,  whose 
authority  is  ordinary,  i.e.  not  dependent  on  re- 
striction of  the  bishop,  but  specified  in  the  canon 
law  and  ecclesiastical  legislation.  This  official 
represents  to  the  clergy  the  episcopal  authority 
and  has  certain  well-defined  duties,  rights,  and 
attributes  that  go  with  the  office  and  cease  when 
he  no  longer  holds  it.  Other  officials,  provided 
for  partly  in  the  canon  law,  partly  by  tne  legis- 
lation of  national  councils,  hold  their  appoint- 
ment from  the  bishop.  Such  are  the  clerg^onen  to 
whom  are  assigned  the  official  defense  of  mar- 
riages whose  annulment  is  sought  on  canonical 
grounds,  the  prosecution  of  offenders  against 
the  Church  laws,  the  examination  of  candidates 
for  admission  to  the  diocese,  the  visitation  of 
parochial  schools.  Of  the  'consultors'  of  the 
bishop,  one-half  are  named  by  himself,  the  other 
hall  are  elected  by  all  the  diocesan  clergy.  This 
council  must  be  renominated  every  three  years. 
The  time  and  place  of  its  meetings  and  the  sub- 
jects of  its  deliberations  depend  on  the  bishop, 
who  is  not  bound  canonically  to  accept  its  opin- 
ions, though  he  is  held  to  create  it  and  to  con- 
sult with  it. 

Laoisiation.  The  particular  legislation  that 
tmanates  from  the  Roman  Catholic  episcopate 
of  the  United  States  as  a  whole  arises  from  three 
sources — ^the  national,  provincial,  and  diocesan 
councils.  The  latter  are  now  usually  called 
synods,  though  the  terms  are  interchangeable. 
There  have  been  three  national  (plenary)  coun- 
cils— all  held  at  Baltimore,  which  see,  by  reason 
of  its  being  the  first  in  order  of  time,  has  a  quasi- 
primatial  character  accorded  to  it  by  the  Holy 
See.  These  three  national  councils  were  held  in 
1829,  1866,  and  1884.  After  approval  by  the 
Pope,  the  decisions  are  made  public,  and  become 
the  highest  national  ecclesiastical  law  and  norm 
of  administration.  The  effective  membership  of 
a  national  council  is  restricted  to  the  bishops — 
certain  ecclesiastical  personages  have  an  non- 
orai^  right  of  assistance,  but  not  of  vote.  Pro- 
vincial councils  are  called  at  indefinite  periods  by 
the  archbishop  of  each  province,  and  the  mem- 
bership is  confined  to  the  suffragans  of  the  same. 
The  diocesan  synod  is  called  by  the  bishop  of  the 
diocese,  and  is  attended  by  the  priests  of  the 
same.  It  presupposes  all  legislation  that  ema- 
nates from  higher  sources,  both  general  and  na- 
tional, and  legislates  for  local  ne^s. 

Statistics.  With  the  exception  of  the  popu- 
lation figures,  the  statistics  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church  in  the  United  States  are  quite  accu- 
rate. They  are  collected  annually  by  the  diocesan 
authorities,  usually  through  the  chancellor  or 
vicar-general  of  the  diocese,  and  are  furnished  to 
two  directories  or  almanacs,  Sadlier's  (New 
York)  and  Hoffman's  (Milwaukee) ;  now  also 
to  the  Census  Bureau,  which  includes  them  in  its 
report.  In  1900  the  Roman  Catholic  hierarchy 
of  the  United  States  included  one  cardinal,  14 
archbishops,  and  77  bishops.  The  clergy  num- 
bered 11,636,  of  which  total  8660  were  members 
of  the  different  dioceses  and  2976  belonged  to  re- 
ligious Orders.  There  were,  in  all,  12,062  places 
of  public  worship.  Of  these  6409  are  classed  as 
parish  churches,  3930  as  missionary  churches, 
and  1723  as  chapels.    The  reason  of  the  distinc- 


tion lies  partly  in  the  fact  that  all  the  parish 
churches  have  resident  priests,  partly  in  the  f re- 
quencv  of  use,  size,  and  accessibility  of  the  mis- 
sion churches  and  chapels.  The  education  of  the 
clergy  was  provided  for  in  30  diocesan  seminaries, 
with  2630  students.  The  religious  Orders  had  70 
novitiates  with  1998  students  or  candidates.  The 
educational  institutes  were  one  pontifical  uni- 
versity (Washington),  170  colleges  for  boys,  and 
662  academies  and  convents  for  girls.  There 
were  3811  parochial  schools,  with  an  attendance 
of  854,523.  The  charitable  institutions  were  827 
in  number,  exclusive  of  251  orphan  asylums  that 
sheltered  35,243  children  of  both  sexes.  The 
Catholic  population  was  estimated  at  the  low 
figure  of  10,129,677.  The  Catholic  Indians  num- 
bered about  90,000;  113  priests  worked  among 
them,  and  served  183  churches  or  chapels.  There 
were  73  Catholic  schools,  with  24  teaching  sister- 
hoods and  5000  pupils  of  both  sexes.  The  col- 
ored Catholic  population  was  estimated  at  about 
140,000.  There  labored  among  them  48  white 
priests,  with  the  charge  of  40  churches.  The 
colored  Catholic  schools  were  81  in  number,  cared 
for  by  24  sisterhoods,  with  an  attendance  of  6401 
children  of  both  sexes. 

BiBLiooBAPnT.  For  the  general  history  of  the 
Church,  consult  the  works  of  Alzog,  Darras,  Her- 
ffenrother,  Rohrbacher,  and  Brueck;  also  the 
biographies  of  the  popes  and  saints  generally. 
For  England,  consult:  Gillow,  Bibliographical 
Dictionary  of  English  Catholics,  since  the  Refor- 
mation (London,  1885  et  seq.)  ;  Brady, 
Annals  of  the  Catholic  Hierarchy  in  England, 
1585-1876  (ib.,  1877) ;  Amherst,  History  of 
Catholic  Emancipation,  1771-1821  (ib.,  1886); 
The  Position  of  the  Catholic  Church  in 
England  and  Wales  During  the  Last  Tico  Ceiv- 
turies  (New  York,  1892)  ;  Fita?gerald,  Fifty  Years 
of  Catholic  Life  and  Progress  (London, 
1900) .  For  France,  see  under  Galucait  Chitbch. 
For  Spain,  Gams,  Die  Kirchengeschichte  von 
Spanien  (Regensburg,  1862-79).  For  Germany, 
Dollinger,  Beitrdge  zur  politischen,  kirchlichen 
und  Kulturgeschichte  der  letzten  sechs  Jahrhun- 
derte  (Regensburg,  1862-82). 

The  history  of  the  Church  in  the  United  States 
is  best  found  in  Shea,  History  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  the  United  States  (New  York, 
1886-92).  A  more  compendious  work  is  O'Gor- 
man.  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  America 
(ib.,  1895).  For  the  lives  of  its  bishops,  Clarke, 
Lives  of  the  Deceased  Bishops  (New  York, 
1888)  ;  Reuss,  Biographical  Cyclopaedia  of  thb 
Catholic  Hierarchy  of  the  United  States  (Mil- 
waukee, 1898).  Consult  also  Shahan,  "LTiistoire 
de  r^glise  catholique  aux  Etats-Unis,"  in  Revue 
d'histoire  eccUsiastique  (Louvain,  1900).  The 
legislation  of  the  three  national  councils  is  ac- 
cessible in  Concilia  Plenaria  Baltimoriensia  (3 
vols.,  Baltimore,  1867-86).  For  a  liberal  foreign 
appreciation  of  the  general  position  of  the  Church 
in  the  United  States,  consult  Vicomte  de  Meaux, 
L'4glise  catholique  et  la  liberty  aua  Etats-Unis 
(Paris,  1893). 

BOMAN    CATHOLIC    EMANCIPATION. 

After  the  Reformation,  both  in  England  and  in 
Scotland,  Roman  Catholics  were  subjected  to 
many  penal  regulations  and  restrictions.  As  late 
as  1780  the  law  of  England  made  it  felony  in  a 
foreign  Roman  Catholic  priest  and  high  treason 
in  one  who  was  a  native  of  the  kingdom  to  teach 
the  doctrines  or  perform  divine  service  according 


fiOXAV  CATHOLIC  ElEANCIFATIOV.  118 


fiOXAHGB. 


to  the  rites  of  hk  Church.  Roman  Catholics 
were  debarred  from  acquiring  huid  by  purcliase. 
Persons  educated  abroad  in  Uie  Roman  Catholic 
faith  were  declared  incapable  of  succeeding  to 
real  property,  and  their  estates  were  forfeit^  to 
the  next  Protestant  heir.  A  son  or  other  nearest 
relative,  being  a  Protestant,  was  empowered  to 
take  possession  of  the  estate  of  his  Roman  Catho- 
lic father  or  other  kinsman  during  his  life.  A 
Roman  Catholic  was  disqualifled  from  undertak- 
ing the  guardianship  even  of  Roman  Catholic 
children.  Roman  Catholics  were  excluded  from 
the  legal  profession,  and  it  was  presumed  that  a 
Protestant  lawyer  who  married  a  Roman  Catholic 
had  adopted  the  faith  of  his  wife.  It  was  a  capi- 
tal offense  for  a  Roman  Catholic  priest  to  cele- 
brate a  marriage  between  a  Protestant  and  a  Ro- 
man CathoHc.  In  1780  Sir  George  Saville  intro- 
duced a  bill  for  the  repeal  of  some  of  the  most 
severe  disqualifications  in  the  case  of  such  Roman 
Catholics  as  would  submit  to  a  proposed  test, 
which  included  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  sov- 
ereign, and  abjuration  of  the  Pretender,  a  decla- 
ration of  disbelief  in  the  several  doctrines — ^that  it 
is  lawful  to  put  individuals  to  death  on  pretense 
of  their  being  heretics ;  that  no  faith  is  to  be  kept 
with  heretics;  that  princes  excommunicated  may 
be  deposed  or  put  to  death;  and  that  the  Pope 
is  entitled  to  any  temporal  jurisdiction  within 
the  realm.  The  bill,  from  the  operation  of  which 
Scotland  was  exempted,  eventually  passed  into 
law.  In  1791  a  bill  was  passed  affording  further 
relief  to  such  Roman  Catholics  as  would  sign  a 
protest  against  the  temporal  power  of  the  Pope 
and  his  authority  to  release  from  civil  obliga- 
tions ;  and  in  the  following  year  the  most  severely 
penal  of  the  restrictions  bearing  on  the  Scottisn 
Roman  Catholics  were  removed  without  opposi- 
tion. 

Endeavors  were  made  at  the  same  time  by  the 
Irish  Parliament  to  place  Ireland  on  an  equality 
in  point  of  reli^ous  freedom  with  England.  The 
agitation  culmmated  in  the  Irish  Rebellion  of 
1798;  the  imion  of  1801  followed,  which  was  part- 
ly carried  by  means  of  pledges,  not  redeemed,  re- 
garding the  removal  of  the  disabilities  in  ques- 
tion. Meantime  in  England  Roman  Catholics 
continued  subject  to  many  minor  disabilities, 
which  the  above-mentioned  acts  failed  to  remove. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  many 
measures  were  proposed  for  the  removal  of  these 
diBqualifications,  and  the  agitation  on  the  sub- 
ject among  the  Roman  Catholics  themselves 
greatly  increased,  in  1824  assuming  an  oigan- 
ized  shape  by  the  formation  of  the  Ttoman  Catho- 
lic Association'  in  Ireland.  The  Duke  of  Welling- 
ton, who  for  a  long  time  felt  great  repug- 
nance to  admit  the  Roman  Catholic  claims,  Was 
at  last  brought  to  the  conviction  that  the  security 
of  the  Empire  would  be  imperiled  by  further  re- 
sisting them,  and  in  1829  a  measure  was  intro- 
duced by  the  Duke's  Ministry  for  Catholic  eman- 
cipation. The  celebrated  Roman  Catholic  Relief 
Bill  was  passed  the  same  year.  By  this  act  an 
oath  is  substituted  for  the  oaths  of  allegiance, 
supremacy,  and  abjuration,  on  taking  which  Ro- 
man Catholics  may  sit  or  vote  in  either  House  of 
Parliament,  and  be  admitted  to  most  other  offices 
from  which  they  were  before  excluded.  They, 
however,  continue  to  be  excluded  from  the  offices 
of  guardian  and  justice  or  regent  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  Lord  Chancellor,  Lord  Keeper,  or  Lord 
Commissioner  of  the  Great  Seal  of  Great  Britain 


or  Ireland,  and  Lord  Hi^  Commissioner  to  the 
General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland. 

SOMANCB  (OF.  romana,  romana,  raumans, 
ramahf  ramani,  roumant,  rotnanoe,  from  ML. 
Romanioe,  in  Roman  or  Latin  fashion,  from  Lai. 
Bomanioua,  from  Romantu,  Roman,  from  JZk>ma, 
Rome).  Originally,  anything  written  in  one  of 
the  Romance  languages;  in  the  fifteenth  and  six- 
teenth centuries,  a  story  in  prose  dealing  with 
the  adventures  of  knights.  From  the  French, 
which  had  taken  it  from  the  Spanish,  the  word 
romance  came  into  English.  The  essentials  of 
romance  are  a  passion  for  the  adventurous,  the 
strange,  and  the  marvelous,  and  a  tendency  to 
exaggerate  the  virtues  and  vices  of  human  nature. 
European  romance,  in  the  laiger  application  of 
the  term,  dates  from  the  Gredcs.  It  was  a  de- 
velopment from  the  epic  The  Iliad,  representing 
men  and  incidents  as  they  were  believed  to  be 
at  the  time  of  its  composition,  is  an  efHC  with  only 
few  romantic  episodes.  But  the  Odyaaey,  depict- 
ing an  imaginary  voyage  employed  as  the  frame- 
work for  a  series  of  marvelous  folk-tales,  is  es- 
sentially a  romance.  This  love  of  romance,  so 
manifest  among  the  earlier  Greeks,  reached  its 
climax  in  the  first  centuries  of  the  Christian 
era.  In  the  article  Novel  is  given  a  brief  account 
of  the  fictions  then  current,  in  which  the  sophists 
tried  to  outdo  one  another  in  imagining  adven- 
tures that  could  not  possibly  happen  in  real  life. 
But  the  same  age  produced  the  beautiful  Cupid 
and  Psyche  of  Apmeius  (who,  though  he  wrote 
in  Latin,  was  Greek  in  spirit) ,  and  &e  Hero  and 
Leander  of  Museus,  which  has  charmed  a  suc- 
cession of  English  poets  from  Marlowe  to  Byron. 
The  Greek  stories  o^gan  to  find  their  way  into 
Western  Europe  as  early  as  the  twelfth  century. 
Indeed,  Apollaniua  of  Tyre  was  translated  into 
Anglo-Saxon  from  a  Latin  epitome  of  the  original 
Greek;  and  after  various  renderings,  it  was 
turned  into  a  drama  by  Shakespeare  in  his 
Pericles,  Prince  of  Tyre.  One  Greek  motive,  that 
of  the  hero  or  heroine  in  disguise  to  be  followed 
by  a  beautiful  recognition  scene,  became  a  fa- 
vorite with  the  romancers  of  Western  Europe, 
from  whom  it  passed  into  the  choicest  comedies 
of  Shakespeare.  'Other  familiar  motives  of  mod- 
em romance,  as  'the  exile  and  return,'  the  as- 
sumed death,'  and  'the  test  of  chastity,'  seem  also 
to  have  been  derived  from  the  Greeks. 

The  medieval  verse  romance  was  an  offshoot 
of  those  epic  narratives  called  chansons  de  gesie, 
celebrating  the  victories  of  Charlemagne  and 
other  great  leaders,  usually  over  the  Siraoens. 
When  the  incidents  which  first  gave  occasion  to 
the  epic  recital  receded  into  the  distant  past, 
marvel  was  added  to  marvel.  And  when  in  the 
twelfth  centuiy  the  French  trouv^res  assigned 
love  as  the  prime  motive  for  the  adventures  of 
the  knight,  the  epic  was  transformed  into  the 
romance.  From  their  original  home  in  France, 
the  romances  were  diffuMd  over  Western  and 
Northern  Europe.  Made  for  men  and  women  of 
rank,  often  for  the  Court,  they  were  not  recited, 
as  were  the  earlier  chansons  de  geste,  by  min- 
strels; they  were  rather  designed  to  be  read  aloud 
in  groups  of  lords  and  ladies,  or,  like  the  modem 
novel,  to  be  read  in  private.  The  mediaeval  ro- 
mances gathered  in  cycles  round  great  events  and 
favorite  heroes,  as  the  siege  of  Troy,  Charle- 
magne, and  King  Arthur.  The  Troy  legend,  de- 
rived from  Latin  sources,  was  treated  in  France 


BOXAHOB. 


119 


BOXAHOB  uairGXTAoa& 


tor  Benoit  de  Sainte-More  in  his  Roma^  de  Trcie 
(late  twelith  oentuiy),  from  which  the  great 
stoiy  of  TioOiia  and  Creeseide  (Greesida)  was  af- 
terwards taken  up  by  Boocaodo  in  Italy  and  by 
Chaucer  in  England,  receiving  dramatic  form  from 
Shakeapeare.  The  legend  of  Charlemagne,  telling 
of  the  destruction  of  the  Emperor's  rear  guard 
by  the  Saracens  in  the  passes  of  the  Pyrenees,  is 
extant  in  two  principal  forms:  the  Chanson  de 
Roland  (close  of  eleventh  century)  and  the  Latin 
Tomanee  of  the  pseudo-Turpin  (about  1125). 
lAter  romancing  on  Charlemagne  led  to  the 
legends  known  m  their  English  dress  as  The 
B9u?doHe  of  Bahylone;  Otuel;  Sir  FirwnlHras;  and 
the  prose  Hwm  of  Bordeaux,  which  first  make 
known  to  England  Oberon,  the  king  of  the  fairies 
in  Shakespeare's  Midaummer  TiighVs  Dream. 
Beautiful  as  many  others  may  be,  the  medieval 
romances  that  appeal  most  strongly  to  the  Eng- 
lish race  are  those  celebrating  the  deeds  of  King 
Arthur  and  the  knights  of  the  round  table,  on 
which  the  French  and  Anglo-Norman  poets  built 
up  a  vast  romantic  structure  in  harmony  with 
the  ideals  of  chivalry.  Reduced  to  prose,  Arthu- 
rian romance  was  handed  over  to  later  times  by 
Sir  Thomas  Maloiv  in  his  Morte  Darthur  { 1485) . 
These  cycles  which  have  been  described  are  only 
sections  of  an  immense  body  of  romance  current 
in  tile  Middle  Ages.  Other  heroes  were  Alex- 
ander, King  Richard  lion-Heart,  King  Horn, 
Havelok  the  Dane,  Guy  of  Warwick,  and  Sir 
Bevis  of  Hamtoun. 

The  later  romances  in  prose  are  more  deflnite- 
ly  connected  with  the  history  of  the  novel,  under 
which  head  they  are  noticed.  We  may  cite 
Amadis  de  Gatila,  the  flower  of  Spanish  romance. 
Sir  Philip  Sidnqr's  Arcadia,  the  historical  ro- 
mances of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  and  the  revival  of 
adventure  in  Robert  Louis  Stevenson  and  his  nu- 
merous followers.  The  lego&ds  of  King  Arthur 
have  heen  adapted  to  the  nineteenth  century  by 
Tennyson,  Swinburne,  and  others;  and  a  ^up 
of  tales,  Greek  and  medieval,  have  been  delight- 
fully retold  by  William  Morris  in  The  Earthljf 
Paradiee, 

See  the  articles  on  the  Graal  and  on  the  ro- 
mantic heroes:  Arthui^  Grawain,  Guinevere,  Guy 
of  WarwidE,  Lancelot,  Merlin,  Perceval,  and  Tris- 
tram. For  the  relation  of  romance  to  the  novel,  see 
Novel.  The  revival  of  romance  is  discussed  un- 
der the  head  RoMAimoiaM.  Consult  also:  Saints- 
Iraiy,  The  Flourishing  of  Romance  (London, 
1897);  Ker,  Epie  and  Romance  (ib.,  1897); 
Billings,  A  Qwde  to  the  Middle  English  Ro- 
manoea  (New  York,  1901) ;  KOrting,  i3hrundrie% 
der  Cheehiehieder  engliaohen  Litteratur  ( Mlinster, 
1899) ;  and  Gkuston  Paris,  La  litt^ature  fran- 
taiae  au  moyen-^ge  (Paris,  1890). 

BOMANCB.  In  music,  a  vocal  composition 
in  epic-lyrical  style  resembling  in  form  the  bal- 
lad. But  while  in  the  ballad  Nature,  or  some 
natural  power  personified,  constitutes  the  theme, 
the  romance  draws  its  subjects  from  stories  of 
knightiy  adventure.  In  recent  times  the  term 
romance  has  also  been  applied  to  purely  instru- 
mental compositions  of  a  romantic  character  the 
form  of  which  is  as  elastic  and  indefinite  as  that 
of  the  instrumental  ballad.  The  term  originally 
meant  nothing  more  than  a  narrative  in  Romance 
(Provencal)  verse  as  distinguished  from  Latin 
ynant   (twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries).     In 


France  a  romance  is  merely  a  sentimental  love- 
song. 

BOBLAJTCB  LANOUAGES.  The  languages 
spnmg  from  Latin  and  bearing  its  impress 
strongly  in  vocabulary  and  grammar.  In  a  rou^ 
way,  the  Romance  territory  in  Europe  corre- 
sponds to  what  belonged  to  the  ancient  Roman 
Empire.  It  is  bounded  approximately  by  the 
English  (Channel,  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea,  the  Adriatic,  and  a  line  drawn 
throu^  Belgium  from  Gravelines  to  Eupen,  and 
then  from  Eupen  to  the  Alps  and  the  Adriatic. 
In  the  East,  isolated  from  the  rest,  is  Rumania. 
Colonists  have  also  carried  these  forms  of  speech 
to  other  continents,  and  they  are  spoken  in  Can- 
ada, Mexico,  Central  and  South  America,  and  in 
various  settlements  in  Africa  and  Asia.  It  is 
usual  to  speak  of  seven  or  eight  Romance  lan- 
guages, though  the  division  is  more  a  matter  of 
convenience  than  of  scientific  accuracy.  These  are 
Rumanian,  Romansh  (Rhetian,  Ladm),  Italian, 
French,  Provencal,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese,  to 
which  is  added,  according  to  the  views  of  the  in- 
dividual scholar,  Catalan  or  Franco-Provencal  or 
Sardinian. 

Though  contemporary  references  show  the  ex- 
istence of  tiie  lingua  romana  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, nothing  was  at  that  time  written  in  this 
form  of  spe^sh.  Every  one  who  could  write  at 
all  wrote,  or  attempted  to  write,  in  Latin.  The 
earliest  known  monument  in  any  Romance  lan- 
guage is  the  Strassburg  Oaths,  sworn  in  a.d.  842 
by  the  armies  of  Louis  the  Cterman  and  C^harles 
the  Bald,  and  preserved  in  the  Latin  history  of 
Nithard.  These  oaths  consist  of  a  little  more 
than  100  words  in  French.  To  the  end  of  the 
ninth  century  belongs  the  Sainte  EulaUe,  a  short 
poem,  also  m  French.  There  are 'a  few  other 
documents  belonging  to  the  tenth  century,  but 
extended  literary  works  are  not  found  before  the 
eleventh.  To  this  same  time  belong  the  earliest 
writings  in  Provencal,  while,  with  the  exception 
of  a  few  formulas,  ihere  is  nothing  in  Spanish 
earlier  than  the  twelfth,  nor  in  Italian  earlier 
than  the  thirteenth  century. 

Between  the  classical  Latin,  therefore,  and  the 
earliest  written  specimens  of  the  Romance  lan- 
guages, there  is  a  great  gap,  which  philologists 
attempt  to  bridge  as  well  as  they  may  by  recon- 
structing the  forms  of  popular  or  late  spoken 
Latin.  The  materials  available  for  this  task 
are  inscriptions,  dialogue  in  the  old  eomedies, 
errors  reprehended  by  Roman  grammarians,  spe- 
cimens of  early  mediieval  Latin,  documents  writ- 
ten by  ignorant  scribes,  and,  above  all,  the 
features  of  the  Romance  tongues  themselves. 
However  wide  the  gap  which  exists  between  the 
written  documents  in  the  two  forms  of  speech, 
there  is  nevertheless  not  the  least  break  in  the 
continuity  of  the  development  from  spoken  Latin 
to  the  various  modem  Romance  languages. 

The  Romanization  of  the  West,  so  thoroughly 
accomplished,  went  on  actively  for  about  four 
centuries,  though  it  is  quite  impossible  to  fix  ac- 
curate dates  for  a  process  of  tnis  kind.  Begin- 
ning in  Italy  itself  with  the  subjection  of  non- 
Latm  neighbors,  it  spread  to  Sicily  in  the  third 
century  b.o.,  a  century  later  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean coast  of  Gaul  and  Spain,  and  to  Gaul 
proper  only  after  the  beginning  of  the  Chris- 
tian Era.  During  this  period  the  Latin  lan- 
guage itself  naturally  underwent  changes,  and 


SMOCANCB  LANQUAQEa 


120 


BXMASCE  LAKatr AQEa 


the  later  colonists  fiiW  with  them  a  speech 
differing  somewhat  from  tttti  ei  their  forerun- 
ners. It  must  not  be  supposed,  bMMver,  that 
this  spoken  language  was  precisely  the  aaae  as 
that  written  by  the  masters  of  classic  literatimL 
Each  grade  of  society,  each  part  of  the.  country, 
must  have  had  its  own  linguistic  peculiarities. 
Yet  there  seems  to  have  been  throughout  the 
Roman  dominions  a  remarkable  uniformity  both 
of  grammatical  forms  and  of  vocabulary,  politi- 
cal unity  tending  to  break  down  dialect  varia- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  the  pronunciation  doubt- 
less varied  largely,  according  to  the  native  races 
who  learned  the  tongue  of  their  conquerors,  much 
as  English  differs  in  the  mouths  of  the  various 
inhabitants  of  the  British  dominions  in  Asia, 
Africa,  and  America. 

Throughout  the  vast  Roman  Empire,  then,  be- 
sides the  Latin  of  written  books  and  formal  speech, 
unchangeably  fixed  for  later  generations  in  the 
classic  masterpieces,  there  existed  a  more  careless 
diction  of  every-day  life,  used  by  the  uncultured. 
It  is  frequently  referred  to  as  sermo  oottidianuSy 
proletariu8,  rtisiicus,  vulgaris,  or  militaria.  Al- 
though much  uncertainty  prevails  in  regard  to 
the  relations  between  this  language  of  the  vulgar 
and  that  of  literature,  we'  may  be  sure  that  it 
was  subject  to  comparatively  rapid  phonetic  and 
grammatical  change  and  that  its  vocabulary  ad- 
mitted words  upon  which  the  purist  frowned.  In 
the  course  of  time  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
the  vowels  were  altered.  Short  vowels  became 
open,  while  long  ones  were  closed.  Then  short 
vowels  in  free  syllables  were  lengthened,  long 
checked  vowels  shortened.  Certain  imstressed 
vowels  disappeared  and  some  final  consonants, 
notably  m,  were  dropped.  Voiceless  consonants 
between  vowels  became  voiced,  and  then  were  lost, 
while  in  other  positions  different  consonants  un- 
derwent a  variety  of  transformations.  From  the 
conjugation  of  verbs  the  future  and  the  passive 
are  lost.  The  cases  of  nouns  fall  together,  and 
relations  are  largely  expressed  by  prepositions. 
Vulgar  words  are  often  preferred  to  the  more  re- 
fined, as  oahallus,  'nag,'  instead  of  equua,  'horse;' 
strong  words  to  the  more  usual,  as  manducare, 
*to  chew,  to  devour,'  instead  of  edere,  *to  eat;' 
sometimes  new  forms  merely  replace  the  old,  as 
amioitcLS  for  amioitia. 

This  vulgar  or  popular  Latin  was,  as  has  been 
said,  comparatively  imiform  throughout  the  Ro- 
man Empire,  though  some  differences  must  be  as- 
sumed, due  partly  to  the  different  epochs  at 
which  the  provinces  were  Romanized  and  partly 
to  the  character  of  the  races  inhabiting  those 
provinces.  Yet,  on  the  whole,  the  indigenous 
tongues  seem  to  have  left  upon  the  development 
of  the  Ungua  romana  but  faint  traces  of  their 
influence.  They  doubtless  had  their  effect  in 
modifying  pronunciation,  though  there  is  but  lit- 
tle certain  knowledge  on  this  subject,  and  they 
also  contributed  a  few  words  to  the  vocabulary. 
'  It  is  remarkable,  however,  how  little  can  be 
traced  even  to  so  important  a  race  as  the  Celts. 
In  all  the  most  significant  linguistic  elements, 
the  Romance  languages  are  nothing  but  Latin 
following  a  normal  evolution  in  an  unbroken  tra- 
dition. 

The  Teutonic  invasions,  though  they  destroyed 
the  unity  of  the  Roman  Empire,  did  not,  in  those 
countries  in  which  Latin  was  firmly  established, 
interrupt  its  linguistic  development.  By  isolat- 
ing   the    different    communities,    however,    and 


through  the  substitution  of  a  number  of  inde- 
pendent States  in  place  of  a  centralized  goYem- 
ment,  thus  cutting  off  free  intercourse  with  Kome, 
they  doubtless  gave  an  impetus  to  the  separation 
of  the  various  ^alects.  Moreover,  they  had  some 
ittAaonoe  upon  the  pronunciation  and  contributed 
considenb^  to  the  vocabulary,  particularly 
terms  conneeiod  vith  war.  Even  before  the  bar- 
barian conquest  a  number  of  such  terms  had 
been  in  use  among  the  Bomans,  owing  probably 
to  the  presence  of  German  troq^  in  the  Imperial 
armies,  but  the  later  additions  an  much  more 
important  and  copious.  In  fact,  no  vtiker  ex- 
ternal infiuence  upon  the  Romance  langaa|^  can 
compare  in  weight  and  value  with  that  of  tha 
Qerman. 

The  loss  of  the  sentimentof  nationality  led,  in  the 
sixth  and  seventh  centuries,  to  the  rise  of  the 
Romance  nations  and  of  the  Romance  languages. 
It  was  recognized  that  those  speaking  the  lingua 
romana  coiUd  not  understand  Latin,  nor  could 
one  using  Latin  imderstand  the  various  forms  of 
the  lingua  romana.  Moreover,  French  was  atsen 
to  be  different  from  Prov^igal,  and  Provencal 
from  Italian  and  Spanish.  In  each  country,  in- 
deed, a  literature  was  developed  in  the  vulgar 
tongue.  At  first  every  author  wrote  in  his  na- 
tive dialect^  but  soon  political  and  literary  cen- 
tres began  to  exercise  a  powerful  infiuence,  and 
the  dialect  of  Paris  or  Florence  or  Castile  came 
to  be  the  official  and  correct  language,  while  the 
other  dialects  sank  more  and  more  into  the  mere 
patois  of  the  uneducated  peasant. 

During  all  this  development  the  literary  Latin, 
the  language  of  the  Church  and  of  learning,  more 
or  less  rigidly  written  according  to  unchanging 
rules  and  models,  never  ceased  to  affect  the  popu- 
lar tongue.  Borrowing  went  on  without  inter- 
ruption, giving  rise  to  learned  terms  which  often 
exist  side  by  side  with  popular  terms  developed 
from  the  same  Latin  word.  These  learned  terms 
can  be  distinguished  by  their  closer  resemblance 
to  the  original,  since  they  have  not  passed 
through  the  natural  phonetic  development.  We 
have,  for  example,  from  the  Latin  causam,  in 
French  the  doublets  chose  and  cause,  and  in  Ital- 
ian cosa  and  causa.  In  borrowing  from  other 
sources  than  Latin,  German  has  given  most  to 
French,  and  Arabic  to  Spanish,  but  every  modem 
language  contributes  to  the  vocabulary  of  its 
neighbors. 

The  evolution  of  the  Latin  into  the  Romance 
languages  can  best  be  studied  in  the  concrete 
case  of  one  particular  tongue  such  as  French, 
Italian,  or  Spanish,  but  a  few  general  remarks, 
by  no  means  exhaustive,  may  be  made.  The 
Latin  accent  or  stress  usually  remains  on  the 
syllable  on  which  it  was  originally.  Changes  in 
the  vowels  are  conditioned  by  the  stress,  by  the 
fact  of  their  being  free  or  checked,  by  the  in- 
fluence of  preceding  and  following  soimds,  both 
vowel  and  consonant,  and  by  position,  either  ini- 
tial or  final,  before  or  after  accent.  The  changes  in 
consonants  are  conditioned  chiefly  by  their  posi- 
tion, initial,  intervocalic,  or  final,  and  by  their 
combination  with  other  consonants.  In  the  Ro- 
mance tongues  the  inflection  of  substantives  has 
almost  wholly  disappeared,  and  there  is  but  one 
case,  usually  derived  from  the  Latin  accusative; 
the  plural,  at  least  in  the  written  form,  is  dis- 
tinguished from  the  singular;  the  neuter  gender 
no  longer  exists.  The  personal  pronouns  have  three 
or  four  cases,  and  both  stressed  and  unstressed 


BOXAHGB  LAKOtr AGBS. 


121 


BOMANE& 


fomiA.  The  definite  article  has  been  developed 
out  of  the  Latin  ille  and  the  indefinite  article  out 
of  ttfliiM.  The  verbs  commonly  make  a  new  future 
with  hdbeo  and  the  infinitive,  as  oantare  +  habeo, 
giving  Italian  canterd,  Spanish  caniar^,  French 
chanterait  *l  have  to  sing,  I  shall  sing/ 
The  new  passive  is  made  by  joining  a  past 
participle  to  some  form  of  esse,  'to  be,  or 
the  active  voice  of  the  verb  with  a  reflexive  pro- 
noun. New  perfect  tenses  have  also  been  made 
with  the  perfct  participle  preceded  by  haheo  or 
sum.  A  considerable  array  of  suffixes  has  been 
developed  with  which  new  words  can  be  built 
from  various  materiaL 

BiBUOGBAFHY.     Meyer-LQbke,  Einfuhrung  in 

das  Studium  der  romanischen  Sprachtoissenschaft 

(Heidelberg,   1901);  Grober,  Orundriss  der  ro- 

tnaniaehen  PhUologie    (Strassburg,   1888-1902)  ; 

KSrtingy  Eneyolopidie  und  Meth^Lologie  der  ro- 

manisehen  Philologie  (Leipzig,  1884-88)  ;  Hand- 

buck  der  romanischen  Philologie   (ib.,  1896),  a 

shortened  revision  of  the  preening;  Gorra,  Lit^ 

gue  NeolaHne  (Milan,  1894) ;  Diez,  Orammatik 

der  romanischen  Sprachen  (dd  ed.,  Bonn,  1870- 

72) ;  Meyer-Ltlbke,  Orammatik  der  romanischen 

Sprachen      (Leipzig,     1890-1901);     Diez,     Ety- 

mologisches       Worterbuch      der      romanischen 

Sprachen     (6th    ed.,    Bonn,     1887);     K5rting, 

iMtinisch-^vimanisches      Worterbuoh      (2d     ed., 

Paderbom,  1901).    A  well-selected  bibliography, 

including  periodicals  and  special  investigations, 

will  be  found  in  the  first-mentioned  work.    For 

more    <|etailed    information,    see    the    separate 

articles  on  French,  Italian,  Pobtuouess,  Pbo- 

VKN^AL,  BuiCANiAN,  and  Spanish  Languages. 

BOMAirCE  UTEBATUBES.  The  litera- 
tures of  the  various  Romance  languages,  espe- 
cially French,  Provencal,  Italian,  Spanish,  Por- 
tuguese, and  Riunanian.  See  Romance  Lan- 
GTJAOES;  French  Litrratube;  Italian  Ltteba- 
TUBE;      Portuguese     Litebatube;     Pboven^al 

LTTERA.TURE;    RUMANIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LlTEBA- 

TURE ;  Spakish  Litebatube. 

T^O^TA-n  i>s  UL  BOSE,  r6'm^^  de  U  r^z 
(Ft.,  Romance  of  the  Rose).    A  famous  French 
poetico-satirical  allegoiy  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury.   The  work,  which  is  in  octosyllabic  verse,  and 
which  is  over  23,000  lines  long,  consists  of  two 
distinct  parts,  the  first  of  which,  in  4670  verses, 
was    composed   by  Guillaume  de  Lorris    (q.v.) 
about  1230.     It  is. related  as  a  'dream,'  and  cele- 
brates the  trials  and  triumphs  of  love.    The  au- 
thor,   called   Loving    (Amant),  in  early  spring 
enters  a  beautiful  garden  where  there  is  a  rose- 
bud which  he  feels  impelled  to  pick.     The  god 
of  love,  who  has  followed  him  thither,  pierces 
him  with  three  arrows,  each  of  which  increases 
his  desire.     After  various  adventures,  he  obtains 
from   Welcome    (Bel-aocueil)    the  permission  to 
kias  the  rose,  but  Jealousy  comes  up,  surrounds 
the  rose  with  a  wall,  and  locks  up  Welcome  in  a 
tower.     Loving,  deprived  of  the  sight  of  the  rose, 
is  overcome  with  sorrow.    Though  commonplace 
in  itself,  this  story  is  embellished  by  a  great  num- 
ber of  poetic  details  and  by  the  most  graceful 
and  vivid  descriptions.     The  style,  too,  is  pic- 
turesque and  refined.    For  some  unknown  reason 
(some  say  the  death  of  Guillaume),  the  poem 
waa    interrupted    here,    and    only    after    forty 
years    was    taken    up    and    completed    in    ial- 
moat  20,000  verses  by  Jean  de  Meung  ( q.v. ) .     The 
latter,    of    a    very    original    and    radical    turn 


of  mind,  has  been  called  the  Voltaire  of  his 
age.  He  conceived  the  singular  notion  of  sup- 
planting Guillaume's  ars  amatoria  by  an  elabo- 
rate treatise  on  the  scientific  and  political  ques- 
tions of  his  age.  Loving  is  accosted  by  Reason, 
who  in  a  long  argument  endeavors  to  make  him 
leave  the  service  of  Love.  But  at  this  point 
Friendship  steps  in  and  urges  him  to  besiege  the 
tower.  Love  also  promises  his  aid  and  as- 
sembles all  his  forces.  The  action  is  here  re- 
tarded by  a  long  interview  of  Nature  with  her 
chaplain  Genius.  Finally  the  tower  falls  and 
Welcome,  set  free,  allows  Loving  to  pick  Uie 
rose. 

The  main  interest  of  the  second  part  lies,  of 
course,  in  the  expression  of  the  author's  individ- 
uality. This  reveals  an  amount  of  learning  and 
perspicacity  unusual  for  that  time.  Jean  denies 
the  divine  right  of  kings  and  proclaims  the  sov- 
ereignty of  the  people.  He  condemns  the  celibacy 
of  the  clergy  as  immoral  because  unnatural;  he 
expresses  his  disbelief  in  ghosts  and  sorcerers, 
and  in  the  infiuence  of  comets  over  human  lives. 
His  work  is  also  notable  from  a  literary  point  of 
view ;  though  prolix  and  often  trifling,  it  abounds 
in  vigorous  descriptions,  realistic  portraiture, 
and  eloquent  invective. 

The  immediate  influence  of  the  Roman  de  la 
Rose  surpassed  that  of  any  other  mediieval  work. 
It  is  extant  in  more  than  200  manuscripts,  and 
a  later  remodeling  by  Marot  was  almost  more 
popular  than  the  originaL  It  gave  the  impulse 
to  the  rise  of  allegory  in  other  countries.  Trans- 
lations into  foreign  tongues  appeared  toward  the 
end  of  the  thirteenth  century.  Henry  von  Ahem 
put  it  into  Flemish,  Durante — a  contemporary 
of  Dante — into  Italian  sonnets,  and  Chaucer  into 
English  verse.  Unhappily  for  English  literature, 
Chaucer's  translation  is  lost. 

BiBLiOGRAPHT.  Editions:  Mten  (4  vols.,  Paris, 
1813)  ;  Michel  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1864) ;  Marteau 
and  Croissandeau  (with  modem  French  transla- 
tion) (5  vols.,  Orleans,  1878-79).  F.  S.  Ellis 
has  made  a  modem  English  translation  for  the 
Temple  Classics  (3  vols.,  with  a  changed  ending, 
London,  1900).  Consult:  Langlois,  Origines  ei 
sources  du  roman  de  la  rose  (Paris,  1890) ;  id., 
in  Petit  de  Julleville's  Histoire  de  la  langue  ei 
de  la  litt^rature  francaise {VATiaf  1896),  to  which 
is  appended  a  good  bibliography;  Saintsbury, 
The  Flourishing  of  Romance  and  the  Rise  of 
Allegory  (London,  1897). 

BOHAN  DE  LA  VIOLETTE,  de  Ik  v6'6aet^ 
(Fr.,  Romance  of  the  Violet).  A  French  poem 
of  the  thirteenth  century  in  about  6700  rhymed 
eight-syllabled  verses,  by  Gerbert  de  Montreuil. 
It  tells  of  a  woman  whose  virtue  id  the  sub- 
ject of  a  wager.  She  is  slandered,  but  succeeds 
at  last  in  proving  her  innocence.  This  Greek  tale 
is  the  basis  of  the  Roman  du  Comte  de  Poitiers, 
of  Floire  et  Jeanne,  the  miracle  of  Ot  et  B^ran- 
gier,  of  the  ninth  stoiy  of  the  second  day  in 
the  Decameron,  and  of  Shakespeare's  Cymheline. 
Weber's  opera  Eurianthe  (1823)  has  the  same 
story  for  its  dramatic  theme.  The  Roman  de  la 
Violetie  was  published  by  F.  Michel  (Paris, 
1834).  Consult  the  Histoire  litUraire  de  la 
France,  vol.  xviii.   (ib.,  1835). 

B0XAN  EMPOtE,  Holt.  See  Holt  Roman 
Empire. 

B0XANE8,  r6-mil^n6e,  Geobge  John  (1848- 
94) .    An  English  biologist  and  psychologist,  bom 


B01CAKB& 


122 


SOMANESQUB  ABT. 


at  Kingston,  Canada.  He  was  educated  in  Eng- 
land, France,  Germany,  and  Italy,  graduating 
from  Gonville  and  Gaius  College,  Cambridge,  in 
1870,  with  honora  in  natural  science.  In  1875 
and  again  in  1881  he  was  Croonian  lecturer  to 
the  Royal  Society,  to  which  he  was  elected  to 
membership  in  1879.  Later  he  became  Fullerian 
professor  of  physiology  in  the  Royal  Institution 
of  London  and  Roseberry  lecturer  on  natural  his- 
tory in  the  Uniyersity  of  Edinburgh.  He  also 
served  the  Linnsean  Society  as  its  zoalogical  secre- 
tary. Besides  publishing  a  series  of  monographs 
on  the  Medusfle,  Echin^erms,  etc.,  he  devoted 
himself  to  extending  the  principles  of  evolution 
in  the  field  of  psychology,  having  become  an  in- 
timate friend  of  Charles  Darwin  while  in  Cam- 
bridge. His  chief  works  are:  A  Candid  Etoamimor 
iion  of  Theism  (1878);  Animal  Intelligence 
("International  Scientific  Series,"  xliv.,  1881) ; 
Charles  Darwin:  His  Life  and  Character  (1882) ; 
The  Scientific  Evidence  of  Organic  Evolution 
(1882);  Mental  Evolution  in  Animals,  with  a 
Poethumous  Esswy  on  Instinct  by  Charles  Darwin 
(1883);  Jelly-fish,  Star-fish,  and  Sea  Urchins 
("International  Scientific  Series,"  xlix.,  1885) ; 
Mental  Evolution  in  Man:  Origin  of  Human 
Faculty  (1888) ;  Darwin  and  After  Darwin:  An 
Exposition  of  the  Darwinian  Theory  and  a  Dis- 
cussion of  Post-Darwinian  Questions  (1892-97) ; 
An  Ewamination  of  Weismannism  (1893); 
Thoughts  on  Religion  (1895) ;  Mind  and  Motion 
and  Monism  (1896).  Consult  The  Life  and  Let- 
ters of  George  John  Romanes,  written  and  Edited 
by  His  Wife  (London,  1898). 

BOXAVESQUB  ABT  (Fr.  romanesque,  from 
Sp.  romanesco,  from  ML.  Romaniscus,  Roman, 
from  Lat.  Romanus,  Roman,  from  Roma,  Rome). 
A  general  name  for  the  art  that  fiourished  in 
Europe  during  the  period  of  fermentation  before 
the  definite  constitution  of  nationalities,  from 
about  A.D.  800  to  1200.  In  general  it  is  re- 
markable only  for  its  architecture,  which  over- 
shadows all  other  branches.  Sculpture  and 
painting  revive,  but  are  still  in  their  infancy; 
goldsmith  work,  illumination,  and  ivory-carving 
are  practiced  with  better  success.  Except  in 
Italy,  the  art  of  this  period  is  chiefly  monastic. 
The  great  free  cities  m  Italy  and  the  Imperial 
and  feudal  houses  of  Germany  were  the  only 
great  stimuli  to  art  production  besides  the  mon- 
asteries themselves.  The  first  two  centuries  of 
this  age  were  dormant  and  preparatory,  the  last 
two  alone  were  productive. 

Abchitectube.  The  architecture  of  this  period 
is  called  by  the  names  of  various  schools,  which 
are  merely  topographical  variations  of  the  gen- 
eral style,  e.g.  the  Lombard  (q.v.)  in  Northern 
Italy,  the  Rhenish  in  (j^rmany,  the  Saxon  and 
Norman  (q.v.)  in  England,  the  Provencal  and 
Norman  in  France.  The  works  of  each  may  be 
divided  into  two  groups  according^as  its  build- 
ings were  unvaulted  or  vaulted.  The  unvaulted 
type  was  the  earlier,  and  in  some  sections  con- 
tinued until  the  end;  the  vaulted  type  was  an 
innovation  after  a.d.  1000,  and  gradually  spread 
over  many  of  the  most  progressive  r^ons  and  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  ideal  vaulted  style— the 
Gothic.  Up  to  A.D.  1000  the  style  in  some  re- 
gions was  practically  a  continuation  of  early 
Christian  art,  as  in  the  basilican  churches  of 
Rome,  but  certain  new  elements  were  introduced 
in  the  north,  among  which  the  chief  were  the 


development  of  the  cruciform  plan  with  elongmted 
choir;  double  choirs,  often  raised;  double  tran- 
sept; substitution  of  piers  for  columns  or  alter- 
nation of  the  two  crypts;  and  bell-towers  as  part 
of  the  plan. 

These  innovations  affected  the  scheme  and 
composition  rather  than  the  style  of  eonstmction 
or  ornamentation.  An  Eastern  infiuenoe  is  seen 
in  a  number  of  circular  or  polygonal  domed 
churches,  among  which  the  CathecUral  of  Charle- 
magne at  Aix-la-Chapdle  is  the  masterpiece.  The 
systematic  and  elaborate  planning  of  the  build- 
ings of  a  great  monastic  establiSiment  belongs 
to  this  period,  as  is  shown  at  Saint  Gall  (o.v.). 
The  church  at  Michelstadt  is  an  examjple  of  the 
oblong  plan.  Saint  Michael  at  Hildesheim  ( 1003- 
13)  brings  us  to  the  threshold  of  the  next  stage, 
when  vaulting  began  to  be  substituted  for  wooden 
ceilings.  Thus  far  there  had  been  no  develop- 
ment of  sculptural  ornament  or  moldings;  the 
style  was  penectly  plain.  In  Italy,  from  which 
the  earlier  builders  in  the  north  of  Europe  had 
originally  come,  the  changes  were  hardlv  felt  at 
all,  and  examples  of  timber-roofed  churdies  scat- 
tered from  one  end  of  Italy  to  the  other  show 
the  continued  prevalence  until  lon^  after  aj>. 
1000  of  the  plain  basilical  plan  without  tran- 
sept or  choir,  out  with  occasional  use  of  the  crypt 
(q.v.),  a  feature  developed  in  the  monastie 
churches  of  the  north. 

The  renovated  civilization  of  the  eleventh  oeB> 
tury  created  an  architecture  worthy  of  standing 
by  the  side  of  the  new  scholastic  theology,  ot 
the  revived  faith  that  led  to  the  Crusades,  and  of 
the  reconstituted  organisms  of  Church  and  State. 
It  was  natural  that  the  free  republics  of  Italy 
should  lead  in  the  field;  their  rivals  were  the 
Rhenish  and  Saxon  cities  of  the  new  German 
Empire  and  the  Romance  cities  of  Provence 
and  the  rest  of  Southern  France.  The  eleventh 
and  twelfth  centuries  were  marked  by  extraor- 
dinary creative  activity  in  the  development  of 
new  types  of  monastic  buildings  (see  Monas- 
tebt)  and  churches,  but  also  in  the  creation  of 
entirely  new  classes  of  building,  such  as  feudal 
castles  (q.v.),  and  artistic  city  houses.  The 
monastic  artists  were  soon  rivaled  by  the  lay 
guilds.  The  impression  made  by  a  study 
of  Romanesque  monuments  throughout  Europe  is 
of  unequaled  variety,  inventiveness,  and  boldness 
in  seeking  unconventional  solution  of  architec- 
tural problems.  In  the  absence  of  organized  na- 
tional life,  each  province  developed  its  special 
style.  Certain  jgeneral  characteristics  are,  how- 
ever, evident.  The  introduction  of  vaulting  led 
to  the  general  use  of  heavy  walls  in  place  of  the 
thin  waUs  that  had  sufficed  for  wooden  roofs. 
Doors  and  windows  had  to  be  splayed  and  deco- 
rated with  moldings,  carving,  and  sculptures, 
which  became  increasingly  rich  and  variecL  The 
proportions  were  entirely  changed  by  the  use 
of  the  vault;  the  nave  was  necessarily  narrower 
and  was  raised  higher  in  order  to  give  room  for 
windows  under  the  base  line  of  the  vault.  Heavy 
piers  replaced  columns  and  were  membered  with 
engaged  shafts  corresponding  to  the  vaulting 
ribs  and  pier  arches. 

Thus  beginning  about  A.D.  1000  with  plain 
square  piers  and  plain  openings,  with  very  heavy 
walls  (as  at  Vignory  in  France  with  its  wooden 
roof),  we  proceed  through  progressive  stages  un- 
til in  the  twelfth  centui^  we  get  to  the  richness 
of  Saint  Servin  at  Toulouse  and  the  Abbey  of 


BOXAXrBSQtTS  AJBLT. 


idB 


BOMANESQXnS  A&T. 


Veseky  or  of  Peterboroo^^,  Ely,  and  Durliam. 
Only  in  a  few  provinces  where  early  Chris- 
tian and  classic  traditions  were  strong;  as  in 
Rome  and  Tuscany,  did  the  old  columnar 
basilica  maintain  its  sway,  .^sthetically  the 
Romanesque  style  impresses  by  its  seriousness  of 
purpose,  its  massiveness,  and  its  originality.  The 
substitution  of  vaulting  in  place  of  the  com- 
bustible wooden  roof  introduced  an  entirely  new 
structural  problem,  and  the  Romane8<|ue  attempts 
at  its  solution  were  endlessly  varied:  domes, 
round  and  pointed  tunnel  vaults,  unribbed  and 
ribbed  groin-vaults  of  every  conceivable  form 
were  lued.  The  architects  were  seeking  for  a 
perfect  equilibrium  of  parts.  This  was  not  dis- 
covered until  the  Gothic  ribbed  vault  and  flying 
buttress  were  evolved  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
twelfth  century. 

Italy.  In  Italy  especially,  the  diversity  of 
styles  during  the  Bomanesaue  period  la  extreme. 
Venice,  for  example,  is  predominantly  Byzantine, 
not  only  in  Saint  Mark's  with  its  domes  and 
mosaics,  and  in  the  churches  of  Toroello  (Cathe- 
dral and  Santa  Fosca)  and  Murano,  but  in  its 
private  palaces  with  their  stilted  arcades,  marble 
facades,  and  sculptured  ornament.  Then  again, 
the  cosmopolitan  culture  of  the  Norman  kings  of 
Sicily  produced  a  gorgeous  architecture  made  up 
of  Latin,  Greek,  and  Arabic  elements,  as  in  the 
cathedrals  of  Cefaltl  and  Monreale,  and  the  Cap- 
pella  Palatina  at  Palermo.  In  Calabria  there  ap- 
pears a  pure  Byzantine  style,  with  tiir7  domical 
churches,  like  those  of  Greece;  in  Campania, 
especially  at  Ravello  and  Salerno,  Moorish  and 
Byzantine  influences  sometimes  predominate, 
though  we  often  And  a  strong  Lombard  element. 
Working  northward,  we  now  find  two  main  divi- 
sions, based  on  different  principles:  the  classic 
and  the  Lombard.  The  classic  school  is  repre- 
sented by  the  Boman  provinces  and  Tuscany, 
which  produced  works  of  great  beauty  of  form 
and  color,  but  covered  with  the  wooden  roof. 
This  school  is  best  represented  by  the  mediaeval 
basilicas  of  Rome  itself,  and  by  the  cathedrals 
of  Terracina.  and  Civitft  Castellana.  Its  simple 
but  majestic  columnar  interiors  with  rich  mosaic 
oniament,  its  symmetrical  brick  campanili  and 
exquisite  architraved  porches  recall  the  best  early 
Christian  art.  Less  classic,  but  even  more  monu- 
mental and  gayer  in  their  exteriors,  were  the 
Tuscan  churches.  Here  Pisa — ^Venice's  great  ri- 
val at  this  time — ^takes  the  lead  with  its  cathe- 
dral, baptistery,  leaning  tower,  and  a  host  of 
other  buildings,  follow^  by  Lucca,  with  San 
Frediano,  San  Giovanni,  and  San  Michele  as  well 
as  Pistoja,  Prato,  and  other  smaller  towns.  The 
same  use  of  columns  and  roof  as  in  Rome  is  com- 
bined with  an  alternation  of  black  and  white 
marbles  borrowed  from  the  East  and  with  interior 
and  exterior  open  arcades  and  galleries  borrowed 
from  Lombardy,  as  was  also  the  use  of  relief 
sculpture  on  the  facades. 

The  Tuscan  churches,  like  the  Boman  and  the 
Lombard,  had  a  single  detached  bell-tower  or 
campanile,  usually  to  the  right  of  the  church. 
In  this  Italy  differed  both  from  the  Orient  and 
from  Northern  Europe,  where  the  bell-tower  or  a 
pair  of  them  was  ordinarily  an  integral  part  of 
the  church.  The  Lombard  style,  the  second  of 
the  two  great  schools  named  above,  made  fre- 
quent use  of  the  groined  vault,  and  secured  a 
Bombre  impressiveness  by  the  heavy  proportions 
and  details  that  went  with  vaulting.    Externally 


the  same  impression  results  from  the  use  of 
plain  walls  of  brick  or  stone  imrelieved  by  mar- 
ble. Sant'  Ambrogio  at  Milan  and  San  Michele  at 
Pavia  were  the  earliest  examples  and  furnished 
the  type;  the  cathedrals  and  baptisteries  of 
Parma,  Cremona,  Piacenza,  Ferrara,  and  Modena 
are  all  superb  structures,  unsurpassed  b^  build- 
ings of  any  age  in  Italy.  In  this  province  the 
baptisteries  are  especially  numerous  and  impor- 
tant (e.g.  Parma  and  Cremona).  Here  also  were 
built  the  earliest  •town-halls  of  the  free  com- 
munes. Hardly  less  monumental,  but  with  less 
consistent  use  of  vaulting,  are  the  South  Lom- 
bard churches  of  Apulia,  where  the  decoration 
is  richer  and  more  artistic  than  in  Lombardy 
itself,  as  at  Bitonto,  Altamura,  and  Troja.  The 
portals  and  wheel  windows  are  the  richest  and 
most  symmetrical  in  Italy.  Apulia  is  also  rich 
in  churches  showing  French,  Norman,  and  Byzan- 
tine influences.  Baptisteries  and  towers  were 
very  few  in  this  province,  so  that  the  churches 
usually  stand  alone. 

France.  It  was  in  France  that  the  Bomaii- 
esque  style,  forsaking  early  Christian  and  clas- 
sic traditions,  and  unaffected  by  contemporary 
Oriental  art,  first  developed  as  an  independent 
style  merging  into  the  Gothic.  With  greater 
homogeneity  than  in  Italy,  it  nevertheless  dis- 
plays well-marked  local  variations  or  schools, 
e.g.  those  of  Provence,  Auvergne,  and  P6rigord  in 
the  southj  of  Burgundy  in  the  centre;  and  of  the 
Royal  Domain  and  Normandy  in  the  north.  It 
was  in  these  schools  that  the  successful  struggle 
to  create  a  vaulted  style  as  a  substitute  for  a 
wooden-roofed  style  was  carried  on,  leading  ulti- 
mately to  the  Gothic-ribbed  vault  and  buttress. 
The  Byzantine  domical  solution  with  a  single 
nave  was  adopted  in  Aquitaine,  especially  in 
Pfirigord,  where  Saint  Front  at  P6rigueux,  with 
its  five  domes  over  a  Greek  cross,  is  comparable 
to  Saint  Mark's  at  Venice  and  the  Cathedral  of 
Cahors  shows  how  a  single  long  nave  may  be 
covered  with  a  row  of  domes.  This  style,  at  first 
very  plain,  became  enriched  with  typical  Roman- 
esque detail  and  ornament  through  the  twelfth 
century,  and  is  then  represented  by  such  master- 
pieces as  the  cathedrals  of  Angoulteie  and  Fon- 
tevrault.  The  other  most  fruitful  early  school 
was  that  of  Auvergne,  in  which  occur  the  ear- 
liest examples  of  the  long  choir  with  side  aisles, 
ambulatory  and  radiating  chapels,  later  elabo- 
rated in  the  Gothic  style.  Its  masterpiece  is 
the  largest  remaining  Romanesque  church  in 
France-— Saint  Servin  at  Toulouse,  with  its  impos- 
ing central  tower,  tunnel-vaulted  nave,  symmetri- 
cal composition,  and  rich  details.  Tunnel-vault- 
ing and  classic  traditions  are  conspicuous  in  the 
southernmost  or  Provencal  school.  Saint  Tro- 
phtme  at  Aries  and  Saint  Gilles  are  celebrated 
for  their  richly  sculptured  portals.  Ordinarily 
the  churches  were  of  moderate  size,  often  with 
but  a  single  nave,  as  at  Avignon,  Cavaillon,  and 
Montmajour.  Still  commoner,  however,  was  the 
three-aisled  type  with  the  side  aisle  so  disposed 
as  to  receive  the  thrust  of  the  central  tunnel 
vault.  The  difiiculty  of  providing  a  clearstory, 
with  this  arangement,  led  to  varied  expedients  to 
avoid  the  resulting  dark  interiors,  and  stimulated 
ingenuity  in  vault-building,  by  which  ultimately 
clearstory  windows  were  introduced.  Tliis  school 
is  inferior  to  that  of  Auvergne  especially  in  the 
absence  of  the  triforiimi  to  break  up  the  wall 
surfaces. 


ftOKANSSQTm  ABT. 


124 


BOMAKSSQXJE  ABT. 


It  was  in  Burgundy,  howeyer,  that  the  tunnel- 
vaulted,  three-aisled  basilica  was  most  highly  de- 
veloped by  the  monastic  orders  of  Cluny  and  Ci- 
teaux;  and  the  spread  of  these  orders  popularized 
throughout  Europe  the  building  methods  current 
in  Burgundy.  The  primitive  form  of  this  style  is 
given  in  the  great  Church  of  Saint  Philibert  at 
Toumus,  remarkable  for  its  unique  series  of 
tunnel-vaults,  built  transversely  over  the  nave. 
Of  equal  importance  was  Saint  Benoit-sur-Loire, 
another  monastic  church  of  iiijpressive  simplicity 
and  size,  and  finally  the  most  colossal  church  of 
mediaeval  Christianity,  the  Abbey  at  Cluny  (long 
since  demolished),  on  which  all  the  wealth  of  per- 
fected Romanesque  style  was  lavished,  and  whose 
infiuence  extended  over  the  whole  province.  The 
abbey  Church  of  Vezelay  is  the  most  perfect  re- 
maining example  of  this  influence.  Autun  is  a 
masterpiece  of  another  sort  showing  classic  traits. 
Omitting  some  secondary  schools  of  Middle 
France,  there  remain  three  principal  northern 
schools,  Champagne,  Ile-de-France,  and  Nor- 
mandy. These  differed  from  the  more  southern 
schools  in  their  long  retention  of  the  wooden  roof 
to  cover  even  their  largest  structures.  The  two 
great  churches  at  Caen,  the  Abbaye  aux  Hommes 
and  Abbaye  aux  Dames,  which  were  the  pre- 
cursors of  the  early  Gothic  cathedrals,  were  at 
first  wooden-roofed  ( ell 50),  their  groined  vaults 
being  of  later  date.  The  Norman  scheme  of 
facade,  with  its  two  high  flanking  towers,  and 
the  Norman  system  of  groined  vaulting,  was 
adopted  in  the  Ile-de-France  (as  at  Saint  Denis) 
and  then  passed  into  the  early  Gothic  architec- 
ture. To  recapitulate,  there  is  in  the  French 
Romanesque  a  remarkable  variety  of  methods  and 
of  vaulting,  of  plan,  of  lighting,  and  of  external 
and  internal  decoration.  The  monasteries  and 
their  churches  were  then  of  far  greater  im- 
portance than  the  cathedrals,  and  therefore  such 
accessory  buildings  as  cloisters  (q.v.)  and  chap- 
ter-houses (q.v.)  form  important  classes. 
Porches  (q.v.)  and  towers  (q.v.)  on  the  church 
facades  were  also  of  varied  design. 

Gebkaitt.  To  the  political  leadership  of  the 
German  emperors  of  the  tenth  and  eleventh  cen- 
turies— the  Othos  and  Henrys— corresponds  an 
earlier  and  larger  architectural  activity  than 
elsewhere  in  Europe.  The  great  cathedrals  of 
Worms,  Mainz,  Speyer,  and  Bonn  show  how  the 
bishops  surpassed  the  monasteries  at  a  time  when 
in  France  the  monasteries  were  supreme  and  the 
cathedrals  insignificant.  At  the  same  time,  the 
wealth  of  monastic  buildings  was  increased  in 
the  twelfth  century  by  the  advent  of  the  Cis- 
tercian monks,  w]^o  were  great  builders.  The 
three  earliest  schools  were  the  Rhenish,  the  Sax- 
on, and  the  Bavarian- Swabian ;  while  there  were 
secondary  offshoots  in  Westphalia,  Hesse,  the 
Main  region,  and  in  Alsace.  While  buildings 
were  planned  on  a  large  scale,  there  was  no  at- 
tempt at  solving  the  vaulting  problem.  Not  a 
church  was  vaulted  during  the  eleventh  century, 
and  during  the  twelfth  few  outside  of  the  Rhen- 
ish school.  The  great  Rhenish  cathedrals  as 
they  now  stand  were  mostly  planned  for  wooden 
roofs  and  vaulted  at  a  later  date.  First  Speyer 
(c.UOO),  then  Mainz  (c.ll26)  were  covered  with 
square  groin -vaults,  the  only  kind  that  became 
popular  in  Germany,  and  these  were  followed  by 
the  great  Abbey  of  Laach,  with  its  oblong  groin- 
vaults,  .  There  is,  therefore,  less  difference  be- 
tween the  early  Christian  basilicas  and  the  Ro- 


manesque churches  in  Gennany  than  in  Fran<3e. 
Some  of  the  earliest  examples  are  at  Gemrode, 
Quedlinburg,  Reichenau,  Regensburg  (Sankt  Em- 
meran),  Hildesheim  (Sankt  Michael).  Col(^ne 
had  the  largest  number  of  important  churches — 
such  as  Saint  Pantaleon,  Santa  Maria  in  Capi- 
tolio,  the  Apostles,  Sankt  Martin — and  most  of 
them  are  vaulted.  Their  immense  central  domes, 
with  large  semi-domes  opening  out  as  apses  on 
three  sides,  give  their  interiors  greater  unity  and 
grandeur  than  any  other  type  in  Germany.  Ger- 
man churches  have  many  peculiarities  not  seen 
elsewhere;  for  example,  double  choirs  and  tran- 
septs, one  at  each  end,  are  quite  common  (cathe- 
drals of  Worms  and  Mainz,  Abbey  of  Laach,  etc.). 
So  also  is  the  alternation  of  columns  and  piers 
between  nave  and  aisle,  e.g.  Gemrode  and  Sankt 
Godehard,  Hildesheim.  Round  or  octagonal  tow- 
ers are  grouped  around  choirs  and  transepts  in 
a  way  that  greatly  adds  to  the  richness  and  sym- 
metry of  the  exterior,  beside  the  larger  towers 
at  the  facade  and  over  the  intersection.  No  other 
country  has  so  symmetrical  a  composition  of  ex- 
teriors. This  Is  carried  to  great  perfection  in  the 
Cathedral  of  Bonn.  On  the  other  hand,  the  in- 
teriors are  bare  and  heavy,  and  there  is  no 
wealth  of  decorative  and  figured  sculpture  such 
as  we  find  in  France.  Columnar  basilicas  were 
built,  as  at  Limburg  and  Hersfeld,  where  was  the 
most  important,  Hirsau,  and  many  other  places. 
But  the  pier-basilica  was  the  commoner  type.  The 
great  similarity  to  the  Lombard  churches  in  the 
exterior  decoration  of  lines  of  false  arcades  and 
small  open  galleries  proves  that  there  was  a 
close  contact  between  these  schools  and  the  Rhen- 
ish, though  the  German  is  superior  in  beauty 
and  picturesqueness.  Besides  the  churches  and 
monasteries  there  is  a  group  of  civil  structures, 
the  like  of  which  was  unknown  in  the  rest  of 
Europe;  namely,  the  Imperial  and  royal  pal- 
aces. Starting  with  the  type  developed  by 
Charlemagne  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  there  follow  the 
palace  of  Henry  III.  at  Goslar,  that  of  Henry  the 
Lion  at  Brunswick,  and  that  of  Louis  III.  of 
Thuringia  at  the  Wartburg,  best  known  of  all. 
*  England.  The  extant  architecture  of  Chris- 
tian England  antedating  the  Norman  Conquest 
is  very  scanty.  It  is  called  Anglo-Saxon,  because 
developed  under  the  Saxon  rulers  between  the 
seventh  and  eleventh  centuries.  The  great  majority 
of  both  religious  and  civil  buildings  were  of  wood. 
Even  the  stone  cathedrals  of  later  date  (t^nth  to 
eleventh  century)  were  small  and  were  rebuilt 
by  the  Normans  shortly  after  the  Conquest.  The 
workmanship  was  primitive,  the  details  poor,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  Tower  at  Earl's  Barton,  where 
the  colonnettes  are  like  turned  work,  and  the 
comer  quoining  suggests  bands  of  metal  ( Deer- 
hurst,  Sompting,  etc.).  The  Norman  style  was 
introduced  from  Normandy  even  before  the  Con- 
quest, under  Edward  the  Confessor;  but  the  ear- 
lier Norman  work,  before  1126,  was  poor,  with 
wide- jointed  masonry  and  details  executed  with 
the  axe.  The  chapel  of  the  London  Tower,  the 
crypts  and  the  transepts  of  Winchester  Cathe- 
dral, and  parts  of  Gloucester,  Durham,  Canter- 
bury, and  Norwich  cathedrals  show  the  primitive 
style,  which  was  inferior  to  that  in  Normandy 
itself.  About  1120  was  begun  a  series  of  superb 
Norman  structures,  and  by  1200  the  main  por- 
tions of  Ely,  Durham,  Peterborough,  Norwich. 
Rochester,  Gloucester,  Saint  Albans,  Carlisle,  and 
other  cathedrals  were  built,  as  well  as  a  great 


fiOMAmssotrB  a&t. 


128 


fiOXAKSMUI!  A&T. 


mmiber  of  mona8terie&--e8pecially  Cistercian — 
such  as  Rievaulx  Fountains,  Kirkstall,  Waltham, 
Romaey,  and  Malmsbury.  The  characteristics  of 
this  style  are  heavy  walls  and  piers,  rich  details, 
length  and  narrowness  of  plan,  inability  to  vault 
wide  spaces,  lack  of  figured  sculpture,  constant 
use  of  geometric  and  schematic  ornament,  and  use 
of  both  round  and  grouped  piers.  The  portals  are 
espeeially  rich  and  deeply  recessed,  and  their 
most  characteristic  ornaments  are  in  the  zigzag 
and  beak  molding.  The  naves  are  all  covered 
with  wooden  roofs,  but  the  aisles  are  often  groin- 
vaulted.  Especial  prominence  was  given  to  the 
triforia,  which  form  lofty  galleries  over  the 
aisles.  Few  of  the  original  facades  remain  for 
comparison  with  contemporary  Continental  ex- 
amples. Of  all  phases  of  the  Romanesque  the 
Norman  is  the  heaviest,  makes  the  least  use  of 
vaulting  (except  the  Tuscan),  and  is  the  least 
well  composed,  though  often  impressive.  Toward 
the  close  of  the  twelfth  century  the  heaviness 
diminishes,  and  certain  parts  of  Ely  and  Norwich 
are  charmingly  symmetrical. 

Spaik.  The  Spanish  Romanesque  slyle  com- 
menced early  in  the  ninth  century  under  King 
Alfonso  II.  of  Asturias,  with  the  renewed 
life  of  Christian  Spain.  The  new  capital, 
Oviedo  tSan  Tirso,  San  Julian),  and  the 
neighboring  Naranco  (Santa  Maria,  San  Miguel) 
show  a  mixture  of  early  Christian  and  Byzantine 
influences  <c.800-850),  as  do  later  churches  at 
Valdedios,  Priesca,  and  Barcelona.  Moorish  in- 
fluence also  becomes  prominent.  With  the 
eleventh  century  the  south  of  France  inspires  the 
Spanish  school  in  its  further  revival.  The  in- 
creased prosperity  of  the  Christian  cities  of 
Spain,  to  many  of  which  French  bishops  were 
appointed,  caused  a  revival  in  cathedral  archi- 
tecture, which  adopted  the  vault  in  all  its  forms, 
the  tunneled  being  used  ordinarily  for  the  nave, 
the  groined  for  the  aisles.  San  Isidoro  at  Leon,  the 
old  Cathedral  of  Salamanca,  that  of  Zamora, 
the  church  at'  Toro,  and  San  lago  at  Compostella 
are  characteristic  examples,  Salamanca  being  the 
earliest  and  San  lago  the  most  consummate  work. 
These  Spanish  chiurches  are  grandiose  and  equal 
to  the  foremost  French  buildings,  even  surpassing 
them  in  some  features,  such  as  the  effective  dome 
over  the  intersection  of  Compostella.  Examples 
of  tunnel-vaulted  hall-churches  are  at  Gerona, 
Huesca,  and  Segovia,  similar  to  those  of  Prov- 
ence and  Languedoc.  The  most  -important  groin- 
Taulted  churches  are  Santa  Maria  at  Tudela  and 
the  cathedrals  of  Tarragona  and  L^rida,  remark- 
able for  unity  of  plan,  solidity  of  construction, 
and  beauty  of  detail.  They  bear  great  similarity 
to  the  school  of  Anjou.  San  Vicente  at  Avila  has 
the  most  interesting  figured  sculptures  on  its 
facade  and  an  exceptionally  beautiful  triforiimi 
gallery.  The  Spanish  school  reaches  its  most 
slorious  period  when  the  time  approaches,  toward 
1200,  for  France  to  give  her  the  Gothic  as  she 
had  the  Romanesque. 

SOCTLPTUBE. 

In  the  minor  forms  of  sculpture,  Byzantine 
and.  early  Christian  models  were  generally  fol- 
lowed during  the  Romanesque  epoch  (see  Btzan- 
niTE  Abt),  the  awakening  of  monumental  sculp- 
ture having  been  due  to  the  demand  for  archi- 
tectural decoration. 

Fbakce.  Such  was  particularly  the  case  dur- 
ing the  Carolingian  revival  in  France  and  Ger- 
many.    In  the  south  of  France,  however,  stone 


sculpture  on  a  larger  scale  was  used  in  oonnee^ 
tion  with  church  architecture.  The  facades  were 
crowded  with  statues,  often  representing  a  larger 
composition;  statues  even  took  the  place  of  col- 
umns in  the  cloisters.  Technically  inferior  to 
those  of  the  succeeding  Gothic  period,  they  were 
more  characteristic  and  individual.  The  school 
of  Provence  was  dignified  and  quiet  in  character, 
concealing  technical  deficiencies  by  rich  decora- 
tion; that  of  Burgundy,  more  finished  in  tech- 
nique, more  fanciful  and  inventive,  but  gro- 
tesque and  dramatic;  that  of  Toulouse,  more 
finished  and  studied.  A  curious  combination  of 
Carolingian  and  Byzantine  influence  is  sho^na  by 
the  school  which  in  the  first  half  of  the  twelfth 
century  created  the  fine  facade  of  Angoul^me, 
the  entire  sculptures  of  which  form  one  com- 
position, a  "Last  Judgment,"  and  the  rich  portal 
of  Cahors. 

Gebicany.  During  the  ninth  century  carving 
in  ivory,  after  early  Christian  and  Byzantine 
models,  was  extensively  practiced.  An  impor- 
tant centre  was  the  Monastery  of  Saint  Gall, 
where  Tutilo  was  the  chief  master.  Foreign  in- 
fluence rather  increased  imder  the  Othos,  being 
promoted  by  their  frequent  expeditions  to 
Rome,  and  the  marriage  of  Otho  III.  with  the 
Byzantine  Princess  Theophano.  Though  ruder 
than  their  models,  the  native  workmen  display 
more  naturalism  and  individuality.  Monumental 
sculpture  did  not  arise  until  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury, through  the  instrumentality  of  Bishop 
Bemward  of  Hildesheim.  Impressed  by  the  col- 
umns of  Trajan  and  Marcus  Aurelius  at  Rome, 
he  erected  one  of  his  own  at  Hildesheim,  besides 
furnishing  his  own  cathedral  with  bronze  doors. 
His  school  was  especiallv  occupied  with  articles 
of  church  furniture,  and  invented  bronze  sepul- 
chral slabs.  Among  its  most  important  produc- 
tions are  the  portals  of  the  cathedrals  at  Augs- 
burg, Verona,  and  Gnesen,  the  baptismal  font  of 
Merseburg,  and  especially  the  beautiful  gold 
altar  front  which  Henry  II.  presented  to  the 
cathedral  at  Basel. 

Italy.  During  the  twelfth  century,  in  con- 
nection with  facade  decoration,  a  species  of 
Romanesque  sculpture  originated  in  Lombardy 
and  Tuscany,  which  during  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury was  applied  to  interior  decoration  as  well. 
Its  technique  was  rude,  the  figures  being  short 
and  coarse,  the  expression  and  dramatic  action 
childish,  the  draperies  very  primitive.  The  best 
work  of  this  school  is  found  in  Lombardy,  espe- 
cially in  the  cathedrals  of  Modena  and  Ferrara, 
in  Saint  Zeno,  and  the  Cathedral  at  Verona.  Dur- 
ing the  later  twelfth  century  considerable  prog- 
ress was  made  by  Benedetto  Antelami,  whose 
sculptures  in  the  Cathedral  of  Parma  and  the 
neighboring  Borgo  San  Donino  show  nature  study 
and  a  sense  of  form  and  motion.  At  Venice 
Byzantine  influence  prevailed,  but  the  sculptures 
of  the  main  portal  of  Saint  Mark,  and,  in  the 
interior,  the  angels  under  the  cupola  are  Roman- 
esque in  character.  The  Tuscan  sculptures  are 
more  primitive  in  character;  the  revival  under 
Niccola  Pisano  in  the  thirteenth  century  is  of 
sufficient  importance  for  general  development  to 
merit  treatment  in  the  article  Scdlptube. 

PAINTIXG. 

Germany.  Mural  painting  was  extensively 
practiced  under  the  patronage  of  Charles  the 
Great,  but  of  the  decorations  which  we  know 
existed  in  the  royal  palace  and  in  the  churches  no 


fidCACTSatrS  A&T. 


IM 


nouAxon. 


examples  Burviye.  Contemporaiy  mmiaturesy 
however,  which  correspond  in  the  main  with 
these  frescoes,  reveal  an  art  still  following  early 
Christian  traditions  in  general  plan,  but  pos- 
sessing a  highly  developed  system  of  ornament, 
Germanic  in  character.  Under  the  successors  of 
Charles  painting  declined,  but  with  the  develop- 
ment of  Romanesque  architecture  it  found  in- 
creased employment,  as  early  as  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, on  the  large  wall  surfaces  of  most  German 
churches.  These  paintings  are  executed  with 
rapid  technique,  and  are  decorative  in  color  and 
design,  the  background  being  generally  blue,  the 
colors  light,  and  the  halos  of  saints  and  borders 
of  costumes  laid  over  with  gold.  Though  in- 
ferior to  contemporary  Byzantine  art  in  tech- 
nique, they  contain  elements  which  it  lacks — 
life,  character,  and  action.  The  oldest  examples 
are  in  the  Church  of  Oberzell  in  the  island  of 
Reichenau  (tenth  century) ;  of  better  quality  are, 
among  others,  the  paintmgs  in  the  lower  Church 
of  Schwarzrheindorf  (twelfth),  and  in  the  cathe- 
drals of  Brunswick  and  of  Gurk  in  Carinthia 
(early  thirteenth).  Panel  painting  was  also 
practiced,  especially  upon  the  ceilings  of  flat- 
roofed  basilicas,  of  which  the  best  example  is 
that  of  Saint  MichaeFs  at  Hildesheim  (after 
1186).  Smaller  panels  upon  gold  backgrounds 
were  also  used,  at  first  as  the  antependia  of 
altars. 

FRA17GE  AND  Italt.  Romaucsque  wall  paint- 
ings in  France  are  not  so  common,  the  most  im- 
portant being  in  the  central  provinces — in  the 
chapel  at  Liget  ( Indre-«t-L.oire ) ,  in  Saint  Jean 
at  Foitiers,  and  Saint  Savin  at  Poitou — all  dat- 
ing from  the  twelfth  century.  In  Italy  painting 
lagged  far  behind,  being  purely  mechanical,  and 
for  the  most  part  under  Byzantine  influence. 
Roman  examples  of  the  period  are  excessively 
rude,  while  the  frescoes  at  Sant'  Angelo  in  Formis 
at  Capua,  like  others  in  Southern  Italy,  were 
probably  executed  by  native  artists  imder  Greek 
influence.  In  the  mosaics  of  the  period  Italian 
pictorial  art  found  its  best  expression,  especially 
in  those  at  Venice  and  in  Sicily.  (See  Mosaics.) 
They,  as  well  as  other  paintings,  were  dominated 
by  Byzantium,  which  throughout  the  epoch  also 
influenced  painting  in  France,  and  to  a  less  ex- 
tent in  Germany. 

BiBiJOOBAFHY.  For  the  Italian  Romanesque 
see:  Mothes,  Die  Baukunai  dea  Mittelaltera  in 
Italien  (Jena,  1884)  ;  Dartin,  Etude  sur  Varchi- 
tecture  lomharde  (Paris,  1865) ;  Rohault  de 
Fleury,  Lea  monumenta  de  Piae  au  moyen-dge  ( ib., 
1866) ;  Cummings,  Hiatory  of  Architecture  in 
Italy  (Boston,  1901).  France:  Viollet-le-Duor 
Dictionnaire  raiaonn^  de  Varchitectwre  du  Xldme 
Oil  XVIdme  aidcle  (10  vols.,  Paris,  1875)  ;  also 
Vemeilt,  L'architecture  byzantine  en  France  ( ib., 
1851)  ;  R^voil,  Uarchitecture  romane  du  midi  de 
la  France  (ib.,  1867-73)  ;  Ruprich-Robert,  L'ar- 
chitecture normande  aux  Xl^me  et  Xll^me 
aiiolea  (ib.,  1884).  Gebmant:  Otte,  Oe- 
sohichte  der  romaniachen  Baukunat  in  Deutach- 
land  (Leipzig,  1874) ;  also  Fdrster,  Denkmaler 
deutacher  Baukunat  (12  vols.,  ib.,  1855-69); 
Dohme,  Oeaohichte  der  deutachen  Baukunat  ( Ber- 
lin, 1887)  ;  Hartung,  Motive  der  mittelalterlichen 
Baukunat  in  Deutachland  (ib.,  1896  et  seq.),  with 
photographic  plates.  England:  Parker,  Intro- 
duction to  Gothic  Architecture  (London,  1881)  ; 
also  Gilbert  Scott.  Lecturea  on  Medieval  Archi- 
tecture (ib.,  1879) ;  Ruprich-Robert   (see  above 


under  Fbaitcb)  ;  Bell's  series  of  monographs  on 
English  Cathedrals  (ib.,  1896  et  seq.).  Spain: 
Street,  Oothio  Architecture  in  Spam  (London, 
1866) ;  for  plates,  Caveda,  Oeachichte  der  Bau- 
kunat in  Spanien,  trans.  (Stuttgart,  1858) ; 
Uhde,  Baudenkm&ler  in  Spanien  und  Portugal 
(Berlin,  1889-93) ;  and  the  Monumentoa  Arqui- 
teot&niooa  Eapana  (Madrid,  1869-79).  For 
Sculpture  and  Painting,  consult  the  authori- 
ties referred  to  under  Gothio  Asm. 

BOMANINO,  To'mk-n^n^,  Gibolako  (1485- 
1666).  An  Italian  painter  of  the  Venetian  school, 
bom  in  Brescia.  He  was  probably  a  pupil  of 
Feramola,  or  Chiverchio,  and  is  little  known  out- 
side Italy.  He  painted  chiefly  in  his  native  city, 
and  most  of  his  work  is  to  be  found  there  and 
in  the  surrounding  country.  He  was  a  fine 
colorist,  with  peculiar  skill  and  charm  in  the 
use  of  light  and  shade,  but  was  imeven  in  his 
treatment.  His  works  include  a  large  "Ma- 
donna," in  the  Doria  Gallery  at  Rome  (at- 
tributed to  him  by  Morelli)  ;  "Nativity"  (1525), 
in  the  National  Galleiy,  London;  a  "Madonna 
and  Saints"  (1513),  in  the  Padua  Gallery;  and 
a  "liasi  Supper,"  in  the  same  place.  He  also 
left  a  few  notable  portraits. 

BOXANULW.    See  Civil  Law. 

BOXANOFF,  rd^m&'n6f .  The  Imperial  House 
of  Russia.  It  first  appears  in  Russia  in  the  four- 
teenth century  when  Andrew  Kobyla  came  from 
Prussia  to  Moscow  (1341)  and  entered  the 
service  of  the  Grand  Duke  Simeon.  The  boyar 
Roman  Yurievitch,  the  fifth  in  direct  descent 
from  Andrew,  died  in  1543,  leaving  a  son  and  a 
daughter,  the  latter  of  whom  became  Czarina  by 
her  marriage  with  Ivan  the  Terrible  ( 1647 ) .  The 
son,  Nikita,  was  one  of  the  regency  during  the 
minority  of  Feodor  I.,  and  his  eldest  son,  Frador, 
under  the  name  of  Philaret,  was  elevated  to  the 
rank  of  Archimandrite  and  Metropolitan  of 
Rostov  during  the  reign  of  the  false  Demetrius 
(1605-06).  He  refused  to  recognise  the  Polish 
Prince  Ladislas  as  Czar  of  Russia  in  1612,  and 
for  this  the  Poles  took  him  with  them  on  their 
retirement  from  Moscow  in  face  of  the  nationalist 
rising,  and  held  him  captive  for  nine  years.  In 
February,  1613,  the  Russian  nobles  and  clergy 
chose  as  their  ruler  Michael  Feodorovitch  Roma- 
noff, the  son  of  the  imprisoned  Metropolitan,  and 
the  representative,  through  his  grandmother,  of 
the  royal  House  of  Rurik.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  eldest  son,  Alexis  (1646-76).  Alexis  was 
twice  married,  and  left  by  his  first  wife  two  sons, 
Feodor  and  Ivan,  and  several  daughters,  and  by 
his  second  wife  one  son,  Peter.  His  eldest  son, 
Feodor  (1672-82),  died  without  issue,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  half-brother,  Peter  the  Great, 
with  whom  Ivan  was  associated  until  1689.  Peter 
was  twice  married;  by  his  first  marriage  he  had 
a  son,  Alexis,  who  died  in  his  father's  lifetime, 
leaving  one  son,  Peter.  Peter  the  Great  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  wife,  Catharine  I.  (q.v.),  by  whom 
he  had  two  daughters,  Anna  and  Elizabeth. 
Catharine  I.  (1725-27)  left  the  throne  to  the 
son  of  Alexis,  Peter  IL  (1727-30),  the  last  of 
the  male  line  of  Romanoff;  and  on  his  death  with- 
out heirs  the  succession  reverted  to  the  female 
line,  the  daughter  of  Ivan,  Peter  the  Great's  half- 
brother,  Anna  Ivanovna,  being  placed  upon  the 
throne  (1730-40).  She  was  succeeded  by  her 
infant  grand-nephew,   Ivan  IV.    (1740-41).     A 


BOILAJTOFF. 


127 


BOMAN  BELIGIOir. 


resolution  drove  Ivan's  family  from  the  throne, 
of  which  the  cadet  female  line  in  the  person  of 
Elizabeth  (1741-62),  the  daughter  of  Peter  the 
Great  and  Catharine,  now  obtained  possession. 
On  her  death  her  nephew,  Peter,  the  son  of  her 
elder  aiater  Anna  Petrovna,  who  had  married  the 
Doke  <^  Holstein-Gottorp  (belonging  to  a  cadet 
line  of  the  family  of  Oldenburg),  mounted  the 
throne  as  Peter  III.  (1762).  He  was  dethroned 
and  succeeded  by  his  wife,  the  Princess  Sophia 
Augusta  of  Anhalt-Zerbst,  who  reigned  from 
1762  to  1796  as  Catharine  II.  She  was  succeeded 
by  Paul  I.,  her  only  son  by  Peter  III.  Paul 
(1796-1801)  perished  by  assassination,  leaving 
several  sons,  the  eldest  of  whom  was  Alexander  I. 
Alexander  (1801-25)  left  no  heir,  and  the  crown 
at  his  death  devolved  by  right  upon  his  next 
brother,  Constantine.  Constiuitine,  however,  in 
compliance  with  the  wish  of  Alexander,  had  pre- 
viously relinquished  his  claims  to  the  supreme 
power,  and  the  third  brother,  Nicholas  I.,  ascend- 
ed the  throne.  Nicholas  (1825-55)  was  succeeded 
by  his  son,  Alexander  II.  (1855-81).  Alexander 
Q.  was  assassinated  in  1881,  and  his  son,  Alexan- 
der III.,  succeeded  him,  to  be  followed  in  1894 
by  his  son,  Nicholas  II.  Constant  intermarriages 
with  German  princely  houses  have  made  the 
Romanoff  strain  of  to-day  far  more  German  than 
Russian.  Consult  Edwards,  The  Romanoffs: 
Twan  of  Moscow  and  Emperors  of  Russia  (Lon- 
don, 1890). 

BOKAV  BEIJGIO:Br.  The  attitude  of  the 
Romans  toward  their  gods  necessarily  altered 
much  with  the  numerous  changes  which  accompa- 
nied the  development  of  the  little  settlement  on 
the  Palatine  into  the  mistress  of  the  world.  Yet  the 
conservative  nature  of  the  Romans  led  to  the 
preservation  of  many  ancient  rites,  long  after 
their  origin  had  been  forgotten  and  the  ancient 
belleilB  had  passed  away.  Here,  however,  we 
are  ooncemea  less  with  this  development  than 
with  a  statement  of  the  various  elements  which 
appear  in  the  religion  as  recognized  by  the  State, 
expressive  of  the  official  attitude  toward  the 
ffods  at  the  time  of  their  adoption,  and  even  when 
faith  had  failed,  continued  as  essential  parts  of 
the  governmental  system.  Such  a  statement  is 
rendered  extremely  difficult  b^  the  absence  of  any 
natural  development  along  discernible  lines  from 
primitiTe  forms.  The  original  religion  of  the 
early  Romans  has  been  so  overlaid  and  transformed 
by  the  accretions  of  later  times,  and  in  particu- 
lar by  the  assimilation  of  the  whole  structure  of 
Gredc  mythology,  that  any  summary  reconstruc- 
tion must  give  much  that  is  rather  probable  than 
certain.  Unfortunately,  the  most  extensive  al- 
terations were  already  accomplished  long  before 
the  Roman  literary  tradition  began,  and  though 
such  writers  as  Varro  and  Verrius  Flaccus  had 
many  sources  from  which  to  draw,  the  origins 
were  in  most  cases  unknown  to  them,  while  Ovid 
in  his  Fasti  is  obviously  strongly  influenced  by 
his  Alexandrian  models,  and  has  frequently 
transformed  Greek  myths  to  fill  the  gaps  caused 
by  the  lack  of  such  stories  in  Roman  tradition. 
Ihe  fundamental  basis  for  the  study  of  the  early 
Roman  religion  is  found  in  the  Calendars  or 
Fasti,  of  which  some  thirty  are  known,  only  one 
of  which  (the  Fasti  Maffeiani)  is  nearly  perfect. 
All  can  be  dated  between  B.C.  31  and  a.d.  46  and 
are  the  result  of  the  revision  of  the  calendar  by 
Julius  OflBsar.     These  documents,  however,  are 


plainly  composed  of  two  elements,  distinguished 
by  the  size  of  the  letters,  and  it  can  scarcely  be 
doubted  that  the  large  capitals  represent  the  of- 
ficial pre-Julian  Calendar,  as  published,  we  are 
told,  for  the  first  time  in  B.C.  304,  to  make  known 
the  days  when  business  could  be  legally  trans- 
acted. The  names  and  days  of  45  public 
festivals  {f erics  puhlicw)  of  fixed  dates  were  in- 
dicated. This  calendar  is  supplemented  by  the 
literary  tradition,  which  largely  rests  on  the  lost 
works  of  the  great  Roman  antiquaries,  and  in 
the  use  of  which  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish 
sharply  between  the  statements  as  to  actual  re- 
ligious observances  and  the  deductions  or  ex- 
planations evolved  by  the  writers  themselves. 

The  Roman  ritual  clearly  distinguishes  two 
classes  of  gods,  the  Di  indigetes  and  the  Di  noven- 
sides  (or  novensiles).  The  latter  were  the  new 
introductions,  and  in  fact  we  find  that  all  di- 
vinities whose  cults  were  introduced  in  historical 
times  were  reckoned  among  them.  It  seems  rea- 
sonable to  see  in  the  Indigetes  the  original  gods 
of  the  Roman  State,  and  their  names  and  nature 
are  indicated  by  the  priests  of  the  first  class,  and 
the  fixed  festivals  of  the  Calendar,  supplemented 
by  other  notices;  for  though  the  Calendar  was 
not  published  until  b.g.  304,  it  had  long  been  in 
existence  as  part  of  the  secret  knowledge  of  the 
pontiffs,  and  there  is  good  reason  for  believing 
that  it  goes  back  to  an  early  stage  in  the  r^gsd 
period.  This  analysis  yields  a  list  of  over  30 
names  honored  with  special  festivals  or  special 
priests,  and  showing  on  the  whole  a  well-defined 
field  of  activity,  which  is  appropriate  to  a  dis- 
tinct type  of  community.  Moreover,  there  is  a 
strong  tendency  to  incorporate  in  a  pair  of  male 
and  female  divinities  either  the  same  function  or 
two  complementary  fields  of  activity.  So  we 
have  Jouis  and  Jouino  (Juno),  Faunus  and 
Fauna,  Janus  and  Vesta,  etc.  In  most  cases  the 
female  divinities  have  no  independent  cult  and 
gradually  fade  away.  Vesta,  of  course,  is  a 
marked  exception,  and  Juno  an  apparent  one, 
though  here  the  later  prominence  of  the  goddess 
is  due  to  the  independent  development  of  foreign 
elements.  In  addition  to  these  gods,  who  seem  to 
have  attained  a  special  prominence,  there  is  evi- 
d^ice  that  the  early  Roman  religion  worshiped 
a  host  of  'specialist  gods,'  as  they  have  well  been 
termed.  Fragments  of  old  ritual  accompanying 
various  acts,  such  as  plowing  or  sowing,  show 
that  at  every  stage  of  the  operation  a  separate 
deity  was  invoked,  whose  name  is  regularly  de- 
rived from  the  verb  for  the  operation.  Such  di- 
vinities also  may  well  be  grouped  imder  the 
general  term  of  attendant  or  auxiliary  gods, 
whom  we  find  invoked  along  with  greater  deities. 
At  the  head  of  this  early  jpantheon  stand  five 
names:  Janus,  Jove,  Mars,  Quirinus,  and  Vesta, 
of  whom  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  form  an  an- 
cient triad,  while  their  special  priests  are  the 
three  greater  Flamens,  Dialis,  Martialis^  Quiri- 
nalis,  and  the  first  and  fifth  are  said  to  be  the 
proper  gods  to  begin  and  end  any  invocation  of  a 
number  of  divinities;  and  a  similar  position,  be- 
fore and  after  the  three  Flamens,  is  held  by  rep- 
resentative priests,  the  Rex  sacrorum  and  the 
Pontifex  maximus.  The  Indigetes  and  their  fes- 
tivals show  that  we  are  dealing  with  an  agri- 
cultural community,  but  also  one  fond  of  fighting 
and  much  engaged  in  war.  The  gods  represent 
distinctly  the  practical  needs  of  daily  life, 
as  felt   by   the    Roman    community   to   which 


BOMAN  BELI0IOK. 


128 


BOMAN  HELIGION. 


they  belong,  and  which  scrupulously  pays 
them  the  proper  rites  and  offerings.  Thus 
Janus  and  Vesta  guard  the  door  and  the 
hearth,  the  Lar  protects  the  field,  Pales  the 
pasture,  Satumus  the  sowing,  Consus  and  Ops 
the  harvest,  Ceres  the  growth  of  the  grain, 
and  Pomona  the  fruit.  Even  Jupiter,  who  seems 
to  be  the  god  of  heaven^  is  honored  chiefly  for  the 
aid  his  rains  may  give  to  the  farms  and  vine- 
yards, though  he  also,  through  the  lightning, 
glides  the  acts  of  men,  and  by  his  widespread  do- 
main can  aid  Romans  outside  their  borders.  That 
war  was  a  large  part  of  this  early  life  seems 
clear  from  the  prominence  given  to  the  two  war 
gods.  Mars  and  Quirinus,  of  whom  the  former  was 
specially  honored  in  March  and  October,  i.e.  at 
the  opening  and  closing  of  the  campaign,  while 
the  latter  seems  to  be  patron  of  the  armed  com- 
munity in  time  of  peace.  In  this  early  stage  of 
the  Roman  religion  there  seem  to  be  no  temples 
or  images  of  the  gods,  who  are  worshiped  in 
sacred  groves,  or  at  altars  in  the  open  air ;  Vesta, 
as  her  nature  requires,  has  her  own  house.  In 
fact,  there  is  no  real  individuality  in  these  early 
gods,  nor  are  there  any  marriages  or  genealogies. 
Mythology  is  not  a  Roman  invention.  The  scanty 
traces  of  legend  sometimes  gather  about  a  sacred 
animal,  which  is  a  sign  of  the  presence  of  the 
deity  or  some  token  which  could  recall  him  to  the 
worshiper,  such  as  the  flint  of  Jupiter,  or  the 
spear  and  shields  borne  by  the  Salii  in  honor  of 
Mars.  This  older  worship  is  associated  by  Ro- 
man legend  with  the  early  days  of  the  city,  and 
especially  with  Numa  Pompilius,  and  though  the 
name  may  be  an  invention,  the  location  of  the 
sanctuaries  indicates  an  early  period  in  the 
growth  of  the  city. 

At  an  early  date,  however,  new  elements  were 
added  to  this  ancient  system.  The  legend  ascribes 
to  the  royal  house  of  Tarquin  the  establishment 
of  the  great  Capitoline  triad,  of  Jupiter  Optimus 
Maximus,  Juno,  and  Minerva,  which  soon  as- 
sumed the  supreme  place  in  the  Roman  religion. 
Other  additions  were  the  worship  of  Diana  on 
the  Aventine,  and  the  introduction  of  the  Sibyl- 
line Books,  and  the  appointment  of  men  to  care 
for  them,  and  to  carry  out  the  sacred  rites  which 
they  directed.  All  these  changes  are  the  intro- 
duction of  foreign  cuKs;  partly  apparently  from 
the  Latin  league  in  which  Rome  had  acquired  a 
leading  position,  partly  from  Etruria,  where, 
however,  Greek  influence  had  also  been  at  work, 
and  partly  from  the  Greek  cities  of  Southern 
Italy,  especially  Cumse,  with  which  legend  di- 
rectly connects  the  Sibylline  Books.  This  new 
movement  brings  with  it  temples,  built  at  first 
in  the  Etruscan  style  and  apparently  by  Etrus- 
can architects,  though  later  by  Greeks.  The  Capi- 
toline sanctuary  became  the  central  shrine  of  the 
Roman  State,  and  one  of  the  privileges  granted 
a  colony  {colonia)  w^as  the  right  to  found  a  simi- 
lar Capitolium  in  honor  of  the  three  gods. 
Thus,  though  a  later  introduction,  these  new 
deities  quickly  assumed  a  place  beside  or  even 
above  the  ancient  gods,  and  their  representatives 
were  recognized  as  equal  members  of  the  hier- 
archy. From  this  time,  which  must  have  pre- 
ceded the  establishment  of  the  Republic,  the  his- 
tory of  the  Roman  religion  is  that  of  a  constant- 
ly increasing  number  of'  divinities.  The  cults 
brought  from  foreign  parts,  especially  Greek 
lands,  under  the  direction  of  the  oracular  books 
and  requiring  the  importation  of  a  native  priest- 


hood, were  carefully  kept  outside  the  Pomflerimn, 
and  when  such  Greek  gods  as  the  Dioscuri  had  a 
temple  in  the  Forum,  the  apparent  exception  is 
easily  explained  by  the  high  position  of  Castor 
and  Pollux  at  Tusculum,  whence  their  worship 
was  brought  to  Rome. 

The  absorption  of  the  neighboring  native  gods 
is  easily  understood.  Since  the  earlier  gods  had 
been  regarded  as  peculiar  to  the  Roman  State,  as 
that  State  grew  and  conquered  the  surrounding 
territory,  the  new  local  ^>ds  became  entitled  to 
receive  at  the  hands  of  the  Romans  those  honors 
which  had  before  been  their  due.  In  many  cases 
we  hear  of  a  formal  invitation  to  these  gods  to 
take  up  their  abode  in  the  new  sanctuaries  pro- 
vided at  Rome.  Moreover,  the  growth  of  the  city 
attracted  foreigners,  who  were  allowed  to  con- 
tinue the  worship  of  their  own  gods.  Besides 
Castor  and  Pollux  the  Italian  communities  seem 
to  have  contributed  to  the  Roman '  pantheon 
Diana,  Minerva,  Hercules,  Venus,  and  others  of 
lesser  rank,  some  of  whom  of  course  were  orig- 
inally derived  from  Greece,  though  others  may 
well  have  been  Hellenized  from  Italian  divinities. 
From  the  Greeks  came  at  an  early  date  Apollo, 
and  in  B.C.  496  the  Sibylline  Books  ordered  atone- 
ment to  Demeter,  Dionysus,  and  Kore,  whose 
temple  was  dedicated  under  the  Latin  name  of 
Ceres,  Liber,  and  Libera,  through  an  identifica- 
tion of  the  Greek  divinities  with  the  old  Roman 
gods.  About  the  same  time  Hermes,  under  the 
name  Mercurius,  was  recognized  as  the  god  of 
merchants  and  trade.  Both  these  cults  are  con- 
nected by  legends  with  a  famine,  which  may  well 
have  led  to  their  introduction  along  with  the 
grain  of  the  south.  Poseidon  appears  among  the 
Roman  gods  under  the  name  of  an  old  Italian  di- 
vinity, Neptunus,  as  early  as  B.C.  399.  These 
cults  seem  all  to  have  been  introduced  at  a  rela- 
tively early  date  in  the  history  of  the  Republic; 
and  then  for  a  time  the  expansion  seems  to  have 
taken  place  rather  by  the  assimilation  of  Italian 
divinities,  often  as  new  phases  of  the  old  cults, 
or  by  the  creation  of  new  gods,  especially  from 
abstract  qualities  such  as  Fides  (Fidelity)  or 
Bellona  (as  goddess  of  war).  In  B.C.  293,  how- 
ever, under  the  destruction  wrought  by  a  severe 
plague,  the  Sibylline  Books  advised  summoning 
the  god  iEsculapius  from  Epidarus.  In  B.C.  249 
followed  the  introduction  of  the  cult  of  Hades 
and  Persephone  under  the  Latinized  names  of 
Dis  Pater  and  Proserpina,  and  in  their  honor  the 
first  celebration  of  the  ceremonies  from  which  de- 
veloped the  secular  games  (q.v.).  In  b.c.  205 
the  circle  was  further  widened  by  the  presence  of 
the  first  of  the  Eastern  gods,  Cybele,  the  magna 
mater,  whose  sacred  stone,  probably  meteoric, 
was  brought  with  great  pomp  and  amid  many 
miracles  from  Pergamum,  through  the  favor  of 
Attains,  who  seems  to  have  secured  it  from  the 
holy  temple  of  Pessinus. 

At  the  same  time  the  process  of  Hellenization 
was  advancing  in  other  ways,  and  the  pressure 
of  the  Second  Punic  War  seems  to  have  aided  its 
progress,  from  the  need  then  felt  of  appeasing 
the  angry  gods  by  more  powerful  atonements. 
Now  we  find  a  cycle  of  twelve  gods  {di  consentes) 
obviously  derived  from  the  Greek,  though  the 
divinities  are  partly  Roman,  officially  recognized 
by  statues  in  the  Forum,  and  from  this  time 
we  hear  little  of  the  introduction  of  new  Greek 
divinities;  the  change  takes  place  rather  in  the 
Identification  of  Greek  gods  with  Roman^  and  the 


BOXAK  BBLI0IOK. 


120 


BOICAV  BEIJOIOir. 


consequent  transference  to  the  Roman  deities  of 
a  large  mass  of  Greek  myths,  whereby  the  orig- 
inal nature  of  the  gods  was  more  and  more  ob- 
scured. Moreover,  the  newly  developing  Roman 
literature  was  so  thoroughly  saturated  with 
Greek  thought  even  where  it  was  not  direct  trans- 
lation, that  it  powerfully  aided  in  popularizing 
Hellenie  conceptions. 

With  the  coming  of  Cybele  the  orgiastic  ele- 
ment was  added  to  the  attractiveness  of  the 
Greek  ceremonial,  and  in  spite  of  some  efforts  at 
restriction  speedily  exercised  a  destructive  in- 
fluence, whicli  reached  its  height  a  few  years 
later  when  the  orgies  of  the  Bacchanalia  called 
for  the  severest  measures  from  the  Senate.  The 
tendency,  however,  was  not  to  be  checked,  and 
the  long  wars  in  Asia  Minor,  the  seat  of  strange 
cults,  together  with  the  growing  disbelief  in  the 
old  gods  and  the  search  for  new  superstitions 
among  many  belonging  to  the  upper  classes,  fur- 
nished abundant  material  for  its  growth.  Asi- 
atic, Egyptian,  and  even  Semitic  cults  of  farther 
'east  poured  into  Rome  under  the  Empire  until 
they  had  almost  supplanted  the  old  religion  in 
the  popular  mind. 

The  effect  of  the  transference  of  Greek  myths 
to  the  State  religion,  and  perhaps  even  more  of 
the  prevalence  of  Greek  philosophy  among  the 
educated,  was  to  bring  about  an  increasing  neg- 
lect of  the  old  rites,  and  in  the  first  century  b.o. 
the  old  priestly  offices  declined  rapidly,  for  the 
men  whose  birth  called  them  to  these  duties  had 
no  belief  in  the  rites,  except  perhaps  as  a  political 
necessity,  so  that  pontiffs,  augurs,  and  such 
trndies  became  m'ere  tools  in  the  party  strife.  A 
thorough  reform  and  restoration  of  the  old  sys- 
tem was  carried  out  by  the  Emperor  Augustus, 
who  became  himself  a  member  of  all  the  great 
priestly  colleges,  revived  some  that  had  become 
extinct;  sudi  as  the  Arval  Brothers,  and  rebuilt 
temples  which  had  fallen  into  ruin.  With  all 
this  revival  was  joined  the  prominence  given  to 
Apollo  as  a  patron  god  of  the  Emperor,  through 
the  erection  of  the  splendid  temple  on  the  Pala- 
tine, the  intrusting  to  its  guardianship  the  State 
collection  of  oracles,  including  the  Sibylline 
-Books,  and  the  joining  Apollo  and  Diana  with 
the  Gapitoline  gods  in  the  secular  games.  In 
spite  of  these  reforms,  the  religion  tended  more 
and  more  to  centre  in  the  Imperial  house,  and 
this  was  stimulated  by  the  deification  of  certain 
emperors,  with  the  title  divus.  At  first  the 
honor  of  reception  among  the  gods  of  the  Roman 
State  after  death  was  bestowed  upon  but  few. 
The  first  was  Julius  Csesar,  then  follow  Augustus, 
•Claudius,  Vespasian,  and  Titus,  while  after 
Xerva  few  emperors  failed  to  receive  this  dis- 
tinction. This  cult  was  more  prominent  at  first 
in  the  provinces  than  in  Rome,  and  it  was  out- 
side that  the  actual  worship  of  a  goddess  Roma 
seems  to  have  arisen.  The  personified  Roma  had 
appeared  on  coins  and  elsewhere,  and  had  been 
the  object  of  foreign  dedications  under  the  Re- 
public, but  her  reception  among  the  State  divini- 
ties was  due  to  the  erection  of  the  great  temple 
of  Venus  and  Rome  by  Hadrian  in  a.d.  128. 

The  forms  of  the  Roman  religion  were  natu- 
rally as  varied  as  the  origins  of  the  numerous 
cults  which  it  included.  The  early  worship 
seems  to  have  been  marked  by  the  simplicity  to 
be  expected  from  such  a  community  as  gave  it 
birth.  The  first  fruits  of  field  or  garden,  or 
flocks,  flowers,  and  wreaths,  the  coarse  pounded 


grain,  and  cakes  were  the  usual  gifts,  which  on 
some  occasions  took  the  form  of  a  meal  set  be- 
fore the  god.  Such  offerings  might  be  made  by 
family  or  community  at  their  own  altars,  and 
when  made  by  the  State  differed  only  in  the  si^e 
of  the  offering,  so  that  public  animal  sacri- 
fices, especially  of  the  larger  animals,  were  more 
frequent.  But  if  the  offering  was  simple,  the 
ritual  was  complex.  The  vessels  and  implements 
were  prescribed  and  bespeak  the  -  primitive  civ- 
ilization of  the  early  worship.  On  some  occasions 
at  any  rate  the  sacrificial  knife  was  of  flint,  the 
vessels  of  clay,  molded  without  the  aid  of  the 
potter's  wheel,  and  the  victims  must  correspond 
exactly  to  the  minute  requirements  of  the  law. 
The  prayers  and  gestures  of  the  priest  were  pre- 
scribed in  detail  and  must  be  repeated  with  the 
most  scrupulous  accuracy,  so  that  it  is  easy  to 
see  the  importance  of  the  college  of  pontiffs  ii^ 
whose  charge  were  the  books  of  ritual,  and  with- 
out whose  assistance  few  magistrates  could  have 
performed  their  religious  duties.  The  Qrascua 
rit%i8  naturally  was  conducted  according  to  the 
usages  of  the  country  from  which  the  god  had 
been  brought,  but  the  Hellenization  brought  the 
increase  of  ludi,  or  games  and  spectacles,  as  part 
of  the  worship,  and  especially  the  institution  of 
the  supplicatio  and  lectistemium,  wherein  the 
gods  were  placed  on  couches  beside  prepared 
tables,  and  feasted  for  one  or  more  days,  while 
at  the  same  time  the  people  were  summoned  to 
visit  the  temples  and  pray,  either  in  supplication 
if  the  celebration  sought  some  gain,  or  in  thanks- 
giving if  a  victory  was  the  occasion.  The  lecti- 
atemium.  or  banqueting  of  the  god  also  took 
place  in  his  temple  on  the  day  of  its  special 
festival,  but  in  its  extended  form,  when  several 
gods  were  brought  together  into  one  place  for 
the  banquet,  regularly  formed  part  of  a  solemn 
act  of  purification  and  entreaty  or  of  special 
thanksgiving. 

This  whole  structure  rested  on  the  Roman 
theory  of  a  legal  relation  between  men  and  gods. 
Worship  is  an  ordinance  of  the  State,  estab- 
lished by  the  fathers  and  unalterably  binding  6n 
the  children;  and  it  is  exactly  the  gods  thus 
adopted  at  the  founding  of  the  State,  the  di 
indigetea,  that  have  such  a  special  position  in 
the  possession  of  a  special  hierarchy  and  the 
intricate  ritual.  To  these  old  obligation^  new 
ones  temporary  or  lasting  were  added  from  time 
to  time  by  the  vow  public  or  private,  in  which 
the  supplicant  solemnly  promised  to  pay  to  the 
god  certain  honors  if  his  prayer  was  heai*d,  and 
when  uttered  by  a  representative  of  the  State  in 
4tis  official  capacity  this  became  binding  on  the 
whole  community. 

For  further  details  of  the  Roman  religious 
system,  see  the  articles  on  the  individual  gods 
and  also  Asval  Brothers;  Auguries  and  Aus- 

PICfES ;  FlAMENS  ;  LUPERCALIA ;  PONTIFEX  ;  Salu  ; 
SuOVETAURrLIA ;   VeSTALS. 

Bibliography.  The  best  condensed  account  of 
the  subject  is  by  Wissowa,  "Religion  lind  Rultus 
der  ROmer,"  in  Mflller's  Handhuch  der  klassiachen 
Altertumstcissenachaft  (Munich,  1902).  Other 
works  of  value  are :  Preller,  Romische  Mythologie 
(3d  ed.,  Berlin,  1881-83)  ;  Marquardt,  "Romische 
Staatsverwaltung,"  in  Marquardt  and  Mommsen, 
Handhuch  der  riSmischen  Altertumer  (Leipzig, 
1885)  ;  Mannhardt,  Wald-  und  Feldkulte  (Berlin, 
1877)  ;  id.,  Mythologische  Forschungen  (Strass- 
burg,    1884)  ;    Usener,    "Italische    Mythen,"    in 


BOILAJT  KELIGIO:Br. 


180 


BO]£AV& 


Uh0ini$oh€M  Museum  (Bonn,  1875);  icL,  Witer- 
namen  (ib.,  1896) ;  Fowler,  Roman  Feativala  of 
th€  Republic  (London,  1899).  Special  subjects 
of  importance  are  treated  by  Krahner,  Zur  Oe- 
echichie  des  VerfalU  der  romiachen  Stiiatareligion 
bia  wuf  die  Zeit  des  August  (Halle,  1837) ;  Wis- 
sowa,  De  Feriis  Anni  Romanorum  Vetustissimi 
(Marburg,  1891)  ;  id.,  De  Dis  Romanorum  Indi- 
getibus  et  Novensidibus  (ib.,  1892) ;  Aust,  De 
^dibus  Sacris  Populi  Romani  (ib.,  1889) ;  Bois- 
sier.  La  religion  romaine  d^ Augusts  OAtx  Antonins 
(Paris,  1874). 

BOMANSy  r6'mAN'.  A  town  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  DrOme,  France,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Is^re,  11  miles  northeast  of  Valence  (Map: 
France,  M  6).  A  bridge  built  in  the  ninth 
century  connects  Romans  with  the  small  town 
of  P^age  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river.  Romans 
owes  ite  origin  to  an  important  abbey,  founded 
in  the  ninth  century  by  Saint  Bernard,  Arch- 
bishop of  Vienne,  and  by  a  nobleman  named 
Romain,  who  gave  his  name  to  the  town.  Silk 
and  woolen  fabrics,  leather,  shoes,  hats,  and 
oils  are  largely  manufactured,  and  a  very  active 
general  trade  is  carried  on.  Population,  in 
1901,  17,140. 

ROMANS,  Epistle  to  the  (translation  of  Gk. 
irtffroMi  r/As  ^FtafuUovtf  episioU  pros  RhCmaious), 
One  of  the  New  Testament  letters  of  the  Apostle 
Paul  and  the  one  generally  recognized  as  his 
most  important  production.  It  was  written  in 
the  winter  of  55-56,  or  the  early  spring  of  56, 
at  the  close  of  the  Apostle's  third  missionary 

J'oumey,  during  his  last  visit  to  Corinth,  after 
ie  had  practically  finished  his  work  in  the  East. 
It  was  addressed  to  the  church  at  Rome,  which 
he  had  not  founded  or  even  seen,  largely  for 
the  purpose  of  preparing  for  the  visit  which  he 
hoped  soon  to  make. 

Its  Pauline  origin  has  received  practically  imi- 
versal  recognition,  even  the  Ttibingen  School 
(1S46)  accepting  it  as  one  of  the  five  New 
Testament  books  which  they  held  to  be  genuine. 
It  is  rejected  by  the  Modem  Dutch  School  ( 1882) 
in  accordance  with  their  rejection  of  the  entire 
New  Testament — generally  speaking.  This  posi- 
tion, however,  is  largely  ignored  by  scholars  to- 
day, in  view  of  what  are  thought  to  be  the  un- 
scientific principles  on  which  it  is  based.  A 
characteristic  feature  of  this  school's  criticism 
is  its  tendency  to  consider  the  epistolary  as  well 
as  the  historical  books  of  composite  origin,  the 
application  of  which  tendency  to  Romans  has 
been  made  by  several  writers  beyond  the  distinct 
membership  of  the  school.  But  the  results 
claimed  for  this  documentary  handling  of  the 
Epistles  have  met  with  such  scant  acceptance 
by  the  critical  world  that  they  have  been  prac- 
tically neglected  in  the  estimate  of  the  genuine- 
ness of  these  writings.  This  is  especially  true 
in  the  case  of  Romans. 

The  three  questions  of  present  interest  in  the 
study  of  the  Epistle  are  ( 1 )  the  relation  of  the 
last  chapter  to  the  rest  of  the  letter,  (2)  the 
national  character  of  the  membership  of  the 
Church,  and  (3)  the  situation  in  the  Church 
which  the  letter  was  intended  to  meet.  As  to 
the  first  question,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
there  are  striking  peculiarities  in  the  closing 
portion  of  the  Epistle,  as  it  now  stands.  (1) 
In  the  seauence  of  thought  it  is  noticeable  that 
the  benediction  occurs  twice — once  at  verse  20 


in  chap.  zvL,  and^  previously,  at  the  last  verse 
of  chap.  zv.  In  sympathy  with  this  benedictory 
repetition  there  seem  to  be  other  endings  to  tbe 
Epistle  besides  that  at  its  close,  viz.  at  verse 
20  of  chap.  zvi.  (vs.  17-20),  at  verse  33  of  chap. 
XV.  (vs.  30-33),  and,  in  addition  to  these,  at 
verse  16  of  chap.  xvi.  (vs.  3-16).  (2)  In  the 
contents  of  the  chapter  it  is  marked  that  in  a 
church  which  Paul  had  neither  founded  nor  vis- 
ited there  should  be  so  many  personal  ac- 
quaintances and  fellow-companions  with  him  in 
his  work  (cf.  especially  vs.  3,  4,  7,  9,  11,  13). 
To  account  for  these  peculiarities  several  theo- 
ries have  been  advanced,  the  most  widely  ac- 
cepted of  which  is  perhaps  the  one  first  proposed 
by  Schulz  (1829)  and  adopted  by  many  scholars 
since  his  day,  viz.  that  this  last  chapter  be- 
longs to  a  letter  addressed  by  Paul  to  Ephesus, 
where  he  had  been  at  work  for  some  years.  It 
is  true  that  with  the  circumstances  and  sur- 
roundings of  Paul's  Ephesian  work  several  of 
the  names  seem  strikingly  in  accord  (e.g.  Priscilla 
and  Aquila  [cf.  I  Cor.  xvi.  19,  II  Tim.  iv.  19] 
and  Epsenetus,  who  is  spoken  of  as  "the  first  fruits 
of  Achaia  unto  Christ") .  More  than  this,  the  fact 
that  this  last  chapter  was  written  from  Corinth 
or  its  neighborhood  (xvi.  1),  and  that  between 
this  city  and  Ephesus  Paul  had  frequent  com- 
munication on  church  affairs,  might  not  only 
account  for  the  direction  in  which  the  letter 
was  sent,  but  also  for  its  coming  to  be  attached 
to  the  Epistle  to  Rome;  since,  S  copies  of  both 
letters  were  retained  in  Corinth,  the  distinction 
between  them  might  finally  disappear  and  they 
be  thought  to  be  parts  of  one  letter.  This  would 
be  especially  true  if,  in  the  course  of  time,  the 
letters  came  to  be  mutilated.  Fragments  are 
naturally  pieced  together.  Finally,  the  omission 
of  this  last  chapter — and  even  the  one  preceding 
it — in  some  important  manuscripts,  and  the  fact 
that  the  doxology  which  now  stands  at  the  end  of 
chap.  xvi.  (vs.  25-27)  evidently  stood  originally 
at  the  end  of  chap.  xiv.  would  seem  to  point  to 
the  possibility  of  there  being  at  least  two  letters 
combined  in  our  present  Epistle.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  Epistle 
was  at  a  very  early  date  altered  for  dogmatic 
and  liturgical  purposes,  and  that  the  position  of 
the  doxology  at  the  end  of  chap.  xiv.  is  in  accord 
with  Paul's  habit  of  introducing  such  passages 
into  the  body  of  his  letters  rather  than  reserving 
them  for  the  end;  further,  when  it  is  recognized 
that  it  was  Paul's  custom  to  append  to  a  mariced 
degree  personal  salutations  to  the  letters  he 
wrote  to  churches  he  had  not  founded  and  in 
which  he  had  not  worked  (cf.  the  concluding 
chapter  of  Colossians  with  those  of  Thessalonians, 
Corinthians,  Galatians,  and  Philippians) ;  and 
when  it  is  realized  that  the  Church  at  Rome 
was  not  only  largely  Gentile  in  its  membership 
(i.  6-7,  13-16;  xi.  13,  14;  xv.  14-16),  but  that 
the  irresistible  drift  from  all  parts  of  the  Empire 
to  Rome  must  have  carried  with  it  many  of  the 
converts  from  Paul's  eastern  mission  fields,  es- 
pecially from  the  large  cities  of  Antioch,  Ephesus, 
and  Corinth;  and  when  it  is  understood  that 
from  funereal  inscriptions  in  Rome  and  inscrip- 
tions containing  names  belonging  to  freedmen 
and  members  of  the  Imperial  household,  practi- 
cally all  the  names  in  chap  xvi.  can  be  shown  to 
be  possible  Roman  names,  while  from  Ephesian 
inscriptions  and  from  those  of  the  Western  Asia 


BOXAK& 


181 


BOMAN& 


i^OD  in  which  the  Apostle's  work  was  done,  only 
a  small  proportion  of  them  are  so  traceable — 
when  these  facts  are  taken  into  consideration 
much  is  disclosed  in  favor  of  the  yiew  held  by 
a  considerable  number  of  modem  scholars  that 
the  chapter  is  an  integral  part  of  the  Epistle 
to  Borne.  In  the  case  of  either  theoiy,  however, 
the  difficulty  in  the  repetition  of  the  benediction 
and  the  apparently  final  passages  would  be  re- 
ferred to  the  Apostle's  occasional  habit  of  inter- 
rupted closing  thought,  as  manifested  in  admit- 
tedly Pauline  Epistles  like  Philippians  (cf.  iv. 
7,  9,  20,  23;  see  also  II.  Thess.  ii.  16,  iii.  5,  16, 
18),  although  the  Ephesian  theory  has  mani- 
festly less  of  this  repetition  to  account  for. 

As  to  the  second  question,  while  there  is  essen- 
tial agreement  as  to  the  mixed  character  of  the 
church's  membership,  there  is  considerable  dis- 
cussion as  to  whether  the  dominant  element  in 
the  church  was  Jewish  or  Grentile.  On  the  one 
side  passages  such  as  vii.  1-6,  viii.  15,  ix.  1-5, 
X.  1-3  are  appealed  to  as  showing  a  recognition 
by  the  Apostle  of  the  Hebrew  character  of  the 
church  to  which  he  was  writing.  On  the  other 
side  passages  such  as  i.  13-17,  xi.  13-32,  xv.  14-17 
are  cited  as  showing  the  consciousness  on  the 
Apostle's  part  that  he  was  writing  to  a  church  to 
which  his  Gentile  apostleship  specifically  com- 
mended him. 

As  to  the  third  question,  it  is  clearly  the  one 
of  greatest  significance,  since  an  imderstanding 
of  the  situation  of  the  church  to  which  the  Apos- 
tle is  writing  must  contribute  definitely  toward 
determining  our  imderstanding  of  the  purpose 
behind  the  letter's  writing,  and  an  understanding 
of  this  must  largely  determine  our  understanding 
of  the  letter  itself.  In  general,  of  course,  this 
purpose  was  what  we  have  stated:  a  desire  on 
the  Apostle's  part  to  prepare  the  way  for  his 
coming  visit  to  this  stranger  church;  but,  while 
this  desire  may  account  for  the  sending  of  a  let- 
ter in  advance  of  his  expected  departure  for  the 
west,  the  specific  character  of  the  letter  so  sent 
must  be  accounted  for  by  something  beyond  this 
general  desire.  This  somethinj^  is  primarily  the 
condition  of  the  church  to  which  he  is  writing: 
for  Paul's  letters  were  all  determined  by  the 
necessities  they  were  intended  to  meet.  The 
views  as  to  what  the  situation  was  are  legion, 
though  perhaps  they  may  be  roughly  gathered 
into  three  groups:  (1)  The  group  which  holds 
that  either  through  the  impor&nce  of  the  church 
as  a  church,  or  i£rough  its  unacquaintanoe  with 
the  Apostle  as  a  teacher,  it  invit^  him  to  a  sys- 
tematic presentation  of  Christian  truth.  This  is 
the  oldest  view  and  the  one  which  has  most  gen- 
erally prevailed.  It  has  in  its  favor  the  peculiar- 
ly systematic  character  of  the  Epistle,  unique 
among  Paul's  writings ;  but  against  it  is  the  fact 
that  the  system  presented  is  manifestly  incom- 
plete. Within  the  range  of  Christian  truth  there 
are  practically  but  two  topics  presented:  the 
doctrine  of  man  and  the  doctrine  of  salvation. 
This  constriction  is  recognized  by  some  of  those 
who  hold  this  view,  and  to  acooimt  for  it  they 
suggest  that  it  was  the  Apostle's  idea  to  em- 
phasize that  portion  of  the  general  truth  of 
Christianity  which  was  characteristic  of  his  Gos- 
pel. This,  however,  would  be  fatal  to  the  view 
itself,  while  it  would  raise  at  once  the  query 
how  it  came  that  a  church,  such  a  proportion 
of  whose  active  workers  were  either  converts 
from   the  Apostle's  mission  field  or  personally 


acquainted  with  his  work,  should  need  an  exposi- 
tion of  the  Gospel  he  characteristically  preached. 
(2)  The  group  which  holds  that«through  either 
the  actual  presence  or  the  threatened  coming  of 
Judaizing  teachers  the  church  was  in  need  of 
a  vigorous  combating  of  their  peculiar  errors. 
This  was  the  view  proposed  by  the  Tttbingen 
School  and  participated  in  the  wide  success  which 
the  school's  critical  position  secured  for  itself. 
In  its  favor  is  (a)  the  polemic  tone  of  certain 
parts  of  the  Epistle,  notably  in  chaps.  ii.-iv.,  vi, 
ix.-xi.,  which  seem  to  betray  a  conflict  between 
the  Jewish  and  Gentile  elements  in  the  church, 
together  with  (b)  such  references  to  partisan 
conditions  in  the  church  as  are  given  by  chaps, 
xii.,  xiv.-xvi.,  though  these  do  not  necessarily 
involve  Judaizing  dissensions.  Opposed  to  it, 
however,  is  the  fact  that  the  Epistle  really  gives 
no  sign  of  the  presence  or  the  expectation  of 
Judaizers  in  the  church.  Neither  the  polemical 
nor  the  partisan  passages  above  referred  to  imply 
a  Judaistic  situation.  The  Epistle  is  not  a  con- 
troversial writing  as  Galatians  and  II.  Corinth- 
ians are,  in  spite  of  its  polemic  tolft.  Indeed, 
the  peculiar  Gentile  character  of  the  church 
makes  the  likelihood  of  such  a  propaganda  ex- 
ceedingly remote.  Rome  was  the  last  place  to 
which  such  a  party  would  drift.  (3)  The  group 
which  holds  that  the  acknowledged  partisan  con- 
dition of  the  church  was  of  a  character  that 
called  for  an  irenic  treatment  on  the  Apostle's 
part.  This  was  suggested  as  early  as  Augustine, 
reappearing  subsequently  at  times.  It  has  come 
into  favor  latelv  largely  through  the  growing 
conviction  of  the  untenableness  of  the  other 
views.  There  is  much  in  its  favor,  especially 
the  characteristic  combination  of  Jew  and  Gentile 
in  the  earlier  part  of  the  Epistle,  and  yet  the 
question  forces  itself  upon  us:  If  this  view  be 
correct,  how  are  we  to  understand  the  pronounced 
Gentile  rebuke  contained  in  chaps,  ix.-xi.? 
From  all  this  it  is  apparent  that  no  one  of 
these  groups  will  fully  account  for  the  phenom- 
ena which  the  Epistle  presents.  The  problem, 
therefore,  may  be  said  to  be  still  under  discus- 
sion. 

BiBiJOOBAFHY.  Commentaries  by  Godet  (Eng. 
trans..  New  York,  1881);  Oltramare  (Grc^eva, 
1881-82);  Beet  (London,  1885);  Gifford,  in 
Speaker's  Commentary  (ib.,  1886) ;  Lipsius,  in 
Handkommentar  zum  Neuen  Testament  (Frei- 
burg, 1892)  ;  Sanday-Headlam,  in  International 
Critical  Commentary  (New  York,  1895)  ;  Weiss, 
in  Meyer's  Commentar  iiher  das  Neue  Testa- 
ment (G5ttingen,  1899)  ;  Liddon,  Ewplanatory 
Analysis  of  Saint  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romans 
(London,  1894).  Introductions:  Holtzmann 
(Freiburg,  1892)  ;  Godet  (Eng..  trans.,  Edin- 
burgh, 1894)  ;  Salmon  (London,  1894)  ;  Weiss 
(Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh,  1888)  ;  Zahn  (Leipzig, 
1900)  ;  Bacon  (New  York,  1900)  ;  Jttlicher 
(Leipzig,  1901);  Moffat,  The  Historical  Neu> 
Testament  (New  York,  1901).  Discussions: 
Lucht,  Ueher  die  heiden  letzten  Kapitel  des 
Romerhriefs  (Berlin,  1891) ;  Baur,  Paulus  (Eng. 
trans.,  Edinburgh,  1873-75)  ;  Pfleiderer,  Pauli- 
nismus  (Leipzig,  1890)  ;  Clemen,  Die  Einheitlich- 
keit  der  Paulinischen  Brief e  (Gottingen,  1894) ; 
Lightfoot,  in  Biblical  Essays  (London,  1893) ; 
Hort,  Lectures  on  Romans  and  Ephesians  (ib., 
1895);  id.,  Judaistic  Christianity  (ib.,  1894); 
Schlirer,  Oemeindeverfassung  der  Juden  in  Rom 
(Leipzig,  1879) ;  Berliner,  Oeschichte  der  Juden 


BO]£AV& 


182 


BOKANTICISK. 


in  Rom  (Frankfort,  1893)  ;  Spitta,  Untersu- 
chungen  uher  den  Brief  des  Paultis  an  die  Rdmer 
■  (Gdttingen,  1901) ;  Jacobus,  A  Problem  in  New 
Testament  Criticism  (New  York,  1891) ;  Schafer, 
Der  Brief  Pauli  an  die  Romer  (MOnster,  1891). 
The  Dutch  school  is  represented  by  Pierson-Naber, 
Verisimilia  (Amsterdam,  1886)  ;  VOlter,  Die 
Komposition  der  Paulinischen  Haupthriefe  (Tu- 
bingen, 1890)  ;  Van  Manen,  Paulus  II ,  (Leyden, 
1891).  A  full  discussion  of  its  positions  will  be 
found  in  Knowling,  The  Witness  of  the  Epistles 
(London,  1892). 

BOMANS,  KiKO  QF  THE.  A  name  applied  to 
the  elective  head  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  (q.v.) 
before  his  coronation  as  Emperor  by  the  Pope ;.  he 
was  also  known  as  the  German  King.  After  962 
,the  German  King  was  regarded  as  having  a  pre- 
scriptive right  to  the  Imperial  title,  Imperator 
Romanorum,  and  thus  in  the  course  of  time  the 
candidate  for  the  Empire  came  to  be  known  by  an- 
ticipation as  rex  Romanorum.  Charles  V.  was 
the  last  head  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  to  be 
crowned  ^  the  Pope,  and  beginning  with  his 
successor,  Ferdinand  I.,  the  King  of  the  Romans 
was  also  .styled  Elected  Roman  Emperor.  The 
King  of  the  Romans  was  as  a  rule  elected  dur- 
.  ing  the  lifetime  of  the  Emperor.  Napoleon  I.« 
who  aspired  to  the  traditions  of  the  older  Em- 
pire, named  his  son  King  of  Rome. 

BOMANSH.     See  Romanic  Languages. 

.  BOMAKTICISIC  (from  romantic ,  Fr.  roman- 
tique,  from  OF.,  Fr.  roman,  novel,  romance).  A 
term  commonly  employed  to  designate  the  mod- 
em rise  and  develop^ient  of  imagination  and 
sensibility  in  the  literatures  of  Western  Europe, 
and,  to  indicate  the  tendency  of  nineteenth-cen- 
tury.  authors,  to  rid  literature  of  Greek  and 
Roman  rule.  Romanticism,  as  a  tendency,  is 
sometimes  opposed  to  the  restraint  of  classicism, 
and  again  to  the  literalness  of  realism.  On  the 
one  hand  classicism,  which  had  once  been  so 
warmly  espoused  by  the  humanists,  had  degen- 

*  erated  into  a  feeble  effort  to  express  the  modem 
world  in  a  high-flown  but  lifeless  jargon  in 
which  mythological  references  still  abounded. 
This  was  especially  true  of  the  drama.  On  the 
other   hand,   a   certain   school  of   realists,   who 

'  came  after  the  tide  of  romanticism  had  begun 
'  to  ebb,  hampered  their  imaginations  for  the  sake 
of  what  they  believed  to  be  scientific  transcrip- 
tions of  life.     Against  these  realists  the  later 

•  romanticists  rebelled.  It  may  be  said  that  realists 
and  romanticists  (or  romancers)  have  worked 
peacefully  side  by  side  since  as  early  as  1860,  and 
both  schools  have  found  common  readers. 

•  In   the   Augustan    period    English    literature, 
'  barren  of  strong  passion  except  the  indignation 
of  'satire,  made  its  primary  appeal  to  the  intel- 
-  lect;  its  ideal  was  *good  sense.'     Pope  reasoned 
•in   verse,    writing   essays    in    criticism    and    in 
morals ;  Swift  employed  the  fantastic  romance  to 
-satirize  his  contemporaries  and  mankind  as  a 
species;    Addison    ridiculed   w^ith    urbanity   the 
foibles  of  society;  and  rarely  did  any  writer  look 
beyond  London.     It  was  the  province  of  romanti- 
cism to  rediscover  that  man  is  more  than  intel- 
lect ;  that  he  possesses  imagination  and  emotions. 
Between  1726  and  1730  James  Thomson,  a  Scotch 
poet,  published  his  Seasons,  poems  which  defi- 
nitely mark  a  new  interest  in  external  nature. 
He  was  followed  during  the  next  few  years  by 
many  imitators,  known  as  the  landscape  poets; 


then  came  Gray's  ''Elegy  in  a  Country  Church- 
yard," Goldsmith's  "Deserted  Village,"  and  Cow- 
per's  **Task."  This  descriptive  poetry  reached 
its  highest  development  in  Scott,  Byron,  Keata, 
Wordsworth,  and  Shelley,  who  lent  to  nature  **the 
light  that  never  was  on  sea  or  land."  By  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  lyrical  cry, 
which  had. long  been  suppressed  in  English  lit- 
erature, broke  forth  once  more.  At  first  it  was 
a  refined  melancholy,  as  in  Ck>l]in8  and  Gray; 
afterwards  it  broadened  into  a  noble  humanity  in 
Oowper,  Bums,  and  Wordsworth.  Finally  paa- 
sion  and  description  were  fused  in  the  Ijrrics  of 
Shelley,  where,  says  Woodberry,  *iiature  is  emp- 
tied of  her  contents  to  become  the  pure  inhabi- 
tancy of  the  human  soul."  Again,  the  ag«  of 
Pope  and  Addison  had  lost  the  mood  Of  super- 
stition and  wonder.  That  mood  soon  returned, 
and  as  the  date  for  it  we  may  take  CoUins's  "Ode 
on  the  Popular  Superstitions  of  the  Highlands 
of  Scotland"  (written  in  1749).  In  1764  Horace 
Walpole  published  the  Castle  of  Otranto,  which 
initiated  the  romance  of  the  ghost  and  the  ni^t- 
mare.  This  kind  of  literature  was  spiritualized 
by  Coleridge  in  the  "Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mari- 
ner" (1798).  Moreover,  the  first  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century  cared  little  for  the  past.  On 
history  Fielding  was  very  satirical,  declaring 
that  there  was  more  truth  in  Tom  Jones  than  in 
Lord  Clarendon.  But  with  the  ghost  came  his- 
tory, which  was  incorporated  into  romance.  Moat 
of  these  characteristics  of  romanticism — ^the  love 
of  the  picturesque,  history,  and  superstition — 
found  combined  expression  in  Soott,  first  in  his 
verse  tales  and  afterwards  in  the  Waverley  nov- 
els. It  is,  however,  to  be  noted  that  Scott  was 
rarely  lyrical,  and  that  the  supernatural  awak- 
ened in  him  little  of  the  mystic's  awe.  For 
mysticism,  which  was  becoming  one  of  the  notes 
of  romanticism,  we  have  to  look  rather  to  the 
neoplalonism  of  Wordsworth,  the  pantheism  of 
Shelley,  and,  for  its  full  development,  to  the  Pre- 
Raphaelite  Brotherhood  (see  Pbe-RaphaSlitb8)  , 
of  which  Rossetti  was  the  central  figure. 

For  their  matter  the  romanticists  turned  to 
our  earlier  literature ;  to  Milton,  Spenser,  Shake- 
speare, to  ballads,  metrical  romances,  Celtic -and 
Norse  stories,  Greek  art  and  literature,  and  later 
to  Dante.  In  this  search  for  what  was  new-  they 
were  much  aided  by  scholars.  In  1755  P.  H. 
Mallet,  a  native  of  Geneva,  and  professor  of 
belles-lettres  at  the  University  in  Copenhagen, 
published  the  first  part  of  his  Histoire  de  Dane- 
march,  of  which  an  English  translation  by 
Thomas  Percy  appeared  in  1770.  This  book  first 
made  generally  known  to  England  the  gist  of 
the  Eddas.  Five  years  before  Percy  had  pub- 
lished a  collection  of  English  and  Scotch  ballads 
under  the  title  of  Reliques  of  Ancient  EnpHsh 
Poetry.  This  ballad  book  has  been  aptly  called 
*the  Bible  of  the  romantic  reformation.'  An- 
other publication  of  great  influence  was  Mac- 
pherson's  Ossian  (1760-63),  a  series  of  prose 
poems,  in  which  some  use  was  made  of  Celtic 
motives.  The  romanticists  also  had  their  advo- 
cates in  criticism.  In  1754  appeared  Thomas 
Warton's  Observations  on  the  Faery  Queen  of 
Spenser,  a  measured  defense  of  romantic  themes. 
Two  years  later  Joseph  Warton  published  an 
Essay  on  Pope,  one  of  the  most  important  con- 
tributions to  romantic  criticism.  Pope,  who  had 
been  regarded  as  the  most  correct  of  English 
poets,  Warton  placed  below  Milton  and  Spenser, 


BOKANTICISM. 


183 


BOMANTICtSK. 


and  added  that  he  was  surpassed  in  some  re- 
spect3  by  Thomson  and  Gray.  As  marking  the 
progress  of  romantic  criticism  from  timidity  to 
boldness,  we  should  also  mention  Letters  on 
Chivalry  and  Romance  (1762),  by  Richard  Hurd, 
in  which  Spenser  was  placed  highest  among  Eng- 
lish poets.  The  case  of  romanticism  against 
classicism  continued  to  be  argued  by  many  others. 
For  example,  W.  L.  Bowles  issued  in  1806  a  new 
edition  of  Pope,  which  was  prefaced  by  severe 
strictures'.  This  publication  led  to  a  lively  con- 
troversy, in  which  Byron  took  a  prominent  part 
on  the  side  of  Pope.  By  this  time  our  old  writers 
and  the  new  romantic  school  were  being  inter- 
preted in  a  sympathetic  mood  by  Lamb  and  Haz- 
litt.  To  such  an  extent  was  romanticism  thus 
a  reviyal  that  literary  historians  have  often  de- 
fined, it  as  a  return  to  the  Middle  Ages.  But  it 
was  no  return;  its  product  was  unlike  anything 
in  the  past.  Medieval  and  other  literatures 
rather  furnished  it  with  motives  and  suggestions 
for  as  original  work  as  any  period  of  our  litera- 
ture can  claim. 

In  their  study  of  early  poetry  the  romanticists 
naturally  revived  and  modified  old  verse-forms. 
From  the  advent  of  Dryden  to  the  death  of  Pope 
the  heroic  couplet  reigned  almost  supreme.  Writ- 
ten with  a  good  deal  of  freedom  at  first,  it  had 
at  length  come  to  be  very  monotonous,  with  its 
fixed  csesuras  and  pauses  at  the  ends  of  the  lines. 
Although  some  of  the  romanticists  held  to  this 
couplet,  they  nevertheless  broke  it  up,  varying 
the  esesuras  and  letting  one  line  overflow  into 
another  or  one  couplet  into  another,  without  any 
stop  whatever.  In  their  first  revolt  from  Pope 
the  new  poets,  however,  often  imitated  the  blank 
verse  and  the  octosyllables  of  Milton,  the  Spen- 
serian stanza,  ballad  measures,  and  the  Eliza- 
bethan sonnet.  The ,  movement  toward  a  free 
versification  has  continued  until  to-day  English 
poetry  is  richer  in  verse-forms  than  ever  before. 
The  English  vocabulary  has  also  been  renovated. 
Into  prose  romance  came,  with  Scott  and  his 
school  down  to  Stevenson,  old  words  and  expres- 
sions ;  and  the  poets  have  ventured  upon  new  and 
felicitous  compounds.  Perhaps  the  greatest  gain 
to  our  language  from  romanticism  has  been  the 
choice  of  words  for  their  rich  coloring  and 
sounds. 

In  other  countries  the  course  and  the  results 
of  romanticism  were  much  the  same  as  in  Eng- 
land. The  French  date  the  beginning  of  the 
moTcment  with  Rousseau's  cry  of  a  return  to 
nature  (c.l750),  and  follow  itthrough  Chateau- 
briand to  Victor  Hugo  and  a  group  of  his  con- 
temporaries. In  her  book  on  Germany  {De  I'AUe- 
magnCy  1810)  Madame  de  StaSl  upheld  romantic 
ideals  and  described  for  her  classic  compatriots 
the  wonders  of  romantic  literature  in  Germany. 
In  his  preface  to  Cromwell  (1827)  Hugo  defended 
against  classicism  the  grotesque  in  art,  declaring 
it  to  be  "one  of  the  supreme  beauties  of  the  drama," 
and  condemned  the  unities  of  time  and  place. 
Hugo  deiHanded  unrestrained  liberty.  He  and 
his  associates  enriched  the  current  literary  vo- 
cabulary, freed  French  classic  metre  from  its 
trammels,  and  recovered  forgotten  stanzas. 

French  romanticism  owes  a  great  deal  to  Eng- 
land, and  Shakespeare  seems  to  have  been,  far 
more  often  in  the  thoughts  of  Hugo  and  his  circle 
than  was  Rousseau.  Shakespeare  exemplified 
freedom  for  the  drama.  Hemcmi  (1830)  was  con- 
Btmcted   in   the    Shakespearean   spirit   and   it 


aroused  more  hostility  and  enthusiasm  than  any 
other  play  by  Victor  Hugo.  The  French  roman- 
ticists sought  their  inspirations  far  and  near. 
Searching  the  literature  of  other  nations,  they 
found  new  worlds  and  extended  the  intellectual 
boundaries  of  France.  Notwithstanding  so  !much 
that  is  maudlin  or  extravagant  in  the  French  ro- 
mantic period,  it  is  an  epoch  as  remarkable  for 
its  vitality,  sympathy,  and  curiosity  as  the 
classic  seventeenth  century  was  remarkable  for 
its  logic  and  its  limitations,  both  of  horizon  and 
of  form. 

In  Germany  the  first  announcement  of  roman- 
ticism was  in  1773,  when  there  appeared  a  col- 
lection of  essays  by  M5ser,  Herder,  and  Goethe, 
entitled  Von  deuischer  Art  und  Kunst,  einige 
fliegende  Blatter  (fiy-sheets  on  German  style 
and  art) ;  great  praise  was  bestowed  on  -German 
folk-songs,  Shakespeare,  and  Gothic  architecture. 
The  same  year  Goethe  published  Odte  von  Ber- 
lichingen,  an  historical  drama,  of  which  the  hero 
is  a  robber-knight  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
Schiller  also  felt  the  romantic  impulse' at  the 
beginning  of  his  literary  career.  Bui  Goethe  and 
Schiller  soon  outlived  their  youthful  extrava- 
gances, and  in  reaction  from*  their  classicism  in 
the  narrower  sense  of  the  term  there  arose  the 
German  romantic  school,  of  which  the  official 
organ  was  the  Athendum,  toixnded  in  1798  by  the 
Schlegels.  Among  other  romanticists  were  Tieck 
and  Novalis ;  and  coming  later  and  forming  what 
is  sometimes  called  the  second  romantic  school, 
were  Arnim^  Brentano,  the  Grimms,. and  Uhland. 

Like  Chamisso,  Heine  composed  ballads  and 
allowed  his  mind  to  wander  in  a  dream  world. 
His  poetic  landscapes  and  his  poetic  incidents 
are  romantic,  but  Heine  had  more  than  one  .side, 
and  he  expressed  a  great  many  human  conditions 
without  distortion.  In  the  unfinished  epic  Tris- 
tan und  Isolde,  Immermann  endeavored  to  quick- 
en mediaeval  poetry.  Gustav  Freytag  sought  to 
breathe  life  into  mediaeval  dust  in  Die  Ahnen; 
Victor  von  Scheffel  succeeded  charmingly  in  his 
story  of  Ekkehard,  and  mediaeval  literature  has 
since  been  cultivated,  translated,  and  adapted  by 
men  like  Wilhelm  Hertz  and  Paul'Heyse.  T'hat 
romanticism  began  in  Germany,  as  has  so  olt^n 
been  asserted,  is  a  theory  which  does  not  admit 
of  demonstration.  Until  a  rigid  definition- of 
romanticism  shall  have  been  accepted  by  all 
reputable  critics,  and  until  the  works  of  a  host 
of  writers  shall  have  been  tested  with  this  defi- 
nition (which  must  necessarily  be  derived  from 
the  very  men  to  whom  it  is  applied),  so.  long 
shall  we  be  unable  to  honor  any  one  country,  as 
the  home  or  any  one  man  as  the  founder  of  ro- 
manticism. Like  realism  (q.v.)  and  idealism, 
romanticism  is  a  tendency,  and  we  can  find  it 
not  only  in  a  Victor  Hugo  or  a  Wordsworth,  but 
in  a  Orvantes,  or  in  the  adventures  of  Odysseus. 
Romanticism  had  its  schools,  its  declarations, 
and  its  dogmas.  These  are  more  easily  found  and 
explained  than  the  features  which  they  impressed 
upon  literature  or  the  causes  which  gave  them 
rise.  In  England,  France,  Germany,  in  Scandi- 
navia, in  Italy,  and  in  Spain,  romanticism  flour- 
ished as  something  new  and  extraordinary  until 
its  novelty  had  worn  off  and  its  elements  had 
been  assimilated  by  literature. 

Romanticism  was  everywhere — in  England, 
France,  Germany,  Scandinavia,  and  Russia — a 
revolt,  either  silent  or  outspoken,  from  literary 
tradition  of  every  description.    Its  boldest  cham- 


BOXAHTICISK. 


184 


soicBLo:Br. 


pions  asserted  the  right  of  the  man  of  letters  to 
proceed  untrammeled,  to  choose  his  themes  f nxn 
whatever  source  might  please  him  and  to  treat 
them  as  he  liked;  and  they  further  demanded 
that  the  product  should  be  judged  by  itself,  irre- 
spective of  what  somebody  else  has  done.  Though 
no  one  country  can  definitely  claim  the  glory  of 
the  achievement,  it  is  yet  to  be  observed  that  the 
awakening  took  place  earliest  in  England.  In 
literature  the  results  have  been  greatest  for  Eng- 
land and  France.  Germany's  poets  of  the  first 
rank  did  not  belong,  strictly  speaking,  to  either 
of  her  romantic  schools.  On  the  other  hand, 
from  one  of  the  impulses  of  romanticism — ^the  re- 
vival of  heroic  legend — has  come  that  wider 
movement  which  has  culminated  for  Germany  in 
national  imity. 

BmuoQRAPHY.  Beers,  A  History  of  English 
Homantieism  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  (New 
York,  1899) ;  id.,  A  History  of  English  Romanti- 
cism in  the  Nineteenth  Century  (ib.,  1901)  ; 
Phelps,  English  Romantic  Movement  (Boston, 
1893) ;  Herford,  Age  of  Wordsworth  (London, 
1897);  Gates,  Studies  and  Appreciations  (New 
York,  1900)  ;  Gautier,  Histoire  du  romantisme 
(Paris,  1874)  ;  Pellissier,  Mouvement  littiraire 
au  XlX^me  siicle  (ib.,  1889;  Eng.  trans..  New 
York,  1897);  Heine,  Die  romantische  Schule 
(Hamburg,  1836;  Eng.  trans..  New  York, 
1882) ;  Hettner,  Die  romantische  Schule  (Braun- 
schweig, 1860) ;  Haym,  Die  romantische  Schule 
(Berlin,  1870)  ;  Scherer,  Gesohichte der deutschen 
Litteratwr  (1883;  Eng.  trans..  New  York,  1886) ; 
Brandes,  Main  Currents  in  Nineteenth  Century 
Literature,  vol.  ii.,  "The  Romantic  School  in 
Germany"  (Eng.  trans.,  London,  1902). 

BOICANTIC    SCHOOL    OF   ICUSIC.      See 

Music,  Schools  of  Composition. 

BOXA^XTS.  The  name  of  four  Byzantine 
emperors.  Romanus  I.,  Lecafenus,  was  Em- 
peror from  919  to  944.  He  was  bom  in  Ar- 
menia of  poor  parents.  He  entered  the  Imperial 
fleet,  was  high  admiral  on  the  accession  of 
Constantine  VII.,  Porphyrogenitus.  and  by  in- 
trigue became  Augustus  in  919.  His  reign  was 
filled  with  war;  the  Bulgarians  were  bought  off 
in  926  and  again  a  few  years  after;  and  in  941 
Romanus  was  victorious  over  a  great  Russian 
fleet  under  Ingor.  In  944  Constantine  formed  a 
league  with  Romanus's  two  sons,  deposed  him 
and  forced  him  into  a  monastery,  where  he  died 
after  four  years  (948).  Constantine's  son,  Ro- 
manus II.  (c.939-963),  succeeded  his  father  in 
969.  He  lived  a  life  of  ease  and  was  poisoned  by 
his  wife,  Theophano.  His  cranddaughter  Zo«  was 
married  by  her  father,  Constantine  VIII.,  to 
Romanus  III.,  Abgtbus  (c.968-1034),  who  was 
compelled  to  divorce  his  first  wife  and  assume 
the  Empire  in  1028.  With  an  excellent  policy, 
he  was  unsuccessful  for  lack  of  administrative 
ability.  It  is  supposed  that  he  was  put  out  of 
the  way  by  Zo§,  who  was  in  love  with  a  general, 
Michael  Paphlago.  Romanus  IV.,  Diogenes 
(?-1071),  made  frequent  attempts  to  revolt  un- 
der Constantine  Ducas,  and  after  his  death  was 
arrested  on  the  charge  of  plotting  against  Eudox- 
ia,  Constantine's  widow,  whose  passion  for  him 
as  soon  as  she  saw  him  rescued  Romanus  from 
death  and  brought  him  to  the  throne  (1068). 
After  a  few  years  of  successful  war  against  the 
Scljuks,  he  was  defeated  by  Alp  Arslan  (q.v.), 


and  was  killed  in  the  same  year  by  a  revolutioii- 
ary  party  in  Constantinople. 

BOICAK  WALL.  The  remains  of  the  lines 
of  defense  erected  by  the  Romans  to  protect  the 
northern  boundary  of  Britain.  We  first  hear  of 
such  defenses  against  the  tribes  of  Caledonia, 
when  Agricola  built  a  chain  of  forts  to  secure  his 
conquests  north  of  the  Clyde.  Of  these,  however, 
few,  if  any,  traces  remain,  unless  in  a  fort  at 
Camelon^  near  Falkirk.  Across  the  narrow  neck, 
about  35  miles  in  width,  between  the  Firth  of 
Forth  and  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  under  the  Emperor 
Antoninus  Pius  about  a.d.  142,  was  built  a  ram- 
part of  turf,  with  a  broad  ditch  on  the  north 
and  a  military  road  on  the  south.  A  chain  of 
eighteen  forts  furnished  stations  for  the  garri- 
sons. This  line  was  held  for  less  than  fifty  years, 
and  then  tHe  Romans  fell  back  to  a  southern  line, 
already  established  by  Hadrian,  which  crossed 
the  island  from  the  Solway  to  Newcastle-on-the- 
Tyne.  Here,  about  a.d.  120,  there  was  a  similar 
turf  rampart,  protected  by  a  ditch,  and  having  a 
length  of  about  80  miles.  Nearly  ninety  years 
later  Septimius  Severus  seems  to  have  replaced 
this  by  a  stone  wall,  which  followed  in  general  the 
same  course.  This  wall  is  still  so  far  preserved  as 
to  be  easily  traced.  South  of  it,  at  an  irregular 
distance,  ran  the  i>allum,  which  was  simply  a 
broad  ditch  with  a  low  mound  on  each  side.  It 
does  not  seem  to  have  had  a  military  purpose, 
but  was  apparently  a  boundary  mark.  South  of 
this  was  a  chain  of  detached  forts,  connected  by  a 
road,  and  with  castles  and  watch  towers  at  in- 
tervals. 

The  term  Roman  Wall  is  also  sometimes  ap- 
plied to  the  Lim>es  or  boundaiy  wall  or  palisade 
erected  by  the  Romans  to  mark  the  frontier  be- 
tween the  Rhine  and  the  Danube.  This  work  was 
really  in  two  sections.  One,  forming  the  north- 
em  boundary  of  Rhietia,  ran  from  Hienheim  on 
the  Danube,  near  Regensburg,  almost  due  west  to 
a  point  near  Stuttgart;  the  other,  starting  from 
the  Rhine,  nearly  opposite  Rheinbrohl,  ran  at 
first  southeast,  and  then  turned  more  to  the 
south  until  it  joined  the  Rhsetian  line.  At  first 
both  were  little  more  than  a  palisade  and  ditch, 
with  a  seccmd  line  of  wooden  towers  and  forti- 
fied camps.  Later  the  line  of  Upper  Germania 
was  defended  by  an  earthen  rampait,  and  that  of 
Rhietia  by  a  stone  wall.  Stone  camps  and 
towers  replaced  the  wooden  structures  of  the 
second  line.  Similar  forts  defended  the  line  of 
the  Danube  along  Pannonia  and  Noricum,  though 
here  no  outer  boundary  line  was  needed. 

BOMBEBG^  rAma>§rK,  Andbeas  (1767-1821). 
A  German  violinist  and  composer,  born  at  Vechta, 
near  Mttnster.  In  Paris  he  was  engaged  as  vio- 
lin soloist  at  the  Concerts  Spirituels  and  subse- 
quently made  several  tours.  He  lived  in  Ham- 
burg (1801-15),  and  then  succeeded  Spohr  as 
Court  kapellmeister  at  Gotha.  He  wrote  eight 
operas  which  are  unimportant,  and  many  violin 
concertos,  symphonies,  and  string  quartets,  sev- 
eral of  them  of  great  excellence,  but  is  most  fa- 
mous for  his  choral  and  solo  works  with  orches- 
tra, of  which  the  best  known  are  those  set  to 
Schiller's  poems,  as  'Die  Glocke,"  **Die  Kindes- 
morderin,"  and  "Monolog  der  Jungfrau  von  Or- 
leans." 

B0MBL6n,  rdm-bl5n^.  A  group  of  islands 
forming  a  separate  province  of  the  Philippine 
Islands.    The  group  belongs  to  the  Visayas,  and 


BOXBLOl?. 


185 


fiOHE. 


18  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  Visayan  Sea  east 
of  Mindoro  and  north  of  Panay  (Map:  Philip- 
pine Islands,  G  7).  The  principal  islands  with 
their  areas  in  square  miles  are  Tablas  (320)  in 
the  west,  Sibuy&n  (90)  in  the  east,  and  Rom- 
bI6n  (64)  in  the  centre;  the  total  area  of  the 
province  is  515  square  miles.  The  islands  are 
highly  mountainous,  with  a  number  of  peaks  over 
2000  feet  high  in  Tablas,  while  the  peak  of  Si- 
bnyiln  has  a  height  of  6424  feet.  The  greater 
portions  are  covered  with  forests  containing  valu- 
able woods,  but  wholly  unexploited,  except  that  a 
little  gum  mastic  and  copra  are  exported  from 
the  island  of  Rombl6n.  Cattle  are  also  raised 
and  exported  from  the  latter  island,  but  through- 
out the  province  agriculture  and  other  indus- 
tries are  engaged  in  only  to  supply  the  absolute 
necessities  of  home  consumption.  The  population 
in  1901  was  55,339,  mostly  Visayans,  with  a 
few  hundred  savage  Negritos  in  the  interior  of 
Tablaa.  The  capital  of  the  province  is  Rombl6n, 
with  a  well-sheltered  harbor  and  a  population  of 
6764. 

BOICB  (Lat.,  It.  Roma,  Gk.  *^6fiif,  RdmS,  con- 
nected with  OLat.  roumen,  river  Gk.  l>eiv,  rhein, 
Skt.  sru,  to  flow),  Modern.  The  capital  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Italy  and  of  the  Province  of  Rome, 
the  third  largest  city  in  the  country.  The  city 
lies  on  the  plain  on  each  side  of  the  winding  Tiber, 
and  in  part  on  the  slopes  of  the  historic  Seven 
Hills  (Map:  Italy,  G  6).  Its  geographical  posi- 
tion at  the  observatory  of  the  Collegio  Romano 
is  latitude  41*  53'  52"  N.,  longitude  12*»  28'  40" 
E.  Its  situation  in  the  Campagna,  about  14  miles 
from  the  Apennines  on  the  east,  and  the  same  dis- 
tance from  the  Mediterranean  on  the  west,  is 
naturally  unfavorable  to  health,  but  Rome  is  now 
considered  one  of  the  most  sanitary  cities  in  Eu- 
rope, owing  to  extensive  modem  betterments  of 
every  description.  The  death  rate  fell  from  30 
per  1000  in  1876  to  26  in  1885,  and  to  less  than 
18  later.  The  climate  is  less  extreme  than  in 
Florence  and  Milan,  the  thermometer  seldom 
rising  above  99*"  F.  or  falling  below  23"*.  The 
mean  temperature  in  January  is  44°,  in  July  77°. 
Modem  Rome,  situated  on  the  many-bridged 
Tiber,  and  dignified  by  its  many  and  historic 
gates,  ia  distinguished  by  its  vast  ruins,  its  re- 
mains of  ancient  walls,  its  numberless  public 
statues  and  monuments  both  new  and  old,  its 
fountains,  and  the  magnificent  improvements 
which  have  been  made  since  Italy  became  a  united 
kingdom.  The  Tiber  has  been  inclosed  in  vast 
embankments  of  masonry,  streets  have  been  wid- 
ened, filthy  districts  done  away  with,  and  pleas- 
ure grounds  laid  out.  The  Palatine  Hill  is  now 
a  public  park;  the  Janiculum  has  been  converted 
into  drives  and  walks;  and  the  Villa  Borghese 
(q.v.)  and  gardens  have  been  acquired  for  the 
metropolis.  The  historic  present  wall  of  the 
city  is  for  the  most  part  that  of  Aurelian,  dat- 
ing mainly  from  about  275.  Rome  is  fortified 
by  a  wide  circle  of  detached  forts.  The  circum- 
ference of  the  city  is  about  15  miles.  There  are 
10  bridges,  three  of  which  are  for  the  most  part 
ancient.  Of  these  the  five-arched  Sant'  Angelo 
is  the  best  known.  Many  handsome  modem  pub- 
lic edifices  have  been  erected. 

Rome  may  be  described  as  consisting  of  four 
sections  or  districts:  The  Campus  Martins,  the 
ancient  southern  portion,  the  more  modem  city 
on  the  northeast  and  east,  and  the  district  on 


the  right  bank.  Mediaeval  Rome  grew  up  not  o& 
the  Seven  Hills,  but  on  the  site  of  the  old  Campua 
MartiUs  and  across  the  Tiber  around  Saint  Peter's 
and  the  Vatican;  and  these  two  districts  remain 
to-day  the  most  densely  settled  parts  of  the  city. 
By  far  the  larger  of  the  two,  the  Campus  Martins, 
occupies  all  the  plain  between  the  walls  of  Aure- 
lian, the  Pincio,  Quirinal,  and  Capitoline  Hill, 
and  the  river.  At  its  northern  extremity,  where 
the  Porta  del  Popolo  opens  through  the  walls,  is 
the  handsome  Piazza  del  Popolo,  in  the  centre  of 
which  stands  an  Egyptian  obelisk  brought  to 
Rome  by  Augustus  Cesar  from  the  Temple  of  the 
Sun  at  Heliopolis.  The  noteworthy  Santa  Maria 
del  Popolo  Church  adjoins  this  Piazza.  It  was 
rebuilt  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and 
contains  many  frescoes  by  Pinturicchio.  The 
Campus  Martins  district  is  practk^ally  bordered 
on  the  west  for  the  most  part  by  the  important 
and  historic  Coxwi,  which  oranches  out  from  the 
Piazza  del  Popolo  and  runs  south-southeast  for 
about  a  mile  to  the  Piazza  di  Venezia  near  the 
foot  of  the  Capitoline  Hill.  It  is  lined  with 
splendid  palaces,  churches,  ancient  and  modem, 
and  fine  shops.  Baroque  architecture  being  in 
evidence. 

The  Piazza  Venezia  takes  its  name  from  the  ad* 
jacent  Palazzo  di  Venezia,  a  fine  Florentine  strac- 
ture  of  the  fifteenth  century,  built  of  stones  from 
the  Colosseum.  In  this  part  of  the  city  the 
Italian  Senate  and  Chamber  of  Deputies  bold 
their  sessions,  and  here  are  found  also  various 
Govemment  offices  and  the  University  of  Rome. 
The  celebrated  Pantheon  (q.v.) ,  which  has  always 
been  important  in  the  citjr's  history,  is  the  only 
ancient  Duilding  in  Rome  still  practically  com- 
plete. The  splendid  Piazza  Colonna  on  the  Corso  is 
to  the  northeast  of  the  Pantheon,  and  is  the  centre 
of  modern  Roman  life.  In  it  rises  the  fine  ancient 
column  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  95  feet  high.  Not 
far  away  from  the  square  is  the  elegant  Sciarra- 
Colonna  Palace,  scarcely  surpassed  even  in  Rome. 
It  dates  from  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. Two  historic  piles  in  the  vicinity  are  the 
Palace  Torlonia  and  the  Palace  Bonaparte,  where 
the  mother  of  Napoleon  Uved  and  died.  Near  by 
is  the  superb  Palace  Doria,  with  its  noteworthy 
collection  of  paintings.  To  the  east  is  the  equally 
well-known  Colonna  Palace,  dating  from^  the 
commencement  of  the  fifteenth  century,  with  a 
small  but  good  picture  gallery  having  some  of  the 
finest  landscapes  of  Poussin.  Some  distance 
northwest,  near  the  Tiber,  stands  the  Palace 
Borghese,  with  a  splendid  colonnaded  court.  To 
the  southwest  of  this  palace  is  the  noteworthy 
Sant'  Agostino  Church,  dating  from  1479,  the 
first  church  in  Rome  with  a  dome.  Just  south- 
east of  the  Pantheon  is  the  Santa  Maria  sopra 
Minerva  Church,  begun  in  1285  and  fully  reno- 
vated in  recent  times.  It  contains  Michelan- 
gelo's sublime  "Christ  and  the  Cross."  West  of 
the  Pantheon  is  the  interesting  Piazza  Navona, 
with  3  fountains.  Near  it  rises  the  Santa  Maria 
della  Pace  Church,  due  to  Sixtus  IV.  ( 1484) .  In 
one  of  its  chapels  are  the  far-famed  Sibyls  of 
Raphael,  painted  in  1514.  Bramante  built  the 
fine  cloisters.  In  the  district  south  of  the  Pan- 
theon is  the  Gesil,  the  sumptuous  church  of  the 
Jesuits,  begun  in  1568.  West  of  it  stands  the  in- 
teresting Sant'  Andrea  della  Valle,  dating  from 
1691.  Still  farther  west  rises  the  imposing  Re- 
naissance Palace  della  Cancelleria,  finished  in 
1495.  Its  arcaded  court  is  of  much  interest.  Juat 


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south  is  a  business  centre — ^the  Piazza  Campo  di 
Fiore,  with  a  fine  bronze  statue  of  Bruno,  erected 
in  1880  on  the  spot  where  he  was  burned.  To  the 
east  stood  the  Theatre  of  Pompey,  where  Csesar  was 
assassinated.  Southwest  near  the  Tiber  is  the 
splendid  Fa mese  Palace,  completed  in  1545.  It 
was  constructed,  in  part,  by  Michelangelo.  Some 
distance  to  the  east  is  situated  the  Piazza  Tarta- 
ruga,  containing  the  elegant  bronze  Fountain  of 
the  Tortoises,  dating  from  1585.  In  this  vicinity 
was  also  the  Ghetto  after  1556 — a  congeries  of 
mean  alleys  where  the  Jews  were  herded  together 
by  law  under  the  Papacy.  Here  also  is  found  the 
Cenci-Bolognetti  Palace,  where  dwelt  the  sad- 
famed  Beatrice.  Near  by  is  the  noteworthy  Por- 
ticus  of  Octavia,  dating  originally  from  the  time 
of  Augustus. 

The  southern  part  of  the  modern  city  formed 
the  site  of  ancient  Rome.  Here  are  the  Palatine, 
Aventine,  and  Cselian  hills,  now  covered  with 
celebrated  ruins,  also  parks,  gardens,  vineyards, 
and  orchards,  besides  cnurches  and  convents.  All 
the  region  is  sparsely  inhabited.  The  top  of  the 
Capitol ine  Hill,  approached  from  the  Campus 
Martins  by  magnificent  staircases  at  the  foot  of 
which  Rienzi  was  slain,  is  one  of  the  most  impres- 
sive spots  in  Rome.  The  majestic  square  of  the 
Capitol  was  planned  by  Michelangelo.  Among  its 
minor  objects  of  interest  are:  an  ancient  group 
of  the  horse- taming  Dioscuri;  the  celebrated 
bronze  equestrian  statue  of  Marcus  Aurelius ;  and 
the  first  milestone  of  the  old  Appian  Way.  The 
Santa  Maria  in  Aracoeli  Church,  nere,  contains  a 
famous  Holy  Child  (Bambino).  On  the  north  end 
of  the  Capitol  is  seen  the  elaborate  new  monu- 
ment of  Victor  Emmanuel  II.  The  Palace  of  the 
Conservatori  (on  the  Capitoline)  contains  the 
New  Capitoline  Museum.  Here  are  preserved, 
aniong  antiquities  and  pictures,  many  worthy  an- 
cient sculptures.  Here,  too,  is  to  be  seen  the  far- 
famed  Capitoline  wolf,  probably  the  one  that  was 
struck  by  lightning  (b.c.  65)  in  the  temple.  The 
Capitoline  Museum  of  sculpture  is  also  here.  The 
Palace  of  the  Senators,  where  is  housed  the  civic 
administration  of  the  city,  has  features  by 
Michelangelo.  This  was  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Tabularium.  The  Tarpeian  Rock  is  on  the  south- 
east side  of  the  Capitoline  Hill,  to  the  east-south- 
east of  which  extends  the  long  site  rich  with  the 
ruins  of  the  Roman  Fonim,  Colosseum,  etc.  On 
the  south  of  the  Forum  rises  the  Palatine  Hill. 
The  impressive  ruins,  threaded  by  the  pavement  of 
the  ancient  Sacra  Via,  consist  mostly  of  surface 
constructions.  Of  the  isolated  columns  standing, 
those  of  the  temple  of  Castor  and  Pollux  are  the 
most  beautiful.  The  only  construction  here  re- 
maining practically  in  perfect  condition  is  the 
Arch  of  Septimius  Severus,  dating  from  a.d.  203. 
Farther  on  toward  the  Colosseum  rise  three  vast 
and  impressive  arehes  of  the  ancient  Basilica  of 
Constantine,  constructed  in  his  period.  To  the 
southeast  stands  the  fine  Arch  of  Titus,  with 
reliefs,  dedicated  a.d.  81.  East  of  the  Arch  at 
some  little  distance  away  rises  the  ruin  of  the 
nikagnificent  Colosseum.  (See  Amphitheatre.)  It 
stands  in  the  ancient  gardens  of  Nero's  Golden 
House.  Its  effect  by  moonlight  and  under  arti- 
ficial light  is  exceptionally  grand.  Southwest  is 
the  splendid  Triumphal  Arch  of  Constantine,  con- 
structed in  312. 

North  of  the  Roman  Forum  were  the  ma^ifi- 
ceni  fora  of  the  emperors,  scant  remains  of  which 
now  exist.     Part  of  the  old  Mamertine  prison, 


where  Jugurtha  and  Vercingetorix  met  their 
death,  is  still  to  be  seen  under  a  church  in  the 
vicinity.  The  finest  of  these  fora  was  the  superb 
Forum  of  Trajan,  unequaled  for  splendor.  In  its 
northwestern  part  rises  the  magnificent  marble 
Trajan's  Olumn,  with  a  total  height  of  about 
150  feet.  Its  reliefs  contain  2500  human  figures. 
A  statue  of  Saint  Peter  rises  on  the  summit. 
Trajan  was  buried  underneath  the  column. 

On  the  Palatine  Hill  are  the  vast  ruined  sur- 
face constructions  and  substructures  of  the  pal- 
aces of  the  emperors.  This  was  the  site  of  the 
Roma  Quadrata,  parts  of  whose  walls  are  still  to 
be  seen.  The  excavations  here,  as  in  the  font, 
have  been  very  extensive  and  costly.  The  chief 
ruins  seen  on  the  hill  are  those  of  the  Palace  of 
Tiberius ;  the  House  of  Livia,  the  wife  of  Augus- 
tus, with  unexcelled  frescoes,  and  altogether  a 
most  interesting  edifice,  being  a  complete  Roman 
house;  the  mighty  Palace  of  Augustus;  the  Sta- 
dium; and  the  Psedagogium,  or  school  for  the 
slaves  of  the  emperors.  At  the  western  foot  of 
the  Palatine  is  the  fine  Janus  Quadrifrons,  a  four- 
faced  arched  passage.  Under  this  district  paases 
the  great  ancient  Cloaca  Maxima  io^-)  from  the 
Forum.  It  still  discharges  into  the  Tiber  near  by. 
In  the  proximity  of  this  emptying  point  is  an 
attractive  little  marble  circular  temple,  with  20 
Corinthian  columns.  Close  by  is  another  inter- 
esting and  ancient  temple,  Ionic  in  style,  now  the 
Church  of  Santa  Maria  Egiziaca.  To  the  south- 
east and  along  the  southwestern  foot  of  the  Pala- 
tine Hill  formerly  stretched  the  immense  Circus 
Maximus.  Only  its  surface  construction  remains 
to  view. 

The  adjoining  Aventine  district  in  Southern 
Rome  is  now  covered  with  monastic  institutions 
and  picturesque  old  gardens.  Of  the  three  churches 
on  the  crown  of  the  Aventine  the  Santa  Sabina 
is  of  the  most  importance.  It  dates  from  a.d. 
425,  and  was  the  headquarters  of  Saint  Dominic 
and  his  brotherhood.  Near  by  is  to  be  had  the 
famous  peep-hole  view  of  the  dome  of  Saint 
Peter.  Some  distance  to  the  southwest  from  the 
Aventine  Hill,  and  in  a  bend  of  the  Tiber,  rises 
Monte  Testaccio,  a  solitary  mound  115  feet  high. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  formed  of  broken  earthen 
jars,  which  came  chiefly  from  Africa  and  were 
unpacked  in  the  vicinity.  To  the  east  and  in  the 
vicinity  is  the  well-known  Protestant  cemetery  of 
Rome,  a  fine  spot  with  noble  trees.  Here  are  buried 
Shelley,  Keats,  Trelawney,  J.  A.  Symonds,  and 
John  Gibson.  Not  far  away  is  the  ancient  Pyra- 
mid of  Cestius,  the  tomb  of  the  Praetor  Cestius 
Epulo.  It  is  116  feet  high,  and  is  inclosed  with 
marble  slabs.  In  the  section  of  the  city  southeast 
of  the  Palatine  extends  the  ancient  Via  Appia, 
now  transformed  into  a  modern  street.  Along  the 
route  the  huge  ruins  of  the  Baths  of  Caracalla 
(q.v.)  are  soon  reached.  Farther  along  are  to  be 
seen  various  old  Roman  tombs  and  columbaria, 
highly  interesting  as  showing  ancient  burial  cus- 
toms. Especially  so  is  the  Columbarium  of  the 
Freedmen  of  Octavia,  Nero's  wife,  wnth  its  niches 
and  stucco  decorations  and  colors.  North  of  this 
region  and  east-southeast  of  the  Palatine  is  the 
district  of  the  Cwlian  Hill,  with  its  various 
churches  and  religious  associations,  which  date 
from  the  time  of  the  Apostles.  At  its  western 
foot  is  the  San  Gregorio  Magno  Church,  noted 
for  its  r61e  in  the  lives  of  Saint  Gregory  and 
Saint  Augustine.  In  the  vicinity  is  the  little 
Church  of  Santi  Giovanni  e  Paolo,  dating  from 


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400,  and  restored  in  the  last  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  Portions  of  the  early  edifices 
here  are  worthy  of  study.  . 

The  district  north  of  the  Cielian  and  radiat- 
ing east  from  the  Colosseum  is  that  of  San  Clem- 
ente  and  the  Lateian.  The  former  basilica,  just 
to  the  east  of  the  amphitheatre,  is  of  interesting 
antiquity  and  handsomely  preserved.  Under- 
neath are  the  remains  of  the  original  church,  dat- 
ing from  the  fourth  century.  This  lower  church 
was  large  and  its  frescoes  are  of  value.  The  up- 
per ohnjnch  is  also  striking.  The  extensive  Saint 
John  in  Laterano  basilica,  with  its  square  and 
approaches,  is  very  impressive.  In  the  centre  of 
the  square  stands  a  red  obelisk  from  Thebes — ^the 
largest  obelisk  in  Europe;  On  the  left  is  the  lAte- 
ran  Museum,  occupying  the  former  residential 
palace  of  the  popes.  Opposite  the  Museum  and 
across  the  square  is  the  baptistery,  the  first  one 
in  Rome.  The  interior  is  decorated  with  mosaics 
and  frescoes.  In  the  interior  of  the  church  itself 
may  be  observed  an  admirable  Gothic  canopy 
and  mosaics  by  J.  Torriti.  The  cloisters  of  the 
thirteenth  century  are  fine.  Just  to  the  northeast 
of  the  Lateran  is  the  edifice  which  contains  the 
well-known  Scala  Santa  and  the  former  chapel 
of  the  popes.  (See  Laivran,  Chubch  of  Saint 
John.)  The  most  modem  region  of  Rome,  lying 
northeast  and  east  of  the  Campus  Martins  and 
beyond  the  Corso,  covers  the  slopes  and  pla- 
teaux of  the  Pincian,  Quirinal,  Viminal,  and  Es- 
quiline  hills.  Here  the  city  presents  the  usual 
appearance  of  a  Continental  metropolis.  East  of 
and  adjoining  the  Piazza  del  Popolo  rises  the 
beautiful,  garden-covered  Pincio-^the  fashion- 
able place  for  driving  in  the  afternoon.  The  gar- 
dens of  Lucullus  were  here.  The  grounds  are 
everywhere  embellished  with  statues,  etc.  Tlie 
view  over  Rome  is  fine.  Here  is  situated  the 
Villa  Medici,  dating  from  1640,  in  which  the 
French  Academy  of  Art  has  been  housed  since 
1801.  The  Piazza  di  Spagna,  the  centre  of  the 
foreign  life  in  Rome  and  of  the  artists'  auarter, 
is  near  by.  To  it  descends  the  imposing  bcala  di 
Spagna  (1725)  in  137  steps.  Near  the  royal 
palace,  situated  to  the  southeast,  is  the  grand 
Fontana  Trevi,  the  most  famous  fountain  in 
Rome.  It  dates  from  1762.  Northeast  of  the 
palace  is  the  Piazza  Barberini,  with  Bernini's 
fine  fountain  of  the  Tritons.  The  Barberini  Pal- 
ace (q.v.)  is  adjacent.  Farther  to  the  northeast 
stands  the  Palazzo  Piombino,  with  the  Boncom- 
pagni  Museum  of  antiques,  including  the  famous 
Head  of  Juno — Juno  Ludovisi — and  other  fine 
examples.  This  vicinity  was  occupied  by  the  gar« 
dens  of  Sallust.  The  neighboring  (^uirinal  Pal- 
ace, the  abode  of  the  King,  belongs  to  the  last 
part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Directly  south  is 
the  interesting  Rospigliosi  Palace,  dating  from 
1603.  In  its  adjoining  casino  is  the  famous  "Au- 
rora" of  Guido  Reni — a  ceiling  painting. 

A  long  street  follows  the  top  of  the  Quirinal 
ridge  from  Monte  Cavallo,  the  square  in  front  of 
the  royal  palace  (so  called  from  the  colossal  an- 
cient statues  of  Castor  and  Pollux  with  their 
horses,  Cavalli,  that  stand  here — magnificent 
specimens)-,  northeast  to  the  Porta  Pia  in  the  city 
walls.  This  street  is  called  Via  del  Quirinale  in 
its  lower  part,  then  Via  Venti  Settembre.  On  it 
are  the  Mmistries  of  War  and  Finance.  South  of 
this  street  and  running  parallel  with  it  is  the 
Via  Nazionale — the  most  important  street  of  the 
modem  city.    All  this  handsome  new  region,  in 


fact,  is  traversed  by  straight  magnificent  avenues 
reaching  in  all  directions.  Near  its  centre  are 
the  vast  Baths  of  Diocletian  (q.v.),  where  is 
located  the  Santa  Maria  degli  Angeli  Church. 
Southwest  is  the  magnificent  modem  building 
of  the  National  Gallery  of  Modern  Art,  to  the-^ 
southeast  of  which  stands  the  Santa  Pudenziana, 
said  to  be  the  oldest  church  in  Rome.  In  the 
vicinity  rises,  in  a  spacious  square,  the  imposing 
Santa  Maria  Maggiore  (q.v.).  To  the  south  of  it 
lay  the  gardens  of  Mcecenas,  and  not  far  away 
may  be  seen  remains  of  the  Servian  Wall.  Quite 
a  distance  to  the  east  is  the  noteworthy  pil^^rim- . 
age  church  San  Lorenzo  fuori  le  Miira,  reouilt  in 
578.  Just  south  of  the  Maria  Maggiore  is  the 
very  early  Santa  Prassede.  It  was  last  restored 
in  1869.  To  the  southwest  is  San  Pietro  in  Vin- 
coli,  founded  in  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,, 
and  containing  Michelangelo's  celebrated  Moses. 
Among  the  well-known  villas  in  northeastern 
Rome  the  Borghese,  with  its  art  collections  and 
beautiful  grounds,  is  justly  the  most  famous. 
The  villa  dates  from  the  early  part  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  The  grounds  are  enriched  with 
statues,  fountains,  miniature  temples,  etc.  The 
splendid  collections  include  Titian's  far-famed 
"Sacred  and  Profane  Love." 

That  part  of  the  modem  city  of  Rome  which 
lies  on  the  right  or  western  bank  of  the  Tiber 
may  be  divided  into  three  parts — the  Vatican 
quarter,  otherwise  called  il  Borgo,  the  Trastevere 
proper,  and  the  Prati  di  Castello.  The  Borgo,  or 
Leonine  city,  inclosed  in  a  wall  of  its  own,  ex- 
tends between  Saint  Peter's  and  Sant'  An^lo. 
Sant'  Angelo  rises  at  the  north  end  of  the  bridge 
of  Sant'  Angelo,  which  crosses  the  Tiber  near  the 
western  end  of  the  Campus  Martins.  The  Prati 
lies  to  the  north,  and  is  a  modern  quarter,  large- 
ly of  apartment  houses,  uninteresting  and  ugly. 
The  circular  Castle  of  Sant'  Angelo,  as  the  great 
Sepulchre  of  Hadrian  is  called,  is  surrounded  with, 
ramparts,  moats,  and  bastions,  mounted  with 
cannon,  and  is  used  as  the  citadel  of  Rome.  It 
was  erected  a.d.  136.  It  is  both  imposing  and 
picturesque,  and  has  for  some  fifteen  centuries 
been  regarded  as  the  fortress  of  Rome,  figuring 
prominently  in  all  the  mediseval  warfare  of  the. 
city.  Its  height  is  160  feet.  When  it  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  popes  they  connected  it  with  the 
Vatican  by  an  underground  passage.  Certain  of 
the  apartments  are  decorated,  and  the  visitor  is- 
shown  where  Cellini  and  Beatrice  Cenci  were  im- 
prisoned. On  the  way  to  the  Vatican  stands  the 
fine  Giraud  Palace,  dating  from  1503.  The  district 
of  the  Borgo  has  been  more  or  less  closely  asso-. 
ciated  with  Papal  history  from  the  beginning  of 
the  sixth  century,  but  is  not  in  itself  very  inter- 
esting. Immediately  to  the  west,  on  the  slopes  of 
the  Monte  Vaticano,  loom  the  vast  and  magnifi- 
cent establishments  of  Saint  Peter's  and  the 
Vatican.  See  the  articles  Saint  Peter's  Church 
and  Vatican. 

South  of  Saint  Peter's  and  along  the  Tiber  and 
the  Janiculum  (q.v.)  range  of  hills  extends  the 
Trastevere — that  distinct  district  of  Rome  where 
the  handsome  work-people  claim  direct  descent 
from  the  ancient  Romans.  It  is  connected  with 
the  Saint  Peter's  district  by  the  Via  delta  Lun- 
gara,  which  runs  close  to  the  river,  and  by  the 
Strata  delta  Mura  alon^  the  heights.  In  the 
monastery  of  Sant'  Onofrio,  in  the  northem  part 
of  the  Trastevere,  Tasso  lived  for  a  time  and  aied. 
Farther  on  and  near  the  right  is  the  magnifioenlj 


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Villa  Farnesina  with  its  gardens.  It  has  decora- 
tions designed  by  Raphael  and  executed  by 
Giulio  Romano  and  others.  Twelve  of  these  deco- 
rations form  the  Myth  of  Psyche — of  rarest  value. 
The  villa  also  contains  Raphael's  unsurpassed 
Galatea,  executed  by  himself.  Opposite,  on  the 
'  west,  is  the  Palace  Corsini  with  fine  gardens. 
Near  by  is  the  Museum  Torlonia  with  a  vast  col- 
lection of  antiquities.  Some  distance  southeast 
of  the  Museum  Torlonia,  and  on  the  elevation,  is 
the  well-known  Church  of  Santa  Maria  in  Traste- 
vere,  alleged  to  have  been  founded  under  Alex- 
ander Severus.  It  has  been  restored  in  later 
times.  Farther  on  to  the  southeast  is  the  note- 
worthy Santa  Cecilia  in  Trastevere,  where  the 
home  of  the  saint  was,  and  where  now  her  re- 
mains lie.  From  the  top  of  the  Janiculum,  along 
which  run  fine  drives,  especially  the  beautiful 
modem  Passeggiata  Margherita  through  the 
former  gardens  of  the  Palace  Corsini,  may  be  had 
Splendid  views  of  Rome.  Especially  in  the  late 
afternoon,  when  the  sun  is  casting  its  waning 
glow  over  the  Imperial  city  below,  is  the  scene 
marvelous — the  countless  domes,  towers,  colos- 
sal piles,  and  vast  ruins — all  set  off  by  the  mag- 
nificent line  of  the  Alban  Mountains,  usually 
snow-capped,  in  the  distant  background.  On  the 
Janiculum,  and  west  of  the  Trastevere  Church, 
is  the  Church  of  San  Pietro  in  Montorio,  marking 
the  place  where  it  is  claimed  Saint  Peter  was 
martyred.  In  the  ^rounds  of  its  monastery  is  a 
little  round  Doric  tempietto,  a  fine  example  de- 
signed by  Bramante.  It  is  situated  on  the  pre- 
cise spot  where  Saint  Peter's  cross  is  supposed 
to  have  stood.  The  superb  view  over  Rome  from 
the  piazza  of  this  church  is  the  usual  one  en- 
ioyea  on  the  Janiculilm  by  tourists.  Some  dis- 
tance to  the  west  is  the  fine  Villa  Doria  Pamphili, 
with  largje  and  delightful-  grounds. 

Rome  is  not  important  as  an  industrial  and 
commercial  centre.  The  art  manufactures  are, 
however,  prominent,  and  consist  in  part  of  bronzes, 
terra-cottas,  mosaics,  cameos,  artificial  pearls, 
and  church  omamente.  Other  manufactures  are 
leather,  silk,  umbrellas  and  parasols,  strings 
for  musical  instruments,  artificial  flowers, 
candles,  soap,  flour,  macaroni,  fertilizers,  and 
glue.  A  flourishing  industry  is  the  making  of 
copies  of  famous  paintings.  In  the  Vatican  is 
the  Papal  manufactory  of  mosaic,  where  copies 
of  famous  pictures  are  executed  in  colored  glass 
for  churches  and  other  religious  institutions. 
The  Government  has  a  large  tobacco  factory  in 
Rome.  The  largest  imports  are  grains,  cattle, 
and  wine.  The  Tiber  is  canalized  in  the  city,  but 
its  port  only  suffices  for  small  river  craft. 

Rome  is  the  seat  of  the  Italian  Government 
and  of  the  Pope  and  the  College  of  Cardinals. 
The  head  of  tne  municipal  government  is  the 
syndic  or  mayor.  He  is  chosen  by  the  80  mem- 
bers of  the  municipal  council,  who  are  themselves 
elected  by  the  people.  The  giunta  is  an  admin- 
istrative body,  consisting  of  the  mayor  and  10 
members  (assessori),  who  preside  over  the  de- 
partmental committees.  For  purposes  of  admin- 
istration the  city  is  divided  into  15  districts.  It 
forms  five  parliamentary  circles.  In  1902  the 
budget  balanced  at  about  $6,500,000.  The  debt 
of  the  city  in  1903  was  some  $43,900,000.  The 
streets  are  lighted  principally  by  electricity. 
There  are  electric  street  railways  and  a  fire 
department.  There  are  also  municipal  markets 
and  baths,   and  a   municipal   slaughter   house, 


bakery,  cemetery,  crematory,  and  pawn  shop. 
Rome  is  unequaled  perhaps  for  its  fine  and 
abundant  water  supply,  which  is  conducted  from 
the  mountains  into  the  city  by  four  great  con- 
duits, which  employ  in  part  the  half-rained 
aqueducts  of  old  Rome,  that  stalk  so  majestical- 
ly across  the  Campagna.  The  building  regula- 
tions of  Rome,  adopted  in  1887,  are  exceedingly 
strict.  They  make  ample  provision  for  light  and 
air  and  have  had  a  marked  effect  upon  the  kind 
of  tenement  and  other  houses  erected.  They 
forbid  the  destruction,  even  by  the  owners,  of 
buildings  of  historic  or  artistic  interest,  but 
encourage  the  tearing  down  of  other  antiquated 
dwellings.  The  desire  of  the  Government  not  to 
sacrifice  the  monuments  of  antiquity  was  clearly 
shown  by  the  project  to  acquire  and  set  apart 
as  an  archsological  park  the  district  containing 
the  Forum,  the  Colosseum,  the  Forum  of  Trajan, 
the  Baths  of  Titus,  the  Circus  Maximus,  the 
temples  of  Vesta  and  of  Fortima,  and  the  re- 
mains of  the  palaces  of  the  Onsars  on  the  Pala- 
tine. 

The  interesting  features  in  the  environs  (see 
Caicpaona  di  Roma)  not  already  mentioned  are: 
The  Villa  Albani,  on  the  northeast,  with  an 
interesting  art  collection,  including  some  well- 
known  examples;  farther  on,  the  Sant'  Agnese 
fuori  le  Mura  Church,  built  over  the  tomb  of 
the  saint,  and  restored  in  1856;  the  various 
Catacombs  (q.v.)  ;  the  Appian  Way  (q.v.),  on 
which  is  the  Domine  quo  Vadis  (q.v.)  Church, 
southeast  of  the  city;  farther  on,  the  interesting 
Circus  of  Maxentius  and  the  well-known  tomb 
of  Caecilia  Metella  (q.v.) ;  and  the  San  Paolo 
fuori  le  Mura  Church,  south  of  the  city.  This 
church  was  called  the  most  attractive  one  in 
Rome  before  the  fire  of  1823.  It  has  been  rebuilt 
in  splendid  style,  with  a  particularly  gorgeous  in- 
terior. It  contains  a  series  of  portrait  medallions 
of  all  the  popes.    The  cloisters  are  also  fine. 

Under  the  monarchy  the  Roman  educational 
system  has  been  thoroughly  reorganized.  Besides 
the  University  (see  Rome,  Univeesitt  of)  ,  there 
are  the  College  of  the  Propaganda,  founded  in 
1627,  with  theological  and  philosophical  facul- 
ties ;  the  Pontificia  Accademia  dei  Nobili  Ecclesi- 
astici,  for  the  preparation  for  administrative  and 
diplomatic  careers;  the  CoUegio  (jermanioo-Un- 
garico;  the  Jesuit  Collegio  Romano;  a  CoUegio 
Rabbinico;  an  Institute  Talmud-Tora;  a  Col- 
legium Bohemicum;  two  Collegii  Teutonici;  a 
Conservatory  of  Music;  a  School  of  Architecture 
and  the  Plastic  Arts;  four  municipal  licei;  four 
public  ginnasi,  etc.  Among  the  numerous  acad- 
emies and  art  and  science  institutes  and  associa- 
tions are  the  Accademia  degli  Arcadi ;  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Sciences;  the  Society  di  Belle  Arti. 
Nearly  all  the  leading  countries  are  represented 
by  schools,  including  the  American  Schools  of 
Architecture  and  of  Classical  Studies.  The 
botanic  garden  is  of  some  interest. 

The  museums  of  Rome  are  vast  and  invaluable, 
especially  the  art  and  archaeological  collections. 
They  have  been  in  part  noted  above  in  General 
Description.  (For  the  Vatican  collections,  see 
Vatican  ;  for  the  Capitoline  collection,  see  Capi- 
TOLiNE  Museum.)  The  Capitoline  Museum  con- 
tains the  beautiful  Capitoline  Venus  and  the 
famous  mosaic  (Pliny's)  Doves  on  a  Fountain 
Basin,  brought  from  Hadrian's  Villa.  The  muse- 
um of  the  Lateran  possesses  the  fine  portrait- 
statue  of  Sophocles,  discovered  in  1838.    Among 


BOICB. 


IdO 


EOHS. 


the  masterpieces  in  the  National  Roman  Museum 
of  Antiquities  are  a  statue  of  Hera  and  a  marble 
statue  of  a  Kneeling  Youth — ^the  latter  an  original 
Greek  work.  The  National  Corsini  Gallery,  with 
engravings  and  drawings,  is  likewise  meritori- 
ous. The  CoUegio  Romano  contains  the  impor- 
tant Museo  Kircheriano,  founded  in  1601,  with 
its  eztensiye  pre-historic  and  ethnographical  col- 
lecUona.  Here  is  preserved  the  treasure  of 
Pneneste — gold,  silver,  and  other  objects  discov- 
ered in  a  tomb  in  1876. 

Rome  is  rich  in  libraries.  Among  the  impor- 
tant collections  are  the  Biblioteca  Nazionale  Cen- 
trale  Viitorio  Emmanuele,  with  about  340,000 
volumes;  the  great  Vatican  library,  containing 
250,000  volumes  and  26,000  manuscripts;  the  ex- 
cellent medical  Biblioteoi  Lancisiana ;  the  library 
in  the  Corsini  Palace,  with  about  70,000  volumes ; 
the  library  in  the  Barberini  Palace;  the  Govern- 
ment's Biblioteca  Casanatense  (182,000  vol- 
umes); the  Biblioteca  Angelica  (150,000  vol- 
umes). The  valuable  national  archives  are 
housed  in  the  cloisters  of  the  Santa  Maria  di 
Ounpo  Marzio.  Except  Milan,  Rome  is  the  most 
important  city  in  Italy  for  music  and  the  drama. 

The  charitable  activities,  both  civic  and  Cath- 
olic, are  on  a  large  scale.  The  300  organizations 
under  the  control  of  the  Board  of  Charities  have 
property  to  the  value  of  some  $20,000,000.  Of 
these  organizations  150  give  dots  to  marriageable 
young  women,  11  have  other  special  aims,  55 
disperse  general  charity,  the  rest  are  hospitals 
and  asylums.  Near  the  Lateran  in  an  important 
hospital  for  women,  with  an  obstetrical  clinic. 
The  large  hospital  of  San  Michele  has  a  Govern- 
ment working  school  for  children. 

Popular  festivals  of  interest  are  the  carnival 
from  the  second  Sunday  before  Ash  Wednesday 
to  Shrove  Tuesday,  the  October  festival  in  the 
vintage  season,  the  national  festival  of  the  Con- 
stitution on  the  first  Sunday  in  June,  and  the 
anniversary  of  the  foundation  of  Rome  on 
April  21. 

The  population  of  Rome  in  1881  was  300,467; 
in  1901,  462,783. 

Ancieztt  Rome.  The  first  of  the  ancient  city 
settlements  was  upon  the  Palatine  Hill  {mons 
Palatinus  or  Palatium)^  an  isolated  summit,  ris- 
ing only  about  140  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
Tiber,  and  at  that  time  flanked  on  two  sides  by 
marshy  pools  connected  with  that  river.  This 
first  settlement  was  called  Roma  Quadrata,  being 
laid  out  four-square,'  after  the  Etruscan  rite. 
The  next  noteworthy  stage  in  the  topographical 
and  political  development  of  the  city  was  that 
of  ^e  inclusion  of  the  neighboring  hills 
{montea),  Cselius  and  Esquilinus,  within  the  city 
limits,  and  the  organization  of  the  territory  as 
'seven  hUl  districts'  (the  Septimontium — ^not  to 
be  confused  with  the  so-called  'seven  hills  of 
Rome*  of  later  days).  Three  of  the  seven  dis- 
tricts were  connected  with  the  Palatine — Pala- 
tium,  Germalus  (the  western  comer  and  slope  of 
the  Palatine),  and  Velia  (the  outlying  ridge 
running  northward  toward  the  Esquiline) .  Three 
were  connected  with  the  Esquiline — Cispius  (its 
northern  summit) ,  Oppius  (its  southern  summit) , 
and  Fagntal  (a  western  shoulder  of  Oppius). 
The  seventh  district  was  the  Sucusa  on  the 
C«lian  Hill,  whose  especial  duty  it  was  to  lend 
its  aid  against  attacks  by  the  people  of  Gabii, 
who  dwelt  a  few  miles  eastward  from  Rome. 
Later  a  body  of  Sabines  pushed  southward  from 
toil.  XT.-IO. 


their  hill  dwellings,  seized  a  well-defended  posi- 
tion on  the  Quirinal  Hill,  and  had  more  or  less 
fighting  with  their  Latin  neighbors  of  the  Septi- 
montium  until  a  coalition  was  finally  effected 
and  the  heights  of  the  Quirinal  and  Viminal 
hills,  with  the  Sabine  settlers,  were  incorporated 
within  the  city,  which  was  now  organized  into 
four  'regions;'  (1)  Rcgio  Sacusana  (later  called 
Regio  Suhurana),  which  included  the  Cslian 
Hill,  with  the  valley  and  rising  ground  north- 
westward around  the  Cispius,  as  well  as  the 
valley  {Siibura)  between  the  monies  and  oolles; 

(2)  Regio  Esquilina,  including  substantially  the 
three  £s<juiline  districts  of  the  Beptimontium ; 

(3)  Regto  CoUina,  including  the  two  Sabine 
colles,  Quirinal  and  Viminal;  and  finally  (4) 
Regio  Palatina,  including  the  three  Palatine  dis- 
tricts of  the  Septimontium,  Moreover,  another 
mons,  the  Capitoline,  at  that  time  joined  by  a 
ridge  to  the  Quirinal,  but  lying  near  the  Tiber, 
just  across  the  inlet  of  the  Vdabrum  from  the 
Palatine,  was  taken  as  the  common  citadel  of 
the  commimity  and  a  common  temple  to  Jupiter 
built  upon  it,  while  the  valley  between  the  Capi- 
toline and  the  north  comer  of  the  Palatine,  just 
free  from  the  Velabrum  inlet  at  low  water,  but 
crossed  bv  a  brook,  with  a  number  of  tributary 
springs,  that  rose  in  the  Subura,  and  subject  for 
centuries  (and  even  now)  to  frequent  inunda- 
tions from  the  rising  Tiber,  was  gradually 
drained  and  made  the  common  marketplace 
{Forum)  of  the  community,  and  the  meeting- 
place  of  its  courts  and  legislative  assemblies. 
King  Servius  Tullius  was  said  to  have  added  to 
the  city  of  the  Four  Regions  a  triangular  strip 
of  plain  behind  the  Esquiline  and  to  have  built 
a  wall  which  included  not  only  the  Four  Regions, 
with  the  Capitol  and  Forum,  and  the  new  addi- 
tion to  the  Esquiline,  but  also  another  hill 
{mons),  the  Aventine,  lying  to  the  south  and 
west  of  the  Palatine  and  close  to  the  Tiber.  But 
this  hill  remained  for  centuries  outside  the 
formal  city  limits  {pomcerium) ,  the  advancement 
of  which  from  these  really  prehistoric  times  did 
not  keep  progress  with  the  growth  of  the  actual 
settlement.  About  this  time  also  a  wooden 
bridge  supported  on  piles  was  thrown  across  the 
Tiber  from  the  open  space  '{Forum  Boarium) 
between  Capitol,  Palatine,  and  Aventine,  and  a 
fort  constructed  on  the  height  of  Mons  Janiculus 
on  the  right  bank,  whence  a  constant  watch  was 
kept  for  warlike  movements  on  the  part  of 
Rome's  enemies,  especially  the  Etruscans. 

Although  the  pomosrium  was  not  extended, 
Rome  went  on  adding  new  territory  in  the  neigh- 
borhood to  her  domain,  and  its  organization  as 
'regions'  was  replaced  by  an  organization  as 
'tribes,'  of  which  the  first  four,  the  'city  tribes,' 
were  simply  the  old  'Four  Regions.'  To  these 
new  'country  tribes'  were  gradually  added  until 
the  number  of  35  was  reached.  But  these  tribes 
finally  lost  their  territorial  character  and  became 
mere  voting  classes,  to  one  or  the  other  of  which 
each  new  lS)man  citizen  was  assigned.  The  popu- 
lation of  the  city  was  probably  much  reduced  by 
the  Gallic  invasion  and  the  haphazard  rebuilding 
of  the  city  after  its  destruction  by  that  enemy 
left  it  with  those  narrow  and  crooked  streets  that 
were  its  curse  for  many  centuries.  But  with  the 
cessation  of  hostilities  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
borhood the  agricultural  population  of  Rome 
spread  far  beyond  its  walls  on  both  sides  of  the 
Tiber,  which  was  now  crossed  by  two  new  bridges 


BOMB. 


140 


BOXB. 


of  stone  besides  the  old  pile  bridge.  By  the  end 
of  the  Republic  the  old  Servian  walls  had  been 
overrun  in  almost  all  directions  and  had  even 
disappeared  from  view  in  great  measure.  The 
best ,  opportunity  for  building  was  out  on  the 
Campus  Martina,  the  'parade  ground,'  which  lay 
between,  the  Quirinal  and  Capitol  to  the  east  and 
the  great  bend  of  the  Tiber  to  the  west.  Accord- 
ingly that  became  the  site  both  of  many  private 
residences  and  of  great  public  buildings  of  vari- 
ous sorts.  AugiLstus  divided  the  city  for  admin- 
istrative purposes  into  14  numbered  'regions/  of 
which  13  were  on  the  right  bank  and  the  four- 
teenth on  the  left,  and  this  division  continued  for 
centuries  after  his  day.  But  the  external  limits 
of  his  city  are  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  de- 
termine. They,  however,  extended  beyond  the 
later  walls  of  the  city  in  some  directions.  The 
population  of  the  city  reached  its  maximum  in  the 
early  Empire,  though  the  oft-quoted  estimate  of 
2,000,000  is  undoubtedly  much  too  great. 

Rome  had  remained  a  defenseless  city  for  cen- 
turies until  the  Emperor  Aurelian  (a.d.  270-275) 
began  and  Probus  (a.d.  276-281)  finished  a  line 
of  massive  fortifications,  which,  restored  in  403 
by  Honorius  and  later  by  Belisarius  and  by  a 
number  of  the  popes,  and  added  to  on  the  right 
bank  by  Leo  IV.  (847-856)  to  include  the  great 
settlement  around  and  near  the  Basilica  of  Saint* 
Peter  and  the  Vatican  Palace,  remain  the  present 
walls  of  Rome.  The  walls  of  Aurelian  doubtless 
aimed  to  include  as  far  as  possible  the  actually 
inhabited  city,  but  were  curiously  irregular  in 
outline,  being  carried,  where  possible,  along  the 
edges  of  elevations  for  additional  inaccessibility 
from  the  outside  and  also  making  use  of  older 
structures  as  far  as  possible.  On  the  right  bank, 
however,  the  fort  on  the  Janiculum  was  connected 
with  the  Tiber  by  two  lines  of  wall  running 
northeast  and  southeast  respectively  to  the  near- 
est points  of  the  river  by  about  the  shortest 
practicable  route. 

The.  internal  commotions  of  Italy  in  the  cen- 
turies immediately  following  and  the  devastation 
of  the  region  by  the  barbarian  invasions  caused 
a  great  diminution  in  the  number  of  Rome's  in- 
habitants, and  the  cutting  of  the  aqueducts  led 
to  the  necessary  abandonment  of  residences  on 
the  higher  ground  and  to  the  massing  of  the 
people,  poor  and  powerful  alike,  upon  the  ground 
near  the  Tiber.  So  the  Campus  Martins  and  the 
Trastevere  opposite  became  the  centre  of  popula- 
tion through  the  Middle  Ages  (and  are  still  the 
most  thickly  settled  portions  of  the  city),  while 
three-fourths  of  the  city  was  given  over  to  deso- 
lation and  finally  became  the  vineyards  and  gar- 
dens of  the  w^ealthy  classes. 

History  of  Rome  During  the  Earliest  or 
Regal  Period.  According  to  the  myth  of  Romu- 
lus (q.v. ) ,  Rome  was  an  offshoot  from  Alba  Longa, 
but  the  most  rational  view  of  the  city's  origin  is 
that  which  is  suggested  by  a  consideration  of  its 
site.  It  derived  its  name  from  nimon,  an  old 
word  for  river — the  *River  City;*  and  it  probably 
sprang  into  existence  as  a  frontier  defense 
against  the  Etruscans,  and  as  an  emporium  for 
the  river  traffic  of  the  country;  but  whether  it 
was  founded  by  a  Latin  confederacy  or  by  an  in- 
dividual chief  is  beyond  the  reach  of  con- 
jecture. The  date  fixed  upon  for  the  commence- 
ment of  the  city  by  the  formation  of  the  Pomw- 
n'wm,  April  21,  753  B.C.,  is  perfectly  valueless. 
The  three  *tribes,*  Ramnes,  Tities,  and  Lueeres, 


which  appear  in  the  Romuleian  legend  as  the  con- 
stituent parts  of  the  primitive  commonwealth, 
suggest  the  idea  that  Rome  arose  out  of  an  amal- 
gamation of  three  separate  cantons.  The  exist- 
ence of  a  Sabine  element,  represented  by  the 
Tities,  is  indeed  admitted;  but  its  introduction  is 
thrown  back  to  a  period  long  anterior  to  the 
foundation  of  the  city,  when  the  Roman  clans 
were  still  living  in  their  open  villages,  and  noth- 
ing of  Rome  existed  but  its  'stronghold'  on  the 
Palatine.  Nor  is  there  anything  to  indicate  that 
it  materially  affected  the  Latin  character  or  the 
language,  polity,  or  religion  of  the  commonwealth 
which  was  subsequently  formed. 

The  motives  which  probably  led  to  the  building 
of  Rome  also  led  to  its  rapid  development. 
That  the  Palatine  Hill  was  the  oldest  portion  of 
the  city  is  attested  by  a  variety  of  circumstances. 
Not  only  does  it  hold  that  rank  in  the  Romuleian 
legend,  but  on  it  were  situated  the  oldest  civil  and 
religious  institutions.  The  Romuleian  myth  of 
the  establishment  of  an  asylum  on  the  Capitoline 
(see  Capitol),  for  homicides  and  runaway 
slaves,  with  its  sequels — the  rape  of  the 
Sabine  women,  the  wars  with  the  Latins  of 
Csenina,  Antemn«e,  and  Crustumerium,  and  es- 
pecially with  the  Sabines  of  Cures  under  their 
King  Titus  Tatius,  and  the  tragic  fate  of  Tarpeia 
— is  historically  worthless ;  except,  perhaps,  so  far 
as  it  shows  us  how  from  the  beginning  the  Roman 
burghers  were  engaged  in  constant  feuds  with 
their  neighbors  for  the  aggrandizement  of  their 
power.  The  entire  history  of  the  *regal  period,' 
in  fact,  has  come  down  to  us  in  so  mythical  and 
legendary  a  form,  that  we  cannot  feel  absolutely 
certain  of  the  reality  of  a  single  incident.  That 
such  personages  as  Numa  Pompilius,  TuUus 
Hostilius,  Ancus  Martins,  Lucius  Tarquinius 
Priscus,  Servius  Tullius,  and  Lucius  Tarquinius 
Superbus  ever  existed,  or,  if  they  did,  that  the 
circumstances,  of  their  lives,  their  institutions, 
their  conquests,  their  reforms,  were  as  the  ancient 
narrative  describes  them,  are  things  which  no 
critical  scholar  can  believe.  The  destruction  of 
the  city  records  by  the  Gauls,  when  they  captured 
and  burned  Rome  in  the  fourth  century  B.C.,  de- 
prived the  subsequent  chroniclers  of  authentic  in- 
formation in  regard  to  the  past,  and  forced  them 
to  rely  upon  treacherous  reminiscences,  on  oral 
tradition,  on  ballads,  and  on  all  the  multifarious 
fabrications  of  a  patriotic  fancy,  that  would  nat- 
urally seek  compensation  iojr  political  disaster  in 
the  splendor  with  which  it  would  invest  its 
primeval  history  of  the  State. 

From  the  very  beginning  of  the  city — and  prob- 
ably long  before — the  inhabitants  were  divided 
into  two  orders  (exclusive  of  'slaves'),  household- 
ers and  their  dependents,  better  known,  perhaps, 
as  'patricians*  and  'clients.'  The  former  alone 
possessed  political  rights.  It  was  they  who  ex- 
clusively constituted  the  poptilus  ('the  people')  ; 
while  the  clients  had  no  political  existence  what- 
ever. That  the  clients  formed  a  body  essentially 
different  from  the  plehs  is  not  true,  and  seems 
based  merely  on  the  mythical  account  of  what 
followed  the  destruction  of  Alba  Longa  by  TuUus 
Hostilius.  The  name  plebs  is  doubtless  of  later 
origin  than  clientes;  but  both  are  applicable  to- 
the  same  persons.  The  constitution  ot  the  State 
was  simple.  All  the  burgesses  were  politically 
on  a  footing  of  equality.  From  their  own  ranks 
was  chosen  the  ICing  {rea),  who  was  therefore 


BOHB. 


141 


BOME. 


nothing  more  than  an  ordinary  burgess — a  hus- 
bandman, a  trader,  a  warrior^  set  over  his  fel- 
lows. The  rex  held  his  office  for  life;  he  con- 
sulted the  national  gods;  he  appointed  the  priests 
and  priestesses ;  he  called  out  the  populus  for  war, 
and  led  the  army  in  person;  his  command  (m- 
perium)  was  not  to  be  gainsaid,  on  which  account, 
on  all  official  occasions,  he  was  preceded  by  'mes- 
sengers' or  *summoners'  bearing  the  'fasces'  (axes 
and  rods  tied  up  together),  the  symbols  of  power 
and  punishment;  he  had  the  keys  of  the  public 
chest,  and  he  was  supreme  judge  in  all  civil  and 
criminal  suits.  The  Roman  religion  or  cultus 
was  from  the  first  thoroughly  subordinate  to  the 
authority  of  the  State ;  and  all  that  we  can  infer 
from  the  myth  of  Numa  is  that  Rome  perhaps 
owed  its  colleges  of  augurs  and  pontiffs  to  the 
wisdom  of  some  enlightened  sovereign  who  felt 
himself  at  times  embarrassed  in  his  decisions  on 
matters  of  religious  and  public  law,  and  recog- 
nized bow  valuable  might  be  the  aid  afforded  him 
by  a  body  of  sacred  experts.  Originally  the  sole 
power  was  the  regal,  and  the  subordinate  magis- 
tracies of  later  times  arose  from  a  delegation 
of  regal  authority,  rendered  necessary  by  the  cease- 
less increase  of  State  business.  On  the  other  hand, 
yfe  may  believe  that  the  senatua,  or  council  of  the 
elders,  from  its  very  nature,  was  as  old  an  institu- 
tion as  the  monarchy  itself.  They  gave  their  advice 
when  the  rex  chose  to  ask  it;  that  was  all.  Yet,  as 
the  tenure  of  their  office  was  for  life,  they  neces- 
sarily possessed  great  moral  authority.  Then 
households  formed  a  gens  (a  'clan'  or  'family')  ; 
10  clans,  or  100  households,  formed  a  curia,  or 
wardship;  and  10  wardships,  or  100  clans,  or 
1000  households,  formed  the  populua,  civitas,  or 
community.  But  as  Rome  comprised  three  can- 
tons, the  actual  number  of  wards  was  30,  of  clans 
300,  and  of  households  3000.  Every  household 
had  to  furnish  one  foot-soldier,  and  every  clan  a 
horseman  and  a  senator.  Each  ward  was  under 
the  care  of  a  special  warden  ( curio ) ,  had  a  priest 
of  its  own  (the  flamen  curialis)^  and  celebrated 
its  own  festivals.  None  but  burgesses  could  bear 
arms  in  defense  of  the  State.  The  original  Roman 
army,  or  legio  was  composed  of  three  'hundreds' 
(cetUuriw)  of  horsemen,  under  their  divisional 
leaders  {trihuni  celerum)  ;  and  three  'thousands' 
of  footmen,  also  under  divisional  leaders  ( tribuni 
militum),  to  whom  were  added  a  number  of  light- 
armed  skirmishers  (velites),  especially  'archers* 
{arquites) .  The  rex  was  usually  the  general,  but 
as  the  cavalry  force'  had  a  colonel  of  its  own 
( magisier  equitum ) ,  it  is  probable  that  he  placed 
himself,  at  the  head  of  the  infantry. 

The  foreign  policy  of  Rome  seems  to  have  been 
aggressive  from  the  first,  and  this  character  it 
retained  as  long  as  the  aggrandizement  of  the 
State  was  possible.  We  have,  it  is  true,  no  cer- 
tain knowledge  of  the  primitive  struggles,  but  it 
appears  from  the  legends  that  at  a  very  early 
period  the  neighboring  Latin  communities  of 
Antemns,  Crustumerium,  Ficulnea,  Medullia, 
Caniina.  Comiculum,  Cameria,  and  CJollatia  were 
subjugated.  The  crisis  of  the  Latin  war,  how- 
ever, was  undoubtedly  the  contest  with  Alba  Lon- 
ga,  which  was  destroyed  and  yielded  its  leader- 
ship to  the  conqueror,  its  inhabitants  being  trans- 
ferred to  Rome,  where  they  were  ultimately  in- 
corporated with  the  Roman  burgesses.  The  wars 
with  the  Etruscans  of  Fiden«  and  Veii — assigned, 
like  the  destruction  of  Alba  Longa,  to  the  reign 


of  Tullus  Hostilius — ^were  apparently  indecisive; 
those  with  the  Rutuli  and  Volsci,  however,  were 
probably  more  fortunate;  but  uncertainty  hangs 
like  a  thick  mist  over  the  ancient  narrative.  Even 
the  story  of  the  Tarquins,  though  it  belongs  to 
the  later  period  of  the  monarchy,  is  in  many  of 
its  details  far  from  credible. 

Meanwhile  a  great  internal  change  had  taken 
place  in  Rome.  This  is  usually  designated  the 
Servian  'reform  of  the  cohstitution,'  although  it 
was  only  a  reform  in  the  mode  of  raising  the 
army.  Originally,  as  we  have  seen,  none  but 
burgesses  could  bear  arms  in  defense  of  the  State ; 
but  the  increase  of  the  general  population,  caused 
partly  by  the  annexation  of  the  conquered  Latin 
communities  and  partly  by  time,  had  totally  al- 
tered the  relation  in  which  the  non-burgesses,  or 
pleha,  originally  stood  to  their  political  superiors. 

The  plcbs  could  acquire  property  and  wealth, 
and  could  bequeath  it  with  the  same  legal  right 
as  the  populus;  moreover,  such  of  the  Latin  set- 
tlers as  were  wealthj  and  distinguished  in  their 
own  communities  did  not  cease  to  be  so  when 
they  were  amalgamated  with  the  Roman  'multi- 
tude.' It  was  therefore  felt  to  be  no  longer 
judicious  to  let  the  military  burdens  fall  ex- 
clusively upon  the  old  burgesses  while  the  rights 
of  property  were  equally  shared  by  the  non-bur- 
gesses. Hence  the  new  arrangement,  known  in 
Roman  history  as  the  formation  of  the  oomitia 
centuriata.  When  or  with  whom  the  change 
originated  it  is  impossible  to  say.  The  legend  as- 
signs it  to  Servius  Tullius,  predecessor  of  Tar- 
quin  the  Proud ;  and  it  was  in  all  probability  the 
work  of  some  kingly  ruler  who  saw  the  necessity 
of  reorganizing  the  national  forces.  Its  details 
were  briefly  as  follows:  Every  Roman  freeholder 
from  the  age  of  17  to  60,  whether  patrician  or 
plebeian,  was  made  liable  to  serve  in  the  army; 
but  he  took  his  place  according  to  the  amount  of 
his  property.  The  freeholders  were  distributed 
into  five  classes,  and  these  classes,  all  of  whom 
were  infantry,  were  again  subdivided  into  cen- 
iuricB  ( 'hundreds' ) .  The  first  class,  which  required 
to  possess  property  valued  at  100,000  asses 
('units'),  or  an  entire  'hide'  of  land  (that  is,  as 
much  as  could  be  worked  with  one  plow),  fur- 
nished 82  'hundreds;'  the  second,  property  valued 
at  75,000  asses  or  4  of  a  'hide'  of  land,  furnished 
20  'hundreds ;'  the  tnird,  property  valued  at  50,000 
asses,  or  ^  'hide'  of  land,  furnished  20  'hun- 
dreds;' the  fourth,  property  valued  at  25,000 
asses,  or  4  'hide'  of  land,  furnished  20  'hun- 
dreds;* and  the  fifth,  property  valued  at  12,500 
asses,  or  \  'hide'  of  land,  furnished  32  'hundreds.* 
These  valuations  in  asses  are  given,  it  must  be 
noted,  by  later  writers  in  terms  of  their  own 
period.  There  was  no  such  wealth  in  private 
hands  in  Rome  during  the  kingly  period.  A  sin- 
gle 'hundred'  was,  moreover,  added  from  the 
ranks  of  the  non-freeholders,  or  proletarii,  al- 
though it  is  possible  that  from  the  same  order 
came  the  two  'hundreds'  of  'horn-blowers'  (comt- 
cines)  and  'trumpeters'  {tihicines),  attached  to 
the  fifth  class.  Thus  the  infantry  'hundreds' 
amounted  to  175,  that  is  17,500  men,  besides 
whom  were  18  'hundreds'  of  equites  ( 'horsemen') 
chosen  from  the  wealthiest  burgesses  and  non- 
burgesses;  so  that  the  Roman  army  now  num- 
bered in  all  nearly  20.000  men.  We  have  stated 
that  the  original  design  of  this  new  arrangement 
was  merely  military,  but  it  is  easy  to  see  that 
it  would  soon  produce  political  results.     Hence 


BOME. 


142 


BOMS. 


the  Servian  military  reform  paved  the  way  for 
the  great  political  struggle  between  the  pa- 
tricians and  the  plebeians,  which  commenced 
with  the  first  year  of  the  Republic,  and  only  ter- 
minated with  its  dissolution. 

The  Roman  Republic  from  Its  Institution  to 
THE  Abolition  of  the  Decemvirate — ( 1 )  Inter- 
nal History.  According  to  the  legend,  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  TarquiQs  was  brought  about  by 
Junius  Brutus  and  Tarquinius  Collatinus,  in  re- 
venge for  the  outrage  on  the  honor  of  Lucretia, 
and  was  followed  by  the  abolition  of  the  mon- 
archy. The  date  usually  assigned  to  this  event 
is  B.C.  509.  The  story  may  safely  be  taken 
as  evidence  that  it  was  an  unbridled  lust  of  power 
and  self -gratification  that  brought  ruin  on  the 
Romano-Tuscan  dynasty.  Of  course,  we  can 
make  nothing  definite  out  of  the  early  years  of 
the  Republic.  Dates  and  names,  and  even  events, 
must  go  for  very  little.  Valerius  Publicola  or 
Poplicola,  Sp.  Lucretius,  M.  Horatius,  Lars  Por- 
sena  (q.v).  of  Clusium,  Aulus  Postumius,  with 
the  stories  of  Horatius  Codes  and  the  battle  of 
Lake  Regillus,  will  not  bear  historical  investiga- 
tion. We  must  content  ourselves  with  the  knowl- 
edge of  tendencies  and  general  results.  The 
change  from  'kings'  to  'consuls'  was  not  intended 
to  diminish  the  administrative  power  of  the  su- 
preme rulers,  but  only  to  deprive  them  of  the 
opportunity  of  doing  harm;  and  this  it  effectually 
succeeded  in  doing,  by  limiting  their  tenure  of 
office  to  a  year,  and  by  numerous  other  restric- 
tions. (See  Consul.)  It  is  believed  to  have 
been  about  this  time,  and  in  consequence  of  the 
new  political  changes,  that  the  old  assessors  of 
the  King,  such  as  the  qucBstorea  parricidiif  for- 
mally Wame  standing  magistrates  instead  of 
mere  honorary  counselors,  and  also  that  the 
priesthood  became  a  more  self-governing  and  ex- 
clusive body.  During  the  regal  period  the  priests 
were  appointed  by  the  King,  but  now  the  colleges 
of  augtirs  and  pontiffs  began  to  fill  up  the  vacan- 
cies in  their  ranks  themselves,  while  the  vestals 
and  separate  flaminea  were  nominated  by  the 
pontifical  college,  which  chose  a  president  {ponti- 
few  mawimua)  for  the  purpose.  The  opinions  of 
the  augurs  and  pontiffs  became  more  and  more 
legally  binding.  This  is  to  be  connected  with 
the  fact  that  in  every  possible  way  the  patricians 
or  old  burgesses — now  rapidly  becoming  a  mere 
nohleaae — were  seeking  to  rise  on  the  ruins  of  the 
monarchy  and  to  preserve  separate  institutions 
for  the  benefit  of  their  own  order,  when  they 
could  with  difficulty  longer  exclude  the  plehs 
from  participation  in  common  civic  privileges.  In 
the  details  given  us  of  the  'Servian  reform'  we 
can  easily  discern  a  spirit  of  compromise,  the 
concessions  made  to  the  plebeians  in  the  constitu- 
tion and  powers  of  the  comitia  centuriata  being 
partially  counterbalanced  by  the  new  powers  con- 
ferred on  the  old  burgess  body,  the  comitia  curt- 
ata — ^viz.  the  right  of  confirmmg  or  rejecting  the 
measures  passed  in  the  lower  assembly.  The 
character  of  the  senate  altered  under  the  action 
of  the  same  influences.  Although  it  never  had 
been  formally  a  patrician  body — although  admis- 
sion to  it  under  the  kings  was  obtainable  simply 
by  the  exercise  of  the  royal  prerogative — ^yet 
practically  209  out  of  the  300  senators  had  al- 
ways been  patricians ;  but  after  the  institution  of 
the  Republic,  we  are  told  that  the  blanks  in  the 
senate  were  filled  up  en  maaae  from  the  ranks 


of  the  plebeians,  bo  that  of  the  300  members  less 
than  half  were  patrea  ('full  burgesses'),  while 
164  were  conacripti  ('added  to  the  roll*),  whence 
the  official  designation  of  the  senators  patrea  let] 
conacripti  ('full  burgesses  and  enrolled'). 

As  yet,  however,  it  is  to  be  observed,  the  plebe- 
ians were  rigorously  excluded  from  the  magis- 
tracies. They  could  vote,  but  they  had  no  share 
in  the  administration.  None  but  patricians  were 
eligible  for  the  consulship,  for  the  office  of  qucs- 
tor,  or  for  any  other  executive  function,  while 
the  priestly  colleges  rigidly  closed  their  doors 
against  the  new  burgesses.  The  struggle,  there- 
fore, between  the  two  orders  went  on  wiUi  ever- 
increasing  violence.  One  point  comes  out  very 
clearly  from  the  narrative,  that  the  establishment 
of  the  Republic  and  the  reconstitution  of  the  bur- 
gess body,  instead  of  allaying  discontent,  only 
fostered  it.  Power  virtually  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  capitalists,  and,  though  some  of 
these  were  plebeians,  yet  they  would  seem  to  have 
preferred  tneir  personal  money  interests  to  the 
interests  of  their  order,  and  to  have  cooperated 
with  the  patricians.  The  abuse  by  these  capital- 
ists of  the  ager  puhlicua — ^the  lands  of  a  con- 
quered people  taken  from  them,  annexed  to  the 
Roman  State,  and  let  out  originally  to  the  patri- 
cians at  a  fixed  rent  (see  Agrarian  Law) — to- 
§  ether  with  the  frightful  severity  of  the  law  of 
ebtor  and  creditor,  the  effect  of  which  was  all 
but  to  ruin  the  small  plebeian  'farmers,'  who  con- 
stituted perhaps  the  most  numerous  section  of 
the  burgesses,  finally  led  to  a  great  revolt  of  the 
plebs,  known  as  the  'secession  to  the  sacred  hill,' 
the  date  assigned  to  which  is  B.c  494.  On  that 
occasion  the  plebeian  farmer-soldiers,  who  had 
just  returned  from  a  campaign  against  the  Vol- 
scians,  marched  in  military  order  out  of  Rome, 
under  their  plebeian  officers,  to  a  mount  near  the 
confiuenoe  of  the  Anio  with  the  Tiber,  and  threat- 
ened to  found  there  a  new  city  if  the  patricians 
did  not  grant  them  magistrates  from  their  own 
order;  the  result  was  tne  institution  of  the  fa- 
mous plebeian  tribunate — a  sort  of  rival  power 
to  the  patrician  consulate.  To  the  same  period 
belong  the  sediles  (q.v.).  A  little  later,  the 
comitia  trihuta  emerged  into  political  promi- 
nence. This  was  really  the  same  body  of  burgesses 
as  formed  the  comitia  centuriata,  but  with  the 
important  difference  that  the  number  of  votes 
was  not  in  proportion  to  a  property  classification. 
The  poor  plebeian  was  on  a  footing  of  equality 
with  the  rich  patrician ;  each  gave  nis  vote,  and 
nothing  more.  Hence,  the  comitia  trihuta  vir- 
tually became  a  plebeian  assembly,  and  when  the 
plehiacita  ('resolutions  of  the  plebs'  carried  at 
these  comitia)  acquired  (by  the  Valerian  laws 
passed  after  the  abolition  of  the  decemvirate)  a 
legally  binding  character,  the  victory  of  the  'mul- 
titude' in  the  sphere  of  legislation  was  complete. 
From  this  time  the  term  populua  practically, 
though  not  formally,  loses  its  exclusive  signifi- 
cance ;  and  when  we  speak  of  the  Roman  citizens, 
we  mean  indifferently  patricians  and  plebeians. 
The  semi-historical  traditions  of  this  period  unmis- 
takably show  that  the  institution  of  the  tribunate 
led  to  something  very  like  a  civil  war  between  the 
two  orders.  Such  is  the  real  significance  of  the 
legends  of  Gains  Marcius,  sumamed  Coriolanua 
(q.v.)  ;  the  surprise  of  the  Capitol  by  the  Sabine 
marauder,  Appius  Herdonius,  at  the  head  of  a 
motley  force  of  political  outlaws,  refugees,  and 
slaves;  the  migrations  of  numerous  Roman  bur- 


BOME. 


148 


BOMS. 


with  their  families  to  more  peaceful  com- 
munities; the  street  fights;  the  assassinations  of 
plebeian  magistrates;  the  annihilation  by  the 
Etruscans  of  the  Fabian  ffens,  who  had  left  Rome 
to  eacape  the  vengeance  of  their  order  for  hav- 
ing passed  over  to  the  side  of  the  plebeians;  and 
the  atrocious  judicial  murder  of  Spurius  Cassius, 
an  eminent  patrician,  who  had  also  incurred  the 
deadly  hatred  of  his  order,  by  proposing  an  agra- 
rian law  that  would  have  checked  the  pernicious 
prosperity  of  the  capitalists  and  overgrown  land- 
holders. Finally,  b.c.  462,  a  measure  was  brought 
forward  by  the  tribune  C.  Terentilius  Harsa,  to 
appoint  a  commission  of  ten  men  to  draw  up  a 
code  of  laws  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the 
plebeians  against  the  arbitrary  decisions  of  the 
natrician  ma^strates.  The  ten  years  that  fol- 
lowed were  literally  a  period  of  organized  an- 
archy in  Rome.  At  length  the  nobles  gave  way, 
and  the  result  was  the  drawing  up  of  the  fa- 
mous code  known  as  the  Twelve  Tables — at  first 
Tie»,  to  which  two  were  afterward  added — ^the 
appointment  of  the  decemviri  (q.v.),  and  the  abo- 
lition of  all  the  ordinary  magistrates,  both  pa- 
trician and  plebeian.  The  government  by  decem- 
virs, however,  lasted  only  two  years;  according 
to  tradition,  the  occasion  of  its  overthrow  was 
the  attempt  of  the  principal  decemvir,  Appius 
Claudius  ( q.v. ) ,  to  seize  the  daughter  of  Virginius, 
a  Roman  centurion;  but  the  real  cause  was 
doubtless  political,  and  the  result  was  the  res- 
toration of  the  predecemviral  state  of  things — 
the  patrician  consulate  and  the  plebeian  tribimal. 

(2)  Extern AL  Histobt.  The  external  history  of 
Home,  from  the  establishment  of  the  Republic  to 
the  abolition  of  the  decemvirate,is  purely  military. 
Ixmg  before  the  close  of  the  regal  period  the  Ro- 
mans had  acquired  the  leadership  of  Latium, 
and  in  all  the  early  wars  of  the  Republic  they 
were  assisted  by  their  allies  and  kinsmen,  some- 
times also  by  other  nations — as,  for  example,  the 
Hemicans,  between  whom  and  the  Romans  and 
Latins  a  league  was  formed  by  Spurius  Cassius 
in  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  b.c.  The 
most  important  of  these  wars  were  those  with 
the  southern  Etruscans,  especially  the  Veientines, 
in  which,  however,  the  Romans  were  unsuccessful, 
and  even  suffered  terrible  disasters,  of  which 
the  legend  concerning  the  destruction  of  the 
Fabian  gens  on  the  Cremera  (b.c.  477)  may  be 
taken  as  a  distorted  representation;  the  con- 
temporaneous wars  with  the  Volscians,  in  which 
Coriolanus  is  the  most  distinguished  fl^^ure;  and 
those  with  the  iEqui,  to  which  belongs  tne  legend 
of  Cincinnatus  (q.v.)i. 

Fbom  the  Abolition  of  the  Decemvibate  to 
THK  Defeat  of  the  Samnites,  and  the  Subju- 
gation OF  All  Italy  (b.c.  449-265)  — (1)  Inteb- 
HAL  Histobt.  The  leading  political  features  of 
this  period  are  the  equalization  of  the  two  orders, 
and  the  growth  of  the  new  aristocracy  of  capital- 
ists. After  the  abolition  of  the  decemvirate,  it 
would  seem  that  the  whole  of  the  plebeian  aris- 
tocracy, senators  and  capitalists,  combined  with 
the  ^masses'  of  their  order  to  make  a  series  of 
grand  attacks  on  the  privileges  of  the  old  Roman 
noblesse.  The  struggle  lasted  for  100  years,  and 
ended  by  the  removal  of  all  the  social  and  politi- 
cal disabilities  under  which  the  plebeians  had 
labored.  First  in  b.c.  445,  only  four  years  after 
the  fall  of  the  decemvirs,  was  carried  the  lex 
Canuleia,  by  which  it  was  enacted  that  marriage 
between  a  patrician  and  a  plebeian  should  be  le- 


gally valid.  At  the  same  time  a  compromise  was 
effected  with  respect  to  the  consulship.  Instead 
of  two  patrician  consuls,  it  was  agreed  that  the 
supreme  power  should  be  intrusted  to  new  officers 
termed  'military  tribunes  with  consular  power,' 
who  might  be  chosen  equally  from  the  patricians 
or  plebeians.  Ten  years  later  (b.c.  435)  the 
patricians  tried  to  render  the  new  office  of  less 
consequence  by  the  transference  of  several  of  the 
functions  hitherto  exercised  by  consuls  to  two 
special  patrician  officers  named  censors  (q.v.). 
In  b.'c.  421  the  qusestorship  (see  Qu^stob)  was 
thrown  open  to  the  plebeians ;  in  368  the  master- 
ship of  the  horse;  in  356,  the  dictatorship  (see 
Dictatob)  ;  in  351,  the  censorship;  in  337,  the 
prsetorship  (see  Pb^tob)  ;  and  in  300,  the  pon- 
tifical and  augurial  colleges. 

The  only  effect  of  these  political  changes  was 
to  increase  the  power  of  the  rich  plebeians;  and 
consequently,  the  social  distress  continued  to 
show  itself  as  before.  Efforts  were  repeatedly 
made  by  individuals  to  remedy  the  evil,  but  with- 
out success.  Such  were  the  attempts  of  the  trib- 
unes Spurius  Msecilius  and  Spurius  Metilius 
(B.C.  417)  to  revive  the  a^arian  law  of  Spurius 
Cassius;  and  of  the  patrician  Marcus  Manlius, 
who,  though  he  had  saved  the  Capitol  during  the 
Gallic  siege,  was  hurled  from  the  Tarpeian  Rock 
(B.C.  384),  on  a  trumped-up  charge  of  aspiring 
to  the  monarchy;  but  at  length  (B.C.  367),  after 
a  struggle  of  eleven  years,  the  Licinian  rogations 
(see  Agrabian  Law  and  Licinian  Rogations) 
were  carried,  by  means  of  which  it  was  hoped 
that  an  end  had  been  put  to  the  disastrous  dis- 
sensions of  the  orders.  Thus,  at  least,  we  inter- 
pret the  act  of  the  dictator  Camillus,  who  erected 
a  temple  to  the  goddess  Concordia,  at  the  foot  of 
the  Capitol. 

That  these  laws  operated  beneficially  on  the 
plebeian  farmers  or  middle  class  of  the  Roman 
State  is  luquestionable ;  but  events  proved  that 
they  were  inadequate  to  remedy  the  evil,  and 
after  a  time  they  ceased  to  be  strictly  enforced. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  can  be  as  little  doubt 
that,  owing  partly  to  these  changes,  and  still 
more  to  the  splendid  and  far-reaching  conquests 
achieved  in  Italy  during  this  period  of  internal 
strife  by  the  Roman  arms,  the  position  of  the 
plebeian  farmer  was  decidedly  raised.  Not  only 
was  the  treasury  filled  by  the  revenue  drawn  di- 
rectly or  indirectly  from  the  subjugated  lands, 
but  the  numerous  colonies  which  Rome  now  began 
to  send  forth  to  secure  her  new  acquisitions  con- 
sisted entirely  of  the  poorer  plebeians,  who 
always  received  a  portion  of  the  land  in  the  dis- 
trict where  they  were  settled.  The  long  struggle 
between  the  two  orders  was  thus  virtually  at  an 
end;  but  the  date  usually  assigned  to  the  termi- 
nation of  the  strife  is  B.c.  286,  when  the  lex  Hor- 
tensia  was  passed  which  confirmed  the  Publilian 
laws  of  339,  and  definitely  gave  to  the  plehiscita 
passed  the  comitia  of  the  tribes  the  full  power 
of  laws  binding  on  the  whole  nation.  Gradually, 
however,  the  importance  of  the  popular  assem- 
blies declined,  and  that  of  the  senate  rose.  This 
was  owing  mainly  to  the  ever-increasing  mag^ 
nitude  of  the  Roman  State,  and  to  the  consequent 
necessity  of  a  powerful  governing  body.  The 
senate,  which  originally  possessed  no  adminis- 
trative power  at  all,  now  commenced  to  extend 
its  functions,  so  that  every  matter  of  general 
importance — war,  peace,  alliances,  the  founding 
of  colonies,  the  assignation  of  lands,  building,  the 


BOME. 


144 


BOME. 


whole  Bystem  of  finance — came  under  its  super- 
vision and  authority. 

(2)  External  History.  The  military  suc- 
cesses of  Rome  during  this  period  of  internal 
strife  were  great.  The  irruption  of  the  Gauls 
into  sub'Apennine  Italy  (b.c.  391),  though  ac- 
companied by  frightful  devastations,  was  barren 
of  results,  and  did  not  materially  affect  the  pro- 
gress of  Roman  conquest.  No  doubt  the  battle 
on  the  Allia  and  tne  capture  and  burning  of 
Rome  (B.C.  390)  were  great  disasters,  but  the 
injury  was  temporary.  The  vigilance  of  Manlius 
saved  the  Capitol,  and  the  heroism  of  Camillus 
revived  the  courage  and  spirit  of  the  citizens. 
Again  and  again  in  the  course  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury B.C.  the  Gallic  hordes  repeated  their  in- 
cursions into  Central  Italy,  but  never  again  re- 
turned victorius.  In  B.c.  367  Camillus  defeated 
them  at  the  Alban  hills ;  in  360  they  were  routed 
at  the  Colline  gate;  in  358,  by  the  dictator  C. 
Sulpicius  Peticus;  and  in  350,  by  Lucius  Furius 
Camillus.  Meanwhile,  aided  by  their  allies,  the 
Latins  and  the  Hernlcans,  the  Romans  carried 
on  the  long  and  desperate  struggle  with  the 
.<£quians,  Volscians,  an^  Etruscans.  Finally, 
after  repeated  defeats,  the  Romans  triumphed, 
and  the  fall  of  Veii  (q.v.),  b.c.  396,  was  really 
the  death  knell  of  Etruscan  independence. 
Falerii,  Capena,  and  Volsinii — all  sovereign  cities 
of  Etruria — ^hastened  to  make  peace,  and  by  the 
middle  of  the  fourth  century  b.c.,  the  whole  of 
Southern  Etruria  had  submitted  to  the  supremacy 
of  Rome,  was  kept  in  check  by  Roman  garrisons, 
and  denationalized  by  the  influx  of  Roman 
colonists.  In  the  land  of  the  Volsci,  likewise,  a 
series  of  Roman  fortresses  were  erected  to  over- 
awe the  native  inhabitants;  Velitrse,  on  the 
borders  of  Latium,  as  far  back  as  b.c.  492,  Suessa 
Pometia  (B.C.  442),  Circeii  (B.C.  393),  Satricum 
(b.c  385).  and  Setia  (b.c.  382);  besides,  the 
whole  Volscian  district,  known  as  the  Pontine 
Marshes  (q.v.),  was  distributed  into  farm  allot- 
ments among  the  plebeian  soldiery.  Becoming 
alarmed,  however,  at  the  increasing  power  of 
Rome,  the  Latins  and  Hemicans  withdrew  from 
the  league,  and  a  severe  and  protracted  struggle 
took  place  between  them  and  their  former  ally. 
Nearly  thirty  years  elapsed  before  the  Romans 
succeeded  in  restoring  the  league  of  Spurius  Cas- 
sius.  In  the  course  of  this  war  the  old  Latin 
confederacy  of  the  "thirty  cities"  was  broken  up 
(B.C.  384),  probably  as  being  dangerous  to  the 
hegemony  of  Rome,  and  their  constitutions  were 
more  and  more  assimilated  to  the  Roman.  The 
terms  of  the  treaty  made  by  the  Romans  (B.C. 
348)  with  the  Carthaginians  show  how  very  de- 
pendent was  the  position  of  the  Latin  cities. 
Meanwhile,  the  Romans  had  pushed  their  gar- 
risons as  far  south  as  the  Liris,  the  northern 
boundary  of  Campania.  Here  they  came  into 
contact  with  the  Somnites  (q.v.). 

The  Samnites  had  long  been  extending  their 
conquests  in  the  south  of  Italy.  Descending  from 
their  native  mountains  between  the  plains  of 
Apulia  and  Campania,  they  had  overrun  the 
lower  part  of  the  peninsula,  and  had  firmly  es- 
tablished themselves  in  Lucania,  Bruttium, 
Capua,  and  elsewhere.  The  forays  of  the  Samnite 
highlanders  in  the  rich  lowlands  of  Campania 
were  dreaded  above  all  thinsfs  by  their  polished 
but  degenerate  kinsmen  of  Capua,  who  had  ac- 
quired the  luxurious  habits  of  the  Greeks  and 
Etruscans.      It   was   really   to   save   themselves 


from  these  destructive  fora3r8  that  the  Cam- 
panians  offered  to  place  themselves  under  the 
supremacy  of  Rome;  and  thus  Romans  and  Sam- 
nites were  thrown  into  a  position  of  direct  an- 
tagonism. The  Samnite  wars,  of  which  three 
are  reckoned,  extended  over  53  years  (B.C.  343- 
290) .  The  second,  generally  known  as  the  ''great 
Samnite  war,"  lasted  22  years  (b.c.  326-304). 
At  first  the  success  was  mainly  on  the  side  of 
the  Samnites,  and  after  the  disaster  at  the  Cau- 
dine  Forks  (q.v.)  it  seemed  as  if  Samnium  was 
destined  to  become  the  ruler  of  Italy;  but  the 
military  genius  of  the  Roman  consul,  Quintus 
Fabius  Rullianus  (see  Fabius),  triumphed  over 
every  danger,  and  rendered  all  the  heroism  of 
Gains  Pontius^  the  Samnite  leader,  unavailing. 
In  B.C.  304  Bovianum,  the  capital  of  Samnium, 
was  stormed,  and  the  highlanders  were  compelled 
to  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  the  Republic. 
The  third  war  (B.C.  298-290)  was  conducted  with 
all  the  energy  of  despair;  but  though  the  Etrus- 
cans and  Umbrians  now  joined  the  Samnites 
a^inst  the  Romans,  their  help  came  too  late.  The 
victory  of  Rullianus  and  of  P.  Decius  Mus,  at 
Sentinum  (B.c.  295),  virtually  ended  the  strug- 
gle, and  placed  the  whole  of  the  Italian  penin- 
sula at  the  mercy  of  the  victor.  At  the  close  of 
the  first  Samnite  war,  which  was  quite  indecisive, 
an  insurrection  had  burst  out  among  the  Latins 
and  Volscians,  and  spread  over  the  whole  ter- 
ritory of  these  two  nations;  but  the  defeat  in- 
flicted at  Trifanum  (B.C.  340)  by  the  Roman 
consul,  Titus  Manlius  Imperiosus  Torquatua, 
almost  instantly  crushed  it,  and  in  two  years 
the  last  spark  of  rebellion  was  extinguished.  The 
Latin  league  was  now  dissolved;  many  of  the 
towns  lost  their  independence  and  became  Roman 
municipia;  new  colonies  were  planted  both  on 
the  coast  and  in  the  interior  of  the  Latino- 
Volscian  region;  and  finally  so  numerous  were 
the  farm  allotments  to  Roman  burgesses  that 
two  additional  tribes  had  to  be  constituted. 

The  war  with  Pyrrhus  (q.v.).  King  of  Epirus, 
which  led  to  the  complete  subjugation  of  pen- 
insular Italy,  is  a  sort  of  pendant  to  the  great 
Samnite  struggle.  The  Lucanians  and  Bruttians, 
who  had  aided  the  Romans  in  the  Samnite  wars, 
considering  themselves  cheated  of  their  portion 
of  the  spoil,  entered  into  negotiations  with  the 
enemies  of  their  former  associate  throughout 
the  peninsula.  A  coalition  was  immediately 
formed  against  Rome,  consisting  of  Etruscans, 
Umbrians  and  Gauls  in  the  north,  and  of  Luca- 
nians, Bruttians,  and  Samnites  in  the  south,  with 
a  sort  of  tacit  understanding  on  the  part  of  the 
Tarentines  that  they  would  render  assistance  by 
and  by.  In  the  course  of  a  single  year  the  whole 
north  was  in  arms,  and  once  more  the  power  and 
even  the  existence  of  Rome  were  in  deadly  peril. 
An  entire  Roman  army  of  13,000  men  was 
annihilated  at  Arretium  (b.c.  284)  by  the  Seno- 
nian  Gauls,  but  Publius  Cornelius  Dolabella 
marched  into  the  country  of  the  Senones  at  the 
head  of  a  large  force,  and  extirpated  the  whole 
nation.  Shortly  afterwards  the  overthrow  of 
the  Etruaoo-Boian  horde  at  Lake  Vadimo  (B.C. 
283)  shattered  the  northern  confederacy,  and 
left  the  Romans  free  to  deal  with  their  ad- 
versaries in  the  south.  The  Lucanians  were 
quickly  overpowered  (B.C.  282)  ;  Samnium  could 
do  nothing.  A  rash  and  unprovoked  attack  on  a 
small  Roman  fleet  now  brought  down  on  the 
Tarentines  the  vengeance  of  Rome.    Awaking^  to 


BOMS. 


146 


BOHE. 


a  sense  of  their  danger,  the  Tarentines  invited 
I^nrrhus  (q.y.)  over  from  Epirus,  and  appointed 
him  commander  of  their  mercenaries.  He  arrived 
in  Italy  (B.c.  280)  with  a  small  army  of  his 
own,  and  a  vague  notion  of  founding  an  Hellenic 
empire  in  the  West  that  should  rival  that  created 
in  the  East  by  his  kinsman,  Alexander  the  Great. 
The  vaiyinf  fortimes  of  the  struggle  between 
Fyrrhus  and  the  Romans,  which  lasted  only  five 
years,  ended  in  his  being  obliged  to  return  to 
Epirus  without  accomplishing  anything. 

After  Pyrrhus,  baffled  in  his  attempts  to  check 
the  progress  of  Rome,  had  withdrawn  to  Greece, 
the  Lucanians  and  Samnites  continued  the  un- 
equal struggle,  but  in  b.c.  269  the  Samnites  were 
utterly  and  definitely  crushed.  Tarentum  had 
surrendered  three  years  earlier;  and  now  there 
ivas  not  a  nation  in  Italy  that  did  not  acknowl- 
edge the  supremacy  of  Rome.  Distant  kingdoms 
began  to  feel  that  a  new  power  had  risen  in  the 
world;  and  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  sovereign  of 
Egypt,  sent  an  embassv  to  Rome  (b.c.  273),  and 
concluded  a  treaty  with  the  Republic.  To  secure 
their  new  acquisitions,  the  Romans  established 
in  the  South  military  colonies  at  Pfestum  and 
Coea,  in  Lucania  (b.c.  273),  at  Beneventum 
(B.C.  268),  and  at  Maemm  (b.g.  263),  to  over- 
awe the  Samnites;  and  in  the  North,  as  outposts 
against  the  Gauls,  Ariminum  (b.c.  268),  Firmum 
in  Picenum  (B.c.  264),  and  the  burgess  colony 
of  Castrum.  Novum.  Preparations  were  also 
made  to  carry  the  great  Appian  highway  as  far 
as  Brundisium^  on  the  Adriatic,  and  for  the 
colonization  of  that  city  as  a  rival  emporium  to 
Tarentum. 

The  political  changes  were  almost  as  impor- 
tant as  the  military.  The  whole  population  of 
peninsular  Italy  was  divided  into  three  classes — 
( 1 )  Civea  Romani,  or  such  as  enjoyed  the  full 
buries  privileges  of  Roman  citizens;  (2)  Nomen 
Lattnum — ^that  is,  such  as  possessed  the  same 
privileges  as  had  been  enjoyed  by  the  members 
of  the  quondam  Latin  league — ^an  equality  with 
the  Roman  burgesses  in  matters  of  trade  and  in- 
heritance, the  privilege  of  self-government,  but 
no  participation  in  Uie  Roman  franchise,  and 
consequently  no  power  to  modify  the  foreign 
policy  of  the  State;  (3)  8ocii,  or  'allies,*  to  some 
of  whom  were  conceded  most  liberal  privileges, 
while  others  were  governed  in  an  almost  despotic 
fashion.  The  Cives  Romani  no  longer  embraced 
merely  the  inhabitants  of  the  old  Roman  com- 
munity, the  well-known  'tribes'  (of  whom  there 
were  now  33),  but  all  the  old  burgess  colonies 

glanted  in  Etruria  and  Campania,  besides  such 
abine,  Volscian,  and  other  communities  as  had 
been  received  into  the  burgess  body  on  account 
of  their  proved  fidelity  in  times  of  trial,  together 
with  individual  Roman  emigrants  or  their  fam- 
ilies, scattered  among  the  munidpia,  or  living  in 
villages  by  themselves.  The  cities  possessing  the 
yomen  Lattnum  included  most  of  the  'colonies' 
sent  out  by  Rome  in  later  times,  not  only  in  Italy, 
but  even  beyond  it;  the  members  of  which,  if 
they  had  previously  possessed  the  Roman  fran- 
chise, voluntarily  surrendered  it  in  lieu  of  an 
allotment  of  land.  But  any  'Latin'  burgess  who 
had  held  a  magistracy  in  his  native  town  might 
return  to  Rome,  be  enrolled  in  one  of  the  tribes, 
and  vote  like  any  other  citizen.  The  Socii  com- 
prised all  the  rest  of  Italy,  as  the  Hemicans,  the 
Lucanians,  Bruttians,  the  Greek  cities,  etc.  All 
national  or  cantonal  confederacies  and  alliances 


among  the  Italians  were  broken  up,  and  no  means 
were  left  unemployed  by  the  victors  to  prevent 
their  restoration. 

Fbom  the  Outbreak  op  the  Punic  Wabb 
(B.C.  264)  TO  the  Destbuction  op  Cabthage 
(B.C.  146).  At  the  time  when  Carthage  (q.v.) 
came  into  collision  with  Rome  she  was  indis- 
putably the  first  maritime  empire  in  the  world, 
ruling  as  absolutely  in  the  central  and  western 
Mediterranean  seas  as  Rome  in  the  Italian  penin- 
sula. Between  the  Carthaginians  and  the  Ro- 
mans there  had  long  existed  a  nominal  alliance 
— ^the  oldest  treaty  dating  as  far  back  as  the 
sixth  century  B.c.  But  this  alliance  had  never 
possessed  any  real  significance,  and  latterly  the 
two  nations  had  come  to  regard  each  other  with 
considerable  distrust.  In  b.g.  264  war  was  for- 
mally declared  between  the  two  nations  on  ac- 
count of  a  trivial  incident. 

The  wars  with  Carthage,  known  as  the  Punic 
Wars,  were  three  in  number.  The  first  lasted 
23  years  (b.c.  264-241),  and  was  waged  mainly 
for  the  possession  of  Sicily.  Its  leading  feature 
was  the  creation  of  a  Roman  navy,  which  finally 
wrested  from  Carthage  the  sovereignty  of  the 
seas.  Rome,  indeed,  had  never  been  a  merely 
agricultural  State,  but  events  had  hindered  it 
from  engaging  to  any  large  extent  in  maritime 
enterprise.  The  necessity  for  a  navy  now  began 
to  show  itself.  Not  only  was  there  a  difficulty 
felt  in  transporting  troops  to  Sicily,  but  the 
shores  of  the  mainland  were  completely  exposed 
to  the  ravages  of  Carthaginian  squadrons.  So 
energetically  did  the  senate  set  to  work  that  (we 
are  told)  in  60  days  from  the  time  the  trees  were 
felled  120  ships  were  launched,  and  soon  after 
the  consul  Gains  Duilius  gained  a  brilliant  suc- 
cess (B.C.  260)  over  the  Carthaginians  off  Mylae, 
on  the  northeast  coast  of  Sicily.  Subsequent 
events,  however,  were  less  favorable.  An  invasion 
of  Africa  by  Regulus  (q.v.)  ended  in  disaster, 
and  the  war,  which  was  henceforth  confined  to 
Sicily,  languished  miserably.  Thrice  the  Roman 
navy  was  annihilated  by  storms  at  sea  (B.C.  255, 
253,  and  249)  ;  and  in  spite  of  a  series  of  unim- 
portant successes  by  land,  the  Romans  long  found 
it  impossible  to  make  any  impression  on  the 
Carthaginian  strongholds  of  Lilybceum  and 
Drepanum,  mainly  on  account  of  the  brilliant 
strategy  with  which  they  were  held  in  check  by 
Hamilcar  Barca,  the  father  of  Hannibal.  At 
last,  however,  a  great  sea  fight  took  place  off  the 
^gatian  Isles  (B.C.  241),  in  which  a  Roman  fleet 
commanded  by  the  consul  Lutatius  Catulus  ob- 
tained a  magnificent  victory.  The  whole  of  Sic- 
ily, except  the  territory  of  Hiero  of  Syracuse, 
who  had  been  a  firm  ally  of  the  Romans,  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  victors,  who  constituted  it 
a  Roman  province  and  placed  it  under  the  govern- 
ment of  a  praetor.  A  lapse  of  23  years  occurred 
before  the  Second  Punic  War  began,  but  during 
that  interval  neither  Romans  nor  Carthaginians 
had  been  idle.  The  former  had  bullied  their 
weak  and  exhausted  rival  into  surrendering  Sar- 
dinia and  Corsica,  which,  like  Sicily,  were,  trans- 
formed into  a  Roman  province.  .  In  addition, 
thev  had  carried  on  a  series  of  Gallic  wars  in 
Cisalpine  Gaul  (b.c.  231-222),  the  result  of 
which  was  the  complete  humiliation ,  of  the  bar- 
barian Boii,  Insubres,  etc.,  and  the  extension 
of  Italy  to  the  Alps.  On  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
Adriatic  also  the  Romans  made  their  power  felt 
by  the  vigor  with  which  they  suppressed  Illyriau 


SOME. 


146 


BOMB. 


I^nu^  (B.O.  210).  Meanwhile  the  descent  of 
Hamilcar  on  the  Spanish  coast  was  followed, 
after  some  ineffectual  opposition  on  the  part  of 
the  natives,  by  the  establishment  of  a  new  Car- 
thaginian empire,  or  at  least  a  protectorate  in  the 
west;  and  thus,  almost  before  the  Romans  were 
aware  of  it,  their  rival  had  made  good  her  losses 
and  was  even  able  to  renew  the  struggle  in  a 
more  daring  fashion  than  before.  How  confident 
the  bearing  of  the  Carthaginians  had  now  become 
may  be  seen  from  the  fearless  spirit  in  which 
they  accepted  the  Roman  challenge  and  entered 
on  the  Second  Punic — or  (as  the  Romans  called 
it)  the  Hannibal ic — war,  the  mind  events  of 
which  were  the  crossing  of  the  Alps  by  Hannibal, 
the  terrible  disasters  of  the  Romans  at  Lake 
Trasimenus  (b.o.  217)  and  Cannae  (b.c.  216), 
and  the  final  overthrow  of  Hannibal  at  Zama 
(B.C.  202)  by  Scipio,  which  once  more  compelled 
the  Carthaginians  to  sue  for  peace.  In  the  Second 
Punic  War  the  Spanish  possessions  of  Carthage, 
like  her  Sicilian,  passed  to  the  Romans  (who 
formed  out  of  them  the  Provinces  of  Hispania 
Citerior  and  Hispania  Ulterior) ;  so  did  her  pro- 
tectorate over  the  Numidian  sheiks.  She  was 
forced  to  surrender  her  whole  navy  (excepting 
10  triremes)  and  all  her  elephants  and  solemnly 
to  swear  never  to  make  war  either  in  Africa  or 
abroad^  except  with  the  consent  of  her  van- 
quisher. The  Imperial  supremacy  of  Rome  was 
now  as  unconditional  in  the  western  Mediter- 
ranean as  on  the  mainland  of  Italy.  Her  rela- 
tions, indeed,  to  the  conquered  Italian  nationali- 
ties became  much  harsher  than  they  had  formerly 
been,  for,  after  the  first  victories  of  Hannibal, 
these  had  risen  against  her.  The  Picentes,  Brut- 
tii,  Apulians,  and  Samnites  were  deprived  either 
of  the  whole  or  the  greater  part  of  their  lands; 
some  communities  were  actually  turned  into 
serfs;  the  Greek  cities  in  Lower  Italy,  most  of 
which  had  also  sided  with  Hannibal,  became  the 
seats  of  burgess  colonies.  But  the  loss  of  life  and 
of  vital  prosperity  was  frightful.  Slaves  and 
desperadoes  associated  themselves  in  robber 
bands,  but  the  exultation  of  victory  closed  the 
eyes  and  the  ears  of  the  Romans  against  every 
omen,  and  the  perilous  work  of  conquest  and 
subjugation  went  on.  During  B.C.  201-106  the 
Celts  in  the  valley  of  the  Po,  who  had  recom- 
menced hostilities  at  the  very  moment  Rome  was 
freed  from  her  embarrassments,  were  thoroughly 
subjugated;  their  territory  was  Latinized,  but 
they  themselves  were  declared  incapable  of  ever 
acquiring  Roman  citizenship;  and  so  rapidly  did 
their  nationality  dissolve  that  when  Polybius, 
only  30  years  later,  visited  the  country,  nearly 
all  traces  of  Celtic  characteristics  had  disap- 
peared. The  Boii  were  finally  resubjugated  about 
B.G.  103;  the  Ligurians  were  subdued  b.c.  180- 
177,  and  the  interior  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia 
about  the  same  time.  The  wars  in  Spain  were 
troublesome  and  of  longer  duration,  but  in  the 
end  the  superior  discipline  of  the  legions  always 
prevailed.  So  little  reliance,  however,  could  be 
placed  on  the  Spanish  submissions  that  the 
Romans  felt  it  necessary  to  hold  Spain  by  mili- 
tary occupation,  and  hence  arose  the  first  Roman 
standing  armies.  Forty  thousand  troops  were 
maintained  in  the  Spanish  peninsula  year  after 
year.  The  most  distinguished  successes  were 
those  achieved  by  Scipio  himself,  by  Quintus 
Minucius  (b.c.  107-106),  by  Marcus  Cato  (B.C. 
105),  by  Lucius  iEmilius  Paullus  (b.c.  180),  by 


Gains  Calpumius  (b.c.  186),  by  Quintus  Falyius 
Flaccus  (B.O.  181),  and  by  Tiberius  Gracchus 
(B.C.  170-178). 

Macedonian  and  Gbeek  Wabs.  The  causes 
that  led  to  the  interference  of  Rome  in  the  poli- 
tics of  the  East  are  too  complicated  to  be  given 
here,  but  the  Macedonian  wars  were  owing  im- 
mediately to  the  alliance  formed  by  Philip  V.  ol 
Macedon  with  Hannibal  after  the  battle  of 
Camue.  The  Macedonian  wars  were  three  in  num- 
ber. The  first  (b.g.  214-205)  was  barren  of  re- 
sults, mainly  because  the  whole  energies  of  Rome 
were  directed  to  Spain  and  Lower  Italy;  but  the 
second  (b.c  200-107)  taught  Philip  that  an- 
other and  not  he  must  rule  in  Greece.  The 
battle  of  CynoscephalflB  was  followed  by  a  treaty 
which  compelled  him  to  withdraw  his  garrisons 
from  the  Greek  cities,  to  surrender  his  fleet,  and  to 
pay  1000  talents  toward  the  expenses  of  the  war. 
Philip  was  thoroughly  quelled,  and  during  the 
remaining  18  years  of  his  life  he  adhered  to  his 
Roman  alliance.  But  the  ^Etolians,  who  had 
formed  an  alliance  with  Rome  against  Philip, 
quarreled  with  their  allies,  and  persuaded  An- 
tiochus  the  Great  (q.v.)  of  Syria  to  come  to 
Thessaly  (b.c.  102).  He  was  overthrown  by 
Scipio  (Asiaticus)  at  Magnesia,  in  Asia  Minor 
(B.C.  100),  and  obliged  to  surrender  all  his  pos- 
sessions in  Europe  and  Asia  Minor,  all  his  ele- 
phants and  ships,  and  to  pay  a  heavy  war  indem- 
nity. Next  year  the  iEtolians  were  crushed,  and 
a  little  later  the  quarrels  between  the  Aclueans 
and  Spartans  led  to  a  general  Roman  protector- 
ate over  the  whole  of  Greece. 

Philip  V.  of  Macedon  was  succeeded  by  Perseus 
(<j.v.),  who  resolved  to  try  the  fortune  of  war 
with  the  Romans,  and  in  b.c.  172  the  third  and 
last  Macedonian  war  began.  It .  ended  with 
the  destruction  of  the  Macedonian  army  at 
Pydna  (B.C.  168)  by  the  consul  Lucius  JSmilius 
Paullus  (q.v.)  and  the  dismemberment  of  the 
Macedonian  Empire,  which  was  broken  up  into 
four  oligarchic  republics.  The  Imperial  Republic 
stopped  Antiochus  Epiphanes  in  his  career  of 
Egyptian  conquest,  ordered  him  instantly  to 
abandon  his  acquisitions,  and  accepted  the  pro- 
tectorate of  Egypt  in  B.C.  168.  Even  the  allies 
of  Rome — ^the  Pergamenes,  the  Rhodians,  eto. 
— were  treated  with  harshness  and  injustice. 
We  may  here,  for  the  sake  of  connection, 
anticipate  the  course  of  history  and  mention 
the  last  Greek  and  Punic  wars.  Both  of  these 
came  to  an  end  in  the  same  year  (B.C.  146). 
The  former  was  caused  by  an  expiring  outburst 
of  pseudo-patriotism  in  the  Achaian  league  and 
was  virtually  closed  by  the  destruction  of 
Corinth  (q.v.)  by  the  consul  Mummius.  The 
latter  was  not  so  much  a  war  as  a  bloody  sacri- 
fice to  Roman  ambition.  After  Hannibal's  death 
his  party  in  Carthage  seems  to  have  recovered 
the  ascendency,  and  as  the  commercial  prosperity 
of  the  city  began  to  revive  a  bolder  front  was 
shown  in  resisting  the  encroachments  of  Mas!- 
nissa,  the  Numidian  ruler,  whom  the  Roman 
senate  protected  and  encouraged  in  his  aggres- 
sions. In  B.C.  146,  after  a  siege  of  three  years, 
Carthage  was  stormed  by  Scipio  Africanus  Minor 
and  the  Carthaginian  Empire  vanished  forever 
from  the  earth. 

Position  of  Rome  at  the  Close  or  the  Punic 
Wabs,  and  Sketch  op  Its  Subsequent  Social 
Condition  to  the  Tebicination  of  the  Repub- 
lic   (B.C.    140-27  )>      Simultaneously    with    the 


BOHB. 


Id7 


BOHB. 


enormous  extension  of  power  and  authority  in 
lorei|{n  lands,  the  national  character  underwent 
a  complete  and  fatal  alteration.  The  simplicity 
and  stem  intqprity  of  life,  the  religious  gravity 
of  deportment^  and  the  fidelity  with  which  com- 
mon dvic  and  household  duties  were  discharged, 
whieh  in  early  times  distinguished  the  Roman 
buiigeBs,  had  now  all  but  disappeared.  The  class 
of  peasant  proprietors  who  had  laid  the  founda- 
tions of  Roman  greatness  was  either  extinct  or 
no  longer  what  it  once  had  been.  The  long  and 
distant  wars  made  it  more  and  more  impossible 
for  the  soldier  to  be  a  good  citizen  or  a  successful 
farmer.  Indolence,  inaptitude,  and  spendthrift 
habits  aided  the  designs  of  the  capitalists,  and  in 
moot  eases  the  paternal  acres  gradually  slipped 
into  the  possession  of  the  great  landlords,  who 
found  it  more  profitable  to  tun\  them  into  pas- 
ture or  cultivate  them  by  gangs  of  slaves.  The 
rise  of  the  slave  system — though  an  inevitable 
result  of  foreign  conquest — ^was,  indeed,  the  most 
horrible  curse  that  ever  fell  on  ancient  Rome.  If 
the  Italian  farmer  strove  to  retain  his  small 
farm  he  was  exposed  to  the  competition  of  the 
capitalists,  who  shipped  immense  quantities  of 
eom  from  Egypt  and  other  granaries,  where 
slave  labor  rendered  its  production  cheap,  and  of 
course  he  failed  in  the  unequal  struggle.  Not 
less  pernicious  was  the  change  that  passed  over 
the  character  of  the  rich.  As  the  old  Roman 
patricians  lost  their  exclusive  privileges,  the 
pl^>eians  gradually  acquired  a  full  equality  with 
them,  and  the  geims  of  a  new  social  aristocracy 
originated,  based  on  wealth  rather  than  pedigree, 
and  comprising  both  plebeians  and  patricians. 
During  the  fourth  and  third  centuries  b.g.  the 
political  power  of  this  order  immensely  increased. 
In  fact,  the  whole  government  of  the  State  passed 
into  their  hands.  They  became  an  oligarchy,  and 
while  it  is  not  to  be  denied  that  they  displayed 
extraordinarr  ability  in  the  conduct  of  foreign 
affairs,  selfishness,  nepotism,  and  arrogance  grad- 
ually became  rampant.  But  far  worse  than  even 
the  selfishness  and  nepotism  of  the  nobles  was 
their  ever-increasing  luxury  and  immorality. 
When  Rome  had  conquered  Greece,  and  Syria, 
and  Asia  Minor,  the  days  of  her  true  greatness 
were  ended.  The  wealth  that  poured  into  the 
State  coffers,  the  treasures  which  victorious  gen- 
erals acquired,  enabled  them  to  gratify  to  the 
full  the  morbid  appetites  for  pleasure  engendered 
by  exposure  to  the  voluptuousness  of  the  East. 
Such  results  were,  it  is  true,  not  brought  about 
in  a  day,  nor  without  a  resolute  protest  on  the 
part  of  indiridual  Romans.  So  long  as  Rome 
chose  to  subdue  foreign  nations  and  to  hold  them 
by  the  demoralizing  tenure  of  conquest — i.e.,  as 
mere  provinces,  whose  inhabitants,  held  in  check 
by  a  fierce  and  unscrupulous  soldiery,  neither 
possessed  political  privileges  nor  dared  cherish 
the  hope  of  them — ^it  was  morally  impossible  for 
the  citizens,  either  at  home  or  abroad,  to  resume 
the  simple  and  frugal  habits  of  their  forefathers. 
After  Caio's  time  things  grew  worse  instead  of 
better,  nor  from  this  period  down  to  the  final 
dissolution  of  the  Empire  with  a  single  radical 
reform  ever  permanently  effected.  The  momen- 
tary success  of  Tiberius  Gracchus  and  of  his  far 
abler  brother.  Gains,  in  their  attempts  to  pre- 
vent the  social  ruin  of  the  State  by  redistributing 
the  domain  lands,  breaking  down  the  powers  of 
the  senate,  reorganizing  the  administration, 
and  partially  restoring  the  legislative  authority 


of  the  popular  assemblies,  hardly  survived  their 
death;  and  the  reaction  that  ensued  proved  that 
the  senate  could  learn  nothing  from  adversitv, 
and  that  the  rabble  of  the  city  were  incapable 
of  elevation  or  generosity  of  political  sentiment. 
Henceforth  the  malversation  of  the  public  money 
by  pnetors  and  quaestors  became  chronic,  and  the 
moral  debauchery  of  the  mob  of  the  capital  by 
the  largesses  of  ambitious  politicians  and  the 
vile  flattery  of  demagogues,  complete.  The  old 
Roman  faith,  so  deep,  and  strong,  and  stem,  dis- 
appeared from  the  heart.  The  priests  became 
hypocrites,  the  nobles  'philosophers'  (i.e.  unbe- 
lievers), their  wives  practicers  of  Oriental  abomi- 
nations under  the  name  of  'mysteries ;'  while  the 
poor  looked  on  with  immeaning  yet  superstitious 
wonder  at  the  hollow  but  pompous  ceremonies  of 
religion. 

Fboh  the  DESTBUcnoN  OF  Cabthage  to  the 
Termination  of  the  Republic  (b.c.  146-27). 
We  have  already  alluded  to  the  wars  waged  in 
Spain  during  the  first  half  of  the  second  century 
B.C.  The  humane  and  conciliatory  policy  pur- 
sued toward  the  natives  by  Tiberius  Sempronius 
Gracchus,  father  of  the  ill-fated  tribunes,  brought 
about  a  peace,  B.c.  179,  that  lasted  twenty-five 
years;  but  in  B.C.  153  a  general  rising  of  the 
Celtiberians  took  place,  followed  by  another  on 
the  part  of  the  Lusitanians.  The  struggle  lasted, 
with  intervals  of  peace,  for  the  space  of  twenty 
years,  but  ended  in  the  final  overthrow  of  the 
undisciplined  and  uncivilized  combatant.  All  the 
valor  of  the  shepherd  warrior  Viriathus  (q.v.), 
even  if  the  asssasin's  steel  had  spared  his  life, 
would  not  have  prevented  the  annexation  of  Lusi- 
tania  to  the  Roman  Empire,  nor  did  the  heroism 
of  the  besieged  Numantines  avail  against  the  skill 
of  the  younger  Scipio. 

Toward  the  conclusion  of  the  Numantine  war 
occurred  the  first  of  those  social  outbreaks  known 
as  'servile'  or  'slave'  wars,  which  marked  the 
later  ages  of  the  Republic.  The  condition  of  the 
slaves  has  been  %)ready  referred  to;  but  what 
aggravated  the  wretchedness  of  their  lot  was  the 
fact  that  most  of  them  had  been  originally  free- 
men— ^not  inferior  in  knowledge,  skill,  or  accom- 
plishments to  their  masters,  but  only  in  force  of 
character  and  military  prowess.  The  first  slave 
insurrection  broke  out  in  Sicily,  b.c.  134,  where 
the  system  was  seen  at  its  worst.  Its  leader  was 
one  Eunus,  a  Syrian,  who,  mimicking  his  native 
monarch,  took  the  title  of  King  Antiochus.  The 
suddenness  and  fury  of  the  revolt  for  a  time  ren- 
dered all  opposition  impossible.  The  slaves  over- 
ran the  island,  and  routed  one  Roman  army  after 
another.  In  B.C.  132  the  Consul  Publius  Rupilius 
restored  order  in  the  island.  In  the  East  for- 
tune continued  to  smile  upon  the  Roman  arms. 
Attalus  III.  Philometer,  dying  b.c.  133,  be- 
queathed his  client-kingdom  of  Pergamum  to  its 
protector,  Rome ;  and  after  a  fierce  struggle  with 
a  pretender  called  Aristonicus,  the  Romans  ob- 
tained possession  of  the  bequest,  and  formed  it 
into  the  Province  of  Asia,  B.c.  129. 

We  may  here  enumerate  the  different  provinces 
into  which  the  Roman  senate  divided  its  foreign 
conquests  in  the  order  of  their  organization.  ( 1 ) 
Sicily,  B.C.  241;  (2)  Sardinia  and  Corsica,  B.C. 
238;  (2)  Hispania  Citerior  and  (4)  Hispania 
Ulterior,  B.c.  205;  (5)  Gallia  Cisalpina,  B.o. 
191;  (6)  Macedonia,  B.C.  146;  (7)  Illyricum, 
ctrco  B.C.  146;  (8)  Achaia  (or  Southern  Greece), 
ctroa  B.C.  146;  (9)  Africa  (i.6.  the  Carthaginian 


BOMB. 


148 


BOMB. 


territory),  b.c.  146;  (10)  Asia  (kingdom  of 
Pergamum),  b.c.  129.  A  few  years  later,  b.c. 
118,  an  eleventh  was  added  by  the  conquest  of 
the  southern  part  of  Transalpine  Gaul,  and  was 
commonly  called,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  rest 
of  the  country,  *the  Province;'  hence  the  modem 
Provence, 

In  Africa,  the  overthrow  of  Jugurtha  (q.v.)t 
B.C.  100,  by  the  Consul  Marius,  added  yet  fur- 
ther to  the  military  renown  and  strength  of  the 
Republic.  Meanwhile,  from  a  new  quarter  of  the 
world,  a  gigantic  and  unforeseen  danger  threat- 
ened the  Roman  State.  North  of  the  Alps  there 
had  long  been  roaming  in  the  region  of  the  Upper 
Danube  an  unsettled  people  called  the  Cimbri 
(q.v.),  whose  original  home  was  probably  the 
northwest  of  Germany.  They  first  came  into  col- 
lision with  the  Romans  in  Noricum,  B.c.  113; 
after  which  they  turned  westward,  and  poured 
through  the  Helvetian  valleys  into  Gaul,  where 
they  overwhelmed  alike  the  native  tribes  and  the 
Roman  armies.  At  Arausio  (Orange),  on  the 
Rhone,  B.C.  105,  a  Roman  army  of  80,000  was 
annihilated;  but  instead  of  invading  Italy,  the 
barbarians  blindly  rushed  through  the  passes  of 
the  Pyrenees,  wasted  precious  months  in  con- 
tests with  native  tribes  of  Spain  as  valiant  and 
hardy  as  themselves,  and  gave  the  Romans  time 
to  recover  from  the  effects  of  their  terrible  defeat. 
Marius,  who  had  just  returned  from  his  Numid- 
ian  victories,  was  reappointed  consul;  and  at 
Aquse  Sextie  (Aix,  in  Provence)  he  overwhelmed 
the  Teutones,  a  northern  horde,  who  had  accom- 
panied the  Cimbri  in  their  irruption  into  Spain 
(B.C.  102).  Next  year,  on  the  Raudian  Fields, 
in  Transpadane  Gaul,  the  same  doom  befell  the 
Cimbri  themselves.  In  the  same  year  a  second 
insurrection  of  the  slaves  in  Sicily,  which  had 
reached  an  alarming  height,  was  suppressed  by 
the  Consul  Marcus  Aquillius. 

In  the  succeeding  years  the  internal  history  of 
Rome  is  a  scene  of  wild  confusion  and  discord. 
Marius,  an  admirable  soldiev,  but  otherwise  a 
man  of  mediocre  talents,  and  utterly  unfit  to  play 
the  part  of  a  statesman,  was  the  idol  of  the  poor 
citizens,  who  urged  him  to  save  the  State  from 
the  misgovemment  of  the  rich.  His  attempts 
were  failures.  Not  less  fruitless  was  the  wise 
and  patriotic  effort  of  Livius  Drusus  to  effect  a 
compromise  between  the  privileges  of  the  rich 
and  the  claims  of  the  poor.  The  oligarchic  party 
among  the  former,  i.e.  the  senate,  were  enraged 
by  his  proposition  to  double  their  numbers  by 
the  introduction  of  300  equites;  the  latter 
by  his  offer  to  the  'Latins'  and  'allied  Italians' 
of  the  Roman  franchise.  Drusus  fell  B.c.  91,  by 
the  steel  of  an  assassin.  Hardly  a  year  elapsed 
before  the  whole  of  the  subject  'Italians,'  the 
Marsians,  Pelignians,  Marrucinians,  Vestinians, 
Picentines,  Samnites,  Apulians,  and  Lucanians, 
were  up  in  wild  and  furious  revolt  against  Rome 
(Marsic  or  Social  War)  ;  and,  though  the  re- 
bellion was  crushed  in  less  than  two  years  by  the 
generalship  of  Marius,  Sulla,  and  Pompeius  Stra- 
bo  (father  of  the  great  Pompey),  aided  by  the 
shrewd  diplomacy  of  Rome,  the  insurgents  vir- 
tually triumphed;  for  the  promise  which  Drusus 
had  held  out  to  them  of  the  'Roman  franchise,' 
was  made  good  by  the  Lex  Plautia  Papiriaf  B.c. 
89.  The  jealousy  that  had  long  existed  on  the 
part  of  Marius  toward  his  younger  and  more 

gifted  rival,  Sulla  (q.v.),  kindled  into  a  fiame  of 
ate  when  the  latter  was  elected  consul  b.c.  88, 


and  received  the  command  of  the  Mithridatic  war 
— an  honor  which  Marius  coveted  for  himself. 
Then  followed  the  fearful  years  of  civil  war  (B.c. 
88-82),  the  partisans  of  Marius  continuing  to 
fight  fiercely  after  their  leader's  death  (b.c.  86)  ; 
proscriptions  and  massacres  were  the  order  of  the 
day.  Sulla,  the  leader  of  the  aristocracy,  which 
was  nominally  the  party  of  order,  triumphed,  but 
the  energy  displayed  by  the  revolutionists  con- 
vinced him  that  the  'Roman  franchise'  could 
never  again  be  safely  withdrawn  from  the  Ital- 
ians,' and  Roman  citizens,  therefore,  they  re- 
mained till  the  dissolution  of  the  Empire;  but» 
on  the  other  hand.  Sulla's  whole  legislation  was 
directed  toward  tne  destruction  of  the  political 
party  of  the  burgesses  and  to  the  restoration 
to  the  senatorial  aristocracy  and  priesthood  of 
the  authority  and  influence  they  had  possessed 
in  the  times  of  the  Punic  wars.  That  his  design 
was  to  build  up  a  strong  and  vigorous  executive 
cannot  admit  of  doubt,  but  the  rottenness  of 
Roman  society  was  beyond  the  reach  of  cure  by 
any  human  policy.  It  would  be  hopeless  in  our 
limits  to  attempt  even  the  most  superficial  sketch 
of  the  complicated  history  of  this  period,  which 
will  be  found  given  with  considerable  fullness  of 
detail  in  the  biographies  of  its  leading  personages, 
Pompey,  Sebtobius,  Mithbidatbs,  Cicebo,  Cati- 
line, CjESab,  Cbassus,  Catd,  Clodius  Pulcheb, 
Bbutus,  Cassius,  Antonius,  Augustus.  The 
very  utmost  we  can  attempt  is  to  enumerate 
results. 

Abroad  the  Roman  army  continued  as  before 
to  prove  irresistible.  About  thirteen  years  after 
the  extermination  of  the  northern  barbarians, 
the  Cimbri  and  Teutones,  or  in  B.C.  88,  broke 
out  in  the  Far  East  the  first  of  the  three  'Mithri- 
datic wars.'  Begun  by  Sulla,  B.C.  88,  they  were 
brought  to  a  successful  close  by  Pompey,  B.c.  65, 
although  the  general  that  had  really  broken  the 
power  of  Mithridates  was  Lucullus.  The  result 
was  the  annexation  of  the  Kingdom  of  Pontus,  as 
a  new  province  of  the  Roman  Republic.  In  B.c.  64 
Pompey  marched  southward  with  his  army,  de- 
posed Antiochus  Asiaticus,  King  of  Syria,  trans- 
forming his  kingdom  also  into  a  Roman  province, 
and  in  the  following  year  he  made  Palestine  a  de- 
pendency of  Rome.  In  b.c.  63  there  was  hatched 
at  Rome  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline  (q.v.),  which, 
if  it  had  not  been  frustrated  by  the  Consul  Cicero, 
would  have  placed  at  least  the  city  of  Rome  at  the 
mercy  of  a  crew  of  aristocratic  desperadoes  and 
cut-throats.  One  thing  now  becomes  particularly 
noticeable,  the  paralysis  of  the  senate.  In  spite 
of  all  that  Sulla  did  to  make  it  once  more  the  gov- 
erning body  in  the  State,  the  power  passed  out  of 
its  hands.  Tom  by  jealousies,  spites,  and  piques,  it 
could  do  nothing  but  squabble  or  feebly  attempt  to 
frustrate  the  purpose  of  men  whom  it  considered 
formidable.  Henceforth  the  interest  as  well  as 
the  importance  of  Roman  history  attaches  to 
individuals,  and  the  senate  sinks  deeper  and 
deeper  into  insignificance,  until  at  last  it  be- 
comes merely  the  council  of  the  emperors.  The 
famous  coalition  of  Crassus,  Pompey,  and  Ciesar 
(known  as  the  first  triumvirate) ^  formed  in  the 
year  B.C.  60,  showed  how  weak  the  Giovem- 
ment  and  how  powerful  individuals  had  be- 
come; and  the  same  fact  is  even  more  clearly 
shown  by  the  lawless  and  bloody  tribunates  of 
Clodius  and  Milo  (B.C.  58-57),  when  Rome  was 
for  a  while  at  the  mercy  of  bravos  and  gladiators. 
The  campaigns  of  Csesar  in  Gaul  (b,q,  59-61),  by 


BOMB. 


149 


BOME. 


which  the  whole  of  that  country  was  reduced  to 
subjection;  his  rupture  with  Pompey;  his  de- 
fiance of  the  senate;  the  civil  wars;  his  victory, 
dictatorship,  and  assassination;  the  restoration 
of  the  senatorial  oligarchy;  the  second  trium- 
virate, composed  of  Antonius,  Lepidus,  and  Oc- 
tavianus  (Augustus)  ;  the  overthrow  of  the  oli- 
garchy at  Philippi ;  the  struggle  between  Antonius  - 
and  Octavianus;  the  triumph  of  the  latter, 
through  his  victory  at  Actium  over  the  fleets  of 
Antonius  and  Cleopatra  (b.c.  31),  and  his 
investment  with  absolute  power  for  life  (b.c.  29), 
which  put  an  end  at  least  to  the  civil  dissensions 
that  had  raged  so  long  (and  was  therefore  so  far 
a  blessing  to  the  State),  are  described  in  the 
biographical  articles  already  referred  to. 

TuE  Roman  Emfibe.  When  Augustus  had 
gathered  up  into  himself  all  the  civil  and  mili- 
tary powers  of  the  State,  its  political  life  wfts  at 
an  end.  Rome  had  been  transformed  into  an  em- 
pire, in  which  some  of  the  forms  of  the  Republic, 
including  the  senate  and  consulship,  were  pre- 
served. When  Augustus  died  (a.d.  14),  the  Ro- 
man Empire  was  separated  in  the  north  from 
Germany  by  the  Rhine,  but  it  also  included  both 
Holland  and  Friesland;  from  the  vicinity  of  the 
Lake  of  Constance  the  boundary  followed  the 
Danube  to  Lower  Mcesia,  though  the  Imperial  au- 
thority was  far  from  being  firmly  established 
there.  In  the  extreme  east  the  boundary-line 
was,  in  general,  the  Euphrates;  in  the  south, 
Egypt  (annexed  on  the  death  of  Cleopatra  in  B.C. 
30),  Libya,  and,  in  fact,  the  whole  of  Northern 
Africa,  as  far  inland  as  Fezzan  and  the  Sahara, 
acknowledged  Roman  authority.  The  Roman 
franchise  was  extended  to  transmarine  communi- 
ties, and  in  the  western  provinces  especially  it 
became  quite  common.  To  keep  under  subjection 
this  enormous  territory — containing  so  many  dif- 
ferent races — ^an  army  of  forty-seven  legions  and 
as  many  cohorts  was  maintained,  levied  mainly 
among  the  newly  admitted  burgesses  of  the  west- 
cm  provinces.  The  reigns  of  Tiberius  (a.d.  14- 
37),  Caligula  (a.d.  37-41),  Claudius  (a.d.  41- 
54),  Nero  (a.d.  54-68),  Galba  (a.d.  68),  Otho 
(a-d.  69),  and  Vitellius  (a.d.  69)  present  little 
of  any  moment  in  a  general  survey  of  the  external 
history  of  the  Empire.  The  most  notable  incident 
of  this  period  is  probably  the  concentration  of 
the  praetorian  guards  in  the  vicinity  of  Rome 
during  the  reign  of  Tiberius.  Under  Claudius, 
the  conquest  of  Britain,  to  which  Csesar  had  made 
two  expeditions,  was  begun.  In  Nero's  time 
Armenia  was  wrested  from  the  Parthians,  and 
only  restored  to  them  on  condition  of  their  hold- 
ing it  as  a  fief  of  the  Empire ;  the  Roman  author- 
ity in  Britain  was  extended  as  far  north  as  the 
Trent;  and  a  great  rebellion  in  Gaul  (not,  how- 
ever, against  Rome,  but  only  against  Nero),  head- 
ed by  Julius  Vindex,  a  noble  Aquitanian  and  a 
Roman  senator,  was  crushed  by  T.  Verginius 
Rufus,  the  commander  of  the  Germanic  legions. 
During  the  profound  peace  that  the  Empire  had 
enjoyed  everywhere,  except  on  its  frontiers,  its 
material  prosperity  had  greatly  increased.  The 
population  was  more  than  doubled ;  the  towns  be- 
came filled  with  inhabitants  and  embellished  with 
splendid  monuments  of  architecture  and  sculp- 
ture ;  the  wastes  were  peopled,  wherever,  at  least, 
the  publicani  (q.v.)  or  farmers-general  had  not 
got  the  land  into  their  hands;  Roman  literature 
reached  its  culmination;  the  refinements  of  civili- 
zation were  carried  to  the  Roman  frontiers  in 


the  far  north  and  to  the  borders  of  the  African 
desert  in  the  south;  but  the  immorality  of  the 
rich,  especially  among  the  women,  became  yet 
worse  than  before,  and  corruption  reigned  su- 
.preme  at  the  centre  of  authority. 

With  the  accession  of  Vespasian  (a.d.  69-79) 
a  better  era  commenced,  which,  if  we  except  the 
reign  of  Domitian,  continued  uninterrupted  for  a 
space  of  one  hundred  years,  comprising  the 
reigns,  besides  those  mentioned,  of  Titus  (a.d. 
79-81),  Nerva  (a.d.  96-98),  Trajan  (a.d.  98-117), 
Hadrian  (a.d.  117-138),  Antoninus  Pius  (a.d. 
138-161),  and  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus  (a.d. 
161-180).  These  were  all  men  of  fine  and  honor- 
able character.  Under  all  of  them  the  provinces 
were  better  governed,  the  finances  better  adminis- 
tered, and  public  morals  wonderfully  improved. 
After  the  time  of  Vespasian  the  worst  days  of 
Rome  (in  a  moral  point  of  view)  were  over.  Bad 
emperors  she  had  as  well  as  good,  but  they  did  hot 
again  succeed  in  corrupting  their  age.  How  far 
the  change  was  due  to  the  influence  of  the  ever- 
extending  Christian  religion  it  is  impossible  to 
tell;  but  that  Christianity  did  send  a  reinvigor- 
ating  breath  of  new  life  through  the  old  decaying 
body  of  the  State  is  beyond  all  dispute,  and  is 
written  on  the  very  face  of  the  history  of  the 
first  centuries.  The  chief  military  events,  from 
the  days  of  Vespasian  to  those  of  Marcus  Aure- 
lius, are  the  final  conquest  of  Britain  by  Agricola 
(q.v.),  the  conquest  of  the  Dacian  monarchy  by 
Trajan,  the  victorious  invasion  of  Parthia  and 
of  Northern  Arabia;  the  conquest  of  the  val- 
ley of  the  Nile  as  far  south  as  Upper  Nubia,  by 
Trajan ;  and  the  chastisement'of  the  Marcomanni, 
Quadi,  Chatti,  etc.,  by  Marcus  Aurelius.  Ha- 
drian's long  rule  of  twenty-one  years  was  peace- 
ful, but  is  memorable  as  the  most  splendid  era 
of  Roman  architecture.  The  reigns  of  Commodus 
(q.v.),  Pertinax  (q.v.),  and  Didius  Julianus 
(q.v.)  were  insignificant,  except  in  so  far  as 
they  show  the  wretched  confusion  into  which  the 
administration  of  affairs  had  fallen.  Able  generals, 
respectable  jurists,  honorable  senators  are  not 
wanting,  but  their  influence  is  personal  and  local. 
The  reign  of  Septimius  Severus  (a.d.  193-211)  is 
memorable  as  marking  the  first  real  change  in 
the  attitude  of  the  emperors  toward  Christianity. 
The  new  religion  was  beginning  to  make  itself 
felt  in  the  State;  and  Severus,  who  was  a  Car- 
thaginian, while  his  wife  was  a  Syrian,  may  have 
felt  a  special  interest  in  a  faith  that  like  them- 
selves was  of  Semitic  origin.  At  all  events  it 
was  taken  under  the  Imperial  protection,  and 
began  to  make  rapid  way.  Caracalla  (q.v.)  and 
Elagabalus  (q.v.)  are  perhaps  the  worst  of  all 
the  emperors  in  point  of  criminality;  but  the 
mad  brutality  of  the  one  and  the  monstrous  de- 
bauchery of  the  other  were  purely  personal  af- 
fairs, and  were  regarded  with  horror  by  the  citi- 
zens of  the  Empire.  The  reign  of  Alexander 
Severus  (a.d.  222-235)  was  distinguished  by 
wisdom  and  justice.  After  the  death  of  Seve- 
rus followed  a  period  of  confusion  and  blood- 
shed. The  names  of  Maximinus  (q.v.),  Maxi- 
mus  (q.v.),  Balbinus  (q.v.),  Gordianus  (q.v.), 
and  Philip  (q.v.)  recall  nothing  but  usurpa- 
tion, often  ending  in  assassination.  Then  fol- 
lowed the  beginning  of  the  end.  The  whole  of 
Europe  beyond  the  Roman  frontier  began  to  fer- 
ment. The  Franks  showed  themselves  on  the  Low- 
er Rhine,  the  Swabians  on  the  Main;  while  the 
Goths  burst  through  Dacia,  overthrew  the  Em- 


BOMB. 


150 


BOHX. 


peror  Decius  (q.v.),  and  ravaged  the  whole 
northern  coast  of  Asia  Minor.  A  little  later — dur- 
ing the  reigna  of  Valerianus  (q.v.) ,  Gallienus,  and 
the  flo-called  thirty  tyrants — tne  Empire  is  noth- 
ing but  a  wild  distracted  chaos,  Franks,  Aleman- 
ni,  Goths,  and  Persians  rushing  in  from  their 
respective  quarters.  The  Goths  swept  over  the 
whole  of  Achaia,  pillaging  and  burning  the  most 
famous  cities — ^Athens,  Corinth,  Argos,  etc.; 
while  the  hosts  of  Sapor  committed  even  greater 
havoc  in  Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  and  but  for  the 
courage  and  skill  of  Odenathus,  husband  of 
Zenobia  (q.v.),  who  had  built  up  a  strong  inde- 
pendent kin^om  in  the  Syrian  desert,  with 
Palmyra  for  its  capital,  might  have  permanently 
possessed  themselves  of  the  regions  which  they 
merely  devastated.  With  Claudius  Gothicua 
(A.D.  268-270),  the  fortunes  of  the  Empire  once 
more  begin  to  brighten.  By  him,  and  his  suc- 
cessors Aurelian  (q.v.),  Probus  (q.v.),  and 
Cams,  the  barbarians  of  the  north  and  northwest, 
as  well  as  the  Persians  in  the  east,  were  severely 
chastised.  Nay,  when  Diocletian  obtained  the 
purple  (A.D.  284),  it  seemed  as  if  the  worst  were 
over,  and  the  Empire  might  still  be  rescued  from 
destruction;  but  his  division  of  the  Empire  into 
East  and  West,  with  separate  Au^usti  and  assist- 
ant CcBsars — ^though  it  sprang  from  a  clear  per- 
ception of  the  impossibility  of  one  man  admin- 
istering successfully  the  affairs  of  so  vast  a  State 
— led  to  those  labyrinthine  confusions  and  civil 
wars,  in  which  figure  the  names  of  Maximian 
(q.v.),  Constantius,  Galerius  (q.v.),  Maxentius 
(q.v.),  Maximinus  (q.v.),  Licinius  (q.v.),  and 
Constantine,  and  v^ich  were  only  brought  to  a 
close  by  the  genius  of  the  last-mentioned.  Under 
Constantine  (sole  Emperor  a.d.  323-337 )  occurred 
the  establishment  of  Christianity  as  the  religion 
of  the  State.  Constantine  transferred  the  seat 
of  government  from  Rome  to  Byzantium  on  the 
Bosporus,  where  he  founded  a  new  city,  and 
named  it  after  himself,  Constantinople.  But  no 
sooner  was  the  statesman  dead  than  the  discords 
that  he  had  kept  under  by  the  vigor  of  his  rule 
broke  loose;  the  Empire  underwent  a  triple  divi- 
sion among  his  sons;  and  though  Constantius, 
the  youngest,  soon  became  sole  ruler,  he  failed  to 
display  the  genius  of  his  father,  and  in  his  re- 
peated campaigns  against  the  Persians  reaped 
nothing  but  disaster  and  disgrace.  But  the  po- 
litical fortunes  of  the  Empire  now  possess  only 
a  secondary  interest;  it  is  the  struggle  of  the 
Christian  sects  and  the  rise  of  the  Church  that 
mainly  attract  the  attention  of  the  historian. 
There,  at  least,  we  behold  the  signs  of  new  life — 
a  zeal,  enthusiasm,  and  inward  strength  of  soul 
that  no  barbarism  could  destroy.  Christianity 
came  too  late  to  save  the  ancient  civilization,  but 
it  enabled  the  Roman  world  to  endure  three  cen- 
turies of  utter  barbarism,  and  afterwards  to  re- 
cover a  portion  of  the  inheritance  of  culture  that 
it  once  seemed  to  have  lost  forever.  The  attempt 
of  the  Emperor  Julian  (a.d.  361-363)  to  revive 
paganism  was  an  anachronism.  After  the  death 
of  Julian,  who  shortly  before  his  accession  had 
beaten  back  the  Franks  and  Alemanni,  the  signs  of 
the  approaching  dissolution  of  the  Empire  became 
more  unmistakable.  Yet  the  great  State  again 
and  again  put  forth  a  momentary  strength  that 
amazed  her  foes,  and  taught  them  that  even 
the  expiring  struggles  of  a  giant  were  to  be 
feared.  Valentinian  (q.v.),  Gratian  (q.v.),  and 
Theodosius  the  Great  (q.v.)  were  rulers  worthy 


of  better  times.  But  they  fought  against  destiny, 
and  their  labor  was  in  vain.  Already  swarms 
of  Huns  (q.v.)  from  the  east  had  driven  the 
Goths  out  of  Dacia,  where  they  had  long  been 
settled,  and  forced  the  Visigoths  to  cross  the 
Danube  into  the  Roman  territory,  where  the 
cruelty  and  oppression  of  the  Imperial  officers 
goaded  the  refugees  into  insurrection;  and  in 
their  fury,  they  devastated  the  whole  East  from 
the  Adriatic  to  the  Euxine.  Theodosius,  indeed, 
subdued  and  even  disarmed  them;  but- he  could 
not  prevent  them  from  drawing  nearer  to  the 
heart  of  the  Empire,  and  already  they  are  found 
scattered  over  all  Mossia  and  Northern  lUyricum. 
For  a  brief  moment  (a.d.  394-395)  the  Roman 
world  was  reunited  under  the  rule  of  Theodosius 
the  Great.  On  his  death  occurred  the  final  divi- 
sion into  the  Western  Empire  and  the  Eastern  or 
Byzantine  (Greek)  Empire.  Arcadius  and  Hono- 
rius,  the  sons  of  Theodosius,  succeeded  to  the 
sovereignty  of  the  East  and  West  respectively. 
Hardly  was  Theodosius  dead  when  the  Visigoths 
rose  again,  under  their  chief,  Alaric  (q.v.), 
against  Honorius,  Emperor  of  the  West.  Rome 
was  saved  only  by  the  splendid  bravery  and  skill 
of  Stilicho  (q.v.),  the  Imperial  general;  but  after 
his  assassination  the  barbarians  returned,  sacked 
the  city  (a.d.  410),  and  ravaged  the  peninsula. 
Four  years  earlier  hordes  of  Suevi,  Burgun- 
dians.  Vandals,  and  Alani  burst  into  Gaul 
(where  the  native  Celts  had  long  been  largely 
Romanized  in  language  and  habits),  overran  the 
whole,  and  then  penetrated  into  Spain.  It  is 
utterly  impossible  (within  our  limits)  to  explain 
the  chaotic  imbroglio  that  followed  in  the  West — 
the  struggles  between  Visigoths  and  Vandals  in 
Spain,  between  Romans  and  both,  between  usurp- 
ers of  the  purple  and  loyal  generals  in  Gaul; 
the  fatal  rivalries  of  Boniface,  Governor  of 
Africa,  and  A6tius,  Governor  of  Gaul,  which 
led  to  the  invasion  of  Africa  by  the  Vandals 
under  Genseric  (q.v.),  and  its  devastation  from 
the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  to  Carthage  (a.d.  429). 
Meanwhile  in  the  East  the  Huns  had  reduced  vast 
regions  to  an  utter  desert.  In  451  they  swept 
westward  as  far  as  the  interior  of  Gaul.  Here 
they  were  checked  by  the  forces  of  AStius  and 
the  Visigoths  on  the  Catalaunian  Plain.  In  the 
following  year  Rome  was  saved  from  their  as- 
sault only  through  the  personal  interposition  of 
its  Bishop,  Leo  the  Great.  AStius  was  assassinat- 
ed by  his  sovereign  Valentinian  III.,  whose,  out- 
rages led  to  his  own  murder;  while  his  widow, 
Eudoxia,  to  be  revQpged  pn  Jus  murderer  and 
successor,  Petronius  Maximus,  invited  Genseric 
over  from  Africa,  and  exposed  Rome  to  the  hor- 
rors of  pillage  at  the  hands  of  a  Vandal  horde. 
Ricimer,  of  the  nation  of  the  Suevi,  next  figures 
as  a  sort  of  governor  of  the  city,  and  what 
relics  of  empire  it  still  possessed,  for  Gaul, 
Britain,  Spain,  Western  Africa,  and  the  islands 
in  the  Mediterranean,  had  all  been  wrested  from 
it.  While  Majorian — ^the  last  able  Emperor — lived, 
Ricimer's  position  was  a  subordinate  one,  but, 
thenceforth,  the  Western  Emperor  was  merely 
an  Emperor  in  name,  while  the  real  sovereignty 
was  exercised  by  this  Suevic  maire  du  palais, 
who  was  succeeded  in  his  functions  by  the  Bur- 
gundian  King  Eunobald,  and  the  latter  again 
by  Orestes,  in  whose  time  the  final  catastrophe 
happened,  when  Odoacer  (q.v.),  placing  himself 
at  the  head  of  the  barbarian  mercenaries  of  the 
Empire,  deposed  the  last  occupant  of  the  throne 


BOmL 


151 


BOXB. 


of  the  Ccsars  (aj>.  476),  who,  by  a  curious  ooin- 
eidenoe,  bore  the  same  name  as  the  mythical 
founder  of  the  city — Romulus.  The  Empire  of 
the  East  (see  Btzaiytine  Empibe)  outlived  the 
Roman  Empire  by  nearly  1000  years.  See  para- 
graph History  under  Italy;  Papal  States.  Ro- 
man archaeology  has  been  treated  under  the  head 
of  ABCHiBGLOGT.  For  the  art  and  religion  of 
ancient  Rome,  see  Romak  Aet  and  Roman  Rs- 

UGION. 

BiKLiOGBAPHT.  Richtcr,  'Topographic  von 
Rom,"  in  Mailer's  Handbuch  der  klaasichen 
AltertufMtDissentchaft,  vol.  iii.  (2d  ed.,  Munich, 
1001 ) ;  Lanciani,  The  Ruins  and  Excavations  of 
Aneient  Rome  (London,  1897)  ;  id.,  The  Destruo- 
tion  of  Ancient  Rome  (ib.,  1899) ;  id..  New  Tales 
of  Old  Rome  (ib.,  1901)  ;  id.,  Storia  degli  scavi 
di  Roma  (Rome,  1902) ;  F.  Marion  Crawford,  Ave 
Roma  Immortalis  (New  York,  1898) ;  Bum, 
Rome  and  the  Campagna  (Cambridge,  Eng., 
1876) ;  Wey,  Rome,  trans,  by  Story  (London, 
1877) ;  Hare,  Walks  in  Rome  (12th  ed.,  London, 
1887) ;  Michelet,  Rome  (Paris,  1891) ;  Schoener, 
Rom  (Vienna,  1898) ;  Gsell  Fells,  Rom  und  die 
Campagna  (Leipzig,  1901) ;  Kaemmel,  Rom  und 
die  Campagna  (Bielefeld,  1902) ;  Niebuhr,  Romi- 
9che  Qeschichte  (3  vols.,  Berlin,  1811-32;  trans. 
bj  Hare  and  Thirwall,  London,  1859)  ;  Mommsen, 
Romische  Oeschichte {vol.  L,  9th  ed.,  Berlin,  1903; 
vols,  ii.,  iii.,  8th  ed.,  1888-89;  vol.  v.,  3d  ed.,  1886; 
Kng.  trans..  New  York,  1894) ;  Schwegler  and 
Clason,  Romische  Oeschichte  (5  vols.,  Tiibinger 
and  Berlin,  1867-76) ;  Ihne,  Romische  Oeschichte 
(8  vols.,  Leipzig,  1868-90;  Eng.  ed.,  6  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1871-82) ;  Duruy,  Histoire  des  Remains  de- 
pute les  temps  les  plus  recuUs  jusqu*d  Vinvasion 
des  Barhares  (7  vols.,  Paris,  1879-85;  Eng.  trans., 
London,  1883-86)  ;  Arnold,  History  of  Rome  ( 3  vols., 
London,  1871) ;  Fustel  de  Coulanges,  The  Ancient 
City  (Boston,  1874)  ;  Liddell,  History  of  Rome  to 
the  Establishment  of  the  Empire  (2  vols.,  London, 
1885) ;  Nitzsch,  Oeschichte  der  romischen  Repuh- 
lik  (2  vols.,  Leipzig,  1884-85)  ;  Merivale,  History 
of  the  Romans  Under  the  Empire  (7  vols..  New 
York,  1864-66) ;  Gibbon,  History  of  the  Decline 
and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  (numerous  edi- 
tions, best  by  Bury,  7  vols.,  London,  1896-1900)  ; 
Hertzberg,  Oeschichte  des  Romischen  Kaiser- 
reichs  (Berlin,  1881) ;  Thomas,  Rome  et  Vempirp 
aux  deux  premiers  si^cles  de  notre  ^e  (Paris, 
1897);  SeCck,  Qeschichte  des  Unter gangs  der 
antiken  Welt  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1895-1901)  ;  Hodg- 
kin,  Italy  and  Her  Invaders  (4  vols.,  Oxford, 
1884-85) ;  Gregorovius,  Oeschichte  der  Btadt  Rom 
im  Mittelalter  (8  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1859-72;  trans. 
by  Hamilton,  London,  1894-1900). 

BOMS.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Floyd 
County,  Ga.,  72  miles  northwest  of  Atlanta;  at 
the  junction  of  the  Etowah  and  the  Gostanaula 
rivers,  which  here  imite  to  form  the  Coosa,  and 
on  the  Southern,  the  Chattanooga,  Rome  and 
Southern,  the  Nashville,  Chattanooga  and  Saint 
Ixiuis,  and  other  railroads  (Map:  (^rgia,  A  1). 
It  18  the  seat  of  Shorter  College  for  Women  ( Bap- 
tist), opened  in  1877.  Among  other  features  of 
the  ^ty  are  eight  iron  bridges,  which  connect 
Rome  and  its  suburbs;  Mobley  Park;  the  post- 
offioe  building;  and  the  county  court  house.  Rome 
is  the  centre  of  one  of  the  most  productive  sec- 
tions of  the  State.  The  river  valleys  yield  large 
crops  of  cotton,  grain,  and  hay,  and  the  higher 
land  many  varieties  of  fruit.    In  addition  to  its 


commercial  importance,  Rome  has  acquired  con- 
siderable prominence  as  an  industrial  city.  It 
has  cotton  mills,  planing  mills,  hosiery  mills,  a 
tannery,  stove  works,  machine  shops,  an  iron 
furnace,  a  large  nursery,  and  manufactories  of 
cottonseed  oil,  plows,  scales,  furniture,  fertiliz- 
ers, wrapping  twine,  brick,  lime,  crates  and  boxes, 
trousers,  and  mattresses.  The  government,  imder 
the  charter  of  1883,  is  vested  in  a  mayor,  chosen 
biennially,  and  a  unicameral  council.  The  water- 
works are  owned  and  operated  by  the  mimicipal- 
ity.  Rome  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1847.  In 
1863  the  Confederate  General  Forrest  with  600 
men  here  captured  a  Federal  force  of  1800  under 
General  Streight,  and  in  1864  the  city  was  oc- 
cupied for  some  time  by  General  Sherman.  Popu- 
lation, in  1890,  6957;  in  1900,  7291. 

BOME.  A  city  in  Oneida  County,  N.  Y.,  15 
miles  northwest  of  Utica;  at  the  junction  of  the 
Erie  and  Black  River  canals;  on  the  Mohawk 
River  and  on  the  New  York  Central,  the  New 
York,  Ontario  and  Western,  and  other  railroads 
(Map:  New  York,  E  2).  An  attractive  residen- 
tial city,  Rome  is  regularly  laid  out  with  wide, 
beautifully  shaded  streets.  The  main  features 
of  interest  are  the  Jervis  and  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Association  libraries.  State  Custodian  Asy- 
lum, Deaf  Mute  Institute,  and  Saint  Peter's 
Academy.  The  city  is  the  shipping  centre  of  a 
dairying  and  farming  section,  especially  noted 
for  its  large  output  of  cheese,  butter,  and  hops. 
The  principal  manufactures  are  steel  rails,  loco- 
motives, brass  and  copper  products,  bath-tubs, 
knit  goods,  beer,  and  brick.  The  government  is 
vested  in  a  mayor,  chosen  biennially,  and  a  uni- 
cameral council.  Other  administrative  officials, 
with  the  exception  of  the  school  board,  which  is 
elected  by  popular  vote,  are  appointed  by  the 
mayor.  The  water-works  are  owned  and  operated 
by  the  municipality.  On  the  site  of  Rome,  Fort 
Stanwix  was  built  in  1758.  Near  here  on  August 
6,  1777,  the  battle  of  Oriskany  (q.v.)  was  fought. 
Soon  after  the  Revolution  Rome  was  permanent- 
ly settled,  and  was  organized  as  a  town  in  1796. 
The  village  was  incorporated  in  1819,  and  in  1870 
was  chartered  as  a  city.  Population,  in  1890, 
14,991;  in  1900,  15,343. 

BOME.  The  name  of  the  second  novel  (1895) 
of  Emile  Zola's  'trilogy' — Lourdes,  Rome,  and 
Paris.  The  young  priest  and  hero  of  Lourdes, 
Pierre  Froment,  here  continues,  in  the  Papal  cap- 
ital, his  experiences,  which  appear  to  show  him 
how  unsatisfactorily,  even  in  Rome,  Catholicism 
enters  into  the  vital  progress  of  modem  civiliza- 
tion. He  is  made  to  observe,  by  contrast,  the 
grand  working  powers  of  science  and  of  nature. 

BOKE,  University  of.  An  institution  found- 
ed in  1303  by  Pope  Boniface  VIII.  It  perished 
during  the  Great  Schism,  and  was  refounded  in 
1431  by  Eugenius  IV.  It  was  a  Papal'  institution 
until  1870,  when  it  came  under  control  of  the 
Italian  Government.  This  university  is  the  old 
Studium  Urbis,  now  the  Royal  University,  and  is 
not  to  be  confounded  with  the  Universify  of  the 
Curia  or  the  Papal  Court,  which  was  founded  by 
Innocent  IV.  in  1244-45.  The  Royal  University 
had  in  1901  a  budget  of  about  975,000  lire,  and 
between  2300  and  2400  students,  and  included  an 
engineering  school  and  a  school  of  pharmacy  be- 
sides the  faculties  of  philosophy,  science,  and 
law.  Its  library,  the  Biblioteca  Alessandrina, 
contains   about   95,000  volumes,  besides   60,000 


BOMB. 


152 


BOmiEY. 


pampbleis  and  several  hundred  manuscripts.  The 
university  comprises  one  college,  the  Collegio 
Capranica,  founded  by  Cardinal  Capranica  in 
1458. 

BOOUEO  AKD  JUrLIET.  A  tragedy  by 
Shakespeare,  first  printed  surreptitiously  by 
Danter  in  1597,  probably  from  an  old  stage  copy. 
A  corrected  edition  appeared  in  1599.  The  ear- 
liest form  of  the  play  was  written  possibly  in 
1591,  while  the  development  into  the  present  set- 
ting can  be  detected  by  comparing  the  two  edi- 
tions. The  source  of  the  story  of  the  lovers  is 
a  tale  in  the  collection  of  Massuccio  di  Salerno, 
printed  in  1476,  though  similar  incidents  are 
found  in  a  romance  by  Xenophon  Eplusius,  a 
mediaeval  Greek  writer.  It  was  told  again  by 
Luigi  da  Porto  in  his  Historia  di  due  nohili  amanti 
in  1530,  derived  from  oral  sources  and  the  first  to 
give  the  names  of  the  lovers.  The  story  was  told 
in  verse  by  Gherardo  Boldiero  in  1553,  and  again 
by  Bandello  as  Lo  afortunata  Morte  di  due  in- 
felicisaimi  amanti,  in  his  Novelle  in  1554.  This 
was  translated  into  French  by  Pierre  Boisteau  in 
his  Hiatoirea  tragiquea,  1559,  and  thence  into 
English  by  Paynter  in  the  Palace  of  Pleaaure, 
1567,  as  Rhomeo  and  Julieita.  The  direct  source" 
of  the  tragedy,  an  English  poem,  "The  Tragicall 
Historye  of  Romeus  and  Juliet,"  was  written  by 
Arthur  Brooke  in  1562,  who  mentioned  an  old 
play  on  the  subject,  now  lost.  The  tale  has  no 
historical  foundation,  though  told  in  Girolano 
della  Corte's  Storia  di  Verona  in  1594,  as  an 
event  of  1303.  It  has  been  a  favorite  subject 
for  musical  composers.  Zingarelli  produced  the 
opera  Oiulietia  e  Romeo  in  1796 ;  Bellini,  I  Capu- 
letti  ed  i  Montecchi  in  1830;  and  Crounod,  Ro- 
m4o  et  Juliette  in  1867 ;  while  Berlioz  wrote  the 
dramatic  symphony  Romeo  et  Juliette  in  1839. 

BOMEBO,  r6-ma'rA,  Matias  (1837-98).  A 
Mexican  diplomat,  bom  and  educated  in  Oaxaca. 
He  studied  law  in  the  City  of  Mexico  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1857.  From  1859  to 
1863  he  was  connected  with  the  Mexican  legation 
at  Washington,  most  of  the  time  as  charge  d' 
affaires;  and,  after  serving  under  Diaz  against 
the  French,  returned  to  Washington  as  plenipo- 
tentiary. Returning  to  Mexico  in  1868,  he  was 
for  six  years  Secretary  of  Treasury  ( 1868-72,  and 
1877-78),  and  for  two  years  Postmaster-General. 
From  1882  until  his  death,  except  for  an  interval 
in  1892,  he  was  again  Minister  to  the  United 
States.  He  published  many  official  reports,  Cor- 
reapondence  of  the  Mexican  Legation  at  Waahing- 
ton  During  the  French  Intervention  (1870-85), 
Geographical  and  Statiatical  Notea  on  Mexico 
(1898),  and  Mexico  and  the  United  Btatea 
(1898). 

BOMEYNy  r(/m!n,  John  Bbodhead  (1777- 
1825).  An  American  clergyman.  He  was  bom 
at  Marbletown,  Ulster  County,  New  York,  re- 
ceived his  early  education  at  an  academy,  since 
developed  into  Union  College,  and  graduated  at 
Columbia  in  1795.  In  1798  he  was  licensed  to 
preach  by  the  Classis  of  Albany,  and  the  follow- 
ing year  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Reformed 
Dutch  Church  of  Rhinebeck,  New  York.  In  1803 
he  became  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
Schenectady  and  the  following  year  accepted  a 
call  from  the  First  Presbyterian  Church  in  Al- 
bany. In  1808  he  removed  to  the  Cedar  Street 
Church,  New  York,  with  which  he  remained  until 
his  death.    He  was  one  of  the  movers  in  the  es- 


tablishment of  the  Princeton  Theological  Seminary 
and  served  as  director  until  his  death.  In  1810, 
then  only  thirty-three,  he  was  appointed  Modera- 
tor of  the  Presbyterian  General  Assembly. 

BOMFOBDy  ram'fgrd.  A  market  town  in 
Essex,  England,  on  the  Bourne,  12  miles  east- 
northeast  of  London  (Map:  England,  6  5).  It 
is  noted  for  its  ale  breweries  and  market  gardens, 
which  are  extensively  cultivated ;  it  has  also  iron 
works  and  pyrotechnic  factories,  and  grain  and 
cattle  markets  are  periodically  held.  Romford 
dates  from  the  Saxon  period.  Population,  in 
1901,  13,650. 

B0M1IXY,  Sir  Samtjel.  (1757-1818).  An 
English  jurist,  born  at  Westminster.  He  w^as 
called  to  the  bar  in  1783,  and  in  1805  was  made 
Chancellor  of  the  County  Palatine  of  Durham, 
which  position  he  held  until  1815.  He  was  re- 
turned to  Parliament  several  times  and  was  ac- 
tive in  securing  various  reforms,  especially  in  the 
mitigation  of  the  harsh  criminal  laws.  He  was  op- 
posed by  the  conservative  faction  in  the  House  of 
Commons.  His  mind  was  deranged  by  the  death  of 
his  wife  and  he  committed  suicide  in  1818.  Be- 
sides numerous  pamphlets,  he  published :  Ohaerva- 
tiona  on  the  Criminal  Law  of  England  (London, 
1813)  ;  Thoughta  on  Executive  Juatice  (ib., 
1786)  ;  Ohjectiona  to  the  Project  of  Creating  a 
Vice-Chancellor  of  England  (ib.,  1813). 

Babon  Romillt,  son  of  Sir  Samuel,  was  suc- 
cessively Solicitor-General,  Attorney-General,  and 
Master  of  the  Rolls.  He  performed  a  great  pub- 
lic service  in  the  supervision  of  a  compilation  and 
collection  of  the  Public  Records  of  England. 

BOMO^ET,  Geoboe  (1734-1802).  An  Eng- 
lish portrait  painter,  born  at  Dalton,  in  Lanca- 
shire. In  1753  he  was  apprenticed  for  a  short 
time  to  Steele,  a  portrait  painter,  at  Kendal,  after 
which  he  settled  at  Westmoreland,  where  he 
practiced  portrait  painting  for  several  years.  In 
1762  he  went  to  London,  where  his  "Death  of 
Wolfe"  won  him  a  prize  of  the  Society  of  British 
Artists.  He  also  studied  in  Italy  and  France, 
being  much  influenced  by  Titian  in  color,  and  by 
Greuze,  whose  sentimental  manner  he  adopted. 
Upon  his  return  to  London,  in  1775,  he  became 
very  popular  and  divided  patronage  with  Rey- 
nolds and  Gainsborough.  He  continued  to  reside 
there  until  1799,  when  he  returned  to  his 
wife,  whom  he  had  deserted  when  he -first  went, 
to  London,  and  who  now  nursed  him  until  his 
death.  He  had  bestowed  his  affections  upon  his 
favorite  model,  the  beautiful  Emma  Hart,  after- 
wards Lady  Hamilton,  whom  he  painted  as  Bac- 
chante, Circe,  Joan  of  Arc,  Magdalen,  and  SibyL 
Among  his  other  works  are  portraits  of  Mrs.  Ca- 
wardine  and  child.  Lady  Cavendish-Bentinck,  Miss 
Sneyd  as  Serena,  Lady  Warwick  and  her  children, 
Mrs.  Davenport,  the  actress,  and  Lady  Russell  and 
child  (1784).  In  the  National  Gallery  are  the 
"Parson's  Daughter"  and  "Bacchante;"  in  the 
National  Portrait  Gallery,  a  portrait  of  Richard 
Cumberland  and  Lady  Hamilton.  The  art  of 
Roraney  has  been  described  by  Muther  as  **hold- 
ing  the  mean  course  between  the  refined  classic 
art  of  Reynolds  and  the  imaginative  poetic  art  of 
Gainsborough."  He  was  a  very  dexterous  painter 
and  possessed  the  art  of  beautifying  his  model 
without  making  the  picture  unlike  the  original. 
His  treatment  was  broad  and  the  number  of 
colors  was  limited,  but  he  used  them  at  times 
with  depth  and  harmony.    Consult:  Hagley,  The 


BomniY. 


158 


laOKCADOB. 


Life  of  (horge  Romney  (London,  1809);  John 
Romney  (son  of  the  painter),  Memoirs  of  the 
Life  and  Wriiinge  of  Oearge  Romney  (London, 
1830). 

"BOlOSTTf  T6mfn^,  A  town  in  the  Government 
of  Poltava,  Russia,  110  miles  northwest  of  Pol- 
tava (Map:  Russia,  D  4).  It  has  extensive 
manufactures  of  tobacco  and  flour.  Its  fairs  are 
also  important.    Population,  in  1879,  22,539. 

BOX^OLA.  A  novel  by  George  EUot  (1863), 
which  appeared  in  the  Comhill  Magazine,  1862-63. 
The  scene  is  laid  in  Florence  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, the  time  of  Savonarola,  who  plays  an  im- 
{lortant  part  in  the  story.  His  influence  is  sharply 
contrasted  with  the  spirit  of  the  Renaissance,  then 
in  its  glory  imder  the  Medici.  These  two  forces 
stir  the  soul  of  the  heroine,  the  daughter  of  the 
blind  scholar,  Bardi.  One  attracts  her  to  the  beau- 
tiful Greek,  Tito  Melema,  brilliant  but  false ;  and 
the  other,  after  the  disastrous  failure  of  her 
marriage,  leads  her  to  a  life  of  devotion  to  the 
unfortunate, 

BOXOBAirrill',  r6'm6'raN'tftN'.  The  capital 
of  an  arrondissement  in  the  Department  of  Loir- 
et-Cher,  France,  39  miles  southwest  of  Orleans 
( Map :  France,  H  4 ) .  It  has  important  manufac- 
tures of  cloth.  The  edict  issued  from  here  in 
1560  prevented  the  establishment  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion in  France.     Population,  in  1901,  8130. 

BOXaJLTJS.  The  mythical  founder  of  the  city 
of  Rome.  His  name  indicates  that  he  is  to  be 
regarded  rather  as  a  symbolical  representation 
of  the  Roman  people  than  as  an  actual  individual. 
According  to  the  legend  there  had  ruled  at  Alba 
Longa,  in  Latium,  a  line  of  kings  descended  from 
the  Trojan  prince  JEIneas.  One  of  the  latest  of 
these  at  his  death  left  the  kingdom  to  his  eldest 
son,  Numitor.  Amulius,  a  younger  brother  of 
Numitor,  deprived  the  latter  of  the  sovereignty, 
murdered  his  only  son,  and  compelled  his  only 
daughter,  Silvia  (generally  called  Rhea  Silvia), 
to  Income  a  vestal  virgin.  Silvia  having  become 
the  mother  of  twins  by  the  god  Mars,  the  fears  of 
Amulius  were  aroused,  and  he  caused  the  cradle 
containing  the  babes  to  be  thrown  into  the  Anio, 
whence  it  was  carried  into  the  Tiber.  The  cradle 
was  stranded  at  the  foot  of  the  Palatine,  and  the 
infants  were  saved  from  death  by  a  she-wolf 
which  carried  them  into  her  den,  near  at  hand, 
and  suckled  them,  while  a  woodpecker  brought 
them  whatever  food  they  wanted.  Faustulus,  the 
King's  shepherd,  who  bore  the  infants  home  to 
his  ifirife,  Acca  Larentia,  had  them  brought  up 
with  his  own  children.  In  a  quarrel  l^tween 
them  and  the  herdsmen  of  Numitor,  Remus,  one 
of  the  twins,  was  taken  prisoner,  and  carried  oflT 
to  Numitor. 

Romulus  soon  made  his  appearance,  accom- 
panied by  his  foster-father;  their  story  was  re- 
lated, and  Numitor  recognized  the  boys  as  the 
sons  of  his  daughter  Silvia.  They  immediately 
proceeded  to  avenge  the  family  wrongs  by  slay- 
ing Amulius  and  placing  their  grandfather  on 
the  throne.  But  Romulus  loved  their  old  abode 
on  the  banks  of  the  Tiber,  and  resolved  to  build 
a  city  there.  The  Palatine  was  chosen  (by  au- 
l^ry)  for  the  site,  and  Romulus,  yoking  a  bul- 
lock and  a  heifer  to  a  plowshare,  marked  out  the 
pomcsriutn,  or  boundary,  on  which  he  proceeded 
to  build  a  wall.  Remus,  to  show  its  inefficiency, 
Bcomfully   leaped  over  it,  whereupon  Romulus 


slew  him,  but  was  immediately  struck  with 
remorse,  and  could  obtain  no  rest  till  he  had  ap- 
peased the  shade  of  his  brother  by  instituting 
the  lemuria,  or  festival  for  the  souls  of  the  de- 
parted. Romulus  next  erected  a  sanctuary  on  the 
Capitoline  for  runaway  slaves  and  homicides. 
But  wives  were  much  wanted;  and  this  led  to 
the  "Rape  of  the  Sabine  Women" — ^a  wholesale 
abduction  of  virgins,  the  consequence  of  which 
was  a  series  of  wars,  in  which,  how.ever,  Rom- 
ulus was  invariably  victorious,  imtil  Titus 
Tatius,  at  the  head  of  a  large  army  of  Sabines, 
forced  him  to  take  refuge  in  his  city  on  the 
Palatine.  The  treachery  of  Tarpeia,  a  daugh- 
ter of  a  lieutenant  of  the  fort,  placed  the  Capi- 
tolium  in  the  hands  of  his  adversaries.  In  the 
battle  the  next  day  between  the  two  hills,  Sabines 
and  Romans  fought  till  they  were  exhausted, 
when  the  Sabine  women  rushed  in  between  their 
husbands  and  fathers  and  implored  them  to  be 
reconciled.  This  was  agreed  to,  and  henceforth 
they  resolved  to  unite  and  to  form  one  people — 
the  followers  of  Romulus  dwelling  on  the  Pala- 
tine, those  of  Titus  Tatius  on  the  Capitoline  and 
Qiiirinal.  On  the  death  of  Titus  Tatius  Romulus 
became  sole  sovereign,  and  subsequently  mader 
successful  war  against  the  Etruscan  cities  of 
Fiden»  and  Veii.  After  a  reign  of  thirty-seven 
years  Romulus  was  miraculously  removed  from 
earth.  While  he  was  standing  near  the  "Goat's 
Pool,"  in  the  Campus  Martins,  reviewing  his 
militia,  the  sun  was  eclipsed,  and  he  was  carried 
up  to  heaven  in  a  chariot  of  fire  by  Mars.  Some 
time  after  he  reappeared,  announced  the  future 
glory  of  the  Roman  people,  and  told  them  that 
henceforth  he  would  watch  over  them  as  their 
guardian  god,  under  the  name  of  Quirinus.  The 
festival  of  the  Quirinalia,  February  17th,  was 
instituted  in  his  honor;  but  the  nones  of  Quin- 
tilis  (July  7th)  was  the  day  on  which  he  was 
believed  to  have  departed  from  earth.  As  early 
as  the  end  of  the  Republic  a  sacred  spot,  marked 
by  a  *black  stone,'  by  or  upon  the  (Domitium,  near 
the  Rostra,  was  pointed  out  as  the  grave  of 
Faustulus,  or,  as  some  said,  of  Romulus.  Ex- 
cavations in  the  Forum  in  the  *  year  1898-90 
brought  to  light  in  this  place  a  rectangular  pave- 
ment of  black  marble,  about  ten  by  thirteen  feet 
in  dimensions,  which  for  various  reasons  it  seems 
safe  to  identify  with  this  monument.    See  Fobum. 

BON^ALDSHATy  North  and  South.  Two 
of  the  Orkney  Islands  (q.v.). 

BONCADOB  (Sp.,  snorer,  grunter),  or  RoN- 
co.  A  name  in  California  for  several  fishes  of  the 
family  Scisenidse  (see  Drum),  which  furnish 
both  food  and  sport.    The  principal  one  is  Ron- 


BONOADOB  {RoDcador  StearBBli). 

cador  Steamsii,  from  two  to  three  feet  long 
v/hen  full-sized,  and  highly  esteemed.  Another 
species  is  the  'red'  roncador  {Corvina  Haturna). 


BONCAGLIA. 


154 


BONfiABB. 


BONOAGLIA,  r^n-kB/ljk.  A  Tillage  in  the 
Province  of  Piaoenza,  Italy,  noted  for  the  diets 
and  reviews  which  the  Holy  Roman  emperors 
frequently  held  here,  on  the  Roncaglian  Fields, 
when  they  descended  from  Germany  into  Italy. 
In  1158  Frederick  Barbarossa  held  a  diet  here 
which  determined  that  the  cities  did  not  possess 
the  right  to  elect  their  own  officers,  and  in  other 
respects  were  subject  to  the  Emperor.  The  result 
was  a  rebellion  of  the  Lombard  towns.  See  Lom- 
bard League. 

BONCESVALLES,  Bp,  pron.  rAn'th6s-v&l'yAs 
(Fr.  Roncevaux),  a  pass  in  the  Pyrenees  between 
Pamplona  and  Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port.  Here 
the  rear  guard  of  Charlemagne's  army  was  de- 
feated in  778.    See  Roland,  The  Song  op. 

BOin>A,  ron'd&.  A  town  of  Southern  Spain, 
in  the  Province  of  Malaga,  situated  42  miles  north 
of  Gibraltar,  on  the  railroad  between  that  place 
and  Granada  (Map:  Spain,  0  4).  It  is  very 
picturesquely  located  among  lofty  mountains, 
and  the  town  is  divided  by  a  gorge  300  feet  wide 
and  nearly  600  feet  deep,  with  precipitous  rocky 
sides,  at  the  bottom  of  which  rushes  the  Guada* 
levin  River.  The  gorge  is  crossed  by  three 
bridges,  one  said  to  date  from  Roman  times, 
one  built  by  the  Moors,  and  the  third  built  in  the 
eighteenth  century.  The  town  itself  is  sur- 
rounded by  olive  groves  and  vineyards,  and  has  a 
delightful  climate.  It  is  a  very  old  town,  with 
well-preserved  remains  of  Moorish  walls  and 
towers,  and  many  Moorish  buildings.  It  has  a 
Plaza  de  Toros.  The  chief  industries  are  flour- 
milling  and  wine  prdduction.  Population,  in 
1887,  18,350;  in  1900,  20.822. 

BONDEATJ,  rON'dy  (Fr.  rondeau,  from  OF. 
rondel,  round  plate,  cake,  scroll,  diminutive  of 
rond,  round,  from  Lat.  rotundua,  round,  wheel- 
shaped,  from  rota,  wheel).  A  French  form  of 
versification  often  imitated  in  other  countries. 
The  rondeau  consists  of  thirteen  verses,  eight 
on  one  rhyme,  five  on  another,  separated  by  a 
pause  at  the  fifth  verse  and  by  another  at  the 
eighth.  The  first  word  or  words  are  repeated 
after  the  eighth  and  the  thirteenth  verses.  The 
rondeau  redouble  or  doubled  rondeau  is  a  poem 
of  twenty  verses  in  five  quatrains.  The  four 
verses  of  the  first  quatrain  made  successively  the 
last  verse  of  the  other  four  quatrains.  Sometimes 
a  sixth  quatrain,  called  the  envoi,  is  added,  after 
which  the  first  word  on  the  first  half-verse  of 
the  poem  is  repeated.  The  rondeau  was  a  fa- 
vorite form  of  Adam  de  la  Halle  (q.v.)  and  of 
Guillaume  Machault  (q.v.)  and  was  cultivated 
by  many  other  p^ts.  Nowadays  it  is  seldom 
employed  in  France  or  elsewhere.  In  England  the 
rondeau  was  skillfully  revived  by  poets  like 
Rossetti  and  Swinburne,  Austin  Dobson,  and  An- 
drew Lang.  It  had  been  used  as  early  as  Ohau- 
cer  (c.1340-1400),  and  later  by  Hoccleve  (c.l370- 
c.1450),  by  Lydgate  (c.l370cl451),  by  Oharles 
of  Orleans  both  in  his  French  and  English  poems 
(but  with  fourteen  lines),  and  by  others.  What 
is  known  as  the  rondeau  of  Villon  has  only  ten 
lines.  0>nsult  Gleeson  White,  Ballades  and  Ron- 
deaue  (London,  1887).  For  the  musical  form  of 
similar  name,  see  Rondo. 

BOKDO  (It.,  from  Fr.  rondeau,  roundel). 
One  of  the  oldest  and  most  generally  used  of  the 
musical  forms,  characterized  by  the  constant  re- 
currence of  one  principal  theme.    The  oldest  ron- 


dos of  the  sixteenth  century  consisted  of  a  plain 
theme  of  four  bars,  which  was  followed  by  a 
few  bars  of  interlude,  when  the  original  theme 
was  repeated.  Soon  the  theme  itself  was  length- 
ened to  eight  or  sixteen  bars,  and  the  interlude 
avoided  the  principal  key.  Then  the  intermediate 
passagf  appeared  as  a  fully  developed  second 
theme  m  a  related  key.  The  fundamental  idea  of 
the  rondo  as  established  by  Beethoven  is  (denoting 
the  three  themes  by  A,  B,  C  respectively) :  A,  B 
(in  key  of  dominant).  A,  0,  A,  B  (in  key  of 
tonic),  coda.  On  its  second  and  third  recurrence 
A  appears  in  different  keys.  Also,  in  order  to 
avoid  monotony,  Beethoven  does  not  repeat  lit- 
erally. When  only  two  themes  are  employed  the 
following  may  be  given  as  the  fundamental 
schedule:  A,  B,  A  (in  key  of  B),  B  (in  key  of 
A),  A.  Under  later  composers  (notably  Chopin) 
the  rondo  form  becomes  even  more  elastic. 

BONGE,  Tdn^ge,  Johannes  (1813-87).  The 
principal  founder  of  the  German  Catholics  (q.v.). 
He  was  bom  at  Bischofswalde,  Silesia,  was  edu- 
cated at  Breslau,  entered  the  Roman  Catholic 
priesthood,  and  was  settled  at  Grottkau  when 
he  published  criticisms  of  the  relation  between 
Rome  and  the  Breslau  Cathedral  chapter,  and 
was  suspended  in  consequence  (1843).  He  then 
went  to  Laurahiitte  in  Upper  Silesia  as  a  teacher, 
and  while  there  the  exhibition  of  the  Holy  Coat 
(q.v.)  at  Treves  so  stirred  his  ire  that  he  de- 
nounced it  in  print  (1844),  and  was  excom- 
municated. The  agitation  occasioned  by  his  action 
led  to  the  founding  of  the  German  Catholic 
Church,  and  he  became  pastor  of  the  German 
Catholic  Church  at  Breslau  in  1845.  Ronge  took 
part  in  the  political  struggles  of  1848  and  was 
prominent  as  a  democratic  leader.  From  1849  to 
1861  he  was  a  fugitive  in  consequence  of  his 
political  activities.  When  permitted  to  return  he 
went  to  Breslau,  and  in  1863  to  Frankfort,  and 
endeavored  to  revive  the  waning  German  Cathol- 
icism. In  1873  he  removed  to  Darmstadt,  and 
there  edited  a  paper  in  promotion  of  his  plans. 
He  died  in  Vienna,  October  26,  1887.  Consult 
The  Autobioffraphy  and  Justification  of  J.  Ronge^ 
Translated  from  the  Fifth  German  Edition  (Lon- 
don, 1846). 

BONGEB,  rON'zhft^  Fldbimond.  The  real 
name  of  the  French  musical  composer  commonly 
known  as  Herv6  (q.v.). 

BONOS.    A  Tibetan  people.    See  Lepchas. 

BONSABD,  rON's&r',  Piebbe  de  (1524-85).  A 
French  poet  and  literary  reformer.  Ronsard 
was  bom  at  the  Chateau  de  la  Poissonniftre  ( Ven- 
dOmois),  of  a  noble  family,  which  may  have 
come  from  Hungary  in  the  reign  of  Philip  VI., 
though  recently  discovered  documents  suggest 
rather  a  Flemish  origin  and  a  less  ancient  no- 
bility. At  the  age  of  nine  he  was  sent  to  the  Col- 
lege of  Navarre,  but  he  left  it  after  six  months, 
''without  profit,"  he  said.  Then  his  father  took 
him  to  Avignon,  where  he  remained  a  little  while 
as  a  page  in  princely  service.  In  1540  he  ac- 
companied Lazare  de  Balf  on  his  embassy  to 
Speyer  and  Guillaume  de  Langey  (du  Bellay), 
the  Viceroy  of  Piedmont,  to  Turin.  In  1542 
he  returned  to  France,  apparently  destined 
to  a  brilliant  diplomatic  or  militaiy  career; 
but  growing  deafness  checked  his  ambition 
in  that  direction,  and  he  turned  to  study  and 
to  literature.    His  first  studies  were  shared  with 


BOHHABD. 


156 


SOOF. 


Jean  Antoine  de  Baif,  son  of  the  ambassador. 
This  was  the  kernel  of  the  future  Pl^iade  (q.T.)* 
Du  Bellay  (q.v.)  soon  became  a  fellow-student, 
and  with  him  Ronsard  shared  in  the  Defense  et  il- 
lustfvtion  de  la  langue  frangaise,  which  inaugu- 
rated the  classic  reform  in  diction  with  which 
the  Pteiadeis  associated.  In  1550  Ronsard  pub- 
lished his  first  poems,  the  Odes,  and  in  1552  the 
first  of  the  AmouvB.  These  brought  him  honors 
and  pensions  from  the  Court  circle,  and  won  him 
the  friendship  of  distinguished  literary  men. 
Ronsard  followed  up  the  Odes  and  Amours  with 
Hymnes  (1555  and  1556),  and  collected  his 
works  in  four  volumes  (1560).  In  the  religious 
wars  he  was  a  partisan  of  Catholicism,  became 
recqgniaed  as  the  Court  poet,  and  won  new  favors 
from  Charles  IX.  for  his  Franeiade  (1572),  an 
unfinished  epic,  and  for  many  occasional  poems. 
His  last  years  were  spent  in  lettered  ease  at  two 
of  his  priories,  Val-Croix  and  Saint-0)6me,  in 
his  native  Venddmois.  Here  he  received  costly 
gifts  from  Queen  Elizabeth  of  England,  and 
from  her  prisoner,  Mary  of  Scotland;  here  he 
made  a  final  collection  of  his  works  (1584). 

Ronsard  was  a  master  in  poetic  imagination, 
and  in  the  technique  of  language  and  metre.  His 
vigor  and  brilliancy,  whether  in  verse  or  prose, 
had  not  been  equaled  in  France.  He  was  first 
to  popularize  the  sonnet.  He  restored  the  Alex- 
andrine line  to  due  honor,  and  introduced  many 
original  lyric  stanzas  with  which  anthologies  and 
imitation  have  made  all  familiar.  His  lyrics 
have  the  naivete  'of  the  Renaissance,  a  free 
healthy  naturalism,  in  which  there  is  hardly 
ever  a  morbid  strain. 

Ronsard's  Works  were  printed  seventeen  times 
before  1630,  and  were  well  edited  by  Blanchemain 
(8  vols.,  Paris,  1^57-67),  and  by  Marty-Laveaux 
(6  vols.,,  ib.,  1887-93).  There  is  a  selection, 
(Euvres  ehoisies,  in  one  volume  by  Sainte-Beuve 
(Paris,  1828,  and  since  often  reprinted,  with  ad- 
ditions by  Louis  Moland) ;  other  selections  are  by 
Voizard,  Noel,  and  Becq  de  Fouquidres.  For  criti- 
cism and  biography,  consult:  Pellissier's  essay  in 
Petit  de  Julleville's  Histoire  de  la  langue  ei  de  la 
Utt^rature  fran^ise  (vol.  iii.,  Paris,  1898,  with  a 
good  bibliography) ;  Gandar,  Ronsard  imitaieur 
d^Hom^re  ei  de  Pindare  (Metz,  1854)  ;  Rocham- 
beau.  La  famille  de  Ronsard  (Paris,  1869) ;  Cha- 
landon,  Essai  sur  Ronsard  (ib.,  1875) ;  Mellerio, 
Lexique  de  la  langue  de  Ronsard  (ib.,  1895) ; 
Fieri,  Pitrarque  et  Ronsard  (ib.,  1895) ;  Faguet, 
XVI.  sUcle  (ib.,  1894);  and  Sainte-Beuve, 
Causeries  du  lundi,  vol.  xii.  (which  is  used  also 
by  way  of  introduction  to  later  editions  of  the 
Selections  by  Sainte-Beuve,  mentioned  above). 
Among  those  who  have  translated  poems  by  Ron- 
sard are  Henry  Francis  Cary,  Longfellow,  Lord 
Lytton  (in  Orval),  and  Andrew  Lang.  In  his 
Bongs  and  Sonnets  of  Pierre  de  Ronsard  (Bos- 
ton, 1903),  C.  H.  Page  has  put  into  English  verse 
seventy-six  poems,  most  of  which  had  not  pre- 
viously been  translated. 

BOHSDOS7,  r6ns^d0rf.  A  town  and  railway 
station  in  the  Rhine  Province  of  Prussia,  3  miles 
southeast  of  Elberfeld.  It  is  largely  engaged  in 
manufacturing;  having  iron  works,  foundries, 
machine  shops,  copper  works,  ribbon  mills,  dyeing 
establishments,  etc.    Population,  in  1900,  13,297. 

BtiVTQJSNy  r§nt^gen,  Wilhelm  Konbad.    See 

RonriGKN,  W1I.HELM  KONBAD. 

BtfHTGEN'  SAYS.    See  X-Rats. 
Tou  xv.-ii. 


BOOD.  The  cross  on  which  Christ  suffer^  $ 
in  modem  usage,  the  name  is  most  commonly 
applied  to  the  large  and  striking  crucifix,  gen- 
erally with  stAnding  figures  of  Mary  and  <K>hn 
on  either  side  of  it,  which  was  placed  at  the 
entrance  of  the  choir  or  chancel  in  most  medisBval 
churches.  Often  it  stood  on  a  gallery  or  screen, 
known  as  the  rood-loft  or  rood-screen. 

BOOD  (AS.  r6d,  pole,  crucifix,  0H6.  ruoia, 
Grer.  Rute,  rod;  possibly  connected  with  Lat. 
radius,  staff,  8kt.  rudh,  to  grow).  A  measure 
of  surface.  It  is  the  fourth  part  of  an  acre  and 
contains  40  square  poles  or  perches. 

BOOD,  Oqden  Nicholas  (1831-1902).  An 
American  physicist,  bom  at  Danbury,  Conn. 
After  graduating  at  Princeton  in  1852  he  studied 
at  the  universities  of  Munich  and  Berlin,  and 
was  made  professor  of  physics  and  chemistry  at 
the  University  of  Troy  (1858),  and  professor 
of  physics  in  Columbia  College  (1863).  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  National  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  1864,  and  served  as  vice-president 
of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement 
of  Science  (1868).  His  investigations  have  em- 
braced problems  in  mechanics,  electricity,  optics, 
and  acoustics.  He  was  the  first  to  construct 
fiuid  prisms  of  great  dispersive  power  for  use  in 
spectroscopic  studies,  and  was  also  one  of  the 
first  to  apply  photography  to  the  miscroscope. 
His  investigations  on  the  nature  of  the  electric 
spark  and  duration  of  lightning  flashes  are  val- 
uable, as  they  determine  most  accurately  mi- 
nute intervals  of  time.  He  constructed  an  air- 
pump  (q.v.)  which  for  many  years  held  a  rec- 
ord for  high  vacua,  and  devised  a  method  of 
photometry  which  was  independent  of  color. 
Professor  Rood  was  able  to  demonstrate  the 
regular  or  specular  reflection  of  X-ra^^s  and 
also  investigated  materials  of  high  electrical  re- 
sistance. He  wrote  Modern  Chromatics  (New 
York,  1874),  a  standard  work  on  color,  and 
many  scientiflc  papers  published  for  the  most 
part  in  the  American  Journal  of  Science. 

B007  (AS.,  Icel.  hrCf;  probably  connected 
with  Gk.  jc^reir,  krypiein,  to  hide).  The  top- 
most covering  of  a  building,  including  its  sup- 
porting framework.  The  commoner  forms  of 
roof  are  the  gaml}rel,  having  two  slopes  meeting 
in  a  horizontal  ridge  and  terminated  at  the  end 
walls  by  triangular  gables  or  pediments;  the 
hipped  roof,  which  has  four  sloped  surfaces  ris- 
ing from  the  four  walls  to  the  short  central 
ridge;  the  gabled,  with  a  double  slope  on  either 
side,  the  lower  part  steep,  the  upper  part  flatter ; 
the  mansard,  which  is  a  hipped  gambrel  roof  with 
a  nearlv  flat  upper  slope.  Other  roofs  form 
pyrami<ls  or  cones,  which  are  called  spires  when 
very  lofty  and  relatively  slender.  A  roof  of 
convex  form  on  a  round  or  polygonal  plan  is 
called  a  dome  or  cupola ;  if  formed  with  a  double 
curve  it  is  sometimes  called  a  bell-roof.  A  roof 
of  a  single  slope  from  a  higher  to  a  lower  side 
wall  is  called  a  lean-to,  pent,  or  shed  roof;  such 
are  the  roofs  of  most  side-aisles  of  churches. 

The  construction  of  roofs  varies  with  material 
and  span.  The  simplest  are  the  primitive  flat 
roofs  of  the  Orient,  made  with  cross-beams, 
thatch,  and  a  heavy  layer  of  stamped  clay.  In 
Central  Syria  and  in  Egypt  important  buildings 
were  roofed  with  enormous  beams  and  slabs  of 
stone.  The  Greeks  employed  a  low-pitched  gable 
roof,  carried  by  simple  trusses  of  wood  and  cov- 


soor* 


156 


BOOH. 


ered  with  tiles  of  marble  or  terra-ootta.  The 
Romans  were  the  first  to  span  broad  halls  with 
vaults  and  domes  of  brick  or  concrete,  covered 
probably  with  lead  for  protection  from  the  rain; 
they  also  used  roofs  carried  by  elaborate  timber 
trusses  and  covered  with  tiles  or  with  bronze 
plates.  It  was  in  the  mediaeval  cathedrals  that 
the  syston  was  developed  of  an  inner  covering  or 
ceiling  of  stone  vaulting,  with  an  outer  protec- 


BOOK  (AS.  hrOo,  OHG.  hruoh,  rOok;  connect- 
ed with  Gk>th.  hrdkjan,  to  crow,  Skt.  kruc,  to 
cry  out) .  A  species  of  crow  ( Oorvua  frugilegus ) , 
very  common  in  the  southern  parts  of  Britain 
and  foimd  in  many  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
even  to  Japan;  about  the  same  size  as  the  com- 
mon crow,  but  easily  distinguished  from  it,  even 
at  a  distance,  by  its  color,  which  is  a  glossy, 
deep-blue  black,  in  certain  aspects  grayish.    On 


1.  KINO  POST  Boor. 

tive  roof  of  timber  trusses  sheathed  with  boards 
and  covered  with  copper,  lead,  slate,  or  tiles; 
these  roofs  were  of  a  very  steep  pitch.  At  the 
same  time  there  were  built  many  roofs  without 
the  stone  vaultings,  the  timber  supporting  trusses 
being  exposed  to  new  and  decoratively  treated 
('open-timber  roofs')  and  the  spaces  between 
them  richly  paneled.  Since  the  Renaissance  it 
has  been  customary  to  hide  the  roof  behind  a 
decorative  ceiling  of  plaster  or  of  paneled  wood- 
work; on  the  other  hand,  the  external  roof  has 
received  much  attention,  and  its  form  and  deco- 
rative treatment  are  important  elements  in  the 
design  of  many  modern  edifices.  In  those,  how- 
ever, of  Italian  classic  type,  the  roof  is  kept 
nearly  flat  and  masked  by  balustrades  and  para- 
pets. 

The  structural  design  of  the  trusses  or  other 
framework  which  supports  the  roof  has  in  all 
ages  been  one  of  the  determining  factors  in 
architectural  development.  In  modem  practice, 
although  wood  is  by  far  the  commonest  material 
used,  steel  takes  its  place  for  structures  of  great 
span,  and  by  its  use  spaces  376  feet  wide  have 
been  roofed  without  intermediate  supports  (Lib- 
eral Arts  Building,  Chicago  Columbian  Exhibi- 
tion,  1893).  For  such  roofs  arched  trusses  are 
used.  Iron  and  steel  roofs  of  250  feet  span  are 
not  uncommon  in  railway  stations.  The  largest 
vaulted  roof  is  that  of  the  Pantheon  at  Rome,  a 
dome  142  feet  in  diameter.    See  Dome. 

In  ordinary  roof  construction  the  truss  is  of 
the  king-post  type  (Fig.  1),  for  spans  up  to  35 
feet;  or  the  queen-post  type  (Fig.  2)  for  spans  up 
to  60  feet ;  though  there  are  more  complex  types. 
The  horizontal  beams  resting  on  these  are  called 
purlins;  thse  carry  the  jack-rafters^  and  to  these 
last  is  nailed  the  sheathing ^  which  is  covered  by 
the  roofing.  The  roofing  may  be  of  tar  and  gravel, 
of  tin  or  of  copper  (for  nearly  flat  roofs),  of 
shingles,  slates,  metal  tiles,  or  terra-cotta  tiles 
for  steep  roofs.  The  part  of  the  roof  which  pro- 
jects over  the  wall  is  called  the  eaves,  and  the 
trough  for  carrying  off  the  rainwater,  the  gutter. 
Consult:  Denfer,  Couverture  des  Mifices  (Paris, 
1893) ;  Merriman  and  Jacoby,  Roofs  and  Bridges 
(New  York,  1896) ;  and  the  authorities  referred 
to  under  Building. 

-  BOOnKG  FELT.    See  Felt. 


2.  QUKKN  POST  BOOP. 

a  nearer  view  a  more  notable  distinction  is  found 
in  the  naked  warty  skin  at  the  base  of  the  bill, 
extending  back  rather  beyond  the  eyes,  and  quite 
far  down  on  the  throat.  The  rook  is  gregarious ; 
and  very  large  companies  often  assemble  in  rook- 
eries, making  their  nests  in  close  proximity, 
generally  in  tall  trees,  the  same  tree  often  sus- 
taining many  nests.  Most  cities  or  large  towns 
in  Great  Britain  have  rookeries,  sometimes  of 
considerable  magnitude.  In  all  of  their  habits 
rooks  are  much  like  the  American  crows.  Con- 
sult writings  of  European  naturalists,  especially 
as  to  the  flocking,  Selous,  Bird  Watching  (Lon- 
don, 1901). 

BOOKEy  Sir  Geobge  (1650-1709).  An  English 
admiral.  He  was  bom  near  Canterbury,  at  the 
country-seat  of  his  father,  Sir  William  Rooke. 
He  entered  the  navy,  saw  active  service  against 
the  Dutch,  and  in  1689  was  promoted  U>  the 
rank  of  rear-admiral.  He  was  engaged  in  the 
action  off  Beachy  Head  in  1690  between  the  Earl 
of  Torrington  and  the  French  admiral  Tour- 
ville,  and  in  1692,  in  the  battle  of  La  Ho^e, 
fought  between  the  French  fleet  and  the  combined 
English  and  Dutch  force  under  Admiral  Russell, 
led  the  night  attack  on  the  enemy's  fleet  which 
resulted  in  the  burning  of  13  French  ships  with 
the  loss  on  the  allied  side  of  only  10  men.  For 
his  brilliant  services  on  this  occasion  he  received 
the  rank  of  vice-admiral  of  the  red,  the  honor 
of  knighthood,  and  a  pension  of  £1000  a  year. 
His  next  important  service  was  the  destruction  of 
a  Franco- Spanish  plate-fleet  in  the  port  of  Vigo; 
and  in  July,  1704,  in  conjunction  with  Sir  Cloud- 
esley  Shovel,  he  accomplished  the  capture  and 
annexation  to  the  British  Crown  of  Gibraltar 
(q.v.).  A  few  days  later  off  Malaga,  he  fought 
an  indecisive  battle  with  a  French  fleet  of  su- 
perior force,  under  the  Comte  de  Toulouse;  the 
French  loss  was  upwards  of  3000,  the.  English 
upwards  of  2000  men.  Consult  The  Life  otid 
Glorious  Actions  of  Admiral  Sir  George  Rooke, 
M,P.  (London,  1707;  new  ed.,  1713), 

BOON,  ron,  Albrecht  Theodob  Emil,  Count 
(1803-79).  A  Prussian  field-marshal  and  war 
minister,  bom  at  Pleushagen  near  Kolberg.  He 
was  trained  at  the  military  school  in  Berlin, 
and  in  1836  was  appointed  to  the  general  staff 
with   the   rank   of   captain.     In    1858   he  was 


BOOK. 


167 


B008BVBLT. 


bommaiider  of  the  Fourteenth  Diyision,  and  six 
months     later    became    lieutenant-general.      In 

1859  he  waa  made  Minister  of  War,  and  in 
1861  became  also  Minister  of  Marine,  hold- 
ing that  ofSce  for  10  years.  The  splendid  effect- 
iveness of  the  German  army  in  1866  and  1870-71 
was  due  in  very  great  measure  to  Von  Boon's 
talents  as  an  organizer  and  administrator.  On 
January  1,  1873,  he  was  made  President  of  the 
Cabinet,  and  Field-Marshal.  He  resigned  No- 
vember 9,  1873,  the  ministry  of  war  and  the 
presidency  of  the  Cabinet,  as  Bismarck  found  it 
neoessaiy  to  combine  his  position  as  Imperial 
Chancellor  with  that  of  President  of  the  Cabinet. 
Von  Roon,  who  was  a  pupil  of  Kat\  Ritter,  wrote 
a  number  of  authoritative  geographical  works,  the 
best  known  of  which  is  the  AufaugsgrMnde  der 
Erd-,  VoUcer  und  Staatenkunde  (1834).  Consult: 
Waldemar  Count  Roon,  Denktourdigkeiten  oms 
dem  Lehen  des  Oeneral-Feldmarahalla  Orafen  von 
Roon  (2  Tols.,  Breslau,  1892) ;  id.,  KHegsminia- 
ter  von  Roon  als  Redner  (ib.,  1896-96). 

SODS,  roe,  Johann  Heinbich  (1631-85).  A 
German  animal  painter  and  etcher,  bom  at  Otter- 
bei^  in  the  Palatinate.  Early  in  life  he  went  to 
Amsterdam,  where  he  studied  under  Juliaen  du 
Jardin,  Barend  .Graat,  and  Adriaen  de  Brie.  In 
1650-54  he  visited  Italy,  France,  and  England, 
in  1657  settled  at  Frankfort,  and  in  1673  was 
appointed  court  painter  to  the  Elector-Palatine. 
At  first  Roos  painted  portraits  and  genre  scenes, 
but  soon  turned  to  those  animal  pieces  with  land- 
scape surroundings,  for  which  he  is  famous,  ex- 
Gelling  particularly  in  the  representation  of  sheep. 
His  works,  notwithstanding  their  great  finish  and 
his  comparatively  short  life,  are  very  numerous 
and  are  to  be  found  in  the  Pinakothek  in  Munich, 
in  Berlin,  Dresden,  Vienna,  and  Frankfort,  while 
two  may  be  seen  in  the  collection  of  the  Histor- 
ical Society,  New  York.  His  forty-four  etchings 
are  also  held  in  great  esteem.  His  son  and  pupil, 
Philipp  Peteb  (sumamed  Rosa  di  Tivoli) 
(1655-1705),  born  at  Frankfort,  painted  land- 
scapes and  animals,  in  his  earlier  period  in  the 
style  of  his  father;  but  in  1677  he  went  to  Rome, 
studied  under  Brandi,  whose  daughter  he  mar- 
ried, and  after  settling  at  Tivoli,  whence  his  sur- 
name, he  adopted  a  peculiar  style  of  his  own, 
painting  life-size  figures  and  animals  in  a  broad 
manner  and  a  heavy  brown  tone  and  producing 
a  rather  impleasant  effect.  Another  son  and 
pupil,  JoHANN  Melchiob  (1659-1731),  bom  at 
Frankfort,  was  an  animal  and  portrait  painter. 
The  Darmstadt  and  Stuttgart  museums  contain 
each  a  "Stag  Hunt"  and  a  "Boar  Hunt,"  the 
Dresden  Gallery,  "SUgs  Under  an  Oak"  (1714), 
and  the  Stadel  Gallery,  Frankfort,  a  '*Lion  Fam- 
ily in  a  Landscape"  (1716). 

BOOSAy  i^Bk,  DAI7IEL  Bennbtt  St.  John 
(1838—).  An  American  physician,  bom  at 
Bethel,  Sullivan  County,  N.  Y.    He  graduated  in 

1860  at  the  medical  school  of  the  University  of 
New  York,  was  assistant-surgeon  in  the  Fifth 
New  York  Volunteers'  three-months'  troops,  be- 
came resident  surgeon  at  the  New  York  Hospital 
in  1862,  and  in  1864,  after  study  in  Europe,  be- 
gan practice  in  New  York  City.  From  1863  to 
1882  he  was  professor  of  diseases  of  the  eye  and 
ear  in  the  medical  school  of  the  University  of 
the  City  of  New  York  (now  New  York  Univer- 
sity), and  from  1875  to  1880  held  a  similar  chair 
in  the  University  of  Vermont  (Burlington).    In 


1888  he  was  appointed  professor  of  diseases  of 
the  eye  in  the  New  York  Post-Graduate  Medical 
School,  of  whose  faculty  he  also  becaifle  presi- 
dent. He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Man- 
hattan Eye  and  Ear  Hosjpital.  Among  his  orig- 
inal works  are:  A  Treatise  on  the  Ear  (1866) 
and  On  the  Neoeaaity  of  Wearing  Olaaeea  (1877), 

BOOSBVELT,  r^z'-velt,  Nicholas  J.  (1767- 
1854).  An  American  inventor.  He  was  bom  in 
New  York  City.  His  claim  to  distinction  is  based 
upon  his  invention  of  the  vertical  paddle-wheel 
for  use  in  steamboats.  As  early  as  the  Revolu- 
tion he  used  the  idea  in  a  small  boat  in  which 
there  were  two  side-wheels  that  were  turned  by 
springs.  In  1797,  together  with  R.  R.  Living- 
ston and  John  Stevens,  he  built  a  steamboat; 
but,  as  contrary  to  his  advice,  chains  and  floats 
were  used  instead  of  paddle-wheels,  the  boat 
proved  a  failure.  Financial  difficulties  prevented 
him  from  following  out  his  idea,  and  ultimately 
Fulton  adopted  it  with  success.  In  1809  Roose- 
velt, after  considerable  controversy  with  Fulton, 
entered  into  a  partnership  with  him  for  the  in- 
troduction of  steamboats  on  western  waters. 
Two  years  later  Roosevelt  built  at  Pittsburg  the 
boat  New  Orleans,  and  successfully  navigated  her 
down  the  Ohio  and  the  Mississippi  to  New  Or- 
leans. Consult  Latrobe,  ''A  Lost  Chapter  in  the 
History  of  the  Steamboat,"  in  vol.  v.  of  the  Mary- 
land Historical  Society  Fund  Publication  (Balti- 
more, 1871). 

BOOSEVBLT,  Robert  Babnwell  (1829—). 
An  American  author  and  reformer.  He  was  bom 
in  New  York  City,  and  was  the  son  of  Nicholas 
van  Schaick  Roosevelt  and  an  uncle  of  Theodore 
Roosevelt.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1850, 
and  practiced  with  success  for  many  years.  In 
1867  he  brought  about  the  formation  of  the  New 
York  State  Fishery  Commission,  and  until  1888, 
when  he  became  United  States  Minister  to  Hol- 
land, was  one  of  its  commissioners.  He  first  en- 
tered active  politics  as  an  opponent  of  the 
Tweed  'Ring,'  and  as  an  organizer  of  the  'Com- 
mittee of  ^venty,'  as  vice-president  of  the  Re- 
form Club,  and  as  an  editor  of  the  Citizen,  he 
did  much  to  break  up  that  organization.  In 
1870  he  was  elected  to  the  lower  House  of  Con- 
gress, and  served  there  with  credit.  He 
published:  The  Game  Birds  of  North  America 
(1860)  ;  The  Game  Birds  of  the  North  (1866) ; 
Superior  Fishing  (1866)  ;  Florida  and  the  Game 
Water  Birds  (1868) ;  and  Progressive  Petticoats 
(1871). 

BOOSEVELT,  Theodore  (1858—).  The 
twenty-sixth  President  of  the  United  States,  bom 
in  New  York  City,  October  27,  1858.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Harvard  University,  where  he  graduated 
in  1880,  and  afterwards  attended  the  law  school 
of  Columbia  University.  He  turned  early  to  poli- 
tics and  was  elected  to  the  New  York  Assembly  in 
1881  as  an  opponent  of  the  Tammany  Hall  ma- 
chine. There,  for  more  effective  service,  he  allied 
himself  with  the  Republican  minority,  although 
not  a  member  of  that  party,  and  for  three  terms, 
1882,-83,-84,  was  its  leader.  He  was  a  delegate 
to  the  Republican  National  Convention  of  1884 
and  in  the  same  year  removed  to  Medora,  N.  Dak., 
where  he  conducted  a  ranch  for  two  years.  As 
the  Republican  candidate  for  Mayor  of  New  York 
in  1886,  he  opposed  Henry  Greorge,  Single-Taxer, 
and  Abram  S.  Hewitt,  Democrat,  the  successful 
candidate.    From  1889  to  1895  he  was  a  mem* 


BOOSBVELT. 


158 


BOOT. 


ber  of  the  United  States  Civil  Service  Gommis- 
Bion,  being  appointed  by  President  Harrison  and 
retained 'by  President  Cleveland.  In  the  latter 
year  he  became  president  of  the  Police  Board  in 
New  York  City  and  served  for  two  years,  attain- 
ing wide  prominence  by  the  energetic  methods 
employed  by  him  to  eradicate  evils  existing  in 
the  system.  President  McKinley  called  him  to 
national  service  in  1897,  as  Assistant  Secretary 
of  the  Navy,  and  as  such  his  work  was  of  signal 
value  in  hurrying  the  navy  to  readiness  for  the 
war  with  Spain.  In  his  desire  for  field  service  in 
the  war  he  resigned  from  the  department  in  April, 
1898,  and  was  active  in  organizing  the  First 
United  States  Volunteer  Cavalry,  popularly 
known  as  ^Roosevelt's  Rough  Riders.'  He  was 
first  lieutenant-colonel  and  afterward  colonel,  be- 
ing promoted  for  gallantry  in  the  action  at  Las 
Guasimas,  Cuba. 

When  his  command  was  mustered  out  of  the 
military  service  in  the  summer  of  1898,  Colonel 
Roosevelt  returned  to  private  life  just  in  time  to 
begin  an  active  itinerant  campaign  as  the  Repub- 
lican nominee  for  Governor  of  New  York,  which 
resulted  in  his  election  over  Augustus  Van  Wyck, 
the  Democratic  candidate,  by  a  plurality  of 
18,079.  His  first  important  act  as  Governor  was 
to  investigate  the  State  canal  system,  concerning 
which  there  had  been  much  talk  of  fraud  in  the 
preceding  administration.  The  agitation  of  this 
question  continued  throughout  his  term,  the  net 
result  being  the  appropriation  by  an  unsympa- 
thetic Legislature  of  $200,000  for  a  new  survey 
and  an  accurate  estimate  of  the  proposed  im- 
provements. Other  conspicuous  acts  of  the  Gov- 
ernor were  in  connection  with  the  enactment  of 
the  Ford  Franchise  Law,  providing  for  the  tax- 
ation of  corporation  franchises,  whereby  he  in- 
curred the  enmity  of  some  of  the  largest  corpo- 
rate interests;  the  extension  of  the  civil  service 
system  to  include  many  offices  hitherto  imder  the 
control  of  political  influence;  and  the  passage 
of  the  Davis  Law  fixing  the  minimum  annual 
salary  of  school-teachers  at  $600,  and  provid- 
ing for  proportionate  advances  for  length  of 
service.  With  the  approach  of  the  State  and 
national  conventions  of  1900,  the  position  of  Grov- 
ernor  Roosevelt  in  the  Republican  party  grew 
both  interesting  and  involved.  He  had  become  a 
leading  personality  in  the  party,  although  hostile 
to  some  sections  of  it  and  dangerous  to  others,  and 
was  known  to  be  ambitious.  Against  his  expressed 
desire  for  a  second  term  as  Governor,  in  which  to 
complete  the  reforms  barely  begun,  he  was  nomi- 
nated for  Vice-President  on  the  ticket  with  Presi- 
dent McKinley,  and  was  elected  in  November  of 
the  same  year.  On  September  14, 1901,  at  the  death 
of  McKinley,  Roosevelt  became  his  successor. 
Shrewd  political  commentators  had  construed  the 
nomination  of  Roosevelt  for  Vice-President  as  an 
intrigue  of  party  leaders  to  insure  his  political 
extinction  in  that  inconspicuous  office.  If  such 
a  plan  existed,  chance  frustrated  it  by  the  death 
of  President  McKinley. 

President  Roosevelt  conducted  his  administra- 
tion as  a  continuation  of  McKinley's,  of  whose 
principles  he  was  the  avowed  conservator.  The 
plans  for  trust  and  tariff  legislation  were  ad- 
hered to,  particularly  in  reference  to  reciprocity 
treaties  with  other  coimtries.  The  Philippine 
policy  was  maintained  and  a  partially  autono- 
mous government  was  provided  for  the  islands. 
Also,  the  construction  of  an  Isthmian  canal  was 


authorized,  and  the  connection  of  the  Philippine 
Islands  with  the  United  States  was  accomplished 
by  means  of  a  submarine  cable.  All  this  was  a  her- 
itage of  the  McKinley  administration.  Legisla- 
tion identified  more  distinctively  with  Roosevelt 
himself  dealt  with  the  revision  of  the  countiy's 
financial  system,  the  increase  of  the  navy  as  the 
best  means  of  preserving  peaceful  relations  be- 
tween this  and  other  powers,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  a  permanent  Census  Bureau  and  of  a 
Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor,  whose  Sec- 
retary is  a  member  of  the  Cabinet.  Of  the  per- 
sonal side  of  his  administration  two  instances 
are  sufficiently  characteristic — ^his  action  in  the 
anthracite  coal  strike  of  1902  and  his  treatment 
of  the  negro  question.  His  calling  together  of 
representatives  of  both  parties  in  the  anthracite 
trouble  and  causing  them  to  agree  to  the  appoint- 
ment of  an  arbitration  commission  was  an  act 
without  precedent  in  the  history  of  his  office 
and  was  performed  in  the  public  behalf,  to  rem- 
edy a  'national  evil.'  The  appointment  of  a 
negro.  Dr.  Crum,  to  be  collector  of  the  port  of 
Charleston,  S.  C,  and  the  selection  of  negroes 
for  some  minor  offices  aroused  indignant  protest 
from  the  South  and  other  parts  of  the  country, 
despite  which  the  President  preserved  a  steadfast 
position — ^that  in  the  question  cff  fitness  for  an 
office  color  did  not  have  a  part.  During  his  ad- 
ministration President  Roosevelt  was  the  most 
active  and  conspicuous  figure  in  American  public 
life.  To  his  fearlessness  of  action  and  speech, 
and  his  independence  of  coimsel,  as  shown  by 
many  of  his  official  appointments,  may  be 
ascribed  the  continuous  apprehension  with  which 
the  leaders  of  his  party  viewed  him,  but  for 
these  same  qualities  the  generality  of  the  people 
gave  him  unstinted  praise. 

In  addition  to  his  political  prominence  Mr. 
Roosevelt  is  the  author  of  the  following  works: 
The  Naval  War  of  1812  (1882) ;  Life  of  Thomas 
Hart  Benton  (1887)  and  Life  of  Oouvemeur  Mor- 
ris (1888)  in  the  "American  Statesmen*'  series; 
Ranch  Life  and  Hunting  Trail  ( 1888)  ;  History  of 
New  York  City  ( 1891 ) ,  in  the  "Historic  Towns" 
series;  The  Winning  of  the  West  (4  vols.,  1889- 
96)  ;  Essays  on  Practical  Politics  (1892)  ;  The 
Wilderness  Hunter  (1892);  American  Political 
Ideals  (1897) ;  The  Rough  Riders  (1899) ;  Life 
of  Oliver  Cromwell  (1900) ;  The  Strenuous  Life 
(1900);  and,  in  collaboration  with  others,  The 
Deer  (1902). 

BOOT  (AS.,  Icel.  rot,  root;  connected  with 
Lat.  radiw,  Gk.  ^fa,  rhiza,  Goth,  wadrts,  OHG. 
wurz,  Ger.  Wurz,  AS.  wyrt,  Eng.  wort).  The 
underground  part  of  vascular  plants  (pterido- 
phytes  and  spermatophytes)  which  serves  as  an 
anchor  in  the  soil  and  as  an  organ  for. absorbing 
water.  Among  the  lower  plants  there  are  certain 
organs  of  attachment  (rhizoids)  which,  though 
structurally  unlike  roots,  may  serve  as  such. 
Roots  are  variously  classified.  In  duration  they 
are  annual,  biennial,  or  perennial;  in  form  they 
are  fibrous  or  fleshy,  and  in  origin  they  are  pri- 
mary or  secondary.  Primary  roots,  which  are 
usually  single,  and  if  persistent  are  called  tap- 
roots, originate  from  the  embryo;  secondary 
roots  arise  later  from  the  shoot.  As  to  structure 
and  function  roots  are  classified  as  follows:  Soil 
roots  are  related  to  a  soil  medium  and  difiTer 
thereby  from  others ;  water  roots  are  constructed 
for  a  water  medium  and  may  be  developed  by 
growing  a  terrestrial  plant,  for  instance,  a  hya- 


BOOT. 


159 


BOOT. 


dnih  bulb,  in  water ;  air  roots  are  constructed  for 
an  air  medium,  for  instance,  the  dangling  roots  of 
an  epiphytic  orchid ;  clinging  roots  are  organized 
for  climbing,  as  in  the  ivies ;  prop  roots  are  sent 
oat  to  support  wide-spreading  branches  to  enable 


Fia.   1.   0BO8S-8KCTIO5  Or  YOVKB  BOOT. 

Showliicp  root-haln  with  adherent  sofl-partlclea. 

them  to  spread  farther,  as  in  the  screw-pine, 
banyan,  etc.  Unlike  stems,  roots  bear  no  leaves 
or  foliar  structures,  joints  (nodes) ;  do  not  in- 
crease in  length  by  joints,  but  by  continuous 
multiplication  and  enlargement  of  apical  cells; 
and  their  branches  arise  from  the  central  woody 
cylinder. 

In  minute  structure  roots  are  still  more  dis- 
tinct from  stems.  (See  Histology.)  In  general 
the  tips  bear  more  or  less  conspicuous  root-caps 


Pro.  S.    PLAMTLST.  ^^j^  8BCTI0H  OP  BOOT-TIP. 

Showtoj  iwte  and  Showing  dermatoffen  (e),  peri- 

roovnairs.  |,y,„j  ^^^  plerome  (p7).  and  root- 

cap  (0). 

composed  of  hood-like  masses  of  cells,  which  die 
and  slough  off  in  front,  and  are  renewed  from 
behind  (c.  Pig.  3).  This  cap  serves  to  protect 
the  delicate  growing  tip  as  the  root  pushes  its 
way  through  the  soil.  Just  behind  the  root-cap 
are  usually  very  numerous  and  delicate  hairs, 
which  are  elongated  outgrowths  from  the  epider- 
mal cells.  They  increase  the  absorbing  surface 
of  the  root  and  are  developed  only  in  the  activity 
absorbing  region  near  the  tip.     As  the  rootlet 


lengthens  new  root-hairs  appear  near  the  tip, 
and  the  older  ones  perish  (Figs.  1,  2).  Just 
beneath  the  root-cap  is  the  group  of  rapidly  di- 
viding apical  cells,  from  which  all  the  tissues  of 
the  root  are  derived.  Just  behind  the  apical 
group  the  three  embryonic  regions  of  the  root 
begin  to  differentiate  (Fig.  3).  In  the  centre 
is  the  plerome,  an  axial  mass  of  cells  that  tend  to 
elongate.  When  fully  organized  this  becomes 
the  stele,  in  which  originate  the  vascular  bundles 
or  main  conducting  strands  of  the  root.  Sur- 
rounding the  plerome  is  the  periblem,  that  later 
becomes  the  cortex,  in  roots  a  very  prominent  re- 
gion. The  cortex  is  covered  by  a  single  layer  of 
cells,  the  dermatogen,  that  later  becomes  the  epi- 
dermis. The  dermatogen  gives  rise  to  the  root- 
cap.  In  most  roots  also  the  epidermis  behind  the 
root-cap  is  replaced  by  a  modified  outer  layer  of 
the  cortex,  called  the  epiblema.  Probably  the 
chief  anatomical  peculiarity  of  the  root  is  the 
central  and  solid  woody  axis,  whose  tissues  are 
arranged  in  a  way  which  distinguishes  the  root 
from  most  stems.  Early  in  the  history  of  peren- 
nial roots  secondary  changes  occur,  that  greatly 
modify  the  general  structure,  especially  in  the 
appearance  of  growth  rings,  and  assimilate  it 
to  that  of  stems.    See  Histology. 

BOOT.  In  philology  (q.v.),  that  abstract 
form  of  a  word  which  remains  after  all  formative 
elements  have  been  removed.  In  strict  scientific 
discussion  in  Indo-Germanic  linguistics  a  root  is 
reagrded  as  pre-Indo-Germanic,  that  is,  it  is  a 
hypothetical  word  derived  not  only  by  omission 
of  all  formatives,  but  also  by  comparison  of  all 
cognate  words  in  the  Indo-Germanic  languages. 
To  speak  of  Greek,  Celtic,  or  Germanic  roots  is, 
therefore,  scientifically  inaccurate.  Roughly 
speaking  fot  may  be  called  the  root  of  foot^  but 
properly  the  root  is  the  hypothetical  Indo-Ger- 
manic form  *p/id,  as  shown  by  a  comparison  of 
Sanskrit  pAda,  Avesta  piUa,  Armenian  oin, 
Greek  roGf,  Doric  Greek  vi^,  Latin  pis,  Lith- 
uanian padaa,  Gothic  f6iu8,  Old  High  German 
fuoz,  and  Anglo-Saxon  fot.  In  all  probabil- 
ity roots  never  had  an  actual  existence. 
Consult:  DelbrQck,  Einleitung  in  doe  Sprach- 
atudium  (3d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1893)  ;  Hirt,  Indoger- 
manischer  Ablaut  (Strassburg,  1900);  Gabe- 
lentz,  Sprachwisaenachaft  (Leipzig,  1901)  ;  Fick, 
Vergleichendea  W&rterhuch  der  indogermaniaohen 
Sprachen  (3d  ed.,  G5ttingen,  1874-76;  4th  ed., 
1890 — )  ;  Persson,  Wurzelertoeiterung  und  Wur- 
zelvariation  (Upsala,  1891).    See  Philology. 

BOOT.  In  music,  the  lowest  tone  of  any  chord 
in  its  fundamental  position.    See  Chobd;    Hab- 

MONY. 

BOOT.  A  number  or  expression  resulting 
from  the  process  of  evolution.  (See  Involution 
AND  Evolution.)  Also  the  values  of  the  un- 
knowns which  satisfy  an  equation  (q.v.)  are 
called  the  roots  of  the  equation. 

BOOT,  Elihu  ( 1846— ) .  An  American  lawyer 
and  administrator,  bom  at  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  where 
his  father  was  professor  of  mathematics  in  Ham- 
ilton College,  at  which  Elihu  graduated  in 
1864.  He  began  to  practice  law  in  1867,  form- 
ing partnerships  with  John  N.  Strahan  in  that 
year,  with  Willard  Bartlett  in  1876,  and  in  1886 
with  Samuel  B.  Clarke.  Root  was  especially 
successful  as  a  corporation  lawyer  and  was  coun- 
sel for  the  Sugar  Trust,  for  New  York  street  rail- 


BOOT. 


160 


BOOT  TT]rBEBCIiE& 


ways,  and  for  various  railroad  oompanies.  His 
greatest  prominence  at  the  bar  was  due  to  his 
being  retained  as  counsel  for  William  M.  Tweed 
in  the  Tweed  ring  trial;  for  Judge  Hilton 
in  the  Stewart  will  case ;  and  for  Hamilton  Col- 
lege in  the  Fayerweather  will  case.-  From  1883  to 
1886  he  was  United  States  District  Attorney  in 
New  York  City.  In  1899  he  was  appointed  Sec- 
retary of  War  to  succeed  Russell  A.  Alger.  In 
this  capacity  he  planned  the  new  War  College 
and  a  modification  of  the  rules  of  promotion,  by 
which  seniority  ceased  to  be  the  sole  claim.  An- 
other reform  was  the  institution  of  the  general 
staff.  He  continued  in  office  during  Mc^nley's 
second  administration  and  under  President  Roose- 
velt until  the  summer  of  1903,  when  he  resigned 
and  was  succeeded  by  William  H,  Taft  (q.v.). 

BOOT,  Geobge  Fbedebick  (1820-95).  An 
American  musician  and  composer.  He  was  bom 
at  Sheffield,  Mass.,  and  studied  music  under 
George  J.  Webb  of  Boston,  after  which  he  taught 
music  in  New  York  City  (1844-46),  where  he 
was  organist  of  the  Church  of  the  Stranger.  In 
1869  he  became  a  member  of  the  Chicago  music 
firm  of  Root  &  Cady.  He  composed  many  pop- 
ular songs  and  battle  songs,  notably  "Battle  Cry 
of  Freedom,"  "Tramp,  Tramp,  Tramp,"  "Just 
Before  the  Battle,  Mother,"  and  the  quartet, 
"There's  Music  in  the  Air,"  besides  which  he 
edited  numerous  books  of  sacred  music.  Other 
works  were  the  cantatas  Flower  Queen  (1862) ; 
Daniel  (1852);  The  Pilgrim  Fathers  (1834); 
BeUhazzar'a  Feast  (1856) ;  and  The  Haymahera 
(1867). 

BOOT  BABNACLE.    See  Rhizoc3&phala. 

BOOT  PABASITES.  Plants  attached  to  the 
roots  of  other  plants,  whose  elaborated  food  they 
consume.  They  are  usually  without  chlorophylL 
In  temperate  climates  the  best  known  are  proba- 
bly broom  rape  and  cancer  root;  in  tropical 
coimtries,  Rafflesia  (q.v.).  Many  species  of 
Scrophulariacese  and  the  Indian  pipe  {Monotro- 
pa  uniflora)  are  semi-parasitic. 

BOOT  PBESSTJBE.  If  while  a  plant  is 
rapidly  absorbing  water  by  the  root  system,  it 
be  decapitated,  water  will  soon  ooze  from  the 
stump — ^a  phenomenon  known  as  bleeding.  The 
amount  may  be  measured  and  the  pressure 
under  which  it  escapes  may  be  ascertained. 
Since  the  pressure  thus  determined  was  first 
recognized  as  arising  in  the  root  system,  the 
name  root  pressure  was  given  to  it.  Since 
investigation  shows,  however,  that  cells  of 
suitable  character,  located  in  any  part  of  the 
plant,  under  proper  conditions  may  develop  a 
similar  pressure,  the  terms  sap  pressure  and 
bleeding  pressure  are  superseding  it.  Sap  pres- 
sure is  dependent  upon  the  osmotic  pressure  (see 
Osmosis)  of  active  cells  which  adjoin  xylem 
bundles  (see  Anatomy),  into  which  water  es- 
capes and  travels  to  the  point  of  exit  under  the 
pressure  of  additional  quantities  of  water  from 
behind.  There  is  no  satisfactory  explanation  of 
the  action  of  the  cells  which  thus  force  water 
into  the  xylem.  Root  pressure  shows  itself  most 
strikingly  in  the  spring  before  the  leaves  are 
fully  developed,  when  the  sap  often  exudes  from 
wounds,  as  in  grapevines  and  many  trees,  in 
considerable  quantities.  After  the  development 
of  the  foliage  and  under  conditions  which  permit 
transpiration   (q.v.),  root  pressure  becomes  less 


or  disappears.  It  is,  therefore,  not  an  imi>ortant 
factor  in  lifting  water  when  water  is  most  needed. 
The  amount  of  water  which  may  escape  is 
often  much  greater  than  the  volume  of  the  root 
system.  Thus,  in  two  and  a  half  days,,  the  stump 
of  a  stinging  nettle  gave  ofiT  over  eleven  liters 


▲PPASATUB  TO  MKA8UBB  BOOT  PBBBSTTIIB. 

t,  T-tnbe  attached  to  stump  of  plant,  filled  with  water 
and  dosed  by  sealing  in  fiame  the  tip  of  e ;  m.  a  mer- 
cury pressure  gauge  connected  with  t,  registering  l^e  force 
with  which  water  Is  forced  from  the  stump,    a,  a  support. 

(ll  quarts)  of  water,  more  than  eight  times  the 
volume  of  the  root  system.  A  twelve-year-old 
birch  in  seven  days  exuded  from  an  opening  in 
the  trunk  36  liters  of  water.  When  the  central 
bud  is  cut  out,  various  species  of  century  plant 
exude  water  several  months.  A  vigorous  plant  is 
said  by  Humboldt  to  yield  as  much  as  1000  liters. 
The  extrusion  of  water  from  the  sugar  maple  in 
late  winter  or  early  spring  is  at  first  not  due  to 
root  pressure,  but  rather  to  the  expansion  of 
gases  in  the  twigs  which  are  warmed  duriiig  the 
sunny  days.    See  Sap. 

BOOT  TTJBEBCLES.  Irr^lar  swellings 
upon  the  roots  of  Leguminoss,  the  alder,  and  a 
few  other  plants.  They  are  due  to  an  infection 
by  various  bacteria,  or  bacteria-like  organisms. 
The  ability  of  plants  to  assimilate  the  free  nitro- 
gen of  the  air  was  a  subject  of  discussion  among 
agricultural  chemists  for  many  years.  Georges 
Ville  seems  to  have  been  one  of  the  first  to  main- 
tain that  certain  plants  can  so  assimilate,  but  he 
did  not  discover  the  true  explanation.  The  claim 
of  Ville  was  attacked  by  Boussingault,  Lawes 
and  Gilbert,  and  others,  whose  experiments 
seemed  to  give  opposite  results.  Later  Hellriegel 
(q.v.)  proved,  by  carefully  conducted  experi- 
ments, that  clovers  and  similar  crops  enrich  the 
soil  by  adding  nitrogen  to  it  and  that  they  ob- 
tain this  nitrogen  from  the  air,  and  subsequent 
studies  show  that  the  bacteria  gain  entrance 
through  the  root-hairs.  The  action  is  recipro- 
cal; the  plant  furnishes  the  carbohydrates  nec- 
essary for  the  growth  of  the  bacteria,  which^ 


BOOT  TTTBEBCLES. 


161 


BOPE. 


in  turn,  supply  nitrogen  to  the  host  plant. 
(See  Symbiosis.)  In  this  way  if  the  soil 
contains  sufficient  available  nitrogen  for  the 
maximum  development  of  the  plant,  few  tuber- 
cles will  be  developed,  but  well  supplied  with 
soil  organisms,  tubercles  will  be  developed  in 
abundance,  llie  failure  of  Boussingault  and 
others  to  observe  any  increase  in  nitrogen  was 
due  either  to  the  absence  of  the  micro-organisms 
or  to  a  large  amount  of  available  nitrogen  in  the 
soil,  since  the  organism  {Bacillus  racUcicola)  is 
not  always  present  in  the  soil.  Two  means  for 
securing  them  have  been  developed.  One,  called 
soil  inoculation,  consists  in  scattering  soil  rich 
in  these  organisms  over  a  field  to  be  planted, 
and  the  other  in  the  use  of  cultures  of  the  organ- 
isms distributed  on  the  seed  or  over  the  soil. 
This  last  method  is  in  some  ways  preferable  and 
has  resulted  in  the  commercial  preparation  of  a 
'nitrogen.'     See   Clover;   Leguminos^;   Gbeen 

MAimSING;     NiTBOGEN. 

BOPE  (AS.  rdp,  Goth,  raips,  OHG.  reif,  cord, 
Ger.  Reif,  ring;  of  uncertain  etymology).  Tech- 
nically, cordage  one  inch  or  more  in  diameter. 
The  term  cordage  is  used  in  a  collective  sense  to 
include  all  sizes  and  varieties  of  cords  and  rope 
from  harvester  twine  to  the  largest  cables.  It  is 
probable  that  rope-making  was  among  the  very 
earliest  of  human  industries.  The  materials  first 
used  for  the  purpose  were  probably  the  fibres  of 
various  plants,  the  inner  bark  of  trees,  and 
the  hides  of  animals  cut  into  thongs  and  twisted 
together.  Sculptural  representations  of  rope- 
making  are  found  upon  ancient  Egyptian  manu* 
scripts,  showing  that  they  made  use  of  fiax  and 
the  fibres  of  the  date  tree  as  well  as  of  rawhide. 
Herodotus  states  that  the  Persians  manufactured 
cables  28  inches  in  circumference  of  fiax  and 
papyrus  with  which  to  aid  in  constructing  the 
bridge  of  boats  upon  which  the  army  of  Aerxes 
crossed  the  Hellespont.  Peruvians  used  fibres  of 
the  maguey  for  rope  and  twisted  cables  of  suffi- 
cient strength  to  carry  the  primitive  suspension 
bridges. 

Prior  to  the  year  1820,  hand  labor,  aided  only 
by  the  clumsy  wheels  and  other  imperfect  con- 
trivances pertaining  to  the  old-fashioned  rojpe- 
walk,  was  exclusively  employed  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  rope.  In  that  year  some  machines  were 
constructed  in  England  for  twisting  hand-spun 
yam  into  strands,  and  a  few  were  imported  mto 
the  United.  States.  The  next  step  was  the  intro- 
duction of  machines  for  spinning  the  threads 
from  the  raw  material.  The  first  machinery 
for  this  purpose  was  constructed  in  Massachu-. 
setts  in  1834.  American  machines  are  now  ex- 
tensively employed  in  Europe,  and  American 
cordage  is  held  in  such  high  estimation  that  it  is 
exported  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Matebials.  The  materials  employed  for  rope- 
making  include  hemp,  flax,  cotton,  manila,  sisal, 
jute,  and  other  vegetable  fibres.  Russian  hemp 
for.  tarred  rigging  has  long  maintained  a  reputa- 
tion for  superiority;  its  great  strength  and  dur- 
ability are  attributed  to  the  method  of  retting 
the  fibre  under  water  in  lieu  of  the  mode  usually 
adopted  with  American  hemp,  called  dew-retting. 
Italian  hemp  is  also  of  excellent  quality,  and  for 
some  uses  is  unsurpassed.  Manila  hemp  is  per- 
haps more  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  cordage  than  any  other  material,  as  its  great 
pliability  and  strength  particularly  adapt  it  for 


the  running  rigging  of  vessels  and  for  a  multi- 
plicity of  ordinary  uses.  Russian  and  American 
hemp  are  preferred  for  standing  rigging,  because 
they  will  absorb  a  great  amount  of  tar  and  will 
withstand  the  weather  without  shrinking  or 
stretching.  Sisal,  from  Yucatan,  and  East  In- 
dian jute,  are  largely  used  for  the  manufacture 
of  the  cheaper  grades  of  cordage.  See  Flax; 
Hemp;  Jute;  Sisal. 

Rope- Walk  Rope-Making.  The  old  walk  was 
usually  from  1,000  feet  to  1,400  feet  long.  Fibres 
of  hemp  were  hackled  or  straightened  out  by 
drawing  the  material  through  a  steel-toothed 
comb.  The  workman  then  wound  a  bundle  of 
hemp  about  his  body,  attaching  one  end  to  one 
of  a  series  of  hooks  on  a  'whirl*  or  looper,  draw- 
ing out  the  fibres  from  the  bundle  with  one 
hand  and  compressing  them  with  the  other,  ex- 
perience teaching  the  number  of  fibres  to  draw 
out  and  how  to  twist  them  so  as  to  hold  firmly 
to  the  hook.  He  then  walked  slowly  backward 
down  the  walk,  making  his  yam  as  he  went,  the 
spinning  being  done  by  the  wheel  or  'whirl* 
turned  by  an  assistant,  the  spinner  seeing  that 
the  fibres  were  equally  supplied  and  joining  the 
twisted  parts  at  the  ends.  Two  or  more  spin- 
ners might  be  going  down  the  walk  at  the  same 
time  and  at  the  end  two  would  join  their  yarns 
together,  each  then  beginning  a  new  yam  and  re- 
turning on  the  walk  to  the  end  where  the  second 
spinner  again  took  his  yam  off  the  'whirl*  and 
joined  it  to  the  end  of  the  first  spinner's  yarn, 
so  that  it  continued  on  the  reel.  When  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  yarns  were  spun  they  were 
twisted  into  strands  and  the  strands  into  ropes, 
horse  power  being  usually  employed. 


▲  CABLE-LAID  BOPK. 

The  next  improvement  was  the  introduction  of 
machines  for  twisting  the  yarn  into  strands  and 
laying  the  strands  into  cables.  The  nature  and 
operation  of  these  machines  can  best  be  explained 
by  describing  a  modem  rope-walk  plant,  the 
reader  taking  care  to  remember,  however,  that,  at 
'first,  hand-spun  yam  was  employed  instead  of 
the  present  machine-spun  varn.  Most  large  rope, 
such  as  towing  lines  and  ship  cables,  is  walk- 
laid  rope.  The  first  operation  is  to  wind  the  yarn 
on  large  bobbins.  These  bobbins  are  put  on  a 
framework  of  wood  located  near  one  end  of  the 


BOPE. 


162 


BOFB. 


rope-walk  and  the  ends  of  the  jatub  from  them 
are  passed  through  holes  in  an  iron  gauge  plate, 
known  as  the  face  plate,  and  then  through  a  cast- 
iron  tube,  which  acts  to  collect  the  separate 
yams  into  a  closely  laid  cylindrical  bundle. 
After  being  passed  through  the  tube  the  yams 
are  fastened  on  a  hook  of  the  forming  machine, 
which  runs  on  a  track  the  entire  length  of  the 
walk,  and  which  at  the  same  time  twists  the 
yams  left-handed  into  a  strand.  To  lay  these 
strands  into  a  rope,  two  laying  machines  are  re- 
quired, one  at  each  end  of  the  walk,  which  are 
known  as  the  upper  and  lower  machines.  As 
many  of  the  strands  as  are  required  for  the  rope 
are  stretched  at  full  length  along  the  walk  and 
are  attached  to  the  hooks  on  the  laying  machines. 
The  upper  machine  has  but  one  hook,  to  which  all 
the  strands  are  attached  and  which  operates  in 
one  direction;  while  the  lower  machine  has  as 
many  hooks  as  there  are  strands  and  operates  in 
the  opposite  direction.  To  keep  the  strands 
equidistant  they  are  placed  in  the  grooves  of  a 
conical  wooden  block  called  a  'top,'  which  is  at- 
tached to  an  upright  post  on  a  car  called  a  top 
stud.  The  top  is  pushed  up  close  to  the  upper 
laying  machine  at  the  beginning  of  the  twisting 
process,  and,  as  the  twisting  proceeds,  the  strands 
closing  in  behind  it  gradually  force  it  down  the 
walk  until  the  lower  laying  machine  is  reached 
and  the  rope  completed. 

Machiitb  Rofe-Makino.  The  greater  part  of 
medium-size  rope  is  made  by  rope-making  ma- 
chines, as  distinguished  from  the  rope-walk.  In 
describing  rope-making  by  machines  reference 
will  be  had  particularly  to  the  working  of  Ma- 
nila hemp,  tne  material  most  eictensively  used, 
but  Russian,  Sisal,  and  othet  hemps  are  manipu- 
lated in  essentially  the  same  manner.  The  treat- 
ment of  jute  requires  a  rat)ier  different  process, 
owing  to  its  shorter  and  weaker  fibre.  The  bales 
of  li&nila  hemp,  averaging  in  weight  about  270 
pounds  each,  are  opened,  and,  after  the  fibre  has 
been  lightly  shaken  apart,  it  is  placed  in  layers 
which  are  sprinkled  lightly  with  oil  to  soften 
and  to  lubricate  the  fibre  previous  to  its  passage 
through  the  machines.  The  first  mechanical 
operation  is  called  'scutching,'  and  consists  in 
passing  the  hemp  over  revolving  cylinders  bris- 
tling with  sharp  steel  prongs  or  teeth,  which 
straighten  out  the  fibres  and  remove  the  coir,  or 
fine  broken  particles,  the  dirt,  and  other  foreion 
substances.  It  is  then  passed  on  to  the  breskk- 
ers,  which  are  large  frames  each  about  25  feet 
long,  consisting  of  two  endless  chains  covered 
with  long  steel  pins.  The  first  chain  feeds  the 
fibres  to  the  second,  which  runs  much  slower,  the' 
effect  being  to  comb  or  straighten  out  the  fibres 
and  draw  them  into  a  continuous  ribbon  or  sliver. 
Following  this  operation  comes  the  passage  of 
the  hemp  through  the  spreaders  and  drawing 
frames,  machines  similar  to  the  breakers,  but 
smaller,  and  furnished  with  steel  pins  and  teeth 
of  gradually  increasing  fineness,  which  still 
further  comb  and  straighten  out  the  fibres — a 
number  of  slivers  being  put  together  behind  each 
machine  and  drawn  down  to  one  sliver  again  at 
the  end  of  each  machine.  This  drawing  is  re- 
peated several  times  through  machines  of  vari- 
ous degrees-  of  fineness,  in  order  to  make  the 
sliver  even,  without  which  it  would  be  impossi- 
ble to  spin  fine  even  yarns.  This  process  is 
completed  OD  9^  very  fine  drawing  frame  called  a 


finisher,  and  from  this  the  material  emerges  in 
complete  readiness  for  spinning.  The  spinnii^ 
is  done  on  spinning  machines  or  jennies,  each  op- 
erating two  spindles,  moving  at  about  1500  revo- 
lutions per  minute.  The  spinning  twists  the 
fibre  right-handed  into  yam,  about  1000  yards 
of  which  are  wound  upon  eac^  bobbin.  The  next 
process  is  to  'form'  the  yam  into  strands  and 
'lay'  the  strands  into  rope,  and  this  is  performed 
upon  machines  known  as  formers  and  layers. 
For  the  larger  sizes  of  rope  there  are  usually 
separate  machines,  but  for  rope  ^  inch  in  diam- 
eter and  less  the  former  and  layer  are  combined 
into  a  single  machine.  The  former  consists  of  a 
circular  iron  disk,  at  the  centre  of  which  is 
erected  a  perpendicular  shaft,  carrying  at  its 
end  a  'head'  or  die.  The  plane  of  the  disk  may 
be  either  horizontal  or  vertical.  Around  the 
edge  of  the  disk  are  spaced  several  bobbins  or 
spools  full  of  yarn,  the  number  of  spools  used 
depending  upon  the  number  of  yams  in  the  final 
strand.  The  free  end  of  the  yam  from  each  spool 
is  carried  to  the  head,  where,  by  a  revolving  mo- 
tion of  the  disk,  they  are  twisted  together  and 
wound  off  onto  a  spool  or  dnmi.  If  we  substi- 
tute for  the  spools  of  yarn  just  described  spools 
filled  with  twisted  strands  we  have  in  its  essen- 
tials a  layer.  When  former  and  layer  are  com- 
bined, each  spool  on  the  large  disk  is  replaced 
by  a  small  disk  and  head,  which  twists  a  strand, 
the  several  strands  being  led  to  the  head  of  the 
main  disk  and  there  twisted  into  completed  rope, 
which  is  woimd  off  onto  a  drum  or  reeL 

Special  Ropes.  Cables  for  drilling  oil  and 
water  wells  have  to  be  made  unusually  long  and 
mn  all  the  way  from  1,400  feet  to  3,500  feet  in 
length,  and  from  1%  inches  to  2^^  inches  in 
diameter.  They  are  composed  of  three  strands 
of  manila  ropes,  laid  together  with  a  very  hard 
lay,  so  that  they  will  not  untwist  when  used  for 
drilling,  and  also  will  resist  the  continual  wear 
and  rubbing  against  the  side  of  the  casing  and 
the  wall  of  the  well.  Such  cables  of  this  kind 
are  always  made  on  machines  and  not  in  the  rope- 
walk.  These  machines  have  to  be  exceedingly 
large  and  heavy  to  carry  this  amount  of  rope, 
and  only  a  few  mills  in  the  world  are  equipped 
for  making  well-drilling  cables.  For  msJong 
tarred  rope  the  yams  are  first  run  through  cop- 
per tanks  filled  with  heated  tar ;  the  yams  enter 
through  holes  in  an  iron  plate  and  are  drawn 
through  the  tank  by  machinery.  As  the  yams 
emerge  from  the  tank  the  superfiuous  tar  is  re- 
moved by  means  of  pressing  rollers.  Tarred  rope 
may  be  made  any  size  by  the  methods  already  de- 
scribed, but  a  large  proportion  of  tarred  yam  is 
made  into  small  cordage. 

Stbenoth  of  Rope.  The  strength  of  rope 
varies  with  the  material  of  which  it  is  made,  the 
weight  of  the  rope  per  fathom,  etc.  The  fol- 
lowing figures  compiled  from  Kent's  Mechanical 
Enffineer'a  Pocket  Book  (New  York,  1900)  give 
some  general  information  on  this  matter: 


MATBBIAIiS 


Untamd  hemp 
Tarred  hemp 
Cotton  rope.. 
Manila  rope.. 


Cire.  in 


1.68  to  6.0 
1.44  to  7.13 
3.48  to  6.51 
1.19  to  8.9 


Weight.  lbs. 
per  ta^om 


0.43  to  7.77 
0.88  to  10.89 
1.06  to  8.17 
O.a   to  11.4 


Strength,  lbs. 


1.670  to  8S.808 
1.046  to  81.649 
8,069  to  38.388 
1.380  to  66.660 


The  comj^arative  straigth  of  hemp,  iron,  apd 
steel  ropee  is  indicated  iu  a  general  way  by  the 


BOPE. 


168 


BOBIC  FIGXTBES. 


following  figures  from  Weisbach:  Girth  re- 
quired to  give  tensile  strength  of  40  tons :  Hemp, 
12  inches;    iron,  4%  inches;   steel,  3%  inches. 

For  a  description  of  the  manufacture  of  wire 
rope,  see  Wibe  and  Manttfagtubes  of.  For  de- 
tails of  the  strength  and  efficiency  of  rope  and 
its  application  to  transmission  of  power,  see 
Kent,  Mechanical  Engineer' a  Pocket  Book  (New 
York,  1900),  and  Flather,  Rope  Driving  (New 
York,  1896). 

BOPESy  Abthttb  Reed  ( 1859— ) .  An  English 
aathor  best  known  for  his  comic  operas.  He  was 
bom  in  London,  studied  at  Sling's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, and  was  Lightfoot  and  Whewell  scholar  in 
1883  and  fellow  of  King's  from  1884  to  1890.  He 
lectured  on  history  at  Cambridge  and  wrote  a 
Short  History  of  Europe  (1889).  He  edited 
Lady  Mary  Wortiey  Montagu's  Letters  (1893), 
besides  several  modem  language  texts  for  the 
Pitt  Press  Series.  Ropes's  first  comic  opera, 
Faddimir,  was  produced  in  1889.  His  other  pro- 
ductions, entire  or  in  part,  include  libretti  for 
Joai^  of  Are  (1891),  Go  Bang  (1894),  A  Greek 
Slave  (1898),  San  Toy  (1899);  The  Messenger 
Boy  (1900),  and  The  Toreador  (1901). 

BOPB8,  John  Coduan  (1836-99).  An  emi- 
nent American  lawyer  and  military  historian. 
He  'was  bom  in  Saint  Petersburg,  Russia,  where 
his  father,  a  prominent  Boston  merchant,  lived  for 
some  time;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1857  and  at 
the  Harvard  Law  School  in  1861;  and  in  the 
latter  year  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  In  1865  he 
became  associated  in  practice  with  John  C.  Gray ; 
from  1866  to  1870  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
American  Law  Review;  and  from  1878  until  his 
death  was  head  of  the  law  firm  of  Ropes,  Gray 
&  Lioring.  Though  an  able  advocate,  he  devoted 
himaelf  largely  to  the  care  and  management  of 
trust  estates.  He  early  became  interested  in 
military  history;  founded  the  Military  Historical 
Society  of  Massachusetts  in  1876;  and  gained  a 
wide  reputation  as  a  military  historian.  Be- 
sides a  number  of  magazine  articles,  he  pub- 
lished: The  Army  Under  Pope  (1881),  in  the 
^''Campaigns  of  the  Civil  War  Series;"  The  First 
'Vapoleon  (1885);  The  Campaign  of  Waterloo 
(1892-93),  probably  the  ablest  monograph  yet 
published  on  that  subject;  and  The  Story  of  the 
Civil  War  (2  vols.,  1894-98),  which  was  left  un- 
finished, but  is  generally  regarded  as  the  best 
account  yet  produced  of  the  military  operations 
of  1861  and  1862  in  the  United  States. 

BOPEWAY.  A  line  of  rope  or  steel  cable  in 
which  a  carriage  with  grooved  wheels  is  support- 
ed and  carries  a  load.  This  carriage,  with  its 
burden,  may  be  moved  either  by  power  or  by 
gravity  and  the  device  is  frequently  employed  in 
mining  and  other  operations,  especially  for  cross- 
ing valleys.  Ropeways  have  been  in  use  since  the 
early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  but  the  idea 
is  now  more  generally  applied  in  the  cableway 
(q.v.),  where  a  load  is  not  only  transported,  but 
is  hoisted  from  any  point  on  the  line  and  deliv- 
ered at  any  other  desired  point.  Telpherage 
(q.v.)  is  also  a  further  adaptation  of  the  same 
principle. 

KOPS,  rd,  F^UGIEN  (1833-98).  A  Belgian 
etcher,  painter,  and  lithographer,  bom  at  Namur. 
His  first  drawings  appeared  in  1855,  in  the 
Crocodile,  a  Brussels  publication,  and  a  year 
afterwards  he  founded  Uylenspilgel,  in  which 
eeveral  of  his  best  lithographs  were  published. 


After  this  he  was  employed  mainly  in  illustrating 
novels,  and  the  cynical  spirit,  rare  imagination, 
and  often  erotic  subjects  of  these  drawings  have 
made  his  name  widely  and  in  many  cases  un- 
favorably known.  His  works  rank  with  the  high- 
est for  breadth,  concentration,  and  sheer  technical 
skill.  His  series  of  etchings  known  as  the  Sor 
taniques  are  remarkable  productions.  His  other 
works  include  several  water  colors.  Consult: 
Ramiro,  Catalogue  descriptif  et  analytique  de 
Vceuvre  gravi  de  Filicien  Rops  (Paris,  1887-91) ; 
and  Huysmans,  Certains  (Paris,  1887). 

BOQTTE.    See  Cboquet. 

BOQTTE,  r6k.  Saint.    See  Roch,  Saint. 

BOQTJEEOBT,  r6k'f6r^.  A  village  in  the  De- 
partment of  Aveyron,  France,  famous  for  its 
enormous  production  of  cheese  made  from  the 
milk  of  goats  and  sheep,  and  matured  in  the 
rocky  caves  of  the  Larzac  cliffs  (Map:  France, 
J  8).    Population,  in  1901,  937. 

BOQXTBTTB,  rd'kSt^  Otto  (182496).  A  Ger- 
man poet,  bom  in  Krotoschin,  Posen,  of  French 
descent.  He  studied  at  Heidelberg  and  Halle, 
and  taught  in  the  Darmstadt  Polytechnic  Insti- 
tute from  1869  to  his  death.  His  first  book  was 
his  greatest  success,  an  allegoric  tale  in  verse, 
Waldmeisters  Brauifahrt  (1861),  which  reached 
more  than  sixty  editions  before  his  death.  Among 
his  other  poems^  none  of  which  approached  the 
Brautfahrt  in  popularity,  mention  may  be  made 
of  the  Liederhuch  (1852;  3d  ed.  1880),  which  is 
in  the  Anacreontic  manner;  Hans  Haidekuckuck 
(1885;  4th  ed.  1894)  ;  and  Cesario,  a  volume  of 
narrative  verse  (1888).  Besides  several  novels 
and  dramas,  Roquette  wrote  a  Geschichte  der 
deutschen  Litteratur  (1862-63;  revised  1882). 
Consult  the  autobiography,  Siebzig  Jahre  (Darm- 
stadt, 1893). 

BOBAIMA,  rd-r&^^-mft.  Mount.  A  remark- 
able mesa  or  flat-topped  mountain-block 
situated  at  the  common  boundary  point  of  Vene- 
zuela, Brazil,. and  British  Guiana  (Map:  Brazil, 
£  2) .  From  a  sloping  talus  at  the  base  the  per- 
pendicular rocky  walls  rise  to  a  sheer  height  of 
nearly  3000  feet,  though  a  sloping  ledge  on  one 
side  enables  an  ascent  to  be  made  to  the  summit, 
which  has  an  altitude  of  8740  feet  above  the  sea. 
Several  streams  rise  on  the  summit,  and  fall  over 
the  edges,  forming  the  highest  cascades  in  the 
world,  the  water  oeing  blown  into  a  fine  spray 
long  before  it  reaches  the  ground. 

BCXBEB,  Sabah  Tyson  (1849—).  An  Ameri- 
can author,  bom  at  Richboro,  Pa.  She  was  edu- 
cated at  the  East  Aurora,  N.  Y.,  Academy,  and 
became  principal  of  the  Philadelphia  School  of 
Domestic  Science.  She  was  editor  and  part  owner 
of  Table  Talk  from  1886  until  1892,  and  was  an 
editor  of  Household  News  from  1892  until  1897, 
when  she  joined  the  staff  of  the  Ladies*  Home 
Journal.  Her  published  works  include:  Mrs. 
Borer's  Cook  Book;  Canning  and  Preserving; 
Bread  Making;  How  to  Use  a  Chafing  Dish;  and 
Good  Cooking, 

BOBIC  FIOXTBES  (from  Lat.  ros,  dew).  Im- 
ages produced  by  breathing  on  glass  or  other 
polished  surfaces  which  have  been  covered  by 
some  object.  Moser  of  KOnigsberg,  in  1842,  dis- 
covered that  when  two  bodies  are  in  close  prox- 
imity they  receive  impressions  of  each  other's 
images,  or,  if  a  smooth  surface  has  been  touched 
by  another  body,  it  acquires  a  property  of  pre- 


BOBIC  nOTTBES. 


164 


BOaA. 


cipitating  vapors,  which,  by  their  action,  cause 
an  impression  which  gives  to  the  surface  a  differ- 
ent appearance.  These  roric  figures  are  called  by 
the  Germans  Hauchhilder,  or  breath  figures. 
Hunt  and  others  have  produced  similar  effects  by 
heat.  Gold,  silver,  and  bronze  coins  and  medals 
were  placed  on  a  polished  heated  copper-plate. 
After  cooling,  the  coins  or  other  objects  were  re- 
moved and  the  plate  exposed  to  the  vapor  of 
mercury.  The  parts  which  had  been  covered  by 
gold  and  silver  coins  gave  the  most  distinct  im- 
pressions, the  gold  more  than  the  silver.  These 
phenomena  are  explained  by  the  fact  that  there 
is  a  molecular  change  in  the  surface  in  conse- 
quence of  its  having  been  for  some  time  exposed 
to  different  external  circumstances.  Consult 
MiiUer-Pouillet,  Lehrhuch  der  Pkysik  (Bruns- 
wick, 1886). 

BOBQXTAL  (either  from  Swed.  riSrhval,  round- 
headed  cachelot,  from  ror,  Icel.  reyrr,  Goth,  raus, 
OHG.  ror,  Ger.  Rohr,  reed  -f  hvalr,  Icel.  hvalr, 
OHG.  toal-fisc,  Ger.  Walfisch,  AS.  htrcel,  Eng. 
tohale,  or  from  Norw.  reydhrhval,  red  whale,  from 
Icel.  raupTf  Goth,  raupa,  OHG.  rot,  Ger.  rot, 
AS.  read,  Eng.  red  -+-  hvcU,  whale) .  A  whale  of  the 
family  Balsenopteride,  which  includes  whalebone 
whales  of  large  size,  differing  from  the  right 
whales  in  the  comparatively  small  head,  the 
presence  of  a  dorsal  fin,  and  the  fact  that  the 
throat  is  deeplv  ridged  and  furrowed  lengthwise. 
The  baleen  is  short.  Many  species  of  rorqual  are 
known  in  various  oceans,  including  the  largest  of 
known  whales,  such  as  Sibbald's,  or  the  ^lue' 
whale,  which  reaches  a  length  of  85  feet,  the  fin- 
ner,  the  humpback,  and  the  California  gray 
whale,  all  of  which  are  elsewhere  described.  The 
northern  rorqual  or  razorback  {BdUBnoptera 
musculua)  is  a  slate-gray,  whitish  beneath.  It 
is  found  in  the  Arctic  seas.  It  is  not  easily  cap- 
tured; and  whalers  dislike  it,  because  the  Green- 
land whale  is  seldom  found  near  it,  while  its  own 
value  is  very  inferior,  owing  to  the  comparative 
thinness  of  the  blubber,  and  the  shortness  and  in- 
ferior quality  of  the  whalebone.  It  is,  however, 
an  important  object  of  pursuit  to  the  Laplanders 
and  Greenlanders.  This  rorqual  does  not  feed  so 
exclusively  on  small  prey  as  does  the  Greenland 
whale.  Its  gullet  is  much  wider,  and  it  preys 
much  on  fishes,  the  shoals  of  which  it  follows 
into  bays  and  estuaries,  devouring  them  in  multi- 
tudes. Consult  authorities  ci£ed  under  Whale. 

BOOEIY  O'MOBE^.  A  novel  by  Samuel  Lover 
(1836).  Rory,  a  racy  Irish  peasant,  cares  for  a 
sick  French  officer  about  the  last  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  is  intrusted  with  important  dis- 
patches. On  this  errand  he  is  involved  in  a 
fracas,  and  hurried  off  to  France.  He  returns 
to  find  himself  accused  of  murder,  and  is  about 
to  be  hanged  when  his  supposed  victim  appears. 
Lover  also  wrote  a  ballad  on  Rory  O'More. 

BOSA,  re/z&,  Cabl  (1842-89).  A  German 
violinist  and  impresario,  bom  at  Hamburg.  He 
studied  in  the  conservatories  of  Leipzig  and 
Paris;  was  concert-meister  at  Hamburg  (1863- 
66),  and  on  a  tour  of  the  United  States  in  1867 
married  Euphrosyne  Parepa,  the  famous  soprano. 
Together  they  formed  an  opera  company,  with 
Madame  Rosa  as  its  prima  donna,  which  gave  a 
great  number  of  successful  performances  both  in 
this  country  and  in  England.  The  Carl  Rosa  opera 
company  was  important  principally  for  its  cred- 
itable presentations  of  foreign  operas  in  English. 


BOSA,  Edwabd  Bennett  (1861—).  An 
American  physicist,  bom  in  Rogersville,  N.  Y., 
and  educated  at  Wesleyan  University,  where  he 
graduated  in  1886,  and  at  Johns  Hopkins.  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  physics  in  Wesleyan, 
made  an  especial  study  of  electricity,  and  was 
associated  with  Professor  Atwater  of  Wesleyan 
in  experiments  on  the  conservation  of  human 
energy  in  which  a  new  and  large  form  of  respi- 
ratory calorimeter  was  employed.  His  publica- 
tions include  The  Specific  Inductive  Capacity  of 
Electrolytes  (1892)  and  Descriptions  of  a  New 
Respiratory  Calorimeter  (with  Atwater,  1899). 

BOSAy  Saivator  (1616-73).  An  Italian  paint- 
er, etcher,  satirical  poet,  and  musical  composer, 
the  chief  master  of  the  Neapolitan  School  of 
Painting.  He  was  bom  near  Naples, 
June  20,  1615,  the  son  of  an  architect.  He 
studied  music  and  poetry,  before  taking  up  paint- 
ing under  his  imde,  Paolo  Greco,  and  Us  brother- 
in-law,  Fracanzano,  a  pupil  of  Ribera,  whose 
school  Saivator  afterwards  also  frequented  to 
study  figures.  Before  he  was  eighteen  he  wan- 
dered about  sketching  in  the  mountainous  regions 
and  along  the  shores  of  South  Italy,  often  falling 
in  with  the  banditti,  who  appear  so  frequently  in 
his  pictures.  Soon  after  Ms  return  to  Naples 
the  death  of  his  father  threw  the  support  of  the 
family  upon  his  shoulders,  and  he  painted  small 
pictures  at  low  prices  until  they  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  Lanfranco.  He  now  also  won  the 
friendship  of  Falcone,  the  "Oracle  of  Battles," 
under  wnose  instruction  Saivator  learned  to 
paint  battle  scenes.  In  1635  he  went  to  Rome  and 
foimd  a  patron  in  Cardinal  Brancaccia,  for  whom 
he  decorated  his  palace  at  Viterbo,  retiLming 
thence  to  Naples.  The  favorable  reception  of  his 
"Prometheus"  (Palazzo  Corsini)  at  Rome  in- 
duced him  to  repair  once  more  (1639)  to  the 
Eternal  City,  where  he  rapidly  acquired  fame  as  a 
poet,  musician,  and  painter,  and  where  his  house 
became  the  gathering  point  of  an  admiring  circle 
of  young  scholars,  artists,  and  Church  digni- 
taries. The  story  of  his  participation  in  the  in- 
surrection of  Masaniello  at  Naples  in  1647,  and 
of  his  Joining  Falcone's  "Compagnia  della 
Morte,"  deserves  little  credence,  although  the 
fact  of  his  presence  in  Naples  at  the  time  seems 
established.  After  another  sojourn  of  four  years 
in  Rome,  he  incurred  the  enmity  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion by  two  satirical  pictures,  "Human  Frailty" 
and  "Fortune,"  and  accepted  the  invitation  to 
the  grand  ducal  Court  at  Florence,  where  he  spent 
nine  years,  enjoying  with  other  friendships  that 
of  Lorenzo  Lippi,  in  whose  pictures  Saivator 
painted  the  landscapes.  He  finally  returned  to 
Rome  and  remained  there  until  his  death,  March 
16,  1673. 

The  great  ambition  of  Saivator  Rosa  was  to 
excel  as  an  historical  painter,  and  some  of  his 
pictures,  such  as  the  "Conspiracy  of  Catiline" 
(Palazzo  Pitti,  Florence),  "Saul  and  the  Witch 
of  Endor"  (Louvre),  the  "Purgatory"  (Brera, 
Milan),  and  "Jonah  Preaching  at  Nineveh" 
(Copenhagen  Gallery),  go  far  to  justify  his  as- 
piration. But  his  chief  power  lay  in  painting 
landscapes,  marine  views,  and  battle  scenes,  an 
admirable  example  of  the  latter  being  in  the 
Louvre.  His  genius  for  landscapes  was  self- 
taught  and  original,  preferring  such  subjects  as 
the  lonely  haunts  of  wild  beasts  and  robbers, 
rocky  precipices  and  gloomy  caves;  his  trees  are 
shattered  or  torn  up  Jby  the  roots  and  the  at- 


< 

CO 

o 

ec 
O 

H 
< 
> 

-I 


BOSA. 


165 


BOaA&Y. 


mosphere  itself  of  a  cheerless  hue,  only  occasion- 
ally lighted  up  by  a  solitary  sunbeam.    Excellent 
specimens  of  thia  kind  are  "Mercury  and  the 
Dishonest  Woodman"  and  "Forest  Scene  with 
Tobias  and  the  Angel/'  both  in  the  National  Gal- 
lexy,  London.     In  his  marines,  of  which  a  good 
example  is  the  unique  "Stormy  Sea*'  in  the  Berlin 
Museum,  he  followed  the  same  taste.     He  dis- 
plays ^eater  merit  in  landscapes    of    smaller 
dimensions,  like  those  in  the  Gallery  of  Augs- 
burg.    In  other  works  the  landscape  becomes 
subordinate,  and  the  figures  form  the  principal 
subject,  a  favorite  theme  being  a  "Warrior  Doing 
Penance,"  of  which  the  Vienna  Museum  contains 
a  fine  example.    The  "Selva  dei  filosofi/'  in  the 
Palazzo  Pitti,  Florence,  is  of  the  same  class.    In 
his  later  Florentine  period  the  influence  of  Claude 
Lorrain  seems  traceable  in  a  few  summer  harbor 
Tiews,   exemplified   by   the   large   and   splendid 
"Coast  Scene"  in  the  Palazzo  Colonna,  Rome. 
Salvator  also  painted  excellent  portraits ;  his  own 
is  in  the  Uffizi  and  in  the  Palazzo  Pitti,  Florence, 
snd  in  the  Dresden  Museum,  and  he  introduced 
it  also  into  several  of  his  pictures,  notably  in  the 
"Poet  and  Satyr,"  in  the  Palazzo  Chigi,  Rome, 
and  in  the  "Battle,"  in  the  Palazzo  Pitti.     He 
produced  about  ninety  spirited  etchings  after  his 
own  designs.     For  his  life,  consult:   Baldinucci 
(Venice,  1830)  and  Ignazio  Canta  (Milan,  1844) ; 
also   Regnet,   in   Dohme,   Kunst   und  Kunatler 
Italiena,  iii.  (Leipzig,  1879). 
BOaA^GEA.    See  Acne. 
BOSA^CEJE  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.  of  Lat.  roaa- 
ceus,  made  of  roses,  from  roaa,  rose),  or  Rose 
Family.   An  order  of  at  least  90  genera  and  2000 
species  of  dicotyledonous  herbs,  shrubs,  and  trees, 
chiefly  natives  of  the  cooler  parts  of  the  North- 
em  Hemisphere,   and   among  which   are   many 
species  of  great  usefulness  and  beauty.    It  em- 
braces the  most  important  fruits  of  temperate 
climates,  as  the  apple,  pear,  plum,  peach,  olack- 
berry,  raspberry,   strawberry,   and   many  orna- 
mental plants  such  as  rose,  spirtea,  mountain  ash, 
etc.    The  fruit  is  various,  as  a  drupe,  pome, 
follicule,  an  achenium,  a  heap  of  achenia,  or  of 
one-seeded  berries,  etc.    The  order,  as  generally 
limited,  is  divided  into  a  number  of  suborders, 
several  of  which  have  by  some  botanists  been  ele- 
vated to  the  rank  of  distinct  orders,  as  Amyg- 
daleie,  Pomaces,  SanguisorbeiB.     The  classifica- 
tion into  suborders  and  chief  genera  as  adopted  by 
Engler  is  as  follows :  SpircBoidea — ^represented  by 
Spinea,   Quillaja,   Holodiscus;    Pomoidew — with 
Pyrus;    /Jo«odtecp— Rhodotypos,    Kcrria,   Rubus, 
Potentilla,  Fragaria,  Geum,  Dryas,  Purshia,  Ul- 
maria,  Agrimonia,  Poterium,  and  Rosa;  Neura- 
doidem — Neurada;    Prunoidew — Prunus,   Nuttal- 
lia;  Chry»6balano%de(B — Chrysobalanus,  Hirtella. 
In  addition  to  the  grouping  here  given  the  genera 
are  arranged  in  a  dozen  or  more  tribes.     See 
Rose;  Rubus;  Stkawbebbt;  Aobimony;  Sfulsa. 
B08ALES,  rd-sA^&s.    A  town  of  Luzon,  Phil- 
ippines, in  the  Province  of  Pangasinfln,  situated 
on  the  Agno  River,  24  miles  southeast  of  Lin- 
gay^n  (Map:  Luzon,  D  3).    Population,  11,519. 
BO^SALXHI).      (1)    The  name  under  which 
Spenser,  in  the  Shepheard'a  Calendar ,  refers  to 
his  early  love.  Rose  or  Rosa  Daniel,  who  mar- 
ried John  Florio.     She  is  called  Mirabel  in  the 
Faerie  Queene.     (2)    In  Shakespeare's  As  You 
like  /*,  the  daughter  of  the  banished  Duke.    She 
is  herself  banished,  and,  assuming  male  attire. 


lives  with  a  companion  in  the  Forest  of  Atdm 
imtil  Orlando  meets  her. 

BCXSAMOND  (c.ll40-c.ll76).  The  mistress 
of  King  Henry  II.  of  England,  usually  known  as 
Faib  Rosamond.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Wal- 
ter de  Clifford,  and  Henry  II.  seems  to  have  first 
entered  into  relations  with  her  about  the  year 
1174.  Little  is  really  known  about  her,  for  the 
tale  that  she  was  secreted  in  the  palace  of  Wood- 
stock and  that  C^een  Eleanor  found  her  there 
and  poisoned  her  is  of  late  origin.  She  probably 
died  in  the  nunnery  of  Godstow,  in  Oxfordshire. 
It  is  said  that  she  had  two  sons  by  Henry  II., 
William  Longsword,  Earl  of  Salisbury,  and 
Geoffrey,  Archbishop  of  York,  but  there  is  no 
proof  of  this.  Late  chronicles  tell  that  she  was 
buried  before  the  altar  in  the  church  of  Godstow, 
but  that  in  1191  Hugh,  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  caused 
the  body  to  be  removed  to  the  chapter  house  and 
there  reinterred. 

BOSABIO,  rd-sA^r^-d.  A  city  of  Argentina, 
in  the  Province  of  Santa  F€,  situated  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Paranfl,  175  miles  northwest  of 
Buenos  AyreSj  and  214  miles  above  that  city 
along  the  river  (Map:  Argentina,  E  10).  It  is 
substantially  built,  and  has  wide  streets  trav- 
ersed by  several  lines  of  street  railways.  The 
chief  importance  of  the  city  lies  in  its  commerce. 
It  is  the  centre  of  a  considerable  railroad  system, 
and  is  the  principal  port  and  outlet  for  the  prod- 
ucts of  all  the  northern  provinces  of  the  Republic. 
The  river  is  navigable  to  this  point  for  vessels 
drawing  16  feet,  and  transatlantic  steamers  load 
directly  at  the  wharves.  There  are  grain  ele- 
vators. The  chief  exports  are  wheat,  hides  and 
other  agricultural  and  cattle  products,  metals, 
and  ores.  These  were  valued  in  1900  at  $28,436,- 
000,  while  the  imports  amounted  to  $9,301,000. 
Besides  river  craft,  682  ocean  vessels  with  an 
aggregate  of  1,027,353  tons  entered  the  port  in 
1900.  Rosario  is  the  second  city  in  size  in  the 
Republic.  It  has  grown  up  almost  entirely  dur- 
ing the  last  half  century.  In  1850  it  was  an  in- 
significant village  of  about  3000  inhabitants.  In 
1895  its  population  was  94,025,  and  in  1900,  112,- 
461. 

B08ABI0.  A  town  of  Luzon,  Philippines,  in 
the  Province  of  Batangas.  It  lies  about  12  miles 
northeast  of  Batangas  and  is  connected  by  high- 
ways with  all  the  larger  places  of  the  province 
(Map:  Philippine  Islands,  F  6).  Population,  in 
1896,  12,435.  During  the  insurrection  against* 
the  IJnited  States  the  town  was  completely  de- 
stroyed by  the  insurgents. 

BOSABY  OF  THE  BLESSED  VXBGIK 
MABY  (ML.  rosarium f  garland  of  roses,  chaplet 
of  beads,  neu.  sg.  of  Lat.  rosariua,  relating  to 
roses,  from  rosa,  rose).  The  name  given  to  a 
very  popular  form  of  prayer  in  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church.  The  name  rosary  has  been  variously 
traced  either  to  the  title  "Mystical  Rose,"  one  of 
the  titles  under  which  the  Blessed  Virgin  is  ad- 
dressed ih  the  litany  of  Loreto  (q.v.),  or  to  Saint 
Rosalia's  wreath  of  roses,  well  known  in  sacred 
art,  or  to  the  beads  being  originally  made  com- 
monly of  rosewood.  The  origin  of  the  devotion 
itself  is  popularly  traced  to  Saint  Dominic,  but  it 
is  quite  certain  that  its  characteristic  feature,  the 
use  of  beads  as  a  means  of  reckoning  the  number 
of  repetitions  of  a  certain  prayer,  is  of  far  great- 
er antiquity.  (See  Bead.)  The  same  use  of 
beads  exists  among  the  Mohammedans,  but  it 


BOaABY. 


166 


B08CHES. 


appears  quite  certain  that  the  practice  existed 
among  Christians  before  the  time  of  Mohammed. 
Originally,  the  prayer  so  repeated  was  the  Lord's 
Prayer;  but  when,  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
centuries,  the  angelical  salutation,  "Hail  Mary!" 
etc.,  became  a  frequent  form  of  prayer, 
it  was  added  to  "Our  Father;"  and  it  seems 
beyond  all  doubt  that  the  rosary  in  its  present 
form  was,  if  not  devised,  at  least  fully  intro- 
duced and  propagated  by  Saint  Dominic.  The  repe- 
tition of  these  short  and  simple  praters  is  sup- 
posed to  be  accompanied  by  meditation  on  spe- 
cific mysteries  of  the  Christian  faith,  of  which 
fifteen  are  named,  though  only  five  are  usually 
taken  up  at  one  time.  When  recited  publicly, 
the  prayers  are  repeated  alternately  by  the  priest 
or  other  person  presiding  at  prayer  and  by  the 
congregation.  The  first  Sunday  in  October  is 
observed  as  the  Feast  of  the  Most  Holy  Rosary. 
The  mechanical  instrument,  so  to  speak,  of  this 
devotion  is  also  called'  by  the  name  rosary.  It 
consists  of  a  string  of  beads,  equal  in  number 
to  the  "Our  Fathers"  and  "Hail,  Marys"  which 
are  recited  in  the  rosary — ^the  "Our  Father" 
beads  being  of  a  larger  size — one  of  which  is 
passed  through  the  fingers  at  each  recitation  of 
the  prayer,  and  thus  secures  the  person  prayine 
from  errors  of  memory.  The  beads  are  blessed 
for  the  use  of  the  people  by  the  Pope,  by  bishops 
and  superiors  of  religious  Orders,  and  by  others 
having  special  power  for  the  purpose. 

B0SA8,  ro'sAs,  Juan  Manuel  (1793-1877). 
Dictator  of  the  Argentine  Confederation.  He 
was  bom  at  Buenos  Ayres  and  grew  up  among 
the  gauchos  on  his  father's  estates.  He  entered 
the  army,  identified  himself  with  the  Federalist 
Party,  and  in  1829  rose  to  be  Governor  or  Captain- 
(kneral  of  his  native  State,  then  in  federal  union 
with  Entre  Rios,  Corrientes,  and  Santa  F6.  The 
predominant  position  which  Buenos  Ayres  occu- 
pied among  the  Argentine  States  made  Rosas  the 
virtual  head  of  the  confederation.  In  1832  he  re- 
signed, in  order  to  conduct  the  war  against  the 
Indians,  and  was  succeeded  by  Balcarce,  who 
after  three  years  was  deposed.  In  1835  Rosas 
caused  himself  to  be  invested  with  extraordinary 
powers  in  Buenos  Ayres,  and  made  himself 
dictator  of  the  Argentine  confederation.  He  car- 
ried on  relentless  war  against  the  chiefs  of  the 
party  of  the  Unitarios,  who  favored  a  strongly 
centralized  government,  and  against  them,  as  well 
» as  all  who  opposed  him,  he  did  not  hesitate  to 
employ  the  weapons  of  torture  and  assassination. 
His  sanguinary  measures,  however,  ^ve  the 
country  peace,  and  with  peace  it  attained  to  a 
fair  degree  of  prosperity.  The  other  States  be- 
came jealous  of  the  growth  and  power  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  and  Rosas  was  justly  accused  of  a  design 
to  extend  and  uphold  the  undue  predominance  of 
his  State,  and  to  give  his  native  city  a  monopoly 
of  the  trade  of  the  river  Plata.  To  extend  his 
influence  over  Uruguay,  which  was  a  hotbed  of 
opposition  to  him,  he  took  up  arms  in.  behalf  of 
Oribe  (q.v.),  and  besieged  Montevideo  for  a  long 
period  (1842-51).  England  and  France  inter- 
fered and  in  1845  captured  the  Argentine  fleet; 
yet  Rosas  succeeded  in  1849  in  obtaining  terms 
of  peace  which  were  favorable  to  him.  Finally 
Urquiza,  Governor  of  Entre  Rios,  made  war  on 
Rosas  and  with  the  aid  of  the  forces  of  Corri- 
entes, Brazil,  and  Uruguay  marched  against  him. 
A  battle  ensued  at  Monte-Caseros,  February  3, 


1852,  in  which  Rosas's  forces  wei«  put  to  flight. 
Rosas  fled  to  England,  where  he  died. 

BOS'CELI'KtrS,  BOUSSELIir,  I1Rfe'lAN^  or 
njJCELDSlf  Jean  (c.1050-7).  A  French  philos- 
opher, the  virtual  founder  of  Nomimdiam.  It 
is  probable  that  he  was  bom  in  Brittany,  and  was 
educated  at  Solssons  and  Rheims.  He  entered 
the  Church  and  became  canon  at  Compi^gne, 
where  he  enunciated  the  doctrine  that  abstracts 
and  universals  are  non-existent,  being  mere  terms 
or  names.  Eric  of  Auxerre  had  held  the  same 
view  three  centuries  before,  and  Martianus 
Capella  in  the  fifth  century  practically  fore- 
stalled Roscelinus,  who^  applying  his  theory  to 
the  Trinity,  arrived  at  a  tritheistic  concept. 
In  1092  he  was  tried  at  Soissons  and  foroied 
to  recant  after  a  discussion  with  Anselm,  whom 
he  had  claimed  as  an  ally.  He  lived  for  some 
time  in  England,  then  returned  to  France,  be- 
came the  te&cher  of  Ab^lard,  and  charged  his 
pupil  with  heresy  when  he  not  only  failed  to 
support  his  teacher's  position  in  regard  to  the 
Trinity,  but  declared  strongly  for  the  orthodox 
views.  dJonsuIt  Picavet,  Boaoelin,  philosophe  et 
th^ologien  (Paris,  1896). 

BOSCHEB^  r(/sher,  Wilhklic  (1817-94).  A 
German  economist,  founder  of  the  historical 
method  in  political  economy.  He  was  bom  in 
Hanover,  studied  in  G(>ttingen  and  Berlin,  be- 
came professor  in  the  former  university  in  1843, 
and  in  1848  was  called  to  a  chair  in  Leipzig. 
His  maffnum  opus  was  a  System  der  VoUcsuHrt- 
schaft  in  five  volumes  (1854-94),  of  which  the 
first,  which  went  through  twenty-one  editions 
during  Roscher's  life,  was  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  Lalor  (1878)  under  the  title  Principles 
of  Political  Economy.  The  second  deals  with 
agriculture  and  forestry;  the  third  with  trade 
and  commerce;  the  fourth  with  finance;  and 
the  fifth  with  charities.  This  great  systematic 
treatise  was  supplemented  by  the  Oeschichfe  der 
Naticnalokonomik  in  Deutschland  (1874)  and 
by  the  monograph  Zur  Oeschichte  der  englischen 
VolksiDtrtschaftslehre  (1851-52).  Roscher's  other 
writings  include:  Ueher  Komhandel  und  Teur- 
ungspolitik  (3d.  ed.  1852);  KoUmien,  Kolonial- 
politik  und  Ausumnderung  (3d  ed.  1886) ;  An- 
sichten  der  Volkswirtsehaft  a%u  dem  geschicht- 
lichen  Standpunkt  (3d  ed.  1878) ;  Politik 
(1892) ;  and,  posthumously  published,  Oeistliche 
Oedanken  eines  Nationalokonomen  ( 1894) . 

BOSCHEB,  WiLHELM  Heinbich  (1845—).  A 
German  classical  mythologist,  son  of  the  econo- 
mist Wilhelm  Roscher.  He  was  bom  in  G^t- 
tingen,  studied  there  and  at  Leipzig,  and  taught  in 
the  gymnasium  at  Wurzen,  where  he  became  rec- 
tor in  1894.  He  traveled  widely  and  became  one' 
of  the  foremost  authorities  on  Greek  and  Roman 
mythology,  winning  especial  notice  by  his  treat- 
ment of  myths  of  natural  forces.  He  wrote: 
Studien  zur  vergleichenden  Mythologie  der 
Oriechen  und  Romer  {ApolUm  und  Mars,  1873, 
and  Juno  und  Hera,  1875) ;  Das  NaturgefUhl  der 
Oriechen  und  Romer  (1875) ;  Hermes  der  Wind- 
gott  (1878);  Die  Gorgonen  (1879);  Selene  und 
Venoandtes  (1890  and  1895);  and  EpKiaXtes 
(1900).  Even  more  important  is  the  AusfUhr- 
Itches  Lexikon  der  griechischen  und  rdmischen 
Mythologie  (1884  et  seq.)  under  his  editorial 
charge. 


BOflOAD. 


167 


BOSB. 


BOBdADj^  rteh^-ftd  (from  Lat.  Ro8oiua,  name 
of  a  famous  Roman  comedian) ,  The.  A  satire  in 
yene  by  Charles  Churchill  (1761)  on  the  London 
actors  of  that  day.  All  but  Garrick,  Mrs.  Pritch- 
ard,  Mrs.  Cibber,  and  Mrs.  Clive  were  severely 
handled. 

BOarCIUB,  QuiNTUS  (  r-B.0.  62).  The  greatest 
comedian  in  ancient  Rome.  He  was  bom  at  Solo- 
nium,  a  Tillage  near  Lanuvium.  Many  of  the 
Koman  aristocracy  befriended  him,  and  the  dicta- 
tor Sulla,  as  a  token  of  favor,  presented  him  with 
a  gold  ring,  the  symbol  of  the  equestrian  order. 
Among  his  most  admiring  and  affectionate  pa- 
tnms  RoBcius  also  numbered  Cicero,  who,  at  the 
commencement  of  his  career,  received  lessons  in 
the  art  of  elocution  from  the  great  comedian.  So 
sensible  was  Roscius  of  the  distinction  he  en- 
joyed in  sharing  the  intimacy  of  the  great  orator, 
that  he  came  to  look  upon  his  art  as  one  of  no 
flinall  importance  and  dignity,  and  wrote  a  trea- 
tise on  the  comparative  methods  and  merits  of 
eloquence  and  acting.  Cicero's  friendship  was 
of  use  to  him  in  another  way,  for  on  his  being 
sued  at  law  by  C.  Fannius  Chserea  for  the  sum 
of  50,000  sesterces  (about  $2000),  Cicero  de- 
fended him  before  the  judex  Piso  (probably  b.o. 
68)  in  his  extant  oration  Pro  Q.  Rosoio  Co- 
mtedo.    He  died  B.C.  62. 

BOtS^OOE,  Sir  HxiniY  Enfield  (1833—).  An 
English  chemist,  bom  in  London,  grandson  of 
William  Roscoe,  the  historian.  He  studied  at 
the  University  of  London  and  at  Heidelberg, 
where,  in  association  with  Bunsen,  he  published 
several  memoirs  on  chemical  subjects.  He  was 
made  professor  of  chemistry  in  Owens  College, 
Manchester,  in  1858,  and  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  1863.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  make 
exact  measurements  of  the  chemical  action  of 
light;  for  this  and  other  valuable  scientific 
achievement,  he  received,  in  1873,  the  Royal 
Medal  of  the  London  Society.  In  1896  he  was 
made  vice-chancellor  of  the  University  of  London. 
Br.  Roeooe's  published  works  include:  a  text-book 
entitled.  Lessons  in  Elementary  Chemistry,  which 
has  passed  throu^  many  editions  and  been  trans- 
lated into  several  foreign  lanffua^s;  Lectures 
oa  Sfectrum  Analysis  (1869;  4th  ed.  1885) ;  JohA% 
DaUon  and  the  Rise  of  Modem  Chemistry  ( 1895) , 
etc.  Jointly  with  Schorlemmer  he  published  an 
exhaustive  Treatise  on  Chemistry  in  8  volumes 

(1877-98  and  a  later  edition).  He  was  one  of 
the  editors  of  Macmillan's  series  of  Science 
Primers  and  himself  wrote  the  Primer  of  Chem- 
istry. 

R0600S,  William  (1753-1831).  An  English 
historian,  bom  near  Liverpool.  In  1867  he 
entered  the  office  of  a  Liverpool  attomev,  and  in 
1774  he  be^m  the  practice  of  law.  Meanwhile 
he  diligently  studied  the  classics  and  the  Italian 
language  and  literature.  In  1777  he  published 
a  collection  of  his  verse,  containing  the  first  pro- 
test a^inst  the  slave-trade,  of  which,  through- 
out his  life,  he  was  a  strenuous  opponent.  In 
1796  was  published  the  first  volume  of  his  Life 
of  Lorenzo  de*  Medici,  Called  the  Magnificent, 
This  work  proved  very  popular ;  several  English 
editions  appeared,  and  it  was  translated  into 
(lerman,  French,  and  Italian.  In  1805  appeared 
his  second  great  work,  the  Life  and  Pontificate  of 
^  X,  This  work  was  received  with  much 
commendation,  though  its  tone  and  spirit,  espe- 


cially with  reference  to  the  Reformation,  WM 
severely  criticised.  During  the  later  years  of 
his  life  he  devoted  himself  much  to  the  study 
of  botany^  and  in*  honor  of  him  a  rare  genus  of 
monandrian  plants  received  in  1826  the  name 
Roscoea,  Consult  Henry  Roscoe,  Life  of  William 
Roscoe  (London,  1833). 

BOSCOE,  William  Caldweix  (1823-59).  An 
English  poet  and  essayist.  He  graduated  from 
the  University  of  London  (1843)  and  was  called 
to  the  bar  (1850).  Owing  to  ill  health,  he  soon 
retired  to  Wales,  but  he  kept  up  his  literary  con- 
nection in  London.  His  critical  essays  were 
written  mostly  for  the  National  Review,  edited 
by  his  brother-in-law,  R.  H.  Hutton.  They  are 
still  of  interest.  After  experimenting  with  a 
drama  called  Eliduc  (1846),  founded  on  a  2at  of 
Marie  de  France,  Roscoe  produced  a  fine  study 
in  Elizabethan  tragedy,  Violenzia  (1851),  and 
wrote  considerable  occasional  verse,  some  of 
which  is  beautiful.  His  finest  powers  are  seen  in 
the  sonnet  "To  My  Mother."  Consult  his  Poem^s 
and  Essays,  with  memoir  by  Hutton  (London, 
1860),  and  the  reissue  of  the  poems  by  his 
daughter,  Elizabeth  M.  Roscoe  (ib.,  1891). 

BOSCOM^ON.  An  inland  county  of  Con- 
naught,  Ireland,  bounded  on  the  east  by  the 
river  Shannon  (Map:  Ireland,  C  3).  Area,  949 
square  miles.  The  surface,  which  belongs  to  the 
central  plains  of  Ireland,  is  level,  with  undula- 
tions rismg  in  the  south  and  on  the  north.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Shannon  (q.v.)  and  the 
Suck.  The  soil  is  fertile  in  the  central  district, 
which  is  known  as  the  *plain  of  Boyle*  and  which 
is  celebrated  for  its  sheep.  Some  portions 
produce  good  cereal  crops;  but  the  chief  industry 
of  the  Roscommon  farming  population  is  the  feed- 
ing of  sheep  and  cattle,  especially  the  former. 
The  capital  is  Roscommon  (q.v.).  Population, 
in  1841,  254,550;  in  1851,  174,570;  in  1891,  116,- 
552;  in  1901,  101,640. 

BOSCOMMON.  The  capital  and  assize  town 
of  Roscommon  County,  Ireland,  16%  miles  west- 
southwest  of  Longford  (Map:  Ireland,  C  3). 
Population,  in  1901,  1891. 

BOSCOICMON,  Wewtwobth  Dillon,  fourth 
Earl  of  (c.1633-85).  An  Irish  poet.  He  was  bom 
in  Ireland  and  was  the  son  of  the  third  Earl  of 
Roscommon  and  nephew  of  the  Earl  of  Strafford. 
After  the  impeachment  of  his  tmcle  he  was  sent 
to  Caen,  Normandy,  where  he  was  educated  at 
the  Protestant  university.  After  the  Restoration 
he  held  various  Court  positions,  married  a  daugh- 
ter of  the  Earl  of  Burlington,  and  devoted  him- 
self to  literature.  His  works,  commended  by  John- 
son, and  praised  by  Pope  as  the  only  pure  writ- 
ings of  a  dissolute  reign,  include  an  Essay  on 
Translated  Verse  (1660);  Horace's  Art  of 
Poetry  Translated  into  English  Blank  Verse 
(1684)  ;  paraphrases  of  various  psalms;  a  trans- 
lation of  Dies  Ir<B,  and  a  collection  of  prologues 
and  epilogues  to  plays.  He  was  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey. 

BOSE  (AS.  rtfse,  from  Lat.  rosa,  from  Gk. 
^r,  rhodon,  iEolic  /3p6dor,  hrodon,  rose;  con- 
nected with  Av.  varo  da,  plant,  Pahlavi  vartH, 
Pers.  gul,  rose),  Rosa.  The  popular  name  for  a 
genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Rosacese,  consisting  of  more  or  less  erect  climb- 
ing or  trailing  woody  shrubs  with  odd-pinnate 
leaves.       The    fiowers,    borne    solitary    or    in 


B08E. 


168 


&08B. 


ooiymbs,  are  generally  *ro8e-colored.'  In  its 
natural  state  and  in  'single'  garden  vari- 
eties the  rose  has  five  petals.  The  species, 
of  which  there  are  about  180,  or  accord- 
ing to  some  botanists  only  30  or  40, 
are  in  ^ome  cases  not  well  distinguished  from 
varieties.  Roses  are  natives  of  all  the  temperate 
parts  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere  and  thrive  even 
in  some  of  the  colder  regions.  They  have  long 
been  among  the  chief  favorites  in  flower  gardens. 
Countless  single  and  double  flowered  varieties 
have  been  produced  by  cultivation  by  cross- 
ing and  variation.  These  may  be  divided  into 
two  large  classes,  summer  roses,  or  those  bloom- 
insr  but  once  each  year,  usually  in  early  sum- 
mer, and  perpetual  or  autumnal  roses,  which 
bloom  more  than  once  during  the  same  season, 
many  of  them  producing  flowers  continuously 
from  early  summer  until  late  in  the  f alL 

The  siunmer  roses  include  the  Provence, 
damask  and  French,  alba,  Ayrshire,  brier,  multi- 
flora,  evergreen,  and  pompon  garden  groups.  The 
Provence  group  consists  of  large-flowered  varie- 
ties with  a  branching  or  pendulous  growth  and 
wrinkled  leaf,  and  includes  the  moss,  pompon, 
and  sulphurea  forms.  The  damask  and  French 
group  presents  Arm  and  robust  growing  plants 
producing  large  flowers  and  downy  leaves.  This 
group  includes  the  hybrid  French,  hybrid  Pro- 
vence, hybrid  Bourbon,  and  hybrid  China  roses. 
The  varieties  of  the  alba  group  are  large-flowered, 
have  a  free  growth,  and  are  spineless.  The  leaf 
is  characterized  by  a  whitish  upper  surface.  The 
other  groups  of  summer  roses  have  small-flowered 
double  or  single  blossoms.  The  Ayrshires  are 
climbing  varieties  producing  their  flowers  singly. 
The  briers  generally  have  a  short-jointed  growtii 
and  include  the  Austrian,  Scotch,  sweet,  and 
Penzance  briers,  and  the  prairie  and  the  Alpine 
roses.  The  multiflora  group  has  a  climbing 
growth  and  produces  its  flowers  in  clusters.  This 
group  includes  some  of  the  polyantha  varieties. 
The  evergreen  group,  including  the  sempervirens, 
Wichuraiana,  Cherokee,  and  Banksian  roses,  is 
distimniished  by  its  more  or  less  shiny  and  per- 
sistent foliage.  The  pompons,  as  the  name  indi- 
cates, are  of  a  dwarf  growth. 

In  the  summer  and  autumn  flowering  class  the 
large-flowered  groups  comprise  the  hybrid  perpet- 
ual, hybrid  tea,  moss,  Bourbon,  Bourbon  perpet- 
ual, and  China  roses.  All  except  the  China 
group,  which  includes  the  tea  andf  Lawrenceana 
varieties,  have  rough  foliage.  The  small-flowered 
groups  in  this  class  include  the  musk,  Ayrshire, 
polyantha,  perpetual  brier,  and  evergreen  roses. 
The  musk  rose  group,  to  which  the  noisettes  be- 
long, and  the  Ayrshire  and  polyantha  groups  have 
deciduous  foliage  and  climbing  habit.  Tne  per- 
petual briers,  including  the  rugosa,  lucida,  micro- 
phylla,  berberid4folia,  and  Scotch  roses,  are 
dwarf  and  bushy.  The  evergreen  group  in  this 
class  comprises  the  Macartney  and  Wicnuraiana 
forms,  in  which  the  foliage  is  more  or  less  per- 
sistent. The  rose  succeeds  in  warm,  sunny,  pro- 
tected spots  in  most  soils,  but  a  friable,  well- 
manured  deep  soil  with  a  permeable  subsoil  is 
best  adapted  to  the  production  of  vigorous  plants. 
Hybrid  perpetuals  prefer  a  strong,  rich  clay  or 
loam,  while  tea  roses  are  often  grown  in  gravelly 
and  sandy  soil.  Good  drainage  is  always  neces- 
sary. Roses  are  propagated  from  seeds,  buds, 
layers^  cuttings,  and  grafts.    New  varieties  are 


f^TOwn  from  seeds.  The  most  conunon  method  of 
propagation  is  by  cuttings  from  nearly  mature 
shoots  which  are  started  in  sand  imder  glass  with 
low  bottom  heat.  In  budding  the  cultivated 
varieties  are  budded  on  manetti  and  multiflora 
stocks  which  are  specially  grown  for  this  pur- 
pose in  Europe.  For  grafting  the  stock  used  is 
Rosa  Watsoniana,  a  Japanese  species.  Pruning 
in  rose  culture  is  practiced  for  the  purpose  of 
removing  the  dead  wood,  giving  .the  plant  a 
symmetrical  form,  and  encouraging  the  develop- 
ment of  flower  buds. 

Rose-growing  imder  glass  has  become  a  very 
important  industry.  The  three-quarter  span  rose 
house  extending  from  east  to  west  with  the  long 
scuan  to  the  south  is  most  in  use.  A  moderately 
stiff  loam  taken  from  an  old  pasture,  well  rotted 
and  pulverized,  and  mixed  with  about  one-fourth 
its  bulk  of  well-decomposed  cow  manure,  makes  a 
good  soil  for  indoor  rose  culture.  The  benches 
should  be  four  inches  deep  and  well  drained.  The 
plants  are  generally  kept  in  position  by  being 
tied  to  supports.  The  surface  of  the  soil  is  very 
lightly  stirred  to  kill  all  sprouting  weed  and 
srrass  seeds.  Sometimes  a  light  mulch  of  three 
or  four  parts  of  well-rotted  cow  manure  and  one 
part  of  soil  is  applied  in  August  and  again  in 
January.  During  hot  weather  the  temperature 
of  the  house  is  lowered  by  syringing  several  times 
a  day  and  by  the  use  of  the  ventilating  arrange- 
ments. Ventilation  is  very  beneflcial  and  should 
be  given  whenever  the  weather  permits.  Propa- 
gation by  cuttings  is  readily  accomplished  in  rose 
houses  because  the  conditions  are  all  under  con- 
trol. Various  varieties  seem  to  require  slightly 
different  treatment,  especially  with  respect  to 
temperature.  Such  differences  make  necessary 
the  separation  of  certain  varieties.  More  than 
100,000,000  cut  roses  are  sold  annually  in  the 
United  States. 

The  influence  of  climate  on  rose  culture  is  ap- 
parently greater  than  the  influence  of  soil.  A 
mild  sunny  climate  is  most  favorable.  The  pleas- 
ant climatic  conditions  of  Cannes  and  the  Riviera 
in  Europe  and  of  southern  California  have  made 
rose  culture  in  those  regions  famous. 

In  landscape  gardening  the  rose  has  a  narrow 
range    of    application,    since    few    species    and 


SWAMP  B08B  (Rosa  CAToUna). 

varieties  retain  their  foliage  well  enough  to  be 
valuable  in  picture  composition.  The  free-grow- 
ing unsupported  bushy  forms  are,  however,  often 
trained  as  pillars  and  the  climbing  sorts  over 


ROS  ES 


;0»«>Ci<T,  i»03.  B-'  OOOO.  MCAO  fc  COMPAH^ 


1  MARECHAL    NIEL  3    PRINCESSE    DE    SAGAN 

2  MM«    DE  WATTEVILLE  4    MUSK    ROSE 

5   LA   FRAN  CE 


B08B. 


169 


BOSS. 


trellises,  walls,  arches,  arbors,  etc.  But  it  is  as 
a  cut  flower  that  the  rose  is  eminent;  it  is  far 
more  useful  for  personal  adornment  and  house 
decoration  than  for  beautifying  the  garden. 

Rose  Diseases.  Among  the  diseases  occurring 
on  roses  grown  outdoors  are:  Leaf -blight  {AetinO' 
nema  roaa),  which  produces  black  enlarging 
spots  upon  the  upper  surfaces  of  the  leaves, 
which  turn  yellow  and  fall;  leaf -spot  {Cer- 
corpora  TowBcola)^  which  forms  dark  red  or* 
nearly  black  spots  with  distinct  grayish-brown 
centres  as  they  grow  older;  mildew  {Bphmro- 
ikeoa  pafittoMi),  which  checks  the  growth  of  the 
young  shoots  and  dwarfs  the  leaves,  while  a 
white  powdery  growth  covers  the  leaves  and 
stunts  the  plants;  and  rust  {Phragmid^um  mu- 
eranatwn),  which  attacks  all  the  green  parts  of 
the  phint,  causing  reddish  or  yellow  spots  which 
increase  in  size  until  the  leaves  fall  off.  All 
diseased  parts  should  be  collected  and  burned 
and  the  plants  well  sprayed  throughout  the 
season  with  a  clear  fungicide  (q.v.).  Of  these 
diseases,  leaf-blight  and  mildew  occur  in  green- 
houses, and  may  be  treated  with  powdered  or 
evaporated  (not  burned)  sulphur. 

Consult:  Bailey,  Cyclopedia  of  American  Horti- 
culture  (New  York,  1900-02) ;  Ellwanger,  The 
Rose  (ib.,  1893) ;  Hole,  A  Book  About  Rosea 
(London,  1894)  ;  Jekyll  and  Mawley,  Roses  for 
English  Gardens  (ib.,  1902) ;  Hatton,  Secrets  of 
Rose  Culture  (Huntington,  N.  Y.,  1891).  A  list 
of  books  in  different  languages  on  roses  and  their 
culture  is  given  by  Vergara  in  Bihliografla  de  la 
Tosa  (Madrid,  1892). 

BOSEy  Obdeb  of  the.  A  Brazilian  civil  and 
military  order  of  merit  with  six  classes,  founded 
in  1829  by  Dom  Pedro  II.  The  medallion  on  the 
six-armed  cross  of  white  enamel  bears  the  initials 
P.  A.  with  the  inscription  Amor  e  Fidelidade; 
on  the  reverse  are  the  date  of  foundation  and  the 
names  Pedro-Amelia  in  reference  to  Pedro's  mar- 
riage with  Princess  Amalie  of  Leuchtenberg.  The 
ribbon  is  pink  with  two  white  stripes. 

BOSE^  Chauncet  (1794-1877).  An  ^American 
philanthropist,  born  in  Wethersfield,  Conn.  He 
removed  to  the  West  in  1817  and  settled  in  Terrs 
Haute.  He  was  active  in  promoting  many  indus- 
trial enterprises,  chief  among  which  was  the 
building  of  the  Indianapolis  and  Terre  Haute 
Railroad.  Having  come  into  possession  of  his 
brother's  estate,  of  the  value  of  about  $1,600,000, 
he  resolved  to  carry  out  his  brother's  wishes 
expressed  in  a  defective  will  by  devoting  the 
money  to  philanthropic  enterprises.  He  gave 
large  sums  both  from  this  estate  and  from  his 
own  fortune  to  schools,  hospitals,  asylimis,  and 
other  charities  in  New  York,  Terre  Haute,  and 
elsewhere.  His  chief  boiefaction  was  made  to 
the  Rose  Polytechnic  Institute  at  Terre  Haute, 
which  he  organized  in  1874. 

BOSE,  Gbobge  (1817-82).  An  English  humor- 
ist who  wrote  under  the  pseudonym  "Arthur 
Sketchley."  He  was  bom  in  London.  After  re- 
ceiving his  degree  from  Magdalen  Ck)llege,  Ox- 
ford, in  1848,  he  took  orders  in  the  ^glican 
Church.  In  1865  he  went  over  to  the  Church  of 
Rome.  From  1858  to  1863  he  was  tutor  to  the 
Duke  of  Norfolk.  Turning  to  literature,  he  pro- 
duced several  light  commies,  which  met  with 
Bucoess.  He  became  widely  known  for  his  numer- 
ous monologues  on  current  topics  purporting  to 
be  the  views  of  Mrs.  Brown,  an  illiterate  old 


woman.  They  bore  titles  such  as  **Mr8.  Brown's 
Visit  to  the  Paris  Exposition"  (1867),  on  "The 
Alabama  Claims"  (1872),  and  on  ''Home  Rule" 
( 1881 ) .  They  were  begun  in  Routledge's  Annual 
(1866),  and  continued  in  Fun.  Rose  traveled 
round  the  world,  reading  from  these  monologues. 
As  a  result  of  a  visit  to  the  United  States  ( 1867) 
he  published  the  next  year  The  Great  Country.  He 
also  wrote  two  novels^  A  Match  in  the  Dark 
(1878)  and  A  Marriage  of  Conscience  (1879). 
He  died  in  London,  November  11,  1882. 

BOSEy  r(/ze,  Gustav  (1798-1873).  A  German 
mineralogist,  bom  in  Berlin.  He  was  a  brother  of 
Heinrich  Rose,  and,  like  him,  studied  in  Berlin, 
and  under  Berzelius  in  Stockholm.  He  was  ap- 
pointed curator  of  minerals  in  the  museum  of 
Berlin  University  in  1822,  professor  in  1826,  and 
director  of  the  Mineralogical  Museum  in  1856. 
Rose  accompanied  Humboldt  through  Siberia 
in  1829,  and,  with  Mitscherlich,  examined  Vesu- 
vius and  Etna  in  1850  and  the  extinct  volcanoes 
of  Southern  France  in  1852.  He  attempted  to 
show  a  close  relationship  between  electrical 
polarity  and  crystal  form,  and  therefore  urged 
that  the  formation  of  crystals  was  in  no  way 
causally  connected  with  physical  surrotmdings. 
This  system  is  set  forth  in  his  Krystallochemi- 
sches  Mineralsystem  (1852).  His  other  works 
include:  Elemente  ddr  Kristallographie  (1833; 
continued  by  Sadebeck  and  Websky) ;  Beschrei- 
hung  und  Einteilung  der  Meteoriten  (1864) ;  and 
Kristallisation  der  Diamanten  (1876). 

BOSEaHeiitrigh(  1795-1864).  A  German  chem- 
ist. He  was  bom  in  Berlin.  He  studied  chemistry 
in  Berlin,  in  Stockholm  under  Berzelius,  and  in 
Kiel,  and  became  professor  in  Berlin  in  1823.  He 
devoted  himself  to  analytical  chemistry,  and  may 
be  considered  its  founder.  He  made  especial  study 
of  the  rarer  elements,  was  first  to  isolate  many 
substances,  and  in  1844  discovered  the  metallic 
element  niobium  or  columbium.  Rose  made  valu- 
able contributions  to  Poggendorff's  Annalen  and 
wrote  a  standard  HarMuch  der  analytischen 
Chemie  (1851,  and  after).  Consult  the  biography 
by  Rammelsberg  (Berlin,  1866). 

BOSEy  Hugh  Heitby,  Baron  Strathnaim.  See 
Stbathitaibn. 

BOSE,  Hugh  James  (1795-1838).  A  Church 
of  Ehgland  theologian,  and  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Tractarian  movement.  He  was  bom  near 
London,  at  Little  Horsford,  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge;  ordained  deacon  in  1818  and 
priest  a  year  later;  and  became  in  1818  curate 
of  Buxsted,  Sussex,  and  in  1821  of  Horsham, 
Sussex;  prebendary  of  Chichester,  1827-33;  rec- 
tor of  Hadleigh,  Suffolk,  1830,  and  of  Fairstead 
and  Werley  in  1833,  leaving  the  last  for  Saint 
Thomas,  Southwark,  1837.  In  1833  he  was  made 
professor  of  divinity  in  the  University  of  Dublin, 
but  ill  health  compelled  his  resignation  the  next 
year;  in  1836  he  became  principal  of  King's  (Col- 
lege, London,  but  again  ill  health  shortened  his 
service,  and  he  left  England  in  October  and  died 
in  Florence.  He  published  Christianity  Always 
Progressive  (1829),  Notices  of  the  Mosaic  Lano 
(1831),  The  Gospel  an  Abiding  System  (1832). 
He  was  a  fine  Greek  scholar;  but  his  memory 
survives  rather  from  his  association  with  the 
great  leaders  of  the  Oxford  Movement  (q.v.)  in 
its  earlier  stages.  Consult  his  biography  in 
Burgon,  Lives  of  Twelve  Good  Men  (London* 
1888). 


BOSS. 


170 


BOSfiBE&Y. 


BOSEy  Sir  John  (1820-88).  A  Canadian 
statesman,  born  at  Turriff,  in  Aberdeenshire, 
Scotland.  He  was  educated  in  King's  College, 
Aberdeen,  and  in  1836  emigrated  to  Lower  Can- 
ada. In  1842  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
Montreal,  quickly  gained  a  large  practice,  and  in 
1848  was  made  Queen's  counsel.  In  1864  he  was 
eominissioner  on  behalf  of  Great  Britain  for  the 
settlement  of  claims  arising  out  of  the  Oregon 
treaty  with  the  United  States.  Three  years  later 
he  was  returned  to  Parliament,  and  was  Minister 
of  Finance  from  that  year  until  1869,  when  he 
removed  to  England.  In  1870  he  was  sent  by 
the  British  Government  to  Washington  on  a 
mission  relative  to  the  Alabama  claims.  His 
efforts  resulted  in  an  informal  convention,  out  of 
which  grew  the  famous  Treaty  of  Washington. 
He  was  created  a  baronet  in  1872,  and  in  1886 
became  a  privy  councilor. 

BOSEy  John  Holland  (1855— ).  An  English 
-historian.  He  was  born  at  Bedford  and  studied 
at  Owens  College,  Manchester,  and  at  Christ 
College,  Cambridge.  He  graduated  (B.A.)  at 
Cambridge  in  1879,  and  became  lecturer  on  mod- 
ern history  to  the  Cambridge  and  London  So- 
cieties for  University  Extension.  Aside  from 
numerous  articles  in  the  English  Historical  Re- 
view and  the  Monthly  Review,  his  more  important 
publications  are  The  Revolutionary  and  Napole- 
onic Era  (1894),  The  Reign  of  Queen  Victoria 
( 1897 ) ,  The  Rise  of  Democracy  ( 1897 ) ,  and  Life 
of  Napoleon  /.,  Including  New  Materials  from 
the  British  Official  Records  ( 1902),  the  last  being 
up  to  the  time  of  its  publication  the  best  bal- 
anced and  most  satisfactory  life  of  Napoleon  in 
English. 

BOSE,  ro'ze,  Valentin  (1829—).  A  German 
classical  philologist  and  paleographer;  son  of 
Gustav  Rose.  He  was  born  in  Berlin,  studied 
there  and  at  Bonn,  and  at  twenty-^ix  entered  the 
employ  of  the  Berlin  Royal  Library,  in  which  he 
became  head  of  the  department  of  manuscripts. 
He  published  a  list  of  the  Latin  manuscripts  in 
this  library  (1893,  1901  et  seq.).  He  edited  many 
classical  works,  especially  on  medicine,  either 
before  unedited  or  lacking  critical  treatment  of 
the  text.  Among  these  are  Aristoteles  Pseudepi- 
graphus  (1863;  3d  ed.  1886),  Anecdota  Orceca  et 
Qrwcolatina  (1864-70),  Vitruvius  (with  Mflller- 
Strttbing,  1867;  2d  ed.  1899),  Anacreontea  (2d 
ed.  1876),  Anthimus  (1877),  Cassius  Feliao 
(1879),  and  Boranus   (1882). 

BOSEy  William  Stewaet  (1775-1843).  An 
English  poet  and  translator.  He  was  educated 
at  Eton,  obtained  a  seat  in  Parliament  (1796), 
and  the  position  of  reading  clerk  of  the  House 
of  Lords  (1800).  Coming  under  the  influence 
of  the  romantic  revival,  he  published  a  verse 
translation  of  the  first  three  books  of  Amadis  of 
Gaul  (1803),  not  directly  from  the  Spanish 
original,  but  from  Herberay's  French  version.  The 
same  year  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott,  who  visited  him  at  his  villa  of 
Gundimore  on  the  Hampshire  coast,  and  ad- 
dressed to  him  the  first  canto  of  Marmion.  In 
1807  appeared  a  translation  from  the  French  of 
Partenopex  of  Blois  and  a  ballad  entitled  The 
Red  King,  which  were  followed  by  two  other  bal- 
lads. The  Crusade  of  8t.  Lewis,  and  King  Edward 
the  Martyr  (1810).  In  1817  Rose  settled  in 
Venice,  where  he  began  his  well-known 
translation  of  Ariosto's  Orlando  Furioso   (1823- 


31;  reissued  in  Bohn's  Library,  1858).  His 
last  publication  was  a  volume  of  Rhymes 
(1837). 

BOSE^EBYy  Abchibald  Philip  Priicbose, 
fifth  Earl  of  (1847—).  An  English  statesman. 
He  was  born  in  London,  and  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  left 
coUe^  in  1868  before  graduating,  and  took  his 
seat  in  the  House  of  Lords,  having  succeeded  to 
the  Earldom  of  Rosebery  on  the  death  of  his 
grandfather,  Archibald  John  Prinurose.  In  Par- 
liament he  allied  himself  at  once  with  the 
Liberal  Party,  and  became  an  ardent  supporter  of 
Gladstone.  In  1878  his  marriage  to  Hannah 
Rothschild,  daughter  of  Baron  Rothschild, 
brought  him  powerful  and  influential  friends  in 
the  financial  world.  In  the  same  year  he  was 
made  lord  rector  of  Aberdeen  University,  and 
in  1880  he  was  chosen  lord  rector  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh.  In  August,  1881,  he 
accepted  his  first  official  appointment,  that  of 
Under  Secretary  of  State  for  Home  Affairs  un- 
der Sir  William  Vernon  Harcourt.  His  identi- 
fication with  the  Gladstone  Administration  ter- 
minated in  1883,  however,  when  he  resigned  as  a 
result  of  the  hostile  criticism  of  some  members 
of  his  party  who  objected  to  a  peer  holding  such 
an  office.  Toward  the  end  of  1884  he  accepted 
the  post  of  First  Commissioner  of  Works,  with  a 
seat  in  the  Cabinet.  He  left  office  with  Ms  col- 
leagues in  June,  1885.  In  the  short-lived  Ministry 
of  Gladstone,  which  began  in  February,  1886,  he 
held  the  office  of  Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign 
Affairs,  and  exhibited  in  the  administration  of 
that  department  unusual  ability  and  skill.  The 
years  spent  out  of  office  succeeding  the  fall  of  the 
Gladstone  Ministry  Lord  Rosebery  spent  in  travel 
and  study,  adding  greatly  to  his  reputation  as  an 
orator  and  political  leader.  In  1888  he  received 
the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  Cambridge,  and  in  1880 
was  elected  a  member  and  the  first  chairman  of 
the  London  County  Council,  holding  office  until 
June,  1890,  and  again  for  a  few  months  in  1892. 
During  a  retirement  in  1891,  following  the  death 
of  Lady  Rosebery,  he  completed  his  Life  of  Wil- 
liam Pitt,  in  the  "Twelve  English  Statesmen" 
Series.  Upon  the  return  of  Gladstone  to  power 
in  August,  1892,  Lord  Rosebery  again  became 
Foreign  Secretary.  The  principal  features  of  bis 
foreign  policy  were  his  insistence  on  British  con- 
trol in  the  Upper  Nile  Valley  and  Uganda,  and 
his  advocacy  of  the  friendly  policy  subsequently 
adopted  by  Lord  Salisbury  in  re^rd  to  the 
growth  of  the  Japanese  power  in  the  Far  East.  In 
March,  1894,  on  the  retirement  of  Gladstone,  Lord 
Rosebery  became  Prime  Minister.  His  personal 
popularity,  however,  did  not  avail  to  maintain 
his  Ministry,  and  on  June  24,  1896,  the  Govern- 
ment was  defeated.  On  October  8,  1896,  Lord 
Rosebery,  finding  himself  opposed  to  the  foreign 
policy  generally  adopted  by  Gladstone  and  other 
former  leaders  of  the  party,  formally  resigned  his 
leadership.  In  the  succeeding  years  he  adopted  the 
policy  of  'plowing  his  furrow  alone,'  as  he 
phrased  it,  holding  aloof  from  Liberal  politics.- 
He  supported  Salisbury's  stand  in  the  Fashoda 
incident,  and  the  prosecution  of  the  war  in  South 
Africa,  although  as  the  war  progressed  he  bitter- 
ly criticised  its  conduct,  and  urged  the  neoessity 
of  radical  army  reform.  In  addition  to  his  Wil- 
liam Pitt  his  principal  published  writings  are: 
Speeches    187i-96     (1896);     8ir    Robert    Peel 


BOfiBBBBY. 


171  BOSS  IVSECT8. 


(1899);    Napoleon;    the  Last   Phase    (1900); 
Questume  of  Empire  (1900). 

BOfiEGBAHSy  r^^ze-kr&nz,  William  Stabkx 
(1819-98).  A  diBtmguiBhed  American  general, 
bom  at  Kingston,  Ohio.  He  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1842,  entered  the  United  States  Engineer 
CoTpB,  and  aerred  for  a  year  as  assistuit  to 
ColoEiel  De  Russey  at  Fortress  Monroe.  He 
then  returned  to  West  Point,  where  he  served 
until  1847  as  an  assistant  professor.  In  1854  he 
resigned  from  the  army  and  settled  in  Cincinnati, 
where  he  engaged  in  business  as  an  architect  and 
dyil  engineer.  Upon  the  outbreak  of  the  CHyil 
War  he  was  appointed  colonel  of  the  Twenty-third 
Otkio,  and  in  June,  1861,  became  a  brigadier-gen- 
eral in  the  Regular  Army.  He  took  part  in  General 
McClellan's  West  Virginia  campaign  as  com- 
mander of  a  brigade  of  Ohio  and  Indiana  troops, 
and  on  the  12th  of  July,  1861,  won  the  battle  of 
Rich  Mountain.  Shortly  afterwards,  when  Gen- 
eral McClellan  was  summoned  to  Washington, 
Roeecrans  was  put  in  command  of  the  Federal 
forces  in  western  Virginia.  With  them,  on 
September  10th,  he  routed  General  Floyd  at 
Carnifex  Ferry,  thus  clearing  the  Kanawha 
Valley  of  the  Confederates.  In  the  following 
year  he  commanded  the  right  wing  of  the  Army 
of  the  Mississippi  in  the  advance  on  Corinth, 
fought  the  battle  of  luka,  September  19,  1862,  and 
in  October  successfully  defended  Corinth  against 
(Generals  Van  Dom  and  Price.  On  the  26th  of 
the  same  month  he  relieved  General  Buell  as 
eommander  of  the  Army  of  the  Cumberland.  He 
advanced  upon  Nashville,  and  on  Decem*ber  Slst 
and  January  2d  defeated  General  Bragg  in  the 
battle  of  Murfreesboro,  or  Stone  River.  In  the 
following  June  he  moved  into  East  Tennessee,  and 
on  September  19th  and  20th  was  defeated  by 
Bragg  in  the  battle  of  Chickamauga  (q.v.).  The 
Federal  army  then  fell  back  to  Oiattanooga, 
where  it  was  besieged  until  relieved  by  General 
Grant.  On  October  2dd  Rosecrans  was  succeeded 
by  Thomas,  and  after  a  short  period  of  service 
in  charge  of  the  Department  of  Missouri  he  was 
relieved  of  all  command.  Concerning  his  military 
ability  there  has  been  much  controversy.  The 
weight  of  opinion,  however,  inclines  to  the  view 
that  'Notwithstanding  some  faults  of  temper 
and  military  vacillation^  General  Rosecrans  was 
undoubtedly  a  splendid  fighter  and  a  good  strate- 
gist" Up  to  the  time  of  the  unfortunate  battle 
of  (Jhickamauga  he  had  been  uniformly  and  even 
brilliantly  successful.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he 
resigned  from  the  army;  in  1868  he  served  as 
Minister  to  Mexico;  and  from  1869  until  1881 
devoted  himself  to  railroad  and  industrial  enter- 
prises, mainly  in  Mexico.  He  was  elected  to 
(}ongre8s  in  1880  and  again  in  1882,  as  a  Demo- 
crat, and  served  as  chairman  of  the  Committee 
on  Military  Affairs.  From  1885  to  1893  he  was 
Begister  of  the  United  States  Treasury.  In  1889 
Congress  passed  an  act  restoring  him  to  the  rank 
and  pay  of  a  brigadier-general.  For  an  account 
of  his  military  campaigns,  consult:  Bickhom, 
Roseerane's  Campaign  toith  the  Fourteenth  Army 
Corps  (Cincinnati,  1863);  Cist,  Army  of  the 
Cumberland  (New  York,  1882);  Van  Home, 
History  of  the  Army  of  the  Cumberland  (Cin- 
cmnati,  1875) ;  Johnson  and  Buel  (eds.).  Battles 
and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War  (New  York,  1887)  j 
and  Fiske,  The  Mississippi  Valley  in  the  CivU 
^ar  (Boston,  1900). 
fouXY.— U. 


B08E  VAXILY.    See  RosACEiE. 

BOSEFISH^  or  Redfish.  A  red  scorpnnid 
fish  {Sebastes  marinus)  abundant  on  both  coasts 
of  the  North  Atlantic,  and  far  into  polar  lati- 
tudes, where  it  becomes  a  shore  and  surface  fish, 
while  south  of  Newfoundland  it  is  only  found 
off  shore  and  in  deep  water.  In  Greenland, 
Labrador,  Iceland,  and  Scandinavia  it  is  an  im- 
portant food-fish.  In  Nova  Scotia  it  is  called 
'John  Dory;'  among  various  other  names  are 
'snapper'  and  'hemdurgan.'  This  fish  is  about 
18  inches  long  and  orange  red  in  color,  with  a 
few  dusky  bars  across  the  back.  Consult  Goode^ 
Fishery  Industries,  sec.  i.  (Washington,  1884). 
See  Plate  of  Rockfish,  Sunfish,  etc. 

B08E0OSB,  r(/z^-er,  Peteb  (1843—).  An 
Austrian  novelist,  known  for  his  descriptions  of 
Styrian  peasant  life.  He  was  bom  at  Alpel, 
near  Krieglach,  in  Styria.  After  a  youth  of  pov- 
erty he  was  apprenticed  at  the  age  of  eighteen 
to  a  tailor,  but  he  gained  by  poetry  patrons 
who  enabled  him  to  give  himself  to  litera- 
ture. Zither  und  Hackbrett  (1870),  poems 
in  Styrian  dialect,  were  well  received  and 
were  followed  by  prose  tales  and  sketches  in  dia- 
lect and  in  literary  German.  Of  the  latter  the 
more  noteworthy  are  Volksleben  in  Steiermark 
(1870),  Waldheimat  (1873),  Der  Oottsuoher 
(1883),  Die  Schriften  des  Waldschulmeisters 
(1875,  with  an  autobiographical  preface,  trans, 
as  The  Forest  Schoolmaster  by  Francis  E.  Skin- 
ner, New  York,  1901),  Jakob  der  Letzte  (1888), 
Peter  Mayr  (1893),  Erdsegen  (1900),  and  the 
autobiographic  Mein  Welileben  (1897).  A  popu- 
lar edition  of  his  works  appeared  at  Leipzig 
(1895-1900). 

BOSE  IKSECTS.  The  rOse  is  eaten  by  many 
insects  wherever  it  occurs.  In  Europe  about  100 
species  are  recorded  as  occurring  upon  this  plant, 
including  seven  beetles,  55  lepidopterous  larv», 
and  25  sawflies  and  gall  fiies.  In  the  United 
States  it  is  probable  that  fully  as  many  species 
will  be  found.  The  most  important  of  the  Ameri- 
can forms  is  the  rose  chafer  {Macrodactylus  sub' 
spinosus),  which  makes  its  appearance  about  the 
time  the  roses  begin  to  bloom  and  strips  the 
bushes,  as  well  as  grapevines  and  other  plants, 
of  the  blossoms  and  foliage.  The  beetle  is  about 
one-third  of  an  inch  long,  and  is  of  a  light  yel- 
lowish color.  It  appears  suddenly  and  in  vast 
swarms  in  certain  years,  and  overruns  gardens. 


BOSK  OHAFIB. 

Adult  female  beetle  (Ma^rodsetyhm  aub^biosus). 

vineyards,  and  orchards.  In  about  a  month  or 
six  weeks  from  the  time  of  their  first  arrival, 
and  generally  after  having  done  a  vast  amount 
of  damage,  the  insects  disappear  as  suddenly  as 
they  came.  The  range  of  the  rose  chafer  is  from 
Canada  and  Maine  southward  to  Virginia  and 
Teimessee,  and  westward  to  Oklahoma  and  (Colo- 
rado. The  best  remedies  consist  in  plowing  and 
cultivating  the  soil  in  the  most  favored  breeding 


BOSS  INSECTS. 


172 


BOSEKABY. 


grounds,  where  these  can  be  discovered.  Against 
the  adult  beetles  are  used  spraying  with  arsenical 
poisons,  hand-picking,  covering  choice  plants  with 
netting,  and  the  poisoning  of  early-flowering 
plants  as  trap  crops;  but  the  beetles  appear  in 
such  enormous  numbers  day  after  day  as  to  make 
these  measures  apparently  hopeless. 

The  rose  sawflies,  larvae  of  which  are  known 
as  'rose  slugs,'  frequently  do  considerable  dam- 
age by  skeletonizing  the  leaves.  The  bristly 
rose  slug  (larvie  of  Cladius  pectinicomia)  has  a 
wide  distribution,  feeding  at  first  upon  the  lower 
side  of  the  leaves  and  gradually  eating  irregular 
holes  until  nothing  remains  but  the  stronger 
ribs.  They  form  their  cocoons  in  the  autumn, 
among  fallen  leaves  and  other  rubbish  upon  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  and  in  the  summer  some- 
times do  so  upon  the  branches  of  the  plant. 
There  are  two  or  three  generations  annually.  The 
curled  rose  slug  (larva  of  Emphytus  cinctua)  is 
a  European  species  which  has  been  imported 
into  the  Northeastern  United  States.  It  eats 
the  entire  surface  of  the  leaf,  working  along  the 
edges,  however,  instead  of  gnawing  holes.  The 
American  rose  slug  (larva  of  Monoategia  roace) 
is  the  most  prominent  of  the  rose-sawfly  larvse. 
It  is  single-brooded,  and  the  adults  emerge  in 
May  about  the  time  when  the  rose  is  in  full  leaf. 
The  eggs  are  circular,  and  are  inserted  singly 
in  the  edge  of  the  leaf.  The  larva  is  about  one- 
third  of  an  inch  long,  and  is  slug-like,  the  thorax 
being  swollen.  It  feeds  only  at  night  and  always 
upon  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf,  skeletonizing 
it  rather  than  eating  the  entire  substance.  Dur- 
ing the  day  it  remains  concealed  on  the  under 
surface  of  the  leaf.  The  larva  becomes  full- 
grown  in  about  two  weeks,  abandons  the  plant 
and  enters  the  soil,  where  it  constructs  a  delicate 
earthen  cocoon.  In  this  it  remains  dormant  until 
the  following  spring,  transforming  to  pupa  short- 
ly before  the  emergence  of  the  adult  insect  in 
May.  All  of  these  sawfly  larvse  are  readily  de- 
stroyed by  the  application  of  powdered  hellebore 
in  a  water  spray. 

The  rose-bud  worm  is  the  larva  of  a  tortricid 
moth  {Penthina  nimhatana).  It  usually  feeds 
upon  the  leaves,  but  frequently  bores  into  rose- 
buds before  they  have  opened.  The  parent  moth 
appears  in  the  spring  and  lays  its  eggs  at  night. 
The  larva  grows  rapidly,  feeding  upon  the  leaves 
or  the  buds,  and  reaches  full  growth  by  the  end 
of  May,  the  moth  appearing  early  in  June.  The 
eggs  of  a  second  generation  are  then  laid,  and  in 
the  Southern  States  there  may  be  a  third.  An- 
other tortricid  moth,  the  oblique-banded  leaf- 
roller  (Cacwcia  roaaceana) ,  is  one  of  the  most 
important  of  the  leaf-rollers,  and  feeds  upon 
many  rosaceous  plants.     See  Leaf-Rolleb. 

Fuller's  rose  beetle  {Aratnigua  Fulleri)  is  a 
weevil  which  feeds,  when  adult,  upon  the  leaves, 
and  in  the  larval  stage  works  upon  the  roots. 
It  is  a  well-known  greenhouse  pest  of  many  plants 
in  California,  and  made  its  appearance  in  the 
Eastern  States  as  early  as  1879.  The  adult 
beetle  lays  its  eggs  in  flattened  batches,  thrusting 
them  under  the  loose  bark  of  the  stem  usually 
near  the  ground.  The  larvee  burrow  into  the 
ground  and  feed  upon  the  roots,  reaching  full 
growth  in  the  course  of  one  or  two  months  and 
passing  the  pupa  stage  also  under  the  ground. 
The  rose  curculio  {Rhynckitea  hicolor)  is  abun- 
dant and  destructive  in  certain  of  the  Western 


States;  and  several  species  of  cutworms  (q.T.) 
are  also  injurious  to  young  rose  plants. 

Consult:  Chittenden,  Bulletin  27,  new  series. 
United  Statea  Department  of  Agriculture,  Divi- 
aion  of  Entomology  (Washington,  1901);  also 
Circular  11,  second  series  (ib.,  1895). 

BOSELLA  (Neo-Lat.  diminutive  of  Lat.  rosa^ 
rose),  or  Bose  Pabbakeet.  A*  dealer's  name, 
often  spelled  roselle,  for  one  of  the  beautiful 
broad-tailed  parrakeets  of  Australia  {Platycer- 
cua  ewimiua),  remarkable  for  its  rose-red  plum- 
age. In  this  species,  which  is  common  in  cap- 
tivity, the  head,  neck,  and  breast  are  rosy-red, 
the  cheeks  white,  the  nape  yellow,  the  feathers 
of  the  back  black,  with  greenish-yellow  borders, 
the  lower  breast  yellow,  with  a  scarlet  band  in 
the  middle,  the  wings  largely  blue,  and  the  hind 
parts  and  tail  yellowish-green.  Its  total  length 
is  13.50  inches.  It  is  distinguished  from  most 
other  parrots  by  its  cry,  which  is  described  as  a 
kind  of  chattering  or  warbling. 

BOSELLINI,  rO'z&l-le'n^,  Ippouto  (1800-43). 
An  Italian  Egyptologist,  bom  at  Pisa.  He  stud- 
ied at  Bologna  under  Mezzofanti,  and  in  1824  was 
made  professor  of  Oriental  languages  in  the 
university  of  his  native  town.  From  1825  he 
devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the  study  of  Egyptol- 
ogy, and  was  the  friend  and  pupil  of  J.  F.  Cham- 
pollion,  whom  he  assisted  in  his  investigations 
at  Rome,  Naples,  and  Turin.  In  1828  Rosel- 
lini  was  sent  to  Egypt  at  the  head  of  a  Tus- 
can expedition  which,  uniting  with  a  French 
expedition  under  the  direction  of  Champollion, 
spent  fifteen  months  in  exploring  the  monuments 
of  Egypt  ^nd  Nubia.  The  results  of  the  expedi- 
tion's work  were  published  by  Rosellini,  after 
his  return,  in  his  /  monumenti  delV  Egitto  e  delta 
Nubia  (1832-44).  Among  his  other  works  may 
be  mentioned  his  Elementa  LingtUB  JEgyptiacw 
(Rome,  1837),  and  his  Diccionario  geroglifico, 
which  was  left  in  manuscript,  unfinished,  at  his 
death. 

BOSELLY  DE  LOBGXJES,  t6'2^W  de  l<Vrg, 
Antoink  Fbanqoib  F£lix  (1805—).  A  French 
religious  author,  bom  at  Grasse.  He  studied  law 
at  Aix  and  became  an  advocate,  but  deserted  his 
practice  to  devote  himself  to  literature.  His 
chief  publications  are  Chriatophe  Colomh  (1856), 
Chriatophe  Colomh  le  aerviteur  de  Dieu  (1884), 
Satan  contre  Colomh  (1876),  and  Hiatoire  pos- 
thume  de  Colomh  (1885),  in  which  he  claims 
that  Columbus  was  directly  inspired  by  God  in 
his  voyages,  and  that  he  should  be  canonised  hy 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  To  this  latter  end 
he  was  made  commissioner  to  the  Holy  See  by 
the  Queen  Regent  of  Spain  in  1893. 

BOSEICABY  (OF.  roamarin,  romarin,  Pr. 
romarin,  from  Lat.  roamarinua,  roa  m^rinus,  rose- 
mary, sea-dew,  from  roa,  dew,  and  marinus, 
marine,  from  mare,  sea;  influenced  by  popular 
etymology  with  roaa  marioB,  rose  of  the  Virgin 
Mary),  Eoamarinua.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Labiate.  Only  one  species  is 
known,  Roamarinua  officinalia,  an  erect  evergreen 
shrub  of  4  to  8  feet  high,  with  linear  leaves  and 
pale  bluish  flowers,  growing  in  simny  places,  on 
rocks,  old  walls,  etc.,  in  the  Mediterranean 
region.  It  is  generally  cultivated  as  an  orna- 
mental and  aromatic  shrub.  An  essential  oil, 
oil  of  rosemary,  obtained  from  the  leaves  is  fre- 
quently used  as  a  perfume  and  as  a  principal 
ingredient  in  Hungary  water.     Spirit  of 


BOSBXABY. 


178 


B08BKTHAL. 


maiy,  made  by  distilling  roeemary  with  rectified 
spirit  is  uised  to  perfume  lotions  and  liniments. 
Wild  rosemary  is  Ledum  palustre. 

BOSEN,  rO'zen,  Friedbich  August  (1806- 
37).  A  German-fhiglish  Orientalist.  He  was 
bom  in  Hanover,  was  educated  at  65ttingen  and 
at  Leipzig,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study 
of  Semitic  languages,  and  in  1824  went  to  Ber- 
lin, where  he  studied  Sanskrit  under  Bopp,  and 
in  1827  published  his  Radioes  Sanaoritce,  He 
studied  in  Paris  for  a  short  time  imder  De 
Sacy,  and  during  1829  and  1830  was  professor 
of  Oriental  literature  in  University  College, 
London.  He  translated  and  edited  the  old- 
est of  extant  Arabic  mathematical  works,  The 
Algebra  of  Mohammed  ben  Musa  { 1831 ) ,  during 
the  next  few  years  wrote  a  portion  of  the 
Oriental  articks  for  the  Penny  CyclopcBdia,  un- 
dertook the  revision  of  the  Sanskrit-Bengali  die- 
tionaiy  of  Sir  Graves  Haughton  (1835),  and 
compiled  for  the  British  Museum  the  Catalogue 
of  Syriac  Manuscripts  (1839),  which  was  pub- 
lished after  his  death.  In  1836  he  had  been  re- 
appointed professor  of  Sanskrit  at  University 
College  and  was  busy  preparing  his  collection  of 
hymns  of  the  Rigveda.  Poverty  and  overwork 
hastened  his  end.  His  unfinished  work  on  the 
Vedas  was  published  by  the  Asiatic  Society  un- 
der the  title  Riffveda-Sanhita,  Liber  Primus  Ban" 
scriie  et  Latine  (1838). 

B08EN,  Geobo  (1820-91).  A  German  Orien- 
talist and  historian,  brother  of  Friedrich 
August  Rosen.  He  was  bom  in  Detmold, 
studied  in  Berlin  and  in  Leipzig,  and  hav- 
ing attracted  the  attention  of  the  Prussian  Gov- 
enunent  by  his  Rudimenta  Persioa  (1842),  was 
sent  with  Koch  to  the  East  (1844).  For  thirty 
years  he  was  in  the  German  consular  service, 
at  Constantinople,  at  Jerusalem,  and,  until  1875> 
when  he  retircMl  to  his  native  city,  in  Belgrade. 
He  wrote:  Ossetische  Orammatik  (1846) ;  Tuti- 
nameh,  a  translation  of  a  series  of  Oriental  tales 
(1858) ;  Das  Haram  zu  Jerusalem  und  der  Tern- 
pelsplatz  des  Moria  (1866) ;  Oeschichte  der  TUr^ 
kei  1826-56  (1866-67);  Die  Balkan-Haiduken 
(1878);  and  Bulgarische  Volksdichtungen 
(1879). 

BOBEKBEBG,  r^zen-b^rK,  Adolf  (1850-). 
A  German  art  historian,  bom  at  Bromberg,  Po- 
sen.  After  graduating  in  philology  and  archseology 
in  Berlin,  he  studied  art,  traveling  extensively,  and 
in  1875  became  associated  with  the  editorial  de- 
partment of  Die  Post  in  Berlin.  His  writings  com- 
prise: Sebald  und  Barthel  Beham,  ewei  Malef 
der  deutachen  Renaissance  (1875)  ;  Die  Berliner 
Malerschule  (1879);  Rubensbriefe  (1881);  Die 
Munchener  Uaierschule  (1887);  Aus  der  DUs- 
aeldorfer  Malerschule  (1890);  Oeschichte  der 
modemen  Kunst  (2d  ed.  1894)  ;  Der  Kupfer- 
siich  in  der  Bchule  und  unter  dem  Einfluw  des 
Rubens  (1888).  He  also  contributed  largely  to 
Dohme's  Kunst  und  KUnatler  and  to  the  series 
of  monographs  edited  by  Knackfuss.  With  Hugo 
Licht  he  published  Die  Architektur  Berlins 
(Berlm,  1877)  and  Die  Architektur  Deutsch- 
hnd8  (ib.,  1878-82). 

BOSEHBirSCH,  r^zCT-b^sh,  Kabl  Heinbich 
ffXDUiAJfD  ( 1836 — ) .  A  German  mineralogist,  the 
practical  founder  of  scientific  petrography.  He  was 
bom  in  Einbeck,  Hanover,  and  studied  at  Freiburg. 
He  was  professor  at  Strassburg  and  then  went  to 
Heidelberg.    There  he  became  head  of  the  Geolog- 


ical Institute  in  1889.  His  great  contributions 
to  petrography  h&ve  been  a  new  classification 
and  a  wider  use  of  the  microscope.  His  chief 
works  are  Mikroskopiaohe  Physiographic  der 
Mineralien  und  Qesteine  (3d  ed.  1892)  and  Hilf^ 
stabeUen  zur  mihroskopischen  Mineralbestim' 
mung  in  Oesteinen  (1888). 

BOSEirHEIM,  ro^zen-hlm.  A  town  in  Upper 
Bavaria,  situated  on  the  Inn,  40  miles  by  rail 
southeast  of  Munich  (Map:  Bavaria,  £  5).  It 
has  a  number  of  interesting  old  churches  and 
saline  springs  in  the  vicinity.  Its  chief  manu- 
factures are  machinery,  matches,  cement,  and 
metal  articles.  The  trade  is  principally  in  wood. 
Population,  in  1900,  14,246. 

BOSEKKBANZ,  rj/zen-krftnts,  Kabl  (1805- 
79).  A  German  philosopher,  bom  at  Magdeburg, 
and  educated  at  Halle,  where  he  subsequently  was 
professor  (1831-33).  In  1833  he  became  profes- 
sor at  Kdnigsberg.  He  belonged  to  the  so-called 
'centre'  group  of  Hegelians.  Besides  his  works 
in  general  literature  he  labored  on  a  revision  of 
Hegel's  system.  Among  his  works  are  Psycholo!- 
gie  (3d  ed.  1863) ;  Hegels  Leben  (1844) ;  Ooethe 
und  seine  Werke  (1847 ;  2d  ed.  1856) ;  Die  Poesie 
und  ihre  Oeschichte  (1855);  Wisaenschaft  der 
logischen  Idee  (1858-59).  See  Quftbicker,  K. 
Rosenkranz  (Leipzig,  1879). 

BOSENTHAL,  rd^zen-t&l,  IsmoB  (1836—). 
A  German  physiologist,  bom  in  Labischin,  Prus- 
sia, and  educated  in  Berlin.  There  he  was  as- 
sistant to  Du  Bois-Reymond  in  1859-62  and  docent 
in  1862-67.  In  1872  he  left  the  chair  of  physi- 
ology in  Berlin  to  become  professor  at  Erlangen, 
where  he  was  long  head  of  the  Physiological  In- 
stitute. He  edited  the  Centralblatt  fUr  die  medizi- 
niachen  Wiasenschaften  (1869-80),  the  Biolo- 
gisches  Centralblatt  (1881  sqq.),  and  the  German 
edition  of  the  "International  Science  Series"  to 
which  he  contributed  a  volume,  General  Physiol- 
ogy of  Muscles  and  Nerves  (1881).  His  other 
works  include:  Electrioitctslehre  fUr  Mediziner 
(1862) ;  Bier  und  Branntwein  in  ihrer  Bedeutung 
far  die  Volksgesundheit  (1881;  2d  ed.  1893); 
and  Vorlesungen  Uber  offentliche  und  private 
Oesundheitspflege  (1887;  2d  ed.  1889). 

BOSEKTHAL,  Mobitz  (1862—).  An  Aus- 
trian piano  virtuoso,  born  at  Lemberg.  He 
studied  under  Karl  Mikuli  of  Lemberg,  Rafael 
Joseflfy,  and  Franz  Liszt.  At  the  age  of  thirteen 
he  gave  concerts  in  Vienna,  Warsaw,  and  Bucha- 
rest ;  but  two  years  afterwards  retired  and  studied 
at  the  University  of  Vienna.  In  1882  he  made  suc- 
cessful concert  tours  throughout  Europe,  and  in 
1887  made  his  first  tour  of  the  United  States, 
after  which  he  achieved  great  success  in  the 
principal  art  centres  of  England,  France,  (3er- 
many,  and  Russia.  In  1896-97  he  made  a  second 
tour  of  the  United  States. 

BOSENTHAL,  Toby  Edwabd  (1848—).  An 
American  figure  painter,  born  in  New  Haven, 
Conn.  He  studied  in  San  Francisco  under  Fortu- 
nato  Arriola,  and  in  Munich  under  Raupp  and 
Piloty.  Excepting  occasional  visits  to  America, 
he  lived  principally  in  Munich.  His  works  are 
executed  in  a  romantic,  rather  conventional  style, 
with  agreeable  color.  They  include:  "Morning 
Prayers  in  the  Bach  Family"  (Leipzig  Museum, 
1870)  ;  "Trial  of  Constance  de  Beverly"  (1883)  ; 
"Elaine"  (1876);  and  "Dancing  Lesson  During 
the  Empire"  (1886). 


BOSBNTHAL-BOHIK. 


174 


BOSENTHAL-BONIK,  Hugo  (1840-97).  A 
German  novelist,  born  in  Berlih.  After  studying 
there  and  in  Paris  philosophy  and  the  natural 
sciences,  he  traveled  extensively  as  a  merchant, 
then  settled  in  Switzerland  and  in  1871  at  Stutt- 
gart, where  he  became  associate  editor  of  Ueher 
Land  und  Meer  and  in  1889-04  edited  Vom  Fels 
zum  Meer,  His  best  known  novels  include:  Der 
Bemsteinsucher  (1880),  Die  Thierhdndigerin 
(1884),  Schwarze  Schatten  (1884),  and  Das  Haus 
mit  den  zwei  Einffangen  (1888).  The  collections 
of  stories  Der  Heiratadamm  und  Anderes  (1870; 
and  Unterirdisch  Feuer  (1879)  were  translated 
into  most  of  the  European  languages. 

BOSE  OF  JEBICHO,  Resurbectioit  Plant 
{Anaatatica  hierochuntica) .  A  small  Arabian  herb 
of  the  natural  order  Cruciferfe.  After  flowering 
the  leaves  fall  off,  and  the  branches  become  in- 
curved toward  the  centre,  so  that  the  plant  be- 
comes almost  globular.  In  this  state  it  is  often 
blown  about  by  the  wind.  When  it  happens  to  be 
blown  into  water,  the  branches  expand  again,  the 
pods  open  and  let  out  the  seeds.    If  taken  up  be- 


BOSB  or  JVBICHO. 

d.  Dried  condition. 

fore  it  is  quite  withered,  the  plant  retains  for 
years  its  hygroscopic  property  of  contracting  in 
drought  and  expanding  in  moisture. 

BOSE  OF  LIMA,  Saint  (1586-1617).  The 
first  American  saint.  She  was  bom  at  Lima, 
Peru,  April  20,  1586,  and  from  an  early  age  gave 
herself  to  a  life  of  extraordinary  austerities  and 
self-mortifications.  At  the  age  of  20  she  took 
the  veil  as  a  sister  of  the  Third  Order  of  Saint 
Dominic.  She  died  at  Lima,  August  24, 1617.  In 
1669  she  was  named  patron  of  ''America  and  the 
Indies,"  and  was  canonized  by  Clement  X.  in 
1671.  Her  day  is  August  30.  The  chief  source 
for  her  life  is  the  Vita  Sanctcs  Rosas  by  the 
Dominican  Hemsen  (German  trans.,  2d  ed., 
Regensburg,  1863). 

BOSE  OF  SHABON.  A  name  variously  ap- 
plied to  the  autumn  crocus  (Colchicum  autumn 
nale),  to  Polyanthus  Narcissus  {Narcissus  TazeU 
ia),  and,  in  America,  to  the  Syrian  hibiscus 
(Eihiscus  syriacus).  See  Crocus;  Nabcissus; 
Hibiscus. 

BOSE^OLA  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Lat.  roseus,  rosy, 
from  rosa,  rose).  A  name  given  to  an  eruption 
accompanying  several  diseases,  such  as  erythema 


and  German  measles  or  rubeola.  There  is  a 
roseola  db  ingestis  due  to  intestinal  or  gastric 
disturbances,  and  which  resembles  very  closely 
the  eruption  of  scarlet  fever. 

BOSE   POLYTECHNIC  INSTITUTE.     A 

school  of  engineering  at  Terre  Haute,  Ind.,  found- 
ed in  1874  by  Chaunoey  Rose  (q.v.)  and  opened 
in  1883.  Five  parallel  courses  of  study  are  of- 
fered, in  mechanical,  electrical,  and  civil  en- 
gineering, architecture,  and  chemistry,  each  oc- 
cupying four  years.  The  five  courses  are  identical 
during  the  first  term  of  the  freshman  year,  after 
which  each  student  must  elect  between  two 
groups.  The  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  is  con- 
ferred on  all  graduates,  and  that  of  Master  of 
Science  for  at  least  one  year's  graduate  work. 
The  degree  of  Mechanical,  Electrical,  or  Civil 
Engineer  is  granted  to  holders  of  the  Master's 
degree,  after  two  years  in  the  practice  of  their 
profession.  In  1903  there  were  205  students  and 
a  faculty  of  20  instructors.  The  institute  occu- 
pies ten  acres  and  has  four  buildings,  valued 
with  the  grounds  at  $185,000.  Its  library  con- 
tained 11,000  volumes.  The  productive  funds 
amounted  to  $600,000,  and  the  gross  income  was 
$50,000. 

BOSE  QUABTZ.  A  variety  of  quartz,  usual- 
ly crystallized,  but  sometimes  found  massive.  It 
has  a  delicate  pink  or  flesh  color,  due  to  the 
presence  of  minute  quantities  of  manganese  or 
titanium  oxide.  It  is  valued  as  an  ornamental 
stone,  and  the  larger  pieces  are  made  into  vases, 
while  the  smaller  fragments  are  used  for  jewels, 
seals,  etc.  The  variety  possessing  a  bri^t  red 
color  is  sometimes  called  'Bohemian  ruby.' 

BOSES,  Wabs  or  the.  The  series  of  civil 
wars  in  England  between  the  rival  houses  of 
Lancaster  and  York  in  the  latter  half  of  the  fif- 
teenth century.  The  struggle  owed  its  name  to 
the  fact  that  the  badge  of  the  House  of  Lan- 
caster was  a  red  rose,  and  that  of  the  House  of 
York  a  white  rose.  The  House  of  Lancaster  had 
obtained  the  throne  of  England  in  1300  by  an  act 
of  Parliament,  which  had  deposed  Richard  II. 
and  given  the  crown  to  his  cousin  Henry  IV. 
During  the  reigns  of  Henry  IV.  and  Henry  V. 
there  was  no  open  discontent,  for  the  country 
was  prosperous  and  under  the  latter  King  the 
military  successes  in  France  pleased  the  na- 
tional pride.  But  when  Henry  V.  died  in 
1422  he  left  as  heir  a  child  of  nine  months, 
Henry  VI.,  who,  when  he  grew  to  man- 
hood, proved  to  be  weak  physically  and  mentally. 
Moreover,  the  country  was  exasperated  by  the 
loss  of  the  French  possessions  (see  Huiydbed 
Yeabs'  Wab)  ,  and  the  poor  were  in  dire  distress 
on  account  of  the  excessive  taxation.  Under  such 
circumstances  the  people  began  to  look  to  Rich- 
ard, Duke  of  York,  who,  descended  from  Lionel, 
the  second  son  of  Edward  III.,  had,  if  hereditary 
right  was  to  be  regarded,  better  claims  to  the 
throne  than  Henry  Vl.,  descended  from  John  of 
Gaimt,  the  fourth  son  of  Edward  III.  The  first 
armed  demonstration  was  Jack  Cade's  Rebellion 
(1450),  which  began  in  Kent  and  was  directed 
against  the  favorites  of  Henry  VI.  The  chief 
demand  of  the  insurgents  was  that  the  govern- 
ment should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  Duke 
of  York.  This  rising  was  easily  suppressed,  but 
in  1453  Henry  VI.  became  insane,  and  in  1454 
the  Duke  of  York  was  declared  Protector.  Henry 
VI.,   however,   soon   recovered   his   reason^   and 


BOSB& 


175 


BOSBTTA  STOira. 


York,  feariiiff  destmction,  took  up  amui.  In 
general  the  North  was  lAncastrian,  while  the 
Soath  (especially  London)  sided  with  the  York- 
ists. In  1455  the  first  battle  of  the  war  took 
place  at  Saint  Albans.  York  was  victorious^  and 
when,  shortly  after,  Henry  again  became  insane, 
the  Protectorate  was  refotablished.  In  1456 
the  King  recovered  his  reason  and  the  Duke  of 
York  resigned.  MeanwhUe,  however,  the  Earl 
of  Warwick,  the  most  powerful  supporter  of 
the  Yorkists,  continued  in  rebellion,  until  in 
1460  the  strife  again  became  general.  The 
royal  army  was  defeated  at  Northampton  and 
the  Kinff  captured,  and  Parliament  declared 
Richard  hsir  to  the  crown,  thus  excluding  Ed- 
ward, ihe  son  of  Henry  VI.  This  last  action 
aroused  the  Queen,  Margaret  of  Anjou  (q.v.), 
and  she  collected  an  army  in  the  North.  On 
December  31,  1460,  the  Duke  of  York  was  de- 
feated and  slain  at  Wakefield.  His  successor 
was  hia  son,  Edward,  Earl  of  March,  who  on 
February  2,  1461,  defeated  some  Lancastrian 
forces  at  Mortimer's  Cross.  Meanwhile  Mar- 
garet was  advancing  on  London,  and  on  her  way 
defeated  Warwick  m  the  second  battle  of  Saint 
Albans  on  February  17th,  and  released  Henry, 
who  had  been  in  Warwick's  hands.  Edward 
hastened  to  London,  and  on  March  2,  1461,  as- 
sumed the  crown  as  Edward  IV.  On  March  29tb 
the  decisive  battle  of  Towton  was  fou^t.  Ed- 
ward was  completely  victorious,  and  Margaret 
fied  with  Henry  to  Scotland. 

Since  nearly  all  the  great  nobles  were  Lan- 
castrians, Edward  IV.  sought  to  conciliate  the 
Commons,  and  increased  their  privileges.  The 
civil  strife  for  a  while  went  on  in  a  desultory 
way.  In  1462  Margaret  was  again  in  Northern 
England,  but  in  1464  Warwick's  brother.  Lord 
Montague,  defeated  her  at  Hedgeley  Moor  and 
Hexham,  and  in  1465  Henry  was  captured  and 
thrown  into  the  Tower.  Suddenly  in  1469  War- 
wick, hoping  to  obtain  still  greater  power,  de- 
serted Edward  IV.  for  Henry  VI.  His  followers 
were  defeated  at  Stamford,  but  Warwick  fled  to 
France,  and  there  obtained  aid  from  Louis  XI., 
and  with  his  new  forces  landed  in  England.  Ed- 
ward rV.  escaped  to  Holland,  and  Henry  VI.  was 
taken  from  the  Tower  and  replaced  on  the  throne. 
But  Edward  soon  returned  and  on  April  14,  1471, 
won  the  battle  of  Bamet,  in  which  Warwick  and 
Montague  lost  their  lives.  On  May  4th  Margaret 
waa  defeated  at  Tewkesbury,  and  her  son  was 
slain  after  the  battle,  while  shortly  after  Henry 
VI.  waa  probably  murdered  in  the  Tower, 
whither  he  had  been  taken  after  the  battle  of 
Bamet. 

The  battle  of  Tewkesbury  ended  all  efi'ective 
resistance  to  the  Yorkist  rule  until  the  reign  of 
Richard  III.  (^.v.).  His  impopularity  enabled 
the  Duke  of  Richmond,  the  head  of  the  House 
of  Lancaster,  to  invade  England  in  1485.  On 
August  22,  1485,  Richard  III.  was  defeated  and 
slain  at  Bosworth  Field,  and  Richmond  became 
Kiiur  as  Henry  Vll.  (^.v.).  On  January  18, 
1486,  Henry  married  Elizabeth,  the  daughter  of 
Edward  IV.  and  heiress  of  the  Yorkist  family. 
Thus  the  rival  dynasties  were  united.  The  chief 
results  of  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  were  the  extir- 
pation of  the  ancient  nobility  and  the  reduction  of 
Parliament  to  the  position  of  a  tool  of  faction. 
This  rendered  possible  the  despotism  of  the 
Tndors.  A  good  compendium  of  the  whole  sub- 
ject wiU  be  found  in  Gairdner,  The  Houses  of 


Lancaster  and  York  (6th  ed.,  London,  1886). 
The  fullest  and  best  work  is  Ramsay,  Lanoaster 
amd  York,  1S99-H85  (Oxford,  1892).  Consult 
also  Kriehn,  The  EngUah  Biaing  in  l4S0  (Strass- 
burg,  1802). 

BOSETTA^  r5-zet^t&  (Ar.  Er-Rashid).  A 
town  and  port  of  Northern  Egypt,  in  latitude  31" 
25'  N.,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Rosetta  branch 
of  the  Nile,  and  about  four  miles  from  the  mouth 
of  the  river.  It  is  the  modem  representative  of 
the  ancient  Bolbitine,  which  lay  a  little  farther 
north.  In  the  Middle  Ages  Rosetta  was  a  place 
of  considerable  commercial  importance,  and  it 
continued  to  flourish  until  the  construction  of  the 
Mahmudiyeh  Canal  and  the  improvement  of  the 
harbor  of  Alexandria  diverted  most  of  its  trade 
to  the  latter  city.  Rosetta  still  has  thriving 
manufactories  of  sailcloth,  leather,  and  iron,  and 
exports  a  considerable  ouantity  of  rice,  linseed 
oil,  and  oil  of  sesame.  The  population  numbers 
about  14,000.    See  Rosetta  Stons. 

B08ETTA  STONE.  A  slab  of  black  basalt 
bearing  an  inscription  which  was  the  key  to  the 
interpretation  of  Egyptian  hieroglyphics.  It  was 
found  in  1799  by  M.  Boussard,  a  French  oflScer 
of  engineers  in  the  trenches  at  Fort  Saint  Julien, 
near  Rosetta  (q.v.),  and  is  now  in  the  British 
Museum.  The  upper  portion  and  the  lower  right- 
hand  comer  have  been  broken  away  and  in  its 
present  condition  it  measures  3  feet  9  inches  in 
height,  2  feet  4%  inches  in  breadth,  and  11  inches 
in  thickness.  Upon  it  is  inscribed  in  hiero- 
gljrphics,  in  demotic  writing,  and  in  Greek,  a 
decree  of  the  Egyptian  priesthood,  assembled  at 
Memphis,  in  honor  of  Ptolemy  V.  Epiphanes 
(B.O.  205-181).  It  is  dated  March  27,  b.o.  195, 
and,  after  reciting  the  numerous  benefits  con- 
ferred by  Epiphanes  upon  his  country  as  well  as 
upon  the  temples  and  the  clergy,  provides  that 
the  King's  statue  shall  be  placed  in  the  sanctu- 
ary of  every  temple,  and  that  divine  honors  shall 
be  paid  to  him.  It  is  further  provided  that  a 
copy  of  the  decree,  inscribed  upon  a  stele  of  hard 
stone,  shall  be  placed  in  every  temple  of  the  first 
and  second  rank.  The  Greek  version  of  the  de- 
cree, containing  54  lines  of  text,  is  well  preserved, 
though  the  ends  of  some  of  the  lines  are  broken 
away.  Of  the  hieroglyphic  inscription,  14  partly 
mutilated  lines,  constituting  about  half  the  text, 
remain,  while  the  demotic  text  (32  lines)  is  al- 
most entire.  The  Rosetta  stone,  by  placing  in 
the  hands  of  scholars  two  long  Egyptian  t^cts, 
representing  different  periods  of  the  language, 
together  with  a  Greek  translation,  furnished  the 
means  whereby  a  khowledge  of  the  long-lost 
tongue  of  ancient  Egypt  was  regained,  and  thus 
opened  the  way  for  the  great  achievements  of 
modem  Egyptology.  (For  an  account  of  the  work 
of  decipherment,  see  Egtptologt.)  Another  tri- 
lingual inscription,  containing  a  similar  decree 
in  honor  of  Ptolemy  III.,  Euergetes  I.  (b.c.  247- 
222),  was  found  at  Tanis  in  1866,  and  has  served 
to  confirm  the  methods  and  results  of  Champol- 
lion  and  his  followers.  Consult:  Letronne,  In- 
scription ffrecque  de  Rosette  (Paris,  1840) ; 
Bnigsch,  Die  Inschrift  von  Rosetta  (Berlin, 
1850) ;  Report  of  the  Committee  Appointed  by 
the  Philomathean  Society  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  to  Translate  the  Inscription  on  the 
Rosetta  Stone  (Philadelphia,  1858) ;  Chabas, 
LHnscription  hi^oglyphique  de  Rosette  (Paris, 
1867) ;    Sharpe,  Rosetta  Stone  in  Hieroglyphioa 


BOSBTTA  STOKSL 


176 


BOSmm-SEBBATI. 


and  Oreeh  (London,  1871) ;  Budge,  A  History  of 
Egypt  (New  York,  1902). 

BOSETTI,  rA-set'td,  Konstantin  (1816-86). 
A  Rumanian  poet  and  politician,  bom  at  Bucha- 
rest. He  served  in  the  army  and  was  after- 
wards employed  in  the  Government  service,  de- 
voting himself '  at  the  same  time  to  literary 
pursuits.  Voltaire,  Lamartine,  and  Byron  were 
translated  into  Kumanian  for  the  first  time  by 
him.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  radical 
agitation,  was  a  member  of  the  Revolutionary 
Committee  in  1848,  and  held  several  public 
offices.  In  1850  his  journal,  Pruncul  romdn^ 
was  suppressed.  He  was  Minister  of  Edu- 
cation in  1866,  became  president  of  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  in  1877,  and  was  Minister  of  Interior 
in  1881-82.  During  his  last  years  he  was  ed- 
itor of  Romanul.  He  published  one  volume  of 
original  verse,  Ceaauri  de  multumire  (1840). 
His  collected  works  appeared  at  Bucharest  in 
1885. 

BOSE  WATEB.    See  Perfuheby. 

BOSE  WINDOW.  A  large  circular  window^ 
usually  with  tracery  and  stained  glasses,  used 
especially  in  Crothio  churches  over  the  portals. 
See  Window. 

BOSEWOOD.  The  commercial  name  of  the 
wood  of  several  trees,  valued  for  beauty,  and 
used  for  ornamental  furniture.  The  principal 
species  is  thought  to  be  a  Brazilian  Mimosa. 
Several  species  of  Dalbergia,  of  the  natural  order 
Leguminose,  are  also  believed  to  be  rosewoods, 
but  in  general  the  botanist  is  still  doubtful,  al- 
though various  kind^  of  rosewood,  imported 
from  South  America,  are  much  used  for  veneer- 
ing, in  making  furniture,  musical  instruments, 
etc.  Rosewood  has  for  a  long  time  been  second 
only  to  mahogany  as  a  furniture-wood.  It  varies 
in  color  from  reddish  brown  to  purple  or  almost 
black,  often  beautifully  marked  with  streaks  of 
dark  red.  When  being  sawn  or  cut  it  yields  an 
agreeable  smell  of  roses,  hence  its  name.  The 
name  rosewood  has  been  given  also  to  kinds  of 
timber  grown  in  Jamaica,  in  Africa,  and  in  Bur- 
ma, (hie  valuable  kind  of  rosewood  is  yielded 
by  an  East  Indian  tree,  Dalbergia  latifolia,  also 
called  blackwood.  It  is  found  chiefly  in  Malabar, 
and  grows  to  a  height  of  about  50  feet.  The  in- 
creasing value  of  the  wood  has  led  to  the  formation 
of  new  plantations,  under  the  care  of  the  Govern- 
ment conservator  of  forests,  in  several  parts  of 
the  Madras  Presidency.  The  value  of  rosewood 
depends  upon  its  coloring,  the  usual  price  being 
from  $50  to  $90  per  ton,  though  exceptional  spe- 
cimens have  sold  as  high  "as  $450  per  ton.  The 
principal  supplies  come  from  Brazil,  the  Canary 
Islands,  East  Indies,  and  Africa.  In  Australia 
the  name  rosewood  is  applied  to  the  timber  of 
Eremophila  Mitchelli,  Dysoxylum  Fraseranum, 
and  Acacia  glaucescens,  all  of  which  are  close- 
jgrained,  dark-colored,  and  pleasantly  scented.  The 
genera  Pterocarpus  and  Machserium  also  supply 
rosewood. 

BOSICBXT^CIANS  (ML.  Rosicrucianua,  from 
Lat.  roaa,  rose  +  cruaf,  cross,  Latinized  from  Ger. 
Rosenkreutz,  Rose-Cross,  the  name  applied  to  the 
society  either  on  account  of  the  emblem  and  pseu- 
donym adopted  by  Johann  Valentin  Andrese,  er- 
roneously regarded  as  the  founder  or  restorer  of 
the  order,  or  because  of  the  titles  'Brothers  of  the 
Rosy  Cross,'  'Rosy  Cross  Knights,*  and  *Rosy 
Cross   Philosophers,'   assumed   by   the   society; 


sometimes  supposed  to  be  a  corruption  6f  Rosoi- 
crucian  or  Boricrucian,  from  Lat.  rosdduSf  dewy, 
from  ro8,  dew  -h  crum,  cross,  since  medieval 
alchemist^  considered  dew  the  most  pow- 
erful solvent  of  gold,  and  the  cross  the 
synonym  of  light).  The  members  of  se- 
cret societies,  professing  to  be  philosophers, 
but  in  reality  charlatans,  who  in  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries  made  them- 
selves conspicuous  by  claiming  to  be  possessed 
of  secrets  of  nature,  including  the  power  to  trans- 
mute the  baser  metals  into  gold;  to  prolong  life 
by  the  use  of  the  .elixir  intop;  to  have  a  knowl- 
edge of  passing  events  in  distant  places,  and  to 
discover  hidden  things  by  the  application  of  the 
Cabbala  (q.v.).  Rosicrucianism  stood  in  some 
connection  with  freemasonry,  and  owed  its  vogue 
in  the  eighteenth  century  to  the  passion  for  secret 
associations  and  for  a  pseudo-science  which  had 
not  yet  freed  itself  from  the  absurdities  of 
alchemy  and  foimd  expression  in  such  forms  as 
mesmerism,  etc.  This  was  the  age,  too,  of  great 
impostors,  who  laid  claim  to  supernatural  pow- 
ers, such  as  Cagliostro  and  the  Count  of  Saint 
Germain  (qq.v.).    See  Andsejb,  Johann  Vaueic- 

TIN. 

BOSIK  (variant  of  resin,  OP.  reaine,  Fr. 
rSaine,  from  Lat.  resina,  resin,  probably  from 
Gk.  'pTfTlmi,  rhitine,  pine-resin),  or  CoLOPHOirr. 
A  well-known  substance  which  remains  behind 
when  common  turpentine  is  subjected  to  distilla- 
tion with  water.  It  is  hard  and  transparent,  and 
has  a  faint  odor  like  that  of  turpentine.  It  is 
soluble  in  alkaline  hydroxide  solutions  as  well  as 
in  alcohol,  ether,  and  carbon  disulphide.  Its 
chief  constituent  is  the  anhydride  of  abietic  acid. 
Colophony  is  used  mainly  in  making  varnishes 
and  rosin  soap,  and  is  one  of  the  constituents 
of  basil  icon  ointment  and  of  adhesive  plaster. 
See  Resins. 

BOSINANTE,  rd'a^-nSn^tft.  The  lean,  raw- 
boned  steed  of  Don  Quixote. 

BOSIN  WEED.    See  Silfhium. 

BOSLAVL,  r^s-lftv^y*.  A  town  in  the  Govern- 
ment of  Smolensk,  Russia,  73  miles  southeast  of 
Smolensk  (Map:  Russia,  D  4).  Its  chief  manu- 
factures are  oil  and  tobacco.  Population,  in  1897, 
17,848. 

BOSLIK,  rdz^Tn,  BOSLYN,  or  BOSSIiTK. 
A  village  of  Edinburghshire,  Scotland,  over- 
looking the  beautiful  valley  of  the  North  Esk, 
4%  miles  southwest  of  Dalkeith.  It  is  famous 
for  its  collegiate  chapel,  dating  from  1450,  and 
commemorated  in  Sir  Walter  Scott's  ballad  of 
Roaahelle,  The  chapel  is  one  of  the  most  profuse- 
ly decorated  specimens  of  Gothic  architecture  ex- 
tant.    It  is  now  used  as  an  Episcopal  church. 

BOSMINI-SEBBATI^  rds-me^nd  s$r-brt«, 
Antonio  (1797-1855).  An  Italian  philosopher 
and  founder  of  a  religious  Order.  He  was 
bom  at  Roveredo,  near  Trent,  in  Tyrol.  He  be- 
came a  priest  in  1821  and  in  1828  he 
founded  a  religious  Order  called  the  Insti- 
tute of  Charity,  whose  members,  known  as  Ros- 
minians,  were  to  devote  themselves  especially  to 
preaching  and  education.  During  the  troublous 
times  in  1848  Rosmini  was  an  adviser  of  Pope 
Pius  IX.  He  was  in  sympathv  with  the  national 
idea  and  looked  forward  with  enthusiasm  to  a 
united  Italy.  He  was  influenced  by  Gioberti 
(q.v.),  who  was  at  that  time  a  member  of  the 


BOSlCmi-SEIBBATL 


177 


Piedmontese  Ministry.  With  the  rising  influence 
of  Cardinal  Antonelli,  Rosmini  lost  the 
faTor  of  the  Pope.  His  work  on  Church  re- 
form, called  The  Five  Wounde  of  the  Church 
(1848)^  and  his  tract  The  Conatituiian  Aocord- 
ing  to  Social  Justice  (1848),  were  put  upon  the 
Index.  His  works  (which  are  published  in  35 
Tohunes)  Aionsed  much  discussion,  'ihey  have 
been  translated  into  English  by  Thomas  David- 
son (London,  1882)  with  copious  notes,  full  bib- 
liography,, and  a  well-written  Life,  "Objective 
idealism,  subjective  realism,  and  absolute  moral- 
ism"  is  the  description  Mr.  Davidson  gives  of  the 
Bosminian  doctrine.  Rosmini's  definition  of 
morality  as  action  controlled  by  absolute  truth  is 
the  basis  of  his  ethical  teaching.  His  system  of 
philosophy  partakes  somewhat  of  Kantianism. 
In  p^chology  Rosmini  was  an  ontologist:  Every- 
thing is  known  in  the  idea  of  not  actual  but  pos- 
sible being,  which  is  inborn ;  dnly  the  determina- 
tive details  of  knowledge  are  drawn  from  the 
senses.  At  the  time  of  his  condemnation  by  the 
(Congregation  of  the  Index  in  1849,  Rosmini  at 
once  submitted  and  retired  to  Stresa,  on  Lake 
Maggiore,  and  there  he  died.  He  was  a  man  of 
exalted  personal  character.  His  industry  was 
veiy  great.  At  the  time  of  his  death 
he  had  already  published  thirty  octavo 
volumes  on  abstruse  philosophical  and  theo- 
logical subjects  and  sixty  volumes  remain  in 
manuscript.  Besides  the  philosophical-theological 
works  of  Rosmini  there  are  in  English  The  Rul- 
ing Principle  of  Method  Applied  to  Education 
(Boston,  1887) ,  and  Maxims  of  Christian  Perfec- 
tion (London,  1880).  Consult:  Stdkl,  Qeschichte 
der  neuem  Philosophie  (Mainz,  1883) ;  Werner. 
Die  italienische  Philosophie  des  19ten  Jahrhun- 
derts  (Vienna,  1884) ;  Lockhart,  Life  of  Rosmini 
(London,  1802) ;  Paoli,  Delia  vita  di  Antonio  Ros- 
mini-Serbat  (Turin,  1880-84). 

BOSKTy  Tt'jiy,  Babon  de.  Minister  of  Henry 
IV.  of  France.    See  Sully. 

B0SN7y  Joseph  Henby  (1856—).  A  French 
novelist.  He  was  bom  in  Paris  and  early  be- 
name  a  member  of  the  Naturalistic  School.  His 
fint  novel,  published  in  1885,  after  some  time 
spent  in  London,  was  Nell  Horn,  a  story  of  the 
Salvation  Army.  In  it  he  struck  the  note  he 
afterwards  sounded  more  strongly,  a  simple  rep- 
resentation of  theorists  and  social  reformers, 
especially  those  in  the  middle  or  lower  classes. 
Possibly  his  masterpieoe  is  Le  bilat4ral  (1886), 
with  its  theme  of  French  socialism  in  the  early 
SO^s,  and  a  style  of  treatment  approaching  Zola. 
In  1887,  with  four  others,  he  attacked  the  gross 
realism  of  Zola's  La  Terre  and  allied  himself  with 
the  (Soncourts.  Beginning  in  1801  he  collabo- 
rated with  his  brother,  Justin.  His  later  titles 
are:  L*immolaiion  (1887),  a  story  of  liie  in  the 
country;  La  termite,  on  literary  life  in  Paris 
(1890);  Daniel  Valgraive  (1801);  L'imp^ieuse 
honiS,  dealing  with  Parisian  charity  (1804); 
LHndompti  (1804),  a  powerful  tale  of  a  girl  who 
studied  medicine  in  Paris;  Le  serment  (1806; 
dramatized  1807)  ;  Les  Ames  perdues,  on  modem 
anarchism  (1800);  and  L'hiritage  (1002).  In 
these  contemporary  novels,  as  well  as  in  the  ''pre- 
historic" Yamireh  (1802),  Rosny's  characters  are 
real  and  striking,  without  being  minutely  ana- 
lysed. 

BOSHYy  litem  Lottis  Lucien  de  ( 1837— ) .  A 
French  Orientalist.  He  was  bom  at  Loos,  studied 


in  Paris  at  L'Ecole  des  Langues  Orientales,  was 
appointed  professor  of  Japanese  at  the  Bibli- 
othftque  Imperiale,  and  in  1863  interpreter  to  the 
Japanese  ambassadors  at  Paris,  whom  he  accom- 
panied to  Holland,  England,  and  Russia.  He 
was  appointed  to  the  newly  created  chair  of  Jap- 
anese in  his  alma  mater  in  1868,  in  1884  was 
decorated  with  the  Legion  of  Honor,  and  in 
1886  was  nominated  assistant  in  L'Ecole  des 
Hautes  Etudes.  Among  his  numerous  pamph- 
lets, text  books,  and  original  works,  some 
of  the  more  important  are :  Introduction  d  V6tude 
de  la  langue  japonaise  ( 1856 )  ;  Les  4critures  fig- 
uratives  et  hi^oglyphiques  des  diffdrents  peuples 
anciens  et  modernes  (1860);  Etudes  asiatiques 
de  g^graphie  et  d'histoire  (1864) ;  De  Vorigine 
du  langage  (1860) ;  Extraits  des  historiens  du 
Japon  (1874-75)  ;  Les  peuples  orientauw  connus 
des  anciens  Chinois  (1882);  Vocahulaire  de 
V6criture  hi&ratique  yucat^que  (1883)  ;  Le  livre 
sacr6  et  canonique  de  Vantiquit6  japonaise 
(1885)  ;  Le  pays  de  dix  mille  lacs,  voyage  en 
Finlande  (1886);  Taureaux  et  mantilles:  Sou- 
venirs d*un  voyage  en  Espagne  et  en  Portugal 
(1880) ;  Le  Taoisme  (1802). 

BOSOLIC  ACID  (from  rose),  G»HmO..  A 
red  crystalline  substance,  melting  above  270° 
C.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  dissolves  in 
alkalies  and  in  alcohol.  Its  alkaline  solutions  are 
colored  red,  while  its  alcoholic  solutions  have  an 
orange-yellow  color.  It  may  be  obtained  by 
heating  a  mixture  of  carbolic  acid  and  cresol  wiUi 
sulphuric  acid  and  arsenic.  Owing  to  the  difficulty 
of  fixing  it,  it  is  not  much  used  as  a  dye. 
Chemically,  rosolic  acid  is  closely  allied  to  aurin 
(q.v.),  and  its  constitution  is  represented  by  the 
following  formula: 

/CeH,OH 
0H.C.H,.C 

\C.H,  =  0 

SOSPIGLIOSI,    r5'sp6-lyo^z^,    Palazzo.     A 

Silace  in  Rome,  built  by  the  Cardinal  Scipione 
orghese  in  1603  on  the  ruins  of  the  Baths  of 
Constantine,  and  afterwards  the  residence  of  the 
Rospigliosi  family.  It  contains  a  number  of  art 
treasures,  and  is  specially  celebrated  for  Guido 
Reni's  ceiling-painting  "Aurora"  (q.v.). 

BOSS,  Au:xA2n)EB  (1600-1784).  A  Scottish 
poet.  He  was  educated  at  Marischal  College, 
Aberdeen;  acted  as  tutor  and  school  teacher  in 
several  places,  and  in  1732  settled  as  school- 
master at  Lochlee,  in  Angus,  where  he  remained 
until  his  death.  He  was  all  his  life  a  writer  of 
verses,  but  his  only  publication  was  The  Fortu^ 
nate  Shepherdess,  a  Pastoral  Tale  in  the  Scottish 
Dialect  (1768),  which  has  a  humorous  preface  by 
Dr.  James  Beattie,  and  contains  several  songs 
still  popular  in  Scotland.  Consult  the  edition 
under  the  title  Helenore,  by  J.  Longmuir  (1866). 

BOSS,  Alexander  (1742-1827).  A  British 
general,  bom  in  Scotland.  He  entered  the  army 
as  ensign  in  1760;  served  in  Germany  in  the 
Seven  Years'  War,  and  attained  the  rank  of  cap- 
tain in  1775  and  that  of  major  in  1780.  He 
served  through  the  American  war  as  aid-de-camp 
of  Lord  Comwallis  and  was  the  commissioner  ap- 
pointed by  Cornwallis  to  arrange  his  surrender  at 
York  town  in  1781.  In  1783  he  became  deputy 
adjutant-general  in  Scotland,  served  throughout 
the  campaign  of  Comwallis  against  Tipu  Sahib 
in  India,  fighting  in  every  battle,  was  promoted 


BOSS. 


178 


Bosa 


colonel  in  1793  and  appointed  governor  of  Fort 
George,  and  became  general  in  1812. 

BOSS,  ALEXAifDEB  (1783-1856).  A  Canadian 
author  and  pioneer.  He  was  bom  in  Nainshire, 
Scotland;  emigrated  to  Canada  in  1805,  taught 
school  for  a  time  in  Glengarry,  Upper  Canada, 
and  in  1810  went  with  John  Jacob  Astor's  expe- 
dition to  Oregon.  About  1825,  after  many  years' 
service  with  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  he  set- 
tled in  the  Red  River  country,  and  held  some 
offices  there.  He  wrote  Adventures  of  the  First 
Settlers  on  the  Oregon  or  Coli4mhia  River  ( 1840) , 
The  Fur  Hunters  of  the  Far  West  (1866),  and 
The  Red  River  Settlement,  Its  Rise,  Progress, 
and  Present  State  (1856). 

BOSS,  AusxANDEB  Milton  (1832-97).  A  Ca- 
nadian naturalist,  bom  in  Belleville,  Ontario, 
December  13,  1832.  He  studied  medicine  in  New 
York  and  took  his  degree  in  1855.  During  the 
Civil  War  he  served  as  a  surgeon  in  the  F^eral 
army,  and  at  its  close  served  in  Mexico  under 
Juarez.  He  then  returned  to  Canada  and  de- 
voted himself  to  the  study  of  natural  history. 
He  published:  Recollections  of  An  Abolitionist 
(1867);  Birds  of  Canada  (1872);  Butterflies 
and  Moths  of  Canada  (1873) ;  Flora  of  Canada 
(1873) ;  Forest  Trees  of  Canada  (1874) ;  Mam- 
mals, Reptiles,  and  Freshwater  Fishes  of  Canada 
(1878) ;  Vaccination  a  Medical  Delusion  (1885) ; 
Medical  Practices  of  the  Future  (1887). 

BOSS,  Edwabd  Alswobth  (1866—).  An 
American  economist  and  sociologist,  bom  in 
Virden,  HI.  He  graduated  at  Coe  College,  Cedar 
Rapids,  in  1886,  and  took  graduate  courses  at 
Berlin  and  in  Johns  Hopkins  University.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  economics  at  Indiana 
University  in  1891,  associate  professor  of  po- 
litical economy  at  Cornell  in  1892,  and  from 
1893  to  1900  was  professor  at  Leland  Stanford 
University,  first  of  economics  and  then  of  so- 
ciology. His  resignation  from  this  post  under 
pressure  in  1900  aroused  some  excited  discussion 
of  the  right  of  academic  free  speech.  After- 
wards he  was  appointed  professor  of  sociology 
in  the  University  of  Nebraska.  His  publications 
include:  Sinking  Funds  (1892) ;  Honest  Dollars, 
a  free-silver  pamphlet  (1896);  and  Social  Con- 
trol, a  Survey  of  the  Foundation  of  Order  ( 1901 ) . 

BOSS,  Edwabd  DsinsoN  (1871—).  An  Eng- 
lish Orientalist.  He  studied  at  University  Col- 
lege, London,  specialized  in  Oriental  languages 
at  the  University  of  Paris  and  Strassburg, 
traveled  in  the  East,  and  after  five  years  in  the 
chair  of  Persian  at  University  College,  in  1901 
became  principal  of  the  Calcutta  Madrasa.  He 
published:  A  History  of  the  Moghuls  of  Central 
Asia — a  translation  of  the  Tarikh-i-Rnshidi  of 
Mirza  Haidar  (1898) ;  The  Heart  of  Asia  (with 
Skrine,  1899) ;  and  a  biographical  sketch  of 
Omar  Khayyam  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  Fitz- 
Gerald's  version  (1900). 

BOSS,  Geobge  (1730-79).  A  signer  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence.  He  was  bora  in 
New  Castle,  Del.,  studied  law  with  an  elder 
brother  in  Philadelphia,  and  established  himself 
at  Lancaster,  Pa.  In  1768  he  was  elected  to 
the  Pennsylvania  Legislature,  and  was  repeated- 
ly reelected.  He  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Indians 
and  strove  to  protect  them  against  unscrupulous 
whites.  He  was  one  of  the  seven  delegates  from 
Pennsylvania   to   the   Continental   Congress   of 


1774,  continued  a  member  of  that  body  until 
January,  1777,  and  signed  the  Declaration  of 
Independence.  During  the  same  period  he  con- 
tinued to  sit  in  the  Pennsylvania  Legislature, 
and  in  that  capacity  did  much  toward  putting 
the  State  into  a  condition  of  defense.  In  April, 
1779,  he  was  commissioned  Judge  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania Court  of  Admiralty,  but  died  not  long 
after  taking  office.  Consult  Dwight,  Lives  of  the 
Signers  (New  York,  1876). 

BOSS,  GEOnaB  Williaic  (1841«-).  A  Cana- 
dian educator  and  statesman,  bom  near  Nair, 
Ont.,  and  educated  in  the  Toronto  Normal  School 
and  in  the  Law  School  of  Albert  University.  He 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1887,  and  at  that  time 
had  long  been  prominent  in  educational  af- 
fairs, and  from  1872  to  1883  had  been  a  Liberal 
member  of  the  Dominion  Commons,  where  he 
urged  reciprocity  with  the  United  States.  In 
1883  he  became  Minister  of  Education  for  On- 
tario, and  in  1899  was  named  Premier  and 
Treasurer  of  the  Province.  He  became  well 
known  as  an  orator  and  lecturer,  and  an  agitator 
for  temperance  reform  and  prohibition.  He  wrote 
Life  and  Times  of  Alexander  Mackenasie,  with 
William  Buckingham  (1892),  and  The  Universi- 
ties of  Canada,  Their  History  and  Origin  { 1896) . 

BOSS,  Sir  James  Clabk  (1800-62).  An  Eng- 
lish navigator  and  Arctic  and  Antarctic  ex- 
plorer, bom  in  London.  He  entered  the  navy 
under  his  uncle.  Sir  John  Ross,  in  1812,  accom- 
panied him  on  his  first  expedition  to  discover 
the  Northwest  Passage  in  1818,  and  participated 
in  the  voyages  of  Captain  Parry  in  1819  to  1825, 
and  also  in  1827,  when  Parry  made  the  highest 
point  north  reached  up  to  that  time.  He  then 
served  on  the  four  years'  expedition  of  his  uncle 
in  his  second  attempt  to  find  the  Northwest 
Passage.  On  this  expedition  the  younger  Ross 
made  himself  famous  by  his  brilliant  sledge  jour- 
neys. He  discovered  King  William  Land  and 
determined  the  position  of  the  north  magnetic 
pole  off  the  west  coast  of  Boothia  Felix  (1831). 
In  1834  he  was  made  a  post-captain.  In  1839  he 
was  put  in  command  of  the  expedition  suggested 
by  the  Royal  Society  and  the  Roval  Geographi- 
cal Society  for  the  discovery  of  the  southern 
magnetic  oole.  In  1840  his  two  vessels,  the 
Erebus  ana  the  Terror,  pushed  throujgh  the  ioe 
pack  southward  of  New  Zealand,  sailing  along 
the  170th  meridian,  east  longitude,  and  on  Janu- 
ary 11,  1841,  he  discovered  in  latitude  71*  15' 
S.  a  new  land,  rising  in  high  peaks.  Ross 
pushed  in  a  southerly  direction  along  the  coast, 
landing  at  two  islands  named  by  him  Pos- 
session Island  and  Franklin  Island,  and  on 
January  28th  came  upon  an  active  volcano  more 
than  12,000  feet  high,  which  he  named  Mount 
Erebus,  and  an  extinct  volcano  more  than  10,000 
feet  high,  which  he  named  Mount  Terror.  He 
then  sailed  to  the  eastward  along  a  barrier  of 
ice  some  300  feet  high,  and  retumed  to  Tas- 
mania. He  named  the  new  territory  Victoria 
Land.  It  is  the  largest  land  mass  yet  found  in 
the  southern  polar  regions,  and  has  been  revisited 
by  several  other  expeditions.  (See  Polab  Rb- 
SEABOH.)  In  the  succeeding  year  he  revisited 
this  land  and  reach^  a  latitude  of  78**  10'  S., 
which  remained  the  lowest  southern  record  until 
1900.  In  the  course  of  his  first  voyage  he  had 
found  open  water  at  a  spot  where  Lieutenant 
Wilkes  of  the  United  States  Navy,  who  had 


179 


BOSS. 


preeeded  him  in  the  Antarctic  regions,  relying 
upon  the  report  of  a  merchant  captain,  had  in- 
dicated land.  Boss,  therefore,  asserted  that  all 
other  reports  of  Wilkes  concerning  land  dis- 
covered in  the  Antarctic  regions  were  untrust- 
worthy, and  thus  arose  a  controversy  among 
geographers.  For  some  years  Wilkes's  Land  did 
not  appear  on  British  charts.  (See  Wilkes, 
Chableb.)  Ross  indicated  a  location  of  the 
southern  magnetic  pole  in  Victoria  Land,  and 
though  his  observations  have  proved  not  alto- 
gether accurate,  his  expedition  was  the  best  con- 
ducted and  perhaps  the  most  important  of  any 
of  the  early  Antarctic  voyages.  He  arrived  in 
England  in  1844  and  was  knighted.  In  1848  he 
commanded  an  expedition  to  BafSn  Bay  in  a 
vain  quest  for  Sir  John  Franldin.  He  was  made 
reftr-admiral  in  1856.  He  died  at  Aylesbury.  He 
described  his  Antarctic  discoveries  in  A  Nar- 
rative  of  a  Voyage  in  Antarctic  Regions  (1847). 

BOSS^  Sir  John  (1777-1856).  A  British 
Arctic  explorer  and  naval  officer,  bom  at  Inch, 
Wigtonshire,  Scotland.  He  entered  the  navy  in 
1786,  and  he  took  part  in  the  wars  with  France. 
In  1818  he  was  sent  to  the  Arctip  regions  west 
of  Greenland  to  attempt  the  discovery  of  the 
supposed  Northwest  Passage.  His  vessel  was 
the  Isabella,  and  he  was  accompanied  by  Parnr, 
in  charge  of  the  Alexander,  He  sailed  along  tne 
west  coast  of  Greenland  to  latitude  76"*  54'  N. 
beyond  the  Carey  Islands,  met  the  Cape  York 
natives  and  ^ve  them  the  name  of  Arctic  High- 
landers, which  has  ever  since  been  applied  to 
them.  Turning  south  along  the  west  side  of 
BafBn  Bay,  he  penetrated  Lancaster  Sound, 
which  he  explored  for  50  miles.  He  erroneously 
concluded  tlwt  it  was  nothing  more  than  a  deep 
bay  and  turned  back,  thus  losing  his  opportunity 
to  discover  the  beginnings  of  the  Northwest  Pas- 
sage. In  England  his  voyage  was  regarded  as  a 
failure,  and  it  was  not  till  1829  that  Ross,  who 
WBB  recognized  as  an  able  and  courageous  sailor, 
was  intrusted  with  the  conmiand  of  another  ex- 
pedition. i» 

He  started  on  another  quest  for  the  Northwest 
Passage  in  command  of  the  small  paddle-wheel 
steamer  Victory,  the  first  steam  vessel  used  in 
Arctic  exploration.  The  steam  power  proved  a 
faUure  and  the  useless  engine  was  thrown  away. 
Boss  crossed  Bellot  Strait,  thinking  it  was  only 
a  bay.  He  discovered  and  named  Boothia  Felix, 
the  most  northerly  extension  of  the  American 
mainland,  and  other  very  important  discoveries 
were  made,  largely  by  sledging  parties  in  which 
James  C.  Ross,  the  nephew  of  the  commander, 
bore  a  brilliant  part.  In  1831  the  position  of 
the  north  magnetic  pole  was  determined.  Three 
winters  were  spent  in  the  ice  of  this  region, 
until  failure  of  food  supplies  compelled  Ross  to 
abandon  his  vessel,  still  frozen  in  the  pack,  and 
make  a  desperate  march  north  to  Fury  Beach, 
where  caches  of  food  supplies  saved  the  lives  of 
the  party.  They  were  compelled  to  spend  the 
winter  here  in  a  house  which  they  had  erected, 
and  in  the  following  summer  (1833)  fell  in  with 
a  whaler  on  which  they  reached  home.  Only 
three  men  had  been  lost  during  this  long 
and  remarkable  journey.  Ross  was  knight- 
ed, made  C.  B.,  and  honored  bj  many 
learned  societies.  In  1850  he  participated  in 
the  search  for  Sir  John  Franklin,  in  command 
of  the  small  vessel  Feliw,  but  returned  home 


after  a  year  of  fruitless  endeavor.  He  was  made 
rear-admiral  and  died  in  London  in  1856.  His 
published  works  are:  A  Narrative  of  a  Beoond 
Voyage,  Including  the  Reports  of  Commander 
James  O,  Ross  and  the  Discovery  of  the  Northern 
Magnetic  Pole  {lAmdon,  1835);  also  a  treatise 
on  steam  navigation  and  many  papers. 

BOSS,  John  (1790-1866).  A  chief  of  the 
Cherokee  Nation  and  a  determined  champion 
of  his  people  in  the  struggle  which  culminated 
in  their  removal  to  the  West.  He  was  born 
October  3,  1790,  at  Rossville,  Georgia,  not  far 
from  Chattanooga.  He  was  of  mixed  blood,  his 
father,  Daniel  Ross,  having  emigrated  from  Scot- 
land before  the  Revolution  and  married  a  quar- 
ter-blood Cherokee  woman,  the  daughter  of  John 
McDonald,  also  from  Scotland.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Kingston,  Tennessee,  and  began  his 
public  career  in  1809.  In  the  Creek  War  of 
1813-14  he  served  as  Adjutant  of  the  Cherokee 
Regiment,  which  cooperated  with  General  Jack- 
son, and  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Horseshoe 
Bend.  In  1817  he  was  elected  to  the  National 
Committee  of  the  Cherokee  Ck>uncil,  his  first  duty 
in  that  capacity  bein^  to  prepare  a  reply  to  the 
United  States  commissioners,  declining  to  ne- 
gotiate for  the  sale  of  the  Cherokee  lands.  In 
1819,  as  president  of  the  national  committee,  he 
was  active  in  introducing  schools,  blacksmiths, 
and  mechanics  into  the  nation.  In  1827  he  pre- 
sided over  the  convention  which  formulated  a 
regular  constitution  for  the  government  of  the 
Cherokee  Nation,  and  was  elected  assistant  chief. 
In  the  next  year,  1828,  he  was  made  principal 
chief  and  held  the  position  until  his  death  in 
1866,  which  occurred  at  Washington.  During 
this  long  period  his  history  is  the  history  of  the 
CHierokee  Nation. 

BOSS,  LiTDWia  (1806-59).  A  Gemum  archae- 
ologist, bom  at  Altekoppel,  Holstein.  In  1832 
he  went  to  Greece,  where  he  was  appointed,  by 
the  Greek  Government,  superintendent  of  the  an- 
tiquities of  the  Peloponnesus  (1833),  and  in 
1837-43  was  professor  of  archfeology  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Athens.  While  in  the  latter  post  he 
explored  the  greater  part  of  Greece,  collected 
valuable  documents,  and  fixed  the  topography  of 
various  classical  localities.  In  1845  he  became 
professor  of  archeology  at  Halle.  His  works 
include:  Reisen  auf  den  griechischen  Inseln  des 
Aegaischen  Meers  (1840-52) ;  Inscriptiones  Orof- 
CCB  IneditdB  (1836);  Die  Demen  von  Attika 
nach  Inschriften  (1846) ;  Das  Theseion  und  der 
Tempel  des  AreszuAthen  (1852) ;  Arch&ologische 
Aufsatze  (1855-61);  and  Italiker  und  Oraken 
(1858),  where,  in  opposition  to  the  discoveries  of 
modem  philologists,  he  maintained  the  Greek 
origin  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Italy.  Consult 
Otto  Jahn,  Biographische  Aufsatze  (Berlin, 
1867). 

BOSS,  RoBEBT  (c.1766-1814).  A  British  sol- 
dier. He  was  bom  at  Ross  Trevor,  Devonshire, 
and  after  graduating  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
entered  the  British  army  and  served  in  Holland 
and  Egypt.  At  the  beginning  of  the  War  of  1812 
he  was  selected  by  the  Duke  of  Wellington  to 
command  a  brigade  in  America.  After  defeating 
the  American  troops  at  Bladensburg,  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Washington,  where  he  set  fire  to  the 
public  buildings  (August,  1814).  This  proceed- 
ing the  English  justified  on  the  ground  that  Amer- 


BO80. 


180 


B088BLLI. 


{cans  had  burned  the  Canadian  Government  build- 
ings at  York  (Toronto).  General  Ross  was 
killed  at  North  Point,  Md.,  while  marching  to 
Baltimore  on  September  12,  1814. 

BOSSy  Sir  William  Chables  (1794-1860). 
An  English  miniature  painter,  bom  in  London. 
After  receiving  instruction  from  his  mother, 
Maria  Ross,  portrait  painter,  in  1808  he  entered 
the  schools  of  the  Royal  Academy.  In  1814  he 
was  made  assistant  to  Andrew  Robertson,  a  min- 
iature painter.  Although  at  first  ambitious  to  sur- 
pass in  historical  compositions,  in  time  he  devoted 
himself  entirely  to  miniatures^  securing  a  lucra- 
tive practice  among  the  fashionable  circles  and 
royalties  of  Europe.  In  1843  he  was  made  Royal 
Academician,  and  on  Jime  1,  1842,  was  knighted 
by  Victoria.  Ross  executed  over  2000  minia- 
tures on  ivory.  His  portraits  are  refined,  grace- 
ful, and  distinctively  characteristic  of  the  indi- 
vidual;  the  color  is  pure  and  rich. 

BOSS,  The  Man  of.    See  Ktble,  John. 

BOSS  AND  CBOM^ABTY.  A  northern 
county  of  Scotland.  The  mainland  portion  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Sutherland,  east  by  the 
North  Sea,  south  by  Inverness,  and  west  by  the 
Atlantic  (Map:  Scotland,  0  2).  The  greater 
part  of  the  island  of  Lewis,  with  Harris,  belongs 
to  this  county.  Area,  3078  square  miles.  Ross 
and  Cromarty  in  many  parts  presents  a  wild  and 
mountainous  aspect.  The  high  grounds  aflTord 
excellent  pasture  for  sheep  and  cattle  and  the 
glens,  in  the  more  favored  portions,  are  generally 
fertile,  producing  grain  of  a  superior  quality. 
The  fisheries  are  important.  The  principal  loch 
is  Maree  (Insignificant).  Chief  towns,  Cromar- 
ty, Dingwall  (the  county  town).  Tain,  and  Stor- 
noway.  Population,  in  1801,  56,300;  in  1851, 
82,700;  in  1901,  76,400. 

BOSSANO,  r6s-s&^n6.  A  city  in  the  Province 
of  Cosenza,  Italy,  situated  on  a  foot-hill  of  the 
Apennines,  near  the  Gulf  of  Taranto,  28  miles 
northeast  of  Cosenza  (Map:  Italy,  L  8).  It  is 
walled,  well  built,  and  defended  by  a  castle.  The 
city  has  a  beautiful  cathedral,  and  an  archiepis- 
copal  library  with  a  valuable  manuscript  of  the 
Gospels.  Alabaster  and  marble  are  quarried,  and 
there  are  manufactures  of  silk  and  olive  oil. 
Population  (commime),  in  1881, 17,079;  in  1901, 
13,555. 

BOSSBACH,  r6s^&G.  A  village  in  Prussian 
Saxony,  9  miles  southwest  of  Merseburg.  It  is 
celebrated  for  the  victory  gained  here  by  the  Prus- 
sians under  Frederick  the  Great  over  the  com- 
bined French  and  Imperialist  armies  under  the 
Prince  de  Soubise  and  the  Prince  of  Saxe-Hild- 
burghausen  on  November  5,  1767.  The  Prussians 
numbered  some  22,000  men,  while  the  forces 
of  the  allies  are  variously  estimated  at  from 
43,000  to  63,000.  It  was  the  intention  of 
the  allies  to  turn  Frederick's  left  flank,  while 
creating  a  diversion  by  an  attack  in  front.  Fred- 
erick, perceiving  the  manoeuvre,  shifted  his  left 
wing,  consisting  mainly  of  the  cavalry  under 
Seydlitz,  so  as  to  meet  the  enemy's  threatened 
attack.  The  allies  were  thrown  into  utter  dis- 
order after  less  than  a  half  hour's  fighting,  and 
put  to  flight.  The  Prussians  lost  some  500  men 
in  killed  and  wounded,  while  the  loss  of  the  allies 
was  more  than  700  dead,  2000  wounded,  and  5000 
prisoners.  The  victory  of  Rossbach  was  important 
for  the  moral  strength  it  brought  to  the  Prus- 


sian cause  at  a  time  when  its  fortunes  were  at 
the  lowest.  Consult  Von  der  Goltz,  Raasback  und 
Jena  (Berlin,  1883). 

BOSSBACH,  August  (1823-98).  A  German 
archseologist,  bom  in  Schmalkalden,  and  edu- 
cated at  Leipzig  and  Marburg.  He  was  appointed 
docent  in  1852,  and  professor  in  1854  at  Tflbin- 
gen,  and  in  1856  went  to  Breslau  as  professor  of 
philology  and  archaeology.  He  edited  Catullus 
(1854;  2d  ed.  1860)  and  TibuUus  (1854),  and 
wrote  on  Roman  marriage,  Ramische  UochtB&its 
und  Ehedenkmiiler  (1871) ;  but  it  is  with  Ghreek 
metrics  that  his  name  is  most  closely  connected 
because  of  cooperation  with  Westphal  on  Metrik 
der  griechischen  Dramatiker  und  Lyriker  (1854* 
65 ;  3d  ed.,  as  Theorie  der  muaischen  Kiinste  der 
Hellenen,  1885-89).  His  son.  Otto  (1868 — ), 
also  an  archseologist,  was  bom  in  Breslau; 
studied  there,  at  Jena,  at  Rostock,  and  at  Berlin, 
where  in  1884  he  became  assistant  in  the  anthro- 
pological museum;  was  professor  at  Kiel  from 
1890  to  1895^  and  then  was  appointed  to  a  chair 
of  archaeology  in  the  University  of  Konigsberg 
and  to  the  post  of  instructor  in  the  Academy 
of  Art.  He  wrote:  De  Senecw  Philosophi  Resets 
sione  (1886) ;  Oriechische  Antiken  dea  archaolo- 
gischen  Museums  in  Breslau  (1889) ;  an  edition 
of  Florus  (1896),  and  many  contributions  on 
mythology,  art,  and  literature  to  the  Pauly- 
Wissowa  Realencyklopddie,  In  1900  he  published 
a  memoir  of  his  father. 

BOSSB,  William  Pabsons,  third  Earl  of 
(1800-67).  An  English  astronomer,  born  in 
York.  He  was  educated  first  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  and  afterwards  at  Magdalen  College,  Ox- 
ford, where  he  graduated  first-class  in  mathe- 
matics in  1822.  At  an  early  age  Rosse  devoted 
much  attention  to  the  study  of  practical  science, 
and  especially  to  the  problem  of  the  best  mode 
of  constructing  the  speculum  of  the  reflecting 
telescope.  The  two  great  defects  which  had  baffled 
opticians  were  'spherical  aberration'  and  ab- 
sorption of  light  by  specula;  and  in  the  casting 
of  these  of  large  size  there  was  the  apparent  im- 
possibility of  preventing  cracking  and  warping  of 
the  surface  on  cooling.  By  a  long  series  of  care- 
fully conducted  experiments,  Rosse  succeeded  in 
discovering  a  mode  of  operation  by  which  the  last 
defect  was  wholly  obviated,  and  the  two  others 
greatly  diminished.  The  metal  for  the  speculum 
of  his  ^eat  telescope  (see  Telescope),  three 
tons  weight,  was  poured  into  the  iron  mold  in 
April,  1842,  and  the  mold  was  kept  in  an  an- 
nealing oven  for  16  weeks,  so  that  the  metal 
should  cool  equably.  It  was  then  polished  and 
mounted  in  his  park  at  Parsonstown,  at  a  cost 
of  £30,000.  The  first  addition  to  astronomical 
knowledge  made  by  this  telescope  was  the  reso- 
lution of  certain  nebulae,  which  had  defied  Her- 
schePs  instrument,  into  groups  of  stars;  next 
came  the  discovery  of  numerous  binary  and  triple 
stars.  The  telescope  itself  is  now  dismounted; 
and  experience  has  shown  that  metal  reflectors 
cannot  be  made  permanently  useful,  on  account  of 
the  rapid  tarnishing  of  the  polished  surfaces. 

BOSSELLI^  rd-zsn^,  Cosimo  di  Losenzo  Fi- 
LiPFi  (1439-1507).  A  Florentine  painter  of  the 
Renaissance.  He  was  the  pupil  and  assistant  of 
Neri  di  Bicci  (1453-56)  and  perhaps  of  Benozso 
Gozzoli.  At  all  events,  he  shows  unmistakable 
traces  of  the  latter's  influence,  as  well  as  that  of 


B088ELLI. 


181 


B088ETTL 


Baldovinetti.  Amon^  his  own  pupils  were  Fra 
Barto  Commeo  and  Piero  di  Cosimo.  In  1480  he 
was  called  to  Home  by  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  to  assist 
in  decorating  the  Sistine  Chapel  (with  Bigordi, 
Perugino,  and  Signorelli).  The  best  of  the  fres- 
coes which  he  then  executed  is  "The  Sermon  on 
the  Mount."  He  painted  there  also  "The  Tables 
of  the  Law,"  "The  Destruction  of  Pharaoh," 
"Christ  Preaching  from  the  Lake,"  and  "The 
Last  Supper"  ( 1482) .  Among  his  more  numerous 
works  in  Florence  are  "The  Coronation  of  the 
Virgin"  (Sta.  Maria  Maddalena  dei  Pazzi)  and 
'The  Miraculous  Chalice"  (Sanf  Ambrogio). 
The  latter  contains  among  other  portraits  that 
of  Pico  della  Mirandola.  Besides  others  in  Flor- 
ence there  are  also  examples  of  his  art  in  many 
German  galleries,  and  in  London,  Naples,  Ox- 
ford, Paris,  and  Saint  Petersburg. 

BOSSEIXOn,  rd'zel-le^nA,  The.  A  surname 
applied  to  two  early  Renaissance  sculptors  and 
architects  of  Florence,  Antonio  and  Bebnabdo 
DI  Mattbo  di  Domenigo  Gambarfj.tj  (1427- 
C.1478  and  1409-64 ) .  They  were  the  yoimgest  and 
eldest  respectively  of  five  brothers  Gambarelli, 
stone-cutters  of  Settignano,  who  established  them- 
selves at  Florence  in  1439.  The  appellation  Kos- 
sellino  properly  belonged  to  Antonio,  but  was 
afterwards  extended  to  his  more  famous  elder 
brother.  Bernardo  was  the  pupil  of  Alberti  and 
possibly  of  Donatello.  His  tomb  of  Leonardo 
Bruni  (Aretino)  in  Santa  Croce  (1444)  is  one 
of  his  best  works  in  sculpture  and  the  prototype 
of  the  fifteenth-century  Florentine  tombs.  The 
tombs  of  Beata  Villana  (1451)  in  Santa  Maria 
Novella  and  of  Filippo  Lazzari  in  San  Domenico 
of  Pistoia  (with  his  brother)  are  also  note- 
worthy pieces  of  sculpture.  It  was  in  architec- 
ture, however,  that  Bernardo  made  his  fame. 
Under  the  popes  Nicholas  V.  and  Pius  II.,  he 
was  employed  in  many  of  the  chief  works  of  the 
day.  He  planned  extensive  changes  in  the 'Vati- 
can and  made  designs  for  Saint  Peter's  which 
were  afterwards  used  and  changed  by  Bramante. 
The  Rucellai  Palace  in  Florence  (1450),  the 
Piccolomini  palaces  at  Siena  (finished  1498)  and 
Pienza  ( 1462) ,  were  also  his  work,  as  well  as  the 
cathedral,  the  bishop's  palace,  and  the  city  hall 
of  the  last  named  town  (1460-63),  the  fortifica- 
tions of  Civita  Vecchia,  Nami,  Orvieto,  Spoleto, 
and  restorations  of  numerous  churches  in  Rome 
and  elsewhere. — ^Antonio  was  the  pupil  of  his 
brother  Bernardo  and  perhaps  of  Desiderio  da 
Settignano.  His  work  was  almost  exclusively  in 
sculpture,  although  the  Chapel  of  San  Miniato, 
which  contains  his  masterpiece,  the  tomb  of  Car- 
dinal Jaoppo  di  Portogallo  (1461),  is  said  to 
have  been  built  by  him.  Other  noteworthy  tombs 
are  those  of  the  Duchess  of  Amo  (Monte  Oli- 
veto,  Naples),  and  of  Roverella  (with  Barocci, 
San  Giorgio,  Ferrara,  1475).  His  also  is  the 
rich  fountain  of  the  Villa  di  Castello  on  the  hills 
above  Florence,  near  San  Miniato;  a  figure  of 
Saint  Sebastian  (1457),  at  Empoli,  which  has 
been  called  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  its  cen- 
tury; the  sarcophagus  of  Saint  Marcolinus  at 
Forll;  and  other  works  at  Florence,  Naples,  and 
Pistoia.  Consult:  Geymfiller-Stegmann,  Die 
Architekiur  der  Renaiaaance  in  Toseana  (Flor- 
ence, 1885-96) ;  Mflntz,  Les  arts  d  la  cour  des 
pape8  pendant  le  XV.  ei  le  XVI,  siicle  (Paris, 
1878-98) ;  and  Vasari,  lAvea,  etc.,  ed.  Blashfield- 
Hopkina  (New  York,  1896). 


B0813BBy  Thokas  Lafayette  (1836— ).  An 
American  soldier  and  civil  engineer,  born  in 
Campbell  County,  Va.,  and  reared  in  Texas.  He 
entered  the  United  States  Military  Academy  in 
1856  and  resigned  in  1861,  before  graduating,  to 
enter  the  artillery  of  the  Confederate  Army. 
After  a  year's  service  in  this  branch,  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  Stuart's  cavalry;  and  in  the  same  year 
he  was  promoted  to  be  brigadier-general  in  com- 
mand of  the  'Laurel  Brigade.'  Rosser  became 
major-general  in  1864,  and  \n  1865  refused  to 
surrender  with  Lee,  but  made  his  escape  and  at- 
tempted to  reorganize  the  Confederate  forces  in 
northern  Virginia.  He  was  captured  soon  after, 
and  after  his  Release  studied  law.  In  1871  he 
was  appointed  chief  engineer  of  the  Eastern  Di- 
vision of  the  Northern  Pacific.  As  chief  engineer 
of  the  Canadian  Pacific  (1881  et  seq.)  he  built 
most  of  the  line  west  of  Winnipeg;  and  in  1886 
retired  to  Virginia.  During  the  war  with  Spain 
Rosser  served  as  brigadier-general  of  United 
States  Volunteers. 

BOSSET^I,  Christina  Geobgina  (1830-94). 
An  English  poet,  younger  daughter  of  Gabriele 
Rossetti,  and  sister  of  Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti.  She 
was  bom  in  London,  and  was  educated  at  home 
under  the  care  of  her  mother.  After  a  life  of  de- 
votion and  retirement,  she  died  December  29, 1894. 
The  poetic  impulse  manifested  itself  early.  She 
addressed  a  poem  to  her  mother  on  the  latter's 
birthday,  April  27,  1842;  sent  two  poems  to  the 
Athewjeum  in  1848,  and  contributed  several  beau- 
tiful lyrics  to  The  Germ  (1850).  Her  pub- 
lished volumes  of  poems  comprise  mainly  Verses 
(privately  printed,  1847) ;  Oohlin  Market,  and 
Other  Poems  (1862) ;  The  Princess  Progress,  and 
Other  Poema  (1866);  A  Pageant,  and  Other 
Poems  ( 1881 ) ;  Poems,  new  and  enlarged  edition 
(1891);  Verses  (1893);  New  Poems  (posthu- 
mous, 1896).  Of  much  interest,  too,  is  Maude: 
Prose  and  Verse  (1860;  reprint,  1897).  She  also 
wrote  many  devotional  pieces  in  prose,  which  cir- 
culated widely.  As  a  poet  Christina  Rossetti  ranks 
high ;  her  only  equal  among  the  English  women  of 
the  nineteenth  century  was  Mrs.  Browning.  She  is 
seen  at  her  very  best  in  her  short  and  intense 
lyrics  like  "After  Death"  and  "Passing  and  Glass- 
ing." Consult  her  Poems  (Boston,  1899),  and 
Mackenzie  Bell,  Christina  Rossetti,  a  Biographi- 
cal and  Critical  Study  (London,  1898).  Her 
Sister,  Mabia  Fbancesca  (1827-76),  was  also  a 
remarkable  woman.  She  is  known  for  her  ad- 
mirable A  Shadow  of  Dante  (1871). 

B08SETTI,  Dante  Gabbiel  (1828-82).  A 
famous  English  poet  and  painter,  the  head  of  the 
Pre-Raphaelite  Brotherhood.  ( See  Pbe-Raphael- 
ITE8.)  He  was  born  in  London,  May  12,  1828,  the 
eldest  son  of  Gabriele  Rossetti  (q.v.).  The  lit- 
erary and  artistic  environment  in  which  he  was 
brought  up  was  stimulating  to  the  boy's  pre- 
cocious powers,  and  at  the  age  of  six  he  had  be- 
gun to  compose  dramatic  scenes.  After  spending 
five  years  at  King's  College  School  and  studying 
in  Gary's  art  academy  and  in  the  Royal  Academy, 
at  twenty  he  became  a  pupil  of  Ford  Madox 
Brown,  whose  influence  had  much  to  do  with  his 
development.  With  Holman  Hunt,  Millais,  and 
others,  Rossetti  worked  toward  the  revival  of 
the  detailed  elaboration  and  mystical  interpreta- 
tion that  characterized  Pre-Raphaelite  art.  In 
1860  he  married  Elizabeth  Eleanor  Siddal,  whose 
peculiar  type  of  beauty  he  has  immortalized  in 


BOSSBTTL 


182 


BOBSBTTI. 


many  of  his  best  known  pictures.  She  died  two 
years  later,  and  Rosaetti  never  recovered  from 
the  shock.  In  addition  to  this  grief  he  was 
much  troubled  by  a  bitter  attack  made  (in  1871) 
upon  the  morality  of  his  poems,  in  an  article  en- 
titled "The  Fleshly  School  of  Poetry."  This  was 
written  by  Robert  Buchanan,  whose  identity, 
veiled  under  the  pseudonym  of  'Thomas  Mait- 
land,'  was  not  revealed  imtil  some  time  after- 
wards. The  charge  was  vigorously  rebutted  by 
Swinburne,  and  by  Rossetti  himself  under  the 
title  "The  Stealthy  School  of  Criticism."  His 
mental  depression  brought  on,  by  1868,  chronic 
insomnia,  for  which  he  sought  to  find  relief  in 
chloral.  The  drug  obtained  an  unhappy  masteiy 
over  him,  which  threw  a  tragical  gloom  upon  his 
later  years,  relieved  only  by  the  creative  play  of 
his  mind,  which  continued  almost  to  the  last  to 
produce  pictures  and  poems  of  singular  beauty. 
He  died  at  Birchington,  April  10,  1882. 

It  is  hard  to  say  whether  Rossetti  deserves  a 
more  lasting  place  in  the  history  of  poetry  or  in 
that  of  painting.  At  twenty  he  wrote  a  remark- 
able poem,  which,  perhaps  better  than  any  other, 
illustrates  the  Pre-Raphaelite  movement  on  its 
literary  side — "The  Blessed  Damosel;"  the  com- 
bination of  simplicity  and  concreteness  with  lofty 
spirituality,  which  makes  it  typical  of  the  aims  of 
the  school  both  in  literature  and  art,  appears 
also  in  another  of  his  early  poems,  "My  Sister's 
Sleep."  The  great  bulk  of  nis  poetry  was  not 
published  until  1870.  In  despair  at  the  death- 
of  his  wife  he  placed  in  her  coffin  all  his  unpub- 
lished writings,  and  there  they  remained  buried 
until  at  the  urgent  request  of  his  friends  he  con- 
sented te  have  them  exhumed.  This  volume,  an- 
other of  Ballads  and  Sonnets  ( 1881 ) ,  and  a  series 
of  translations  from  early  Itelian  poete,  Dante 
and  His  Circle  (1874),  contein  the  whole  of  his 
poetical  accomplishment.  His  only  imaginative 
work  in  prose  was  the  delicate  and  spiritual 
story.  Hand  and  Soul  (1850).  He  made  sev- 
eral attempts  in  ballad  form,  two  of  which, 
"Sister  Helen"  and  "The  Kin^s  Tragedy,"  are 
especially  remarkable;  the  latter  illustrates  his 
dramatic  power  at  its  highest.  A  special  place 
must  be  accorded  to  his  great  sonnet-sequence, 
"The  House  of  Life,"  which  in  its  final  form  con- 
tains a  hundred  and  one  magnificent  sonnets  in- 
spired chiefly  by  the  love  and  the  loss  of  his  wife. 
In  them  the  language  and  imagery  grew  much 
more  elaborate  than  in  his  earlier  work.  His 
poetry  as  a  whole  has  been  called  'painter's 
poetry,'  from  ite  constant  appeal  to  the  eye,  mak- 
ing it  "a  kind  of  poetical  tapestry,  stiff  with  em- 
blazoned images."  Picturesqueness  and  visual 
beauty  are  ite  most  salient  characteristics. 

His  paintings  fall  readily  into  three  periods. 
There  are,  first,  the  small  biblical  pictures  of 
which  "Ecce  Ancilla  Domini"  and  the  "Girlhood 
of  Mary  Virgin"  are  best  known.  Second,  the 
Dante  pictures,  in  which  there  is  a  brilliant 
imaginative  Romanticism,  the  most  importent 
being  "Giotto  Painting  the  Portrait  of  Dante," 
'The  Salutetion  of  Beatrice  on  Earth  and  in 
Eden,"  "La  Pia,"  "Beate  Beatrix"  (National 
Gallery,  London),  and  "Dante's  Dream"  (Walker 
Art  Gallery,  Liverpool).  "La  Donna  della 
Finestra"  (1879)  is  coimted  among  his  ripest 
creations,  but  "Dante's  Dream"  perhaps  shows 
the  painter  at  his  zenith.  Rossetti's  wife  sat  for 
many  of  this  series.  The  third  period  was  oc- 
cupied almost  exclusively  with  the  'painting  of 


the  soul,'  when  he  painted  feminine  figures  fur- 
nished with  poetic  attributes,  the  deeper  mean- 
ings of  which  he  interpreted  in  his  poems. 
Among  these  pictures  the  "Sphinx"  alone  con- 
tains several  figures.  "The  Blessed  Damoeel," 
"Fiammette,"  "The  Day  Dream,"  "Astarte  Syria- 
ca,"  "Monna  Pomona,"  and  others  are  separate 
figures  dedicated  to  the  memory  of  his  wife.  Ros- 
setti's tall  Gothic  figures  are  motionless  and 
silent,  and  are  eloquent  only  through  their  spirit- 
ual hands  and  dreamy  eyes.  He  drapes  his 
figures  in  Venetian  fashion  and  strews  flowers 
about  them,  especially  roses  and  hyacinths.  A 
realistic  picture,  "Foimd,"  an  illustration  of  the 
tragedy  of  seduction,  occupies  the  place  amo^g 
his  pictures  which  "Jenny"  holds  among  his 
poems.  Rossetti  as  a  painter  was  not  particular 
about  details  and  was  often  awkward  in  line,  but 
in  color  he  was  clearly  the  best  of  the  Pre-Ra- 
phadite  group.  He  revels  in  glowing,  sensuous 
lines,  and  had  much  decorative  f^ing.  He 
painted  as  he  wrote,  in  a  mystical,  romantic 
spirit.  Many  of  his  pictures  are  scattered  in 
^glish  country  houses,  and  in  private  collections 
in  Florence  and  in  America. 

His  collected  works  were  published  by  his 
brother,  William  Michael,  in  1886,  and  his  fam- 
ily letters  (with  a  memoir)  in  1895;  also  Pre- 
Raphaelite  Diaries  and  Letters  (1900).  Consult 
also:  biographies  by  William  Sharp  (London, 
1882) ;  Knight  (ib.,  1887) ;  Hall  Caine,  Recollect 
tions  of  Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti  (ib.,  1882)  ; 
Tirebuck,  Rossetti,  His  Work  and  Influence  (ib., 
1882) ;  Wood,  Rossetti  and  the  Pre-Raphaelite 
Movement  (New  York,  1894) ;  Gary,  The  Roe- 
settis  (ib.,  1900) ;  Marillier,  Rossetti  (London, 
1901) ;  essays  by  Sarrazin,  in  Pontes  modemes  de 
VAngleterre  (Paris,  1885) ;  Swinburne,  in  Essays 
and  Studies  (London,  1875) ;  and  Pater,  in 
Ward's  "English  Poete"  (ib.,  1883). 

BOSSETTI^  Gabriele  (1783-1854).  An  Ital- 
ian author,  born  at  Vaste.  He  at  first  dedicated 
himself  to  painting,  but  renoimoed  this  career  to 
devote  himself  to  letters.  In  1814  Murat  made 
him  Secretery  of  Instruction  and  the  Fine  Arts. 
As  a  member  of  the  secret  society  of  the  Car- 
bonari, Rossetti  had  a  hand  in  the  Napoleonic 
Revolution  of  1820«  and  in  his  beautiful  ode  8ei 
pur  hella  he  appeared  as  the  poet  of  this  move- 
ment. When  King  Ferdinand  returned  to  power, 
he  had  to  teke  refuge  aboard  an  English  vessel. 
After  a  couple  of  years  in  Malte,  he  went  to  Lon- 
don in  1824,  where  in  1831  he  was  appointed  to 
a  post  in  King's  College.  He  was  a  most  en- 
thusiastic student  of  the  work  of  Dante  and 
sought  to  develop  a  fantastically  absurd  theory 
according  to  which  Dante  and  the  other  great 
writers  of  his  time  wrote  in  a  sort  of  conven- 
tional jargon  for  the  purpose  of  diffusing  Ma- 
sonic doctrines.  This  is  the  idea  that  actuates 
Rossetti's  Commenta  analitioo  sulla  Divina  Com- 
media  (London,  1826),  and  other  treatises.  Ros- 
setti continued  to  produce  verse  of  facile  inven- 
tion and  intensely  patriotic  in  expression;  his 
Iddio  e  Vuomo  salterio  appeared  in  1840,  his 
Veggente  in  solitudine  in  1846,  and  his  Arpa 
evangelica  in  1852.  He  became  blind  in  1845. 
Three  of  his  children  have  been  prominent  in 
English  art  and  letters  of  the  nineteenth  century — 
Dante  Gabriel,  Christina  Georgina,  and  William 
Michael  Rossetti.  Consult:  Carducci's  ed.  (with 
a  preface)    of  the  Poesie  di  Chibriele  Rossetti 


188 


B088IHL 


(Floreiiee,  1861) ;  the  biography  by  Pietrooola  in 
the  Ccntemporanei  iialiani  (Turin,  1861). 

B08SBTTI,  WiLLiAK  Michael  ( 1829— ) .  An 
English  critic  of  art  and  literature,  brother  of 
Dante  Gabriel  Roesetti.  He  was  bom  in  London 
and  from  King's  College  School  entered  the  ex- 
cise office  in  1846,  b^me  assistant  secretary 
there  in  1869,  and  was  retired  in  1894.  He  was 
doeely  connected  with  the  Pre-Raphaelite  Broth- 
erhood, beginning  in  1848,  and  was  editor  of  its 
organ.  The  €hrm.  He  published  a  version  of 
Dante's /fi/emo  (1865)  and  Fine  Art  (1867),  but 
his  popular  repute  is  as  an  editor  of  poetry  and 
of  material  in  regard  to  the  Pre-Raphaelites, 
and  as  a  biographer.  His  more  important  works 
include:  Dante  O,  Ro99etti  (U  Designer  and 
Writer  ( 1889) ;  Memoir  of  Rossetti  ( 1895) ;  New 
Foewie  of  Christina  Bossetti  (1896);  Ruskin, 
Rossettiy  Pre-Baphaelitism  (1898) ;  Memoirs  of 
Qabriele  Bossetti,  a  translation  of  his  father's 
autobiography  (1901);  the  Collected  Works 
of  D.  G.  Bossetti;  Life  of  Keats  (1887) ;  Lives 
of  Famous  Poets  (1878) ;  and  editions  of  English 
poets  and  of  Pre-Baphaelite  Diaries  and  Letters 
(1900).  His  wife,  a  daughter  of  Ford  Madox 
Brown,  an  author  and  painter  herself,  died  in 
1894. 

BOSSI,,  rte'sA,  Asabta  (or  Azabtah)  dei 
(e.1514-78).  An  Italian  Hebraist,  bom  in  Man- 
tua. In  1574-75  he  published  his  great  work 
M^or  'inayim,  or  'The  Li^ht  of  the  Eyes,"  of 
which  the  first  part  deals  with  the  earthquake  of 
Ferrara  in  1570  and  of  natural  phenomena  in 
general.  The  second  tells  of  the  translation  of 
the  Septuagint,  and  the  third  deals  with  literary 
and  historical  critidsm,  for  the  most  part  in  a 
yeiy  radical  manner.  Rossi  answered  orthodox 
attacks  in  Mazref  la  Kesef,  or  ''The  Refining  Pot 
for  Silver"  (reprinted  with  the  M^'or  '€nayim  by 
Zuns  at  Vilna,  1863-66). 

BOBfil,  Ebnebto  ( 1829-96) .  An  Italian  actor. 
He  was  bom  at  L^hom,  and  studied  law  at  the 
UniYcraity  of  Pisa.  Subsequently  he  entered  a 
dramatic  school,  and  after  having  appeared  in 
various  Italian  cities,  went  in  1855  with  Mme. 
Ristori  to  Paris.  He  acted  there  and  later  in 
Vienna  with  great  success,  and  then  returned  to 
Italy  and  founded  a  dramatic  company.  He  ap- 
peared again  in  Paris  in  1866  in  Le  Cid  on  the 
occasion  of  the  anniversary  of  Comeille.  Having 
▼iaited  Spain,  Portugal,  and  South  America,  he 
returned  to  Paris  in  1875  and  gave  a  series  of 
Shakespearean  representations.  He  also  played 
successfully  in  London  and  in  the  United  States 
(1881)  in  Shakespearean  characters.  Consult 
his  Qvarant'  anni  di  vita  artistica  (Florence, 
1887-89) .  He  was  the  author  also  of  Studj  dram- 
matiei  (1882)  and  of  a  few  plays.  His  brother, 
CTebmbb  Robsi  (1828-98),  was  a  noted  comedian. 

B088I,  Fbancbsoo  dee  (1510-63).  An  Italian 
painter,  known  also  as  II  Cecchino  del  Salviati 
tad  Salviati,  from  his  patron.  Cardinal  Salviati. 
He  was  bom  in  Florence,  and  was  a  pupil  of 
Bogiardini,  Bandinelli,  and  Andrea  del  Sarto 
(1529).  Under  the  protection  of  Cardinal  Sal- 
viati, he  went  early  to  Rome  and  painted  in 
Santa  Maria  della  Pace,  and  in  the  palace  of 
his  patnm.  In  1554  he  was  taken  to  France 
hj  O^rdinal  de  Lorraine,  and  there  was  occupied 
in  the  Cardinal's  Chateau  de  Dampierre  and  at 
Fonta]nd>leau.    His  frescoes  and  easel  pictures. 


full  of  mannerisms  imitated  from  Michelangelo, 
are  in  various  European  galleries. 

B08SI,  Giovanni  Bathbta  de  (1822-94).  An 
Italian  archeologist,  best  known  for  his  contri- 
butions to  the  knowledge  of  Christian  antiquities. 
He  was  bom  in  Rome,  studied  in  the  CoUegio 
Romano  and  at  the  Sapienza,  and  then  received 
the  post  of  scriptor  in  the  Vatican  Archives, 
where  he  was  long  engaged  in  cataloguing 
manuscripts.  The  work  for  which  he  is  most 
famous  is  the  study  of  the  Catacombs.  Not 
only  did  he  map  their  windings,  but  he  made 
the  important  discovery  of  the  Cemetery  of 
Saint  Calixtus,  with  its  Papal  tombs  from 
the  third  Christian  century.  Rossi  saw  the 
great  importance  of  literature  in  connection 
with  epigraphy,  and  for  the  history  of  the  Cata- 
combs utilized  martyrologies,  calendars,  and  me- 
diseval  itineraries.  In  this,  his  great  work,  he  was 
largely  assisted  by  his  brother,  Michele  De  Rossi. 
Supplementing  the  Rom,a  sotteranea  oristiana 
(1864-77)  were  the  Musaici  cristiani  e  saggi  di 
pavimenti  delle  chiese  di  Roma  (1872-96),  and 
the  Inscriptiones  Christians  Urhis  Romof  Septimo 
BiBculo  Antiquiores  (1857-88).  Apart  from 
Christian  archseology,  which  was  the  main  topic 
of  the  Bolletino  di  archeologia  (1863-94,  edited 
and  almost  entirely  written  by  him),  he  was  an 
able  epigraphist.  The  Berlin  Academy  appointed 
Rossi,  Mommsen,  and  Henzen  a  commission  for 
the  publication  of  the  Corpus  Inscription/um  Lot- 
inarum  (1863  et  seq.).  With  Henzen  he  edited 
the  sixth  volume  of  the  Corpus,  the  non-Christian 
Inscriptiones  Urhis  RomcB  Latinos  (1876-94.) 

BOSSI,  PELLEGBmo,  Count  (1787-1848).  An 
Italian  jurist  and  statesman,  bom  in  Carrara. 
He  studied  at  Pisa  and  Bologna,  and  became 
professor  of  law  at  the  latter  university  in  1812. 
In  1815  he  sided  with  Murat,  and  upon  his  fall 
took  refuge  at  Ceneva,  where  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  criminal  law  (1819)  and  published 
Le  droit  p4nal  (1829),  a  very  learned  work, 
which  made  him  famous  in  France.  In  1833  Louis 
Philippe  called  him  to  Paris,  and  appointed  him 
professor  of  political  economy  in  the  Coll^  de 
France.  He  there  wrote  his  treatise  Du  droit 
constitutionnel,  in  recognition  of  which  he  was 
made  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Peers  (1839). 
Rossi  was  sent  to  Rome  as  ambassador  in  1845. 
There  he  became  once  more  an  Italian  subject 
after  the  fall  of  Louis  Philippe  (1848),  being 
elected  from  Bologna  to  the  Roman  Chamber.  On 
September  14,  1848,  he  was  intrusted  by  Pius  IX. 
with  the  formation  of  a  Ministry.  He  opposed 
the  House  of  Savoy  and  planned  an  alliance  with 
the  King  of  Naples,  which  had  for  its  object  an 
Italian  confederation  under  the  Papal  presi- 
dency. The  resulting  impopularity'  of  Rossi  prob- 
ably led  to  his  assassination,  November  15,  1848. 
Besides  the  Droit  p^nal,  Rossi  published  the 
Cojirs  d*6conomie  politique  (1840)  and  other 
works.  He  also  left  many  unedited  writings. 
Consult  D*Ideville,  Le  comte  Pellegrino  Rossi: 
sa  vie,  son  OBUvre,  sa  mort,  1787'18i8  (Paris, 
1887 >. 

BOSSINIy  rft-se^nd,  Gioachino  Antonio 
(1792-1868).  A  famous  Italian  composer,  bom 
at  Pesaro.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  was  sent  by 
the  Countess  Perticari  to  the  Lyceum  of  Bologna. 
His  first  opera  was  composed  in  1810  under  the 
title  of  La  Cambiale  di  Matrimonio,  and  met 


B08SINI. 


184 


BOSTAHB. 


with  moderate  success.  Within  the  next  two 
years  he  had  written  eight  operas,  all  of  them 
poor  and  short-lived.  Tanoredi,  his  first  im- 
portant work,  was  performed  in  1813  at  Venice, 
and  placed  its  composer  at  once  in  the  front 
rank..  Next  came  L*Italiana  in  Algeri  (1813), 
II  Turco  in  Italia  (1814),  and  Aureliano  in 
Palmira  (1814),  each  of  them  inferior  to  Tan- 
oredi. In  1815  he  was  appointed  musical  director 
of  the  Theatre  of  San  Carlo  at  Naples.  II  bar- 
hiere  di  Seviglia^  one  of  the  most  successful 
comic  operas  ever  written,  is  said  to  have  been 
composed  in  20  days,  and  was  first  produced  in 
1816  at  Rome.  Otello  followed  in  1817,  as  also 
did  La  Cenerentola  at  Rome,  and,  La  Qazza  ladra 
at  Naples.  Before  the  close  of  his  engage- 
ment at  Naples  ( 1823 )  he  wrote  Mos^  in  Egitto, 
La  donna  del  lago,  Maometto  secondo,'  and  Zel- 
mira.  In  1823  Semiramide  was  performed  in 
Venice,  after  which  Rossini  went  to  Paris,  and 
was  given  the  directorship  of  the  Italian  opera, 
one  of  the  most  coveted  prizes  in  the  musical 
world;  but  his  constitutional  indolence  unfitted 
him  for  this  position.  In  1829  Ouillaume  Tell 
was  produced,  an  opera  considered  one  of  his 
best  works.  In  1836  he  returned  to  Italy,  where, 
with  the  exception  of  a  visit  to  Paris,  he  princi- 
pally resided  till  1855.  With  Ouillaume  Tell, 
Rossini's  operatic  career  may  be  said  to  have 
closed,  although  his  fame  revived  some  time  after, 
owing  to  his  well-known  Stahat  Mater,  a  popular 
sacred  work,  almost  secular  in  its  musical  style. 
Rossini  was  imdoubtedly  the  greatest  lyrical  com- 
poser of  that  school  of  Italian  opera  which  has 
found  its  most  radical  antithesis  in  the  art  of 
Wagner.  His  music  is  marked  by  stirring 
melody,  brilliant  effects,  and  spontaneous  vivac- 
ity, and  at  one  time  had  considerable  vogue,  al- 
though to-day  only  four  of  his  forty  operas  are 
ever  heard.  For  his  biography,  consult  Beyle 
(Paris,  1892),  Pougin  (ib.,  1870),  Zanolini  (Bo- 
logna, 1875),  and  Stittard  (Leipzig,  1882). 

BOSISITEB^  Thomas  Pbichaied  (1817-71). 
An  American  portrait  and  historical  painter, 
bom  in  New  Haven,  Conn.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Nathaniel  Jocelyn;  in  1838-40  he  painted  por- 
traits in  London  and  Paris,  and  in  1841-46  he 
lived  in  Rome.  Upon  his  return  to  New  York 
City  he  became  known  as  an  historical  painter, 
and  in  1849  was  elected  a  National  Academician. 
He  had  a  studio  in  Paris  from  1853  to  1856,  win- 
ning a  gold  medal  at  the  Universal  Exposition  of 
1855  for  his  "Venice  in  the  Fifteenth  Century" 
(1854).  Among  his  works  are:  "Jews  in  Captiv- 
ity;" "The  Wise  and  Foolish  Virgins;"  "The 
Home  of  Washington"  (1858),  painted  together 
with  Mignot;  "Washington's  First  Cabinet;"  and 
a  series  of  pictures  illustrating  the  "Life  of 
Christ."  He  was  a  conscientious  painter,  but  his 
pictures  lacked  spirit  and  animation. 

nOSBTLANJ},  A  city  in  the  Yale  and  Cariboo 
District  of  British  Columbia,  Canada,  6  miles 
from  the  international  boundary  line,  on  railways 
connecting  with  the  Canadian  Pacific  and  with 
lines  of  the  United  States  (Map:  British  Colum- 
bia, F  5).  It  has  developed  rapidly,  owing  to  the 
rich  mineral  deposits  of  the  vicinity.  Gold  is 
mined  extensively,  and  silver  and  copper  also  are 
found.  A  large  smelter  was  constructed  in  1896 
at  Trail,  12  miles  distant  by  rail.  Rossland  was 
incorporated  in  1897.    Population,  in  1901,  6159. 


BOSSLAXTy  rdsHou.  A  manufacturing  town 
of  the  Duchy  of  Anhalt,  Germany,  4  miles  by  rail 
north  of  Dessau,  on  the  right  bajik  of  the  Elbe. 
Chemicals,  sealing-wax,  paper,  machinery,  wire 
goods,  sugar,  and  bricks  are  manufactured.  Popu- 
lation, in  1900,  10,054;  nearly  all  Protestants. 

BOSSLYN,  rOsOln.    See  Roslin. 

BOSSMASSLEB,  r6s^m«s-lSr,  Emil  Adolf 
( 1806-67 ) .  A  German  naturalist,  bom  in  Leipzig, 
where  he  was  educated.  In  1830  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  natural  history  in  the  Tharandt  School 
of  Forestry,  whence  he  was  retired  in  1850  be- 
cause of  his  political  and  religious  views.  There-  - 
after  he  devoted  himself  for  several  years  to  popu- 
lar writings  on  natural  science,  in  such  works  as 
Der  Menach  im  Spiegel  der  Natur  (1850-55), 
Die  Oeschiekte  der  Erde  (1856),  Das  Was8er 
(1858),  and  Der  Wald  (1863).  His  great  work 
was  an  Ikonographie  der  europ6i8chen  Land- 
und  8ii98was8er-mollu8ken  (1835-62),  with  plates 
from  his  own  drawings  and  in  many  cases  litho- 
graphed by  himself.  Consult  the  autobiography. 
Mein  Lehen  und  Strehen  im  Verkehr  mit  der 
Natur  (edited  by  Russ,  Hanover,  1874). 

BOSTAKD,  rystaw',  Edmond  (1868—).  A 
French  dramatist,  bom  in  Marseilles.  Early  in 
his  career  he  went  to  Paris,  and  produced  a  vol- 
imie  of  verses  of  little  importance,  entitled  Les 
muaardises.  His  first  drama,  Lea  romanesques 
(acted  1894,  published  1899),  was  a  success  in 
the  rococo  style,  followed  by  La  princesse  loin^ 
taine  (1896,  published  1899),  and  La  Samaritaine 
(1897,  published  1898),  "a  gospel  in  three  tab- 
leaux," as  he  called  it,  mystic  and  Pre-Raphael- 
ite. All  these  showed  a  preciosity  of  diction 
and  a  great  talent  for  supple  and  sinuous  verse. 
They  gave,  however,  little  promise  of  the  joyous 
brilliancy  of  Cyrano  de  Bergerac  (1897),  a  suc- 
cess on  two  continents,  and  pronounced  by  Fa- 
guet  "the  finest  dramatic  poem  of  half  a  century," 
though  soberer  judgment  may  pronounce  it  charm- 
ing rather  than  strong.  This  was  founded  on 
the  life  of  an  actual  personage.  (See  Bebgera.c, 
Savinien  Cybano  de.)  Rostand's  next  play  was 
historical.  L'Aiglon  (1900)  has  for  its  central 
figure  and  ineffectual  hero  the  unhappy  Duke  of 
Reichstadt,  "Napoleon  II."  If,  as  is  asserted, 
Rostand's  first  work  is  La  Samaritaine,  he  began 
his  dramatic  development  as  a  disciple  of  Tol- 
stoy and  Maeterlinck,  Rossetti  and  Verlaine. 
Les  romanesques  is  more  like  the  comedies  of 
Musset,  "brilliant  stuff,"  as  Lemaltre  has  called 
it,  "sparkling  with  wit  and  glowing  in  places  with 
a  large  and  easy  gaiety,  frank  light-heartedness, 
and  plastic  grace."  La  princesse  lointaine  has  its 
scene  also  in  Utopia,  here  called  Tripoli,  and  in 
"any  period,  so  that  the  costume  be  pretty."  The 
subject,  the  love  of  the  troubadour  prince  Jaufr6 
Rudel  (q.v.)  for  the  fair  M6lisande,  which  had 
attracted  Heine,  Browning,  and  Swinburne,  pro- 
duces a  result  more  beautiful  as  a  poem  than 
Cyrano  or  L^Aiglon,  but  less  dramatically  eflfect- 
ive  in  presentation.  Besides  these  dramas  Ro- 
stand, who  calls  himself  "the  poet  of  preciosity," 
has  depicted  what  has  been  styled  "a  pastel  of 
Roxane's  younger  sister,"  in  La  journie  d'une 
pr^cieusCj  which  shows  a  member  of  the  charmed 
circle  of  the  Hotel  de  Rambouillet  (q.v.)  occu- 
pied with  the  innocent  artifices  of  a  fashionable 
bluestocking.  Rostand  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  French  Academy  in  1901.  For  a  critical  esti- 
mate of  his  work,  consult:    Filon,  De  Dumas  d 


B08TAm>. 


186 


BOBWITHA* 


Roitund  (Paris,  1898).  The  best  of  numerous 
review  articles  on  his  work  is  in  the  Edinburgh 
Review  for  October,  1900. 

BOSTOCKy  TdefiAk.  A  seaport  and  the  most 
important  city  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  Ger- 
many, situated  on  the  estuary  of  the  Wamow, 
9  miles  from  its  -mouth,  and  80  miles  east-north- 
east of  Labeck  (Map:  Germany,  £  1).  The 
town  retains  its  medisval  aspect.  Of  its  squares, 
the  finest  is  the  BlUcherplatz,  with  a  bronze 
statue  of  BlQcher,  who  was  bom  here.  The 
market  place  in  the  centre  of  the  town  contains 
the  town  hall,  an  interesting  thirteenth-century 
Gothic  structure.  The  twelfth-century  Saint  Pe- 
ter's Church  has  a  tower  433  feet  high.  There  is 
a  fine  ducal  palace.  The  new  university  build- 
ing, a  beautiful  Renaissance  edifice,  was  erected 
in  1887-70.  The  university  library  has  176,000 
volumes.  There  is  a  school  of  navigation.  The 
city  is  one  of  the  principal  Baltic  ports,  the  ex- 
ports being  chiefly  live  stock,  grain,  wool,  and  flax. 
Among  the  manufactures  are  machinery,  woolens, 
tobacco,  sugar,  chocolate,  carriages,  and  chemicals. 
Shipbuilding  is  carried  on.  There  are  also  an  an- 
nual fair,  and  important  wool,  horse  and  cattle 
markets.  Population,  in  1890,  44,409;  in  1900, 
54,713,  of  whom  over  95  per  cent,  were  Protest- 
ants. Rostock  was  a  member  until  1630  of  the 
Ilanseatic-League,  and  long  ranked  in  importance 
next  to  Lfibeck  among  the  Baltic  cities.  The  uni- 
versity was  founded  in  1419.  Consult  Koppen,  Oe- 
Kkichte  der  Stadt  Rostock  (Rostock,  1887). 

BOSTOPTGHIK^  or  BASTOPTGHIN,  rOs- 
tdp^cMn,  Feodor  Vasilievitch,  Count  (1765- 
1826).  A  Russian  general,  bom  in  the  Govern- 
ment of  Orel.  He  was  a  Court  page  of  Catharine 
11.,  and  then  entered  the  army  as  lieutenant  in 
the  Imperial  Guard.  Paul  I.  made  him  a  gen- 
era] on  his  accession  to  the  throne  in  1796,  and 
soon  after  grand  marshal  of  the  Court,  Min- 
ister of  Foreign  Affairs,  and  count  ( 1799) .  Under 
Alexander  I.  Rostoptchin  remained  in  banishment 
till  May,  1812,  when  he  was  appointed  GU)vemor- 
Cieneral  of  Moscow.  On  the  approach  of  the 
French  in  that  year  Rostoptchin  by  extraordinary 
exertions  raised  an  army  of  120,000  men  fully 
equipped,  but,  to  his  great  chagrin,  was  ordered 
to  evacuate  Moscow.  He  was  held  to  have  caused 
the  burning  of  Moscow,  but  in  1823  he  published 
in  his  own  defense  La  v&rit6  sur  Vincendie  de 
M08COU  (Paris,  1823),  in  which  he  declared  that 
this  action  was  due  in  part  to  the  fervid  patriot- 
ism of  a  few  of  the  inhabitants,  and  in  part  to 
the  violence  and  negligence  of  the  French.  It  is 
known,  however,  that  Rostoptchin  set  fire  to  his 
own  house  near  Moscow,  and  that  his  example 
was  followed  by  many  others,  thus  making  him 
virtually  responsible  for  the  conflagration.  In 
1814  be  was  dismissed  from  ofiice.  Subsequently 
Rostoptchin  retired  to  Paris,  where  he  occupied 
himself  with  literary  pursuits.  In  1826  he  re- 
turned to  Russia.  He  died  at  Moscow.  Consult : 
Schnitder,  Rostopchine  et  Koutousoff  (Paris, 
1863);  S^gur,  Vie  du  comie  Roatopchine  (ib., 
1872). 

BOSTOVy  r5fl-t6f'.  One  of  the  oldest  towns  of 
Russia,  situated  in  the  Government  of  Yaroslav, 
on  Lake  Nero,  about  36  miles  south  of  Yaroslav 
(Map:  Russia,  E  3).  The  Kremlin,  which  is 
with  the  exception  of  that  of  Moscow  the  best 
preserved  and  most  interesting  in  Russia,  is  situ- 
ated on  a  slight  eminence  in  the  centre  of  the  town 


and  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  one  and  a  half  miles 
in  circumference,  with  numerous  battlements  and 
towers  of  huge  dimensions.  Inside  the  Krem- 
lin are  situated  the  thirteenth  century  Uspensky 
Cathedral,  with  relics  of  many  saints,  the  white 
palata  used  for  Court  receptions  by  the  Princes 
of  Rostov,  now  containing  a  fine  collection  of 
Church  antiquities,  and  the  old  residence  or  teren^ 
of  the  princes,  dating  from  the  fifteenth  cen* 
tury.  llie  monasteries  of  the  town  and  the  vicin- 
ity are  also  of  great  archeological  importance 
and  attract  many  pilgrims.  Commercially  Ros- 
tov is  of  slight  importance,  its  fair,  formerly 
one  of  the  largest  in  Russia,  having  greatly  de- 
clined, as  a  result  of  the  building  of  railways. 
The  manufacture  of  icons  or  holy  pictures  is  an 
important  industry.  The  mediaeval  Principality 
of  Rostov  embraced,  besides  the  present  Govern- 
ment of  Yaroslav,  portions  of  the  governments  of 
Tver,  Vologda,  Novgorod,  and  Kostroma.  It  at- 
tained considerable  importance  and  its  capital 
was  known  as  Rostov  the  Great.  The  invasion 
of  the  Mongols  weakened  it  greatly  and  it  was 
finally  annexed  to  Moscow  by  Dmitri  Donski 
(1363-89).    Population,  in  1897,  13,016. 

BOSTOV-ON-THE-DOir.  One  of  the  prin- 
cipal commercial  centres  of  South  Russia,  situ- 
ated at  the  head  of  the  Don  delta,  about  40  miles 
from  the  Sea  of  Azov  and  at  the  convergence  of 
three  important  railway  lines  (Map:  Russia, 
£  6) .  The  town  contains  large  grain  storehouses 
and  extensive  flour  mills,  iron  works,  distilleries, 
tobacco  factories,  and  saw  mills.  The  total 
value  of  its  manufactures  amounts  to  about 
$10,000,000  per  annum.  Rostov  is  the  centre 
of  the  grain  trade  of  Southeastern  Russia,  and 
exports  grain  to  the  amount  of  about  $17,000,- 
000  per  annum.  The  fairs  of  Rostov  are  nota- 
ble. The  educational  institutions  include  a  school 
of  navigation  and  a  railway  school.  There  are 
two  libraries.  Rostov  dates  from  1731.  Popu- 
lation, in  1897,  119,900,  including  a  considerable 
proportion  of  foreigners. 

BOSTBA  (Lat.,  beaks).  In  ancient  Rome, 
the  name  applied  to  a  great  open-air  platform  of 
masonry,  from  which  public  speakers  addressed 
the  people.  The  ancient  rostra  received  its  name 
in  B.  c.  338,  when  Mfenius  was  victorious  at  An- 
tium,  and  the  beaks  {rostra)  of  some  of  the 
ships  captured  were  fastened  to  a  platform  already 
erected  between  the  Comitium  and  the  Forum. 
When  Julius  Csesar,  in  b.  c.  44,  removed  the  site 
of  the  Rostra  to  the  west  end  of  the  Forum,  the 
Grsecostasis,  a  platform  for  foreign  ambassadors, 
was  removed  also,  and  the  two  platforms  united, 
forming  one  continued  marble-paved  platform, 
seventy-eight  feet  long  and  eleven  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  Forum.  Statues  of  Sulla  and  Pompey, 
two  of  Julius  Csesar,  and  many  others,  adorned 
the  platform.  The  excavations  made  in  1899- 
1900  about  the  so-called  Rostra  and  Grseoostasis 
have  cast  doubt  upon  the  identification  of 
the  latter,  and  Boni  believes  that  he  has  identi- 
fied the  Julian  Rostra  in  the  arcaded  front  of  a 
platform  of  smaller  size  by  the  site  previously 
supposed  to  be  that  of  the  aureum  (golden  mile- 
stone), the  larger  and  more  prominent  platform 
being  that  of  Imperial  rostra  of  successive  resto- 
rations. 

BOSWITHA,  rfis-vCtA,  HBOTSXJITAy  or 
HBOSWITHA  (C.935-T).  A  Saxon  nun  and 
poet,  of  noble  birth.    In  her  youth  she  entered 


BOSWITHA* 


186 


BOTH. 


the  aristocratic  Benedictine  cloister  at  Ganders- 
heim,  near  Gdttingen,  and  died  there  after  1001. 
She  was  well  schooled  in  literature  and  theology. 
In  imitation  of  Terence  she  wrote  six  plays, 
which  show  some  familiarity  with  the  classics. 
She  also  wrote  historical  works  on  the  deeds  of 
Otho  I.  and  on  the  early  history  of  Gandersheim. 
Her  works  were  found  and  edited  by  Conrad 
Geltes,  and  printed  at  Nuremberg  in  1501.  The 
best  and  fullest  edition  is  by  £irack  (Nurem- 
berg, 1858) ;  there  is  a  school  edition  by  P.  von 
Winterfeld  (Berlin,  1902).  For  other  editions 
and  works  about  Roswitha,  consult:  Potthast, 
BibUotheca  Hiatorica  Medii  ^vi,  vol.  i.  (Berlin, 
1896) ;  K5pke,  Hrotauit  vm  Gandersheim  (Ber- 
lin, 1869). 

BOT.  A  common  name  for  various  plant  dis- 
eases.    See  Diseases  of  Plants;  Fungi,  Eoo- 

NOMIC. 

BOTA  (Lat.,  wheel).  A  tribunal  through 
which  the  Pope,  in  the  days  of  his  temporal 
sovereignty,  administered  justice  in  disputed 
cases  relating  to  the  temporalities  of  the  Church 
throughout  Christendom,  and  th^  more  impor- 
tant civil  cases  of  a  similar  nature  from  the 
Papal  States.  The  name  possibly  came  from  the 
circular  arrangement  of  the  seats  of  the  judges, 
or  auditors  as  they  were  called.  The  existence 
of  this  tribunal  cannot  be  traced  back  with  cer- 
tainty beyond  the  thirteenth  century.  Sixtus  IV. 
in  1472  fixed  the  number  of  the  auditors  at 
twelve,  and  succeeding  popes  gave  them  many 
privileges. 

BOTABY    CONVEBTEB.      See    Dtnamo- 

Electbig  Machinebt. 
BOTATION.     See  Meohanios. 

BOTATION  (Lat.  rotatio,  from  rotare,  to 
rotate,  from  rota,  wheel;  connected  with  Ir., 
Gael,  roth,  Welsh  rhod,  Lith.  rdtas,  wheel,  Skt. 
ratha,  chariot,  OHG.  rod,  Ger.  Bad,  wheel).  In 
plants,  the  flowing  of  the  protoplasm  within  the 
cell  wall  of  certain  plants  and  plant  tissues.  This 
may  occur  when  there  is  a  single  large  central 
sap-cavity  (vacuole),  around  which  the  proto- 
plasm lies,  or  when  there  are  several  vacuoles,  in 
which  case  several  currents  may  be  observed  in 


▲  CBLii  FBOM  A  HAiB  0¥  A  POPPT  {CheUdonlum  majua). 
Showing  currents  In  the  protoplasm  In  the  direction  of 
the  arrows. 

different  directions  at  the  same  time.  (See  Fig.) 
These  movements  seem  to  be  related  to  the  amce- 
boid  movements.  ( See  Movement.  )  If  these  are 
due  to  changes  in  surface  tension,  perhaps  brought 
about  by  oxidation,  rotation  may  be  similarly 
explained.  Nothing,  however,  is  definitely 
known  in  this  regard.  Rotation  may  be  studi^ 
readily  in  the  young  cells  at  the  tip  of  Nitella  or 
in  the  rhizoids  of  Chara,  and  in  the  hairs  on  the 
stamens  of  Tradescantia  (^wandering  Jew*). 

BOTATIOK  07  CBOPS.  The  practice  of 
growing  various  crops  from  one  year  to  another 
upon  a  given  field.  This  practice  is  fol- 
lowed for  the  sake  of  convenience  in  farm 
work,     and     for     the     purpose     of     maintain- 


ing and  increasing  the  fertility  of  the  soiL  The 
theory  of  rotation  is  based  on  such  considera- 
tions as  the  following:  Plants  differ  much  in 
habit  of  growth  and  in  the  proportion  of  the 
different  elements  which  they  draw  from  the  soiL 
Deep-rooted  plants  have  a  beneficial  dSTect  on  the 
physical  condition  of  the  soil  and  are  capable  of 
obtaining  food  and  moisture  from  the  subsoil  at 
comparatively  great  depths,  while  shallow-rooted 
plants  do  not  enter  the  subsoil  to  such  an  extent 
and  are,  therefore,  more  dependent  upon  the  sur- 
face soil.  The  quantity  and  proportion  of  the 
crop  remaining  upon  the  soil  ready  to  be  turned 
under  by  the  plow  differs  with  the  various  crops. 
The  cultivation  of  hoed  crops,  such  as  Indian  com, 
tends  to  free  the  land  from  weeds;  leguminous 
plants  enrich  the  soil  in  nitrogenous  plant  food 
by  assimilating  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air  (see 
Cloves)  ;  and  fall-growing  crops  take  up  the 
available  nitrogen  from  the  soil  and  thus  prevent 
its  leaching  away  by  the  rains  of  winter  and 
spring.  Furthermore,  plants  having  a  long  sea- 
son of  growth  are  better  adapted  to  soils  with  a 
small  supply  of  available  plant  food  than  rap- 
idly growing  plants,  which  need  an  abundance  of 
available  material  during  their  short  period  of 
vegetation.  The  crops  consumed  upon  the  farm 
tend  more  to  maintain  fertility  than  those  which 
are  sold;  and,  finally,  crops  differing  in  season, 
cultivation,  and  growth  allow  a  convenient  ar- 
rangement of  the  farm  work  throughout  the  year. 

BOTATIOK  OF  FLAKE  OF  FOLABIZA- 
TION.    See  Light. 

BOTC^  Abdott  Lawrence  (1861  —  ).  An 
American  meteorologist,  bom  in  Boston.  He 
graduated  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology  in  1884,  and  in  the  next  year  estab- 
lished near  Boston  the  Blue  Hill  Meteorological 
Observatory.  There  he  made  researches  on  the 
clouds  and  introduced  the  use  of  kites  for  weather 
observations.  Rotch  edited,  in  part.  The  Ameri- 
can Meteorological  Journal  (1886-92),  and  in 
1801  was  appointed  to  the  international  commit- 
tee on  the  nomenclature  of  clouds.  His  publi- 
cations include  the  annual  reports  of  the  Blue 
Hill  Observatory  (1887  et  seq.)  and  a  popular 
work.  Sounding  the  Ocean  of  Air  (1900). 

BOTH,  rdt,  Ghbistoph  (1840—).  A  German 
sculptor,  bom  at  Nuremberg.  Although  for  six 
years  a  pupil  of  Sickinger  and  then  of  Knabl 
in  Munich,  he  was  largely  self-taught.  In  1866 
he  attracted  notice  through  the  publication  of 
Der  anatomische  Aktsaal,  an  instructive  work 
for  artists,  and  soon  obtained  numerous  com- 
missions for  portrait  busts  and  statues,  among 
which  were  those  of  Bismarck  (the  first  modeled 
from  life  by  any  sculptor),  of  the  philosopher 
Feuerbach,  the  monument  to  the  naturalist,  Sie- 
bold,  at  Warzburg,  and  some  in  the  military 
museum  of  the  Royal  Arsenal  in  Munich.  His 
impressive  life-size  group  "Dying"  (1899)  was 
acquired  by  the  Zurich  Museum.  He  was  award- 
ed several  medals  and  made  royal  professor. 

BOTH,  Justus  Ludwio  Adolf  (1818-92).  A 
German  geologist  and  mineralogist,  bom  in 
Hamburg.  In  1848  he  went  to  Berlin  as  privat- 
docent  of  geology,  and  he  was  made  professor 
there  in  1867.  Roth  published  Die  Oeateinan- 
alyaen  (1861),  Beitrdge  zur  Petrographie  der 
plutonischen  Oeateine  (1869-84),  and  Allgemeine 
und  chemische  Oeologie   (1879-93). 


BOTSL 


187 


BOTHBOCK. 


both;  Rxtdolt  von  (1821-95).  A  German 
Orientalist  and  Sanskrit  scholar.  He  was  bom  in 
Stuttgart  and  was  educated  at  Ttibingen  and  Ber- 
lin. He  continued  his  studies  in  Paris  and  Lon- 
don, and  in  1848  received  the  appointment  of  ex- 
traordinary professor  of  Oriental  languages  in 
Tubingen  University,  becoming  full  profes- 
sor and  principal  librarian  in  1856.  His  chief 
work  is  the  monumental  Sanskrit-Worterhuch  (7 
vols..  Saint  Petersburg,  1853-95),  compiled  in 
collaboration  with  Otto  von  Bdhtlingk  (q.v.)  and 
published  by  the  Saint  Petersburg  Academy  of 
Sdenoes.  He  edited  Yaska's  Nirukta  (1852)  and, 
with  Whitney,  the  Atharva  Veda  (1856-57). 
His  original  works  include:  Zur  Liiteratur  und 
Otsehichte  dee  Veda  (1846) ;  Der  Atharva-Veda 
inKasehmir  (1875);  Ueher  Yaena  31  (1876). 

BOTHE,  ryte,  Kichabd  (1799-1867).  A  Ger- 
man theologian.  He  was  bom  at  Posen,  and 
became  successively  member,  professor  (1828), 
director,  and  ephorus  (1832)  of  the  theological 
aeminary  of  Wittenbefg.  In  1837  he  was  nomi- 
nated professor  of  theology  at  the  University  of 
Heidelberg,  which  position  he  exchanged  in  1849 
for  a  chair  in  Bonn.  In  1854  he  returned  to 
Heidelberg.  One  of  his  well-known  works 
is  the  Theologische  Ethik  (2d  ed.  1869), 
a  complete  system  of  speculative  theology.  An- 
other book  ia  Die  AnfAnge  der  ohriatlichen  Kirche, 
of  which  only  the  first  volume  appeared  (1837), 
and  which,  by  the  peculiar  standpoint  assumed 
by  the  author  regarding  Church  and  State,  evoked 
many  fierce  counter-treatises.  His  posthumous 
works  are  his  lectures  on  Dogmatik  (1870)  ;  Pre- 
digten  (1872);  Vorleeungen  aher  Kirchenge- 
gekichie  und  Oeechichte  dee  chrietlich-kirchlichen 
Lehens  (1875-76) ;  Ahendandachten  iiber  die  Pas- 
ioralbriefe  (1876-77) ;  Der  erete  Brief  Johannia 
(1878) ;  Theologiache  Encyklopadie  (1880) ;  Ge- 
eehiehte  der  Predigt  (1881);  Geaammelie  Vor- 
trage  ( 1886) .  Consult  his  Life  by  Nippold  (Wit- 
tenberg, 1873-75). 

BOTHEHBTJBO  OB  DEB  TAXTBEB,  r5^ten- 
bo5rK  op  dSr  tou'bSr.  A  town  of  Bavaria,  Ger- 
many, 30  miles  south-southeast  of  WUrzburg 
(Map:  Germany,  D  4).  It  is  a  very  ancient 
place,  and  is  still  surrounded  by  well-preserved 
fortifications.  It  manufactures  baby  carriages, 
toys,  gold,  and  silver  ware,  agricultural  imple- 
ments, and  wine.  Rothenburg  was  a  free  Im- 
perial city  from  1274  to  1803.  Population,  in 
1900,  7923. 

BOTHEBHAX^  rdTH^gr-om.  A  manufactur- 
ing town  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  Eng- 
land, 6  miles  northeast  of  Sheffield,  on  the  Don 
(Map:  England,  E  3).  The  Free  Grammar- 
School,  foimded  in  1584  and  restored  in  1858,  and 
the  court-house  are  handsome  buildings.  There 
are  also  an  Independent  College,  a  mechanics' 
institute,  an  infirmary,  and  two  fine  parks.  The 
town  owns  its  gas  and  water  works,  and  main- 
tains libraries,  a  museum,  and  technical  schools. 
Keigfaboring  coal  and  iron  mines  furnish  mate- 
rials for  the  manufactures,  the  chief  of  which 
are  stoves,  grates,  glass,  and  pottery.  The  town 
dates  from  the  Roman  period.  During  the  Civil 
War  it  sided  with  the  Parliamentarians,  was 
taken  possession  of  by  the  Royalists  in  1643,  and 
retaken  by  Parliament  after  Marston  Moor. 
Population,  in  1891,  42,100;  in  1901,  54,300.  In 
the  vicinity  are  the  well-preserved  remains  of 


Roche  Abbey,  erected  in  1147,  and  Conisborouj^ 
Castle,  a  massive  ancient  stronghold,  mentioned  in 
Scott's  Ivanhoe.  (Ik)nsult  Guest,  Hietorioal  No- 
ticea  of  Rotherham  (London,  1879). 

BOTHEBHELf  rdTH^Sr-m&l,  Petvb  I^sdeb- 
ICK  (1817-95).  i^  American  historical  painter, 
bom  at  Nescopack,  Pa.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Bass 
Otis  in  Philadelphia,  and  at  first  painted  por- 
traits, but  soon  devoted  himself  to  historical 
subjects.  From  1847  to  1855  he  was  director 
of  the  Pennsylvania  Academy,  and  in  1856-59 
lived  in  Europe — for  two  years  in  Rome.  His 
best  works  include:  "Columbus  Before  (Jueen  Isa- 
bella;" *Th^  Christian  Martyrs;"  the  "Battle  of 
Gettysburg"  (1871),  Memorial  Hall,  Fairmount 
Park,  Philadelphia,  a  gigantic  canvas,  one  of  the 
attractions  at  the  Centennial  Fair;  and  the 
"Embarkment  of  Ck)lumbus,"  Pennsylvania  Acad- 
emy. Rothermel  was  a  very  prolific  painter,  pos- 
sessing some  talent  for  composition,  but  was  , 
deficient  in  real  technical  ability.  He  died  near 
Pottstown,  Pa. 

BOTHESAY,  rdth^sft.  A  seaport  and  popular 
watering-place,  the  capital  of  Buteshire,  Scot- 
land, situated  on  the  island  of  Bute,  at  the  head 
of  a  deep  bay  in  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  40  miles 
west  of  Glasgow  (Map:  Scotland,  C  4).  The 
bay  offers  safe  anchorage  and  is  spacious  enough 
to  contain  the  largest  fleet,  and  is  regularly  en- 
tered by  nearly  all  the  Clyde  steamers  to  and 
from  the  West  Highlands.  In  the  middle  of  the 
town  are  the  ruins  of  Rothesay  Castle,  built 
about  1103.  Rothesay  is  a  favorite  resort  for 
invalids  suffering  from  pulmonary  affections. 
Fishing  is  the  employment  of  a  number  of  the 
inhabitants,  and  ship-building  is  carried  on. 
Population,  in  1901,  9,323.  Consult  Roger,  Boihe- 
aay  Castle  (London,  1896). 

BOTHESATy  David  Stewabt,  Duke  of,  and 
Earl  of  Carrick  (c.  1378- 1402).  A  Scotch  lord, 
eldest  son  of  Robert  III.  of  Scotland.  Upon  his 
father's  coronation  he  became  Earl  of  Carrick; 
and  in  1399,  after  governing  Northern  Scotland 
for  more  than  two  years,  was  made  Duke  of 
Rothesay  and  became  Regent  of  Scotland.  About 
the  same  time  he  married  Elizabeth,  daughter  of 
the  Earl  of  Douglas,  thus  jilting  his  fiancte, 
daughter  to  the  Earl  of  March,  and  bringing  on 
Scotland  an  expedition  of  revenge  led  by  Henry 
IV.  of  England,  which  accomplished  nothing, 
thanks  to  Rothesav's  strategy  and  coolness.  In 
1402,  when  he  had  been  regent  for  three  years, 
Douglas,  to  punish  Rothesay's  infidelity  to  his 
wife,  joined  with  the  Duke  of  Albany,  captured 
the  Lord  Lieutenant  at  Strathtyrum  and  impris- 
oned him  in  Falkland  Castle,  where  he  died  of 
starvation  or — less  probably — of  disease. 

BOTH^BOCK,  Joseph  Tbimble  (1839—).  An 
American  botanist,  bom  in  McVeytown,  Pa.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1864,  served  in  the  Civil 
War  as  captain  of  Pennsylvania  cavalry,  and  in 
1867  completed  a  course  in  medicine  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  where,  after  service  on 
the  Wheeler  geographical  survey,  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  botany.  He  held  a  like  post  in  the 
Pennsylvania  Agricultural  College  and  became 
State  Commissioner  of  Forestry.  Rothrock  pub- 
lished Flora  of  Alaska  (1867),  Botany  of  the 
Wheeler  Expedition  ( 1878) ,  and  Forestry  Reports 
of  Pennsylvania  (1896-97). 


B0TH8CKILD. 


188 


BOTBOU. 


BOTHSCHILD,  r6t^shllt,  Eng,  pron,  rdths'- 
child.  A  family  of  European  bankers  and  finan- 
ciers. The  founder  of  the  family,. Mateb  Anselm, 
was  bom  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  in  1743,  the 
son  of  a  Jewish  merchant.  After  some  experi- 
ence as  clerk  in  a  counting  house  at  Hanover, 
he  returned  to  Frankfort  and  opened  a  money- 
exchange  business.  Being  a  man  of  good  char- 
acter and  considerable  information,  he  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  Landgrave  (afterwards 
Elector)  of  Hesse-Cassel.  In  1806,  when  the 
Elector  fled  before  the  French,  he  intrusted  Mayer 
Anselm  with  the  care  of  his  large  private  for- 
tune. The  merchant  fully  justified  the  trust 
reposed  in  him ;  his  fame  as  a  financier  spread, 
and  he  accumulated  a  large  fortune.  His  three 
sons,  Anselm,  Salomon,  and  Nathan,  became  as- 
sociated with  him  in  business,  and  later  on  his 
two  youn^t,  Jakob  and  Karl,  were  taken  into 
partnership.  Mayer  Anselm  died  at  Frankfort, 
September  19,  1812.  All  his  sons  were  made 
barons  by  the  Emperor  of  Austria  in  1822.  The 
T)ldest,  Mayeb  Anselm  (1773-1855),  carried  on 
the  business  at  Frankfort,  where  he  died  without 
issue.  The  Frankfort  business  was  carried  on 
by  the  sons  of  Karl,  on  the  death  of  the  young- 
er of  whom  in  1901  that  firm  went  into  liquida- 
tion. Salomon  (1774-1855)  became  head  of  a 
banking  establishment  at  Vienna.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Anselm  Salomon  (1803-74), 
who  was  followed  by  his  son  Albert  (1844 — ). 
The  third  son,  Nathan  (1777-1836),  founded 
a  branch  of  the  house  at  Manchester  in  1798,  and 
removed  in  1803  to  London.  Large  sums  of 
money  placed  at  his  disposal  were  invested  with 
so  much  judgment  that  his  capital  multiplied 
with  great  rapidity.  Karl  (1788-1856)  founded 
a  banking  house  in  Naples.  Jacx>b  (James) 
(1792-1868)  became  chief  of  the  family  interests 
in  Paris  in  1812,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Alphonse  (1827 — ).  In  addition  to  their  five 
principal  establishments  the  Rothschilds  es- 
tablished agencies  in  many  other  cities  both 
of  the  Old  and  New  World.  Lionel  (1808-79), 
eldest  son  of  Nathan,  and  head  of  the  Lon- 
don house,  was  born  in  London,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Gottingen.  He  was  elected  to  Parlia- 
ment for  London  in  1847,  1849,  1852,  and  1857, 
and  at  each  election  claimed  the  right  to  take 
the  oaths  and  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Commons. 
The  latter  words  of  the  oath — "on  the  true  faith 
of  a  Christian" — he  insisted  upon  omitting,  "as 
not  being  binding  on  his  conscience."  He  was 
then  desired  to  withdraw  from  the  House.  In 
1858  he  was  placed  on  a  committee  which  was 
to  hold  a  conference  with  the  House  of  Lords, 
and  this  was  virtually  the  means  of  establishing 
Jewish  emancipation.  The  Commons  sent  up  an- 
other bill,  and  the  Lords  gave  way,  merely  tak- 
ing measures  to  prevent  the  admission  of  Jews 
into  the  Upper  House.  Lionel  Rothschild  there- 
upon (July,  1858)  took  the  oaths  and  his  seat. 
He  sat  till  1868,  when  he  was  defeated,  but  was 
reelected  in  1869,  and  again  lost  his  seat  in  1874. 
The  descendants  of  the  five  brothers  still  carry 
on  the  large  financial  and  banking  operations  of 
the  firm.  Lionel's  son,  Nathaniel  (1840 — ), 
was  raised  to  the  British  peerage  in  1885  with 
the  title  of  Baron  Rothschild.  Consult:  Reeves, 
The  Rothschilds  (London,  1887)  ;  De  Rchreb, 
Gesohichte  des  Hauses  Rothschild  (Berlin, 
1892);  Demachy,  Lea  Rothschilds  (Paris,  1896).' 


nOTB/WELL,  A  town  in  the  West  Riding 
of  Yorkshire,  England,  4  miles  soutii  of  Leeds 
(Map:  England,  E  3).  It  has  collieries,  stone 
quarries,  and  rope  and  match  factories.  Popu- 
lation, in  1901,  11,700. 

BOTIF^EBA  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Lat. 
rota,  wheel  -+-  ferre,  to  bear)  or  Rotatobla.  A 
group  of  minute  animals,  the  'wheel-animalcules/ 
including  many  of  the  smallest  of  multicellular 
animals.  They  form  a  class  of  the  phylum  Troch- 
elminthes  (q.v.).  They  are  nearly  colorless, 
though  with  pigment-eyes  in  most  cases,  and 
are  generally  microscopic.  They  occur  in  both 
fresh  and  salt  water  in  all  parts  of  the  earth  and 
many  species  are  nearly  cosmopolitan  in  their 
distribution.  They  are  now  regarded  as  highly 
specialized  or  degenerate  worms,  but  their  near- 
est relatives  are  still  undetermined.  Rotifers  are 
only  slightly  elongated  animals,  covered  with  a 
smooth,  hard,  chitinous  cuticle,  generally  marked 
off  into  six  folds  or  sections,  but  there  is  no  in- 
ternal evidence  of  any  true  segmentation.  The 
body  usually  ends  in  a  prolongation  popularly 
called  a  ^ail,'  but  known  to  zoologists  as  the 
'foot.'  It  is  composed  of  muscular  and  glandular 
tissues  and  often  terminates  in  a  pair  of  forceps 
by  which  the  animal  can  attach  itself  to  leaves 
and  other  objects.  At  the  anterior  end  of  the 
body  are  a  pair  of  ciliated  disks,  with  the  mouth 
between  them.  These  disks  are  rarely  circular 
in  outline,  but  are  usually  lobed  on  the  margin,  or 
may  even  be  separated  into  two  disks.  The  mar- 
gin of  each  disk  is  surrounded  by  one  or  two 
bands  of  cilia,  by  means  of  the  constant  movement 
of  which  food  is  collected  and  swept  into  the 
mouth,  and  this  movement  is  so  rapid  and  uni- 
form that  the  entire  disk  appears  to  revolve,  and 
thus  have  arisen  the  various  names  of  the  group. 
Not  only  do  these  ciliated  organs  serve  for  col- 
lecting the  food,  but  they  are  also  the  means  of 
locomotion,  rotifers  swimming  about  g^racefuUy, 
though  not  with  remarkable  rapidity,  by  means 
of  them.  They  are  entirely  under  the  control  of 
the  animal.  The  digestive  apparatus  is  well  de- 
veloped in  the  female,  but  in  the  males  it  con- 
sists of  only  the  pharynx  and  cloaca.  The 
nervous  system  consists  of  a  cerebral  ganglion 
with  radiating  fibres.  Eyes  are  also  present  in 
many  rotifers,  but  they  are  merely  pigment  spots, 
rarely  provided  with  a  lens.  There  is  no  circu- 
latory system,  but  excretory  organs  are  well  de- 
veloped. The  female  reproductive  organs  consist 
of  a  round  or  oval  ovary,  lying  beside  the  stom- 
ach, and  an  oviduct  opening  into  the  cloaca.  Two 
different  kinds  of  eggs  are  produced,  thin-shelled 
summer  eggs  and  thick-shelled  winter  eggs.  ( See 
Eoo.)  Males  are  very  rare,  and  in  many  species 
are  as  yet  unknown  to  science.  They  are  much 
smaller  than  the  females  and  of  much  simpler 
organization,  and  are  produced  mostly  by  the 
last  laying  of  small  summer  ^gs,  each  season. 
The  males  are  very  short-lived  and  hence  have 
little  need  of  a  digestive  canal.  Consult :  Parker 
and  Haswell,  Text-Book  of  Zoology  (New  York, 
1897) ;  Hudson  and  Gosse,  The  Rotifera  or  Wheel 
Animalcules  (London,  1889).  For  an  account  of 
the  rotifers  of  the  United  States,  consult  Jen- 
ning,  "Rotatoria  of  the  United  States,"  in  BuUe- 
tins  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission  for 
1899  (Washington,  1900). 

BOTBOU,  rft'tro^,  Jeaw  de  (1609-60).  A 
French  dramatist,  bom  in  Dreux.  At  nineteen 
he  was  successful  on  the  stage  with  L'hypooondri-' 


B0TB0T7. 


189 


BOTTL 


aque, '  About  1635  Richelieu  made  him  one 
of  the  famous  five  employed  to  write  tragediea 
from  his  plots.  Rotrou's  earlier  plays  were  mostly 
based  on  Spanish  dramas,  especially  on  those  of 
Lope  de  Vega;  and  at  a  later  period  he  was  more 
clearly  under  classical  influence.  Comeille  also 
influenced  him  considerably.  The  more  important 
of  his  plays  are:  La  hague  d'ouhli  (1035); 
CUaginor  ei  DorisUe  (1635)  ;  Venceslaa  (1648), 
a  tragedy  which  long  held  the  stage;  and  Coaro^a 
(1648),  probably  his  best  tragedy.  A  complete 
edition  was  brought  out  by  Viollet-le-Duc  ( Paris, 
1820  et  seq.).  Ck)nsult:  Jarry,  Eaaai  (Paris^ 
1868) ;  Chardon,  La  vie  de  Rotrou  (ib.,  1884). 

BbTSCHEBy  rSt^sh^,  Heinbich  Thbodob 
(1863-71):  A  German  dramatic  critic.  He  was 
bom  in  Mittenwalde,  studied  at  Berlin  and  Leip- 
zig, and  from  1828  to  1845  was  professor  in 
the  Gymnasium  of  Bromberg.  Then  he  became 
dramatic  critic  to  the  Spenerache  Zeitung  of 
Berlin.  His  principal  work  is  the  Kunat  der 
dramatiachen  Daratellung  (1841-46;  2d  ed. 
1864).  Among  his  works  may  be  men- 
tioned Ariatophanea  und  aein  Zeitalter  (1827) 
and  Ahhandlungen  zur  Philoaophie  der  Kunat 
(1837-47),  both  strongly  tinged  with  Hegelian- 
ism;  Shakespeare  in  aeinen  hbchaien  Charakter-- 
gebUden  (1864)  ;  Dramaiurpiache  und  aathetiache 
Ahhandlungen  (1664-67) ;  and  Seydelmanna  Lehen 
undWirken  (1845). 

BOTTENHAMKEB,  r6Vten-ham'$r,  Johann 
(1564-1623).  A  German  historical  painter,  bom 
at  Munich.  He  was  a  pupil  there  of  Hans  Do- 
nauer  from  1582  to  1590,  studied  afterwards  in 
Venice  after  Tintoretto,  went  thence  to  Rome  in 
1605,  and  settled  at  Augsburg  in  1607.  His  best 
pictures  are  those  on  a  small  scale,  to  be  found 
m  all  the  principal  galleries  of  Europe.  He  ^up- 
plied  the  figures  in  some  of  the  landscapes  of 
Jan  Breughel  and  Paul  Bril.  A  good  example  of 
his  early  style,  in  which  he  approaches  Tintoretto, 
is  the  "Death  of  Adonis,"  in  the  Louvre.  Among 
his  best  works  are  those  painted  for  Emperor 
Rudolph  II.,  including  a  "Nativity"  (1608), 
"Battle  Between  Centaurs  and  Lapithe,"  and 
four  others,  in  the  Vienna  Museum. 

BOTTEH  BOW.  A  fashionable  bridle-path 
in  Hyde  Park,  London,  00  feet  wide,  extending 
for  a  mile  and  a  half  from  Hyde  Park  (Domer  to 
Kensington  Gate,  along  the  south  side  of  the 
Serpentine.  It  runs  parallel  with  the  driveway, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  promenade 
fringed  with  turf.  Some  of  the  most  brilliant 
displays  of  fashion  and  wealth  in  London  are  to 
be  seen  here  on  fine  afternoons  during  the  sea- 
son, and  at  the  church  parade  on  Sundays.  The 
name  is  supposed  to  be  aerived  from  Route  de  Roi 
or  King's  Drive. 

BOTTEK-STOHE.  A  soft  abrasive  material 
that  is  used  for  cleaning  and  polishing  brass  and 
other  metals,  and  wood.  It  is  supposed  to  be  a 
decomposed  siliceous  limestone,  and  consists  es- 
sentially of  aluminum  silicate  with  carbonaceous 
matter.  Several  localities  in  Derbyshire,  Eng- 
land, in  Wales,  and  near  Albany,  N.  Y.,  in  the 
United  States,  are  the  principal  sources. 

BOIVTEBDAK,  Dutch  pron,  rdt'tSr-d&m^ 
The  second  largest  city  and  chief  commercial  port 
of  the  Netherlands,  situated  in  the  Province  of 
South  Holland,  on  the  Meuse  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Rotte,  about  15  miles  southeast  of  The  Hague 
and  44  miles   south-southwest   of    Amsterdam 


(Map:  Netherlands,  0  3).  It  is  divided  into  two 
parts  by  the  Hoog  Straat  (High  Street)  and  is 
intersected  by  an  iron  railway  viaduct.  Adjoin- 
ing the  old  city  on  all  sides  are  the  new  quarters 
which  have  sprung  up  on  the  southern  as  well 
as  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  river  and  are  gen- 
erally well  laid  out.  Along  the  Meuse  extends 
the  beautiful  quay  known  as  the  Boompjes,  on 
account  of  its  many  trees.  The  principal  square 
is  the  Groote  Markt.  Rotterdam  has  few  eccle- 
siastical buildings  of  interest.  The  Groote  Kerk 
is  a  fifteenth-century  brick  edifice,  built  in  the 
Gothic  style  and  containing  an  organ  notable  for 
its  size,  and  many  moniunenta  to  Dutch  naval 
heroes. 

Among  the  secular  buildings  the  following  de- 
serve mention:  the  exchange,  a  sandstone  build- 
ing of  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
with  an  exterior  court,  and  a  tower  containing  a 
set  of  chimes;  the  town  hall;  the  court-house; 
and  the  post-ofiice.  On  the  northern  side  of  the 
town  is  the  Delft  Gate,  the  only  one  remaining 
of  the  old  city.  Beyond  it  is  situated  the  fine 
zoological  and  botanical  garden,  founded  in  1857. 
West  of  the  city  is  a  fine  park.  The  principal 
collection  of  Rotterdam  is  the  large  picture  gal- 
lery in  the  Bojrman's  Museum,  containing  numer- 
ous excellent  paintings  and  drawings  by  Dutch 
masters.  In  the  ground  floor  of  the  museum  are 
the  municipal  archives  and  library.  There  are 
also  interesting  collections  in  the  maritime  mu- 
seum. The  municipality  operates  gas  and  elec- 
tric plants  and  maintains  a  pawnshop.  The 
water  supply  is  obtained  from  the  Meuse  and  is 
purified  by  filtration. 

The  principal  industry  is  shipbuilding;  of 
some  importance  are  the  manufactures  of  cigars, 
spirits,  paints,  and  other  chemicals,  and  sugar. 
The  Rotterdam  system  of  docks  and  harbors  is 
among  the  most  extensive  in  the  world.  A 
canalized  arm  of  the  Meuse  known  as  the  Nieuwe 
Waterweg  extends  from  Rotterdam  to  the  North 
Sea.  The  position  of  Rotterdam  makes  it  the 
centre  of  the  maritime  as  well  as  of  the  Rhine 
and  Meuse  trade  of  the  Netherlands.  Its  coul- 
raerce  shows  an  extraordinary  increase  from  1850 
to  1900.  Its  share  in  the  shipping  of  the  country 
in  1000  amounted  to  63  per  cent,  (or  5,816,928 
tons)  of  the  tonnage  entered  and  47  per  cent,  (or 
2,191,614  tons)  of  the  tonnage  cleared. 

The  chief  imports  are  grain,  ores  and  metals, 
petroleum,  coffee,  tobacco  and  cigars,  tea,  and 
skins.  The  exports  consist  chiefly  of  the  above 
mentioned  articles  and  include  also  timber  and 
animal  products.  Rotterdam  has  regular  steam 
communication  with  the  principal  seaports  of 
Europe  as  well  as  with  the  United  States,  Dutch 
East  Indies,  and  Africa.  The  population  in- 
creased more  than  50  per  cent,  from  1890  to  1900, 
on  account  of  the  annexation  of  the  adjacent  com- 
munities. It  rose  from  203,701  in  1889  to  318,507 
in  1900.    The  inhabitants  are  mostly  Protestants. 

Rotterdam  received  municipal  rights  in  1299 
and  grew  so  rapidly  that  its  boundary  lines  were 
repeatedly  extended.  It  gained  its  commercial 
ascendency  during  the  nineteenth  century. 

BOTTI,  rdt^t^.  An  island  qf  the  Dutch  East 
Indies,  situated  near  the  southwestern  end  of 
Timor  (Map:  East  Indies,  F  7).  It  has  an  area 
of  637  square  miles.  It  is  fertile  and  well 
watered,  producing  rice,  tobacco,  sugar,  cotton, 
and  indigo.  The  island  is  still  ruled  by  native 
chiefs  under  the  supervision  of  a  Dutch  resident 


BOTTI. 


190 


BOTTEN. 


at  Ban,  and  forms  a  part  of  the  Dutch  residency 
of  Timor.  The  population  is  estimated  at  80,000, 
principally  Malays. 

BOTTMANN,  rfit'mftn,  Karl  (1798-1850). 
A  noted  German  landscape  painter,  born  at  Hand- 
schuchsheim,  near  Heidelberg.  He  formed  him- 
self chiefly  through  the  study  of  nature  and  of 
great  masterworks,  and  after  gaining  prominence 
by  "Heidelberg  at  Sunset"  (water  color),  and 
"Castle  Eltz,"  he  settled  in  Munich  (1822),  de- 
voting himself  to  Bavarian  scenery.  His  success 
in  characterizing  the  main  features  of  a  land- 
scape, and  producing  ideal  effects  in  line  and 
color,  created  a  new  epoch  in  landscape  painting. 
Ihiring  his  travels  in  Italy  (1826-28)  he  made 
sketches  for  the  28  Italian  landscapes  in  fresco 
which  he  was  commissioned  to  paint  in  the  ar- 
cades of  the  Hofgarten  at  Munich  (1829-33)  and 
which  constitute  Rottmann*s  most  sterling  work, 
but  unfortunately  deteriorated  under  climatic  in- 
fluences. The  cartoons  for  them  are  in  the  Darm- 
stadt Gallery.  In  1834-35  he  was  in  Greece,  and 
the  results  of  this  journey  were  23  Greek  land- 
scapes, which  were  placed  in  a  special  room  in 
the  New  Pinakothek,  Munich.  Of  his  easel  pic- 
tures "Ammer  Lake"  and  "Marathon"  are  in  the 
National  Gallery,  Berlin;  "The  Acropolis  of  Sik- 
yon"  and  "Corfu"  in  the  Pinakothek,  Munich; 
others  in  the  Schack  Gallery,  Munich,  and  in 
Karlsruhe;  and  seven  in  the  Leipzig  Museum. 
Consult:  Pecht,  Deutsche  Kunstler,  ii.  (Nord- 
lingen,  1879) ;  and  Regnet,  in  Dohme,  Kiinst  und 
K'unatler,  iv.  (Leipzig,  1885). 

EOTY,  r6't^',  Louis  Oscab  (1846—).  A 
French  medalist  and  engraver,  bom  in  Paris.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Ponscarme  and  Dumont,  and  won 
the  Prix  de  Rome  in  1875.  His  subjects  are 
treated  with  remarkable  skill  in  obtaining  the 
most  delicate  results.  His  portraits  are  also 
admirable.  With  Chapu,  Degeorge,  and  Chaplin, 
he  ranks  as  the  greatest  reviver  of  medallic  art  in 
France  during  the  last  century. 

BOUABIE^  T756'k'T^,  ^LkBQUls  OF.  See  Ab- 
ICAND,  Chables. 

BOUBAIX^  r<3o'b&'.  A  manufacturing  town 
in  the  Department  of  Nord,  France,  7^  miles 
northeast  of  Lille  ( Map :  France,  K  1 ) .  Its  rise 
dates  from  the  first  quarter  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  when  its  population  was  9000  and  rapid- 
ly increased  after  the  establishment  of  modern 
textile  industries.  The  annual  value  of  its  tex- 
tiles is  over  $80,000,000.  There  are  also  other 
manufactures.  The  town  possesses  the  important 
Ecole  Nationale  des  Arts  Industriels.  Popula- 
tion, in  1901,  124,365. 

BOTJBILLAC^  rTJo'bd'y&k',  or  BOTJBILLIAG, 
Loui/s  Fban^ois  (1695-1762).  A  French  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Lyons,  France.  He  studied  under 
Nicolas  Coustou  and  then  under  Balthazar.  About 
1738  he  settled  in  England,  where  he  executed 
many  well-known  works.  His  most  important 
monuments  are  those  of  John  Campbell,  Duke  of 
Argyll,  of  Mrs.  Nightingale,  and  of  Handel 
(1761),  in  Westminster  Abbey;  the  statue  of 
Newton  (1755)  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge; 
and  the  statue  of  Shakespeare  (1758),  in  the 
British  Museum.  Among  his  busts  from  life, 
which  are  his  best  w^orks,  are  those  of  Hogarth 
(National  Portrait  Gallery),  Garrick  (Garrick 
Club),  and  Handel  (Foundling  Hospital),  all  in 
London.    His  style  is  mannered,  but  is  not  with- 


out grace,  and  his   portrait  busts  are  highly 
characteristic. 

BOUGOUYENNE^  roo'kas'y&i'.  A  tribe  of 
Cariban  stock  (q.v.)  in  the  mountain  country 
about  the  headwaters  of  Maroni  River,  French 
Guiana.  They  take  their  name  from  the  roucou, 
a  vegetable  coloring  matter  with  which  they  paint 
their  skins.  They  are  naturally  of  light  com- 
plexion. Marriages  of  father  and  daughter  and 
of  brother  and  sister  are  said  to  be  common 
among  them. 

BOTTEN,  r^'ftN'.  The  capital  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Seine- Inf^rieure,  France,  on  the  Seine, 
87  miles  northwest  of  Paris  by  rail  (Map: 
France,  H  2).  It  is  one  of  the  principal  manu- 
facturing and  trading  cities  of  France.  It  stands 
on  the  north  bank  of  the  river,  on  level  ground 
slightly  rising  toward  the  east.  Some  of  the 
streets  are  regularlv  built,  traversed  by  street 
railways,  and  lined  by  fine  modem  stone  houses, 
but  the  majority  are  of  the  medieval,  ill-built, 
and  narrow  though  picturesque  order,  crowded 
with  lofty,  quaintly  carved  timbered  houses  with 
overhangmg  gables.  A  stone  bridge  and  a  sus- 
X)ension  bridge  connect  the  faubourg  Saint  Sever, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  river.  A  viaduct  across 
the  river  connects  the  Western  with  the  Orleans 
railway.  The  site  of  the  former  encircling  ram- 
parts is  now  occupied  by  spacious,  tree-bordered 
boulevards,  which,  as  well  as  the  quays  that  line 
the  river  banks  for  a  distance  of  a  mile  and  a 
half,  rival  the  boulevards  and  quays  of  Paris. 

Rouen  is  noted  for  its  ecclesiastical  architec- 
ture, of  which  the  finest  specimens  are  the  Cathe- 
dral and  the  Church  of  Saint  Ouen.  The  former 
is  a  remarkably  fine  specimen  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture. It  is  of  cruciform  shape  and  has  two 
towers  at  the  sides  of  the  west  entrance,  and  a 
lofty  but  incongruous  tower,  464  feet  high, 
which  was  constructed  after  the  destruction  by 
fire  in  1822  of  the  belfry,  which  bore  the  date  of 
1544.  The  cathedral  was  erected  by  Philip 
Augustus  between  1200  and  1220,  and  contains 
in  its  25  highly  ornamented  chapels  numerous 
monuments  of  great  interest.  The  Church  of 
Saint  Ouen  is  as  large  as  the  cathedral  and  in  its 
restored  state  presents  a  pure  and  elegant  speci- 
men of  Gothic  architecture.  Other  notable 
churches  are  the  fifteenth-century  flamboyant 
Gothic  Church  of  Saint  Maclou,  the  sixteenth- 
century  churches  of  Saint  Vincent,  Saint  Godard, 
and  Saint  Patrice,  and  the  restored  Romanesque 
Church  of  Saint  Gervais,  with  a  fourth-century 
crypt.  Of  the  secular  buildings  the  finest  are 
the  Palais  de  Justice,  belonging  to  the  fifteenth 
century  and  built  for  the  Parliament  of  the  prov- 
ince; the  Hotel  de  Ville,  with  its  well-equipped 
public  library  and  its  gallery  of  pictures;  the 
Hotel  Dieu  or  hospital,  one  of  the  largest  of  its 
kind;  the  ^fteenth-century  Hotel  Bourgthe- 
roulde  (now  used  as  a  bank)  ornamented  with 
historical  reliefs;  and  the  striking  fourteenth- 
century  belfry  or  Tour  de  la  Grosse  Horloge,  with 
its  double-dialed  and  richly  sculptured  clock  on 
a  sixteenth-century  arch  spanning  the  street.  The 
finest  square  is  the  Place  de  I'HOtel  de  Ville. 
Joan  of  Arc  was  burned  in  the  Place  du  Vieux 
March6  (since  1902  decorated  with  a  fine  me- 
morial of  the  Maid  of  Orleans),  and  not  in  the 
Place  de  la  Pueelle,  where  a  mean-looking  statue 
marks  the  spot  that  was  long  pointed  out  as  the 
site  of  her  martyrdom.     The  town  possesses  a 


BOUEir. 


191 


BOnOE  ET  NOIB. 


miueiiin  with  valuable  art  and  other  collections, 
including  a  library  of  140,000  volumes.  Rouen 
is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop. 

The  artificially  deepened  waters  of  the  Seine 
fonn  a  commodious  port  admitting  vessels  of 
5,000  tons.  There  is  a  large  export  and  import 
trade,  chiefly  with  Great  Britain,  Spain,  Russia, 
Italy,  and  the  United  States.  The  principal 
industry  is  the  manufacture  of  cotton  goods, 
including  the  checked  and  striped  cottons  espe- 
cially designated  as  Rouenneries,  lace,  cotton  vel- 
vets, shawls,  etc.  There  are  also  extensive  manu- 
factures of  hosiery,  mixed  silk  and  wool  fabrics, 
blankets,  flannels,  shot,  chemicals,  and  refined 
petroleum.  Among  other  branches  of  industry 
are  ship-building  and  the  manufacture  of  ma- 
chinery.   Population,  in  1901,  116,316. 

Rouen  is  the  ancient  Rotomagus,  which  under 
the  later  Roman  emperors  was  the  capital  of 
Lugdunensis  Secunda.  It  figures  early  as  the 
seat  of  a  bishop.  Rollo,  with  his  Northmen, 
settled  here  at  the  close  of  the  ninth  century, 
and  the  town  became  the  capital  of  the  Duchy 
of  Normandy.  It  was  wrested  from  King  John 
of  England  by  Philip  Augustus  in  1204.  It  was 
in  the  hands  of  the  English  from  1419  to  1449, 
and  Joan  of  Arc  was  buried  here  in  1431.  Rouen 
was  a  Huguenot  stronghold.  It  was  occupied  by 
German  troops  in  the  war  of  1870-71.  Consult: 
P^riaux,  Histoire  de  la  ville  de  Rotten  (Rouen, 
1874) ;  and  Cook,  Story  of  Rouen  (London, 
1899). 

BOXTEBQITE,  r^'ftrg^.  A  medieval  county  of 
France,  the  capital  of  which  was  Rodez  (q.v.). 

BOUEBIE,  rWe-T^,  Mabquis  of.  See  Ab- 
]fAin>,  Chables. 

BOirOE,  TlSBzh  (Fr.  rouge,  OF.  rouge,  roge, 
red,  from  Lat.  rubius,  ruheus,  red;  con- 
nected with  ruber,  rufua,  red,  and  ultimately 
with  Eng.  red) .  A  preparation  of  safflower,  used 
to  give  an  artificial  color  to  the  cheeks.  The  color 
is  obtained  through  a  long  and  elaborate  process 
by  precipitating  it  from  the  safflower,  by  means 
of  citric  acid  or  lemon-juice,  on  to  prepared  cot- 
ton. It  is  then  washed  out  of  the  cotton  with  a 
solution  of  soda,  and  again  precipitated  with  cit- 
ric acid;  but  previous  to  aading  the  acid,  finely 
powdered  French  chalk  is  added  to  the  solution, 
which  becomes  colored  and  falls  down  when  the 
precipitation  takes  place,  giving  the  necessary 
body  and  a  peculiarly  silky  lustre  to  the  coloring 
matter.  (For  rouge,  as  a  polish  material,  see 
Abrasives.)  Jeweler's  rouge  is  a  preparation  of 
iron  formed  by  calcining  sulphate  of  iron,  or 
green  vitriol,  until  the  water  of  crystallization  is 
expelled;  it  is  then  roasted  in  a  strong  heat,  and 
afterwards  washed^with  water,  until  it  no  longer 
affects  litmus  paper.  Liquid  rouge  is  the  red 
liquor  left  in  making  carmine. 

BOUG^,  r?R^zhft^  Olivieb  Cecables  Emman- 
FEL,  Vicomte  de  (1811-72).  An  eminent  French 
Egyptologist,  bom  in  the  Department  of  Sarthe. 
He  at  nrst  studied  law,  but  soon  took  up 
with  ardor  the  study  of  Egyptian.  His  first 
memoir  placed  him  among  the  foremost  of 
living  Egyptologists.  It  was  a  refutation 
of  the  theories  of  Bunsen  and  was  pub- 
lished (1846-47)  in  Annales  de  philoaophie 
chrMienne  under  the  title:  Examen  de  Vouvrage 
du  chevalier  de  Bunsen,  la  Place  de  VEgypte  dans 
Vhistoire  du  monde.  In  1849  he  was  appointed 
keeper  of  the  Egyptian  collection  of  the  Louvre. 


He  made  a  valuable  catalogue  of  the  Paris  col- 
lections (Notice  sommaire  des  monuments  4gyp- 
tiens  du  Louvre,  1st  ed.,  Paris^  1849;  3d  ^. 
1865).  In  his  M4moire  sur  Vinscription  du  tom^ 
beau  d'Ahm^  (1849)  and  his  Etude  sur  une 
stile  ^gyptienne  (1856)  he  for  the  first  time 
gave  connected  translations  of  entire  hiero- 
glyphic '  inscriptions,  and  established  the  prin- 
ciples upon  which  the  systematic  study  of 
these  texts  should  proceed.  His  Chrestomaihie 
igyptienne  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1867-76)  placed 
the  study  of  Egyptian  grammar  upon  a  new 
footing,  and  in  his  Recherches  sur  Us  monu- 
ments qu*on  peut  attribuer  aux  six  premises 
dynasties  de  Man^thon  (Paris,  1864-65)  he  made 
a  most  valuable  contribution  to  early  Egyptian 
history.  In  1860  he  became  professor  of  Egypt- 
ology in  the  College  de  France.  After  his 
death  was  published  the  valuable  collection  In- 
scriptions hiiroglyphiques  copiies  en  Egypte 
(Paris,  1877-79). 

BOirOE  DBAGON.    See  Pubsuivant. 

BOUOET  DE  L'ISLE,  rJSSzhtf  de  161,  Claude 
Joseph  (1760-1836).  A  French  poet  and  com- 
poser. He  was  bom  at  Lons-le-Saulnier.  It  was 
at  Strassburg  on  the  night  of  April  24,  1792,  that 
Rouget  de  Tlsle,  then  a  captain  of  engineers, 
wrote  the  immortal  Marseillaise,  (See  article 
Mabseillaise.  )  A  few  days  later  he  was  sus- 
pended from  his  rank  because  he  refused  to  sanc- 
tion the  extreme  measures  of  the  Revolutionary 
Party.  After  a  two  months'  exile  in  Alsace,  he 
entered  the  army  again  as  a  volunteer  under 
General  Valance,  who  restored  him  to  his  former 
rank.  During  the  Reign  of  Terror  he  was  again 
proscribed,  and  was  confined  to  the  prison  of 
Saint  Germain-en-Laye,  on  being  released  from 
which  after  the  fall  of  Robespierre,  he  composed 
the  "Hymn  of  the  Ninth  Thermidor."  Later  he 
served  with  Tallien's  army,  and  was  wounded  at 
Quiberon,  after  which  the  Convention  endeavored 
to  atone  for  former  injustice  done  him  by  giving 
him  substantial  promotion.  In  1796  he  aban- 
doned military  life  and  went  to  Paris  to  devote 
himself  to  poetry  and  music.  In  1830  he  was 
pensioned  by  Louis  Philippe.  His  published  works 
include:  Chant  des  vengeances  (1798);  Chant 
du  combat  (1800);  50  Chants  frangais  (1825); 
and  the  libretti  to  a  few  operas. 

BOXrOE  ET  NOIB,  rlS^zh  &  nw&r  (Fr.,  red 
and  black),  or  Trente  et  Quabante.  A  game 
famous  throughout  Europe  and  a  favorite  mode 
of  gambling.  It  is  played  on  a  long  table  cov- 
ered with  a  green  cloth  at  each  end  of  which 
there  are  two  lozenge-shaped  figures  marked 
'rouge'  (red)  and  *noir'  (black),  and  colored 
accordingly.  There  are  two  centre  divisions 
known  as  *couleur,'  and  at  each  end  a  triangular 
division  known  as  'inverse,'  the  opposite  of 
couleur.  The  stake  or  bet  may  be  placed  on  four 
different  risks  according  to  the  division  of  the 
table  the  player  prefers.  Six  packs  of  cards  are 
used  shufiled  together,  each  player  shuffling  a  part 
of  them,  after  which  the  whole  are  shuffled  by  the 
banker  or  dealer,  who  is  always  seated  in  the 
middle  at  one  side  of  the  table.  The  'croupiers' 
sit  facing  the  banker,  and  attend  to  all  receipts 
and  payments.  The  game  begins  by  the  dealer 
taking  a  single  card,  which  is  usually  the  blank 
one,  and  presenting  it  to  one  of  the  players,  who 
inserts  it  in  the  complete  pack  at  any  point  he 
desires.    This  constitutes  the  cut,  after  which  the 


BOUGE  ET  NOOL 


192 


BOTTLETTE. 


banker,  taking  a  convenient  handful  from  the 
top  of  the  cut,  deals  one  card  face  upward;  the 
suit  of  this  card  is  an  important  factor  of  the 
game.  The  dealer  continues  to  deal  the  cards 
(face  upward)  alternately  on  either  side  of  the 
card  first  dealt,  until  the  aggregate  in  face  value 
of  the  cards  dealt  amounts  to  or  exceeds  31.  In 
arriving  at  a  total  all  court  cards  count  as  10, 
and  the  remainder  according  to  the  number  of 
their  pips.  This  first  row  of  cards  belongs  to 
*noir.'  The  second  row  is  then  dealt  in  like 
manner  until  31  or  the  nearest  over  that  amount 
is  reached.  The  row  nearest  that  number  wins, 
and  the  winners  receive  an  amount  equal  to  their 
stake.  If  'couleur'  is  played  it  is  understood  that 
the  player  is  wagering  that  the  winning  color 
will  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  first  card  dealt; 
similarly,  the  players  who  have  placed  their 
stakes  inverse'  wager  that  it  will  he  of  the  op- 
posite color.  A  refait  or  tie  is  where  both  rows 
of  cards  aggregate  the  same  total  (from  32  to 
40,  inclusive)  ;  in  which  case  the  players  neither 
pay  nor  receive.  If  the  total,  however,  come  to 
31,  the  bank  is  entitled  to  half  the  stakes,  and 
the  player  has  the  option  of  paying  the  half  ac- 
cordingly, or  wagering  the  whole  by  placing  it 
within  certain  lines  marked  on  the  table  and 
known  as  la  premier  prison  (the  first  prison)  un- 
til the  result  of  the  next  hand  is  declared.  If 
the  player  wins,  the  entire  stake  is  his;  if  the 
contrary  is  the  case,  the  stake  belongs  to  the 
bank. 

BOUOBXEO.  An  American  buzzard-hawk  of 
the  genus  Archibuteo.  See  Buzzasd;  and  Plate 
of  Eagles  and  Hawks. 

BOirOH  BIDEBS  ASSOGIATIOH.  A  pa- 
triotic hereditary  society,  organized  in  1899.  It 
has  for  its  objects  the  preservation  of  the 
memories  of  the  war  with  Spain,  and  of  promot- 
ing a  lasting  friendship  among  the  members  of 
the  First  Regiment  of  the  United  States  Vol- 
unteer Cavalry,  generally  known  as  the  Rough 
Riders.    There  are  about  100  names  on  the  roll. 

BOUOH-WINOED  SWALLOW.  A  swallow 
of  the  genus  Stelgidopteryx,  much  like  the  bank 
swallow  (q.v.),  but  peculiav  in  that  the  edge  of 
the  wing  is  roughened  by  having  the  ends  of  the 
web-fibres  bent  into  hooks.  The  common  species 
of  the  United  States  is  Stelgidopteryx  aerripen- 
nis.  It  is  widely  distributed  in  summer,  breeding 
in  bank  burrows  and  in  holes  and  crannies  about 
cliffs,  quarries,  bridge-piers,  and  the  like,  where 
the  rough  edges  of  ita  wings  may  help  it  to 
climb  and  cling.  It  is  sooty  brown  above,  mouse- 
gray  on  the  breast  and  sides,  and  white  below. 

BOITGON-MACQfUABT,  r?55'gON'  m&'kfir', 
Les.  a  famous  series  of  romances  by  Emile 
Zola,  in  which  it  was  the  author's  purpose  to 
follow  out  the  problems  of  heredity  as  exhibited 
in  the  persistence  of  family  characteristics  under 
different  environments.  The  series  was  intended 
to  present  the  social  history  of  a  family  under 
the  Second  Empire,  but  the  short  duration  of 
that  form  of  government  made  great  compression 
necessary,  and  produced  unavoidable  obstacles 
of  chronology.  Zola  planned  12  volumes,  but  ex- 
tended the  design  to  20,  to  which  Lourdes  (q.v.) 
and  Rome  (q.v.)  were  later  added.  In  the  first 
volume  the  congenital  nervous  disease  of  Ade- 
laide Tongue  is  the  starting  point  of  the  ten- 
dencies exhibited  in  the  descendants  of  her  three 
children,  Pierre,  Antoine,  and  Ursule  Macquart. 


The  lines  of  development  gave  Zola  opportunity 
to  paint  the  life  of  many  divisions  of  society, 
and  in  all  the  volumes  he  made  intensive  studies 
of  the  special  class  under  review,  fortifying  his 
personal  observation  by  facts  drawn  from  all 
sources,  and  striving  to  present  a  truthful  pic- 
ture of  conditions.  The  volumes  of  the  series 
are:  La  fortune  dea  Rougon  (1871);  La  cur^ 
(1871);  Le  ventre  de  Paris  (q.v.)  (1873)  ;  La 
conquite  de  Plassans  (1874)  ;  La  faute  de  Vabbi 
Mouret  (1875);  Son  excellence  Eug^e  Rougon 
(1876) ;  Une  page  d'amour  (1878)  ;  Nana  (q.v.) 
(1880);  Pot-Bouille  (1883);  Au  honheur  dea 
dames  (1883);  La  joie  de  vivre  (1884);  Ger- 
minal (q.v.)  (1885);  L'oouvre  (1886);  L'aaaom- 
frtotr  (1887);  La  terre  (q.v.)  (1887);  Le  r4ve 
(q.v.)  (1888);  La  Ute  humaine  (1890);  L'ar- 
gent  (1891);  La  d^bdcle  (q.v.)  (1892);  and  Le 
docteur  Paacal  (1893). 

BOITHEB^  rWJ'ftr',  EuofeNE  (1814-84).  A 
French  statesman,  born  at  Riom,  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  Puy-de-DOme.  He  first  distinguished 
himself  as  an  advocate  in  his  native  town,  where 
he  practiced  up  to  1848.  In  that  year  he  was 
elected  to  the  Constituent  Assembly,  and  in  1849 
he  was  returned  to  the  Legislative  Assembly.  On 
the  break-up  of  the  first  Ministry  of  Louis  Na- 
poleon, toward  the  end  of  1849,  Rouher  was  ap- 
pointed Minister  of  Justice  in  the  new  Ministry, 
and  with  slight  interruptions  he  was  a  member 
of  the  Government,  chiefly  as  Minister  of  State, 
up  to  1870.  In  the  negotiation  of  the  treaty 
of  commerce  with  England  in  1860,  which 
conferred  great  advantages  upon  both  coun- 
tries, Rouher  represented  France  and  C)obden 
England.  In  1863  he  negotiated  a  treaty  of  com- 
merce between  France  and  Italy.  Through  these 
treaties,  and  others  with  Belgium  and  Germany, 
Rouher  was  active  in  furthering  the  cause  of 
free  trade.  In  July,  1869,  his  Ministry  resigned. 
On  the  downfall  of  the  Empire  in  1870  he  fied  to 
England,  but  soon  returned  to  France  and  in  1872 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  National  Assembly 
from  Corsica. 

BOULEBS,  roSnft^  or  BOXTSSELAEBE, 
rou'se-lttr.  A  town  of  the  Province  of  West 
Flanders,  Belgium,  on  the  Mandelbeke,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Lys,  14  miles  northwest  of  Courtrai 
(Map:  Belgium,  B  4).  The  Church  of  Saint 
Michael  has  a  beautiful  Gothic  tower.  Roulers 
has  long  been  famous  for  its  linen  industry. 
There  is  an  immense  output  of  linen,  lace,  silk, 
ribbons,  and  cotton.  In  1794  the  Austrians  under 
Clerfait  were  defeated  here  in  a  fierce  battle  by 
the  French  under  Pichegru  and  Macdonald.  Pop- 
ulation, in  1900,  23,231. 

BOITLETTE.  A  game  of 'chance,  usually  as- 
sociated with  public  gambling.  The  wager  is  as 
to  which  hole  out  of  38  in  the  circumference  of  a 
sunken  circle  on  a  table  a  small  ivory  ball  will 
fall  into.  The  centre  of  the  bed  of  the  machine 
is  set  in  motion  by  turning,  with  the  forefinger, 
the  cross  which  surmounts  it,  from  right  to  left, 
causing  a  rotary  motion.  At  the  same  instant  a 
little  ivory  ball  is  thrown  into  the  concavity  of 
the  wheel  in  a  direction  opposite  to  its  motion. 
The  ball  flies  about  erratically  at  first,  but  gradu- 
ally slows  down  and  ultimately  falls  into  one  of 
the  cavities.  A  few  seconds  before  it  stops  the 
banker  has  the  privilege  of  warning  the  specta- 
tors that  it  is  too  near  its  final  selc^ion  for  axiy 
more  bets  to  be  made. 


BOXJIiBOUL. 


198 


BOXTITD  TOWEB& 


SOXJIiBOTJIi  (Malay  name).  A  beautiful 
small  crested  partridge  of  the  Malayan  Islands 
and  Borneo,  two  species  of  which  are  contained 
in  the  genus  RoUuIus.  They  dwell  in  the  forests 
in  small  flocks,  and  are  extremely  active.  See 
Plate  of  Pabtkiogss,  etc. 

BOUXAHTA.    See  Humajvia. 

BOTnCAKUXE,  r?RrmA'n«^y',  Joseph  (1818- 
91).  A  Provencal  poet.  He  was  bom  at  Saint- 
Remy  (Bouches-du-RhOne).  He  is  commonly 
known  in  Southern  France  as  the  father  of  the 
F^Iibrige ;  for  he  first  conceived  the  idea  of  rais- 
ing the  patob  of  his  region  to  the  dignity  of  a  lit- 
erary language.  When  Roumanille  was  a 
teacher  in  Avignon,  he  discovered  the  genius 
of  Fr^Mc  Mistral,  one  of  his  pupils,  and  to- 
gether they  began  what  later  became  the  F6li- 
brean  movement.  In  1847  Roumanille  published 
a  volume  of  verse  called  Li  Margarideto,  and  in 
1851  another  entitled  lA  Saunjarello.  In  1852 
along  with  Mistral  and  Anselme  Mathieu  he  edited 
a  collection  of  Provencal  verse  called  Li  Prou- 
venfaU).  In  1853  he  wrote  a  dissertation  on  Pro- 
vencal spelling.  His  writing  is  of  the  wholesome, 
simple  sort,  adapted  to  the  country-folk  of  the 
region.  The  complete  edition  of  his  works  in- 
cludes Lis  ouhreto  en  verse,  Lis  quhreta  en  proso, 
Li  oapelan,  Li  eonte  prouven^^u  e  li  oasoareleto, 
Li  notiv^,  Lis  entarrochin,  and  Letters. 

BOUNB  (OF.,  Pr.  rond.  It.  rotondo,  ritondo, 
from  Lat.  rotundus,  round,  wheel-shaped,  from 
rota,  wheel).  In  music,  a  short  vocal  composi- 
tion, in  three  or  more  parts,  all  written  on  the 
same  clef.  Each  voice  takes  up  the  subject  at 
a  certain  distance  after  the  first  has  begun.  The 
second  voice  begins  the  first  part  when  the  first 
begins  the  second  part,  and  the  third  takes  up 
the  first  part  when  the  second  begins  the  second 
part,  the  whole  ending  together  at  the  mark  of  a 
pause,  or  at  a  signal  agreed  on.  The  round  is 
really  an  infinite  canon.  It  was  very  popular 
in  England  from  early  times.  The  famous  round 
Burner  is  icumen  in  is  assigned  to  the  thirteenth 
century.  Originally  the  round  was  identical  with 
the  catch,  but  the  latter  became  of  a  humorous 
character,  while  the  former  remained  serious. 
See  Catch. 

SOTTKB,  WnxiAM  Mabshaix  Fitz  (1845—). 
An  American  prison  reformer,  journalist^  and 
novelist,  bom  in  Pawtucket,  R.  I.  After  public 
school  training  Roimd  entered  the  Harvard  Medi- 
cal School,  did  not  graduate,  was  given  charge 
of  the  New  England  Department  of  the  World's 
Fair,  Vienna  (1873),  engaged  in  journalism  in 
Boston  and  New  York,  was  associate  editor  of 
the  Boston  Olobe,  and  afterwards  on  the  staff  of 
the  Independent.  In  1883  he  was  elected  corre- 
sponding secretary  of  the  Prison  Association  of 
New  York,  and  of  the  National  Prison  Associa- 
tion. He  was  also  a  delegate  from  the 
United  States  to  the  International  Penitentiary 
Congresses  at  Rome  (1886)  and  Paris,  and  to  the 
Congress  of  Criminal  Anthropology  at  Brussels, 
and  planned  (1887-88)  the  Burnham  Industrial 
Farm  for  Unruly  Boys,  at  Canaan,  N.  Y.  His 
books  include:  Achsah,  a  Veto  England  Life 
Study  (1876);  Child  Marian  Abroad  (1876); 
Tom  and  Mended  (1887);  Hal,  the  Story  of 
a  Clodhopper  (1878);  and.  Roseoroft  (1880).  See 
PnsoN  Association,  National. 

BOUHDABOUT  FAPEBS.  A  collection  of 
delightful  essays  by  Thackeray,  contributed  to 


the  ComhiU  Magazine  in  1859-63,  and  published 
in  1863. 

BOUNDEL.    See  Fobtification. 

BOTJNDEBS.  An  outdoor  ball  game.  The 
game  has  long  been  popular  with  boys  in  Eng- 
land, and  is  the  father  of  the  more  scientific  and 
highly  developed  American  baseball.  Nine  on 
each  side  play.  The  *in'  side  bat  in  rotation  on  a 
home  base  and  the  striker  drops  the  bat  before 
he  runs,  for  the  use  of  the  next  batsman.  The 
pitcher,  or,  as  he  is  called,  'the  feeder,'  occupies 
the  same  relative  position  as  in  baseball.  The 
*out'  side  fields  for  the  side  that  is  *in/  and  must 
put  the  runners  out  by  a  catch  or  by  striking 
them  when  between  bases,  or  by  touching  an 
empty  base  to  which  the  runner  is  approaching. 
There  are  six  bases.  Every  player  has  the  option 
Af  refusing  to  strike  at  as  many  balls  as  he 
pleases,  or  three  only  if  so  arranged,  but  whether 
he  hits  the  ball  or  not  (with  one  exception)  if  he 
strikes  at  it  he  must  run.  The  ball  is  dead  when 
it  leaves  the  feeder's  hands  until  it  has  been 
struck  at  by  the  player,  and  no  one  may  move 
from  his  base  while  the  ball  is  dead.  The  players 
on  the  'in'  side  when  reduced  to  two  may  select 
one  of  their  number  to  make  what  is  termed 
•three  hits  for  a  rounder;*  the  player  not  selected 
then  retires.  The  selected  one  has  to  be  served 
with  the  ball  until  he  has  had  three  trial  hits 
thereat,  and  on  the  third  hit  or  attempt  (if  not 
before)  he  must  run  from  the  home  base,  round 
to  every  base  in  succession,  and  back  again  to 
home,  without  being  hit  with  the  ball,  and  with- 
out it  being  grounded  at  the  home  base  while  he 
is  running.  If  the  round  is  successfully  made 
his  side  is  again  all  in.  If  the  contrary  the  sides 
change  places. 

BOUNDFISH.  One  of  the  American  lake 
whitefish.     See  Whitefish. 

BOTJNDHEADS.  A  name  contemptuously 
used  of  the  English  Puritan  or  Parliamentarian 
Party  in  the  time  of  Charles  I.,  originating  in 
their  fashion  of  wearing  the  hair  short,  while  the 
Cavaliers  wore  flowing  locks. 

BOUND  POMPANO.    See  Pompano. 

BOUND  TABLE.  The  name  commonly  given 
to  the  fellowship  of  knights  which  gathered 
around  King  Arthur,  from  the  table  at  which 
they  sat  in  the  hall  of  his  palace.    See  Abthub; 

MOBTE  D'ARTIIUB. 

BOUND  TOWEBS.  Tall  narrow  towers  ta- 
pering gradually  from  the  base  to  the  summit, 
and  found  abundantly  in  Ireland,  and  occasional- 
ly in  Scotland,  are  among  the  earliest  and  most 
remarkable  relics  of  the  ecclesiastical  architecture 
of  the  British  Islands.  They  are  the  work  of 
Christian  architects,  and  seem  to  have  been  in  all 
cases  attached  to  the  immediate  neighborhood  of 
a  church  or  monastery,  and  were  capable  of  be- 
ing used  as  strongholds  in  times  of  danger.  After 
the  introduction  of  bells,  they  were  also  probably 
used  as  bell-towers.  They  are  usually  capped  by 
a  conical  roof,  and  divided  into  stories,  sometimes 
by  yet  existing  floors  of  masonry,  though  oftener 
the  floors  were  made  of  wood.  Ladders  were  the 
means  of  communication  from  story  to  story. 
There  is  generally  a  small  window  on  each  story, 
and  four  windows  immediately  below  the  conical 
roof.  The  door  is  in  nearly  all  cases  a  consider- 
able height  from  the  ground.  The  tower  at 
Devenish,  in  Ireland,  which  may  be  considered 


BOXnn)  TOWEBS. 


194 


BOUBSEAU. 


as  a  typical  example  of  the  class,  is  82  feet  high, 
and  is  furnished  with  a  conical  cap.  A  battle- 
mented  crown  occasionally  supplies  the  place  of 
the  conical  roof,  and  in  one  instance  the  base  of 
the  tower  is  octagonal.  They  are  usually  as- 
signed to  a  period  ranging  from  the  ninth  to  the 
twelfth  century.  The  source  of  this  form  of 
tower  has  not  yet  been  cleared  up.  The  only 
group  of  related  examples  of  earlier  data  are 
the  round  towers  of  the  churches  of  Bavenna 
dating  from  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries,  such 
as  those  of  both  basilicas  of  Sant'  Apollinare,  of 
San  Vitale,  the  Cathedral,  and  Santa  Maria 
Maggiore. 

BOTTin)WOBM,  or  Thbeadwobm.  A  nema- 
tode, specifically  Aacaris  lumhricoidea,  which  oc- 
curs in  the  human  intestine  and  resembles  an 
earthworm.  It  is  milk-white  in  color,  and  has 
three  lips,  which  when  pressed  down  upon  the 
wall  of  the  intestine  of  its  host  form  a  sucker, 
in  the  centre  of  which  is  the  mouth.  The  female 
is  larger  than  the  male,  sometimes  16  inches  long, 
while -the  male  is  10  or  less.  The  female  a]So 
seems  to  be  more  common.  The  eggs  are  very 
numerous,  are  fertilized  within  the  body  of  the 
mother,  and  have  usually  begun  their  develop- 
ment when  laid,  but  ordinarily  pass  out  of  the 
intestine  of  the  host  and  remain  in  a  dormant 
condition  until  they  are  finally  taken  into  the 
alimentaiy  canal  of  some  other  human  being, 
probably  in  most  cases  by  drinking  impure  water, 
although  eating  fresh  leaves,  fruits,  and  roots 
may  be  an  important  means.  It  is  said  that 
geographical  and  climatic  conditions  have  much 
to  do  with  the  frequency  of  the  parasite.  For 
other  species  of  these  worms  parasitic  in  domes- 
tic animals,  see  Ascabis;  also  Thbeadworm. 

BOXTP  (from  roup,  roop,  AS.  hrOpan,  OHG. 
hruofan,  ruofan,  Ger.  rufen,  Goth,  hr/ipjan,  to 
cry  out).  Diphtheritic  Roup.  A  supposedly 
contagious  disease  of  poultry  resembling  diph- 
theria in  man,  but  attributed  to  a  different 
organism.  Diphtheritic  patches  appear  on  the 
mucous  membranes.  The  measures  to  adopt  in 
combating  roup  are  isolation  of  all  affected  oirds 
and  a  thorough  disinfection  of  the  premises  with 
a  5  per  cent,  solution  of  carbolic  acid.  All  birds 
that  nave  died  of  roup  should  be  burned  or  buried. 
Consult:  Delau>are  Agricultural  EoDperiment 
Station  Bulletin  47;  Montana  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station  Bulletin  22;  Rhode  Island 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Reports,  1898, 
p.  97;  1889-1900,^,  233. 

B0U8,  Francis  (1579-1669).  An  English 
writer  on  theology.  He  was  bom  at  Dittisham, 
Devonshire;  graduated  B.A.  at  Oxford  (1596- 
97) ;  subsequently  at  Leyden  (1598-99)  ;  studied 
law  (1601),  but  subsequently  confined  himself  to 
theology  and  attained  high  rank  among  the  Pres- 
byterians, and  after  1649  among  the  Indepen- 
dents. He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Pym  (q.v.), 
a  member  of  several  Parliaments,  and  supported 
Cromwell  and  the  Commonwealth.  He  is  re- 
membered for  his  Psalms  of  David  in  English 
Meeter  (1643),  which  was  adopted  by  the  West- 
minster Assembly,  and  estates  of  Scotland,  and 
authorized  by  Parliament  for  general  use. 

BOUSAY^  tU^sk.  One  of  the  Orkney  Islands 
(q.v.). 

B0XJB8EAU,  rtRJ'sy,  Jean  Baptiste  (1670- 
1741).     A  French    lyric   poet,   bom   in   Paris. 


Though  a  shoemaker's  son,  he  was  well  educated 
enjoying  the  patronage  of  Boileau  and  Breteuil, 
and  of  Talland,  whom  he  accompanied  as  secre- 
tary to  London.  He  won  reputation  for  stinging 
satires,  directed  especially  against  La  Motte  and 
Saurin.  La  Motte  retaliated  by  compassing  Bous- 
seau's  defeat  in  an  academic  election  (1710). 
Rousseau  accused  Saurin  of  circulating  libeloiis 
epigrams  as  his  own;  but  he  could  not  legally 
prove  this  and  was  banished  (1712).  Rousseau 
lived  in  Switzerland,  Austria,  Belgium,  and 
England.  His  epigrams  are  brilliant  and  his 
satires  sting.  Though  called  by  contemporaries 
'prince  of  lyrists,'  he  lacks  a  true  lyric  spirit. 
Rousseau's  Works  are  in  five  volumes  (Paris, 
1820),  the  poetry  in  one,  edited  by  Manuel  (ib., 
1852) ;  some  Contes  in4dit8  were  edited  by  Lu- 
zache  (ib.,  1881). 

BOUSSEAU,  Jean  Jacques  (1712-78).  One 
of  the  greatest  French  writers  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  He  was  the  son  of  a  dancing  master, 
Isaac  Rousseau,  a  descendant  of  a  French  Hugue- 
not, who  had  in  the  seventeenth  century  emi- 
grated to  Geneva  in  order  to  escape  religious 
persecution.  Jean  Jacques  never  knew  his 
mother,  and  was  educated  first  by  his  father, 
who  made  him  read  mostly  sentimental  novels; 
then  by  an  uncle  and  an  aunt,  M.  and  Mme. 
Bernard,  who  were  a  little  higher  than  the  Rous- 
seaus  in  the  social  hierarchy  of  the  Calviniatic 
city.  Family  troubles  interrupted  his  education. 
Jean  Jacques  became  an  apprentice  to  an  en- 
graver, named  Ducommun,  by  whom  he  was  not 
well  treated,  and  when  sixteen  years  of  age  he 
left  (^neva  to  try  his  fortunes  in  the  adjoining 
Duchy  of  Savoy.  This  was  Catholic,  and  its  cleivy 
constantly  strove  to  make  converts  among  t£e 
children  of  republican  Switzerland.  Rousseau  was 
among  these  converts.  His  change  of  religion  was 
effected  at  the  *Maison  des  Catgchumtoes'  of 
Turin,  whither  he  had  been  sent  on  the  advice  of 
Madame  de  Warens,  herself  a  convert,  who  was 
soon  to  exert  a  decisive  influence  upon  his  des- 
tiny. Jean  Jacques  was  now  for  two  years  a 
servant  in  Madame  de  Vercellis's  household,  and 
he  acted  in  a  somewhat  similar  capacity  in  the 
Govone  family.  He  also  fell  in  with  adventurers 
of  a  low  type.  This  led  to  his  return  to  Annecy, 
where  Madame  de  Warens  resided,  and  to  his  ad- 
mission among  her  regular  companions.  She  re- 
mained the  ruling  spirit  of  his  life  for  about 
ten  years,  during  which  time  he  was  several 
times  engaged  in  more  or  less  lucrative  employ- 
ments, especially  in  the  office  of  the  land  survey 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Sardinia  and  in  the  choir  of 
the  Cathedral  of  Annecy.  He  left  Madame  de 
Warens  several  times  making  trips  to  Fribourg, 
Lyons,  Paris,  and  Montpellier.  On  his  return 
from  the  last  voyage  he  found  things  so  changed 
in  the  house,  especially  owing  to  the  arrival  of 
a  new  comer  named  Wintzenried,  that  he  decided 
he  had  better  seek  his  fortunes  imaided.  The 
most  profitable  period  of  this  part  of  Rousseau's 
life,  as  far  as  his  education  was  concerned,  was 
spent  in  a  small  country  house  not  far  from  Cham- 
bery,  whither  Madame  de  Warens  had  removed 
from  Annecy.  In  his  Confessions  he  has  left  us  a 
fascinating  description  both  of  the  place,  called 
Les  Charmettes,  and  of  the  life  he  led  there/ 
which  may  be  called  his  honeymoon  with  Madame 
de  Warens.  His  intellectual  powers  and  acquire- 
ments so  developed  there  that  he  oould  a  little 
later  occupy  the  position  of  resident  tutor  in  the 


BOirSSEATr. 


196 


BOUSSEAir. 


family  of  the  Grand  Prieur  de  Mably,  a  brother 
of  two  distinguished  writers  of  the  time,  the  Abb6 
de  Mably  and  the  philosopher  Condillac. 

In  1741  Rousseau  arrived  in  Paris,  depending 
for  his  fortune  upon  a  new  and  ingenious  system 
of  writing  music.  He  laid  his  plan  before  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Sciences,  from  which  he  re- 
ceived praise  but  no  indorsement.  Though  baffled 
in  bis  expectations,  he  had  by  the  bringing  for- 
ward of  his  musical  investigations  gain^  access 
to  the  most  intellectual  circles  of  Paris.  He  soon 
became  a  kind  of  secretary  in  the  highly  gifted 
family  of  Madame  Dupin,  the  wife  of  one  of  the 
wealthy  farmers-general,  and  her  stepson,  M.  de 
Francueil,  and  shortly  afterwards  he  was, 
through  their  influence,  engaged  in  the  same  ca- 
pacity by  the  Ck>unt  de  Mon&igu,  who  had  been 
appoint^  Minister  of  the  King  of  France  at 
Venice.  For  his  new  position  the  knowledge  of 
Italian  acquired  by  him  in  Turin  gave  Rousseau 
special  fitness.  His  employer  was  wholly  unable 
to  understand  his  young  secretary's  mental  su- 
periority and  to  avoid  inflicting  upon  him  hu- 
miliating treatment.  Rousseau  left  him,  full  of 
anger  and  indignation,  and  returned  to  Paris, 
where  he  expected  to  find  justice  for  himself  and 
punishment  for  his  persecutor,  but  he  soon  dis- 
covered that  for  a  man  of  the  people  to  obtain 
redress  for  a  wrong  infiicted  upon  him  by  a  mem- 
ber of  the  aristocracy  was  a  thing  not  possible  in 
France  at  that  time.  This  was  the  first  ezperi- 
eoee  that  led  him  to  think  of  the  system  of  social 
distinctions  then  in  existence,  and  to  examine 
whether  any  philosophical  justification  for  them 
existed.  He  resumed  his  position  near  M.  de  Fran- 
cueil and  mingled  more  than  ever  with  the  world 
of  artists,  thinkers,  and  writers.  He  wrote  for  the 
stage,  remodeled  for  the  Court  of  Louis  XV., 
with  the  consent  of  the  author,  Voltaire's  dra- 
matic cantata  La  Princease  de  yavarre,  which  he 
renamed  Lea  fifes  de  Ramire^  and  took  sides  pas- 
sionately in  the  conflict  then  raging  in  Paris  be- 
tween French  and  Italian  music.  He  defended 
the  latter  in  the  first  of  his  numerous  polemical 
writings,  the  Leitre  sur  la  tnusique  franfaise 
(1748).  While  in  contact  not  only  with  refined 
society,  but  with  thinkers  like  Diderot,  D'Alem- 
bert,  and  Grimm,  whom  he  considered  in  no  way 
his  superiors,  Rousseau  met  Th^r^se  Levasseur,  a 
young  woman  not  above  the  condition  of  a  ser- 
vant, totally  illiterate,  according  to  Rousseau 
himself.  Without  marriage,  he  made  her  his  per- 
manent companion.  Soon  he  was  saddled  not 
only  with  Th^rtee  herself,  but  with  her  father 
and  mother  and  the  rest  of  the  family.  If  we 
may  believe  Rousseau's  Confessions,  he  was  fully 
conscious  of  the  unworthiness  of  the  surroimd- 
ings  thus  created  by  him  for  himself.  He  is  him- 
self authority  for  the  statement  that  Th^rdse 
bore  him  several  children,  and  that  every  one  of 
these  children  was  carried  by  him  immediately 
after  birth  to  the  Home  for  Foundlings. 

Rousseau  was  now  on  the  eve  of  celebrity.  In 
1750  he  published  a  short  discourse  in  answer  to 
the  question  propounded  by  the  Academy  of 
Dijon,  whether  the  re^stablishment  of  sciences 
and  arts  had  resulted  in  making  morals  purer. 
He  answered  n^atively,  but  with  such  a  force  of 
eloquence  and  declamation  that  the  Academy 
awarded  him  the  prize,  and  the  publication  of  his 
inper  made  him  illustrious.  An  opera,  of  which 
ne  had  written  both  words  and  music,  Le  devin  du 
village,  was  performed  with  great  applause  first 


before  the  Court,  at  Fontainebleau,  then  at  the 
Paris  Op6ra.  More  and  more,  however,  he  moved 
away  from  the  bright  Paris  circles.  Ho 
grew  displeased  with  a  social  order  in  which 
he  knew  that  he  could  not  occupy  a  position  in 
keeping  with  his  mental  superiority.  This  ap- 
peared when  in  1754  he  published  his  first  impor- 
tant work,  again  an  answer  to  a  question  pro- 
pounded by  the  Academy  of  Dijon,  as  to  the 
origin  of  inequality  among  men  and  whether  it 
is  justified  by  the  law  of  nature.  Of  course 
again  his  answer  was  a  negative  one;  but  this 
time,  although  in  style  and  argument  the  Dis- 
cours  sur  Vin4gaXit6  is  vastly  superior  to  the 
Discours  sur  les  sciences  et  les  art»^  the  Academy 
dared  not  reward  him  with  a  prize.  Before  a 
society  which  was  a  curious  blending  of  auto- 
cratic power  and  aristocratic  privileges  he  had 
laid  the  claims  of  all  men  to  an  equal  share 
not  only  in  the  government,  but  in  the  enjoyment 
of  nature's  blessings. 

He  was  henceforth  acknowledged  a  democrat, 
an  advocate  of  the  people.  He  would  yield  no 
more  to  aristocratic  prejudices.  He  discarded  the 
elegant  dress  of  good  society,  ceased  to  act  as 
secretaiy  for  members  of  the  privileged  classes, 
and  announced  that  he  would  earn  his  living  as  a 
copyist  of  music.  Ambition,  however,  had  not 
forsaken  him.  His  eyes  turned  toward  his  na- 
tive State,  to  which  he  had  dedicated  his  book. 
He  visited  Geneva,  was  welcomed  with  the  high- 
est honors,  gave  up  Catholicism,  and  thus  was 
allowed  to  resiune  his  rights  as  a  citizen;  and 
when  he  left  Geneva  in  order  to  return  to  Paris 
everybody  understood  that  it  was  with  the  in- 
tention of  soon  coming  b&ck  for  good  and  compet- 
ing for  the  municipal  honors  so  dear  to  the  heart 
of  every  citizen  of  the  tiny  Republic.  Rousseau 
never  returned  to  Geneva.  Voltaire  soon  settled 
there  himself,  and  Jean  Jacques  concluded  that 
both  could  not  live  near  each  other  in  so  small 
a  place.  His  break  with  society  was  soon  followed 
by  similar  treatment  of  his  friends.  Diderot  and 
IXAlembert  were  then  publishing  their  famous 
Encyclopidie,  to  which  Rousseau  had  originally 
contributed  articles  on  music,  and  also  on  politi- 
cal economy.  But  he  had  ceased  to  sympathize 
with  a  work  the  chief  doctrine  of  which  was 
that  the  happiness  of  mankind  was  bound  up  with 
the  progress  of  enlightenment.  He  first 
simply  moved  away  from  Paris,  not  very 
far,  to  the  Hermitage,  a  small  house  sur- 
rounded by  woodlands  on  the  estate  of  La  Chev- 
rette,  which  belonged  to  his  friend,  the  wealthy 
and  sprightly  Madame  d'Epinay  (1756).  But  he 
soon  quarreled  with  Grimm,  Diderot,  and 
Madame  d'Epinay  herself.  In  December,  1757, 
he  left  the  Hermitage,  where  he  had  been  Madame 
d'Epinay's  guest,  and  moved  to  the  village  of 
Montmorency,  near  by.  There  he  enjoyed  the 
companionship,  and  to  a  certain  extent  the  hos- 
pitality, of  the  Marshal  Duke  of  Euxembourg. 

Rousseau's  masterpieces  were  written  at  the 
Hermitage  and  in  Montmorency.  After  his  Letter 
on  Providence,  addressed  to  Voltaire,  in  reply  to 
the  latter's  poem  on  the  Lisbon  earthquake,  he 
had  written,  as  his  declaration  of  war  against  not 
Voltaire  alone,  but  all  his  old  associates,  the 
Lettre  d  d*Alembert  contre  les  spectacles,  in 
which  he  condemns  the  stage  as  a  school  of  im- 
morality. But  these  two  comparatively  slight 
works  were  shortly  followed  oy  Julie,  ou  la 
nouvelle    H4loise    (1760);    Du    contrat    social 


BOUSSEAU. 


196 


BOUSSEAU. 


(1762);  and  his  treatise  on  educlition,  Entile 
(1762).  These  three  works,  so  different  from 
each  other,  coming  from  the  same  pen  in  such 
quick  succession,  raised  him  to  the  front  rank  of 
the  literary  men  of  his  time,  with  only  one  left 
that  could  be  considered  his  rival,  Voltaire.  La 
nouvelle  Biloiae  was  mostly  written  at  the 
Hermitage.  Begim  simply  as  an  idealized  record 
of  his  youthful  memories,  it  was  suddenly  trans- 
formed by  the  ardent  and  unrewarded  passion 
which  he  conceived  for  a  sister-in-law  of  Madame 
d'Epinay — ^Madame  d'Houdetot.  The  society  of 
his  time  was  purely  intellectual  and  spumed  all 
sentimentality.  Rousseau  pleaded  for  nature,  for 
passion,  for  love  with  the  energy  of  a  heart  ablaze 
with  an  overpowering  passion.  The  success  of  the 
book,  especially  with  the  feminine  public,  brought 
about  nothing  short  of  a  revolution  in  the  manner 
of  looking  upon  nature  and  society.  Then  came 
the  Contrat  social,  which  presented  as  the  ideal 
and  natural  government  the  direct  government  of 
the  people  and  which  applied  the  name  of  sover- 
eign, not  to  an  hereditary  monarch,  but  to  the 
whole  body  of  citizens.  Finally,  Emile,  which 
must  not  be  considered  a  formal  treatise  on  edu- 
cation, but  rather  a  string  of  interesting  ideas 
and  disquisitions  on  the  subject,  again  said  to 
the  world:  Trust  to  nature.  AH  these  teach- 
ings, helped  by  Rousseau's  eloquent  declama- 
tion, told  upon  society.  Their  climax  was  reached 
in  a  writing  inserted  in  the  fourth  book  of  Emile, 
La  profession  de  foi  du  vicaire  Savoyard,  in  which 
Rousseau  puts  into  the  mouth  of  a  poor  village 
priest  a  complete  exposition  of  his  system  of 
natural  religion. 

Although  M.  de  Malesherbes,  the  public  of- 
ficial in  charge  of  the  supervision  of  new  books, 
had  read  and  approved  of  Emile,  the  Parliament 
of  Paris  condemned  it  and  ordered  the  arrest  of 
the  author.  Rousseau  took  refuge  at  Yverdun,  a 
village  belonging  to  the  Republic  of  Bern.  Bern 
ordered  him  out  of  the  territory  of  the  Republic. 
Geneva  acted  in  the  same  manner  and  condemned 
both  Emile  and  the  Contrat  social.  At  last  Rous- 
seau found  a  refuge  in  the  County  of  Neuch&tel, 
then  belonging  to  the  King  of  Prussia,  and  gov- 
erned in  his  name  by  Marshal  Keith.  There,  in 
the  village  of  MiJtiers-Travers,  Rousseau  spent 
three  peaceful  years  (1762-65),  during  which  he 
wrote  the  letter  to  Christophe  de  Beaumont, 
Archbishop  of  Paris,  bv  whom  he  had  been  open- 
ly censured,  and  the  eloquent  Lettres  de  la  mon- 
tagne,  in  which  he  answered  the  jurist  Tronchin 
of  Gleneva,  another  of  his  critics. 

Another  storm  came,  real  perhaps,  perhaps 
only  stirred  up  by  Th^rfese,  who  wished  to  get 
away  from  M<5tiers-Travers.  Stones  were  thrown 
against  Rousseau's  house.  He  believed  his  life 
in  danger.  He  was  then  a  prey  to  the  idea  that 
the  whole  of  the  world  w^as  making  dark  plots 
against  him.  After  another  vain  attempt  to  set- 
tle within  the  boundaries  of  the  Republic  of 
Bern,  in  the  island  of  Saint  Pierre,  on  the  Lake 
of  Bienne,  he  returned  to  France,  and,  on  the  in- 
vitation of  Hume,  he  crossed  to  England.  His 
sojourn  there  is  unimportant  in  the  history 
of  his  life,  save  that  it  is  marked  by  his 
wanton  quarrel  with  Hume,  and  by  his  writing 
there  a  large  part  of  his  Confessions,  In  1667  he 
left  England,  wandered  then  for  a  few  years 
mostly  in  the  south  of  France,  going  from  one 
friend's  residence  to  another,  and  finally  in  1770 
returned  to  Paris  and  settled  unmolested  in  his 


old  home,  in  the  Rue  PUttri^re,  now  Rue  Jean 
Jacques  Rousseau,  where  he  spent  the  last  years 
of  his  life  in  comparative  peace.  He  died  July 
2,  1778,  after  a  four  weeks'  stay  in  the  Ch&teau 
of  Ermenonville,  a  few  miles  from  Paris,  be- 
longing to  the  Marquis  de  Girardin.  Some  as- 
cribed his  death  to  suicide,  but  the  idea  la  not 
entertained  to-day. 

His  last  works,  the  Dialogues,  or  Rousseau 
juge  de  Jean  Jacques,  and  the  Reveries  du  pro- 
meneur  solitaire,  show,  one  the  climax  of,  and  the 
other  the  relief  from,  the  mental  aberration 
created  in  him  both  by  his  supersensitive  sub- 
jectiveness  and  by  the  real  persecutions  that  as- 
sailed him.  There  is  no  good  complete  edition 
of  Rousseau's  works.  The  best  was  published 
at  Paris  in  1823-26  by  Musset-Pathay,  m  23  vol- 
umes, but  it  must  be  supplemented  by  a  number 
of  later  publications,  never  included  in  the  so- 
called  complete  editions,  notably  by  the  (Eux^res 
et  correspondances  inSdites  (2  vols.)  published  at 
Paris  in  1861  by  Streckeisen-Moulton. 

BiBLHMBAFHT.  The  best  English  work  on 
Rousseau  is  John  Morley's  Rousseau  (London, 
1873).  The  best  short  work  in  French  is  the 
monograph  of  Arthur  Chuquet  in  the  Collection 
des  grands  ^orivains  frangais  (Paris,  1893). 
Consult  also  the  biographies  by  Brockerhoff 
(Leipzig,  1863-74),  Vogt  (Vienna,  1870),  Saint- 
Marc  Girardin  (Paris,  1875),  Graham  (Edin- 
burgh, 1882),  Gehrig  (Neuwied,  1889),  Mahren- 
holtz  (Leipzig,  1889),  and  Beaudouln  (Paris, 
1892)  ;  moreover;  Streckeisen-Moulton,  RwiS" 
seau,  ses  amis  et  ses  ennemis  (ib.,  1876) ;  Des- 
noiresterres,  Voltaire  et  la  soci^t^  francaise,  vol. 
ii.  (ib.,  1875) ;  Borgeaud,  Rousseaus  Religions- 
phUosophie  (Leipzig,  1883) ;  Jansen,  Ro%isseau 
als  Musiker  (Berlin,  1884)  ;  Maugras,  Querelles 
des  philosophes  (Paris,  1886);  Faguet,  XVIII- 
6me  siicle  (ib.,  1890) ;  Grand-Cartenst,  Rousseau 
jugi  par  les  Fran^ise  d'aujowrd'kui  (ib.,  1890) ; 
Mugnier,  Madame  de  Warens  et  Jean  Jacques 
Rousseau  (ib.,  1890) ;  Texte,  Jean  Jacques  Rous- 
seau et  les  origines  du  oosmopolitisme  UttSraire 
(ib.,  1895) ;  Lfio  Claretie,  Rousseau  et  ses  amies 
(ib.,  1896) ;  Hdffding,  Rousseau  und  seine  Philo- 
sophie  (Stuttgart,  1897) ;  Lincoln,  Rousseau  and 
the  French  Revolution  (Philadelphia,  1897) ;  and 
for  a  criticism  especially  of  his  educational  theo- 
ries, Schneider,  Rousseau  und  Pestalozzi  (2d  ed., 
Berlin,  1881) ;  Davidson,  Rousseau  and  Educa- 
tion According  to  Nature  (New  York,  1898). 

BOUSSEAU,  LovELL  Habbison  (1818-69). 
An  American  soldier,  bom  in  Stanford,  Lincoln 
Coimty,  Ky.  He  studied  law  at  Louisville,  re- 
moved to  Bloomfield,  Ind.,  and  was  admitt^  vo 
the  Indiana  bar  in  1841.  He  fought  in  the  Mex- 
ican War  as  a  captain  in  the  Second  Indiana 
Regiment,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Buena 
Vista.  On  his  return  from  the  war  he  was  elected 
to  the  Indiana  Senate,  but  two  years  later  left 
the  State  and  settled  in  Louisville,  Ky.  Upon 
the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  War  he  endeav- 
ored to  keep  Kentucky  in  the  Union,  and  in  1860 
he  raised  the  Fifth  Kentucky  Regiment,  of  which 
he  was  made  colonel.  He  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  brigadier-general  in.  1861,  served  with 
great  credit  in  the  second  day's  battle  at  Shiloh, 
and  for  gallant  conduct  at  Perryville  was  made 
a  major-general  of  volunteers.  Later  he  com- 
manded the  Fifth  Division  of  the  Army  of  the 
Cumberland  at  Stone  River  and  at  Chickamauga ; 
in  1864  made  a  destructive  raid  into  Alabama, 


BoirssEAxr. 


197 


BOUSSTLLOH. 


and  had  conunand  of  Fort  Roaecrans  under  Gen- 
Ottl  Thomas  in  the  Nashville  campaign.  After 
the  war  he  became  a  member  of  the  National 
House  of  Representatives,  and  while  serving  in 
this  capacity  he  made  an  assault  upon  Josiah  B. 
Grumell  of  Iowa,  was  censured  by  the  House, 
and  resigned,  but  was  reelected  during  the  follow- 
ing recess.  In  1867  he  was  made  a  brigadier- 
general  in  the  Regular  Army,  and  was  sent  to 
Alaska,  where  he  received  the  formal  transfer 
of  that  Territory  from  Russia.  At  the  time 
of  his  death  in  1869  he  was  commander  of  the 
Department  of  the  Gulf. 

BOUSaBATT,  Philippe  (1808-87).  A  French 
painter.  He  was  bom  in  Paris  in  1816,  and 
was  a  pupil  of  Gros  and  Victor  Bertin.  He  be- 
gan as  a  landscape  painter,  but  later  painted 
chiefly  animals,  fruits,  and  flowers,  ranking 
with  Chardin  and  Decamps  in  depicting  mon- 
keys. His  painting  held  the  qualities  of  the 
Dutch  School  and  was  deep,  broad,  and  har- 
monions  in  color.  Ivory  work,  metal  or  porce- 
lain bowls  of  glowing  fruit,  he  displayed  to  per- 
fection against  a  background  of  exquisite  tone. 
Among  his  works  are:  "Storks  Taking  a  Siesta," 
**The  Monkey  Photograph,"  **Le  rat  de  ville  et  le 
rat  des  champs,"  etc. 

BOXTSSEATT,  Theodore  (1812-67).  A  French 
landscape  painter,  of  the  Barbison  School,  bom 
at  Paris,  April  15,  1812,  the  son  of  a  well-to-do 
bourgeois  tradesman.  He  was  the  brother  of 
Philippe  Rousseau.  At  the  ace  of  fourteen 
he  produced  **The  Signal  Station,^'  which  secured 
for  him  permission  to  devote  himself  to  art.  He 
studied  under  Remond  and  Lethi^re.  As  a  pupil 
of  the  Ecole  des  Beaux- Arts  he  revolted  against 
the  prevailing  classicism,  and  though  competing 
for  the  Prix  de  Rome  in  1831,  he  produced,  in- 
stead of  the  historical  landscape  set  for  a  subject, 
a  "Site  d'Auvergne,"  that  failed  of  the  prize  but 
determined  his  own  independent  course.  In  1834 
he  received  a  third-class  medal  for  "Les  C^Vtes 
de  Grandville,"  but  when  he  next  essayed  the 
Salon  with  his  "Descents  des  Vaches,"  he  found 
himself,  along  with  Decamps,  Delacroix,  Champ- 
martin,  and  other  Romanticists,  shut  out  from 
exhibiti(m.  Academic  hostility  lasted  until  the 
reform  of  the  Salon  jury  in  1848,  and  the  con- 
sequence to  Rousseau  was  a  bitterness  of  spirit 
hudly  appeased  by  his  later  honors.  At  the 
Exposition  Universelle  in  1867  he  was  made 
president  of  the  French  jury,  and  received 
the  grand  medal  of  honor  by  the  votes  of 
all  the  juries  of  the  various  nations.  His  later 
life  was  passed  at  Barbison,  where  he  built  his 
home  in  1848.  He  was  a  recluse  from  society, 
married  to  a  peasant  woman  who  became  stricken 
with  insanity  and  whom  he  tenderly  cared  for. 
On  December  20,  1867,  he  succumbed  to  paraly- 
sis, attended  to  the  last  by  the  painter  Millet, 
his  most  intimate  friend.  A  distinguishing  char- 
acteristic of  Rousseau's  art  is  the  remarkable 
balance  of  intellectual  and  emotional  qualities. 
He  has  well  been  called  the  epic  poet  of  land- 
scape art.  He  chose  the  most  solid  features  of 
the  landscape,  the  vigor  of  oak  and  beech  tree, 
the  structural  emplacement  of  rock  and  hills,  the 
serene  placidity  of  water  and  plain.  Always  a 
good  and  careful  draughtsman,  nis  early  picnires 
show  almost  an  over-insistence  on  details;  the 
eye  is  carried  back  into  remote  reaches  of  dis- 
tanoe,  from  point  to  point  of  subtly  developed 


planes.  But  he  never  sacrificed  breadth  and  har- 
mony of  color. 

In  1833  Rousseau  took  up  his  abode  at  Barbi- 
son and  spent  his  life  mainly  in  painting  scenes 
of  the  forest.  He  visited  Brittany  in  1»37  and 
painted  his  ''Avenue  of  Chestnuts;"  he  also 
painted  in  the  Ile-de-France,  and  in  Berry  and 
Gascony,  but  no  characteristic  feature  of  the 
forest  of  Fontainebleau  escaped  his  eye  and  brush. 
Many  of  Rousseau's  masterpieces  are  owned  by 
private  collectors  in  America.  His  principal 
works  include:  "Landscape  After  a  Rain;"  *'Edge 
of  the  Forest  of  Fontainebleau"  (1852,  Louvre) ; 
"Hoar  Frost,"  in  the  Walters  Collection,  Balti- 
more, and  "Fens  in  the  Landes"  (1854,  Louvre) ; 
"Tlie  Gorges  of  Apremont"  (1859,  in  the  Vander- 
bilt  collection,  New  York) ;  "Le  chtoe  de  roche" 
(1861) ;  "Road  in  the  Forest,"  and  "Setting  Sun" 
(1866),  both  in  the  Louvre.  Consult:  busier. 
Souvenir  sur  ThSodore  Rousseau  (Paris,  1872) ; 
Gensel,  Millet  und  Rousseau  (Bielefeld,  1902); 
Muther,  History  of  Modem  Painting  (London, 
1896) ;  Coffin,  in  Van  Dyke,  Modem  French  Mas- 
ters (New  York,  1896). 

BOUSSEL,  rl^'s^K,  G£rard'(c.  1480- 1550).  A 
French  reformer,  bom  near  Amiens.  He  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Lef^vre  d'Estaples  (see 
Fabeb),  and,  like  him,  embraced  the  Reforma- 
tion and  boldly  defended  it,  with  the  view  that 
he  could  do  so  without  separating  himself  from 
the  Catholic  Church.  He  taught  in  the  college 
of  Cardinal  Le  Moine,  in  Paris,  but  in  1521  his 
religious  views  brought  him  imder  disfavor,  and 
he  went  to  Bishop  Bre^onnet,  at  Meaux,  another 
of  the  open  sympathizers  with  the  Reformation. 
But  persecution  followed  him  and  he  went  to 
Strassburg  (1525).  The  next  year  the  Queen  of 
Navarre,  Marguerite  d'Angoul^me,  made  him  her 
confessor,  and  under  her  powerful  protection  and 
patronage  he  lived  securely.  She  had  him  ap- 
pointed to  the  Bishopric  of  Ol6ron  ( 1536) .  Early 
in  1550,  while  preaching  at  Maul6on  against 
the  excessive  number  of  ecclesiastical  festivals, 
he  was  set  upon  by  a  fanatic  and  fatally  injured. 
Consult  his  lAfe  by  Charles  Schmidt  ( Strassburg, 
1845)  and  the  letters  and  notes  given  by  Hermin- 
gard,  Correspondance  des  r^form^s  (2d  ed.,  Paris, 
1878). 

BOirSSET,  TTSS'Bii^,  Camillb  F£ux  Michel 
(1821-92).  A  French  historian,  born  in  Paris. 
He  became  professor  of  history  at  Grenoble  in 
1843,  and  from  1845  to  1863  held  the  chair  of 
history  at  the  Coll^  Bourbon  in  Paris.  In  1864 
he  was  appointed  historiographer  and  librarian 
to  the  Minister  of  War,  a  post  which  he  held 
until  1876.  He  was  elected  to  the  French  Acad- 
emy on  December  30,  1871.  Among  his  works 
the  following  deserve  mention:  Precis  d'histoire 
de  la  Revolution  frangaise  (1849) ;  Histoire  de 
Louvois  et  de  son  administration  politique  et 
militaire  (1861-63);  Les  volontaires  de  1191- 
P4  (1870);  Histoire  de  la  guerre  de  Crimes 
(1877) ;  La  conquite  d'Alger  (1879) ;  Les  com- 
mencements d'une  oonquite  (1887). 

BOUSSILLOM*,  roCrsA'yON'.  Formerly,  a 
province  of  Southern  France,  lying  between  Lan- 
guedoc,  Foix,  the  Pyrenees,  and  the  Mediterra- 
nean; now  comprised  within  the  Department  of 
Pry^n^s-Orientales.  (See,  under  Fbawce,  map 
showing  former  French  province.)  Its  capital 
was  Perpignon  (q.v.).  Its  ancient  inhabitants 
were  the  Cardones,  whose  capital,  Ruscino,  gave 


BOUSSILLON. 


198 


BOVE  BEETLE. 


the  country  its  name.  From  the  Romans,  the 
region  passed^  about  460,  to  the  Visigoths  and  in 
720  it  was  conquered  by  the  Arabs.  The  Franks 
conquered  it  in  769.  Under  the  Carolingians  it 
was  ruled  by  counts  who,  about  900,  succeeded 
in  establishing  their  independence.  In  1172  Rous- 
sillon  was  acquired  by  Aragon,  and  in  1642  it  was 
wrested  from  Spain  by  Louis  XIII.  of  France. 
It  was  definitely  ceded  to  France  by  the  Peace  of 
the  Pyrenees  (1659). 

BOUTH,  routh,  Edwaed  John  (1831—).  An 
English  mathematician,  bom  in  Quebec,  Canada, 
and  educated  at  University  College,  London,  and 
at  Peterhouse,  Cambridge.  He  received  high  hon- 
ors in  London  and  Cambridge,  and  was  a  well- 
known  tutor  from  1856  to  1888.  Routh  was  long 
examiner  in  Cambridge  and  London  universities; 
was  fellow  of  Peterhouse  (1857-64)  ;  was  elected 
to  the  Astronomical  Society  in  1866  and  to  the 
Royal  Society  in  1872.  He  published  a  Treatise 
on  Rigid  Dynamics,  which  went  through  six  edi- 
tions and  was  translated  into  German ;  a  Treatise 
on  Analytic  Statics  (1891-92) ;  and  Dynamics  of 
a  Particle  (1898). 

BOUTH,  Mabtin  Joseph  (1755-1854).  An 
English  scholar  and  educator,  born  in  South 
Elmham,  Suffolk,  and  educated  at  Queen's  and 
Magdalen  colleges,  Oxford.  At  Magdalen  he  be- 
came fellow  in  1775,  librarian  in  1781,  and  senior 
proctor  in  1784.  Elected  president  of  the  college 
m  1791,  he  held  that  post  for  sixty-three  years. 
Routh  Uved  into  his  one  hundredth  year  with  no 
impairment  of  his  mind  and  little  of  his  bodily 
strength.  He  was  a  thorough  scholar,  an  especial 
authority  on  ecclesiatical  law  and  history,  and 
an  intimate  friend  of  Porson.  Routh's  library 
became  the  property  of  Durham  University.  He 
published  editions  of  Plato's  Euthydemus  and 
Gorgias  (1784),  ReliquifB  Saorw  Secundi  Ter- 
tiique  Sceculi  post  Christum  (1814-18),  Burnet's 
History  (1823)  and  History  of  the  Reign  of 
James  IL  (1852),  Scriptorum  JScolesiasticorum 
Opuscula  qucBdam  (1832),  and  Tres  breves 
Tractatus  (1853).  Consult  the  sketch  in  Bur- 
gon's  Lives  of  Twelve  Good  Men  (London,  2d  ed.^ 
1888). 

BOUTHIEB,  rWJ'tyft',  Adolf  Basile  (1839 
— ) .  A  Canadian  jurist,  bom  at  Saint  Placide, 
Province  of  Quebec.  He  graduated  in  1858  at 
Laval  University,  Quebec,  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1861,  practiced  at  Kamouraska,  and  in 
1873  he  became  a  puisne  judge  of  the  Superior 
Court  of  Quebec  Province.  In  1897  he  was  ap- 
pointed judge  of  the  Vice-Admiralty  Court  of 
Quebec.  He  was  also  professor  of  international 
law  in  the  Laval  University,  and  a  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Canada.  Previous  to  his  ap- 
pearance on  the  bench  he  was  active  as  a  journal- 
ist, and  he  published  several  volumes,  including 
A  travers  V Europe  (1882-83),  his  most  impor- 
tant work:  Les  4chos  (1883),  a  collection  of 
verse;    and  Conferences  et  discourses  (1890). 

BOUTLEDGE,  rtitlgj,  Geobgk  (1812-88). 
The  founder  of  the  London  publishing  firm  now 
styled  George  Routledge  &  Sons.  He  was  bom 
at  Brampton,  in  Cumberland.  After  serving  his 
apprenticeship  with  a  bookseller  at  Carlisle,  he 
went  to  London  (1833),  and  in  the  course  of 
three  years  he  opened  a  retail  shop  of  his  own 
(1836).  In  1843  he  began  publishing.  Rout- 
ledge  was  a  pioneer  in  publishing  cheap  books, 
especially  of  American  authors,  for  the  masses. 


Among  his  successful  ventures  are  The  Railway 
Library  (1848  et  seq.),  leading  off  with  Ox>per 
and  numbering  over  a  thousand  volumes;  Rout- 
ledge's  Universal  Library,  edited  by  Henry  Mor- 
ley  (60  vols.,  1883  et  seq.)  ;  and  editions  of  Irv- 
ing, Cooper,  Ainsworth,  Bulwer,  etc.  Of  Uncle 
Tom's  Cabin  he  sold  500,000. 

BOirVTBB,  rlRTvyA^  Maitbice  (1842—).  A 
French  politician,  bom  at  Aix.  He  studied  law, 
and  became  an  advocate  at  Marseilles.  In  poli- 
tics he  was  a  Republican ;  he  attacked  the  Empire 
in  opposition  journals,  and  in  the  National  As- 
sembly, to  which  he  was  first  elected  in  1871. 
he  was  identified  with  the  Extreme  Left.  In 
1881-82,  during  the  Premiership  of  Gambetta,  be 
was  Minister  of  Commerce  and  the  Colonies,  and 
he  held  the  portfolio  of  Commerce  also  in  1884- 
85,  in  the  Ferry  Cabinet.  From  May  to  De- 
cember, 1887,  he  was  at  the  head  of  a  Cabinet 
in  which  he  also  was  Minister  of  Finance. 
He  received  the  portfolio  of  Finance  (1889)  in 
the  Tirard  Ministry,  and  retained  it  during  the 
successive  Ministries  of  Freycinet,  Loubet,  and 
Ribot,  until  he  withdrew  from  it  in  1892  in  con- 
sequence of  his  implication  in  the  Panama  affair. 
In  1902  he  became  once  more  Minister  of  Fi- 
nance, in  the  0)mbes  Cabinet. 

BOUX,  roo,  Pierre  Paul  Emile  (1853—).  A 
French  physician  and  bacteriologist,  bom  at  Con- 
folens  (Charente).  He  studied  medicine  at  Cler- 
mont-Ferrand (Puy  de  IXJme),  and  at  Paris, 
where  from  1874  to  1878  he  held  a  subordinate 
post  in  the  Faculty  of  Science.  In  1878  he  en- 
tered the  laboratory  of  Pasteur,  in  1883  became 
adjunct  assistant  director,  and  in  1896  assist- 
ant director  of  the  Pasteur  Institute.  He  assist- 
ed Pasteur  in  various  experiments,  including 
those  concerning  the  etiology  of  carbon  and  the 
preventive  treatment  of  hydrophobia.  He  also 
did  some  work  in  the  development  of  Behring's 
diphtheria  toxin  treatment.  Of  his  other  re- 
searches may  be  mentioned  those  conducted  with 
Nocard  regarding  pneumonia,  among  the  results 
of  which  was  the  discovery  of  the  pneumonia 
microbe. 

BOUX,  Wilhelm  (1850—).  A  German  physi- 
ologist and  anatomist,  bom  at  Jena.  He 
studied  at  Jena,  Berlin,  and  Strassburg  universi- 
ties, in  1879  was  appointed  an  assistant  in  the 
Hygienic  Institute  at  Leipzig,  afterwards  be- 
came a  lecturer  at  Breslau,  and  in  1886 
professor  there.  In  1889  he  was  called  to 
the  chair  of  anatomy  at  Innsbruck,  and 
in  1895  received  a  similar  appointment  at 
Halle.  His  particular  researches  were  in  con- 
nection with  the  science  of  'Entwicklungsme- 
chanik' — the  influence  upon  physical  develop- 
ment of  the  mechanical  demands  made  upon  vari- 
ous organs.  Roux  published  in  exposition  of  this 
theory  Die  Entunckelungsmechanik  der  Orga- 
nism^n  (1890),  and  other  works, 

BOVE  BEETLE;  Any  representative  of  the 
Staphylinidse,  one  of  the  largest  families  of 
beetles.  The  body  is  long  and  slender,  while  the 
wings  are  very  short,  well  developed,  and 
when  not  in  use  are  folded  under  the  short  wing- 
covers.  The  abdomen  is  soft  and  flexible,  and 
these  insects  have  a  habit  of  turning  up  the  point 
of  it,  particularly  when  annoyed,  whence  the 
English  name  'cocktail.'  Their  food  is  carrion  of 
different  kinds,  and  some  will  feed  upon  living 
insects  as  well  as  dead  ones,  and  probably  on 


BOVB  BEETLE. 


199 


BOWINa. 


fungi.  Many  of  them  have  a  fetid  odor.  About 
9000  species  have  been  described,  1000  of  which 
occur  in  North  America.    A  very  large  and  pow- 


▲  ROTS  BBKTLK. 

erful  species  lives  in  the  nests  of  wasps  and  hor- 
nets.   Other  species  liye  in  the  nests  of  termites. 

BOVEBEDO,  rd've-raM6  (Ger.  Rofreit).  A 
town  in  South  Tyrol,  Austria,  picturesquely  situ- 
ated on  the  Leno,  15  miles  by  rail  south-south- 
west of  Trent  (Map:  Austria,  B  4).  Roveredo  is 
the  centre  of  the  l^rolese  silk  trade.  It  manu- 
factures leather,  paper  goods,  and  strings  for 
musical  instruments,  and  trades  in  wines,  cereals, 
hams,  and  fruits.  Near  by  is  a  castle  where 
Dante  sojourned.  Roveredo  belonged  to  Venice 
in  the  fifteenth  century.  Population,  in  1900, 
10,180,  mostly  Italians. 

BOVIGKOy  rA-ve'nyA  (Lat.  Arupenum,  Ruhi- 
num).  A  seaport  in  the  Crownland  of  Istria, 
Austria,  situated  on  a  rocky  promontory  in  the 
Adriatic,  40  miles  south  of  Triest  (Map:  Aus- 
tria, G  4).  Rovigno  is  famous  for  its  wine, 
hazel-nuts,  and  olive  oil.  There  are  ship-building 
yards,  a  large  tobacco  factory,  and  tunny  and 
sardine  fisheries.  The  inhabitants  are  famous 
as  pilots.  Population,  in  1900,  10,205,  mostly 
Italians. 

BOVIGO,  rA-ve'gA.  The  capital  of  the  Prov- 
ince of  Rovigo,  Italy,  situated  on  the  Adigetto, 
38  miles  southwest  of  Venice  (Map:  Italy,  F  2). 
Its  ancient  walls  and  towers  and  the  ruins  of  an 
old  castle  are  still  to  be  seen.  There  are  a  town 
hall  with  a  picture  gallery  and  a  library  of  80,- 
000  volumes,  a  gynmasium,  a  lyceum^  and  a  tech- 
nical school.  In  the  Middle  Ages  Rovigo  be- 
longed to  Venice.  Population  (commune),  in 
1901,  11,174. 

BOVIGOy  Duke  op.    See  Savabt. 

BOVIKG.    See  Spinniko. 

BOVNO,  rdVnd.  A  town  in  the  Government 
of  Volhynia,  Russia,  situated  on  two  important 
raUway  lines,- 115  miles  west-northwest  of  Zhito- 
mir. It  has  some  flour  mUls  and  trades  in  grain, 
cattle,  and  wood.  It  belongs  to  the  counts  of.Lu- 
bomirski.  Population,  in  1897,  24,905,  mostly 
Jews. 

BOVUMA,  Tf^vWmk.  A  river  of  East  Cen- 
tral Africa,  forming  the  boundary  between  €}er- 
man  and  Portuguese  East  Africa  (Map:  Congo 
Free  State,  G  6).  It  rises  on  the  Livingstone 
Mountains,  which  extend  along  the  east  shore  of 
Lake  Nyassa,  and  flows  eastward  into  the  Indian 
Ocean.  Its  length  is  about  400  miles.  About 
half  way  to  its  source  it  receives  the  Lujenda,  a 
rapid  and  shallow  stream.  Below  the  confluence 
the  Rovuma  is  navigable  during  the  wet  season 
for  river  craft  of  considerable  size.  The  river 
was  first  explored  in  1861  by  Livingstone. 

BOWAir^  ro'an,  Stephen  Cleog  (1808-90). 
A  distinguished  American  naval  officer.  He  was 
horn  near  Dublin,  Ireland,  but  emigrated  to 
America  with  his  parents  at  an  early  age  and 
settled  in  Ohio.    In  1820  he  was  appointed  mid- 


shipman in  the  navy.  In  the  Mexican  War,  as 
executive  officer  of  the  Cyane,  he  assisted  in  the 
capture  of  Monterey  and  San  Diego  and  in  the 
attack  on  Guyamas.  He  also  commanded  the 
naval  battalion  under  Commodore  Stockton  at 
the  battle  of  Mesa  in  Upper  California,  and  later 
helped  to  surprise  a  Mexican  outpost  near  the 
town  of  Mazatlan.  The  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War  found  him  in  command  of  the  Pawnee.  With 
that  vessel  he  protected  Washington  for  a  time 
and  covered  the  Federal  force  in  Alexandria,  and 
on  May  25,  1861,  engaged  a  Confederate  battery 
at  Acquia  Creek,  thus  fighting  the  first  naval 
action  of  the  war.  Later  he  took  part  in  the 
Pawnee  in  the  capture  of  the  forts  about  Hatteras 
Inlet,  participated  in  the  expedition  under  Colds- 
borough  in  January,  1862,  and  in  the  following 
month  assisted  in  the  capture  of  Roanoke  Island. 
On  February  10th,  as  commander  of  the  Delor 
ware  and  a  flotilla  of  other  vessels,  he  pursued 
the  Confederate  fleet  into  Pasquotank  River,  cap- 
tured it,  and  destroyed  the  fortifications  on  shore. 
Following  up  this  success,  he  passed  on  up  the 
river,  seized  Elizabeth  City  and  Edenton,  cap- 
tured and  destroyed  several  armed  vessels,  and 
then  obstructed  the  Chesapeake  and  Albemarle 
Canal.  In  March,  1862,  he  cooperated  with  Gen- 
eral Burnside  in  the  capture  of  Winston,  New 
Berne,  and  Beaufort.  For  his  services  Rowan  re- 
ceived the  thanks  of  Congress,  and  was  promoted 
first  to  be  captain,  and  afterwards  to  be  com- 
modore. He  was  in  command  of  the  "New  Iron- 
aides  off  Charleston,  and  in  the  absence  of  Admi- 
ral Dahlgren  was  in  command  of  the  entire 
blockading  squadron.  In  1866  he  was  made  a 
rear-admiral,  and  in  1870  was  advanced  to  the 
rank  of  vice-admiral.  He  retired  in  1889.  Con- 
sult an  article  by  Admiral  Stevens  in  Hamersly's 
"Naval  Encyclopedia  (Philadelphia,  1881  and 
1884)  ;  Johnson  and  Buel  (eds.),  Battles  and 
Leaders  of  the  Civil  War  (New  York,  1887). 

BOWAN-TBEE  {Pyrus  Aucuparia),  A 
small  tree  of  the  natural  order  Rosaces,  often 
planted  for  its  graceful  pinnate  foliage,  corymbs 
of  small  whitish  flowers,  and  bright-red  berries. 
See  Mountain  Ash. 

BOWE,  Nicholas  (1674-1718).  An  English 
dramatist  and  poet  laureate,  born  at  Little  Bar- 
ford,  Bedfordshire.  He  was  educated  at  West- 
minster, and  studied  law  in  the  Middle  Temple, 
but  devoted  himself  to  literature.  Between  1700 
and  1715  he  brought  forth  eight  plays,  of  which 
three  were  long  popular:  Tamerlane  (1702),  The 
Fair  Penitent  (1703),  and  Jane  Shore  (1714). 
The  character  of  Lothario  in  The  Fair  Pentitent  is 
the  prototype  of  Lovelace  in  Richardson's  Cla- 
rissa Harloioe,  Perhaps  Rowe  is  now  best  known 
for  his  critical  edition  of  Shakespeare  (6  vols., 
1709;  revised,  8  vols.,  1714),  really  the  flrst  criti- 
cal edition.  His  popular  talents  and  engaging 
manners  procured  him  many  friends  and  several 
lucrative  offices.  The  Duke  of  Queensberry  made 
him  Under-Secretary  of  State.  In  1715  ne  suc- 
ceeded Tate  as  poet  laureate.  He  died  December 
6,  1718,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
After  his  death  appeared  his  complete  verse 
translation  of  Lucan's  Pharsalia, 

BOWENA,  r^-e'nA.  In  Scott's  Iva^ihoe,  the 
ward  of  Cedric  the  Saxon,  and  the  successful  rival 
of  Rebecca  for  Ivanhoe's  love. 

BOWINO  (from  row,  AS.  rdtoan,  Icel.  rOa,  to 
row;  connected  with  Olr.  rdme,  Lat.  remus,  Gk« 


BOWIK0. 


^00 


Bownro. 


kpeTft6vy  eretmon,  oar,  Skt.  curitra,  rudder,  pad- 
dle, ar,  to  drive,  push,  OChurch  Slav,  r^ati,  to 
push,  and  ultimately  with  Eng.  rudder,  oar). 
The  art  of  propelling  a  boat  by  means  of  oars. 
Professional  boating  is  almost  exclusively  single 
sculling,  which  method  will  be  found  treated  sep- 
arately. This  article  is,  therefore,  confined  to 
fresh-water  rowing  in  competitive  races,  by  crews 
mostly  of  eight  men,  though  occasionally  of  four, 
and  more  rarely  of  two. 

The  boats  are  light,  long,  and  narrow.  The 
English  custom  in  an  eight-crew  boat  is  to.  seat 
each  man  as  far  over  to  the  opposite  side  from  his 
rowlock  as  possible,  so  that,  in  effect,  four  sit  on 
one  side  and  four  o*-  the  other.  In  America, 
the  men  sit  in  a  straight  line  down  the  centre 
of  the  boat.  In  eights,  the  boat  is  kept  in  its 
course  by  a  steersman  (coxswain),  sitting  in  the 
stem  and  guiding  it  with  tiller  ropes  attached  to 
the  rudder.  In  fours,  however,  it  is  usual  to 
dispense  with  a  steerer,  the  first  rower  from  the 
stem  keeping  the  boat  in  the  desired  position  by 
pressing  a  board  with  his  feet  to  which  the  rud- 
der lines  are  attached.  Pairs  dispense  with  a 
rudder  altogether.  The  styles  of  rowing  differ 
with  place  and  period,  and  each  has  stanch 
advocates.  But  there  is  one  fundamental  prin- 
ciple governing  the  whole  subject:  what  the  oar 
does  in  the  water  is  the  only  thing  that  gives  pace 
to  a  boat.  The  aioing  forward  is  to  put  the  oar, 
held  horizontally  so  as  to  minimize  the  resistance 
of  the  atmosphere,  back  beyond^  the  rowlock,  so 
that,  when  turned  on  edge  it  may  drop  into  the 
water  at  the  most  effectual  spot.  The  beginning 
18  the  applying  the  whole  weight  of  the  body 
against  the  water  in  front  of  the  blade.  The 
swing  hack  carries  the  blade  onward.  The  finish 
is  when  the  body  has  passed  the  perpendicular, 
and  the  recovery  is  when  the  oar  is  lifted  out  of 
the  water  by  the  rower  lowering  his  hands,  when 
the  swing  forward  for  another  stroke  begins. 

The  boats  have  had  an  interesting  development 
in  the  aim  to  combine  lightness  and  strength. 
In  the  early  days  they  were  heavy,  wide,  and 
deep,  with  a  keel  and  with  rowlocks  or  ruts  for 
the  oars  on  their  sides.  The  first  decided  inno- 
vation was  that  of  Clasper,  a  celebrated  Oxford 
builder,  who  in  1844  designed  light  iron  brackets 
extending  out  from  the  sides  of  the  boat.  These 
enabled  the  rowlock  to  be  at  a  point  farther  out 
than  before  from  the  rower's  hand,  and  thereby 
increased  the  power  of  his  stroke.  They  were 
adopted  both  in  England  and  by  Yale  and  Har- 
vard. The  next  improvement  was  in  1856,  when 
the  first  keelless  boat  was  built  by  Taylor.  This 
was  a  revolution  necessitating  a  new  method  of 
rowing;  in  fact,  modem  rowing  styles  all  date 
from  that  event.  The  sliding  seat,  introduced  by 
Yale  in  1870,  was  the  next,  and  remains  prac- 
tically the  last  of  the  steps  in  the  evolution 
of  the  design  of  the  rowing  boat.  It  made  row- 
ing much  more  pleasant  and  necessitated  the  use 
of  a  longer  leverage  of  the  oar  inboard,  but  it  did 
not  require  any  material  alterations  in  methods 
of  rowing.  It  was  quickly  improved,  and  by 
1872  was  in  general  use  in  England  as  well  as  in 
America.  The  boat  of  a  racing  eight  is  approxi- 
mately 60  feet  long,  two  feet  wide,  and  one  foot 
deep.  The  slide  varies  in  length,  as  does  the 
distance  of  the  rowlock  from  the  centre  of  tlie 
seat.  Thirty  inches  is  the  average  distance  in 
England    where    fixed    rowlocks    are   used.      In 


America  the  rowlocks  work  on  a  swiveL  The 
material  of  the  boat  in  Great  Britain  has  nearly 
uniformly  been  cedar,  and  this  wood  is  much 
used  in  the  United  States,  although  papier-mach^ 
and  aluminum  have  been  tried  with  more  or  less 
success  under  suitable  conditions.  Expert  boat- 
builders,  however,  seem  to  prefer  cedar.  The 
oars  of  America  are  lighter  and  of  a  different 
sha'pe  from  those  in  use  in  England,  and  wider, 
ranging  from  6^)^  to  7^  inches  across  the  blade. 
The  standard  English  length  is  12  feet  6  inches 
over  all,  buttoned  for  the  rowlock  at  3  feet  8 
inches  from  the  handle  end,  and  5^  inches  wide 
in  the  blade,  although  the  oar  must  be  aooommo- 
dated  to  the  individual  oarsman. 

In  all  probability,  competitive  rowing  owes 
its  origin  to  the  Thames  watermen.  The  Wind- 
sor watermen  of  the  royal  barge  and  their 
aquatic  contests  would  naturally  interest  the 
Eton  boys  directly  across  the  Thames,  so  that  it 
is  not  surprising  to  find  the  earliest  instance 
of  a  rowing  club  at  Eton.  Its  list  of  captains 
is  complete  from  the  year  1812,  although  its 
operations  extend  back  into  the  previous  cen- 
tury. Since  then  Eton  has  been  the  nursery  of 
the  best  oarsmen  of  both  the  ancient  English 
universities.  The  rowing  history  of  Oxford  does 
not  go  further  back  than  1815,  when  Brasenose 
was  at  'the  head  of  the  river,'  a  term  that  neces- 
sarily implies  earlier  struggles,  the  records  of 
which  are  lost.  Cambridge  has  no  authentic 
racing  data  earlier  than  1825.  There,  too,  for 
many  years  every  college  has  had  one,  two,  or 
three  rowing  clubs.  The  first  English  club  not 
located  at  a  public  school  or  university  was  the 
Leander  Boat  Club,  on  the  Thames,  which  was 
incorporated  in  1812  for  the  purpose  of  keeping 
together  'old  blues'  of  both  universities  who  were 
resident  in  London.  Its  membership  is  limited 
to  men  who  have  actually  rowed  in  the  Oxford 
and  Cambridge  crews,  or  m  the  trial  eights  from 
which  the  crews  were  selected.  Its  influence  on 
rowing  has  been  of  the  first  importance,  and  to- 
day its  crews  hold  the  premier  honors  of  the 
rowing  world.  The  Australian  Rowing  Associa- 
tion, foimded  in  1879,  is  the  governing  body  for 
general  rowing  in  Australia. 

Rowmo  IN  THE  United  States.  American  boat- 
ing has  been  greatly  advanced  by  the  colleges, 
whose  crews  represent  on  the  whole  the  most 
finished  watermanship,  and  hold  nearly  all  the 
records  for  the  distances  and  conditions  in  which 
they  compete.  These  contests  between  colleges 
represent,  also,  clean  and  well-conducted  sport. 
Rowing  began  in  the  United  States  early  in  the 
nineteenth  century,  and  the  first  important  race 
was  held  in  1811,  when  a  New  York  City  crew, 
rowing  in  a  four-oared  barge,  defeated  a  Long 
Island  crew.  The  oldest  boat  club  in  the  country 
is  the  Detroit  Boat  Club,  founded  in  1839.  In 
1843  the  second,  and  existing  club,  was  formed  at 
Yale.  Rowing  at  Harvard  had  been  organized  as 
early  as  1839.  Serious  boat  racing  b^ran  with 
intercollegiate  boating,  nine  years  after  the  for- 
mation of  the  Yale  Boat  Club,  and  its  history 
ever  since  has  been  intimately  connected  with  col- 
legiate athletics.  The  first  intercollegiate  regatta 
was  held  in  1852,  Yale  and  Harvard  then  being 
the  only  boating  colleges.  Harvard  won  the 
race,  and  also  a  second  one,  which  was  held  in  1855. 
In  1858,  at  the  suggestion  of  Harvard,  the  Union 
College  Regatta  Association  was  formed,  com* 


BOWINa 


201 


BOWLAin). 


posed  of  Harvard,  Yale,  Trinity,  and  Brown,  Har- 
vard won  all  the  races  of  this  association,  which 
dissolved  upon  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  War. 
There  were  no  races  during  the  early  years  of 
the  war,  but  in  1864-70  Yale  and  Harvard  met 
in  six-oared  barge  raoes,  and  Harvard  won  five 
of  the  seven  contests.  In  1871  the  famous  Row- 
ing Association  of  American  Colleges  was  formed, 
having  at  one  period  sixteen  members.  In  the 
six  annual  regattas  held  by  this  association,  the 
Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  Amherst, 
Yale,  and  Columbia  won  in  the  four-oared  races. 
Cornell  won  the  last  two.  Yale  refused  to  row 
in  1876,  and  competed  instead  with  Harvard  in 
a  dual  race,  the  first  in  the  Harvard- Yale  series 
in  eights  for  four  miles.  Harvard  competed  in 
both  races  that  year,  but  it  was  the  last  regatta 
held  by  the  IntercoU^iate  Association,  which 
then  ceased  to  exist. 

With  Harvard  and  Yale  rowing  together,  a  few 
of  the  remaining  colleges  competed  in  various 
eombinations  until  1883,  when  for  the  third  time 
an  intercollegiate  association  was  formed  by 
Bowdoin,  Columbia,  Cornell,  Princeton,  Rutgers, 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  Wesleyan,  row- 
ing in  four-oared  shells  over  a  1%-mile  course. 
In  1883,  also,  Cornell  and  Pennsylvania  met  for 
the  first  time,  and  have  competed  annually  ever 
since,  either  in  dual  races  or  at  the  larger 
r^attas.  After  1887  rowing  ceased  at  most  of 
the  colleges,  in  addition  to  Harvard  and  Yale, 
the  races  of  1888-94  being  between  Cornell, 
Columbia,  and  Pennsylvania  only.  In  1895  the 
present  Intercollegiate  Association  was  formed 
by  these  three  colleges,  with  whom  the  manage- 
ment rests.  The  regatta  is  open  to  all  college 
crews.  The  entrance  of  Harvard  in  the  regatta 
of  1896  is  connected  with  one  of  the  most  notable 
chapters  in  intercollegiate  rowing  history.  In 
1896-97  Cornell  and  Harvard  had  a  dual  agree- 
ment in  athletics.  Harvard  had  dropped  all  re- 
lations with  Yale,  owing  to  a  serious  athletic 
mpture,  and  while  Yale  rowed  at  Henley  (Eng- 
land), Harvard  competed  in  the  Poughkeepsie 
races.  In  the  following  year,  1897,  Harvard  re- 
sumed relations  with  Yale,  and  as  she  had  an 
engagement  to  meet  Cornell  and  did  not  wish  to 
row  two  races,  suggested  that  Yale  be  admitted^ 
to  the  Harvard-Cornell  race.  Cornell  agreed,' 
bat  suggested  in  turn  that  Columbia  and  Penn- 
sylvania be  also  admitted.  This  Yale  refused  to 
consider,  on  the  grounds  that  the  race  would  bo 
unwieldy.  Cornell  was  unwilling  to  forsake 
Pennsylvania  and  Columbia.  At  the  same  time 
she  was  anxious  to  compete  with  the  New  Haven 
university,  whom  she  had  not  met  on  the  water 
since  1875,  except  in  a  freshman  race  in  1890. 
As  a  result  Cornell  rowed  in  two  regattas  in 
1897  and  again  in  1898,  defeating  Yale  and  Har- 
vard both  times.  In  the  latter  year,  however, 
the  races  were  rowed  in  different  places,  within 
a  week  of  one  another,  and  Cornell  in  the  inter- 
collegiate regatta  lost  to  Pennsylvania.  This 
was  her  first  serious  defeat,  with  one  exception, 
in  14  years.  In  1899  Cornell  declined  the  invita- 
tion of  Harvard  and  Yale  to  row  in  their  dual 
race,  but  expressed  herself  as  willing  to  meet 
them  as  competitors  in  the  Intercollegiate  Regat- 
ta. The  victory  of  Pennsylvania  in  1898  proved 
a  turning  point  in  Pennsylvania's  career,  and 
her  'varsity  crews  won  both  in  1899  and  1900. 
It  has  heea  the  aim  of  the  Intercollegiate  Asso- 


ciation to  make  its  regatta  a  representative  meet- 
ing of  American  boating  colleges.  A  four-oared 
'varsity  race  was  added  in  1899  to  the  regular 
'varsity  and  freshman  events  in  eights,  and  in 
1900  pair -oared  and  single  events  were  provided 
for  in  case  of  three  entries  in  each  race. 

The  formation  of  the  American  Association  of 
Amateur  Oarsmen  in  1871,  as  the  governing  row- 
ing association  of  the  United  States,  was  the 
first  satisfactory  step  toward  the  enforcement, 
outside  of  the  colleges,  of  amateur  rowing,  al- 
though an  amateur  standard  had  been  recognized 
in  a  way  some  thirty  years  before,  when  the 
Castle  Garden  Boat  Club  Association  was  formed. 
The  association  has  held  annual  regattas  at  va- 
rious places,  with  singles,  doubles,  pair-oared, 
four-oared,  and  eight-oared  events.  In  1900  at 
New  York  the  winners  of  special  races  were  sent 
to  compete  in  the  international  races  at  the  Paris 
Exposition.  Besides  the  national  body  there  are 
fifteen  organizations  of  rowing  clubs  representing 
the  various  sections  of  the  country,  each  of  which 
holds  its  annual  regatta,  and  many  of  which  enter 
even  in  the  national  races.  In  Canada  an  asso- 
ciation of  amateur  oarsmen  was  formed  in  1870 
and  has  since  held  annual  championship  regattas. 

There  have  been  several  international  rowing 
contests,  of  which  the  following  is  a  summary: 
1869 — ^Harvard  'varsity  four  against  Oxford, 
over  the  Thames  course,  lost  by  six  seconds. 
1876— London  Rowing  Club  on  the  Schuylkill 
River  course  at  the  United  States  Centennial 
Regatta  were  defeated.  1881 — Cornell  'varsity 
four  lost  at  Henley.  1878 — Columbia  'varsity 
four  won  the  Visitors'  Cup  at  Henley  Regatta. 
1882 — ^The  Hillsdale  crew  rowed  against  the 
Thames  Rowing  Club  and  lost  by  reason  of  the 
bow  oarsman  breaking  his  oar.  1895— Cornell 
'varsity  eight  entered  for  the  Grand  Challenge 
Cup  at  Henley  defeated  by  Trinity  Hall,  Cam- 
bridge. 1896— -Yale  'varsity  eight  entered  for 
Grand  Challenge  Cup  at  Henley,  defeated  by 
Leander  Boat  Club.  1901 — University  of  Penn- 
sylvania eight  entered  for  the  Grand  Challenge 
Cup  at  Henley,  won  the  first  heat  over  London 
Rowing  Club,  the  second  heat  over  Thames  Row- 
ing Club,  but  lost  the  final  heat  to  the  Leander 
club  by  one  length. 

Consult:  Breckwood,  Boat  Racing  (London, 
(1876) ;  Woodgate,  Oars  and  Sculls  (New  York, 
1874)  ;  Boating,  in  Badminton  Library  (London 
and  New  York)  ;  Lehman,  Boating,  in  Isthmian 
Library  (London,  1897)  ;  Whitney,  A  Sporty 
Pilgrimage  (New  York,  1895) ;  "Rowing,"  in  En- 
cyclopedia of  Sport  (ib.,  1898). 

BOWLAND,  ryiand,  Heitby  Augustus 
(1848-1901).  An  American  physicist,  bom  at 
Honesdale,  Pa.  He  studied  civil  engineer- 
ing at  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute,  Troy, 
where  he  graduated  in  1870.  He  became  in- 
structor at  Wooster  University,  Ohio,  and 
then  instructor  and  afterwards  assistant  pro- 
fessor at  Rensselaer  Institute.  He  became 
(1876)  professor  of  physics  at  Johns  Hop- 
kins University,  a  chair  he  occupied  at  the  time 
of  his  death.  Professor  Rowland  was  one  of 
the  greatest  physicists  of  the  nineteenth  century 
and  had  an  international  reputation.  His  deter- 
mination of  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat  was 
one  of  his  most  important  investigations.  His 
determination  of  the  ohm  was  likewise  of  great 
value;    and  his  study  of  the  magnetic  proper- 


BOWLAKD. 


202 


B0W80N. 


ties  of  iron  kd  to  entirely  new  conceptions  of 
magnetism.  His  interest  in  spectroscopy  led  him 
to  the  discovery  of  the  principle  of  the  concave 
grating,  and  to  the  construction  of  a  dividing  en- 
gine provided  with  a  screw  of  extreme  accuracy 
and  uniformity  of  pitch,  by  which  gratings  were 
prepared  under  his  direction.  Rowland  not  only 
made  an  eye  study  of  the  spectrum,  but  also  ap- 
plied photographic  methods.  He  investigated 
the  solar  spectrum  and  the  arc  spectra  of  various 
elements,  and  carried  on  many  researches  in  al- 
lied fields.  His  work  on  alternating  currents  and 
their  application  has  also  been  of  importance.  One 
of  his  last  investigations  resulted  in  the  de- 
velopment of  a  system  of  multiplex  telegraphy 
based  on  the  use  of  synchronous  motors,  for  which 
he  received  a  gold  medal  from  the  Paris  Exhibi- 
tion. Perhaps  his  most  important  discovery  was 
that  of  the  magnetic  effect  of  electric  convection, 
which  has  a  wide-spread  theoretical  bearing  upon 
electrical  phenomena.  At  the  time  of  his  death 
Professor  Rowland  was  the  president  of  the 
American  Physical  Society,  of  which  he  was  one 
of  the  founders.  Some  of  his  important  researches 
are  the  following:  On  Magnetic  Permeability 
( 1873)  ;  On  the  Magnetic  Permeability  and  Mawi- 
mum  Magnetization  of  "Nickel  and  Cobalt  ( 1874) ; 
Studies  on  Magnetic  Distribution  (1875) ;  On  a 
Magnetic  Effect  of  Electric  Connection  (1876); 
Research  on  the  Absolute  Unit  of  Electrical  Re- 
sistance (1878)  ;  On  the  Mechanical  Equivalent 
of  Heat  ( 1880) ;  On  Concave  Gratings  for  Optical 
Purposes  (1883);  and  On  the  Relative  Wave 
Lengths  at  the  Lines  of  the  Solar  Spectrum 
(1886).  His  collected  physical  papers  were  pub- 
lished by  the  Johns  Hopkins  Press,  1902.  To  this 
collection  there  is  prefixed  a  biographical  sketch 
by  Professor  T.  G.  Mendenhall. 

BOWIiANBS,  ryiandz,  Samuel  (c.1570-T). 
An  English  author,  who  published  about  twenty- 
five  famous  pamphlets  in  prose  and  verse.  Some 
are  on  religious  themes,  but  most  are  satires 
on  contemporary  manners.  The  series  began  with 
The  Betraying  of  Christ,  a  poem  (1598),  and 
closed  with  Heaven's  Olory.  Seeke  it.  Earth's 
Vanitie.  Flye  it.  Helle's  Horrour,  Fere  it 
(in  verse  and  prose,  1628) .  Of  his  satirical  work, 
a  good  specimen  is  The  Letting  of  Humours  Blood 
in  the  Head-Vaine  (1600),  a  collection  of  satires 
and  epigrams,  assailing  his  contemporaries  under 
fictitious  names.  To  the  same  year  belongs  the 
similar  A  Mery  Metinge,  or  'tis  Mery  when 
Knaves  mete.  Both  these  pamphlets  were  burned 
by  the  authorities,  and  the  publishers  were  fined 
for  handling  them.  Martin  Mark-all,  Beadle  of 
Bridewell  (1610),  is  an  excel  lent,  account  of  the 
rogues  of  the  time.  Consult  the  reprint  of  his 
Works,  with  an  introduction  by  Gosse  (Hunte- 
rian  Glub,  Glasgow,  1872-1886).  The  introduc- 
tion was  reissued  in  Gosse's  Seventeenth  Century 
Studies  (London,  1883). 

BOWLANDSOK*,  rdHand-son,  Mart.  An 
English  colonist  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
famous  for  one  book.  Her  husband  was  Joseph 
Rowlandson,  the  first  minister  of  Lancaster, 
Mass.  On  February  10,  1675,  Lancaster  was 
destroyed  by  the  Indians,  who  carried  off  Mrs. 
Rowlandson  and  her  children.  After  her  release 
three  months  later  appeared  her  book,  called  A 
True  History  of  the  Captivity  and  Restoration 
of  Mrs.  Rowlandson,  a  Minister's  Wife  in  New 
England,  Whereunto  is  Annexed  a  Sermon  by 


Joseph  Rowlandson,  her  Husband.  She  tells  of 
her  sufferings  by  cold  and  hunger,  of  her  child's 
death  by  cold,  and  of  her  sale  by  her  Narraganset 
captor  to  an  Indian  chief.  She  was  at  last  ran- 
somed for  about  $80,  a  sum  raised  by  several 
women  of  Boston.  Her  book  went  through  va- 
rious editions. 

BOWLAHDBOK,  Thomas  (I756-I827).  An 
English  artist  and  caricaturist,  bom  in  Old 
Jewry,  London.  He  early  displayed  skill  in 
caricature,  was  a  student  at  the  Royal  Academy, 
and  afterwards  at  a  drawing-school  in  Paris,  and 
set  up  in  London  as  a  portrait-artist  In  1777-81 
he  also  exhibited  landscapes  and  portraits  with 
much  success  at  the  Royal  Academy.  In  1781  or 
thereabouts  he  assumed  to  greater  extent  the 
manner  of  caricature.  He  was  known  for  his 
representations  of  Napoleon,  but  more  particu- 
larly for  his  series,  including  the  "Tours  of  Dr. 
Syntax"  (1812,  1820,  1821),  <The  English  Dance 
of  Death"  (1815-16),  and  'The  Dance  of  Life" 
(1816),  all  with  text  by  William  Combe.  His 
work  was  chiefiy  in  pen-and-ink,  lightly  washed  or 
retouched  in  water-colors.  His  humorous  quality 
included  the  picturesque,  for  example  in  posting 
and  driving  scenes  at  the  inn  or  on  the  highroad. 
In  attempts  along  other  lines  he  was  unmistak- 
ably inferior.  It  has  been  frequently  asserted  that 
his  technical  merits  and  originality  might  well 
have  entitled  him  to  occupy  a  more  serious  place 
in  the  history  of  English  art.  (Consult:  Wright, 
History  of  Caricature  and  Grotesque  in  Art  (Lon- 
don, 1845) ;  and  Grego,  RowUmdson  the  Carica- 
turist (ib.,  1880),  wiSi  a  detailed  enumeration  of 
the  artist's  works. 

BOWIiET,  rouir,  William  (c.l586-c.l642). 
An  English  actor  and  dramatist  about  whom  very 
little  IS  known.  He  was  connected  with  the 
Prince  of  Wales's  company  of  actors,  and  collabo- 
rated on  many  plays  with  Middleton  and  other 
dramatists.  He  was  a  master  of  stage  effect, 
and  wrote  with  vigor.  To  him  are  assigned  A 
New  Wonder  (1632) ;  All's  Lost  by  Lust  (1633) ; 
A  Match  at  Midnight  (1633) ;  and  A  Shoemaker 
a  Gentleman  (1638). 

BOWLEY  POEHB.  See  Chattebton, 
Thomas. 

BOWLEY  BEGIS.  A  town  in  Staffordshire, 
England,  5  miles  west  of  Birmingham  (Map: 
England,  E  4).  It  has  extensive  coal-mining  and 
iron  industries.  Population,  in  1891,  30,8()0;  in 
1901,  34,670. 

BOWSOir^  rou^sfin,  Susanna  (Haswell) 
(1762-1824).  An  Anglo-American  dramatist,  nov- 
elist, and  actress.  Her  novel  Victoria  (1786) 
brought  her  father  a  pension.  Her  husband 
became  bankrupt,  and  in  1792  she  sought 
support  from  the  stage,  coming  in  the  next 
year  to  America,  where  she  acted  at  Annapo- 
lis, Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  and  Boston,  until 
1795,  appearing  mainly  in  her  own  plays.  The 
Volunteers,  a  farce  (1793),  Americans  in  Eng- 
land (1797),  and  others.  Leaving  the  stage, 
she  opened  in  Boston  a  school  for  girls  which 
she  conducted  with  honorable  success  imtil 
1822.  She  also  edited  The  Boston  Weekly  Maga- 
zine. Of  her  novels  the  most  popular  was  Char- 
lotte Temple,  a  Tale  of  Truth  (1790),  founded 
on  an  adventure  of  a  kinsman  with  a  girl 
whose  grave  may  still  b^j^seen  in  Trin- 
ity Churchyard,  New  ^ork,  ,)s^  Temple  sub- 


BOWBON. 


aod 


BOYAL  ANTELOPB. 


stituted  for  the  true  name,  Stanley.  In  three 
years  twenty  thousand  copies  of  this  book  were 
sold.  A  sequel  to  this  story,  Lucy  Temple^  ap- 
peared posthumously  (1828),  and  she  was  author 
of  serenU  other  novels.  Consult  her  Life  by  Elias 
Nason  (Albany,  1870). 

BOW^TOH  HEATH,  Battle  of.  A  battle  in 
the  Civil  War  in  England,  fought  September  24, 
1645.  Though  the  royal  cause  was  actually  lost 
at  Kaseby,  Charles  attempted  to  collect  a  new 
force  in  Wales.  At  the  head  of  6000  troops  the 
King  with  his  vanguard  entered  Chester,  which 
was  but  partially  surrounded  by  Brereton.  Colo- 
nel Poyntz  and  Brereton  made  a  combined  attack 
on  Sir  Marmaduke  Longdale,  commander  of  the 
King's  rear  guard,  at  Rowton  Heath,  near  Ches- 
ter.   The  King  lost  about  1300  men. 

BOZA^HA  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  *To&iwti)  (T-B.O. 
311).  A  wife  of  Alexander  the  Great.  She  was 
a  daughter  of  the  Bactrian  Prince  Cxyartes. 
Soon  after  Alexander's  death  (323),  and  before 
the  birth  of  her  son,  Alexander  JS^ub,  she  in- 
duced Statira,  one  of  Alexander's  wives,  to  come 
to  Babylon,  and  there  caused  her  to  be  murdered. 
Her  son  was  recognized  as  first  of  the  heirs  of 
the  King,  but  both  he  and  Roxana  were  put  to 
death  by  Cassander's  orders  (Plutarch,  Alewand- 
er;  Arrian,  Anabasis,  vii.  27;  Diodorus,  books 
xviiL  and  six.). 

BOZBXTBOHy  rdks^iir-tL  A  southeastern  bor- 
der county  of  Scotland  (Map:  Scotland,  F  4). 
Area,  665  square  miles.  The  physical  aspect  is 
varied  and  picturesque,  with  the  Cheviot  and 
Lauriston  Hills  bounding  a  considerable  portion 
of  its  borders.  The  interior  is  generally  fertile 
and  is  farmed  to  the  greatest  advantage.  The 
chief  river  is  the  Tweed.  Chief  towns,  Jedburgh, 
the  capital,  and  Hawick.  Population,  in  1901, 
48,800. 

BOZBTTBOH,  John  Keb,  third  Duke  of 
(1740-1804).  An  English  bibliophile,  bom  in 
London.  He  was  appointed  by  George  III.  a  lord 
of  the  bedchamber  in  1767,  and  groom  of  the 
stole  and  privy  councilor  in  1796.  He  collected 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  private  libraries  ever 
amassed  in  Great  Britain.  His  more  important 
acquisitions  included  a  collection  of  works  printed 
by  ClSaxton,  the  two  rare  editions,  both  dated  1566, 
of  the  Scottish  Acts  of  Parliament,  a  collection 
of  the  rare  broadsides,  including  1340  numbers, 
and  Valdarf er's  edition  of  Boccaccio,  which,  when 
the  library  was  dispersed  by  sale  in  1812,  was 
bought  by  the  Marquis  of  Blandford  for  £2260. 

BOZBXTBOHE  CLUB.  A  famous  English 
book  club,  the  first  of  these  associations  devoted 
to  the  reprinting  for  their  members  of  old  and 
rare  books.  It  was  founded  in  London  after  the 
sale  of  the  magnificent  collection  of  books  formed 
hy  John,  third  Duke  of  Roxburgh,  which  realized 
nearly  £25,000.  The  sale  of  the  Valdarfer  Boc- 
caccio for  £2260  was  celebrated  by  a  dinner  at 
the  Saint  Albans  Tavern,  at  which  the  club  was 
founded,  to  consist  of  twenty-four  members,  each 
of  whom  was  made  responsible  for  the  reprinting 
of  one  book.    See  Book  Clttb. 

BOX^TTBY.  ToTiaerly  a  city  in  Norfolk 
County,  Mass.,  but  since  1868  a  part  of  Boston 
(Map:  Massachusetts,  E  3).  Roxbury  was  set- 
tled in  1630,  and  included  among  its  early  in- 
habitants Thomas  Dudley,  thrice  Governor  of 
Massachusetts,  and  John  Eliot,  who  was  minister 

TOU  XV.— 14. 


here  for  nearly  sixty  years  (1632-90).  The 
famous  Roxbury  Latin  School  was  established 
as  the  "Free  School  in  Roxburie"  some  time 
between  1642  and  1645,  and  was  endowed  by 
Thomas  Bell  in  1671.  Consult  Drake,  The  Town 
of  Roxhury  (Roxbury,  1878). 

BOX'OLA^NI.  In  antiquity,  a  warlike  people 
of  Sarmatian  origin,  who  dwelt  4iorth  of  Mseotis 
Palus,  between  the  Tanals  (Don)  and  Borys- 
thenes  (Dnieper).  They  appear  in  history  as 
early  as  the  time  of  Mithridates  the  Great  and 
about  A.D.  69  had  reached  the  boimdary  of  M<b- 
sia.  Their  dangerous  inroads  into  the  Danubian 
provinces  induced  the  Emperor  Hadrian  to  come 
to  terms  with  them  by  paying  an  annual  tribute. 
At  a  later  period,  however,  they  appear  as 
Roman  auxiliaries.  Mention  is  made  of  them 
last  in  the  eleventh  century. 

BOY,  WnjJAM  (1726-90).  A  British  military 
engineer  and  geodesist.  He  was  bom  in  Carluke 
Parish,  Lanarkshire,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty  be- 
came  connected  with  the  army.  He  was  the  first 
British  geodesist.  He  was  employed  in  preparing 
for  the  Government  a  map  of  the  HighlancGs,  and 
finally  of  the  whole  mainland  of  Scotland,  which, 
however,  owing  to  imperfect  instruments  and 
the  hurried  nature  of  the  survey,  was  only,  to  use 
Roy's  own  words,  *'a  magnificent  military  sketch." 
After  a  military  career  in  in^ich  his  engineering 
skill  was  frequently  availed  of,  Roy  devoted  him- 
self to  scientific  pursuits,  and  in  1783  was  em- 
ployed by  the  British  Government  to  connect  the 
geodetic  surveys  of  France  and  England  in  order 
to  determine  the  relative  positions  of  the  Paris 
and  Greenwich  observatories. 

BOYAL  ACADEMY  OF  ABTS^  The.  The 
most  important  of  all  British  art  institutions.  It 
dates  from  1768  and  was  founded  by  George  III. 
Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  was  its  first  president.  The 
number  of  academicians  usually  is  about  forty, 
and  the  number  of  associates  is  a  little  less.  The 
president  is  knighted  upon  election,  and  the  pres- 
idency is  for  life.  Among  the  painters  who  have 
filled  this  office  are  Reynolds,  Benjamin  West, 
Lawrence,  Eastlake,  Leighton,  Millais,  and  Poyn- 
ter  (1896).  The  first  permanent  rooms  of  the 
Academy  were  in  Somerset  House  (1780).  It  re- 
moved to  Trafalgar  Square  in  1834  and  finally  to 
Burlington  House,  Piccadilly,  in  1869.  About  2000 
works  of  art  are  brought  together  at  the  Academy 
esdiibitions,  which  take  place  each  spring,  and 
no  artist  may  exhibit  more  than  eight  works. 
There  are  also  other  exhibitions,  besides  those 
of  the  Academy  proper,  which  take  place  under  its 
patronage.  The  permanent  collection  of  the 
Academy  contains  many  valuable  paintings,  as 
well  as  the  diploma  works  of  nearly  all  the 
academicians.  The  art  schools  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  also  in  Burlington  House,  are  free  to 
all  students  in  painting,  sculpture,  and  architec- 
ture. The  professors  are  academicians,  and  they 
also  deliver  lectures  during  the  school  year.  There 
are  several  traveling  scholarships,  and  various 
medals  and  prizes,  which  are  awarded  annually 
and  biennially.  Consult:  Sandby,  History  of  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Arts  from  its  Foundation  in 
1768  (London,  1862)  ;  Laidlay,  The  Royal  Acad- 
emy: Its  Uses  and  Abuses  (ib.,  1898) ;  and  The 
Year's  Art  (ib.,  annually). 

BOYAIf  ANTBLOFE.  One  of  the  diminutive 
steinboks  of  the  genus  Nanotragus,  remarkable 
as  the  smallest  of  all  the  ruminants,  standing 


BOYAL  ANTEI.OPE. 


204 


BOYAL  SOCIETY. 


only  12  inches  high  at  the  shoulder.  It  is  chest- 
nut in  color  on  the  upper  part  and  pure  white 
below.  It  is  a  native  of  the  Guinea  coast.  Con- 
sult the  Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  Society  of 
London,  for  1872. 

BOYAIi  ABCANTJM,  The.  A  fraternal  and 
beneficial  society  organized  by  Dr.  Darius  Wilson 
and  John  A.  Cuiflmings,  at  Boston,  in  1877.  Start- 
ing with  nine  members,  the  society  has  now  in 
Boston  a  substantial  building  in  which  the  busi- 
ness affairs  are  conducted  and  where  the  Supreme 
Council  meets.  The  society  is  governed  through 
councils,  which  are  dominated  by  the  Supreme 
Council  or  governing  body.  Benefit  certifi- 
cates are  issued  for  $1500  and  $3000,  pay- 
able at  death  of  a  member.  Should  a 
member  desire  to  increase  his  insurance 
over  the  limit  fixed  by  the  society,  he  can  do  so 
by  making  application  for  the  increase  in  the 
Loyal  Additional  Benefit  Association,  formed  in 
1889,  practically  within  the  Royal  Arcanum,  and 
incorporated  in  1890  in  New  Jersey.  The  follow- 
ing statistics  of  the  Royal  Arcanum  are  brought 
down  to  February  28,  1903:  Number  of  grand 
councils,  27;  number  of  subordinate  councils, 
2045;  approximate  membership,  258,746;  total 
amount  of  death  claims  from  date  of  organiza- 
tion, $76,190,352;  amoimt  of  emergency  fund, 
$1,885,786.  The  emblem  of  the  society  is  a  royal 
crown  within  a  circle,  on  the  circumference  of 
which  are  ten  small  Maltese  crosses  with  the 
motto,  "Mercy,  Virtue,  and  Charity." 

BOYAIi   ABCH   ICASONS.      See  Ma^sonb, 
Free. 
BOYAL  EEBN.     See  OsMUin>A. 
BOYAIi  GEOGBAFHICAL  SOCIETY.    See 

Geographical  Society,  Rotal. 

BOYAIi  HISTOBICAIi  SOCIETY.  See  HiB- 
TOBiCAL  Society,  Royal. 

BOYAL  INSTmiTIOir  OF  GBEAT 
BBITAIN.  An  organization  founded  in  London 
in  1799  and  chartered  in  the  following  year  as 
the  Royal  Institution  for  the  Promotion,  Dif- 
fusion, and  Extension  of  Science  and  Useful 
Knowledge.  Its  principal  objects  are  to  further 
scientific  and  literary  research,  to  spread  the 
principles  of  inductive  and  experimental  science, 
and  to  promote  the  application  of  such  princi- 
ples to  the  arts.  The  idea  of  such  an  institution 
originated  with  Benjamin  Thompson,  Count 
Rumford  (q.v.),  who  was  supported  in  the  execu- 
tion of  his  plans  by  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  president 
of  the  Royal  Society.  It  was  Count  Rum  ford's 
desire  to  extend  a  knowledge  of  the  principles 
of  physics  and  mechanics  among  the  lower  class- 
es by  means  of  public  lectures  and  demonstra- 
tions, with  a  view  of  ameliorating  the  material 
condition  of  the  people.  Almost  from  the  begin- 
ning the  Institution  assumed  a  leading  place  in 
the  scientific  world,  although  it  was  soon  found 
necessary  to  depart  from  Count  Rumford's  idea 
of  making  the  work  of  the  society  deal  exclusive- 
ly with  the  welfare  of  the  lower  classes.  Its 
continued  prosperity  has  been  due  chiefly  to  a 
succession  of  brilliant  lecturers  and  experi- 
menters, beginning  with  Thomas  Young,  who 
was  professor  at  the  Institution  from  1801  to 
1803,  and  including  such  great  names  as  Sir 
Hiunphry  Davy,  Michael  Faraday,  John  Tyndall, 
Sir  Edward  William  Robert  Grove,  Sir  Edward 
Frankland,    William    Odling,   John   Hall    Glad- 


stone, Edwin  Ray  Lankester,  Sir  James  Dewar, 
and  Lord  Rayleigh.  Within  its  laboratories  have 
been  made  some  of  the  most  notable  disooyeries 
in  physical  and  chemical  science,  and  espe- 
cially under  Faraday  and  Tyndall  valuable  work 
was  done  in  the  popularization  of  these  sciences. 
A  feature  of  the  work  of  the  Institution  is  its 
evening  lectures,  at  which  the  most  eminent 
scientists  are  invited  to  present  the  latest 
achievements  within  their  fields  to  the  public. 
The  Institution  has  been  the  recipient  of  many 
benefactions,  the  most  noted  of  which  is  the  be- 
quest of  £10,000  by  Mr.  John  Fuller,  M.  P.,  in 
1831,  for  the  establishment  of  a  Fuller ian  pro- 
fessorship in  chemistry  and  physics.  Young  men 
of  special  aptitude  are  offered  facilities  for  car- 
rying on  research  work  and  in  case  of  need  are 
given  pecuniary  assistance.  The  library  of  the 
Institution  contains  60,000  volumes.  On  June 
5-7,  1899,  the  centenary  of  the  Institution  was 
celebrated  with  fitting  ceremonies. 

BOY'AXLy  Isaac  (c.1719-81).  An  American 
colonist,  born  probably  in  Antigua,  B.  W.  I., 
where  his  father  had  large  plantations.  He  early 
settled  in  Medford,  Mass.,  and  was  chosen  to  fill 
various  local  offices.  From  1752  until  1774  he 
was  a  councilor  of  the  province,  and  in  1761,  for 
his  services  in  the  French  War,  was  commissioned 
brigadier-general,  the  first  American  to  attain 
that  rank.  During  the  agitation  which  preceded 
the  Revolution  he  remained  loyal  to  the  King, 
and  three  days  before  the  battle  of  Lexington 
went  into  voluntary  exile.  After  remaining  for 
some  time  in  Halifax,  he  went  to  England,  where 
he  died  of  snlallpox.  Though  he  had  been  pro- 
scribed and  banished  and  his  estates  confiscated, 
in  1778  he  left  by  will  an  endowment  for  the  law 
professorship  at  Harvard  which  still  bears  his 
name.  The  town  of  Royalston  was  also  named 
in  his  honor. 

BOYAIi  ITAVAIi  COLLSGE.  A  professional 
school  of  the  British  Navy  located  at  Greenwich 
(q.v.),  and  formally  opened  in  1873.  It  is  de- 
signed for  the  training  of  midshipmen  and  higher 
officers  and  affords  technical  instruction  in  the 
various  theoretical  and  scientific  studies,  such  as 
navigation,  mathematics,  engineering,  ordnance, 
etc.    See  Naval  Schools  of  Instruction. 

BOYAL  OAK.  An  oak-tree  which  stood  near 
the  farm  of  Boscobel  in  Shropshire,  and  which 
for  twenty-four  hours  afforded  concealment  to 
Charles  II.  after  the  battle  of  Worcester  in  1651. 
The  tree  was  destroyed  after  the  Restoration  by 
relic-hunters,  but  an  oak  grown  from  an  acorn 
of  the  original  tree  stands  on  the  spot,  and  there 
is  another,  said  to  have  been  planted  by  the 
King,  in  Hyde  Park. 

BOYAIi  society.  The.  A  society  organized 
in  London  in  1660  as  'The  President,  Council,  and 
Fellows  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  for  Im- 
proving Natural  Knowledge.'  It  is  the  oldest 
scientific  society  in  Great  Britain  and  one  of  the 
oldest  in  Europe.  The  preliminary  meetings 
were  held  on  the  suggestion  of  Theodore  Haak,  a 
German  resident  of  London,  at  different  places, 
principally  at  Gresham  College,  where,  on  Novem- 
ber 28,  1660,  the  first  journal  of  the  society  was 
opened  by  the  originators.  Gresham  College  be- 
came the  permanent  headquarters  and  on  March 
6,  1661,  Sir  Robert  Moray  was  elected  president, 
which  position  he  held  until  the  incorporation  of 
the  society,  July   15,   1662.     The  charter  was 


BOTAI.  SOCIETY. 


905 


BOYEB-COLLASD. 


amended  in  1663,  and  oh  May  13th  of  that  year 
the  oonncil  of  the  Royal  Society  met  for  the  first 
time. 

From  the  outset  the  society  established  and 
maintained  correspondence  with  men  of  philo- 
sophical attainments  on  the  Continent,  from 
which  sprang  the  weU-known  work  of  the  society, 
PhUotaphical  Transactions,  the  first  number  of 
which  appeared  in  March,  1665.  By  1750  there 
had  been  four  hundred  and  ninety-six  numbers, 
or  forty-six  volumes,  issued,  and  it  was  decided 
that  thereafter  the  work  be  published  annually 
in  Tolumes,  under  the  superintendence  of  a  com- 
mittee of  the  council.  In  1666,  on  invitation  of 
Heniy  Howard,  of  Arundel,  the  home  of  the 
society  was  changed  to  Arundel  House.  Howard 
also  presented  the  council  with  the  library  of  his 
grandfather,  Thomas,  Earl  of  Arundel,  which  was 
the  foundation  of  the  fine  library  of  over  45,000 
volumes  now  possessed  by  the  society.  In  1710 
the  society  moved  from  Arundel  House  to  Crane 
Court,  where  it  remained  until  1780,  when  the 
Government  assigned  it  apartments  in  Somerset 
House.  The  present  home  of  the  society  is  Bur- 
lington House. 

The  Royal  Society,  among  other  duties,  has  the 
administration  of  the  annual  Government  grant 
of  £2000  to  be  divided  among  a  limited  numl^r  of 
persons  as  compensation  for  outlay  incurred  by 
them  in  scientific  research  during  the  year.  Four 
medals  are  awarded  every  year,  vi«.  one  Copley, 
two  Royal,  and  a  Davy.  The  Copley  Medal  was 
founded  on  a  bequest  from  Sir  G<xlfrey  Copley  in 
1709,  and  is  awarded  to  the  living  author  of  such 
phikMSophical  research,  either  published  or  com- 
mmiicated  to  the  society,  as  may  appear  to  the 
council  to  be  deserving  of  that  honor.  The 
Boyal  Medals  were  established  by  George  IV.  and 
are  awarded  annually  for  the  two  most  important 
contributions  to  science  published  in  the  British 
dominions  not  more  than  ten  years  nor  less  than 
one  year  from  making  the  award.  The  Davy 
Medal  was  founded  by  Dr.  John  Davy,  brother  of 
Sir  Humphry  Davy,  and  is  bestowed  annually 
for  the  most  important  discovery  in  chemistry 
in  Europe  or  British  America.  Foreign  members 
of  scientific  eminence,  to  the  number  of  fifty,  are 
also  eligible  for  membership.  The  session  of  the 
society  lasts  from  November  to  June,  ordinary 
meetings  being  held  weekly.  Papers  are  read  at 
Tarious  times  and  during  the  year  are  published 
in  either  the  Philosophical  Transactions  or  the 
Proceedings  of  the  society. 

SOYAIi     UJMIVEBSITY    OF    IBELAND. 

An  examining  and  degree-conferring  institution, 
situated  in  Dubtin,  Ireland.  It  was  established 
by  the  University  Education  Act  of  1879  and  was 
formally  organized  in  1880.  The  Queen's  Uni- 
Tersity  in  Ireland,  established  in  1850  and  con- 
sisting of  the  Queen's  College  at  Belfast,  Cork, 
and  Galway,  was  dissolved  in  1880  and  super- 
seded by  it.  It  confers  the  various  degrees  in 
arts,  sciences,  engineering,  music,  medicine,  and 
law.  Diplomas  are  also  granted  in  treatment  of 
mental  diseases,  sanitary  science,  teaching,  and 
agriculture.  Both  sexes  are  equally  eligible  for 
the  examinations. 

BOYAK,  rw&'y&N^  A  seaside  resort  in  the 
Department  of  Charente-Inf^rieure,  France,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Gironde,  22  miles  southwest  of 
Roehefbrt.  It  is  a  well-built  town  with  a  hand- 
municipal    casino.    Royan    dates    from    a 


priory  in  which  the  Abb^  de  Brant6me  wrote 
part  of  his  memoirs.  As  a  Huguenot  strong- 
hold it  was  besieged  by  Louis  XIII.  in  1621. 
Permanent  population,  in  1001,  8374. 

BOYCE,  JosiAH  ( 1855— ) .  An  American 
philosopher,  bom  at  Grass  Valley,  Nevada  Coun- 
ty, Cal.  He  graduated  at  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia (Berkeley)  in  1875,  studied  also  at  Leip- 
zig, Gottingen,  and  the  Jol^s  Hopkins  University 
(Ph.  D.,  1878),  in  1878  was  appointed  instructor 
in  English  in  the  University  of  California,  and  in 
1882  instructor  in  philosophy  in  Harvard.  In 
1885  he  became  assistant  professor,  and  in  1892 
was  advanced  to  the  chair  of  the  history  of  phi- 
losophy. In  addition  to  a  work  of  fiction.  The 
Feud  of  Oak  field  Creek  (1887),  his  publications 
include  A  Primer  of  Logical  Analysis,  for  the 
Use.  of  Composition  Students  (1881),  The  Re- 
ligious Aspect  of  Philosophy  (1885),  California 
from  the  Conquest  in  18%6  to  the  Second  Vigi- 
lance Committee  in  Ban  Francisco  ( 1886 ;  in  the 
"American  Commonwealths"  series ) ,  The  Spirit  of 
Modem  Philosophy  (1892),  The  Conception  of 
God  (1895),  Studies  of  Good  and  Evil  (1898), 
The  Conception  of  Immortality  (1900;  Ingersoll 
lecture  on  Immortality,  Harvard),  and  The 
World  and  the  Individual  (2  vols.,  1900-01: 
series  i..  The  Four  Historical  Conceptions  of 
Being;  series  ii..  Nature,  Man,  and  the  Moral 
Order),  being  the  Gifford  lectures  delivered  at 
the  University  of  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  in  1899- 
1900.  Professor  Royce  also  wrote  a  brief  P«y- 
chology  (1903),  laying  particular  emphasis  upon 
the  psychical  characterization  and  development 
of  the  'self.'  In  metaphysics  Royce  is  considered 
to  be  one  of  the  foremost  exponents  of  neo-Hege- 
lianism  in  America,  and  his  work  in  popularizing 
and  interpreting  the  abstrusities  of  Hegel  has 
been  of  great  importance.  Of  still  greater  sig- 
nificance have  been  his  original  contributions, 
especially  on  the  development  of  the  concept  of 
the  'self '^  or  individual,  his  expositions  of  ideal- 
ism, his  doctrine  of  truth  and  error,  and  his  in- 
sistence upon  the  ethical  aspects  of  philosophy. 

BOYEB-COLLABD,  rw&'yft^  k6'l&r^,  Piebbe 
Paul  (1763-1845).  A  French  statesman  and 
philosopher,  bom  at  Sompuis  (Mame).  He  prac- 
ticed law  and  held  various  offices  after  the  out- 
break of  the  Revolution.  Being  proscribed  for 
his  moderate  views  during  the  Reign  of  Ter- 
ror, he  returned  to  his  old  home  at  Sompuis, 
and  lived  as  a  farmer,  in  order  to  evade  the 
suspicions  of  the  Jacobins.  In  1797  he  was 
elected  to  the  Council  of  the  Five  Hundred,  but 
after  the  18th  Fructidor  he  retired  from  pol- 
itics. In  1809  he  accepted  the  chair  of  phi- 
losophy in  the  newly  created  University  of 
France  and  soon  came  to  exercise  an  immense 
influence  on  philosophic  thought  in  France.  He 
rejected  the  sensualist  system  of  Condillac,  and 
adopted  an  eclectic  philosophy,  giving  special 
prominence  to  the  principles  of  the  Scottish 
school  of  Reid  and  Stewart.  In  August,  1816,  he 
was  appointed  president  of  the  Commission  of 
Public  Instruction,  which  office  he  held,  with 
the  title  of  councilor  of  State,  till  July, 
1820.  In  1815  also  the  electors  of  Mame  chose 
him  as  their  Deputy.  In  1817  Royer-Collard  for 
the  first  time  withdrew  his  support  from  the 
Goverament,  and  in  1819  the  rupture  was  com- 
plete. In  spite  of  his  royalist  leadings,  he  found- 
ed the  political  party  of  the  Doctrinaires  in  1820 


BOYEB-COLLABD. 


206 


BUBBEB. 


(see  DocTRiNAiBE),  and  advocated  a  constitu- 
tional tnonarchy.  The  French  Academy  elected 
him  to  membership  in  1827,  and  in  1828  he  was 
named  president  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies. 
In  that  capacity  Royer-Collard  had  to  pre- 
sent the  famous  address  of  the  221  Deputies 
(March,  1830),  refusing  their  support  to  the 
Government,  which  the  King  declined  to  hear 
read.  On  the  next  day  the  Chamber  was  pro- 
rogued. After  the  Revolution  of  July,  1830,  he 
reentered  politics,  but  in  1842  he  withdrew  com- 
pletely from  public  life.  Consult  the  biogra- 
phies by  Philippe  (Paris,  1857)  ;  Lacombe  (ib., 
1863 ) ;  Barante,  containing  many  of  his 
speeches  (ib.,  1878);  also  Faguet,  Politiques 
et  monarchistes  du  XlXeme  aidcle    (ib.,  1891). 

BOYLE,  John  Fobbes  (1799-1858).  An  Eng- 
lish naturalist,  bom  at  Cawnpore,  India.  He 
studied  at  the  Military  Institute  of  the  East  India 
Company,  Addiscombe,  was  appointed  assistant 
surgeon  to  the  company,  and  served  on  the  medi- 
cal staff  of  the  army  of  Bengal.  In  1823  he  was 
appointed  physician  at  the  station  of  Saharun- 
pore,  and  superintendent  of  the  garden  there.  In 
that  post  he  made  useful  researches  in  botany 
and  meteorology.  He  was  appointed  professor  of 
materia  medica  at  King's  College,  London,  in 
1837,  and  in  the  same  year  was  elected  a  fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society.  He  was  a  careful  ob- 
server, and  accurate  in  his  published  writings, 
more  especially  those  on  technical  matters. 
Among  his  works  are :  An  Essay  on  the  Antiquity 
of  Hindoo  Medicine  (1837)  ;  On  the  Culture  and 
Commerce  of  Cotton  in  India  and  Elsevohere 
(1851) ;  and  The  Fibrous  Plants  of  India  Fitted 
for  Cordage  (1856).  Consult  Britten  and  Boul- 
ger,  Biographical  Index  of  British  and  Irish 
Botanists  (London,  1893). 

BOY^ON.  A  town  in  Lancashire,  England, 
2  miles  north-northwest  of  Oldham  (Map:  Eng- 
land, D  3).  It  has  large  cotton  industries.  The 
town  has  undergone  much  modern  improvement, 
maintains  gas  and  water  supplies,  and  owns  mar- 
kets.   Population,  in  1901,  14,880. 

BOZE,  Mabie  (1848—).  A  French  operatic 
singer,  bom  in  Paris.  She  studied  at  the  Paris 
Conservatory,  where  she  gained  the  highest 
honors.  She  first  appeared  in  opera  in  1867,  sing- 
ing the  part  of  Harold's  Marie  with  great  suc- 
cess. At  the  end  of  three  years  she  with- 
drew to  study  grand  opera  under  Wartel, 
Gounod,  and  Ambroise  Thomas,  reappearing  as 
^Marguerite'  in  Faust  at  the  Grand  Opera  with 
much  success.  During  the  siege  of  Paris  she 
remained  in  the  city,  turning  her  house  into  a 
hospital  for  the  wounded,  and  organizing  numer- 
ous concerts  for  their  benefit.  After  the  war 
she  made  a  tour  through  the  principal  cities  of 
Europe,  and  first  appeared  in  London  in  1872, 
where  for  four  years  she  sang  in  the  Italian 
opera.  In  1877  she  married  Henry  Mapleson,  and 
began  a  two  years*  tour  in  the  United  States,  re- 
turning to  London  after  its  completion,  where 
she  became  a  popular  concert  and  oratorio  singer. 

BTJABON^  r?S5i-a'b6n.  A  parish  town  and  rail- 
way junction  of  Denbighshire,  Wales,  on  the  Dee, 
6  miles  southwest  of  Wrexham  (Map:  Wales, 
0  4).  Iron  ore  and  anthracite  coal  are  mined 
extensively  in  the  neighborhood,  and  there  are  im- 
portant iron  works  and  brick  and  tile  factories. 
Population  of  parish,  in  1891,  17,609;  in  1901, 
21,721. 


BTJAtAK,  r;5?r&-tiLn^  or  BOATAK.  The 
largest  of  the  Bay  Islands  (q.v.). 

BTJBAIYAT,  r53-boi'yAt  (Arabic  plural  of 
ruhAH,  quatrain,  from  arba'a,  four).  The  term 
applied  to  a  collection  of  Persian  <}uatrains.  The 
ruh&H,  or  quatrain,  is  the  distmctive  Persian 
metre,  and  nas  the  following  verse-scheme,  read 
from  right  to  left: 


with  the  rhyme  aaaa  or  aaba.  The  rhyme  may, 
however,  go  back  several  syllables,  or  even  words, 
as  in  the  following  example  cited  from  the 
forty-fifth  quatrain  of  Payne's  translation  of 
Omar  Khayyam: 

Bkinker,  since  ruin  is  of  Fortune  planned  for  thee  and  me» 
This  nether  world  Is  no  abiding  land  for  thee  and  me ; 
Yet,  BO  the  wine-cup  In  the  midst  but  stand  for  thee  and  me. 
Best  thou  assured  the  yery  Truth's  in  hand  for  thee  and  meu 

There  are  many  variations  in  rhyme  which  may 
becofaie  as  intricate  as  quatrain  770  of  the  same 
translation : 

I  spake,  thou  spakest :  heart  gave  I  thee,  thou  me  disdain. 
I  take,  thou  takest,  thou  heart  from  me,  I  from  thee  pain. 
I  am,  thou  art,  too — ^thou  merry  and  I  for  thee  sad. 
I  make,  thou  makest,  thou  wrong  and  I  patience  in  vain. 

Nearly  all  the  poets  of  Persia  include  in  their 
works  a  Rubaiyat.  Through  the  translation  of 
Omar  Khayyam  (q.v.)  by  Edward  FitzGerald 
(q.v.)  this  quatrain,  modified  to  the  English 
heroic  metre  of  the  iambic  pentameter,  was  made 
an  English  verse-form.  For  a  knowledge  of  the 
metrical  variations  in  Persian  with  an  exact 
reproduction  in  English,  consult  Payne,  Quatrains 
of  Omar  Khayyam  of  Nishapour  (London,  1898). 

BTJBASSE,  rv'btts'  (Fr.,  red-colored  quartx), 
Ancona  Ruby,  or  Mont  Blanc  Ruby.  A  variety 
of  crystallized  quartz  containing  occluded  spangles 
of  hematite  or  specular  iron,  which  reflect  a 
bright  red  color  resembling  that  of  the  ruby. 

BXTBATOy  roS-ba'td,  Tempo  (It.,  stolen).  In 
music,  a  phrase  indicating  that  the  performer  is 
to  modify  the  regular  rhythmic  movement,  by 
emphasizmg,  and  thus  prolonging,  important 
notes.  The  less  important  notes  of  the  bar  must 
consequently  be  curtailed,  so  that  its  aggregate 
value  may  remain  unchanged. 

BUBBEB  (from  rub;  perhaps  connected  with 
Gael,  rub,  Welsh  rhubio,  to  rub,  Ir.  ruboir,  Gael. 
rubair,  a  rubber) ,  India-Rubbeb,  or  Caoutchouc. 
A  substance  which,  on  account  of  its  peculiar 
properties,  is  much  used  in  the  arts.  Probably 
no  single  article  has  within  the  past  century  ex- 
perienced more  rapid  growth  in  its  relation  to 
commerce  and  manufactures.  Rubber  is  not,  as 
is  often  supposed,  the  product  of  a  single  species 
of  trees,  but  is  produced  by  a  number  of  differ- 
ent kinds,  all  of  them  thriving  in  tropical 
climates  only.  Some  of  them  require  a  moist, 
alluvial  soil,  and  others  flourish  in  a  stony  soil, 
with  only  an  intermittent  rainfall.  Rapidly  as 
the  consumption  of  rubber  has  increased,  there 
seems  no  danger  of  exhausting  the  world's  supply, 
so  abundant  and  widely  scattered  are  its  sources. 
In  1900  india-rubber  jforests  of  vast  extent  and 
superior  quality  were  found  in  Bolivia,  and  other 
similar  regions  doubtless  await  the  explorer.  The 
Province  of  Par&,  in  Brazil,  furnishes  the  largest 
quantity  and  best  quality  of  rubber  yet  known 
to  commerce,  the  standard  by  which  all  other 
varieties  are  compared. 


BTTBBBB. 


207 


BUBBEB. 


The  first  record  of  india-rubber  was  made  in 
aecounts  of  Columbus's  second  voyage  to  America, 
where  it  is  related  that  he  found  the  inhabitants 
of  Hispaniola  (Haiti)  amusing  themselves  with 
rubber  balls.  In  a  book  publisned  in  Madrid  in 
1615,  Juan  de  Torquemada  mentions  the  tree 
which  yields  rubber  in  Mexico,  describes  the  mode 
of  collecting  the  gum,  and  states  tnat  it  is  made 
into  shoes;  also  that  the  Spaniards  use  it  for 
waxing  their  canvas  cloaks  to  make  them  resist 
water.  It  was  at  first  known  by  the  name  of 
elastic  gum,  and  received  that  of  india-rubber 
fnmi  the  discovery  of  its  use  for  rubbing  out 
lead-pencil  marks.  It  is  stated  that  the 
first  rubber  waa  brought  into  the  United  States 
in  1800,  the  very  year  in  which  was  bom  Charles 
Goodyear  (q.v.),  a  man  whose  inventions  made 
possible  the  modem  rubber  industry. 

India-rubber  is  obtained  from  the  milky  juice 
of  the  rubber  tree.  This  is  not  the  true  sap,  but 
a  secretion  which  does  not  seem  to  be  essential 
to  the  life  of  the  plant.  In  this  juice  float  minute 
globules  of  rubber  which,  when  the  juice  is  al- 
lowed to  stand,  rise  to  the  top,  like  cream.  Vari- 
ous methods  are  employed  for  collecting  the  sap, 
the  future  character  of  the  rubber  depending 
much  upon  how  this  is  done  and  the  separation 
of  the  caoutchouc  from  the  aqueous  liquid  is  ef- 
fected. The  annual  yield  of  a  single  tree  is  from 
2or3to  16  or  17  pounds.  The  rubber  is  some- 
times collected  by  simply  cutting  the  trees  down, 
but  this  wasteful  method  has  been  in  most  cases 
abandoned,  and  it  is  customary  to  make  incisions 
in  the  trunk  through  which  the  milk  oozes  out. 
The  trees  are  tapped  at  sunrise,  as  the  milk  is 
supposed  to  flow  more  freely  during  the  morning 
hours.  The  first  row  of  incisions  is  often  made  in 
a  circle  surrounding  the  tree  about  six  feet  from 
the  ground,  the  next  morning  a  row  somewhat 
lower  down  is  made,  and  so  on,  each  succeeding 
morning  till  the  ground  is  reached.  In  each  in- 
cision a  little  clay  cup,  molded  by  the  workman 
and  holding  about  a  gill,  is  placed,  and  its  con- 
tents emptied  daily  into  a  larger  vessel,  in  which 
it  is  allowed  to  smolder  over  a  slow  fire  imtil 
the  water  is  evaporated  and  the  rubber  shaped 
into  cakes  is  ready  for  export.  This  is  the  almost 
universal  method  of  collecting  Parft  rubber.  Re- 
cently, however,  in  regions  where  the  rubber  milk 
is  collected  in  large  amounts,  a  more  scientific 
means  has  been  adopted  for  obtaining  the  caout- 
chouc by  using  a  machine  similar  to  a  cream 
Be||aTator  which  collects  the  rubber  on  the  top 
quite  as  effectually,  and  causes  the  water  and 
all  impurities  to  be  driven  to  the  bottom. 

A  favorite  but  wasteful  way  of  collecting  rub- 
ber is  followed  by  the  natives  of  Central  America 
and  Assam,  who  allow  the  milk  to  run  into  a 
hole  in  the  ground  and  after  the  water  is  ab- 
sorbed a  spongy  mass  is  left,  mixed  with  dust  and 
leaves.  In  Africa  and  New  Guinea  the  natives 
smear  their  bodies  with  the  milk,  and  after  this 
has  evaporated  scrape  off  the  layer  of  caoutchouc 
which  has  dried  on  the  skin  and  mold  it  into 
little  slabs  or  cubes.  In  Fiji  the  milk  is  taken 
into  the  mouth  and  the  small  pellets  thus  formed 
are  heaped  and  molded  into  balls.  In  Borneo, 
Africa,  and  some  parts  of  Brazil,  salt  water  is 
used  to  form  the  clot.  The  Pemamhuco  rubber 
of  eommeroe  is  produced  in  this  way.  Sometimes 
the  milk  is  simply  allowed  to  trickle  down  the 
tree  and  dry  in  tears  as  it  fiows.  These  scraps 
and  strings  are  collected  and  molded  into  balls. 


The  Ceard  rubber,  a  dry  elastic  rubber,  free  from 
stickiness,  is  produced  in  this  way.  At  the  close 
of  the  nineteenth  century  the  world's  annual 
production  of  rubber  was  about  57,500  tons,  of 
which  21,000  tons  are  consumed  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada  and  as  much  more  in  Great 
Britain.  Of  this  amount  the  chief  producers 
were:  the  Amazon  district,  25,000  tons;  the  rest 
of  South  America,  3,500  tons;  Java  and  Borneo, 
1000  tons;  East  and  West  Africa,  24,000  tons; 
India,  Burma,  and  Ceylon,  500  tons. 

The  manufacture  of  rubber  did  not  begin  till 
about  1820.  The  application  of  rubber  to  the 
making  of  waterproof  cloth  first  gave  it  commer- 
cial importance,  although  it  had  been  previously 
made  into  flexible  tubes,  for  the  use  of  surgeons 
and  chemists,  and  into  bottles.  Waterproof  cloth 
was  flrst  made  by  Charles  Mcintosh,  a  Scotch 
chemist,  who  reduced  the  rubber  to  a  solution  in 
naphtha  and  spread  it  between  two  layers  of 
cloth.  Waterproof  coats  still  bear  his  name. 
In  1852  a  Boston  sea-captain  imported  into 
America  500  pairs  of  rubber  boots  which  had 
been  made  by  the  natives  of  Brazil.  These  were 
readily  sold  for  from  $3  to  $5  per  pair,  and  a 
great  demand  for  them  was  created.  During  the 
next  15  years  probably  more  than  1,000,000  pairs 
were  sold.  In  the  meantime  William  Chaffee  had 
developed  a  rubber  varnish  for  coating  different 
materials  to  make  them  waterproof.  In  1833  the 
Roxbury  India  Rubber  Company  was  formed  and 
for  a  time  the  new  enterprise  flourished.  But  it 
was  soon  found  that  these  waterproofed  articles 
had  an  unfortunate  tendency  to  grow  hard  and 
crack  in  the  winter  and  to  become  soft  and  sticky 
in  the  summer.  The  demand  for  them  ceased 
and  their  manufacture  was  given  up. 

Charles  Goodyear,  an  unsuccessful  merchant, 
in  the  meantime  had  turned  his  attention  to  the 
manufacture  of  rubber  goods  and  was  striving  to 
flnd  some  process  which  would  obviate  the  defects 
of  pure  rubber  and  render  it  less  susceptible  to  the 
influence  of  heat  and  cold.  He  tried  mixing  it  with 
magnesium,  with  quicklime  and  water,  and  with 
nitric  acid.  It  had  already  been  discovered  by  Leu- 
dersdorf ,  a  German  chemist,  and  also  by  Nathaniel 
Hayward  of  Wobura,  Mass.,  that  bv  mixing  dry 
sulphur  with  rubber  its  stickiness  was  removed. 
Hayward's  patent  and  process  were  acquired  by 
Goodyear,  who,  by  accident,  dropped  upon  a  hot 
stove  some  of  the  mixture,  and  found  to  his  as- 
tonishment that  the  high  heat  did  not  melt  it. 
He  next  placed  it  in  extreme  cold  and  its  texture 
still  remained  unchanged.  Thus  after  years  of 
patient  experimenting,  the  art  of  vulcanizing  was 
accidentally  discovered.  Groodyear  immediately 
developed  the  process  and  placed  it  upon  a  com- 
mercial basis. 

VUIX3ANIZING  is  simply  the  process  of  mixing 
sulphur  with  rubber  and  then  subjecting  the  mix- 
ture to  moderate  heat  (say  300°  F.)  for  six  or 
more  hours.  Its  effect  is  to  render  rubber  elas- 
tic, impervious,  and  unchangeable  in  texture 
under  all  ordinary  conditions.  The  product  varies 
from  soft  to  hard,  according  to  the  amount  of 
sulphur  and  heat  applied.  Although  sulphur  is 
the  only  essential  ingredient,  other  materials  are 
often  added  at  the  same  time,  as  silicate  of 
magnesium,  carbonate  of  lead,  asphalt,  and  tar, 
each  of  which  imparts  a  different  quality  to  the 
product. 

Commercial  rubber  is  a  tough  fibrous^  sub- 
stance, possessing  elastic  properties  in  the  highest 


BT7BBEB. 


208 


BTJBX1FACIEKT& 


degree.  Reduced  to  the  temperature  of  freezing 
water  (32**  F.),  it  hardens,  and  in  greater  part, 
if  not  entirely,  loses  its  elasticity,  but  does  not 
become  brittle.  When  heated,  as  by  placing  in 
boiling  water,  it  softens,  and  becomes  very  much 
more  elastic  than  at  ordinary  temperatures, 
though  it  does  not  in  any  degree  dissolve  in  the 
water.  If  suddenly  stretched  to  seven  or  eight 
times  its  original  length,  it  becomes  warm;  and 
if  kept  in  this  outstretched  form  for  several 
w^eeks,  it  appears  to  lose,  in  great  part,  its  elastic 
properties,  and  in  this  condition  is  readily  cut 
into  those  thin  threads  which  are  used  in  the 
elastic  put  in  gloves,  bonnets,  etc.,  and  the  elas- 
ticity of  which  is  readily  renewed  by  the  applica- 
tion of  gentle  heat.  Elastic  thread  is  now  pre- 
pared with  vulcanized  rubber.  Commercial  rub- 
ber is  insoluble  in  water  and  alcohol,  is  not  acted 
upon  by  alkalies  or  acids,  except  when  the  latter 
are  concentrated,  and  heat  is  applied;  but  is 
soluble  in  ether,  chloroform,  bisulphide  of  carbon, 
naphtha,  petroleum,  benzol,  and  the  essential  oils 
of  turpentine,  lavender,  and  sa8safr«»s.  Many 
other  essential  and  fixed  oils,  when  heated  with 
caoutchouc,  cause  it  to  soften,  and  produce  thick 
glutinous  compoimds,  especially  linseed  oil.  When 
heated  to  248'*  F.,  caoutchouc  fuses;  and  at  600' 
it  is  volatilized,  at  the  same  time  undergoing 
decon4)Osition,  and  yields  a  liquid  called  oaout- 
chaucine  or  oaoutchisinef  possessing  great  solvent 
powers  over  rubber  and  other  substances. 

There  are  some  useful  applications  of  india-rub- 
ber in  the  liquid  or  semi-liquid  state,  which  it  is 
worth  while  to  note;  thus,  when  melted  at  398' 
F.,  and  mixed  with  half  its  weight  of  slaked  lime, 
it  forms  a  useful  cement,  which  can  be  easily 
loosened,  but  it  will  dry  and  harden  if  red  lead 
is  added.  A  very  tenacious  glue  is  formed  by 
heating  rubber,  coal  tar,  and  shellac  together. 
It  forms  an  ingredient  in  some  special  kinds  of 
varnishes,  and  it  also  improves  the  lubricating 
ciualities  of  mineral  oils,  when  a  small  quantity 
is  dissolved  in  them.  Pure  india-rubber  is  now 
used  only  to  a  limited  extent  in  the  arts,  but  it  is 
applied  in  the  vulcanized  state  to'  an  almost  end- 
less variety  of  purposes. 

Pbocess  of  Manufactube.  The  first  step  in 
the  manufacture  of  crude  rubber  is  one  of  thor- 
ough cleansing.  The  rubber  is  allowed  to  remain 
in  steam-heated  water  for  about  twenty-four 
hours,  after  which  it  is  cut  up  and  the  larger 
impurities  removed  by  hand.  It  is  then  washed 
by  passing  between  two  heavy  corrugated  iron 
rollers.  A  stream  of  water  fiows  over  the  rubber 
from  a  pipe  directly  at  the  point  of  contact  with 
the  rollers,  and  the  combined  action  of  the  rollers 
and  water  removes  all  foreign  substances  adher- 
ing to  the  rubber.  The  rubber  is  next  placed  in 
drying  chambers  and  after  thorough  drying  is 
stored  in  a  dark,  dry  room  until  needed. 

Methods  of  vulcanizing  vary  with  the  article  to 
be  vulcanized,  but  in  general  the  purified  and 
masticated  gum  is  thoroughly  kneaded  with  the 
requisite  amount  of  sulphur  and  cut  and  shaped 
before  heat  is  applied.  In  case  the  goods  are  to 
be  made  of  a  ruboer  cloth,  as  in  the  case  of  shoes 
(q.v.),  the  rubber  is  spread  on  its  backing  with 
heated  iron  rollers  and  the  goods  made  up  before 
they  are  vulcanized.  The  material  is  not  sewed, 
but  held  together  by  some  solvent,  as  turpentine, 
which  makes  the  edges  adhere.  To  prevent  ad- 
hesion of  the  articles  during  the  vulcanizing  pro- 
cess, they  are  very  carefully  packed  and  pow- 


dered Boapstone,  talcum,  or  other  powder  freely 
used.  The  rubber  is  heated  in  a  cast-iron  eylin- 
drical  oven  with  one  end  fitted  as  a  door. 

Goodyear  invented  two  different  kinds  of  rub- 
ber, the  pliable  soft  rubber  and  hard  rtU>ber, 
or  ebonite,  which  is  used  for  making  a  great 
variety  of  utensils  and  fancy  articles.  The  chief 
difference  between  the  two  is  in  the  amount  of 
sulphur  used  and  heat  applied. 

A  few  general  classes  of  vulcanized  rubber 
goods  are:  (1)  Footwear  and  other  waterproof 
clothing;  (2)  mechanical  goods,  including  nose, 
belting,  tires,  etc.;  (3)  electrical  and  other 
scientific  appliances;  (4)  medical  and  surgical 
apparatus  and  allied  articles;  (5)  hard  rubber 
goods;  (6)  liquid  or  semi-liquid  materials,  as 
varnishes  and  cements.  This  classification  is  ob- 
viously imperfect,  but  it  will  serve  to  suggest  the 
enormous  variety  of  commercial  products  of 
which  india-rubber  is  an  essential  constituent. 
In  electrical  appliances  rubber  is  almost  indis- 
pensable as  an  msulating  material.  Recently  this 
field  has  been  extended  by  substituting  it  for 
gutta-percha  in  insulating  submarine  cables. 
(See  Cables,  Electbic.)  I>uring  the  last  decade 
of  the  nineteenth  century  the  value  of  the  crude 
rubber  imported  into  the  United  States  increased 
from  $18,020,804  in  1891  to  $31,655,483  in  1900. 
This  increase  of  value  was  caused  not  only  by  the 
additional  amount  consumed,  but  also  by  the  rise 
in  price,  which  in  1900  was  63  cents  per  pound. 
With  the  increase  in  cost  of  the  raw  product,  old 
rubber  is  more  and  more  used  for  re-manufacture. 

BiBLiooBAPHY.  Cousult:  Brauut,  India-Rub- 
ber,  Outta-Percha,  and  Balata  (Philadelphia, 
1883) ;  Pearson,  Crude  Rubber  and  Compounding 
Ingredients  (New  York,  1899) ;  Nissenson,  India- 
Rubber :  Its  Manufacture  and  Use  (ib.,  1891); 
Johnson,  article  on  "American  Rubber  Manufac- 
tures," in  One  Hundred  Years  of  American  Com- 
merce (New  York,  1895)  ;  and  the  section  on 
"Rubber  Boots  and  Shoes,"  Twelfth  Census  of  the 
United  States  (Washington,  1902). 

BXTBBIiE.     See  Masonby. 

BUBEFAGIENTS  (from  Lat.  rubefaoiens^ 
pres.  part,  of  rubefacere,  to  make  red,  from 
rubere,  to  be  red,  from  ruber,  red  -j-  faoere,  to 
make) .  Substances  employed  in  medicine  for  the 
purpose  of  stimulating  and  reddening  the  skin 
over  the  part  to  which  they  are  applied.  These 
agents  have  the  power  of  relieving  congestion, 
pain,  spasm,  or  excessive  irritability  of  superfi- 
cial parts  or  deep-seated  organs.  All  substances 
which  after  a  certain  period  act  as  blisters  may 
be  made  to  act  as  rubefacients  if  their  time  of 
action  is  shortened.  Among  the  most  commonly 
used  rubefacients  may  be  mentioned:  Heat  in 
the  form  of  hot  baths,  cloths  soaked  in  very  hot 
water,  poultices,  bottles  filled  with  hot  water, 
and  heated  solids  such  as  bricks,  sand-bags,  etc 
Mustard,  either  in  the  shape  of  mustard  leaves 
(sheets  of  paper  coated  with  mustard  and  applied 
moist)  or  thick  poultices,  composed  of  various 
proportions  of  mustard,  mixed  with  flour  or  meal 
and  cold  water.  (See  Poultice.)  Oil  of  Turpen- 
tine, applied  by  means  of  flannels  wrung  out  of 
hot  water  and  sprinkled  with  the  oil — ^the  tur- 
pentine stupe,  or  as  a  liniment.  Ammonia  in 
the  form  of  a  liniment  (volatile  liniment).  Cap- 
sicum (cayenne  pepper)  in  the  form  of  a  poul- 
tice or  alcoholic  lotion  is  much  used  in  the  West 
Indies.     Cantharidin   (Spanish  fly)   is  properly 


BTJBEVACISKTS. 


209 


BXJBEKS. 


a  blistering  agent,  but  may  be  used  as  a  rubefa- 
cient if  mc^fied  by  the  free  admixture  of  soap  or 
resin  plaster.  Plasters  of  Burgundy  pitch  and 
resin  oerate  are  also  slightly  rubefacient.  Rube- 
facients are  used  to  reduce  inflammations  or  con- 
gestions, as  in  pleurisy  and  pneumonia;  to  cause 
the  absorption  or  removal  of  inflammatory  prod- 
ucts as  found  in  chronically  enlarged  joints;  to 
relieve  pain  and  spasm,  as  in  neuralgia  and  in- 
testinal cramp.    See  Ck>UNTE&-lBBiTANTS. 

BUBELLITB  (from  Lat.  ruhellua,  reddish, 
diminutive  of  ruber,  red).  The  pale  rose-red  or 
pink  variety  of  tourmaline,  of  which  the  gem 
varieties  in  the  United  States  come  chiefly  from 
the  famous  locality  of  Mt.  Mica,  near  Paris,  Me. 
Excellent  gem  varieties  of  rubellite  are  also 
found  in  Ekaterinburg,  in  Siberia,  and  on  the 
island  of  Elba. 

BU^EKS,  Peteb  Paul  (1577-1640).  The 
chief  master  of  the  Flemish  school  of  painting, 
one  of  the  most  prolific  and  versatile  artists  of  all 
timesL  He  was  bom  at  Siegen,  Westphalia,  June 
29,  1577,  son  of  Jan  Rubens,  a  lawyer  of  Ant- 
werp. His  father  had  come  to  Cologne  in  1568, 
but,  owing  to  his  illicit  relations  with  Anna 
of  Saxony,  wife  of  William  of  Orange,  was 
kept  in.  temporary  captivity  at  Siegen.  After  his 
death  at  Cologne  in  1587,  the  widow  returned  to 
Antwerp,  where  Peter  Paul  frequented  school  for 
three  years,  then  was  a  page  in  the  service  of 
Countess  Lalaing.  He  began  his  artistic  train- 
ing under  Tobias  Verhaegt,  a  mediocre  landscape 
painter,  then  studied  four  years  (1592-96)  un- 
der Adam  van  Noort  and,  until  1600,  under  Otto 
van  Veen,  being  in  the  meanwhile  received  as 
master  into  the  guild  in  1598.  The  works  of  the 
great  Italian  colorists  attracted  him  to  Venice  in 
May,  1600,  and  in  the  same  year  Duke  Vincenzo 
Goazaga.  made  him  his  Court  painter  at  Mantua. 
Sent  to  Rome  in  1601  to  make  copies  of  old  mas- 
ters, Rubens  also  executed  there,  for  Archduke 
Albert,  Grovemor  of  the  Netherlands,  three  altar- 
pieces  in  the  Church  of  Santa  Croce  in  Geru- 
salemme,  which  are  now  at  Grasse,  in  Southern 
France.  In  1603  Gonzaga  made  him  the  bearer 
of  presents  to  King  Philip  III.  of  Spain,  whence 
he  returned  to  Mantua  in  1604,  then  was  in  Rome 
again  from  the  end  of  1605  till  June,  1607,  when 
the  Duke  summoned  Rubens  to  accompany  him  to 
Genoa.  The  special  interest  he  took  here  in  the 
works  of  architecture  resulted  in  the  publication, 
in  two  parts,  of  136  engravings,  under  the  title, 
PaUuzi  antichi  di  Genova  (Antwerp,  1613  and 
1622).  For  the  Church  of  Sant'  Ambropo  at 
Genoa  he  painted  (at  what  period  it  is  not 
known)  the  "Miracle  of  St.  Ignatius,"  a  work  of 
great  splendor.  Stopping  at  Milan,  on  his  re- 
turn, he  made  drawings  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci's 
**Battle  of  Anghiari"  and  "Last  Supper,"  which 
are  both  in  the  Louvre.  In  1608  we  find  him 
once  more  in  Rome,  studying  the  great  masters, 
and  occupied  with  several  compositions  of  his 
own,  when  news  of  his  mother's  illness  called  him 
back  to  Antwerp.  Intending,  after  her  death,  to 
return  to  Mantua,  he  was  induced  to  remain,  by 
Archduke  Albert,  who  appointed  him  his  Court 
painter.  In  1609  he  married  Isabella  Brant,  with 
whom  he  appears  depicted  in  the  splendid  portrait 
of  1610,  in  the  Pinakothek  at  Munich.  A  highly 
finished  work  of  his  Roman  period  is  the  "Saint 
Jerome,"  in  the  Dresden  Gallery. 

His  first  great  commission  came  from  the  city 


of  Antwerp,  to  paint  for  the  city  hall  an  "Adora- 
tion of  the  Magi"  ( 1610) ,  of  large  size  and  glow- 
ing color,  now  in  the  Madrid  Museum.  In  the 
same  year  he  completed  the  famous  "San  llde- 
fonso  Altar,"  now  in  the  Vienna  Museum,  a  work 
of  unsurpassed  mastery  in  the  combination  of 
chiaroscuro  effect  with  luminous  color,  and  the 
"Elevation  of  the  Cross,"  which,  with  its  far- 
famed  companion  piece,  "Descent  from  the  Cross" 
(1612),  adorns  the  Antwerp  Cathedral.  A  modi- 
fied treatment  of  the  latter  subject  is  in  the  Her- 
mitage, Saint  Petersburg,  which  contains  also  one 
of  his  most  successful  mythological  subjects,  dat? 
ing  from  between  1612  and  1616,  the  "Perseus 
and  Andromeda,"  an  equally  fine  version  of  which 
is  in  the  Berlin  Museum.  To  this  period  belong 
also  the  exquisite  "Madonna  Surrounded  by  Chil- 
dren," in  the  Louvre,  and  the  genial  group  of 
"Children  with  a  Fruit  Garland"  (c.l615),  in 
the  Pinakothek,  Munich.  Dated  1614  are  a  small 
but  precious  "Flight  into  Egypt,"  in  Cassel,  and  a 
highly  finished  "Pietft"  in  the  Vienna  Museum, 
of  which  there  is  a  larger  replica,  with  landscape 
by  Jan  Breughel,  in  the  Antwerp  Museum.  Breug- 
hel also  painted  the  fine  garland  around  the  "Ma- 
donna with  Angels,"  in  the  Pinakothek,  Munich^ 
which  bears  the  features  of  Isabella  Brant. 

From  the  first,  after  his  settling  at  Antwerp, 
pupils  had  flocked  to  his  studio  in  such  numbers 
that,  as  early  as  1611,  he  was  obliged  to  refer 
applicants  to  other  masters  for  years  in  advance. 
With  the  constant  increase  of  orders,  he  availed 
himself  of  the  assistance  of  his  pupils  in  the  exe- 
cution of  the  larger  paintings  and  of  replicas  fre- 
quently in  demand.  Such  works  were  more  or 
less  retouched  by  him  to  give  them  the  impress  of 
his  genius.  But  he  also  often  worked  in  conjunc- 
tion with  his  fellow-artists,  notably,  beside  Breug- 
hel, with  Frans  Snyders,  who  was  his  collabo- 
rator in  the  spirited  "Boar  Hunts,"  in  the  Dresden 
and  Munich  Galleries,  and  in  the  "Chase  of  Di- 
ana," in  the  Berlin  Museum.  Rubens  himself 
was  an  animal  painter  of  the  first  rank,  witness 
the  "Lion  Hunt"  (1816),  in  the  Pinakothek  at 
Munich.  That  gallery  also  contains  several^  of 
his  most  important  religious  and  mythological 
pictures  of  this  period,  to  wit:  the  "Last  Judg- 
ment" (2  treatments,  1616  and  1618), "Christ and 
the  Four  Sinners"  (c.l619),  "Nativity"  (1620), 
"Descending  of  the  Holy  Ghost"  (1620),  "The 
Chaste  Susanna,"  the  "Assumption,"  "Castor  and 
Pollux  Abducting  the  Daughters  of  Leucippus," 
"Meleager  and  Atlanta"  (same  subject  in  Cassel), 
"Drunken  Silenus"  (1617),  and  above  all  "The 
Battle  of  the  Amazons"  (1619),  his  most  famous 
example  of  depicting  the  tumult  of  battle.  Other 
masterpieces  of  this  period  are:  "The  (Conver- 
sion of  Saul"  (c.1617,  Berlin  Museum); 
"Scourging  of  Christ"  (1617,  St.  Paul's,  Ant- 
werp) ;  "Expulsion  of  Hagar"  (1618,  Hermitage, 
Saint  Petersburg)  ;  "The  Miraculous  Draught 
of  Fishes"  (1616-18,  Church  of  Our  Lady, 
Mechlin),  a  striking  piece  of  realistic  con- 
ception; "St.  Ignatius  Casting  Out  Devils" 
(Vienna  Museum)  ;  "Incredulity  of  Thomas" 
(1615),  "Christ  &  la  Paille"  (c.l617),  "Last 
Communion  of  Saint  Francis"  (1619),  "Christ  on 
the  Cross"  (known  as  "Le  Coup  de  Lance,"  1620, 
a  work  of  remarkable  dramatic  effect) ,  all  in  the 
Antwerp  Museum.  Among  the  numerous  Madon- 
nas, one  of  the  most  sympathetic  is  "Mary,  the 
Refuge  of  Sinners" (c.  161 9,  Cassel  Gallery), which 


BtJBBKS. 


210 


BTTBEHB. 


plainlj  shows  the  co5peratiou  of  Van  Dyck. 
Mythology  is  represented  by  "Jupiter  and  Cal- 
listo"  (1613)  and  "Meleager  and  Atalanta," 
both  in  the  Cassel  Gallery;  "Neptune  and  Amphi- 
trite"  (c.l(512-14),  "Bacchanal^  (c.  1618-20,  with 
Van  Dyck)  and  "Andromeda"  (c.l638),  all  in 
the  Berlin  Museum;  "Jupiter  and  Antiope"  and 
the  "Freezing  Venus"  (both,  1614,  Antwerp  Mu- 
seum) ;  "Venus  in  the  Smithy  of  Vulcan"  (Brus- 
sels Museum) ;  "Judgment  of  Paris"  (Madrid 
Museum)  ;  "Boreas  and  Oreithyia"  (Vienna  Acad- 
emy) ;  "Bacchanal,"  "The  Daughters  of  Cecrops," 
and  "Toilet  of  Venus"  (all  in  the  Liechtenstein 
Gallery,  Vienna).  Of  allegories  there  are  the 
"Hero  Crowned  by  Victory"  (Dresden),  replicas 
in  Cassel  (1617),  Munich,  and  Vienna;  "Tigris 
and  Abundantia"  (c.l610.  Saint  Petersburg) ; 
"The  Four  (garters  of  the  Globe"  (Vienna  Mu- 
seum);  "The  Terrors  of  War"  (1638,  Palazzo 
Pitti,  Florence).  In  1622  Rubens  was  called  to 
Paris  by  Maria  de'  Medici,  to  adorn  the  Luxem- 
bourg Palace  with  the  chief  episodes  from  her 
life.  The  twenty-four  paintings  executed  within 
three  years  by  his  pupils  from  his  designs  were 
taken  by  him  to  Paris,  where  they  now  occupy 
a  separate  room  in  the  Louvre;  the  sketches  of 
eighteen  of  them  are  in  the  Pinakothek  at 
Munich.  Another  series  to  represent  the  history 
of  Henry  IV.  was  only  partly  finished  (1628-30). 
For  Louis  XIII.  he  completed  (1622)  twelve 
cartoons  for  tapestry  with  the  history  of  Con- 
stantine  the  Great. 

Having  already  undertaken  diplomatic  missions 
in  1623-25,  for  the  Infanta  Isabella  (Regent  after 
the  death,  in  1621,  of  Archduke  Albert),  he  was 
intrusted  in  1627  with  the  negotiations  concern- 
ing the  conclusion  of  peace  between  England  and 
Spain.  He  went  to  Madrid  in  1628  and  thence 
with  the  King's  instructions  in  1629  to  London, 
where  he  brought  his  mission  to  a  successful  end- 
ing and  was  knighted  by  Charles  I.  in  1630.  The 
same  distinction  was  conferred  upon  him  by 
Philip  IV.  of  Spain.  In  Madrid,  as  well  as  in 
London,  his  brush  was  in  great  demand,  especially 
for  the  painting  of  portraits ;  in  Madrid  he  also 
renewed  the  study  of  Titian,  which  strongly  in- 
fluenced the  works  of  his  later  period.  In  1626 
his  wife  had  died,  leaving  him  with  two  sons,  and 
in  December,  1630,  he  married  the  youthful  He- 
lene  Fourment,  who  bore  him  two  more  sons  and 
three  daughters.  Her  features  are  preserved  to 
us  in  numerous  portraits,  which  her  admiring 
husband  never  tired  of  painting  at  various  stages. 
Noteworthy  among  the  master's  later  works,  and 
some  of  the  earlier  not  as  yet  mentioned,  are  the 
"Conversion  of  Saint  Bavon"  (1824,  Ghent  Ca- 
thedral) ;  "Adoration  of  the  Magi"  (1824),  Ant- 
werp Museum,  an  imposing  composition,  contain- 
ing many  figures  over  life-size,  said  to  have  been 
painted  in  a  fortnight;  **Lot*s  Family  Leaving 
Sodom"  (1625,  Louvre);  "Assumption"  (1626, 
altarpiece,  Antwerp  Cathedral)  ;  "Last  Sup- 
per" (completed  1632,  Brera,  Milan)  ;  "Holy 
Family  Under  an  Apple-tree"  (Vienna  Museum) ; 
"The  Way  to  Golgotha"  (c.l636,  Brussels  Muse- 
um) ;  "Samson  Taken  Prisoner"  and  "Massacre 
of  the  Innocents"  (c.l637,  both  in  the  Pinakothek, 
Munich)  ;  "Bathsheba  at  the  Bath"  and  "Quos 
Ego"  (1634,  both  in  Dresden  Gallery);  "Saint 
Francis  Receiving  His  Stigmata"  (c.l638,  Co- 
logne Museum);  "Crucifixion  of  Peter"  (1639, 
Saint  Peter's,  Cologne),  vigorous,  but  of  repellent 
fidelity  to  nature;  and  a  "Santa  Conversazione," 


for  the  altar  of  his  mortuary  chapel,  one  of  his 
last  and  finest  works.  A  work  of  great  thought  in 
the  expression  of  religious  enthusiasm  is  "The 
Brazen  Serpent"  (c.1625-30),  in  the  Madrid  Mu- 
seum. Of  historical  ocNnpositions  the  most  promi- 
nent are  "Saint  Ambrose  Forbidding  the  Emperor 
Theodosius  to  Enter  the  Church"  (Vienna  Muse- 
um) ;  "Apotheosis  of  William  of  Orange"  (Na- 
tional Gallery,  London),  which  also  contains  the 
"Triumph  of  Julius  Caesar;"  and  an  allegory, 
"War  and  Peace,"  presented  by  Rubens  to  Charles 
I.  in  1630.  In  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  New 
York,  the  master  is  represented  by  '^Return  of  the 
Holy  Family  from  Egypt"  (c.l610),  "Susanna 
and  the  Elders"  (c.l635)^  and  "Pyramus  and 
Thisbe." 

His  landscapes,  about  fifty  in  number,  the  ma- 
jority of  which  date  from  after  1635,  are  models 
of  arrangement  and  coloring,  and  may  be  jud^ 
by  the  examples  preserved  in  the  galleries  of  Lon- 
don, Dresden,  Munich,  Vienna,  the  Louvre,  and 
the  Palazzo  Pitti,  Florence.  Even  tiie  genre  is  in- 
geniously represented  by  "La  Ronda,"  a  danoe  of 
Italian  peasants,  in  the  Madrid  Museum,  and  the 
splendid  "Kirmess"  (c.l636),  in  the  Louvre.  Of 
the  famous  so-called  "Garden  of  Love,"  styled  by 
Rubens  himself  "Conversatie  21  la  mode,**  the  pic- 
ture in  the  Madrid  Museum  is  the  original,  while 
the  more  familiar  specimen  in  Dresden  is  a  good 
school-piece.  A  less  restrained  atmosphere  per- 
vades the  subject  called  the  "Festival  of  Venus," 
in  the  Vienna  Museum,  which  contains  another 
genre  piece,  entitled  "The  Chateau-Park."  His 
eminence  as  a  portrait  painter  is  attested  by  the 
numerous  specimens  in  the  foremost  galleries  of 
Europe,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  the 
group  portrait  in  the  Palazzo  Pitti,  Florence, 
known  as  the  "Four  Philosophers"  (the  artist, 
his  brother  Philip,  and  two  scholars),  and  the 
portraits  of  himself  in  Windsor  Castle  (with 
Helene  Fourment),  and  in  the  Vienna  Museum. 
Amon^  several  of  Isabella  Brant,  that  in  Saint 
Petersburg  (c.l620)  is  the  finest.  Most  attrac- 
tive are  "Rubens'  Sons"  (c.l627),  in  the  Liech- 
tenstein Gallery,  Vienna,  and  in  Dresden.  Helene 
Fourment  is  depicted  in  the  galleries  of  Amster- 
dam, The  Hague,  Munich  (three,  besides  the 
"Family  Group  in  the  Garden"),  Florence,  and 
Saint  Petersburg,  also  with  two  children,  in  the 
Louvre  (unfinished)^  and  as  "Saint  Cecilia,"  in 
Berlin.  Celebrated  is  the  portrait  of  1620, 
known  as  the  "Chapeau  de  paille,"  in  the  Na- 
tional Gallery,  London.  Others  of  note  are 
those  of  Jean  Charles  de  Cordes  and  his  wife 
(1618),  in  Brussels;  of  Baron  Henri  de  Vioq,  in 
the  Louvre;  of  Maria  de'  Medici,  in  Madrid;  of 
Dr.  van  Thulden  (c.l620),  and  of  an  "Old 
Scholar"  ( 1635) ,  in  Munich ;  and  of  "Jan  van  der 
Moelen"  (1616),  in  the  Liechtenstein  Gallery, 
Vienna. 

For  several  years  a  victim  to  gout,  the  great 
master,  in  the  fullness  of  his  power,  succumbed 
to  paralysis  of  the  heart  at  Antwerp  on  May  30, 
1640,  and  was  buried  with  great  pomp  in  the 
Church  of  Saint  Jacques.  An  Eclectic  in  the  high- 
est sense  of  the  term,  his  inspirations  derived 
from  the  great  Italian  masters  served  to  estab- 
lish a  bond  of  union  between  the  art  of  Italy  and 
that  of  the  North,  without  in  any  wise  involving 
a  sacrifice  of  his  individual  tendency  toward 
a  sound  realism.  In  power  of  invention 
he  can  be  compared  only  to  Dttrer  and 
Raphael.    The  lofty  strain  of  his  oompoeition, 


PETER    PAUL   RUBENS 

'  THE    DESCENT    FROM  THE  CROSS,"  FROM  THE  PAINTING  IN  NOTRE  DAME  CATHEDRAL,  ANTWERP 


BXTBBKS. 


211 


BtJBnrsnBiN. 


hb  exiiaofdmaiy  facility  of  production  and  the 
aensaous  brilliancy  of  color,  his  Inimitable  treaV 
ment  of  the  nude  and  wonderful  luminosity  of 
flesh  tones,  exercised  a  far-reaching  influence 
upon  his  contemporaries  and  disciples,  which  was 
fdt  in  Flemish  art  for  more  than  a  century,  ex- 
tending to  every  branch  of  painting.  In  the  nine- 
teenth century  it  proved  an  inspiration  to  the 
Romanticist  movement,  not  only  in  Belgium,  but 
in  Europe.  Of  his  extremely  numerous  pupils 
Van  Pyck  was  the  most  famous,  and  Theodor  van 
Thulden  was  his  favorite.  The  number  of  his 
paintings  amounted  to  1300,  nearly  two- thirds 
of  which  were  by  his  hand  alone.  He  also 
educated  a  school  of  engravers,  which  acquired 
fame  through  the  reproduction  of  his  renowned 
works,  and  a  large  number  of  drawings  bear  wit- 
ness to  his  industry  also  in  that  field.  Rubens 
was  a  man  of  scholarly  attainment  and  universal 
culture,  who  had  a  thorough  command  of  Latin 
and  six  other  languages,  and  corresponded  with 
many  distinguished  contemporaries. 

BiBLiOGBAPHT.  For  his  life,  consult:  Van  Has- 
selt  (Brussels,  1840) ;  Waagen,  trans,  by  Noel, 
edited  by  Mrs.  Jameson  (London,  1840) ;  Kinkel 
(Basel,  1874) ;  G^nard  (Antwerp,  1877) ;  Rosen- 
beig,  in  Zeiiaehrift  fur  hildende  Kunat  (Leipzig, 
1896) ;  Stevenson  (London,  1898)  ;  Michel 
(Paris,  1900) ;  and  Knackfuss  (6th  ed.,  Leipzig, 
1901).  Consult  also:  Saintsbury,  Original  Un- 
puhliahed  Papers  Jlluatraiive  of  the  Life  of  Ru- 
hen8  (London,  1859) ;  Rosenberg,  Ruhenshriefe 
(Leipzig,  1881 ) ;  Ruelens,  Corresppndance  de  Rth 
'bena  et  documents  4pi8tolaires  ooncemant  sa  vie 
et  aes  CBuvres  (Antwerp,  1887  et  seq.)  ;  Michiels, 
Rultena  et  VScole  d'Anvera  (Paris,  1879) ;  Hy- 
mans,  Hiatoire  de  la  gravure  dana  V4oole  de  Rth 
lena  (Brussels,  1879) ;  Van  den  Branden,  Oe- 
aehiedenia  der  Antwerpache  Schilderachool  (Ant- 
werp, 1883) ;  Rosenberg,  Der  Kupferaiich  in  der 
Sehule  und  unter  dem  Einfluaa  dea  Ruhena  (Vi- 
enna, 1888) ;  id..  Die  Ruhenastecher  (ib.,  1893) ; 
RoQses,  L'oeuvre  de  Ruhena  (Antwerp,  1882-96) ; 
and  the  Bulletin  Ruhena  (Antwerp  and  Brussels, 
1882,  et  seq.). 

BX7BE0LA.     See  Measucs. 

BUBIACKS  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Lat. 
ruhia,  madder,  from  ruhena,  ruher,  red).  The 
Madder  Faicily.  One  of  the  largest  orders  of 
dicotyledonous  plants,  consisting  of  more  than 
350  genera  and  4600  species  of  trees,  shrubs,  and 
herbs  most  abundant  within  the  tropics.  Vari- 
ous schemes  of  classification  of  this  order  have 
been  presented,  some  botanists  limiting  it  to  the 
herbs  like  Galium,  etc.,  but  most  systematists 
extending  it  to  include  much  larger  numbers. 
The  classification  of  Schumann  as  given  by  Eng- 
ler  divides  the  order  into  two  suborders,  Cincho- 
Doides  and  CofTeoideie,  both  of  which  are  a^ain 
subdivided,  twenty-one  tribes  being  recognizedl 
Some  of  the  better  known  and  more  important 
genera  are:  Houstonia,  Cinchona,  Gardenia, 
Guettarda,  Chiococca,  Coffea,  Uragoga  (which  in- 
cludes Cephaelis),  Goprosonia,  Morinda,  Asperula, 
(xalium,  and  Rubia.  The  name  of  the  family  is 
derived  from  Rubia  tinctoria,  the  madder. 

BTT^IGOH.  The  ancient  name  of  a  stream 
flowing  into  the  Adriatic,  which  formed  the 
boundary  between  Cisalpine  Gaul  and  Italy 
proper.  It  obtained  a  proverbial  celebrity  from 
the  well-known  story  of  its  passage  by  Csesar, 
who,  by  crossing  it  in  B.c.  49,  virtually  declared 


war  against  the  Republic.  Hence  the  phrase  *to 
cross  the  Rubicon'  has  come  to  mean  to  take  an 
irrevocable  step.  The  modem  Luso,  called  by 
the  peasants  on  its  banks  II  Ruhicone,  has  claims 
to  being  the  ancient  Rubicon;  but  arguments 
preponderate  in  favor  of  the  Fiumicino. 

BtJBIDnrU  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Lat.  ruhidua, 
reddish,  from  ruber,  red).  A  metallic  chemical 
element  discovered  by  Bunsen  and  Kirchhoff  in 
1861,  by  means  of  the  spectroscope,  in  the  min- 
eral waters  of  Dtirkheim,  Germany.  It  is  found 
with  cflBsium  in  the  minerals  lepidolite  and  peta- 
lite,  in  the  waters  from  various  springs,  in  the 
ashes  of  seaweed  and  tobacco,  in  tea,  and  in  beet- 
root molasses.  Bunsen  separated  rubidium  chlo- 
ride by  evaporating  large  quantities  of  the  min- 
eral water  mentioned  above,  and  then  subjecting 
the  molten  chloride  to  the  current  of  an  electric 
battery,  when  the  metal  rose  to  the  surface  in  the 
form  of  globules.  It  is  more  commonly  obtained 
by  heating  a  mixture  of  sugar-charcoal,  charred 
acid  rubidium  tartrate,  and  calcium  carbonate  at 
a  white  heat,  in  an  iron  cylinder  connected  by  an 
iron  tube  with  a  glass  receiver,  into  which  the 
rubidium  distills  over. 

Rubidium  (symbol  Rb;  atomic  weight,  85.43) 
is  a  silver- white  soft  metal  that  melts  at  38.5^ 
C.  (101.3*^  F.)  and  evolves  a  bluish  vapor  at  a 
dull  red  heat.  It  oxidizes  rapidly  in  the  air  and 
decomposes  water  with  ignition  of  the  liberated 
hydrogen.  It  is  the  most  positive  element  next 
to  csesium.  With  oxygen  it  forms  a  monoxide 
similar  to  that  of  potassium,  and  its  salts  are 
readily  recognized  by  the  red  color  that  they  ex- 
hibit when  heated  in  the  non-luminous  flame  of 
a  Bunsen  burner. 

BXJBINSTEIK,  r?5<^ln-stln,  Aitton  (1830- 
94).  A  famous  Russian  pianist  and  composer, 
bom  at  Wechwotynecz,  near  Dubossary,  Gov- 
ernment of  Kherson,  of  Jewish  parentage. 
His  mother  commenced  his  musical  educa- 
tion when  he  was  but  four  years  of  age, 
and  in  two  years  he  had  exhausted  her 
knowledge.  He  was  then  placed  under  Villoing. 
In  1840  he  entered  the  Paris  Conservatory  and 
shortly  afterwards  attracted  the  attention  of 
Liszt,  Chopin,  and  Thalberg.  He  stayed  in  Paris 
eighteen  months,  after  which  he  made  some  ex- 
traordinarily successful  tours.  His  parents,  who 
for  business  reasons  had  moved  to  Moscow  soon 
after  his  birth,  about  this  time  (1844)  moved  to 
Berlin,  a  step  strongly  advised  by  Liszt.  There 
Anton  was  placed  under  the  famous  Dehn  for 
composition  and  theory.  From  1846  to  1848  he 
was  thrown  on  his  own  resources,  his  parents 
had  returned  to  Moscow,  and  he  took  up  teach- 
ing in  Vienna,  returning  to  Russia  in 
1848,  and  settling  in  Saint  Petersburg.  Here 
he  came  under  the  patronage  of  the  Grand 
Duchess  Helen,  and  for  the  following  eight 
years  studied  and  wrote  assiduously,  producing 
several  operas,  and  accumulating  the  manuscripts 
which  subsequently  brought  him  a  world-wide 
fame  as  a  composer.  He  made  a  tour  of  Ger- 
many, France,  and  England  (1867),  and  upon  his 
return  to  Saint  Petersburg  in  1858  received  the 
appointment  of  Court  pianist,  and  conductor  of 
the  Court  concerts.  He  founded  the  Saint  Peters- 
burg Conservatory  of  Music  ( 1862) ,  and  remained 
its  director  until  1867.  In  1861  he  organized  the 
Russian  Musical  Society,  and  in  1889  was 
decorated  with  the   Order  of  Vladimir,  which 


BTJBXNttTKJJI. 


212 


BtJBT. 


made  him  a  noble,  receiving  also  the  title  of  Im- 
perial Russian  State  Councilor.  In  1870  he  was 
engaged  to  direct  the  Philharmonic  and  Choral 
societies  of  Vienna,  after  which  he  entered  upon 
an  extended  tour  of  the  principal  countries  of  the 
world,  in  the  course  of  which,  and  in  company 
with  the  violin  virtuoso  Wieniawski,  he  visited 
America  (1872).  From  1887  to  1890  he  was 
again  director  of  the  Saint  Petersburg  Conserva- 
tory. From  1890  to  1892  he  lived  principally  in 
Berlin,  and  the  next  two  years  he  spent  in  Dres- 
den, after  which  he  returned  to  Saint  Petersburg, 
in  which  city  he  died.  The  lines  of  his  greatest 
development  were  in  a  degree  formulated  by  Liszt, 
and  German  thought  and  tendency  influenced 
his  virtuosity.  He  was  of  the  Beethoven  type, 
and  curiously  enough  was  not  unlike  that  master 
physically;  yet  he  differed  from  Beethoven  in 
just  such  ideals  and  tendencies  as  made  him  nat- 
urally a  worshiper  of  Chopin,  and  correspond- 
ingly distrustful  of  the  music  and  school  of  Wag- 
ner. Among  his  greatest  works  may  be  men- 
tioned the  Ocean  Bymphony,  Dramatic  Bymphonyi 
and  a  sketch  for  grand  orchestra,  Ivan  the  Terri- 
ble, which  have  established  his  fame  as  a  sym- 
phonist.  Of  his  operas  the  following  may  be 
singled  out:  Die  Kinder  der  Haide  (1861)  ;  Fer- 
amors,  oder  Lalla  Rookh  (1863)  ;  Nero  (1879) ; 
Die  Makkahder  (1875);  Dimitri  Donakoi 
( 1852 ) ;  The  Demon  ( 1875 ) .  His  oratorios 
include  Paradise  Lost  (1875)  and  The 
Tower  of  Babel.  Many  of  his  songs  are 
standard  concert  favorites,  and  with  few 
exceptions  his  numerous  compositions,  cham- 
ber, salon,  and  concert,  are  strikingly  beautiful, 
and  possess  every  element  of  permanency.  He 
also  wrote  Die  Musik  und  ihre  Meister  (Leip- 
zig, 1892)  and  Oedankenkorh  (1897).  He  insti- 
tuted the  two  Rubinstein  prizes  of  5000  francs 
each  in  playing  and  composition,  open  to  all 
nationalities,  competitions  for  which  are  held 
quinquennially  in  each  of  the  following 
cities:  Saint  Petersburg,  Berlin,  Vienna,  Paris. 
Consult:  Erinnerungen  aus  50  Jdhren,  1839-89 
(Leipzig,  1893) ;  MacArthur,  Life  of  Rubinstein 
(London,  1889). 

BUBINSTEIK,  NmoLAi  (1835-81).  A  Rus- 
sian composer,  brother  of  Anton,  bom  in  Moscow. 
From  1844  to  1846  he  was  Kullak's  pupil  in  piano- 
forte and  Dehn's  in  composition,  in  Berlin.  He 
founded  the  Moscow  Musical  Society  in  1859. 
This  society  opened  the  Moscow  Conservatory  in 
1864  and  appointed  Rubinstein  director,  which 
position  he  occupied  until  his  death.  Among  his 
pieces  are  tarantellas,  mazurkas,  polkas,  and 
valses.    He  died  in  Paris. 

BXTBIiE  (Russ.  ruhVi,  perhaps  from  ruhitl,  to 
cut  off,  or  from  Pers.,  Hind,  raplya,  rupee,  from 
rUpOy  silver,  from  Skt.  rUpa,  silver,  wrought 
work,  handsome,  from  rUpa,  natural  state,  form, 
beauty).  A  Russian  silver  coin  of  the  value  of 
100  kopecks,  the  unit  of  Russian  coinage.  Since 
the  adoption  of  the  gold  standard  in  1897  the 
value  of  the  ruble  has  been  fixed  at  51  cents. 

BXTBBIG  (Lat.  ruhrica,  red  earth,  red  ochre, 
red  law-title,  law,  rubric,  from  ruber,  red).  A 
name  applied  to  the  directions  for  the  conduct 
of  divine  worship  found  in  various  service  books, 
so  called  because  they  were  originally  written, 
and  are  now  frequently  printed,  in  red  ink,  to  dis- 
tinguish  them   from   the   text   of   the   prayers. 


BTTBXrS  (Lat.,  bramble).  A  genus  of  peren- 
nial herbs  and  often  subligneous  stemmed  riirubs 
of  the  natural  order  Rosacea.  The  fruit  is  edible 
in  all,  or  almost  all,  the  numerous  species,  whidb 
are  natives  chiefly  of  the  colder  parts  of  the 
Northern  Hemisphere.  The  raspberry  and  bram- 
ble, or  blackberry,  and  cloudberry  (qq.v.)  belong 
to  the  genus,  Rubus  spectabilis,  the  salmonberry 
found  In  British  Columbia  and  Southern  Alaska, 
is  a  shrubby  species,  with  large  dark  purple 
fragrant  flowers.  Its  dark  yellow  or  red,  acid, 
somewhat  astringent  fruit  is  about  the  size  of 
a  blackberry,  and  is  extensively  used  as  a  dessert 
and  for  pies,  etc.  Rubus  saofatilis,  sometimes 
called  the  stone  bramble,  is  a  perennial  herb, 
with  pleasant  fruit  of  few  rather  large  drupes. 
It  is  a  native  of  stony  places,  in  mountainous 
parts  of  Europe.  Rubus  arcticus,  native  to 
mountainous  regions,  is  a  small  herb  with  rose- 
colored  large  flowers,  and  purplish-red  exquisitely 
flavored  fruit.  Rubus  stellatus,  an  Alaskan  spe- 
cies known  as  'Kneshoieka'  and  'morong,'  has 
a  similar  fruit.  The  dewberries  resemble  and 
are  closely  related  to  the  blackberries. 

BXTBY  (OP.  rwW,  rubis>,  Fr.  rubis,  Sp.  rubi, 
rubin,  It.  rubinos  from  ML.  rubinus,  rubius, 
rubium,  ruby,  from  Lat.  rubens,  red,  from  rubere, 
to  be  red,  from  ruber,  red).  A  red  transparent 
variety  of  corundum  much  prized  as  a  gem. 
The  darker  colors  are  wine  red,  carmine, 
or  blood  red^  and  most  rubies  have  more 
or  less  of  a  blue  or  violet  tint  when 
viewed  by  transmitted  light.  The  most  valuable 
shade  is  the  deep,  clear,  carmine  red,  com- 
monly termed  pigeon's-blood  red.  Othere  of  poi  4  er 
quality  are  of  a  lighter  shade,  or  may  contain 
white  spots,  which  in  some  cases  disappear  on 
heating.  Unlike  other  gems,  the  ruby  can  be 
heated  to  a  high  temperature  without  the  red 
color  being  destroyed.  Rubies  are  dichroic  by 
transmitted  light,  and  they  possess  the  advantage 
of  appearing  equally  brilliant  by  artificial  or 
natural  light.  Rubies  of  large  size  are  scarce  and 
of  high  value,  so  that  a  3-carat  stone  of  proper 
color  and  free  from  flaws  is  worth  several  times 
as  much  as  a  diamond  of  the  same  size.  Among  the 
largest  rubies  may  be  mentioned  two  belonging  to 
the  King  of  Bishenpur,  in  India,  which  weired 
50%  and  17%  carats  respectively.  The  largest 
ruby  known  is  one  from  Tibet  weighing  2000 
carats,  but  it  is  not  of  first  quality.  Rubies  are 
found  in  many  localities,  but  most  of  the  occur- 
rences are  of  little  value.  The  celebrated  pigeon's- 
blood  stones  are  obtained  from  Mandalay,  in  Bur- 
ma. The  rubies  are  separated  from  the  loose 
earth  or  *byon'  by  washing.  Small  rubies,  gener- 
ally of  pink  color,  are  found  at  Ratnapura,  in 
Ceylon,  and  others  are  obtained  from  Siam.  They 
are  also  known  to  occur  in  Victoria  and  New 
South  Wales,  as  well  as  in  the  Government  of 
Perm,  Russia.  In  the  United  States  rubies  have 
been  found  in  stream  gravels  near  Franklin, 
Macon  County,  N.  C,  from  which  they  are  ex- 
tracted by  washing.  Those  found  in  Arisona 
and  other  Western  States  are  not  true  rubies, 
but  a  variety  of  garnet.  The  same  is  true  of 
the  so-called  Cape  rubies  found  with  the  dia- 
monds in  South  Africa.  Rubies  have  been  made 
artificially  up  to  %  carat  in  size,  and  have  been 
used  as  watch  jewels.  Consult  Bauer,  Edelr 
steinkunde  (Leipzig,  1896). 


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218 


BTTBHECX. 


BITBY  ILLMJfiS.  A  district  of  Upper  Burma, 
India.   See  Mogok. 

BUSYTHBOAT.  The  humming-bird  of  the 
Northeastern  United  States.    See  Humming-Bibd. 

BUBY  WEDDING.    See  Wedding  Annivea- 

8ABIES. 

BTTCSLLAI,  r?srchti4^'6,  Bernabdo  (1449- 
1514).  An  Italian  scholar,  bom  in  Florence.  He 
was  ambassador  of  the  Republic  of  Florence  suc- 
cessively to  the  Court  of  Ferdinand,  King  of 
Naples,  and  to  that  of  Charles  VIII.  of  France. 
One  of  the  most  prominent  members  of  the  Pla- 
tonic Academy,  he  opened  his  famous  gardens, 
known  as  the  Orti  Oricellariiy  in  1494,  as  the 
meeting>place  of  the  organization.  Rucellai  was 
an  excellent  student  of  antiquity,  and  wrote  in 
Latin  two  nameworthy  works,  De  Urbe  Roma  and 
De  BeUo  Italico,  the  former  a  topographical  de- 
scription, the  latter  a  history  of  the  struggle  with 
Pisa  and  the  expedition  of  Charles  VIII.  of 
France  against  Italy. 

BITGELLAI,  GiovANia  (1475-1526).  An 
Italian  poet,  bom  at  Florence.  He  was  appointed 
prothonotary  apostolic  and  goremor  of  the  Castle 
of  Sant'  Angelo.  His  didactic  poem  Le  apt  ( 1539 ; 
new  ed.  1797)  is  an  obvious  imitation  of  the 
fourth  book  of  the  Oeorgics,  In  diction  it  be- 
longs, says  Symonds,  "to  the  best  period  of 
polite  Italian."  It  is  among  the  earliest  speci- 
mens in  Italian  literature  of  the  verai  aciolti,  or 
nnrhymed  verse.  Rucellai  wrote  also  two 
tragedies,  iSosemttnda  (1525)  and  Or^sfite  (1726), 
the  latter  based  on  the  Iphigenia  in  Tauris  of 
Euripides  and  much  superior  to  the  former  in 
style  and  dramatic  skill. 

BtfCKBB,  ryk^er,  Sir  Abthub  William 
(1848—).  An  English  scientist  and  educator. 
He  was  educated  at  Brasenose  College,  Oxford, 
was  a  fellow  of  the  college  in  1871-76,  was  also 
for  a  time  demonstrator  in  the  Clarendon  labora- 
tory of  the  university,  and  in  1874  became  profes- 
sor of  mathematics  and  physics  in  the  Yorkshire 
College  of  Leeds.  From  1886  to  1901  he  was 
professor  of  physics  in  the  Royal  College  of 
Science,  South  Kensington,  London,  and  in  the 
latter  year  was  appointed  principal  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  London.  He  was  elected  (1884)  a 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  whose  medal  was 
awarded  to  him  in  1891.  Li  conjunction  with 
Reinold  he  published  a  series  of  papers  {Trans- 
actioM  of  the  Royal  Society,  1880-92)  on  the 
properties  of  liquid  films,  and  with  Thorpe  exe- 
cuted the  magnetic  surveys  of  England,  Scotland, 
and  Ireland,  for  1886  and  1891,  the  results  of 
which  were  published  in  1890  and  1896  respect- 
ively as  Magnetic  Surveys  of  the  British  Isles. 
Farther  publications  by  him  include  a  study  On 
the  Expansion  of  Sea  Water  hy  Heat  (with 
Thorpe,  1876). 

BtfCKEBT,  rvk^rt,  Fbiedbich  (1788-1866). 
A  (jerman  poet,  known  by  his  pseudonym  "Frei- 
mund  Raimar,"  bom  at  Schweinfurt.  He  was 
educated  at  Wflrzburg  and  Heidelberg,  and,  after 
being  a  docent  at  Jena,  taught  in  various  places 
and  in  1816-17  edited  the  Morgenhlatt  in  Stutt- 
gart. In  1826  he  became  professor  of  Oriental 
languages  at  Erlangen,  went  to  Berlin  in  1841 
as  Privy  Councilor  and  professor,  and  in  1849 
retired  to  his  estate  at  Neuses,near  Coburg,  where 
he  died.  Riickert's  first  popularity  was  achieved 
by  political  poems,  Oehamischte  Sonette  (1814), 


against  Napoleon,  but  his  lyrics  are  in  the  main 
philosophical  and  contemplative.  The  most  popu- 
lar collections  are  LiebesfrUhling  (1844)  and 
Die  Weisheit  des  Brahmanen  (1836-39).  He 
turned  much  Oriental  literature  into  admirable 
verse,  notably  Hariri's  Abu  Seid  (1826);  Fir- 
dausi's  Rostem  und  Suhrab  (1838);  AmrHkais 
(1843) ;  Uamasa  (1846)  ;  and  a  portion  of  the 
Indian  Mahabharata,  Nal  und  Damajanti  (1828). 
He  also  adapted  Theocritus,  Aristophanes,  Sadi's 
Bostan,  and  the  Indian  drama  Sakuntala  to  Ger- 
man taste.  These  were  published  posthumously. 
RQckert,  who  had  mastered  many  languages,  is 
unsurpassed  as  a  translator.  His  poems  reflect 
with  wonderful  fidelity  the  Oriental  spirit  and 
the  verbal  felicities  of  the  Oriental  style.  He 
wrote  dramas,  too,  but  they  are  inferior  to  his 
lyrics.  Rttckert's  Werke  were  collected  in  12 
vols.  (Frankfort,  1868-69),  and  have  also  been 
edited  by  Laistner  (Stuttgart,  1895-96),  Beyer 
(Leipzig,  1900),  Stein  (ib.,  1897),  Ellinger 
(ib.,  1897),  and  Linke  (Halle,  1897).  For  his 
biography,  consult  Fortlage  (Frankfort,  1867), 
Beyer  (ib.,  1868),  Suphan  (Weimar,  1888),  and 
Muncker   (Bamberg,  1890). 

BUCKSTXJHL,  riik'stS51,  Fbedebick  Wkl- 
iiNOTOiv  (1853 — ).  An  American  sculptor,  bom 
at  Breitenbach,  in  Alsace.  His  family  went  to 
Saint  Louis  when  the  boy  was  hardly  a  year  old. 
He  was  educated  in  the  city  schools  of  Saint 
Louis  and  in  Paris.  His  statue  "Evening," 
which  had  honorable  mention  at  the  Salon  in 
1888,  received  a  grand  medal  at  the  World's  Fair 
in  Chicago  in  1893,  and  is  now  at  the  Metropoli- 
tan Museum  in  New  York.  Returning  to  Saint 
Louis,  Ruckstuhl  carved  a  statue  of  *TlIercury 
Leading  the  Eagle  of  Jupiter,"  which  is  owned  by 
that  city,  and  the  statue  of  "Solon"  in  the  Con- 
gressional Library  (Washington).  Among  his 
most  successful  works  are  the  equestrian  statue 
of  General  Hartranft  in  Harrisburg,  Pa.; 
a  portrait  bust  of  John  Russell  Yoimg; 
the  Soldiers'  and  Sailors*  Monument  in  Jamaica, 
Long  Island.  He  directed  the  sculptural  decora- 
tion of  the  Appellate  Court  House  in  New  York. 

BUDAGI^  TlXSTdA-g^',  or  BUDAXI  (early 
part  of  the  tenth  century) .  The  earliest  of  the 
great  Persian  poets.  He  was  bom  at  Samarkand, 
and  according  to  legend  was  blind  from  his  birth. 
He  was  not  alone  a  poet,  but  a  singer  and  a 
musician  as  well.  Toward  the  end  of  his  life  he 
lost  favor  with  his  royal  patron,  the  Samanid 
prince  Nasr  11.  and  died  in  poverty,  probably 
about  945.  A  few  fragments  of  his  poems  have 
been  preserved,  mpstly  in  anthologies  and  lexi- 
cons. His  most  important  work  was  a  translation 
into  Persian  of  an  Arabic  version  of  the  Pahlavl 
rendering  of  Bidpai  (q.v.).  To  judge  from  the 
fragments  which  survive,  his  style  was  simple  and 
direct,  comparatively  free  from  the  mannerisms 
and  artificialities  of  later  Persian  poetry,  while 
in  religion  he  seems  to  show  the  infiuence  of 
Sufiism  (q.v.).  Consult:  Eth6,  "Rfidagl  der 
Sftmanldendichter,"  in  Nachrichten  der  Oottinger 
gelekrten  Oesellschaft  der  Wissenschaften  (G5t- 
tingen,  1873)  ;  Browne,  Literary  History  of  Per- 
sia (New  York,  1902). 

BTTiyBBCK,  Olof  (1630-1702).  A  Swedish 
scientist,  bom  in  Westerns  and  educated  at 
Upsala.  There  he  studied  natural  science  and  at 
twenty-three  discovered  the  lymphatic  canal, 
winning  thereby  a  European  reputation.     After 


BTTBBECX. 


214 


BXTDEBAL  PLANT& 


medical  studies  at  Lejden,  he  became  professor  at 
Upsala  (1655),  and  made  himself  famous  by  his 
knowledge  of  botany,  physics,  and  mathematics, 
and  of  archaeology.  With  his  son  Oiof  (1660- 
1740),  he  published  a  great  botanical  atlas, 
Campus  Elysius  (1701-02).  But  his  especial 
fame  is  in  the  department  of  curious  literature 
as  the  author  of  Atland  eller  Manheim  (1675- 
98),  in  which  he  attempted  to  show  that  Sweden 
was  the  original  garden  of  Eden  and  Plato's 
Atlantis. 

BITDDEB.     See  Hexm;  Ship. 

BUDDEB^FISH  (so  called  from  its  habit  of 
following  vessels).  A  general  name  applied  to  a 
family  ( Centrolophidee )  of  fishes  of  the  open  seas, 
allied  to  the  pompanos  and  harvest-fishes,  which 
includes  the  blackruffs  of  the  genus  Centrolophus, 
and  the  'black  rudder- fish'  {Palinurichthya  perci- 


-*virVlJ'i*!*l^ 


BUDDBB-nsH  (PaUnuriebtbjB  percllbrmla). 

formis),  the  latter  with  the  oblong  form  shown, 
and  blackish-green  in  color.  They  are  about  one 
foot  long.  These  fish  gather  in  schools  off  the 
coast  of  the  Northeastern  States  and  have  the 
habit  of  sheltering  themselves  under  anything 
floating,  as  a  log,  a  barrel,  or  boat,  where  they 
find  not  only  some  protection,  but  food  in  the 
form  of  hydroids,  small  barnacles,  and  other 
growths.  Hence  the  name  'log-fish,*  often  ap- 
plied to  them.    Thev  are  good  eating. 

Another  rudder-fish  is  the  large  amber-fish 
{Seriola  zonata)  also  called  'shark's  pilot,'  and 
common  from  Cape  Cod  to  Cape  Hatteras. 

BTTiyDIMAN,  Thomas  (1674-C.1757).  A  dis- 
tinguished  Scottish  scholar,  born  at  Raggel,  Par- 
ish of  Boyndie,  Banffshire,  and  educated  at  King's 
College,  Aberdeen.  He  began  his  career  as  an 
editor  by  publishing  an  edition  of  Florence  Wil- 
son's De  Animi  Tranquillitate  Dialogic,  to  which 
he  prefixed  a  life  of  the  author.  In  1709  he  pub- 
lished Arthur  Johnstone's  Cantid  Solomonia 
Paraphrasia  Poetica.  In  1714  appeared  his  well- 
known  work  Rudiments  of  the  Latin  Tongue,  a 
Latin  grammar  which  at  once  superseded  all 
others.  In  1726-32  he  published  his  Grammatical 
Latinos  Institutiones.  As  principal  keeper  of 
the  Advocates'  Library  (1730),  he  published 
a  magnificent  edition  of  Anderson's  Diptomata  et 
Numismata  Scotice  (1  vol.  folio).  In  1761  he 
published  an  edition  of  Livy  still  known  as  the 
'immaculate'  edition  from  its  entire  exemption 
from  errors  of  the  press.  Consult  his  Life  by 
Chalmers  (1794). 

BUDDY  (or  Rudder)  DUCK  (from  AS.  rudu, 
redness,  from  reodan^  to  make  red,  from  r^ad, 
red).  A  small  fresh-water  duck,  common 
throughout  Northern  North  America,  and  visiting 
the  southern  part  of  the  country  in  winter,  noted 
among  gunners  for  its  skill  in  diving  after  the 


manner  of  grebes,  and  for  the  length  of  time  it 
can  remain  under  water.  This  duck  {Eriamatura 
ruhida)  has  the  bill  slaty -blue;  top  of  the  head 
black;  chin  and  sides  of  the  head  white;  neck 
and  upper  parts  bright  chestnut;  and  the  lower 
parts  silky  white.    The  female  is  duller  in  color. 

BUDE,  ryd,  Francois  (1784-1855).  A  French 
sculptor,  bom  at  Dijon.  He  studied  in  Paris 
at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux- Arts  under  Cartel  Her, 
received  the  Prix  de  Rome  in  1812,  and  from 
1815  to  1828  lived  in  Brussels.  In  the  latter 
year  he  returned  to  Paris,  and  exhibited  his 
statue  of  "Mercury  Fastening  His  Sandal" 
(Louvre)  in  the  Salon  of  that  year.  This  was 
followed  by  his  "Neapolitan  Fisher-Boy"  (1831, 
Louvre),  the  first  of  that  short  series  of  striking 
masterpieces  which  have  placed  him  in  the  first 
rank  of  French  sculptors.  Rude  was  undoubtedly 
a  classicist  in  a  large  way,  but  in  the  "Fisher- 
Boy"  he  shows  himself  quite  capable  of  sym- 
pathizing with  the  Romantic  School,  then  in 
its  full  vigor.  From  this  time  (1831)  his 
work  became  increasingly  naturalistic,  evolv- 
ing into  thoroughly  modem  realistic  art.  In 
1830  he  was  first  employed  in  the  decoration 
of  the  Arc  de  Triomphe  de  I'Etoile,  for  which 
Rude  made  designs  for  four  great  groups  of 
sculpture  at  the  base:  "Le  depart,"  "Le  re- 
tour,"  "La  defense,"  and  "La  paix."  Thiers 
evidently  intended  at  first  to  allow  Rude  to 
execute  all  four,  but  later  gave  two  to  Etex 
and  one  to  Cortot,  leaving  only  the  "Depart" 
to  Rude.  Hiis  great  group  was  finished  in  1836. 
It  represents  the  departure  of  the  volunteers  in 
1792,  and  is,  perhaps,  the  most  powerful  and 
perfect  work  in  sculpture  produced  by  the  French 
nation. 

Compared  with  the  "Depart"  the  rest  of 
his  production  is  mediocre,  except  perhaps 
the  superb  mortuary  figure  of  Godefroy 
Cavaignac  (1847,  Montmartre  Cemetery).  Other 
statues  by  Rude  are  a  charming  Louis  XIII. 
(1842)  as  a  boy;  "Awakening  to  Immortal- 
ity;" "Martfchal  de  Saxe"  (1838);  "Napoleon" 
(1847);  "Christ  on  the  Cross"  and  "Joan  of 
Arc"  (1852,  both  in  the  Louvre);  "Margchal 
Ney  at  Paris"  (1853);  "Hebe  and  the  Eagle" 
and  "Amor  Victor,"  in  the  Museum  of  Dijon.  The 
most  complete  biography  of  Rude  is  by  Four- 
caud  in  the  Gazette  dea  Beauw-Arta  (1888- 
91).  See  also  Bertrand,  Fran^oia  Rude  (Paris, 
1888)  ;  and  Rosenberg,  in  Dohme,  Kunst  und 
KUnatler  dea  neunzehnten  Jahrhu/nderta  (Leipzig, 
1886). 

BU^ENS  (Lat.,  Cable).  A  romantic  comedy 
by  Plautus,  the  plot  of  which,  taken  from  Diphi- 
lus,  preserves  much  of  the  Greek  atmosphere.  The 
scene  is  laid  near  the  African  Cyrene.  Shake- 
speare borrowed  from  the  play  in  Peridea,  Prince 
of  Tyre, 

BUDEBAL  PLANTS  (from  Lat.  rudus,  rub- 
bish). Plants  of  roadsides  and  waste  places. 
Close  observation  of  ruderal  areas  shows  that 
there  is  a  rapid  order  of  succession  of  the  plant 
forms,  commencing  with  annuals,  largely  because 
of  the  quick  germination  of  their  abundant  seed. 
Then  grasses  and  other  perennial  plants  gradu- 
ally crowd  out  the  annuals,  a  change  sometimes 
accomplished  within  ten  years.  Naturalized 
plants  (see  Naturalization)  frequently  gain 
foothold  in  ruderal  areas,  doubtless  because  the 


BTTBEBAL  PLANT& 


215 


BTTBOLPH  L 


struggle  is  here  somewhat  less  severe  than  in 
older  and  more  established  plant  societies. 

BUDESHEHC,  ryMes-hlm.  A  town  in  the 
Province  of  Hesse-Nassau,  Prussia,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Rhine^  opposite  Bingen  (Map:  Prus- 
sia, B  3).  It  is  celebrated  for  its  wine  of  the 
same  name,  the  oldest  brand  of  the  Rhine  wines. 
Population,  in  1900,  4812. 

BXtDnraEB^  ryMlng-Sr,  Nkolaus  (1832- 
96).  A  German  anatomist,  bom  in  Badesheim, 
and  educated  at  Heidelberg  and  Giessen.  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  anatomy  at  Munich 
in  1870.  He  was  a  pioneer  in  the  use  of 
photography  in  anatomic  instruction.  He 
publisnea  an  Atlas  dea  peripheriachen  N erven- 
syaiema  (1861-65),  an  Atlas  des  menschlichen 
Oekororgatts  ( 1866-76 ) ,  Topographisch  -  chirttr- 
gische  Anatomie  ( 1872-79) ,  and  Kursus  der  topo- 
graphischen  Anatomie  (1891). 

BXTDINIy  roS-de'n*,  Antonio  Stabrabba  di. 
Marquis  (1839—).  An  Italian  statesman,  born 
in  Palermo.  At  the  age  of  twenty-seven  he  was 
chosen  Mayor  of  Palermo,  and  distinguished  him- 
self by  suppressing  an  insurrection.  In  1869  he 
was  for  a  short  time  Minister  of  the  Interior. 
Subsequently  he  was  a  member  of  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies  until  February  7,  1891,  when 
he  became  Prime  Minister,  having  as  leader 
of  the  old  Right  made  an  alliance  with  the 
Radical  leader  Nicotera  to  overthrow  Crispi 
(q.v.).  During  his  administration  occurred  the 
diplomatic  tension  with  the  United  States  over 
the  killing  of  seven  Italians  by  a  New  Orleans 
mob.  His  general  pMolicy  differed  from  that 
of  his  predecessor  in  its  more  conciliatory  atti- 
tude toward  France.  He  gave  way  to  Giolitti  in 
May,  1892,  but  after  the  Abyssinian  disaster  he 
was  in  1896  recalled  to  the  head  of  the  Ministry. 
His  (jovemment  went  down  in  the  disturbed  Ital- 
ian politics  of  1898. 

BXTDISTA  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Lat. 
rudis,  rough).  A  group  of  fossil  marine  lamel- 
libranchs  characterized  by  the  great  conical 
elongation  of  the  right  valve,  which  was  attached 
to  the  sea  bottom  by  its  apex,  and  by  the  reduc- 


HIPPVRITBS    OORMU-VAC- 

airuM. 

tion  of  the  left  valve  to  the  condition  of  a  lid- 
like operculum  in  which  no  trace  of  the  original 
spiral  form  of  the  shell  remains.  The  Rudist® 
occur  in  great  abundance  in  some  portions  of 
the  Middle  and  Upper  Cretaceous  of  Europe, 
Asia  Minor,  and  Central  America.  The  hinge 
of  the  shell  has  been  entirely  changed  from  its 
original  form  and  now  consists  of  a  system  of 


pegs  on  the  upper  valve,  which  fit  into  sockets 
in  the  lower  valve,  and  which  permitted  the 
operculum  to  be  raised  and  lowered  in  a  vertical 
motion  instead  of  in  a  rotary  motion,  as  in  the 
normal  pelecypod.  The  principal  genera  are 
Radiolites,  Hippurites,  Sphserolites,  and  a  large 


HIPPUBITKS  BUDI08U8. 

1,  Upper  valve :  a,  sIdus  of  the  binge ;  a,  b,  errooves  eor- 
reepouding  to  anterior  and  posterior  columne  of  the  lower 
valve ;  c,  anterior  prooees  of  the  di  thrum :  d,  d,  posterior 
proceeeee  of  the  clithram.  2.  Interior  of  lower  valve  seen 
from  above ;  •.  f,  position  of  anterior  and  posterior  col- 
umns ;  M,  adductor  scars ;  b,  socket  of  anterior,  and  kk 
of  posterior  processes  of  dithrum ;  /,  body-chamber  of  cell; 
2D,  vacant  cavity  near  sinus. 

form,  Barrettia,  which  attains  a  length  of  two 
feet.  These  most  curious  of  pelecypods  resemble 
corals  so  closely  that  they  were  formerly  classed 
as  such.  Consult  Bernard,  Elements  de  pal^onto- 
logie  (Paris,  1896). 

BUa)OLPy  Lake.  A  large  lake  in  British 
East  Africa  situated  200  miles  northeast  of  the 
Victoria  Nyanza  (Map:  Africa,  H  4).  It  lies  in 
the  Great  Rift  Valley  and  is  of  elongated  shape, 
about  185  miles  long  from  north  to  south  and 
20  to  35  miles  wide.  It  is  bordered  by  high 
cliflfs  in  the  south;  elsewhere  the  surrounding 
country  consists  either  of  rugged  lava  fields  or 
sandy  plains,  and  is  treeless  and  sterile.  Several 
active  volcanoes  stand  close  to  the  shores,  whose 
contour  is  said  to  have  been  changed  in  re- 
cent years  by  volcanic  activity.  The  lake  is 
deep  near  the  southern  end  and  shallow  in  the 
north,  where  the  Omo  or  Nianam  River  enters  it 
through  a  marshy  delta.  As  there  is  no  outlet, 
the  water  is  brackish.  The  lake  was  discovered 
by  Teleki  in  1888. 

BUDOLF  OP  EMS  ( ?-1254) .  A  German  poet, 
bom  probably  in  Switzerland,  and  getting  his 
name  from  Hohenems.  He  died  in  Italy  in  the 
service  of  Conrad  IV.  Rudolf's  earliest  work 
was  Der  gute  Gerhard,  More  famous  was  the 
story  of  Barlaam  und  Josa/phat  (c.l225;  edited 
by  Pfeiflfer,  Leipzig,  1843).  He  also  wrote  a 
Weltchroniky  based  for  the  most  part  on  the  Old 
Testament  and, coming  down  only  to  the  death  of 
Solomon.  In  -a  revised  form  it  had  a  great 
vogue  up  to  the  time  of  Luther's  version  of  the 
Bible,  being  practically  the  only  form  in  which 
the  earlier  part  of  the  biblical  story  was  available 
for  the  common  people. 

BXTDOLFH  I.  (1218-91).  Kin^  of  Germany 
and  head  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  from  1273 
to  1291,  founder  of  the  present  House  of  Austria. 
He  was  the  son  of  Albert  IV.,  Count  of  Haps- 
burg  and  Landgrave  of  Alsace.  Through  inher- 
itance, through  his  marriage  with  Gertrude, 
Countess  of  Hohenberg,  and  by  successful  wars 
with  his  neighbors,  he  became  the  most  powerful 
prince  in  the  extreme  southwest  of  Germany, 
with  possessions  in  Switzerland,  Swabia,  and  Al- 
sace.   He  acquired  a  great  reputation  for  brav- 


BTTBOLPH  I. 


216 


BUB. 


ery,  wisdom,  and  fair  dealing.  During  the  Great 
Interr^num,  which  began  in  1256,  Germany  was 
without  an  acknowledged  head.  In  1272  Pope 
Gregory  X.,  alarmed  at  German  disunion,  used 
every  means  in  his  power  to  force  an  Imperial 
election.  The  great  Rhenish  princes,  in  whose 
hands  rested  the  power  of  election,  wished  to  find 
some  one  who  would  not  be  unmanageable  or 
strong  enough  to  excite  jealousy.  Their  choice 
fell  on  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg,  and  he  was 
crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  October  24,  1273. 
Rudolph's  most  formidable  opponent  was  Otto- 
kar,  King  of  Bohemia,  who  refused  allegiance  to 
the  new  King.  Rudolph  made  war  upon  him, 
vanquished  him,  and  forced  him  to  give  up  the 
duchies  ^of  Austria,  Styria,  and  Carinthia,  and 
some  other  territories   (1276). 

Ottokar,  having  renewed  the  war,  was  defeated 
and  slain  in  a  battle  on  the  Marcfafeld  (1278J. 
The  Emperor,  in  1282,  invested  his  sons,  Albert 
and  Rudolph,  with  the  territories  wrested  from 
Ottokar.  (See  Austbia-Hungabt. )  Rudolph 
did  a  great  service  to  Germany  in  suppressing 
the  'robber  barons'  and  destroying  their 
strongholds.  He  is  said  to  have  condemned  to 
death  thirty  nobles  and  to  have  razed  to  the 
ground  twice  that  number  of  castles.  His  efforts  to 
preserve  peace,  by  prohibiting  private  wars,  were 
very  acceptable  to  the  towns  and  lesser  nobles, 
but  the  lack  of  effective  police  and  judicial  organi- 
zations prevented  the  execution  of  his  laws.  More- 
over, he  antagonized  the  towns  by  attempting  to 
raise  an  Imperial  revenue  by  taxation.  Consult: 
Kopp,  Koniff  Rudolf  and  seine  Zeii  (Leipzig, 
1845-49),  continued  by  Busson  (Berlin,  1871); 
Hien,  Rudolf  von  Hahaburg  (Vienna,  1874) ; 
Schulte,  Oeschiohte  der  Hahshurger  (Innsbruck, 
1687) ;  Zisterer,  Oregor  X.  und  Rudolf  von  Edbs- 
Hurg  ( Freiburg,  1891 ) ;  and  Redlich,  Rudolf  von 
Hahaburg  (Innsbruck,  1903). 

BUDOLPH  n.  (1552-1612).  Holy  Roman 
Emperor  from  1576  to  1612.  He  was  the  eldest 
son  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian  II.,  and  was 
educated  in  the  Spanish  Court  by  the  Jesuits.  On 
the  death  of  his  father,  in  1576,  he  succeeded  to 
the  Imperial  crown  and  to  the  possession  of 
the  Archduchy  of  Austria,  Bohemia,  and  part 
of  Hungary.  He  was  weak-willed  and  little 
concerned  with  the  affairs  of  government,  which 
he  left  in  the  hands  of  the  leaders  of  the  Coun- 
ter-Reformation. The  liberalizing  tendencies 
which  had  been  at  work  in  the  Austrian  do- 
minions under  his  predecessor  came  to  an  end. 
Intolerance  and  persecution  on  the  part  of  Ru- 
dolph aroused  bitter  discontent  and  in  1604  an 
insurrection  broke  out  in  Hungary.  Matthias, 
the  younger  brother  of  Rudolph,  put  himself  at 
the  head  of  a  formidable  party  against  the  Em- 
peror, and  in  1608  forced  him  to  cede  to  him  the 
government  of  Austria,  Hungary,  and  Moravia. 
In  1609  Rudolph  was  forced  to  issue  the 
Majestfttsbrief,  guaranteeing  the  Bohemians  re- 
ligious freedom,  but  at  the  same  time  prep- 
arations were  already  going  on  for  the 
great  struggle  that  was  to  break  out  in  less  than 
a  decade.  In  1608  the  Evangelical  Union  was 
formed  by  some  of  the  German  States  for  the  de- 
fense of  the  Protestant  religion,  and  this  was 
followed  by  the  organization  of  the  Catholic 
League  in  1609.  In  1611  Bohemia  was  taken 
from  Rudolph  and  transferred  to  Matthias.  The 
Emperor  died  January  20,  1612,  without  issue. 


and  was  succeeded  by  Matthias.  Rudolph's  taste 
for  astrology  and  the  occult  sciences,  and  his  de- 
sire to  discover  the  philosopher's  stone,  led  him 
to  extend  his  patronage  to  Tycho  Brahe  and 
Kepler.  The  important  astronomical  calcula- 
tions begun  by  T^cho  and  continued  by  Kepler, 
which  are  known  as  The  Rudolphine  Tables,  de- 
rive their  name  from  this  Emperor.  Consult 
Gindely,  Rudolph  II.  und  seine  Zeit  (Prague, 
1863-65). 

BUDOLPH  (1858-89).  An  Archduke  and 
Crown  Prince  of  Austria,  son  of  Francis  Joseph  I. 
He  was  educated  carefully  and  entered  the  army 
in  1878.  He  was  an  enthusiastic  hunter  and 
traveler,  and  the  author  of  Fiinfzehn  Tage  auf 
der  Donau  (1881),  and  Eine  Orientreise  (1884). 
He  planned  and  partly  edited  the  work  Die 
osterreichisch-ungarische  Monarchic  (1886  ct 
seq.).  Rudolph  married  Stephanie,  daughter  of 
Leopold  II.  of  Belgium,  in  1881.  The  Archduke 
was  found  dead  in  his  shooting  lodge  at  Meyer- 
ling,  near  Baden. 

BUDOLSTADT,  r?R^d«l-Bt&t.  The  capital  of 
the  Principality  of  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,  Ger- 
many, on  the  Saale,  18  miles  south  of  Weimar 
(Map:  Germany,  D  3).  Its  most  beautiful  church 
is  the  thirteenth-century  Stadtkirche,  rebuilt  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  and  restored  in  1879. 
The  castle  has  been  the  residence  of  the  Prince 
since  1599.  The  city  has  a  palace  with  a  natural 
history  collection,  a  gymnasium,  a  national  semi- 
nary, and  a  library  of  65,000  volumes.  It  manu- 
factures porcelain,  pianos,  metal  and  wooden 
artistic  cabinet  work,  children's  building-blocks, 
chocolate,  essential  oils,  and  chemicals.  Rudol- 
stadt  is  first  mentioned  in  the  year  800.  It  came 
into  possession  of  Schwarzburg  in  1355.  Popu- 
lation, in  1900,  12,407. 

BXJDBAy  r?PQr^dr&  (Skt.,  howler,  or  perha{», 
red,  bright),  or  Mahadeva.  A  deity  of  Vedic 
India.  He  is  described  as  an  archer  bearing  the 
lightning  shaft,  and  in  personal  appearance  he  is 
of  dazzling  brilliancy.  He  is  either  copper-colored 
or  with  a  black  belly  and  a  red  back,  while  his 
neck  is  blue  and  his  eyes  are  a  thousand  in  num- 
ber. He  is  associated  most  frequently  with  the 
Maruts  (q.v.),  although  in  some  passages  he  is 
identified  with  Agni  (q.v.),  or  with  Vishnu 
(q.v.).  His  character  is  twofold.  For  the  most 
part  he  is  represented  as  a  terrible  deity,  mighty, 
and  dangerous,  to  whom  prayer  must  be  offered 
to  induce  him  to  avert  his  shafts  both  from  men 
and  from  animals,  occasionally  even  from  the 
gods,  while  disgraceful  attributes  are  attributed 
to  him  in  the  later  Vedic  period.  On  the  other 
hand,  Rudra  is  a  divinity  of  healing,  and  his 
blessings  are  besought  repeatedly.  In  the  post- 
Vedic  period  the  place  of  Rudra  in  the  Hindu 
pantheon  has  been  usurped  by  Siva  (q.T.).  Con- 
sult: Muir,  Original  Sanskrit  Texts  (London, 
1868-74)  ;  Macdonell,  Vedic  Mythology  (Strass- 
burg,  1897). 

BUE  (OF.,  Fr.  rue,  from  Lat.  ruta,  from  6k. 
^dri7,  rhut^,  rue),  Ruta,  A  genus  of  about  50 
species  of  half  shrubby  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Rutace«e,  natives  of  Southern  Europe, 
Northern  Africa,  the  Canary  Isles,  and  the  tem- 
perate parts  of  Asia.  Common  rue  or  garden  rue 
{Ruta  graveolens)  grows  in  sunny  stony  places 
in  Mediterranean  countries  and  is  cultivated  in 
American  gardens.  It  has  greenish-yellow  flow- 
ers, and  glaucous  evergreen  leaves  with  small 


Btrs. 


217 


BTJFFINI. 


oblong  leaflets,  the  terminal  leaflets  obovate.  It 
was  formerly  called  herb  of  grace  (see  Hamlet , 
act  iv.,  scene  5 ) ,  because  it  was  used  for  sprink- 
ling the  people  with  holy  water.  It  was  in  great 
repute  as  an  amulet  against  witchcraft  in  the 


BUS  {Rttta  grBV9ohna), 

time  of  Aristotle.  The  smell  of  rue  when  fresh 
is  strong,  and  to  many  disagreeable;  yet  it  is 
used  in  some  parts  of  Europe  in  cookery.  Some 
of  the  species  found  in  Northern  India  are  sim- 
ilarly used. 

BUS  CBOWH.  A  Saxon  order  founded  in 
1807  by  Frederick  Augustus  I.,  and  intended  as 
a  distinction  for  high  State  officials.  The  cross 
is  green,  with  white  edges,  and  has  golden  rue 
leaves  between  the  arms.  The  medallion  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  wreath  composed  of  sixteen  ruo 
leaTes.  and  bears  the  initials  of  the  founder,  with 
the  motto  Providentice  Memor. 

BUBBA,  .r55-ft'DA,  Lope  de  (T-c.1567).  A 
Spanish  dramatist,  born  in  Seville,  where  he  was 
a  gold-beater  for  some  time.  It  seems  probable  that' 
he  was  a  versatile  actor  and  manager  of  his  troupe. 
He  was  the  first  popular  dramatist  of  Spain.  His 
works  include  four  'comedies,'  mostly  from  Ital- 
ian sources,  where  there  is  much  pleasant  fooling 
and  a  plot  usually  hinging  on  mistaken  identity. 
Rueda  also  wrote  bucolic  dialogues,  which  are 
somewhat  stiff,  and  ten  Pclsos,  all  drawn  from 
every-day  characters.  His  complete  works  are 
published  in  volimies  23  and  24  of  the  Goleco%6n 
de  libros  espanoles  raros  6  ourioaoa  ( 1895-96) . 

BXTKTiTiTA  (Neo-Lat.,  named  in  honor  of  Jean 
Ruely  a  French  botanist  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury). A  large  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Acanthacese,  mostly  natives  of  tropical  and 
subtropical  Asia  and  Australia.  Some  beautiful 
species  are  cultivated  for  ornament  in  hot-houses. 
In  Assam  and  in  some  parte  of  China  Ruellia 
indigofera,  called  by  some  boteniste  Strohilanthea 
ftaccidifolius,  is  much  cultivated  for  the  excellent 
indigo  which  it  yields.  A  few  species,  especially 
Ruellia  sirepens  and  Ruellia  cilioaa,  with  large 
blue  or  purple  attractive  flowers,  are  natives  of 
the  United  SUtes. 

RUPP,  or  BBjsvjs  (probably  from  ruff,  ab- 
breviation of  ruffle,  from  MDutch  ruyffelen,  to 
wrinkle;  so  called  because  of  the  neck-ruff). 
A  European  snipe  (Machetes  pugnax)  noted  for 
pm^acity.  It  is  about  a  foot  in  entire  length, 
and  in  color  ash-brown,  spotted  or  mottled  with 


black ;  the  head,  a  prominent  erectile  ruff  of  neck 
feathers,  and  the  shoulders  are  black,  glossed 
with  purple,  and  variously  barred  with  chestnut. 
The  female  (the  reeve)  is  mostly  ash-brown,  with 
spote  of  dark  brown,  is  much  more  uniform  in 
color  than  the  male,  and  lacks  the  ruff.  See 
Colored  Plate  of  Shore  Bibds. 

BTTPFED  aBOTTSE.     See  Grouse. 

BUFTIN^  Edmuito  (1794-1865).  An  Ameri- 
can agriculturist,  bom  in  Prince  George  County, 
Va.  He  attended  William  and  Mary  College 
from  1810  until  1812,  and  then,  on  the  outbreak 
of  war  with  England,  enlisted  in  a  volunteer 
company.  After  scarcely  six  months'  service, 
however,  he  returned  to  the  estate  left  him  by 
his  father  and  thenceforth  devoted  himself  to 
agriculture.  He  made  a  number  of  experimente 
which  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  the  value  as 
a  fertilizer  of  the  great  deposite  of  marl  in 
Eastern  Virginia.  In  1833  he  founded  the 
Farmer's  Register,  a  pioneer  in  arousing  interest 
in  scientific  farming.  In  1842  he  was  appointed 
agricultural  surveyor  of  South  Carolina,  and 
later  he  founded  the  Virginia  Stete  Agricultural 
Society,  of  which  he  became  president.  As  the 
oldest  member  of  one  of  the  military  organiza- 
tions which  besieged  Fort  Sumter,  he  fired  the 
first  shot  of  the  war  at  half  past  four  o'clock, 
Friday  morning,  April  12,  1861.  Four  years 
later  when  the  conflict  ended  he  committed  sui- 
cide rather  than  give  his  allegiance  to  the  United 
States.  Consult  Yearbook  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  (1875). 


BFBLUA  {Raellia  eWosa). 

BTTPPINI,  ryf-fe^n^,  Giovawni  (1807-81). 
An  English  writer  of  Itelian  origin,  bom  in 
Genoa.  He  studied  in  his  native  city  and  came  to 
know  Mazzini,  whose  "Young  Italy"  (q.v.)  he 
joined  in  1833.  He  fled  from  Itely,  and  from 
1836  to  1842  lived  in  England.  He  then  went 
to  France.  The  revolutionary  movement  of  1848 
permitted  his  return  to  his  native  land,  and  he 
entered  the  Sardinian  Parliament  in  that  year, 
becoming  in  1849  Sardinian  representetive  at 
Paris.  After  the  battle  of  Novara  he  returned  to 
England  and  devoted  himself  to  the  writing  of 
novels.  He  published  Doctor  Antonio  (1855), 
Dear  Experience   (1878),  Lavinia    (I860),   Vin- 


BXTEFUTL 


218 


BXrOB. 


oefiao  (1863),  and  other  works.  His  autobiog- 
raphy appeared  in  1853  under  the  title  Passages 
in  the  Life  of  an  Italian, 

BUFTO,  Fabrizio  (1744-1827).  An  Italian 
cardinal  and  general.  He  was  bom  in  Cala- 
bria, a  descendant  of  the  ducal  family  of  Bar- 
nello,  and  was  trained  as  a  priest.  In  1794  he 
was  made  cardinal.  He  entered  afterwards  the 
Neapolitan  service,  and  offered  stubborn  and 
successful  resistance  to  Champlonnet,  who,  at 
the  head  of  a  French  army,  attempted  to  cap- 
ture Naples.  Having  gathered  a  large  number 
of  royalists  in  Calabria,  with  the  aid  of  the 
celebrated  brigand  chief  Fra  Diavolo  (q.v.),  he 
expelled  the  French  and  the  republicans  from  the 
country  and  restored  King  Ferdiand  I.  to  the 
throne  in  1799. 

BXTITJI,  i?S5-f6'j^.  The  principal  river  in 
German  East  Africa.  It  is  formed  oy  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Luvegu  and  Ulanga  and  flows  north- 
eastward and  then  eastward,  entering  the  In- 
dian Ocean  through  a  lar^e  delta  120  miles 
south  of  Zanzibar.  The  heaastreams  rise  on  the 
Livingstone  Mountains  northeast  of  Lake  Nyassa, 
and  flow  through  a  sparsely  inhabited  forest 
country.  Some  distance  below  the  confluence  the 
Rufiji  receives  the  Ruaha,  which  rises  north  of 
Lake  Nyassa,  and  exceeds  the  main  stream  in 
length.  The  Rufiji  is  navigable  for  small  steam- 
ers up  to  the  falls  below  the  confluence  of  its 
headstreams,  above  which  the  Ulanga  is  again 
permanently  navigable  for  the  greater  part  of 
its  course. 

BUQ^Y.  A  market  town  in  Warwickshire, 
England,  15  miles  northeast  of  Warwick  (Map: 
England,  E  4).  It  is  an  important  jimction  of 
five  different  railways.  It  derives  its  celebrity 
from  Rugby  School  (q.v.),  founded  in  1567. 
Population,  in  1901,  16,830.  Consult:  Bloxham 
ana  Smith,  Rugby:  Its  School  and  Neighborhood 
(London,  1889) ;  Rimmer,  Rambles  Around 
Rugby  (ib.,  1882). 

BUOBY.  A  town  in  Morgan  County,  Ten- 
nessee, 7  miles  from  Rugby  stetion  on  the  Cin- 
cinnati Southern  Railroad,  and  114  miles  north  of 
Chattanooga.  The  town  was  founded  in  the 
expectation  of  developing  an  ideal  community. 
The  first  steps  were  taken  by  New  England  capi- 
talists, who  soon  transferred  the  enterprise  to  an 
English  company,  which  invested  £150,000  in  a 
tract  of  50,000  acres  and  improvements.  The 
site  was  ready  in  1880,  and  a  colony  of  English 
farmers  took  possession.  The  plan  contemplated 
a  combination  of  industrial  activity  with  atten- 
tion to  culture  and  out-of-door  English  sports, 
such  as  cricket  and  hunting,  and  it  was  expected 
that  the  colony  would  consist  of  both  American 
families  and  tne  sons  of  English  farmers  of  the 
better  class  in  fair  circumstances.  It  was,  how- 
ever, never  successful,  and  after  a  few  years  the 
distinctive  features  of  the  colony  were  abandoned. 
The  town  is  now  a  popular  health  resort. 

BUaSY  SCHOOL.  A  famous  public  school, 
situated  at  Rugby,  England,  founded  in  1567  un- 
der the  will  of  Lawrence  Sheriffe  as  a  free  school 
for  the  children  of  Rugby  and  Brownsover.  Ed- 
ward Rolston  was  appointed  the  first  master  in 
1574.  Up  to  1667  the  school  remained  in  compara- 
tive obscurity.  Its  history  during  that  trying  pe- 
riod is  characterized  mainly  by  a  series  of  law- 
suits between  descendants  of  the  founder,  who 


tried  to  defeat  the  intentions  of  the  testator,  and 
the  masters  and  trustees,  who  tried  to  cany  them 
out.  A  final  decision  was  handed  down  in  1667, 
confirming  the  findings  of  a  commission  in  favor 
of  the  trust,  and  henceforth  the  school  maintained 
a  steady  growth.  Under  the  vigorous  administra- 
tion of  Francis  Holyoake,  headmaster  from  1688 
to  1731,  Rufi:bv  assumed  considerable  importance 
among  Englisn  public  schools,  there  being  at 
one  time  an  enrollment  of  more  than  100  pupils. 
Thomas  James,  an  Etonian  by  education,  was 
elected  headmaster  in  1778.  He  was  an  accom- 
plished scholar  in  classics  and  mathematics,  and 
a  firm  disciplinarian.  He  introduced  exhibitions, 
forms,  tutors,  'prepostors,'  and  fags,  and  in  gen- 
eral all  the  methods  in  vogue  at  Eton.  At  the 
end  of  his  regime  (1794)  the  attendance  was 
about  200.  James  was  the  first  real  organiser  of 
Rugby  as  we  find  it  to-day. 

The  choice  of  Thomas  Arnold  (q.v.)  in  1829  as 
headmaster  of  Rujgby  marks  the  beginning  of  a 
new  spirit  in  English  education.  The  aim  hitherto 
had  been  the  inculcation  of  knowledge  with  a 
view  to  preparation  for  university  examinations. 
Arnold  conceived  the  idea  of  education  that 
makes  for  character.  He  sagaciously  accepted  the 
organization  of  Rugby  as  he  found  it,  but  he  in- 
fused new  life  and  light  into  it.  He  did  not  abro- 
gate the  liberty  of  the  older  boys,  but  he  added 
to  it  responsibility  by  placing  the  discipline  of 
the  school  in  the  hands  of  the  sixth  form.  The 
unhappv  lot  of  fags  was  under  his  influence  con- 
siderably ameliorated.  Since  his  death  in  1842 
the  successive  masters  have  with  more  or  less 
success  striven  to  maintain  the  high  standard  set 
up  by  Arnold.  In  1868  the  government  of  ihe 
school  was  transferred  to  a  board  of  governors, 
the  board  of  trustees  retaining  management  of 
the  finances  and  the  appointing  of  masters.  Tlie 
lower  school  was  established  in  1878  for  founda- 
tioners, Rugby  School  proper  being  devoted  to  ihe 
education  of  non-foundationers.  The  studies  at 
Rugby  are  still  mainly  classical.  The  modem 
tendencies  are,  however,  fast  making  an  inroad 
into  the  school  curriculum.  There  are  14  com- 
petitive scholarships,  ranging  from  £20  to  £100 
annually.  In  1900  Rugby  had  an  attendance 
of  about  600,  distributed  among  the  classical, 
specialist,  and  modem  'sides'  and  the  army 
class.  The  principal  buildings  are  the  Rugby  and 
New  Big  Schools,  built  in  quadrangles;  the 
chapel,  the  gymnasium,  and  the  museum.  In  1900 
there  were  9  dormitories.  The  'Close'  is  the  prin- 
cipal playground  and  contains  about  17  acres, 
the  most  popular  game  being  football.  Rugby 
includes  also  a  library,  a  laboratory,  a  vivarium, 
and  a  workshop.  Two  missions,  one  home  and 
one  foreign,  are  supported  by  Rugbeians.  The 
Meteor  is  the  principal  publication.  By  far  the 
best  known  of  English  public  schools,  Rugby 
owes  its  celebrity  in  part  to  the  truthful  picture 
of  the  school  life  of  real  boys  as  drawn  by  one  of 
her  sons,  Thomas  Hughes,  in  his  classic  Tom 
Brown  at  Rugby. 

BXTOE,  rJffS^ge,  Abitold  (1802-80).  A  German 
political  agitator  and  miscellaneous  writer,  bom 
at  Bergen,  island  of  Rfigen.  He  studied  at  Jena 
and  Halle,  shared  in  the  student  agitations  of 
1821-24,  was  imprisoned  (1824-30),  became  pri- 
vat-docent  at  Halle  ( 1832) ,  founded  the  Halle^che 
JahrbUcher  (1837),  as  an  organ  of  the  Yonng 
German  Hegelians,  and,  on  its  suppresBion  hy  the 


BxroB. 


S19 


BTT08. 


Pnisaian  censorship,  he  went  to  Paris  (1843-46), 
ftnd  later  to  SwitzerUind.  He  then  became  a 
bookseller  in  Leipzig,  published  a  democratic 
journal,  Die  Reform,  was  elected  to  the  Frank- 
fort Parliament  (1848),  and  in  the  next  year  he 
fled  to  England.  He  aided  Mazzini  and  Ledru- 
Rollin  in  organizing  the  Central  European  Demo- 
cratic Committee  (1849),  and,  from  1852,  lived 
in  Brighton,  teaching  and  writing.  He  wrote, 
among  other  things,  a  Manifest  an  die  deutaohe 
yation  (1866),  and  Qeschichte  unserer  Zeii 
(1881).  In  1877  he  was  pensioned  by  the  Ger- 
man Government.  His  autobiography  Aue  frU- 
kerer  Zeit,  appeared  in  Berlin,  1863-67 ;  his  Let- 
ters were  edited  by  Nerrlich  (ib.,  1885-86). 

BttGEBT,  rv^gen.  The  largest  of  the  islands 
of  Germany,  situated  in  the  Baltic  Sea  off  the 
coast  of  Pomerania,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  the  Strelasund,  one  mUe  wide  (Map:  Ger- 
many, £  1).  It  is  33  miles  long  from  north  to 
south,  and  26  miles  wide,  and  has  an  area  of  362 
square  miles.  It  is  of  extremely  irregular  shape, 
the  northeastern  portion  being  separated  from 
the  remainder  by  a  deep  and  irregular  inlet 
known  as  the  Jasmunder  Bodden.  It  is  level 
in  the  west  and  hilly  in  the  east,  nearly  the  whole 
eastern  coast  consisting  of  steep  chalk  cliffs 
rising  in  one  place  to  a  neight  of  528  feet.  The 
scenery  is  pleasing,  and,  together  with  the 
good  sea-bathing,  attracts  many  visitors.  The 
soil  is  fertile,  producing  grain  and  rape-seed; 
cattle-raising  and  herring  fisheries  are  also  im- 
portant Population,  in  1900,  46,270.  The  chief 
town  is  Bergen.  ROgen  was  taken  possession  of 
by  Valdemar  I.  of  Denmark  in  1168,  and  was 
united  with  Pomerania  in  1325.  In  1648  it 
passed  to  Sweden,  and  in  1815  was  acquired  by 
Prussia,  to  which  it  still  belongs. 

BV^EHDAS^  Geobo  Phiupp  (1666-1742). 
A  Crerman  battle  and  military  genre  painter  and 
engraver,  bom  at  Augsburg.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Isaac  (or  Jacob)  Fischer,  an  historical  painter, 
took  Bourguignon,  Lembke,  and  Tempesta  for  his 
models,  but  formed  his  style  more  especially 
through  the  study  of  the  various  phases  of  the 
military  profession,  from  real  life.  He  con- 
tinued his  studies  for  two  years  in  Vienna,  and 
in  1692  under  Molinari  in  Venice,  thence  went 
to  Rome.  During  the  siege  and  pillage  of  Augs- 
burg in  1703  he  exposed  himself  to  great  danger 
by  drawing,  in  the  midst  of  the  engagements,  the 
scenes  around  him.  The  six  etchings  resulting 
from  this  are  perhaps  the  most  meritorious  part 
of  his  work.  His  oil  paintings,  spirited  in  draw- 
ing, but  defective  in  coloring,  may  best  be  studied 
in  the  Brunswick  Gallery,  which  contains  nine 
battle-pieces  by  him.  Consult  the  monograph  by 
Count  Stillfried  (Berlin,  1879). 

BTTOEB,  rWgSr,  Thomas  Howard  (1833-). 
An  American  soldier,  bom  at  Lima,  N.  Y.  He 
graauated  at  West  Point  in  1854,  and  was  as- 
signed to  the  engineers,  but  resigned  a  year 
later  and  became  a  lawyer  at  Janesville,  Wis.  On 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  reentered  the 
service  as  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  Third  Wis- 
consin Volunteers,  and  during  the  first  half 
of  the  war  participated  in  the  campaigns  in 
Virginia,  Maryland,  and  Pennsylvania,  be«>ming 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  November, 
1862.  In  1864  he  commanded  a  brigade 
of  the  Twentieth  Ck>rps  during  the  invasion 
of  Georgia,  and  later  commanded  a  divi- 
Voi..  XV.— 15. 


sion  of  the  Twenty-third  Corps  in  the  Tennessee 
campaign  against  Gen.  John  B.  Hood  (q.v.),  and 
for  his  gallantry  at  the  battle  of  Franklin  re- 
ceived the  brevet  rank  of  major-eeneral  of  volim- 
teers.  Later  he  took  part  in  uie  operations  in 
North  Carolina.  After  the  war  he  was  com- 
missioned colonel  of  the  Thirty-third  Infantry, 
in  July,  1866,  and  in  1871  was  appointed  super- 
intendent of  the  United  States  Military  Academy, 
where  he  remained  imtil  1876.  He  was  promoted 
to  be  brigadier-general  in  March,  1886,  and  to 
be  major-general  in  February,  1895,  and  was 
retired  from  the  service  in  May,  1897, 

BUOGLESy  Samuel  Bulklet  (1800-80).  An 
American  lawyer,  bom  in  Connecticut.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1814,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  New  York  bar  in  1821.  In  1838  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  State  Legislature.  In 
1839  he  was  chosen  as  a  canal  commissioner, 
and  the  following  year  became  president  of  the 
canal  board,  an  office  which  he  held  again  in 
1858.  He  represented  the  United  States  in  the 
international  monetary  conference  in  Paris,  and 
was  a  delegate  to  the  statistical  conference  at 
The  Hague  in  1869.  As  a  member  of  the  New  York 
Chamber  of  Ck>mmeroe  he  collected  valuable  sta- 
tistics concerning  production  and  transportation. 

BUOGLES,  rfig^g'LE,  Timothy  (1711-95).  An 
American  jurist  and  soldier,  bom  at  Rochester, 
Mass.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1732,  stud- 
ied law,  and  in  time  became  one  of  the  foremost 
lawyers  of  the  colony.  He  was  made  a  judge  of 
the  Ck>urt  of  Common  Pleas  for  Worcester  County 
in  1757,  and  five  years  later  became  its  Chief  Jus- 
tice. For  many  years  he  was  a  member  of  the 
General  Court.  When  the  French  and  Indian 
War  began  he  entered  the  army,  was  second  in 
command  at  the  battle  of  Lake  George  in  1755, 
was  made  a  brigadier-general,  and  in  1759-60 
took  part  under  General  Amherst  in  the  con- 
quest of  Canada.  As  a  reward  for  his  services 
he  was  given  a  farm  by  Massachusetts,  and  later 
was  appointed  to  the  office  of  surveyor-general 
of  the  King's  forests.  In  1765  he  was  president 
of  the  Stamp  Act  Congress,  but,  having  refused 
to  transmit  to  England  the  addresses  and  peti- 
tions drawn  up  by  that  body,  he  was  censured  by 
the  Massachusetts  General  Court  and  repri- 
manded by  the  Speaker.  In  1774  he  received  an 
appointment  as  mandfimus  counselor,  and  as  he 
expressed  his  intention  to  serve,  became  so  un- 
popular that  he  was  forced  to  seek  safety  in  Bos- 
ton. When  the  British  were  forced  to  evacuate 
that  city,  he  accompanied  them,  and  ultimately 
settled  in  Nova  Scotia,  where  he  died.  Consult: 
Washburn,  Sketches  of  the  Judicial  History  of 
Massachusetts  from  16S0  to  the  Revolution  in 
1775  (Boston,  1840) ;  and  Paige,  History  of  Hard- 
wick  (Boston,  1893). 

BUGS  (from  Swed.  rugg,  rough  tangled  hair; 
probably  connected  with  L(3er.  rug,  OHG.  rdh, 
Oer.  rwuh,  AS.  rUh,  rflg,  Eng.  rough,  and  with 
Lith.  raukas,  fold,  wrinkle).  Floor  coverings 
made  in  one  piece,  covering  usually  only  a  portion 
of  the  floor.  A  rug  may  be  woven  or  it  may  be 
made  from  an  animal's  skin.  Oriental  rugs  are 
sometimes  used  for  hangings  as  well  as  for  floor 
coverings.  The  ordinary  power-loom  rugs  of  Eu- 
rope and  America  differ  from  carpets  in  their 
shape  and  size,  rather  than  in  the  method  of  their 
manufacture.  A  Smyrna  rug  is  simply  a  chenille 
Axminster  (see  Cabpets),  with  the  wool  on  both 


Btroa 


220 


BtTKWA. 


sides  instead  of  one.  They  were  first  manufac- 
tured in  Glasgow,  in  hit  or  miss  and  mottled 
patterns,  from  the  waste  chenille  of  carpet  manu- 
facture. They  were  introduced  about  1880 
into  America,  where,  in  place  of  a  mottled  de- 
sign, the  patterns  were  copied  from  Oriental  rugs 
and  the  goods  were  given  their  name  of  Smyrnas. 

Mosaic  wool  rugs  are  made  of  variously  col- 
ored woolen  threads,  arranged  so  the  ends  form  a 
pattern.  These  threads,  about  17  feet  long,  are 
stretched  firmly  in  iron  frames,  in  a  dense  mass. 
To  convert  the  threads  into  separate  rugs,  with 
the  pattern  on  each,  the  upper  surface,  composed 
of  the  ends  of  the  threads,  is  cemented  onto  a 
canvas  backing.  When  dry,  the  threads  are  cut 
across  by  a  very  keen  circular  cutter,  leaving  a 
horizontal  slice  about  -A  of  an  inch  thick  adher- 
ing to  the  backing.  Tnis  slice,  when  turned  up, 
presents  the  original  design  in  a  soft  nap  of 
woolen  threads.  The  process  is  repe,ated  until 
the  whole  mass  is  transversely  cut  up  and  forms 
about  a  thousand  rugs. 

Oriental  is  a  general  term  for  the  hand-made 
rugs  which  are  woven  by  the  peasants  of  Western 
Asia,  particularly  of  Turkey,  Persia,  Daghestan, 
and  India.  Their  designs  are  chiefly  geometrical 
figures  or  conventionalized  flowers.  This  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  weavers  are  Mohammedans, 
whose  religion  forbids  the  representation  of  the 
forms  of  human  beings  or  of  animals.  The  colors 
most  used  and  most  durable  are  the  blues,  reds, 
and  yellows.  Formerly  only  animal  and  vege- 
table dyes  were  used,  producing  colors  of  wonder- 
ful softness  and  durability.  The  advent  of  ani- 
line dyes  has  greatly  deteriorated  the  perma- 
nency and  beauty  of  Oriental  colorings.  In  Per- 
sia the  Government  has  forbidden  their  importa- 
tion and  confiscates  all  brought  into  the  country. 

The  loom  used  for  the  weaving  of  an  Oriental 
rug  consists  of  a  crude  frame  of  poles  and  tree 
trunks.  The  threads  of  wool  which  form  the  - 
pattern  are  attached  to  the  warp  by  a  running 
knot  and  a  weft  thread  is  woven  in  at  the  back. 
The  different  names  which  Oriental  rugs  bear  are 
usually  derived  from  the  district  in  which  they 
are  woven.  Formerly  each  district  had  its  own 
peculiar  patterns  and  coloring,  so  that  it  was 
easy  to  identify  a  rug  at  a  glance.  But  since 
rugs  have  been  'made  so  extensively  for  the  West- 
ern markets  it  is  not  so  easy  to  determine  the 
make. 

In  general  Turkish  rugs  are  loosely  woven  of 
coarse  yam,  with  a  long,  thick  pile.  Among  the 
most  common  varieties  are  the  Carabagh,  Syrian, 
and  Daghestan,  the  Anatolian,  and  the  Bok- 
hara. Of  the  Indian  rugs  the  Candahars  and 
Agras  are  perhaps  the  most  beautiful.  The  Per- 
sian rugs  are  the  handsomest  Oriental  rugs  pro- 
duced. They  are  fine,  closely  woven,  with  a  short 
pile.  Camel's  hair  is  much  used  in  their  manu- 
facture. The  Hamadan,  Kirman,  Shirvan,  Tehe- 
ran, Khorassan,  Herat,  and  Kurdistan  are  well- 
known  varieties. 

The  jute  rugs  of  China  and  Japan  are  not  dur- 
able in  color  or  texture  and  are  among  the  cheap- 
est and  also  the  most  luisatisfactory  of  floor  cov- 
erings. 

See  Mumford,  Oriental  Ruga  (New  YorK, 
1900) ;  History  and  Manufacture  of  Floor  Gov- 
eringa   (New  York,  1899). 

BtfHMKOBFF,  rym'kOrf,  Heinrich  Daniel 
(1803-77).    A  German  physicist  and  instrument 


maker,  bom  at  Hanover.  In  1848  he  founded  at 
Paris  an  establishment  for  the  manufacture  of 
instruments  and  scientific  apparatus,  devoting 
himself  especially  to  the  construction  of  electrical 
and  magnetic  instruments.  His  name  is  associ- 
ated with  a  special  form  of  induction  coil  which 
he  invented  in  1851.  In  1884  he  was  awarded 
a  grand  prize  of  50,000  francs  for  his  applica- 
tions of  electricity. 

BXTHNKEN,  TWn^eiiy  David  (1723-98).  A 
German  classical  philologist.  He  was  bom  at 
Stolpe,  Pomerania,  and  studied  at  Wittenberg 
and  Leyden.  He  prepared  a  new  edition  of  Plato, 
collected  the  scholia  of  that  author,  and  pub- 
lished an  excellent  edition  of  Timseus's  Legsicon 
Vocum  Platonicarum  (1754;  re6dited  in  a 
much  improved  form  1789).  In  1761  he  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  eloquence  and  history 
at  Leyden.  Huhnken's  chief  service  was  in  estab- 
lishing university  instruction  in  Greek  through- 
out the  Netherlands  upon  the  same  basis  as  that 
in  Latin.  There  are  three  collections  of  his  let- 
ters, and  his  life  has  been  written  by  his  famous 
pupil  Wyttenbach  (Leyden  1799;  last  ed.,  Frei- 
burg, 1846). 

BTTHBy  ro<5r.  A  river  of  Western  Prussia,  en- 
tering the  Rhine  near  Duisburg,  after  a  course 
of  145  miles  through  an  important  industrial  and 
mining  region  (Map:  Germany,  B  3).  By 
means  of  10  locks  it  has  been  made  navigable  46 
miles. 

BUHBOBTy  i^«^r6rt.  A  town  in  the  Rhine 
Province,  Prussia,  at  the  junction  of  the  Ruhr 
and  the  Rhine,  12  miles  west  of  Essen  (Map: 
Prussia,  B  3).  It  has  the  largest  river  harlmr 
in  Europe,  and  possesses  immense  ship-building 
docks.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  great  coal  trade.  The 
manufactures  include  machinery  and  tin  and 
iron  ware.    Population,  in  1900,  12,407. 

BXnSDAEL,  or  BITYSDAEIi,  Salomon 
(c.  1605-70).  A  Dutch  landscape  painter,  uncle 
of  the  preceding,  born  at  Haarlem.  In  his 
earlier  works  he  was  a  close  imitator  of  Jan  van 
Goyen,  but  later  his  mannered  treatment  of 
foliage  and  a  more  powerful  color  make  his 
pictures  more  easily  distinguishable  from  those 
of  his  master.  Among  his  pictures  may  be 
quoted:  A  "Dutch  Canal"  (1642),  with  many 
figures,  and  four  others  (two  dated  1631,  1656) 
in  the  Berlin  Museiun ;  "Village  in  Flat  Country" 
(1633),  and  "Fisherman's  Cottage  Near  Canal" 
(1643),  in  Dresden;  "Canal  with  Boats"  (1642), 
in  Munich;  a  "River  Landscape"  (1652),  in  Co- 
penhagen; "Banks  of  the  Meuse"  and  "View  of 
Alkmaar,"  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  New 
York;  and  "Crossing  the  River,"  in  the  Gallery 
of  the  Historical  Society,  New  York. 

BUIZ^  ro5-6th',  Juan  (?-c.1361).  A  Spanish 
poet,  more  commonly  known  as  the  Archpriest  of 
Hita.  Between  1337  and  1350  he  was  impris- 
oned by  order  of  the  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  Gil 
de  Albomoz.  There  he  wrote  most  of  his  poetry, 
which,  under  the  title  of  lAbro  de  huen  amcr, 
is  prefaced  by  a  prose  apologue  urging  the  moral 
purpose  of  the  work.  The  book  involves  a  strange 
mixture  of  devotion,  satire,  humor,  and  bold  at- 
tacks on  the  corruption  of  the  Church,  and  in- 
cludes an  unusual  collection  of  fables,  legends, 
and  amorous  stories. 

BUXWAy  rtMok^v&.  A  lake  of  German  East 
Africa.    See  Rikwa. 


RUGS 


CAUCASIAN 
CABISTAK 


;>  ;■^.tn'--^,•^rJ^^;•^T■i>'(^'*,l 


%=^^r 


XmiMA  COMPfktiy 


t  Bltn  *CO.  fcjTM    P 


PUNJAB     INDIA 
BEECHAPORC   DESIGN 


PERSIAN    OR    IRAN 
FERRAHAN,  HERATI    DESIGN 


ARRANaSO  UNOKR  TMK  OlflCCTION  OF  W.4  J. SLOAN C,  N  Y 


StTTLB  d&I^AlMIA. 


ddl 


SttTLfed  OF  THE  BOAD. 


BUIiE  BRITANNIA.  One  of  the  national 
anthems  of  Great  Britain.  Its  original  appear- 
ance was  in  a  mask  entitled  Alfred,  the  words 
by  James  Thomson  and  David  Mallet,  the  music 
by  Dr.  Ame.  It  was  first  performed  in  1740. 
The  composer  afterwards  changed  the  mask  into 
an  opera  (1745).  Beethoven  wrote  five  variations 
on  the  theme  of  "Rule  Britannia."  The  words 
were  certainly  written  by  Thomson,  though 
claimed  by  Mallet.  Lord  Bolingbroke  wrote  three 
additional  but  unsuccessful  verses. 

BULED  SUBPACES.    See  Subfaces. 

BXTLE  NISI  (Lat.,  imless).  In  English  prac- 
tice, a  rule  or  order  that  the  thing  applied  for 
be  granted,  unless  the  person  against  whom  the 
relief  is  asked,  upon  being  served  with  a  copy 
thereof,  shows  cause  on  a  certain  date  why  the 
rule  should  not  be  made  absolute,  or  final.  The 
word  'rule'  is  used  in  the  sense  of  'order.'  The 
English  practice  acts  now  confine  the  use  of  this 
form  of  an  order  to  cases  where  the  court  has 
summary  jurisdiction.  A  rule  nisi  is  obtained 
on  an  ex  parte  application.    See  Motion  ;  Obdeb. 

BXTIiE  OP  PAITH.  One  of  several  names 
given  in  the  ancient  Church  to  the  statements 
of  belief  which  constituted  the  standard  of  or- 
thodoxy against  prevalent  errors,  and  which  were 
solemnly  committed  to  catechumens  at  their  bap- 
tism. Other  designations  were  Rule  of  Truth, 
Canon  of  Truth,  Ecclesiastical  Canon,  etc.  With 
slight  variations  they  were  current  from  the 
latter  part  of  the  second  century  onward,  in  Rome, 
North  Africa,  Gaul,  Asia  Minor,  and  Alexandria. 
The  Rule  of  Faith  was  regarded  as  of  Apostolic 
origin,  being  based  upon  the  baptismal  confession, 
or  perhaps  in  some  cases,  like  the  baptismal  con- 
fession itself,  directly  upon  the  formula  of  bap- 
tism (cf.  Matt,  xxviii.  19,  and  Didache  7).  This 
statement  of  belief  in  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy 
Spirit  received  short  additions,  mostly  of  a  de- 
scriptive nature,  and  served  the  purpose  of  a 
creed,  in  the  later  sense.  After  the  fourth  cen- 
tury the  Nicene  Creed  gradually  displaced  the 
earlier  and  shorter  formulas,  especially  in  the 
Eastern  Church.  Since  the  sixteenth  century  a 
new  interpretation  of  the  phrase  *Rule  of  Faith* 
has  come  into  use  among  Protestants,  according 
to  which  it  means  the  Scriptures,  as  the  sole 
authority  in  religion.  This  is  asserted  by  them 
against  the  Roman  Catholic  appeal  to  the  con- 
current authority  of  Church,  Scripture,  and  tra- 
dition. These  two  applications  of  the  term 
should  be  carefully  distinguished.  On  the  va- 
rious forms  of  the  Regula,  consult :  Hahn,  Bihlio- 
thek  der  Bymhole  (3d  ed.,  Breslau,  1897)  ;  Schaff, 
Creeds  of  Christendom  (New  York,  1884)  ;  in 
general.  Bum,  Introduction  to  the  Creeds  (Lon- 
don, 1899) ;  McGiffert,  The  Apostles*  Creed  (New 
York,  1902) ;  Allen,  Christian  Institutions  (New 
York,  1897) .  See  further  the  article  Cbeed,  with 
the  literature  there  cited. 

BULB  OP  THBBB.    See  Pbofobtion. 

BULBS  OP  THB  BOAD.  Regulations,  pre- 
scribed either  by  custom  or  by  statute,  to  be 
observed  by  travelers  either  on  land  or  water. 

Rules  fob  Tbavel  git  Land.  The  fundamental 
rule  for  travelers  on  land  highways  is  that  each 
must  so  use  his  right  of  passage  as  not  to  inter- 
fere unduly  with  another  in  the  exercise  of  that 
other's  co5rdinate  right  of  passage.  Accord- 
in^y  he  is  bound  to  use  reasonable  skill  and 


care,  not  only  in  directing  his  movements  as  a 
pedestrian,  but  in  his  selection  and  management 
of  animals  or  vehicles.  In  case  of  travelers  whose 
courses  cross,  the  one  first  reaching  the  crossing  is 
entitled  to  pass  on  without  stopping,  while  the 
other  should  moderate  his  speed  or  halt,  as  occa- 
sion may  require.  This  rule  applies  to  pedes- 
trians crossing  a  city  thoroughfare  in  front  of 
teams.  Driving  at  an  inunoderate  rate  of  speed, 
where  other  vehicles  or  persons  are  on  the  high- 
way, or  leaving  horses  unhitched  and  unattended, 
is  evidence  of  negligence,  which  may  render  the 
person  who  is  responsible  therefor  liable  to  dam- 
ages. In  England  the  rule  prevails  that  vehicles 
going  in  opposite  direction  shall  pass  to  the  left 
when  meeting;  but  in  this  country  they  must 
pass  to  the  right.  Statutes  enforce  this  rule  in 
many  of  our  States.  If  vehicles  are  traveling  in 
the  same  direction,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  foremost 
traveler  to  permit  any  one  behind  him,  who 
wishes  to  go  more  rapidly  than  he  is  driving,  to 
pass.  In  England  the  rule  seems  to  be  that  the 
passing  vehicle  should  bear  to  the  right,  while 
the  other  bears  to  the  left.  In  this  country  the 
practice  in  cities  is  for  the  passing  vehicle  to 
bear  to  the  left;  and  this  has  been  enjoined  by 
statute  in  a  few  States. 

Rules  fob  Tbaveling  git  Wateb.  The  rules  of 
the  road  for  water  craft  are  for  the  most  part 
quite  modem.  Those  relating  to  sea-going  ves- 
sels were  formulated,  in  their  present  shape,  as 
the  result  of  a  maritime  conference  held  in 
Washington  during  1889.  They  were  not  entirely 
new,  although  they  contained  some  important 
modifications  of  existing  regulations.  In  Eng- 
land they  are  set  forth  in  an  Order  in  Council 
of  November  27,  1896,  pursuant  to  an  act  of 
Parliament  (57  and  58  Vict.,  ch.  60).  In  this 
country  they  are  embodied  in  several  acts  of 
Congress  and  a  Presidential  proclamation  ( see  28 
Statutes  at  Large  82,  672;  29  ibid.  381, 885) .  The 
object  of  these  rules  is  not  only  to  prevent  col- 
lisions, but  to  minimize  the  effects  of  those  which 
happen.  English  courts  treat  them  as  a  part  of 
the  municipal  law  of  each  country  adopting  them. 
Our  courts,  however,  have  declared  that,  as  they 
have  been  adopted  by  all  maritime  nations,  they 
form  a  part  of  the  international  or  general  mari- 
time law  of  the  world.  In  the  United  States  a 
separate  set  of  rules  has  been  enacted  by  Con- 
gress for  the  guidance  of  vessels  along  our  coasts, 
in  our  harbors,  and  on  waters  connected  there- 
with. (See  30  Statutes  at  Large  96;  31  ibid. 
30.)  Still  another  regulates  navigation  on  the 
Great  Lakes  and  their  adjacent  streams.  (See 
28  Statutes  at  Large  645.)  A  fourth  applies 
to  vessels  navigating  the  Mississippi  River  and 
its  tributaries  as  well  as  the  Red  River  of  the 
North. 

Rules  gf  the  Road  at  Sea.  The  rules  of  the 
road  are  of  four  classes,  concerning  (a)  lights, 
(b)  fog  signals,  (c)  steering  and  sailing,  and 
(d)  distress  and  other  signals. 

Lights.  Steam  vessels  are  required  to  carry 
the  following  lights :  a  white  light  on  the  middle 
line,  at  a  height  of  20  to  40  feet,  visible  at  a 
distance  of  6  miles,  and  which  may  be  seen  from 
directly  ahead  to  22%*  abaft  the  beam  on  each 
side;  a  green  light  on  the  starboard  (right)  side 
and  a  red  light  on  the  port  (left)  side  which 
are  visible  at  a  distance  of  two  miles  and  may 
be  seen  from  right  ahead  to  22%**   abaft  the 


BXJLES  OF  TBE  BOAD. 


222 


BULBS  OF  THE  BOAD. 


beam,  each  on  its  own  side;  these  lights  must 
be  fitted  with  screens  on  the  inboard  side  so  that 
the  green  light  cannot  be  seen  over  the  port  side, 
nor  the  red  light  over  the  starboard  side.  Sail- 
ing vessels  and  vessels  being  towed  are  required 
to  carry  the  red  and  green  side  light,  but  must 
not  carry  the  white  (or  masthead)  light.  A  ves- 
sel which  is  not  under  control  because  of  injury 
to  her  steering  or  motive  power  must  carry  two 
red  lights,  one  over  the  other,  in  place  of  the 
white  (masthead)  light.  If  moving  through  the 
water,  such  a  vessel  must  carry  her  red  and 
green  lights,  but  not  otherwise.  In  the  daytime 
a  vessel  which  is  not  imder  control  must  carry, 
in  place  of  the  red  lights,  two  balls  or  shapes  at 
least  two  feet  in  diameter.  A  steam  vessel  tow- 
ing other  vessels  carries  the  red  and  green  lights 
and  two  white  lights,  one  over  the  other,  in 
place  of  a  single  white  light.  In  the  inland 
waters  of  the  United  States  steam  vessels  (ex- 
cept sea-going  vessels)  are  required  to  carry 
two  white  range  lights,  the  forward  one  being 
the  white  masthead  light,  while  the  after  one, 
showing  all  around  the  horizon,  must  be  at  least 
fifteen  feet  above  the  other.  Sea-going  vessels 
may  carry  the  range  lights  under  the  interna- 
tional and  United  States  rules.  Small  steam 
vessels  (under  forty  tons,  gross  measurement) 
may  carry  the  white  light  at  a  height  of  nine 
feet;  it  must  be  visible  at  a  distance  of  two 
miles  and  the  side  lights  must  be  visible  at  a  dis- 
tance of  one  mile.  Steam  launches,  such  as  are 
carried  by  sea-going  vessels,  may  carry  the  white 
light  at  a  less  height  than  nine  feet,  but  it  must 
be  carried  above  the  side  lights,  or  such  a  boat 
may  have  a  combination  red  and  green  lantern 
which  wiU  show  the  proper  colored  light  on  each 
side  and  be  visible  on  that  side  only.  Vessels 
under  oars  or  sails,  if  of  less  than  twenty  tons, 
must  have  ready  at  hand  a  lantern  with  red  and 
green  sides  which  may  be  shown  on  the  proper 
side  to  prevent  collision.  Small  boats,  whether 
under  oars  or  sails,  must  be  provided  with  a 
white  lantern  which  they  must  exhibit  when 
necessary.  A  sailing  pilot  vessel  carries  the 
ordinary  lights;  also  a  white  light  at  the  mast- 
head which  is  visible  all  around  the  horizon, 
and  must  exhibit  a  flare-up  light  at  intervals 
of  fifteen  minutes  or  less.  A  steam  pilot  vessel, 
in  addition  to  the  lights  prescribed  for  steamers, 
must  carry  a  red  light,  visible  all  around  the 
horizon,  and  placed  at  a  distance  of  eight  feet 
below  the  white  masthead  light.  A  vessel  which 
is  being  overtaken  by  another  must  exhibit  from 
her  stern,  where  it  can  best  be  seen,  a  white 
light  or  flare-up  light.  A  vessel  at  anchor  must 
carry  a  white  light  forward,  which  must  be  visi- 
ble all  around  the  horizon  and  must  not  be  over 
twenty  feet  above  the  hull;  if  over  one  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  in  length  she  must  also  carry,  at  or 
near  the  stern  and  at  a  height  of  not  more  than 
fifteen  feet  below  the  forward  light,  a  white  light 
which  is  visible  all  around  the  horizon.  Recogni- 
tion signal  lights  may  also  be  carried  if  duly 
authorized  by  proper  authority;  also  flare-up 
lights  to  attract  attention.  All  double-ended 
ferry  boats  are  required  to  carry  white  lights, 
visible  all  around  the  horizon,  on  poles  or  masts 
forward  and  aft.  These  lights  are  to  be  at  the 
same  height.  Midway  between  them,  at  an 
altitude  fifteen  feet  higher,  a  white  or  colored 
light  must  be  carried.  This  light  must  likewise 
be  visible  all  around  the  horizon. 


Foo  SiONAUS.  In  fog,  mist,  or  falling  snow, 
steamers  under  way  must,  at  intervals  of  not 
more  than  two  minutes,  sound  a  blast  of  four 
to  six  seconds  duration  on  their  steam  whistles. 
It  the  steamer  should  stop  she  must  sound  two 
such  blasts  with  an  interval  of  about  one  second. 
In  the  inland  waters  of  the  United  States,  steam 
vessels  which  are  under  way  must  sound  their 
whistle  once  a  minute  instead  of  once  in  two 
minutes.  A  sailing  vessel  when  under  way  must 
once  every  minute  sound  on  her  fog  horn  one 
blast  when  on  the  starboard  tack,  two  blasts 
when  on  the  port  tack,  and  three  blasts  when  the 
wind  is  abaft  the  beam.  A  vessel  which  is  tow- 
ing, laying,  or  picking  up  telegraph  cable,  or 
under  way,  but  imable  to  keep  out  of  the  way 
of  an  approaching  vessel  through  not  being  under 
command,  or  is  unable  to  manoeuvre  as  required 
by  the  rules,  must,  at  intervals  of  not  more  than 
two  minutes,  sound  one  long  blast  followed  by 
two  short  ones.  A  vessel  being  towed  may  sound 
this  signal  and  must  not  sound  any  other.  Ves- 
sels at  anchor  must,  at  intervals  of  not  more 
than  one  minute,  ring  the  bell  rapidly  for  about 
five  seconds.  Sailing  vessels  and  boats  of  less 
than  twenty  tons  gross  measurement  are  not 
obliged  to  give  the  signals  prescribed  for  larger 
craft,  but  must  make  an  efficient  sound  signal 
once  every  minute. 

Steebino  and  Sailing  Rules.  These  are  ap< 
plicable  to  all  conditions.  Vessels  must,  in  a 
fog,  mist,  or  falling  snow^  go  at  a  moderate 
speed,  having  careful  regard  to  the  existing  cir- 
cumstances and  conditions.  It  is  customary  to 
construe  this  rule  very  liberally;  fast  steamers 
slow  down  very  little  during  such  weather,  but 
if  a  vessel  hears  the  whistle  of  another  vessel 
ahead  she  should  slow  down  at  once  until  she 
has  been  passed. 

When  two  steam  vessels  are  approaching  end 
on  or  nearly  end  on  so  as  to  involve  risk  of  col- 
lision, each  must  alter  her  course  to  starboard 
(i.  e.  incline  to  the  right)  so  that  each  may 
pass  on  the  port  side  of  the  other.  In  United 
States  waters  vessels  approaching  nearly  end  on 
must  alter  their  courses  to  starboard  and  either 
must  give,  as  a  signal  of  her  intention,  one  short 
and  distinct  blast  of  her  whistle  which  the  other 
must  answer  with  a  similar  blast.  If  the  courses 
of  such  vessels  are  so  far  on  the  starboard  side  of 
each  other  that  they  would  not  be  considered  as 
meeting  end  on,  either  will  give  as  a  signal  of 
her  intention  two  short  and  distinct  blasts 
of  her  whistle,  which  the  other  must  answer  with 
two  similar  blasts;  the  vessels  will  then  pass  on 
the  starboard  side  of  each  other. 

Where  two  steam  vessels  are  steering  courses 
which  cross  each  other  the  vessel  which  has  the 
other  on  her  own  starboard  beam  must  keep  out 
of  the  way  of  the  other.  In  United  States  waters 
if  there  is  risk  of  collision  the  vessel  which  has 
the  other  on  her  own  starboard  bow  must,  if  she 
intends  to  turn  to  starboard  and  pass  under  the 
stem  of  the  other,  indicate  her  intention  by 
one  blast  of  her  whistle,  while  if  she  intends  to 
turn  to  port  she  must  sound  two  blasts.  These 
signals  must  be  promptly  answered  by  the  other 
vessel. 

In  the  international  rules,  when  vessels  are  in 
sight  of  one  another,  a  steam  vessel  which  is 
taking  any  course  authorized  by  the  rules  must 
indicate  that  course  by  the  following  signals  on 
her  whistle  or  siren,  namely:  One  short  blast  to 


BULES  OF  THE  BOAD. 


228 


BUMANIA. 


indicate  "I  am  directing  my  course  to  star- 
board;"  two  short  blasts  to  indicate  "I  am  direct- 
ing my  course  to  port;"  and  three  short  blasts  to 
indicate  "My  engines  are  going  full  speed  astern/' 

When  a  steam  vessel  is  overtaking  another  she 
must  keep  out  of  the  way  of  the  other.  When 
the  vessels  are  crossing  at  an  angle  such  that  the 
overtaking  vessel  could  not  see  the  other's  side 
lights,  if  at  night,  the  vessel  coming  up  with  the 
other  shall  be  deemed  an  overtaking  vessel. 

In  narrow  channels  every  steam  vessel  must, 
when  it  is  safe  and  practicable,  keep  to  that  side 
of  the  fairway  or  mid-channel  which  lies  on  the 
starboard  side  of  such  vessel. 

When  a  steam  vessel  and  a  sailing  vessel  are 
proceeding  on  such  courses  as  to  involve  risk  of 
collision,  the  steam  vessel  must  keep  out  of  the 
way  of  the  other.  When  by  any  of  the  rules  one 
of  two  vessels  is  required  to  keep  out  of  the  way 
of  the  other,  the  latter  must  keep  her  course  and 
speed,  but  in  interpreting  the  rules  regard  must 
be  had  to  all  dangers  of  navigation  and  to  any 
special  circumstances  which  may  render  a  de- 
parture from  them  necessary  to  avoid  immediate 
danger,  and  nothing  in  any  of  the  rules  will  ex- 
onerate any  vessel  or  her  master,  owner,  pro- 
prietor, or  crew  from  the  consequences  of  any 
n^lect  to  carry  lights  or  signals,  or  keep  a 
proper  lookout,  or  to  take  any  precaution  which 
may  be  required  by  the  common  practice  of  sea- 
men or  by  the  special  circumstances  of  the  case, 
and  nothing  in  the  rules  shall  interfere  with  the 
operation  of  a  special  rule,  duly  made  by  local 
authority,  relative  to  the  navigation  of  any  har- 
bor, river,  or  inland  water. 

When  two  sailing  vessels  are  approaching  one 
another  so  as  to  involve  risk  of  collision,  one  of 
them  shall  keep  out  of  the  way  of  the  other  as 
follows,  viz.: 

(a)  A  vessel  which  is  running  free  shall  keep 
out  of  the  way  of  one  which  is  close-hauled. 

(b)  A  vessel  which  is  close-hauled  on  the  port 
tack  shall  keep  out  of  the  way  of  one  which  is 
close-hauled  on  the  starboard  tack. 

(c)  Wlien  both  vessels  are  running  free,  with 
the  wind  on  different  sides,  the  vessel  which  has 
the  wind  on  the  port  side  shall  keep  out  of  the 
way  of  the  other. 

(d)  When  both  are  running  free  with  the 
wind  on  the  same  side,  the  vessel  which  is  to 
windward  shall  keep  out  of  the  way  of  the  one 
which  is  to  Inward. 

(e)  A  vessel  which  has  the  wind  aft  shall 
keep  out  of  the  wav  of  one  which  has  the  wind 
on  some  other  bearing. 

Distress  Signals.  When  a  vessel  is  in  dis- 
tress and  requires  assistance  from  other  vessels 
or  from  the  shore,  the  following  shall  be  the  sig- 
nals to  be  used  or  displayed  by  her^  either  to- 
gether or  separately,  viz. : 

In  the  daytime —  ( 1 )  A  gun  or  other  explosive 
signal  fired  at  intervals  of  about  a  minute.  (2) 
The  international  code  signal  of  distress  indi- 
cated by  NC.  (See  Plate  with  article  Signals,. 
Masine.)  (3)  The  distance  signal,  consisting 
of  a  square  flag  having  either  above  or  below  it  a 
ball  or  anything  resembling  a  ball.  (4)  A  con- 
tinuous sounding  with  any  fog  signal  apparatus. 

At  night — (1)  A  gun  or  other  explosive  sig- 
nal fired  at  intenrals  of  about  a  minute.  (2) 
Flames  on  the  vessel  as  from  a  burning  tar  bar- 
rel, oil  barrel,  etc.  (3)  Rockets  or  shells  throw- 
ing stars  of  any  color  or  description,  fired  one 


at  a  time,  at  short  intervals.  (4)  A  continuous 
sounding  with  any  fog-signal  apparatus. 

Copies  of  the  complete  rules  may  be  obtained 
free  of  charge  at  naval  branch  Hydrographic 
Offices  and  at  small  expense  from  most  dealers 
in  nautical  instruments. 

BiBUOGBAPHT.  Holt,  The  Rule  of  the  Road 
(London,  1867);  Thompson,  A  Treatise  on  the 
Law  of  Highways  (Albany,  1891);  Marsden,  A 
Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Collisions  at  Sea  (Lon- 
don, 1897) ;  Hughes,  Handbook  of  Admiralty  Law 
(Saint  Paul,  1901). 

BXTUNGh  MACHINE.  A  mechanical  device 
by  means  of  which  parallel  lines  may  be  ruled 
on  a  surface  at  regular  or  definitely  spaced  in- 
tervals. The  ruling  machine  employed  by  en- 
gravers is  a  form  of  dividing  engine  (q.v.)  and 
is  used  in  making  tinted  surfaces  on  blocks  for 
printing.  It  consists  of  a  tool  that  can  be  given 
a  lateral  motion  by  a  screw  or  other  device  and 
a  transverse  or  cutting  motion  as  it  is  moved 
across  the  surface.  The  term  ruling  machine  is 
also  applied  to  a  device  used  for  ruling  the  lines 
in  account  and  other  blank  books.  This  machine 
consists  of  a  series  of  fountain  pens  or  thread 
supplied  with  ink  of  the  desired  color,  which 
press  against  the  paper.    See  Dividing  Engine. 

BUM  (abbreviation  of  rumbullion  or  rum- 
booze,  the  first  word  being  perhaps  an  extended 
form  of  rumble,  and  the  latter  from  rum,  good, 
Gypsy  rom,  husband,  Rommani,  Gypsy,  from 
Hind.  4'6m,  domrA,  from  Skt.  4ofnha,  name  of  a 
low  caste  +  hooze,  bouse,  from  MDutch  &A«en, 
Ger.  bausen,  to  guzzle).  A  spirit  made  by  fer- 
menting and  distilling  molasses  and  the  refuse 
which  accumulates  in  making  cane  sugar.  The 
best  rum  is  made  from  the  pure  molasses;  a 
second  grade  is  obtained  from  the  skimmings  and 
other  wastes  of  sugar-making.  Fermentation  is 
induced  by  the  use  of  dunder;  molasses  is  added, 
in  the  proportion  of  6  to  100,  and  the  fermenta- 
tion allowed  to  continue  to  completion.  When 
new,  rum  is  white  and  transparent;  its  color  is 
produced  after  distillation  by  adding  caramel- 
color.  Rum  is  greatly  improved  by  age  and  when 
very  old  has  a  high  commercial  value.  The  man- 
ufacture was  at  one  time  an  important  industrv 
in  New  England,  but  has  constantly  decreased. 
The  best  rum  is  made  in  Jamaica.  It  owes  its 
peculiar  flavor  to  butyric  ether,  which  fact  is 
taken  advantage  of  to  produce  an  artificial  rum. 
Consult  Sadtler,  Organic  Chemistry  (Philadel- 
phia, 1900).  See  Distilled  Liquobs  ob  Ardent 
Spirits  and  Liquobs,  Febhented  and  Distilled, 
Statistics  op. 

BXTMA^IA.  A  kingdom  of  Europe,  the  most 
northeastern  country  of  the  Balkan  States.  It 
embraces  the  former  principalities  of  Moldavia 
and  Wallachia  (united  in  1861)  and  the  district 
called  the  Dobrudja,  detached  from  Bulgaria  in 
1878.  The  Eastern  Carpathians  and  their  west- 
ward continuation,  the  Transylvanian  Alps,  pre- 
senting their  convex  side  to  Rumania,  are  the 
western  and  northern  barriers  separating  the 
kingdom  from  Hungary.  The  Danube  marks  the 
line  between  Rumania  and  Bulgaria  on  the  south, 
except  in  the  extreme  east  of  the  country,  where 
there  is  an  artificial  boundary.  The  Black  Sea 
bounds  the  country  on  the  east  for  a  distance  of 
about  130  miles.  In  the  extreme  north  an  ar- 
tificial frontier  extends  between  Rumania  and 
Russia,  and  the  Pruth  separates  them  on  the 


BTTMANIA. 


224 


BXJMANIA. 


east.  In  the  extreme  west  the  kingdom  touches 
Servia,  the  Danube  forming  the  boundary.  Ru- 
mania extends  from  latitude  43*"  40'  to  48**  15' 
N.  Area,  50,540  square  miles,  Rumania  being 
the  largest  Balkan  State  except  Turkey. 

Topography.  The  surface  features  comprise 
the  mountain  barrier  in  the  west;  the  mountain 
forelands  and  foothills  extending  into  the  coun- 
try for  30  to  40  miles  from  the  Carpathian 
ranges;  the  two  low  plains  spreading  away 
everywhere  to  the  east  and  south  of  the  moun- 
tain region ;  and  the  higher  lands  of  the  Dobrud- 
ja,  the  region  between  the  Danube  and  the  Black 
Sea.  The  Dobrudja  has  low  coasts,  but  its  in- 
terior is  a  steppe-like  plateau.  The  great  walls 
of  the  Carpathians  and  the  Transylvanian 
Alps,  the  latter  rising  over  8000  feet  in  sev- 
eral places,  slope  down  to  the  Rumanian  plains 
in  finely  wooded  declivities,  divided  by  the  valleys 
of  many  rivers.  The  Moldavian  plain,  occupying 
the  eastern  part  of  the  country,  descends  to  the 
south  and  is  deeply  trenched  by  many  tributaries 
of  the  Danube,  the  principal  being  the  Sereth. 
The  Wallachain  plain  occupies  the  entire  south, 
has  a  general  southeasterly  incline,  and  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  Aluta,  Arjesh,  Yalomitsa,  and  other 
affluents  of  the  Danube.  The  Moldo-Wallachian 
plain  is  physically  a  part  of  the  great  plain  of 
South  Russia.  The  Danube  is  the  great  highway 
of  the  kingdom.  Before  it  reaches  the  delta  it  di- 
vides into  many  branches,  and  courses  over  a  flat, 
marshy,  alluvial  plain,  rather  difficult  of  access. 

Climate,  Floba,  and  Fauna.  Though  in  the 
same  latitude  as  Northern  Italy,  the  land  has  far 
greater  climatic  extremes.  Its  bitterly  cold  win- 
ters are  due  to  its  being  exposed  to  the  winds 
from  the  Russian  steppes;  tne  winds  from  the 
Mediterranean  subject  it  to  subtropical  summer 
heat.  The  mercury  sometimes  rises  to  above 
100**  F.  in  the  shade,  and  at  times  sinks  below 
— 20  ° .  The  Danube  is  usually  ice-bound  about  three 
months.  The  annual  rainfall  ranges  from  15  to  20 
inches  and  is  unequally  distributed.  The  soils,  par- 
ticularly the  black  earth  of  the  plains,  make  Ru- 
mania one  of  the  most  fertile  countries  of  Europe. 

Three  zones  of  vegetation  are  distinguished: 
the  high  Alpine  zone  in  the  mountains,  the  forest 
zone  of  the  lower  mountain  slopes  and  foothills, 
and  the  steppe  zone  of  the  prairie  regions.  The 
mountains  are  clothed  with  pines,  larches,  firs, 
dwarf  junipers,  and  birches.  Firs  are  the  prevail- 
ing trees  among  the  foothills.  Varieties  of  oak 
grow  on  the  plains,  beeches,  chestnuts,  and 
maples  being  also  planted.  The  black  alder 
grows  on  the  marshes.  The  mountains  present 
great  stretches  of  woodlands,  but  large  forest 
tracts  are  now  rarely  met  on  the  plains  and  a 
great  part  of  the  Dobrudja  is  treeless.  The  fauna 
resembles  that  of  Russia   (q.v.). 

Geologt  and  Mineral  Resoubces.  The  Car- 
pathians and  the  Transylvanian  Alps  con- 
sist mainly  of  crystalline  schists  with  ex- 
tensive intrusions  of  Jurassic  and  chalk 
beds.  Earthquakes,  originating  among  the  moun- 
tains, seem  to  show  that  the  process  of 
mountain  formation  is  still  in  progress.  The  two 
great  low  plains  are  covered  with  the  black  loess 
of  South  Russia,  with  large  admixtures  of  peb- 
bles and  clay  in  the  southern  plain  of  Wallachia. 
This  region  is  traversed  by  Eocene  formations, 
and  by  strongly  folded  Miocene  strata,  which 
often  contain  salt  and  petroleum.  The  plain  of 
Moldavia,  on  the  other  hand,  consists  of  late 


Tertiary  formations.  The  mineral  wealth  is  very 
great.  Gold,  silver,  iron,  lead,  quicksilver,  cop- 
per, manganese,  coal,  building  materials,  pe- 
troleum, and  salt  are  all  found,  but  only  the  last 
three  are  worked  to  any  great  extent.  Gold,  in 
particles  and  scales,  is  found  in  some  of  the 
rivers.  Recent  discoveries  show  quicksilver  in 
large  quantities  in  Wallachia.  Marble  of  ex- 
cellent quality,  and  clays  and  sands  suitable  for 
porcelain  and  glass  wares,  are  abundant.  The 
salt  deposits  cover  an  enormous  area  in  Moldavia 
and  Wallachia,  and  as  many  of  the  beds  have  a 
thickness  of  750  feet  or  more,  Rumania  could 
supply  Europe  for  centuries.  The  salt  industry 
has  been  a  State  monopoly  since  1862.  The  out- 
put in  1900  was  104,665  tons,  nearly  all  being 
exported.  The  ■  oil-bearing  r^on  is  very  ex- 
tensive and  is  beginning  to  be  exploited  by  for- 
eign capitalists.  The  product  of  petroleum  in 
1900  was  221,387  tons.  All  the  metals  are  little 
mined,  for  lack  of  Rumanian  capital  and  trans- 
portation facilities. 

AoBicuLTUBE.  Seventy  per  cent,  of  the  people 
are  engaged  in  agriculture.  Rumania  is  one  of 
the  three  large  granaries  of  Europe.  But  agri- 
culture is  still  very  backward;  the  peasantry, 
serfs  imtil  recently,  have  made  progress  slowly, 
and  methods  and  implements  are  still  primitive, 
though  modern  farm  machinery  is  being 
largely  introduced  on  the  estates.  Nearly  haS 
of  the  whole  surface  is  under  cultivation.  Till- 
age and  stock-breeding  outweigh  all  other  re- 
sources to  a  greater  extent  than  in  most  Euro- 
pean States.  The  land  is  particularly  well  adapt- 
ed for  cereals.  Wheat  and  maize  are  the  chief 
crops.  The  area  under  wheat  in  1900  was  nearly 
6000  square  miles.  The  area  under  maize  is  a 
fourth  greater.  The  acreage  of  barley,  oats,  and 
rye  together  is  about  half  of  that  of  maize. 
Maize,  the  chief  crop,  yielded  116,937,205  bushels 
in  1901.  It  is  the  staple  food  of  the  peasantry, 
and  with  wheat  and  barley  comprises  the  bulk  of 
the  exports.  Tobacco  is  a  State  monopoly  culti- 
vated wholly  under  Crown  management.  In  1901, 
10,666  acres  were  under  the  crop.  Both  soil  and 
climate  are  adapted  for  the  vine,  which  grows 
chiefiy  among  the  foothills  of  the  mountains 
overlooking  the  plains.  The  vineyards  embraced, 
in  1901,  330,048  acres.  Cotnar  and  Odobesci — 
dessert  wines — ^vie  with  the  famous  vintages  of 
Hungary.  Prunes  are  important  in  the  foreign 
trade.  The  kingdom  had,  in  1900,  804,746 
horses,  2,589,000  cattle,  5,644,210  sheep,  and 
1,709,909  swine.  Stock-raising  is  carried  on 
with  little  skill  or  method.  There  are  few 
stables,  and  most  of  the  animals  are  exposed 
without  shelter  to  the  rigorous  winter.  The  ex- 
ports of  hog  products  to  Austria-Hungary  and 
Russia  is  important.  Sheep-breeding  is  carried 
on  everywhere  for  mutton,  cheese  (which  is  in 
great  demand),  and  wool,  but  is  declining,  espe- 
cially in  the  hill  districts.  The  rearing  of  silk- 
worms, once  an  important  house  industry,  is  re- 
viving under  Government  patronage.  Rumanian 
streams  are  well  supplied  with  fish. 

Manufactubes  and  Commebce.  The  house  in- 
dustries supply  the  peasants  with  most  of  their 
personal  needs.  Foreign  capital  is  being  at- 
tracted and  industrial  development  is  making 
considerable  progress.  Several  hundreds  of  flour- 
ing mills  turn  much  of  the  wheat  into  flour, 
which  is  exported  even  to  England;  in  1901  the 
sugar  factories  had  an  output  of  25,350  tons. 


BITMANIA. 


225 


BUMANIA. 


and  there  ure  many  other  manufactures  of  dif- 
ferent kinds.  Expensive  freight  rates  and  high 
customs  are  the  chief  hindrances  to  trade  in 
Rumania.  The  total  volume  of  the  foreign  com- 
merce for  1901  was  $129,300,000.  Textiles  stand 
far  in  the  lead  among  the  imports,  and  bread- 
stuffs  are  by  far  the  most  important  item  in  the 
exports.  Other  noteworthy  items  of  the  im- 
ports are  metals  and  their  manufactures,  chemi- 
eals,  drugs,  and  groceries ;  and  fruits,  vegetables, 
groceries,  chemicals,  wood  and  wooden  wares, 
animals,  and  animal  products  figure  to  some  ex- 
tent among  the  exports.  In  the  Rumanian  com- 
merce Belgium,  Germany,  and  Austria-Hungary 
figure  most  extensively. 

TrANSPOBTATION    and    Ck)MMUNICATION.       The 

only  important  ports  directly  on  the  Black  Sea 
are  Sulina  and  Kustendje.  The  latter  is  a  new 
port,  but  promises  to  become  important.  Far 
more  important  at  present  are  the  large  commer- 
cial cities  of  Galatz  and  Bralla,  at  the  head  of 
deep-water  navigation  on  the  Danube.  Bralla 
is  the  great  wheat-exporting  port  of  the  coun- 
try. In  1901  the  vessels  entering  the  ports  were 
29,296,  with  8,187,927  tons.  In  1902  the  com- 
mercial marine  of  Rumania  consisted  of  391 
vessels,  of  75,440  tons,  including  72  steamers,  of 
16,146  tons.  A  large  number  of  steamboats  and 
sailing  vessels  ply  on  the  Danube,  and  much 
timber  and  grain  is  transported  to  the  Danube 
by  steamer,  barge,  or  raft  on  the  Sereth  and 
the  Pruth.  The  State  owns  all  the  railroads,  of 
which  about  2000  miles  are  in  operation  in  1903. 

GovEBNMEXT  AND  FINANCE.  Rumania  is  an 
hereditary  constitutional  monarchy.  The  pres- 
ent Constitution,  enacted  by  a  Constituent 
Assembly  elected  by  the  people  in  1866,  was 
amended  in  1879  and  again  in  1884.  According 
to  its  provisions  the  executive  department  is 
vested  in  the  King,  who  has  power  of  suspensive 
?eto,  and  a  Cabinet  of  eight  members,  including  a 
Prime  Minister.  The  legislative  department  is 
composed  of  a  Senate  and  Chamber  of  Deputies, 
the  members  of  both  of  which  are  chosen  (in 
part  indirectly)  by  electoral  colleges,  made 
up  of  all  taxable  citizens  classified  according  to 
the  amount  of  taxes  paid,  property  owned,  or 
educational  qualifications.  The  Senate  has  120 
members,  elected  for  a  term  of  8  years.  The  heir 
apparent,  8  bishops,  and  2  representatives  se- 
lected by  the  universities  of  Bucharest  and 
Jassy  are  members  of  the  Upper  House.  The 
Chamber  of  Deputies  has  183  members,  chosen 
for  four  years.  Senators  to  be  eligible  must  be 
40  years  of  age  and  have  an  annual  income  of  at 
least  about  $1800.  Deputies  must  be  26  years  of 
age.  The  Code  of  Napoleon  is  the  basis  of 
the  legal  system.  For  its  local  government,  Ru- 
mania is  divided  into  32  district.  The  capital 
of  Rumania  is  Bucharest. 

The  revenues  are  derived  from  the  indirect 
taxes  (stamp,  legacies,  spirits,  and  beer  taxes) ; 
direct  taxes  (real  estate,  building  taxes,  road 
tolls,  licenses  for  the  sale  of  spirits,  and  registra- 
tion fees,  trades)  ;  monopolies  (tobacco,  salt, 
matches,  playing  cards,  and  cigarette  paper)  ; 
sale  of  and  revenue  from  public  lands;  and  cus- 
toms. In  1903-04  the  revenue  was  approximately 
$44,000,000,  and  the  expenditure  $42,600,000. 
The  public  debt  amounted  on  March  31,  1902, 
to  $275,601,179.88.  More  than  half  had  been 
contracted  for  public  works,  mainly  railways. 
The  foremost   financial   institution   is  the  Ru- 


manian National  Bank,  at  Bucharest,  with 
branches  in  the  important  towns.  On  December 
23,  1900,  it  had  a  note  circulation  of  $23,737,350. 

Money,  Weights,  and  Measures.  The  gold 
standard  was  introduced  in  1888.  As  gold  coins 
are  minted  only  in  limited  quantities,  the  short 
supply  is  widely  supplemented  by  foreign  pieces. 
The  gold  len  (equaling  one  franc)  is  the  unit 
of  coinage^  and  the  small  change  is  of  silver 
or  bronze.  The  metric  system  of  weights  and 
measures  is  legalized,  but  Turkish  denominations 
are  used  to  some  extent.    For  army,  see  Abmies. 

Population.  The  population  of  Rumania,  by 
the  census  of  1899,  was  5,912,520,  of  whom  the 
Rumanians  numbered  92.5  per  cent.  Bucharest 
had  a  population  in  1899  of  282,071.  The  next 
largest  town,  Jassy,  had  78,069  inhabitants. 
.  Religion  and  Education.  Orthodox  Greek  is 
the  State  religion,  but  all  confessions  enjoy  full 
freedom.  The  State  Church  is  independent  of  all 
'alien  prelates,'  and  the  Metropolitan  Primate 
is  appointed  by  the  legislative  bodies  and  con- 
firmed by  the  King.  In  1899  there  were  6,408,- 
743  members  of  the  Greek  Church,  168,276 
Catholics  and  Protestants,  269,015  Jews,  and 
43,740  Mohammedans.  The  percentage  of  illit- 
erates is  very  high,  the  census  of  1899  showing 
that  88.4  per  cent,  of  the  population  could  not 
read  or  write.  Though  education  is  'free  and 
compulsory,'  no  schools  have  as  yet  been  estab- 
lished in  many  of  the  village  communes.  There 
are  two  universities — one  at  Bucharest,  with  about 
80  professors  and  over  4000  students,  and  one  at 
Jassy,  with  about  ^0  professors  and  800  students. 

Ethnology.  The  Rumanians,  or  Wallachs, 
constitute  a  race  whose  origin  has  been  much 
discussed  and  is  still  by  no  means  clear.  Only 
about  half  of  the  Rumanians  inhabit  the  mod- 
em Kingdom  of  Rumania.  The  remainder  are 
found  in  the  neighboring  regions  of  Eastern 
Hungary  (mainly  Transylvania),  Bukowina,  Bes- 
sarabia, Servia,  and  Bulgaria,  besides  scattered 
groups  in  other  parts  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula. 
These  smaller  groups  are  rapidly  disappearing 
among  the  surrounding  peoples.  The  most  im- 
portant of  the  detached  Rumanian  communities  is 
tbat  inhabiting  the  Mount  Pindus  districts. 
These  are  called  Tsintsars  or  Kutzo-Vlachs  by 
their  Macedonian  neighbors,  but  their  true  name 
is  Aramfini  or  Armftni,  i;.e.  'Romans.'  The 
popular  belief  and  claim  oif  the  Rumanians  is 
thai  they  are  the  direct  descendants  of  the  Roman 
colonists  sent  into  the  conquered  province  of 
Dacia  (the  modern  Rumania)  by  the  Emperor 
Trajan.  This  theory  has  been  severely  attacked 
by  Rosier,  Hunfalvy,  and  others,  and  seems  ques- 
tionable both  on  historical  and  linguistic  grounds, 
the  Emperor  Aurelian  (270-275)  withdrew  the 
Roman  colonists  from  Dacia  to  the  south  side  of 
the  Danube,  and  from  that  time  until  the  thir- 
teenth century  Dacia  was  given  over  to  the  bar- 
barian hordes,  who  swept  over  the  country  re- 
peatedly. During  this  time  the  Roman  language 
and  culture  seem  to  have  disappeared,  and  the 
former  was  first  reSstablished  in  its  modern  form 
in  connection  with  a  northern  movement  of  the 
Rumanians  from  the  regions  south  of  the  Danube. 
This  would  seem  to  support  the  view  that  the 
final  area  of  dispersion  was  to  the  south,  and 
possibly  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Pindus 
region.  Here  would  also  be  the  seat  of  the  de- 
velopment of  the  language.  Numerous  linguistic 
characteristics  seem  to  support  this  view. 


BTTMAHIA. 


326 


BTTMAHIA. 


On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  at  all  necessary 
to  suppose  that  all  or  even  a  majority  of  the  in- 
habitants of  reorganized  Rumania  came  from  the 
south.  The  number  was  probably  relatively  few. 
The  study  of  the  head  form  of  the  modem  Ru- 
manians shows  dolichocephaly  in  the  east,  the 
breadth  of  the  head  increasing  to  brachycephaly 
in  the  west.  This  eastern  dolichocephaly  along 
the  Black  Sea  is  regarded  by  many  as  a  survival 
from  a  primitive  long-headed  race,  which  for- 
merly occupied  almost  all  Eastern  Europe  before 
the  Slavic  invasions.  If  this  be  true,  it  shows  a 
continuance  of  race  in  spite  of  invasions.  It  is 
also  noteworthy  that  in  physical  type  the  Ruma- 
nians differ  but  slightly  from  the  Bulgarians, 
which  would  seem  to  show  that  the  mass  of  the 
people  have  been  but  slightly  affected  by  their 
conquerors.  The  Rumanians  may  then  be  re- 
garded as  a  mixture,  varying  in  different  regions, 
of  this  primitive  population  with  Roman  colo- 
nists, and  Teutonic,  Slavic,  and  Mongol  invaders. 
Consult:  Rosny,  Lea  Romaina  de  VOrient  apergu 
de  Vethnographie  de  la  Roumanie  (Paris, 
1885) ;  Hunfalvy,  Ethnographie  von  Ungam, 
(Budapest,  1877). 

History.  The  modem  Kingdom  of  Rumania, 
which  dates  in  its  present  political  organization 
only  from  1881,  was  formed  by  the  imion  of  the 
two  kindred  principalities  of  Moldavia  and  Wal- 
lachia  (qq.v.).  These  countries  form  the  greater 
part  of  the  large  area  conquered  by  the  Emperor 
Trajan  (a.d.  101-106)  and  made  the  Roman  Prov- 
ince of  Dacia  (q.v.).  The  Dacians,  according  to 
the  Roman  accoimts,  were  a  warlike  race,  and  un- 
der their  King,  Decebalus,  made  a  vigorous  resist- 
ance to  the  conquest.  During  the  reign  of  Alex- 
ander Severus,  in  the  second  quarter  of  the  third 
century,  the  province  began  to  suffer  from  the  in- 
roads of  the  Goths,  and  in  the  reign  of  Aurelian 
(270-275)  it  was  finally  abandoned  to  these  Ger- 
manic invaders,  with  whom  the  Emperor  estab- 
lished an  honorable  alliance.  A  majority  of  the 
inhabitants  crossed  to  the  south  of  the  Danube, 
but  many  remained  among  the  Goths  and  intro- 
duced the  arts  of  Roman  civilization.  The  Goths 
were  later  crowded  out  by  the  Huns  and  the 
country  was  overrun  by  successive  barbarian  inva- 
sions. The  present  inhabitants  are  of  a  much  mix- 
ed race,  their  language  being  a  Romance  tongue. 

In  the  eleventh  century  the  Cumans,  a  Turkish 
people,  established  themselves  for  a  time  in  Mol- 
davia, and  two  centuries  later  the  cotmtry  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Kogai  Tatars  and  the 
people  were  driven  into  the  forests  and  moun- 
tains. The  history  of  the  period  of  recovery  of 
Wallachia  and  Moldavia  from  the  barbarians  and 
of  their  organization  into  States  is  very  imper- 
fectly known  and  is  not  of  particular  importance. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth  centuiy  we 
find  a  Wallach,  or  Ruman,  principality  in  the 
region  between  the  Lower  Danube  and  the  Tran- 
sylvanian  Alps,  which  took  its  place  in  the  map 
of  Europe  as  Wallachia.  A  little  later  by  the  side 
of  this  arose  another  Wallach  principality,  which 
took  the  name  of  Moldavia,  from  the  River  Mol- 
dava,  an  afSuent  of  the  Sereth.  Both  principali- 
ties had  to  face  the  tide  of  Turkish  invasion 
which  after  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century 
swept  over  Southeastern  Europe.  At  the  same 
time  they  had  to  contend  against  the  kings  of 
Hungary.  By  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury Wallachia  had  become  a  vassal  State  of  the 
Ottoman  Empire,  being  forced  to  pay  regular 


tribute;  Moldavia  held  out  a  centuiy  longer.  It 
was  long,  however,  before  the  Turks  succeeded 
in  actually  subjecting  the  principalities  to  their 
sway,  and  more  than  once  they  suffered  defeat 
at  tile  hands  of  the  Ruman  voivodes  or  princes. 
The  rule  of  the  voivodes  of  Wallachia  and  Mol- 
davia presents  a  dismal  and  bloody  record,  vigor 
and  ability  on  the  part  of  the  princes  going  hand 
in  hand  with  savagery.  For  a  moment,  at  the 
close  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  Wallach,  or 
Ruman,  nationality  was  brought  under  the  away 
of  a  single  monarch,  Michael  the  Brave  of  Wal- 
lachia, who  brought  Moldavia  and  Transylvania 
(inhabited  in  great  part  by  Wallachs)  under  his 
sceptre.  Michael  was  assassinated  in  1({01  and 
this  Great  Rumania  vanished,  to  be  revived  in  the 
dreams  of  the  Rumanian  patriots  of  to-day, 
whose  aspirations  are  directed  to  the  establish- 
ment of  a  Dacian  realm  of  which  Transylvania 
shall  form  a  part. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  the  hold  of  Turkey 
(then  in  its  decline)  upon  the  principalities  was 
gradually  tightened,  and  at  last  their  independ- 
ence was  practically  extinguished.  The  Ruma- 
nian soil,  however,  was  not  opened  to  the  Turks 
for  settlement.  The  onslaughts  of  Russia  upon 
the  Ottoman  Empire  introduced  a  new  and  sin- 
ister element  into  the  life  of  the  principalitiea. 
In  1710  the  voivodes  sought  to  free  their  States 
from  the  Turkish  yoke  with  the  assistance  of 
Peter  the  Great  (See  Kantemib.)  The  Czar  was 
hemmed  in  by  the  Turks  on  the  River  Pruth 
(1711)  and  escaped  only  by  agreeing  to  a  humili- 
ating peace.  After  this  the  Porte  ruled  Moldavia 
and  Wallachia  through  hospodars  or  governors 
taken  from  among  the  Greek  Fanariot  families 
(see  Faitabiots),  who,  in  their  greed  and  lack  of 
sympathy  for  the  inhabitants,  exploited  the  prin- 
cipalities in  a  merciless  manner.  Many  of  the 
families  of  the  boyars  or  nobles  became  allied 
with  the  Fanariot  houses  and  Greek  became  the 
official  language.  This  tended  very  much  to  ob- 
scure the  national  feeling.  Again  and  again  the 
armies  of  Russia,  in  her  wars  with  Turkey,  trav- 
ersed and  occupied  the  unhappy  provinces. 
Bukowina,  in  1777,  and  Bessarabia,  in  1812,  were 
severed  from  Moldavia  and  annexed  to  Austria 
and  Russia  respectively.  The  ambitious  designs 
of  Russia  looked  to  the  incorporation  of  Moldavia 
and  Wallachia  in  the  empire  of  the  Czar.  And 
the  fact  that  their  inhabitants  belonged  to  the 
Greek  Church  afforded  a  pretext  for  interfering 
in  the  affairs  of  the  principalities.  The  outbreak 
of  the  Greek  stmggle  for  independence,  the  first 
episode  of  which  was  enacted  at  Jassy  in  1821 
(see  Ypsiianti,  Alexandeb),  put  an  end  to  the 
Fanariot  rule  in  the  two  Danubian  Principalities 
and  boyars  were  allowed  to  choose  the  hospodars 
from  natives. 

The  Rumanian  language  took  its  place  again, 
and,  under  the  stimulus  of  the  te&cnin^  of  the 
history  of  the  people,  promoted  especially  by 
four  Rumanian  historians,  »incai,  Maior,  Asachi, 
and  Lazar,  a  spirit  of  nationality  was  developed 
which  looked  to  independence  and  gave  a  new 
unity  to  the  ideas  and  purposes  of  the  two  States. 

In  the  Treaty  of  Adrianople  of  1829  Turkey 
was  forced  to  accord  to  Russia  a  protectorate 
over  the  Danubian  Principalities.  The  hospodars, 
among  whom  were  some  strenuous  and  light- 
ened rulers  of  the  family  of  Ghika  Cq.v-)>  were 
reduced  almost  to  the  position  of  lieutenants  of 
the  Czar.    But  the  schemes  of  Russia  aroused 


BUKAKIA. 


227 


BUMANIAN  LANQUAQE. 


patriotic  opposition,  and  the  unsuccessful  issue 
of  the  war  waged  against  Turkey  and  her  West- 
ern allies  (1853-56)  deprived  Russia  of  her  hold 
on  the  Danubian  Principalities. 

The  Congress  of  Paris  in  1856  recognized  the 
need  of  a  modification  of  the  relations  of  the 
Porte  to  the  principalities,  but  would  not  concede 
complete  independence.  They  were  organized  as 
the  United  Principalities  of  Moldavia  and  Wal- 
lachia,  each  having  its  own  hospodar  and  govern- 
ment, but  with  a  common  commission  of  sixteen 
members  and  a  general  court  of  justice.  In  1859 
both  elected  the  same  hospodar,  a  boyar  of  Mol- 
davia, Prince  Cuza,  and  in  1861  he  was  pro- 
claimed Prince  of  Rumania  under  the  name  of 
Alexander  John  I.  (q.v.).  The  Sultan  recognized 
the  new  adjustment,  and  the  long  desired 
union  was  accomplished.  Prince  Alexander  was 
deposed  in  1866  because  of  his  arbitrary  govern- 
ment, and  Prince  Charles  of  Hohenzollem  was 
elected  as  hereditary  Prince  under  a  modem  con- 
stitution, it  being  found  impossible  to  reach  an 
agreement  on  any  member  of  the  native  nobility. 
Aa  efficient  army  was  organized  by  Prince  Charles 
on  the  Prussian  model,  and  when  war  broke  out 
between  Russia  and  Turkey  in  April,  1877,  Ru- 
mania entered  into  alliance  with  Russia,  giving 
the  armies  of  the  latter  free  passage  through 
Rumanian  territory.  On  May  21st  the  Ruma- 
nian Parliament  declared  the  country  indepen- 
dent. The  Rumanian  army  joined  the  Russians 
in  the  field,  and  in  the  operations  at  Plevna  the 
forces  of  the  principality  bore  an  important  and 
wholly  creditable  part.  (See  Russo-TuRKisn 
War.)  The  Berlin  Congress  in  1878  recognized 
the  independence  of  Rumania,  but  in  spite  of  the 
protest  of  the  Rumanian  envoys  restored  to  Rus- 
sia the  strip  of  Bessarabia,  touching  the  Pruth 
and  the  Danube,  which  had  been  annexed  to  Mol- 
davia in  1856.  Rumania,  however,  received 
the  Dobrudja.  It  was  further  stipulated  that 
difference  of  religious  profession  should  not  dis- 
qualiiy  from  the  exercise  of  full  civil  and  politi- 
cal rights  in  Rumania.  The  last  stipulation  in- 
troduced the  Semitic  question  into  the  politics 
of  the  new  State  by  brmging  a  quarter  of  a  mil- 
lion Jews  into  its  citizenship,  a  condition  which 
has  never  been  acquiesced  in  by  the  Christians, 
who  have  continued  to  persecute  the  downtrod- 
den race,  many  of  whom  have  emigrated  to  the 
United  States.  In  1881  the  Government  declared 
Rumania  a  kingdom,  and  this  was  accepted  by 
the  Powers.  In  1893  King  Charles  summoned 
his  nephew  and  heir,  Prince  Ferdinand,  to  the 
kingdom  and  the  latter's  son  was  baptized  into 
the  Greek  Church. 

BiBUOGSAFHY.  Rcclus,  Nouvclle  gSographie 
universeUe,  vol.  i.  (Paris,  1875)  ;  Beaure  et  Ma- 
thorel,  La  Roumanie:  g^ographie,  hUtoire,  organ' 
Uation,  politique,  judidarey  religieuae  (Paris, 
1878) ;  Samuelson,  Roumania  Past  and  Present 
(London,  1882)  ;  Rosny,  Lea  populations  danu- 
Inetmes  (Paris,  1885)  ;  Laveleye,  The  Balkan 
Peninsula  (London,  1887) ;  Bergner,  Rumanien: 
Eme  Darstellung  des  Rumania  Land  und  Leute 
(Breslau,  1887)  ;  Cremer,  Avutule  minerale  ale 
R(maniei  (Li^ge,  1888) ;  Arion,  La  situation 
^conomique  et  sociale  du  paysan  en  Roumanie 
(Paris,  1895) ;  Richard,  La  Rumanie  d  vol 
^oiseau  (Bucarest,  1895)  ;  Biej,  La  Roumanie: 
Httde  iconomique  et  commerdale  (Paris,  1896) ; 
Krauss,  Bucarest  und  Rumanien  (Leipzig, 
'""");  Miller,  Roumania    (London,   1896) ;    de 


Gubernatis,  La  Roumanie  et  les  Rowmains  ( Flor- 
ence, 1898)  ;  de  Bertha,  Magyars  et  Roumains 
devant  Vhistoire  (Paris,  1899);  Lahovari,  Geo- 
graphisches  Lexicon  von  Rumania  (Bucharest, 
1899  et  seq.) ;  Benger,  Rumania  in  1900,  trans, 
by  Keane  (London,  1900)  ;  Bengesco,  Bihlio- 
graphie  franco-roumaine  du  XlXdme  sidcle  ( Brus- 
sels, 1895). 

BUKANIAN  LANQUAQE  AND  LIT- 
EBATX7BE.  Rumanian  Language.  A  Ro- 
mance tongue  spoken  in  three  dialects,  the 
Daco-Rumanian,  in  Rumania,  Transylvania,  Bes- 
sarabia, the  Hungarian  Banat,  and  Bukowina — 
that  is,  in  old  Dacia,  by  about  9,000,000  people; 
the  Macedo-Rumanian,  in  Macedonia,  Albania, 
Thessaly,  and  Epirus,  by  several  hundred  thou- 
sand people;  and  the  Istro-Rumanian,  in  Istria, 
by  about  3000  people.  The  Daco-Rumanian 
dialect  comprises  the  Wallachian,  Moldavian, 
Transylvanian,  and  Banatian  sub-dialects.  The 
Rumanian  developed  from  the  vulgar  Latin  spok- 
en in  Dacia  and  Moesia  under  the  influence  suc- 
cessively of  the  Turano-Bulgarian,  Albanian, 
Slavic,  Hungarian,  Turkish,  and  Modem  Greek. 
These  influences  affected  little  the  grammatical 
structure  of  the  language,  but  greatly  changed 
its  vocabulary.  About  3800  words  are  Slavic, 
about  2600  come  from  the  vulgar  Latin,  about 
700  are  Turkish,  650  Greek,  500  Hungarian,  and 
50  Albanian. 

The  spelling  of  the  language  is  pretty  nearly 
phonetic.  Rumanian  has  two  guttural  vowel- 
sounds,  the  one  written  d,  i8,  and  the  other  I,  d,  i. 
As  in  Italian,  c  and  g,  when  followed  by  e  or  i, 
have  a  soft  (palatal)  sound.  There  is  a  post-posi- 
tive article :o«i,  *man;'  omul,  *the  man;'  oamenl, 
*men;'  oa-menil,  *the  men;'  frate,  ^brother;'  fra- 
tele,  *the  brother;'  frafl,  ^brothers;*  frafii,  *the 
brothers;'  floare,  'flower;'  floarea,  the  flower;' 
flori,  'flowers;'  florile,  'the  flowers.'  The 
cardinal  numbers  from  11  to  19  are  formed 
by  means  of  the  word  spre-on:  un-spre-zece,  etc.; 
those  from  20  to  90  by  means  of  the  plural  of 
zeoe  'ten:'  douH-zed  (20),  trei-zed  (30),  etc.  The 
declensions  and  conjugations  are  very  much  like 
those  of  Italian.  There  are  three  declensions  and 
a  neuter  gender.  Very  frequently  in  notms  the 
plural  differs  materially  from  the  singular:  Om 
'man;'  oamenX,  'men;'  cap,  'head;'  capete,  'heads;' 
sorA,  'sister;'  surori,  'sisters.'  There  are  four 
conjugations.  Verbs  have  two  forms  in  the  in- 
finitive, a  short  and  a  long  one:  lauda,  laudare, 
'to  praise;'  tdce,  tdoere,  'to  be  silent;'  duoe,  du- 
cere,  'to  lead;'  dormi,  dormire,  'to  sleep.'  The  fu- 
ture and  conditional  present  are  formed  with 
auxiliaries;  voiH,  fugi.  Of  fugi,  'I  shall  run,'  'I 
should  run.'  The  passive  is  rendered  by  the  third 
person  singular:  Ma  hate,  te  hate,  %l  hate,  'I  am, 
thou  art,  he  is  beaten.'  The  language  is  rich  in 
suffixes,  especially  for  the  formation  of  diminu- 
tives: loan  (John),  lonicd,  lonifd,  lona^cu,  la- 
nache,  lendchel,  etc. 

Rumanian  Literatube.  Unlike  other  Ro- 
mance literatures,  Rumanian  did  not  grow  up 
under  the  influence  of  Ocoidental  civilization, 
but  down  to  the  nineteenth  century  at  least  it 
was  influenced  by  the  Orient.  It  divides  itself 
into  three  periods. 

The  Slavic  Period  (from  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century  to  1710).  The  literature  of 
this  period  is  mediseval  and  religious  in  character. 
The  old  religious  literature  w^aa  written  in  Slavic. 
The  desire  to  reach  the  common  people  led  to 


BUXANIAH  LANQUAQE. 


228 


BTJHAKIAH  LANOTJAaE. 


translations  of  the  Scriptures  into  Ruma- 
nian. The  oldest  extant  documents  are  the 
Gospel  (Kronstadt,  1560-66),  the  History  of 
the  Apostles  (1568-707),  and  the  Psalms 
(1577),  literal  translations  by  Dean  Coresi. 
Of  special  importance  is  the  translation  of 
the  Psalms  by  Archbishop  Dositheu,  the  author 
of  the  remarkable  Vitcp  Sanctorum,  and  one  of  the 
most  prominent  literary  figures  in  the  second  half 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  first  complete 
translation  of  the  Bible  was  carried  out  by  Radu 
Greceanu  upon  the  command  of  Prince  Joan  ^r- 
ban  Kantacazino  Basarab  (Bucharest,  1688)  ; 
it  is  written  in  the  Wallachian  dialect,  and  is  the 
most  important  literary  monument  4>f  the  en- 
tire  literature.  In  1643  the  Rumanian  was 
admitted  into  State  and  Church  upon  an  equal 
footing  with  the  Slavic,  but  the  Slavic  lan- 
guage and  alphabet  persisted,  and  the  important 
books  of  devotion  continued  for  a  long  time  in 
Slavic,  the  substitution  of  Rumanian  lasting  fully 
two  centuries. 

Besides  the  Church  literature,  the  only  other 
branch  of  literature  cultivated  was  history.  Of 
great  importance  for  the  early  history  is  the 
anonymous  Litopiaeful  fdrii  Romine^tl  ^  a  f4ri 
Moldovei  (the  chronicle  of  the  Rumanian  and 
Moldavian  countries ) .  The  Prince  D.  Cautemier,  a 
famous  polyglot  (1673-1723),  besides  a  history  of 
the  Ottoman  Empire,  left  Kronikul  Motdo-Vlahi- 
lo8  (the  chronicle  of  the  Moldavo-Wallachians), 
which  he  wrote  in  Latin  and  translated  himself 
into  Rumanian.  These  two  chronicles  treat  of  all 
Rumania.  The  oldest  chronicle  of  Moldavia  is 
the  one  of  Ureche,  from  1359  to  1694.  The  his- 
tory of  Moldavia  before  1369  and  after  1594 
(down  to  1662)  was  treated  in  two  excellent 
chronicles  by  Miron  Costin,  who  also  wrote  a 
history  of  Hungary  from  1388  to  1681,  and  a 
poem  in  Polish  on  the  colonization  of  Dacia  and 
the  foundation  of  the  two  principalities.  His  son, 
Neculai  Costin  (1660-1712),  left  a  chronicle,  in 
which,  beginning  with  the  creation  of  the  world, 
he  brings  down  Miron  Costin's  chronicle  to  1711. 
The  oldest  and  most  important  historical  docu- 
ment of  Wallachia  is  a  chronicle  which  covers 
the  period  from  1290  to  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century. 

The  Gbeek  Pebiod.  From  1710  to  1830  the 
principalities  were  governed  by  Greeks  from  Con- 
stantinople, who  bought  their  thrones  from  the 
Porte.  The  Greek  language  became  a  successful 
rival  of  Slavic,  ultimately  prevailing  in  the 
State,  court,  schools,  and  among  the  upper 
classes.  Works  were  now  translated  or  imitated 
from  the  Greek.  The  intellectual  labor  begun 
during  the  Slavic  period,  far  from  being  checked 
or  even  destroyed  by  the  Greek  influence,  as  some 
critics,  biased  by  patriotic  zeal,  opine,  was  con- 
tinued during  this  period. 

Church  literature  continued  to  develop.  In 
Transylvania,  owing  to  the  close  proximity  to 
the  Catholic  world,  Catholicism  exerted  a  strong 
influence,  and  Western  ideas  and  forms  gained 
ascendency.  Instead  of  Greek  and  Slavic  models, 
Latin  models  were  followed.  Samuel  Klain 
(1745-1808),  who  revised  the  Bible,  and  Peter 
Maior  (1763-1821),  two  of  the  most  active  men 
of  the  period,  published  sermons  and  funeral 
orations  patterned  after  Latin  models.  In  Wal- 
lachia the  rhymed  chronicle  was  flourishing.  The 
history  of  Moldavia,  however,  is  represented  by 


one  remarkable  work,  the  chronicle  written  by 
Neculcea,  from  1662  to  1743;  it  continues  that  of 
Ureche,  and  is  excellent  both  in  point  of  form  and 
contents.  In  Transylvania,  owing  to  the  oppres- 
sion at  the  hands  of  the  Hungarians,  and  to  the 
endeavors  of  the  Catholic  Propaganda  to  link  the 
Rumanians  to  Rome,  the  historians,  stirred  by 
racial  and  patriotic  zeal,  desired  to  arouse  the 
national  consciousness  of  the  people,  and  wrote 
with  a  view  to  demonstrating  the  kinship  of  the 
nation  with  the  Latins.  In  this  spirit  were  writ- 
ten, at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century: 
Klain's  latoria  Rominilor  din  Dakiea  (the  His- 
tory of  the  Rumanians  of  Dacia),  Maior*s  latoria 
pentru  ineeputui  Rominilor  (A  History  of  tho 
Origin  of  the  Rumanians)  (1812),  and  Gheorghe 
Sincal's  (1764-1826)  Cronica  Rominilor,  printed 
in  1853,  a  monumental  work  based  upon  most 
thorough  researches  of  all  the  sources  then  ac- 
cessible in  the  libraries  of  Europe. 

Toward  1800  Western  influence  set  in,  and 
gradually  led  to  a  total  transformation  of  Ru- 
manian literature,  which  at  last  cast  ofiT  its 
medieval  and  religious  features,  and  adopted 
W^estem  ideas  and  Western  forms  of  art.  West- 
ern, especially  French,  ideas  ousted  the  Slavic  and 
Greek  influences  from  their  old  strongholds. 

Among  the  notable  poetic  productions  of  the 
end  of  the  Greek  period  are  the  figaniada  (the 
Epic  of  the  Gypsies),  by  Joan  Delaeanu,  a  mock- 
heroic  poem  replete  with  wit  and  irony,  and  the 
lyrics  of  Joan  Vftc&rescu  (1800-63),  of  Conatan- 
tin  Conachi  (1777-1849),  and  especially  those  of 
Vasile  C&rlova  (1809-1831),  a  genuine  poet.  The 
most  prominent  poetic  figure,  however,  though 
partly  belonging  to  the  modern  period,  was  An- 
ton Pann  (1797-1854),  a  Bulgarian  by  birth, 
who  drew  his  theme  and  inspiration  from  the  vast 
popular  literature,  both  laic  and  religious,  that 
had  accumulated  during  the  two  periods.  His 
writings,  mostly  in  verse,  exerted  great  influence 
upon  the  middle  and  lower  classes,  and  are  even 
now  widely  read  by  the  common  people. 

The  Modern  Pebiod  extends  from  1830  to  our 
own  day.  It  is  marked  by  a  complete  though 
gradual  emancipation  from  foreign  influences. 
The  interval  between  1830  and  1848  was,  how- 
ever, yet  one  of  preparation.  Greek  and  French  in- 
fluences still  continued.  The  Latinist  movement, 
which  originated  in  Transylvania,  and  was  there 
so  ably  championed  by  Klain,  ^incai,  and  Maior, 
crossed  the  Carpathian  Mountains  with  Gheorghe 
Laz&r  (1779-1823),  who,  together  with  a  host  of 
his  disciples,  chief  of  whom  were  G.  Asachi 
(1788-1871)  in  Moldavia,  and  the  brilliant  Joan 
Eliade-Rftdulescu  (1802-72)  in  Wallachia,  aimed 
at  the  complete  Latinization  of  the  language, 
the  last-named  even  attempting  to  Italianize  it. 
Eliade  was,  nevertheless,  the  main  factor 
in  the  literary  revolution.  He  freed  the  lan- 
guage from  the  Slavic  alphabet ;  by  insisting  upon 
the  close  kinship  of  the  nation  with  the  other 
members  of  the  Latin  race  he  saved  it  from  intel- 
lectual isolation  and  strengthened  its  national 
consciousness;  and  more  than  any  one  else  he 
contributed  toward  the  diffusion  of  the  literary 
master  works  of  Western  Europe. 

But  a  national  literature  in  the  full  sense  of 
the  word  has  existed  only  since  about  1848.  In 
Transylvanian  we  have  Andrei  Mure^ianu  (1816- 
63 ) ,  a  patriotic  poet,  who  composed  the  national 
song,  "Awake,  Rumanian,  from  thy  lethargic 
sleep!"     the     philologists     Timoteiu     Ciparin 


BTJXAKIAN  LANQUAQS. 


229 


BXrXANIAN  LANaTJAQE. 


(1805-87)  and  A.  T.  Laurianu  (1810-80),  and 
the  historian  A.  Papiu  Ilarianu  (1828-77).  In 
VVallachia  Nicolai  Bftlcescu  (1819-52),  a  revolu- 
tionary  of  1848,  wrote  the  History  of  the  Ru* 
manians  Under  Michael  the  Brave,  Dimitrie  Bo- 
liatineanu  (1827-72)  was  moat  successful  in  his 
national  ballads,  the  subjects  of  which  he  bor- 
rowed from  the  old  chronicles.  Grigorie  Alecs- 
andrescu  (1812-85),  distinguished  himself  by  his 
patriotic  odes  and  his  satires,  and  won  great  pop- 
ularity through  his  fables.  In  Moldavia  Con- 
jtantin  Negruzzi  (1807-68)  translated  into  verse 
Pushkin  and  Victor  Hugo,  and  excelled  in  prose. 
Mihail  Ck^lniceanu  (1817-91),  the  greatest  tnra- 
U)r  of  the  period,  published  the  Moldavian  chron- 
icles. 

The  great  names  of  the  modem  literature  are 
diose  of  Alecsandri  and  H&^eu.  Vasile  Alecs- 
indri  (1821-1890),  noted  as  a  lyric  and  dramatic 
poet  sspecially,  succeeded  in  combining  in  him- 
wlf  Western  culture  with  national  inspiration. 
Be  published,  in  Rumanian  and  French,  popu- 
lar songs  collected  by  himself  from  the  mouths  of 
Uie  peasants.  In  1866,  with  Negruzzi,  he  founded 
:he  Convorhiri  literare  (Literary  Talks),  the 
most  important  literary  review.  In  1878,  at 
the  floral  games  in  Montpellier,  his  Cintecul  CHn^ 
tH  Laiine  (Song  of  the  Latin  Race)  carried  off 
the  prize  set  for  the  best  poem  on  the  Latin  race. 
B.  P.  Hft^eu  ( 1836 — )  is  a  man  of  encyclopaedic 
erudition.  His  best  literary  work  is  Rdavan 
Todi  ( Prince  R&svan )  ( 1867 ) ,  an  historic  drama. 
But  his  great  importance  lies  in  the  domain  of 
history  and  philology.  He  wrote  various  works 
on  Rumanian  history,  and  published  the  vast 
collection  of  documents  entitled  Historical  Ar- 
chive of  Rumania.  Among  his  philological  pub- 
lications may  be  mentioned  nis  Cuvente  din 
bdirAnl  (1878)  (Words  from  Our  Ancestors), 
and  his  Etymologicum  Magnum  Romania,  a  dic- 
tionary of  vast  compass  and  still  in  its  initial 
stage. 

V.  A.  Ureche  (1834)  published  a  History  of 
the  Rumanians  (8  vols.,  1895),  and  founded,  in 
1866,  the  Academy,  which  issued  the  monumental 
Hurmazache  collection  of  historical  documents 
(15  vols.,  1880-95).  G.  Tocilescu  (1846—) 
wrote  a  history  of  Dacia  before  Trajan,  and  A. 
D.  Xenopol  ( 1843 — )  published  a  very  good  His- 
tory of  the  Rumanians  which  has  been  translated 
into  French.  Of  the  great  number  of  writers  of 
fiction  and  poetry  may  be  mentioned:  N.  Ganea 
(1835—),  SlavicI  (1848—),  Jacob  Negruzzi 
(1842—),  the  peasant  J.  Creangft  (1837—),  an 
3xcellent  narrator,  P.  Ispirescu  ( 1830-87 ) ,  a  col- 
lector of  folk-tales,  A.  Odobescu  (1834—),  an 
historical  novelist,  and  the  women  A.  Veronica 
Miclea  (1850—)  and  Matilda  Poni  (1853—). 
Next  to  Alecsandri  stands  Mihail  Eminescu 
(1849-1889),  a  lyric  poet  of  genuine  inspira- 
tion, though  strongly  pessimistic.  Among 
his  poetic  followers  are  Alecsandru  Vlfthu^ 
(1859—),  De  la  Vrancea  (Barbu  ^tefanescu) 
(1858—),  Ghorghe  din  Moldova  (Chembach),  Ar- 
tur  Stavri  (1869—),  O.  Carp  (Gh.  Proca),  Har- 
alamb  G.  Lecca.  A  place  apart  is  occupied  by 
George  Co^buc  (bom  1866  in  a  small  town  in 
Transylvania)  ;  his  lyrics  are  hopeful  and 
strong.  The  drama  is  ably  represented  by  J.  L. 
Caragiale  (1852 — ),  who  depicts  with  much  skill 
and  wit  and  humor  the  political  and  social  man- 
ners of  the  middle  classes  of  his  time.     Cara- 


giale, Vlfthu^,  and  Co^buc  are  the  most  reputed 
poets  of  the  day. 

The  last  two  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century 
were  marked  by  the  small  group  of  writers  that 
gathered  about  the  Contemporanul,  a  review 
founded  (1881)  by  the  Socialist  loan  N&dejde 
1850 — ),  who  has  the  culture  of  the  Occident, 
literary  and  philologic,  historic  and  scientific. 
His  wife,  Sofia  Nadejde,  who  was  one  of  the  ablest 
contributors  to  the  Contemporanul,  Const. 
Mille,  V.  G.  Mortzun,  and  Th.  Speranza  (1856—) 
are  the  better  known  poets  of  this  group. 
Its  literary  theoretician  is  C.  Dobrogeanu- 
Gherea  (1854 — ),  a  critic  of  great  ability, 
who  fought  with  great  success  against  the 
establish^  sesthetic  theories  represented  by  Titu 
Maiorescu  (1840 — ),  the  leader  of  the  Junimea 
(Youth),  a  conservative  literary  society,  which 
held  the  field  between  1860  and  1880.  From  a 
literary  standpoint  the  Revista  Noud  (The  New 
Review)  founded  (1887)  by  B.  P.  Hft^eu,  was  a 
successful  rival  of  the  Contemporanul.  The  in- 
fluence upon  the  youth  exerted  by  N&dejde  and 
his  friends  was  great.  The  radical  thought  of 
Europe,  the  most  modem  ideas,  the  most  recent 
discoveries,  the  latest  intellectual  movements, 
were  all  brilliantly  popularized  in  the  Contem- 
poranul, With  the  activity  of  Nftdejde  and  his 
friends  was  consummated  the  intellectual  revolu- 
tion begun  toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury— ^to  wit,  the  utter  transformation  of  the  old 
Rumanian  society  and  literature,  essentially 
Oriental,  through  the  diffusion  of  the  best 
thought  of  Western  Europe. 

BiBLiooBAPHT.  DiCTioNABDSS :  Cihac,  Diction- 
naire  d'^tymologie  daco-roumane  (i.  1870,  ii. 
1879).  For  the  etymologies  of  the  foreign  ele- 
ments in  the  language,  consult  Miklosich,  Ros- 
ier, Edelspracher,  ipaineanu,  C^ostinescu,  Vo- 
cahular  romtno-franoez  (Bucharest,  1870),  Fred- 
eric Dame,  Rumanian  and  French,  and  ^ain- 
eanu's  Rumanian  and  German.  Ghammabs: 
Cipariu  (Bucharest,  1870-77)  and  Nftdejde  (Jas- 
sy,  1884) .  Also  in  Cipariu,  Principii  de  limhd,  si 
de  scripturA  (Principles  of  language  and  orthog- 
raphy) (Blaj,  1864),  and  Hftsdeu's  Cuvente  din 
h&tr&ni  (Bucharest,  1878-79).  Philology:  The 
works  of  Mussafia,  Gaster,  Miklosich,  and 
the  various  reviews  of  Romance  philology. 
History  of  Literature  :  Pumnul,  Lepturariu  ro- 
mdneso  (Rumanian  Anthology)  (Vienna,  1865) ; 
Densusianu,  Istoria  Limhei  ^  literaturd 
Romdne  (2d  ed.,  Jassy,  1894)  ;  Filippide, 
Introducere  in  Istoria  limhei  fi  literaturet  ro- 
mine  (lassy,  1888)  ;  l^aineanu,  Istoria  filologiei 
romdne  (Bucharest,  1892)  ;  Rudow,  Oeschichte 
des  rum^inischen  Schrifttums  bis  zur  Oegenwart 
(Wernigerode,  1892).  Old  Texts:  Capariu, 
Crestomatie  seau  Analecte  Literarie  (Blasiu, 
1858),  on  the  16th  and  17th  centuries;  Cogftlnice- 
anu,  Letopiseteile  tdri  Moldovti  (lassy,  1841-52)  ; 
Laurianu  (the  chronicles)  and  Bicescu,  Magazin 
Istoric  pentru  (for)  Dacia  (1845-47);  Gaster, 
Chrestomatie  romdnd  (Leipzig,  1891),  with 
French  glossary.  Folk-lore:  Hfi^deu,  Cdrtile 
poporane  ale  Romdnilor  in  secolul  al  XVI.-lea 
(the  popular  books  of  the  Rumanians  in  the  16th 
century)  (Bucharest,  1879)  ;  Gaster,  Literatura 
populard  romdnd  (ib.,  1883)  ;  ^aineanu.  Bos- 
mele  romdne  in  comparafiune  cu  legendele  antice 
clasice  si  tn  legdturd  cu  hasmele  pop6relor  ro- 
manice  (The  Rumanian  folk-tales  compared 
with  the  ancient  classic  legends  and  in  relation 


BTTMANIAK  LANaTTAQE. 


280 


BXTMIVANT. 


to  the  folk-tales  of  the  Romance  peoples)  (ib., 
1895).  In  Saineanu*s  latoria  filologiei  romine 
will  be  founa  a  very  good  bibliography  of  folk- 
lore collections. 

BtfMANN,  rv'man,  Wilhelm  von  (1850—). 
A  German  sculptor,  bom  at  Hanover,  pupil  of  the 
Mimich  Academy  and  of  Wagmtiller.  He  received 
a  gold  medal  in  1892.  His  principal  works  in- 
clude the  group  of  the  "Goddess  of  Victory"  at 
Worth,  the  Rfickert  Monument  at  Schweinfurt, 
and  the  statues  of  William  I.  at  Stuttgart  and 
at  Heilbronn. 

BTTMBTTBQ,  rym^bZIRTrK.  A  town  of  Bohemia, 
Austria,  25  miles  northwest  of  Reichenberg,  on 
the  Saxon  frontier.  It  has  extensive  manufac- 
tures of  linen,  cotton,  and  woolen  goods.  Popu- 
lation, in  1900,  10,388. 

BXTHEOiIA,  Eastern  (Turk.  Rumili,  a  name 
originally  designating  the  land  of  the  Greeks). 
A  region  under  the  rule  of  the  Prince  of  Bulgaria 
and  virtually  forming  part  of  the  principality. 
It  is  bounded  by  the  Balkans  on  the  north 
and  the  Black  Sea  on  the  east  (Map:  Balkan 
Peninsula,  E  3).  Area,  about  13,700  square 
miles.  The  central  part  is  occupied  by  a  wide 
plain  intersected  in  a  southeastern  direction  by 
the  valley  of  the  Maritza,  the  principal  river  of 
the  province.  In  the  southwest  are  tne  Rhodope 
Mountains.  The  valleys  along  the  tributaries  of 
the  Maritza  in  the  Balkan  chain  are  known  for 
their  rose  gardens.  Good  tobacco  is  grown  on 
the  northern  slopes  of  the  Rhodope.  The  chief 
town  is  Philippopolis.  The  population  of  the 
province  in  1900  was  1,091,854,  mostly  Bul- 
garians. 

The  annual  sum  of  $569,843  is  paid  by  Bul- 
garia to  the  Porte  as  tribute  for  Eastern  Ru- 
melia.     For  further  information,  see  Bulgasia. 

BtfMELIN,  rv'me-l^n,  Gustav  (1815-89).  A 
German  statistician  and  author,  born  at  Ravens- 
burg,  Wttrttemberg.  After  studying  theology  at 
Tubingen,  he  devoted  himself  to  teaching,  became 
rector  of  a  Latin  school  in  1845,  and  professor  at 
the  gymnasium  of  Heilbronn  in  1849,  having  in 
the  meanwhile  been  a  delegate  to  the  Frankfort 
Parliament  in  1848.  Called  to  Stuttgart  in  1850 
to  serve  in  the  Board  of  National  Education,  he 
was  head  of  a  department  in  the  Ministry  of  Pub- 
lic Instruction  from  1856  to  1861,  when  he  became 
director  of  the  Statistic-Topographical  Bureau. 
In  1867  he  established  himself  as  docent  at  the 
University  of  Tdbingen  and  was  appointed  its 
chancellor  in  1870.  Aside  from  various  statis- 
tical and  miscellaneous  publications,  he  produced 
Shakespeare-Studien  (2d  ed.  1874),  a  much  val- 
ued contribution  to  the  Shakespeare  literature. 

BTJMTOBD,  Benjamin  Thompson,  Count 
(1753-1814).  An  American  physicist,  bom  at 
Woburn,  Mass.  He  entered  a  merchant's  office 
at  Salem  at  the  age  of  thirteen,  at  the  same  time 
studying  medicine  and  physics.  In  1772  he  mar- 
ried a  rich  widow  of  that  place,  and  was  made 
major  of  militia  by  the  English  Governor.  The 
distrust  of  the  colonists  at  this  period  of  the 
outbreak  of  the  American  Revolution  drove  him 
to  Boston,  and  when  Washington  compelled  the 
surrender  of  Boston,  Thompson  was  sent  to  Eng- 
land as  bearer  of  dispatches.  In  London  he  won 
the  favor  of  the  Government  and  received  an 
appointment  in  the  Colonial  Office  and  was  soon 
afterwards  made  Under  Secretary  of  State.    Con- 


tinuing, at  the  same  time,  his  scientific  investi- 
gations, he  was  elected,  in  1779,  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society.  On  the  resignation  of  North's 
Ministry  he  returned  to  America,  and  fought  for 
the  royal  cause.  At  the  end  of  the  Revolution- 
ary War  he  obtained  permission  from  the  Brit- 
ish Government  to  enter  military  service  in  Ba- 
varia, and  in  1784  he  was  settled  at  Munich  as 
aide-de-camp  and  chamberlain  to  the  reigning 
sovereign.  He  rapidly  rose  to  the  ranks  of  major- 
general,  councilor  of  State,  lieutenant-general, 
Minister  of  War,  and  was  created  count  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire,  when  he  chose  Rumford 
(now  Concord,  N.  H.),  where  his  fortunes  had  be- 
gun, as  his  titular  designation.  In  1795  he  visited 
London,  where  he  published  the  results  of  his 
experience  and  the  records  of  his  labors  in  Ba- 
varia. Having  long  and  carefully  studied  the 
phenomena  of  heat,  he  set  himself  to  devise  a 
remedy  for  the  smoky  chimneys  which  were  one 
of  the  greatest  nuisances  at  that  time  in  Eng- 
land, and  discovered  the  principles  upon  which 
fireplaces  and  chimneys  have  since  been  con- 
structed. In  1799  he  retired  from  Bavarian  ser- 
vice and  returned  to  London,  where,  at  his  in- 
stance, the  Royal  Institution  was  founded  in  the 
following  year.  He  finally  settled  in  Paris;  de- 
voted himself  to  improvements  in  artillery  and 
illumination;  founded  a  professorship  in  Har- 
vard College  of  the  application  of  science  to  the 
arts  of  living;  marriea  the  widow  of  Lavoisier, 
and  died  at  Auteuil,  near  Paris,  after  making 
many  important  bequests  to  the  Royal  Society  of 
London,  the  American  Academy  of  Sciences,  and 
Harvard  University.  A  memoir  of  Rumford  by 
George  E.  Ellis  was  published^  with  a  complete 
edition  of  his  works,  in  1872  (Boston).  Rum- 
ford is  chiefiy  remembered  for  his  experiments 
on  the  nature  of  heat.  In  1798  he  showed  that 
the  temperature  of  a  body  may  be  raised  without 
heat  being  communicated  to  it  as  such ;  that  the 
heat  conto^ined,  for  instance,  in  a  metallic  body 
may  be  increased  by  boring.  On  the  basis  of 
this  fact  he  maintained,  in  his  Enquiry  concern^ 
ing  the  Source  of  Heat  which  is  ewcited  by  Fric- 
tion (read  before  the  Royal  Society  on  January 
25,  1798),  that  heat  is  not  an  imponderable  sub^ 
stance,  as  it  was  generally  assumed  to  be  in 
those  days. 

BUMIKANT  (from  Lat.  ruminare,  to  chew 
the  cud,  from  rumen,  throat,  gullet;  connected 
with  ructare,  Gk.  ipe&Y^^^*  ereugein,  OChurch 
Slav,  rygati,  to  belch,  Lith.  atrugas,  eructation, 
AS.  roccettan,  to  belch).  One  of  the  group  of 
large  grazing  animals  which  chew  a  cud,  classi- 
fied by  Cuvier  as  an  order  (Ruminantia),  but 
now  regarded  as  a  group  of  the  suborder  Artio- 
dactyla,  the  cloven-hoofcMi  or  even-toed  ungulates 
(q.v.).  The  ruminants  include  all  of  the  cloven- 
hoofed  herbivores  except  the  swine  and  hippopot- 
amus, that  is  the  chevrotains,  camels,  deer,  gi- 
raffes, cattle,  antelopes,  sheep,  goats,  musk-ox, 
and  some  extinct  families.  All  these  are  alike  in 
that  their  dentition  and  digestive  organs  are 
adapted  to  that  peculiar  method  of  mastication 
called  'chewing  the  cud.*  Except  the  camels, 
they  have  no  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw,  the  front 
of  which  is  occupied  by  a  callous  pad.  The  grass 
is  collected  and  rolled  together  by  means  of  the 
long  tongue;  it  is  firmly  held  between  the  lower 
cutting  teeth  and  the  pad,  and  then  torn  and  cut 
off.    In  the  lower  jaw  there  generally  appear  to 


BUUHAHT. 


281 


BUMSBY. 


be  ei|^t  incisors;  but  the  two  outer  are  more 
properly  to  be  r^arded  as  canines.  In  front  of 
the  molar  teeth  there  is  a  long  vacant  space 
(diastema)  in  both  jaws.  The  molars  are  six 
on  each  side  in  each  jaw;  their  surface  exhibits 
crescent-shaped  ridges  of  enamel — ^that  is,  they 
are  of  the  solenodont  type.  See  Teeth;  and 
illustration  of  cow's  skull,  under  Cattle. 

The  stomach  is  composed  of  four  distinct 
bags  or  cavities,  except  in  the  chevrotains,  where 
the  third  is  absent.  In  the  camels  the  stomach 
is  imperfectly  divided  into  four  chambers  and  has 
special  peculiarities.  ( See  Camel.  )  In  all  rumi- 
nants the  first  pouch  of  the  stomach,  into  which 
the  gullet  leads,  is,  in  the  mature  animal,  by 
far  Uie  largest  and  is  called  the  paunch  or  ru- 
men. Into  this  the  food  first  passes.  It  is  lined 
with  a  thick  membrane,  presenting  numerous 
prominent  hard  papillse,  secreting  a  fluid  in 
which  the  food  is  soaked.  The  second  cavity  is 
the  honeycomb  hag,  or  reticulum,  so  called  from 
its  being  lined  with  a  layer  of  chambers  like 
those  of  a  honeycomb.  The  second  pouch  has 
alao  a  direct  communication  with  the  oesophagus, 
and  fluids  pass  immediately  into  it,  but  some- 
times or  partly  also  into  the  other  cavities.  The 
third  pouch  is  the  manyplies  or  psalterium,  so 
called  because  its  lining  membrane  forms  many 
deep  folds,  like  the  leaves  of  a  book,  beset  with 
small,  hard  tubercles.  This  also  communicates 
directly  with  the  oesophagus,  by  a  sort  of  pro- 
longation of  it.    The  fourth  pouch,  which  is  of 


€UbottL% 


STOMACH  or  A  BUMINANT. 

A.  6.  probes  in  the  gullet;  wUc^  nticiilam;  pm/.,  peal- 
teriimi:  9hom.,  abomasnm:  ro,  ramen  (paanch);  pylo.y 
pyloms. 

more  elongated  form  than  any  of  the  others,  and 
is  second  in  size,  is  called  the  reed  or  rennet,  or 
ahofMU/um.  It  is  lined  with  a  velvety  mucous 
membrane  in  longitudinal  folds,  and  here  the  gas- 
tric juice  is  secreted.  In  young  animals  it  is 
the  largest  of  the  four  cavities,  and  it  is  only 
when  they  pass  from  milk  to  crude  vegetable 
food  that  the  paunch  becomes  enlarged,  and  all 
the  parts  of  the  complex  stomach  come  fully  into 
use.  The  food  consumed  passes  chiefly  into  the 
first  cavity,  but  part  of  it  also  at  once  into  the 
second  (as  the  animal  wills),  and  when  in  a 
mashed  or  in  a  much  comminuted  state,  into  the 
third.  When  the  paunch  is  well  filled  and  the 
animal  is  at  rest,  it  begins  the  process  called 
cfttftotn^  the  cud  or  ruminating.  This  may  occur 
while  the  animal  is  standing,  but  more  commonly 
when  lying  down.  The  first  step  is  a  spasmodic 
movement  of  the  paunch  and  diaphragm  like  a 
hiccough  and  a  reversal  of  the  peristaltic  move- 
ment of  the  oesophagus,  by  which  a  ball  of  food  is 


brought  up  into  the  mouth  from  the  rumen  or 
reticulum.  It  is  then  chewed  steadily  for  some 
time  imtil  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  saliva, « 
when  it  is  reswallowed,  but  passes  by  the  first 
two  pouches  and  enters  the  psalterium,  from 
which  it  goes  on  into  the  abomasum  and  intestine, 
which  in  this  group  is  always  long,  as  also  is 
the  csecum.  For  an  account  of  the  evolution  of 
this  apparatus  and  the  ruminant  habit,  see  Ali- 
mentaby  System,  Evolution  of. 

The  head  of  the  ruminant  is  elongated,  the  neck 
is  always  of  considerable  length,  the  eyes  are 
placed  at  the  side  of  the  head,  and  the  senses  of 
smell  and  hearing,  as  well  as  of  sight,  are  ex- 
tremely acute.  The  head  in  many  ruminants 
is  armed  with  horns,  which  in  some  are  found  in 
both  sexes,  in  some  only  in  the  male,  while  in 
others  they  are  entirely  wanting.  The  ruminants 
are  generally  gregarious;  they  are  distributed 
over  almost  the  entire  world,  even  in  the  coldest 
regions,  but  none  are  natives  of  Australia  and 
comparatively  few  occur  in  America.  Africa  is 
the  home  of  most  of  the  species.  The  group  is 
divisible  into  three  sections:  (1)  Tragiilina,  em- 
bracing the  chevrotains  (Tragulidse),  which  are 
the  oldest  ruminants,  going  back  to  the  Eocene 
and  Oligocene,  and  the  extinct  family  Protoce- 
ratidffi  of  the  Miocene  of  America,  which  resem- 
ble the  ancestral  tragulines;  (2)  Tylopoda,  in- 
cluding the  camels;  and  (3)  Pecora,  or  homed 
ruminants,  composed  of  the  deer  (Cervidse),  gi- 
raffes (Giraffidse),  pronghorns  (Antilocapridse), 
cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  (Bovidse),  and  certain 
fossil  forms.  The  fiesh  of  most  of  the  ruminants 
is  fit  to  be  used  for  human  food;  the  fat  (tal- 
low) hardens  more  on  cooling  than  the  fat  of 
other  animals,  and  even  becomes  brittle.  The 
fat,  hide,  horns,  hoofs,  hair,  bones,  entrails,  blood, 
and  almost  all  parts  are  useful  to  man. 

BUMF  PABLIAMENT.  The  name  given  in 
English  history  to  the  remnant  of  the  Long 
Parliament  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Pres- 
byterian members  by  a  body  of  soldiers  under 
Thomas  Pride  (q.v.),  on  December  6,  1648.  This 
remnant,  fifty  or  sixty  members  belonging  to 
the  Independent  Party,  nominated  a  High  Court 
of  Justice  of  135  members — of  whom  one-half 
refused  to  serve^to  try  the  King  for  high  trea- 
son. After  the  King's  execution,  the  Rump  abol- 
ished the  House  of  Lords  and  established  the 
Commonwealth,  itself  playing  the  rOle  of  Parlia- 
ment, though  it  was  in  no  sense  representative. 
It  sent  Cromwell  to  establish  its  authority  in 
Ireland  and  Scotland,  passed  the  Navigation 
Act  (1651),  and  began  the  Dutch  war  (1652). 
Cromwell  dissolved  it  by  force  on  April  20,  1653. 
During  the  disorders  which  followed  Cromwell's 
death,  the  Rump  was  restored  by  the  army,  May 
7,  1659,  but  upon  its  ^uarrelinff  with  the  military 
leaders,  was  again  dissolved,  October  13th,  only 
to  be  recalled  in  December  of  the  same  year.  On 
February  21,  1660,  Monk  recalled  the  Presby- 
terian members  who  had  been  expelled  by  Pride's 
Purge,  and  the  Long  Parliament,  thus  restored, 
issued  writs  for  a  new  free  Parliament  and  voted 
its  own  dissolution  on  March  16,  1660.  See 
bibliography  under  Long  PAHLiAMKin'. 

BTTMSEY,  riim'zl,  James  (1743-92).  An 
American  mechanical  engineer,  born  in  Maryland. 
After  applying  himself  to  the  study  of  mecnanics 
and  machinery,  he  became  an  inventor.  In  1786, 
twenty-one  years  before  Fulton  built  the  Cler- 


&T7KfiB7. 


282 


fttnnBS. 


mont,  Rumsey  exhibited  on  the  Potomac,  in  the 
presence  of  Washington,  a  boat  propelled  by 
♦  machinery,  in  which  a  pump  worked  by  steam 
power  drove  a  stream  of  water  from  the  stem, 
and  thus  furnished  the  motive  power.  This  idea, 
which  originally  was  proposed  by  Bemouilli,  has 
since  figured  in  many  schemes  for  propelling 
vessels.  A  society  was  formed  to  aid  his  project, 
of  which  Franklin  was  a  member.  He  visited 
and  gave  exhibitions  in  England,  and  obtained 
patents  for  his  invention  in  Great  Britain,  Hol- 
land, and  France.  His  death  occurred  while  he 
was  preparing  for  further  experiments.  He  also 
made  improvements  in  mill  machinery,  and  in 
1788  published  a  Short  Treatise  on  the  Applica- 
tion of  Steam. 

BUN  (AS.  rinnany  eoman,  iman,  ieman, 
yrnan,  Goth.,  OHG.  rinnan,  Ger.  rinnen,  to  run) . 
In  music,  a  rapid  passage  executed  on  one 
syllable.  A  run  is  merely  an  embellishment,  in 
no  way  essential  to  the  melodic  outline.  Runs 
are  also  frequently  introduced  in  instrumental 
music.    See  GaACE-Norss;  Passage. 

BTTNCOBN.  A  river-port  in  Cheshire,  Eng- 
land, on  the  Mersey,  12  miles  southeast  of  Liver- 
pool (Map:  England,  D  3).  The  town  is  the 
terminus  of  the  Bridgewater  and  the  Mersey  and 
Irwell  canals.  It  has  iron  foundries,  chemical 
works,  ship-building  yards,  tanneries,  etc.  In 
the  vicinity  are  collieries  and  slate  and  freestone 
quarries.  Large  quantities  of  freestone  are 
shipped  and  it  is  the  greatest  centre  of  canal 
traffic  in  England.  Its  shipping  returns  are  in- 
cluded in  those  of  Manchester.  A  viaduct  1500 
feet  long  and  95  feet  above  hish  water  crosses 
the  Mersey  here.  A  castle  was  built  here  in  916, 
and  the  Runcorn  ferry  is  mentioned  in  the  twelfth 
century.  Population,  in  1891,  20,050;  in  1901, 
16,490. 

BTTNEBEBG,  rTRJ'ne-berK,  Johan"  Ludvio 
(1804-77).  A  celebrated  Swedish  poet  of  Finland. 
He  graduated  at  the  University  of  Abo,  and  was 
successively  lector  in  Latin  literature  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Helsinfffors,  editor  of  the  Helsingfors 
Morganhlad,  and  lector  at  the  Borga  gymnasium. 
His  first  publication  was  lyric  Dikter  (Poems, 
1830),  followed  by  the  Orafven  %  Perrho  {The 
Grave  in  Perrho,  1831),  and  by  Elgskyttarne 
{The  Elk-Huntera,  1832),  the  fine  epic  which 
confirmed  his  fame.  His  further  works  number 
Nadeachda  (1841)  ;  Kung  Fjalar  {King  Fjalar, 
1844),  an  unrhymed  epic  of  ancient  Norse 
times;  Fdnrik  StAls  Sdgner  {Ensign  Stdls 
Stories,  1848  and  1860),  a  series  dealing  with 
the  war  of  independence  of  1808;  and  Kungame 
pd  Salamis  {The  Kings  at  Salamis,  1863),  a 
stately  tragedy  in  the  true  Greek  manner.  He 
is  classic  in  simplicity  and  finish,  free  from  the 
conventionalities  of  the  time,  and  not  lacking  in 
a  certain  quaint  humor.  There  is  an  edition  of 
his  collected  writings  (6  vols.,  1873-74),  which 
contains  the  completest  biography  yet  written. 

BTTNES  (AS.  rUn,  letter,  writing,  mystery, 
Goth.  rUna,  OHG.  riZna,  mystery,  secret).  The 
earliest  alphabet  in  use  among  the  Germanic 
peoples.  In  Old  Norse,  magic  signs,  as  well  as 
magic  charms,  are  designated  as  runes.  There 
is  nothing  in  the  meaning  of  the  word  to  have 
prevented  it  from  being  chosen  by  the  primitive 
Teutons  as  their  designation  of  the  alphabet  in 
general,  since  the  mysterious  connection  between 


spoken  sound  and  written  symbol  is  sufficient  to 
justify  such  a  name.  The  use  of  runes  for  in- 
cantations and  magic  formulas  is  easily  expli- 
cable. The  magic  power  was  easily  transferred 
from  the  contents  of  these  incantations  to  the 
signs  themselves.  Scandinavian  and  Anglo- 
Saxon  tradition  agree  in  ascribing  the  invention 
of  runic  writing  to  Odin  or  Woden.  The  coun- 
tries in  which  traces  of  the  use  of  runes  exist 
include  Denmark,  Norway,  Sweden,  Ireland,  Ger- 
many, Great  Britain,  France,  Spain,  and  Ru- 
mania. They  are  found  engraved  on  rocks, 
monumental  stones,  crosses,  coins,  house  utensils, 
tools,  buckles,  rings,  combs,  heads  and  shafts  of 
spears,  and  hilts  and  blades  of  swords.  Espe- 
cially important  are  the  runes  on  the  so-called 
bracteates,  thin  golden  plates,  chased  on  one  side, 
and  used  as  neck-wear.  The  inscriptions  on 
articles  of  use  contain  generally  the  name  of,  or 
a  brief  account  of,  the  maker  or  owner  of  the 
article.  Rune  inscriptions  on  stone  are  found 
only  in  Scandinavia  and  England.  The  most 
noteworthy  English  runes  are  on  a  pillar  in  Ban- 
castle  in  Cum^rland,  on  a  cross  in  Ruthwell  in 
Dumfrieshire,  and  on  a  casket  in  the  British 
Museum  (Franks  casket,  or  Clermont  casket). 

In  the  Icelandic  sagas  the  so-called  Revels  or 
rune  staves  are  mentioned  frequently  as  bearers 
of  epistolary  communications.  The  sagas  report 
further  that  rune  poems  were  carved  on  these 
staffs.  The  oldest  and  most  frequent  reports  of 
Norse  literature,  however,  show  that  runes  were 
carved  on  staves  and  utensils  for  divinations, 
spells,  magic,  and  incantations.  Runic  -manu- 
scripts occur  only  in  Scandinavia,  the  oldest  of 
them  being  as  late  as  the  thirteenth  century. 
Under  the  infiuence  of  the  Church,  Latin  script 
in  general  supplanted  the  runes  as  a  literary 
medium,  although  they  remained  in  use  in  Scan- 
dinavia among  the  lower  classes,  especially  in  the 
rune  calendars  which  have  survived  up  to  the 
present  day.  In  the  Anglo-Saxon  kingdoms  of 
Northumbria,  Mercia,  and  East  Anglia,  there  are 
traces  of  runic  writing  dating  from  the  middle  of 
the  seventh  to  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century. 
In  Spain  runic  writing  was  officially  condemned 
by  the  Council  of  Toledo  in  1115. 

The  date  of  the  origin  of  runes  is  not  known, 
but  it  is  generally  assumed  not  to  be  later  than 
the  second  century  a.d.  Probably  their  origin  is 
from  a  much  earlier  time,  and  some  suggest  a 
date  as  early  as  B.C.  600.  The  earliest  truly  his- 
torical date,  however,  is  the  fourth  century  a.d., 
when  the  Gothic  Bishop  Ulfilas  (q.v.),  in  devis- 
ing the  Gothic  alphabet,  borrowed  his  signs  for  u 
and  o  from  the  runic  alphabet.  The  question  of 
the  source  of  the  runic  alphabet  is  still  not  alto- 
gether settled.  The  ordinarily  accepted  view 
is  that  of  an  exclusive  derivation  of  the  runes 
from  the  Latin  alphabet.  In  1898  the  theory 
was  presented  that  the  runes  were  invented  by 
Goths  in  Southeastern  Europe  a  few  years  after 
their  expedition  of  267  into  Asia  Minor.  An 
alphabet  used  by  Galatian  Celts  is  then  regarded 
as  the  source,  which  in  turn  was  based  upon  the 
Greek  and  Latin  alphabets.  Very  much  more 
probable  is  the  view  that  the  runes  are  based  not 
directly  upon  the  Latin,  but  on  a  Western  Greek 
alphabet.  It  may  even  be  possible  that  more 
than  one  form  of  Greek  writing  passed  to  the 
Germanic  peoples. 

The  special  modifications  of  the  runic  alphabet 
are  partly  due  to  the  needs  of  carving  on  wood. 


BXTNES. 


288 


BUKB8. 


and  engraying  on  metal  or  stone;  partly  to  the 
difference  in  the  sounds  of  the  Teutonic  lan- 
guage and  the  unlearned  primitive  rendition  of 
distant  models.  Some  of  the  sounds  have  re- 
mained obviously  Greco-Italic,  as 

)^  =  F,  1^  =  R,  H  =  H,  and  $    =8. 

Others  deviate  more  or  less,  as 

^  =  T,  |X|  =  M,  or  ^  =  N. 

The  different  systems  of  runes,  about  a  dozen 
varieties  in  all,  accord  up  to  a  certain  point. 


They  may  be  classed  under  three  main  divisions, 
German,  Norse,  and  Anglo-Saxon.  The  Norse 
runes  exhibit  an  especially  marked  division  into 
two  alphabets,  an  earlier  one  of  24  characters, 
and  a  later  one  of  16.  These  latter  correspond 
to  our  f,  tt,  th,  a,  r,  k,  h,  n,  t,  a,  «,  d,  6,  I,  w,  y, 
but  there  is  no  equivalent  for  various  sounds 
which  existed  in  the  language.  In  consequence 
of  this  the  sound  of  k  was  used  for  g,  d  for  I, 
b  for  p,  and  u  and  y  for  v;  o  was  expressed  by 
ail,  and  e  by  at,  t,  or  ia.  Expedients  came,  in 
the  course  of  time,  to  be  employed  to  obviate  the 


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I.  Alphabet  of  the  oldeet  Norse  Inscriptions.  II.  Alphabet  of  the  fibula  of  Chamay/  Til.  Alphabet  of  the  later 
None  inscriptions.  1Y.  Norman  abeoedarlum.  V.  Alphabet  of  the  latest  Norae  Inscriptions.  VI.  Alphabet  of  the 
stone  of  R6k.  VII.  Alphabet  of  the  ring  of  Forsa.  YITI.  Banes  of  Helsing.  IX.  Alphabet  of  the  Thames  knife. 
X.  Alphabet  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  rune-song.  XI.  Anglo-Saxon  alphabet  of  the  Salsburg  manuscript.  XIL  Names 
of  the  Qothic  letters  in  the  Salsburg  manuscript. 


BTTNES. 


284 


BUPBB. 


deficiency  of  the  system,  as  the  addition  of  dots 
and  the  adoption  of  new  characters.  The  runic 
system  received  a  fuller  development  among  the 
Germans  and  Anglo-Saxons,  particularly  the  lat- 
ter, whose  alphabet  was  extended  to  something 
like  40  characters,  which  seem  to  have  embraced, 
more  nearly  than  any  modern  alphabet,  the 
actual  sounds  of  the  language. 

The  runic  signs  are  arranged  in  an  order  ap- 
parently quite  distinct  from  that  of  any  other 
alphabetical  system,  and  have  a  purely  Teu- 
tonic nomenclature.  Each  letter  is,  as  in  the 
Hebrew-Phoenician,  derived  from  the  name  of 
some  well-known  familiar  object,  with  whose 
initial  letter  it  corresponds.  The  direction  of 
the  writing  is  both  from  left  to  right  and  from 
right  to  left,  and  occasionally  also  boustrophe- 
don  (q.v.).  The  full  Old  Norse  alphabet  of  24 
signs  4s  divided  into  three  octads,  traces  of  which 
are  found  also  with  other  runic  alphabets.  The 
alphabet  is  often  called  Futhark  or  Futhorc, 
based  on  the  usual  abecedarium  of  the  first  five 
characters.  The  futhark,  in  its  series  p,  z,  (r), 
a,  t,  distinctly  exhibits  the  usual  alphabetic  ar- 
rangement. It  is  probable  that  f  and  a 
exchanged  places  owing  to  the  similarity 
of  their  signs,  while  h  (pronoimced  something 
like  v)  and  u  changed  places  because  they  were 
similar  in  sound.  A  number  of  other  reasonable 
assumptions  of  interchange  and  displacement 
bring  back  the  majority  of  the  runes  to  the  order 
in  which  they  should  be  expected,  since  they 
originate  from  the  common  source  of  alphabets. 

In  the  accompanying  table,  taken  from  the 
monograph  of  Sievers  on  the  runes  in  Paul's 
Chrundrisa  der  germanischen  Philologie,  the  vari- 
ations and  development  of  the  nmic  alphabets 
may  be  traced. 

The  Celtic  races,  from  their  connection  with 
the  Scandinavians,  became  acquainted  with  their 
alphabet  and  made  use  of  it  in  writing  their  own 
language ;  hence  there  are  in  the  western  islands 
of  Scotland,  and  in  the  Isle  of  Man,  runic  inscrip- 
tions, not  in  the  Anglo-Saxon,  but  in  the  Norse 
character,  with,  however,  peculiarities.  Some  of 
the  most  perfect  runic  inscriptions  are  in 
Man,  x)thers  of  a  similar  description  exist  at 
Holy  Island,  in  Lamlash  Bay,  Arran,  and 
there  is  an  inscription  in  the  same  character 
on  a  remarkable  brooch,  dug  up  at  Hunterston, 
in  Ayrshire. 

BiBLiOGBAPHT.  The  study  of  the  runes  may 
be  commenced  most  handily  with  the  compact 
treatise  of  Sievers,  Runen  und  Rtmen-Inachrif- 
ten,  in  Paul,  Orundrisa  der  germaniachen  Phi' 
lologie  (2d  ed.,  vol.  i.,  Strassburg,  1901).  The 
grammar  of  the  Norse  rimes  is  treated  by 
Noreen  in  the  same  volume  of  the  Orun- 
driaa.  The  standard  work  on  the  Norse  runes 
is  Wimmer,  Runeskriftena  Oprindelae  og  Ud- 
vikling  %  Norden  (Copenhagen,  1874),  German 
translation  by  Holthausen,  enlarged.  Die  Ru- 
nenachrift  (Berlin,  1887)  ;  Stephens,  The  Old 
Northern  Runic  Monumenta  of  Scandinavia  and 
England  (London,  1866-84),  contains  the  full- 
est collection  of  plates,  although  the  expla- 
nations are  untrustworthy.  His  Handbook  of 
the  Old  Northern  Runio  Monumenta  (Lon- 
don, 1884)  is  a  condensed  treatment  of  the 
same  subject.  The  first  two  volumes  of  Wim- 
mer*s  work,  De  Danake  Runemindesmaerker,  to 
be  completed  in  four  volumes,  appeared  in  Copen- 
hagen in  1895  and  1 901.    The  standard  treatment 


of  the  Norwegian  runes  is  Bugge,  Narges  Ind- 
ahrifter  med  de  celdre  Runes  (Christiania, 
1891  et  seq.).  An  important  work  on  the  Norse 
runes  is  Burg,  Die  alteren  nordiachen  Runenin^ 
achriften  (Berlin,  1885).  The  principal  work  on 
the  Continental  (German)  runes  is  Henning,  Die 
deutachen  Runendenkmaler  (Strassburg,  1889). 
A  standard  discussion  of  the  most  important  of 
the  English  runes,  including  a  grammar  and 
glossary,  is  Victor,  Die  northunibrischen  Runef^ 
ateine  (Marburg,  1895  ).  The  Manx  runes  are 
discussed  in  Kermode,  Catalogue  of  the  Mans 
Inacriptiona  (2d  ed.,  Ramsay,  1892). 

BTTNJIT  SINQH,  riSn-jet'  slngOi'.  A  Hindu 
Maharaja.    See  Raj^jit  Singh. 

BTTNXLB,  rtio^'l,  John  Daniei.  (1822-1902). 
An  American  mathematician,  bom  at  Root, 
Montgomery  County,  N.  Y.  He  graduated  in 
1851  at  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School  of  Har- 
vard University,  from  1849  to  1884  was  an  as- 
sistant in  the  editorial  staff  of  the  American 
Ephemeria  and  Nautical  Almanac,  and  was  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  in  the  Massachusetts  In- 
stitute of  Technology  from  the  opening  of  the 
institution  in  1865  until  his  retirement  as  pro- 
fessor emeritus  in  1902.  He  was  also  acting 
president  of  the  Institute  in  1868-70  and  its 
president  from  1870  to  1878.  Manual  training 
was  introduced  into  the  Institute  curriculum 
largely  at  his  instance.  He  founded  the  Mathe- 
matical Monthly  in  1859,  and  continued  its  pub- 
lication until  1861.  His  publications  include: 
The  Manual  Element  in  Education  (1882),  re- 
printed from  the  Reports  of  the  Massachusetts 
Board  of  Education;  Report  on  Industrial  Edu- 
cation (1883) ;  and  Elements  of  Plane  and  Solid 
Analytic  Geometry  (1888). 

BUNNEHEDE,  Obdeb  of.     See  Patbiotio 

Societies. 

BTTNKXNG  SFIDEB.  A  spider  of  the  family 
Lycosidse.  They  are  long-bodied  and  hairy,  but 
in  size  are  smaller  than  the  trap-door  spiders, 
which  they  sometimes  resemble.  Their  colors 
are  usually  black  and  white,  or  brown  and  gray, 
and  in  general  simulate  the  coloring  of  their  sur- 
roundings. The  females  carry  their  eggs  in 
round  cocoons  attached  to  their  spinnerets,  and 
the  young,  after  issuing  from  the  eggs,  are  for 
a  short  time  carried  on  the  back  of  the  mother. 
Most  of  the  North  American  species  belong  to 
the  genera  Lycosa  and  Pardosa.  Consult  Emer- 
ton.  The  Common  Spiders  of  the  United  States 
(Boston,  1902). 

BTJNNYMEDE^  rtin'nl-m6d,  or  BTJIWI- 
MEDE.  A  long  stretch  of  green  meadow,  lying 
along  the  right  bank  of  the  Thames,  20  miles 
west  of  London.  It  is  of  great  historical  inter- 
est, from  the  fact  that  Magna  Charta  was  signed 
by  King  John,  June  15,  1216,  either  on  this 
meadow,  or  on  Charter  Island,  lying  a  short 
distance  off  the  shore. 

BTTPEE  (Hind,  rdpiya,  rupiya,  from  rUpa, 
silver,  from  Skt.  rUpya,  silver,  from  rUpa,  natural 
state,  form,  beauty).  A  silver  coin,  the  general 
unit  of  value  in  India.  Rupees  were  first  coined 
in  1542.  The  fineness  and  value  have  varied  at 
various  times  and  in  the  different  portions  of 
the  country.  The  Madras  rupee  of  11.664 
grammes  \^  fine  was  adopted  in  the  Presidency 
of  Bombay  soon  after  1818  as  the  *Company*a 
rupee.'     The  value  of  the  rupee  in   1903  was 


BUPBB. 


285 


BTJBAL  DBAK. 


about  32  eokts,  the  coin  passing  in  India  at  15  to 
the  pound  sterling.  The  rupee  is  legally  divided 
into  16  annas  of  12  pies,  but  various  other  divi- 
sions are  still  current  throughout  the  country. 
In  addition  to  the  one-rupee  pieces,  half^  quarter, 
and  eighth  rupees  are  coined. 

BU'PBBT  (or  Rupbecht),  Saint  (T-717). 
The  apostle  of  the  Bavarians,'  a  descendant  of 
the  royal  family  of  Franks.  In  694,  when  he 
was  Bishop  of  Worms,  he  was  invited  by  Theo- 
dor  II.  to  preach  in  Bavaria,  and  he  baptized 
Theodor  and  many  other  nobles.  He  settled  af- 
terwards in  Salzberg,  where  he  built  an  episcopal 
residenoe.  The  Church  celebrates  both  the  day 
of  his  death,  March  27th,  and  that  of  the  trans- 
portation of  his  relics,  September  24th.  The  old- 
est biography  of  Rupert,  written  in  the  tenth  cen- 
tury, Oesta  Sancti  Hrodberti  Confessoria,  is  still 
preserved  in  the  University  library  of  Gratz.  It 
was  published  in  the  Archiv  fur  6sterreichi9ohe 
GescMehte  (1882,  vol.  Iziii). 

BUFEBT,  PumcE  (1619-82).  A  nephew  of 
Charles  I.  of  England,  and  his  ablest  cavalry 
leader  in  the  Civil  War.  He  was  bom  at  Prague, 
December  17,  1619,  the  son  of  the  Elector  Pala- 
tine Frederick  V.,  who  had  been  crowned  King 
of  Bohemia,  and  his  wife,  Elizabeth,  the  daugh- 
ter of  King  James  I.  of  England.  He  served  in 
the  Thirty  Years'  War  on  thb  Protestant  side  in 
the  Netherlands  and  in  Westphalia,  and  in  1638 
he  was  taken  prisoner,  but  secured  his  release 
in  1642  in  time  to  take  service  under  Charles 
L  at  Nottingham.  He  was  given  command 
of  the  caval^,  at  that  time  the  most  im- 
portant arm  of  the  royal  service,  and  he 
fought  impetuously  and  successfully  at  Worces- 
ter, Edgehill,  and  Brentford  in  1642.  In  1643 
he  made  himself  master  of  Bristol.  He  took  part 
in  the  disastrous  battles  of  Marston  Moor 
(1644)  and  Naseby  (1645).  His  petulant  dis- 
regard of  orders,  and  his  surrender  of  Bris- 
tol in  September,  1645,  so  ajigered  the  King 
that  he  was  deprived  of  his  command  and 
requested  to  leave  England  without  delay.  He 
declined  to  do  so  and  submitted  to  a  court- 
martial,  which  only  partially  acquitted  him. 
After  Charles's  cause  became  hopeless  Rupert 
entered  the  French  service,  but  in  1648  received 
the  command  of  the  English  Royalist  fleet.  In 
this  new  position  he  acquitted  lumself  with  con- 
siderable credit,  and  for  nearly  three  years  he 
kept  his  ships  afloat,  escaping  the  blockade  in 
which  he  had  been  held  off  &e  Irish  coast  by 
Blake,  the  great  admiral  of  Parliament.  In 
January,  1651,  however,  the  latter  attacked 
the  Prince's  squadron  at  Malaga  and  burned 
or  sank  most  of  his  ships.  With  the  few 
vessels  still  remaining  to  him,  Rupert  escaped 
to  the  West  Indies,  where,  together  with  nis 
brother  Maurice,  he  led  a  buccaneering  life. 
After  the  loss  of  his  brother  at  sea,  Rupert  went 
again  in  1653  to  France,  and  spent  his  time  in 
that  country  and  in  Germany  until  the  Restora- 
tion in  1660,  when  he  returned  to  England  and 
served  on  sea  against  the  Dutch  in  the  wars  of 
that  period.  He  died  on  November  29,  1682.  The 
last  ten  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  retirement 
in  the  pursuit  of  chemical  and  other  researches, 
for  which  he  evinced  considerable  aptitude.  Al- 
though it  is  certain  that  he  did  not  discover  the 
art  of  engraving  in  mezzotint — ^the  real  inventor 
of  which  appears  to  have  been  a  German,  Von 
YOL  XY.— ic 


Siegen — ^Rupert  did  much  to  make  the  art  widely 
known.  Consult:  Warburton,  Memoirs  of  Prince 
Rupert  and  the  Cavaliers  (London,  1849) ; 
Gower,  Rupert  of  the  Rhine  (ib.,  1890) ; 
Scott,  Rupert,  Prince  Palatine  (Westminster, 
1899). 

BTTPEBT'S  DBOP.  See  Pbingb  Rxtpebt'b 
Dbofs. 

BUPEBT'S  IiAHI).  A  name  formerly  applied 
to  the  Canadian  territory  lying  around  Hudson 
Bay.  The  region  was  named  in  honor  of  Prince 
Rupert  (q.v*)y  t^®  ^^st  Governor  of  the  Hudson 
Bay  Company,  to  whom  it  was  granted  by  his 
cousin,  Charles  II. 

BXTPIA  (Neo-Lat.,-  from  Gk.  *fi&ros,  rhypos, 
dirt,  filth) .  A  severe  skin  disease  of  chronic  type 
characterized  by  flat,  discrete  blebs  about  an 
inch  in  diameter,  containing  serous,  purulent,  or 
bloody  fluid,  which  finally  dry  into  thick  scabs. 
The  scabs  separate  and  fall  off,  and  new  crops 
appear.  The  disease  usually  attacks  the  loins, 
buttocks,  and  extremities.  It  is  not  contagious. 
It  usually  appears  in  the  aged,  feeble,  or  depleted, 
and  often  occurs  as  a  sequel  of  one  of  the  exan- 
themata. Tonics,  iodides,  mineral  acids,  and 
quinine  are  efficacious,  together  with  nitrate  of 
silver  applied  topically.  In  spite  of  all  treat- 
ment the  disease  is  of  long  duration. 

BUFP,  ryp,  Julius  Augustus  Leopold  ( 1809- 
89) .  A  German  theologian  and  one  of  the  found- 
ers of  the  'free  congr^ations'  (q.v.).  He  was 
bom  at  KSnigsberg  and  studied  theology  there. 
In  1830  he  was  appointed  to  lecture  on  philoso- 
phy at  the  university  of  his  native  town,' and 
for  several  years  he  was  preacher  at  the  Royal 
Chapel  in  Konigsberg.  His  liberal  spirit  in- 
volved him  in  trouble  with  the  Consistory,  and 
as  a  result  of  these  differences  Rupp  became 
leader  of  the  free  Church  movement,  the  pro- 
gramme of  which  he  published  in  his  Der  SymhoU 
zwang  und  die  protestantische  Oewissens-  und 
Lehrfreiheit  (1843).  For  a  sermon  against  the 
Symbolum  Athanasianum,  he  was  deprived  of 
his  benefice  by  the  C!onsistory,  and  when  elected 
preacher  by  the  German  Reformed  Church  in 
K5nigsberg,  the  royal  confirmation  was  refused. 
This  led  him  to  form  at  K&nigsberg  in  1846  a 
'free  congregation,'  the  leader  of  which  he  con- 
tinued to  be  till  he  retired  from  public  life.  Rupp 
wrote,  among  other  works,  Oregors,  des  Bischofs 
von  Nyssa  Lehen  und  Meinungen  (1834). 

BtfPPEIiL,  rvp^P^lj  Eduabd  (1794-1884).  A 
German  naturalist  and  explorer,  bom  IR^  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main.  Under  the  auspices  of  the 
Senckenberg  Museum  he  explored  Northeast 
Africa  in  1822-27,  and  Abyssinia  in  1830-34.  His 
Reise  in  Ahessinien  (1838-40)  was  a  valuable 
contribution  to  African  geography  and  won  a  gold 
medal  from  the  London  G^graphical  Society. 

BUPTTJBE.     See  Hebnl^. 

BUBAL  DEAN  (Lat.  ruralis,  relating  to  the 
country,  from  rus,  country).  The  title  of  an 
ecclesiastical  officer,  such  as  was  known  in  the 
early  ages  of  the  Church  as  an  archipresbyter, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  exercise  a  certain  oversight, 
under  the  bishop,  within  a  small  subdivision  of 
a  diocese.  He  obtained  his  title  of  Decanus 
Ruralis  about  the  time  of  Charlemagne.  The 
office  was  introduced  into  England  about  the  year 
1052,  and  developed  as  need  arose.  Archbishop 
Ussher  in  his  scheme  for  a  'moderate  episco- 


BUBAL  DEAN. 


286 


BTTSSWOBTH. 


pacy'  in  England,  published  just  before  the  great 
rebellion  (1640),  advocated  a  plan  for  making 
the  rural  deans  a  sort  of  subordinate  bishops, 
analogous  to  the  chorepiscopi  of  earlier  times. 
The  office  was  revived  in  England  during  the 
nineteenth  century,  and  its  holders  charged  with 
inspection  of  church  work  and  organization  as 
deputies  of  the  archdeacon  or  bishop.  Some  of 
the  dioceses  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
in  the  United  States  have  developed  a  system  of 
rural  deaneries  in  which  the  clergy  meet  at 
stated  times  in  convocation.  Similar  officials  in 
the  modern  Roman  Catholic  Church  are  some- 
times known  as  rural  deans,  sometimes  as  vicarii 
foranei. 

BXJ^IK.  According  to  Nestor,  the  earliest 
Russian  chronicler,  the  leader  of  a  band  of 
Northmen  or  Varangians,  who,  in  response  to  an 
invitation  extended  by  the  Slavs  of  Novgorod, 
settled  in  that  city  in  862.  Subsequently,  Rurik 
established  himself  on  Lake  Ladoga,  while  his 

.  brothers,  Sineus  and  Truvor,  made  themselves 
masters  of  the  country  around  Lake  Peipus  and 
Bielo-ozero.     On  their  death  Rurik  united  the 

.  Varangian  possessions  under  his  rule.  He  died 
in  879  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Igor,  whose 

-descendants  ruled  in  Russia  till  1698,  when  the 
royal  House  of  Rurik  became  extinct  in  the  per- 
son of  Feodor,  son  of  Ivan  IV.,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  that  of  Romanoff.  Many  noble  families 
in  Russia  still  claim  descent  from  Rurik.  See 
Russia. 

BXJSH,  Fbiab.  a  household  sprite,  somewhat 
resembling  Robin  Goodfellow,  in  the  form  of  a 
mischievous  demon,  who  once  took  service  as 
scullion  at  a  monastery  and  led  the  monks  into 
evil  ways.  The  German  form  of  the  name, 
Rausch,  meaning  intoxication,  accounts  for  his 
characteristics.  In  L* Allegro  and  Mamtion  he 
is  confused  with  Will  o'  the  Wisp. 

BTTSH,  Benjamin  (1745-1813).  An  Ameri- 
can physician  and  patriot,  bom  at  Byberry  (now 
included  in  Philadelphia),  Pa.  He  graduated  at 
Princeton,  1760;  received  his  medical  degree 
abroad,  and  after  studying  in  Edinburgh,  Lon- 
don, and  Paris  was  appointed  professor  of  chem- 
istry in  the  Philadelphia  Medical  College  (now 
the  medical  department  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania)  in  1769.  He  was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Continental  Congress,  and  was  a 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He 
founded  the  Philadelphia  Dispensary  in  1785; 
and  al*,  it  is  said,  the  "College  of  Physicians," 
which  seems  to  have  been  consolidated  with  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  He  took  part  in 
1780  in  the  formation  of  the  new  State  Consti- 
tution, and  was  a  member  of  the  Pennsylvania 
convention  for  the  ratification  of  the  Federal 
Constitution.  In  1789  he  resigned  his  chair  in 
the  medical  college  for  that  of  the  theory  and 
practice  of  medicine.  He  did  efficient  work  dur- 
ing the  yellow  fever  epidemic  of  1793,  for  which 
services  he  received  testimonials  from  European 
sovereigns.  He  w»as  appointed  treasurer  of  the 
United  States  Mint  at  Philadelphia  in  1799, 
and  retained  this  position  till  his  death.  Rush 
was  a  founder  of  Dickinson  College,  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  Philadelphia  Bible  Society  and  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society,  and  president  of 
the  Philadelphia  Medical  Society,  as  well  as  of 
the  Society  for  the  Abolition  of  Slavery.  He 
wrote  much  on  medical  topics. 


BUSH,  RiCHABD  (1780-1859).  An  American 
lawyer,  statesman,  and  diplomat,  born  in  Phila- 
delphia, a  son  of  Dr.  Benjamin  Rush.  He  grad- 
uated at  Princeton  in  1797,  studied  law,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1800.  In  1811  he 
was  made  Attorney-General  of  Pennsylvania,  in 
the  same  year  was  appointed  Comptroller  of  the 
United  States  Treasury,  and  in  1814  became  At- 
torney-General of  the  United  States.  In  1817, 
after  being  for  a  short  time  Secretary  of  State, 
he  was  sent  as  Minister  to  England,  where  he 
negotiated  a  number  of  important  treaties.  He 
returned  to  the  United  States  in  1825  to  become 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  Three  years  later  he 
was  a  candidate  for  the  Vice-Presidency  on  the 
ticket  with  John  Quincy  Adams,  but  was  de- 
feated. He  became  a  Democrat  in  the  early 
thirties^  opposed  the  United  States  Bank,  and 
ultimately  gained  considerable  influence  in  the 
party.  In  1835  he  assisted  in  adjusting  the 
boundary  dispute  between  Michigan  and  Ohio, 
and  next  year  was  sent  by  President  Jackson  to 
England  to  get  the  legacy  left  by  James  Smith- 
son  for  the  building  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution. From  1847  to  1851  he  was  Minister  to 
France,  and  he  was  the  first  foreign  representa- 
tive to  recognize  the  Republic  of  1848.  Rush 
superintended  the  publication  of  The  Laws  of  the 
Nation  (5  vols.,  1815),  and  wrote:  Narrative  of 
a  Residence  at  the  Court  of  London  from  1817 
till  1825  (1833)  ;  a  second  volume  on  the  ^me 
work,  "comprising  incidents,  official  and  per- 
sonal, from  1819  till  1825*'  (1845;  3d  ed.  1873)  ; 
and  Washington  in  Dorfiestic  Life   (1857). 

BXTSH^DEN.  A  manufacturing  town  in 
Northamptonshire,  England,  4^^  miles  southeast 
of  Wellingborough  (Map:  England,  F  4).  Popu- 
lation, in  1891,  7450;  in  1901,  12,460. 

BTTSH^ILLE.  The  county-seat  of  Rush 
County,  Ind.,  40  miles  southeast  of  Indian- 
apolis; on  Flat  Rock  Creek,  and  on  the  Cincin- 
nati, Hamilton  and  Da3rton,  the  Cleveland,  Cin- 
cinnati, Chicago  and  St.  Louis,  the  Lake  Erie 
and  Western,  and  other  railroads  (Map:  Indiana, 
D  3).  It  has  a  public  library  and  a  handsome 
court  house.  The  city  is  in  an  agricultural  and 
horse-breeding  section;  manufactures  furniture, 
carriages,  fiour,  and  lumber  products;  and  car- 
ries on  considerable  trade  in  grain.  The  water 
works  and  electric  light  plant  are  owned  and 
operated  by  the  municipality.  Rushville  was 
settled  in  1820  and  was  chartered  as  a  citv  in 
1883.    Population,  in  1890,  3475;  in  1900,  4541. 

BTTSH'WOBTH,  John  (c.1612-90).  An  Eng- 
lish historian.  He  was  educated,  according  to 
Wood,  at  Oxford,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  at 
Lincoln's  Inn  in  1647.  He  spent  much  time  for 
many  years  in  attending  the  Star  Chamber,  the 
Court  of  Honour,  the  Exchequer  CJhamber,  and 
Parliament,  and  in  making  short-hand  notes  of 
the  proceedings.  He  performed  many  important 
services  during  the  Civil  War,  the  Commonwealth, 
and  the  Protectorate;  was  secretary  to  Lord 
Fairfax  (1645-48);  sat  in  five  Parliaments  for 
Berwick;  became  secretary  (1667)  to  Sir  Orlando 
Bridgeman,  the  Lord  Keeper;  late  in  life  his  af- 
fairs became  embarrassed,  and  he  spent  his  last 
six  years  in  the  King's  Bench  Prison,  South- 
ward. Rush  worth  is  known  for  his  Historical 
Collections  of  Private  Passages  of  State,  Weighty 
Matters  of  Law,  Remarkable  Proceedings  in  Five 
Parliaments,  covering  the  period  from  1618  to 


BTTSHWOBTH. 


287 


BTT8XIN. 


1648.  The  work,  comprising  eight  ToluineSy  ap- 
peared in  four  installments  (1659,  1680,  1692, 
1701).  Its  historical  value  was  long  overesti- 
mated; of  most  value  are  the  shorthand  notes 
taken  by  Rushworth  himself. 

BUSK,  Jebemiah  HcClaii«  (1830-93).  An 
American  farmer,  soldier,  and  political  leader, 
born  in  Morgan  County,  O.  He  was  brought  up 
on  a  farm,  received  a  common  school  education, 
and  in  1853  removed  to  Vernon  County,  Wis. 
\Mien  the  war  broke  out,  he  raised  a  regiment 
to  fight  for  the  Union,  and,  though  offered  the 
colonelcy,  he  refused  to  accept  a  higher  grade 
than  that  of  major.  His  first  service  was  per- 
formed against  the  Minnesota  Indians.  He  then 
took  part  in  the  campaign  against  Vicksburg,  and 
in  August,  1863,  was  promoted  lieutenant-colonel. 
He  was  with  Sherman  in  the  Meridian  campaign, 
displayed  great  gallantry  in  the  battles  around 
Atlanta,  and  for  his  services  at  the  battle  of 
Salkehatchie,  where  he  led  a  brigade,  was 
brevetted  brigadier-general.  He  was  a  member  of 
Congress  from  1871  to  1877,  and  was  Governor 
of  Wisconsin  from  1882  to  1889.  At  the  Re- 
publican National  Convention  in  1888  he  was  an 
unsuccessful  candidate  for  the  Presidential  nomi- 
nation. In  the  following  year  President  Har- 
rison appointed  him  to  the  Secretaryship  of  Agri- 
culture, which  had  just  been  made  a  Cabinet 
portfolio.  He  held  that  position  until  1893,  and 
performed  his  duties  with  great  ability. 

BTTS^  Thomas  Jeffebson  (1802-56).  An 
American  soldier  and  politician,  born  in  Camden, 
S.  C.  He  studied  law  under  Calhoun,  began  prac- 
tice in  Georgia,  and  in  1834  removed  to  Texas, 
where  he  was  a  member  of  the  convention  which 
declared  Texas  independent  (1836),  acted  as  Sec- 
retary of  War,  and  succeeded  Houston  in  com- 
mand of  the  Texan  army.  From  1838  to  1842  he 
was  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Texas.  He 
took  a  prominent  part  in  bringing  about  an- 
nexation, and  in  1846  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  Senate.  He  committed  suicide  during  a 
temporary  mental  aberration. 

BUSK,  William  (1756-1833).  An  American 
sculptor,  bom  in  Philadelphia.  He  was  the  son 
of  a  ship  carpenter,  and  at  first  carved  figure 
heads  for  vessels.  His  figureheads  done  for  the 
American  frigates  United  States  and  Conatitu- 
Hon,  and  for  other  vessels,  attracted  much  atten- 
tion, and  are  excellent  pieces  of  modeling.  He 
exhibited  several  statues  at  the  Pennsylvania 
Academy  in  1812.  Two  of  these,  "Exultation" 
and  "Praise,"  are  in  Old  Saint  Paul's  Church, 
Philadelphia.  His  most  meritorious  work  was  a 
full-length  statue  of  Washington  (1814),  for  In- 
dependence Hall,  Philadelphia. 

BTTS'KIN,  John  (1819-1900).  An  English 
author,  art  critic,  and  reformer,  bom  in  London, 
Febmary  8,  1819.  His  boyhood  and  youth  he 
depicted  with  great  charm  in  Prceterita.  His 
father,  John  James  Ruskin,  a  shrewd  and  artistic 
Scotchman,  was  then  settled  in  London,  where 
he  prospered  as  a  wine  merchant,  eventually 
amassing  a  fortune  of  £200,000.  The  boy  was 
educated  at  home  bv  his  mother.  Private  tutors 
taught  him  Latin,  (rreek,  and  French.  He  studied 
drawing  under  Runciman,  Copley  Fielding,  and 
later  with  Harding.  In  verse  his  masters  were 
Rogers,  Byron,  and  Shelley.  He  accompanied  his 
father  and  mother  on  many  tours  through  Eng- 
land, visiting  the  lakes,  read  and  wrote  verse. 


sketched,  and  in  1835  saw  the  Alps  and  Italy. 
Having  already  published  prose  and  verse  in 
magazines  and  annuals,  he  entered  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  in  1837.  His  university  course 
was  interrupted  by  illness.  Threatened  with  con- 
sumption, he  traveled  with  his  parents  in  Eng- 
land and  on  the  Continent.  At  Oxford,  where  he 
graduated  B.  A.  in  1842,  he  won  the  Newdigate 
prize  with  a  poem  entitled  Salaette  and  Elephanta 
(1839).  In  1843  appeared  the  first  volume  of 
Modem  Painters,  the  primary  design  of  which 
was  to  prove  the  superiority  of  modem  land- 
scape painters,  especially  Turner,  to  the  old  mas- 
ters; but  in  the  later  volumes  (ii.,  1846;  iii.  and 
iv.,  1856;  v.,  1860)  the  work  expanded  into  a 
vast  discursive  treatise  on  the  principles  of  art, 
interspersed  with  artistic  and  symbolical  descrip- 
tions of  nature,  more  elaborate  and  imaginative 
than  any  writer  had  ever  before  attempted. 
Modem  Painters  was  revolutionary  in  its  spirit 
and  aim,  and  naturally  excited  the  aversion  and 
hostility  of  conservatives.  Ruskln*s  advice  to 
young  artists  was  this:  "They  should  go  to 
Nature  in  all  singleness  of  heart,  and  walk  with 
her  laboriously  and  trustingly,  having  no  other 
thought  but  how  best  to  penetrate  her  meaning; 
rejecting  nothing,  selecting  nothing,  and  scorn- 
ing nothing."  The  immense  influence  of  this 
great  work  on  art  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  the 
advice  to-day  would  be  the  merest  commonplace. 

The  first  artists  to  accept  Ruskin  were  a  group 
of  young  men  known  as  the  Pre-Raphaelite 
Brotherhood  (q.v.).  Memorable  is  his  defense  of 
them  against  popular  ridicule  in  his  essay  en- 
titled Pre-Raphaelitism  (1851).  To  the  charge 
that  the  brotherhood  had  no  system  of  light  and 
shade,  he  replied:  "Their  system  of  light  and 
shade  is  exactly  the  same  as  the  sun's,  which  is, 
I  believe,  likely  to  outlast  that  of  the  Renais- 
sance, however  brilliant."  While  Modern  Painters 
was  in  progress,  Ruskin  published  other  books  on 
art :  The  Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture  ( 1 849 ) ,  The 
Stones  of  Venice  (vol.  i.,  1851;  vols.  ii.  and  iii., 
1853),  both  of  which  aimed  to  introduce  a  new 
and  loftier  conception  of  the  significance  of  archi- 
tecture. Like  the  later  volumes  of  Modem 
Painters,  they  w^ere  illustrated  by  Ruskin  him- 
self, an  accomplished  draughtsman.  Still  other 
works  on  art  flowed  from  his  pen:  Lectures  on 
Architecture  and  Painting  (1854),  Elements  of 
Drawing  (1857),  Political  Economy  of  Art 
(1857) ,  and  annual  notes  on  the  Royal  Academy. 
Meanwhile  he  had  also  published  Poems  (1850), 
the  beautiful  fairy  tale  The  King  of  the 
O olden  River  (1851),  and  Notes  on  the  Con- 
struction of  Sheepfolds  (1851),  in  which  he 
brought  forward  a  plan  for  Church  unity  in  Eng- 
land. 

However  varied  Ruskin's  writings  had  been 
hitherto,  they  bore  a  close  relation  to  art.  Even 
his  plea  for  one  common  Christian  fold  was  in- 
spired by  a  desire  to  bring  about  a  spirit  favor- 
able to  art.  But  in  Unto  This  Last  {Comhill 
Magazine,  1860)  the  artistic  purpose,  though 
present,  is  less  apparent.  Here  Ruskin  began  his 
attack  on  the  'dismal  science'  called  political 
economy,  to  be  continued  in  Munera  Pulveris 
(1862-63),  Time  and  Tide  (1867),  and  Fors 
Clavigera  (1871-84),  a  series  of  letters  to  the 
workmen  of  England,  far  above  their  heads.  To 
this  later  period  belong  also  Sesame  and  Lilies 
(1865),  charming  essays  on  literature  and  other 
subjects;  Ethics  of  the  Dust  (1866) ;  The  Crown 


BTTSKIN. 


288 


BTJSSELL. 


of  Wild  Olive  (1866;  complete,  1873);  lectures 
on  work,  traffic,  and  the  future  of  England,  with 
an  eloquent  introduction;  The  Queen  of  the  Air 
(1869),  a  study  of  Greek  myths  of  cloud  and 
storm;  Aratra  Pentelici  (1872),  on  sculpture; 
Love'8  Meinie  (1873),  on  birds;  Ariadne  Florenr 
Una  (1873),  on  wood  and  metal  engraving;  Vol 
d*Amo  (1874),  on  Florentine  art  of  the  thir- 
teenth century;  Mornings  in  Florence  (1876-77), 
further  studies  in  Italian  art;  Proserpina  (1875- 
86),  studies  of  wayside  flowers;  Deucalion  (1875- 
83),  on  rocks;  BU  Mark's  Rest  (1877-84),  a 
manual  on  Venetian  art;  The  Bible  of  Amiens 
(1880-85),  intended  as  the  first  volume  of  a  his- 
tory of  Christendom  for  boys  and  girls;  The  Art 
of  England  (1883);  Prceterita  ( 1885-89  )>  a  re- 
view of  his  life;  a  volume  of  collected  poems  in 
1891;  and  a  large  body  of  other  essays.  It  was 
his  usual  custom  to  publish  in  parts  or  to  make 
up  his  volumes  from  contributions  to  the  maga- 
zines. A  famous  reprint  is  On  the  Old  Road 
(1886).  For  many  years  Ruskin  lectured  before 
large  audiences  in  London,  Oxford,  Cambridge, 
Edinburgh,  and  other  places.  From  1870  to  1879 
he  was  Slade  professor  of  art  at  Oxford ;  in  1883 
he  was  reelected  to  the  chair,  but  resigned  the 
next  year,  owing  to  ill  health.  With  his  fortune, 
Ruskin  reclaimed  from  squalor  several  London 
tenement  houses,  left  him  by  his  father;  cleaned 
the  streets  between  the  British  Museum  and  Saint 
Giles's;  opened  a  tea  shop  to  show  that  retail 
trade  might  be  pursued  honestly;  gave  an  en- 
dowment for  a  master  of  drawing  at  Oxford; 
founded  (1876)  Saint  George's  Guild,  a  land- 
owning society,  with  a  museum  for  workmen,  at 
Walkley,  near  Sheffield  (transferred  to  Sheffield 
itself,  1890).  In  these  and  numerous  other  chari- 
ties his  fortune  dwindled  away  until  his  only  in- 
come was  from  the  sale  of  his  books.  This,  how- 
ever, was  large,  amounting,  from  1890  to  1900,  to 
about  £4000  a  year.  He  long  made  his  home  at 
Denmark  Hill,  near  London.  In  1871  he  bought 
Brantwood,  a  small  estate  by  Coniston  Lake, 
where  he  passed  his  last  years,  and  died  January 
20,  1900. 

As  an  art  critic  Ruskin  was  not  generally  ac- 
cepted by  artists.  In  this  field  his  service  was 
rather  to  awaken  in  his  generation  a  sense  for 
the  beautiful.  Of  strong  ethical  temperament,  he 
always  insisted  that  beauty  should  not  be 
divorced  from  righteousness.  His  political 
economy,  tending  to  socialism,  has  been  attacked 
by  the  learned.  With  all  its  vagaries,  it  was  a 
noble  plea  for  the  higher  things  of  the  mind 
against  utilitarianism.  Against  railways  and 
factories  marring  the  beauty  of  English  land- 
scape he  took  a  firm  stand,  and  for  nis  age  he 
discovered  the  beauties  of  river,  cloud,  and  moun- 
tain. In  the  development  of  English  prose  he  is 
likely  to  have  a  place  as  the  one  who  moved  prose 
toward  verse  without  passing  the  boundary  line. 
Of  this  new  prose  no  better  example  could  be 
cited  than  the  "Introduction"  to  the  Crown  of 
Wild  Olive,  with  its  assonances  and  grand 
rhythms. 

BiBLioGBAFHT.  Collingwood  (secretary  to 
Ruskin,  1881-1900),  Life  and  Work  of  John 
Ruskin  (London,  1893)  ;  Life  (ib.,  1900)  ; 
and  Art  Teaching  (ib.,  1891);  Meynell,  John 
Ruskin  (ib.,  1900)  ;  Spielmann,  Sketch  of  Life 
and  Work  (ib.  and  Philadelphia,  1900)  ;  R.  de  la 
Sizeranne,  Ruskin  and  the  Religion  of  Beauty, 
trans,  from  the  French  by  the  Countess  of  Gal- 


loway (London,  1899;  New  York,  1900); 
Mather,  Life  and  Teaching  (5th  ed.,  London  and 
Boston,  1900)  ;  Cook,  Studies  in  Ruskin  (2d  ed., 
London,  1891 ) ;  White,  Principles  of  Art,  illus- 
trated by  the  Ruskin  Museum  at  Sheffield 
(ib.,  1895);  W.  M.  Rossetti,  Ruskin;  Rossetti; 
Pre-Raphaelitism  (ib.,  1889) ;  Frederic  Harri- 
son, Tennyson,  Ruskin,  Mill,  and  other  Literary 
Estimates  (ib.,  1900) ;  Hobson,  Ruskin,  Social 
Reformer  (ib.,  1898);  and  the  monographs  by 
Harrison  (New  York,  1902)  and  Collingwood 
(ib.,  1902). 

BUSS,  John  Dennison  (1801-81).  An  Ameri- 
can philanthropist,  bom  at  Chebacco  (now  Es- 
sex), Essex  County,  Mass.  He  graduated  at 
Yale  in  1823,  studied  medicine  in  America  and 
abroad,  and  in  1826  began  to  practice  in  New 
York  City.  In  1827  he  took  part  in  the  move- 
ment in  aid  of  the  Greek  revolutionists,  went  to 
Greece  in  charge  of  the  brig  Statesman,  convey- 
ing supplies,  and  established  at  Faros  a  hospital 
which  he  directed  during  part  of  the  following 
year.  Subsequently  he  established  a  larger  hos- 
pital at  Aexamelia,  on  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth. 
In  1830,  after  making  himself  so  useful  to  the 
Greek  cause  'that  a  price  of  twenty  thousand 
piastres  was  placed  upon  his  head  by  Turkish 
authority,  he  returned  to  the  United  States.  In 
1832  he  began  the  first  systematic  instruction 
of  the  blind  undertaken  in  the  United  States,  and 
in  that  year  the  New  York  Institution  for  the 
Blind,  of  >vhich  he  had  been  a  founder  in  1831, 
began  its  work  largely  through  his  efforts.  He 
invented  for  the  use  of  the  blind  a  phonetic  alpha- 
bet, consisting  of  forty-one  characters  with 
twenty-three  prefixes  and  sufixes,  and  afterwards 
much  improved;  a  series  of  mathematical  char- 
acters, numbering  four,  instead  of  the  previously 
existing  ten;  and  maps  in  raised  design.  The 
alphabetic  and  mathematical  characters  were  not 
widely  used  and  were  soon  superseded,  but  the 
maps  found  very  extensive  application.  In  1843 
he  assisted  in  the  organization  of  the  New  York 
Prison  Association.  He  drafted  in  1851  the  act 
of  incorporation  of  the  New  York  Juvenile  Asy- 
lum, of  which  he  was  superintendent  in  1851-58. 

"RUSB,  rps,  RoBEBT  (1847—).  An  Austrian 
landscape  painter,  bom  in  Vienna.  He  studied 
at  the  academy  there,  more  especially  \mder  Al- 
bert Zimmerman,  adopting,  however,  in  deviation 
from  his  master's  tendency,  a  realistic  treatment 
of  his  subjects.  His  principal  paintings,  exe- 
cuted with  remarkable  technical  skill,  include 
"Court  of  Fttrstenburg,  Near  Burgeis"  (Vienna 
Museum),  "After  the  Cloudburst"  (1883,  Ru- 
dolphinum,  Prague),  "Thunderstorm  in  the  Alps" 
(1889),  and  "Harbor  at  Riva"  (1896). 

BTTS^ELLy  House  of.  A  famous  English 
family  said  to  derive  its  descent  from  Olaf,  the 
sharp-eyed  King  of  Rerik,  in  the  sixth  century, 
one  of  whose  descendants,  Turstain,  a  Scandi- 
navian jarl,  settled  in  Normandy,  on  its  conquest 
by  the  Northmen,  and  became  possessed  of  the 
barony  of  Briquebec,  and  the  castle  of  Rozel,  near 
Cherbourg.  John  Russell,  first  Earl  of  Bed- 
ford (1486-1555),  in  1538,  was  elevated  in 
the  peerage  by  Henry  VIII.  under  the  title  of 
Baron  Russell  of  Cheyneys,  Buckingham.  His 
son,  the  second  Earl,  was  a  person  of  eminence 
in  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign,  and,  like  his  father, 
a  Knight  of  the  Garter.  Another  notable  member 
of  the  family  was  Edward  Russell,  Earl  of  Or- 


BTTSSBLIi. 


289 


BTT8SBLL. 


lord  (1653-1727).  He  was  bred  to  the  sea,  and 
was  groom  of  the  bedchamber  to  the  Duke  of 
York,  afterwards  James  II.,  but  retired  from 
Court  upon  the  judicial  murder  of  his  cousin  Lord 
William  Russell  (q.y.).  Strenuously  support- 
ing the  Revolution,  ne  obtained  high  naval  com- 
mands  from  William  III.,  and  distinguished  him- 
self particularly  by  his  victory  over  the  French 
fleet  at  La  Hogue  in  1602.  Of  recent  membere  of 
the  family  the  most  celebrated  is  Lord  John 
RusseU  (1792-1878). 

BJSSSELLf  Benjamxn  (1761-1845).  An 
American  journalist.  He  was  bom  in  Boston,  and 
was  apprenticed  to  a  printer,  but  before  com- 
pleting his  term  enlisted  in  the  Revolutionary 
Army,  where  he  rose  to  the  rank  of  major.  Dur- 
ing his  service  he  contributed  war  news  to  the 
Worcester  Spy.  After  the  war  he  began  the  pub- 
lication of  a  semi-weekly  journal,  TJus  Columbian 
Sentinel.  This  paper  he  controlled  for  fftrty 
yeara,  and,  assisted  by  Ames,  Pickering,  Lowell, 
Hig§;in8on,  and  Cabot  as  contributors,  made  it 
one  of  the  most  influential  organs  of  the  Fed- 
eralist Party.  He  was  one  of  the  aldermen  of 
Boston;  was  a  representative  to  the  General 
Court;  State  Senator  for  a  number  of  years;  was 
one  of  the  Governor's  Council;  and  in  1820  was 
a  member  of  the  constitutional  convention.  He 
retired  from  the  editorship  of  the  Sentinel  in 
1828,  but  from  1795  to  1830  published  another 
Federalist  woer,  the  Gazette,  which  also  exerted 
a  marked  mfluence  on  the  public  opinion  of  the 
time. 

BUSSELLy  Sir  Charles  Arthub,  Baron  Kil- 
lowen  (1832-1900).  Lord  Chief  Justice  of  Eng- 
land, bom  at  Newry,  Killowen,  County  Down, 
Ireland.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  studied  law  in  Lincoln's  Inn,  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1859,  and  began  practice  on 
the  Northern  cireuit.  He  won  early  recognition 
as  an  able  advocate,  and  in  1872  became  a 
bencher  of  Lincoln's  Inn  and  a  Queen's  commis- 
sioner. In  1886  he  became  Attorney-General  in 
the  Gladstone  Cabinet,  and  again  held  that  of- 
fice from  1892  to  1894.  He  was  counsel  for  the 
British  claims  before  the  Bering  Sea  Commission 
in  1893.  Early  in  the  following  year  (1894)  he 
was  made  Lord  of  Appeal  in  Ordinary  and 
created  a  life  peer  with  the  title  of  Baron  Kil- 
lowen, and  before  the  close  of  the  vear  succeeded 
Lord  Coleridge  as  Chief  Justice,  being  the  first 
Roman  Catholic  to  hold  that  office  since  the 
Reformation.  He  was  one  of  the  strongest  ad- 
vocates of  international  arbitration,  and  deliv- 
ered a  remarkable  address  on  that  subject  before 
the  American  Bar  Association  in  1896.  In  1899 
he  was  a  member  of  the  Venezuelan  Boundary 
Arbitration  Tribunal.  For  two  decades  before 
his  death,  he  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  ablest 
lawyers  in  Great  Britain,  and  in  an  unofficial 
capacity  was  known  in  his  conduct  of  the  case  of 
his  friend,  Charles  Stewart  Pamell,  before  the 
Parliamentary  Commission,  in  which  he  played 
a  part  in  exposing  the  notorious  Pigott  forgeries 
published  in  the  Times. 

BirSSELLy  Charles  William  (1812-80).  A 
Roman  Catholic  theologian  and  educator.  He 
was  bom  at  Killough,  County  Down,  Ireland; 
educated  at  Majniooth  College,  where  he  became 
professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  (1845),  and 
president  ( 1857 ) .  He  wrote  The  Life  of  Cardinal 
Mezzofanti    (1858);    translated  Leibnitz's   Sys- 


tem of  Theology  (1850);  compiled  with  J.  P. 
Prendergast  the  Calendar  of  the  State  Papers^ 
Relating  to  Ireland,  of  the  Reign  of  James  i. 
(1872-77).  He  was  made  a  member  of 
the  Historical  Manuscripts  Conunission  in  1869 
and  with  Prendergast  reported  on  the  Thomas 
Carte  manuscripts  in  the  Bodleian  Library  (8 
vols.,  1871).  Cardinal  Newman  in  his  Apologia 
attributes  to  him  the  chief  share  in  his  conver- 
sion to  the  Roman  Obedience. 

BTTSSELL,  David  Allen  (1820-64).  An 
American  soldier,  bom  at  Salem,  N.  Y.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1845,  and  fought  in 
the  Mexican  War.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil 
War  he  entered  the  volunteer  service  as  colonel 
of  the  Seventh  Massachusetts  Volunteers,  which 
he  led  through  the  Peninsular  campaign.  In  1862 
he  became  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  and 
during  the  Rappahannock  campaign  was  in  com- 
mand of  a  brigade  of  the  Sixth  Army  Corps.  He 
participated  in  the  battles  of  the  Wilderness 
and  Spottsylvania.  In  1864  he  received  the 
brevet  of  brigadier-general,  and  later  was  active 
in  the  operations  before  Petersburg.  He  com- 
manded his  division  in  the  Shenandoah  cam- 
paign, was  brevetted  major-general,  and  was 
killed  in  the  battle  of  Opequan,  Va. 

BTTSSELL,  Henbt  (1813-1900).  An  English 
vocalist  and  song  composer,  the  father  of  W. 
Clark  Russell.  He  was  bom  at  Sheemess,  Kent. 
In  1833-41  he  traveled  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  and  gave  a  series  of  recitals  which  be- 
came very  popular.  In  1841  he  returned  to 
England,  and  after  a  series  of  successful  recitals, 
began  the  presentation  of  an  entertainment 
called  "The  Far  West,  or  The  Emigrant's  Prog- 
ress from  the  Old  World  to  the  New,"  which  did 
much  to  stimulate  emigration  to  America.  He 
composed  about  800  songs,  the  most  famous  of 
which  are  "Cheer,  Boys,  Cheer,"  "There's  a 
Good  Time  Coming,  Boys,"  "A  Life  on  the  Ocean 
Wave,"  "To  the  West,"  and  "O  Woodman,  Spare 
that  Tree." 

BX7SSELL,  iBwm  (1853-79).  An  American 
poet,  bom  in  Port  Gibson,  Miss.  He  was  among 
the  first  to  turn  negro  character  to  literary  ac- 
count. Russell  wrote  both  in  correct  English 
and  in  dialect,  and  possessed  distinct  powers  of 
humor  and  pathos.  His  verses  were  collected 
after  his  death  in  Poems  (1888). 

BTTSSELL',  Israel  Cook  ( 1852— ) .  An  Ameri- 
can geologist,  bom  near  Garratsville,  N.  Y.  He 
graduated  at  New  York  University  in  1872  and 
studied  for  two  years  at  the  School  of  Mines  of 
Columbia  University.  He  was  assistant  profes- 
sor of  geology  at  the  Columbia  University  School 
of  Mines  from  1875  to  1878,  and  in  the  latter 
year  was  assistant  geologist  to  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey  west  of  the  100th  meridian.  In 
1880  he  was  appointed  geologist  of  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey.  In  that  capacity  he 
made  numerous  explorations  and  surveys  in  the 
southern  portion  of  the  Appalachians,  west  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  in  Alaska.  In  1890- 
91  he  conducted  to  the  Mount  Saint  Elias  region 
expeditions  which  made  valuable  contributions 
both  to  geography  and  geology.  He  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  chair  of  geology  in  the  University 
of  Michigan  in  1892.  His  more  important  works 
include:  Geological  History  of  Lake  Lahontan 
(1885);  Lakes  of  North  America   (1895);  Gla- 


BTTSSELL. 


240 


BTTBSELK 


ci$r8  of  North  America  (1897) ;  and  Rivera  of 
North  America  (1898). 

BTTSSELL,  James  Eael  (1864—).  An 
American  educator,  bom  in  Hamden,  N.  Y.  He 
graduated  at  Cornell  in  1887,  and  studied  in  Ger- 
many. After  two  years  as  professor  of  peda- 
gogy and  philosophy  in  the  University  of  Colo- 
rado, he  became  in  1897  professor  of  the  history 
of  education  in  the  New  York  Teachers'  College, 
of  which  he  was  made  president  in  1898.  On  the 
work  of  this  institution  he  made  a  special  re- 
port to  the  Education  Board  of  Great  Britain 
(1902).  His  other  publications  include  The 
Extension  of  University  Teaching  in  England 
and  America  (1895;  Ger.  trans.  1895)  and  The 
History y  Organizationj  and  Methods  of  Secondary 
Education  in  Germany  (1899). 

BUSSELL,  John  (1745-1806).  An  English 
portrait  painter,  born  in  Guildford,  Surrey.  He 
studied  under  Francis  Cotes,  and  remained  with 
him  until  1767.  In  the  meantime  he  had  been 
converted  to  Methodism  and  was  such  a  militant 
reformer  that  he  is  said  to  have  attempted  to 
convert  his  sitters.  He  settled  in  London  about 
1868,  and  became  a  well-known  worker  in  crayon 
although  he  occasionally  painted  in  oils.  His 
subjects  included  Philip  Stanhope,  son  of  Lord 
Chesterfield,  Bartolozzi,  Cowper,  Wilberforce, 
The  Rev.  Dr.  Todd,  and  Sheridan.  He  published 
The  Elements  of  Painting  loith  Crayons  (1772- 
1777). 

BTTSSELL,  Lord  John,  first  Earl  Kussell 
(1792-1878).  An  English  statesman,  born  in 
Westminster,  August  18,  1792.  He  was  the  third 
son  of  the  sixth  Duke  of  Bedford.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Westminster  School  and  at  Edinburgh 
University.  In  July,  1813,  he  was  returned 
to  Parliament  for  the  borough  of  Tavistock, 
and,  according  to  the  family  traditions,  he 
entered  the  ranks  of  the  Whigs.  Russell's 
real  political  life  began  in  1820  when  he  was 
returned  to  Parliament  from  Huntingdonshire. 
He  became  an  ardent  advocate  of  Parliament- 
ary reform.  He  also  interested  himself  in  the 
repeal  of  the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts,  which 
he  carried  in  1828  against  the  united  efforts  of 
Peel,  Huskisson,  and  Palmerston.  He  cordially 
supported  the  Catholic  Emancipation  Act,  which 
was  passed  in  1829.  In  1830  the  question  of  Par- 
liamentary reform  became  crucial  and  caused  the 
resignation  of  W^ellington's  Tory  Government. 
Earl  Grey  followed  the  Duke  as  Premier,  and  took 
Russell  into  the  Ministry  as  Paymaster-General  of 
the  forces.  Lord  John  at  once  rose  into  great 
prominence  through  his  part  in  the  Reform  Bill 
of  1832,  the  first  reading  of  which  he  moved  in 
the  Commons.  ( See  Parliament.  )  He  subsequent- 
ly took  part  in  the  agitation  against  the  Corn 
Laws.  On  the  resignation  of  Peel,  in  IJecember, 
1845,  Russell  was  summoned  to  form  a  Ministry, 
but  was  unable  to  do  so,  and  Peel  resumed  oflSce 
and  brought  about  the  repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws 
(q.v.).  He  was  soon  forced  out  on  the  question 
of  Irish  coercion.  Again  Russell  was  called  upon 
to  form  a  Ministry,  and  this  time  he  succeeded 
(July,  1846). 

Russell  continued  as  Premier  for  nearly  six 
years.  The  usual  Irish  discontent  had  been 
greatly  augmented  by  the  famine,  and  all  Ireland 
was  ripe  for  rebellion.  Russell  handled  the 
matter  with  much  skill.  Relief  measures  went 
hand  in  hand  with  coercive  measures,  and  in  a 


few  months  Ireland  was  quieter  than  it  had 
been  for  years.  The  most  important  act  in  this 
connection  was  the  Encumbered  Estates  Act. 
(See  Irish  Laih)  Laws.)  This  administration 
also  saw  the  end  of  the  Chartist  movement.  (See 
Chartism.)  In  1851,  as  a  result  of  the  Pope's 
attempt  to  reestablish  the  Catholic  hierarchy 
in  England,  the  Eccelsiastical  Titles  Assump- 
tion Act  (q.v.)  was  passed.  In  December, 
1851,  when  the  Foreign  Secretary,  Palmerston, 
without  consulting  his  colleajgues,  recognized 
the  Government  formed  by  Louis  Napoleon  after 
his  coup  d*6tat  of  December  2d,  Russell  de- 
manded his  resignation.  Palmerston  soon  brought 
about  the  dowTifall  of  the  Government.  Rus- 
sell resigned  and  Lord  Derby  came  in  with 
the  extreme  Tories.  Derby,  however,  had  no 
majority,  and  in  turn  resigned  after  a  brief  term 
in  office.  A  coalition  Ministry  of  W^higs  and 
Peelites  was  then  formed  (December,  1852)  un- 
der Lord  Aberdeen,  in  which  Russell  appeared  as 
Secretary  for  Foreign  Affairs.  The  mismanage- 
ment exhibited  in  the  operations  of  the  Crimean 
W^ar,  and  the  great  loss  of  life  incurred,  brought 
about  a  motion  in  the  House  of  Commons,  for  an 
inquiry  into  the  conduct  of  the  war.  Russell 
was  ill-prepared  to  resist  this  and  resigned.  He 
then  supported  the  motion  and  Aberdeen  re- 
signed. Derby  and  Russell  each  attempted 
to  form  a  Ministry,  but  without  success.  Pal- 
merston was  then  called  upon  and  succeeded. 
Russell  was  asked  to  join,  but  refused.  He 
was  then  sent  as  plenipotentiary  to  the  con- 
ference at  Vienna,  which  it  was  hoped  would 
bring  about  peace.  Meanwhile  the  Peelites  had 
withdrawn  from  the  Ministry  and  Russell  in 
March,  1855,  very  reluctantly  entered  the  Minis- 
try, though  he  still  remained  at  the  conference. 
On  his  return  the  opposition  in  Parliament  raised 
a  great  outcry  in  regard  to  his  proceedings  at 
Vienna,  and  being  unable,  by  reasons  of  State, 
to  account  in  full  detail  for  his  course,  Russell 
resigned.  In  1859  he  again  appeared  as  Foreign 
Secretaiy  under  Palmerston.  The  Italian  War  of 
Liberation  and  the  American  Civil  War  were  the 
most  difficult  questions  he  had  to  meet.  To  the 
Italians  he  gave  his  most  ardent  support.  His 
conduct  in  regard  to  the  American  War  has  been 
defended  and  criticised,  some  claiming  that  he 
ably  preserved  British  neutrality,  others  contend-» 
ing  that  the  cases  of  the  Alabama,  Florida,  etc., 
prove  the  contrary.  In  1861  he  was  created  Earl 
Russell.  In  1866,  on  the  death  of  Palmerston, 
Russell  again  became  Premier.  The  new  Minis- 
try now  brought  forward  a  Parliamentary  re- 
form bill.  The  Liberals,  however,  did  not  give 
hearty  support  to  the  bill,  and  it  was  defeated. 
Russell  at  once  resigned  and  never  took  office 
again.  His  last  years  were  spent  chiefly  in  liter- 
ary work.  He  died  on  May  28,  1878.  Consult: 
Walople,  Life  of  Lord  John  Russell  (London, 
1889);  Reid,  Lord  John  Russell  (ib.,  1895); 
Walpole,  History  of  England  (ib.,  1878-86), 

BTTSSELL,  John  Scott  (1808-82).  A  British 
naval  engineer,  bom  at  Parkhead,  near  Glasgow. 
He  studied  at  the  Universities  of  Eklinburgh, 
Saint  Andrews,  and  Glasgow,  and  in  1832  was 
elected  to  the  chair  of  natural  philosophy  at 
Edinburgh  to  fill  a  temporary  vacancy.  A  paper 
which  he  read  before  the  British  Association  on 
the  nature  of  waves  led  to  the  appointment  of  a 
committee  to  make  experiments,  and  these  resulted 


BTTSSELL. 


241 


BTTSSELL. 


in  Ruaseirs  discovery  of  the  wave  of  translation 
and  his  development  of  the  wave-line  system  of 
ship-building.  Another  paper  On  the  Laws  hy 
Which  Water  Opposes  Resistance  to  the  Motion 
of  Floating  Bodies,  which  he  read  before  the 
Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh  in  1837,  earned  him 
the  society's  large  gold  medal.  For  a  number 
of  years  he  was  manager  of  a  ship-building  plant 
at  Greenock.  In  1844  he  removed  to  London, 
where  he  began  to  build  vessels  of  the  largest 
sizes.  His  two  most  famous  ventures  were  the 
Great  Eastern,  the  subsequent  failure  of  which 
forced  him  to  abandon  ship-building,  and  the 
armored  frigate  Warrior,  the  first  seagoing  ves- 
sel of  its  kind.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Institution  of  Naval  Architects,  was  for  some 
time  its  vice-president^  and  contributed  fre- 
quently to  its  Transactions.  He  also  contributed 
to  the  seventh  edition  of  the  Encyclopedia  Bri- 
tannica  (1841),  and  wrote  a  number  of  works 
on  naval  architecture. 

BJJSSELLi,  Odd  Whxiam  Leopold,  first  Baron 
Ampthill  (1829-84).  An  English  diplomatist. 
He  was  bom  at  Florence,  was  privately  educated, 
and  entered  upon  a  diplomatic  career  as  attache 
of  the  English  embassy  at  Vienna.  From  1850 
to  1852  he  was  under  Lord  Palmerston  in  the 
English  Foreign  Office.  He  was  subsequently  in 
diplomatic  service  at  Paris,  Vienna,  Constanti- 
nople, Washington,  and  Florence,  and  from  1860 
to  1870  was  acting  Minister  at  the  Vatican. 
In  1871  he  was  appointed  Ambassador  at  Ber- 
lin, where  he  did  much  to  promote  cordial  rela- 
tions between  England  and  Germany. 

BUSSELL,  Sol  Smith  (1848-1902).  An 
American  actor.  He  was  bom  at  Brunswick, 
Me.  He  served  as  a  drummer  boy  in  the  Union 
Army,  and  in  1864  he  became  connected  with  a 
theatre  at  Cairo,  111.  For  several  years  he  de- 
voted himself  largely  to  monologues  and  musical 
performances,  till  he  won  a  recognized  place  as 
a  iyceum'  entertainer.  He  went  to  New  York 
City  in  1871  and  in  1874  became  a  member  of 
Daly's  company.  He  began  as  a  regular  star  in 
1880  with  a  play  called  Edgetcood  Folks,  In  this 
and  in  his  subsequent  productions,  such  as  Peace- 
ful Valley,  A  Poor  Relation,  A  Bachelor's  Ro- 
mance, and  The  Hon.  John  Grigsby,  the  evenness 
and  &iish  of  his  acting,  his  peculiarly  quaint 
and  gentle  humor,  and  the  truth  and  delicacy  of 
his  pathos  won  for  him  real  and  lasting  popular- 
ity throughout  the  country.  In  1900  ill  health 
compelled  him  to  retire.  Consult:  McKay  and 
Wingate,  Famous  American  Actors  of  To-Day 
(New  York,  1896)  ;  Strang,  Famous  Actors  of 
the  Day  in  Americq  (Boston,  1900). 

BTTSSEIX,  William,  Lord  (1639-83).  An 
English  Whig  Parliamentarian.  He  was  the 
third  son  of  William,  fifth  Earl  Russell,  and  was 
educated  at  Cambridge.  From  1660  to  1678  he  was 
member  of  Parliament  for  Tavistock;  in  1674  he 
invei^ed  against  the  corruption  of  the  Cabal, 
the  influence  of  France,  the  dishonorable  com- 
mencement of  the  war  with  Holland,  and  the  fraud 
practiced  upon  the  bankers,  and  was  afterwards 
conspicuous  wherever  the  cause  of  constitutional 
libeiiy  could  be  befriended.  In  1680,  at  the 
head  of  more  than  two  hundred  members  of  the 
Commons,  he  carried  to  the  House  of  Lords  the 
Bill  of  Exclusion,  directed  against,  the  Duke  of 
York's  succession  to  the  throne.  The  King  and 
the  Duke  determined  to  be  revenged  upon  Russell 


and  to  crush  the  leaders  of  the  Whig  Party. 
Charged  as  participators  in  the  Rye  House  plot 
(q.v.),  Lord  Russell  and  Algernon  Sidney  were 
arrested,  arraigned  for  high  treason,  and  by  the 
aid  of  perjured  witnesses  and  a  packed  jury 
were  sentenced  to  death.  Charles  II.  was  dis- 
posed to  show  mercy,  but  the  Duke  of  York  in- 
sisted upon  the  prisoners'  death.  The  unconsti- 
tutional murder  of  Russell^  followed  by  that  of 
Sidney,  led,  in  the  next  reign,  to  the  overthrow 
of  the  Stuart  regime.  Consult  Russell,  Life  of 
William,  Lord  Russell  (London,  1820). 

BUSSELL,  William  Clark  (1844—).  An 
English  novelist.  He  was  born  in  New  York 
City  of  English  parentage,  was  educated  in  Eng- 
land and  in  France,  and  in  1857  shipped  as  a 
midshipman  on  an  English  merchantman.  He 
followed  the  sea  until  1865,  when  he  settled  in 
London,  and  turned  his  attention  to  writing. 
In  1874  he  brought  out  his  first  sea  story,  John 
HoldsvDorth,  Chief  Mate,  and  from  that  time  on 
his  success  was  assured,  and  stories  drawn  from 
his  experience  and  knowledge  of  the  seafaring 
life  followed  one  another  in  quick  succession.  His 
stories  are  written  in  a  clear  picturesque  style, 
display  considerable  dramatic  skill,  and  are  said 
by  seamen  to  be  the  most  faithful  portrayals  of 
life  on  the  sea  ever  written.  Among  his  pub- 
lished works  are:  The  Wreck  of  the  Orosvenor 
(1875);  The  Lady  Maud  (1876);  A  Sailor's 
Sweetheart  (1877)  ;  An  Ocean  Freelance  (1878)  ; 
My  Shipmate  Louise  (1882);  The  Ship;  Her 
Story  (1894);  The  Convict  Ship  (1894);  What 
Cheer t  (1895)  ;  Rose  Ireland  (1896)  ;  The  Last 
Entry  (1897);  The  Two  Captains  (1897);  TJie 
Romance  of  a  Midshipman  (1898);  The  Ship's 
Adventure  (1899);  and  lives  of  Lord  Colling- 
wood  (1891)   and  Admiral  Nelson  (1897). 

BUSSELL,  William  Eustis  (1857-96).  An 
American  lawyer  and  Governor,  bom.  in  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.  He  was  educated  at  Harvard  and  at . 
the  Boston  University  Law  School.  In  1880  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Boston  law  firm  of  Russell 
&  Russell,  of  which  his  father  and  two  brothers 
were  already  members.  In  1885  he  was  chosen 
Mayor  of  his  native  city,  and  for  two  suc- 
ceeding years  was  reelected  with  no  opposition.  . 
His  effective  administration  of  the  city's  affairs, 
particularly  in  the  enforcement  of  the  local- 
option  law,  attracted  wide  attention.  At  his  third 
nomination  for  the  office  of  Governor  in  1890  he " 
was  elected,  and  was  reelected  in  1891  and  1892, 
in  each  case  his  victory  being  largely  a  personal 
one.  His  administration  was  marked  by  impar- 
tiality and  lack  of  partisanship.  In  1893  he 
resumed  his  law  practice.  Early  in  1896  a 
strong  movement  became  apparent  in  the  Eastern 
States  to  nominate  him  for  the  Presidency,  but 
his  strong  and  freely  expressed  views  in  favor  of 
a  gold  standard  rendered  its  success  impossible. 
A  movement  to  name  him  for  the  Presidency  on 
a  Democratic  gold-standard  platform  was  checked 
I  y  his  sudden  death  in  his  camp  in  the  Nova 
Scotia  woods  a  week  after  the  Chicago  convention 
of  that  year. 

BUSSELL,  Sir  William  Howard  (1820—). 
A  British  journalist,  born  in  Ireland.  He  was 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  He  wrote 
for  the  London  Times  in  1841,  and  became  at- 
tached to  the  Parliamentary  corps  of  that  paper 
in  1843.  His  first  important  expedition  as  a  cor- 
respondent was  in   1854,  when  he  was  sent  by 


BUSSELL. 


249 


BTT8SIA. 


the  Times  to  the  seat  of  the  Crimean  War,  in  the 
description  of  which  he  established  a  higli  repu- 
tation for  brilliancy  of  diction  and  graphic  rep- 
resentation. He  visited  Moscow  in  1856,  and  de- 
scribed in  the  Times  the  coronation  of  the  Czar. 
In  1856  he  was  sent  to  India  on  the  occasion  of 
the  mutiny,  and  was  with  Lord  Clyde  from  the 
capture  of  Lucknow  imtil  the  close  of  the  mutiny. 
In  1858  he  returned  to  England,  and  established 
the  Army  and  Navy  Gazette  (1860),  which  he 
continued  to  edit.  In  1861  he  was  sent  by  the 
Times  as  war  correspondent  to  the  United  States, 
but  returned  after  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run, 
when  he  rendered  himself  obnoxious  to  the  Union 
leaders.  In  1866  he  was  present  at  the  battles  of 
Kdniggrfttz  and  Sadowa;  in  1870  at  the  battles 
of  Sedan  and  the  siege  and  fall  of  Paris;  in 
1879-80,  in  South  Africa;  and  in  1883-84,  in 
Egypt.  He  published:  Letters  from  the  Crimea; 
Diary  in  India;  My  Diary  North  and  South;  The 
Prince  of  Wales's  Tour,  etc.  He  was  knighted 
in  1895. 

BUSSELL VILLE.  The  county-seat  of  Logan 
County,  Ky.,  30  miles  southwest  of  Bowling 
Green,  on  the  Louisville  and  Nashville  Railroad 
(Map:  Kentucky,  E  4).  It  is  the  seat  of  Bethel 
College  (Baptist),  opened  in  1854,  and  of  the 
Logan  Female  College  (Methodist  Episcopal, 
South),  opened  in  1856.  The  city  manufactures 
flour  and  leather.  Five  miles  northeast  of  Rus- 
sellville  is  an  extensive  asphalt  mine.  Popula- 
tion, in  1890,  2253;  in  1900,  2591. 

BXTSSEL'S  VTPEB.     See  Vifeb. 

BtrSSLA.,  rtksh'ii.  An  empire  embracing  one- 
sixth  of  the  land  surface  of  the  earth.  With 
an  area  of  about  8,650,000  square  miles,  it  is 
nearly  three  times  as  large  as  the  United  States, 
exclusive  of  Alaska.  It  includes  more  than  one- 
half  of  Europe  and  the  whole  of  Northern  Asia, 
and  has  the  largest  continuous  area  of  any 
realm  in  the  world.  It  roughly  presents  the 
form  of  a  rectangle  whose  length  is  twice  its 
width.  Its  vast  coast  line  is  washed  by  the  Arc- 
tic Ocean  on  the  north  and  the  Pacific  Ocean  on 
the  east.  The  southern  frontier,  dividing  it  from 
the  Chinese  Empire,  Afghanistan,  Persia,  and 
various  native  States  under  the  protection  either 
of  Russia  or  Great  Britain,  is  mainly  marked  by 
great  natural  features,  such  as  the  Amur  River, 
and  the  mountain  ramparts  of  Sayan,  Tian-Shan, 
and  Alai-tagh,  which  overlook  the  widespread 
grassy  steppes  or  sandy  wastes  of  Central  Asia. 
In  Western  Asia,  however,  the  plains  of  Siberia 
merge  with  the  steppes  of  Riissian  Turkestan, 
where  nature  interposed  no  obstacles  to  the  easy 
conquests  of  Russia,  which  has  here  pushed  its 
frontier  farthest  south  in  Asia.  In  the  north- 
west and  southwest  the  empire  touches  the  Baltic 
and  Black  seas,  but  elsewhere  in  the  West  it 
merges  with  the  States  of  Western  Europe — 
Rumania  and  Austria-Hungary  in  the  south, 
Prussia  in  the  centre,  and  Sweden  and  Norway 
in  the  extreme  north.  The  Imperial  territory 
was  extended  in  1899  by  the  formation  of  the 
Province  of  Kwang-tung,  leased  from  China  and 
including  Port  Arthur,  Ta-lien-wan,  and  the  adja- 
cent seas  and  territory  to  the  north.  This  new 
possession  is  already  connected  with  Saint  Peters- 
burg by  a  branch  of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railroad. 

The  empire  may  be  divided  into  ^ye  parts: 
(1)  Russia  in  Europe  (with  Poland  and  the 
Grand  Duchy  of  Finland) ;    (2)    the  Caucasus 


(Northern  Caucasia^  or  Ciscaucasia,  and  Trans- 
caucasia) ;  (3)  Siberia;  (4)  Russian  Cen- 
tral Asia;  (5)  Kwangtimg.  The  heart  of  this 
enormous  State  is  Russia  in  Europe,  or  Russia 
proper.  This  article  will  deal  especially  with 
Russia  in  Europe,  and  with  the  Asiatic  domain 
of  the  empire  only  in  its  relation  to  the  empire 
as  a  whole.  For  a  treatment  of  the  political 
divisions  of  Asiatic  Russia  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  the  appropriate  headings.  The  main- 
land of  Russia  in  Europe  lies  between  44**  30' 
and  TO""  N.  latitude  and  between  17**  30'  and 
QS"*  30'  E.  longitude.  Its  area  is  2,095,610 
square  miles,  or  a  little  more  than  two-thirds 
that  of  the  United  States  exclusive  of  Alaska. 
It  is  separated  from  Northwestern  Siberia  by 
the  Northern  Ural  Mountains,  south  of  which 
the  boundary  is  artificially  fixed  to  the  east  and 
south  of  the  Urals  to  include  within  the  domain 
of  Russia  proper  all  of  the  mountain  mining  dis- 
tricts. The  valley  of  the  Manytch  between  the 
Caspian  and  the  Sea  of  Azov  divides  it  from 
Caucasia  and  is  generally  accepted  as  the  south- 
em  limit  of  Europe  in  that  quarter.  The  Black 
Sea,  the  Sea  of  Azov,  and  the  northern  edge  of 
the  Danube  delta  complete  its  southern  boundaiy, 
and  its  western  and  northern  limits  are  those 
of  the  empire  as  given  above.  The  largest  isl- 
ands belonging  to  European  Russia  are  the  two 
called  collectively  Novaya  Zemlya  (Nova  Zem- 
bla),  in  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

Topography.  In  its  surface  features  Russia 
is  ia  striking  contrast  with  the  smaller  part  of 
Europe  west  of  it.  Though  it  has  about  5000 
miles  of  coast  line,  it  has  few  of  the  large  gulfs, 
inlets,  and  peninsulas  that  broke  Western  Europe 
into  detached  masses  and  destined  it  to  develop 
great,  independent  nationalities.  The  coasts  of 
Russia  leave  it  a  compact  mass,  irregularly 
quadrilateral  in  form;  and  the  geographic  unity 
of  this  great  land  mass  is  complete  by  the  fact 
that  it  wholly  lacks  the  great  diversity  of  plains, 
plateaus,  highlands,  deep  valleys,  and  declivities 
which  give  endless  variety  to  the  surface  features 
of  Western  Europe.  As  a  whole  Russia  is  a 
great  plain  stretching  away  in  endless  monotony 
from  its  western  confines  and  the  ice  ocean  on 
the  north;  and  the  plain  is  not  limited  by  the 
European  domain  of  the  empire,  but  extends 
beyond  the  Urals  to  Bering  Sea  in  the  extreme 
northeast  and  across  the  Turkestan  steppes  to 
Persia  and  Afghanistan  in  the  south.  Thus  the 
plains  of  the  empire  are  far  more  extensive  in 
Asia  than  in  Europe.  It  was  this  plain  that  gave 
unrivaled  opportunity  for  and  direction  to  the 
vast  territorial  expansion  of  Russia.  The  empire 
may  be  crossed  to  every  ocean  that  touches  it 
without  leaving  these  vast  low  tracts  where  the 
horizon  drops  around  the  traveler  as  on  a  voy- 
ager at  sea.  The  plain  of  European  Russia  in 
its  general  level  is  from  300  to  600  feet  above 
the  sea.  A  few  areas,  conspicuous  only  because 
of  the  monotonous  uniformity  of  most  of  the 
country,  rise  to  a  height  of  over  ICKM)  feet. 

The  higher  altitudes  of  the  interior  of  Russia 
are  chiefly  disposed  in  two  masses,  extending 
north  and  south.  They  have  been  designated 
under  the  names  of  the  Heights  of  Central  Russia 
and  the  Heights  of  the  Volga.  The  Heights  of 
Central  Russia  culminate  in  the  plateau  of 
Valdai  (1150  feet  high).  (See  Valdai  Hnxs.) 
It  very  clearly  separates  the  low  plains  that 
border  the  Baltic  from  the  low  plains  of  the 


BXT8SIA. 


248 


BTJ8SIA. 


Upper  Volga.  Widely  separated  from  this  area 
of  elevation  by  the  Valley  of  the  Donetz  are  the 
soiled  Mountaiiis  of  the  Donetz,  extending 
east  and  west,  rising  to  1225  feet  and  extending 
this  ensemble  of  elevations  almost  to  the  Sea  of 
AxoT.  The  Heights  of  the  Volga  have  a  direction 
roughly  parallel  to  those  of  Central  Russia.  They 
extend  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  from 
Nizhni-Novgorod  and  Kazan  to  Tsaritsin,  a  dis- 
tance north  and  south  of  730  miles,  attaining 
1121  feet  near  Samara  and  1314  feet  to  the 
west  of  Saratov.  The  greatest  width  of  this 
area  of  elevation  is  about  230  miles.  Farther 
east,  on  the  edge  of  Asia,  the  Ural  Mountains 
(q.T.)  break  the  monotony  of  the  plains.  They 
are  broken  by  deep  gaps  dividing  them  into 
three  main  sections  known  as  the  Northern, 
Central,  or  Permian  (from  the  Province  of  Perm) , 
and  Southern  Urals.  The  Urals  extend  from 
sorth  to  south  approximately  along  the  meridian 
of  60^  £.  for  1500  miles,  rising  in  the  north  and 
south  to  upward  of  5000  feet,  with  gentle  slopes 
on  their  European  face  and  more  abrupt  descents 
on  the  Asiatic  side.  The  Central  Urals,  where 
the  rainfall  is  much  heavier  than  in  its  other 
sections,  have  on  this  account  been  more  deeply 
denuded,  are  low  in  elevation,  and  the  detritus 
has  been  scattered  far  over  the  plain  on  both 
sides  of  the  range  to  a  depth  of  500  feet.  The 
traveler  approaching  from  the  west  observes 
nothing  suggestive  of  moimtains  till  he  passes 
the  water  divide  and  looks  down  upon  the  plains 
of  Siberia.  With  the  exception  of  the  south 
coast  of  the  Crimea,  where  the  Yaila  Moimtains 
and  their  spurs  descend  steeply  to  the  sea,  there 
are  no  other  prominent  elevations  in  Russia 
proper.  The  most  imique  feature  of  the  topog- 
raphy of  Russia  is  the  area  of  depression  below 
the  sea  level  in  the  southeast  part  of  the  country 
along  the  ogaats  of  the  Caspian,  a  region  of 
sunken  plains  that  is  larger  than  all  other  de- 
pressions below  sea  level  in  the  world.  While 
the  dominant  character  of  the  plain  of  Russia  is 
monotony,  and  this  feature  is  maintained  through- 
out the  empire  over  wide  expanses  of  flat  and  low 
lands,  the  new  parts  of  the  empire  have  manifold 
topographic  aspects,  co  that  the  Russian  domain 
as  a  whole  has  many  varieties  of  land  and 
scenery,  from  the  tundras,  plains,  and  low  pla- 
teaus of  Russia  in  Europe  to  the  steppes  both 
high  and  low  in  Asia,  and  the  lofty  and  wild 
mountain  chains  of  Caucasia,  and  the  many  par- 
allel belts  of  mountains,  gridironed  with  trans- 
verse ranges  and  spurs,  which  fill  Eastern  Si- 
beria and  terminate  in  Kamchatka. 

Htdbographt.  The  river  system  of  the  great 
plain  of  Russia  serves  most  to  distinguish  it 
from  all  other  plains.  The  vast  extent  of  these 
lowlands  favored  the  development  of  the  largest 
river  systems  of  Europe  (the  Danube  alone  ex- 
cepted), and  all  these  rivers  have  reached  the 
advanced  stage  of  mature  adjustment  to  the  land, 
have  drained  their  ancient  lakes,  established 
their  individuality,  and  deepened  their  channels 
in  many  cases  sufficiently  to  extend  navigation 
for  light-draught  vessels  almost  to  their  sources. 
It  is  the  streams  flowing  from  the  low  plateau 
bwwn  as  the  Heights  of  Central  Russia  which 
give  birth  to  most  of  the  more  important  rivers 
of  the  country.  The  chief  rivers  mav  be  classi- 
fcd  according  to  their  respective  basms: 

Basin  or  the  Caspian  Sea.  The  Volga  (q.v.) , 
the  largest  river  in  Europe,  is  continuously  navi- 


gable for  1800  miles.  Two  of  the  Volga's  tribu- 
taries are  especially  prominent  in  commerce. 
The  Oka  (q.v.)«  entering  the  river  from  the  south 
at  Nizhni-Novgorod,  waters  the  most  fertile  part 
of  South  Central  Russia.  The  Kama  (q.v.) 
drains  the  western  slope  of  the  Central  Urals 
and  its  basin  embraces  an  area  larger  than  that 
of  Great  Britain.  The  Ural  (q.v.)  is  shallow 
and  chiefly  noted  for  its  prolific  fisheries  and  its 
enormous  fleets  of  small  fishing  boats. 

Basin  of  the  Sea  or  Azov.  The  Sea  of  Azov 
receives  the  Don,  the  third  longest  river  of  Eu- 
ropean Russia.  This  stream  is  greatly  impaired 
for  navigation  by  the  irregularity  of  its  fiow. 
It  is  one  of  the  great  highways  to  the  sea  of  the 
wheat  of  the  eastern  black  soil  region.  Its  chief 
tributary  is  the  Donetz,  navigable  only  in  its 
lower  course. 

Basin  of  the  Black  Sea.  The  basin  of  the 
Dnieper,  Russia's  second  longest  river,  is  as 
large  as  France.  Among  its  several  important 
tributaries  the  Pripet  is  the  most  noteworthy. 
The  Bug  and  the  Dniester  are  the  only  navi- 
gable rivers  west  of  the  Dnieper. 

Basin  or  the  Baltic.  The  Vistula  (q.v.)  is 
Polish  throughout  its  course  in  the  domain  of 
Russia,  the  great  highway  being  used  by  the 
Poles  to  ship  their  cereals,  timber,  and  other  ex- 
port products  to  the  Prussian  port  of  Danzig. 
Its  principal  tributary  is  the  Northern  Bug,  which 
receives  the  Narev.  The  Dfina  or  Western  Dvina 
is  another  large  river  entering  the  Baltic.  It 
is  navigable  almost  from  the  Heights  of  Central 
Russia,  where  it  rises,  to  the  Gulf  of  Riga,  into 
which  it  empties,  but  navigation  is  rendered  diffi- 
cult by  rapids  in  one  part  of  its  course.  Still 
another  affluent  of  the  Baltic  is  the  Niemen, 
which  takes  the  name  of  Memel  on  entering  Prus- 
sia. The  Narova  carries  the  waters  of  Lake 
Peipus  through  a  series  of  rapids  to  the  Gulf 
of  Finland,  the  great  eastern  arm  of  the  Baltic; 
and  the  Neva,  the  outlet  of  Lake  Ladoga,  like- 
wise emptying  into  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  though 
only  43  miles  long,  discharges  more  water  into  the 
sea  than  any  river  of  Europe  outside  of  Russia, 
excepting  the  Danube. 

Basin  or  the  Abctic.  The  most  important 
rivers  tributary  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  are  the  Pe- 
tchora,  rising  among  the  Northern  Urals;  the 
Northern  Dvina,  a  mighty  stream;  the  Dvina, 
emptying  into  the  White  Sea  at  Archangel;  and 
the  Onega,  which  drains  Lake  Bielo-Ozero  to  the 
White  Sea. 

Russia  is  extraordinarily  rich  in  lakes.  Fin- 
land and  the  northwestern  provinces  of  Olonetz, 
Novgorod,  Saint  Petersburg,  and  Pskov  contain 
thousands  of  them.  The  largest  of  these  lakes 
is  Ladoga,  with  an  area  of  more  than  7000  square 
miles  (about  equal  to  that  of  Lake  Ontario), 
Onega,  about  half  as  large,  and  Peipus.  Most 
of  the  lakes  throughout  the  whole  region  near 
the  Baltic,  where  they  are  clustered,  are  con- 
nected with  one  another;  and  between  them  and 
the  Arctic  Ocean  great  expanses  of  moorland  and 
swamp  cover  the  low  fiat  country.  The  lakes 
are  a  large  element  in  the  interior  navigation. 
In  the  middle  and  south  of  European  Russia 
there  are  few  lakes  excepting  the  small  bodies 
of  salt  water  on  the  sterile  steppes  of  the  south- 
east. 

Climate  and  Soil.  As  Russia  has  a  distinctly 
continental  climate,  the  winters  are  colder  and 
the  summers  hotter  than  in  Western  Europe  in 


BTJS8IA. 


244 


BX7SSIA. 


the  same  latitudes.  The  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture, corrected  for  altitude,  is  a  little  lower  as 
one  goes  from  west  to  east;  and  this  tendency 
holds  to  the  Pacific  coast  of  Asia.  There 
is  naturally  a  great  diversity  of  tempera- 
ture as  one  proceeds  from  north  to  south,  since 
Russia  reaches  into  the  Arctic  Zone  and  extends 
as  far  south  as  the  latitude  of  Lombardy.  Frozen 
swamps  skirt  the  north  coasts  and  the  vine  and 
the  olive  thrive  in  the  Crimea.  All  of  the  ex- 
treme north  has  severely  cold  weather  or  hard 
frosts  from  6  to  8  months  in  the  year.  The  mean 
temperature  of  January  at  Saint  Petersburg  is 
about  15°  F.  and  of  July  about  64°.  Moscow, 
although  much  farther  south  than  Saint  Peters- 
burg, has  a  still  more  rigorous  winter  climate, 
owing  to  its  inland  location.  The  mean  tempera- 
ture of  Odessa  in  summer  and  in  winter  is  about 
the  same  as  that  of  Boston.  On  the  whole  the 
climate  is  very  uniform  considering  the  size 
of  the  country.  As  the  Russian  plain  is  low, 
atmospheric  disturbances  are  easily  propagated 
over  the  entire  surface.  No  mountain  ranges 
obstruct  the  cold  north  wind  that  sweeps  from 
the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Black  Sea.  The  warm 
southern  breezes  are  felt  along  the  slopes  of  the 
Urals  to  the  mouth  of  the  Petchora  and  to  Arch- 
angel. In  the  greater  part  of  Russia  proper  the 
winters  are  long  and  severe  and  the  summers  are 
hot  and  sultry.  In  the  Baltic  Provinces  the  win- 
ters are  less  severe  than  in  the  interior.  The 
rainfall  of  European  Russia  is  less  than  that 
of  Western  Europe;  but  though  the  average  pre- 
cipitation is  not  over  20  inches  a  year,  it  is  usu- 
ally sufficient  to  insure  good  crops.  The  rainfall 
decreases  from  northwest  to  southeast,  being 
smallest  around  the  northern  shores  of  the  Cas- 
pian Sea.  At  Saint  Petersburg  the  annual 
precipitation  is  18  inches,  at  Kazan  14,  and 
at  Astrakhan  4.8  inches.  Nearly  the  whole 
of  Russia  is  covered  for  months  in  winter 
with  a  thick  mantle  of  snow,  which  contrib- 
utes greatly  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil  when 
the  spring  thaw  sets  in.  Snow  covers  the 
ground  at  Odessa  for  80  days  and  at  Mos- 
cow 120  days.  The  rivers  throughout  the  empire 
freeze  in  winter.  The  coldest  winds  of  the  coun- 
try are  the  moist  north  and  the  dry  east  winds. 

The  mixed  clays  and  sands  spread  over  the 
surface  of  nearly  the  entire  northern  half  of  the 
country  in  the  glacial  epoch  form  soils  of 
fair  average  fertility,  on  which  grow  vast  ex- 
panses of  forests  and  large  areas  of  flax,  hemp, 
and  cereals.  The  region  of  unsurpassed  fertility, 
however,  is  the  black  earth  lands  between  the 
glacier-swept  area  and  the  steppes  of  the  extreme 
south,  covered  with  deep,  rich  humus,  now  con- 
siderably impoverished,  owing  to  many  years  of 
over-cropping  without  fertilizers.  The  only  un- 
fertile region  in  the  warmer  areas  is  the  salt 
steppes  of  the  southeast,  whose  unproductivity  is 
due  more  to  the  lack  of  rain  than  to  the  failure 
of  plant-food  in  the  soil. 

Flora.  The  five  areas  into  which  the  vegeta- 
tion of  European  Russia  may  be  divided  corre- 
spond roughly  to  so  many  climatic  zones.  In  the 
north,  between  the  Arctic  Circle  and  the  ice 
ocean,  is  a  treeless  land  (tundra),  covered  with 
vast  marshy  moors,  interrupted  by  boulder- 
strewn  plains,  solidly  frozen  much  of  the  year, 
and  producing  nothing  but  reindeer  and  other 
mosses,  lichens,  and  stunted  shrubs.     South  of 


the  tundra  is  the  forest  region,  the  third  largest 
in  the  temperate  zones,  covering  more  than  a 
third  of  Russia^  and  embracing  the  north  and  a 
part  of  the  central  regions.  The  low  forests 
forming  the  northern  belt  of  the  forest  zone  con- 
sist of  birch,  larch,  silver  fir,  and  some  other 
hardy  trees.  They  are  succeeded  by  the  high 
forests  of  splendid  arboreal  vegetation,  mostly 
conifers,  pine  and  fir,  yielding  great  supplies  of 
soft  lumber  and  resin,  turpentine,  and  tar. 
The  conifers  are  succeeded  by  the  great  deciduous 
forests  of  Central  Russia  (oak,  maple,  ash,  and 
other  trees),  which  form  the  southern  belt  of  the 
forest  zone.  Agriculture  has  pushed  northward 
into  this  zone,  and  large  areas  of  the  flax,  hemp, 
and  rye  fields  occupy  cleared  lands.  South  of 
the  forest  zone  and  roughly  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Volga  is  Russia's  greatest  source  of  wealth 
— the  black  earth  region  {Tchemoziom) ,  the 
granary  of  Russia,  with  boundless  fields  of  wheat 
and  other  cereals,  and  with  an  abundance  of 
grasses,  but  with  an  absence  of  trees.  This 
broad  zone  extends  into  Rumania  on  the  west  and 
passes  around  the  Southern  Urals  into  Siberia 
on  the  east.  Still  farther  to  the  south,  skirting 
the  Black  and  Caspian  seas,  lie  the  steppes.  The 
River  Don,  traversing  the  steppes,  divides  them 
into  two  parts  of  very  different  character.  The 
western  and  well-watered  half  is  a  populous 
pastoral  district,  rich  in  nutritious  grasses,  on 
which  many  millions  of  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep 
are  fed  and  fattened;  the  eastern  half,  arid 
and  inhabited  only  by  wandering  tribes  of  Kal- 
mucks and  Cossacks,  is  occupied  by  bleak  plains, 
salt  marshes  and  lakes,  and  sandy  deserts.  Bes- 
sarabia and  the  Crimea  form  a  southern  zone  be- 
yond the  steppes,  where  maize  thrives,  the  wines 
of  Russia  are  produced,  and  the  olive  ripens. 

Fauna.  The  Arctic  fox  and  polar  bear,  rein- 
deer, and  seals  are  found  along  the  northern 
coasts  or  on  the  lands  north  of  the  Xrctic  Circle. 
The  forests  formerly  made  Russia  the  great 
source  of  the  fur  and  skin  trade  of  Eurasia, 
but  this  commerce  has  been  largely  reduced  by 
the  over-destruction  of  fur  animals,  and  Russia 
has  for  years  given  way  to  Siberia  as  the  chief 
source  of  the  empire's  fur  trade.  The  fox,  hare, 
brown  and  other  bears,  wolf,  lynx,  elk  and 
other  deer,  wild  boar,  and  glutton  still  abound 
in  the  forests.  The  beaver  is  now  found  only  in 
the  Government  of  Minsk.  Most  of  the  camivora 
of  the  forest  belt  and  also  squirrels,  foxes,  and 
hares  are  found  in  tlie  black  earth  region,  but 
the  most  distinctive  animals  of  this  agricultural 
area  are  the  suslik  and  the  baibak,  which  are 
the  pests  of  the  grain  fields.  Birds,  most  nu- 
merous in  the  forests,  include  the  grouse,  hazel 
hen,  and  partridge.  The  northwestern  coast 
waters,  warmed  by  the  Atlantic  drift,  abound 
with  cod,  salmon,  and  other  highly  prized  fish, 
and  not  only  tlie  coast  but  also  the  river  fisheries 
are  highly  important.  The  most  remarkable  fish- 
ing grounds  are  situated  near  the  mouths  of  the 
Don,  Volga,  and  Ural,  where  herring,  sheat-fish 
(10  to  12  feet  long;  weight  over  600  pounds), 
and  sturgeon  are  caught  in  incredible  numbers. 
About  one-half  of  the  enormous  value  of  the 
Russian  fisheries  is  yielded  by  the  Caspian  Sea. 

Geology  and  Mineral  Resoubces.  Russia 
proper  is  a  geological  world  apart  from  the  rest 
of  Europe.  The  endless  variety  of  structure  that 
is  seen  in  Western  Europe  gives  place  in  Russia 
to  almost  horizontal  layers,  rising  and  falling  only . 


BXT8SIA. 


245 


BTJSSIA. 


here  and  there  in  gentle  undulations  and  covering 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  square  miles,  with  near- 
ly the  same  outward  aspect  and  the  same  interior 
structure.  The  great  zones  of  Paleozoic  and  Car- 
boniferous rocks  that  cover  Russia  stretch  away 
east  and  south  to  the  very  heart  of  Central  Asia. 
Along  the  base  of  the  Urals,  between  the  Arctic 
and  the  steppes  of  the  Caspian,  extend  the  new 
red  sandstones,  the  Permian  formations  deriving 
their  name  from  the  Government  of  Perm,  which 
are  generally  regarded  as  marking  the  close  of 
the  Paleozoic  era.  There  are  also  some  rocks 
of  more  recent  ages.  Jurassic  strata  skirt  the 
Permian  southward  and  overlap  them  in  the 
oentre,  forming  a  rough  triangle  which  tapers 
from  the  Arctic  to  the  Volga ;  and  farther  south, 
ehalk,  Tertiary  and  more  recent  rocks  skirt  a 
granitic  tableland  that  obliquely  crosses  the 
steppes  in  the  extreme  south;  granites  are  also 
predominant  in  Finland.  In  the  southwest  of 
Poland  the  highlands  contrast  forcibly  with  the 
great  plain  in  the  variety  of  their  formations, 
which  include  chalks  and  Jurassic,  Triassic,  Car- 
boniferous, and  Devonian  rocks,  many  minerals 
being  mined  in  this  hilly  region.  The  Urals  form 
geologically  one  system  throughout  of  crystalline 
rocks.  The  gold  of  the  Middle  Urals  is  not 
sought  in  the  granitic  and  serpentine  rocks,  but 
in  the  detritus  that  covers  a  large  area  at  the 
base  of  the  mountains.  The  mountains  that 
cross  the  south  side  of  the  Crimea  are  of  lime- 
stone and  are  mere  fragments  of  the  former 
ranges. 

The  whole  of  North  Russia,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  that  portion  of  the  plain  along  the 
Urals,  was  buried  during  the  glacial  period  un- 
der the  ice  masses  which  invaded  it  from  the 
Scandinavian  peninsula,  covering  the  land  with 
morasses  and  erratic  boulders,  and  leaving  thou- 
sands of  glacial  lakes  among  the  evidences  of 
the  various  advances  and  retreats  of  the  ice 
sheet.  No  region  of  Europe  is  more  thickly 
sprinkled  with  erratic  boulders,  many  of  enor- 
mous size,  than  Finland.  In  the  southern  part  of 
Russia,  on  the  othei'  hand,  no  erratic  boulders  are 
found  to  the  south  of  Tula,  Ryazan,  and  Kazan. 
All  traces  of  the  ancient  glaciers  disappear 
where  the  black  earth  lands  oegin.  The  great 
legion  of  salt  lakes,  marshes,  and  steppes  which 
forms  the  southeastern  steppe  region  of  Russia 
is  a  remnant  of  the  old  Caspian  basin. 

In  its  mineral  wealth  Russia  is  one  of  the  most 
richly  endowed  countries  of  Europe.  Gold,  sil- 
ver, platinum,  iron,  copper,  zinc,  salt,  and  coal 
are  the  principal  minerals  worked.  Defective 
means  of  communication  and  dearth  of  fuel  have 
hitherto  prevented  the  mining  industry  from  at- 
taining full  development.  The  only  regions 
where  coal  and  iron  in  juxtaposition  are  largely 
mined  are  in  the  Donetz  coal  basin  and  Poland. 
Between  1887  and  1897  Russia  tripled  its  pro- 
duction of  iron  and  steel.  Iron  ore  is  found  in 
Perm  and  Vyatka  (Urals),  in  a  mining  region 
around  Moscow  ( Central  Russia ) ,  in  the  Donetz 
basin  (South  Russia),  Poland,  Finland,  and  to  a 
small  extent  in  some  other  regions.  Magnetic 
ironstone,  the  most  valuable  iron  ore,  is  mined 
ak>ng  a  large  part  of  the  Urals. 

The  production  of  pig  iron  has  ranged  since 
1898  from  2,200,000  tons  to  2.850,000  tons  a 
Tear.  South  Russia  has  supplied  about  one- 
half,  the  Urals  about  one-fourth,  and  Poland 
one-ninth.    The  production  of  steel  in  1899  was 


1,318,000  tons,  the  rolled  iron  product  being  only 
about  one-third  as  large  as  the  steel  output.  Rus- 
sia supplies  about  four- fifths  of  all  the  coal  and 
pig  iron  .consumed  in  the  country  and  nearly  all 
of  the  steel.  Coal  exists  in  much  greater  quan- 
tities than  was  formerly  supposed.  The  best 
coal  (partly  anthracite)  is  obtained  in  South 
Russia  near  the  Donetz  River,  and  these  mines 
and  those  of  Poland  yield  two- thirds  of  the 
output.  The  mines  of  Poland  are  a  continu- 
ation of  the  Silesian  coal  measures.  The  cen- 
tral coal  field  south  of  Moscow  is  also  important. 
It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  work  the  Russian  coal 
deposits,  and,  though  the  total  annual  yield  has 
steadily  increased  (298,500  tons  in  1860,  695,400 
in  1870,  3,280,000  in  1880,  6,022,000  in  1890,  and 
over  12,000,000  tons  in  1899),  the  supply  falls 
short  of  the  quantity  required.  The  imports, 
chiefly  from  England,  are  large  in  spite  of  the 
tariff.  The  chief  sources  of  gold  are  Siberia 
(28,276  kilograms  in  1899)  and  the  Ural  Moun- 
tains (10,465  kilograms),  about  one- fourth  of  the 
product  being  obtained  from  auriferous  veins. 

Copper  (8000  tons  in  1901)  comes  chiefly 
from  the  Urals  and  Caucasus  and  to  a  lesser 
extent  from  Poland  and  Finland.  About  90  per 
cent,  of  the  world's  supply  of  platinum  comes 
from  the  west  side  of  the  Urals  (6223  kilo- 
grams in  1901).  Zinc  (6000  tons  in  1901)  is 
a  product  of  Poland.  Mercury  (357  tons  in 
1899)  comes  from  Ekaterinoslav  in  South  Russia 
and  C)aucasia.  Salt  is  found  in  Russia  in  in- 
exhaustible abundance.  The  rich  beds  of  rock 
salt  in  the  Donetz  basin  yielded  789,800  tons  in 
1899;  333,600  tons  came  from  Astrakhan,  and 
315,500  from  Perm.  Tlie  total  product  in  1899 
was  1,643,000  tons.  The  lakes  of  the  southeast- 
em  steppes  yield  abundant  salt  and  some  of 
them  are  filled  with  a  saturated  solution  of  salt. 
Many  lakes  also  yield  soda.  Iridium  (solid), 
malachite  (in  large  blocks),  lapis  lazuli,  emer- 
alds, diamonds,  topazes,  and  onyxes  are  found 
in  the  Urals,  and  amber  on  the  Baltic  coasts. 
Russia  is  deficient  in  building  stone,  but  colossal 
blocks  of  granite  occur  in  Finland.  Porcelain 
clay  and  meerschaum  are  found  in  the  Crimea. 
Marble  is  quarried  in  Finland  and  the  Crimea. 
There  are  numerous  chalybeate,  sulphur,  and  sa- 
line sprmgs.  Peat  moors  on  the  Baltic  coast  and 
near  Moscow  are  a  source  of  fuel.  The  Baku  pe- 
troleum fields  in  Transcaucasia  are  one  of  the 
greatest  sources  of  mineral  oil  in  the  world.  The 
total  production  of  crude  oil  in  1901  was  85,168,- 
556  barrels.  A  pipe  line  with  pumping  stations 
over  the  mountains  from  Baku  to  Batum  to  fa- 
cilitate transportation  by  Black  Sea  routes  was 
nearing  completion  in  1903.  Two-thirds  of  Rus- 
sia's contribution  to  the  world's  gold  output  comes 
from  Siberia. 

The  world  receives  its  chief  supply  of  manga- 
nese' from  the  Caucasian  mines  in  the  Govern- 
ment of  Koutais,  where  there  is  a  vast  bedded 
deposit  nearly  seven  feet  thick,  lying  practically 
level.  The  production  in  1899  was  416,340  long 
tons. 

Agriculture.  Russia  is  preeminently  an  agri- 
cultural State.  It  pays  for  its  imports  with  farm 
produce,  and  four-fifths  of  the  population  subsist 
by  husbandry.  One- fifth  of  the  surface,  however 
— the  tundras  in  the  north  and  the  salt  steppes  in 
the  southeast — is  entirely  incapable  of  cultiva- 
tion. There  are  also  about  15,000,000  acres  of 
unproductive  swamp  lands  in  West  Russia,  but 


BX7SSIA. 


246 


BXrSSIA. 


drainage  works  are  gradually  reclaiming  them. 
About  38  per  cent,  of  the  cultivable  area  is  occu- 
pied by  forests,  and  about  16  per  cent,  by  pas- 
tures and  meadows.  About  900,000,009  acres 
are  cultivable,  of  which  225,000,000  consist  of 
the  celebrated  black  earth,  which  is  naturally  the 
richest  wheat  land  in  the  world.  Owing  to  the 
small  density  of  the  population,  however,  only 
about  215,000,000  acres  are  usually  under  crops. 

Some  of  the  evils  to  which  farming  in  Russia 
is  subject  are  only  partly  remediable.  The  long 
winters  and  short,  hot  summers  force  grain  rapid- 
ly to  maturity  and  compress  into  a  few  weeks 
an  amount  of  work  to  which  the  farmers  of 
Western  Europe  can  give  as  many  months.  Thus 
more  men  and  horses  are  needed  in  a  few  critical 
weeks  than  can  be  utilized  at  other  periods  of 
the  year.  The  scanty  rainfall  also  is  in  some 
years  more  meagre  than  in  others,  and  periods 
of  drought  and  severe  famine  ensue,  the  evil  be- 
ing intensified  by  the  fact  that  most  of  the  peas- 
ants are  poor  and  do  not  carry  reserve  supplies 
of  food  over  from  one  year  to  another.  The 
Government  in  1899  adopted  new  regulations  for 
the  more  thorough  distribution  of  relief  supplies 
in  these  periods  of  distress.  Farming  is  still 
generally  conducted  by  very  primitive  methods. 
English  farmers  raise  from  two  to  four  times  as 
much  grain  to  the  acre  as  Russian  farmers.  The 
tenant  system  on  the  enormous  estates  of  the 
great  landowners  results  in  wasteful  and  careless 
methods  of  tillage.  There  are  no  well-cultivated 
detached  small  farms,  most  of  the  peasantry  liv- 
ing in  communes  (mirs)  going  out  to  till  lands 
that  are  not  theirs,  but  are  owned  by  the  com- 
munity, though  the  product  belongs  to  the  indi- 
vidual cultivator.  (See  MiB.)  Landownership 
among  the  peasantry  is,  however,  rapidly  in- 
creasing. Agricultural  development  is  also  hin- 
dered, of  course,  by  the  ignorance  of  the  lower 
classes,  a  difficulty  which  the  Government  is  try- 
ing to  remedy  by  the  opening  of  schools  of  hus- 
bandry and  model  farms.  Agricultural  machin- 
ery is  scarcely  employed  excepting  on  the  large 
estates.  In  spite  of  these  drawbacks,  however, 
European  Russia  produces  about  two-thirds  of 
the  oats  and  half  the  rye  of  Europe,  and  more 
barley  than  any  other  European  State;  is 
surpassed  only  by  the  United  States  in  its 
wheat  crop;  and  raises  more  flax  and  hemp 
than  any  other  country  in  the  world.  These 
cereal  and  fibre  crops,  together  with  potatoes, 
beet  root,  and  tobacco,  are  the  great  agricultural 
products  of  Russia. 

The  chief  place  is  taken  by  cereals.  Rye  (rep- 
resenting over  one-third  of  the  ground  sown)  is 
the  best  crop.  It  is  the  leading  breadstuff  for 
home  consumption  and  the  quantity  raised  is 
more  than  double  that  of  wheat.  But  wheat  is  the 
most  important  export  crop,  being  groAvn  chiefly 
in  the  black  earth  region  of  South  Russia.  In 
good  seasons  Russia  exports  about  100,000,000 
bushels,  being  second  only  to  the  United  States 
as  a  seller  of  this  cereal,  and  supplying  three- 
fourths  of  the  export  wheat  of  Europe.  The 
yield  is  on  an  average  only  about  9  bushels  to  the 
acre,  or  only  about  two-thirds  of  that  in  the 
United  States.  Oats,  barley,  and  rye  are  raised 
chiefly  north  of  the  great  wheat  area,  and  maize 
is  grown  in  the  southwest.  Until  1877  Russia 
surpassed  the  United  States  in  the  production  of 
cereals.  The  average  annual  output  of  cereals 
for  five  years  from  1896  to  1900,  inclusive,  for 


the  empire  (including  Poland,  the  Caucasus,  Si- 
beria, and  Central  Asia)  was  (in  bushels) : 
Wheat,  419,000,000;  rye,  802,000,000;  oats,  800,- 
000,000;  barley,  252,400,000. 

Rice  is  an  increasing  crop  in  the  Caucasus,  Si- 
beria  (Transbaikalia),  and  Turkestan,  and  is  now 
largely  used  by  the  peasants  throughout  the 
empire.  The  crop  of  Transcaucasia  alone 
amounts  to  about  50,000  tons  a  year  and  is 
shipped  all  over  Russia  through  the  Volga  and 
Black  Sea  ports.  The  beet  industry  is  one  of 
the  most  important  branches  of  agriculture  and 
manufacture  in  Russia.  Domestic  beet  sugar 
supplies  the  entire  demand  of  the  empire,  and 
furnishes  enormous  quantities  for  export,  Russia 
being  the  chief  source  of  sugar  for  all  the  Black 
Sea  territory  and  Persia.  The  excess  over  the 
home  demand  is  forced  out  of  the  coimtry  and 
sold  abroad  at  a  price  below  that  prevailing  at 
home.  More  than  1,000,000  acres,  mainly  in  the 
black  earth  region  and  South  Poland,  are  given 
to  sugar-beet  culture. 

In  1899  4,004,642  acres  in  European  Russia,  in- 
cluding Poland,  were  in  fiax  and  yielded  357,369 
tons  of  fibre  and  17,304,357  bushels  of  linseed. 
Russia  supplies  nearly  four-fifths  of  the  flax  tow 
consumed  by  all  countries.  The  product  is  not 
of  superior  quality,  but  its  export  is  a  source 
of  great  wealth.  It  is  grown  in  Poland,  the  Bal- 
tic Provinces  and  the  region  of  the  Upper  Volga 
for  tow  and  in  the  more  fertile  black  earth  lands 
for  linseed.  Hemp  is  grown  in  the  same  districts 
and  also  in  the  central  governments  of  Orel, 
Tula,  Kaluga,  and  others.  In  1899  the  crop 
yielded  217,380  tons  of  fibre  and  19,675,262  bush- 
els of  hempseed  from  1,813,034  acres.  Next  to 
grain,  flax  and  hemp  form  the  principal  exports 
of  Russia.  The  cotton-raising  districts  of  the 
empire  are  in  Russian  Turkes&n  and  Transcau- 
casia, the  largest  supply,  averaging  about  800,- 
000,000  poun£  annually,  coming  from  Ferghana, 
most  of  it  raised  from  seed  of  American  up- 
land. The  cultivation  of  potatoes  has  doubled 
in  the  past  quarter  of  a  century  and 
the  tubers  are  largely  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  spirits.  Russia  ranks  after  Qermany  and 
Austria-Hungary  in  tobacco  culture,  producing 
about  100,000,000  pounds  a  year  in  Bessarabia, 
Little  Russia,  and  South  Russia,  much  of  it  of 
superior  quality.  Transcaucasia  adds  to  the 
supply.  Viticulture  has  made  much  progress  in 
the  southwest  and  south  (Bessarabia,  Oenson, 
Podolia,  and  the  Crimea).  Bessarabia  has  about 
200,000  acres  of  vineyards.  The  best  red  wines 
now  compare  favorably  with  good  French  wines 
and  are  cheaper,  and  the  champagnes  of  Odessa 
compete  successfully  in  Russia  with  the  French 
vintage.    Fruit  is  grown  in  the  south. 

Forests.  Wood  is  used  in  Russia  on  a  most 
wasteful  and  extravagant  scale  both  for  indus- 
trial purposes  and  as  fuel.  Though  the  wealth 
of  European  Russia  in  timber  alone  is  surpassed 
only  by  the  forests  of  Canada  and  the  United 
States,  and  the  forests  of  the  empire  probably 
surpass  those  of  any  other  country  in  extent,  the 
science  of  forestry  is  almost  non-existent.  In  parts 
of  the  north  the  superabundant  woods  are  utilized 
only  to  produce  potash,  resin,  tar,  and  turpen- 
tine, while  the  south  suffers  for  want  of  timber. 
Russia  exports  timber  to  the  value  of  from  $30,- 
000,000  to  $50,000,000  a  year.  The  forests  in 
Russia  proper  cover  an  area  of  about  475,000,000 


BTT8SIA. 


acres;  in  Finland,  60,000,000;  and  in  Poland, 
6,700,000. 

Stock-IUisii70.  In  its  live-stock  interests  Rus- 
sia naturally  surpasses  any  other  country  of 
Europe.  Nearly  half  the  horses  of  the  Continent 
are  raised  in  Russia;  it  leads  all  the  other  coun- 
tries in  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats,  and  is  inferior 
only  to  Germany  in  the  number  of  hogs.  In  pro- 
portion to  the  population,  however,  Russia's 
wealth  in  live  stock  is  not  remarkable.  The  in- 
dustry is  largest  on  the  broad  southwestern 
steppe,  where  the  animals  spend  the  whole  year 
in  the  open  air.  Farther  north,  however,  animals 
must  be  fed  under  cover  for  100  to  200  days  in 
the  year,  and  this  is  a  great  region  of  hay-mak- 
ing. The  breeding  of  domestic  animals  is  not 
skilfully  conducted  except  as  to  horses,  the  3000 
stud  farms  by  which  the  Government  is  promot- 
ing this  industry  having  been  so  successful  that 
Kussia  now  has  not  only  the  most,  but  also  the 
best  horses  in  Europe.  Meat,  tallow,  and  hides 
are  the  main  objects  of  cattle-raising,  dairy  in- 
terests being  neglected.  Next  to  Great  Britain, 
Russia  yields  l£e  largest  quantity  of  wool  in 
Europe,  all  of  which  is  utilized  in  the  Russian 
wool  factories,  most  of  it  being  sold  in  the 
great  wool  markets  of  Warsaw,  Kharkov, 
Nizhni-Novgorod,  and  Rostov.  Bristles  are 
the  chief  article  of  hog  products  exported. 
Camels  are  bred  in  the  southeast,  and  reindeer 
form  the  wealth  of  the  Laplanders  and  the 
inhabitants  of  Northeast  Siberia.  The  num- 
ber of  domestic  animals  in  the  empire  in 
1900  was:  Horses,  25,961,700;  cattle,  43,686,900; 
sheep  and  goats,  70,647,300;  hogs,  13,924,500. 
Perhaps  in  no  other  coimtry  are  fish  so  iluportant 
in  domestic  economy  as  in  Russia.  On  account  of 
the  numerous  fast-days,  fish  are  indispensable  to 
the  whole  nation;  and  though  the  value  of  the 
home  fisheries  is  in  some  years  as  high  as  $50,- 
000,000,  large  imports  are  necessary,  and  isin- 
glass and  caviare  are  the  only  fishery  produce 
exported. 

IUnufactxtbes.  The  Grovemment  protects 
home  industries  by  imposing  a  very  high  tariff 
on  unports,  averaging  about  35  per  cent,  of  their 
value.  Until  about  1820  Russia  was  almost  com- 
pletely dependent  upon  other  nations  for  manu- 
factured goods.  Manufactures  have  wonderfully 
developed  under  the  protective  tariff,  but  the 
hardsUps  of  excessive  protection  have  forced  the 
Government  recently  to  abolish  some  of  the  im- 
port duties,  notably  those  on  iron  and  steel.  In- 
dustries have  be«n  greatly  promoted  by  the 
variety  of  raw  material  which  the  empire  affords, 
as  well  as  by  the  abundance  of  capital  (much  of 
it  from  foreign  countries,  attracted  into  the  em- 
pire by  high  protection)  and  the  large  dividends 
which  enterprises  in  Russia  have  yielded.  Trained 
talent  and  highly  skilled  labor  from  foreign  coun- 
tries are  largely  employed.  The  superintendents, 
chemists,  engineers, '  and  mechanics  in  the  fac- 
tories are  generally  foreigners. 

The  industrial  system  differs  much  from  those 
of  more  western  coimtries.  The  larger  part  of  the 
Russian  facteries  are  very  small  and  are  situated 
in  the  country,  not,  as  in  the  United  States  and 
England,  in  the  towns.  The  majority  of  the  work 
people  are  engaged  in  agriculture  in  summer,  but 
devote  the  long  winters  to  various  manufactures, 
either  in  their  own  homes,  or  in  towns,  whither 
they  repair  for  employment.  Moscow,  Saint 
Petersburg,  Warsaw,  Lodz,  and  Bialystok  have 


247  BX7S0IA. 

a  permanent  manufacturing  population.  Many 
other  cities  attract  to  their  factories  in  winter 
thousands  of  work  people  from  the  farms;  and  a 
large  part  of  the  factory  hands  in  all  the  larger 
centres  are  those  who  have  abandoned  agriculture 
for  manufacturing  pursuits.  The  manufacture  of 
linen,  woolen  goods,  leather,  house  utensils,  earth- 
enware, hats,  and  many  other  articles  is  still 
very  largely  in  the  hands  of  peasant  work  people 
(Kustari),  who  produce  their  wares  in  their 
own  homes  or  village  shops.  Their  work  is 
highly  skilled,  for  the  division  of  labor  is  often 
carried  to  a  very  great  length.  Therie  are  more 
than  100,000  of  these  small  factories  and  home 
workshops,  most  of  which  were  not  included  in 
the  enumeration  of  manufactories  (including 
mining  industries)  in  Russia  proper  in  1897, 
when  the  number  of  establishments  was  given  as 
39,029,  employing  2,098,262  work  people,  and 
with  a  total  product  valued  at  $1,462,159,160. 
The  chief  branches  of  industry,  with  the  number 
of  people  employed  and  value  of  production, 
were,  in  1897 : 


People 
employed 

Production, 

Articles  of  food 

256,857 
642,520 
64,418 
88,273 
86.820 
46.190 
768,644 
143.291 
^,249 

$383,779,740 

Teztilee 

487,342,440 

Leather 

68,009,870 

Wool 

52,991,966 

ChemlcalB 

30,670,825 

Paper  and  cArdboard 

23,427.850 

Metals 

362,753,125 

Ceramics 

42,533.850 

Other. 

60.650,005 

Total 

2.098,262 

$1,462,159,160 

In  1898  the  capital  invested  in  the  leading 
financial,  manufacturing,  industrial,  steamship, 
and  other  Russian  enterprises,  numbering  1181, 
was  estimated  at  $894,480,840,  nearly  20  per 
cent,  of  which  was  supplied  by  foreign  com- 
panies. Moscow  is  the  greatest  industrial  centre. 
The  output  of  the  textile  industries  is  of  greater 
value  than  that  of  any  branch  of  manufactures. 
Only  imported  cotton  goods  were  worn  before 
1840,  but  there  are  now  nearly  5,000,000  cotton 
spindles,  and  Russia  is  surpassed  in  amount  of 
cotton  spinning  only  by  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States.  The  product  of  the  cotton  indus- 
try was  valued  in  1897  at  430,218,000  rubles,  or 
about  half  the  value  of  the  entire  textile  output. 
The  product  not  only  meets  almost  the  entire  do- 
mestic demand,  but  there  is  also  a  surplus  for  ex- 
port te  Asia  and  Rumania.  Russian  cotton  goods 
cannot  compete  in  the  markets  of  Central  and 
Western  Europe;  neither  is  there  any  market  in 
Russia  for  any  Western  cotton  products  excepting 
the  finer  fabrics  which  are  not  yet  produced  at 
home.  The  chief  cotton-manufacturing  centres  are 
the  Moscow  district,  with  large  dyeing  and  print- 
ing works,  Vladimir,  Ivanovna,  Tver,  Shuya, 
Saint  Petersburg,  Warsaw,  and  Lodz,  which  last 
produces  seven-eighths  of  all  the  cotton  cloth 
made  in  Poland  and  one-tenth  of  the  cotton  yam 
spun  in  Russia.  The  woolen  industry  also  has 
greatly  expanded,  especially  in  the  manufacture 
of  cloth,  the  Moscow  district  leading.  The  car- 
pets of  Vassilievka,  near  Moscow,  are  noteworthy. 
The  value  of  the  flax  and  hempen  goods,  produced 
chiefly  in  the  households  and  in  the  factories  of 
the  central  governments,  averages  about  $125,- 
000,000  a  year.  The  silk  industry,  centred  al- 
most wholly  in  the  Moscow  district,  consumes 


BX7SSIA. 


248 


BTJSSIA. 


over  $6,000,000  of  raw  silk  and  yam  a  year,  pur- 
chased in  Italy,  China,  and  Persia.  Efforts  are 
being  made  to  extend  silk-culture  in  Transcauca- 
sia and  Turkestan  in  order  to  reduce  the  foreign 
imports.  The  distillation  of  spirits  ranks  next  to 
textiles  in  value  of  output,  the  consumption  of 
spirits  being  nearly  two  gallons  per  capita  a 
year.  In  1899  there  were  1769  distilleries  in 
European  Russia,  producing  171,291,204  gallons 
by  distillation,  and  the  brewing  business  is  also 
large.  Esthonia,  south  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland, 
is  the  largest  centre  of  production.  The  Govern- 
ment, with  a  view  to  restricting  intemperance 
among  the  peasantry,  now  controls  the  produc- 
tion and  sale  of  spirituous  beverages  (not  includ- 
ing wine  and  beer)  throughout  European  Russia. 

The  native  metal  industry  is  of  great  impor- 
tance, though  it  has  suffered  greatly  from  de- 
fective communications  and  lack  of  fuel.  The 
manufactories  of  machinery  are  located  in  the 
central  and  particularly  the  southern  indus- 
trial region.  Many  factories  supply  agricul- 
tural machines  and  implements,  the  value 
of  the  output  having  risen  from  $1,112,600 
in  1867  to  nearly  $5,000,000  in  1897.  This 
business  is  yet  in  its  infancy  and  Russia  is 
still  dependent  upon  other  nations  for  its  best 
metal  goods  in  all  lines,  machinery  coming  from 
the  United  States,  England,  and  Germany.  Still 
the  metal  industries  employ  a  vast  number  of 
workmen  (646,000  in  the  mining  and  working 
of  metals  in  1899).  The  railroads  are  supplied 
with  home-made  rails.  Iron  and  steel  goods  of 
many  kinds  are  produced.  Moscow  and  Saint 
Petersburg  manufacture  gold  and  silver  articles, 
watches,  and  musical  and  astronomical  instru- 
ments. The  output  of  refined  sugar  from  277 
sugar  works  was  880,497  tons  in  1901,  most  of 
the  mills  and  refineries  being  in  Poland  (chiefly 
near  Warsaw)  and  Little  Russia  (especially  in 
the  Government  of  Kiev ) .  The  tobacco  factories 
(Saint  Petersburg,  Moscow,  Kherson,  Finland) 
manufactured  85,220  tons  of  tobacco,  cigars,  and 
cigarettes  in  1898,  cigarettes  being  an  article  of 
export.  Russian  leather  manufactures,  long 
famous,  are  carried  on  in  all  parts  of  the  empire. 
The  well-known  Russia  leather  is  made  chiefly 
in  the  centre  and  north,  Turkey  leather  in  the 
east  and  south.  Ships  are  built  at  all  the  sea- 
ports and  on  the  Volga,  Oka,  and  Kama.  Chemi- 
cal factories  are  found  all  over  the  empire,  but 
chiefly  in  the  Government  of  Moscow  (saltpetre, 
potash,  and  albuminous  substances).  There  are 
nearly  4000  fiour  mills.  Saint  Petersburg's  manu- 
factures of  malachite  are  famous,  and  the  glass 
and  porcelain  made  in  the  Imperial  factory  at 
the  capital  are  of  a  very  high  class.  The  produc- 
tion of  these  articles  and  also  of  paper,  furniture, 
and  fancy  goods  falls  below  the  domestic  demand. 

Commerce.  It  is  not  easy  in  countries  like 
Russia,  where  the  means  of  communication  are 
poor,  for  merchants  to  inspect  all  the  varieties 
of  goods  they  may  wish  to  sell  unless  great  col- 


lections of  goods  are  brought  together  at  fixed 
times  and  at  central  places.  This  is  the  reason 
why  large  fairs  are  still  held  in  Russia.  The 
seven  principal  fairs  are  at  Moscow,  Kharkov, 
Poltava  (where  horses,  sheep,  and  wool  are  dealt 
in  on  a  large  scale),  Yelizavetgrad,  Kursk,  Irbit, 
and  Nizhni-Novgorod.  Since  1817  the  fair  at 
Nizhni-Novgorod,  at  the  junction  of  the  Volga 
and  Oka,  has  been  the  largest  in  the  empire,  and 
it  is  without  a  rival  in  any  country  for  the  great 
quantity  and  variety  of  goods  offered  for  sale. 
Here  Europe  and  Asia  exchange  their  goods. 
Wares  and  raw  materials  from  China  and 
as  far  west  as  Paris  are  displayed  and 
the  annual  sales  amount  to  about  $85,000,- 
000.  Though  railroads  and  the  employment  of 
commercial  travelers  and  other  conveniences  of 
modem  trade  are  making  rapid  headway,  little 
change  in  the  volume  of  business  at  the  great 
fair  is  observed.  The  fair  at  Irbit,  in  the  Govern- 
ment of  Perm,  is  the  great  market  for  Siberian 
goods. 

The  trade  relations  of  Russia  with  the  coun- 
tries west  and  east  of  it  are  very  different.  Russia 
is  to  Turkestan  and  all  Asiatic  countries  a  manu- 
facturing State,  sending  to  them  the  product  of 
its  mills  and  shops,  and  buying  their  cotton  and 
other  raw  materials ;  but  to  the  Western  nations 
Russia  is  an  agricultural  State,  sending  them  its 
grain,  fiax,  and  hemp,  and  buying  their  manu- 
factures. Thus  Russia  forms  an  important  con- 
necting link  between  two  quarters  of  the  globe, 
though  the  great  bulk  of  its  trade  is  with  Europe. 
The  volume  of  foreign  trade  is  small  considering 
the  vast  resources  of  European  Russia  and  its 
enormous  population.  Though  it  is  more  popu- 
lous than  the  United  States,  its  general  merchan- 
dise trade  with  foreign  countries  is  less  than  that 
of  the  small  State  of  Belgium.  A  large  part  of 
the  foreign  trade  is  in  the  hands  of  English, 
German,  French,  and  other  foreigners  established 
at  the  seaports.  The  following  is  a  statement 
of  the  average  annual  trade  of  the  country  in 
millions  of  dollars: 


1881-«6 

1891-96 

1899 

1900 

1901 

Imports 

276.0 
290.0 

234.6 
8U.0 

306.1 
309.7 

822.7 
869.2 

909.5 

Exports 

876.7 

The  above  table  includes  only  the  trade  across 
the  European  boundary  or  through  the  ports 
connecting  with  the  Atlantic;  in  other  words,  it 
includes  very  little  of  the  Asiatic  trade,  nearly 
all  of  which  crosses  the  Asiatic  land  boundary. 
The  average  exports  through  the  Asiatic  frontier 
for  the  ten  years  ending  in  1900  were  $11,- 
220,000  a  year;  the  average  imports  across  the 
Asiatic  frontier  in  the  same  period  were  $23,- 
975,100.  These  figures  include  only  the  trade  in 
general  merchandise.  The  trade  of  Russia,  ex- 
clusive of  Finland,  with  the  principal  countries 
in  1900  and  1901  was: 


Imports  from 
(1900) 

Imports  from 
(1901) 

Exports  to 
(1900) 

Exports  to 
(1901) 

Germany 

$111,614,406 
65,460.320 
16.296.695 
13.886.460 

S.725,860 
22.739.810 

8.839.395 
10,308.240 

$103,112,270 
63.167,786 
13,828,780 
12,097,776 
3.764,136 
17,864.320 
11,021,000 
11,364,206 

$96,632,026 

74,971,640 

29.586.760 

13.623,900 

9,404.415 

1,760.786 

689.676 

21.132.610 

$92,397,686 

United  Kinirdom 

80.602.740 

France 

81  618.000 

Anstria-Hunirarv' 

16.563.300 

Turkey 

10.994.786 

United  States     

2.062.790 

China 

1,872.025 

Finland 

19,904.780 

BX7S0IA. 


249 


BX78SIA. 


The  leading  imports  are  raw  and  half  manu- 
factured articles,  about  one-half  of  the  total  (cot- 
ton, metals,  coal,  wool,  silk,  leather,  hides,  skins, 
chemicals,  etc.) ;  manufactured  goods  (machin- 
ery, metal  goods,  some  textiles,  ete.) ;  articles  of 
food  (tea,  fish,  beverages,  fruits,  coffee,  and  to- 
bacco). The  leading  exports  are  cereals  and  flour 
(more  than  half  of  the  total ) ,  timber,  naphtha  and 
naphtha  oils,  flax  and  hemp,  oil  cake,  oil  grains, 
and  other  raw  and  half  manufactured  articles. 

The  growth  of  the  export  trade  of  the  United 
States  in  1901  and  1902  was  chiefly  due  to  the  re- 
moval of  the  Russian  tariff  tax  on  some  kinds 
of  agricultural  machinery.  American  sales  of 
cotton  and  machinery  are  important.  The 
United  States  purchases  from  Russia  manganese 
ore,  licorice,  and  some  other  commodities,  but  its 
imports  are  comparatively  small  because  the 
United  States  produces  in  very  large  quantities 
most  of  the  things  that  Russia  has  to  sell.  It  may 
be  observed  that  Russia's  trade  with  its  neighbors 
Austria-Hungary  and  Rumania  is  comparatively 
small  because  the  products  of  the  three  countries 
are  much  the  same.  The  trade  of  Finland  is  not 
included  in  the  trade  statistics  of  European 
Russia,  as  it  forms  a  customs  district  by  itself. 

Traivsfobtatiok  and  Commtjnioation.  The 
wagon  roads  are  generally  in  a  very  bad  con- 
dition, especially  in  spring  and  autumn.  In 
winter,  however,  when  the  whole  plain  of 
Russia  is  covered  with  snow,  sledging  is  uni- 
versal, and  the  land  transport  of  goods  is  facili- 
tated. The  rivers  and  canals  carry  enormous 
commerce,  and  are  the  cheapest  means  of  com- 
munication, in  spite  of  the  fact  that  they  have 
natural  disadvantages  as  highways.  They  are 
closed  by  ice  from  three  to  seven  months  in  the 
year,  and  the  southern  rivers,  most  notably  the 
Don,  are  much  reduced  in  depth  by  the  dryness 
of  the  summer.  There  are  about  50,000  miles  of 
navigation  on  rivers,  lakes,  and  canals  in  Euro- 
pean Russia.  Over  1700  steamers  ply  on  the 
Volga  and  its  tributaries.  There  is  direct  water 
connection  by  river  and  canal  between  the  Cas- 
pian Sea  and  the  Arctic  Ocean (2  routes)  ;  between 
the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Baltic  ( 3  routes ) ;  and  be- 
tween the  Black  Sea  and  the  Baltic  (3  routes). 

In  1902  the  empire  had  36,496  miles  of  rail- 
road, of  which  29,788  miles  were  in  European 
Russia,  1762  miles  in  Finland,  and  4545  miles 
in  Asiatic  Russia.  The  Government  owns  and 
operates  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  mileage  and  has 
connected  the  extremities  of  the  empire  by  rail. 
(See  Siberia.)  The  freight  carried  by  the  Rus- 
sian lines  in  1900  was  146,543,000  tons;  pas- 
sengers, 101,570,000.  In  1900  the  freight  car- 
ried by  the  Asiatic  lines  ( Trainscaspian,  Trans- 
Siberian,  and  Ussuri  River  railroads)  was 
4,547,795  tons;  passengers  were  2,741,694. 

The  chief  seaports  are  on  the  Baltic  and  Black 
seas.  They  are  blocked  by  ice,  except  Odessa, 
Sebastopol,  and  Novorossisk  on  the  Black  Sea, 
and  Hanga  on  the  Baltic,  from  2  to  5  months, 
hut  ice-breakers  are  mitigating  this  inconven- 
ience. The  Black  Sea  ports  are  the  main  outlets 
for  agricultural  produce.  Most  of  the  sea  trade 
with  North  and  Central  Europe  and  the  United 
States  is  through  the  Baltic  ports.  Odessa 
has  the  largest  shipping  trade,  is  the  chief 
depot  for  the  produce  of  South  Russia  (wheat, 
tallow,  wool  and  linseed),  and  has  regular  con- 
nection with  all  Black  Sea  ports,  the  chief 
Mediterranean  and  Atlantic  ports  of  Europe,  and 


the  Pacific  ports  of  Vladivostok  and  Dalny  (the 
new  port  of  the  Province  of  Kwang-tung).  Ta- 
ganrog, Rostov,  Berdiansk,  and  Mariupol  are 
grain  ports  on  the  Sea  of  Azov,  and  Astrakhan  on 
the  Volga  delta  is  the  central  point  of  the  Cas- 
pian Sea  trade.  Saint  Petersburg  is  the  leading 
port  of  the  Baltic.  Riga  is  the  most  important 
shipping  point  in  Western  Russia  for  flax,  hemp, 
and  timber.  Archangel,  on  the  White  Sea, 
has  an  important  export  trade  in  timber,  tar, 
pitch,  grain,  and  furs.  Abo,  Hang5,  Helsingfors, 
Revel,  Libau,  and  some  other  ports  are  also  im- 
portant. The  coasting  trade  is  very  large,  and 
since  January,  1900,  only  vessels  sailing  under  the 
Russian  flag  can  engage  in  it.  The  mercantile 
marine  of  Russia  in  1901  consisted  of  3038 
vessels,  of  633,819  tons,  of  which  746  were 
steamers,  of  364,360  tons.  In  1901  the  total 
number  of  merchant  vessels  that  cleared  from 
the  ports  of  European  Russia  in  the  foreign 
trade  was  8,790,  of  7,536,000  tons,  of  which  only 
1349  were  Russian,  of  713,000  tons.  The  number 
of  vessels  in  the  coasting  trade  clearing  from  the 
White,  Baltic,  Black,  and  Azov  seas  was  10,039, 
of  8,582,000  tons. 

Banking.  The  Bank  of  Russia  is  the  State 
bank  and  also  a  commercial  bank.  It  has  113 
branches  throughout  the  empire.  It  issues  the 
paper  currency  of  Russia  as  necessity  occurs.  If 
the  amount  of  the  paper  currency  does  not  ex- 
ceed 600,000,000  rubles,  the  bank  guarantees  it 
by  half  of  that  sum  in  gold.  Every  issue  above 
600,000,000  rubles  must  be  guaranteed  to  the  full 
amount  in  gold  deposited  in  the  bank.  The  total 
amount  of  the  paper  currency  on  January  14, 
1903,  was  630,000,000  rubles,  and  the  guarantee 
fund  in  gold  to  cover  the  currency  was  927,600,- 
000  rubles,  or  sufficient  to  cover  a  much  larger 
issue  of  paper  money. 

The  number  of  State,  municipal,  and  postal 
savings  banks  on  January  1,  1902,  was  5,629;  de- 
positors, 3,935,773;  deposits,  722,982,000  ru- 
bles. The  State  banks  for  mortgage  loans  to  the 
nobility  had  outstanding  loans  amounting  to  902,~ 
811,500  rubles  on  January  1,  1900.  The  land  bank 
for  the  purchase  of  land  by  the  peasants  up  to 
January  1,  1902,  had  lent  money  to  630,922 
householders  and  1,969,019  individuals,  who  had 
bought  11,296,800  acres,  valued  at  244,056,483 
rubles,  of  which  191,588,006  rubles  were  lent 
by  the  bank  and  52,468,427  were  paid  by  the  buy- 
ers. The  47  mortgage  banks,  on  January  1,  1901, 
had  1,550,658,046  rubles  in  loans  on  landed  es- 
tates and  446,115,772  on  town  properties.  The 
assets  and  liabilities  of  42  private  banks  bal- 
anced at  1,425,053,000  rubles;  of  133  societies  of 
mutual  credit  at  268,884,300  rubles;  and  of  241 
municipal  banks  at  145,114,429  rubles. 

Government.  The  government  of  Russia  is  an 
absolute  hereditary  monarchy.  There  is  neither 
a  written  constitution  nor  a  representative  legis- 
lative body.  The  whole  legislative,  executive,  and 
judicial  power  is  vested  in  the  Czar  alone.  He 
bears  the  title  of  Autocrat  of  All  the  Russias,  and, 
as  the  title  indicates,  there  are  no  legal  limita- 
tions whatever  upon  his  authority.  There  are, 
however,  certain  rules,  for  the  most  part  relating 
to  the  law  of  succession,  which  the  Czar  regards 
as  binding  upon  himself.  He  exercises  the  legis- 
lative and  administrative  power  through  the  aid 
of  certain  great  councils  of  State  composed  of 
functionaries  appointed  by  himself  and  responsi- 
ble to  him  alone  for  their  conduct.    The  first  of 


BX78SCA. 


250 


BVSSIA. 


these  bodies  is  the  Council  of  the  Empire,  a 
purely  consultative  assembly  established  as  early 
as  1801  and  consisting  of  a  president  and  over 
80  members,  exclusive  of  the  ministers,  who  are 
ex-officio  members,  and  four  princes  of  the  royal 
blood.  For  the  dispatch  of  business  the  Coimcil 
is  divided  into  four  sections  or  departments,  each 
vested  with  the  control  respectively  of  legisla- 
tion, civil  and  ecclesiastical  administration, 
finance  and  commerce,  industry  and  science.  By 
one  or  the  other  of  these  sections  legislative  meas- 
ures are  drawn  up,  the  laws  interpreted  in  certain 
contingencies,  the  budget  prepared,  financial  meas- 
ures devised,  accounte  examined,  administrative 
controversies  settled,  and  political  questions  dis- 
cussed. Each  section  has  its  own  president,  and 
ordinarily  the  sittings  are  separate,  but  joint 
meetings  are  held  for  certain  purposes. 

Another  great  body  of  State  through  which  the 
Emperor  governs  is  the  Senate,  which  was  created 
by  Peter  the  Great  in  1711  and  reorganized  in 
1802.  It  is  divided  into  six  departments  or  sec- 
tions. Two  of  these  act  as  courts  of  cassation.  Their 
members,  like  the  other  Senators,  are  appointed  by 
the  Emperor,  but,  by  reason  of  their  judicial 
functions,  are  regarded  as  irremovable.  Another 
section  is  charged  with  the  promulgation  and 
execution  of  the  laws.  Other  sections  divide 
among  themselves  the  business  of  supervising  the 
collection  of  the  taxes,  the  use  of  the  public 
funds,  the  preservation  of  the  archives,  the  ap- 
pointment of  officers,  and  the  maintenance  of  or- 
der. As  a  whole,  the  Senate  is  the  final  supreme 
court  of  appeal  in  civil  and  criminal  cases  for  the 
empire,  a  supreme  administrative  court,  and  a 
disciplinary  tribunal  for  the  trial  of  public  offi- 
cers. A  third  administrative  body  is  the  Holy 
Synod,  charged  with  the  supervision  of  ecclesias- 
tical affairs.  It  is  composed  mostly  of  ecclesias- 
tics, viz.:  The  three  metropolitans  of  Saint  Pe- 
tersburg, Moscow,  and  Kiev,  the  archbishops  of 
Georgia  (Caucasus)  and  of  Poland,  and  several 
bishops.  There  is  one  lay  functionary  with  the 
title  of  Procurator-General,  who  is  also  a  member. 
All  the  members  are  appointed  by  the  Emperor. 
The  Synod  cannot  introduce  innovations  into  the 
Church,  but  it  exercises  control  over  the  Church 
in  matters  of  discipline  and  superintends  its 
higher  administration.  Its  decisions  are  made  in 
the  name  of  the  Emperor  and  have  no  force  imtil 
approved  by  him.  The  fourth  great  organ  of  Im- 
perial administration  is  the  Council  of  Ministers, 
which  dates  from  the  year  1802.  The  ministers, 
thirteen  in  number,  are  appointed  by  the  Em- 
peror, and  are  responsible  to  him  alone.  Besides 
the  Ministry,  the  Czar  has  his  private  Chancel- 
leries, charged  mainly  with  the  administration  of 
public  charities  and  certain  branches  of  public 
education,  the  examination  and  publication  of 
the  laws,  and  the  control  of  certain  branches  of 
the  police  service. 

For  the  government  of  Poland  and  Finland  spe- 
cial arrangements  are  made.  In  Poland  the  chief 
representative,  or  lieutenant^  of  the  Emperor  is 
the  Governor-General,  who  is  assisted  by  a  coun- 
cil. He  is  also  the  president  of  a  deliberative  as- 
sembly, composed  of  permanent  and  temporary 
members,  all  appointea  by  the  Emperor.  ( For  the 
government  of  Finland,  see  Finland.)  The  Rus- 
sian Empire  is  divided  for  administrative  pur- 
poses into  governments  and  provinces  and  one 
district.     At  present  there  are  96  governments 


and  provinces  and  one  district,  for  a  list  of  which 
see  table  below  under  Population. 

The  provinces  altogether  number  18,  all  of 
which  are  in  Asia  and  the  Caucasus.  Several  of 
the  governments  are  united  under  the  rule  of  a 
Governor-General.  In  each  single  government 
there  are  a  deliberative  assembly  and  a  civil  gov- 
ernor, while  in  a  number  there  is  also  a  military 
governor.  Each  government  is  divided  into  dis- 
tricts niunbering  from  5  to  15.  In  each  district 
is  also  a  deliberative  assembly  (Zemstvo)  elect- 
ed by  three  classes  of  voters,  viz.  proprietors, 
burghers,  and  inhabitants  of  the  rural  communes 
who  are  25  years  of  age  and  possess  a  certain 
amount  of  property,  or  who  are  engaged  in  busi- 
nesses of  a  certain  importance.  Members  of  the 
district  assemblies  are  chosen  for  three  years  and 
receive  no  compensation.  Their  duties  include 
the  construction  of  public  works,  administration 
of  charity,  public  health,  public  education,  and 
other  matters  of  local  concern.  The  administra- 
tion of  the  municipalities  is  vested  in  a  mayor 
{Oolova)  and  an  elected  council  or  deliberative 
assembly  {Duma).  The  members  of  the  council 
are  chosen  by  property-owners,  who  are  divided 
into  three  classes,  each  class  choosing  an  equal 
number  of  members.  Its  duties  include  the 
maintenance  of  the  public  health  and  security, 
the  care  of  markets,  ports,  charitable  institutions, 
hospitals,  and  libraries,  and  the  general  supervi- 
sion of  municipal  affairs.  A  law  of  1894  has 
materially  reduced  the  power  of  the  municipal 
government  and  placed  it  largely  \mder  the  con- 
trol of  the  Imperial  Government. 

The  lowest  administrative  unit  is  the  com- 
mune, of  which  there  are  over  107,000  in  Euro- 
pean Russia.  The  chief  executive  officer  of  the 
commune  is  the  Staroata,  Other  officers  are  the 
tax  collector,  the  treasurer,  school  trustees,  hos- 
pital inspectors,  etc.  They  are  elected  by  the 
communal  assembly  (mir).  This  is  a  popular 
meeting  of  all  the  householders  in  the  commune. 
It  has  many  elements  in  common  with  the  New 
England  town  meeting.  Its  duties  include  the 
regulation  of  all  local  affairs  of  communal  inter- 
est. Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  communal  budget,  the  voting  of  the 
taxes  and  the  apportionment  of  those  taxes  due 
the  empire,  and  the  periodical  division  of  the 
land  (which  is  generally  held  in  common)  among 
the  families  comprised  in  the  commune.  It  grants 
permission  to  peasants  who  wish  to  change  their 
residences,  passes  upon  the  admission  of  new 
members  to  the  commime,  appoints  guardians  for 
minors,  tries  petty  criminal  cases,  and  imposes 
penalties.  Usually  a  majority  vote  is  sufficient  to 
validate  any  action  of  the  mir,  though  in  some 
cases  a  two-thirds  vote  is  required.  The  Staroata 
serves  as  moderator  of  the  assembly.  He  super- 
vises the  execution  of  its  resolutions,  has  control 
of  the  police,  and  has  charge  of  the  disbursement 
of  the  communal  fimds.  Several  commimes 
grouped  together  form  a  canton  or  voloat,  of  which 
there  are  over  10,000  in  European  Russia.  Each  is 
presided  over  by  an  elder  (Starahina)  elected  by 
the  cantonal  assembly  composed  of  representa- 
tives of  the  communes  on  the  basis  of  one  mem- 
ber to  every  ten  families.  It  discharges  the  same 
duty  for  the  canton  that  the  mir  does  for  the 
commune.  It  meets  in  the  most  important  or  the 
most  central  village  of  the  commune.  The  Star- 
ahina is  assisted  by  a  coimciL    His  term  of  ser- 


BTTSSIA. 


251 


BTTSSIA. 


Vice  18  three  years  and  is  obligatory  unless  the 
appointee  is  60  years  of  age  or  has  serious  infirm- 
ities. Another  cantonal  institution  is  a  court 
consisting  of  from  4  to  12  judges  elected  by  the 
cantonal  assembly.  It  has  jurisdiction  of  misde- 
meanors and  disputes  among  the  peasants  con- 
cerning property  where  not  more  than  300  ru- 
bles in  value  are  involved.  The  capital  of  the 
Russian  Empire  is  Saint  Petersburg. 

Finance.  The  revenue  and  expenditure  of  the 
State  are  classed  under  the  heads  of  ordinary  and 
extraordinary  revenue  and  expenditure.  The  rev" 
enue  and  expenditure  for  the  years  1900  and  1901 
were  as  follows,  in  rubles: 


Ordinary 

Extraordinary 

Beyenue 

Expendi- 
ture 

Berenue 

Expendi- 
ture 

1801... 

1.704,128US06 
1.7W.i67466 

1.684.887,351 

83.668.963 
163.916.916 

388.788.615 
309.369,806 

The  ordinary  revenues  are  in  9  classifications. 
The  receipts  under  each  heading  in  1900  are 
here  given: 

(1)  Direct  taxes,  130,890,050  rubles  (from 
taxes  on  land,  forests,  and  capital,  and  sale  of 
trade  licenses).  (2)  Indirect  taxes,  686,630,944 
(from  customs  duties  and  imposts  on  spirits,  to- 
bacco, sugar,  matches,  and  naphtha).  (3)  Duties, 
94,621,466  (from  stamp  duties,  passports,  rail- 
road taxes,  etc).  (4)  State  monopolies,  223,394,- 
391  (mining,  mint,  posts,  telegraphs  and  tele- 
phones, and  sale  of  spirits).  (5)  State  domains, 
493,764,570  (rentals  from  crown  lands,  forests, 
and  mines,  net  earnings  of  State  railroads,  inter- 
est on  crown  capital,  etc.) .  (6)  Sales  of  domains, 
741,208.  (7)  Redemption  of  land,  89,970,491 
(payments  made  on  land  purchased  by  liberated 
serfs  and  crown  peasants).  (8)  Miscellaneous, 
71,905,642  (payments  on  railroad  and  crown 
debts,  aid  from  municipalities,  military  contribu- 
tion, etc.).  (9)  Various,  7,538,393.  The  extraor- 
dinary revenue  was  derived  from  interest  on  the 
perpetual  deposits  in  the  Bank  of  Russia,  interest 
on  State  loans,  and  various  other  sources,  making 
a  total  of  163,915,915,  or  a  grand  total  of  1,963,- 
373,070  rubles.  The  balance  of  ordinary  revenue 
from  previous  years  was  35,350,365  rubles  and 
from  extraordinary  revenue,  184,373,631  rubles, 
bringing  the  total  up  to  2,019,181,151  rubles, 
showing  a  surplus  of  144,924,092  rubles  over  the 
total  expenditures  for  the  year. 

The  expenditures  ordinary  and  extraordinary  in 
1901  were  as  follows: 

A.  Ordinary:  State  debt,  276,550,025  rubles; 
higher  institutions  of  State,  3,305,445;  Holy 
Synod,  24,070,702.  Ministries:  Imperial  House, 
12.924,491;  foreign  affairs,  5,374,877;  war,  334,- 
«06,006;  navy,  93,046,114;  finances,  308,490,229; 
agriculture  and  State  domains,  41,137,269;  inte- 
rior, 87,832,526;  public  instruction,  33,441,370; 
ways  of  communication,  388,551,405;  justice, 
46,058,216;  State's  comptrol,  7,112,677;  State's 
studs,  1,585,899;  various,  800,000.  Total  ordi- 
nary, 1,664,887,251. 

^B.  Extraordinary:  Building  of  new  railways, 
37,369,979  rubles;  payment  of  consolidated  rail- 
^y  bonds,  82,000,000;  China  war,  43,675,441; 
various,  46,324,388.  Total  extraordinary  expendi- 
ture, 209,369,808.  Grand  total,  1,874,257,059. 
The  national  debt  on  January  1,  1902,  amounted 
to  £684,504,661;  net  interest,  £30,288,917. 
Vol.  XV.-17. 


Weights,  Measubes,  and  Money.  The  unit 
of  coinage  is  the  silver  ruble  of  100  kopecks,  of 
the  average  value  of  51  cents.  The  imperial  and 
half  imperial  are  gold  coins  of  15  and  7.5  rubles. 
Gold  pieces  of  10  and  5  rubles  are  now  coined. 
Legal-tender  credit  notes  (100,  25,  10,  5,  and 
3  rubles  and  1  ruble)  are  also  issued.  The  unit 
of  measurement  is  the  arshin  (28  inches).  The 
verst  equals  3500  feet,  or  two-thirds  of  a  statute 
mile.  The  imit  of  weight  is  the  pound  (funt), 
equaling  9-lOths  of  a  pound  avoirdupois.  The 
pood  is  equivalent  to  40  Russian  or  36  American 
pounds.  The  meter,  kilogram,  and  their  sub- 
divisions may  l^ally  be  used. 

Abmt  and  Navy.    See  Armies;  Navies. 

Population.  The  population  of  the  Russian 
Empire  according  to  the  census  of  1897  was  129,- 
562,718.  The  grovrth  of  population  has  been  re- 
markably rapid,  the  large  natural  increase  going 
hand  in  hand  with  the  enormous  widening  of  the 
bounds  of  the  empire.  The  population  in  1722 
was  about  14,000,000;  in  1815,  45,000,000;  in 
1851,  68,000,000;  and  in  1903  it  was  estimated  at 
141,000,000. 

The  following  is  a  table  of  the  Russian  gov- 
ernments, provinces,  and  territories,  with  their 
areas,  populations,  and  capitals  (in  some  cases 
only  estimates  being  obtainable) : 


BUBOPBAN  BUS8IA 

(PBOPBB) 

GOYBRNMBNTB 


Archangel  or 
Arkhangelsk  .... 

Astrakhan 

Bessarabia , 

Ck)urland 

Don  GoBsackB. 
Province  of  the 

Ekaterlnoslav 

Eathonla 

Grodno 

Kaluga 

Kazan 

Kharkov 

Kherson 

Kiev 

Kostroma 

Kovno 

Kursk  

Livonia 

Minsk 

Mohllev 

Moscow 

Nlzhnl-Novgorod 

Novgorod  

Olonetz 

Orel 

Orenburg 

Pensa 

Perm 

Podolla 

Poltava 

Pskov 

Ryazan 

Saint  Petersburg... 

Samara 

Saratov 

Simbirsk 

Smolensk 

Tambov 

Taurida 

Tchemlgov 

Tula...... 

Tver 

Ufa 

VUna 

Vitebsk 

Vladimir 

Yolhynla 

Vologda 

Voronezh 

Vyatka 

Yaroslav 

Sea  of  Azov 


Total  of  European 

Russia  (Proper)..  1,910,868 


Area,  sq. 
miles 


826,600 
91,337 
17,619 
10,535 

63,532 
24,478 
7,818 
14.931 
11.942 
24.601 
21,041 
27.523 
19,691 
82.490 
15,524 
17.937 
18.158 
86.293 
18.622 
12,875 
19,797 
47.286 
67.489 
18.060 
78.816 
14.997 

128,211 
16.240 
19,266 
17,070 
16,261 
20.760 
68.321 
82,624 
19,110 
21.638 
26,720 
24.497 
20.233 
11.964 
25,225 
47,130 
16.420 
17,440 
18.864 
27.743 

168.900 
25,460 
69.329 
13,751 
14.520 


Popula- 
tion (1897) 


847.589 

994.775 

1,933.436 

672.634 

2,575,818 

2,112.651 

413.724 

1.617,869 


1, 

2.: 

2,1 

V 

3.f 

1.4.: 

l.f^ 

2,( 

l.J 

2,] 

1,' 

2,i 

1,< 

l.{ 

Ui,,.75 
2,064,749 
1.609.388 
1,491,215 
8.003,206 
8,031,518 
2.794,727 
1.136.540 
1,827.086 
2.107,691 
2,768,478 
2.419.884 
1.649.461 
1.561.068 
2.907.619 
1.443.566 
2.322,007 
1,432.748 
1.812.826 
2,220.497 
1.691.912 
1.502.916 
1,570,783 
2.997.902 
1.865.687 
2.546.266 
3.062,788 
1.072.478 


94.626.191 


Capital 


...Archangel 
..Astrakhan 

Kishinev 

Mltau 


Novotov 

....Ekaterlnoslav 

Reval 

Grodno 

Kaluga 

Kazan 

Kharkov 

Kherson 

Kiev 

Kostroma 

Kovuo 

Kursk 

Riga 

Minsk 

Mohllev 

Moscow 

Nlzhnl-Novgorod 

Novgorod 

Petrozavodsk 

Orel 

Orenburg 

Penza 

Perm 

K  amenetz-Podolsk 

Poltava 

Pskov 

Ryazan 

...Saint  Petersburg 

Samara 

Saratov 

Simbirsk 

Smolensk 

Tambov 

Simferopol 

Tchemlgov 

Tula 

Tver 

Ufa 

VUna 

Vitebsk 

Vladimir 

Zhitomir 

Vologda 

Voronezh 

Vyatka 

Yaroslav 


BtrssiA. 


d62 


BxrssiA. 


POLAND 
OOVXBNMBirTB 

Area,  sq. 
mUefl 

Popula- 
tion (1897) 

Capital 

KaliBh 

4.392 
8.897 
4.667 
6.603 
4.786 
8,674 
4.470 
6,636 
4.862 
6.626 

846.719 

768,746 

686,781 

1.169,463 

1.406.951 

656.877 

820,363 

797,726 

788,862 

1,933,689 

KaUsh 

Kleloe 

Kleloe 

T/Omt(ft 

Lomxa 

Lublin 

Lublin 

Plotrkow 

PiotrkoY 

Plock 

Plock 

Radom 

Radom 

Sledlce 

Sledlce 

Suvalky 

Suvalky 

Warsaw 

Wanaw 

Total  Poland 

48.360 

9,609,676 

obaud  ducht  op 

FINLAND 
OOVKRNIIBNTB 

Area.  sq. 
miles 

Popula- 
tion (1897) 

Capital 

^bo-B]Omeborg  .... 

9.336 
16.499 
4.684 
8,819 
8.334 
68.967 
16,100 

13,626 
8,094 

419.300 
813.639 
276.336 
186.478 
286.281 
268.226 
446.772 

894,412 

ibo 

Kuoplo 

Kuopio 

Nyland 

Holsingfora 

Saint  Michel 

Saint  Michel 

Tavastehue 

TavastehuB 

Ule&borg 

nieiSborg 

Yasa 

Vasa    or    Nikolai- 

Viborg 

Btad 
Tiborg 

Lake  Ladoga 

Total  Finland 

144.248 

2.690.843 

Total    European 
Russia  (proper)  In- 
cluding Poland 
and  Finland 

2,102,966 

106326^10 

OAUCABUB 

G07BKNMBNTB   AND 

PBOV1N0B8 

Area.  sq. 
miles 

Popula- 
tlon(1897) 

Capital 

Baku 

16.096 
2.836 
11.332 
10.075 
7.188 
88.660 
14.100 
23.430 
28.160 
17.200 
16,721 

789,669 

64.228 

686.636 

804,767 

292.496 

1.922,773 

1.076,861 

912,689 

933.486 

1,040,943 

871.667 

Baku 

Black  Sea 

Temlr-Khan  Shura 

Erivan 

Erivan 

Kars 

Kars 

Kuban 

Yekaterlnodar 

Kutais 

Kutais 

Stavropol 

Stavropol 

Terek 

Yladikavkaz 

Tlflis 

Tiflis 

Yelixabetopol 

Telizavetpol 

Total  Caucasus 

179,777 

9,286,036 

SIB'BRLL 

OOYEBNMBNTS   AND 

PBOYINCBB 

Area.  sq. 
miles. 

•Popula- 
tion(1897) 

Capital 

Amur 

172.848 
287.061 
714.863 
29.386 
639.659 
881.159 
236.868 
1,533.397 
987.186 

118.670 

606.500 

223.336 

28.113 

1.438.484 

1.929,092 

664.071 

261.731 

669,902 

...  Blagovestchensk 
Irkutsk 

Irkutsk 

Maritime 

Vladivostok 

Baghallen 

Alezandrovsk 

Tobolsk 

..    Tobolsk 

Tomsk 

Tomsk 

Chita 

Yakutsk 

Yakutsk 

TenlselBk 

TTrAJiTirkvn.mk' 

Total  Siberia 

4,882.867 

6,729,799 

CBMTBAL  ASIA 

GOVBRNMBNTS   AND 

PBOVINCBB 

Area.  sq. 
miles 

Population 
(1897) 

Capital 

Akmolinsk 

229.609 
85.654 
26,627 
184,631 
152.280 
194.863 
176.219 
214.287 
125.100 
169.381 
26.166 

678.957 
1.560,400 
867.847 
686.197 
990,107 
1,479.848 
453,123 
372.193 
644.001 

Omsk 

Ferghana 

Khokand 

Samarkand 

StAtni^rkAnd 

Semipalatlnsk 

....Semipalatlnsk 
Vvernyi 

Syr-Darya 

Tashkent 

Turgai 

Turgai 

Transcaspian 

Uralsk 

Uralsk 

Caspian  Sea 

Lake  Aral 

Total  Central  Asia 

1.534.757 

7,721,673 

Total   Russia  in 
Apia,  including 
all  Caucasus 

6,546.901 

22.736,606 

Grand  Total  Rus- 
Bian  Empire 

8.649.867 

129,662,n8 

The  average  increase  of  the  population  of  the 
empire  (exclusive  of  Finland)  through  excess  of 
births  over  deaths  in  the  five  years  1895-99  was 
1,968,807  a  year.  In  recent  years  there  has  been 
a  large  emigration  to  the  United  States,  made  up 
in  great  part  of  Jews.  In  the  28  years  ending  in 
1900  this  emigration  reached  a  total  of  839,364. 
The  empire  has  only  seven  cities  of  over  200,000 
inhabitants,  viz.:  Saint  Petersburg,  with  an  es- 
timated population  at  the  beginning  of  1902  of 
1,489,570;  Moscow,  1,147,245;  Warsaw,  641,936; 
Odessa,  414,218;  Lodz,  316,145;  Riga,  260,717; 
and  Kiev,  255,699. 

Education.  Russia  is  much  behind  most  of 
the  nations  of  Western  Europe  in  education.  The 
efforts  of  Peter  the  Great  and  his  successors  were 
entirely  concerned  with  the  upper  classes  and 
higher  education.  The  continuous  exertions  of 
the  Government  are  the  source  of  the  refined  cul- 
ture of  the  upper  classes,  of  the  numerous  scien- 
tific institutions,  the  multiplication  and  improve- 
ment of  universities  and  middle  schools,  and  the 
better  training  of  the  clergy.  But,  in  consequence 
of  the  existence  of  serfdom,  no  account  was  taken 
of  the  masses  of  the  people  till  Alexander  II. 
aimed  at  universal  popular  education.  Since 
that  time  great  progress  has  been  made,  but, 
owing  to  the  sparsity  of  the  population  and  the 
differing  levels  of  civilization  throughout  the 
empire,  it  will  be  long  before  a  high  average  of 
education  is  attained.  Not  half  of  the  children 
of  school  age  actually  attend  school.  Most  of 
the  schools  of  the  empire  are  under  the  Ministry 
of  Public  Instruction  and  the  entire  empire  is 
divided  into  15  educational  districts.  Many 
normal,  technical,  and  other  special  schools  are 
supported  by  one  or  another  department  of  the 
Government  or  the  Holy  Synod  or  are  conducted 
as  private  institutions.  The  university  stadents 
numbered  17,299  in  1902. 

Religion.  The  orthodox  Greek  faith  is  the 
established  religion  of  the  empire,  and  accord- 
ing to  official  estimates  its  adherents  are  about  70 
per  cent,  of  the  entire  population.  The  adher- 
ents of  the  various  faiths  number  approximately 
(1903): 

Orthodox  Qreek  (including  dissidents) 100,000.000 

Cathollcfl 12,000,000 

Protestants 6.000.000 

Other  Christians 1,000.000 

Mohammedans 14,000,000 

Jews 6.000,000 

To  this  must  be  added  some  millions  of  Bud- 
dhists and  pagans.  The  Jews  are  placed  under 
grievous  restrictions,  and  various  sects  of  dissent- 
ers from  the  established  faith  and  the  followers 
of  certain  new  creeds,  some  of  them  extremely  fa- 
natical, have  been  subjected  to  severe  restraints 
and  even  to  persecution.  Roman  Catholics  are 
most  numerous  in  Poland,  Lutherans  in  the  Baltic 
Provinces,  Mohammedans  in  the  eastern  and 
southern  part  of  the  empire,  and  the  Jews  in  the 
towns  and  cities  of  the  western  and  southwestern 
provinces.  The  Greek  churches  in  the  empire 
numbered  66,146  in  1898  (including  718  cathe- 
drals). The  empire  is  divided  into  64  bishoprics, 
which  are  under  3  metropolitans,  14  archbisnops, 
and  48  bishops.  The  monasteries  number  785 
(including  289  nunneries),  with  about  8000 
monks  and  9000  nuns.  The  clergy  exercise  very 
great  influence  over  the  mass  of  the  people.  See 
Greek  Church, 


BT78SIA. 


25d 


BT78SIA. 


Ethitologt.  The  Russian  Empire  is  populated 
mainly  by  a  Slav  group  of  the  Gaucasic  stock,  be- 
longing to  the  Alpine  or  brachycephalic  type.  The 
true  Russians  constitute  nearly  three-fourths  of 
the  population  of  Russia  in  Europe,  the  rest  being 
Letto-Lithuanians,  Poles,  Jews^  Finns,  Turoo- 
Tatars,  Mongols,  and  Germans.  The  true  Rus- 
sians are  divided  into  three  groups:  (1)  Great 
Russians  or  Muscovites,  about  60,000,000,  occupy 
the  entire  centre  of  European  Russia  and  form 
two-thirds  to  three-fourths  of  the  population  in 
the  north  and  east.  (2)  The  Little  Russians  or 
Malo-Russians,  otherwise  called  Ukrainians  or 
Ruthenians,  about  18,000,000,  are  in  the  southwest. 
The  Cossacks  are  Little  Russians  in  speech.  They 
are  settled  in  a  compact  body  in  Little  Russia, 
whence  they  have  thrown  off  colonies  to  the 
southeast.  (3)  The  White  Russians  number 
5,000,000  in  four  governments  in  the  west.  There 
are  upward  of  6,000,000  Russians  in  Asiatic  Rus- 
sia. See  Colored  Plate  with  Eubofe,  Peoples  of. 
Other  peoples  living  in  the  Russian  Empire  are 
as  follows:  Slavic:  Poles,  about  8,000,000,  about 
three-fourths  of  them  in  Poland,  the  bulk  of  the 
remainder  being  in  the  western  governments  of 
Russia  proper;  about  200,000  Bulgarians,  and 
a  few  Czechs  and  Serbs.  Teutonic:  Germans, 
about  2,000,000,  mainly  in  the  Baltic  Provinces, 
Poland,  and  in  colonies  in  South  Russia ;  Swedes, 
300,000,  mainly  in  Finland.  Finnic:  Finns  and 
Karelians,  about  2,500,000  in  Finland  and  the 
neighboring  parts  of  Russia  proper;  Esthonians, 
about  650,000  in  the  Baltic  regions;  Mordvins, 
Votyaks,  Tcheremisses,  and  other  kindred  peoples 
scattered  over  a  large  area  in  Northern  and  East- 
em  Russia,  about  1,500,000 ;  Lapps,  in  Lapland, 
and  Samoveds  in  the  extreme  northern  parts  of 
Russia  and  Siberia.  Letto-Lithuanian :  Letts  and 
Lithuanians,  about  3,500,000,  the  former  in  the 
Baltic  region,  the  latter  in  the  western  govern- 
ments and  Poland.  Iranian:  Armenians,  liurds, 
and  Persians  and  other  tribes,  1,300,000,  prin- 
cipally in  the  Caucasus.  Daco-Roman:  Ruma- 
nians, 1,000,000,  in  Southwest  Russia.  Semitic: 
Jews,  about  5,000,000,  in  Western  and  South- 
western Russia  and  Poland.  Caucasus  Aborigi- 
nes: Georgians,  Mingrelians,  Lesghians,  etc. 
Turco-Tatar:  Tatars,  Uzbegs,  Bashkirs,  Kirghiz, 
Turkomans,  etc.,  in  all  about  9,000,000.  Mongol: 
Kalmucks,  in  Russia  and  Central  Asia;  Buriats, 
Tunguses,  etc.,  in  Siberia.  The  Mongols,  not  reck- 
oning the  inhabitants  in  the  portion  of  Mant- 
churia  recently  occupied  by  Russia,  number  less 
than  1,000,000.  Besides  these  there  are  in  Russia 
1,000,000  Europeans  of  various  nationalities  and 
a  considerable  number  of  Gypsies. 

There  is  an  almost  inexhaustible  literature  on 
the  archeology,  ethnology,  and  languages  of  Rus- 
sia. For  the  general  reader  it  is  practically  in- 
accessible, being  locked  up  in  the  native  language. 
A  list  of  the  principal  works  will  be  found  in  the 
supplement  to  Ripley's  Races  of  Europe,  See 
also:  Smimof,  Ethnographie  pr^historique  de  la 
Russie  centrale  et  du  nordest  (Moscow,  1802); 
Sergi,  ''Varietil  umane  della  Russia  e  del  Medi- 
terraneo"  (Atti  8oc.  Romana  de  Antrop.,  vol.  i., 
1893,  also  vol.  v.,  1897 ) ;  Zeuss,  Les  peuples  de 
la  Russie  (Moscow,  1892) ;  Zograf,  Les  peuples 
de  2a  Russie  (Moscow,  1895) ;  Bonmariage,  La 
Ruasie  d^Europe  (Brussels,  1903). 

HisTOBT.  In  ancient  times  the  Russian  plains 
were  for  the  most  part  outside  of  the  known 


world  and  were  spoken  of  as  inhabited  by  wild 
Scythian  and  Sarmatian  tribes  and,  farther  away, 
in  the  unknown,  bv  those  to  whom  the  ancients 
gave  the  name  of  Uyperboreans.  Later  the  Slavs 
from  the  Baltic  and  the  banks  of  the  Elbe  and 
the  Danube  spread  over  the  plains  to  the  east- 
ward. Their  organization  was  tribal  and  there 
was  among  them  no  capacity  for  unified  systems 
to  moderate  their  tribal  conflicts.  There  were 
centres  like  Novgorod  and  Kiev  that  assumed,  by 
the  ninth  century,  a  certain  importance,  but 
there  was  no  national  unity.  About  the  middle 
of  the  ninth  century,  a  Scandinavian  leader, 
Rurik,  came  to  Novgorod  with  a  band  of  war- 
like followers  in  response  to  an  invitation  to 
establish  order  and  unity.  From  this  event  the 
Russian  historians  date  the  beginning  of  the 
Russian  Empire,  the  foundation  of  which  they 
place  in  the  year  862.  To  the  Slavs  the  Scandi- 
navians (Norsemen)  were  known  as  Varangians. 
According  to  one  theory  the  followers  of  Rurik 
bore  the  name  of  Russians,  which  was  engrafted 
upon  the  Slavic  people  in  whose  nationality  they 
were  soon  absorbed.  Others  maintain  that  the 
name  existed  before  this  time  as  the  designation 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  plains  about  Kiev.  Some 
of  the  Varangians  went  on  and  established  them- 
selves at  Kiev.  Gleg  (879-912),  acting  as  regent 
for  Igor,  son  of  Rurik,  made  Kiev  the  capital 
of  the  embryo  empire,  subduing  the  neighboring 
tribes,  and  even  made  a  successful  raid  against 
Constantinople.  Igor  (912-945)  was  succeeded  by 
his  widow  Olga  ( 945-957 ) ,  who  wajs  baptized  in  955 
by  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  abdicated 
soon  after  in  favor  of  her  son,  Sviatoslaff  (957- 
972),  a  warlike  pagan,  who  was  treacherously 
murdered.  The  principality  was  then  divided 
among  his  three  sons,  and  the  quarrels  usual  in 
such  cases  followed,  continuing  till  Vladimir  the 
Great  (980-1015),  the  youngest  son,  became  sole 
ruler.  The  Varangians  now  became  amalgamated 
definitely  with  the  Slavic  race.  Vladimir's  suc- 
cessful wars  extended  the  boundaries  of  Russia  to 
Lake  Ilmen  on  the  north,  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Oka  on  the  east,  to  the  falls  of  the  Dnieper  on 
the  south,  and  to  the  sources  of  the  Vistula  on 
the  west.  He  became  a  convert  to  Greek  Christian- 
ity, and  in  988  was  baptized  with  his  followers. 
The  nation  soon  adopted  its  ruler's  religion  and 
a  metropolitan,  subject  to  the  Patriarch  of  (Con- 
stantinople, was  established  at  Kiev.  Vladimir  fol- 
lowed the  evil  example  of  his  father  in  dividing 
his  dominions.  After  his  death  dissensions  broke 
out  among  his  sons.  For  a  time  Sviatopulk 
(1016-19)  ruled  as  Grand  Prince  of  Kiev,  but  he 
was  overthrown  by  his  brother,  Yaroslaff,  who 
held  the  mastery  over  Kiev  till  his  death  in 
1054.  Under  this  prince  the  first  code  of  Rus- 
sian laws,  the  Ruskaya  Pravda,  was  compiled. 
YaroslafTs  sons  shared  the  principality  among 
them.  Each  of  these  princes  in  turn  divided  his 
portion  of  territory  among  his  sons,  till  the  realm 
became  an  agglomeration  of  petty  States.  A  state 
of  anarchy,  confusion,  and  petty  warfare  was  per- 
petuated and  ceased  only  after  a  lapse  of  four 
centuries. 

The  principal  subdivisions  of  Russia  during 
this  period  were :  Susdal,  in  the  upper  and  cen- 
tral parts  of  the  basin  of  the  Volga,  from  which, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  grew 
the  principalities  of  Tver,  Rostov,  and  Vladimir; 
Tchemigov    and    Seversk,    which    occupied    the 


BtrSSIA. 


354 


BTTSfllA. 


basin  of  the  Desna  (an  affluent  of  the  Dnieper), 
extending  nearly  to  the  sources  of  the  Oka ;  Rya- 
zan and  Murom,  along  the  Oka  basin  and  about 
the  sources  of  the  Don;  Polotsk,  including  the 
basins  of  the  Western  Dvina  and  the  Beresina; 
Smolensk,  occupying  the  upper  parts  of  the  basins 
of  the  Western  Dvina  and  the  Dnieper ;  Volyhnia 
and  Galicia  (Halicz),  the  first  in  the  basin  of  the 
Pripet  (an  affluent  of  the  Dnieper),  the  second 
lying  on  the  northeast  slope  of  the  Carpathian 
Mountains;  Novgorod,  by  far  the  largest  of  all, 
occupying  the  immense  tract  bounded  by  the  Gulf 
of  Finland,  Lake  Peipus,  the  upper  parts  of  the 
Volga,  the  White  Sea,  and  the  Northern  Dvina; 
and  the  Grand  Principality  of  Kiev,  which,  from 
its  being  formerly  the  seat  of  the  central  power, 
exercised  a  sort  of  supremacy  over  the  others. 
Novgorod  (q.v.),  from  its  position,  became  a 
flourishing  commercial  State,  which  rose  to  great 
power.  The  citizens  chose  their  own  princes,  arch- 
bishops, and,  in  general,  all  their  dignitaries. 
One  of  the  chief  factories  of  the  Hanseatic  League 
was  established  in  Novgorod  in  the  thirteenth 
century.  The  people  of  these  various  principali- 
ties enjoyed  considerable  liberty  through  the  in- 
fluence of  the  common  council  or  vyetch,  without 
which  the  Prince  was  almost  powerless. 

In  1163  the  ruler  of  the  Principality  of  Vladi- 
mir took  possession  of  Kiev  and  proclaimed  him- 
ftelf  Grand  Prince.  In  1222  the  Mongol  tide  of 
invasion,  sweeping  westward  from  Asia,  reached 
the  Polovtses,  a  nomadic  tribe  who  ranged  over 
the  steppes  between  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Don, 
and  whose  urgent  prayers  for  aid  were  promptly 
answered  by  the  Russian  princes;  but  in  a  great 
battle,  fought  (1224)  on  the  banks  of  the  Kalka 
(a  tributary  of  the  Sea  of  Azov),  the  Russians 
were  totally  routed  by  Genghis  Khan.  The  Mon- 
gols did  not  follow  up  their  victory  for  some 
time,  buit  in  1237-38  Batu  Khan  (q.v.),  at  the 
head  of  a  vast  horde,  conquered  Eastern  Russia, 
destroying  Ryazan,  Moscow,  Vladimir,  and  other 
towns.  The  heroic  resistance  of  Prince  George  of 
Vladimir  cost  the  lives  of  himself  and  his  whole 
army  on  the  banks  of  the  Siti  (1238).  The 
Mongol  conqueror's  career  was  arrested  by  the 
forests  and  marshes  south  of  Novgorod,  and  he 
was  forced  to  return  to  the  Volga.  In  1240  he 
swept  over  the  southwest,  destroying  Tchernigov 
and  Kiev;  ravaged  Poland  and  Hungary,  defeat- 
ing the  Poles,  Silesians,  and  Teutonic  Knights 
on  the  field  of  the  Wahlstatt  (1241)  and  the 
Hungarians  on  the  Saj6;  but  being  checked  in 
Moravia,  and  receiving  at  the  same  time  the  news 
of  the  Khan's  death,  ne  retired  to  Sarai,  on  the 
Akhtuba  (a  tributary  of  the  Volga),  which  be- 
came the  capital  of  the  great  khanate  of  Kipt- 
chak  (q.v.).  The  Mongol  invasion  destroyed 
the  elements  of  self-government,  which  had  al- 
ready attained  a  considerable  degree  of  develop- 
ment in  Russia,  arrested  the  progress  of  industry, 
literature,  and  the  other  elements  of  civilization, 
and  threw  the  country  more  than  two  hundred 
years  behind  the  other  States  of  Europe.  Ori- 
ental customs  and  methods  became  fixed  among 
the  people,  separating  Russia  more  and  more 
with  each  generation  from  Western  Europe.  The 
principalities  of  Kiev  and  Tchernigov  never 
recovered,  and  the  scat  of  the  metropolitan  was 
removed  to  Vladimir.  The  dismal  annals  of  this 
period  were  illumined  for  a  short  space  by  the 
deeds  of  Alexander  Nevski  (q.v.).  Prince  of  Nov- 


gorod and  Grand  Prince  of  Vladimir  (died  1263). 
In  his  time,  however,  even  Novgorod  was  forced 
to  submit  to  the  Mongol  dommation.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  fourteenth  century  extensive  ter- 
ritories, including  Volhynia  and  Kiev,  were  con- 
quered by  the  Lithuanians.  At  this  time  East- 
ern Russia  consisted  of  the  principalities  of  Sus- 
dal,  Nizhni-Novgc  rod,  Tver,  Ryazan,  and  Moscow, 
and  long  and  bloody  contests  took  place  be- 
tween the  two  most  powerful  of  these,  Tver  and 
Moscow,  for  the  supremacy.  Under  Ivan  Ejilita 
(1328-40),  the  founder  of  the  system  of  adminis- 
trative centralization  which  prevailed  down  to 
the  time  of  Peter  the  Great,  Moscow  became  the 
paramount  grand  principality.  Ivan's  son  and 
successor,  Simeon  the  Proud  (1340-53),  followed 
in  his  father's  footsteps.  The  Grand  Prince 
Dmitri  IV.  (1362-89)  profited  by  the  weak- 
ness of  the  Mongol  khanate  to  make  the  first 
attempt  to  shake  off  the  foreign  yoke  under 
which  the  Russians  had  groaned  so  long.  His 
brilliant  victory  over  the  Khan  Mamai  on  the 
banks  of  the  Don  ( 1380) ,  which  gave  him  the  sur- 
name of  Donskoi,  was  the  first  step  to  liberation. 
Nevertheless,  the  Mongols  succeeded  in  taking 
Moscow,  exacted  a  heavy  tribute  from  the  people, 
and  riveted  their  bonds  more  firmly  than  ever. 
Vassili  (Basil)  II.  (1389-1425)  conquered  Rostov 
and  Murom.  Vassili  III.,  the  Blind  (1425-62), 
reigned  during  a  period  of  wars  waged  by  varioiu 
princes  for  the  grand  ducal  throne ;  but  from  this 
period  the  division  of  power  in  Eastern  Russia 
rapidly  disappeared,  internal  troubles  ceased,  and 
the  reunited  'realm  acquired  from  union  the 
power  to  cas^off  the  Tatar  yoke. 

These  results  were  achieved  by  Ivan  III.  ( 1462- 
1505),  Burnamed  "the  Great,"  who  availed  him- 
self of  every  opportunity  for  suppressing  the 
principalities  which  owed  him  allegiance  as 
Grand  Prince.  The  Republic  of  Novgorod,  the 
last  of  the  native  Russian  States,  was  added  to 
the  empire  of  Ivan  in  1478.  He  then  took  ad- 
vantage of  the  dissensions  between  Achmet,  Khan 
of  the  Golden  Horde,  and  Mengli-Gherai,  Khan  of 
the  Crimean  Horde,  to  deliver  Russia  by  uniting 
with  the  latter.  This  coalition  destroyed  the 
power  of  the  Golden  Horde  in  1480,  and  the  yoke 
of  the  Mongols  was  broken.  Ivan  next  turned  his 
attention  to  the  western  provinces,  which  had 
formerly  belonged  to  the  descendants  of 
Saint  Vladimir  (the  Great),  but  were  now  in  the 
hands  of  the  Lithuanians.  The  adherents  of  the 
Greek  Church  w^ere  oppressed  by  the  Catholics, 
and  hailed  the  advance  of  Ivan's  army  as  a  deliv- 
erance from  persecution.  Ivan  won  a  battle,  but 
it  was  followed  by  no  results  of  importance.  Ivan 
married  (1472)  Sophia,  a  niece  of  Constantine 
Palaeologus,  the  last  Byzantine  Emperor.  He  in- 
troduced into  his  Court  the  splendor  of  Byzan- 
tium, adopted  the  Byzantine  Imperial  eagles,  and 
united  the  existing  edicts  into  a  body  of  laws, 
the  Sudehnik,  Vassili  IV.  (1505-33)  followed 
closely  his  father's  policy,  made  war  upon  the 
Lithuanians,  from  whom  he  took  Smolensk,  and 
incorporated  with  his  dominions  the  remainder 
of  the  small  tributary  principalities.  His  son, 
Ivan  IV.  (1533-84),  surnamed  "the  Terrible," 
became  monarch  at  the  age  of  three  years,  and 
the  country  during  his  long  minority  was  dis- 
tracted by  the  contentions  of  the  factious  no- 
bility or  boyars  (q.v.)  who  strove  for  power. 
On  his  attaining  his  majority,  however,  in  1647, 


BUSSIA. 


255 


BXJSSIA. 


in  which  year  he  assumed  the  title  of  Czar,  he 
found  two  wise  and  prudent  counselors,  Silvester 
and  Adatcheff,  who,  with  his  queen,  Anastasia 
Romanoff,  exercised  over  him  a  most  beneficent 
influence.  Ivan's  arms  were  everywhere  victo- 
rious; the  fortified  city  of  Kazan  was  captured 
in  1552,  the  khanate,  of  which  it  was  the  capital, 
was  annexed  to  his  empire,  and  the  Khanate  of 
Astrakhan  shared  the  same  fate  soon  after 
(1554).  The  marauding  Tatars  of  the  Crimea 
were  held  in  check,  and  the  Knights  of  the  8word 
were  driven  from  Livonia  and  Esthonia.  Many 
internal  improvements  were  made,  and  the  com- 
merce between  England  and  Kussia  by  way  of 
the  White  Sea  was  inaugurated.  The  latter  part 
of  Ivan's  reign,  following  the  death  of  his  wife, 
was  marked  by  savage  cruelty.  Stephen  Bllthory, 
King  of  Poland,  wrested  Livonia  from  him,  and 
the  Grim-Tatars,  in  1571,  invaded  Russia,  and 
burned  Moscow.  It  was  during  the  reign  ojf  this 
monarch  that  Western  Siberia  was  conquered  for 
Russia  by  the  Cossack  Yermak.  (See  Siberia.) 
Ivan's  son,  Feodor  ( 1584-98 ) ,  was  a  feeble  prince, 
who  intrusted  his  brother-in-law,  Boris  Godunoff 
(q.v.),  with  the  nuinagement  of  affairs.  Feodor 
was  the  last  reigning  monarch  of  the  House  of 
Rurik.  He  died  childless,  and  his  only  brother, 
Dmitri,  was  murdered,  in  .1591,  by  order  of 
Godnnoff,  according  to  popular  rumor.  After  the 
death  of  Feodor  representatives  of  all  classes 
were  convoked  at  Moscow  to  elect  a  new  sover- 
eign, and  their  choice  fell  on  Boris  Godunoff 
(1598-1605).  The  mysterious  death  of  Dmitri 
favored  the  appearance  of  pretenders  to  his  name 
and  rank,  the  first  of  whom  (see  Demetrius), 
on  the  sudden  death  of  Boris  Godunoff,  was 
crowned  in  1605.  A  revolt,  headed  by  Prince 
Vassili  Shuiski  (1606-10),  soon  broke  out,  the 
Czar  was  murdered,  and  Shuiski  was  elevated  to 
the  vacant  throne  as  Vassili  V.  But  a  second 
false  Dmitri  now  appeared,  and  Sigismund  of 
Poland,  whose  son,  Ladislas,  had  been  elected 
Czar  by  the  boyas,  invaded  Russia,  and  took 
possession  of  Moscow  (1610).  At  the  same  time 
hordes  of  Tatars  and  bands  of  Poles  and  robbers 
devastated  the  provinces.  There  followed  a  na- 
tional uprising  under  Minin  Pozharsky,  who  re- 
took the  capi&l,  drove  the  Poles  out  of  Russia, 
and  convoked  an  assembly  of  representatives, 
who  unanimously  chose  for  their  Czar  Michael 
Feodorovitch  Romanoff    (1613-45).     See  RoicA- 

NOFF. 

The  new  monarch  put  an  end  to  the  revolt  of 
the  Don  Cossacks,  and  to  the  depredations  of  the 
robber  gangs  in  the  southwest.  In  1618  and  1634 
he  purcha^  peace  from  the  Poles  at  the  cost 
of  Smolensk  and  a  portion  of  Seversk.  Alexis 
(Alezei)  (1645-76),  Michael's  son  and  successor, 
bein^  a  minor,  the  nobles  seized  the  opportunity 
of  increasing  their  power  and  exercising  oppres- 
sion and  extortion  over  their  subjects,  till  rebel- 
lion broke  out  in  various  districts.  The  changes 
and  corrections  in  the  books  and  liturgy  of  the 
Church  introduced  by  the  Patriarch  Nikon 
brought  about  the  rise  of  a  dissident  sect.  ( See 
RASKOunKS.)  Little  Russia  was  acquired  by 
the  voluntary  submission  of  the  Cossacks  (see 
Poland),  who  had  revolted  against  the  oppression 
of  the  Polish  magnates.  In  the  war  with  Poland 
which  followed,  Russia  acquired  Smolensk  with 
part  of  White  Russia,  and  all  of  the  Ukraine 
east  of  the  Dnieper,  together  mth  Kiev,    Alexis 


was  succeeded  by  his  son  Feodor  ( 1676-82) ,  under 
whom  the  first  war  between  Russians  and  Turks 
was  brought  to  a  successful  issue.  After  Feodor's 
death,  the  general  council,  in  accordance  with  his 
wishes  and  their  own,  chose  bis  half-brother  Peter 
as  Czar,  but  his  half-sister  Sophia,  an  able  and 
ambitious  princess,  succeeded  in  obtaining  the 
reins  of  power  as  Princess  Regent  and  in  having 
her  own  brother,  the  half-witted  Ivan,  proclaimed 
CO- ruler  with  Peter.  After  an  attempt  to  deprive 
Peter  of  the  throne,  she  was  forced  to  resign  all 
power  and  retire  to  a  convent.  Her  accomplices 
were  executed,  and  Peter  (1689-1725)  became 
sole  ruler,  although  Ivan  was  allowed  to  retain 
the  empty  title  of  Czar  until  his  death  in  1696. 
The  history  of  Russia  under  Peter  I.,  the  Great, 
is  a  biography  of  that  monarch.  (See  Peteb  I.) 
His  reign  was  one  of  tremendous  energy  and 
national  development,  although  much  of  his  work 
was  ill-timed.  He  attempted  to  transform  the 
semi-Oriental  society  of  Russia,  by  main  force  of 
autocracy,  into  an  Occidental  society,  and  to 
make  Russia  a  European  power.  This  was  done 
without  consulting  the  national  character  or  the 
natural  conditions  of  the  country,  and  produced 
that  sharp  conflict  of  opposing  elements  which 
has  since  been  a  source  both  of  weakness  and  of 
strength  to  Russia.  Peter's  schemes  for  the 
territorial  aggrandizement  of  the  empire,  as  con- 
tinued by  his  successors,  were  carried  out  in 
turn  at  the  expense  of  Sweden,  Poland,  and  the 
Turks.  The  Russians  were  decisively  defeated 
by  Charles  XII.  at  Narva  in  1700,  but  Peter 
nevertheless  succeeded  in  making  himself  master 
of  Ingermanland,  on  the  Giilf  of  Finland,  and  parts 
of  Esthonia  and  Livonia,  and  in  1703  laid  the 
foundations  of  his  new  capital,  Saint  Petersburg, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Neva.  Profiting  by  defeat, 
he  brought  into  being  a  well-disciplined  army 
with  which  he  crushed  the  Swedish  King  at 
Plotava  (q.v.)  in  1709.  By  the  Peace  of  Nystad 
(1721)  Russia  was  confirmed  in  possession  of 
Livonia,  Esthonia,  Karelia,  and  Ingermanland. 
Azov  had  been  taken  from  the  Turks  in  1696  and 
transformed  into  a  base  for  the  naval  power 
which  Peter  hoped  to  establish  on  the  Black  Sea, 
but  as  a  result  of  the  Czar's  unfortunate  cam- 
paign beyond  the  Pruth,  it  was  retroceded  to 
the  Sultan  by  the  Treaty  of  Hush  (1711). 

Peter's  only  son,  Alexei,  had  shown  himself 
inimical  to  his  father's  political  schemes  and 
had  met  a  premature  death  in  1718  (see  Aur^nnj 
PETRO^^TCH),  and  the  crown  passed  by  will  to 
Peter's  wife,  Catharine  I.  Her  short  reign  of 
two  years  was  followed  by  that  of  the  unfortu- 
nate Alexei's  son,  Peter  II.  (1727-30),  who  was 
entirely  under  the  influence  of  the  powerful  fam- 
ily of  the  Dolgoruki.  Upon  his  death  the  privy 
council,  setting  aside  the  other  descendants  of 
Peter  the  Great,  bestowed  the  crown  on  Anna, 
the  daughter  of  his  imbecile  brother,  Ivan.  Anna 
Ivanovna  (1730-40)  freed  herself  from  the  domi- 
nation of  the  Dolgoruki  and  the  Golitzin,  but  was 
entirely  under  the  influence  of  the  German  party, 
chief  among  whom  were  her  favorite  Biron  ( q.v. ) , 
Marshal  MUnnich,  and  the  Chancellor  Ostermann. 
From  1736  to  1739  war  was  carried  on  against 
the  Turks,  and  the  Russians,  under  MUnnich,  took 
Azov,  overran  the  Crimea,  and  advanced  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Dnieper.  Deserted  by  its  ally, 
Austria,  Russia  derived  little  profit  from  these 
conquest^  outside  of  the  recovery  of  Azov*    Anna 


BUSSIA. 


256 


BT7SSIA. 


Ivanovna  was  succeeded  by  lyan  ( 1740-41 )»  tlie 
infant  son  of  her  niece,  Anna  Karlovna  (q.v.)> 
under  the  regency  of  Biron.  Biron  was  speedily 
overthrown  and  Anna  Karlovna  assumed  the 
regency,  but  only  to  succumb  to  a  palace  con- 
spiracy, which  placed  on  the  throne  Elizabeth 
Petrovna,  the  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great.  Eliz- 
abeth (1741-62)  joined  Austria  against  Prussia 
in  the  Seven  Years*  War  (q.v.)  and  showed  her- 
self the  relentless  foe  of  Frederick  the  Great. 
The  Russian  armies  gained  victories  over  the 
Prussians  at  Gross j£lgerndorf  ( 1757 )  and  Kuners- 
dorf  (1759),  and  for  a  moment  Berlin  itself  be- 
held the  presence  of  Russian  troops  (1760).  The 
death  of  Elizabeth  (1762)  saved  Frederick  in  his 
desperate  straits,  for  her  successor,  Duke  Peter 
of  Holstein-Gottorp,  a  son  of  Peter  the  Great's 
second  daughter,  Anna  Petrovna,  was  a  fervent 
admirer  of  the  Prussian  monarch,  with  whom  he 
entered  into  an  alliance.  In  July,  1762,  Peter 
III.  was  dethroned  as  the  result  of  a  conspiracy 
headed  by  his  wife,  a  princess  of  Anhalt-Zerbst ; 
some  days  afterwards  he  was  murdered  and  his 
wife  ascended  the  throne  as  Catharine  II.  ( 1762- 
96). 

Catharine's  talents  were  on  the  same  scale  as  her 
vices.  She  furthered  the  spread  of  Western  civili- 
zation in  Russia,  introduced  important  adminis- 
trative changes  in  the  government,  enacted  laws 
favorable  to  the  development  of  commerce  and 
industry,  founded  schools  and  charitable  institu- 
tions, and  granted  religious  liberty  to  the  Ras- 
kolnik.  Abroad  Catharine  carried  out  with  strik- 
ing success  her  ambitious  schemes  for  the  aggran- 
dizement of  Russia.  She  was  the  guiding  spirit 
in  the  spoliation  of  Poland  (q.v.),  in  the  three 
partitions  of  which  (1772  1793,  1795)  Russia 
gained  180,000  square  miles  of  territory  with 
6,000,000  inhabitants.  Two  successful  wars  were 
carried  on  against  the  Turks,  the  first  of  which 
(1768-74)  was  terminated  by  the  Peace  of  Kut- 
chuk-Kainarji,  in  which  Turkey  renounced  her 
suzerainty  over  the  Crimea  and  other  Tatar  re- 
gions. The  Crimea  was  incorporated  with  Russia 
in  1783.  The  second  war  (1787-92)  was  concluded 
by  the  Peace  of  Jassy,  which  advanced  the  Rus- 
sian frontier  to  the  Dniester.  Paul  I.  ( 1796-1801 ) , 
son  and  successor  of  Catharine,  was  engaged  con- 
tinually in  a  struggle  with  the  aristocrary,  by 
whom  he  was  cordially  hated.  His  alternating 
rigor  and  indulgence  alienated  all  the  influential 
classes.  He  placed  the  press  under  a  severe  cen- 
sorship and  established  a  system  of  secret  police. 
He  joined  the  coalition  against  France  and  then 
withdrew  from  it  and  was  preparing  to  make  war 
against  England  when  he  was  assassinated  by 
conspirators. 

Alexander  I.  (1801-25)  was  a  lover  of  peace  and 
largely  imbued  with  the  humanitarian  ideas  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  He  began  his  reign  aus- 
piciously by  abolishing  serfdom  in  the  Baltic 
Provinces  and  establishing  a  number  of  ministries 
for  the  more  efficient  administration  of  the  empire. 
He  joined  the  third  coalition  against  France,  and 
his  share  in  the  defeat  at  Austerlitz  (1805)  did 
not  deter  him  from  allying  himself  with  Prussia 
in  the  following  year.  The  indecisive  Slaughter  at 
Eylau  (q.v.)  and  the  crushing  defeat  of  the 
Russians  at  Friedland  (June  14,  1807)  led  to 
the  famous  meeting  between  Napoleon  and  Alex- 
ander at  Tilsit,  where  the  Russian  Emperor,  in 
return  for  entering  into  Napoleon's  schemes,  was 


allowed  a  free  hand  in  Sweden  and  Turkey.  From 
the  former  Finland  and  the  Aland  Islands  were 
wrested  in  1809.  Turkey,  after  a  six  years*  con- 
test, was  compelled  in  the  Treaty  of  Bucharest 
(May  28,  1812)  to  cede  the  land  between  the 
Dniester  and  the  Pruth.  Alexander's  abandon- 
ment of  the  Continental  system  was  followed  by 
the  invasion  of  Russia  by  the  French  (1812). 
Upon  the  disastrous  termination  of  the  cam- 
paign the  Russian  Emperor  became  the  leading 
spirit  in  the  alliance  which  carried  the  war  into 
Germany  and  France  and  brought  about  the  over- 
throw of  Napoleon.  (See  Napoucon.)  By  the 
Congress  of  Vienna,  in  1815,  the  bulk  of  the 
Duchy  of  Warsaw,  which  Napoleon  had  created 
in  1807  out  of  the  dominions  acquired  by  Prus- 
sia in  the  spoliations  of  Poland,  was  erected  into 
the  new  Kingdom  of  Poland,  which  was  placed 
under  the  sceptre  of  Russia.  In  the  meanwhile 
the  establishment  of  Russian  dominion  in  the 
region  of  the  Caucasus  was  proceeding  rapidly. 
In  1801  (Borgia  was  annexed,  and  in  1813 
Daghestan,  Baku,  and  Shirvan  were  acquired  from 
Persia.  The  last  ten  years  of  Alexander's  reign 
were  a  period  of  disillusionment  for  those  who 
had  expected  the  introduction  of  a;  liberal  regime 
in  Russia.  The  reign  of  Alexan<()er's  youngest 
brother,  Nicholas  I.  (1825-55),  op^^ned  with  a 
rebellion  on  the  part  of  the  liberal  element  in 
behalf  of  his  elder  brother  Constantine,  who  had 
renounced  his  title  to  the  throne.  Nicholas  did 
not  consent  to  assume  the  crown  until  it  was 
evident  that  Constantine  would  not,  and  the  im- 
minent revolt  demanded  prompt  action  and  a 
recognized  sovereign.  The  rebellion,  known  as 
the  rising  of  the  Decembrists  or  Dekabrists,  was 
crushed  and  the  ringleaders  were  sununarily  dealt 
with.  Soon  after  the  accession  of  Nicholas,  war 
with  Persia  broke  out  (1826),  marked  by  a  suc- 
cessful invasion  of  that  country  by  Paskevitch 
(q.v.).  The  Treaty  of  Turkmantchai  (February 
22,  1828)  gave  part  of  Armenia  to  Russia. 
Russia  took  part  in  the  destruction  of  the  Turk- 
ish-Egyptian fleet  at  Navarino  (1827),  which 
event  virtually  secured  the  liberation  of  Greece. 
In  1828  Russia  made  a  fresh  onslaught  upon 
Turkey.  The  victories  of  Wittgenstein,  Paske- 
vitch, and  Diebitsch  led  to  the  Treaty  of  Adrian- 
ople  (q.v.)  in  1829,  in  which  Turkey  transferred 
to  Russia  the  suzerainty  over  the  tribes  of  the 
Caucasus,  accorded  to  the  Czar  a  protectorate 
over  Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  and  agreed  to 
recognize  the  independence  of  Greece.  In  1830 
the  Poles  revolted,  drove  out  the  Grand  Duke  Con- 
stantine, and  organized  a  provisional  government. 
They  carried  on  a  brilliant  and  aggressive  cam- 
paign against  the  Russian  forces  until  May,  1831, 
when  the  strength  of  Russia  began  gradually  to 
overwhelm  them.  Warsaw  capitulated  on  Sep- 
tember 8th.  On  February  26,  1832,  a  new  statute 
was  promulgated  by  Nicholas  I.  treating  Poland 
as  a  conquered  State.  (See  Poland.)  In 
1834  the  conquest  of  the  Caucasus,  which  occu- 
pied Russia  for  thirty  years,  was  begun.  In 
1848-49  the  Austrian  Imperial  Government,  un- 
able to  suppress  the  Hungarian  revolt,  asked 
Russia  for  assistance.  This  was  readily  granted, 
because  of  the  intimate  connection  of  the  Poles 
with  the  Hungarian  movement,  the  success  of 
which  would  have  encouraged  a  new  Polish  in- 
surrection. (See  HuNQABY.)  In  1853  Nicholas 
again   made   war   upon   the   Ottoman    Empire. 


BJJBBUL 


257 


BXTS8IA; 


France  and  Great  Britain,  later  joined  by  Sar- 
dinia, interfered,  and  the  Crimea  became  the 
theatre  of  a  bloody  conflict.  Sebastopol  fell  in 
September,  1855,  six  months  alter  the  death  of 
Nicholas.  The  Treaty  of  Paris  closed  the  struggle 
in  1856.  Russia  was  compelled  to  part  with. a 
strip  of  Bessarabia,  the  Black  Sea  was  neutral- 
ized, and  the  Russian  protectorate  over  the  Danu- 
bian  principalities  was  abolished.  See  Cbihean 
Wab;  Eastern  Question;  Pabis,  Congress  of. 
The  accession  of  the  son  of  Nicholas,  Alexander 
II.  (1855-81),  introduced  a  new  era  of  internal 
reforms.  The  abolition  of  serfdom  in  1861  created 
fourteen  millions  of  freemen,  whom  a  system  of 
State  loans  enabled  to  secure  small  farms  on  an 
installment  plan  of  payment.  Corporal  punish- 
ment and  the  farming  of  the  taxes  were  abolished. 
There  were  nominal  reforms  in  the  judiciary, 
separating  judicial  from  administrative  functions, 
but  in  fact  this  has  not  worked  successfully.  In 
the  face  of  revolutionaiy  agitation  ( see  Kihiush  ) 
the  earlier  reform  tendencies  of  this  reign  gave 
way  to  a  reactionary  policy.  The  last  Polish  in- 
surrection broke  out  in  1863  and  was  suppressed 
with  extreme  severity.  By  a  succession  of  ukases 
the  Kingdom  of  Poland  was  in  the  course  of  a 
few  years  incorporated  in  the  Russian  Empire. 
(See  Poland.)  The  administration  of  the  Bal- 
tic Provinces  was  assimilated  to  that  of  the  rest 
of  the  empire.  Vast  accessions  were  made  to  the 
dominions  of  Russia.  In  1858  the  Amur  Land 
was  formally  made  over  to  the  Czar  by  China. 
The  subjugation  of  the  Caucasus  was  completed 
between  1859  and  1864.  The  establishment  of 
Russian  supremacy  in  Central  Asia,  which  was 
begun  xmder  Peter  the  Great,  was  completed  in 
this  reign.  In  1868  Samarkand  was  occupied  and 
the  Khan  of  Bokhara  became  a  vassal  of  Russia. 
In  1873  Khiva  became  a  subject  State.  In  1876 
Khokand  (Ferghana)  was  annexed.  Skobeleff's 
capture  of  the  Tekke  fortress  of  Geok-Tepe  in 
1881  practically  completed  the  conquest  of  the 
trans-Caspian  country.  Since  that  time  Russia 
has  been  steadily  organizing  these  provinces  and 
providing  for  their  settlement  and  strategic  de- 
velopment by  her  great  railway  system.  Russia 
had  always  been  restive  under  the  provision  of 
the  Treaty  of  Paris  relating  to  the  navigation  of 
the  Black  Sea,  and  in  1870,  upon  the  fall  of  the 
Emperor  Napoleon  III.,  who  had  been  the  chief 
sponsor  for  the  treaty,  the  Russian  Government 
intimated  that  it  felt  no  longer  bound  by  the 
provisions  of  the  treaty.  At  the  London  con- 
ference of  1871  this  claim  was  admitted  by  the 
powers.  This  was  the  beginning  of  a  resump- 
tion of  the  aggressive  attitude  toward  Turkey. 
The  Porte's  maltreatment  of  its  Christian  sub- 
jects and  the  Turkish  atrocities  in  Bulgaria 
(q.v.)  in  1876  led  to  a  conference  of  the  powers 
at  Constantinople.  This  conference  made  certain 
proposals  looking  toward  a  reform  in  the  Turk- 
ish administration.  Upon  the  rejection  of  these 
proposals  by  Turkey  Russia  undertook  to  enforce 
them,  and  in  April,  1877,  declared  war.  The  war 
was  conducted  with  great  energy  by  Russia,  and 
in  January,  1878,  the  Russian  forces  were  in  the 
vicinity  of  Constantinople.  The  war  was  closed 
by  the  Treaty  of  San  Stefano  (March  3,  1878), 
which  was  materially  modified  by  the  interven- 
tion of  the  powers  through  the  Congress  of  Ber- 
lin. (See  Rnsso-TuBKiSH  Wab;  Berlin,  Con- 
gress OF.)    In  1867  Russia  gave  up  her  vast  pos- 


sessions in  Arctic  America,  transferring  Alaska 
by  sale  to  the  United  States. 

There  had  for  some  time  been  increasing 
discontent  among  the  people  tending  toward 
revolution.  Nihilism  only  increased  in  con- 
sequence of  the  Government's  repressive  meas- 
ures. There  were  numerous  outbreaks,  but  in 
1880  Alexander  seemed  to  have  returned  in  a 
measure  to  his  earlier  liberalism.  The  secret 
police  was  abolished,  and  Loris-Melikoff  (q.v.), 
in  whom  there  was  general  confidence,  was  ap- 
pointed as  Chief  Minister  with  extraordinary 
powers.  This  seemed  for  a  time  to  quiet  the 
disorders,  and  as  it  was  known  that  marked  re- 
forms were  to  be  proposed,  it  was  confidently 
hoped  that  agitation  would  cease  altogether,  but  on 
March  13,  1881,  the  Emperor,  while  on  his  way 
to  the  Winter  Palace  in  Saint  Petersburg,  was 
killed  by  the  explosion  of  a  bomb  thrown  by  one 
of  a  group  of  revolutionary  conspirators. 

Alexander  III.  (1881-94),  influenced  no  doubt 
by  the  reaction  due  to  his  father's  assassination, 
took  for  his  advisers  the  leaders  of  the  extreme 
Russian  and  autocratic  party.  His  policy  was  one 
of  peace  in  Europe,  though  the  advance  of  Russia 
in  Central  Asia  continued  to  arouse  concern  in 
England.  The  acquisition  of  Merv  in  1884 
brought  Russia  close  to  Herat,  the  key  to  Af- 
ghanistan, the  Buffer  State  of  British  India.  For 
a  moment,  in  1885,  war  between  Russia  and 
England  seemed  imminent,  but  the  difficulties 
were  settled  by  the  appointment  of  a  joint  com- 
mission, which  adjusted  the  Afghan  boundary.  In 
189  i  the  construction  of  the  trans-Siberian  rail- 
way was  begun.  Since  1887  close  relations  with 
France  have  been  established  and  maintained,  as 
an  offset  to  the  Triple  Alliance  of  Austria,  Ger- 
many, and  Italy.  The  antl- Semitic  agitation 
which  began  to  affect  Europe  about  1880  started 
in  Russia  a  legal  and  extra-legal  persecution 
of  the  Jews,  which  has  been  continued,  and  modi- 
fied only  when  its  severity  has  brought  forth 
protests  from  the  other  civilized  peoples  that 
could  not  be  ignored.  The  Jews  are  confined 
by  law  to  the  Pale  of  Settlement,  a  belt  ex- 
tending from  the  Baltic  to  the  Black  Sea, 
chiefly  through  the  Polish  and  adjoining  prov- 
inces. Successive  acts  have  expelled  them  frona 
other  parts  of  the  empire,  and  they  can  only  live 
outside  the  Pale  by  special  privilege.  Prohibited 
from  acquiring  real  property,  and  thus  prevented 
from  becoming  farmers,  the  Jews  were  forced  to 
crowd  into  the  towns,  where  they  became  artisans 
or  engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits.  Great  masses 
of  them,  unable  to  do  anything  in  any  of  the 
fields  left  open  to  them,  sank  into  poverty.  With 
legal  restrictions  have  come  physical  persecutions, 
at  different  times  taking  the  form  of  riot  and 
massacre.  The  most  notable  instance  of  this  kind 
occurred  in  May,  1903,  at  Kishinev,  the  capital 
of  the  Government  of  Bessarabia,  when  more  than 
fifty  Jews  were  killed  and  the  hospitals  were 
filled  with  the  wounded. 

Alexander  III.  died  November  1,  1894,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Nicholas  II.  (q.v.). 
As  Czarevitch,  Nicholas  had  traveled  in  the  Far 
East  and  through  Siberia  and  acquired  a  better 
knowledge  than  any  of  his  predecessors  of  the 
needs  and  possibilities  of  those  regions.  In  his 
reign  the  development  of  Asiatic  Russia  by  rail- 
ways has  been  pushed  steadily  forward.  After  the 
intervention  of  Russia,  with  the  other  powers. 


BXT8SIA. 


258 


BUSSIA. 


at  the  close  of  the  China- Japan  War  of  1804-05, 
Russia  was  able  to  obtain  from  China  a  lease 
(March  27,  1898)  for  twenty-five  years  of  the 
Kwang-tung  Peninsula,  which  was  made  a  prov- 
ince. Here  are  the  strong  naval  station  of  Port 
Arthur  and  the  new  port  of  Dalny,  built  by  Russia. 
By  the  treaty  with  China  providing  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  Manchurian  Railway,  which  is 
really  a  part  of  the  great  Siberian  system,  Russia 
maintains  a  military  occupancy  of  Manchuria. 
After  the  Boxer  troubles  in  China  in  1900,  this  oc- 
cupation, the  original  pretext  of  which  was  the 
protection  of  the  railw^ay,  was  so  strength- 
ened as  to  cause  apprehension  on  the  part  of 
other  nations  that  Russia  was  about  to  carry 
out  in  Manchuria  her  traditional  Asiatic  policy 
of  absorption  of  such  provinces  belonging  to 
weaker  powers  as  might  be  available.  In  reply  to 
the  protests  of  the  powers  the  Russian  Govern- 
ment denied  any  such  intention  and  asserted  that 
the  Russian  troops  would  retire  as  soon  as  the 
state  of  the  country  would  permit,  but  at  the 
close  of  1903  it  had  become  evident  that  the  Rus- 
sian occupation  of  Manchuria  was  to  be  a 
permanency.  This  aggressive  advance  of  Russia 
has  caused  strained  relations  with  Japan.  In 
recent  years  Russia  has  succeeded  in  great  meas- 
ure in  bringing  Persia  imder  her  influence.  While 
thus  extending  the  scope  of  her  activities  in  Asia, 
Russia  has  not  lost  sight  of  her  traditional  policy 
of  enlarging  her  possessions  in  Europe.  It  is  the 
dream  of  Russian  patriots  to  bring  the  whole 
Slavic  world  under  the  sceptre  of  the  Czar  (see 
Panslavibic)  and  to  make  good  the  claim  of 
Russia  as  successor  to  the  Byzantine  or  Crreek 
Empire,  in  her  capacity  as  the  great  Greek  Chris- 
tian power,  by  the  occupation  of  Constantinople. 
In  the  internal  affaire  of  the  country  the  Russian 
nationalists  have  continued  to  be  dominant,  and 
the  Russianizing  of  Poland,  Finland,  and  other 
provinces  has  been  pushed  forward  unsparingly. 
The  liberal  agitation,  which  has  its  centre  and 
strongest  impulse  in  the  universities  and  which 
was  supposed  for  a  few  years  to  have  become 
dormant,  has  reawakened  since  the  opening  of  the 
twentieth  century  and  assumed  an  insistent  atti- 
tude which  renews  the  uncertainty  as  to  the  future 
of  the  Russian  autocracy.  In  1899  an  order  of  the 
Czar  created  a  commission  to  abolish  transporta- 
tion of  criminals  and  substitute  punishment  by  the 
courts,  and  to  reform  the  whole  system  of  punish- 
ment for  crime.  In  1898  a  rescript  of  the  Czar 
to  the  governments  of  the  civilized  powers  on  the 
subject  of  international  peace  led  to  the  assem- 
bling in  1899  of  the  Hague  Peace  Conference 
(q.v.). 

BlRLIOGHAPHT.      GENERAL:   DESCRIPTIVE.      Baer 

and  Helmersen,  Beitrage  zur  KermtrUa  dea  rua- 
aischen  Reicka  (Saint  Petersburg,  1839-1900); 
Erman,  Archiv  fur  die  toiaaenachaftliche  Kunde 
von  Ruaaland  (25  vols.,  Berlin,  1841-67); 
Schnitzler,  Uempire  dea  Taara  (Paris,  1856- 
69) ;  Reclus,  O^offraphie  univeraelle,  vols,  v.,  vi. 
(ib,,  1880-81);  Geddie,  The  Ruaaian  Empire 
(ib.,  1885)  ;  Wallace,  Ruaaia  (2d  ed.,  London, 
1888)  ;  Leroy-Beaulieu,  The  Empire  of  the 
Ta<rr8  and  the  Ruaaiana,  trans,  by  Ragozin 
(New  York,  1893-94)  ;  Munro,  Riae  of  the 
Ruaaian  Empire  (Boston,  1900) ;  Brueggen, 
Daa  heutige  Ruaaland  (Leipzig,  1902)  ;  Nor- 
man, All  the  Ruaai<ia  (New  York,  1902)  ;  Gerrare, 
Chreaten  Ruaaia,  the  Continental  Empire  of  the 


Old  World  (ib.,  1903) ;  and  for  Asiatic  Russia, 
Lansdell,  Ruaaian  Central  Aaia  (ib.,  1885) ;  Al- 
brecht,  Ruaaiach  CentraUmen  (Hamburg,  1896) ; 
Wright,  Aaiatio  Ruaaia  (New  York,  1903) ;  and 
the  authorities  referred  to  under  Siberia. 
Among  the  many  books  of  travel  and  studies  of 
Russian  life  and  customs  may  be  mentioned: 
Turgenieff,  La  Ruaaie  et  lea  Ruaaea  (Paris, 
1847) ;  Leger,  Ruaaea  et  alavea:  Hudea  politiquea 
et  Iitt4raire8  (ib.,  1890) ;  Brandes,  Impreaaiona 
of  Ruaaia  (Eng.  trans..  New  York,  1889) ;  Moltke, 
Brief e  aua  Ruaaland  (4th  ed.,  Berlin,  1893); 
Noble,  Ruaaia  and  the  Ruaaiana  (Boston,  1893) ; 
Palmer,  Ruaaian  Life  in  Tovon  and  Country  (New 
York,  1901) ;  Gautier,  Travela  in  Ruaaia^  trans, 
(ib.,  1903) ;  Landor,  Acroaa  Coveted  Lands  (ib., 
1903). 

CiviuzATioKr :  Social  Conditions.  Semenoff, 
The  Emancipation  of  Peaaanta  (vol.  i.,  Saint 
Petersburg,  1889) ;  Roskoschung,  Daa  arme 
Ruaaland  (Leipzig,  1890) ;  Stepniak,  Der  ruaai- 
ache  Bauer  (Stuttgart,  1892);  id..  King  Stork 
and  King  Fox  (London,  1896) ;  Foulke,  Slav  or 
Sawon:  a  Study  of  the  Growth  and  Tendenciea 
of  RiMaian  Civilization  (London,  1899);  Leh- 
man and  Parvus,  Daa  hungernde  Ruaaland 
(Stuttgart,  1900) ;  Milioukoff,  Eaaai  aur  Vhia- 
toire  de  la  civiliaation  ruaae  (Paris,  1901). 

Economic  and  Industrial  Development: 
Finance.  Besobrasoff,  Etudea  aur  Vioonomie 
nationale  de  la  Ruaaie  (Saint  Petersburg,  1883- 
86)  ;  Stieda,  Aua  der  Wirtachaftatatiatik  (Jena, 
1883) ;  Matthai,  Die  Wirtachaftlichen  HUlfaquel- 
len  Ruaalanda  (Dresden,  1883-85);  The  Indua- 
trieay  Manufacturea,  and  Trade  of  Ruaaia,  pub- 
lished by  the  Ministry  of  Finance,  English  trans- 
lation edited  by  Crawford  (Saint  Petersburg, 
1893) ;  Morea,  KommerzieUe  Qeographie  Ruaa- 
landa (Saint  Petersburg,  1894);  Sworin,  AU 
Ruaaia:  a  Directory  of  Jnduatriea,  Agriculture, 
and  Adminiatration  (Saint  Petersburg,  1895), 
in  Russian;  Wakefield,  Future  Trade  in  the  Far 
Eaat  (London,  1896) ;  Verstraete,  La  Ruaaie 
indua trielle  (Paris,  1897) ;  Movs,  Die  Finanaen 
Ruaalanda  (Berlin,  1896) ;  Tugan-Baranovsky, 
The  Ruaaian  Factory i  Paat  and  Preaent  (Saint 
Petersburg,  1898),  in  Russian;  Koshkaroff,  The 
Money  Circulation  in  Ruaaia  (ib.,  1898),  in  Rus- 
sian; Kovalevsky,  Le  rigime  Sconomique  de  la 
Ruaaie  (Paris,  1898) ;  id.,  La  Ruaaie  d  la  fin  du 
XlXdme  ai^le  (ib.,  1900). 

Politics.  Stumm,  Ruaaia  in  Central  Aaia 
(London,  1885) ;  Tikhomirov,  Ruaaia,  Political 
and  Social,  trans.  (2d  ed.,  ib.,  1892) ;  Curzcm, 
Prohlema  of  the  Far  Eaat  (London,  1894) ; 
Thompson,  Ruaaian  Politica  (ib.,  1895);  Leroy- 
Beaulieu,  Etudea  ruaaea  et  europ6ennea  (Paris, 
1897) ;  Krausse,  Ruaaia  in  Aaia,  1558-1899  (ib., 
1899) ;  Mahan,  The  Problem  of  Aaia  (Boston, 
1900) ;  Leroy-Beaulieu,  La  renovation  de  VAaie 
(Paris,  1900)  ;  Lebeder,  Ruaaea  et  Anglais  en 
Aaie  centrale,  trans,  (ib.,  1900) ;  Colquhoun,  Rus- 
sia Against  India  (New  York,  1900) ;  Seignobos, 
A  Political  Hiatory  of  Contemporary  Europe, 
trans.  (London,  1900) ;  Howard,  Priaonera  of 
Ruaaia  (New  York,  1903) ;  Kovalevsky,  Russian 
Political  Institutions    (Chicago,   1903). 

Ethnology.  Buschen,  Bevolkerung  des  rus- 
sischen  Kaiserreiohs  (Gotha,  1862) ;  Dachinski, 
Peuples  aryds  et  tourans  (Paris,  1864) ;  Rittich, 
Die  Ethnographie  Russlands  (Gotha,  1877); 
Latham,   Russian  and  Turk    (London,   1878); 


BUSSIA. 


259 


BXJSSIAN  LANGUAGE. 


Zogni,  Les  peuples  de  la  Russie  (Moscow,  1895) ; 
Hellwald,  Die  Welt  der  Slawen  (Berlin,  1890). 
HiSTOBT.  Bambaud,  Hiatoire  de  la  Ruasie 
(Paris,  1878),  trans,  by  Lang  as  A  History  of 
Riusia  (1879) ;  Strahl  and  Hermann,  Oeschichte 
des  russischen  Siaais  (Hamburg,  1832-66) ; 
Karamsin,  Histoire  de  Vempire  de  Ruasie,  trans- 
lated into  French  by  Saint-Thomas,  Jauffret,  and 
Divoflf  (Paris,  1819-26)  ;  Bernhardi,  Oesckickte 
Russlands  und  der  europaiaohen  Politik  in  den 
Jahren  18U-S1  (Leipzig,  1868-78)  ;  Ralston, 
Early  Russian  History  (ib.,  1874) ;  Schnitzler, 
Secret  History  of  the  Court  and  Oovernment 
Under  the  Emperors  Alexander  and  NichoUis 
(Eng.  trans.,  ib.,  1847) ;  id..  Lea  institutions  de 
la  Russie  depute  les  r^formes  de  Vempereur  Alex* 
onderlL  (Paris,  1866). 

BXrSSIAN  ABCHITECT17BE.  The  indige- 
nous architecture  of  Russia  is  a  development  of 
the  Byzantine  (q.v.).  It  is  similar  to  that  of 
Armenia,  to  that  of  the  Caucasian  region,  and  to 
that  of  Moldavia.  The  great  peculiarity  of  the 
Russian  style — that  which  makes  it  at  once  re- 
markable and  recognized  among  other  styles  of 
building — is  in  the  great  extension  given  to 
the  idea  of  the  cupola  or  lantern,  which  in 
one  form  or  another  forms  the  principal  roof 
of  nearly  all  the  churches  in  the  land.  For  all 
these  buildings  are  of  the  'central  type,'  in  con- 
tradistinction to  the  'basilica  type;*  that  is,  they 
are  arranged  around  a  chosen  centre  which  may 
be  the  sanctuary  or  the  chief  place  for  the  con- 
gregation, and  they  are  not  drawn  out  into  long 
parallel  lines.  Such  a  church,  then,  generally 
square,  or  nearly  so  in  its  main  outlines,  will  be 
roofed  by  a  central  cupola  covering  the  whole 
nave,  which  is  nearly  square,  and  at  least  four 
minor  cupolas  covering  four  chapels  at  the 
comers,  while  the  aisles  and  porches  between 
have  minor  roofs  on  a  much  lower  level;  or,  as 
in  the  case  of  some  of  the  large  wooden  churches, 
the  rounded  cupola  will  be  replaced  by  a  blunt 
Bpire  built  of  timber  and  covered  with  plank, 
with  four  or  eight  sloping  sides,  while  this 
pyramid  may  or  may  not  terminate  in  a  very 
small  cupola,  apparently  studied  from  Persian 
design.  The  wooiden  churches  are  general Iv  in 
the  lar  north,  and  these  share  that  peculiarity  of 
Norwegian  buildings  of  the  same  class,  in  being 
almost  wholly  without  window  openings.  To 
keep  out  the  cold  wind  of  winter  and  to  facilitate 
the  warming  by  means  of  stoves,  the  worshipers 
are  satisfied  to  use  the  light  of  lamps  almost  ex- 
clusively. The  masonry  churches  of  the  centre 
and  south  are  very  like  those  of  Athens  and 
other  places  in  Greece  in  their  compact  plan  and 
generally  in  their  small  size,  though  none  are 
quite  as  minute  as  well-known  Grecian  examples. 

The  official  architecture  of  the  empire,  since 
the  time  of  Peter  the  Great,  has  been  largely 
a  rather  unsuccessful  imitation  of  the  supposed 
grand  style  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  mas- 
sive Cathedral  of  Saint  Isaac  in  Saint  Petersburg 
is  a  marvelous  structure  in  which  use  has  been 
made  of  the  exceptionally  fine  granite  quarries 
of  Northern  Russia  to  produce  monolithic  col- 
umns of  unexampled  size;  but  there  is  little  in 
the  design  to  please  the  student  of  mere  classic 
art.  The  porticoes  are  splendid  because  they 
could  be  closely  copied  from  Roman  examples, 
and  their  gigantic  monolithic  columns  with  gilt- 
bionze  capitis   suffice  to  give  them   splendor. 


but  the  design  of  the  mass  and  the  application 
of  the  cupola  to  it  are  of  little  value.  A  finer 
church  is  that  of  Our  Lady  of  Kazan  in  Saint 
Petersburg  with  a  great  portico  where  curved 
wings  project  on  both  sides,  somewhat  in  imita- 
tion of  the  Piazza  di  San  Pietro  in  Rome.  Con- 
sult: Rikliter,  Monuments  of  Ancient  Rvtssian 
Architecture^  translated  (1850)  ;  Souslow,  Monu- 
ments de  Vancienne  architecture  russe  (Leipzig, 
1895-1901);  Martinoff,  Anciens  monuments  des 
environs  de  Moscou  (Moscow,  1889)  ;  Montfer- 
rand,  Eglise  cath{'drale  de  Saint-Isaac  (Saint 
Petersburg,  1846). 

RUSSIAN  CHTJBCH.     See  Greek  Chtjbch. 

RUSSIAN  LANGXTAGE,  The.  The  most  im- 
portant of  the  Slavic  languages  (q.v.),  with  re- 
spect to  the  number  of  its  speakers  and  its 
literature.  It  is  spoken  by  about  90,000,000 
people  throughout  the  Russian  Empire,  and  by 
about  4,000,000  Ruthenians  in  Galicia,  Bukowina, 
and  Hungary.  It  is  also  heard  in  Alaska. 
Though  the  language  of  a  Bohemian  sounds 
quite  foreign  to  a  Russian,  yet  the  latter  can, 
with  a  little  effort,  understand  a  Servian,  a  Bul- 
garian, or  a  Pole,  and  finds  only  a  few  diffi- 
cult words  and  forms.  In  the  tenth  and 
eleventh  centuries  the  difiference  was  still 
slighter,  yet  even  then  Russian  had  a  pro- 
nounced individuality  and  a  number  of  well- 
defined  dialects.  The  chief  influence  on  Russian 
was  exercised  by  the  Slavonic  of  the  ecclesiastical 
books,  the  contributions  from  the  Tatar  (quite 
few),  Polish,  German,  and  French  being  mainly 
limited  to  additions  to  the  vocabulary.  About 
the  sixteenth  century  the  Russian  language 
reached  its  present  state  as  far  as  the  main 
features  of  it,  in  sound  and  form,  are  concerned. 
After  Peter  had  introduced  the  present  'civil* 
alphabet,  Lomonosoff  (q.v.)  gave  tne  Russian  its 
modern  aspect  by  means  of  his  many  grammati- 
cal and  philological  works.  At  present,  there 
are  three  distinct  dialects  of  \\ie  Russian  lan- 
guage: 

(1)  Oreat  Russian  found  in  its  purest  form 
about  Moscow.  This  is  the  basis  of  literary 
Russian.  It  is  used  by  about  two-thirds  of  the 
Russian-speaking  population,  or  about  60,000,000 
people.  Broadly  speaking,  it  is  heard  in  the 
north,  centre,  and  east  of  Russia,  having  two 
subdivisions:  (a)  North  Great  Russian  and  (b) 
South  Great  Russian. 

(2)  Little  Russiany  spoken  by  about  one-fourth 
of  the  Russian-speaking  population,  or  over  20,- 
000,000  people,  in  the  south  and  southwest  of 
Russia,  and  by  the  Ruthenians  in  Austria-Hun- 
gary. It  possesses  quite  a  literature  of  its  own, 
the  works  of  Shfehenko  being  its  finest  specimens, 
although  in  Russia  the  dialect  is  under  official 
ban.  It  possesses  three  varieties:  (a)  North  Lit- 
tle Russian,  (b)  South  Little  Russian,  and  (c) 
Red  (Ruthenian)  Russian  (heard  in  Volhynia, 
Podolia,  and  Galicia). 

(3)  White  Russian,  spoken  by  about  5,000,000 
people,  in  the  western  part  of  Russia,  chiefly  in 
Lithuania.  The  spelling  is  rather  historical  than 
phonetic,  e.g.  poemu  (we  sing)  is  pronounced 
paydm  in  the  Moscow  dialect,  but  a  pronunciation 
more  phonetic  is  quite  common. 

Among  the  formal  characteristics  of  the  Rus- 
sian language  may  be  noted:  (1)  Seven  cases, 
nominative,  genitive,  dative,  accusative,  voca- 
tive,  ablative    (instrumental),   and  preposition- 


BVS8IAN  LANGXTAGE. 


260 


BUS8IAN  LITE&ATXJBE. 


al:  (2)  three  genders  in  nouna,  adjectives,  and 
past  tenses  of  verbs;  (3)  two  terminations  for 
adjectives:  (a)  'complete,'  or  purely  adjectival, 
(b)  'clipped/ or  predicative ;  (4)  two  varieties  of 
participles:  (a)  adjectival  and  (b)  adverbal  (  = 
Fr.  g^rondif ) ;  (5)  only  three  tenses,  but  a  great 
variety  of  'aspects/  whereby  a  verb  can  be  made 
to  express  the  finest  subtleties  and  shades  of  the 
Latin  frequentatives,  inchoatives,  etc.;  in  ^n- 
eral,  through  composition  with  a  preposition, 
every  present  becomes  a  future,  every  imperfect 
a  perfect:  thus,  e.g.  atoy-u  (=  sto)  ;  po-stoy-u 
(=  ataho) ;  sioy-al  (=  staham)  ;  po-stoy-al  (  = 
ateti) ;  (6)  a  great  variety  of  diminutives 
and  augmentatives ;  ayn  (son) ;  aynishtche 
(a  strapping  son)  ;  ayn-ok  (a  little  son) ; 
ayn^otohek  (a  dear  little  son)  ;  syniahetchka 
(a  dear  little  mite  of  a  son)  ;  and  (7)  finally, 
the  disuse  of  the  copula  in  the  present  tense, 
the  absence  of  the  article,  and  the  personal  end- 
ings of  the  verb,  which  allow  the  omission  of  the 
pronouns  when  desired  for  rhetorical  purposes. 
The  capacity  for  compounds  and  derivatives  is 
BO  great  that  thousands  of  words  belong  to  the 
same  root.  The  arrangement  of  words  is  almost 
entirely  free,  as  the  grammatical  inflexions  obvi- 
ate misunderstanding.  This  elasticity  gives  to 
the  Russian  tongue  an  incisiveness  and  perspi- 
cuity that  most  modem  languages  lack.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  freedom  of  accent  (there  are 
Russian  words  with  the  accent  on  the  seventh  syl- 
lable from  the  end)  and  the  variety  of  vowels 
from  the  y  (broader  than  English  i)  to  t  (softer 
than  Italian  i)  allow  of  such  a  variety  of  cadences 
and  poetic  effects  as  are  given  only  to  several 
other  modem  languages  combined.  Thanks  to  these 
qualities,  works  of  such  varied  character  as  the 
epics  of  Homer,  the  tragedies  of  .^chylus  and 
Shakespeare,  the  sonnets  of  Petrarch,  and  the 
musical  lyrics  of  Verlaine  can  be  and  have  been 
translated  into  Russian  with  unsurpassable  fidel- 
ity to  the  form  and  spirit  of  the  originals. 

The  Dictionary  of  the  Church  Slavonic  and 
Ruaaian  Languagea,  containing  about  115,000 
words,  was  published  by  the  Second  Section  of  the 
Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1847,  but  was 
very  far  from  completeness.  A  new  edition,  the 
Academic  Dictionary  of  the  Rt^aaian  Language, 
now  in  course  of  publication,  embraces  only  nine 
or  ten  letters  of  the  alphabet.  The  other  stand- 
ard work,  V.  Dahl's  Explanatory  Dictionary  of 
the  Living  Great  Ruaaian  Language  (5th  ed.. 
Saint  Petersburg,  1880-82),  is  the  storehouse  of 
current  forms  and  expressions.  The  Eaaay  of  a 
Provincial  Great  Ruaaian  Dictionary  (Saint 
Petersburg,  1852),  with  Supplement  (1858),  is 
of  great  value.  The  most  important  grammati- 
cal treatises  are:  Busslayeff,  Hiatorical  Gram- 
mar  of  the  Ruaaian  Language  (5th  ed.,  Moscow, 
1881) ;  Brandt,  Lecturea  on  the  Hiatorical  Gram- 
mar of  the  Ruaaian  Language  (vol.  i..  Saint 
Petersburg,  1892) ;  Sobolevski,  Lecturea  on  the 
Hiatory  of  the  Ruaaian  Language  (2d  ed.,  Saint 
Petersburg,  1891)  ;  and  The  Old  Church  Slavic 
Tongue,  Phonetica  (Moscow,  1891). 

The  best  books  for  foreigners  are:  Diction- 
aries: Alexandroff,  Complete  Ruaaian-Engliah 
(3d  ed.,  1899),  and  Complete  Engliah-Ruaaian 
(2d  ed.,  1897)  ;  Makaroff,  Dictionnaire  FranQaia- 
Ruaae  (7th  ed.,  1892),  and  Ruaae-Frangaia  com- 
plet  (fith  ed.,  1893)  ;  Pavlovsky,  Ruaaiaoh-Deuta- 
chea  und  Deutach-Ruaaiachea  Worterhuch  ( 3d  ed., 
Riga,  1886),  a  monumental  work  of  its  kind. 


Grammabs:  Alexandroff,  A  Practical  Method  of 
the  Ruaaian  Language  (London,  1892)  ;  Riola, 
How  to  Learn  Ruaaian  and  Key  (ib.,  1878)  ;  Man- 
assevitch.  Die  Kunat  die  ruaaiache  Sprache  zu 
erlemen  (Vienna,  Pest,  Leipzig) ;  Abich,  Die 
HauptachuHerigkeiten  der  ruaaiachen  Sprache 
(Leipzig,  1897)  ;  and  K3rner,  Auafilhrlichea  Lehr- 
huoh  der  ntaaiachen  Sprache  ( Sondershausen, 
1892). 

BVSSIAN  LITEBATXrBE.  The  literature 
of  Russia  presents  an  interesting  phenomenon 
by  the  side  of  the  other  European  literatures. 
Although  it  possesses  a  remarkable  wealth  of 
genuine  folk-poetry,  both  epic  and  lyric,  Rus- 
sian written  literature  developed  independently 
of  the  purely  national  literature,  and,  with  the 
exception  of  the  famous  Song  of  Igor*a  Band  in 
the  twelfth  century  (see  Iqob's  Bakd,  Song 
of),  until  modem  times  there  was  no  artistic 
work  on  these  national  themes.  For  practical 
purposes  Russian  literature  may  be  divided  into 
four  periods. 

(1)  Period  of  Byzantine  Greek  Influence. 
As  in  many  other  countries,  the  begimungs  of 
literature  are  found  in  translations  from  Old 
Church  Slavic  (q.v.)  of  the  Bible  and  books  for 
church  service.  £ven  when  copying  the  Old 
Church  Slavic  books  of  worship,  the  scribe  fre- 
quently modified  the  original  texts  to  Russian, 
most  often  inadvertently,  but  also  sometimes 
purposely  to  make  the  text  more  intelligible  to 
Russian  readers.  Thus  drawing  upon  Greek 
models,  the  Russians  gradually  came  to  write 
also  independently.  The  most  original  writers  of 
this  period  are  llarion,  the  first  Russian  Metro- 
politan (1061-54),  and  Kyril  Turovski,  both 
representatives  of  genuine  oratory;  Daniel  the 
Exile  (thirteenth  century),  whose  Prayer  was 
intended  to  soften  the  heart  of  Yaroslaif  Vsye- 
voloditch,  who  imprisoned  him  on  Lake  Lache; 
the  Abbot  Daniel,  whose  Journey  to  Jerusalem 
(1106-08)  is  important  for  its  topographical 
information  concerning  Palestine,  and  as  throw- 
ing some  light  on  the  subsequent  final  schism  of 
the  Greek  and  Roman  Catholic  Church;  and 
finally  Nestor  (q.v.) ,  the  author  of  the  Chronicle. 
Furthermore,  almost  every  principality  of  any 
account  had  its  annalist,  so  that  numerous 
chronicles  are  extant.  Mention  must  also  be 
made  of  Yaroslaff's  Code,  Ruaaian  Right  (1054), 
and  of  Prince  Vladimir  Monomakh's  (1113-25) 
Precepta  to  My  Children,  a  vade  mecum  of  prac- 
tical advice  reinforced  by  examples  drawn  from 
his  own  life. 

(2)  Period  of  Darkness  and  Stagnation 
(from  the  thirteenth  to  the  seventeenth  century 
inclusive).  The  Tatar  invasion  under  Batiy 
(1224-1237)  almost  annihilated  Russian  litera- 
ture. However,  a  few  works  of  some  merit  be- 
longing to  this  period  have  been  preserved.  Chief 
among  these  are  the  Joumeya  of  Antony,  Arch- 
bishop of  Novgorod,  to  Constantinople  (1200); 
of  the  monk  Simeon  and  the  Susdal  Bishop 
Avraamiy,  who  accompanied  the  Moscow  Met- 
ropolitan Isidor  to  the  Florentine  Council  ( 1439) ; 
and  of  Afanasiy  Nikitin,  a  merchant  of  Tver  who 
journeyed  to  India  (1466-72).  Then  follow 
the  Apocryphal  Tales  about  Solomon,  taken  from 
the  Greek  Chronographs  and  Palaeas,  and  the  fa- 
mous battle  on  the  field  of  Kulikovo  (1380), 
where  the  Tatars  were  routed,  moved  an  un- 
known author  to  write  Zadonahtchina,  ''Events 


BXTSSIAH  LITEBATTJBE. 


261 


BV88IAN  LITE&ATUBE. 


Beyond  the  Don/'  a  rehashing  of  an  earlier 
work,  with  senseless  additions  from  the  Song  of 
Igor's  Band.  On  the  fall  of  the  South  Slavic 
monarchies  in  the  fourteenth  century,  the  schol- 
ars of  the  south  began  to  migrate  into  Russia. 
For  ahnost  two  centuries  there  was,  however, 
practically  no  revival  of  literature.  At  a  coun- 
cil held  at  Moscow  in  1657  at  the  command  of 
Ivan  IV.,  the  first  Czar  of  Russia,  it  Was  enacted 
that  only  revised  books  were  henceforth  to  be 
used  in  the  church.  As  no  one  in  Russia  was 
capable  of  undertaking  the  task  of  redaction, 
Alaxim  the  Greek  (1480-1556)  was  intrusted 
with  the  work.  Perhaps  the  most  important 
monument  of  this  period  is  the  famous 
Domostroy,  '^Household  R^ulation,"  of  the  priest 
Sylvester,  adviser  of  Ivan  IV.  (1647-1660). 
Written  for  his  son,  it  comprises  a  mass  of 
regulations  concerning  every  phase  of  life,  from 
questions  of  morality  and  religion  to  the  mi- 
nutest details  of  cuisine.  The  polemic  of  five 
letters  from  Prince  Kurbski  (1528-87)  in  Po- 
land to  Ivan  is  remarkable  for  the  literary  con- 
trast between  the  style  of  the  learned  and 
gifted  Kurbski  and  that  of  the  Czar,  equally 
gifted,  biting,  and  well  read,  though  possessing  no 
systematic  education.  His  other  work,  a  His- 
tory of  the  Muscovite  dsar,  is  a  logical,  though 
partisan,  recital  of  the  development  of  Ivan  the 
Terrible's  character.  The  seventeenth  century 
brought  with  it  new  ideals,  and  the  writers  of 
that  century,  Yuri  Krizhanitch,  the  Servian, 
in  his  Polity,  and  Grigori  Kotoshikhln  (1630- 
67),  in  his  Russia  in  the  Reign  of  Alexei  Mik- 
hailovitchj  appeal  for  education,  the  ereatest  need 
of  the  young  State.  Other  impor&nt  literary 
erents  of  Alezei's  reijgn  (1645-76)  were  the  es- 
tablishment and  publication  of  the  first  Russian 
newspaper,  although  in  manuscript  form,  and  the 
foundation  of  the  theatre  at  Moscow. 

(3)  Period  of  Western  European  Influence 
(eighteenth  century).  The  connection  between 
Russia,  wrapped  up  in  her  Greek  orthodox  faith, 
and  Western  Europe  was  very  slight  during  the 
Tatar  domination.  Only  after  the  return  of 
Peter  the  Great  in  1698  did  Russia  become 
again  a  European  State,  and  her  literature  more 
or  less  a  replica  of  the  theories  and  views  current 
in  Western  Europe.  Peter's  reforms  encompassed 
even  the  simplification  of  the  alphabet  in  con- 
formity with  Roman  characters;  new  words 
were  introduced,  constructions  were  modeled 
upon  the  French  and  German,  and  liberal  rewards 
were  paid  for  translations  of  useful  books  into 
Russian.  In  his  labors  the  Czar  was  assisted 
by  the  Bishop  Feofan  Prokopovitch,  an  erudite 
writer  and  man  of  great  political  sagacity.  Kan- 
temir  (q.v.),  an  ambassador  in  Western  Europe, 
with  his  satires  represents  a  great  step  forward. 
They  were  the  first  germ  of  modem  Russian  real- 
ism. Tredyakovski  (1703-69),  through  a  study 
of  the  Russian  national  poetry,  discovered  its 
tonic  metre,  though  his  verse  was  clumsy.  The 
great  name  of  Russian  literature  in  the  eighteenth 
century  is  Lomonosoff  (1711-65).  His  works 
on  rhetoric,  grammar,  and  versification  laid  the 
permanent  basis  of  modem  Russian  literature  by 
limiting  the  use  of  Old  CJhurch  Slavic  forms  in 
literary  language.  His  contemporary,  Sumaro- 
koflf  (1718-77),  established  the  pseudo-classical 
tragedy,  with  his  dramas  written  in  servile  imi- 
tation of  Goraeille,  Racine,  and  Voltaire.     But 


the  real  elements  of  progress  for  Russian  let- 
ters lay  in  his  comedies  and  fables  and  satires, 
where  much  genuine  native  wit  and  humor  is 
displayed.  His  greater  successor,  Fonvizin 
(1745-92),  wrote  two  comedies.  The  Brigadier 
and  Nye^rosl,  "The  Minor,"  in  which  he  ridi- 
culed the  deeply  rooted  ignorance  that  lay 
concealed  under  the  thin  veneer  of  education  ob- 
tained from  foreign  tutors.  The  reign  of  Catha- 
rine II.  found  a  spirited  panegyrist  in  Derzhavin 
(q.v.),  whose  lyrics  and  odes  are  characterized 
by  strong  imagery  and  vigorously  plastic  form. 
The  Academy  established  at  Saint  Petersburg 
(1726)  and  the  first  Russian  university  at  Mos- 
cow (1766)  produced  a  number  of  native  schol- 
ars. A  taste  for  literature,  intensified  by  the 
vogue  of  Bogdanovitch's  Dushenka,  was  growing 
up.  The  opportunity  was  seized  by  Sovikon 
(1744-1818),  a  man  of  letters  and  a  publisher  of 
popular  literary  magazines. 

The  end  of  the  century  witnessed  the  rise  of 
sentimentalism  in  Russia,  as  in  the  rest  of 
Europe.  This  movement  found  immediate  re- 
sponse in  Russia.  Here  belongs  the  work  of 
Karamzin  (q.v.).  His  short  stories,  imitations 
of  'family  novels,'  and  his  Letters  of  a  Russian 
Traveler,  modeled  after  Sterne's  Sentimental 
Journey,  created  a  demand  for  literature,  and 
his  History  was  an  event  in  Russian  letters. 

(4)  The  Nineteenth  Centubt  Romanticism. 
In  Russia  the  romantic  movement  found  repre- 
sentatives in  Zhukovski  (1783-1862),  a  gifted 
poet,  famous  for  his  remarkable  translations  of 
Goethe,  Schiller,  Byron,  Tasso,  and  Homer  [Odys- 
sey), and  Batyushkoff  (1787-1866),  who  worked 
in  similar  fields.  The  exclusive  domination  of 
French  models  in  Russian  literature  was  broken. 
The  Russian  verse  as  perfected  by  Zhukovski  and 
Batyushkoff  was  awaiting  a  great  master  to  take 
advantage  of  its  technical  perfection  for  original 
work.  That  master  was  Pushkin  (q.v.)  (1799- 
1837).  His  epic  Ruslan  and  Lyudmila  (1820) 
was  the  first  successful  attempt  to  draw  mate- 
rial from  Russian  antiquity  and  popular  legends. 
He  sounded  genuine  national  notes  in  his  drama 
Boris  Godunoff  (1825),  written  under  the  in- 
fiuence  of  Shakespeare,  and  in  his  Yevgen  Onye- 
gin  (1826-32).  After  Pushkin  Russian  literature 
becomes  an  independent  branch  of  European  lit- 
erature. Besides  the  circle  of  his  literary  dis- 
ciples and  colleagues,  like  Ryleyeff,  Baratynski, 
Prince  Odoyevski,  Prince  Vyazemski,  Bestuzheff, 
and  others,  two  great  names  are  prominent — ^Ler- 
montoff  (1814-41)  and  Koltsoff  (1808-42).  Ler- 
montoff,  strongly  tinged  with  Byronism,  was 
Pushkin's  direct  disciple,  but  his  individuality 
marks  him  as  an  independent  poet,  second  only  to 
his  teacher.  In  his  novel,  A  Hero  of  Our  Time,  he 
produced  a  masterpiece  fully  equal  to  Pushkin's 
Yevgen  Onyegin,  Koltsoff  created  the  art-song,  all 
the  motives  and  themes  being  those  of  the  people, 
and  invested  it  with  perfect  artistic  form.  Grib- 
oyedoff's  (1796-1829)  remarkable  comedy-satire. 
The  Misfortune  of  Being  Too  Clever,  lidiculed 
society  for  aping  the  fads  and  fashions  of  Europe 
and  disdaining  the  old  native  simplicity.  Another 
great  poet  was  the  fabulist  Kryloff  (q.v.)  (1768- 
1846),  who  cast  into  the  shade  his  predecessors 
Khenimtser  ( 1745-1784 ) ,  Dmitriyeff  ( 1760-1837 ) , 
and  Sumarokoff.  Though  he  wrote  much  in  other 
lines,  his  fame  rests  on  his  fables,  which  are 


BVSSIAN  LITEBATVBE. 


262 


BVSSIAN  LITEBATTTBB. 


among  the  best  of  their  kind  in  the  whole  range 
of  literature. 

The  Pebiod  of  Natubalism  in  Russian  Lit- 
EBATUBE.  The  first  prose-writer  in  Russia  to  give 
the  novel  the  important  position  it  now  enjoys  in 
literature  was  Gogol  (q.v.)  (1809-52),  Pushkin's 
devoted  admirer  and  friend.  In  his  comedy  Re- 
vizor  and  his  unfinished  novel  Dead  Souls,  he 
brought  to  the  front  the  humorous  side  of  Rus- 
sian officialdom,  which  he  held  up  to  ridicule  with 
amazing  power.  This  period  marks  an  epoch  in 
the  history  of  Russian  literature. 

Slavophils  and  Westebnebs.  Both  parties 
saw  in  Russia  the  'elect  nation,'  the  future  regen- 
erator. But  the  Slavophils  found  that  regenera- 
tive force  in  Russia's  past  with  her  historical 
traditions,  while  the  Westerners  saw  the  special 
fitness  of  Russia  to  play  the  rOle  of  universal  re- 
generator in  the  very  absence  of  historical  tradi- 
tions. However  great  the  differences  in  their  po- 
litical views,  both  camps  were  inspired  by  the 
same  sincere  love  for  the  people,  in  whom  alone 
they  saw  the  future  of  Russia,  for  whom  alone 
they  pursued  their  labor  of  love  and  life.  In  this 
literary  war  the  Westerners  had  the  advantage 
of  literary  and  artistic  superiority.  Around  the 
coterie  of  Herzen,  Bakunin,  Byelinski,  Stankye- 
vitch,  and  Granovski  clustered  a  number  of  rising 
authors,  with  higher  education,  all  eagerly  listen- 
ing to  their  prophet,  Byelinski.  Turgenieff,  Tol- 
stoy, Dostoyevski,  Grigorovitch,  Gontcharoff, 
Shtchedrin,  Sheftchenko,  Nekrasoff,  and  even 
Gogol,  more  or  less,  were  products  of  Byelinski's 
school,  whose  tenets  were  the  attainment  of  the 
social  and  ethical  ideals  of  society.  This  school 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  Liberal  Russian  move- 
ments. 

Epoch  of  Gbeat  Refobms  (1855-62).  On  the 
accession  of  Alexander  II.  the  writers  who  had 
been  exiled  for  their  reformatory  endeavors  were 
allowed  to  return  to  the  capital.  The  periodicals 
tried  to  revive  the  liberal  ideas  of  Byelinski, 
apparently  forgotten  since  his  death.  Two  great 
critics  were  molding  public  opinion,  and  direct- 
ing it  in  the  line  of  reform:  Tchernyshevski 
(q.v.)  (1828-89),  choosing  his  themes  in  connec- 
tion with  the  (questions  of  the  day,  established 
positivist  principles  instead  of  the  misty  Hege- 
lianism  of  the  forties.  His  pupil  and  successor, 
Dobrolyuboff  (1836-61),  a  progressist  par  excel- 
lence,  introduced  criticism  of  public  affairs  into 
Russian  literature.  A  literary  production  was 
henceforth  esteemed  in  proportion  as  it  advocated 
social  progress.  Aksakoff's  Chronicle;  l\irge- 
nieff's  Rudin,  Nohlemcn^s  Nest,  On  the  Eve, 
Fathers  and  Sons;  Gontcharoff's  Ohlomoff ;  Os- 
trovski's  Storm;  Shtchedrin's  Governmental 
Sketches;  Pisemski's  Thousand  Souls  and  Bitter 
Lot;  Dostoyevski's  Memoirs  from  a  Dead  House; 
Tolstoy's  Sehastopol  Tales;  and  A.  Tolstoy's  Tri- 
logy— all  these  were  created  during  the  first  years 
of  this  period  of  intensity  in  literature. 

Reaction  and  the  Epoch  of  Nihilism.  The 
peasant  riots  of  1862-63,  on  the  morrow  of  libera- 
tion, the  disturbances  among  the  students,  and 
especially  the  Polish  insurrection  of  1862-63, 
gave  the  reactionaries  in  the  Slavophil  camp  an 
opportunity  long  awaited.  The  cry  of  nihilism 
went  up,  and  Katkoff,  a  Slavophil  constitution- 
alist, now  became  the  leader  of  Slavophilism  in 
its  new  spirit  of  devotion  to  absolutism  and 
throne,  and  advocacy  of  Russia  for  the  Russians. 
Herzen  and  the  'nihilists'  were  pointed  at  as  the 


only  causes  of  the  disturbances,  and  restrictions 
were  loudly  demanded.  The  liberal  writers 
transferred  their  dissatisfaction  to  their  works 
of  art.  Shtchedrin  was  unmerciful  with  his 
satire;  Turgenieff  pleaded  in  his  pessimistic 
vein;  Dostoyevski  and  Pisemski  openly  went 
over  to  the  side  of  the  reactionaries;  Gontcharoff 
was  at  all  events  not  in  sympathy  with  the  lib- 
erals. On  the  other  hand,  Katkoff's  Russian 
Messenger  and  Moscow  Gazette  were  stocked  with 
'anti-nihilistic'  fiction;  Pisemski's  TurhuletU  SeOj 
Klyushnikoff's  Mirage,  a  series  of  novels  by 
Lyeskoff  and  Vsyevolod-Krestovski,  depicted  ni- 
hilists as  the  very  dregs  of  society. 

Simultaneously,  interest  in  the  peasants 
created  the  'muzhik  literature*  so  prominent  in 
the  next  decade.  The  comic  sketches  of  the  peas- 
ants by  N.  Uspenski  and  Slyeptsoff  (in  the 
fifties)  were  succeeded  by  the  serious  sociological 
studies  of  Ryeshetnikoff,  Levitoff,  and  Naumoff. 
Yakushkin  spent  all  his  life  wandering  over  Rus- 
sia, bundle  in  hand,  collecting  tales  and  songs. 
Commissioned  by  the  Government,  Maksimoff 
traversed  Siberia  and  embodied  his  observations 
in  the  famous  A  Year  in  the  North,  Together 
with  Danilevski's  studies  of  South  Russian  peas- 
ant life  and  Melnikoff's  studies  of  the  life  of  the 
Raskolniks,  these  gave  a  true  conception  of  the 
life  of  the  lower  classes. 

The  Seventies — 'Peasantism.'  The  interest  in 
social  sciences  expounded  by  the  brilliant  sociol- 
ogist and  critic  Mikhailovski  was  at  its  height; 
his  path  was  prepared  by  Pisareff  (1841-68), 
who  had  established  utilitarianism  and  real  no- 
tions of  individual  rights  in  Russia.  The  lib- 
erals came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  only  way  to 
help  the  people  was  to  enter  among  them  and 
there  spread  knowledge  and  enlightenment.  Thou- 
sands of  young  people  donned  the  peasant's  garb, 
foregoing  the  comforts  of  culture  and  city  life. 
The  period  was  not  favorable  to  new  names — 
altruistic  action  consumed  the  flower  of  the  gen- 
eration— ^but  the  old  talents  developed  to  the 
highest  point.  Shtchedrin  wrote  his  Messieurs 
Qoloveyeff  (the  crowning  work  of  his  literary 
career).  Tolstoy,  too,  turned  to  altruistic  love 
in  his  'famine  letter*  (1873^)  and  Anna  Karenina. 
All  the  new  literary  talents  directed  their  efforts 
to  muzhik  fiction.  Among  these  writers  the 
names  of  Glyeb  Uspenski  and  Zlatovratski  stand 
out  in  bold  relief.  Toward  the  end  of  the  seven- 
ties pessimistic  views  begin  to  be  reflected  in  the 
new  authors.  Such  were  Novodvorski,  Yaainski, 
Petropavlovski,  Ertel,  and  particularly  Garshin. 
However,  in  others,  notably  Potapenko  and  Koro- 
lenko,  an  optimistic  note  is  heard. 

The  Eighties  and  Nineties  (Epoch  of  Gbop- 
INQ  FOR  New  Ideals).  Alexander  III.  instituted 
on  his  accession  in  1881  a  system  of  rigor  and  re- 
prisals. In  literature  only  'pure  art'  and  pro- 
ductions incriminating  the  'underminers  of  the 
foundations'  were  left  undisturbed.  A  new  school, 
ultra-CJhauvinist  and  of  the  boulevardier-type, 
cropped  up.  Katkoff  is  the  great  leader  of  the 
absolutist  party;  another  is  Prince  Meshtcher- 
ski,  editor  of  the  Citizen,  Nearly  all  liberal  pub- 
lications were  stopped.  Only  Boborykin  con- 
stantly embodied  the  latest  questions  of  the 
day  in  his  numerous  novels.  Fiction  was  forced 
into  new  channels,  where  discussions  of  current 
life  is  impossible;  the  historical  novel  flourishes 
under  Vsyevolod  Solovyoff,  Mordovtseff,  and  Dani- 
levski.    In  poetry  the  most  popular  name  is  thfit 


BV8SIAK  UTS&ATTTBSS. 


268 


BtJSSO-TtTBKISfi  WAB. 


of  Nadson  (1862-87),  whose  themes  are  the  sor- 
rows of  his  own  life.  Poets  like  Minsky,  Fofanoff, 
jdereshkovski,  Balmont,  Andreyevski,  turned  into 
Decadents  and  Symbolists.  Among  the  champions 
of  liberal  thought  most  prominent  is  the  philoso- 
pher, critic,  and  poet  Vladimir  Solovyoff  (1863- 
1900).  Another  foe  of  obscurantism  is  Menshikoif, 
a  follower  and  personal  friend  of  Tolstoy. 

At  present  Russian  thought  turns  to  the  dis- 
cussion of  material  problems,  the  strides  of  capi- 
talism being  vigorously  combated  on  sociological 
grounds  by  Mikhailovski.  Gorky  (q.y.)  (pseu- 
donym of  A.  Pyeshkoff)  depicts  the  life  of  the 
lowest  scums  of  city  life,  paupers,  and  vaga-' 
bonds.  Other  prominent  names  among  writers  of 
this  class  are  Tchekhoff  and  Melshin  (pseudonym 
of  P.  Yakubovitch),  the  latter  of  whom  had  spent 
a  dozen  years  in-  Siberian  exile.  Melshin's  From 
the  World  of  Outcasts,  describing  prison  life  as 
be  saw  it,  has  been  unanimously  assigned  a 
place  of  honor  by  the  side  of  Dostoyevski's 
Memoirs  from  a  Dead  House,  while  his  poems 
mark  him  as  the  most  eminent  poet-thinker  of 
Bussia  at  present. 

FoLK-LoBE.  Probably  no  other  nation  pos- 
sesses a  more  remarkable  wealth  of  folk-lore  than 
Russia.  The  proverbs  and  the  riddles  run  into 
the  thousands,  the  best  collections  being  those 
of  Dahl,  Proverbs  of  the  Russian  People  (new  ed., 
Saint  Petersburg,  1879),  and  LadovnikolT,  Riddles 
of  the  Russian  People  (ib.,  1876).  There  are 
several  collections  of  fairy-tales,  the  most  satis- 
factory being  that  of  Afanasyeif,  Russian  Popu- 
lar Tales  (3d  ed.,  Moscow,  1897).  There  are 
ritual  songs  and  incantations  for  every  event  of 
life  from  birth  to  burial.  The  lyric  songs  mirror 
the  whole  of  the  Russian  character.  Those  of 
Northern  Russia  are  characterized  by  native 
strength ;  those  of  the  south  are  graceful,  delicate, 
and  plaintive.  The  latest  work  on  the  subject  is 
by  Lobolevski,  Great  Russian  Folk-Songs  (7  vols.. 
Saint  Petersburg,  1895  et  seq.) .  The  epic  songs  or 
hyliMS  (q.v.)  date  from  legendary  times  to  the 
nineteenth  century,  but  those  dealing  with  the 
past  are  the  best.  These  have  appeared  in  col- 
lections by  Kireyevski  (10  vols..  Saint  Peters- 
burg, 18C0-74),  RybnikoflF  (4  vols.,  Petrozavodsk, 
1861-67),  Hilferding  (Saint  Petersburg,  1873), 
and  Avenarius  (5th  ed.,  Moscow,  1898). 

Consult:  Rambaud,  La  Russie  4pique  (Paris, 
1876) ;  Ralston,  The  Songs  of  the  Russian  People 
(London,  1872)  ;  id.,  Russian  Folk-Tales  (ib., 
1873);  Hapgood,  Epic  Songs  of  Russia  (New 
York,  1887) ;  Wolkonsky,  Pictures  of  Russian 
Bisiory  and  Russian  Literature  (Boston,  1898)  ; 
Bazftn,  Russia,  Its  People  and  Its  Literature 
(Chicago,  1890)  ;  Turner,  Studies  in  Russian  Lit- 
erature (London,  1892) ;  id..  Modern  Novelists  of 
Russia  (ib.,  1890)  ;  Waliszewski,  History  of  Rus- 
sian Literature  (New  York,  1900) ;  Wiener, 
Anthology  of  Russian  Literature  (ib.,  1903) ; 
Reinholdt,  Oeschichte  der  russischen  Littera- 
tur  (Leipzig,  1886)  ;  L6ger,  La  litt^rature 
russe  (Paris,  1892) ;  De  VogU^,  Le  roman  russe 
(4th  ed.,  ib.,  1897) ;  Dupuy,  Les  grands  mattres 
de  le  litt4rature  russe  au  XlXieme  sidcle  (ib., 
1885). 

BTTSSIAN  MUSIC.     See  Slavonic  Music. 

BUSSIAN  TT7BKESTAK.    See  Tubkestan. 

BTJSSNIAKS.    See  Ruthenians. 


BXJSSO-TVBKISH  WAB  (1877  78).  A  con- 
flict between  Russia  and  the  Ottoman  Empire, 
growing  out  of  the  condition  of  the  Balkan  coun- 
tries and  involving  an  effort  on  the  part  of  Russia 
to  extend  her  dominion  in  the  direction  of  the 
Mediterranean.  (See  Eastern  Question.)  In 
1875-76  risings  against  Turkish  misrule  broke 
out  in  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina.  Encouraged  by 
Servia  and  Montenegro,  and  probably  by  Russia, 
the  spirit  of  revolt  spread.  The  Bulgarian 
atrocities  in  May,  1876,  called  the  attention  of 
the  Western  Powers  in  a  forcible  manner  to  the 
state  of  affairs  in  the  Balkan  provinces.  Gortcha- 
koff,  Andrfissy,  and  Bismarck  drew  up  the  so- 
called  Berlin  Memorandum,  but  the  habitual 
failure  of  the  Powers  to  agree  in  their  action  pre- 
vented the  diplomatic  representations  made  at 
Constantinople  from  having  any  result.  Servia 
and  Montenegro  began  open  war  against  the 
Porte  in  July,  1876.  England  supported  the 
Porte  in  spite  of  the  vigorous  assaults  upon  the 
Turkish  policy  by  Gladstone.  Austria-Hungary 
and  Germany  avoided  committing  themselves  to 
any  policy.  The  Magyars  openly  expressed  sym- 
pathy with  the  Turks.  Servia  succumbed  to  the 
overwhelming  forces  of  Turkey  in  October,  but 
the  Montenegrins,  assured  doubtless  of  Russian 
support,  kept  the  field.  After  sounding  the  other 
Powers  in  regard  to  their  attitude  and  finding 
no  inclination  to  guarantee  reforms  in  Turkey, 
Russia  concluded  a  treaty  with  Rumania  in  April, 
1877,  and,  announcing  herself  as  the  protector  of 
the  Balkan  Christians,  declared  war  against  the 
Ottoman  Empire  on  the  24th.  The  advance  of 
the  Russians  was  rapid.  The  Danube  was  crossed 
at  Galatz,  on  June  22d,  by  a  portion  of  the  forces, 
and  on  June  27th  the  main  army  crossed  at 
Simnitza,  into  Bulgaria.  In  July  the  Czar  joined 
the  army  in  the  field  of  operations.  General 
Gurko  took  possession  of  Tirnova  on  July  7th, 
and  a  week  later  he  crossed  the  Balkans.  The 
Russian  lines  faced  eastward  toward  Rustchuk, 
Rasgrad,  and  Shumla;  southward  from  Tirnova 
to  the  Shipka  Pass;  and  westward  toward  the 
Osma  and  Vid  rivers.  The  Turkish  Army  of  the 
Danube  on  the  east  was  commanded  by  Mehemet 
Ali;  Reuf  Pasha  commanded  the  Army  of  the 
Balkans,  to  which  was  intrusted  the  defense  of 
the  Shipka  Pas's,  but  was  soon  superseded  on  ac- 
count of  inefficiency  by  Suleiman  Pasha.  Osman 
Pasha  took  up  a  strong  position  at  Plevna  (q.v.) 
on  the  right  flank  of  the  Russians.  The  unex- 
pected and  desperate  resistance  offered  by  Osman 
Pasha  arrested  the  Russian  advance.  On  July 
30th  he  beat  baek  a  division  of  the  army  of  the 
Grand  Duke  Nicholas,  under  General  Krfldiner, 
with  great  slaughter.  Early  in  September  the 
attack  was  renewed  in  great  force  by  the  Russians 
and  Rumanians,  but  Osman  held  his  own,  and  a 
desperate  assault  on  the  11th  proved  disastrous 
to  the  assailants.  The  Russians  then  decided 
to  invest  the  place.  In  the  meanwhile,  General 
Gurko,  who  had  been  advancing  upon  Adrianople, 
was  defeated  by  Suleiman  Pasha  at  Eski-Zagra, 
and  driven  into  the  Shipka  Pass,  where  he  suc- 
ceeded in  holding  his  ground  against  the  furious 
attacks  of  Suleiman.  In  August  and  September 
Mehemet  Ali  operated  successfully  against  the 
Russian  left  under  the  Cro'svn  Prince  Alexander 
in  the  region  of  the  River  Lom.  Everything  now 
depended  upon  the  ability  of  Osman  Pasha  to 
hold  out  at  Plevna.    General  Gurko  was  sent  to 


BXTSSO-TXrBKIBH  WAS. 


264 


BT78T. 


operate  in  the  rear  of  the  place  and  his  success- 
ful movements  rendered  relief  impossible.  On 
December  10th  Osman  Pasha  made  a  desperate 
attempt  to  break  through  the  Russian  lines,  but 
was  forced  to  surrender.  Suleiman  Pasha^  who 
had  succeeded  Mehemet  Ali  in  the  command  of 
the  Turkish  army  in  the  east,  was  at  first  suc- 
cessful, capturing  Elena  on  December  4th,  but  on 
December  12th  he  suffered  a  defeat  at  Metchka, 
which  drove  him  from  the  field.  The  fall  of 
Plevna  enabled  the  Russians  to  undertake  a  rapid 
advance  toward  Adrianople.  General  Gurko  en- 
tered Sofia  on  January  4,  1878.  On  January  9th 
Generals  Mirski,  Skobeleff,  and  Radetzky  cap- 
tured the  Turkish  forces  in  the  Shipka  Pass.  The 
army  of  Suleiman  Pasha,  who  attempted  to  check 
the  Russian  advance,  was  shattered  in  three  days' 
fighting  near  Philippopolis,  and  on  January  20th 
Adrianople  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Russians. 
Servia  had  declared  war  on  December  14,  1877. 
On  January  10,  1878,  the  Servians  took  Nish, 
and  on  the  same  day  Antivari  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Montenegrins. 

In  Armenia  the  Russians  had  been  equally  suc- 
cessful. Four  columns  crossed  the  frontier  on 
April  24,  1877,  Loris  Melikoff  (q.v.)  being  in 
charge  of  the  campaign.  The  first,  moving  on 
Batum,  was  driven  back;  the  second  stormed 
Ardahan  on  May  17th;  the  third  besieged  Kars 
and  also  advanced  on  Erzerum,  but  was  checked 
by  Mukhtar  Pasha,  the  Turkish  commander  in 
Armenia,  and  retired  to  Alexandropol ;  the  fourth 
took  Bayazid,  but,  losing  the  support  of  the  third, 
was  forced  to  abandon  it  and  retreat.  Here,  as 
in  Europe,  the  Russians  underestimated  their  op- 
ponents at  the  outset.  In  October  the  campaign 
was  renewed.  Mukhtar  Pasha  was  completely 
defeated  by  the  Grand  Duke  Michael  at  Aladja 
Dagh  on  October  15th  and  retreated  upon  Erze- 
rum, which  he  held  until  after  the  close  of  hos- 
tilities in  Europe.    Kars  fell  on  November  18th. 

By  the  end  of  January,  1878,  the  Russians  had 
advanced  to  the  neighborhood  of  Constantinople, 
and  the  Ottoman  Empire  was  at  the  mercy  of 
the  enemy.  On  January  31,  1878,  an  armistice 
was  signed  by  which  the  Porte  gave  up  all  forti- 
fied places  north  of  a  line  drawn  from  San 
Stefano,  on  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  to  Derkos,  on  the 
Black  Sea.  The  Treaty  of  San  Stefano  between 
Russia  and  the  Ottoman  Empire  was  signed 
March  3,  1878.  In  the  meanwhile,  on  February 
13th,  a  British  fieet  had  entered  the  Sea  of  Mar- 
mora in  order  to  guard  against  anv  intention  on 
the  part  of  the  Russians  to  enter  Constantinople. 
The  Powers,  unwilling  to  accord  to  Russia  the 
aggrandizement  involved  in  the  Treaty  of  San 
Stefano,  intervened  (England  even  going  so  far 
as  to  embark  a  force  of  Sepoys  for  service  against 
the  Russians),  and  a  congress  was  called  at  Ber- 
lin to  revise  the  treaty  and  effect  a  new  settle- 
ment of  the  Eastern  Question.    See  Berlin,  Con- 

GBESS  OF. 

Consult:  Oilier,  CaaaelVa  Illustrated  History 
of  the  Russo-Turkish  War  (New  York),  some- 
what journalistic,  but  comprehensive;  Mtiller, 
Political  History  of  Recent  Times,  trans.  Peters 
(ib.,  1882),  a  concise  brief  sketch;  Greene,  The 
RiMsian  Army  in  Its  Campaigns  in  Turkey  in 
1877-78  (ib.,  1879),  with  an  atlas;  Huyshe,  The 
Liberation  of  Bulgaria  (London,  1894)  ;  Hozier, 
The  Russo-Turkish  War  (ib.,  1877-79)  ;  Le 
Faure^  Histoire  de  la  guerre  d*Orient,  1877-78 


(Paris,  1878) ;  Williams,  The  Armenian  Cam- 
paign (London,  1878) ;  Gay,  Plernia,  the  Sultan, 
and  the  Porte  (ib.,  1878). 

BUST  (AS.  rust,  OHG.  rost,  Ger.  Rost;  con- 
nected with  OChurch  Slav.  rHzda,  Lith.  rOdis, 
Lett,  rtisa,  Lat.  ruhigo,  rust,  and  with  Groth. 
raups,  AS.  read,  Eng.  red,  OHG.  r6t,  Ger.  rot, 
Lat.  rufus,  ruber,  Gk.  4pv9p&s,  erythros,  Olr. 
ruad,  OChurch  Slav.  ritdrH,  Lith.  riWas,  Skt. 
rudhira,  red).  Parasitic  fungi  (Uredinales, 
q.v.),  especially  injurious  to  wheat,  oats,  and 
other  cereals,  usually  appearing  as  yeUow,  brown, 
or  black  lines  and  spots  on  the  leaves  and  sterna. 
The  name  is  often  applied  with  various  qualifi- 
cations, as  white  rust,  etc.,  to  diseases  of  other 
plants,  but  as  commonly  regarded  by  botanists 
it  applies  only  to  the  Uredineie.  Nearly  all 
cereals  are  subject  to  the  Attack  of  rust,  and  from 
an  economic  standpoint  this  is  one  of  the  most 
serious  pests  of  grain  crops.  In  1891,  a  season 
especially  favorable  to  the  rusts,  the  estimated 
loss  to  wheat,  barley,  rye,  and  oats  in  Prussia, 
as  stated  by  a  commission,  was  over  $100,000,- 
000.  In  Australia,  it  is  said,  the  loss  to  the 
wheat  crop  is  ten  to  fifteen  million  dollars  an- 
nually, and  in  the  United  States  it  is  equally 
great,  or  even  greater,  for  seldom  is  a  field  en- 
tirely free  from  it  and  sometimes  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  crop  is  destroyed.  As  generally 
understood  the  most  common  and  destructive 
species,  at  least  in  the  United  States,  are  Puc- 
cinia  graminis  and  Puccinia  ruhigo-vera  on 
wheat,  oats,  barley,  and  rye,  and  Puccinia  cttro- 
nata  on  oats.  Investigations  conducted  in  the 
United  States  and  Sweden  have  shown  that  there 
are  specialized  forms  of  the  first  two  species  that 
occur  only  upon  certain  host  plants.  AH  of  these 
rusts  pass  through  three  stages  in  their  life 
cycles — ^uredospore  and  teleutospore  stages  upon 
cereals  and  an  ecidial  stage  upon  some  very  dis- 
similar plant.  For  Puccinia  graminis  the  «eci- 
dial  stage  is  upon  the  barberry,  for  Puccinia 
rubigo-vera  upon  members  of  the  borage  family, 
and  for  Puccinia  coronata  upon  tiie  buck- 
thorn {Rhamnus  lanceolata)  and  related  spe- 
cies. The  flecidial  phase  of  these  rusts,  being 
passed  upon  plants  of  little  economic  value,  is 
not  considered  as  injurious.  The  uredospore 
stage,  called  red,  brown,  or  yellow  rust,  is  passed 
upon  the  leaves  and  stems  of  the  cereals;  the 
black  rust  or  teleutospore  is  the  winter  stage,  in 
which  the  spores  are  thick-walled  and  remain  in 
the  dead  leaves  and  stubble  through  the  winter. 
The  general  facts  regarding  the  life  history  of  all 
are  the  same,  and  that  first  discovered,  Puccinia 
graminis  of  wheat,  which  was  worked  out  by 
Debary  in  1864,  will  serve  as  an  example.  Under 
normal  conditions  small  cup-like  depressions 
appear  in  the  spring  on  both  surfaces  of  the 
barberry  leaves.  The  true  cluster  cups,  as  they 
are  called,  which  appear  upon  the  lower  side  of 
the  leaves,  are  crow^ded  with  spores,  which  are 
'blown  about  by  the  wind,  and,  falling  upon  wheat, 
germinate  and  gain  entrance  into  the  tissues. 
Once  inside,  the  mycelium  develops  with  the 
growth  of  the  wheat  and  about  harvest  time  a 
crop  of  spores  is  produced.  These  red  rust  spores 
are  blown  about  and  produce  new  rust  spots 
wherever  they  alight  upon  a  similar  plant,  caus- 
ing injury  by  dwarfing  the  plant  and  shriveling 
the  grain.  Later  in  the  season  black  lines  of 
spores  are  produced  upon  stubble  or  the  leaves  of 


BT78T. 


366 


BT78TOW. 


plaoifl  that  remain.  The  thick-walled,  two- 
celled  resting  spores  produced  at  this  time  will 
not  germinate  until  they  have  hibernated,  but  in 
early  spring  they  germinate  upon  barberry 
plants,  forming  what  are  called  basidiospores,  or 
sporidia.    Thus  the  life  cycle  is  completed. 

WhDe  progress  seems  to  have  been  made  in 
combating  many  plant  diseases  by  means  of 
fungicides,  etc.,  little  has  been  accomplished  in 
the  prevention  of  wheat  rust  in  spite  of  the  at- 
tention and  study  given  to  this  problem.  While 
apparently.no  variety  is  wholly  exempt,  there  is 
great  variation  in  the  susceptibility  of  different 
varieties.  As  a  rule  the  hard  red  wheats,  the 
leaves  and  stems  of  which  have  a  decided  bloom, 
are  more  resistant  than  others,  and  resistant 
varieties  will  probably  be  developed  along  this 
line,  as  also  in  the  breeding  of  early  ripening 
varieties,  which  largely  escape  injury.  Since 
late  sowing  upon  moist  soils  almost  always  re- 
sults in  a  badly  rusted  crop,  such  should  be 
avoided. 

Consult :  Carleton,  "Cereal  Rusts  of  the  United 
States,"  United  States  Department  of  Affriculture, 
DiviHon  Vegetable  Pathological  Bulletin  16 
(Washington) ;  Eriksson  and  Hennings,  Die 
Oetreideroste  (Stockholm,  1896)  ;  Eriksson,  "The 
Present  Status  of  the  Cereal  Rust  Problem,'* 
Botanical  Oassette  26  (1898),  p.  37;  Hitchcock 
and  Carleton,  "Rusts  of  Grain,"  Kanwu  Experi- 
mental Station  Bulletins  S8  and  46  (Manhat- 
tan, 1893,  1894) ;  Galloway,  "Experiments  in  the 
Treatment  of  Rusts  of  Wheat  and  Other  Cereals," 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  Re- 
port (Washington,  1892) ;  Mc Alpine,  Report  on 
Rust  in  Wheat  Esoperiments  (Melbourne,  1894) ; 
Sorauer,  Pflanzenkrankheiten  (Berlin,  1896). 

BTXS^AM.    A  legendary  Iranian  hero,  whose 
adventures   are  related  in  the  ShAh-Ndmah  of 
Firdausi  (q.v.).  During  the  first  day  of  his  life 
he  grew  as  much  as  other  children  do  in  a  year. 
Before  reaching  manhood  he  entered  the  fortress 
of  Sipend  in  disguise  and  avenged  the  murder  of 
his  great-grandfather  Nariman.    His  father,  Zal, 
made  Rustam  a  Pahlavan  or  hero  of  the  realm. 
After  some  years,  on  the  death  of  Garshasp  or 
Keresaspa,  Rustam   was  commissioned  to  offer 
the  crown  of  Zabulistan  to  Kai  Kobad.     This 
accomplished,  he  defeated  with  the  help  of  the 
new  sovereign  the  armies  of  the  Turanian  chief 
Afraflyab,  upon  which  the  Turanian  King,  Pashang, 
sued  for  peace.     During  the  reign  of  Kai  Kaus, 
the  successor  of  Kai  Kobad,  the  hero  performed 
seven  adventures  to  deliver  his  King  from  the 
ruler  of  Mazanderan.    These  adventures  are  the 
killing  of  a  lion  by  Rustam's  horse  Raksh,  the 
discovery  of  a  spring  in  a  desert,  the  destruction 
of  an  enormous  dragon,  the  killing  of  an  enchant- 
ress, the  defeat  of  Aulad,  the  lord  of  Southern 
Mazanderan,  who  was  forced  to  guide  Rustam 
to  the  cavern  of  the  White  Demon,  the  defeat 
of  the  demon   Arzang,   and   finally   the   death 
of  the  White  Demon.    Losing  his  horse  Raksh, 
Rustam  visited  the  city  of  Samangan  to  recover  it. 
There  he  wedded  the  Princess  Tahminah.    He  was 
called  away,  however,  and  left  a  bracelet  as  a 
token  of  recognition  for  his  unborn  child.    This 
Bon,  Suhrab,  was  brought  up,  nevertheless,  un- 
known to  his  father,  and  became  a  famous  war- 
rior on  the  Turanian  side.     In  single  combat 
father  and  son  met,  and  Suhrab  was  slain.    Rec- 
<)paang  the  corpse   by   the   bracelet,    Rustam 


went  to  Zabulistan,  but  later  renewed  the  war  on 
the  Turanians,  and  performed  countless  feats 
of  arms  during  the  three  succeeding  reigns.  The 
base-bom  son  of  Zal,  and  Gushtasp's  son-in-law, 
named  Shaghad,  angered  by  the  annual  tribute 
of  a  cow-skin  paid  to  Zabul  by  Kabul,  finally 
enticed  Rustam  with  a  hundred  of  his  knights  to 
Kabul,  where  they  were  entrapped  in  a  park  in 
which  pits  filled  with  javelins  had  been  made. 
Into  one  of  these  Rustam  fell  and  perished,  liv- 
ing only  long  enough  to  shoot  a  fatal  arrow  at 
Shaghad.  'Hie  Rustam  cycle  is  not  found  in 
Iranian  literature  until  a  comparatively  recent 
period.  The  legend  was  known,  however,  at  least 
in  part,  as  early  as  the  seventh  or  eighth  cen- 
tury. The  episode  is  familiar  to  English  readers 
through  Matthew  Arnold's  poem  Sohrah  and 
Rustum. 

BTJSTCHTJK,  or  BTJ&dTTX,  rgs^chyk.  A 
town  of  Bulgaria,  on  the  Danube,  opposite  the 
Rumanian  town  of  Giurgevo,  139  miles  northwest 
of  Varna  (Map:  Balkan  Peninsula,  F  3).  It  is 
an  important  manufacturing  centre,  producing 
tobacco  and  cigars,  soap,  beer,  and  good  pottery. 
Its  trade  is  also  considerable.  Under  the  Turks 
Rustchuk  was  an  important  fortress.  Population, 
in  1900,  32,661. 

BVSTIC  (or  Rusticated)  WOBX  (Lat.  rus- 
ticus,  relating  to  the  country,  from  rus,  country), 
and  Rustication.  The  name  of  that  kind  of 
masonry  in  which  the  various  stones  or  courses 
are  marked  at  the  joints  by  plays  or  recesses. 
The  projecting  surface  thus  left  is  sometimes 
called  bossed,  if  the  surface  is  entirely  or  com- 
paratively dressed,  and  rustic  when  left  rough 
and  irregular  or  made  artificially  irregular.  Rus- 
tication is  chiefiy  used  in  Renaissance  architec- 
ture, particularly  in  the  later  period  of  the 
Barocco  style,  although  rustic  quoins  were  often 
used  in  rough  Gothic  work. 

BTJSTIGE,  rys^tl-ge,  Heinsich  von  (1810- 
1900).  A  German  historical  genre  and  landscape 
painter  and  poet,  bom  at  Werl,  Westphalia.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Schadow  at  the  Dttsseldorf  Acad- 
emy, and  won  success  with  one  of  his  first  pic- 
tures, "Swiss  Women  Seeking  Shelter  from 
Storm"  (1836,  National  Gallery,  Berlin).  In  1846 
he  became  professor  at  the  School  of  Art  in  Stutt- 
gart and  inspector  of  the  royal  galleries.  Of  his 
other  works  may  be  pointed  out  "Inundation 
Scene"  (1841),  in  the  National  Gallery,  Berlin; 
"Duke  of  Alva  and  the  Countess  of  Rudolstadt" 
(1861),  "Otho  I.  After  Conquering  the  Danes" 
(1872),  both  in  the  Stuttgart  Museum;  and 
"Transportation  of  the  Remains  of  Otho  III. 
Across  the  Alps"  (1863),  Stettin  Museum.  As 
a  poet  he  was  favorably  known  through  several 
dramas,  and  through  lyrics,  both  serious  and 
humorous.  He  also  published  Das  Poetische  in 
der  Uldenden  Kunst  (1876),  an  essay  in  seethet- 
ics. 

BT7ST  MITE.    See  Orange  Insects. 

BXJSTBE.  In  heraldry,  one  of  the  subordi- 
naries.    See  Heraldry. 

BttSTOW,  rv'stA,  Wilhelm  (1821-78).  A 
Prussian  soldier  and  writer,  bom  at  Branden- 
burg. Because  of  the  liberal  views  he  expressed 
in  his  pamphlet,  Der  deutsche  Militarstaat  vor 
und  wahrend  der  Revolution  (1850-51),  he  was 
court-martialed,  but  managed  to  escape  before  sen- 
tence was  pronounced  on  him.     He  settled  in 


ausTow. 


dd6 


EtlTS. 


Zuricli,  where  he  lectured  at  the  university  on 
military  science.  In  1860  he  joined  Garibaldi, 
in  Sicily,  and  distinguished  himself  by  an  ener- 
getic and  decisive  attack  which  did  much  to 
decide  the  battle  of  Volturno.  Upon  his  return 
to  Zurich  he  resumed  his  military  studies  and 
became  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  modern  writ- 
ers on  military  science.  His  numerous  writings 
include :  Geachichie  des  gricchischen  Kriegswesens 
(1852-55)  ;  Der  Krieg  von  180,5  in  Deutschland 
und  Italien  (1853-59)  ;  Dcr  Krieg  und  seine  Mit- 
iel  (1856);  Die  Feldherrnkunst  dea  19.  Jakr- 
hunderts  (1857)  ;  and  Die  ersien  FeldzUge  Bona- 
partes  in  Italien  und  Deutschland  (1867). 

BTJTA  BAGA.     See  Turnip. 

BXTTEy  ryt,  Mme.  de  Solms  Rattazzi  de. 
See  BoNAPABTE,  L.ETITIA  Makie  Wyse. 

BUTEBEUF,  r\?t'bef'  (c.l220-c.l285).  A 
French  poet  of  the  thirteenth  century.  His  real 
name  is  not  known.  He  wrote,  often  satirically, 
about  the  foibles  of  his  time,  rebuking  monks  and 
nuns,  confessing  his  own  sins,  and  speculating 
upon  life  and  death.  Some  of  his  ideas  reappear 
in  Villon  two  centuries  later.  Besides  his  satiri- 
cal poems,  Rutebeuf  wrote  a  number  of  fabliaux 
and  Le  Miracle  de  Th^ophile,  a  sort  of  miracle  play. 
Rutebeuf  has  the  merit  of  a  clear  style,  which 
is  spicy  and  original  when  he  is  really  interested. 
His  Works  have  been  edited,  with  a  Life,  by 
Jubinal  (new  ed.  Paris,  1874-75).  Consult  also 
Cl^dat,  Rutebeuf  (Paris,  1891)  ;  Kressnel,  Rute- 
beuf ein  franzosischer  Dichter  des  XIII.  Jahr- 
hunderts  (Cassel,  1894). 

BXTTGEBS,  riit'gerz,  Henby  (1745-1830).  An 
American  patriot  and  philanthropist,  bom  in 
New  York  City.  He  graduated  at  King's  Col- 
lege (now  Columbia  University)  in  1766,  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Revolution  entered  the  Conti- 
nental Army,  in  1776  took  part  as  a  captain  in 
the  battle  of  White  Plains,  and  after  the  war 
became  successively  major  and  colonel  of  New 
York  militia.  He  also  took  an  important  part 
in  State  politics,  and  was  elected  to  the  Assem- 
bly as  a  Republican  in  1784,  1800,  1801,  1802, 
and  1807.  From  1802  to  1826  he  was  a  regent 
of  the  University  of  the  State  of  New  York.  In 
1819  he  was  a  member  of  a  committee  organized 
with  a  view  to  perfecting  a  method  for  checking 
the  advance  of  slavery.  He  is  probably  best 
known  as  the  benefactor  of  Rutgers  College 
(q.v.).  He  also  gave  numerous  sites  for  church 
purposes,  and  his  charities  were  liberal. 

BVTGEBS  COLLEGE.  An  institution  of 
higher  learning,  at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  origi- 
nally planned  by  Theodore  James  Frelinghuysen 
and  Hendrik  Fisher,  in  1738,  but  not  begun  till 
1765,  when  Theodore  Frelinghuysen.  the  son  of 
Theodore  James,  urged  the  formation  of  a  col- 
lege to  be  nurtured  by  the  Dutch  Church,  and 
went  to  Holland  to  solicit  aid.  He  died  on  his 
return  voyage,  and  it  was  not  until  1766  that 
the  institution  was  chartered  as  Queen's  College, 
in  honor  of  Queen  Charlotte.  The  present  site 
of  the  college  was  secured  in  1808,  and  the  pres- 
ent Middle  building,  now  known  as  Queen's 
College,  was  erected  in  1809.  In  1825  a  gift  from 
Colonel  Henry  Rutgers,  of  New  York,  gave  new 
life  to  the  institution,  and  the  present  name  was 
given  to  the  college.  A  grammar  school  wa& 
established  at  the  same  time  as  the  college; 
medical  degrees  were  conferred  upon  the  students 


of  an  affiliated  medical  faculty  in  New  York  as 
early  as  1792;  and  in  1864  the  scientific  school 
was  designated  by  the  Legislature  as  the  State 
College  for  the  Benefit  of  Agriculture  and  the 
Mechanic  Arts,  to  which  the  act  of  1887  added 
an  agricultural  experiment  station.  The  classical 
and  the  scientific  departments  of  the  collie  are 
very  closely  related.  In  the  Classical  School  the 
courses  lead  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts 
and  Bachelor  of  Letters;  in  the  Scientific  School 
to  that  of  Bachelor  of  Science.  Graduate  work 
leads  to  the  degrees  of  M.  A.,  Ph.  D.,  and  Sc.  D. 
The  degree  of  Civil  Engineer  is  conferred  for 
three  years*  satisfactory  practice  and  study  of 
engineering.  Graduates  of  the  Theological  Semi- 
nary of  New  Brunswick  may  receive  the  degree 
of  Bachelor  of  Divinity.  The  college  has  success- 
fully developed  a  system  of  student  self-govern- 
ment. In  1903  there  were  62  classical  and  161 
scientific  students,  with  a  faculty  of  30.  The 
library  contained  45,655  volumes.  The  endow- 
ment was  $1,200,000,  with  an  income  of  about 
$60,000.  The  fifteen  buildings,  including  the 
Ceramics  Building  and  the  Ralph  Voorhees  Li- 
brary, erected  in  1902-03,  were  valued,  with  the 
grounds,  at  $1,000,000. 

BUTH  (Heb.  Rdlth,  friend) ,  Book  of.  One  of 
the  canonical  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  be- 
longing to  the  third  division  of  the  Hebrew 
Canon  (the  Hagiographa).  It  relates  events 
of  the  time  of  the  Judges,  and  in  the  English 
Bible,  as  in  the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate,  follows 
the  Book  of  Judges.  The  Book  of  Ruth  tells  how 
Elimelech,  with  his  wife,  Naomi,  and  his  two 
sons,  Mahlon  and  Chilion,  left  their  home  in 
Judah  because  of  a  famine  and  settled  in  the 
land  of  Moab.  There  the  sons  married  Moabite 
women,  Ruth  and  Orpah.  Elimelech  and  hia 
sons  died  and  Naomi  decided  to  return  to  her 
native  land.  She  advised  her  daughters-in-law 
to  remain  in  Moab  and  remarry.  Orpah  com- 
plied, but  Ruth  declared  that  nothing  but  death 
should  separate  her  from  Naomi.  The  two 
women  came  to  Bethlehem  and  there  Ruth  gained 
favor  with  Boaz,  a  kinsman  of  Elimelech  and 
one  of  the  leading  men  of  Bethlehem.  She 
claimed  his  protection  as  a  kinsman,  at  the  in- 
stigation of  Naomi.  Boaz  was  willing  to  accept 
the  responsibility,  but  in  accordance  with  cus- 
tom, a  *nearer'  kinsman  must  be  consulted.  Sum- 
moning the  elders  of  the  city  as  witnesses,  Boaz 
called  upon  this  kinsman  to  redeem  Elimelech 's 
patrimony,  which  poverty  compelled  Naomi  to 
sell,  involving  the  duty  to  marry  Ruth  in  order 
to  ''raise  up  the  name  of  the  dead  upon  his 
inheritance."  The  kinsman  resigned  his  rights 
in  favor  of  Boaz,  and  accordingly  the  latter 
married  Ruth,  and  their  first-born  son,  Obed,  be- 
came the  grandfather  of  David. 

Opinions  as  to  the  date  and  purpose  of  the 
Book  of  Ruth  difi'er.  It  has  been  called  a  religious 
romance,  a  purely  fictitious  narrative  told  in 
order  to  point  to  a  moral,  and  included  in  the 
canon  mainly  because  of  the  reference  at  the 
end  to  the  genealogy  of  David.  The  aim  of  the 
writer  is  thought  to  have  been  to  protest  against 
the  tendency,  represented  in  the  Books  of  Ezra 
and  Nehemiah,  to  condemn  marriages  between 
Hebrews  and  surrounding  nations.  If  David^ 
the  ideal  Jewish  King,  were  descended  from  a 
Moabite  woman,  mixed  marriages  could  baldly 


BXTTH. 


267 


BTTTHEBFOBB. 


be  the  unqualified  eiTil  which  the  legalists'  of 
Ezra's  day  represented  them  to  be.  The  declara- 
tion of  Ruth  that  Naomi's  God  shaU  be  her  God, 
and  Naomi's  people  her  people  (i.  16),  is  under- 
stood by  some  as  a  bold  protest  against  the  exclu- 
sive conception  of  Yahweh  as  the  God  particu- 
larly of  a  single  people,  and  is  thought  to  reflect 
the  theoiy  of  universal  monotheism  of  the  post- 
exilic  prophets;  while  others  find  in  it  a  reflec- 
tion of  that  willingness  to  accept  proselytes  from 
other  nations  which  characterizes  the  fully  devel- 
oped monotheistic  faith.  On  either  view  the  book 
is  certainly  post-exilic  and  may  be  considerably 
later  than  the  time  of  Ezra. 

According  to  another  view,  the  book  was 
written  earlier  than  B.C.  500,  and  the  purpose 
of  the  writer  may  have  been  to  supply  informa- 
tion concerning  the  ancestry  of  David,  omitted 
in  the  books  of  Samuel,  or  to  urge  the  duty  of 
the  next  of  kin  to  marry  a  childless  widow. 
Consult  the  commentaries  of  Wright  (London, 
1864J,  Keil  (with  Judges,  2d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1874), 
Berteau  (with  Judges,  2d  ed.,  ib.,  1883),  Oettli 
{Die  geachichtUohen  Hagiog^aphen,  Munich, 
1889),  WUdeboer  (Freiburg,  1808),  and  Nowack 
(Gdttingen,  1900) ;  also  the  Old  Testament  in- 
troductions of  Reuss,  Driver,  KOnig,  Bleek-Well- 
hausen,  and  Comill,  and  the  works  on  the  canon 
by  WUdeboer  (Groningen,  1889;  Eng.  trans., 
London,  1896),  Buhl  (Leipzig,  1891;  Eng.  trans., 
Edinburgh,  1892),  and  Ryle  (London,  1892). 

BTTTHEOflAHS,  or  BXTSS^HIAXS.  A  Slavic 
people  of  the  eastern  group,  forming  a  branch 
of  the  Little  Russians.  They  live  chiefly  in 
Cralida.  The  height  of  the  Ruthenian  plainsmen 
of  Galicia  is  1.640  meters;  their  cephalic  index, 
83.4;  the  height  of  the  Ruthenian  highlanders  is 
from  1.666  to  1.670  meters;  their  cephalic  index, 
83.6.  Chestnut  hair  and  brown  eyes  characterize 
about  half  of  the  population;  the  remainder  have 
dark  skin  and  hair. 

The  term  Ruthenian  is  also  applied  to  the 
Little  Russians  of  the  Ukraine  as  well  as  to  those 
of  Galicia  and.  the  Carpathians.  This  group, 
less  affected  by  Mongol  invasions  and  influences, 
is  thought  to  represent  the  purest  type  of  the 
Slav.  In  the  ethnic  movements  that  mark  the 
history  of  Russia  the  Ruthenians  sank  beneath 
the  overwhelming  current  of  the  more  powerful 
Slav  groups.  From  the  time  of  the  Slav  disper- 
sion between  the  second  and  sixth  centuries  to 
their  conquest,  partly  by  Casimir  the  Great  of 
Poland  and  partly  by  the  Lithuanians,  the  Ruthe- 
nians were  a  free  people.  Many  of  the  old  cus- 
toms are  preserved,  together  with  much  folk- 
lore. The  Ruthenians  in  Galicia  number  about 
3,500,000,  and  there  are  over  400,000  in  Hungary 
and  300,000  in  Bukowina.  In  Galicia  a  bitter 
political  warfare  has  been  going  on  between  the 
Ruthenians  and  the  Poles,  the  latter  being  enabled 
by  their  superior  intelligence,  wealth,  and  posi- 
tion to  maintain  the  upper  hand.  Consult  Bon- 
mariage.  La  Russie  d'Eurape  (Brussels,  1903). 

BUTHENIUX  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Buthenia,  a 
name  of  Russia).  A  metallic  chemical  element 
discovered  by  Claus  in  1845.  Osann,  in  1828, 
announced  his  discovery  of  three  new  metals  in 
the  platinum  ores  from  the  Urals,  giving  the 
name  ruthenium  to  one  of  these  mc^ls.  The 
snnoanoement  of  this  discovery  he  subsequently 
withdrew,  and  the  existence  of  the  new  metal 
was  not  accepted  until  the  subject  was  again 
TOL.  ZY.-^ia 


studied  by  Glaus,  who  proved  its  existence,  re- 
taining the  old  name.  It  occurs  in  its  metallic 
state  in  platinum  ores  and  in  osmiridium,  also 
as  the  sulphide  in  the  mineral  laurite.  The 
metal  is  separated  from  iridosmium  as  the  oxide 
by  a  complicated  chemical  process,  and  is  then 
reduced  in  a  graphite  crucible  and  fused  by  the 
oxyhydrogen  flame. 

Ruthenium  (symbol,  Ru;  atomic  weight, 
101.68)  is  a  white,  lustrous,  hard,  heavy,  brittle 
metal  that  melts  at  upward  of  2500"*  C. 
(4530^  F.).  It  combines  with  oxygen,  forming  a 
monoxide,  a  sesquioxide,  a  dioxide,  a  trioxide,  a 
heptoxide,  and  a  tetroxide,  of  which  the  trioxide 
and  the  heptoxide  are  known  only  in  combination. 
These  oxides  form  various  salts,  none  of  which 
is  of  any  commercial  importance. 

BUTHEBFOBD,  rflTH^Sr-fOrd.  A  borough 
in  Bergen  County,  N.  J.,  nine  miles  north  by 
west  of  Jersey  City;  between  the  Passaic  and 
Hackensack  rivers,  and  on  the  Erie  Railroad 
(Map:  New  Jersey,  D  2).  Many  New  Yorkers 
have  their  residences  here.  In  the  adjoining 
borough  of  East  Rutherford  are  extensive  cotton 
and  linen  bleaching  establishments,  steam  boiler 
works,  a  manufactory  of  glass  mirrors,  etc.  Each 
borough  maintains  a  public  library.  The  popu- 
lation of  Rutherford  in  1900  was  4411,  and  of 
East  Rutherford  2640. 

BXTTHEBFOBD,  Samuel  (1600-61).  A  Scot- 
tish divine.  He  was  bom  in  the  parish  of  Nisbet, 
now  part  of  Crailing,  Roxburghshire,  graduated 
from  Edinburgh  University  in  1621,  and  became 
'regent  of  humanity'  in  1623,  but  resigned  this 
place  in  1626  and  turned  to  the  study  of  theology, 
which  he  pursued  for  a  year,  and  became  pastor 
of  Anwoth.  When  his  Exerciiaiiones  Apolo- 
geticw  pro  Divina  Oratia  appeared  in  1636,  he 
was  brought  before  the  High  (Commission  in  Edin- 
burgh, charged  with  non-conformity  to  the  Acts 
of  the  Episcopacy  and  with  attack  upon  Armin- 
ian  tenets,  with  the  result  that  he  was  forbidden 
to  preach  and  banished  to  Aberdeen  during  the 
King's  pleasure.  His  exile  ended  with  the  cove- 
nanting revolution  eighteen  months  later.  In  1838 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  divinity  at  Saint 
Mary's  College,  Saint  Andrews,  and  in  addition 
became  a  colleague  to  Robert  Blair  in  one  of  the 
city  churches.  He  was  appointed  rector  of  his 
university  in  1651.  From  1650  to  the  end  of  his 
life  he  was  engaged  in  controversy  more  or  less 
bitter  with  any  who  did  not  take  the  rigid  view 
of  'covenanting,'  and  participated  in  the  protesta- 
tion to  the  Assembly  at  Saint  Andrews  in  1651 
against  the  lawfulness  of  the  treaty  made  in  1650 
between  the  Ck)venanters  and  Charles  II.  After 
the  Restoration  he  lost  his  official  positions,  and 
illness  and  death  intervened  to  save  him  from 
appearing  before  Parliament  on  a  charge  of 
treason.  Little  of  his  work  has  been  preserved 
except  his  Letters,  edited  by  Bonar,  and  his 
Bermona  (reprinted  1876-85).  Consult  his  Life, 
by  Bonar,  in  the  Letters  (Edinburgh,  1894). 

B  u  THJsBFOBD,  William  Gunion  (1853 
— ).  A  distinguished  English  scholar,  born 
in  Peeblesshire  and  educated  at  Saint  Andrews 
University  and  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  He  was 
appointed  assistant  master  at  Saint  Paul's 
Scnool,  which  office  he  continued  to  hold  until 
1883,  when  he  succeeded  Dr.  Charles  Brodrick 
Scott  as  headmaster  of  Westminster  School.    His 


JStUTHEBFOBB. 


268 


BXTTIiAND. 


more  important  publications  consist  of  The  New 
PhrynichuSf  with  introduction  and  commentary 
(1881),  and  Fahlea  of  Babrius  (1883).  He  also 
published  several  other  works  relating  to  the 
classics,  among  them  a  First  Greek  Orammar, 
which  has  gone  through  several  editions. 

BTTTHEBFCTBDy  Lewis  Morbis  (1816-92). 
An  American  astronomer,  bom  in  Morrisania, 
N.  Y.  He  graduated  at  Williams  College  in 
1834,  and  became  a  lawyer.  But  even  during  his 
active  legal  career,  which  he  gave  up  in  1840,  he 
devoted  his  spare  time  to  astronomy  and  built 
in  New  York  an  observatory,  which  was  the 
primary  station  for  longitude  determination. 
Two  years  after  the  construction  of  the  observa- 
tory, in  1858,  he  first  attacked  the  problem  of 
astronomical  photography,  his  work  being  inde- 
pendent if  not  earlier  than  that  of  De  La  Rue. 
Interrupting  his  research  in  this  direction,  about 
1862  he  began  his  studies  in  spectroscopy,  fol- 
lowing the  suggestions  of  Fraunhofer;  distin- 
guished the  star  spectra  by  a  classification  prac- 
tically identical  with  Secchi*s,  and  if  not  prior  to 
Bonati,  gaining  results  far  more  minute  and 
accurate.  He  constructed  a  large  spectroscope 
late  in  1863,  and  about  the  same  time  realized  the 
advantage  over  bisulphide  prisms  of  diffraction 
gratings.  For  several  years  he  studied  Nobert's 
gratings  and  finally  greatly  improved  on  them. 
His  telescope  especially  constructed  for  photog- 
raphy was  finished  in  1864;  a  photographic  cor- 
rector was  made  in  1868,  and  in  1876  he  devised 
a  glass  circle  for  the  measurement  of  angles. 
As  early  as  1865  Rutherfurd  had  suggested  a 
photographic  chart  of  the  heavens.  His  health 
began  to  fail  about  1877,  and  in  1883  he  gave  up 
active  work  and  presented  to  Columbia  College 
his  telescope,  micrometer,  and  many  of  his  val- 
uable photographs,  which  were  published  by  Rees 
in  1891.  He  was  one  of  the  original  members  of 
the  National  Academy  of  Sciences. 

BTTTHEBGLBN,  raTH'§r-glgn  or  (locally) 
rtlg^len.  A  royal,  Parliamentary,  and  municipal 
burgh  in  Lanarkshire,  Scotland,  on  the  Clyde, 
three  miles  southeast  of  Glasgow  (Map:  Scot- 
land, D  4).  It  was  an  important  town  in  the 
twelfth  century.  It  has  extensive  iron  and  steel 
works,  and  neighboring  coal  mines.  It  contains 
an  old  church  of  the  twelfth  century,  and  a  fine 
town  hall.    Population,  in  1901,  18,280. 

BTJTHVEN  BAID.  See  Lowbie  Conspibacy. 

BXTTILE  (Fr.  rutile,  from  Lat.  rutilue,  red- 
dish, yellowish-red).  A  mineral,  titanium  dioxide, 
that  crystallizes  in  the  tetragonal  system,  and 
is  of  a  reddish-brown  color.  It  is  found  in  older 
rocks,  in  various  localities  in  Norway,  in  Swe- 
den, in  the  Urals,  and  in  Switzerland;  also  in 
the  United  States  in  New  England,  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  Georgia,  North  Carolina,  New  Jer- 
sey, and  Arkansas.  The  variety  from  Graves 
Mountain,  Ga.,  has  furnished  a  number  of  speci- 
mens that  have  been  cut  into  gems.  When  found 
as  fine  needle-like  crystals  in  limpid  quartz  they 
are  called  sagenite,  Venue's  hair  stone,  or  fliches 
d'amour. 

BUTILTQS  NAMA'TIA'NTTS,  Claudius. 
A  Latin  poet  of  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury. He  was  a  Gaul  by  birth,  but  a  patriotic 
Roman  in  sentiment,  and  under  Honorius  was 
prefect  of  Rome.  His  poem  De  Reditu  suo  (416) , 
in  very  good  elegiacs,  describes  his  trip   from 


Rome  to  Gaul.  A  part  of  the  first  and  most 
of  the  second  books  are  lost.  It  was  edited 
by  Mailer  (1870)  and  by  B&hxens  (in  PoeUB 
Latini  Minores,  vol.  v.,  1883).  An  excellent 
sketch  of  its  contents  is  in  "Urbs  Anime,''  At- 
lantio  Monthly  (vol.  lxii.,1888,  pp.  742-752). 

BttTIMEYEB,  ryi'tft-mT'Sr,  Ludwig  (1825- 
95).  A  Swiss  paleontologist,  bom  at  Biglen,  in 
the  Emmenthal.  He  studied  theology  and  medi- 
cine at  Bern,  and  natural  history  in  Paris,  Lon- 
don, and  Leyden ;  became  professor  of  zoology  and 
comparative  anatomy  at  Basel  in  1855,  and  made 
important  studies  on  the  early  fauna  of  Switzer- 
land and  on  craniology.  His  many  and  valuable 
works  include:  Beitrdge  zur  Kenntnis  der  fos- 
silen  Pferde  (1863);  Crania  Helvetica  (with 
His,  1864) ;  Ueher  die  Herkunft  unserer  Tienoeli 
(1867);  Veher  Thai-  und  Seehildung  (1869;  2d 
ed.  1874)  ;  Die  Ver^anderungen  der  Tierwelt  in 
der  Bchweiz  seit  Amoesenheit  des  Menschen 
( 1875)  ;  Die  Kinder  der  Tertiarepoche  ( 1878-79) ; 
Beitrage  zu  einer  natHrlichen  Qeschichte  der 
Hirsche  (1881-83)  ;  and  Die  eoodne  8augetierwelt 
von  Egerkingen  (1891). 

BUT^AND.  The  smallest  county  in  Eng- 
land, bounded  on  the  northeast  by  Lincoln, 
on  the  southeast  by  Northampton,  and  on  the 
west  by  Leicester  (Map:  England,  F  4).  Area, 
152  square  miles;  population,  in  1891,  20,659; 
in  1901,  19,700.  The  Wash  divides  it  into  two 
portions,  of  which  the  northern  is  a  somewhat 
elevated  tableland,  while  the  southern  consists 
of  a  number  of  valleys  running  east  and  west-, 
and  separated  by  low  hills.  The  principal  stream 
is  the  Welland,  forming  the  boundary  on  the 
southeast.  The  chief  mineral  production  is  fine 
building  stone.  The  climate  is  mild  and  health- 
ful, the  soil  loamy  and  rich.  Oxen  and  sheep  are 
raised  in  great  numbers.    The  capital  is  Oakham. 

ButLAND.  a  town,  including  several  vil- 
lages, in  Worcester  County,  Mass.,  12  miles  north- 
west of  the  city  of  Worcester ;  on  the  Boston  and 
Maine  Railroad  (Map:  Massachusetts,  D  3). 
It  has  the  State  Hospital  for  Consumptive  and 
Tubercular  Patients,  and  a  public  library.  Popu- 
lation, in  1890,  980;  in  1900,  1334.  Rutland  was 
settled  about  1716,  and  was  incorporated  as  a 
town  in  1722.  In  1777-78  part  of  Burgoyne's 
troops,  who  had  surrendered  at  Saratoga,  were 
quartered  here.  Rutland  was  the  home  from 
1781  to  1787  of  Rufus  Putnam  (q.v.),  on  ac- 
count of  whose  influence,  as  a  membier  of  the  Ohio 
Company,  in  founding  the  settlement  of  Mari- 
etta, Ohio,  the  town  has  been  called  the  'Cradle 
of  Ohio.*  Consult:  Hurd  (ed.),  History  of 
Worcester  County,  Mass.  (Philadelphia,  1889)  ; 
and  a  chapter  in  Powell  (ed.),  Historic  Toums 
of  New  England  (New  York,  1898). 

BTJTLAND.  The  county-seat  of  Rutland 
County,  Vt.,  67  miles  south  by  east  of  Burling- 
ton; on  Otter  Creek,  and  on  the  Delaware  and 
Hudson,  the  Rutland,  and  the  Burlington  and 
Rutland  railroads  (Map:  Vermont,  C  7).  Some 
of  the  loftiest,  most  picturesque  peaks  in  the 
Green  Mountains  are  near.  Noteworthy  features 
of  Rutland  include  Memorial  Hall,  the  Public 
and  the  H.  H.  Baxter  libraries,  House  of  Correc- 
tion, United  States  Government  building,  and 
the  court-house.  The  city  is  primarily  important 
for  its  extensive  marble-quarrying  industry,  the 
marble  deposits  here  being  among  the  most  pro- 


BTTTLAND. 


269 


UTJYBCSL 


dactiye  in  the  United  States.  The  city  has  also 
large  scale  works,  lumber  mills,  machine  shops, 
boiler  and  engine  works,  and  manufactories  of 
brick,  furniture,  cheese,  etc.  Population,  in 
1900,  11,499. 

Rutland  was  chartered  by  New  Hampshire  in 
1761,  but  not  settled  until  nine  years  later. 
Along  with  the  rest  of  the  State,  it  was  claimed 
for  many  years  by  both  New  Hampshire  and  New 
York,  and  in  1772  the  latter  re-chartered  it  as 
Socialborough.  This  name,  however,  seems  never 
to  have  been  used.  Till  1804  Rutland  was  one 
of  the  two  State  capitals,  and  the  State  House 
built  here  in  1784  is  the  second  oldest  building  in 
Vermont.  In  1892  Rutland  was  chartered  as 
a  city.  Consult  Williams,  Centennial  Celebration 
of  the  Settlement  of  Rutland  (Rutland,  1870). 

BXTTLAND,  Joh2t  James  Harness,  Duke  of. 
See  Maitners. 

BinVLEDaE,  Edwabd  (1749-1800).  An 
American  patriot,  bom  at  Charleston,  S.  C.  After 
studying  law,  first  in  Charleston  and  then  in  Lon- 
don, he  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  became  very 
prominent  as  a  lawyer.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Continental  Congress  in  1774-77,  was  one  of  the 
signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  served 
on  the  first  Board  of  War  in  1776,  and  in  the  same 
year  was  a  joint  commissioner  with  John  Adams 
and  Franklin  to  treat  with  Lord  Howe  with  re- 
gard to  peace.    He  was  reelected  to  Congress  in 

1779,  but,  on  account  of  illness,  did  not  take  his 
seat.    He  was  taken  prisoner  near  Charleston  in 

1780,  and  was  confined  at  Saint  Augustine  for 
eleven  months.  From  1798  until  his  death  he 
TTBs  (xovemor  of  South  Carolina. 

BTTTLEBOE,  John  (1739-1800).  An  Ameri- 
can statesman,  bom  at  Charleston,  S.  C.  He 
studied  law  in  London,  and  began  to  practice 
at  Charleston  in  1761.  He  sat  in  the  Stamp  Act 
Congress  at  New  York  in  1765,  in  the  South 
Carolina  convention  in  1774,  and  the  Continental 
Congress  of  1774;  was  chairman  of  the  commit- 
tee which  framed  the  new  Constitution  for  South 
Carolina  in  1776,  and  was  first  President  (1776- 
98)  under  that  Constitution.  In  1779  he  was 
Governor  of  the  State,  and  during  the  siege  of 
Charleston  was  given  almost  absolute  power  by 
the  Legislature.  On  the  surrender  of  the  city 
in  1780  he  joined  the  Army  of  the  South,  with 
which  he  remained  till  the  end  of  the  war.  He 
was  a  member  of  Congress  in  1782,  and  again  in 
1783,  was  Chancellor  of  his  State  in  1784,  mem- 
ber of  the  convention  which  framed  the  Federal 
Constitution  (1787)  and  of  the  State  convention 
which  adopted  it.  He  was  an  associate  justice 
of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  (1789-91), 
was  Chief  Justice  of  South  Carolina  from  1791 
to  1795,  and  in  July,  1796,  was  appointed  Chief 
Justice  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  but, 
owing  to  the  loss  of  his  reason,  the  appointment 
was  not  confirmed. 

HttTLI,  r^tl*.  A  meadow  in  Switzerland. 
SeeGBthu. 

BTT^TULL  An  ancient  Italian  people  on  the 
coast  of  Latium,  south  of  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber. 
In  the  early  legends  they  appear  as  hostile  to 
the  Latins,  but  later  are  found  in  the  Latin 
League.  Their  capital  was  Ardea,  which  was 
conquered  by  the  Romans  in  B.c.  442  and  made 
a  Latin  colony.  In  Vergil's  JEneid,  Tumus  is 
their  king,  and  leads  them  against  ^Eneas  and 


the  Trojans,  who  threaten  to  supplant  him  with 
Latinus,  whose  daughter  he  had  been  promised. 

BUVO  DI  PUGLIA,  ro<[»^v6  d6  pmsTlyk.  A 
city  in  the  Province  of  Bari,  Italy,  20  miles  west 
of  Bari,  with  which  it  has  steam  tramway  con- 
nection (Map:  Italy,  L  6).  It  is  surrounded  by 
walls,  has  a  twelfth-century  cathedral,  a  semi- 
nary, and  a  gymnasium.  The  Apulian  tombs  in 
the  vicinity  have  yielded  many  beautiful  vases. 
The  city  is  famous  for  its  potteries.  It  trades  in 
grain,  pulse,  and  fruits.  Population  (commune), 
in  1881,  17,956;  in  1901,  23,776. 

BUWENZOBI,  tWw^-z^t^.  A  mountain 
mass  in  Central  Africa,  on  the  boimdary  between 
the  Congo  Free  State  and  British  East  Africa, 
and  between  the  Albert  Nyanza  and  the  Albert 
Edward  Nyanza  (Map:  Congo  Free  State,  F  2). 
It  consists  of  several  parallel  ridges  and  groups 
of  peaks  with  altitudes  estimated  at  from  16,000 
to  20,000  feet,  so  that  it  may  prove  to  be  the 
highest  mountain  mass  in  Africa.  All  the  higher 
summits  are  capped  with  perpetual  snow,  and  the 
whole  mass  has  a  very  imposing  appearance,  fall- 
ing steeply  on  the  west  and  south  into  the  great 
fissure  which  runs  through  the  African  plateau. 
The  core  of  the  mountains  is  of  eruptive  granite, 
and  the  sides  are  covered  with  mica-slate.  Ru- 
wenzori  was  discovered  in  1888  by  the  Stanley 
expedition.  In  1901  Wylde  reached  an  altitude 
of  15,000  feet. 

BXnr  BLA8,  rv'ft'  blAs.  A  drama  by  Victor 
Hugo  (1838).  The  hero  is  the  lackey  of  Don 
Salluste,  who  was  disgraced  by  the  Queen.  His 
relative,  Don  C^sar  de  Bazan,  disappears  and 
Ruy  Bias  is  forced  to  personate  him  at  Court, 
where  he  rises  to  power.  Salluste  plans  a  ren- 
dezvous to  ruin  the  Queen,  but  Ruy  Bias,  who 
loves  her,  kills  his  master  and  himself  to  save 
her  honor. 

BXTYSBBOEX,  rois^r^S5k,  or  BTJSBBOES:, 

Jan  Van  (1293-1381).  A  Dutch  mystic.  He 
was  bom  at  Ruysbroek ;  studied  at  Brussels,  and 
became  vicar  of  the  Church  of  Saint  Gudule  in 
Brussels,  but  in  1343  he  retired  to  the  Augus- 
tinian  Monastery  of  Groenendael,  near  Waterloo, 
where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  as  prior. 
Here  he  bielieved  his  writing  to  be  under  the 
direct  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  From  him 
dates  the  succession  of  mystical  teachers  in 
Germany  and  the  Netherlands  prior  to  the  Refor- 
mation. He  earned  the  name  of  Ecstatic  Teacher, 
An  edition  of  his  works,  which  he  wrote  partly  in 
Flemish  and  partly  in  Latin,  was  published  in 
Hanover  in  1848.  Consult:  Engelhardt,  Richard 
von  Saint  Victor  und  Ruysbroek  (Erlangen, 
1838)  ;  Schmidt,  Etude  sur  Ruysbroek  (Strass- 
burg,  1859)  ;  and  Auger,  De  Doctrina  et  Meritis 
Joannis  de  Ruysbroek  (Ijouvain,  1892). 

BTTYSCH,  rois,  Rachel  (1664-1750).  A 
Dutch  flower  and  fruit  painter,  born  in  Amster- 
dam. She  was  a  pupil  of  Willem  van  Aelst, 
married  the  portrait  painter  Juriaen  Pool  in 
1695,  was  received  into  the  guild  at  The  Hague 
in  1701,  and  becjime  Court  painter  to  the  Elector 
Palatine  in  DUsseldorf  in  1708.  Her  reputation 
as  a  flower  painter  was  second  only  to  that  of 
Jan  van  Huysum.  She  excelled  particularly  in 
painting  rare  exotic  flowers  and  insects.  Two 
admirable  pieces  (dated  1700  and  1715)  are  in 
The  Hague  Museum,  a  fine  fruit  piece  and  four 
others   in  the  Pinakothek  at  Munich,  four  in 


Btnrscfi. 


aro 


&YAK. 


Amsterdam  (one  dated  1659),  and  others  in 
Karlsruhe,  Berlin,  Dresden,  Vienna,  and  New 
York. 

BUYSDAEL,  roisM&l,  or  BTJISDAEL,  Jacob 
(c.  1625-82).  One  of  the  greatest  landscape  paint- 
ers of  the  Dutch  school.  He  was  born  at  Haar- 
lem and  studied  under  his  uncle  Salomon  Ruys- 
dael.  In  1648  he  was  received  into  the  guild 
at  Haarlem  and  in  1659  obtained  the  rights 
of  citizenship  at  Amsterdam,  where  he  lived 
from  1657  to  1681.  Although  he  must  have 
occupied  a  distinguished  position  among  his 
fellow  artists,  as  such  masters  as  Berchem, 
Lingelbach,  Philip  Wouwerman,  and  Eglon  van 
der  Neer  painted  the  figures  in  some  of  his 
landscapes,  he  was  so  little  appreciated  by 
his  contemporaries  that  he  fell  into  poverty.  His 
friends  of  the  Mennonite  sect,  to  which  he  be- 
longed, procured  for  him,  in  1681,  admission  to 
the  almshouse  at  Haarlem,  where  he  died  in 
March,  1682. 

He  was  a  close  observer  of  nature,  which  he 
rendered  in  its  various  aspects  with  rare  truthful- 
ness, a  powerful  and  warm  coloring,  and  a  mas- 
tery of  execution  ranging  from  the  minutest  touch 
to  the  broadest  treatment.  Selecting  usually  the 
flat  and  homely  scenery  of  his  native  country, 
with  lonely  hamlets,  water-mills,  dark  sheets. of 
water  overshadowed  by  trees,  while  the  sky  is 
usually  clouded,  he  imparts  a  somewhat  melan- 
choly character  to  his  landscapes,  which  are 
tinged,  however,  with  the  poetic  charm  of  repose 
in  nature.  Dark  masses  of  foliage  make  the  pre- 
vailing tone  of  his  coloring  a  dark  green.  Un- 
fortunately, his  earlier  pictures  have  darkened 
so  as  to  have  lost  much  of  their  charm.  He  de- 
lighted in  depicting  wide  expanses  of  land  or 
water,  especially  the  surroundings  of  Haarlem  or 
Amsterdam  and  the  coast  of  Scheveningen.  Of 
his  marine  views  there  are  comparatively  few. 
They  are  characterized  by  cloudy  skies  and  an 
agisted  sea,  and  include  some  of  his  most  suc- 
cessful efforts.  Some  of  his  greatest  triumphs 
he  won,  however,  with  the  representations  of  hilly 
and  even  mountainous  scenery,  with  foaming 
waterfalls.  Among  the  numerous  fine  examples 
in  public  galleries  are  an  **Oak  Forest,"  "View  of 
Haarlem,"  and  an  "Agitated  Sea,"  in  the  Berlin 
Museum;  "Ford  in  a  Wood,"  "Castle  of  Bent- 
heim,"  "The  Hunt"  (with  accessories  by  Van  de 
Velde),  "The  Monastery,"  and  especially  the 
"Jewish  Cemetery,"  of  sombre  but  imposing  ef- 
fect, in  the  Dresden  Gallery.  Admirable  speci- 
mens of  his  waterfalls  are  in  Munich,  Brunswick, 
Cassel  (1682),  Amsterdam,  The  Hague,  which 
also  contains  a  fine  view  of  the  "Bleaching  Green 
Near  Haarlem,"  in  Antwerp,  and  in  the  National 
Gallery,  London,  where  may  also  be  seen  a  "Land- 
scape with  Ruins"  (1673),  and  several  others. 
A  "Storm  at  Sea,"  a  "Forest"  (with  cattle  and 
figures  by  Berchem ) ,  and  two  landscapes,  known 
as  "Le  buisson"  and  "Le  coup  de  soleil,"  are  in 
the  Louvre.  The  Hermitage  at  Saint  Petersburg 
preserves  fourteen  of  his  works,  and  130  rare 
examples  are  in  various  private  collections  in 
England.  Ruysdael  also  left  seven  spirited  etch- 
ings. Consult:  Van  der  Willigen,  Les  artistes 
de  Haarlem  (The  Hague,  1870)  ;  Crowe,  Hand- 
hook  of  Painting  (London,  1874)  ;  Wurzbach,  in 
Dohme,  Kunst  und  KUnstler,  ii.  (Leipzig,  1878)  ; 
and  Michel,  Jacob  van  Ruisdael  et  lea  payaagistes 
de  Vioole  de  Haarlem  (Paris,  1890). 


BXTYTEB,  roister,  Michael  Aobiaanszoon 
(1607-76).  A  Dutch  admiral,  bom  at  Flushing. 
He  went  to  sea  as  a  boy  and  rose  to  be  captain 
of  a  vessel  employed  by  the  Flushing  merchants 
for  the  protection  of  their  commerce  in  the 
British  Channel  (1637).  In  1641  he  was  made 
rear-admiral  of  a  squadron  dispatched  by  Hol- 
land to  the  aid  of  the  Portuguese  against  the 
Spaniards  and  distinguished  himself  in  a  battle 
which  was  fought  near  Cape  Saint  Vincent, 
November  3d.  In  1647  he  rendered  effective  ser- 
vice against  the  Barbary  pirates.  When  war 
between  Holland  and  England  broke  out  in  1652 
Ruyter  was  placed  in  command  of  a  fleet  of  some 
35  ships  and  on  August  26th  fought  a  drawn  bat- 
tle with  Sir  George  Ayscue  off  Plymouth.  He 
was  under  Maarten  Tromp  when  the  latter  de- 
feated Blake  in  the  Channel  (December  10th). 
and  participated  in  the  three  days'  battle  with 
Blake  near  Portland  (February  28-March  2, 
1653).  After  the  peace  of  1654  he  cruised  in  the 
Mediterranean  and  captured  several  Turkish 
ships.  In  1659  he  was  dispatched  to  aid  the  King 
of  Denmark  against  Sweden  and  for  his  services 
was  ennobled.  In  the  second  war  against  the 
£nglish  Ruyter  received  the  chief  command.  In 
June,  1666,  Ruyter  and  Cornelius  van  Tromp, 
with  90  sail,  engaged  the  English  fleet  under 
Prince  Rupert  and  the  Duke  of  Albemarle.  Both 
sides  fought  with  such  obstinacy  that  the  battle 
lasted  four  days,  ending  in  a  partial  victory  for 
the  Dutch.  The  conflict  was  renewed  in  July,  when 
the  British  gained  a  complete  victory,  destroying 
above  20  of  Ruyter's  men-of-war.  In  1667  Ruyter 
ravaged  the  English  shipping  at  Sheemess,  sailed 
up  the  Medway  as  far  as  Chatham,  burned  several 
English  men-of-war,  and  effected  more  toward  the 
conclusion  of  peace  at  Breda  (1667)  than  any 
diplomatist.  In  1672  he  commanded  the  Dutch 
fleet  and  fought  several  battles  with  the  com- 
bined English  and  French  fleets,  but  without  de- 
cisive results.  In  1675  he  was  sent  to  the 
Mediterranean  to  cooperate  with  the  Spanish 
fleet  against  the  French.  He  fought  a 
drawn  battle  with  the  French  under  Du- 
quesne  off  Stromboli  (January  8,  1676),  but 
was  defeated  near  Mersena,  off  the  east  coast  of 
Sicily  (April  21st).  He  made  good  his  retreat 
into  the  harbor  of  Syracuse.  His  legs,  however, 
were  shattered  in  the  engagement  and  he  died 
April  29th.  Consult:  Liefde,  The  Great  Dutch 
Admirals  (London,  1873)  ;  Grinnel-Milne,  Life  of 
Lieutenant  Admiral  de  Ruyter  (London,  1896). 

BY^ANy  Abbam  Joseph,  best  known  as 
'Father  Ryan'  (1839-86).  An  American  Roman 
Catholic  priest,  probably  the  most  conspicuous 
poet  of  the  Southern  Confederacy.  Shortly  after 
his  ordination  to  the  priesthood  Ryan  became 
chaplain  in  the  Confederate  Army,  served  to  tbo 
close  of  the  war,  and  wrote  not  long  after  Lee's 
surrender  his  most  famous  poem,  "The  Conquered 
Banner."  He  then  served  in  New  Orleans  as  priest 
and  editor  of  the  Star,  a  Roman  Catholic  weekly; 
thence  he  went  to  Knoxville,  and  soon  after  found- 
ed in  Augusta,  Ga.,  the  Banner  of  the  South,  a  re- 
ligious and  political  weekly;  then  he  reassumed 
priestly  duties  in  Mobile,  till  1880,  when  he 
visited  the  North  to  lecture  and  published  in 
Baltimore  Poema,  Patriotic,  Reliffiou»f  and  Mis- 
cellaneous, among  which  the  most  popular,  be- 
sides "The  Conquered  Banner,"  is  'The  Sword 
of  Lee." 


BYAXr. 


271 


BYE. 


BTAHy  Patrick  John  (1831—).  A  prelate 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  He  was  born  at 
Cloneyharp,  County  Tipperary,  Ireland.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Christian  Brothers'  School  at 
Thurles  and  at  Carlow  College.  He  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1853  and  b^n  teaching  in  the 
Theological  Seminary  at  Saint  Louis,  Mo.  The 
same  year  he  was  ordained  priest,  and  shortly 
became  rector  of  the  cathedral.  In  1860  he  be- 
eame  pastor  of  the  Church  of  the  Annunciation 
and  in  1868  of  Saint  John  the  Evangelist's 
Church  and  vicar-general  of  the  diocese.  In  1872 
be  became  Coadjutor  Bishop  of  Saint  Louis,  and 
in  1894  be  was  elevated  to  the  Archbishopric  of 
Philadelphia.  He  possessed  the  reputation  of 
one  of  the  leading  pulpit  orators  of  the  Koman 
Catholic  Church.  Among  his  published  addresses 
are  What  Catholic9  Do  Not  Believe  (1877)  and 
Some  of  the  Causes  of  Modem  Religious  Skepti- 
eism  (1883). 

BYAZAK,  ryft-zany,  or  BIAZAN.  A  gov- 
ernment of  Central  Russia,  bounded  by  the  Gov- 
ernment of  Vladimir  on  the  north,  Tambov  on  the 
east  and  south,  and  Tula  and  Moscow  on  the  west 
(Map:  Russia,  £  4).  Area,  16,261  square  miles. 
It  is  divided  by  the  valley  of  the  Oka  into  two 
parts,  of  which  the  northern  is  low,  marshy,  and 
thickly  wooded,  and  the  southern  is  slightly  ele- 
vated, sparsely  wooded,  and  has  a  rich  black  soil. 
The  Don  touches  the  southern  part.  Rya- 
zan is  rich  in  minerals,  containing  deposits  of 
iron,  coal,  and  various  clays,  of  which  iron  is 
mined  to  a  considerable  extent.  Agriculture,  the 
principal  occupation,  is  greatly  hampered  by  the 
inadequate  size  of  the  peasants'  holdings.  Rye 
and  oats  are  the  principal  cereals  raised  for  ex- 
port Stock-raising  is  in  a  state  of  decline.  The 
house  industry  is  but  little  developed,  yet  the 
manufacturing  industries  are  making  some  prog- 
ress and  the  annual  value  of  the  manufactures 
now  exceeds  $11,000,000,  principally  cotton  goods 
and  flour. 

The  commerce  is  of  considerable  extent.  Popu- 
ktion,  in  1897,  1,827,085,  consisting  principally 
of  Great  Russians.  Ryazan  was  one  of  the  mediae- 
val principalities  of  Russia,  which  was  annexed 
to  Moscow  in  1517. 

BYAZAH,  or  BIAZAN.  The  capital  of  the 
government  of  the  same  name  in  Central  Russia, 
situated  near  the  confluence  of  the  Trubezh  with 
the  Oka,  123  miles  southeast  of  Moscow  (Map: 
Russia,  £  4).  It  is  a  picturesque  place  with  a 
number  of  ancient  churches  and  other  ecclesias- 
tical edifices.  Ryazan  manufactures  candles,  tal- 
low, and  spirits,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  considerable 
trade  in  grain,  wood,  animals,  and  salt.  It  was 
the  capital  of  the  mediaeval  Principality  of 
Ryazan.    Population,  in  1897,  44,552. 

BYAZHBK^  An  important  railway  centre  in 
the  Government  of  Ryazan,  Russia,  situated  70 
miles  south  of  Ryazan.  It  has  an  extensive  trade 
in  grain.    Population,  in  1897,  12,993. 

BYBIHSE:,   il'blnsk.     A   river   port   in   the 
Government     of     Yaroslav,     Russia,     situated 
on  the   Volga,    near    its    confluence    with    the 
Sheksna    and     the     Tcheremakha,     about     228 
miles  north-northeast   of   Moscow    (Map:    Rus- 
sia, E  3).     It   is   well   built   and   is   of   great 
commercial  importance,  an  immense  amount  of 
freight  carried  on  the  Volga  and  the  canals  con- 
necting that  river  with  the  Baltic  and  the  White 
Sea  lidng  handled  here.     Of  late  the  trade  of 


Rybinsk  has  been  falling  off,  owing  to  the  compe- 
tition of  the  railways.  The  chief  manufactured 
product  is  flour.  Population,  in  1897,  25,200. 
There  is  a  vast  influx  of  people  during  the  season 
of  navigation. 

BYDBEBQ,  ryd'bftr-y',  Viktob  (1829-95).  A 
Swedish  author,  born  in  Jonkdping,  and  educated 
at  Lund.  In  1854  he  became  an  editor  in  Goteborg, 
and  in  1876  he  became  professor  of  the  history 
of  civilization  in  the  University  of  GSteborg, 
whence  in  1884  he  went  to  Stockholm  in  a  simi- 
lar capacity.  Two  volumes  of  lyrics  ( 1882  and 
1891)  show  unusual  poetic  form  and  originality 
of  thought ;  but  his  historical  novels  are  his  real 
claim  to  fame.  The  best  known  are  Frybytaren 
pa  Oestersjon  (1857)  ;  Singoalla  (1865)  ;  Vapen- 
smeden  (1891)  ;  and  Den  state  athenaren  (1859), 
the  last  mentioned,  which  was  translated  into 
English  ( 1883 ) ,  being  the  most  powerful.  Consult: 
Schenck's  biography  (Marburg,  1896) ;  and  Zach- 
risson,  Rydherg  som  uppfostrare  (G5teborg, 
1897). 

BYDEy  rid.  A  fashionable  watering-place  and 
market-town  on  the  north  coast  of  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  Hampshire,  England,  five  miles  south* 
southwest  of  Portsmouth  (Map:  England,  E  6). 
It  consists  of  Upper  and  Lower  Ryde,  the  for- 
mer anciently  called  Rye,  or  La  Riche,  and  the 
latter  of  quite  modern  construction.  The  shores 
are  wooded,  and  the  appearance  of  the  town, 
with  its  streets  and  houses  interspersed  with 
trees,  is  pleasing.  The  pier,  nearly  a  mile  in 
length,  forms  an  excellent  promenade.  Yacht 
and  boat  building  is  carried  on  to  some  extent. 
Ryde  is  the  largest  town  in  the  island.  It  was 
incorporated  in  1868.  Population,  in  1891,  10,- 
952;  in  1901,  11,042. 

BYa)EB,  Albert  Pinkham  (1847—).  An 
American  landscape  and  figure  painter,  bom  in 
New  Bedford,  Mass.  He  was  a  pupil  of  William 
E.  Marshall  and  the  National  Academy  of  De- 
sign in  New  York  City.  His  earlier  landscape 
works  include:  "Spring,"  "Lowlands,  Near  High- 
bridge,"  and  "The  Forest  of  Arden."  Later  he 
painted  figures  chiefly.  His  subjects,  sometimes 
from  Shakespeare  or  Wagner,  are  idealistic  and 
highly  imaginative.  They  are  to  be  regarded  for 
their  general  effect  rather  than  detail,  and  are 
often  painted  in  an  unusual  color  scheme.  Such 
pictures  include  '"Siegfried,"  "Jonah,"  and  "The 
Flying  Dutchman." 

BYDEB^  William  Henbt  (1822-88).  An 
American  Universalist  clergyman,  bom  at  Prov- 
incetown,  Iklass.  He  was  pastor  of  the  Univer- 
salist Church  at  Concord,  N.  H.,  at  Nashua,  N. 
H.,  and  Roxbury,  Mass.  In  1860  he  became  pas- 
tor of  Saint  Paul's  Church,  Chicago,  and  re- 
mained there  until  his  death.  He  left  bequests 
amounting  to  over  half  a  million  of  dollars  to 
charitable  and  educational  institutions,  and  also 
founded  a  free  lecture  course  "in  aid  of  the 
moral  and  social  welfare  of  the  citizens  of  Chi- 
cago, upon  an  unsectarian  basis." 

BYE  (AS.  ryge,  OHG.  rocco,  Ger.  Rocken, 
Roggen,  rye;  connected  with  OPruss.  rugis,  Lith. 
rugijs,  Lett,  rudzi,  OChurch  Slav.  rUzdl,  rye). 
Several  species  of  the  genus  Secale,  native  to 
western  temperate  Asia  and  adjacent  Europe. 
Common  rye  {Secale  cereale) ,  the  only  species 
in  cultivation,  does  not  seem  to  have  been  grown 
as  long  ago  as  the  other  common  cereals,  as  it 


BYE. 


272 


BYE  HOXrSE  PLOT. 


has  not  been  found  in  Egyptian  monuments, 
and  has  no  name  in  ancient  languages.  Its  cul- 
tivation was  known  to  the  Romans  in  Pliny's 
time,  but  not  to  the  ancient  Greeks.  Rye  is  ex- 
tensively cultivated  in  Northern  Europe,  in  some 
parts  of  Asia,  and  to  some  extent  in  North 
America.  It  does  not  grow  as  far  north  as  bar- 
ley, but  succeeds  in  regions  too  cold  for  wheat 
and  on  soils  too  poor  for  any  other  grain.  It 
will  ripen  in  colder  latitudes  than  most  other 
grains,  but  is  most  productive  where  wheat  will 
ripen.  It  is  adapted  to  light^  sandy  lands,  and 
does  not  thrive  well  on  heavy,  damp,  humous 
soils.  The  varieties  of  rye,  much  less  numerous 
than  those  of  the  other  important  cereals,  may  be 
classified  into  winter  and  spring  varieties.  The 
former,  w^hich  are  most  frequently  grown,  are 
sown  in  autumn,  the  latter  in  spring.  Cultural 
management  is  much  the  same  as  for  other  cere- 
als. Winter  rye  is  usually  ripe  in  June.  Rye  is 
also  frequently  grown  for  green  manuring  on 
lands  deficient  in  humus.  A  good  crop  of  rye 
yields  from  20  to  30  bushels  of  grain  per 
acre.  Russia  is  the  greatest  rye-producing  coun- 
try in  the  world,  producing  on  37  per  cent,  of 
her  total  acreage  of  tillable  land  about  700,000,- 
000  bushels  annually.  The  annual  production  of 
rye  in  the  United  States  is  about  24,000,000  bush- 
els, with  an  average  yield  of  about  14  bushels 
per  acre.     See  Colored  Plate  of  Cebeals. 

Food  and  Feeding  Value.  In  Europe  rye 
ranks  next  to  wheat  as  a  breadstuff,  but  since  its 
flour  is  darker  than  that  of  wheat  and  since  the 
gluten  of  rye  fiour  does  not  possess  the  same  elas- 
tic and  tenacious  quality  as  that  of  wheat,  rye 
bread  is  darker  and  more  compact  than  wheat 
bread.  When  the  grain  is  milled  entire — the 
usual  way — it  contains  more  protein  than  wheat 
flour.  Mixtures  of  wheat  and  rye  flour  and  corn 
and  rye  are  often  made  for  bread-making.  Rye 
bread  has  the  following  average  percentage  com- 
position: Water,  35.7;  protein,  9.0;  fat,  0.6;  ni- 
trogen-free extract,  52.7;  crude  fibre,  0.5;  and 
ash,  1.5.  The  fuel  value  is  11.80  calories  per 
pound.  The  'black  bread'  of  Europe  is  made  of 
rye,  an  especially  dark  form  being  known  in 
North  Germany  as  'pumpernickel.' 

The  various  rye  products  have  the  following 
percentage  composition: 


EYE.  A  town  in  Westchester  County,  New 
York,  eight  miles  northeast  of  New  Rochelle;  on 
the  New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford  Railroad 
(Map:  New  York,  G  5).  It  includes  the  manu- 
facturing village  of  Port  Chester  (q.v.).  Rye 
Beach,  on  Long  Island  Sound,  has  some  reputa- 
tion as  a  summer  resort.  Population,  in  1890, 
0477;  in  1900,  12,861.  Rye  was  settled  in  1660 
and  was  organized  as  a  town  under  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  Connecticut  in  1665.  The  boundary  line 
at  this  point  between  Connecticut  and  New  York 
was  long  disputed,  and  Rye  was  included  within 
the  limits  of  the  former  until  1683,  and  again 
from  1697  to  1700.  The  Jay  homestead  is  in 
Rye,  and  John  Jay  spent  his  early  life  here. 
Consult  Baird,  Chronicle  of  a  Border  Town,  His- 
tory of  Rye  (New  York,  1871). 

BYE-GRASS  (Lolium).  A  genus  of  ^prasses, 
having  a  two-rowed,  flatly  compressed  spike,  the 
spikelets  appressed  edgewise  to  the  rachis.  Com- 
mon rye-grass,  ray-grass,  or  perennial  rye-grass 
{Lolium  perenne),  is  frequent  in  meadows  and 
pastures,  and  is  highly  valued  in  Europe,  where 
it  is  the  most  popular  grass  for  forage  and  hay. 
In  North  America  it  is  less  esteemed  than  tim- 
othy for  either  pasture  or  hay.  It  succeeds  well 
on  poor  soils.  Of  the  numerous  varieties  common 
perennial  rye-grass  is  most  generally  cultivated. 
A  form  called  annual  rye-grass — not  really  an 
annual  plant,  although  useful  for  only  one  year 
— is  sometimes  cultivated,  but  is  in  almost  every 
respect  inferior.  Italian  rye-grass  {Lolium  mul- 
tiflorum)  is  much  esteemed  as  a  forage  and 
hay  grass  in  Southern  Europe,  where  it  is 
native,  and  in  the  Eastern  United  States.  It 
is  preferred  by  cattle  to  common  rye-grass. 
The  young  leaves  are  folded  up,  while  those  of 
the  common  rye-grass  are  rolled  together.  In  the 
United  States  this  species  is  especially  esteemed 
in  the  East.  It  grows  rapidly,  forms  a  dense 
turf,  and  upon  good  soils  yields  several  cuttings 
in  a  season.  It  is  readily  distinguished  from 
all  forms  of  perennial  rye-grass  by  its  awned  or 
bearded  spikelets. 

BYE  HOUSE  PLOT.  A  conspiracy  in  1683, 
among  extremists  of  the  Whig  Party,  to  waylay 
and  assassinate  King  Charles  II.  of  England  on 
his  return  from  Newmarket,  at  a  house  called  the 


Atkbaok  Pbbcentaok  Composition  or  Rtb  Pboducts. 


Rye,  whole  grain. 

Rye,  flour 

Rye,  bran 

Rye,  shorts 

Rye,  fodder , 

Rye,  hay , 


Water 


Perct. 
11.6 
13.1 
11.6 

9.3 
76.6 

8.5 


Pro- 
tein 


Per  ct. 
10.6 
6.7 
14.7 
18.0 
2.6 
9.8 


Fat 


Per  ct. 
1.7 
0.8 
3.8 
2.8 
0.6 
2.8 


Nitrogen 

free 
extract 


Per  ct. 
72.6 
78.8 
63.8 
69.9 
6.8 
48.4 


Crude 
fibre 


Perct. 
1.7 
0.4 
8.5 
6.1 
11.6 
30.1 


Ash 


Perct. 
1.9 
0.7 
•8.6 
6.9 
1.8 
6.9 


As  regards  composition,  the  rye  grain  does  not 
differ  materially  from  wheat.  It  has  been  urged 
that,  as  rye  is  often  affected  with  ergot,  it  is  not 
a  wholesome  food  for  animals.  This  objection 
cannot  be  urged  of  clean  rye,  and  the  fact  that  it 
has  been  so  long  used  as  food  by  man  without 
harmful  results  indicates  that  there  is  nothing 
in  the  grain  itself  which  would  render  it  harm- 
ful. 

BYE.  A  small  seaport  town  of  Sussex,  Eng- 
land, one  of  the  Cinque  Ports  (q.v.). 


Rye  House  farm,  whence  the  plot  got  its  name. 
It  was  frustrated  and  discovered  owing  to  the 
fact  that  the  house  which  the  King  occupied  at 
Newmarket  took  fire  accidentally  and  the  King 
in  consequence  left  the  place  eight  days  sooner 
than  was  expected.  The  indignation  excited  by  the 
Rye  House  plot  was  taken  advantage  of  by  the 
Royalists  to  implicate  the  whole  Whig  Party,  and 
among  those  who  suffered  death  for  alleged  com- 
plicity were  Lord  William  Russell  and  Algernon 
Sidney  (qq.v.). 


BYEBSON. 


278 


BZHEV. 


BT^BBSON,  AooLPHUS  Egebton  (1803-82). 
Tbe  founder  of  Ontario's  public  school  system. 
He  was  bom  in  Charlotteville,  Upper  Canada, 
received  a  good  education,  and  became  a  Method- 
ist minister.  In  1829  he  was  chiefly  instrumental 
in  founding  and  became  the  editor  of  the  Chris- 
tian Ottardian,  the  religious  organ  of  Canadian 
Methodism.  He  also  took  the  leading  part  in 
founding  the  Upper  Canada  Academy  at  Co- 
bourg,  afterwards  chartered  as  Victoria  Univer- 
sity, of  which  he  was  the  first  president.  In 
1844  he  was  appointed  Superintendent  of  Educa- 
tion for  Upper  Canada,  and  from  that  year  until 
1876,  when  he  resigned,  he  was  the  guiding  and 
controlling  force  in  establishing  the  school  sys- 
tem of  that  province,  now  the  Province  of  On- 
tario. He  visited  Europe  to  study  the  diflferent 
educational  systems,  and  drafted  legislative  meas- 
ures, afterwards  enacted  into  laws,  embodying 
their  best  features.  His  publications  include: 
Letters  in  Defense  of  Our  School  System 
(1859);  The  Loyalists  of  America  and  Their 
Times  (1880)  ;  and  The  Story  of  My  Life,  an 
autobi<^aphy  imflnished  at  liis  death,  but  sub- 
sequently completed  and  published  by  Dr.  John 
George  Hodgins   (1883). 

BYEZHITSAy  ry^zhlt-sA.  A  town  in  the 
Government  of  Vitebsk,  Russia,  situated  about 
65  miles  northeast  cf  DUnaburg  (Map:  Russia, 
C  3).    Population,  in  1897,  10,681. 

BYLE,  rll,  John  Chables  (1816-1900).  An 
English  clergyman.  Bishop  of  Liverpool.  He 
was  bom  near  Macclesfield,  and  educated  at  Eton 
and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  took  orders  in 
1841,  and  was  appointed  successively  curate  at 
Exbury,  rector  of  Saint  Thomas's,  Winchester,  in 
1843,  rector  of  Helmingham  in  1844,  vicar  of 
Stradbroke  in  1861,  rural  dean  of  Hoxne  in  1869, 
and  honorary  canon  of  Norwich  in  1871.  In 
1880  he  was  appointed  by  Lord  Beaconsfield  Dean 
of  Salisbury,  but  before  entering  upon  his  duties 
he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Liverpool  by  the 
same  statesman.  He  was  numbered  among  the 
'evangelicals'  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  his 
work  among  the  poorer  classes  of  the  west  of 
England  was  of  an  aggressive  and  helpful  char- 
acter. His  works  include:  The  Bishop,  the  Pas- 
tor,  and  the  Preacher  (1854),  sketches  of  Lati- 
mer, Baxter,  and  Whitefleld ;  Bishops  and  Clergy 
of  Other  Days  ( 1868 ) ,  lives  of  Hooper,  Latimer, 
Ward,  Baxter,  and  Gumall ;  The  Christian  Lead- 
ers of  the  Last  Century  (1869) ;  Principles  for 
Churchmen  (1884);  Many  Points  of  View 
(1886);  Is  All  Scripture  Inspired?  (1898). 

BYLBYEFF,  rl-la'y€f,  Kondratiy  Feodobo- 
vrrcH  (1796-1826).  A  Russian  lyric  poet,  who 
was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Decembrists,  and 
died  on  the  s^iffold.  His  fearless  attack  on  the 
all-powerful  Araktcheyeff  (q.v.),  in  The  Minion 
(1820),  made  him  famous.  A  collection  of  his 
lyrics,  Dumy  (Meditations),  and  the  epics,  Nali- 
vayko's  Confessions  and  Voynarovski*s  Dream, 
assign  to  him  a  rank  next  to  that  of  his  friend 
Pushkin.  With  Bestuzheflf  he  edited  in  1823-26 
the  literary  almanac,  The  Polar  Star,  to  which 

Pushkin  liberally  contributed.     His  works  were 

last  edited  by  M.  N.  Mazayeff   (Saint  Peters- 

lrarg,1893). 


BYLSKy  riKy'sk.  A  town  in  the  Government 
of  Kursk,  Russia,  situated  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Rylo  with  the  Seim,  84  miles  southeast  of 
Kursk  (Map:  Russia,  £  4).  It  manufactures 
oil  and  trades  in  grain  and  agricultural  imple- 
ments. During,  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  cen- 
turies it  was  the  capital  of  the  independent 
Principality  of  Rylsk,  which  was  annexed  to 
Lithuania  in  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, and  to  Moscow  in  1500.  Population,  in 
1897,  11,416. 

BY^MBB,  Thomas  (164M713).  An  English 
critic,  poet,  and  historian,  bom  in  Yafforth, 
Yorkshire,  and  educated  at  Sidney-Sussex  Col- 
lege, Cambridge.  He  w^as  called  to  the  bar  in 
1673,  but  devoted  himself  mostly  to  literature. 
Of  his  poems,  the  best  known  are  those  in  mem- 
ory of  Waller.  Both  his  poetry  and  his  criticism, 
which  is  chiefly  dramatic  and  attacks  Shake- 
speare for  failing  to  preserve  the  unities,  were 
highly  praised  by  Pope  and  fiercely  ridiculed  by 
Macaulay.  In  1692  he  succeeded  Shadwell  as 
Court  historiographer;  but  in  this  province  his 
only  important  publication  was  the  Latin  com- 
pilation of  English  treatises  under  the  title 
FoBdera  (1704-35).  Of  this  a  Syllabus  by  Sir 
Thomas  Duffus  Hardy  appeared  in  1869  et  seq. 

BYSWICK,  rlz'wik.  Peace  of.  A  treaty  con- 
cluded between  France  and  Great  Britain,  Spain, 
and  Holland,  September  20,  1697,  ending  nine 
years  of  war  between  Louis  XIV.  and  the  Grand 
Alliance.  A  congress  of  envoys  from  Austria, 
Denmark,  England,  Holland,  the  German  States, 
Spain,  and  France  had  been  in  session  through 
the  summer  of  that  year.  France  agreed  to  re- 
store to  Spain  places  in  Catalonia  and  the 
Netherlands,  and  to  recognize  William  III.  as 
King  of. England.  Charles  IV.,  Duke  of  Lor- 
raine, was  placed  in  possession  of  his  States. 
In  America  and  the  East  Indies  all  conquests 
were  to  be  restored.  Indeed,  so  far  as  territory 
was  concerned,  the  general  result  was  a  return  to 
the  status  quo  ante.  In  a  supplementary  treaty, 
signed  October  20,  1697,  by  the  Emperor,  con- 
siderable restitutions  were  made  to  the  German 
States  by  France.  The  chief  result  of  the  war, 
as  determined  by  the  peace,  was  the  check  given 
to  the  overweening  ambition  of  Louis  XlV., 
whose  power  from  this  time  underwent  a  steady 
decline.  The  village  of  Ryswick  (Dutch  Rijs- 
wijk )  is  in  the  outskirts  of  The  Hague.  Consult 
Neuhaus,  Der  Friede  von  RysuAck  (Freiburg  im 
Breisgau,  1874). 

BZESZ6W,  rzh^shyv.  A  town  in  the  Crown- 
land  of  Galicia,  Austria,  98  miles  by  rail  east  of 
Cracow  (Map:  Austria,  HI).  Its  principal 
buildings  are  the  castle  of  Prince  Lubomirski  and 
the  Cloister  of  Saint  Bernard.  Linen-weaving  and 
the  manufacture  of  gold  wares,  leather,  bone-dust, 
and  pipes  are  carri^  on.  The  town  is  a  famous 
horse  mart.  Population,  in  1890,  11,953;  in  1900, 
14,714,    mostly    Poles. 

BZHEV,  rzhfev.  A  river  port  of  the  Govern- 
ment of  Tver,  Russia,  situated  on  the  Volga,  1 12 
miles  southwest  of  Tver.  It  has  a  considerable 
flax-spinning  industry,  and  carries  on  a  trade 
in  grain.  Population,  in  1897,  21,390,  of  whom 
about  half  were  Dis8entec3. 


s 


s 


Fhcenldan 


The  nineteenth  letter  of  the  English 
alphabet.  The  name  for  its  Semitic 
equivalent  was  shin,  tooth,  the  letter- 
form  roughly  representing  a  toothed 
edge.  The  development  of  the  letter 
was  as  follows: 


s 


Earlj 
Greek 


Later 
Greek 


Early 
Latin 


Later 
Latin 


In  its  usual  phonetic  sound  s  is  the  breathed 
alveolar  spirant.  In  the  formation  of  this  sound 
the  tongue,  which  is  raised  and  approximates  the 
upper  tooth-sockets,  is  grooved  longitudinally, 
and  the  air  passes  through  this  narrow  channel 
with  a  hissing  sound,  whence  a  is  called  a 
sibilant.  The  result  is  the  s  in  sing,  mast.  The 
same  sound  is  represented  by  o  (before  e,  t,  y) 
in  cent,  face,  cynic;  and  by  ac  in  science,  coalesce, 
8  has  the  phonetic  value  of  z  after  a  sonant  at  the 
end  of  a  word  and  also  between  sonants;  as  flies, 
rise,  husy,  nose;  of  sh  (before  consonantal  i,  and 
rarely  ii),  as  passion,  mansion,  sure,  sugar;  of 
zh  in  measure,  osier,  treasure.  The  digraph  A  is 
a  sibilant  formed  in  much  the  same  manner  as 
s.  The  tongue-tip,  however,  is  turned  upward 
rather  than  forward,  and  the  sound  is  more  pala- 
tal, as  in  shadow,  sad;  shall,  salt.  This  sh 
sound  is  an  extremely  common  one,  whether  rep- 
resented by  ch,  as  in  chaise,  machine,  or  by  other 
combinations:  Asia,  social,  conscious,  ocean, 
vitiate, 

English  s  is  derived  from  various  sources.  It 
represents  original  Indo-(jermanic  s  in  self,  Skt. 
sva,  Lat.  se,  Goth,  sik;  Skt.  harfisa,  Gk.  xi^r, 
Lat.  anser,  Eng.  goose.  In  words  of  Latin  ori- 
gin it  represents  Indo-Germanic  d+t  or  t-^t: 
risible,  Lat.  risus,  from  *rid'tus;  reverse,  Lat. 
vertus,  from  *vert-tus,  8  represents  French- 
Latin  a  and  ti;  s  in  saint,  usage;  ti  in  ransom, 
from  Lat.  redempiionem ;  silenoe,  from  Lat.  silen- 
tium. 

As  a  medieval  Roman  numeral  S  =:  7  or  70, 
D  =  70,000.  In  chemistry  S  stands  for  sulphur. 
As  abbreviation  S.  stands  for  south;  s.  for  second, 
shilling;  S.S.  for  steamship,  Sunday  school.  S. 
stands  for  science  in  B.  S.,  Bachelor  of  Science, 
and  society,  in  F.  R.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society. 

8AADIA  (sA-ft^dM)  BEN  JOSEPH  (892- 
942).  A  distinguished-  Jewish  philosopher  and 
exegete.  He  was  bom  in  the  Fayum,  Egypt. 
At  an  early  age  he  made  a  translation  of  the 
Bible  into  Arabic,  with  notes,  intended  to  serve 


as  an  attack  upon  the  doctrines  of  the  Karaites 
(see  Jewish  Sects),  against  whom  he  had  pre- 
viously written  a  work,  In  Refutation  of 
Anan,  Through  his  efforts  largely  the  spread 
of  the  ELaraite  movement,  which  threatened  at 
one  time  to  subvert  Rabbinical  Judaism,  was 
checked.  By  928  his  fame  had  spread  beyond  the 
borders  of  Egypt,  and  he  was  called  to  the  head 
of  the  Rabbinical  school  at  Sura  in  Babylonia. 
Owing  to  a  disagreement  with  the  "Prince  of  the 
Captivity,"  the  head  of  the  Babylonian  Jews,  he 
lost  his  office,  and  went  into  retirement  (933), 
and  during  this  period  wrote  in  Arabic  a  philo- 
sophical work.  Faiths  and  Doctrines  (translated 
into  Hebrew  by  Judah  ben  Tibbon).  Saadia  also 
wrote  commentaries  on  the  Bible  and  many  poems, 
which  are  at  present  used  in  the  Jewish  liturgy. 
His  works  have  been  published  by  Derenbourg  and 
Lambert,  vols,  i.,  iii.,  v.,  vi.,  and  ix.  having 
already  appeared.  Saadia  ranks  next  to^  Mai- 
monides  among  Jewish  philosophers,  while  he 
the  latter  in  the  thoroughness  of  his 


Biblical  and  Talmudical  scholarship.  Consult 
Winter  and  Wtinsche,  JOdische  lAtteratur,  voL 
ii.,  pp.  28-40  (Trier,  1894). 

SAAIjE,  zft^e.  A  river  of  Germany.  It  rises 
in  the  Fichtelgefoirge,  in  Bavaria,  and  flowing 
northward  through  some  of  the  Thuringian 
States,  and  finally  across  the  Prussian  Province 
of  Saxony,  falls  into  the  Elbe,  about  25  miles 
above  Magdeburg,  after  a  course  of  226  miles 
(Map:  Prussia,  D  3).  It  is  navigable  103  miles 
by  means  of  17  locks. 

SAAIiFELD,  zUKfelt.  A  town  in  the  Duchv 
of  Saxe-Meiningen,  Germany,  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Saale,  87  miles  by  rail  southwest  of 
Leipzig  (Map:  Germany,  D  3) .  It  is  an  old  town 
with  an  interesting  Gothic  church  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  a  castle  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, a  Gothic  town  hall,  dating  from  1537,  and 
the  ruins  of  the  Sorbenburg,  a  castle  believed  to 
have  been  built  by  Charlemagne  as  a  fortress 
against  the  Sorbs.  The  town  manufactures  vari- 
ous kinds  of  machinery,  paints,  knit  goods,  etc. 
Population,  in  1900,  11,681.  It  was  probably 
founded  during  the  reign  of  Charlemagne. 

SAAB^  zfir  (Fr.  Sarre),  A  river  of  South- 
western Germany.  It  rises  in  the  Vosges  Moun- 
tains on  the  boundary  of  Alsace,  and  flows 
northwest  though  Lorraine  and  the  Prussian 
Rhine  Province,  emptying  into  the  Moselle  a  few 
miles  above  Treves  (Map:  Germany,  B  4).  It  is 
152   miles   long,  navigable   54  miiles  to   Saar- 


S74 


SJLAB. 


275 


BABMANS. 


biiicken,  and  by  means  of  a  syBtem  of  locks 
20  miles  farther  to  SaargemUnd.  The  Saar 
Canal  connects  its  middle  course  with  the  Rhine- 
Marne  GanaL 

SAAB,  Ferdinand  von  (1833—).  An  Aus- 
trian poet  and  novelist,  bom  in  Vienna.  He 
entered  the  army  in  1849,  and,  retiring  after  the 
Italian  campaign  of  1859,  devoted  himself  entire- 
ly to  literature.  In  1902  he  was  made  a  mem- 
ber of  the  House  of  Peers.  As  a  lyric  poet  of 
decided  individuality  he  made  his  mark  with 
Gedichte  (1882).  Equally  striking  are  his  Wiener 
Elegien  (1893).  His  stories,  Novellen  aua  Oea- 
ierreich  (2d  ed.  1894),  Bchickaale  (1889),  Fraur 
enhilder  (1892),  Herhstreigen  (1897),  and  Cam- 
era Ohscura  (1901),  depict  Vienna  society  with 
rare  power  of  analysis.  His  dramatic  works  are 
less  valuable. 

BA  AUBBtfcaraar,  z^r^r^k-en.  A  town  in 
the  Rhine  Province,  Prussia,  on  the  Saar,  50 
miles  east  by  north  of  Metz  (Map:  Prussia,  B 
4).  It  is  connected  with  the  opposite  town  of 
Sankt  Johann  by  two  bridges,  has  an  old  castle,  a 
town  hall  with  frescoes  by  Werner,  a  fine  new 
statue  of  Bismarck,  and  a  gymnasium.  The 
town  is  the  centre  of  a  coal-mining  district, 
which  produces  annually  over  7,000,000  tons  of 
GoaL  Its  manufactures  include  woolen  and  linen 
fabrics,  hardware,  Berlin  blue,  tin  and  zinc 
wares,  glass,  leather,  and  tapestry.  Saarbrttck- 
en,  originally  a  possession  of  the  counts  of  Ar- 
dennes, fell  to  Nassau  in  1381.  It  was  garri- 
soned by  France  from  1801  to  1815,  when  it  came 
to  Prussia.  Saarbriicken  was  the  scene  of  the 
opening  engagement  in  the  Franco-Prussian  War 
of  1870-71.  A  French  army  corps,  under  Na- 
poleon III.,  captured  the  town  on  August  2,  1870, 
but  was  forced  to  retreat  on  August  6th.  Popu- 
ktion,  in  1890,  13,812;  in  1900,  23,242. 

SAABBTJBa,  z&r^b^rK.  A  town  of  Alsace- 
Lorraine,  Germany,  on  the  Saar,  44  miles  by 
rail  northwest  of  Strassburg.  (Map:  Germany, 
B  4).  It  is  surrounded  by  walls  and  strongly 
garrisoned.  Gloves,  lace,  beer,  and  watch- 
springs  are  manufactured.  Population,  in  1900, 
9,178. 

SAAKDAMy  sftr'd&m.  A  town  of  the  Nether- 
lands.   See  Zaandam. 

SAABGEMtfND^  zftr'ge-mvnt^  (Fr.  Sarre- 
ffuemines),  A  town  in  the  Province  of  Alsace- 
Lorraine,  Germany,  situated  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Blies  and  the  Saar,  40  miles  east  of  Metz 
(Map:  Germany,  B  4).  It  has  a  gymnasium, 
and  manufactures  pottery,  hempen  fabrics,  silks, 
velvets,  etc.     Population,  in  1900,  14,680. 

SAABLOtnS,  zSLT'\l5(/i^.  A  town  in  the  Rhine 
Province,  Prussia,  on  the  Saar,  near  the  French 
frontier,  and  31  miles  southeast  of  Treves  (Map: 
Germany  B  4).  Its  fortifications  were  built  by 
Vauban  in  1680-85  during  the  reign  of  Louis 
XIV.  They  are  now  comparatively  imimportant, 
and  are  used  as  barracks  and  depots.  In  the 
vicinity  are  lead  and  iron  mines,  and  the  town 
has  manufactures  of  leather,  wire,  and  firearms. 
Population,  in  1900,  7,864. 

8AAVEDBA,  sa'A-va'drft,  Angel  de,  Duke 
de  Kivas  ( 1791-1865) .  A  Spanish  statesman  and 
anthor,  bom  in  Cordoba.  After  eight  years'  ser- 
vice in  the  army  he  devoted  himself  to  literary 
studies,  and  had  written  Enaayos  po4tico8  (1813) 
ttd  several  tragedies  before  the  revolution  of 


1820,  in  which  he  took  so  prominent  a  part  that 
from  1823  to  1834  he  was  forced  to  live  in  exile. 
In  1834  he  returned  to  Spain,  and  in  1836  he  be- 
came Minister  of  the  Interior.  The  revolutionary 
rising  of  that  year  drove  him  again  into  exile. 
In  1844  he  became  Ambassador  to  Naples,  in  1855 
he  was  sent  to  France,  and  in  1860  to  Florence. 
Among  his  works  are  Florinda  ( 1824-25),  an  epic 
of  the  Moorish  conquest;  El  Moro  exposito 
(1834),  also  an  epic;  histories  of  the  Neapoli- 
tan revolution  (1848;  revised,  1881),  and  of 
Masaniello  (1860)  ;  and  many  romances  and 
some  excellent  plays.  His  complete  works  were 
edited  by  his  son  in  the  Castilian  Coleccidn 
(1895). 

SAAZ,  zats  (Bohemian  Zatec).  A  town  in  the 
Crownland  of  Bohemia,  Austria,  on  the  Eger,  43 
miles  northwest  of  Prague  ( Map :  Austria,  CI). 
It  is  the  centre  of  the  Bohemian  hop  industry. 
The  town  has  an  institute  for  instruction  in  hop- 
growing  and  preparing,  and  gives  annual  prizes 
for  excellence  in  this  line.  There  are  manufac- 
tures of  machinery,  leather,  and  sugar.  The 
population  in  1890  was  13,234;  in  1900,  16,168, 
mostly  Germans. 

SABA,  s&^.  An  island  of  the  Dutch  West 
Indies  belonging  to  the  Colony  of  Curacao,  and 
situated  among  the  Leeward  Islands,  26  miles 
southwest  of  Saint  Martin  Island  (Map:  West 
Indies,  Q  6).  Area,  5  square  miles.  It  is  a 
circular  volcanic  peak  rising  2817  feet  above  the 
sea.  Cotton  and  indigo  are  produced.  Popula- 
tion, in  1900,  2177. 

SABADELIi,  s&'B&DAiy.  A  town  of  North- 
eastern Spain,  in  the  Province  of  Barcelona,  situ- 
ated on  the  Barcelona-Saragossa  Railroad  11 
miles  northwest  of  the  former  city  (Map:  Spain, 
G  2 ) .  It  is  an  important  manufacturing  centre, 
about  half  of  its  population  being  employed  in 
its  textile  mills.  The  town  has  a  college.  Popu- 
lation, in  1887,  19,646;  in  1900,  23,376. 

SAB'ADH/LA  (Sp.  cevadilta,  cedaUlla,  di- 
minutive of  oevada,  cehaha,  barley,  from  cehar, 
Lat.  cihare,  to  feed,  from  cihtia,  food),  Cebadiixa, 
or  Cevadilla  {Asagrcea  officinalis,  or  Schenocau- 
lon  officinalis) .  A  Mexican  plant  of  the  natural 
order  Liliacese  whose  winged  wrinkled  seeds  have 
been  employed  in  medicine  like  white  hellebore 
(Veratrum  album)  since  the  sixteenth  century 
and  have  been  considered  irritant,  sedative,  and 
rubefacient. 

SAB^ffi^ANS.  The  name  of  an  ancient  people 
of  Southern  Arabia.  Information  concerning  this 
people  is  derived  from  three  sources :  ( 1 )  Certain 
notices  in  the  Old  Testament.  In  Gen.  x.  three 
pedigrees  are  given  for  Sheba  (or  Saba),  the 
eponymous  ancestor  of  the  Sabseans,  but  it  is 
clear  that  Sheba  belongs  to  Southern  Arabia.  The 
visit  of  the  Queen  of  Sheba  to  Solomon  (I.  Kings 
x. )  is  by  many  thought  to  be  legendary,  but  even  if 
so,  it  indicates  the  importance  which  the  kingdom 
of  the  Sabseans  had  acquired  at  an  early  date. 
References  in  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  Job 
point  to  the  commercial  activity  of  the  Sabseans. 
(2)  Classical  writers,  especially  Pliny,  repre- 
sent the  people  of  Yemen  (which  they  use  as  a 
general  name  for  Southern  Arabia)  as  wealthy, 
widely  extended,  and  enterprising,  of  fine  stature 
and  noble  bearing,  particularly  distinguished  as 
merchants;  the  chief  articles  of  their  merchan- 
dise were  gold,   perfumes,   spice,   incense,  and 


wAB^AWSt 


276 


SABBATH. 


precious  stones.  The  wealth  and  luxury  of  the 
Sabeeans,  however,  are  exaggerated  by  the  classi- 
cal writers  and  many  of  the  stories  related  are 
fanciful.  (3)  Much  more  reliable  information 
is  now  available  from  inscriptions  and  coins  found 
in  large  numbers  in  Southern  Arabia  during  the 
last  century  by  travelers  such  as  Wellsted,  Osi- 
ander,  Hal4vy,  and  Glaser,  and  deciphered  by  the 
labors  of  D.  H.  MQller,  H.  Derenbourg,  Pratorius, 
Hommel,  Mordtmann,  Winckler,  Schlumburger, 
and  others.  The  cuneiform  inscriptions  also  have 
shed  some  light  on  early  Sabsean  history. 

The  dated  inscriptions  do  not  appear  to  be 
earlier  than  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  but  the  be- 
ginnings of  the  Sabsean  kingdom  may  be  carried 
back  several  centuries.  It  is  clear  in  the  first 
place  that  Saba  was  the  name  of  a  nation  that 
gradually  extended  its  rule  from  Marib  or  Mar- 
yab  as  a  centre  until  it  embraced  practically  all 
of  Yemen.  The  height  of  its  power  appears  to 
have  been  reached  in  the  fifth  century;  some  cen- 
turies later  we  find  several  independent  king- 
doms sharing  Southern  Arabia  between  them. 
The  political  control  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  vested  in  a  single  family,  but  in  a  number  of 
distinguished  families;  hence  we  find  several 
'kings'  of  Saba  ruling  contemporaneously.  The 
great  families  of  the  land  possessed  towers  and 
castles,  the  building  of  which  is  the  subject  of 
many  inscriptions.  The  Sabseans  became  the 
natural  intermediaries  between  Egypt  and  India, 
since  the  land  route  from  Egypt  to  the  distant 
East  lay  through  Yemen.  The  inscriptions  fre- 
quently refer  to  the  commercial  side  of  Sabsean 
history  and  the  chief  articles  dealt  with  are  gold, 
precious  stones,  perfumes  of  various  kinds,  horses, 
and  camels.  The  general  state  of  society  bore 
some  resemblance  to  that  of  Europe  in  feudal 
times.  A  notable  feature  was  the  high  position 
occupied  by  women,  and  while  no  'queens'  have 
been  as  yet  encountered  in  the  inscriptions,  we  find 
a  woman  described  as  mistress  of  a  castle,  and  in 
many  cases  women  are  joint  authors  with  men 
of  the  dedicatory  or  votive  inscriptions  or  are 
encountered  as  the  sole  authors.  The  number  of 
gods  mentioned  in  the  inscriptions  is  considerable, 
chief  among  them  Al-Wakkih  Ta'lah  Athtar  and 
Rahman.  While  originally  personifications  of 
the  phenomena  of  nature,  they  became  abstrac- 
tions somewhat  like  the  gods  of  Egypt,  and  a 
number  of  them  are  conceived  as  having  several 
forms.  Magnificent  temples  were  erected  and 
gifts  and  sacrifices  were  lavished  on  the  gods. 
Pilgrimages  at  regular  intervals  were  custom- 
ary. 

The  Sahofan  language  was  Semitic,  showing  the 
strongest  affiliation  with  the  Arabic  and  Ethi- 
opic,  though  in  its  syntax  it  sometimes  ap- 
proached closer  to  the  Hebrew  and  in  certain  of 
its  morphological  features  to  the  Aramaic.  The 
characters  are  alphabetic  and  in  many  respects 
more  archaic  than  the  Phoenician;  the  theory  is 
gaining  favor  that  the  Phoenicians  did  not  invent 
the  alphabet,  but  borrowed  it  from  South  Arabia. 
For  bibliography,  see  the  article  Min^ans. 

SABANILLA,  sfl'B&-n^y&,  or  SAVANIX- 
LA.  A  seaport  in  the  Province  of  Bolivar,  Co- 
lombia, the  maritime  outlet  of  Barranquilla.  with 
which  it  has  railway  connection  (Map:  Colom- 
bia, C  1). 

SABATIEB,  sft'bA'tyft^,  Louis  Auguste 
(1839-1901).     A  French  Protestant  theologian. 


bom  at  Vallon  (Ard^he),  and  educated  at  Mon- 
tauban,  and  at  several  German  universitieB. 
From  1869  to  1877  he  was  professor  of  theology 
at  the  University  of  Strassburg,  and  afterward? 
for  several  years  professor  at  the  Sorbonne.  He 
became  known  as  a  representative  of  liberal  the- 
ology. His  printed  works  include  Le  t^moignage 
de  J^uS'Christ  aur  aa  personne  ( 1863 )  ;  Easai  sur 
lea  aourcea  de  la  vie  de  J6aua  (1866) ;  M^moire 
aur  la  notion  h^braiqiLe  de  Veaprit  (1879)  ;  De 
Vorigine  du  p4ch4  dana  la  th^ologie  de  l*ap6tre 
Paul  (1887)  ;  De  la  vie  intime  dea  dogmea  et  de 
leur  puiaaance  d*^volution  (1890);  Eaaai  d'une 
th6orie  critique  de  la  cannaiaaance  religieuse 
(1893)  ;  Eaaai  aur  VimmortalitS  (1895)  ;  L'ap&- 
tre  Paul  (3d  ed.  1896)  ;  Eaquiaae  d'une  philo- 
aophie  de  la  religion  (1897).  A  memoir  appeared 
in  Paris  in  1901. 

SABATIEB,  Paul  (1858—).  A  French  theo- 
logian and  historian,  bom  at  Saint-Michel-de- 
Chabrillanoux  (Ard^he).  He  studied  in  the 
theological  faculty  of  the  University  of  Paris, 
became  vicar  of  the  French  parish  of  Saint- 
Nicolas  at  Strassburg,  and  afterwards  pastor 
there  of  Saint-Cierge-la-Serre.  His  health  com- 
pelled him  to  withdraw  from  active  ministerial 
duties.  His  publications  include  learned  edi- 
tions of  the  Speculum  Perfectionia  aeu  Frandaci 
Aaaiaienaia  Legenda  Antiquiaaimay  Auctore 
Pratre  Leone  ( 1898)  and  Bartholus's  Tractatus  de 
Indulgentia  (1900);  La  DidacM,  ou  llenseigne- 
ment  dea  douze  apdtrea  (1885),  with  the  Greek 
text  and  a  commentary;  and  La  vie  de  Saint 
FranQois  d^Aaaiae  (1893),  based  on  previously 
unused  documentary  sources,  discovered  by  him 
in  various  local  Italian  archives.  This  work  was 
widely  read  and  several  times  translated. 

SABA^ZIUS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Za^d^as).  A 
Thraco-Phrygian  nature-god.  He  originally  typi- 
fied the  powers  of  nature  in  their  vivifying  as- 
pect, and.  the  yearly  renewal  of  life.  His  worship 
was  therefore  closely  associated  with  the  cults  of 
Cybele  (q.v.)  and  Attis  (q.v.),  and  was  orgiastic 
in  character,  later  degenerating  into  sexual  ex- 
cesses. Sabazius  was  represented  as  horned,  and 
had  for  his  symbol  a  snake,  which  typified 
by  the  shedding  of  its  skin  the  renewal  of  nature 
(see  ■  Nature- Worship,  section  Ophiolatry), 
The  worship  of  this  god  was  introduc5ed  into 
Athens  as  early  as  the  fifth  century  B.C.,  but  by 
the  time  of  Demosthenes  the  more  cultured 
classes  stood  aloof  from  it.  From  Greece  it  was 
carried  to  Rome.  Here,  together  with  other 
Oriental  cults,  it  became  widespread,  especially 
during  the  decadence  of  paganism.  In  Greco- 
Koman  mythology  Sabazius  was  identified  with 
Dionysus,  or  occasionally  with  Zeus.  He  was 
further  regarded  as  the  son  of  Zeus  and  Perse- 
phone, and  was  said  to  have  been  destroyed  by 
the  Titans.  Consult  Lenormant,  Bahcusiua 
(Paris,  1876). 

SABBATH  (Heb.  aJiahhath,  ahalibHthdn,  from 
ahahathy  to  desist,  cease).  The  Old  Testament 
designation  for  the  seventh  day  of  the  week,  set 
aside  as  a  period  of  cessation  from  work,^  and  one 
of  the  most  important  religious  institutions  pro- 
vided for  in  the  Pentateuch al  codes.  Besides  the 
stipulation  for  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath  in 
these  codes,  there  are  important  allusions  to  it  in 
the  historical  and  prophetical  books.  In  both 
Decalogues  (Ex.  xx.,  8-11,  Deut.  v.,  12-16;  see 
Decalooxje),  the  ordinance  to  cease  from    all 


8ABBATK. 


277 


SABBATICAL  YEAB. 


labor  is  enjoined  as  the  fourth  'word'  or  com- 
mandment, and  the  obligation  is  extended  to  all 
the  members  of  the  household,  including  man 
and  maid  servants,  and  also  to  ox  and  ass,  all 
cattle,  and  to  the  non-Hebrew  dwelling  in  a  He- 
brew community.  But  whereas,  in  the  earlier 
codes  (see  Hexateuch),  the  Sabbath  (generally 
associated  with  the  new  moon  celebration )  markis 
a  cessation  from  the  ordinary  labor,  it  did  not 
prior  to  the  Babylonian  exile  involve  a  strict 
prohibition  of  all  secular  occupations.  It  was 
permitted, e.  g.  to  undertake  a  journey  on  the  Sab- 
bath day  (II.  Kings  iv.  22-23).  Its  character 
as  a  sacred  day  sanctified  for  all  times  by  Yahweh 
leads  the  holiness  Code'  (Lev.  xvii.  to  xxvi.) 
to  lay  special  stress  upon  this  'sanctified'  char- 
acter, and  the  outcome  of  this  movement  is  to 
connect  the  institution  with  the  creation  of  the 
world.  This  step  is  distinctly  taken  in  the 
Priestly  narrative  (Gen.  ii.  3),  Yahweh  setting 
the  example  to  mankind  by  Himself  'resting'  on 
the  seventh  day  after  finishing  the  work  of  crea- 
tion. Released  from  its  association  with  the 
new  moon,  the  regulations  for  the  Sabbath  in- 
creased in  number  and  severity  until  the  obliga- 
tion to  'rest'  was  made  to  include  the  prohibition 
of  almost  everything  requiring  physical  effort. 
The  rabbis  vied  with  one  another  in  carrying  out 
the  comparatively  few  and  simple  regulations  of 
the  Pentateuchal  codes  to  their  last  consequences. 
Thus  the  ordinance  not  to  kindle  fires  on  the  Sab- 
bath day  (Ex.  xxxv.  3)  was  interpreted  to  in- 
clude the  prohibition  of  cooking  meals  on  the 
Sabbath  day,  while  the  injunction  "let  no  man 
go  out  of  his  place  on  the  seventh  day"  (Ex.  xvi. 
29)  led  to  restrictions  upon  walking  beyond  a 
certain  distance.  The  cessation  from  labor  was 
made  to  embrace  a  strict  avoidance  of  handling 
money,  no  matter  for  what  purpose,  and  while 
public  amusements  were  not  prohibited,  the  Sab- 
bath restrictions  made  such  amusements  practi- 
cally impossible.  In  this  way  the  Sabbath  ac- 
quired an  austere  character,  at  least  in  appear- 
ance, which  was  relieved  only  by  the  intensity 
of  the  religious  spirit  with  which  the  Jews 
entered  upon  the  ritual  prescribed  for  the  day, 
and  by  the  opportunity  it  afforded  for  family 
reunions,  which  became  one  of  the  features  of 
the  day.  From  Judaism  the  institution  passed 
on  to  Christianity  with  a  change  of  the  day  from 
the  seventh  to  the  first  day  of  the  week,  as  com- 
memorating the  resurrection  of  Jesus.  See 
Sunday. 

Considerable  speculation  has  been  indulged  in 
as  to  the  origin  of  the  Hebrew  Sabbath.     In 
cuneiform    syllabaries    a    word    ahahattum    has 
been  found,  which  is  explained  in  one  instance  as 
*the  day  of  rest  for  the  heart.'    This  phrase,  how- 
ever, does  not  refer  to  cessation  from  labors,  but 
to  the  'cessation'  of  the  divine  wrath.    In  other 
words,  shabattum  for  the  Babylonians  meant  a 
day  in  which  it  was  necessary  to  observe  certain 
precautions  in  order  to  insure  the  'pacification' 
of  the  gods.     What  these  precautions  were  are 
learned  from  a  religious  calendar  in  which  it  is 
told  that  the  King  is  not  to  ride  in  his  chariot, 
nor  to  don  finery,  nor  to  eat  cooked  meat,  nor  to 
bring  sacrifices  until  the  evening  of  the  7th,  14th, 
19th,  21st,  and  28th  day  of  the  month,  which  are 
designated  as  unfavorable  or  inauspicious  days. 
Thwe  regulations   are  prescribed  only   for  the 
King,  upon  whose  conduct  toward  the  gods  the 
general  disposition  of  the  gods,  and  hence  the 


welfare  of  the  country,  depended.  There  are 
traces  in  the  Pentateuchal  codes  that  the  'Sab- 
bath' was  once  regarded  as  an  inauspicious  day 
on  which  it  was  not  advisable  to  risk  the  dis- 
pleasure of  Yahweh,  or  even  safe  to  seek  His 
presence.  There  is  also  some  evidence  that  a 
*Sabbath'  observed  not  every  seventh  day,  but  on 
the  7th,  14th,  21st,  and  28th  day  after  the  new 
moon,  was  an  ancient  institution  which  the 
Hebrews  shared  with  the  Babylonians,  but  these 
considerations  only  point  to  an  ultimate  common 
origin  for  the  Hebrew  and  Babylonian  Sabbath. 
BiBLiOGBAPHT.  Consult  the  Hebrew  archaeol- 
ogies of  Nowack  and  Benzinger;  Wellhausen, 
Prolegomena  zur  Oeachichte  Israeli  (4th  ed.,  Ber- 
lin, 1896;  Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh,  1885)  ;  Monte- 
flore.  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews  (Hibbert 
Lectures,  London,  1893)  ;  Smend,  Altteatament- 
liche  Religionegeschichte  (Freiburg,  1893) ; 
Jastrow,  "Original  Character  of  the  Hebrew 
Sabbath,"  in  the  American  Journal  of  Theology 
(New  York,  1898) ;  Hessey,  Sunday,  Its  Origin, 
History,  and  Present  Obligation  (Bampton  Lec- 
tures for  1860;  new  ed.,  London,  1889) ;  Abra- 
hams, Jewish  lAfe  in  the  Middle  Ages  (ib.,  1896). 

SABBATHAI  ZEVI.  A  pseudo-Messiah  of 
the  Jews.    See  Jewish  Sects;  Messiah. 

SABBATICAL  YEAB.  An  institution  of  the 
Pentateuchal  codes,  according  to  which,  primari- 
ly, the  fields  were  to  lie  fallow  every  seven  years ; 
afterwards  the  provisions  were  extended  to  in- 
clude relief  from  various  obligations  incurred 
by  members  of  the  community.  The  Sabbatical 
year  is  referred  to  in  all  of  the  three  chief  codes 
(the  Book  of  the  Covenant,  the  Deuteronomic 
Code,  and  the  Priestly  Code;  see  Hexateuch). 
In  the  first  and  third,  special  stress  is  laid  upon 
the  provision  requiring  the  land  to  lie  fallow 
(Ex.  xxiii.  10-11;  Lev.  xxv.  3-7);  in  the  Deu- 
teronomic CJode  no  reference  to  such  an  ordi- 
nance occurs.  Again,  the  first  two  codes  agree 
in  providing  for  the  remission  of  slaves  after 
six  years'  service  (Ex.  xxi.  2-6;  Deut.  xv.  12-18)  ; 
the  Priestly  Code  provides  for  such  emancipation 
only  in  the  fiftieth  or  jubilee  year  (Lev.  xxv. 
39-55).  Lastly,  the  Priestly  Code  (Lev.  xxv.  8-10; 
12-16;  23-34)  is  unique  in  providing  under  cer- 
tain conditions  for  the  'release'  in  the  jubilee 
year  (i.e.  the  seventh  Sabbatical  year)  of  patri- 
monial estates  which  have  been  sold,  to  the  end 
that  such  estates  should  not  be  permanently 
alienated.  Deuteronomy  (xv.  1-3)  has  a  special 
ordinance  for  the  remission  or  suspension  of  debt 
every  seven  years. 

These  divergences  indicate  a  gradual  evolution 
of  the  institution,  beginning  with  the  custom, 
common  in  agricultural  communities,  of  letting 
the  land  lie  fallow  at  periodical  intervals.  The 
Book  of  the  Covenant  does  not  specify  that  the 
same  year  shall  be  observed  by  all  districts  and 
all  individuals.  So  impracticable  an  injunction 
is  found  only  in  the  'theoretical*  Priestly  Code. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  remission  of  Hebrew 
slaves  after  six  years  of  service  had  apparently 
become  a  dead  letter,  and  accordingly  the  term 
of  service  is  extended,  and  a  general  emancipa- 
tion appointed  every  fifty  years,  no  matter  how 
long  (or  short)  a  period  of  service  had  preceded. 
The  remission  of  debt  also  disappears  in  the 
Priestly  Code,  but  instead,  stipulations  are  in- 
serted for  the  reversion  of  property  to  the 
original  owners  in  the  jubilee  year.    Hence  it  is 


SABBATICAL  YEAB. 


278 


BABUr. 


very  probable  that  the  only  feature  of  the  Sab- 
batical year  which  was  carried  out  in  practice 
was  the  ordinance  requiring  that  the  land  should 
lie  fallow  every  seven  years.  Consult  the  archsB- 
ologies  of  Benzinger  and  Nowack.    See  Jubilee. 

SABEI/LIXTS.  A  celebrated  heretic  of  the 
third  century  who  taught  that  God  manifests 
Himself  in  three  successive  modes,  or  forms,  with- 
out, however,  recognizing  any  real  personal  dis- 
tinctions in  the  Godhead,  as  did  the  orthodox. 
(See  Trinity;  Nicene  Greed.)  Our  information 
respecting  the  events  of  Sabellius's  life  is  very 
scanty,  only  a  few  fragments  of  his  works  hav- 
ing survived  and  the  existing  accounts  being 
written  by  his  theological  -opponents.  He  was 
perhaps  born  in  the  Libyan  Pentapolis,  where 
his  peculiar  views  were  afterwards  widely 
current.  Early  in  the  third  century  he 
took  up  his  residence  in  Rome,  where  he 
adopted  Monarchian  views,  especially  those  of 
a  modalistic  type.  (See  Monarchians.)  Here 
he  was  excommunicated  by  Pope  Callistus  (or 
Calixtus).  Leaving  Rome,  Sabellius  went  to 
Ptolemais,  where  he  was  made  presbyter  and 
met  with  much  success  in  propagating  his 
views.  The  Sabellian  view  of  the  Trinity 
is  this:  The  One  Divine  Essence,  or  Sub- 
stance, unfolds  itself  in  creation  and  in  hu- 
man history  as  a  trinity.  God  operating  in 
the  works  of  nature  is  Father;  Gcd  operating 
in  Jesus  Christ,  to  redeem  men  from  sin,  is  Son ; 
and  God  operating  in  the  hearts  of  believers  is 
Holy  Spirit.  But  these  three  are  not  eternal 
divine  hypostases,  or  persons  (see  Hypostasis)  ; 
they  are  merely  so  many  successive  manifesta- 
tions of  the  one  God.  Besides  the  w^orks  of  Hippo- 
lytus,  Athanasius,  and  Epiphanius,  consult :  Fish- 
er, History  of  Christian  Doctrine  (New  York, 
1896) ;  Hamack,  History  of  Dogma,  vol.  iii. 
(Eng.  trans.,  London,  1897)  ;  Rainy,  The  An- 
cient Catholic  Church  (ib.,  1902)  ;  Cheetham, 
Church  History  of  the  First  8iw  Centuries  (ib., 
1894). 

SABIANS.     See  Sab^eans. 

SABIANS.  A  name  given  by  Mohammed  and 
early  Muslim  writers  to  a  people  classed  with 
those  possessing  a  written  revelation,  distinguish- 
ed from  idolaters  and  accorded  an  exceptional 
position,  probably  the  Mandsans  (q.v.).  From 
the  ninth  to  the  twelfth  century  it  was  falsely 
applied  to  themselves  by  the  pagans  of  Harran 
for  the  purpose  of  escaping  persecution;  and  in 
later  times  it  was  used  indiscriminately  of  both 
Mandseans  and  pagans  of  Harran,  or  explained 
as  apostates  from  the  true  faith,  or  worshipers 
of  the  host  of  heaven.  There  are  three  passages 
in  the  Koran  in  which  Mohammed  refers  to  the 
Sablans.  A  number  of  passages  from  Buchari, 
Ibn  Hisham,  and  Aghani  have  been  collected, 
which  show  that  Mohammed  himself  and  his  fol- 
lowers were  designated  as  'Sabians'  by  their 
pagan  contemporaries.  The  reason  for  this  desig- 
nation must  have  been  some  practice  or  belief 
that  to  the  popular  mind  identified  Mohammed 
and  his  followers  with  the  Sablans.  As  the  name 
Sabians  undoubtedly  is  derived  from  faba*-9aha\ 
*to  immerse,'  there  can  be  no  question  but  that  a 
sect  practicing  baptism  is  meant.  The  relations 
of  the  Elkesaites  (q.v.),  Hemerobaptists,  Mugh- 
tasila,  and  Mandaeans  have  not  yet  been  cleared 
up.  But  the  emphasis  put  upon  their  sacred 
books   renders   it   perhaps   probable   that  some 


branch  of  the  Mandieana  is  intended.  (See 
Mand^aks.)  It  was  the  institution  of  ablu- 
tions before  the  daily  prayers  that  seemed  mo 
peculiar  to  the  pagan  Arabs  and  led  them  to 
describe  the  Muslim  as  Sabians. 

According  to  the  testimony  of  a  Christian 
writer,  Abu  Yusuf  Absha'a  al-Qathi'i,  who  lived 
at  the  end  of  the  ninth  century,  some  of  the 
pagans  in  Harran  who  were  neither  willing  to 
become  Christians  nor  to  adopt  Islam  gained 
for  themselves  toleration  by  following  the  advice 
of  a  Muslim  lawyer  to  call  themselves  Sabians. 
This  was  in  the  year  830.  A  Sabian  cult-com- 
munity was  formed  in  Bagdad,  and  among  its 
members  were  men  of  great  learning  and  in- 
fluence. The  greatest  of  all  these  so-called 
Sabians  were  Thabit  ben  Qorrah  (died  901), 
who  wrote  150  works  in  Arabic  and  16  in 
Syriac,  and  Abu  Ishak  Ibrahim,  poet,  scien- 
tist, and  historian.  But  many  eminent  men  were 
among  their  descendants  to  whose  enthusi- 
astic study  of  Greek  antiquity  and  liberal  views 
on  theology  their  Mohammedan  contemporaries 
were  greatly  indebted.  Through  Shakrastani, 
Maimonides,  and  others  their  religious  and  philo- 
sophical views  became  known  to  European  schol- 
ars. At  first  these  accounts  caused  much  con- 
fusion. Hottinger  identified  the  Sabians  with 
the  Sabseans  (q.v.)  ;  Golius  regarded  them  as 
star-worshipers.  Although  based  on  wholly  im- 
possible etymologies,  these  explanations  were 
widely  accepted.  Spencer  understood  the  term 
to  designate  Oriental  idolaters  in  general.  Nor- 
berg  first  proposed  the  correct  etymology  and 
Michaelis  distinguished  between  two  kinds  of 
'Sabians,'  the  Mandseans  and  the  star-worshipers. 
Saint  Martin  was  the  first  to  call  attention  in 
1825  to  the  fact  that  the  Harranians  were  known 
as  Sabians  by  Arabic  writers.  It  is  the  merit 
of  Chwolson  to  have  presented  all  the  important 
literary  material  bearing  on  the  question  and 
to  have  drawn  the  conclusions  now  generally  ac- 
cepted as  to  the  use  of  the  term  in  Arabic 
literature,  thereby  putting  an  end  to  the  base- 
less speculations  about  'Sabism.'  Consult: 
Chwolson,  Die  Ssahier  und  der  Ssahismus  (Saint 
Petersburg,  1856)  ;  Wellhausen,  Reste  arabischen 
Hddentums  (2d  ed.,  Berlin,  1897). 

SA^IN,  Joseph  (1821-81).  An  American 
bibliographer,  born  at  Braunston,  Northampton- 
shire. After  serving  as  an  apprentice  to  Charles 
Richards,  an  Oxford  bookseller,  he  set  up  an 
independent  shop,  and  published  in  1844  The 
XXXIX  Articles  of  the  Church  of  England,  uHth 
Scriptural  Proofs  and  References.  In  1848  he  re- 
moved to  the  United  States,  where  he  conducted 
shops  for  the  sale  of  old  and  rare  books  and 
prints,  from  1850  to  1856  at  New  York,  from 
1856  to  1860  at  Philadelphia,  and  again  at  New 
York  from  1860.  He  prepared  auction  catalogues 
of  many  important  libraries,  including  that  of 
Edwin  Forrest  (1863)  ;.  undertook  in  1868  the 
publication  of  A  Dictionary  of  Books  Relating 
to  America,  from  Its  Discovery  to  the  Present 
Time,  continued  by  others  as  Bibliotheca  Ameri- 
cana (20  vols.,  1868-92) ;  and  prepared  A  Bihliog- 
raphy  of  Bibliography;  or,  A  Handy  Book  Ahcmt 
Books  Which  Relate  to  Books  (1877).  He  also 
published  two  series  of  reprints  concerning  Amer- 
ican history,  one  of  tracts  in  seven  volumes 
(1865),  and  one  of  more  extended  works  in  five 
volumes    (also  1865).     A  List  of  the  Printed 


fiAsnr. 


279 


&ABLS. 


Ediiiona  of  the  Works  of  Fray  Bartolomi  de  las 
Casas,  Bishop  of  Chiapa  (1870),  was  extracted 
from  the  Dictionary.  Sabin  was  the  editor  of 
The  American  Bihliopolist  (New  York,  1869-75). 

SALINE.  A  river  which  rises  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  Texas,  and  flows  southeast  to 
the  Louisiana  boundary,  then  southward,  form- 
ing the  boundary  between  Texas  and  Louisiana, 
until  it  empties  through  Sabine  Lake  and  Sa- 
bine Pass  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  (Map:  Texas, 
H  4).  It  is  about  500  miles  long,  but  naviga- 
ble only  for  a  short  distance,  and  for  small 
Tessels.  The  navigation  of  the  pass  has  been 
improved  by  dredging  and  jetty-building.  The 
Sabine  is  an  historic  stream  and  was  involved 
in  the  sharp  boundary  controversy  between  Spain 
and  the  United  States. 

8ABZHS.    A  shrub.    See  Savins. 

SABTNEy  sfil/In,  Major-General  Sib  Edwabd 
(1788-1883).  A  British  physicist  and  soldier. 
He  was  bom  in  Dublin,  and  after  receiving  a 
military  education  at  Marlow  and  Woolwich, 
served  in  the  Koyal  Artillery.  He  saw  active 
service  in  the  war  with  the  United  States  in 
1812,  being  captured  by  the  United  States  priva- 
teer Yorktown  and  participating  in  the  actions 
on  the  Niagara  frontier  in  1814.  He  accompanied 
Captain  IUms  (q.v.)  and  Lieutenant  Perry  (q.v.) 
in  their  expedition  (1818-20)  to  the  north  coast 
of  America  (see  ABcnc  Regions  and  Polab  He- 
SEAiCH),  making  a  series  of  observations  of 
great  value.  He  later  (1821-23)  undertook  a 
series  of  voyages,  visiting  many  places  between 
the  equator  and  the  north  pole,  and  making  at 
each  point  observations  on  the  length  of  the 
seconds  pendulum,  and  on  the  dip  and  intensity 
of  the  magnetic  needle,  the  results  of  these  ob- 
servations being  published,  along  with  other 
information,  in  1825.  His  many  experiments 
dealt  with  almost  every  phase  of  terrestrial 
magnetism  and  he  extended  magnetic  science  by 
causing  the  establishment  of  magnetic  observa- 
tories in  different  parts  of  the  world,  and  by  the 
collation  of  the  enormous  mass  of  facts  thus 
acquired.  In  1818  Sabine  was  elected  a  fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society;  in  1856  he  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  major-general;  and  in  1869  he  was 
created  a  Knight  (>)mmander  of  the  Bath.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  work  On  the  Cosmical  Fea- 
tures of  Terrestrial  Magnetism  (1862),  and  con- 
tributed many  papers  to  the  PhilosoplUoal  Trans- 
actions of  the  Royal  Society,  the  Philosophical 
Magazine,  and  other  scientific  journals. 

SABINEy  sa^In,  Lobenzo  (1803-77).  An 
American  author  and  politician,  bom  in  New 
Lisbon,  N.  H.  After  a  meagre  education,  he  be- 
came a  merchant  and  bank  officer,  and  for  some 
time  was  secretary  of  the  Boston  Board  of  Trade. 
He  also  served  three  terms  in  the  Maine  Legis- 
lature. In  1852  he  became  secret  agent  of  the 
United  States  Treasury  Department,  and  served 
nine  weeks  in  Congress.  His  best  known  publica- 
tions are  a  Life  of  Commodore  Preble  (1847),  in 
"Sparks's  American  Biography;'*  The  American 
Loyalists  (1847)  ;  Notes  on  Duels  and  Dueling 
(1855) ;  and  an  address  on  the  Hundredth  Anni- 
venary  of  the  Death  of  Major-Oeneral  Wolfe 
(1859). 

SABliljgS  (Lat.  Sahinl).  An  ancient  people 
of  Ontral  Italy,  of  Umbro-Sabellian  stock, 
whose  territory  lay  to  the  northeast  of  Rome. 


Their  land  appears  to  have  extended  from 
the  sources  of  the  Nar,  on  the  borders  of 
Picenum,  as  far  south  as  the  Anio.  The 
nations  conterminous  to  the  Sabines  were  the 
Umbrians  on  the  north,  the  Umbrians  and 
Etruscans  on  the  west,  the  Latins  and  ^Equi  on 
the  south,  and  the  Marsi  and  Picentini  on  the 
east.  The  entire  length  of  the  Sabine  territory 
did  not  exceed  85  miles,  reckoning  from  the  lofty 
and  rugged  group  of  the  Apennines,  anciently 
known  as  the  Mons  Fiscellus  (now  Monte  della 
Sihilla),  to  Fidense  on  the  Tiber,  which  is  not 
more  than  five  miles  from  Rome.  None  of  their 
towns  were  of  any  size  or  political  importance. 
The  inhabitants  had  no  inducements  to  congre- 
gate in  large  towns.  Their  country  was  an  in- 
land region;  much  of  it,  especially  in  the  north, 
very  mountainous  and  bleak,  though  the  valleys 
were  (and  are)  often  richly  productive.  The 
Sabines  were  a  brave,  stern,  religious  race, 
whose  virtues  were  all  of  an  austere  and  homely 
character.  Their  part  in  the  formation  of  Rome 
is  mentioned  under  Romulus.  The  whole  terri- 
tory of  Sabinum  fell  under  Roman  sway  after 
the  victory  of  M.  Curius  Dentatus  in  B.C.  290, 
and  in  B.C.  268  its  inhabitants  received  the  full 
Roman  franchise,  while  about  B.C.  240  they  were 
enrolled  in  the  newly  formed  tribus  Quirina,  No 
literature  or  inscriptions  remain  in  the  Sabine 
dialect,  which  has  to  be  studied  from  the  few 
words  quoted  by  the  ancients  as  Sabine  (all  with 
Latin  terminations)  and  from  place  and  per- 
sonal names.  It  was  early  driven  out  by  the 
dialect  of  the  Latin  conquerors. 

SABIN^LANS.  A  school  or  sect  of  Roman 
jurists  during  the  first  and  second  centuries  of 
the  Christian  Era.  Its  origin  was  ascribed  to 
Capito,  head  of  one  of  the  law  schools  at  Rome 
in  the  time  of  Augustus,  as  the  origin  of  the  rival 
Proculian  sect  was  ascribed  to  Labeo,  a  distin- 
guished contemporary  teacher  and  writer.  Each 
school,  however,  took  its  name  from  a  pupil  and 
successor  of  its  founder:  the  Sabinian  school 
from  Masurius  Sabinus,  second  head  of  the 
school  and  author  of  a  standard  commentary  on 
the  civil  law.  His  successor  was  Cassius  Lon- 
ginus,  who  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Nero  and 
enjoyed  so  high  a  reputation  that  the  later  ad- 
herents of  the  sect  sometimes  termed  themselves 
Cassians.  Other  distinguished  members  of  the 
school  were  Salvius  Julianus,  Pomponius,  Afri- 
canus,  and  Gaius.  Gains  was  the  last  jurist  who 
regarded  himself  as  an  adherent  of  either  of  the 
two  schools,  and  in  not  a  few  cases  he  accepts,  in 
his  Institutes,  the  doctrines  of  the  Proculians.  See 
Civil  Law  ;  Peoculians  ;  and  for  literature,  con- 
sult Muirhead,  Historical  Introduction  to  the 
Private  Law  of  Rome  (2d  ed.,  Edinburgh,  1899). 

SABLE  (OF.,  Fr.  sable,  black,  from  Russ. 
soboli,  Lith.  sabalas,  sable,  perhaps  from  Turk. 
samUr^  from  Ar.  sammUr,  martin).  A  fur-bear- 
ing animal,  noted  for  yielding  the  most  valuable 
pelt  of  any  of  the  MustelidaB,  of  which  two 
species  exist,  one  in  Northern  Russia  and  Siberia 
(Mustela  zibellina),  and  one  in  Canada  {Mus- 
tela  Americana)  ;  but  the  latter  is  usually  known 
as  the  pine-marten.  The  Siberian  sable,  ex- 
clusive of  the  tail,  is  about  18  inches  long.  The 
fur  is  dark  brown  (not  black),  grayish -yellow 
on  the  throat,  and  small  grayish-yellow  spots  are 
scattered  on  the  sides  of  the  neck.  The  whole 
fur  is  extremely  lustrous,  and  hence  of  the  very 


SABLE. 


280 


8ACGHABIN. 


highest  value,  an  ordinary  sable  skin  being  worth 
$30  or  $35,  and  one  of  the  finest  quality  $200. 
The  fur  attains  its  highest  perfection  in  early 
winter,  and  the  pursuit  of  the  sable  at  that 
season  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  and  adventur- 
ous of  enterprises.  It  is  taken  by  traps,  which 
are  of  a  kind  to  avoid  injury  to  the  fur,  and  it 
is  not  easily  captured.  Its  general  habits  are 
those  of  the  marten  (q.v.).  See  Plate  of  FuB- 
Beabing  Animals. 

SABLE.  The  name  for  black  in  heraldry 
(q.v.). 

SABLE,  Cape.    See  Cape  Sable. 

SABLE  ANTELOPE.  A  large  antelope  of 
South  Africa  (Hippotragua  niger) ,  remarkable 
for  its  glossy  black  coat,  sharply  set  off  by  the 
white  of  the  under  parts,  buttocks,  and  parts  of 
the  face.  It  carries  its  head  high,  its  neck  is 
adorned  with  a  heavy  mane,  and  it  has  long,  curv- 
ing, and  heavily  ringed  horns,  which  it  uses  with 
terrible  efi'ect  when  attacked  by  packs  of  the  Cape 
hunting-dogs  or  by  hunters'  hounds.  It  has  been 
known  to  impale  and  kill  leopards  and  even 
lions.  It  formerly  ranged  over  all  the  high 
plains  in  small  herds  which  had  great  speed  and 
endurance,  and  its  beauty  and  the  sport  it 
afforded  have  been  enthusiastically  commented 
upon  by  every  South  African  hunter,  but  it  is 
now  scarce.  Consult  The  Book  of  the  Antelopes 
(London,  1894-1900).    See  Plate  of  Antelopes. 

SABLE  ISLAND.  A  low-lying  crescent- 
shaped  island  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  situated  in 
latitude  44**  north  and  longitude  60**  west,  104 
miles  southeast  of  Cape  Canso  (Map:  Nova  Sco- 
tia, D  6) .  Formed  of  sandhills  thrown  up  by  the 
sea,  it  is  about  25  miles  long  by  1V4  miles  wide. 
The  sandhills  surround  a  shallow  lagoon  11  miles 
long,  and  nowhere  exceed  80  feet  in  height.  The 
island  lies  in  the  track  of  navigation  between 
America  and  Great  Britain;  since  1873  it  has 
had  three  lighthouses  built  upon  it  by  the  Ca- 
nadian Government,  two  of  which  have  been 
swept  away  by  the  sea,  which  frequently  levels 
the  outlying  hills.  From  1583  to  1899,  170  ves- 
sels were  lost  on  its  treacherous  shoals.  A  life- 
saving  establishment  of  30  persons  is  now  sta- 
tioned here.  In  1901  the  Canadian  Government 
completed  arrangements  for  checking  the  shift- 
ing of  the  sands  and  making  tlie  island  a  more 
prominent  feature  on  the  ocean  by  the  planting 
of  68,000  spruces,  pines,  and  junipers,  and  13,000 
hardy,  deciduous  trees.  Covered  with  wild 
grasses  and  cranberry  bushes,  which  formerly 
supported  a  breed  of  wild  horses,  known  as  Sable 
Island  ponies,  the  island  is  interesting  to  the 
naturalist  as  the  only  known  nesting  place  of 
the  Ipswich  sparrow. 

SABLES  D'OLONME,  si'bl'  dd'l6n',  Les.  The 
capital  of  an  arrondissement  and  a  seaport  in 
the  Department  of  Vendue,  France,  23  miles  south 
of  La  Roche-sur-Yon  by  rail  (Map:  France,  E  6). 
Oyster  and  sardine  fishing  and  canning  and  ship- 
building are  carried  on.  There  is  a  lighthouse, 
visible  for  14  miles.  The  fine,  sandy  beach,  en- 
circled by  a  wide  promenade,  carriage  road,  and 
elegant  villas,  attracts  numerous  summer  visit- 
ors.    Population,  in  1901,  12,244. 

SABOTS,  s&'by  (Fr.,  wooden  shoe).  A  species 
of  wooden  shoes  much  used  by  the  French  and  Bel- 
gian peasantry,  especially  by  those  who  inhabit 
moist  and  marshy  districts,  as  an  effectual  pro- 


tection of  the  feet  from  external  moisture.  The 
fabrication  of  sabots  forms  an  important  branch 
of  French  industry,  and  is  chiefly  carried  on  in 
the  departments  of  Aisne,  Aube,  Maine-et-Loire, 
and  Vosges.  After  being  made  they  are  subject- 
ed to  the  smoke  of  burning  wood  till  they  acquire 
the  reddish  color  so  much  prized  in  certain  coun- 
tries.   See  Shoes  and  Shoe  Maitufactube. 

SABBE.     See  Swobd. 

SABBE-TOOTHED  TIGEB.  The  Machcero- 
dontidse,  or  sabre-toothed  cats,  comprise  a  group 
of  fossil  cat-like  mammals,  characterized  chiefly 
by  enlargement  of  the  upper  canine  teeth.  By 
some  writers  they  are  regarded  as  constituting  a 
distinct  family,  while  others  rank  the  group  as  a 
subfamily  of  the  Felidie.  The  term  'sahre- 
toothed  tiger'  designates  particularly  Smilodon 
(or  Machcerodua)  neogceus,  a  fossil  cat  from  the 
Pleistocene  deposits  of  South  America,  of  which 
complete  skeletons  have  been  found  exceeding  the 
lion  in  size.  It  is  chiefly  remarkable  by  reason 
of  the  enormous  development  of  the  upper  ca- 
nines, which  are  seven  inches  long  and  flattened, 
with  finely  serrated  cutting  edges.  In  compensa- 
tion for  the  enlargement  of  these  teeth,  the  lower 
canines  are  so  reduced  as  to  resemble  the  incisors. 
The  brain  is  proportionally  smaller  than  in  the 
modem  large  cats.  In  England  the  sabre-toothed 
tigers  are  known  to  have  been  contemporaneous 
with  cave  man.  The  group  attained  its  highest 
specialization  and  finally  became  extinct  in  the 
Pleistocene  period.  A  nearly  allied  form  (Nim- 
ravus)  occurs  in  the  Middle  Miocene  of  Oregon. 

SABBI^A.  Daughter  of  Locrine,  the  son  of 
King  Brute  of  ancient  Britain,  and  Estrildis, 
thrown  into  the  river  Severn  by  Queen  Guendolen, 
and  metamorphosed  by  Nereus  into  the  goddess 
of  the  river.  She  is  described  as  a  nymph  in 
Drayton's  Polyolhion,  in  Milton's  Comua,  and  in 
Fletcher's  Faithful  Shepherdess, 

SAC  AND  FOX  INDIANS.  A  confederacy 
of  the  two  North  American  Indian  tribes  of  Sacs 
or  Sauks  and  Foxes  or  Muskwaki.  The  tribes 
combined  about  1760  as  a  result  of  the  attacks  of 
the  Ojibwa  (q.v.)  and  of  the  French.  The  united 
population  in  1903  was  about  930.  See  Fox  or 
Muskwaki  ;  Sauk. 

SACCABDOy  s&k-k&r^d^,  Pietbo  Andbea 
( 1845— ) .  An  Italian  botanist,  born  at  Treviso, 
and  educated  at  the  Liceo  of  Venice  and  in  the 
University  of  Padua,  where  he  became  professor 
of  botany  in  1879  after  ten  years  as  teacher  of 
natural  history  in  the  school  of  technology  of  the 
same  city.  Save  for  his  8ommario  d*un  corso  di 
hotanica  (3d  ed.  1880),  his  work  is  almost  en- 
tirely on  mycology.  Following  such  special  treat- 
ises as  Musci  Tarvisini  (1872)  and  Fungi  Italici 
(1877-86,  with  1500  colored  plates),  came  his 
great  universal  work,  Byllge  Fungorum,  in  ten 
volumes,  which  began  to  appear  in  1882. 

SACGHABIN,  sftk'ki-rfn  (from  ML.  saccha- 
rum,  Lat.  saccharon,  from  Gk.  <r4icxopoi',  sakcha- 
ron,  sugar,  from  Pers.  sakar,  from  Prakrit  sakkara, 
sugar,  Skt.  sdrkarA,  candied  sugar,  grit),  ortho- 

/C0\ 
benzo-sulphimide,  C.H4  NH.     An   intensely 

\S0,/ 
sweet  substance  discovered  by  Remsen  and  Fahl- 
ber^  in  1879.     Its  sweet  properties  were  not  rec- 
ognized until   some  time   after.    The  substance 
was  patented  in  the  United  States  and  in  Euro- 


8ACCHABIK. 


281 


8ACHALINE. 


pean  countries,  and  is  now  manufactured  on  a 
large  scale  in  Germany.  The  process  is  as  fol- 
lows: Toluol,  CeHftCHs,  a  hydrocarbon  ob- 
tained from  coal-tar,  is  carefully  treated  with 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid;  the  result  is  a  mix- 
ture of  ortho-  and  para-toluol-sulphonic  acids. 
These  are  acted  on  by  phosphorus  pentachloride, 
which  converts  them  into  the  corresponding  ortho- 
and  para-toluol  sulphochlorides.  The  ortho- 
eompound  is  liquid,  and  is  easily  separated  by 
pressure  from  the  solid  para-derivative,  which 
is   discarded.     The   ortho-toluol   sulphochloride, 

/CH, 
whose  formula  is     C^Ha  is  now  treated 

\SO,CI 
with  ammonia,  which  produces  the  ortho-toluol 

/CH, 
sulphamide,  CLH^  .  This  is  then  oxidized 

\SO,NH, 
by  potassium  permanganate,  and  thus  converted 

/C0\ 
into  ortho-benzo-sulphimide,   C-H^  NH,the 

\so,/ 

final  product,  which  is  precipitated  from  the  so- 
lution on  adding  an  acid.  It  forms  a  white  pow- 
der, only  slightly  soluble  in  water,  but  readily 
soluble  in  alkaline  liquids.  Recent  experiments 
show  that  the  pure  substance  possesses  about  500 
times  the  sweetening  power  of  cane-sugar.  The 
commercial  product,  however,  often  contains  as 
much  as  50  per  cent,  of  impurities,  and  its  sweet- 
ening power  is  only  about  300  times  as  great  as 
that  of  cane-sugar.  Saccharin  is  usually  sold  in 
tablets  of  one  grain  each,  mixed  with  a  little  bi- 
carbonate of  soda,  to  increase  solubility.  These 
may  be  dissolved  in  water,  in  milk,  or  in  coffee. 
Saosharin  is  now  largely  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  cordials  and  mineral  waters,  in  baking, 
preserving  fruit,  etc. 

SACCHABOMTCETES,  8&k'k&-r6-mt-s^tSz 
(Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  ML.  saccharum,  sugar 
•f  Gk.  M^Ktit,  mykis,  mushroom).     One  of  six 


A,  reproduction  by  budding ;  b,  formation  of  spores ;  e, 
nndear  diTision  in  bndding. 

great  groups  of  fungi  (q.v.),  and  containing  the 
yeasts.  (See  Fermentation.)  Yeasts  are  one- 
celled  plants  with  a  peculiar  method  of  growth 


termed  budding,  in  which  the  cell  puts  out  one 
or  more  processes  which  finally  become  pinched 
off  from  the  mother  cell.  The  buds  may  remain 
attached  for  a  long  time,  so  that  they  form  an 
irregular  group  of  cells  clinging  together.  Many 
yeasts  form  spores,  the  protoplasm  separating  in- 
to two  or  four  masses  that  become  walled  and 
lie  inside  the  mother  cell.  Saccharomyces  cere- 
visise,  the  beer  yeast,  has  been  cultivated  for  cen- 
turies and  is  not  known  in  the  wild  state.  The 
origin  of  such  yeasts  is  not  certain,  but  all  evi- 
dence points  to  their  derivation  from  some  of  the 
higher  fungi.  The  conidia  of  many  ascomycetes 
and  basidiomycetes,  and  especially  the  smuts, 
will  bud  extensively  in  culture  solutions  and  in- 
duce fermentation.  None  of  the  cultivated  yeasts 
are  known  to  have  come  from  these  wild  yeast 
stages,  which  are  generally  mere  passing  phases 
of  much  more  complicated  life  histories.  The 
yeast  of  wine  fermentation  is  said  to  originate 
from  spores  of  the  filamentous  mildew-like  fimgus 
(Dematium)  that  grows  on  the  surface  of 
grapes.  It  is  well  understood  that  the  cultivated 
yeasts  constitute  fixed  species  that  have  not 
been  made  to  develop  into  other  fimgi.  The 
identification  of  yeasts  is  a  matter  of  prac- 
tical importance  to  those  who  use  the  organisms 
in  brewing,  because  certain  wild  yeasts  seri- 
ously injure  or  spoil  the  work  of  the  beer  yeast. 
The  species  are  distinguished  chiefly  by  physio- 
logical characters,  among  which  are  the  maxi- 
mum and  minimum  temperatures  of  growth,  and 
the  optimum  temperature  for  spore  formation. 
Some  beers  and  ales  owe  their  peculiarities  not 
alone  to  the  character  of  the  wort,  but  to  the 
specific  nature  of  the  yeasts  employed. 

SACCHETTI,  s&k-kSt't«,  Fbancx)  (c.1330- 
C.1309).  An  Italian  novelist  and  poet,  bom  in 
Florence.  His  most  important  work  is  a  col- 
lection of  several  hundred  Novelle,  simple, 
straightforward  descriptions  of  real  events  in 
many  instances,  and  admirable  pictures  of  the 
society  of  his  time.  They  were  written  about 
1392-95,  and  were  first  published  in  1724.  The 
best  edition  is  that  of  Gigli  (Florence,  1860). 
Ten  of  the  tales  are  translated  in  Roscoe's  Italian 
Novelists  (1825).  His  ballads  are  of  great  fresh- 
ness and  charm.  There  is  a  good  edition  of  them 
by  Franchi  and  Majonchi  (Lucca,  1853),  and 
some  of  the  best  are  included  in  Carducci's  8iudi 
letter arii, 

SACCHINI,  s&k-ke'n^,  Antonio  Mabia  Gas- 
PABO  (1734-86).  An  Italian  operatic  composer 
of  the  Neapolitan  school.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
fisherman,  bom  in  the  environs  of  Naples,  and 
owed  his  musical  education  to  Durante.  His 
first  marked  success  was  the  opera  Semira- 
mide,  produced  at  Rome  in  1762.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  success  in  Venice  of  Alessandro 
nelV  Indie  (1768),  he  became  director  of  the 
Conservatory  del  Ospedaletto  in  that  city.  In 
1771  he  went  to  London,  where  he  spent  the  next 
ten  years,  scoring  several  successes.  He  then 
went  to  Paris,  where  he  wrote  two  new  works, 
Dardanus  (1784),  and  his  most  famous  produc- 
tion, (Edipe  d  Colone  (1786).  He  also  wrote  a 
large  number  of  sacred  compositions  and  some 
chamber  music. 

SACHALINE,  or  Giant  Knotweed  {Polygo- 
num sachalinense) .  A  hardy  perennial  herb  6  to 
12  feet  high  with  strong,  extensively  spreading 
rootstocks,  broad,  nearly  heart-shaped  leaves  oft- 


SACHAUNE. 


^82 


fiACH& 


en  a  foot  in  length,  and  small  greenish  flowers, 
which  appear  late  in  autumn.  The  plant  is  a 
native  of  Eastern  Siberia,  from  whence  it  was 
brought  to  Europe  and  grown  in  many  botanic 
gardens.  It  came  prominently  into  notice  about 
1803  when  the  drought  in  Western  Europe  caused 
a  decided  shortage  in  forage  fo:  cattle.  This 
p]ant  was  little  affected,  and  since  its  tender 
shoots  and  leaves  were  eaten  by  stock,  the  plant 
was  widely  grown  experimentally  as  a  forage 
crop.  It  has  proved  less  useful  than  was  pre- 
dicted, and  its  cultivation  in  the  United  States 
has  been  almost  entirely  abandoned.  False  sach- 
aline  (Polygonum  cuspidatum)  has  smaller  and 
more  pointed  leaves. 

SAGHATT,  aa'oou,  Eduabd  ( 1845—) .  A  Ger- 
man Orientalist,  born  in  Neumttnster,  and  edu- 
cated at  Kiel  and  Leipzig.  In  1869  he  became 
professor  of  Semitic  languages  in  Vienna,  and  in 
1876  went  to  the  University  of  Berlin,  where, 
in  1887,  he  took  charge  of  the  new  Oriental 
Seminar.  Sachau  traveled  much  in  the  East, 
and  published,  among  many  other  volumes, 
an  English  translation  of  Alberuni's  Chro- 
nology of  Ancient  Nations  (1879;  Arabic  text, 
1876-78)  and  of  the  same  writer's  India  (1888; 
Arabic  text,  1887) ;  Reise  in  Syrien  und  Meso- 
potaanien  (1883);  Amhische  Volkalieder  aus 
Mesopotamien  (1889);  Ueher  die  Poesie  in  der 
Volksaprache  der  Nestorianer  (1896)  ;  Mohamme- 
danisches  Recht  (1897)  ;  Am  Euphrat  und  Tigris 
(1900)  ;  and  several  valuable  catalogues  of  Per- 
sian, Syriac,  and  Arabic  manuscripts. 

SAGHEB-MASOGH,  sJl^oSr  m&^zdo,  Leopold 
VON  (1835-95).  An  Austrian  novelist.  He  stud- 
ied at  Gratz  and  Prague,  taught  history  at  Gratz, 
and  published  (1857)  Der  Auf stand  in  Qent  un- 
ter  Karl  V,  His  first  novel,  Eine  galizische  Oe- 
schichte,  appeared  in  1866.  His  fiction,  devoted 
in  part  to  Galician  life,  is  unsavory,  sensational, 
but  of  rich  imagination.  Best  known  of  his  many 
novels  is  Das  Verm^ichtnis  Kains  (1870). 

SAGHEVEBELIi,  8&-shev^Sr-$l,  Henbt 
(c.1674-1724).  An  English  high  churchman.  He 
was  bom  at  Marlborough  and  was  educated  at 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford.  In  1705  he  became 
preacher  of  Saint  Saviour's,  South wark.  His 
prominence  is  due  to  two  sermons  preached  in 
1709,  one  at  Derby,  the  other  at  Saint  Paul's,  in 
which  he  attacked  the  principles  of  the  Act  of 
Settlement,  asserted  the  doctrine  of  non-resist- 
ance, and  decried  the  Act  of  Toleration.  The 
House  of  Commons  impeached  him  for  these  ut- 
terances, and  the  Lords  found  him  guilty.  But 
popular  opinion  rose  so  strong  in  the  preacher's 
favor  that  the  authorities  dared  go  no  further 
than  to  suspend  him  from  preaching  for  three 
years  and  to  order  the  obnoxious  sermons  to  be 
publicly  burned.  Sacheverell  became,  for  the 
time,  the  most  popular  man  in  the  kingdom.  At 
the  general  election,  which  came  on  almost  im- 
mediately, his  prosecution  was  the  decisive  issue, 
and  brought  about  the  defeat  of  the  Whigs,  who 
had  been  the  political  party  in  power.  When,  in 
1713,  his  suspension  expired,  he  was  appointed 
by  the  new  Tory  House  of  Commons  to  preach 
before  them  the  sermon  on  the  anniversary  of  the 
Restoration,  and  was  specially  thanked  on  the 
occasion.  Consult:  Howell,  State  TrHals,  vol. 
xvi.  (London,  1809-26)  ;  Stanhope,  History  of 
Queen  Anne's  Reign  (ib.,  1872). 


8ACHEVEBELL,  Williaic  (1638-91).  An 
English  politician.  He  first  appeared  in  Parlia- 
ment in  1670,  and  at  once  joined  the  opposition, 
where  he  came  into  prominence  almost  immedi- 
ately. In  1673  he  began  the  movement  which 
brought  about  the  downfall  of  the  Cabal  (q.v.) 
and  the  passage  of  the  Test  Act  (q.v.).  His 
hostility  to  the  Court  policy,  however,  continued 
unabated.  Especially  did  he  advocate  a  return 
to  the  Triple  Alliance  of  1668  between  England, 
Spain,  and  Holland.  Sacheverell  was  the  first 
man  who  openly  suggested  the  exclusion  of  the 
Duke  of  York  from  the  succession.  He  made  the 
proposal  in  1678  and  continued  to  advocate  it 
even  against  the  wishes  of  the  party  leaders.  A 
year  later  he  succeeded  in  getting  a  bill  to  this 
efi'ect  before  the  House,  but  Parliament  was  pro- 
rogued and  dissolved  before  it  could  be  read  a 
third  time.  In  the  new  Parliament  he  was  one 
of  the  managers  of  Lord  Stafford's  trial.  On  the 
accession  of  James  II.  he  was  forced  into  retire- 
ment, but  with  the  Revolution  he  again  came 
into  prominence,  serving  on  the  committee  which 
drew  up  the  Declaration  of  Right.  He  also  was 
amoi^  the  most  active  of  those  who  tried  to  dis- 
franchise the  Tories  implicated  in  the  obnoxious 
measures  of  James. 

SACHS,  s&ks,  Bebnabd  ( 1858— ) .  An  Ameri- 
can neurologist,  bom  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  and  edu- 
cated at  Harvard  and  in  the  University  of  Strass- 
burg.  After  research  in  Vienna  and  Berlin,  he 
began  to  practice  medicine  in  New  York  City  in 
1883  as  a  specialist  in  nervous  diseases.  Dr.  Sachs 
first  described  the  disease  known  as  amaurotic 
family  idiocy.  He  contributed  to  Heating's  Dis- 
eases of  Children  (1890),  to  Hare's  Therapeu- 
tics (1892),  and  to  Hamilton's  Medical  Juris- 
prudence (1894),  as  well  as  to  German,  British, 
and  American  neurological  journals;  and  wrote 
Nervous  Diseases  of  Children  (1896;  German 
version,  1897). 

SACHS,  zaks,  Hans  (1494-1576).  A  German 
poet  and  dramatist,  the  best  and  also  the  most 
prolific  of  the  Meistersingers  (q.v.).  He  was  bom 
in  Nuremberg,  the  son  of  a  shoemaker,  to  whose 
trade  he  was  trained,  having  first  enjoyed  a  classi- 
cal education  at  the  town  Latin  school.  After  his 
apprenticeship  he  entered  on  the  usual  years  of 
journeyman  wandering  in  1511  and  passed  five 
years  practicing  shoemaking  in  many  places  of 
South  and  North  Germany,  among  them  Passau, 
Munich,  Salzburg,  Regensburg,  Leipzig,  Os- 
nabrUck,  and  Ltibeck.  Returning  to  Nuremberg 
in  1516,  he  married  in  1519  and  again  in  1561; 
he  was  diligent  alike  at  his  trade  and  his  liter- 
ary avocation,  gained  high  esteem  among  his 
townsmen  both  as  burgher  and  poet,  took  earnest 
but  eirenic  interest  in  the  Reformation  movement, 
and  died  in  1576.  Though  early  trained  in  the 
rules  of  the  Meistergesang,  he  soon  emancipated 
himself  from  their  excessive  pedantry.  His  ver- 
sification was  always  mechanical  and  his  purpose 
prevailingly  didactic,  but  his  humor  was  exuber- 
ant, his  imagination  fertile,  and  his  fancy  tire- 
less. He  wrote  hymns,  some  of  which  did  great 
service  to  the  Reformation  in  its  first  decades, 
fables,  allegories,  merry  tales  (Schwanke) ,  dia- 
logues, comedies,  and  Shrove-tide  plays  {F<ist' 
nachtspiele) ;  in  all  some  6300  pieces.  In  an 
often-quoted  and  characteristic  passage  in  a  pre- 
face of  1560,  he  describes  his  poetry  as  "an  open 
public  pleasure  garden  by  the  wayside  for  the 


a^cHa 


d8d 


SAtiKvnxfi. 


common  man,  in  which  you  may  find  not  only 
some  trees  bearing  sweet  fruit  for  the  food  of  the 
healthy,  but  roots  and  herbs  sharp  and  bitter,  for 
medicine  to  purge  sick  minds  and  expel  the  pec- 
cant humors  of  vice.  There  you  may  find,  too, 
fragrant  violets,  roses,  and  lilies  from  which  to 
distill  and  prepare  precious  waters,  oils,  and  es- 
sences that  may  strengthen  and  restore  feeble, 
troubled,  and  weak  minds ;  and  finally,  weeds  and 
field  fiowers,  clovers,  thistles,  and  cornflowers,  to 
make  the  gloomy  and  melancholy  gay  and  light- 
hearted  by  their  bright  and  beautiful  colors." 
Sachs's  work  continued  popular  till  the  days  of 
Opitz;  then  his  fame  sufifered  almost  total  eclipse 
till  it  was  revived  by  Goethe,  especially  through 
his  H€M»  Sachsens  Poetische  Sendung  (1776). 
The  best  edition  is  in  23  vols,  by  A.  von  Keller 
and  C.  Goetze  in  the  BihUoihek  des  Stuitgarter 
Litierarischen  Verema  (Stuttgart,  1886-96).  The 
best  selection  is  by  Godeke  and  Tittmann  in 
DeuUehe  Diehter  dea  16im  Jahrhunderts  (2d 
ed.,  Leipzig,  1883-85).  Consult  also  Schweitzer, 
Etude  8ur  la  vie  ei  les  CBuvrea  de  Hana  Saeha 
(Nancy,  1889);  Dr«scher,  Siudien  stu  Hans 
Saeha  (Berlin,  1890;  Marburg,  1891);  Gen^, 
Hana  Sachs  und  seine  Zeii  (2d ed.,  Leipzig,  1902) ; 
(3oetze,  Hana  Sachs  (Nuremberg,  1894) ;  Suphan, 
Hana  Sachs  in  Weitnar  (Weimar,  1894),  and 
Hana  Saeha:  Humanitdtzeit  und  Oegenwart  (Wei- 
mar, 1895) ;  Hana  Sacha-Forachungen  (ed.  by 
Stiefel,  Nuremberg,  1894). 

SACHS,  Jtjijus  von  (183297).  A  German 
botanist,  founder  of  the  modem  science  of  ex- 
perimental yegetable  physiology.  He  was  bom 
in  Breslau.  After  a  year  in  Freiburg  he  became 
professor  at  the  University  of  Wlirzburg  in  1868, 
and  built  up  there  a  great  physiological  labora- 
tory. Of  especial  importance  were  his  researches 
on  the  influence  of  light,  natural  and  colored,  on 
plant  assimilation,  and  on  heliotropic  curves.  In 
the  matter  of  assimilation  of  starch  and  its  test 
by  iodine  applications,  and  of  culture  in  nutrient 
solutions,  his  work  was  that  of  a  pioneer,  and 
the  same  may  be  said  of  his  law  of  the  'three 
cardinal  points'  in  the  relation  of  germination  to 
temperature  and  of  his  work  on  tropism. 
He  wrote:  Handhuch  der  Evperimenialphyai' 
ologie  der  Pflanzen  (1865) ;  a  Lehrbuch  der  Bo- 
ianik  (1866);  Yorleaungen  uher  Pftaneenphyai' 
ologie  (1882);  Oeachichte  der  Botanik  (1875; 
English  translation,  1890)  ;  and  Oeaammelie  Ah- 
handlungen  Uher  PfUinzenphyaiologie  (1892-93). 

SAGHSEHSFIEGEL,  zflk^sen-shpe'gel  <Ger., 
Mirror  of  Saxony) .  The  best  German  law  treatise 
of  the  Middle  Ages.  It  was  a  private  compila- 
tion of  the  customary  law  of  Saxony,  made  by 
Eike  von  Repgow,  c.1230.  Although  not  authori- 
tative, it  had  much  influence  and  was  the  source 
of  other  treatises  on  law.  The  best  edition  is  by 
Homeyer  (3  vols.,  Berlin,  1835-44).  Consult 
Stobbe,  Oeachichte  der  deutachen  Bechtaquellenf 
vol.  L  (Brunswick,  1864). 

SACK  (Fr.  aeo,  from  Lat.  aiccua,  dry) .  A  namh 
given  in  England  in  the  seventeenth  century  to 
the  strong  white  wines  from  the  south  of  Europe. 
Originally  the  term  applied  to  dry  light-colored 
wines,  and  to  the  punch  made  by  sweetening  and 
flavoring  them. 

SACX'ETTS  HABBOB.    A  village  in  Jeffer- 
son (bounty,  N.  Y.,  11  miles  west  of  Watertown; 
on  Black  River  Bay,  Lake  Ontario,  and  on  the 
Tou  XV.-19. 


Rome,  Watertown  and  Ogdensburg  branch  of  the 
New  York  Central  and  Hudson  River  Railroad 
(Map:  New  York,  D  2).  Madison  Barracks 
(q.v.),  a  United  States  military  post;  Fort 
Tompkins  Park,  the  scene  of  a  battle  in  the  War 
of  1812;  and  a  United  States  naval  station,  are 
noteworthy  features.  Sacketts  Harbor  has  a 
harbor  well  suited  for  commerce,  and  excellent 
water  power  for  industrial  establishments.  Pop- 
ulation,  in  1890,  787;  iU  1900,  1266. 

Founded  by  Augustus  Sackett  in  1801,  Sack- 
etts Harbor  had  a  score  of  houses  by  1812,  and 
was  the  centre  of  a  considerable  trade  with  Can- 
ada. During  the  War  of  1812  the  frigates  Supe- 
rior and  Madiaon  were  built  here  in  80  days  and 
45  days  respectively.  On  May  29,  1813,  the  place 
was  unsuccessfully  attacked  by  a  British  force 
under  Prevost.  The  English  lost  259  in  killed, 
wounded,  or  missing,  while  the  Americans  lost 
only  23  killed  and  114  wounded.  Consult  an  ar- 
ticle by  Willcox,  "Sacketts  Harbor  and  the  War 
of  1812,"  in  Jefjferaon  County  Hiatorical  Society 
Tranaactiona  (Watertown,  1886-87). 

SACK^VHJiE,  Chables,  sixth  Earl  of  Dorset 
(1638-1706).  An  English  poet  and  patron  of 
letters  at  the  Court  of  Charles  II.  Immediately 
after  the  Restoration,  he  was  elected  to  Parlia- 
ment. For  some  years  he  lived  a  very  dissipated 
life,  engaging  in  several  disgraceful  'frolics.'  In 
1665  he  served  as  a  volunteer  against  the  Dutch, 
and  after  this  lived  a  life  of  leisure,  fining  a  de- 
served reputation  for  his  wit  and  his  patronage 
to  letters.  Dryden  dedicated  to  him  the  Eaaay  of 
Dramatic  Poeay  and  introduced  him  under  the 
name  of  Eugenius  into  the  dialogue  of  this  fa- 
mous piece  of  criticism.  He  was  also  a  friend 
of  Waller,  Butler,  and  Wycherley,  and  was  be- 
loved by  Prior  in  the  next  generation.  He  lost 
some  of  his  prestige  under  James  II.,  but  regained 
it  under  William.  On  the  death  of  his  father 
(1677)  he  succeeded  to  the  earldom;  in  1691  he 
was  honored  with  the  Garter;  and  he  served 
three  times  as  Regent  during  King  William's  ab- 
sences. Sackville's  reputation  as  poet  now  rests 
mainly  upon  the  poem  beginning,  "To  All  You 
Ladies  Now  at  Land."  It  is  said  to  have  been 
written  at  sea  on  the  night  before  the  great 
naval  battle  with' the  Dutch  (June  3,  1665). 
Consult  Johnson's  Livea  of  the  Poets;  Ward's 
Engliah  Poets  (vol.  ii.)  ;  and  the  Muaa  Proterva, 
ed.  A.  H.  Bullen  (London,  1889). 

SACKVILLEy  Geoboe  Gebhain,  first  Vis- 
count (1716-85).  An  English  soldier  and  states- 
man. He  was  the  third  son  of  the  first  Duke  of 
Dorset  and  was  educated  at  Westminster  School 
and  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  He  served  with 
the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  was  wounded  at  Fon- 
tenoy,  and  was  promoted  to  be  lieutenant-general. 
As  commander  of  the  British  forces  In  Germany, 
he  served  under  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick,  but 
for  his  failure  to  carry  out  the  order  of  the 
commander-in-chief  to  charge  the  retiring 
French  cavalry  and  infantry  at  the  battle  of  Min- 
den  in  1759,  was  dismissed  from  the  service,  a 
sentence  that  was  confirmed  by  the  court-martial 
that  he  demanded.  He  was  reinstated  in  royal 
favor  by  George  III-  and,  as  Lord  Germain,  be- 
came Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies  in  the 
Cabinet  of  Lord  North  during  the  American  Revo- 
lutionary War,  incurring  a  share  of  the  odium  at- 
tached to  that  statesman's  policy.  He  was  raised 
to 'the  peerage  as  Viscount  Sackville  in  1782. 


flACKVULa. 


ddi 


fiACSAlONT. 


BACKVTLLEy  Lioinsi.  Sagkville-Webt, 
Baron  (1827— ).  An  English  diplomat.  The  son 
of  the  fifth  Earl  de  La  Warr,  he  was  bom  at 
Bourn  Hall,  Cambridgeshire.  He  I'eceived  a  pri- 
vate education;  entered  the  diplomatic  service  in 
1847,  and  prior  to  1868  was  attached  successively 
to  the  British  legations  at  Lisbon,  Naples,  Stutt- 
gart, Berlip,  Turin,  and  Paris.  He  became  Brit- 
ish Minister  to  the  Argentine  Republic  in  1873, 
to  Spain  in  1878,  and  to  the  United  States  in 
1881.  He  was  a  member  of  the  North  American 
Fisheries  Commission  in  1888.  The  same  year, 
in  the  American  Presidential  campaign,  a  decoy 
letter  now  known  as  the  'Murchison  letter,'  pre- 
sumably sent  by  a  naturalized  citizen  of  British 
birth,  requested  his  views  on  the  attitude  of  the 
Administration  toward  England.  His  answer, 
which  claimed  that  the  reflection  of  Cleveland 
would  be  advantageous  to  British  interests,  was 
published,  and  gave  offense  to  the  President, 
who  sent  him  his  passports,  thus  terminating  his 
career  at  Washington,  and,  incidentally,  his  polit- 
ical life. 

SACKVTLI^,  Thomas  (1536-1608).  The 
first  Earl  of  Dorset  and  Baron  Buckhurst,  an  En- 
glish poet  and  statesman.  He  was  born  at  Buck- 
hurst, Sussex,  in  1536.  He  joined  the  Inner 
Temple  and  was  called  to  the  bar.  In  conjimc- 
tion  with  Thomas  Norton  (q.v.)  he  wrote  the  first 
English  tragedy  in  blank  verse,  Ferrex  and  Porreof, 
afterwards  called  Ctorhoduc  (q.v.),  performed  at 
the  Inner  Temple  o|i. Twelfth  Night,  1560-61.  It 
is  founded  on  British  legend  and  is  molded  to  the 
form  of  Latin  tragedy.  It  has  no  dramatic  life 
or  energy,  but  t)ie  style  is  pure  and  stately, 
evincing  eloquence  and  power  of  thought.  Sack- 
ville's  other  productions  (first  published  in  1563) 
are  the  Induction,  a  poetical  preface  to  the  Mir- 
ror for  Magistrates,  and  the  Complaint  of  the 
Duke  of  Buckingham,  which  was  designed  to  con- 
clude the  work.  The  Induction  is  a  noble  poem, 
uniting,  as  Hallam  says,  "the  school  of  Chaucer 
and  Lydgate  to  the  Fairy  Queen"  Soon  after 
his  father's  death  in  1566,  he  was  created  Lord 
Buckhurst,  and  became  a  favorite  with  the  Queen, 
who  employed  him  in  foreign  diplomacy.  He 
went  to  Parliament  as  early  as  1557.  In  the 
spring  of  1568  he  was  sent  to  France,  where  he 
twice  negotiated  for  the  Queen's  marriage.  In 
1587  he  incurred  her  displeasure  by  what  she 
called  his  shallow  judgment  in  diplomacy  and 
he  was  confined  to  his  own  house  as  a  prisoner 
for  six  months.  On  the  death  of  Leicester  he 
returned  to  favor.  He  succeeded  Burleigh  as 
Lord  High  Treasurer  (1590).  On  the  accession 
of  James  his  patent  of  office  was  renewed  for 
life,  and  in  the  following  year  he  was  cre- 
ated Earl  of  Dorset.  He  was  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey.  Consult  his  Works,  ed. 
by  R.  W.  Sackville-West  (London,  1859)  ; 
and  Oorhoduc,  as  ed.  by  W.  D.  Cooper  for  the 
Shakespeare  Society  (ib.,  1847),  and  by  Toul- 
min  Smith  in  VollmSlIer's  Englische  Sprach-  und 
Litteraturdenkmdler   (Heilbronn,  1883). 

SACOy  sft'kft.  A  river  of  New  England,  rising 
in  the  White  Mountains  of  New  Hampshire,  flow- 
ing southeast  through  the  southwestern  part  of 
Maine,  and  emptying  through  Saco  Bay  mto  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  (Map:  Maine,  B  8).  It  passes 
through  the  mountains  in  the  famous  Crawford 
Notch,  whose  sides  are  formed  by  imposing 
rocky  peaks.    Its  course  of  160  miles  is  almost 


a  continuous  succession  of  falls,  affording  ex^ 
cellent  water  power.  One  of  these  falls  is  72 
feet  high,  and  the  last  is  but  4  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  river. 

SACO.  A  city  in  York  County,  Me.,  15  miles 
southwest  of  Portland,  on  the  Saco  Biver,  here 
spanned  by  four  bridges,  and  on  the  Boston  and 
Maine  Railroad  (Map:  Maine,  C  8).  It  has 
Pepperel  Park,  Thornton  Academy,  the  Dyer 
Library  of  12,000  volumes,  the  York  Institute 
Library,  and  a  scientific  and  historical  society, 
with  a  museum.  The  Saco  River,  which  falls  55 
feet  near  the  city,  affords  abundant  water  power. 
The  industrial  establishments  include  cotton 
mills,  cotton-machinery  works,  and  manufactories 
of  brick,  box  shooks,  belting,  and  carriages.  Old 
Orchard  Beach,  four  miles  distant,  is  a  popular 
summer  resort.  Population,  in  1890,  6075;  in 
1900,  6122. 

The  site  of  Saco  was  visited  by  De  Monts  and 
Champlain  in  1604-05  and  by  Captain  John  Smith 
in  1614,  but  no  permanent  settlement  was  made 
here  until  1631.  Until  1762,  when  it  was  sepa- 
rately incorporated  as  Pepperellboro,  Saco 
formed  part  of  Biddeford  (incorporated  in  1718). 
In  1805  the  present  name,  which  before  1718 
had  been  applied  to  Biddeford  also,  was  re- 
adopted,  and  in  1867  Saco  was  chartered  as  a 
city.  Consult:  Owen,  Old  Times  in  Saco,  A  Brie{ 
Monograph  on  Local  Events  ( Saco,  1891 ) ;  and 
Clayton,  History  of  York  County  (Philadelphia, 
1880). 

SACBAMENT  (Lat.  sacramentum,  sacra- 
ment, mystery,  engagement,  military  oath,  from 
sacrare,  to  dedicate,  consecrate,  from  sacer,  sa- 
cred). The  name  given  to  certain  religious  rites 
of  the  Christian  Church,  as  to  whose  number  and 
effects  there  has  been  much  controversy,  especial- 
ly since  the  Reformation.  According  to  the 
traditional  and  most  widely  held  view,  a  sacra- 
ment is  composed  of  tw^  parts,  an  outward  and 
visible  sign,  and  an  inward  and  spiritual  grace 
conveyed  by  the  sacrament  to  those  who  receive 
it  worthily.  This  twofold  nature  is  supposed  to 
correspond  to  the  needs  of  man,  as  organized 
with  body  and  soul. 

This  doctrine  is  most  definitely  and  clearly 
taught  in  modern  times  by  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  though  the  Eastern  churches  are  in  sub- 
stantial agreement  with  it.  It  holds  that  the 
sacraments  contain  grace  within  themselves  as 
instruments  and  convey  it  ex  opere  operato,  that 
is  by  the  fact  of  the  performance  of  the  sacra- 
mental act,  to  those  wno  have  the  proper  dispo- 
sitions and  so  place  no  obstacle  in  the  way  of  its 
reception.  The  opus  operantis,  or  the  independent 
act  of  the  receiver,  may  add  to  the  effect,  but  does 
not  produce  it.  The  sacraments  are  seven  in 
number  —  baptism,  confirmation,  communion, 
penance,  unction,  orders,  and  matrimony — 
all  of  them  held  to  have  been  instituted  by 
Christ  directly.  They  are  divided  into  sacra- 
•ments  of  the  dead  and  of  the  living;  the  for- 
mer class  includes  those  which  are  held  to 
give  supernatural  life  or  sanctifying  grace  to 
the  spiritually  dead — baptism  and  penance;  the 
latter  are  supposed  to  be  received  by  those  who 
are  already  in  a  state  of  grace.  Three  of  them, 
baptism,  confirmation,  and  orders,  are  held  to 
impress  a  certain  character  or  stamp  upon  the 
soul,  and  therefore  cannot  be  repeatea;  they  are 
administered  conditionally  if  there  is  any  doubt 


0AC&AMBKT. 


286 


8AC&AMBKT0. 


of  their  having  been  duly  received.  Besides  the 
matter  and  form,  the  intention  of  the  minister  is 
also  held  to  be  essential  to  the  validity  of  any 
sacrament.  There  has  been  much  discussion  as 
to  the  exact  sense  in  which  this  requirement  is 
to  be  taken;  but  all  agree  that  a  true  inner  in- 
tention, not  necessarily  explicit,  of  performing 
the  act  as  a  religious  one  is  required.  If  this 
were  denied,  it  is  held  that  the  sacraments  would 
be  reduced  to  the  level  of  mere  charms,  without 
any  moral  responsibility  on  the  part  of  the 
minister.  A  distinction  is  made  between  irregu- 
lar and  invalid  administration  of  the  sacraments ; 
thus  the  sacraments  administered  by  a  suspended 
or  excommunicated  priest  would  be  valid,  but  not 
regular,  except  in  the  case  of  a  dying  person 
where  no  other  priest  was  to  be  had,  when  such  a 
priest  would  be  allowed  to  administer  them.  For 
the  details  of  the  sacraments  in  their  traditional 
acceptation  and  use,  see  Baptism;  Gonfibma- 
noN;  Lobd's  Sufpeb;  Peivance;  Confession; 
ExTBEicE  Unction;   Obdebs,  Holt;  Mabbiage. 

Under  the  titles  Lobd's  Suppeb  and  Mass  the 
doctrinal  and  sacrificial  aspects  of  the  Eucharist 
baTc  been  covered,  but  some  further  details  of 
the  history  and  usages  of  communion  may  be 
given  here.  The  manner  of  reception  has  varied 
considerably  at  different  periods.  As  to  the  sac- 
ramental bread,  the  question  whether  it  should  be 
leavened  or  unleavened  has  caused  acute  contro- 
versies between  East  and  West.  In  the  modem 
practice  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  it  is  a 
thin  unleavened  wafer,  large  and  stamped  with 
sacred  symbols  for  the  celebrant,  smaller  for  the 
other  communicants,  and  is  placed  directly  in 
their  mouth  by  the  priest.  Reception  in  the  hand, 
which  seems  to  have  been  usual  in  the  early 
ages,  is  now  the  common  rule  in  the  non-Catholic 
churches.  (For  the  history  of  the  withdrawl  of 
the  chalice  from  all  but  the  celebrant,  see  Com- 
munion IN  Both  Kinds.)  The  modem  dread  of 
bacterial  infection  has  led  to  the  adoption  in 
some  Protestant  churches  of  a  small  separate  cup 
for  each  communicant.  The  frequency  of  recep- 
tion has  also  varied,  from  apparently  every  day 
in  the  apostolic  times  to  once  a  month,  a  quarter, 
or  a  year.  The  latter,  for  Roman  Catholics,  has 
been  a  fixed  minimum  since  the  time  of  the 
Lateran  Council  of  1215.  In  practice  with  them 
it  is  generally  preceded  by  sacramental  confes- 
sion, although  there  is  no  strict  obligation  of  this 
where  the  communicant  is  free  from  mortal  sin. 
The  Anglican  Church  makes  provision  for  the 
celebration  of  the  sacrament  in  the  sick-room,  but 
by  the  Roman  Catholic  practice  it  is  carried  from 
the  church  to  the  sick  person. 

By  the  majority  of  the  reformed  churches  the 
sacraments  are  held  to  be  merely  ceremonial 
observances,  partly  designed  as  a  solemn  act 
by  which  persons  are  admitted  to  membership 
or  make  solemn  professions  thereof,  partly  in- 
tended to  stimulate  the  faith  and  fervor  of  the 
recipient,  to  which  disposition  alone  all  the  in- 
terior effects  are  to  be  ascribed.  As  to  the 
number  of  rites  called  by  the  name  of  sacrament, 
almost  all  Protestants  agree  in  restricting  it 
to  baptism  and  commimion,  even  though  they 
retain  as  religious  observances  some  of' the  rites 
which  Catholics  regard  as  sacraments.  It  is 
contended,  however,  by  the  High  Church  party  in 
the  Church  of  England  that  Article  XXV.,  which 
seems  to  deny  the  sacramental  nature  of  confir- 
loationi  orders,  and  so  on,  does  not  really  do  so. 


but  merely  asserts  that  they  are  not  on  the  same 
footing  with  the  two  great  sacraments  as  gen- 
erally necessary  to  salvation. 

Consult:  Dix,  The  Sacramental  Syaiem  the 
Extension  of  the  Incarnation  (New  York,  1893) ; 
Oswald,  Die  dogmatiache  Lehre  von  den  heiligen 
8akramenten  (5th  ed.,  Mtinster,  1894)  ;  Schanz, 
Die  Lehre  von  den  Sakramenten  der  katholischen 
Kirche  (Freiburg,  1893)  ;  and  most  general  works 
on  dogmatic  theology. 

SACBAMEKTALS  (Lat.  aacramentalia,  re- 
lating to  a  sacrament,  from  sacramentum,  sacra- 
ment, mystery,  engagement,  military  oath).  A 
term  used  in  Roman  Catholic  theology  to  desig- 
nate certain  rites  which  partake  of  the  nature 
of  sacraments  in  so  far  that  they  are,  if  properly 
used,  means  of  grace,  which  is  conveyed  through 
an  external  ceremony.  While  all  the  sacraments 
are  held  to  have  been  instituted  directly  by 
Christ,  sacramentals  are  of  ecclesiastical  insti- 
tution. The  term  may  be  applied  either  to  a 
material  object  which  is  blessed  for  the  purpose 
or  to  its  employment  as  a  means  of  grace.  A 
multitude  of  objects  which  receive  priestly  bene- 
diction are  used  in  this  way :  holy  water,  blessed 
candles,  palms,  the  ashes  used  on  Ash  Wednes- 
day, medals,  crosses,  and  the  like,  all  come  under 
this  head.  Consult,  Probst,  Sakramente  und 
Sakramentalien  (Tubingen,  1872). 

SACBAMENTABXANS.  The  name  given  in 
the  sixteenth  century  to  those  among  the  reform- 
ers who  separated  from  Luther  on  the  doctrine 
of  the  Eucharist.  Luther  taught  the  doctrine  of  a 
mystical  presence  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ 
along  with  the  bread  and  wine.  (See  Lord's 
Supper;  Luther.)  The  first  of  his  followers 
who  called  this  doctrine  in  question  was  Andreas 
Carlstadt  (q.v.)  ;  and  notwithstanding  the  pro- 
test of  his  leader,  Carlstadt  had  many  followers. 
The  party  became  so  considerable  that  in  the 
Diet  of  Augsburg  (1530)  they  presented  a 
special  Confession  distinct  from  that  put  forward 
by  the  general  body  of  Protestants,  known  as  the 
Tetrapolitan  Confession,  because  written  in  the 
name  of  the  four  cities,  Constance,  Lindau, 
Memmingen,  and  Strassburg.  It  was  prepared 
by  Martin  Bucer  and  Wolfgang  Capito  (qq.v.) 
and  contained  23  chapters.  The  Confession  re- 
jects the  doctrine  of  a  corporeal  presence,  and 
although  it  admits  a  spiritual  presence  of  Christ 
which  the  devout  soul  can  feel  and  enjoy,  it 
excludes  all  idea  of  a  physical  presence.  The 
four  cities  continued  for  many  years  to  adhere 
to  the  Confession,  but  eventually  they  accepted 
the  Augsburg  Confession  and  were  merged  in  the 
general  body  of  Lutherans.  Simultaneously  with 
this  South  German  movement,  yet  independent  of 
it,  was  that  of  the  Swiss  reformer  Zwingli  (q.v.), 
whose  doctrine  on  the  Eucharist  was  that  in  it 
the  true  body  of  Christ  is  present  by  the  con- 
templation of  faith,  but  not  in  essence  of  reality. 
Zwingli  himself  presented  a  private  confession 
of  faith  to  the  Augsburg  Diet,  in  which  this  doc- 
trine is  embodied.  His  article  upon  the  Eucharist 
was  in  substance  embodied  in  the  Helvetic  Con- 
fession of  1566. 

SACRAMENTO.  The  principal  river  of 
California,  draining  the  northern  half  of  the 
great  central  valley  of  the  State  (Map:  Cali- 
fornia, C  2).  The  headstream  which  bears  the 
name  of  the  main  river  rises  on  the  southern 
slope  of  Mount  Shasta,  in  the  northern  part  of 


8ACBAMEKT0. 


286 


SACBEB  HEABT. 


the  State;  but  it  soon  receives  from  the  east  the 
much  larger  and  longer  Pitt  River,  which  in  the 
wet  season  is  the  outlet  of  Goose  Lake,  lying 
partly  in  Oregon,  and  having  its  headstreams  in 
that  State.  From  the  junction  the  main  river 
flows  southward  until  it  meets  the  San  Joaquin 
River,  which  drains  the  southern  half  of  the  in- 
land basin.  The  two  unite  by  several  arms,  but 
flow  through  separate  channels  westward  into  the 
northeastern  inlet  of  San  Francisco  Bay,  whence 
their  waters  enter  the  Pacific  Ocean  through  the 
Golden  Gate.  The  length  of  the  Sacramento  is 
about  400  miles,  but  to  the  source  of  the  Pitt 
River  it  is  over  600  miles.  It  is  navigable  for 
small  vessels  to  Red  Bluffy  300  miles,  and  for 
larger  steamers  generally  only  to  Sacramento, 
80  miles.  The  river  receives  numerous  tribu- 
taries from  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Coast 
Range,  on  many  of  which  there  has  been  a  great 
deal  of  gold-mining.  The  valley  of  the  Sacra- 
mento is  very  fertile,  becoming  marshy  toward 
the  junction  with  the  Qan  Joaquin. 

SACBAHENTO.  The  capital  of  California 
and  the  county  seat  of  Sacramento  County,  90 
miles  northeast  of  San  Francisco,  on  the  Sacra- 
mento River,  here  spanned  by  a  bridge,  and  on 
the  Southern  Pacific  and  the  Central  Pacific  rail- 
roads (Map:  California,  C  2).  The  city  is  noted 
for  the  remarkable  beauty  of  its  environment. 
The  most  prominent  feature  is  the  State  Capitol, 
which  was  erected  in  1869,  and  cost  $2,500,000. 
It  occupies  a  site  in  the  central  part  of  the  city 
and  is  surrounded  by  a  large  picturesque  park. 
Sacramento  has  three  libraries :  the  State  Library 
of  more  than  113,000  volumes,  the  Public  Library 
with  28,000  volumes,  and  the  Odd  Fellows'  Li- 
brary. The  Christian  Brothers'  College,  Howe's 
Academy,  and  Saint  Joseph's  Academy  are  the 
leading  educational  institutions.  There  are  a  fine 
city  hall,  court  house,  United  States  Government 
building,  Crocker  Art  Gallery,  Roman  Catholic 
Cathedral,  Marguerite  Home,  Protestant  Orphan 
Asylum,  the  City  Dispensary,  and  the  Southern 
Pacific  Railroad  Company's  hospital.  An  an- 
nual fair  is  held  at  Sacramento  under  the 
auspices  of  the  State  Agricultural  Society,  which 
maintains  here  a  handsome  exhibition  building, 
and  a  park  and  racecourse. 

The  valley  of  the  Sacramento,  in  which  the 
city  is  situated,  is  one  of  the  most  productive 
sections  of  the  State,  yielding  large .  quantities 
of  wheat,  and  various  fruits.  Manufacturing  is 
extensively  carried  on»  the  various  establishments, 
in  the  census  year  of  1900,  having  had  an  invest- 
ed capital  of  $7,369,013,  and  an  output  valued  at 
$11,141,896.  There  are  flouring  and  grist  mills, 
foundries  and  machine  shops,  harness  and 
saddlery  factories,  slaughtering  and  meat-packing 
establishments,  breweries,  and  manufactories  of 
carriages,  furniture,  soap,  crackers,  and  lumber 
products.  Shops  of  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad 
also  are  here.  The  water  works  are  owned  and 
operated  by  the  municipality.  Population,  in 
1890,  26,386;  in  1900,  29,282. 

In  1839  Captain  John  A>  Sutter,  having  ob- 
tained from  the  Mexican  Government  a  grant  of 
a  large  tract  of  land  in  this  vicinity,  built  here 
a  fort  which  he  called  New  Helvetia.  This  fort, 
which  has  been  rebuilt  and  is  preserved  for  its 
historic  interest,  was  the  first  point  in  Cali- 
fornia reached  by  miners  coming  from  the  East 
in  1848.  In  this  year  a  village  called  Sacra- 
mento was  laid  out.     The  land  was  originally 


only  15  feet  above  low  water,  and  destructive 
floods  occurred  in  1850,  1852,  and  1853.  Subse- 
quently levees  were  built  and  the  general  level 
of  the  land  raised,  the  city  now  being  eight 
feet  higher  than  when  first  settled.  Terrible 
fires  occurred  in  1852  and  1854,  the  first  causing 
a  loss  of  $5,000,000  and  the  second  one  of  $650,- 
000.  Sacramento  was  incorporated  as  a  town  in 
1849,  became  the  State  capital  in  1854,  and 
was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1863. 

SAGBAMENTO  FEBCH.  A  bass-like  fish 
{Archoplitea  interruptiia)  of  the  Sacramento  and 
San  Joaquin  rivers  and  tributary  lakes — the  only 
fresh-water  percoid  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
It  is  an  excellent  food-fish,  from  one  to  two  feet 
in  length,  dark-colored,  with  the  sides  marked 
with  about  seven  irregular  dark  bars.  This  fish 
is  liable  to  be  exterminated  by  the  carp  and 
catfish,  which  infest  its  spawning  grounds.  See 
Plate  of  Pebches. 

SAGBAHSSNTO  PIKE.  A  large,  greenish 
chub,  two  to  four  feet  in  length  (PtychoeheUus 
Oregonensis) ,  which  abounds  in  the  rivers  of  the 
Pacific  Coast,  and  is  used  as  food.  Other  names 
are  'squaw-fish'  and  'chappaul.'  See  Plate  of 
Dace  and  Minnows. 

SACBED  HABMOKIC  SOCIETY  OF  IiON- 
DON.  An  important  English  musical  organiza- 
tion, organized  in  1832  for  the  performance  of 
oratorios  and  sacreil  music  generally.  It  became 
famous  for  its  extraordinary  performances  of 
HandePs  work  at  the  Handel  festivals,  which 
were  begun  in  1857  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  Syden- 
ham, and  which  have  been  held  triennially  with 
one  exception  since  1862.  As  many  as  three 
thousand  singers  have  frequently  been  assembled 
with  an  orchestra  of  500  pieces.  In  the  triennial 
festival  of  1900,  4000  performers  participated. 
Sir  Michael  Costa  was  conductor  of  the  society 
from  1848  up  to  the  time  of  his  death. 

SACBED  HEABT,  Ladies  of  the.  A  reli- 
gious society  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
founded  at  Amiens,  France,  in  1800,  by  Madeleine 
Sophie  Barat  and  Octavie  Bailly,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Father  Joseph  D^sir^  Varm,  S.  J.  The 
object  of  the  society  was  the  education  of  young 
ladies  of  the  higher  classes.  The  constitution 
was  approved  by  Leo  XII.  in  1826;  a  house  was 
opened  in  Rome  and  branches  established  in  many 
cities.  The  first  house  in  the  United  States  w»as 
established  by  Bishop  Dubourg  in  1817,  near 
Saint  Louis.  The  society  has  now  over  100  houses 
in  various  parts  of  the  world,  and  6000  members. 
The  mother  house  is  in  Paris.  For  the  story  of 
its  beginning,  consult  Baunard,  Hiatoire  de  Mme, 
Barat  (Paris,  1876). 

SACBED  HEABT^  League  of  the,  or  Apos- 

TLESHIP  OF  PbAYEB  IN  LEAGUE  WITH  THE  SaCHED 

Heart  of  Jesus.  A  pious  confraternity  founded 
at  Vals,  in  France,  1844,  by  Father  Gautrelet,  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  with  the  intention  oT  cul- 
tivating an  apostolic  spirit  •  among  the  young 
Jesuit  students  who  were  in  the  seminary  there 
preparing  for  the  mission.  It  soon  spread 
throughout  France  and  thence  to  other  countries 
and  to  the  missions.  Gautrelet's  foundation  was 
organized  and  perfected  by  Father  Henri  Ra- 
mi&re,  S.  J.,  who  also  gave  it  renewed  life  and 
vigor  and  founded  the  Messenger  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  of  Jesus,  as  a  monthly  organ  of  the  asso- 
ciation.    This  was  soon  reproduced  in  several 


a^CBED  HEABT. 


287 


SACBED  MUSIC. 


languages  and  circulated  throughout  the  world. 
Piufl  DL  granted  the  association  many  indul- 
gences and  the  Congregation  of  Bishops  and 
Regulars  at  Rome  approved  of  its  statutes  in 
18&.  After  this  it  grew  very  rapidly.  Leo  XIII. 
rerised  its  statutes  in  1896.  At  present  there 
are  throughout  the  world  over  60,000  local  cen- 
tra aggregated  to  the  Apostleship  of  Prayer  and 
its  membership  is  estimated  at  30,000,000.  There 
are  6000  local  centres  in  the  United  States  and 
about  4,000,000  associates.  The  purpose  of  the 
organization  is  by  prayer  to  unite  with  the  ef- 
forts of  missionaries  throughout  the  world  for 
the  conversion  of  souls  and  for  the  betterment 
of  true  believers.  A  special  director  for  each 
country  is  appointed  and  the  Messenger  of  the 
Sacred  Heart  appears  in  about  thirty  different 
editions,  printed  in  fifteen  languages.  Consult: 
Manual  of  the  Apostleship  of  Prayer  (33d  ed., 
New  York,  1900)  ;  Ramidre,  Apostleship  of 
Prayer  (Eng.  trans.,  ib.,  1890). 

SACBED  HEABT  OF  JESUS,  Feast  of  the. 
A  festival  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  cele- 
brated on  the  Frida/  after  the  octave  of  Corpus 
Christi.  The  feast  of  the  Sacred  Heart  originated 
in  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
was  established  because  of  certain  revelations 
made  to  Marguerite  Marie  Alacoque,  a.  French 
nun  of  the  Order  of  the  Visitation,  who  lived  at 
Parayle-Monial  in  Burgundy.  She  related  that  the 
Saviour  appeared  to  her  on  a  number  of  occa- 
sions, showcKl  her  His  wounded  heart,  and  bade  her 
institute  a  new  oflSee  in  His  honor.  The  devo- 
tion to  the  Sacred  Heart  was  gradually  propa- 
gated in  France,  and  at  length  was  approved  by 
Pope  Clement  XII.  in  1732  and  more  formally 
in  1736,  and  by  Clement  XIII.  in  1765.  The 
spread  of  the  Apostleship  of  Prayer  in  League 
with  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus  (see  Sacred 
Heabt,  League  of)  has  given  a  fresh  impulse  in 
recent  years  to  this  devotion.  In  1899  Leo  XIII. 
lent  the  full  weight  of  his  supreme  approbation 
to  the  devotion  by  consecrating  the  whole  Chris- 
tian Church  in  a  special  manner  to  the  Sacred 
Heart.  Consult  Gallifet,  The  Adorable  Heart  of 
Jesus  (New  York,  1887). 

SACBED  MUSIC.  From  the  very  earliest 
times  music  has  been  connected  with  the  religious 
eult  of  all  nations.  The  part  it  has  played  in 
the  religions  of  the  Egyptians,  the  Greeks,  and 
the  Hebrews  is  discussed  under  Egyptian  Music, 
GsEEK  Music,  and  Hebrew  Music;  the  present 
article  treats  merely  of  sacred  music  as  it  is 
identified  with  Christianity.  The  early  Chrbtian 
Church  adopted  its  music  from  the  Hebrews.  Be- 
sides the  liturgy  hymns  were  also  used.  When, 
toward  the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  antiphonal 
singing  was  introduced  in  the  rendering  of  the 
psalms,  they  were  regarded  as  a  class  by  them- 
selves, because  two  choruses  answered  each 
other;  whereas  in  the  hymns  the  entire  chorus 
sang  all  the  verses.  Psalms  were  always  pre- 
cedai  by  an  antiphon,  a  short  piece  written  in 
the  same  tone  as  the  following  psalm.  Har- 
mony at  that  time  was  unknown  and  the  music 
consisted  of  a  kind  of  recitation  known  as  'plain 
chant.'  About  the  end  of  the  fourth  century 
Saint  Ambrose  collected  the  various  chants  used 
in  the  Church,  arranged  them  systematically  and 
promnlgated  certain  rules  for  their  proper  execu- 
tion. He  is  also  credited  with  the  introduction 
of  the  four  authentic  modes.      (See  Modes.) 


Afterwards  the  Hellenic  popes  added  many  new 
hymns  and  distributed  the  various  chants  so  as 
to  cover  the  services  for  the  entire  Church  year. 
They  likewise  increased  the  modes  by  the  addi- 
tion of  the  four  plagal  modes.  When  polyphonic 
music  arose,  composers  selected  their  texts  en- 
tirely from  the  liturgy  of  the  Church.  The  old 
plain  chant  melodies  became  the  cantus  firmus. 
But  soon  popular  melodies  were  introduced. 
The  famous  vesper  canticle  Magnificat  received 
its  first  polyphonic  setting  probably  by  Josquin 
des  Prfes  (d.  1500).  After  the  invention  of 
the  discant  (see  Music,  Schools  of  Composi- 
tion) it  was  customary  to  sing  the  alternate 
verses  in  plain  chant  and  fauxbourdon.  Josquin 
and  the  earlier  polyphonic  masters,  including 
even  Palestrina,  were  influenced  by  this  custom 
to  such  an  extent  that  they  retained  the  plain 
chant  for  the  odd  verses  and  composed  only  the 
even  verses. 

Bach's  Mass  in  B  minor  marks  the  modem 
method  of  the  composition  of  masses.  Modem 
masses  no  longer  exhibit  characteristics  of 
schools,  but  of  individual  composers.  Although 
we  have  polyphonic  masses  dating  from  the  four- 
teenth century,  the  mass  for  the  dead,  the  reqvAem, 
attracted  the  attention  of  composers  much  .later. 
The  first  great  polyphonic  requiem  was  written 
by  Palestrina.  The  character  of  some  modern 
requiems  approaches  that  of  the  oratorio. 

In  connection  with  the  development  of  the  mass 
we  find  the  form  of  the  motet,  first  cultivated  by 
De  Vitry  about  1300.  The  text  was  always 
Latin  selected  from  the  ofiices  of  the  Church. 
When  the  school  of  the  Netherlands  (see  Music, 
Schools  OF  Composition)  was  at  its  height  every 
composer  of  note  wrote  one  or  more  masses,  each 
bearing  the  name  of  the  popular  melody  which 
was  used  as  a  cantus.  In  the  course  of  time  this 
practice  led  to  abuses,  and  seriously  detracted 
from  the  dignity  of  the  Church  style,  so  that  the 
Council  of  Trent  appointed  a  commission  of  car- 
dinals and  musicians  of  the  Papal  Chapel  to  re- 
store Church  music  to  its  original  purity.  At 
no  time  had  the  plain  chant  been  discontinued. 
In  fact,  it,  was  tne  only  music  that  had  ever 
been  officially  sanctioned  by  the  Church.  At 
this  crisis  Palestrina  came  forward  and  composed 
three  masses  in  the  polyphonic  style.  The  com- 
mission decided  that  the  contrapuntal  art  was 
not  incompatible  with  the  dignity  and  simplicity 
essential  to  Church  music.  PAlestrina  continued 
to  compose  masses  in  this  style  and  also  set  to 
music  the  services  used  during  Holy  Week,  the 
Lamentation  and  Improperia,  All  these  works 
of  Palestrina  and  the  other  masters  of  the  Ro- 
man school  were  written  strictly  a  capella,  i.e. 
without  instrumental  accompaniment.  This  style 
has  ever  since  been  known  as  the  Palestrina 
style.  The  masters  of  the  Neopolitan  school  in- 
troduced the  orchestra  into  the  Church,  and  thus 
brought  about  a  new  style  in  which  the  individ- 
uality of  the  composers  found  greater  freedom 
of  expression.  See  Music,  Schools  of  Composi- 
tion. 

The  Keformation  wrought  a  great  change  in 
the  forms  of  Church  music.  The  introduction  of 
congregational  singing  gave  rise  to  the  chorale. 
At  first  popular  melodies  were  taken  and  adapted 
to  German  words ;  then  composers  began  to  write 
original  melodies.  In  England  Protestant  com- 
posers took  the  form  of  the  motet  and  wrote 
their  music  to  English  words.     Thus  arose  the 


8ACBBD  HTISIC. 


288 


SACBUIGE. 


anthem.  In  1559  by  a  decree  of  Elizabeth  the 
anthem  became  an  essential  element  in  the  Angli- 
can ritual.  In  respect  to  form  a  distinction  was 
soon  made  between  the  full  anthem  and  the  verse 
anthem,  the  former  containing  more  choral  writ- 
ing, the  latter  more  solo  numbers.  In  Germany 
the  anthem  was  developed  by  the  immediate  pred- 
ecessors of  Bach  into  the  Church  cantata  (Kir- 
chenkantate),  and  Bach  himself  marks  the  cul- 
mination of  this  form.  Bach's  cantatas  are  more 
elaborate  than  the  anthems,  especially  in  the 
treatment  of  the  instrumental  accompanimeiit. 

Independent  of  the  Church  service  there  arose 
the  form  of  the  oratorio.  Catholic  composers 
originated  this  form  about  1575,  and  German 
and  English  Protestant  composers  adopted  it. 
The  German  masters  confined  themselves  in  the 
selection  of  the  texts  to  the  Passion  of  Christ, 
as  related  in  the  Gospels.  They  introduced  the 
character  of  the  narrator  and  made  free  use  of 
the  chorale,  thus  adding  an  element  of  pious 
contemplation.  In  this  form  the  oratorio  be- 
came the  Paaeion  oratorio,  or,  briefly,  the 
Passion.  The  perfection  of  this  form  is  reached 
in  Bach's  Passion  According  to  Saint  Mat- 
thew (1729).  See  Ambbosian  Chaivt;  An- 
them; Antiphon;  Cantus  Fibmus;  Chorale; 
Hymnolooy  ;  Impbofebia  ;  Mass  ;  Moras ;  Motet  ; 
Obatobio;  Passion;  Plain  Chant;  Polyphony; 
Requiem;  Sequence;  Stabat  Mateb. 

SACBED  OBDEB.  A  Siamese  order  for  mem- 
bers of  the  royal  line,  founded  in  1851  and  re- 
organized in  1869.  It  had  previously  been  a 
personal  decoration  of  the  Kmg.  The  insignia 
comprises  a  rosette  surmounted  by  a  crown  and 
set  with  nine  different  jewels.  The  ribbon  is 
yellow,  edged  with  red,  blue,  and  green. 

SACBED  WABS  (Gk.  Upol  ir6Xe/MM,  hieroi  po- 
lemoi).  The  name  given  to  the  wars  waged  at 
the  instigation  of  the  Amphictyonic  Council  in 
Greece  in  behalf  of  Delphi.  On  the  ground  that 
the  Phocian  cities  of  Crissa  and  Cirrha  had  mal- 
treated women  returning  from  the  shrine,  and 
had  exacted  too  heavy  toll  from  pilgrims  to 
Delphi,  war  was  made  on  Cirrha  about  B.C.  596- 
586  and  the  city  was  destroyed.  About  b.c.  357, 
the  Phocians  were  charged  with  having  cultivated 
ground  sacred  to  Apollo  and  were  heavily  fined 
by  the  Amphictyonic  Council.  They  retaliated  by 
seizing  Delphi,  and  by  the  aid  of  the  treasure 
prolonged  the  war  for  ten  years,  when  they  were 
finally  overpowered  by  Philip  of  Maoedon,  and 
their  towns  dismantled.  On  a  similar  accusa- 
tion made  in  b.c.  339  by  iEschines,  the  Am- 
phictyons  declared  war  against  the  Locrians, 
and  made  Philip  commander-in-chief.  When  his 
operations  seemed  to  be  directed  against  Athens, 
Demosthenes  succeeded  in  forming  an  alliance 
with  the  Thebans  and  the  struggle  ended  in  the 
battle  of  Chfleronea,  which  put  Greece  at  the  feet 
of  Philip.  A  war  between  the  Phocians  and 
Delphians  in  B.C.  448  also  figures  as  a  sacred 
war. 

SACBED  WAY  (Lat.  via  sacra,  Gk.  Up^  Mt, 
hiere  hodos).  (1)  A  famous  road  leading  from 
Athens  northwest  to  Eleusis.  It  issued  from  the 
city  at  the  Dipylon  Gate,  passing  through  the 
Ceramicus  and  continuing  through  the  Pass  of 
Daphne.  It  was  the  route  of  the  great  annual 
procession  of  the  mysteries,  and  was  for  the 
greater  part  of  its  length  lined  on  hqih  sides  with 
tombs,  many  of  which  are  preserved,  together 


with  remains  of  shrines  and  temples.  (2)  The 
most  important  street  of  the  ancient  Roman 
Forum,  forming  the  chief  means  of  communica- 
tion with  the  Capitol.  Starting  near  the  Meta  Su- 
dans  in  the  hollow  of  the  Colosseum,  it  passed  be- 
tween the  Palatine  and  Oppian,  some  150  yards 
north  of  its  later  line,  leading  through  the  Arch 
of  Titus,  thence  diagonally  between  the  Temple  of 
Vesta  and  the  Regia  to  the  Vicus  Tuscus,  past 
the  Basilica  Julia  to  the  summit  of  the  Capitoline, 
a  total  length  of  about  860  yards  to  the  foot  of 
the  ascent,  which  in  Imperial  times  was  called 
the  Clivus  Capitolinus.  The  road  received  its 
name  from  the  three  sacred  huts  of  Vesta,  of  the 
high  priest,  and  of  the  Penates  brought  from 
Troy.  In  early  times  it  was  divided  into  three 
sections,  infima,  summa,  and  clivus  sacer.  Its 
classic  name  was  retained  down  to  the  ninth  cen- 
tury. 

SACBZFICE  (Lat.  sacrificium,  sacrifice,  a 
making  sacred,  from  sacer,  sacred  -|-  facere,  to 
make) .  An  offering  to  a  spiritual  power  of  some- 
thing consumed  in  the  service  of  that  power. 
The  word  therefore  includes  the  rite  and  the 
thing  that  is  sacrificed,  but  excludes  in  the  lat- 
ter case,  except  when  used  metaphorically,  such 
objects  as  are  made  over  to  a  deity  without  being 
consumed  (lands,  temples,  etc.).  The  deity  is 
supposed  to  eat  the  sacrifice  or  its  essence,  some- 
times only  the  blood  (life)  of  the  victim.  In  the 
developed  ritual  a  sacrifice  is  generally  made  by 
an  appointed  priest  (q.v.).  Not  all  priests,  how- 
ever, are  sacrificers.  Sacrifices  are  sometimes 
divided,  as  among  the  Romans,  into  honorific  and 
piacular.  In  either  case  the  motive  in  making 
a  sacrifice  is  the  counterpart  of  that  which  in- 
duces a  man  to  make  an  offerijig  to  another  man. 
Thus  the  sacrifice  is  a  means  of  benefiting,  a 
token  of  esteem  and  brotherhood,  or  it  is  a  pal- 
liation of  actual  or  potential  anger.  The  sim- 
plest form  of  sacrifice  is  when  grain  is  flung  upon 
the  ground  for  spirits,  either  ancestral  ghosts  or 
goblins.  But  as  this  is  usually  the  accompani- 
ment of  a  family  meal,  so  a  great  feast  in  honor 
of  gods  is  merely  an  extension  of  the  same  idea. 
Such  a  sacrifice  may  be  either  vegetable  or  ani- 
mal. Both  kinds  are  enumerated  in  the 
Gudean  tablets,  and  since  both  are  offered  to-day 
by  savages,  as  they  were  common  in  classical 
antiquity  and  were  known  to  the  Aryans  from 
a  still  more  remote  period,  it  is  probably  impos- 
sible to  derive  one  from  the  other.  There  is,  fur- 
ther, besides  the  simple  vegetable  sacrifice,  the 
sacrifice  made  by  offering  intoxicating  liquor, 
usually  as  an  accompaniment  of  a  feast,  such  as 
the  beer  sacrifice  to  Wuotan,  the  Soma  sacrifice 
to  Indra,  and  parallel  offerings  and  rites  among 
the  Aztecs.  Among  animal  sacrifices,  as  man 
is  the  best  animal,  human  sacrifices  have  always 
held  a  prominent  place.  They  were  common 
among  the  Semites,  not  unusual  among  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  (in  a  veiled  form),  and  from  time 
immemorial  have  been  performed  in  India.  The 
worshipers  in  some  Saiva  rites  still  eat  of  this 
sacrifice  and  many  peoples  are  cannibals  only  at 
a  time  of  sacrifice.  The  fruit  sacrifice  is  some- 
times clearly  an  afterthought,  typifying  a  re- 
volt against  the  cruelty  of  animal  sacrifice.  Thus 
in  the  Vishnu  cult  of  India  only  vegetable  sacri- 
fices are  permitted.  In  such  a  case,  for  animals 
are  substituted  cakes  in  the  likeness  of  animals; 
or  small  animals  first  take  the  place  of  lai^  ani- 
mals and  are  in  turn  exchanged  for  effigies  (as 


8ACBIFICE. 


289 


SAGBIFICE. 


in  some  Brahmanic  rites) ;  or,  instead  of  being 
sacrificed,  a  Yictim  is  only  beaten  or  otherwise 
maltreated,  as  in  expiatory  rites.  The  same  no- 
tion survives  in  the  mutual  abuse  of  festivals, 
originally  a  means  of  purification. 

In  cases  of  piacular  sacrifice,  the  gift  serves  as 
an  atonement  This  gift  is  usually  the  life 
(blood)  of  the  sinner  or  of  his  substitute,  but  it 
may  be  merely  a  dish  of  food.  In  a  totem  system, 
the  sin  committed  by  the  clan  is  often  expiated 
by  the  sacrifice  of  some  man  or  animal  of  the 
clan.  In  proportion  to  the  god's  anger  the  gift 
must  be  precious,  and  even  the  chief  of  the  clan 
or  his  children  must  suffer.  But  piacular  sacri- 
fice may  be  made  without  any  such  notion  and 
then  a  stranger  or  slave  is  sacrificed,  as  in  the 
mom-i-ai  rites,  when  victims  are  offered  to  atone 
for  erecting  bridges,  building  foundations,  and 
the  like.  No  sacrificial  altar  is  needed  for  primi- 
tive rites,  but  as  gods  are  or  dwell  in  stones,  fire, 
or  water,  gifts  are  made  at  the  stone  or  thrown 
into  the  fire  or  water.  In  the  former  case,  how- 
ever, even  after  the  conception  of  the  divinity  has 
changed,  and  the  god  is  supposed  to  live  in 
heaven,  he  is  still  imagined  either  to  come  to  the 
stone  or  to  smell  the  sacrifice  offered  thereon. 
Many  religions,  moreover,  have  the  extension  of 
piacular  sacrifice  known  as  the  scapegoat.  In 
this  conception  sin,  like  disease,  clings  to  a  man, 
bat  may  be  put  off  upon  some  one  else,  who  is 
either  driven  away  burdened  thus  with  sin  or  is 
slain  for  the  real  sinner.  The  proxy  sacrifice  is 
a  redeemer.  In  the  Brfthmanas  we  read  that  an 
animal  sacrifice  on  a  certain  occasion  represents 
a  man  who  has  'bought  himself  off*  by  means  of 
the  animal.  A  tale  of  the  same  period  recounts 
that  a  man  who  had  been  promised  as  a  sacrifice 
to  a  god  'bought  himself  off'  by  purchasing  an- 
other man  for  1000  cows  to  serve  as  a  redeemer. 
Redemption  implies  atonement,  but  atonement 
does  not  imply  redemption.  The  mystical  sacri- 
fice of  the  Greeks,  Semites,  Mexicans,  and  other 
races  is  always  an  atoning  sacrifice,  and  the  vic- 
tim represent^  the  offended  deity  because  the  clan 
is  of  his  blood;  and  by  partaking  of  this  blood, 
which  symbolizes  life,  the  clan  renew  their 
strength  in  communion  with  their  god.  ( For  vari- 
ous Christian  views  of  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  and 
its  effect,  see  Atonement.  )  According  to  the  view 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Eastern  churches, 
Christianity  is  still,  by  the  daily  re-presentation 
of  the  one  offering  of  Christ,  essentially  a  sacri- 
ficial religion.  For  an  exposition  of  this  view, 
see  Mass. 

The  piacular  sacrifice  has  been  explained  by 
Robertson  Smith  as  a  development  from  a  totem 
offering,  consisting  originally  in  smearing  a 
bethel  with  wine  and  blood,  in  which  the  life  of 
a  member  of  the  brotherhood  is  required  { where- 
as in  the  commensal  meal  there  is  a  feast).  Ac- 
cording to  some  scholars,  all  sacrifices  have  their 
origin  in  the  same  cult,  but  this  is  a  great  exag- 
geration. Sacrifice,  whether  as  piacular  or 
honorific,  may  be  an  offering  of  alien  life,  and 
it  is  impossible  to  derive  from  totemism  the 
jollification  of  a  drunken  debauch  in  which  the 
gods  are  invited  to  share.  Inside  the  province  of 
totemism  sacrifice  may  be  honoriffc  or  piacular, 
and  in  neither  case  is  it  neeessary  (although  in 
the  latter  case  it  is  common)  to  sacrifice  a  clan- 
member.  Disregarding  the  totemic  sacrifice,  we 
have  a  mass  of  evidence  pointing  to  the  fact  that 
Bacrifice  may  be  without  implication  of  any  blood- 


fellowship.  Sometimes  there  are  symbolic  sacri- 
fices. There  can  be  no  doubt,  for  example,  that 
thuggery  belongs  to  this  class.  The  goddess  of 
thuggery  is  the  Dravidian  mother-monster,  to 
whom  as  symbolizing  the  reproductive  power  of 
nature  (a  different  notion  altogether  from  that 
of  totemism)  phallic  rites  are  performed;  but 
as  representative  of  life  human  victims  are  of- 
fered to  her.  In  the  holocausts  offered  to  the 
Aztec  deities  there  is  no  expiation,  but  only  pro- 
pitiation by  means  of  victims  sometimes  alien  and 
sometimes  native.  The  human  sacrifice  offered 
by  the  Assamese  and  by  the  Khasis,  or  again  by 
the  intermediate  Naga  tribes,  are  both  expiatory 
and  propitiatory.  The  Khasis,  for  example,  kill 
(and  eat)  a  stranger  as  a  piacular  rite  to  Thlen 
(the  dragon)  ;  the  Nagas  expiate  sin  by  sacrific- 
ing slaves  (not  of  the  same  stock)  and  enemies 
captured  in  battle;  and  in  Assam  the  privileged 
victims  (feasted  and  petted  till  execution,  as  in 
Mexico)  are  strangers,  though  they  are  piacular 
as  well  as  honorific  victims.  Such  cases  point 
to  a  wider  conception  of  sacrifice  than  that  put 
forward  by  those  who  deduce  all  sacrifice  from 
one  origin.  The  god  earth,  the  only  chain  binding 
together  all  the  Khond  tribes  in  India,  is  a  malig- 
nant demon,  and  propitiatory  blood-sacrifice  is 
made  to  him,  but  only  to  symbolize  rain  withheld 
by  the  demon,  as  the  tears  of  the  Aztec  children 
symbolized  rains  ('sympathetic  magic').  In  its 
simplest  aspect  sacrifice  is  a  gift  intended  to  pro- 
pitiate any  spirit  and  not  a  renewal  of  a  blood- 
bond  nor  an  expiatory  rite.  Demonolatry  has  its 
sacrifices,  and  they  are  the  earliest  known  as 
they  survive  to-day  among  such  primitive  sav- 
ages as  the  Mishmis,  who  have  no  idea  at  all  of  a 
good  god,  but  propitiate  a  demon  with  offerings. 
The  motive  of  the  sacrifice  is  to  please  as  well 
as  to  benefit  the  spirit. 

In  view  of  the  facts  here  cursorily  considered, 
instead  of  starting  with  the  assumption  of  totem- 
ism and  endeavoring  to  explain  all  sacrifices  as 
either  a  totemic  commensal  feast  on  a  hostile 
victim  or  a  piacular  rite,  it  will  be  better  to 
divide  sacrifices  into  three  main  classes,  as  fol- 
lows: (1)  offerings  made  to  goblins,  ancestral 
spirits,  or  other  spiritual  powers,  to  propitiate 
them,  such  as  grain  to  the  Bhuts  ( 'beings')  and 
tithes  to  a  king-god;  (2)  offerings  made 
as  a  feast  to  great  gods  (distinguished  guests), 
the  sacrifice  consisting  of  vegetables  or  of  ani- 
mals, or  human  aliens,  often  of  intoxicating 
liquor;  the  idea  of  both  (1)  and  (2)  being  that 
of  a  friendly  gift,  though  (2)  may  in  a  totemic 
environment  be  a  brotherhood  feast;  (3)  sacri- 
fices, either  vegetable  or  animal,  made  to  expiate 
sin.  In  a  totemic  environment  a  clan-member  is 
the  victim,  but  often  an  alien;  in  many  cases 
only  the  life  is  demanded  and  the  flesh  is  not 
eaten  when  an  animal  (including  man)  is  sacri- 
ficed. These  forms  are  not  ahvays  distinguish- 
able. A  cannibal  feast  may  be  expiatory  and 
may  not  be  a  commensal  feast  with  the  god.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  may  be  commensal  with  the 
god  and  yet  expiatory.  As  a  general  thing,  piac- 
ular sacrifice  is  not  primitive,  but  secondary, 
when  ethical  feeling  is  developed.  Among  sav- 
ages sin  against  a  god  has  no  ethical  side.  A 
demon's  wrath  is  simply  inferred  from  trouble 
presumably  caused  by  the  god.  The  sacrifice  is 
not  to  remove  sin,  but  to  avert  anger,  the  usual 
cause  of  anger  being  a  supposed  neglect  of  the 
god,  who  has  not  enough  food  to  satisfy  him. 


&ACBIFICE. 


290 


8ACBIFICE. 


There  are  many  savage  tribes  who  thus  offer 
sacrifice  to  goblins,  gods,  or  demons  whom  they 
regard  as  quite  apart  from  the  clan-life,  merely 
to  be  on  good  terms  with  a  power  susceptible  to 
such  briery.  Besides  benefiting  or  revering  a 
spirit,  a  third  motive  lies  in  pleasing  a  god  by 
depriving  one's  self  of  something  valuable ;  but 
this  is  included  in  the  gift  notion,  which  may  be 
inspired  by  this  idea  rather  than  by  the  notion 
of  benefiting  the  god.  Consult :  Robertson  Smith, 
Religion  of  the  Semites  (new  ed.,  London,  1894) ; 
Jevons,  Introduction  to  the  History  of  Religion 
(London,  1896) ;  Tiele,  Oifford  Lectures  (New 
York,  1897-99) ;  Prazer,  The  Golden  Bough 
(3  vols.,  revised  ed.,  London,  1900) ;  TVlor, 
Primitive  Culture  (New  York,  1874) ;  and  see 
the  articles  Natube- Wobship ;  Shamanism;  and 

TOTEMISM. 

Sacrifice  Among  the  Hebrews.  The  Old 
Testament  presents  sacrificial  customs  belohging 
to  at  least  three  different  periods,  the  Pre-Mo- 
saic,  the  Mosaic,  and  that  which  resulted  in  the 
Post-Exilic  ritual ;  there  are  also  many  references 
to  alien  rites  which  intruded  into  the  Israelitish 
religion.  The  Hebrew  sacrificial  ideas  are  of 
common  origin  with  those  of  the  other  Semites, 
and  may  have  been  influenced  by  the  Babylonian 
religion,  but  withal  the  Hebrew  system  was 
original  enough  to  make  its  own  selection  and 
to  develop  in  its  own  way.  The  materials  of 
sacrifice  were  of  two  kinds,  flesh  and  vegetable. 
In  the  former  the  Jewish  ritual  is  distinguished 
by  the  limitation  to  domestic  food-animals, 
namely,  the  bull,  sheep,  goat,  turtle-dove,  and 
pigeon.  As  the  most  valuable  food  and  as  the 
most  typical  because  of  its  life,  flesh  was  the 
preponderating  element  of  sacrifice,  and  Zehakh, 
meat  sacrifice,  is  the  general  word  for  sacrifice. 
The  vegetable  sacrifices  consisted  of  all  culti- 
vated vegetable  products/  either  in  the  raw  6ta1« 
or  in  cakes  of  fiour  kneaded  with  oil  and  salte<l, 
also  sometimes  incensed.  In  the  later  ritual 
there  is  no  libation  of  wine  or  oil,  and  leaven 
or  other  fermenting  component  was  tabooed,  with 
one  exception  (Lev.  vii.  12).  The  sacrifices  may 
be  divided  into  three  classes:  the  tribute  sacri- 
fice {minkhdh,  'oblation') ;  the  commensal  {she- 
Urn,  'peace-offering*)  ;  the  propitiatory,  divided 
into  several  classes.  In  the  first  kind  the  wor- 
shiper rendered  back  to  God,  as  the  liege  lord  of 
the  land,  a  typical  part  of  his  bounties.  ThSs 
included  the  first-fruits  (q.v.)  and  the  tithes  of 
his  fields  and  flocks;  the  matter  of  the  sacriflce 
fell  to  the  ministers  of  the  sanctuary.  The 
commensal  sacrifice  consisted  in  the  sacrifice  and 
the  consumption  by  family  or  clan  of  an  animal ; 
it  involved  a  sacramental  meal,  with  all  the 
necessary  accompaniments  of  a  banquet,  bread, 
wine,  etc.  The  Passover  is  an  example.  Here 
the  primitive  idea  was  of  the  common  con- 
sumption by  the  divinity  and  his  people  of  the 
same  food,  the  portion  consumed  in  the  flame 
and  the  blood  spilt  on  the  ground  being  the 
god's  portion,  the  rest  of  the  carcass  being  that 
of  the  worshipers.  While  this  was  the  prevailing 
sacrifice  earlier,  the  later  code  made  it  yield 
to  the  third  kind,  the  propitiatory.  With  the 
growth  of  ethical  consciousness  and  of  the  sense 
of  guilt  toward  offended  Deity,  and  with  the 
development  of  the  transcendental  idea  of  God, 
the  festal,  sacramental  character  of  sacrifice  was 
replaced  by  a  solemn  act  of  animal  sacrifice  to 
God,    in   which    at   the   most   only   the    priests 


shared.  Such  rites  'atone  for*  human  sin,  by 
propitiating  God.  At  the  same  time,  tiiejr 
were  effective  only  for  the  general  frail^  of  the 
Church  or  for  unwitting  sins  of  individuals, 
never  for  willful  sin.  Here  are  several  classes, 
in  all  of  which  the  blood  appears  as  the  atoning 
element.  First,  there  is  the  whole  burnt-offering 
{'6l(i\  MM),  to  which  class  belonged  the  stated 
daily  sacrifices.  Secondly,  the  sin-offering  (khat- 
t^th)y  to  which  the  fat  was  offered  in  fire,  the 
flesh  being  burnt  without  the  sanctuary,  or,  in 
individual  offering,  falling  to  the  priest  To 
this  class  belonged  the  supreme  sacnfiee  of  the 
later  ritual,  that  of  the  Day  of  Atonement.  The 
guilt  or  trespass  offering  was  accompanied  with 
a  restitution  for  some  specific  offense.  To  this 
general  department  also  belong  the  sacrifices  of 
purification.  In  early  times  the  sacrificer  was 
the  paterfamilias,  chieftain,  or  king;  in  the 
later  development  sacrifice  was  confined  to  the 
Aaronic  priesthood.  Consult  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews  and  the  fifth  division  of  the  Mishna; 
Kurtz,  Der  alttestamentliche  Op/erA;iilefM(Mitau, 
1862;  Eng.  trans.,  Sacrificial  Worship,  Edin- 
burgh, 1863) ;  the  archsologies  of  Ewald,  Ben- 
zinger,  Nowack,  and  the  Old  Testament  theolo- 
gies of  Dillmann,  Smend,  and  Shulz;  Edersheim, 
The  Temple  and  Its  Ministry  (London,  1874) ; 
Wellhausen,  Reste  des  aralnschen  Heidenthums 
(Berlin,  1887)  ;  Robertson  Smith,  Religion  of  the 
Semites  (London,  1894).  For  conspectus  of 
Levitical  laws,  see  Carpenter,  Heaxiteuch  (Lon- 
don, 1900,  1902). 

Sacrifice  Amonq  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
With  the  Greeks,  sacrifice  offered  to  the  gods  of 
the  upper  world  was  a  share. in  the  daily  or 
public  meal,  a  rendering  to  them  of  a  portion 
of  the  good  things  enjoyed  by  men.  It  is  prob- 
able that  in  a  sense  every  slaughter  of  a  beast 
for  food  was  accompanied  by  an  offering  of 
some  parts  of  the  animal  to  the  god.  In  these 
bloody  sacrifices  there  were  many  differences 
in  the  ritual,  depending  on  the  city,  the  god,  and 
the  period,  but  the  main  features  of  the  common 
rite  show  no  great  variation.  The  victim  was 
adorned  with  garlands  and  fillets,  and  the  horns 
of  cattle  were  frequently  gilded.  A  basin  of 
water  was  consecrated  by  plunging  into  it  a 
brand  from  the  altar,  and  the  spectators,  animal, 
and  altar  were  sprinkled.  Then  barley  groats 
mixed  with  salt  were  passed  about,  strewn  on  the 
victim,  and  thrown  by  those  present  into  the  fire. 
Hair  was  then  cut  from  the  brow  of  the  animal 
and  thrown  into  the  fire,  thus  dedicating  it  to 
death.  Then  in  solemn  silence  the  victim  was 
killed  by  cutting  the  throat,  with  the  head 
turned  back  so  that  the  blood  might  spurt  up- 
ward. Large  animals  were  first  stunned  with 
an  axe.  The  blood  was  thrown  on  the  altar,  and 
parts  of  the  entrails,  bones,  and  a  little  flesh, 
along  with  incense,  burned  for  the  gods.  From 
these  sacrifices  must  be  distinguished  those  of- 
fered to  the  gods  of  the  lower  world,  to  the 
heroes  or  the  dead,  where  the  blood  was  allowed 
to  flow  into  the  earth,  and  the  entire  victim  was 
consumed  or  otherwise  destroyed,  as  when  ani- 
mals were  cast  into  the  sea,  rivers,  or  subter- 
ranean caverns.  In  these  offerings  we  find  dogs 
and  animals  unfit  for  food  sometimes  slain.  Be- 
sides these  bloody  sacrifices,  unbloody  offerings 
of  fruits,  wine  mixed  with  water,  honey,  milk, 
and  especially  cakes,  were  very  common.  Cakes 
in  the  form  of  animals  were  used  by  the  poor 


BACBXEICE. 


291 


8ACY. 


as  substitutes  for  the  more  expensive  victims. 
No  wine  was  ever  offered  to  the  gods  of  the 
lower  world.  Their  libations  were  honey,  milk, 
and  water.  At  some  altars  only  bloodless  offer- 
mgs  were  allowed. 

Among  the  Romans  offerings  were  made  daily 
and  on  special  occasions  by  the  family  to  the 
Lares,  Penates,  and  other  household  gods.  In  their 
simplest  form  these  consisted  of  the  articles  of 
daily  food,  milk,  wine,  beans,  grain,  cakes  of 
many  shapes  and  sizes,  garlands,  firstfruits  of 
the  flock  or  field,  or  incense.  Similar  were  doubt- 
less the  public  offerings  of  the  early  religion,  and 
this  simplicity  was  long  preserved,  accompanied 
by  an  ebiborate  and  minute  ritual.  Thus  in 
certain  sacrifices  the  victim  must  be  slain  by  a 
flint  knife;  elsewhere  only  hand-made  earthen- 
ware vessels  could  be  used,  or  the  grain  must 
be  pounded,  not  ground.  The  swine  was  perhaps 
the  commonest  animal  sacrificed,  and  the  great 
offering  was  the  Suovetaurilia  (q.v.),  or  boar, 
ram,  and  bull.  In  the  developed  ritual  the  state 
sacrifices  were  usually  bloody,  and  the  choice  of 
the  animal  was  regulated  by  minute  rules,  which 
prescribed  the  color,  age,  and  sex,  as  well  as  the 
kind  of  victim  appropriate  to  the  god  or*  the 
occasion.  Horses  were  only  offered  to  Mars ;  for 
the  gods  of  the  lower  world  black  or  dark  vic- 
tims were  prescribed,  and  white  cattle  for  Jupiter 
and  Juno  as  gods  of  the  heaven;  in  the  latter 
case  we  find  that  chalk  sometimes  helped  nature 
in  securing  the  needful  color.  While  the  old 
ritual  seems  to  have  prescribed  very  modest 
sacrifices,  the  later  custom  added  extra  victims, 
honoris  causa,  and  often  in  great  numbers.  The 
ceremonial  of  the  sacrifice  consisted  in  a  careful 
inspection  of  the  victim,  which  was  then  brought 
to  the  altar  decked  with  garlands,  ribbons,  and 
fillets.  Here  the  offerer  first  threw  incense  and 
wine  into  a  fire  by  the  altar,  and  then  symboli- 
cally slew  the  victim,  the  actual  killing  and  cut- 
ting up  being  performed  by  servants.  The  exta 
(heart,  lungs,  liver,  etc.)  were  carefully  exam- 
ined to  see  that  they  were  perfect,  then  cooked, 
and  offered  on  the  altar  to  the  god ;  the  remainder 
of  the  animal  was  eaten  by  the  priests  and  offi- 
cials, or,  in  the  case  of  private  sacrifices,  by  the 
worshiper  and  his  friends.  In  the  case  of  foreign 
gods  other  rituals,  especially  the  *Greek  rite' 
iffrxBcus  riius),  were  followed.  For  the  litera- 
ture, see  the  articles  on  Gbeek  and  Romait  Re- 

UGION. 

8ACBI8TAK  (OF.,  Fr.  sacristain,  from  ML. 
Bocristanus,  sexton,  from  sacrista,  sacristan,  from 
Lat  Mcer,  sacred) .  A  title  applied  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  and  Anglican  churches  to  the  official 
who  has  the  care  of  the  sacristy  and  the  sacred 
vessels,  vestments,  and  other  valuables  contained 
in  it.  The  duties  of  the  sacristan  were  originally 
performed  by  a  separate  class  of  clerics,  who 
constituted  the  lowest  of  the  four  minor  orders. 
(See  OsTiABius.)  The  term  sacristan  has  be- 
come corrupted  into  sexton,  and  the  two  terms 
are  sometimes  used  interchangeably,  although 
the  sacristan  proper  has  a  more  responsible  office. 
In  cathedrals  and  collegiate  churches  he  is  usu- 
ally a  dignitary  of  the  chapter — in  the  English 
cathedrals  one  of  the  minor  canons. 

8ACBISTT  (ML.  sacristia,  vestry,  from  aa- 
crista,  sacristan).  An  apartment  attached  to  a 
church,  in  which  are  kept  the  sacred  objects 
used  in  the  public  worship,  and  in  which  the 


clergy  and  other  functionaries  who  take  part 
in  the  service  assemble  and  prepare  for  the  cere- 
monies on  which  they  are  about  to  enter.  In 
many  European  churches  the  sacristy  is  a  spa- 
cious and  costly  building.  Anciently  there  was 
a  distinction  between  the  sacristy,  where  the 
vestments  were  kept,  and  the  treasury,  where  the 
books  and  vessels  were  guarded,  these  two  cham- 
bers being  placed  on  the  right  and  left  of  the 
apse  of  the  church,  where  they  were  replaced  in 
the  Middle  Ages  by  the  side-apses  and  chapels. 
Many  church  sacristies  in  Europe  are  still  small 
museums. 

SAG'BOBOS^COy  Johannes  de,  John  of 
HoLYWooD,  or  Halifax  (T-1256).  An  English 
mathematician,  probably  bom  at  Halifax,  in 
Yorkshire.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  entered 
the  University  of  Paris  about  1230,  and  after- 
wards became  professor  of  mathematics  and 
astronomy  there.  Sacrobosco  was  among  the  first 
scholars  of  the  Middle  Ages  to  make  use  of  the 
astronomical  writings  of  the  Arabians.  His 
treatise  Tractatua  de  Sphcera  Mundi  is  a  para- 
phrase of  a  portion  of  Ptolemy's  Almagest  (see 
Almagest),  and  no  book  enjoyed  greater  renown 
as  a  manual  among  the  scholastics.  First  pub- 
lished in  Ferrara  in  1472  (an  edition  now  very 
rare),  it  passed  through  twoscore  editions  with 
many  commentaries.  Sacrobosco's  work  on  arith- 
metic, Tractatus  de  Arte  Numerandi  (printed 
without  place  and  date),  variously  called  Opus- 
culum  de  Praxi  Numerorum  quod  Algorismum 
vacant  (1510)  and  Algorismus  Domini  Joannisde 
Sacra  Bo8co  (1523),  contains  the  nine  Hindu 
digits  and  the  zero.  He  also  wrote  De  Anni  Ror 
tione  (1550).  Consult:  Enestrom  on  Sacrobos- 
co's  arithmetic,  in  Bihliotheca  Mathematica 
(1894);  Halliwell,  "Tractatus  de  Arte  Nume- 
randi," in  Rara  Mathematica  (London,  1839). 

SAGBTTM  (Lat.,  sacred),  or  Os  Sacbum.  A 
triangular  bone  situated  at  the  lower  part  of 
the  vertebral  column  (of  which  it  is  a  natural 
continuation),  and  wedged  between  the  two  in- 
nominate bones  so  as  to  form  the  keystone  to  the 
pelvic  arch.  It  is  readily  seen  to  consist  of 
five  vertebrae  with  their  bodies  and  processes,  all 
consolidated  into  a  single  bone.  Its  anterior 
surface  is  concave,  not  only  from  above  down- 
ward, but  also  from  side  to  side.  The  posterior 
surface  is  convex,  and  presents,  in  the  middle 
vertical  line,  a  crest,  formed  by  the  fusion  of 
the  spines  of  the  vertebrie,  of  which  the  bone  is 
composed.  The  last  sacral  vertebra  has,  how- 
ever, no  spine,  and  the  termination  of  the  ver- 
tebral canal  is  here  very  slightly  protected. 

SACT,  s&'s^,  Antoine  Isaac,  Baron  Silvestre 
de  (1758-1838).  One  of  the  greatest  of  French 
Orientalists.  He  was  born  in  Paris,  began  the 
study  of  Hebrew  at  the  age  of  tyelve,  and  gradu- 
ally acquired  an  extensive  knowledge  of  Semitic 
and  Iranian  languages.  Being  intended  for  the 
civil  service,  he  studied  law,  and  in  1781  was  ap- 
pointed counselor  of  the  mint.  In  1785  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Academic  des  Inscrip- 
tions, and  rendered  valuable  service  as  member 
of  a  committee  to  publish  unedited  manuscripts 
in  the  royal  library.  During  the  Revolution  he 
lost  his  position.  He  had  already  begun  the 
decipherment  of  the  Pehlevi  inscriptions  of  the 
Sassanian  kings,  and  in  1793  published  his  His- 
toire  de  la  dynastie  des  Sassanides,  translated 
from   the   Persian,  with   four  dissertations.     In 


8ACY. 


292 


SADDTICEES. 


1796  he  was  appointed  profesBor  of  Arabic  in  the 
newly  founded  Ecole  des  Langues  Orientales,  in 
Paris.  In  1806  he  became  also  professor  of  Per- 
sian at  the  Collie  de  France,  and  in  1808  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Corps  L^islatif .  He  was 
given  the  title  of  Baron  in  1813,  and  in  1832 
became  a  peer  of  France.  With  Abel  B^musat 
he  founded  the  Soci6t6  Asiatique  in  1822.  De 
Sacy  greatly  furthered  the  study  of  Arabic  by 
his  text-books:  Qrammaire  arabe  (1810;  2d  ed. 
1831);  Chrestomathie  arahe  (1806;  2d «  ed. 
1826),  and  its  supplement,  Anthologie  grammati' 
cole  arabe  (1829).  Other  noteworthy  works 
were:  Principea  de  grammaire  g^n&rale  (1799; 
8th  ed.  1852) ;  a  translation  of  Abd  ul-Latif's 
Egypt  with  notes  (1810);  an  edition  of  the 
Arabic  book  of  fable,  CaUla  et  Dinma  ( 1816) ,  and 
of  Farid-ud-din  Attar's  Pendndme,  with  transla- 
tion and  an  Arabic  preface  written  by  himself 
(1819) ;  Memoirs  d'histoire  et  de  littirature  ort- 
entalea  (1818),  the  Makamdt  of  Hariri  (1822; 
2d  ed.  1847-53)  ;  Expose  de  la  religion  des  Druzea 
(1838).  There  are  biographies  of  De  Sacy  by 
Reinaud  (Paris,  1838)  and  H.  Derenbourg  (ib., 
1895). 

SADDLE  HOTJNTAIK.  The  culminating 
group  of  the  Taconic  Mountains  in  northwestern 
Massachusetts.  The  highest  peak  is  Mount  Grey- 
lock,  3533  feet,  the  loftiest  mountain  in  the 
State. 

SADDLEBY  (from  saddle,  AS.  aadol,  OHG. 
satalf  aatulf  Qer.  Sattel,  perhaps  a  Slavic  loan- 
word, cf.  OOhurch  Slav,  aedlo,  saddle;  ultimate- 
ly connected  with  Skt.  aad,  Gk.  I^tfot,  hezeathai, 
Lat.  aedere,  OChurch  Slav,  a^ati,  Goth,  aitan,  AS. 
aittan,  OHG.  aizzen,  Grer.  aitzen,  to  sit).  The 
general  furniture  of  horses. 

An  ordinary  harness  consists  of  leather  straps, 
simple  or  padded,  and  of  the  various  rings  and 
buckles  with  which  these  straps  are  united  and 
fastened.  With  the  invention  of  the  leather- 
sewing  machine,  the  process  of  making  harness 
has  been  greatly  simplified.  In  general  the  parts 
of  a  harness  are:  Crown,  blinders,  throat-latch, 
front,  cheek-piece,  nose-band,  bit,  curb,  check,  and 
reins;  the  saddle,  to  which  the  terrets  or  rings 
are  attached  through  which  the  reins  pass  and 
to  which  the  check-rein  is  also  attached;  the 
crupper,  a  strap  to  secure  the  saddle  in  place, 
passing  over  the  back  of  the  animal  and  around 
its  tail ;  the  collar ;  the  hames,  which  are  fastened 
to  the  collar;  the  hame-link  and  the  hame-strap, 
to  which  the  traces  are  fastened ;  the  pole-strap ; 
the  martingale,  a  strap  to  hold  the  horse's  head 
down,  which  runs  from  the  belly-band  between 
the  front  legs  to  the  bit  or  nose-band;  the  belly- 
band  turn-back;  the  trace- tug,  a  loop  depending 
from  the  saddle,  which  in  a  single  harness  sup- 
ports the  shaft  and  in  a  double  harness  the  tug; 
the  traces,  sometimes  also  called  tugs,  which 
connect  the  collar  with  the  swingletree;  the  hip- 
strap  ;  and  the  breeching,  or  strap  passing  around 
the  buttocks  of  the  animal  and  attached  to  the 
shafts  or  pole,  to  enable  him  to  back  the  vehicle 
or  hold  it  back  on  a  down  grade. 

The  earliest  known  saddles  were  those  which 
have  been  found  in  Egypt,  which  were  not  used 
for  riding,  but  as  the  part  of  a  draught  harness 
which  bears  the  load.  Probably  to  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  as  to  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans, 
equestrian  saddles  were  unknown.  The  fore- 
runner of  the  saddle  was  the  pad  or  saddle-cloth. 


which  was  secured  to  the  horse's  bock  by  one, 
two,  or  three  girths.  These  seats,  howeyer 
elaborately  padded,  differed  from  the  true  saddle 
in  having  no  tree.  Saddles  with  trees  did  not 
come  into  use  among  the  Romans  till  about  the 
fourth  century  ▲.d.  Stirrupa  did  not  come  into 
use  till  three  centuries  later.  Previously  the 
rider  mounted  from  a  horse-block,  or  with  the 
aid  of  his  spear,  and  the  Roman  cavalry  were 
subject  to  various  ills  caused  by  having  their 
legs  hanging  for  hours  from  the  horse's  back. 
Side  aaddlea  were  introduced  as  early  as  the 
twelfth  century.  They  were  developed  from  the 
pillion  or  pad  on  which  a  lady  rode  sidewise 
behind  her  husband  and  steadied  herself  by  hold- 
ing onto  his  belt.  The  present  type  of  side  saddle 
seems  to  have  come  into  vogue  about  1650,  but 
the  third  pommel  or  leaping  horn,  by  which  a 
firm  grip  is  secured,  did  not  appear  till  1830. 

The  saddles  of  different  periods  and  among 
various  nations  differ  much  in  their  form  and 
construction.  The  parts  of  a  saddle  are:  the 
tree  or  foundation,  consisting  of  the  pommel  or 
horn-like  projection  at  the  front  of  the  saddle, 
the  cantle  or  hind-bow,  and  the  side  bars;  the 
padding,  which  is  sometimes,  as  in  the  McClellan 
saddle,  entirely  omitted;  the  skirts,  seat,  and 
girth;  the  stirrups,  which  are  attached  to  the 
side  bars;  the  crupper,  which  is  attached  to  the 
cantle.  The  tree  is  usually  of  wood,  although  in 
the  French  cavalry  saddle  it  is  of  iron.  It  is 
fastened  together  with  tenons  and  mortises  and 
secured  by  a  covering  of  canvas  or  rawhide, 
which  is  tacked  on  wet  and  then  allowed  to 
shrink.  The  outer  covering  is  usually  of  pigskin. 
Besides  the  saddle  for  horses,  there  are  specially 
constructed  saddles  for  other  draught  animals,  as 
oxen,  camels,  and  elephants.  The  packsaddle  is 
shaped  to  hold  securely  the  largest  possible  load. 
To  mcrease  its  capacity  panniera  are  sometimes 
added. 

SAD^LEWOBTH.  A  woolen-manufacturing 
town  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  England, 
11  miles  southwest  of  Huddersfield.  Population, 
in  1891,  13,475;  in  1901,  12,300. 

SADDTTGEES  (Gk.  XadSovKotoi,  Saddoukaioi, 
from  Heb.  ^addCJ^im) .  The  conservative  and  aris- 
tocratic party  in  the  late  Jewish  commonwealth. 
The  name  is  now  generally  derived  from  Zadok, 
high  priest  in  Solomon's  reign,  from  whom  the 
later  high-priestly  line  was  derived,  and  whose 
descendants,  'the  sons  of  Zadok,'  according  to 
Ezekiel's  programme,  were  the  only  legitimate 
priests.  (See  Levite;  Pbiestb.)  Although  this 
narrow  restriction  to  the  line  of  Zadok  was  not 
finally  maintained,  this  family  was  the  ^reat 
majority  in  the  later  priesthood  and  formed  its 
aristocratic  and  controlling  element.  This  ety- 
mology agrees  with  the  actual  character  of  the 
Sadducees,  who  were  the  party  of  the  priestly 
aristocracy  as  over  against  the  democratic  Phari- 
sees (q.v.).  The  sharp  distinction  between  the 
two  was  not  made  till  the  time  of  the  Asmonean 
house  in  the  second  century  B.C.,  but  its  origins 
go  back  to  the  fifth  century,  when,  as  we  see  in 
the  book  of  Ezra-Nehemiah,  a  division  began  to 
arise  between  the  priests  who  were  the  ministers 
of  the  cultus  and  hence  a  privileged  and  conserva- 
tive class,  and  the  Scribes  (q.v.),  who,  although 
loyal  to  the  cult  and  its  ministers,  were  never- 
theless interested  in  making  the  law  the  rule  of 
life  for  the  whole  people.     The  Maccabean  or 


SADDTTGEBS. 


29d 


SADL 


Asmonean  house  (see  Maccabees)  was  itself  of 
priestly  origin,  but  accomplished  its  work 
through  the  help  of  the  patriotic  and  religious 
party,  which  now  came  to  the  fore.  But  the 
ambition  and  worldly  interests  of  this  dynasty, 
wfiich  united  in  itself  the  high-priesthood  and 
the  monarchy,  soon  alienated  the  rigorous  or 
Pharisaic  party,  and  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
reign  of  John  Hyrcanus  (b.c.  135-105)  the  Court 
allied  itself  with  the  conservative  priestly  aris- 
tocracy. With  this  reign  the  distinction  between 
the  two  parties  as  such  began,  and  the  remainder 
of  the  Maccabean  history  is  characterized  by  the 
atmggle  between  the  two  parties. 

Pompey's  destruction  of  Jewish  independence 
gave  the  final  advantage  to  the  Pharisees,  but  the 
Sadducees,  through  their  wealth  and  position, 
still  remained  a  strong  element,  although  small 
and  divorced  from  popular  sympathy.     It  is  a 
mistake  to  regard  them  as  diametrically  opposed 
to  the  Pharisees.    The  latter  were  the  party  of 
keen  religious  development;  the  Sadducees  were 
those  who  hung   back   from   religious   advance 
through  motives  of  conservatism,  caste  and  cul- 
ture. Hence  in  the  theological  differences  between 
these  parties,  the  Sadducees  stood  closer  to  the 
Old  Testament,  while  their  opponents  went  far 
beyond  the  theology  of  the  Canon.     The  chief 
difterences  were  these:     The  Sadducees  did  not 
believe  in  the  resurrection  of  the  flesh  (cf.  Matt, 
xxii.  23  sqq.),  or  in  the  existence  of  spirits  and 
angels  (cf.  Acts  xxiii.  8),  in  opposition  to  the 
huge  development  of  Pharisaic  angelology.    Jose- 
phus  also  records  that  they  denied  Providence, 
while  the  Pharisees  were  predestinarian,  and  this 
is  an  indication  of  the  comparative  religious  in- 
difference of  the  party  and  perhaps  also  of  Greek 
Influence.    The  view  that  the  Sadducees  accepted 
only  the  Pentateuch  is  an  error,  although  it  is 
probable   that  they   did  not  assign   much   au- 
thority to  the  later  books  as  an  integral  part  of 
the  Canon.     The  chief  sources  of  knowledge  for 
these  parties  are  the  New  Testament  and  Jose- 
phus;   the  former  vividly   represents  the  acute 
differences  between  the  two    (cf.  Acts  xxiii.   6 
sqq.),  but  withal  shows  how  the  two  could  work 
together,  as  in  the  trial  of  Jesus  and  the  perse- 
cution of  the  Christian  Church  (cf.  Acts  v.  17). 
The  Sadducees  have  left  no  literary  productions. 
The  classic  study  of  the  subject  is  Wellhausen, 
Pharisaer  und   Sadduoder    ( Grief swiald,    1874). 
Consult  also :  SchQrer,  History  of  the  Jewish  Peo- 
ple in  the  Time  of  Jesus  Christ   (Eng.  trans., 
Edinburgh,  1886-90)  ;  Derenboure,  Histoire  de  la 
Palestine   (Paris,   1868) ;    Edersheim,   lAfe  and 
Times  of  Jesus  (London,  1896) .    See  Phasisebb. 
8ADELBB,  s&Me-lSr.     A  Flemish  family  of 
engravers,  the  best-known   of   whom   were   the 
following:    Jan    the   Elder    (1550-C.1610),   who 
was  bom  at  Brussels,  worked  at  Mainz,  Cologne, 
Frankfort,  and    Munich,    and    then    settled    in 
Venice,  where  he  diod.    Of  his  work,  numbering 
more  than  200  plates,  the  portraits  were  the 
most  meritorious  part. — Raphael    (1561-1628), 
bom  at  Brussels,  was  a  pupil  of  Jan,  and  ac- 
companied him  to  Germany  and  Venice;  thence 
he  returned  to  Munich  in  1604,  to  execute  the 
engravings  for  Bavaria  Sancta  et  Pia,  an  exten- 
sile publication,  completed  in  1618.    One  of  his 
principal  works,  which  has  become  very  rare,  was 
'The  Battle  of  Prague"  (1620),  in  eight  plates. 
— E6IDIU8   (1570-1629),   eneraver   and   painter, 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  the  most  talented  of 


the  family,  was  born  at  Antwerp,  accompanied 
his  uncles  on  their  travels,  was  called  to  Prague 
by  Rudolph  II.  and  continued  there  in  high  favor 
also  under  Rudolph's  successors,  Matthias  and 
Ferdinand  II.  His  plates  after  Italian,  Dutch, 
and  Flemish  masters,  his  own  compositions,  and 
many  excellent  portraits  number  more  than  400. 
A  series  of  52  plates  on  the  Roman  Antiquities, 
Yestigi  della  antihdtii  in  Roma  (1606),  was  al- 
ways held  in  great  esteem,  and  two  very  rare 
plates  represent  the  "Interior  of  Vladislav  Hall 
in  the  Burg  at  Prague"  (1607).  His  painting 
of  the  "Martyrdom  of  Saint  Sebastian"  is  in  the 
Vienna  Museum. 

SA  DE  lOBANDA,  sft  dA  m«-raN^d&,  Fran- 
cisco OB  (c.  1495- 1 558).  A  Portuguese  poet,  who 
wrote  in  Spanish  also.  He  was  born  in  Coimbra, 
studied  law  at  Lisbon,  traveled  in  Spain  and 
Italy,  and  gave  up  all  chance  of  advancement  at 
Court  or  on  the  bench  to  devote  himself  to  poetry. 
Save  for  a  few  of  his  pastorals,  all  his  work  bears 
the  impress  of  the  Italian  school,  and  he  is  ranked 
first  of  the  'Petrarchists'  in  Spain  and  Portugal. 
Of  his  eight  eclogues,  six  are  in  Spanish,  and 
only  two  in  Portuguese.  As  an  innovator  in  the 
drama  he  was  unsuccessful,  his  plays  arousing 
no  popular  interest.  His  complete  works,  pub- 
lished first  at  Lisbon  in  1595,  were  often  reprint- 
ed; the  best  edition  is  that  of  1885  at  Halle,  with 
biography  by  Karoline  Michaelis-Vasconcellos. 

SADI,  8&M6  (Pers.  Ba' di)  (c.lI84-c.l291). 
One  of  the  great^t  of  Persian  poets,  whose  full 
name  was  Musharrif-ud-din  ibn  Muslih-ud-din 
Abdallah  Sadi.  He  was  bom  at  Shiraz  about 
1184.  The  career  of  Sadi  may  be  divided  into 
three  periods,  of  which  the  first  extended  from 
1190  to  1226.  These  were  years  of  study,  which 
were  spent  in  Bagdad,  whither  he  had  been  sent 
by  the  Atabeg  prince.  Sad  ibn  Zengi,  and  it  was 
then  that  he  came  under  the  influence  of  Suflism 
(q.v.).  The  dethronement  of  his  patron  by  the 
Mongols  in  1226  drove  Sadi  forth  on  a  series  of 
wanderings  which  lasted  until  1256.  This  period 
of  thirty  years  forms  the  second  epoch  in  his  life. 
In  Delhi  he  learned  Hindustani,  in  which  he  com- 
posed a  few  poems,  and  went  thence  to  Yemen, 
after  which  he  visited  Abyssinia,  returning  be- 
fore long  to  Arabia.  After  performing  the  pil- 
grimage to  Mecca  several  times,  he  resided  at 
Damascus  and  Baalbek,  and  finally  dwelt  as  a 
hermit  in  the  desert  near  Jerusalem.  Here  he 
was  made  captive  by  a  scouting  party  of  Crusad- 
ers, and  was  forced  to  menial  drudgery,  until  he 
was  recognized  by  a  friend  at  Aleppo  and  ran- 
somed, i  The  poet  married  the  daughter  of  his 
deliverer,  but  the  union  was  an  unhappy  one,  and 
Sadi  resumed  his  wandering  life.  He  traveled 
first  through  Northern  Africa  and  then  through 
Asia  Minor,  returning  at  last  to  his  native  city, 
where  the  Atabeg  Abu  Bekr  ibn  Sad,  the  son  of 
his  old  patron,  ruled.  Here  he  spent  the  last 
and  most  important  period,  from  1256  until  his 
death,  about  1291.  Within  a  year  after  his  return 
to  Shiraz  he  had  composed  his  BOsUln  or  Fruit- 
Garden  (also  called  the  Ba*dlfMmah  or  Book  of 
Sadi),  a  didactic  poem  in  ten  cantos  which  deal 
respectively  with  ethics,  justice,  beneficence,  love, 
humility,  devotion,  contentment,  culture,  grati- 
tude, and  repentance.  The  same  general  plan 
characterizes  his  more  popular  book,  the  Qulisti^n 
or  Rose-Garden,  which  was  written  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  and  which  still  enjoys  the  utmost  es- 


SADL 


294 


SADTLEB. 


teem  in  Persia.  It  is  divided  into  eight  'gates/ 
which  symbolize  the  eight  doorways  of  Paradise, 
and  which  treat  of  the  customs  of  kings,  of  the 
morals  of  dervishes,  of  the  preciousness  of  con- 
tentment, of  the  benefit  of  silence,  of  love  and 
youth,  of  imbecility  and  old  age,  of  the  impres- 
sions of  education,  and  of  the  duties  of  society. 
The  lyric  poetry  of  Sadi  was  voluminous.  It 
comprised  Qa^idaa  or  eulogies,  both  in  Arabic  and 
in  Persian,  MathA^is  or  elegies,  highly  artificial 
Ohazals  or  sonnets,  the  S&hibbiyah  or  Book  of 
the  First  Minister,  forming  a  manual  of  state- 
craft, besides  quatrains  and  distichs,  and  the 
Mufayahat  or  Jests  (also  called  XabiBai  or  Fa- 
cetiae), which  are  obscene  in  character  and  were 
written  despite  their  author's  protest  at  the  com- 
mand of  his  patron.  The  editions  of  the  collected 
works  of  Sadi  usually  contain  also  six  (or  seven) 
prose  works  called  Riadlas  or  Missions,  at- 
tributed to  him,  which  are  ethico-didactic  in 
content.  A  Pand-ndmah  or  Book  of  Counsel, 
modeled  on  a  poem  of  Farid-ud-Din  'Attar  (q.v.), 
bearing  the  same  nan.o,  is  also  often  attributed 
to  him,  but  is  probably  spurious.  The  Kulliyat  or 
collected  works  of  Sadi  were  edited  by  Harring- 
ton (Calcutta,  1791-95),  and  have  been  repeat- 
edly published  in  the  East  both  with  and  with- 
out commentaries.  The  BUstAn  was  edited  by 
Graf  (Vienna,  1850),  and  translated  into  English 
by  Clarke  (London,  1879)  and  Davie  (ib.,  1882). 
The  Ouliatdn  was  edited  by  Eastwick  (Hertford, 
(1850),  Johnson  (ib.,  1863),  and  Platts  (London, 
1874).  It  was  the  earliest  of  all  Persian  litera- 
ture to  be  introduced  into  Europe,  being  trans- 
lated into  French  by  du  Ryer  in  1634.  English 
translations  have  been  made  by  Ross  (London, 
1823;  reprinted,  ib.,  1890),  Eastwick  (Hertford, 
1852;  new  ed.,  London,  1880),  Platts  (London, 
1873),  the  Kama  Shastra  Society  (Benares, 
1888),  and  Arnold  (London,  1899).  Partial 
editions  or  translations  of  his  lyric  poetry  have 
been  made  by  Barb  (Vienna,  1856),  Gudemann 
(Breslau,  1858),  Bacher  (Strassburg,  1879), 
and  Rttckert  (Berlin,  1893-94).  Consult:  Nfeve, 
Le  poete  Sadi  (Lquvain,  1881);  Eth6,  "Neu- 
persische  Litteratur,"  in  Geiger  and  Kuhn, 
Grundriss  der  iranischen  Philologie,  vol.  ii. 
(Strassburg,  1896). 

8ADI-GABK0T,  sA'd^  kAr'nY.    See  Cabnot. 

SADOiEB,  Sir  Ralph  (1507-87).  An  English 
diplomat.  He  was  born  at  Hackney,  near  Lon- 
don, received  a  classical  education,  became  early 
associated  with  Cromwell,  Earl  of  Essex,  and 
through  his  patronage  was  employed  by  Henry 
VIII.  in  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries,  and 
afterwards  on  diplomatic  missions  to  Scotland. 
He  was  knighted  for  his  gallantry  in  rallying 
the  repulsed  English  cavalry  at  the  battle  of 
Pinkie  in  1547,  and  was  named  in  the  King's 
will  one  of  the  12  councilors  to  the  commission 
of  16  nobles  to  whom  the  government  was  given. 
Elizabeth  called  him  to  the  Privy  Council ;  made 
him  a  jailer  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  at  Tutbury 
Castle,  and  after  her  execution  sent  him  in  1587, 
shortly  before  his  death,  on  a  mission  of  recon- 
ciliation to  James  Vl.  of  Scotland.  Consult  The 
State  Papers  and  Letters  of  Sir  Ralph  Sadler, 
Knight  Banneret,  edited  by  A.  Clifford,  with  bio- 
graphical memoir  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  (2  vols., 
London,  1809). 

SADLEB'S  WELLS  THEATBE,  A  theatre 
in  Clerkenwell,  London,  built  in  1764  and  recon- 


structed in  1876.  The  theatre  is  so  called  from  a 
previous  place  of  amusement  on  the.  site,  opened 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  by 
one  Sadler,  after  discovering  an  ancient  mineral 
well,  formerly  renowned  for  its  curative  proper- 
ties, but  long  choked  up. 

SADLIEB,  s&d^lSr,  Maby  Anne  (Maj>dek) 
(1820-1903).  A  Canadian  author,  bom  in  Goote- 
hill.  County  Cavan,  Ireland.  In  Canada  she  mar- 
ried in  1846  James  Sadlier.  She  translated  sev- 
eral devotional  works,  especially  De  T^ig^y's 
Life  of  the  Blessed  Virgin;  and  wrote  Irish  his- 
torical novels,  of  which  The  Confederate  Chief- 
tains  is  the  best  known,  and  such  novels  of  Irish 
immigrants  in  Canada  as  WUly  Burke  and 
Eleanor  Preston, 

SADOy  B&^d6.  A  Japanese  island  (latitude 
38"  N.,  longitude  138"  45'  E.)  off  the  western 
shore  of  the  main  island,  Hondo,  nearly  opposite 
Niigata  (Map:  Japan,  F  4).  It  is  335  square 
miles  in  extent.  Two  mountain  ranges,  from 
northeast  to  southwest,  with  a  cultivated  valley 
between  them,  constitute  the  island.  The  prin- 
cipal formation  is  limestone.  Chalk,  which  is 
rare  in  the  rest  of  Japan,  is  conunon  here.  The 
island  was  used  as  a  place  of  banishment  in  the 
past.  The  capital  is  Aikawa,  a  poor  town  with 
a  population  of  about  15,000.  The  chief  harbor  is 
Eleisu  Minato,  on  the  eastern  coast.  The  island 
belongs  administratively  to  the  Prefecture  of 
Niigata.    Population,  in  1898,  114,756. 

SADOWAy  8&M6-VA,  Battue  of.  The  name 
commonly  given  by  French  and  English  writers 
to  the  decisive  battle  of  the  Seven  Weeks'  War 
(q.v.),  fought  on  July  3,  1866,  and  known  to 
the  Germans  as  the  battle  of  Koniggriltz.  The 
Austrian  army,  with  the  Saxon  contingent  of 
21,000  men,  numbered  about  210,000,  under  the 
command  of  Benedek,  and  occupied  a  strong 
position  behind  the  Bistritz,  some  seven  or  eight 
miles  northwest  of  Kdniggrfttz.  The  Prussians 
numbered  about  221,000  men,  under  the  com- 
mand of  King  William  I.  of  Prussia,  who  di- 
rected the  fighting  from  a  hillock  near  the 
village  of  Sadowa.  At  8  o'clock  on  the 
morning  of  July  3d  the  Prussians  crossed  the 
Bistritz  and  the  First  Army  delivered  an  attack 
in  front  while  the  Second  Army  was  sent  to 
operate  against  the  enemy's  right.  The  Prussian 
centre  met  with  stubborn  resistance  and  after 
six  hours'  fighting  had  produced  no  effect  on  the 
Austrian  lines.  The  movement  on  the  left,  how- 
ever, had  succeeded,  and  soon  after  2  o'clock 
in  the  afternoon  the  Austrian  right  was  in  im- 
minent danger.  A  concerted  attack  by  the  Prus- 
sian left  and  centre  resulted  in  the  capture  of 
Chlum,  the  key  of  the  Austrian  position,  and  by 
4  o'clock  the  battle  had  been  decided,  though 
desperate  fighting  continued  until  after  night- 
fall. The  Austrians  and  Saxons  lost  more  than 
1450  officers  and  43,000  mei\  in  killed,  wounded, 
and  prisoners,  while  the  Prussian  loss  amounted 
to  360  officers  and  8800  men.  Consult  Jilhns, 
Die  Schlacht  hei  Koniggrdtz  (Leipzig,  1876). 

SADTLEB,  sAtl5r,  Samuil  Philip  ( 1847— ) . 
An  American  chemist,  bom  at  Pine  Grove,  Pa., 
and  educated  at  Pennsylvania  College  (class  of 
1867),  at  Lehigh  University,  at  Lawrence  Scien- 
tific School,  and  in  the  University  of  Gdttingen. 
He  was  professor  of  natural  science  in  Pennsyl- 
vania College  from  1871  to  1874,  professor  of 
chemistry  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and 


SABTLBK. 


295  SATES  AND  SAFE  DEPOSIT  VAtTLTa 


In  1878  was  appointed  to  a  like  chair  in  the 
Philadelphia  College  of  Pharmacy.  He  was 
chemical  editor  of  the  American  reprint  of  the 
Enqfclopcedia  Bnitannica,  became  chemical  edi- 
tor of  the  United  States  Dispensatory  in  1880, 
and  wrote  a  Hand-Book  of  Chemical  Experimen- 
tation ( 1877 ) ;  Industrial  Organic  Chemistry 
(1891);  and  Pharmaceutical  Chemistry  (with 
Coblentz,  1895). 

ftATAftfy,  sh&f^Ar-shlk,  Pavel  Josef  (1795- 
1861 ).  A  Slavic  philologist,  born  at  Kobeljarowo, 
Hungary,  and  educated  at  Kesmark  and  Jena. 
After  acting  for  two  years  as  a  private  tutor  at 
Pressburg,  he  became  in  1819  director  of  the 
Servian  gymnasium  at  Neusatz.  He  resigned 
this  post  in  1833  and  removed  to  Prague,  where 
be  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life.  From  1837 
tOl  1847  he  was  a  censor,  and  in  1841  became 
connected  with  the  library  of  Prague,  of  which 
he  was  appointed  librarian  seven  years  later, 
having  declined  calls  to  Moscow  and  to  both 
Breslau  and  Berlin.  He  accepted,  however,  in 
1848,  the  appointment  to  the  chair  of  Slavic 
philology,  founded  at  his  own  suggestion  in  the 
University  of  Prague,  but  resigned  it  in  the 
following  year.  In  1857  he  became  insane. 
Safarfk  was  a  prolific  author.  His  principal 
work  was  the  Slovansk^  Staroiitnosti  {Slavic 
Antiquities)  (1837;  2d  ed.  1863;  trans,  into 
German  1842-44).  Important  also  were  his  col- 
lection of  Slovak  folksong,  prepared  in  col- 
kboration  with  Kollar  and  others  (1823-27); 
Slowmsky  Ndrodopis  (Slavic  Ethnology)  (1842; 
3d  ed.  1849),  containing  a  chart  of  the  Slavic 
dialects;  Poddtkov^  staro6esk4  mluvnice  {Ele- 
ments  of  Old  Czech  Orammar)  ( 1846) ;  Oeschichte 
der  slawischen  Sprache  und  Litteratur  (1826; 
2d  ed.  1869)  ;  Die  aitesten  Denkmaler  der  hoh- 
misehen  Sprache  (in  collaboration  with  Palack^, 
1840)  ;  Olagolitische  Fragmente  (in  collaboration 
with  H5fler,  1857)  ;  Oeschichte  der  sUdslawischen 
Litteratur  (3  vols.,  ed.  by  Jire&k,  1864-66). 

SAFES^  s&'fSd^  A  city  in  Palestine,  situated 
on  a  mountain  2600  feet. high,  13  miles  north  by 
west  of  Tiberias  (Map:  Palestine,  G  2).  It  has 
ruins  of  a  huge  oval  castle  built  by  the  Crusaders 
in  the  twelfth  century.  There  is  a  college  for 
instruction  in  Hebrew  and  the  Talmud,  llie  in- 
dustries are  dyeing  and  the  manufacture  of 
cloth.  The  surrounding  coimtry  grows  grapes 
and  olives  abundantly.  Before  1837  Safed  was 
a  handsome  town.  In  that  year  it  was  partly  de- 
stroyed by  an  earthquake  and  more  than  4000 
persons  were  killed.  Population,  about  25,000, 
the  bulk  of  whom  are  Jews,  who  believe  that  the 
Messiah  will  make  Safed  his  capital. 

SAFES  AND  SAFE   DEPOSIT  VAULTS 

(OF.  sauf,  saulf,  salf,  Fr.  saufy  from  Lat.  salvus, 
safe,  whole;  connected  with  Skt.  sarva,  whole, 
entire).  The  first  attempt  to  make  a  fireproof 
safe  dates  from  about  1820  when  a  metal  box  was 
huat  in  Fiance  with  double  walls,  filled  be- 
tween with  a  non-conducting  composition.  A 
little  later  a  po-called  fireproof  safe  was  in- 
vented m  New  England.  It  was  built  of  oak 
planks,  three  or  four  inches  thick,  saturated 
'With  an  alkali,  covered  with  thin  sheets  of  iron 
and  Becared  with  many  bands  of  iron.  In  the  New 
York  conflagration  of  1835  hundreds  of  these 
safes  were  destroyed.  In  1843  a  fireproof  safe 
^ff^  patented  by  Edward   Fitzgerald  in  which 


plaster  of  Paris  was  the  non-conducting  mate- 
rial. To-day  safes  are  built  of  iron  or  steel  and 
the  packing  used  is  some  non-conducting  sub- 
stance, as  clay,  concrete,  or  plaster  of  Paris.  In- 
this  packing  either  ( 1 )  alum  or  some  other  salt 
which  when  exposed  to  heat  gives  off  large  quan- 
tities of  water  is  placed,  or  (2)  glass  or  metal 
vessels  filled  with  water,  are  so  arranged  in  the 
packing  as  to  give  off  steam  when  subjected  to 
great  heat.  The  contents  of  a  safe  cannot  be  in- 
jured by  fire  as  long  as  the  inner  chest  is  sur- 
rounded by  steam  at  212**  F.  It  is  essential  that 
there  be  sufficient  water  to  furnish  steam  through 
a  protracted  fire,  that  the  water  be  retained  un- 
til required  by  heat,  and  that  in  ordinary  use  the 
safe  be  free  from  dampness.  Substances  which 
contain  water  in  their  cnemical  composition  seem 
to  meet  these  requirements  more  satisfactorily 
than  water  itself. 

Security  against  burglary  is  procured  in  three 
different  ways:  (1)  by  the  'laminated*  construc- 
tion; (2)  by  the  use  of  blocks  of  chilled  iron,  a 
method  particularly  adapted  to  the  construction 
of  large  vaults,  rather  than  portable  safes;  (3) 
by  spherical  chilled  iron  safes.  In  the  laminated 
type  of  construction  the  chamber  designed  to  be 
burglar-proof  is  made  of  alternate  layers  of  soft 
and  tough  steel  or  iron,  and  of  plates  of  steel 
hardened  as  intensely  as  is  found  practicable; 
the  two  metals  being  laid  alternately,  one  over 
the  other  in  the  walls  of  the  chamber,  in  such 
manner  as  finally  to  constitute  as  nearly  as 
possible  a  single  mass.  The  idea  of  the  construc- 
tors is  to  insure  strength,  toughness,  and  per- 
manence of  form  by  the  use  of  the  softer  but 
more  ductile  material,  while  the  harder  and 
more  brittle  gives  a  certain  immunity  from  the 
dangers  of  attack  by  drilling  the  mass.  A  com- 
mon method  of  manufacture  is  to  alternate  three 
layers  of  iron  or  soft  steel  with  two  intermediate 
layers  of  steel  capable  of  taking  on  extreme 
hardness,  and  to  roll  them  down  together  hot  to 
form  one  finely  tempered  sheet  of  about  one-half 
an  inch  thick.  Composite  sheets  of  this  sort 
are  then  built  into  the  walls  of  the  safe  or  vault, 
alternating  with  heavy  one-half  inch  iron  or  steel 
plates.  Sometimes,  instead  of  steel,  a  material 
made  from  franklinite  ore  found  in  Sussex 
County,  X.  J.,  is  used.  This  material  is  said  to 
be  harder  than  the  hardest  tempered  steel.  In 
safe  construction  joints  are  avoided  as  much  as 
possible  and  rounding  comers  used. 

The  weak  point  in  ordinary  safe  construction 
is  the  door,  with  its  lock-spindle  and  jambs.  To 
do  away  with  a  key-hole,  the  *time  lock'  has  been 
introduced  (see  Lock),  and  various  contrivances 
have  been  adopted  to  secure  so  tight  a  joint 
about  the  door  that  it'  is  impenetrable  Iwth  for  tools 
and  for  the  liquid  explosives  so  commonly  used 
by  burglars.  Sometimes  an  air-tight  packing  is 
interposed  between  the  jambs  and  their  abut- 
ments. In  certain  safes  a  screw  door  is  used.  In 
others  the  doors  are  made  with  a  set  of  dovetails, 
engaging  with  the  corresponding  parts  of  the 
jamb. 

In  the  second  and  third  types  of  safes,  instead 
of  a  series  of  sheets,  constituting  a  built  up 
structure,  a  single  mass  of  metal  is  used.  The 
two  qualities  of  toughness  and  hardness  are  ob- 
tained by  modifying  the  character  of  the  metal, 
from  inside  to  outside.  The  metal  employed  is  a 
peculiar  grade  of  iron,  found  in  certain  locali- 
ties, both  in  the  East  and  West  of  the  United 


8AS1S8  AKD  SASH  DEPOSIT  VATTLTa   296  8AFfiTY-LAHP. 

States,  and  much  used  in  car-wheel  construction,  of  the  workmen.  Their  height  is  usually  below 
Although  naturally  soft,  and  easily  wrought,  its  the  average,  their  bodies  are  weak  and  ansemic. 
surface  can  be  rendered  exceedingly  hard  by  !E)ventualIy  the  average  length  of  life  is  short- 
sudden  cooling;  hence  its  name  'chilled  iron/  ened.  Roh6  gives  the  following  statement  show- 
Certain  vaults  are  made  of  masses  of  blocks  of  ing  the  average  length  of  life  in  Massachusetts: 
chilled  iron,  of  great  size  and  weight,  and  with  Teare 

ingenious   and   curiously   arranged   rabbets   and    Factory  workers 88.3 

dovetailed  connections  of  block  with  block.     The    Craftsmen M.8 

external  surfaces  of  these  blocks  are  chilled  to  a     Worklngmen  wlthont  any  dellnlte  vocation «.4 

hardness  impenetrable  by  a  chisel  or  ordinary       *"n®™- •■ 

drill.    The  blocks  weigh  from  three-fourths  of  a  Among  the  most  important  safety  appliances 

ton  to  several  tons  and  are  secured  by  an  elabo-  are  those  designed  to  protect  workmen  from  viti- 

rate  system  of  bolting,  on  the  inside.    The  door  ated  air.    Ordinary  deterioration  resulting  from 

is  a  single  casting  of  iron,  two  inches  thick,  and  exhalation,  or  from  illumination,  can  be  avoided 

weighing  five  tons  or   more.     It  is   chilled  on  by  ventilation.   Special  appliances  are  necessary  to 

the  exterior  and  slides  on  anti-friction  rollers  guard  against  dust  and  gases.    Of  many  arrange- 

into  a  deep  recess  in  the  vault  wall.  ments  for  the  removal  of  noxious  gases,  fans  and 

In  the  third  type,  invented  by  William  Corliss,  hoods  are  among  the  most  effective.     In  many 

of  Corliss  engine  fame,  the  safe  consists  of  a  smelting  rooms  sheet-metal  hoods  are  used,  which 

spherical  shell,  from  four  to  seven  inches  thick,  can  be  moved  vertically  and  are  connected  with 

chilled   on   its   surface   about  two   inches   deep,  the  chimney  by  pipes.     When  material  is  melted 

Within  this  shell  is  a  'bugging,*  composed  of  a  hoods  are  let  down  to  cover  the  smelting  kettles, 

set  of  cast-iron  segments  of  sufficient  thickness  Mechanical  stirrers  are  used  to  obviate  the  neces- 

to  permit  the  passing  into  them,  in  holes  cast  for  sity  of  workmen  standing  over  the  kettles.    Dust 

that  purpose,  of  a  set  of  tool-steel  rods,  hardened  in  its  several  forms — metallic,  mineral,  vegetable. 

as  hard  as  fire  and  water  can  make  them,  and  animal,  and  mixed — is  removed  by  exhausters,  or 

lying  loosely  in  their  places.     It  is  supposed  that  laid  by  water-sprayers.     In  especially  dangerous 

a  drill,  striking  one  of  them,  will  be  unable  to  industries  workmen  are  provided  with  respirators 

penetrate  the  metal,  and  the  rod,  turning  under  — ^usually  in  the  form  of  a  sponge  or  cloth  worn 

it,  will  simply  break  the  drill.    The  door  of  this  over  the  mouth.     Workmen  can  be  protected  from 

safe  consists  of  a  sphere  or  an  oblate  spheroid  injuries  resulting  from  the  character  of  materials 

of  iron,  also  chilled  on  its  exposed  face,  hollowed  handled.     Impermeable  gloves  and  shoes  can  be 

out  to  receive  the  locks  and  attachment  of  the  provided  against  hot  liquid.     Dangerous  machin- 

bolting  system,  and  fitted  into  the  doorway,  which  ery  can  be  fenced.     Consult  Doehring,  "Factory 

is  simply  a  circular  orifice  in  the  outer  shell,  by  Sanitation   and   Labor   Protection,"  Bulletin   of 

exactly  turned  and  faced  stepped  joints.     The  DepartmeTU  of  Labor,  No,  H. 

perts  that  with  sufficient  time  and  good  tooU  ^^\^?^°*  Y^'?^  «'  protect<^d  by  Mr, re  gau«, 

ind  other  material   it  is  possible  to>netrate  Z.^^^*J^%TtT  l^J''^^T^^..f^  hi 

probably  all  forms  of  safes     This,  however,  does  g^'4"^Ju„^^Ji^  ^V.   'C^' ,i"Zr  U^^^f 

Sot  destroy  their  usefulness,  as  raiely  if  ever  is  f'' ^'^P''^  ^  ZS  ««5  -^H    i,  ^^ 

sufficient  time  at  the  disposal  of  the  burglar,  f"^^  71^^  ^t  «!««'"«*»"»«  8"»»«'  »?1^"  P'**" 

while  tools  of  the  requisitS  quality,  high  elplo-'  ^^f-  ^iJ^'f^  ^f^^}'  !'*";!'„ ''rtl/'J^n' 

sives  and  other  materials  are^sually  beyond  his  l^^^^^l'rl^  ?s  a^lte^h^'  foTsutJen^^  ^h^ 

V^aults  are  simply  lar^r  safes  constructed  U.  {.^-Pp^^J^  rroLTlJily.^.^';!  l^^Te  ^Z.t 

the  form  of  rooms  »«*«»*  °fP°'^W«_^°^««-  fs  trimmid  by  a  wire  bent  It  the  upper  end,  and 

This  permits  of  the  use  of  more  massive  material.  ^^^  ^^^^^'^  ^^^  ^^^^^  ^^  ^^^  VJ^      ^'^^^^ 

BiBUOGBAPHT.     The   report   of   a   commission  ^^^      ^^  ^^  n„<.  ^  removed  for  thU  process, 

of  experts  appointed  by  the   Secretery  of  the  y^^l  ^  ^^^^^^  ^         „jf  y^is  kind  is  introduced 

Treasury  (Washington,  1894)  contains  an  inter-  ^^^  ^^  explosive  mixture  of  air  and  flre-damp, 

esting  account  of  exj^riments  with  high  explo-  ^^^^  ^^^  j^  ^^  gradually  to  enlarge  as  the  pro- 

sives  made  on  the  different  safes  manufactured  ^j^,^  ^^  light  carbureted  hydrogen  increases, 

in  the  United  States.    The  tests  were  made  by  ^^^ji  ^^  j^g^'it  flu^  y,^  ^^^^^^  ^^  cylinder. 

Prof.  Chas.  E    Munroe  and  Lieut    Sam  1  Rod-  whenever  this  pale,  enlarged  flame  is  seen  the 

man,  Jr     U.S    Army.     See  also  the  article  by  ^^j^^^  ^^^^^jj  ^^     ^  to  a  place  of  safety,  for, 

Heniy  W    Chubb,  on  "Locks  and  Safes,     pub-  although  no  explosion  can  occur  while  the  gauze 

hihed  m  the  JmtTMl  of  the  Society  of  ArtB{Jj>ii-  ^  ^^^^^       ^  ^^  ^  ^j^  temperature  the  metal 

don,  Apnl  14,  1893).    Also  the  chapter  on    Amer-  y^^jj^^g  „pidly  oxidized,  and  might  easily  break; 

ican  Safe  Works,"  by  Wm.  B.  Marvin,  in  Depew.  ^^^  ^  ^j    j^  aperture  of  sufficient  size  would  then 

One  Hundred  Years  of  Amertcan  Commerce  (New  ^^^^i^j^  ^  destructive  explosion.    Sir  Humphry 

York.  1896).  Davy's  claim  as  an  original  discoverer  was  im- 

SAFETT    APPLIANCES.      Methods    and  mediately  challenged  by  various  persons,  among 

mechanisms  used  to  insure  workmen  against  bod-  whom  may  be  especially  noticed  Dr.  Reid  Clanny, 

ily  harm.    With  the  multiplication  of  factories  of    Newcastle,    and    the    great   engineer    George 

and  the  increasing  use  of  machinery,  the  necessity  Stephenson.    Clanny's  safety-lamp  was  based  on 

of  safeguarding  the  conditions  under  which  labor  the  principle  of  forcing  air  through  water  by  bel- 

.  is  performed  has  become  a  vital  one  to  the  pub-  lows ;   but  the  machine  was  ponderous  and  com- 

lic  as  well  as  to  the  workmen.     The  result  of  plicated,  and  required  a  boy  to  work  it.     In  later 

long-continued  labor  in  industries  not  properly  forms  of  the  Clanny  lamp  the  bellows  was  omit- 

safeguarded  manifests  itself  upon  the  physique  ted  and  a  glass  cylinder  was  used  to  surround 


aASETY-LAXP. 


297 


SATTLOWEB.. 


tiie  flame,  while  there  was  a  wire  gauze  cylinder 
above.  Stephenson's,  familiarly  called  the  OeoT' 
dy  lamp,  was  actually  in  use  at  the  Killing- 
worth  mines.  In  its  general  principle  it  was  the 
same  as  Davy's,  the  main  difference  heing  that 
the  Stephenson  lamp  had  a  glass  cylinder  be- 
sides the  gauze  one,  to  re- 
sist strong  currents  of  air, 
and  that  glass  without 
gauze  is  not  safe  from  frac- 
ture. In  the  Gray  lamp, 
which  is  considered  one  of 
the  best  safety-lamps,  the 
air  enters  at  the  top  and 
passes  down  through  four 
tubes  and  then  a  strip  of 
gauze  before  reaching  the 
flame.  The  products  of 
combustion  pass  up  a  cylin- 
drical chimney,  which  is  of 
smaller  diameter  half  way 
to  the  top  in  order  to 
avoid  down  currents  and 
to  keep  the  air  near  the 
burner  as  vitiated  as  pos- 
sible and  thus  retard  com- 
bustion. In  the  French  and 
Belgian  collieries  Mueseler's 
lamp  is  in  almost  universal 
use,  and  it  is  also  employed 
in  England  and  America. 
It  consists  of  a  glass  cylin- 
der inunediately  around  the 
flame,  and  of  wire  gauze 
above.  An  internal  metal 
chimney  opening  a  short 
distance  above  the  flame 
creates  a  strong  upward 
draught,  which  causes  the 
fr^d  air  to  pass  briskly 
down  from  the  wire  gauze,  and  so  keeps  the  glass 
cool  and  insures  thorough  combustion. 

In  connection  with  improvements  in  the  safety- 
lamp  various  devices  increase  its  safety  and  effi- 
ciency as  a  detector  of  the  presence  of  fire-damp. 
By  mechanical  arrangements  the  danger  of  the 
safety-lamp  being  converted  into  an  open-flame 
lamp  by  any  chance  or  mishap  is  obviated. 
In  nearly  every  instance  there  is  some  device  for 
locking  the  gauze  about  the  flame  after  the  lamp 
has  been  lighted.  This  is  done  to  prevent  by  any 
possibility  the  naked  flame  coming  in  direct  con- 
tact with  the  exterior  atmosphere,  and  the  lock- 
ing device  is  operated  either  by  a  key,  a  power- 
ful magnet,  or  compressed  air.  The  presence  of 
fire-damp  is  shown  by  an  elongation  of  the  flame 
of  the  lamp  and  the  formation  of  a  luminous  cap 
or  blue  flame,  which  increases  in  size  with  the 
amount  of  gas  present  in  the  atmosphere.  The 
miner  tests  for  the  gas  by  turning  his  flame 
down  to  a  point  where  it  is  practically  non- 
luminous  and  then  noting  the  size  of  the  cap. 
As  detectors  of  flre-damp  the  various  lamps  have 
been  ranked  aa  follows:  Gray,  Mueseler,  Mar- 
saut,  Morgan,  Davy,  and  Stephenson.  For  this 
special  purpose  lamps  have  been  devised  which 
burn  alcohol  or  some  other  substance  and  give  a 
sensitive  flame.  Of  these  the  Pieler  lamp,  which 
bums  alcohol,  is  one  of  the  simplest  arrange- 
ment, which  has  been  modified  by  Chesneau  in  a 
lamp  burning  methyl  alcohol  containing  cuprous - 
chloride,  which  indicates  the  gas  not  only  by  the 
cap,  but  by  the  changed  color  of  the  fiame.    The 


SATT  BAPKTT-LAMP. 


Claves  lamp  contains,  besides  a  luminous  flam« 
of  oil,  a  supply  of  compressed  hydrogen,  which 
is  burnt  at  a  small  jet  and  is  used  for  testing 
where  the  air  contains  less  than  three  per  cent, 
of  the  gas. 

The  use  of  electricity  has  become  very  gen- 
eral in  mines,  both  for  lighting  and  power,  and 
it  i^  obvious  that  the  incandescent  lamp,  as  it 
bums  in  vacuo,  and  is  perfectly  safe  in  an  at- 
mosphere of  any  gas,  however  explosive,  fur- 
nishes the  best  possible  means  of  illumination. 
The  only  objection  raised  against  the  incandes- 
cent lamp  for  mines  is  that  with  proper  insula- 
tion, suitable  wiring,  and  the  rough  usage  it  re- 
ceives, the  expense  of  the  light  is  very  large  in 
comparison  to  the  wire-gauze  lamp.  Portable 
electric  lamps  for  miners  are  also  used,  but  their 
use  has  never  been  widespread,  owing  to  the  diffi- 
culty of  carrying  a  battery  large  enough  to  sup- 
ply the  light  for  a  reasonable  time,  the  tendency 
to  get  out  of  order  with  rough  usage,  and  the 
high  cost  of  the  apparatus.  Consult  Graves  and 
Thorp,  Chemical  Technoloffy,  vol.  ii.  (Philadel- 
phia, 1805). 

SAVETY-VALVE.  A  circular  Talve  placed 
on  an  opening  in  the  top  of  a  steam  boiler,  and 
kept  in  its  place  either  by  weights  above  it,  by 
a  lever  of  the  second  order,  with  a  weight  capa- 
ble of  sliding  along  the  arm,  or  by  a  spring. 
In  stationary  engines  one  valve  is  frequently 
found  sufficient,  and  the  pressure  on  the  valve 
is  produced  in  the  first  or  second  of  the  meth- 
ods indicated  above.  In  locomotive  engines  (s«6 
Locomotive),  on  the  contrary,  there  are  always 
two  valves.  Whenever  the  tension  of  the  steam 
in  the  boiler  rises  above  a  certain  amount  <the 
weight  in  pounds  with  which  the  valve  is  held 
down  divided  by  the  area  in  inches  of  the  under- 
surface  as  exposed  to  the  steam),  the  Talve  is 
forced  upward  and,  the  pressure  on  the  boiler 
thus  relieved,  the  valve  sinks  to  its  place.  The 
only  precaution  necessary  is  to  be  sure  that  the 
valves  are  not  too  heavily  loaded  or  fastened. 
The  grate  surface  is  now  the  commonly  accepted 
unit  by  which  to  determine  the  size  of  the  safety- 
valve.  The  United  States  regulations  for  steam 
vessels  require  that  lever  safety-valves  shall  have 
an  area  of  not  less  than  one  square  inch  to  two 
square  feet  of  grate  surface  in  the  boiler,  and  this 
proportion  also  obtains  in  good  stationary  engine 
practice. 

BAFFly  a&i^U.  A  seaport  of  Morocco.  See 
Saw. 

SAFFLOWEB  (OP.  aaflor,  aafleurt  -from  Olt. 
safiiore,  aafiore,  from  Ar.  u^filr,  saflTower,  from 
8afril\  yellow,  infiuenced  by  popular  etymology 
with  Eng.  flower),  Oarthamua  iinetorius.  A 
branching  annual  plant  of  the  natural  order 
Composite,  two  or  four  feet  high,  with  dark 
orange  or  vermilion  fiowers.  It  is  a  native  of  In- 
dia, whence  it  probably  spread  to  Egypt  and  the 
Levant,  where  it  became  naturalized.  It  is  ex- 
tensively cultivated  in  Southern  Europe,  espe- 
cially France,  and  in  some  parts  of  South  Amer- 
ica, for  its  corollas,  which  are  picked  by  hand 
in  dry  weather,  dried  in  a  kiln,  and  formed  into 
small,  round  cakes  used  as  yellow  and  red  dyes. 
The  safflower  of  Persia  is  generally  esteemed  the 
best.  Safflower  is  sometimes  called  bastard  saf* 
fron,  and  is  used  to  adulterate  saffron.  The  yel- 
low coloring  matter  is  valueless  as  a  dyestuff, 
and  since  the  red  (carthamic  acid  or  carthamine) 


SAFFLOWEB. 


298 


SAGA. 


fades  with  light  and  age,  it  is  not  as  popular  as 
formerly.     Rouge  derives  its  color  from  safflower. 

SAT^OBD,  James  Merrill  (1822—).  An 
American  geologist,  born  at  Zanesville,  Ohio,  and 
educated  at  the  Ohio  University  and  at  Yale.  He 
was  professor  of  natural  sciences  at  Cumberland 
University,  Lebanon,  Tenn. ;  of  chemistry  in  the 
medical  department  of  the  University  of  J^ash- 
ville,  and  in  1875  was  made  professor  of  min- 
eralogy, botany,  and  economic  geology  at  Vander- 
bilt  University.  His  publications  include  A  Qe- 
oloffical  Recormoiaaance  of  the  State  of  Tennes- 
see (1856),  and  the  Oeology  of  Tennessee,  with  a 
map  of  the  State  (1869). 

SAPFOBD^  Truman  Henry  (1836-1901).  An 
American  astronomer,  born  in  Vermont,  and  edu- 
cated at  Harvard.  In  1863  he  was  made  assist- 
ant observer  at  the  Cambridge  Observatory,  and 
in  1865  became  director  of  that  at  Chicago.  He 
was  professor  of  astronomy  at  Williams  College 
(1876-99)  and  built  a  meridian  observatory  there. 
He  published  a  star  catalogue  and  a  catalogue  of 
right  ascensions  of   close   polar   stars.     Safford 

also  predicted  the 
position  of  the 
companion  of  Si- 
rius  (q.v.). 

SAPPBOK 
(OF.  safran,  saf- 
fran,  Fr.  safran, 
It.  zafferans,  Sp. 
asafran,  from  Ar. 
a^fan&n,  saffron, 
from  ^afrd*y  yel- 
low). A  bright 
yellow  flavoring 
and  coloring  ma- 
terial, consisting 
of  the  dried  stig- 
mas of  the  com- 
mon yellow  crocus 
( Crocus  sativus ) , 
the  bulbs  of  which 
were  introduced 
into  Europe  from 
Asia  Minor.  They 
are  largely  culti- 
vated in  Spain. 
Saffron  is  often 
employed  as  a 
perfume,  but  its 
chief  uses  in 
America  are  for  flavoring  and  coloring  confec- 
tionery and  culinary  articles.  Its  great  solubility 
in  water  prevents  its  use  as  a  dye  for  fabrics. 
See  Cbocus. 

SAFFBOK  WOOD.  A  South  African  timber 
tree.    See  ELi^ODENDRON. 

SAFI^  sa'f^,  or  SAFFI  (Arab.  Asfi,  or 
Asaffi).  A  seaport  on  the  northwest  coast 
of  Morocco,  102  miles  we»t-northwest  of 
the  city  of  that  name  (Map:  Africa,  D  1).  It 
was  at  one  time  the  chief  seat  of  the  trade  with 
Europe,  and,  though  it  has  declined  with  the 
rise  of  Mogador,  it  still  has  considerable  export 
trade,  chiefly  in  leather,  horses,  and  grain.  Popu- 
lation about  9,000. 

SAFTLEVEN,  sftft'lafen,  SAFTLEBEN, 
or  ZACHTLEVEN,  Cornelts  (1606-81).  A 
Ihitch  painter  and  etcher,  born  in  Rotterdam. 
Influenced  by  Brouwer  and  Teniers,  he  painted 


BAFFBON  {Crocus  S&livUB). 


guard  rooms,  rural  interiors,  and  landscapes  with 
figures  and  cattle,  characteristic  specimens  of 
which  may  be  seen  especially  in  the  Dresden 
Gallery,  while  others  are  in  the  Louvre,  in  Am- 
sterdam, Cologne,  Karlsruhe,  Brunswick,  Vienna, 
and  Saint  Petersburg.  His  etchings  are  held  in 
great  esteem. — Herman  (1609-85),  a  brother  and 
probably  pupil  of  the  preceding,  was  a  landscape 
painter  and  etcher,  who  formed  himself  chiefly 
by  studying  nature.  In  1633  he  went  from  Rot- 
terdam to  Utrecht,  where,  in  1655,  he  became 
head  of  the  painters'  guild.  His  views  on  the 
Rhine,  Meuse,  and  Moselle,  enlivened  with  figures 
and  animals,  are  distinguished  by  their  clear 
perspective,  and  a  soft  bluish  coloring.  The  Dres- 
den Gallery  possesses  seventeen  of  his  pictures 
on  a  small  scale,  executed  with  minute  delicacy, 
while  others  may  be  seen  in  most  of  the  principal 
galleries  of  Europe.  His  etchings,  about  38  in 
number  (1640-69),  include  a  portrait  of  himself 
and  rank  among  the  best  of  their  kind. 

SAGA,  s£L^g&.  The  capital  of  the  prefecture  of 
the  same  name  in  Japan,  situated  in  the  north- 
western part  of  the  island  of  Kiushiu,  82  miles 
hy  rail  northeast  of  Nagasaki  (Map:  Japan,  B  , 
7).  It  was  formerly  the  residence  of  the  lords 
of  Hizen,  whose  beautiful  park  is  a  feature  of 
the  town.    Population,  in  1898,  32,753. 

SAGA  (Icel.,  tale,  story,  history).  The  name 
applied  to  the  most  important  division  of  Ice- 
landic prose  literature.  This  form  of  literary 
production  was  developed  in  Iceland  alone,  and 
this  was  due  possibly  to  the  fact  that  the  fami- 
lies that  settled  there  were  men  in  whom  the 
talent  for  story-telling  was  inherent,  while  the 
long  period  of  gloom  and  semi-night  that  shrouds 
this  remote  island  the  greater  part  of  the  year 
evoked  this  form  of  instructive  amusement^ 
whereby  the  deeds  of  their  ancestors  and  even 
their  friends  were  related  in  attractive  form. 
Possibly  their  intercourse  with  the  Irish,  who 
even  before  the  eleventh  century  had  a  prose 
literature,  may  have  abetted  this  tendency. 

At  the  annual  gathering  at  the  Thing  in  Ice- 
land in  midsummer  old  sagas  were  told  and  ma- 
terial for  new  ones  was  often  gathered.  At  first 
the  sasas  were  merely  told  by  Sagnamenn  and 
kept  alive  in  the  hearts  and  minds  of  each  suc- 
ceeding generation  imtil  they  were  written  down, 
some  in  the  twelfth  century,  but  the  majority  in 
the  thirteenth.  The  written-  saga  has  used  the 
oral  saga  only  as  a  background,  inasmuch  as  it 
has  borrowed  certain  definite  data  and  genealo- 
gies, but  the  author  of  the  written  saga  has  been 
original  in  language,  in  characterization,  and 
in  dramatic  arrangement.  The  saga  has  its  fixed 
laws  and  set  phrases,  and,  although  there  is  a 
vast  difl'ercnce  in  style  among  the  sagas,  certain 
restrictions  are  as  clearly  adhered  to  as  in  verse. 
The  saga  rises  at  times  to  an  almost  epic 
grandeur  and  some  of  them  have  much  poetry 
interspersed  through  them.  The  simplest  form 
of  saga  was  the  )>fittr  and  the  frftsogn  or  frfisaga, 
the  former  of  which  was  mainly' some  stirring 
deed  or  episode  out  of  the  life  of  a  great  Ice- 
lander, and  the  latter  a  simple  narrative. 

The  sagas  are  divided  into  several  groups:  (1) 
Historical  sagas;  (2)  mythical  or  heroic  sagas; 
(3)  romantic  sagas.  Historical  sagas  are  sub- 
divided into  fslendingasogur  and  Konungcisogur. 
The  fslendingasogur  had  as  their  theme  the  life 
of  some  noted  Icelander.  They  frequently  began 
with  his  ancestry,  traced  it  down  through  him 


8AOA. 


299 


8AGAB. 


and  sometunes  his  descendants,  recounted  his 
life,  his  struggles,  his  travels,  his  loves,  and  his 
hates,  and  frequently,  after  his  death,  the  ven- 
geance that  was  wreaked  upon  his  enemies  by  his 
kinsmen.  They  are  stirring  accounts,  vivid  and 
forceful,  and  by  the  introduction  of  dialogue, 
have  intense  dramatic  vigor.  The  events  re- 
corded occur  mostly  between  the  years  874-1030, 
and  they  convey  to  us  a  fair  and  faithful  picture 
of  life  in  Iceland  during  those  centuries.  Several 
sagas  are  sometimes  grouped  together  as  the 
Egihsaga  and  Ounnlaugssaga,  the  Hrafnkelssaga 
and  Droplaugarsonaaaga.  Some  show  evidence 
of  several  sagas  combined,  as  in  the  NjdUsaga, 
which  comprise  both  the  Qunnaraaaga  and  the 
yjdUsaga. 

The  Konungasogur  contain  the  lives  of  the 
kings,  mainly  of  Norway ;  the  most  important  is 
the  Heimskringla,  by  Snorri  Sturlason  (q.v.) 
(ed.  by  Unger,  Christ iania,  1868).  It  contains 
among  other  well-known  sagas  the  Olafs  aaga 
Trygg  vasonar.  Historical  sagas  rarely  contain 
any  personal  views  of  the  author  and  they  at- 
tained under  Snorri,  about  1230,  their  greatest 
height  Some  of  the  sagas  of  the  classical 
period  are  literary  and  esthetic  works  of  art. 

The  mythical  or  heroic  sagas  are  quite  differ- 
ent in  form  and  speech  from  the  historical. 
Some  legend  or  hero  is  the  central  figure  of  the 
saga,  and  fact  and  fancy  are  mingled  freely 
together.  The  most  striking  example  of  this 
type  is  the  Volsungtisaga  (q.v.)  (ed.  by  Bugge, 
Ghrlstiania,  1865),  which  is  a  prose  rendition  of 
the  Nibelungen  story  as  it  is  given  in  the  Eddie 
lays.    See  Edda. 

The  romantic  sagas  are  mainly  adaptations  or 
imitations  ol  Latin,  French,  or  German  themes, 
and  were  not  reduced  to  writing  before  the  mid- 
dle of  the  thirteenth  century.  There  were  sagas 
dealing  with  Alexander,  Charlemagne,  Parcival, 
Tristan,  etc. 

The  lalendingasogur  may  be  divided  according 
to  the  different  geographical  districts  of  Ice- 
land. As  a  rule  the  best  sagas  come  from  the 
West.  Here  are  found,  among  others,  the  Egils- 
saga  (ed.  Copenhagen,  1809,  1856,  1888;  trans, 
by  Green,  London,  1893) ;  the  Eyrhyggja&aga 
(ed.  by  Vigfusson,  Leipzig,  1864;  trans,  by 
Morris  and  Magntisson  in  The  Saga  Library,  vol. 
ii.,  London,  1892) ;  and  the  Laadwlasaga  (ed.  by 
Kaalund,  Copenhagen,  1890-92;  trans,  by  Press, 
London,  1899).  The  last-named  is  a  sapfa  of 
romance  and  is  the  foundation  for  William 
Morris's  **Lovers  of  Gudrun."  The  Ounnlauga- 
saga,  a  continuation  of  the  Egilssaga,  is  the 
most  beautiful  yet  tragic  Icelandic  love  story 
(ed.  by  Von  Rygh,  Christiania,  1862,  tr.  by  Mor- 
ris and  Magnt&sson,  London,  1869) .  To  the  North 
belong  the  following:  Korm&kssaga  (ed.  M5bius, 
Halle,  1886),  Reykdcelaaaga  (ed.  by  Xsmundar- 
son,  Reykjavik,  1898),  Svarfdoslasaga  (edited 
by  the  same  scholar,  ib.,  1893),  Viga  Olumssaga 
(edited  by  the  same  scholar,  ib.,  1898,  tr.  by  Sir 
Edmund  Head,  London,  1866),  Orettisaaga  (ed. 
by  Magnlisson  and  Thordarson,  Copenhagen, 
1852-59,  by  Asmundarson,  Reykjavik,  1900,  tr. 
by  Magnlisson  and  Morris,  London,  1869) .  This 
is  the  story  of  the  most  famous  of  Icelandic  out- 
laws. 

To  the  East  belong  the  Vdpnfirfingasaga,  the 

best  saga  from  this  district  (ed.  by  Asmundar- 

son,  Reykjavik,  1898).     We  have  also  the  p  or- 

tteinuaga   hviia    (ed.    with    previous    saga    by 

▼OL.  XV.-». 


Thordarson,  Copenhagen,  1848),  the  HrafnkeU- 
aaga,  a  purely  idyllic  saga  (ed.  by  Asmundarson, 
Reykiavik,  1893),  and  the  Droplaugaraonaaaga 
(ed.  by  JOnsson,  Reykjavik,  1878). 

In  the  South  is  found  the  Njdlaaaga  (ed.  by 
Asmundarson,  Reykjavik,  1894,  tr.  by  Dasent, 
Edinburgh,  1861).  This  is  the  foremost  of  all 
sagas,  full  of  intrigue  and  cunning,  of  hate  and 
love,  with  remarkable  characterization. 

Sagas  relating  to  Greenland  and  America  are 
the  Eirikaaaga  rauda,  FoatbrcBpraaaga,  Orcah- 
lendiga  f  dttr  in  the  Flatey-hdk  (all  ed.  by  Rafn 
in  Antiquitatea  Americamg  (Copenhagen,  1837) 
and  by  Reeves,  The  Finding  of  Wineland  the 
Good  (London,  1890). 

The  SturlungMaga  occupies  a  position  differ- 
ent from  the  sagas  mentioned  above  because  we 
can  here  trace  authorship  to  Sturla  Thordsson 
(1214-84)  (ed.  with  elaborate  introduction  by 
Vigfusson,  Oxford,  1878). 

Historical  sagas  referring  to  other  countries 
are  the  Knyf  ingaaaga,  giving  a  history  of  the 
Danish  kings,  and  the  Orkneyingaaaga  or  Juries 
aaga,  giving  a  history  of  the  earls  of  Orkney. 

The  FlateyJbdk  (ed.  by  Unger  and  Vigfusson, 
Christiania,  1859-68)  contains  many  |>8ettir.  The 
most  notable  are  Ogmund  dytt  and  Thoratein 
Owfot. 

In  addition  we  have  the  Skrokadgur  or  spuri- 
ous sagas  which  show  the  rapid  decline  of  the 
saga  in  the  fourteenth  century. 

Consult:  Muller,  Sagahihliothek  (3  vols.,  Co- 
penhagen, 1817-28,  German  tr.  by  Lange,  Frank- 
fort, 1832) ;  Weinhold,  Altnordiachea  Lehen 
(Berlin,  1856) ;  Mobius,  Ueher  die  Altere  ialan- 
diache  Sagaa  (Leipzig,  1852;  D5ring,  Ueher 
Typua  und  8 til  dcr  isldndiachen  Sagaa  (ib., 
1877)  ;  VigfussoHj,,  Prolegamina  in  his  edition  of 
the  Storlunga  Saga  (Oxford,  1878) ;  Heinzel, 
Beachreihung  dcr  ialdndiachen  Sagaa  (Vienna, 
1880)  ;  Morris  and  Magntisson,  The  Saga  Library 
(London.  1884  et  seq.) ;  Mogk,  "Norwegisch- 
isl&ndische  Literatur,"  in  Paul,  Orundriaa  der 
germaniachen  Philologie  (vol.  ii.,  2d  ed.,  Strass- 
burg,  1902). 

SAOAIKOy  sll'g&-eng^.  A  Division  of  Upper 
Burma,  British  India,  comprising  the  districts 
of  Upper  and  Lower  Chindwin,  Sagaing,  and 
Shweb.  Area,  30,038  square  miles.  Population, 
in  1891,  821,769;  in  1901,  999,168. 

SAGAN,  zft^gAn.  The  capital  of  the  media- 
tized Principality  of  Sagan,  in  the  Province  of 
Silesia,  Prussia,  on  the  Bober,  82  miles  northwest 
of  Breslau  (Map:  Prussia,  F  3).  It  has  a  castle 
with  a  beautiful  park,  a  g3anna8ium,  and  a  nor- 
mal school.  Its  manufactures  include  cotton  and 
woolen  cloths,  pottery,  porcelain,  glass,  and  paper. 
Population,  in  1900,  13,367. 

SAGABy  sA-gSr'.  An  island  of  Bengal,  India. 
See  Saugob. 

SAGAB,  SAtrGtrB,  or  SAtTGOB.  The  cap- 
ital of  a  district  of  the  same  name  in  the  Cen- 
tral Provinces,  India,  47  miles  southeast  of  Bina 
by  rail,  on  the  Sagar  Lake  (Map:  India,  C  4). 
It  is  regularly  laid  out,  and  has  broad  streets. 
The  most  striking  feature  is  the  fort  on  an  ele- 
vated site  overlooking  the  town;  it  covers  an 
area  of  6  acres,  and  is  surmounted  by  several 
towers.  The  military  cantonment  lies  to  the 
northeast  of  the  city.  Agriculture  and  the 
breeding  of  cattle  and  buffaloes  are  the  leading 


SAGAR 


800 


SAQS  OBOXTSE. 


industries  of  the  surrounding  section.     Popula- 
tion, in  1901,  including  cantonment,  42,330. 

SAQASTA,  &&-gas^t&,  Pr^ixedes  Mateo  ( 1827- 
1903).  A  Spanish  statesman,  born  at  Torrecilla 
de  Cameros.  After  following  the  profession  of 
engin^r  at  Valladolid  and  Zamora,  he  was  elected 
from  the  latter  city  to  the  Cortes  of  1854.  His 
share  in  the  uprising  of  July,  1856,  forced  him 
to  flee  to  France,  whence  he  returned,  after  being 
amnestied,  to  take  a  position  in  the  faculty  of  the 
school  of  engineering  at  Madrid  and  to  assume 
the  editorship  of  the  Progressist  organ,  La  Iberia, 
From  1859  to  1863  he  sat  in  the  Cortes,  and,  as  a 
stanch  Liberal,  participated  in  the  struggle 
against  the  reactionary  Government  of  Isabella 
II.  After  the  rising  of  June  22,  1866,  Sagasta 
again  fled  to  France.  Upon  the  outbreak  of  the 
revolution  of  September,  1868,  Sagasta  became 
Minister  of  the  Interior  in  the  provisional  Gov- 
ernment, attaching  himself  to  Prim.  He  be- 
came president  of  the  Cortes  in  October  1871, 
assumed  the  portfolio  of  the  Interior  in  De- 
cember, and  from  February  to  May,  1872,  was 
head  of  the  Ministry.  He  took  office  as  Minister 
of  Foreign  Affairs  under  Serrano  (q.v.)  in  Janu- 
ary, 1874,  and,  after  the  latter  made  himself 
virtual  head  of  the  Government  in  the  follow- 
ing month,  became  Minister  of  the  Interior, 
and  subsequently  Premier.  Upon  the  elec- 
tion of  Alfonso  XII.  to  the  Spanish  throne 
Sagasta  resigned  (December,  1874).  In  the  fol- 
lowing year,  however,  he  appeared  as  the  leader 
of  those  Liberals  in  the  Cortes  who  rallied  to 
the  support  of  the  new  throne,  and,  upon  the  fall 
of  Cfinovas  del  Castillo,  in  1881,  was  intrusted 
with  the  formation  of  a'  Cabinet.  He  remained  in 
power  till  1883,  but  failed  to  carry  out  any  of 
the  sweeping  reforms  advocated  by  the  Liberal 
Party.  After  the  death  of  Alfonso  XII.  he 
once  more  became  Premier,  and  remained  in 
power  till  1890,  signalizing  his  term  of  office  by 
firmly  repressing  all  attempts  on  the  part  of  the 
military  element  to  renew  the  anarchy  of  the 
years  following  the  dethronement  of  Isabella  II. 
The  weakness  of  the  Conservative  Party  afforded 
Sagasta  another  period  of  office  from  December, 
1892,  to  March,  1895,  his  resignation  being  due 
to  his  inability  to  cope  with  the  military  situa- 
tion in  Cuba,  where  a  new  insurrection  had 
broken  out.  In  September,  1897,  he  was  called  to 
the  head  of  affairs  at  a  time  when  matters  in 
Cuba  were  hastening  to  a  crisis.  The  unhappy 
outcome  of  the  war  with  the  United  States,  which 
all  his  efforts  could  not  prevent,  led  to  his  resig- 
nation in  March,  1899.  For  the  last  time  he  as- 
sumed office  in  March,  1901.  He  resigned  in 
December,  1902,  after  the  young  Alfonso  XIII. 
had  attained  his  majority.  *  He  died  at  Madrid, 
January  5,  1903. 

SAOE  (OF.  aauge^  aaulge,  Fr.  sauge,  from 
Lat.  salvia,  sage-plant,  from  'salvua,  safe,  Gk. 
SXotyholos,  Olr.  aMn,  entire,  Skt.  aarva,  all;  so 
called  from  the  healing  properties  attributed  to 
it),  Salvia  officinalis.  A  perennial  garden  herb 
used  to  flavor  dressings,  sauces,  etc.  It  is 
a  half  shrubby  plant  which  grows  on  sunny 
mountain  slopes  in  Southern  Europe,  and  has 
long  been  in  cultivation..  The  whole  plant  has 
a  peculiar,  strong,  penetrating  aromatic  smell, 
and  a  bitterish,  aromatic,  somewhat  astringent 
taste.  It  contains  much  essential  oil  (oil  of 
sage).     Sage  grows  best  in  a  dry  soil,  and  is 


easily  propagated  by  slips  or  cuttings.  Meadow 
clary,  or  meadow  sage  {Salvia  pratenais),  is  a 
common  ornament  of  meadows  and  borders  of 
fields  in  most  parts  of  Europe.  The  apple-bear- 
ing sage  {Salvia  pomifera)  is  a  native  of  South- 
ern Europe  and  of  the  East,  remarkable  for  its 
large  reddish  or  purple  bracts,  and  for  the  gall- 
nuts  (sage  apples)  which  grow  on  its  branches. 

SAGE^  Henby  Williams  (1814—).  An 
American  philanthropist.  He  was  born  at  Mid- 
dicton,  Conn.,  studied  medicine  for  a  while,  and 
in  1832  entered  upon  a  mercantile  career.  He 
succeeded  to  the  business  of  two  of  his  uncles 
in  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  where  he  soon  became  recog- 
nized as  one  of  its  most  enterprising  business 
men.  After  the  death  of  Ezra  Cornell  in  1874, 
he  succeeded  to  the  presidency  of  the  board  of 
trustees  for  the  university.  Besides  the  college 
hall  for  women  and  a  chapel  which  bear  his  name, 
he  gave  Cornell  a  new  library  building  with  an 
endowment.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  Lyman 
Beecher  lectureship  on  preaching  at  Yale. 

SAGE,  Russell  ( 1816— ) .  An  American  cap- 
italist, born  in  Shenandoah,  Oneida  Coimty,  N.  Y. 
He  was  educated  in  the  public  schools,  and  after 
serving  as  a  clerk  for  several  years  he  established 
himself  in  the  wholesale  grocery  business  in 
Troy  in  1839.  He  served  from  1841  to  1848  as  an 
alderman  in  Troy,  was  for  several  years  county 
treasurer,  and  in  1852  was  elected  to  Congress  as 
a  Whig,  and  reelected  in  1854,  serving  on  the 
Ways  and  Means  Committee.  Having  become 
one  of  the  leading  wholesale  merchants  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  State,  he  removed  to  New  York 
City  in  1863,  purchased  a  seat  in  the  Stock  Ex- 
change, and  became  largely  interested  in  railroad 
investments.  He  became  associated  with  Jay 
Gould  (q.v.)  in  the  control  of  the  Wabash,  the 
Saint  Louis  and  Pacific,  and  other  Western  roads, 
and  in  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company 
and  the  Manhattan  Elevated  RjEiilroad  system 
of  New  York  City. 

SAGE-BBUSH.  Certain  drought-resisting 
plants.    See  Artemisia. 

SAGE-BBUSH  STATE.  Nevada.  See 
States,  Pofulab  Names  of. 

SAGE  COCK.    See  Grouse. 

SAGE  GBOUSE.  The  largest  of  American 
grouse  {CentrooerciM  urophaaianus) ,  which  in- 
habits the  sage-brush  plains  of  Western  North- 
America  and  the  mountain  valleys  up  to  about 
9500  feet.  The  full-grown  cocks  average  about 
2^2  feet  in  length;  the  hens  rather  under  two 
feet;  the  weight  varies  from  three  to  six  pounds. 
The  tail  equals,  or  rather  exceeds,  the  wing  in 
length,  and  consists  of  twenty  very  narrow  acu- 
minate feathers,  stiffened  and  graduated  in 
length  from  the  middle  pair '  outward.  A  more 
remarkable  feature  of  the  cock  is  the  immense 
dilatable  air-sac  of  naked  yellow  skin  on  each 
side  of  the  neck,  bordered  by  a  patch  of  curiously 
stiffened,  horny  feathers,  like  fish-scales,  often 
terminating  in  bristly  filaments  several  inches 
long.  The  feet  are  feathered  to  the  toes.  The 
upper  parts  are  varied  with  gray,  black,  browu, 
and  tawny  or  whitish,  and  a  noticeable  mark  is 
a  broad  black  area  on  the  under  part  of  the 
adult.  It'is  numerous  in  its  habitat,  and  affords 
good  sport  with  dogs,  but  its  flesh  is  ^  tainted 
with  the  bitterness  of  the  artemisia  buds  upon 
which   it   principally   feeds    (unless   'drawn'    as 


SAGE  OBOXTSE. 


801 


8AOINAW. 


Boon  as  shot)  as  to  be  undesirable  for  the  table. 
It  aLso  eats  many  insects,  especially  locusts.'  It 
nests  on  the  ground  and  lays  elongated,  heavily 
spotted  eggs.  Consult  Coues,  Birds  of  the  North- 
west (Washington,  1874).    Compare  Gbouse. 

SAGE  HAKE.    A  jack-rabbit    See  Habe. 

SAGE  SPABBOW.  One  of  the  pale-colored 
desert  sparrows  of  the  genus  Amphispiza,  re- 
lated to  the  song-sparrow,  and  inhabiting  the 
sage-brush  district  of  the  Western  United  States. 

SAGHAIilENy  8&'gft-ly§n^,  or  SAKHALIN, 

sa'kA-lyta^  An  island  off  the  eastern  coast  of 
Siberia,  extending  from  46''  to  64''  30'  N.  latitude, 
and  from  141"*  S(y  to  l^S**  E.  longitude  (Map: 
Asia,  0  3).  It  is  separated  from  the  Mari- 
time Proyince  on  the  west  by  the  Strait  of 
Tartary,  which  is  only  about  five  miles  wide 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Amur;  and  from  the 
Japanese  island  of  Yezo  on  the  south  by  the 
Strait  of  La  P^rouse,  about  27  miles  at  its  nar- 
rowest part.  The  island  is  of  oblong  shape  and 
.  covers  an  area  of  oyer  29,000  square  miles.  The 
surface  is  largely  mountainous,  the  elevations  ex- 
tending to  the  very  sea.  The  western  coast  for  the 
most  part  presents  the  appearance  of  a  steep  wall, 
varying  in  height  from  100  to  200  feet,  and  is  prac- 
tically without  indentation.  The  eastern  coast  is 
almost  as  precipitous  as  the  western,  but  is  more 
indented,  and  forms  a  number  of  lagoons.  In  the 
northern  part  of  the  island  three  separate  moun- 
tain ranges  are  marked,  two  running  along  the 
coasts  and  one  through  the  centre.  They  vary 
in  altitude  from  1500  to  3000  feet,  and  are  densely 
wooded.  In  the  centre  there  is  a  wide  plain  between 
the  two  coast  ranges.  Another  mountain  range 
runs  along  the  eastern  coast  down  to  Aniva 
Bay,  and  still  another  covers  the  southeastern 
part  of  the  island. 

The  rivers  of  Saghalien  have  the  character  of 
mountain  streams,  and  are  of  little  value  as 
waterways.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Tym,  flowing 
in  a  northern  and  a  northeastern  direction  and 
falling  into  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  after  a  course  of 
about  150  miles;  and  the  Paranay,  which  falls 
into  the  Gulf  of  Patience  on  the  eastern  coast. 
Vexy  little  is  known  of  the  geology  of  the  island, 
but  extensive  deposits  of  coal  have  been  discov- 
ered, and  some  mines  are  worked  near  Dui,  on 
the  western  coast.  The  climate  varies  in  different 
parts  of  the  island  in  accordance  with  the  prox- 
imity of  the  locality  to  the  mainland  or  to  the 
Sea  of  Okhotsk.  Thus  the  northern  part  which 
lies  close  to  the  mainland  has  a  continental  cli- 
mate during  the  winter,  when  the  narrow  strait 
freezes  over ;  and  the  eastern  coast,  subject  to  the 
eold  currents  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  has  a  more 
severe  climate  than  the  western  coast,  which  is 
affected  principally  by  the  Sea  of  Japan.  In  the 
central  part  the  winters  are  very  severe.  The 
precipitation  is  abundant  and  the  snow  occasion- 
ally reaches  a  depth  of  seven  feet. 

Almost  the  entire  surface  of  the  island  is  cov- 
ered with  forests,  chiefly  coniferous.  In  the  south- 
em  part  are  found  some  Japanese  plants.  The 
fauna  of  Saghalien  does  not  differ  essentially  from 
that  of  Eastern  Siberia.  The  rivers  are  well 
stocked  with  fish,  and  provide  the  natives  with 
their  staple  food.  Neither  the  climatic  conditions 
of  the  island  nor  its  soil  are  favorable  to  agricul- 
ture, and  the  area  under  cultivation  at  present 
IB  insignificant.     The  Russians,  who  are  princi- 


pally convicts,  released  convicts  or  exiles,  engage 
chiefly  in  coal  mining  and  lumbering.  The  con- 
victs are  employed  in  the  coal  mines  and  furnish 
the  labor  for  the  construction  of  roads  and  other 
improvements.  The  natives  are  engaged  in  fishing 
and  hunting.  Fishing  on  a  large  scale  is  carried 
on  by  the  Japanese,  who  use  herring  for  fertiliz- 
ing purposes.  The  total  population  of  the  island 
in  1897  was  28,113  (7641  women),  of  whom 
4979  (7^9  women)  were  convicts,  6934  exiles  and 
1566  released  convicts.  Prisons  are  maintained 
at  the  chief  settlements  of  the  island.  The  na- 
tive population  consists  of  about  2000  Gilyaks, 
who  inhabit  the  northern  part  of  the  island; 
about  2500  Ainos  (see  AiNo),  the  aborigines  of 
Saghalien,  found  principally  in  the  south;  and  a 
small  number  of  Oroks  of  Tungus  origin.  There 
are  also  a  number  of  Japanese  and  Chinese.  The 
island  forms  a  separate  administrative  district. 
The  principal  settlements  are  Alexandrovsk  or 
Dui,  the  seat  of  the  administration,  Rykovskoie, 
Korsakov,  and  Muravievski. 

The  existence  of  Saghalien  was  first  brought  to 
the  attention  of  Europe  by  the  Dutch  navigator 
Gerrit  de  Bries,  about  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  The  southern  part  of  the  island 
belonged  to  Japan  until  1875,  when  it  was  ac- 
quired by  Russia  iii  exchange  for  some  of  the 
southern  Kurile  islands.  The  island  became  a 
penal  colony  in  1869. 

Consult:  Fr.  Schmidt,  Reisen  in  Amurlande 
und  auf  der  Insel  Saohalin  (Saint  Petersburg, 
1868)  ;  Poljakow,  Reise  nach  der  Insel  Sachalin, 
1881-82,  trans.   (Berlin,  1884). 

SAQ  HAB^OB.  A  village  in  Suffolk  County, 
N.  Y.,  100  miles  east  of  New  York  City;  on 
Gardiners  Bay,  and  on  the  Montauk  division  of 
the  Long  Island  Railroad  (Map:  New  York, 
H  5).  It  was  formerly  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant whaling  centres  in  America,  but  at  pres- 
ent is  best  known  as  a  summer  resort.  The 
leading  industry  of  the  village  is  the  manufacture 
of  wateh  cases.    Population,  in  1900,  1969. 

SAGKINAW.  The  county-seat  of  Saginaw 
County,  Mich.,  and  the  commercial  metropolis 
and  railroad  centre  of  northern  Michigan,  100 
miles  northwest  of  Detroit;  on  the  Saginaw 
River,  at  the  head  of  deep-water  navigation 
(Map:  Michigan,  J  6).  It  is  on  both  sides  of 
the  river,  which  is  spanned  by  four  railroad  and 
five  public  bridges.  The  city  covers  an  area 
of  about  13  square  miles,  and  its  streets  are  well 
paved,  principally  with  asphalt  and  brick.  Sev- 
eral parks  add  to  the  attractiveness  of  the  city, 
of  which  Hoyt  and  Riverside  are  especially  note- 
worthy. The  Hoyt  Library  with  24,000  volumes, 
the  Public  Library,  the  Germania  Institute,  and 
the  Saginaw  Valley  Medical  College  are  also 
prominent  features.  A  free  manual  training 
school  building,  the  gift  of  Hon.  W.  R.  Burt, 
dates  from  1903.  It  cost  $200,000.  Among  the 
edifices  of  note  are  the  Masonic  Temple,  the 
Court  House,  City  Hall,  Hoyt  Library  building, 
Saint  Mary's  Hospital,  Arbiter  Hall,  the  Ger- 
mania Institute,  and  the  Post  Office  building. 
The  hospitals  and  charitable  institutions  include 
Saint  Mary's  Hospital,  Saginaw  General  Hos- 
pital, Woman's  Hospital,  Home  of  the  Friend- 
less, and  Saint  Vincent's  Orphan  Home. 

Saginaw  was  long  known  as  one  of  the  greatest 
lumber  manufacturing  centres  in  the  country. 
The  disappearance  of  the  pine  forests,  however. 


SAGINAW. 


802 


SAGXTNTXnff. 


has  necessarily  led  to  the  abandonment  of  its 
saw-mills  and  to  a  change  in  the  nature  of  its 
industry.  There  are  still  large  firms  engaged 
in  the  manufacture  of  rough  and  dressed 
lumber,  and  sash,  doors,  and  boxes.  With 
the  passing  of  the  lumber  industry  came  the 
discovery  of  bituminous  coal,  the  mining  of 
which  is  now  very  important.  More  than  1,000,- 
000  tons  were  mined  in  1902.  Three  of  the 
mines  are  within  the  municipal  limits.  A  pro- 
ductive beet  sugar  district  surrounds  the  city. 
In  the  census  year  1900  the  capital  invested  in 
the  various  manufacturing  industries  was  $7,558,- 
806,  and  the  total  output  was  valued  at  $10,- 
034,499.  This  has  been  very  largely  increased 
since  1900,  over  $2,000,000  having  been  invested 
in  new  industries  during  1902.  Among  the  lead- 
ing establishments  are  the  Saginaw  Plate  Glass 
Company  (the  only  one  in  Michigan),  with  a 
yearly  capacity  of  1,000,000  square  feet,  and  im- 
mense beet-sugar  factories,  which  were  built  at  a 
cost  of  over  three-quarters  of  a  million  dollars 
each.  Besides  lumber,  glass,  and  beet  sugar, 
there  is  a  great  variety  of  manufactured  prod- 
ucts. As  an  industrial  point  Sagiiiaw  ranks 
third  in  the  State.  Its  railroads,  radiating  in 
eleven  different  directions,  comprise  seven  divi- 
sions of  the  Pere  Marquette,  three  of  the  Michi- 
gan Central,  and  the  Grand  Tnmk  Railroad.  The 
city  is  therefore  the  great  distributing  point  for 
northern  Michigan,  and  its  wholesale  houses  are 
among  the  largest  in  the  country. 

Under  the  revised  charter  of  1897,  the  govern- 
ment is  vested  in  a  mayor,  chosen  biennially,  and 
a  unicameral  council.  The  majority  of  the  ad- 
ministrative officials  are  either  appointed  by  the 
mayor  or  elected  by  the  council.  The  school 
board,  however,  is  chosen  by  popular  vote.  For 
maintenance  and  operation,  the  city  spends  an- 
nually about  $450,000,  the  chief  items  being: 
Schools,  $142,000;  interest  on  debt,  $67,000; 
streets,  $40,000;  police  department,  $38,000;  and 
for  the  fire  department,  $35,000.  The  water- 
works, which  were  constructed  in  1872  at.  an 
outlay  of  $909,895,  are  owned  by  the  municipal- 
ity. Saginaw  was  created  in  1890  by  the  con- 
solidation of  Saginaw  City  and  East  Saginaw. 
It  was  first  settled  in  1822.  East  Saginaw  re- 
ceived a  city  charter  in  1859.  Population,  in 
1890,  46,322;  in  1900,  42,345. 

SAGINAW  BAY.  An  arm  of  Lake  Huron, 
60  miles  long  and  20  miles  wide,  extending  south- 
westward  into  the  State  of  Michigan  (Map: 
Michigan,  K  5).  It  receives  the  Saginaw  River 
(q.v.). 

SAGINAW  BIVEB.  A  short  river  of  Michi- 
gan, formed  by  several  headstreams  at  Saginaw 
City,  and  emptying  into  Saginaw  Bay  after  a 
course  of  about  20  miles  (Map:  Michigan,  J  5). 
It  is  navigable  up  to  the  city  for  steamers  draw- 
ing 10  feet. 

SAGO  (from  Malay  adgH^  sdgu,  sago).  A 
starch  prepared  from  the  pith  of  several  species 
of  palms  (Mytroxylon,  Borassus,  Arenga,  etc), 
natives  of  the  East  Indies.  The  pith  constitutes 
a  large  proportion  of  the  trunk  and  contains  a 
considerable  quantity  of  starch,  which  is  elabo- 
rated by  the  plant  as  a  reserve  material.  The  tree 
must  be  cut  down  after  blossoming,  otherwise  it 
is  useless  for  the  production  of  sago,  as  the 
starch  is  used  by  the  tree  for  the  growth  and 


development  of  the  seed.  The  pith,  sometimes  as 
much  as  700  pounds  from  a  single  tree,  is 
pounded  in  wooden  mortars,  the  starch  removed 
by  washing  with  water  and  purified  by  sieving  in 
the  usual  way.  (See  Stabch.)  The  finely  di- 
vided sago  (sago  fiour)  is  worked  into  a  dough 
by  kneading  and  forced  through  sieves  upon  hot 
greased  pans  to  form  pearl  sago.  The  dough 
forms  granules,  which  become  covered  with  a 
paste  made  from  some  of  the  starch  by  the 
action  of  heat.  The  finished  product  consists  of 
translucent  globes.  Sago  has  the  following  per- 
centage composition:  Water,  12.2;  protein,  9.0; 
fat,  0.4;  nitrogen-free  extract  (chiefly  starch), 
78.1;  ash,  0.3.  It  is  an  important  article  ol 
diet  with  the  natives  of  the  East  Indies,  and  is 
largely  exported  to  Europe  and  America  for 
thickening  soups,  making  puddings,  etc.  A  pecu- 
liarity of  pearl  sago  is  that  the  grains  swell  and 
become  still  more  translucent  on  cooking,  but  do 
not  form  a  homogeneous  paste.  Imitation  sago 
is  made  from  potato  starch  and  other  starches. 

SAGBA,  sft'grA,  Raic6n  de  ia  (1708-1871). 
A  Spanish  economist  and  historian,  bom  at 
Corufia.  From  1822  until  1834  he  was  director  of 
the  botanical  garden  at  Havana,  Cuba,  and  then 
became  an  editor  at  Madrid.  Among  his  numer- 
ous works  are:  Historica  econdmica,  politioa  y 
estadiatica  de  la  iala  de  Cuba  ( 1831 )  ;  Historica 
fisica,  poUtica  y  natural  de  la  isla  de  Cuba  (2 
vols.,  1837-42) ;  and  Icones  Plantarum  in  Flora 
Cuhana  Desoriptorum   (1863). 

SAGXTA  LA  GRANDE,  sft^gwA  1&  grAn^dlL.  A 
toMTi  of  Cuba,  in  the  Province  of  Santa  Clara, 
situated  on  the  Sagua  River,  5  miles  from  the 
north  coast  and  30  miles  north  of  Santa  Clara 
(Map:  Cuba,  E  4).  It  is  a  comparatively  mod- 
ern town  with  wide  streets,  and  has  machine 
shops  and  lumber  yards.  The  main  article  of 
export  is  sugar.  The  town  is  connected  by  rail 
with  Santa  Clara  and  Havana.  Population,  in 
1899,  12,728,  mostly  whites,  and  a  considerable 
number  of  Chinese. 

SAGXTENAY   (s&g'e-nA^)   BIVES.     A  large 

tributary  of  the  Saint  Lawrence  River,  falling 
into  the  estuary,  on  the  north  side,  about  115 
miles  below  Quebec  (Map:  Quebec,  F  2).  It  Is 
the  outlet  of  Lake  Saint  John,  though  its  name 
is  sometimes  extended  to  the  Chamouchouan,  the 
main  feeder  of  the  lake,  rising  150  miles  to  the 
northwest  of  it.  The  length  of  the  Saguenay 
below  the  lake  is  about  130  miles.  It  leaves  the 
lake  in  a  series  of  rapids,  and  for  the  first  36 
miles  is  a  narrow  stream  running  between  densely 
wooded  hills.  At  Chicoutimi  it  widens  out  into 
a  tidal  estuary  or  fiord  about  two  miles  wide, 
and  for  the  rest  of  its  course  it  passes  between 
bare  and  gloomy  cliffs,  rising  to  a  sheer  height 
of  1000  to  1800  feet,  and  broken  here  and  there 
by  deep,  wooded,  but  equally  gloomy  cross  val- 
leys. The  water  in  this  fiord  has  a  mean  depth 
in  mid-channel  of  800  feet,  and  in  some  places 
the  depth  exceeds  2000  feet.  The  largest  ships 
can  ascend  to  Ha  Ha  Bay^  a  few  miles  below 
Chicoutimi. 

SAGtrN^TTH  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Zijrai^ot,  Za- 
kanthos).  An  ancient  town,  near  the  eastern 
coast  of  Spain,  on  an  eminence  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Pallantias  (modem  Palancia),  about  midway 
between  the  mouth  of  the  Ebro  and  New  Carthage 
(Cnrthngena).     Later   tradition   attributed   its 


SAOVKTUH. 


808 


SAHARA. 


foundation  to  Greeks  from  Zacyntbus  and  Rutu- 
lians  from  Ardea.  In  reality  there  seems  no  rea- 
son to  donbt  that  it  was  an  Iberian  city,  with  an 
admixture  of  Greek  culture  due  to  its  commerce. 
It  owes  its  historical  importance  to  its  connec- 
tion with  the  outbreak  of  the  Second  Punic  War. 
The  town  had  been  received  into  alliance  by  the 
Romans,  apparently  after  the  treaty  of  B.c.  226, 
which  bound  the  Carthaginians  not  to  cross  the 
Ebro.  Hannibal,  who  saw  that  war  must  come, 
attacked  the  city,  which  had  refused  to  acknowl- 
edge the  Carthaginian  supremacy,  in  b.c.  219. 
After  a  desperate  defense  for  eight  months,  the 
skill  of  the  Carthaginian  general  prevailed.  The 
Romans  thereupon  demanded  the  surrender  of 
Hannibal  for  attacking  their  ally,  and,  upon  the 
refusal  of  the  Carthaginians,  declared  war.  The 
ruined  town  was  subsequently  rebuilt  by  Scipio 
Africanus,  and  appears  as  a  municipium  under 
Augustus.  The  ancient  walls  {muri  veteres)  gave 
rise  to  the  name  of  the  modem  town,  Murviedro 
(q.v.). 

BAHAHA,  si-hft'rA  (Ar.  sdhira,  desert).  The. 
The  largest  continuous  desert  on  the  earth's  sur- 
face. Extending  east  and  west  between  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  and  the  Red  Sea,  and  north  and  south  be- 
tween the  Sudan  and  the  Mediterranean  coun- 
tries, whose  southern  borders  overlap  it,  the 
desert  embraces  an  area  of  3,510,000  square 
miles,  being  nearly  as  large  as  the  European 
mainland  (Map:  Africa,  E  2).  In  the  last 
quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  it  was  pro- 
posed to  convert  the  western  Sahara  into  an 
inland  sea  by  admitting  the  waters  of  the 
Atlantic  through  a  canal  south  of  Morocco.  It 
is  now  known  that  the  mean  elevation  of  this 
part  of  the  desert  is  at  least  1000  feet  above  the 
sea,  that  the  lowest  part  of  the  region  it  was  ex- 
pected to  submerge  is  600  feet  above  the  sea,  and 
that  the  area  below  sea  level  is  comparatively 
insignificant.  The  recent  discovery  of  fossils  and 
limestone  deposits  of  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary 
times  extending  over  a  wide  area  of  the  south- 
western part  of  the  Sahara  has  led  Professor  de 
Lapparent  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Tertiary 
sea  must  have  extended  inland  at  least  as  far  east 
as  Lake  Chad.  He  mentions  other  facts  also 
that  point  to  an  unbroken  sea  communication  be- 
tween India  and  the  central  Sahara  by  way  of 
EfQrpt  in  Cretaceous  and  Tertiaiy  times. 

The  surface  of  the  Sahara  is  not,  as  was  once 
supposed,  merely  a  monotonous  and  compara- 
tively level  waste  of  sand.  Its  surface  presents, 
on  the  contrary,  considerable  variety  of  aspect 
which  makes  it  possible  to  divide  it  into  five 
natural  groups:  (1)  The  western  Sahara,  (2) 
the  mountain  lands  of  the  central  Sahara,  (3) 
the  Libyan  waste,  (4)  the  Nile  lands,  and  (5) 
the  mountain  zone  east  of  the  Nile.  As  a  whole, 
the  Sahara  is  a  tableland  whose  surface  has  an 
average  elevation  of  1300  to  1600  feet  above  the 
sea,  with  only  limited  areas  falling  to  500  or  600 
feet,  and  a  few  small  depressions  below  the  sea 
level. 

The  most  northern  of  the  depressions  beneath 
the  sea  level  are  the  salt  lakes  or  marshes 
(shotts)  in  the  southern  part  of  Tunis.  They 
contain  scarcely  any  water  and  are  50  to  90  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean.  This  is 
now  a  region  of  date  palms  nourished  by  the 
springs  which  gush  from  the  neighboring  hills. 
In  the  eastern  part  of  the  Libyan  desert  is  a 


series  of  deeply  depressed  oases  sharply  defined 
by  the  precipitous  walls  of  the  plateau:  Aradj, 
230;  Siva,  98;  Sittra,  82:  Uttiah,  66;  and  the 
Birket  el  Kerun,  in  the  Egyptian  Fajrum,  near 
the  Nile,  131  feet  below  sea  level.  These  are  the 
only  depressions,  except  one,  beneath  sea  level  in 
Africa.  A  strip  of  considerable  breadth  extend- 
ing along  the  Atlantic  fringe  of  the  western 
Sanara  from  the  Senegal  River  to  Morocco  may 
be  classified  as  lowland  (not  more  than  650  feet 
in  elevation ) .  Another  strip  of  lowland  stretches 
from  the  shotts  of  Tunis  to  the  Nile. 

The  chief  distinction  between  the  western  Sa- 
hara and  the  Libyan  desert  is  that  the  larger 
part  of  the  western  Sahara  is  steppes  while  the 
Libyan  desert,  excepting  its  depressed  oases,  is 
almost  purely  a  sand  waste.  The  two  regions  are 
separated  by  the  great  highlands  of  the  central 
Sahara.  About  two-thirds  of  the  western  Sahara 
is  composed  of  sterile,  rock-strewn  plains,  and 
the  remainder  is  sand  wastCj  the  plains  or 
steppes  extending  across  the  desert  from  north- 
east to  southwest,  the  sand  desert  being  inter- 
spersed among  them.  There  are  many  •deep  val- 
leys, the  beds  of  streams  flowing  from  the  Atlas 
ranges  or  from  the  western  slopes  of  the  high- 
lauds  of  the  central  Sahara,  some  of  the  northern 
wadais  or  rivers  carrying  at  times  considerable 
water  a  short  distance  into  the  desert;  but  the 
water  in  most  of  the  basins  sinks  through  the 
permeable  strata  to  an  impermeable  one  of 
clay,  forming  vast  subterranean  reservoirs  need- 
ing only  to  be  tapped  to  spread  life  and  wealth 
over  the  surrounding  surface.  The  oases  are  situ- 
ated above  these  underground  supplies  and  may 
be  extended  wherever  water  can  be  brought  to 
the  surface.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  tracts 
is  El  Erg,  whose  wells  are  capable  of  irrigating 
as  many  as  8,000,000  date  palms.  The  oases  em- 
brace only  about  80,000  square  miles,  or  only  a 
little  more  than  one-fortieth  of  the  desert  area. 
The  lines  of  wells  that  make  a  number  of  caravan 
routes  across  the  western  Sahara  possible  are 
found  along  the  courses  of  these  subterranean 
water  supplies.  The  valleys  show  that  at  an 
earlier  period  the  climatic  conditions  permitted 
far  larger  volumes  of  water  to  flow  on  the  sur- 
face; and  evaporation  has  produced  numerous 
salt  pans,  particularly  in  the  west  and  south. 

The  plateau  of  the  central  Sahara,  which  ex- 
tends three-fourths  of  the  way  across  the  desert 
from  northwest  to  southeast,  is  from  1900  to 
2500  feet  in  elevation,  and  above  it  rise  moun- 
tain ranges  (Ahaggar,  Tibesti,  and  Air),  some 
of  the  peaks  being  6000  to  9800  feet  high,  and 
snow-crowned  in  winter.  The  Ahaggar  mountain 
land  is  the  source  of  several  long,  wide  river 
valleys,  now  waterless  above  ground,  but  con- 
tributing their  subterranean  supplies  for  the 
creation  of  a  series  of  wells.  East  of  the  mountains 
to  the  Nile  extends  the  Libyan  waste,  waterless, 
barren,  almost  devoid  of  life  save  for  its  few 
inhabited  oases,  its  sand  dunes,  often  piled  up  by 
the  winds  to  a  height  of  300  or  400  feet,  stretch- 
ing away  to  the  Nile.  This  sand  waste,  remark- 
ably difficult  to  cross,  has  been  characterized  by 
Rohlfs  as  the  most  treacherous  and  tediously 
monotonous  region  of  the  Sahara.  The  Nile 
lands  and  the  eastern  mountains  are  described  in 
the  articles  Eotpt  and  Nile. 

The  Sahara  is  dry  in  winter  because  it  is  then 
an  area  of  high  pressure,  forcing  the  air  currents 


SAHARA. 


804 


SAIGA. 


outward  in  all  directions  and  so  receiving  little 
moisture  from  the  seas;  and  in  summer,  because 
the  intense  heat  over  the  desert  expands  the  air 
so  that  it  is  like  a  sponge,  absorbing  moisture 
instead  of  parting  with  it.  There  is,  however, 
considerable  precipitation  in  the  region  of  the 
central  mountains.  There  are  four  months  of 
winter  and  eight  months  of  summer.  The  range 
of  temperature  is  large  for  a  tropical  region. 
Owing  to  the  intense  radiation,  the  hottest  days 
are  often  succeeded  by  cool  nights. 

Except  in  the  oases  the  desert  is  almost  devoid 
of  vegetation  save  for  stunted  and  thorny  shrubs 
in  the  western  Sahara.  One  of  the  commonest 
shrubs  is  the  gum  acacia.  Wild  animals  are  also 
rare,  though  the  Sahara  is  preeminently  the  home 
of  the  domesticated  camel,  and  the  southwestern 
part  of  it  is  particularly  well  adapted  for  the 
ostrich.  The  game  includes  gazelles,  wolves,  hyenas, 
foxes,  jackals,  wild  boars,  and  leopards.  Granite, 
quartzite,  and  porphyry  are  everywhere  the  pre- 
dominant rocks,  as  far  as  is  yet  known,  except 
the  Tertiary  limestones  along  the  Barka  coast- 
line of  Tripoli  and  the  similar  formations  newly 
discovered  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  desert. 
The  date  palm  is  the  staple  product  of  the  oases 
and  the  principal  source  of  revenue  in  the  Sahara. 
Under  the  shade  of  the  palm  trees  the  natives 
raise  some  wheat,  barley,  and  vegetables.  Cot- 
ton produced  in  most  of  the  oases  is  the  chief 
fibre  used  for  native  spinning  and  weaving.  The 
coarse  fibre  esparto  ( alfa )  thrives  on  the  Saharan 
steppes  of  Southern  Algeria  and  Tunis,  and  is  an 
article  of  export.  The  chief  mineral  riches  is 
salt,  formed  by  evaporation  in  the  salt  pans  of 
the  south  and  west,  in  inexhaustible  reservoirs 
that  supply  the  whole  Sudan.  One  of  them  in  £1 
Juf  is  30  miles  long  by  12  broad;  20,000  camel- 
loads  of  salt  are  extracted  from  it  annually. 
Camels,  sheep,  goats,  horses,  donkeys,  and  a  few 
cattle  are  the  domestic  animals. 

Excepting  dates  and  salt,  the  commerce  of  the 
Sahara  itself  is  insignificant,  but  the  desert  is 
the  highway  for  considerable  trade  between  the 
Sudan  and  Morocco  and  Tripoli.  The  chief  trade 
routes  (along  the  lines  of  wells)  are  (1)  from 
Tafilelt  (for  Morocco  and  Algiers),  via  Tuat,  to 
Timbuctu;  (2)  from  Gadames  (for  Tunis  and 
Tripoli)  to  Tuat  and  Timbuctu  on  one  hand  and 
to  Sokota  and  Kano  on  the  other;  (3)  from 
Murzuk  or  Tripoli,  via  Bilma,  to  Kuka,  near  L^ke 
Chad,  the  most  frequented  of  all  the  desert 
routes;  (4)  from  Bengazi,  via  Ujila,  to  Wara,  in 
the  Kingdom  of  Wadai;  (5)  from  the  Nile  Val- 
ley, via  numerous  oases  parallel  to  it,  to  Darfur. 
Another  great  camel  route  skirts  the  northern 
fringe  of  the  desert  and  connects  the  principal 
inland  towns  of  the  Mediterranean  States.  The 
west  is  inhabited  by  Moorish  tribes  (Berbers), 
the  centre  by  Tuaregs,  the  most  formidable  rob- 
bers of  the  desert  and  the  greatest  impediment  to 
peaceful  trade,  and  the  east  by  Tibbu  (Sudanese 
negro  stock)  and  Bedouins.  By  a  convention 
between  Great  Britain  and  France,  the  right  of 
France  to  all  of  the  unappropriated  Sahara  west 
of  the  Nile  basin  has  been  recognized.  The 
French  Sahara  includes  about  three-fifths  of  the 
desert,  the  remainder  belonging  to  Spain  (a  part 
of  the  Atlantic  coast),  Morocco,  Tripoli,  and 
Egypt.  No  estimates  of  the  population  of  the 
Sahara  are  given. 

BiBLXOGBAPHT.      Kohlfs,    Quer    durch    Afrika 


(Leipzig,  1874) ;  Chavanne,  Die  Sahara  ^Vienna, 
1878)  ;  Nachtigal,  Sahara  und  Suddn  (Berlin, 
1879-89) ;  Zittel,  Die  Sahara,  ihre  phyaische  und 
geologisohe  Beachaffenheit  (Cassel,  1883)  ;  Bo- 
nelli.  El  Sahara:  deacripcian  geografica,  comer- 
cial  y  agricola  (Madrid,  1889) ;  Rolland,  Geo- 
logic du  Sahara  algerien  (Paris,  1891)  ;  Cat,  A 
travera  le  diaert  (ib.,  1892)  ;  Bissuel,  Le  Sahara 
francaia  (ib.,  1892) ;  Vuillot,  Vexploraiion  du 
Sahara  (ib.,  1895) ;  Tout^,  Du  DahomS  au  Sa- 
hara (ib.,  1899)  ;  Bonnefon,  Le  Trana-aaharien 
par  la  main  d*oeuvre  militaire  (ib.,  1900)  ;  Som- 
merville,  Sanda  of  Sahara  (Philadelphia,  1901) ; 
Foureau,  Miaaion  aaharienne  Foureau-Lamy 
(Paris,  1902) ;  and  the  Comptea  Rendua  de  la 
Soci^td  g^ographique  de  PaHa  (ib.,  1882  et  seq.). 

SAHABANPUB,  s&h&'run-p^r^,  or  SEHA- 
BUNPOOB.  The  capital  of  a  district  of  the 
same  name  in  the  United  Provinces  of  Agra, 
India,  111  miles  north  by  east  of  Delhi,  on  the 
Damaula  Nadi  River,  near  the  Doab  Canal 
(Map:  India,  C  2).  The  surrounding  sec- 
tion has  been  made  very  fertile  by  means  of 
irrigation  and  produces  grain,  cotton,  and  sugar- 
cane. Saharanpur  is  the  commercial  centre  of 
this  region  and  also  carries  on  considerable  trade 
in  native  textiles.  Population,  in  1901,  66,254. 
The  city  dates  from  the  fourteenth  century,  and 
during  the  Mogul  regime  was  a  popular  summer 
resort.  It  was  for  a  time  under  the  control  of 
the  Sikhs,  and  came  under  English  sway  in  1804. 

SAHUAYOy  s&-wa'y6.  A  Mexican  town  of  the 
State  of  Michoacan,  60  miles  southeast  of  Guada- 
lajara, on  the  southern  margin  of  Lake  Chapala. 
It  was  conquered  by  Nufio  de  Guzman  in  1530.. 
The  population  in  1895  was  8443. 

SAI.  One  of  the  many  native  South  American 
words  applied  to  monkeys.  This  one  seems  to  be 
a  general  term  for  *monkey'  and  to  lie  at  the 
root  of  many  names,  such  as  'saimiri,'  'sahui,' 
*sajou,*  *saguin,'  *saki,*  *sapajou,'  'ouakari,'  and 
similar  terms  which  have  come  down  to  us 
through  the  writings  of  various  early  European 
travelers,  by  whom  they  have  been  variously 
spelled  and  changed. 

SAID  PASHA,  8&-ed'  p&-sh&^  Mehemed 
(1836—).  A  Turkish  statesman,  born  in  Con- 
stantinople. He  served  under  Fuad  Pasha  in 
Syria  in  1860,  became  Governor  of  Cyprus,  and 
commanded  a  corps  in  the  Russo-Turkish  War. 
He  was  afterwards  made  Secretary  of  State  and 
member  of  the  Reform  Commission  by  Abdul 
Hamid  II.  In  1879  he  became  Prime  Minister, 
was  removed  the  following  year,  but  returned 
quickly  to  power  and  remained  in  office  till  May, 
1882.  He  was  restored  to  his  post  in  July  of 
the  same  year,  and  in  December  became  Grand 
Vizier,  holding  this  office  till  1885,  and  again 
for  a  few  months  in  1895. 

SAFGA  (Russ.  «a»(7a,  antelope).  An  interest- 
ing antelope  {Saiga  Tartarica)  with  an  extraor- 
dinary infiated  nose,  due  to  the  size  and  position 
of  the  nasal  bones,  inhabiting  the  steppes  of  Asi- 
atic Russia  south  of  65°  N.  The  sheep-like  ex- 
pression is  more  pronounced  in  the  females,  as 
the  male  has  erect,  annulated  horns  ( see  Colored 
Plate  of  Antelopes)  ;  there  is  a  thick  tuft  of 
hair  beneath  each  eye  and  each  ear,  and  the  ani- 
mal's coat  is  fleecyl  In  some  of  its  habits  also 
it  resembles  sheep,  especially  in  jumping  and 
butting.     This  antelope  inhabited  Western  Eu- 


SAIGA. 


805 


SAIL. 


rope  as  late  as  the  time  of  Paleolithic  man,  and 
was  doubtless  one  of  the  objects  of  his  chase. 
Its  remains  are  common  in  caves  of  France  and 
Belgium,  and  have  been  found  in  Great  Britain, 
and  at  least  one  sketch  of  the  head  of  the  animal 
has  been  found  upon  a  bone. 

SAIGON,  si'gon^  The  capital  of  the  French 
possession  of  Coch in-China,  on  the  River  Saigon, 
in  latitude  10°  50'  N.  and  longitude  106**  32'  E. 
(Map:  Asia,  K  7).  It  is  forty  miles  from  the 
coast.  Its  excellent  harbor  makes  it  accessible 
to  the  largest  steamers.  The  city  is  in  three 
partis:  Grovemment  town,  the  colony,  and  the 
native  town.  The  European  portion  is  elegantly 
built  with  broad,  regular  streets  and  fine  public 
buildings,  including  the  cathedral.  Governor's 
Palace,  the  Palace  of  Justice,  hospital,  and 
Chamber  of  Commerce.  Two  fine  gardens  over- 
look the  town,  the  Governor's  and  botanical, 
the  latter  containing  a  noteworthy  collection  of 
plants.  There  are  two  colleges,  an  arsenal,  a 
fine  dry  dock,  machine  shops,  foundries,  three 
banks,  and  two  steam  rice  mills.  Communica- 
tion with  the  world  is  amply  provided  by  cables 
and  steamship  lines.  Most  of  the  commerce  is 
at  Cholon,  four  miles  distant,  and  connected  with 
Saigon  by  steam  tramways.  It  is  a  great  rice 
market  and  has  a  number  of  large  rice  mills. 
Its  population  in  1901  was  about  127,000,  chiefly 
Annamese  and  Chinese.  The  population  of  Sai- 
gon in  1900  was  nearly  51,000,  including  over 
3000  Europeans.  Saigon  was  the  capital  of 
Cochin-China  while  it  was  still  under  native 
rule.     The   French  captured  it  in   1858,  and  it 


safety  by  his  own  clan  to  the  island  of  Oshima 
(q.v.) .  In  1863  he  was  recalled  and  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  Provincial  Government.  In  the 
civil  war  which  resulted  in  1868  in  the  abolition 
of  the  Shogunate,  he  was  found  fighting  with  dis- 
tinction on  the  Imperial  side.  In  1873  he  was 
named  commander-in-chief  of  the  land  forces, 
but  ere  long,  becoming  dissatisfied  with  the  new 
Government  and  its  adoption  of  so  many  foreign 
ideas,  he  retired  to  Kagoshima.  Here  he  es- 
tablished a  great  'private  school,'  ostensibly  for 
the  promotion  of  learning,  but  really  for  the 
training  of  soldiers  to  be  used  in  an  attempt 
to  revert  to  the  former  form  of  government,  with 
the  Satsuman  clan  and  himself  at  its  head  un- 
der the  Mikado.  In  February,  1877,  they  broke 
out  in  open  rebellion  with  Saigo  as  leader.  The 
struggle  lasted  until  September  24,  when  Saigon's 
forces  were  utterly  defeated  and  himself  and  his 
chief  officers  slain  in  battle.  Posthumous  honors 
were  granted  him  in  1890. — His  brother,  SAibo 
TsuKUMicHi,  also  a  soldier,  was  bom  in  Sa,t- 
Buma  in  1843,  led  the  Japanese  expedition  to 
Formosa  in  1874,  and  was  a  general  in  the  Im- 
perial army  engaged  in  suppressing  the  Satsuma 
Rebellion  (see  above).  From  1879  to  1900  he 
was  a  Cabinet  officer. 

SAIL  (AS.  segel,  segl,  OHG.  aegal,  Ger.  Begel, 
sail,  of  uncertain  etymology).  A  contrivance  of 
canvas,  matting,  or  similar  material  designed  to 
utilize  the  pressure  of  the  wind  in  the  propulsion' 
of  vessels.  Sails  are  generally  made  of  flax  or 
cotton  canvas,  but  in  China,  and  in  many  partly 
civilized  coi^n tries,  they  are  made  of  grass,  or 

h 


TTPKB  OF  BAILS. 


(1).  A  staysafl  of  ordinAry  cut;  (2).  a  Bchooner's  foresail  or  malDBall,  a  sloop's  malnBail,  a  spanker,  etc.;  (3),  a  Jib ; 
(4).  a  lug  Ball ;  (6),  a  topBall,  topgaUant  sail,  etc.;  (6),  a  square  foresail  or  malDBall ;  (7),  a  Ghlneae  Junk's  Ball  having 
battens  or  bamboos  acroaa  it  to  keep  It  flat ;  (8),  a  leg-of-mutton  sail. 


was  formally  made  theirs  by  treaty  in  1862, 
when  \t  became  the  capital  of  their  possessions 
instead  of  Touraine. 

SAIGO  TAKAHOBI,  si'gd  Wkk-mc/r^ 
(1826-77).  A  Japanese  general,  bom  at  Kago- 
shima, Kiushiu,  in  1826.  He  was  educated 
chiefly  in  Kioto.  He  was  one  of  those  patriots 
who  desired  the  overthrow  of  the  Shogunate, 
the  restoration  of  the  Mikado  to  his  proper  place 
as  the  sole  ruler  of  the  Empire,  and  the  expul- 
sion of  foreigners.  He  soon  took  an  influential 
position  in  his  clan,  but  his  views  earned  for  him 
the  displeasure  of  the  Shogun's  Government,  and 
when  about  to  be  selssed  he  was  banished  for 


fibre  mattings.  While  sails  are  made  in  various 
shapes,  they  are  usually  triangular  or  quadri- 
lateral. 

The  letters  fc,  «,  *,  attached  to  the  various 
figures,  indicate  the  position  of  the  halliards, 
sheets,  and  tacks.  Some  sails  are  not  hoisted, 
therefore  they  have  no  halliards;  others  are 
drawn  down  by  their  sheets  alone  and  have  no 
tacks ;  some,  which  are  secured  to  booms,  have  • 
the  sheets  secured  to  the  boom  instead  of  the 
sail,  and  some  have  both  tacks  and  sheets  at  the 
same  comer.  The  tack  is  a  rope  which  secures 
the  forward  lower  comer  of  a  sail.  In  the  case 
of  square  sails,  which  secure  to  yards  above  and 


SAIL. 


306 


SAIL. 


below,  the  ropea  at  each  lower  comer  are  called 
sheets;  but  square  sails  which  hang  from  a  yard 
and  have  no  yard  below  them  have  tacks  lead- 
ing forward  from  their  lower  corners  and  sheets 
leading  aft.     When  the  sail  is  set  at  an  angle 

.0 


POBB-AND-AIT  BAIL— MAHTSAIL. 

with  the  keel,  one  tack  is  hauled  forward  and  one 
sheet  is  hauled  aft. 

Typical  sails  on  a  larger  scale  than  in  the 
diagram  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  figures, 
and  the  letters  indicate  parts  of  the  sail  and  the 
ropes  called  "gear"  attached  to  it:  B,  buntline; 
h,  bowline;  C,  clew;  o,  clewline;  D,  downhaul; 


(called  'cloths')  of  canvas  running  up  and  down 
the  sail.  These  are  lapped  about  an  inch  and  a 
half  and  both  edges  sewn  with  an  overhand 
stitch.  Around  the  edges  of  the  sails  are  add! 
tional  canvas  strips  called  tabling,  clew  patches, 
etc.;  and  across  it  are  strain-bands,  buntline 
cloths,  reef-bands,  etc.  The  edges  of  the  sail  are 
strongly  sewed  to  the  'roping,'  which  goes  en- 
tirely round  and  adds  greatly  to  the  str^igth  as 
well  as  serving  to  attach  the  gear  to  the  sail. 

As  applied  to  ships,  sails  are  of  two  types, 
'square'  and  'fore-and-aft.'  Square  sails  are  bent 
to  yards  which  pivot  about  their  middle.  Fore- 
and-aft  sails  pivot  at  the  forward  edge  (or  near 
it  in  the  case  of  lug-sails),  and  are  b^t  to  gaffs, 
masts,  or  lugs,  or  are  hoisted  on  stays.  A  vessel 
can  carry  more  canvas  if  square-rigged,  but  the 
sails  are  heavier  and  less  easy  to  handle,  and  a 
fore-and-aft  rigged  vessel  can  usually  lie  nearer 
the  wind  in  sailing.  Square-rigged  vessels,  in 
addition  to  their  square  sails,  have  some  fore- 
and-aft  sails,  as  the  jibs,  staysails,  trysails,  and 
spanker.    See  Ship. 

The  lower  sails  of  a  square-rigged  vessel  are 
called  the  courses;  they  consist  of  the  foresail 
and  mainsail  (and,  in  some  ships,  the  mizzen  or 
cross-jack).  The  sails  above  these  are  the  top- 
sails— fore,  main,  and  mizzen.  Above  the  top- 
sails are  the  fore,  main,  and  mizzen  topgallant 
sails;  and  above  these  again  the  fore,  main,  and 
mizzen  royals.  In  some  very  lofty  merchant 
ships  there  are  skysails  above  the  royals.  In 
recent  years  the  merchant  practice  has  been  to 
cut  the  topsail  in  two  parts,  called  the  upper 
and  lower  topsails.  This  plan  saves  reefing  close 
down — instead  of  reefing,  the  upper  topsail  is 


E,  head-earing;  F,  foot  of  sail;  g,  bunt-glut  for 
bunt-whip;  H,  halliards;  h,  head  of  sail;  L,  luif 
of  sail;  I,  leech  of  sail;  l\  leechline;  n,  nock  or 
throat  of  sail;  p,  peak  of  sail;  R,  reef -tackle;  r, 
reef -band  of  sail,  carrying  reef-points;  S,  sheet; 
T,  tack,  the  rope  which  secures  the  comer  of  the 
sail  (also  called  the  tack)  t,  to  the  deck  or  mast. 
Canvas  sails  are  made  up  of  narrow  strips 


TOPSAIL,  ArrSB  BIDK. 

furled.  Moreover,  the  sails  are  of  less  unman- 
ageable dimensions  for  handling  with  small  crews. 
Sails  are  hoisted  with  ropes  called  halliards; 
hauled  out  flat  with  sheets  or  outhauls  (on 
booms  and  gaffs) ;  pulled  up  to  the  yard  for 
furling  by  means  of  clewlines  (at  lower  cor- 
ners), buntlines  (made  fast  at  foot),  leechlines 
(at  side),  and  bunt-whip   (middle);  and  pulled 


BAIL. 


807 


SAILINGa 


up  to  the  yards  for  reefing  by  reef -tackles.  Square 
sails  are  bent  to  iron  rods  (called  bending  jack- 
stays)  on  the  yards  with  rope-yarn  stops  called 
robands;  fore-and-aft  sails  are  bent  to  travelers 
or  hanks  sliding  up  and  down  stays  or  railways 
(on  masts),  or  to  hoops  sliding  up  and  down  the 
masts.  Fore-and-aft  sails  are  either  lowered 
when  furled  or  pulled  in  and  furled  up  and  down 
the  mast.  In  the  latter  case  they  are  pulled  in 
by  the  brails.  Jibs  and  staysails  are  hauled 
down  by  down-hauls.  When  the  force  of  the 
wind  reaches  a  certain  point,  the  light  sails  are 
furled  and  the  other  sails  reefed  by  tying  up 
parts  of  each  to  its  yard  or  boom  by  means  of 
small,  short  ropes  called  reef-points.  In  severe 
storms,  heavy  sails  of  small  area  called  storm 
sails  are  bent  in  place  of  certain  of  the  ordinary 
sails,  which  are  used  except  in  very  strong  winds. 
In  the  severest  hurricanes  no  sail  can  be  carried 
— except,  possibly,  a  tarpaulin  laid  against  the 
mizzen  rigging,  which  serves  to  keep  the  vessel 
partly  up  to  the  seas. 

The  action  of  the  wind  upon  the  sails  is  best 
shown  by  a  diagram.  Let  AB  represent  a  ship 
moving  in  the  direction  BA;  CD  one  of  her  sails; 


EF  the  apparent  direction  of  the  wind.  Then  if 
£F  represents  in  length  the  force  of  the  wind, 
GF  will  be  the  resolved  component  at  right 
angles  to  the  sail,  and  HF  the  effective  resolution 
of  this  component  applied  to  pushing  the  ship 
ahead.  The  component  GH  will  tend  to  push 
the  ship  sideways  (give  her  leeway)  or  heel  her 
over.  It  is  evident  that,  as  the  wind  draws  aft, 
less  of  its  power  is  lost,  but  with  the  wind  aft 
is  not  usually  the  best  point  of  sailing,  as  the 
sails  will  not  all  draw  in  this  position.  Most 
ships  sail  best  with  the  wind  between  the  quarter 
and  the  beam.  Some  fore-and-aft  sails  are  in 
two  parts — a  broad  strip  along  the  foot  being 
laced  to  the  upper  part.  To  reduce  the  area 
of  the  sail,  instead  of  reefing  by  drawing  up 
the  foot  and  tying  it  with  reef -points,  the  broad 
strip  mentioned — which  is  called  a  bonnet — ^is 
removed. 

8AILEB,  zl^Sr,  Johaitn  Michael  (1751- 
1832).  A  Roman  Catholic  theologian,  bom  at 
Areaing,  in  Upper  Bavaria.  He  entered  the 
priesthood  and  in  1780  was  made  professor  of 
dogmatics  at  Dillingen.  In  1794  he  was  re- 
moved from  his  chair  because  of  his  mysticism, 
and  in  1709  was  appointed  professor  at  the 
seminary  of  Ingolstadt,  which  removed  in  1800 
to  Landshut,  where  he  remained  until  1821,  when 
he  became  prebendary  of  Regensburg.  In  1829 
he  became  bishop  of  the  same  see.  His  influence 
was  very  great  throughout  Germany  in  behalf 
of  renewed  spiritual  activity  within  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  His  complete  works  were 
edited  by  Widmer  (1830-42).  Consult  the  bi- 
ography by  Messmer  (Mannheim,  1876). 


SAILFISH  (so  called  from  the  shape  of  the 
dorsal  fin).  (1)  A  fish  (laiiophorua  nigricana) 
of  the  warmer  waters  of  the  Atlantic,  especially 
about  the  West  Indies,  where  it  is  called  'spike- 
fish,'  'boohoo,'  and  by  various  Spanish  names.  It 
is  very  similar  in  character  and  habits  to  the 
swordfishes  (q.v.),  but  has  a  shorter  and  less  flat- 
tened sword  and  the  skin  is  rougher.  Several 
other  species  are  known  in  Eastern  waters.  See 
Plate  of  Sfeabfish  and  Swordfish. 

(2)  A  carp-sucker.    See  Skimback. 

SAHilHGB.  The  term  applied  in  navigation 
(q.v.)  to  the  different  methods  of  conducting  a 
ship  from  one  point  to  another  and  the  solution 
of  problems  connected  with  these  methods.  They 
are  (a)  plane  sailing;  (b)  traverse  sailing;  (c) 
parallel  sailing;  (d)  middle  latitude  sailing;  (e) 
Mercator  sailing;  (f)  great  circle  sailing.  So 
far  as  the  track  of  the  ship  is  concerned,  the 
first  five  of  these  are  identical,  for  in  all  of  them 
the  ship's  track  is  along  the  rhumb-line  or  loxo- 
dromic  curve;  these  sailings,  therefore,  are 
merely  different  methods  of  computation  of  the 
same  problem.  In  great  circle  sailing,  however, 
an  attempt  is  made  to  follow  the  great  circle  of 
the  earth  which  passes  through  the  points  of  de- 
parture and  arrival. 

In  plane  aailing  the  small  portion  of  the  earth 
under  consideration  is  regarded  as  a  plane. 

In  the  figure  let  W  be  the  point  of  departure 
and  A  the  point  of  arrival.  Then  if  NS  is  a 
north  and  south  line  (part  of  the  meridian 
through  W),  the  angle  NWA  is  the  course.  Draw 
WE  perpendicular  to  NS  and  AE  parallel  to  NS. 
If  we  regard  as  a  plane  the  portion  of  the  earth's 
surface  under  consideration,  the  vessel  in  moving 
from  W  to  A  will  have  changed  her  latitude  by 
an  amount  equal  to  AE  and  her  longitude  by  an 
amount  equal  to  WE.  If  we  designate  WA  (the 
distance  sailed)  by  d,  AE  (the  change  in  lati- 
tude) by  {,  and  WE  (the  distance  gained  in  the 
direction  in  which  longitude  is  measured)  by  p, 


Fio.  1. 

we  will  have  I  =  (icosC  and  p  =  dsinC.  AE,  or 
If  is  called  the  'difference  in  latitude;'  AW,  or 
d,  the  'distance;'  and  WE,  or  p,  the  'departure.' 
If  d  is  expressed  in  nautical  miles  and  C  in  de- 
grees, I  will  be  given  in  minutes  of  latitude. 
(This  is  not  exact,  but  the  error  is  inappreciable 
in  practice.)  The  departure,  or  p,  will  also  be 
given  in  nautical  miles.  The  method  of  determin- 
ing the  relation  between  the  c'?parture  (p)  and 
the  difference  of  longitude  (D)  is  given  under 
'traverse  sailing.' 
Traverse  aailing  consists  in  computing  the  total 


8AILIKa& 


808 


SAHJHoa 


gain  in  latitude  and  in  departure  when  the  ship's 
track  is  made  up  of  several  pieces,  the  whole 
track  being  called  a  'traverse/ 

In  Figure  2  W  is  the  point  of  departure  and  H 
the  point  of  arrival;  and  WABFGH  is  the 
ship's  track.  The  total  gain  in  latitude  is  equal 
to    {h—k+h-^A+k)'     The  total   gain   in   de- 


a  certain  number  of  miles  measured  along  the 
parallel  of  latitude,  then  p  is  equal  to  -— 


cosL 


minutes  of  longitude,  or  if  we  call  the  difference 
of  longitude  D,  we  have  D  =  psecL.  Having 
obtained  the  value  of  p  by  means  of  the  formuls 


Fio.  2. 


parture  is  equal  to  (pi-h  Pi  +  Pi  —  P4+p»).  Each 
value  of  p  and  {  may  be  computed  from  its  own 
triangle. 

In  sailing  due  east  or  west  along  a  parallel  of 
latitude  the  difference  of  latitude  (i.e.  I)  is 
zero  and  p  =  d  =  distance  sailed.  But  p  is 
expressed  in  nautical  miles.  To  determine  how 
many  minutes  of  longitude  to  which  it  corre- 
sfMnds,  we  must  determine  the  length  of  a  minute 
of  longitude. 


of  plane  and  traverse  sailing,  we  find  D  by  the 
formula  D  =  psecL.  The  value  of  I,  p,  and 
D  may  be  picked  out  of  a  table  of  right  triangles 
such  as  is  given  in  Bowditch's  Navigator  and 
other  works  of  the  kind,  or  the  triangle  may  be 
solved  in  the  usual  trigonometrical  manner. 

Parallel  Sailing  is  a  special  case  of  plane 
sailing  or  traverse  sailing  in  which  the  course  is 
east  or  west  along  a  parallel  of  latitude.  The 
formulsB  may  be  deduced  from  those  for  traverse 
or  plane  sailing  by  putting  C  =  90"*. 

The  latitude  (L)  used  in  the  foregoing  formu- 
lie  is  that  of  the  point  of  departure.  If  the 
distance  sailed  is  considerable  and  the  change  in 
latitude  more  than  a  few  miles,  it  is  evident  that 
the  resulting  difference  of  longitude  will  be  con- 
siderably in  error,  for  the  length  of  a  minute  of 
latitude  at  the  latitude  L  differs  from  the  length 
of  a  minute  at  L'  (the  latitude  at  the  point  of 
arrival).  The  exact  average  length  of  a  minute 
of  longitude  is  slightly  greater  than  the  mean 
of  its  lengths  at  the  latitude  of  L  and  L'  and 
slightly  less  than  its  length  at  the  latitude  of 
LH-L' 

but  the  error  is  not  large  for  ordinary 


2 


cases,  and  it  is  customary  to  use  the  formula 
psec    (  — a — )'  and  this,  together 


D    = 


with 


In  Fig.  3,  W  N  E  S  is  the  meridian  of  the 
earth  passing  through  the  point  P.  OE  =  R  =  the 
equatorial  radius  of  the  earth.  TP  =  r  =  the 
radius  of  the  circle  of  latitude  passing  through 
the  point  P. 

Circumference  of  circle  of  latitude 2irr 

Circumference  at  equator  2irR' 

Each  of  the  circumferences  is  divided  into  the 
same  number  of  minutes  of  longitude,  therefore 
x'         length  of  a  minute  of  longitude  at  P  r 

X  ""length  of  a  minute  of  longitude  at  equator  ""R 

Since  the  earth  is  very  nearly  a  sphere,  we  may 
without  serious  error  assume  it  to  be  so.  (See 
Latitude  and  Longitude.)  Then  we  have  angle 
TPO  =  angle  POE  =  L  =  latitude  of  P  (near- 

r 
ly) ;  also  OP  =  OE  (nearly) ;  and  cosL  =  g.  or 

0/  =  (PoosL.    If  p  (=  departure)  correspond  to 


Z  =:  (fcosC  and  p  =  dsinC,  which  have  already 
been  given,  constitute  the  formulaB  used  in  com- 
puting a  ship's  position  by  'dead  reckoning* 
(q.v.)  when  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  the 
point  of  departure  and  the  courses  and  distances 
sailed  are  known.  Thus,  suppose  a  ship  leaves 
a  place  of  which  the  latitude  is  30 "*  N.  and  the 
longitude  60''  W.  and  sails  northeast  100  miles 
and  then  S.S.E.  00  miles;  required,  the  latitude 
and  longitude  of  the  place  of  arrival.  The  fol- 
lowing table  is  prepared: 


COURSE 

(C) 

Distance 
(d) 

Dlff.  lat. 
(1) 

"^^ 

Dlff.  long. 
(D) 

N.E 

100 
flO 

+70.7 
—66.4 

—70.7 
-28.0 

-82.1 

S.S.E 

—28.8 

+16.3 

— W.7 

-108.9 

The  latitude  of  the  place  of  arrival  is  there- 
fore 30**  15'  18"  (SO**  -h  16'.3),  and  the  longitude 


aAILINO& 


809 


SAILINOa 


58'  11'  06*  (60*  — !•  48'.9).  When  the  die- 
lances  sailed  are  short  it  is  customary  to  find 
the  sum  of  the  departures  and  pick  out  (from 
the  table  of  right  triangles)  the  difference  of 
longitude  corresponding  to  the  sum,  using  the 
mean  of  the  latitudes  of  the  place  left  and  the 
place  reached.  While  not  so  exact,  it  is  suffi- 
ciently so  for  ordinary  purposes  of  navigation; 
in  the  example  under  consideration  the  error 
would  be  about  one-half  a  minute  of  longitude. 

Mebcatob  Saiung  is  a  more  accurate  method 
of  determining  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  the 
place  of  arrival,  or  the  course  and  distance  be- 
tween places  of  which  the  latitude  and  longitude 
are  known.  A  complete  demonstration  of  the 
method  requires  too  much  space  for  insertion  in 
this  work.  The  formulae  used  are :  I  =  dcoBC ; 
L'  =  L  -f-  i;  p  =  dsinC;  m  =  M'  —  M;  D  =  m 
tanC ;  X'  =  X  db  D.  In  these  formulae  the  sym- 
bols have  the  same  meaning  as  in  the  other 
sailings.  In  addition,  M  and  M'  are  the  merid- 
ional parts  or  augmented  latitudes  correspond- 
ing to  the  latitudes  of  the  point  of  departure  and 
point  of  arrival  respectively;  and  X  and  X'  are 
the  longitudes  of  these  points.  In  the  accom- 
panying sketches  Fig.  4  is  designed  to  show  the 


X—, jV 


FlO.  4. 


Fio.  5. 


actual  shape  of  a  segment  of  the  earth  in  which 
P  is  the  pole,  EQ  a  portion  of  the  equator,  PE 
and  PQ  meridians,  and  AB,  GH,  and  JK  por- 
tifvns  of  parallels  of  latitude.  Fig.  5  represents 
the  same  segment  of  the  earth  on  Slercator's  pro- 
jection. E'Q'  is  equal  to  EQ,  as  are  also  J'K', 
O'H',  and  A'B'.  In  Fig.  4  the  line  EB  is  a  por- 
tion of  a  loxodromic  curve  or  rhumb-line  passing 
through  E  and  B  and  making  the  same  angle 
with  the  meridians  PE  and  PG  and  all  the  other 
meridians.  In  Fig.  5  the  angles  between  the  lines 
E'B'  and  A'E',  and  E'B'  and  B'Q',  are  preserved ; 
and,  in  order  that  this  condition  shall  hold — 
since  A'B'  is  longer  than  AB,  and  since  A'E'  and 
B'Q'  are  parallel — it  is  necessary  that  A'E'  and 
B'Q'  be  longer  than  AE  and  BQ.  A'E'  and  B'Q' 
are  called  the  augmented  latitudes  of  the  points 
A  and  B;  similarly  G'E',  H'Q',  J'E',  and  K'Q' 


are  the  augmented  latitudes  of  the  points  G,  H, 
J,  and  K.  It  follows  from  the  foregoing  that 
the  loxodromic  line  is  a  straight  line  when  laid 
down  on  a  Mercator's  chart,  and  this  is  what 
makes  the  charts  constructed  upon  that  projection 
BO  convenient  and  so  widely  used.  While  Mer- 
cator's  charts  are  almost  universally  employed 
for  ocean  navigation,  Mercator  sailing  is  used 
very  little.  The  ordinary  unavoidable  errors  of 
navigation  are  sufficiently  large  to  render  the 
slight  superiority  in  accuracy  over  middle  lati- 
tude sailing  of  no  practical  value,  except  where 
the  distances  are  very  great  or  where  the  ship's 
track  crosses  the  equator  between  the  points  of 
arrival  and  departure. 

In  great  circle  sailing  a  ship  is  made  to  follow 
as  closely  as  practicable  the  arc  of  the  great 
circle  of  the  earth  passing  through  the  points  of 
departure  and  arrival.  Since  the  shortest  line 
between  any  two  points  of  a  sphere  is  the  arc 
of  a  great  circle  passing  through  the  points,  it 
follows  that  a  ship  which  moves  from  one  point 
to  another  on  the  earth's  surface  will  pass  over 
the  shortest  route  when  she  follows  the  arc  of 
the  great  circle  passing  through  those  points. 
Theoretically,  therefore,  ships  should  always  sail 
on  great  circles.  Practically,  this  is  impossible, 
and  is  not  even  generally  desirable.  Great  circles 
make  different  angles  with  every  meridian  they 
cross,  so  that  the  course  would  be  constantly 
changing.  To  effect  this  constant  change  would 
be  difficult  and  very  troublesome.  Furthermore, 
to  follow  the  great  circle  rigorously  would  often 
lead  the  ship  into  bad  weather  or  dangerous 
localities  or  into  regions  where  the  currentis  and 
winds  are  adverse.  The  sole  advantage  is  the 
shortening  of  the  distance  sailed.  By  deter- 
mining points  on  the  circle  and  sailing  along 
the  rhumb-line  from  point  to  point,  the  distance 
passed  over  may  be  made  substantially  the  same 
as  on  the  great  circle,  provided  the  rhumb-line 
tracks  be  made  sufficiently  short.  In  many  cases 
it  is  desirable  to  follow  quite  closely  the  great 
circle  for  some  distance  and  then  the  rhumb- 
line  course  to  some  distant  point  on  the  circle, 
which  is  again  followed  quite  closely  to  the  de- 
signed point  of  arrival.  For  instance,  the  great 
circle  from  Puget  Sound  to  Yokohama  runs 
through  the  Aleutian  Islands  and  into  a  region 
of  fog.  For  this  reason  steamers  do  not  follow 
it  throughout,  but  only  as  far  north  as  desirable, 
when  they  take  the  rhumb-line  course  to  meet  the 
great  circle  again  (a  long  distance  to  the  west- 
ward) in  about  the  same  latitude;  from  this 
point  they  follow  it  in  short  rhumb-line  tracks 
to  the  destination. 

The  determination  of  numerous  points  upon 
the  great  circle  involves  considerable  computa- 
tion work,  and,  while  not  difficult,  it  is  beyond 
the  capacity  of  rule-of -thumb  navigators.  To 
adapt  great  circle  sailing  to  the  comprehension 
of  such  navigators  and  to  avoid  laborious  com- 
putation, many  devices  have  been  invented,  such 
as  charts  on  the  gnomonic  projection,  the  sphero- 
graph,  great  circle  protractors,  etc.  Of  these, 
the  gnomonic  charts  are  decidedly  the  simplest 
and  most  practical.  The  projection  is  upon  a 
plane  tangent  to  the  earth  at  some  selected  point 
on  the  surface,  and  the  point  of  sight  is  the  centre 
of  the  earth.  As  all  planes  cutting  great  circles 
out  of  the  earth  pass  through  the  earth's  centre, 
they  also  pass  through  the  point  of  sight;  and 


SAILING& 


810 


8AINF0IH. 


the  lines  they  cut  in  the  plane  of  projection  are 
straight  lines.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the 
straight  line  joining  any  two  points  on  the  chart 
is  the  projected  great  circle  arc.  The  meridians 
and  parallels  of  latitude  being  properly  pro- 
jected on  the  chart,  it  is  very  easy  to  obtain  the 
latitude  and  longitude  of  as  many  points  of  a 
great  circle  arc  as  we  wish.  These  points  may 
be  transferred  to  a  Mercator  chart  and  the 
courses  between  them  obtained  in  the  usual  way, 
or  they  may  be  determined  from  the  gnomonic 
chart  itself,  but  this  is  usually  unnecessary.  The 
development  of  the  gnomonic  chart  for  use  in 
great  circle  sailing  is  due  to  the  late  Gustave 
Herrle,  chief  draughtsman,  and  G.  W.  Little- 
hales,  chief  of  the  division  of  chart  construction 
in  the  Hydrographic  Office,  United  States  Navy 
Department. 

Various  other  means  of  graphically  solving 
great  circle  problems  have  been  devised.  Prob- 
ably the  earliest  was  the  *great  circle  pro- 
tractor' of  Prof.  W.  Chauvenet,  United  States 
Navy.  About  the  same  time  Mr.  Stephen  Martin 
Saxby  of  the  British  Navy  designed  a  very  simi- 
lar instrument,  which  was  called  the  spherograph. 
Gapt.  G.  D.  Sigsbee,  United  States  Navy,  designed 
a  great  circle  protractor  many  years  later,  and 
recently  devised  a  new  form  of  it  which  is  now 
issued  by  the  Hydrographic  Office  of  the  United 
States  Navy.  All  of  these  inventions  utilize  the 
stereographic  projection  of  a  hemisphere  in  which 
the  meridians  and  parallels  of  latitude  are  shown. 

The  spherograph  consists  of  a  card  upon  which 
is  the  stereographic  projection  of  a  hemisphere 
with  the  meridians  and  parallels  of  latitude 
drawn  and  marked.  Over  this,  and  pivoted  by  a 
pin  upon  the  same  centre,  there  is  an  exactly 
similar  projection  of  a  hemisphere  upon  a  trans- 
parent disk.  All  the  meridians  are  great  circles; 
therefore,  if  we  consider  the  bounding  meridian 
of  the  lower  projection  as  that  of  the  place  of 
departure  and  mark  the  point  upon  it  at  the 
proper  latitude,  it  is  very  easy  to  obtain  the 
great  circle  leading  to  any  other  point  as  fol- 
lows: Turn  the  transparent  disk  until  its  pole 
falls  upon  the  marked  point  of  departure.  Every 
meridian  of  the  transparent  disk  is  now  a  great 
circle.  If  the  point  to  be  arrived  at  is  marked 
on  the  lower  disk  in  its  proper  latitude  and 
longitude  ( reckoning  the  latter  from  the  meridian 
of  the  point  of  departure),  the  meridian  of  the 
transparent  disk  which  passes  through  it  is  the 
great  circle  connecting  it  with  the  point  of  de- 
parture. It  is  evident  that  this  instrument  is 
capable  of  graphically  solving  spherical  triangles 
and  other  astronomical  problems. 

Gaptain  Sigsbee's  protractor  is  simpler  and 
perhaps  slightly  slower  in  operation  for  some 
problems,  but  it  is  easier  handled,  less  likely  to 
be  injured  and  made  useless  on  board  ship,  and 
is  larger  and  more  accurate.  It  consists  of  a 
large  sheet  of  heavy  smooth  paper  or  thin  card- 
board upon  which  the  hemisphere  is  stereograph - 
ically  projected.  The  points  of  departure  and 
arrival  are  marked  upon  this  as  in  the  sphero- 
graph. In  addition,  upon  a  sheet  of  tracing 
paper,  laid  over  the  projection,  you  mark  the 
centre,  the  point  of  departure,  and  the  point  of 
arrival.  Turn  the  paper  (keeping  the  centre  al- 
ways over  the  lower  one)  until  the  point  of 
departure  falls  on  the  pole.  The  meridian  which 
passes  through  the  pomt  of  arrival  is  the  great 


circle.  Trace  such  portion  as  you  wish,  turn  the 
paper  back  to  the  first  position,  and  pick  up  the 
latitude  and  longitude  of  as  many  points  as  you 
want.  Gaptain  Sigsbee's  protractor  readily  lends 
itself  to  vie  graphical  solution  of  a  very  large 
number  of  astronomical  problems. 

SAIL-LIZABD.  A  large  Oriental  lizard  (Lo- 
phurus  Amhoinensis)  alli^  to  the  frilled  lizard 
(q.v.),  sometimes  a  yard  long,  with  a  veiy  com- 
pressed olive-green  body  and  tail,  the  latter  sur- 
mounted for  half  its  length  by  a  high,  serrate 
crest,  supported  by  spines  from  the  vertebne.  It 
is  found  from  Java  to  the  Philippines,  dwells  in 


THE  BAILi-LJEABD. 


the  jungle  near  streams,  eats  almost  everything, 
and  when  frightened  rushes  into  the  water  and 
endeavors  to  conceal  itself  on  the  bottom,  where 
it  can  readily  be  taken  by  a  net.  Its  flesh  is 
sought  for  food. 

SAILOB'S  CHOICE.  A  common  and  highly 
valued  food-fish  {Orihopristis  chrysopierua)  along 
the  sandy  southeastern  coast  of  the  United 
States,    belonging    to    the    family    of    grunters 


SAILOB'S  CHOiCB  {LMgodoD  rbomboldta). 


(Hiemulidse),  called  'pigfishes'  in  this  genus.  The 
form  is  ovate-elliptical,  and  the  length  is  12  to 
15  inches.  The  same  name  is  given  to  several 
allied  fishes,  and  especially  to  a  small  sparoid, 
or  porgy  (Lagodon  rhomhoidea)^  also  called  'pin- 
fish,'  a  beautiful  silvery-blue  and  gold  fish  of  the 
Gulf  Coast. 

SAINFOIN  (Fr.  sain-fon,  OF.  also  aainct 
foin,  saint foiuy  from  sain,  from  Lat.  aanciuSj  holy, 
less  probably  from  Lat.  sanus,  sound  -|-  fot'n, 
from  Lat.  fosnum,  hay),  or  Esparsette  (Onobry- 
chis  vicicpfolia) .  A  perennial  pink-flowered  legu- 
minous plant,  native  to  the  temperate  parts  of 
Europe  and  Western  Asia,  and  widely  cultivated 
in  Europe  for  pasturage  and  hay,  but  little  in  the 
United  States.     The  plant  grows  from   1  to  2 


SAIKFOI^r. 


811 


SAINT  ALBANS. 


feet  high  and  has  rather  long  pinnate  leaves. 
The  fruit  consists  of  short  single-seeded  pods. 
It  prefers  a  light,  dry,  calcareous  soil,  with  a 
permeable,  well-drained  subsoil.  It  is  often 
grown  on  soils  too  diy  or  too  barren  for  clover. 
The  culture  of  sainfoin  is  similar  to  that  of  al- 
falfa. Usually,  however,  only  one  cutting  is 
made  a  year.  From  1%  to  2%  tons  of  hay  per 
acre  are  obtained,  and  the  yield  of  seed  ranges 
from  10  to  25  bushels.  It  does  not  endure  close 
pasturing. 

SAINT  (OF.  saint,  aeint,  aainct,  Fr.  saint, 
from  Lat.  sanctus,  holy,  from  sancire,  to  hallow; 
connected  with  Skt.  saiij,  to  adhere).  A  name 
applied  in  the  New  Testament  to  the  members  of 
the  Christian  community  generally,  but  early  re- 
stricted in  ecclesiastical  usage  to  men  and  women 
of  special  eminence  for  personal  holiness.  The 
earliest  class  of  saints  to  receive  distinct  recog- 
nition was  naturally  that  of  the  martyrs  (q.v.). 
The  name  of  confessors  was  originally  applied  to 
those  who  had  exhibited  signal  courage  and  con- 
stancy in  professing  the  faith,  without  the  final 
crown  of  martyrdom,  but  later  was  used  of  male 
saints  in  general  who  were  not  martyrs.  Women 
are  honored  either  as  virgins,  matrons,  or  widows. 
For  the  methods  by  which  the  title  of  saint  has 
been  conferred  in  early  and  in  modem  times,  see 
Cahonization. 

In  the  history  of  religious  controversy  there 
has  been  much  discussion  as  to  the  status  of  the 
departed  saints  and  their  relation  to  the  Church 
on  earth.  That  there  is  some  practical  relation 
is  contended  as  a  logical  sequence  from  the  article 
of  the  Apostles'  Creed  which  declares  belief  in 
*the  communion  of  saints;'  and  in  like  manner 
it  is  not  often  disputed  that  the  saints,  or  those 
who  have  passed  from  earth  into  the  presence  of 
God,  may  offer  their  prayers  to  Him  for  the 
necessities  of  the  Church  militant.  But  while 
the  Council  of  Trent  lays  down  that  it  is  a  good 
and  useful  thing  to  invoke  the  saints  on  account 
of  the  benefits  to  be  obtained  from  God  by 
their  aid,  Protestants  generally'contend  that  such 
invocation  is  not  only  useless,  since  there  is  no 
certainty  that  the  departed  can  hear  our  prayers, 
but  positively  unlawful,  as  trenching  on  the  wor- 
ship due  to  God  and  derogating  from  the  media- 
torial office  of  Christ.  The  first  objection  is 
met  by  the  theory  that  the  saints  are  in  the  im- 
mediate presence  of  God,  and,  gazing  upon  the 
Beatific  Vision,  "behold  with  open  face  as  in  a 
ghiss"  all  that  God  wills  them  to  know  of  what  is 
happening  on  earth.  It  is  further  asserted  that 
there  is  an  infinite  difference  between  the  wor- 
ship paid  to  God  as  the  Supreme  Lord  of  the 
Universe  and  the  address  to  the  saints,  which 
is  the  same  in  kind  as  that  made  without  ob- 
jection to  venerated  friends  on  earth.  The  last 
objection  is  answered  by  emphasizing  the  belief 
that  the  nrayers  of  the  saints  gain  their  effi- 
cacy only  by  virtue  of  their  union  with  the  all- 
prevailing  mediation  of  Christ.  For  the  venera- 
tion paid  to  images  and  relics  of  the  saints,  see 
Image- WoBSHiP;  Relics. 

BnuoGRAPHT.  The  most  extensive  as  well  as 
most  scholarly  is  the  collection  by  the  BoUan- 
dists  (q.v.),  Acta  Sanctorum  (q^.).  Familiar 
to  all  English  students  is  Alban  Butler,  Lives  of 
ike  Fathers,  Martyrs,  and  Other  Saints  ( original 
edition,  London,  1756-59;  n.  e.  ib.,  1800)  ;  Lives 
of  Saints  and  Servants  of  God  (edited  by  F. 
W.  Faber,  ib.,   1843-44) ;  Jameson,  Sacred  and 


Legendary  Art  (ib.,  1848) ;  id.,  Legends  of  the 
Monastic  Orders  (lb.,  1850)  ;  Baring-Gould, 
Lives  of  the  Saints  (ib.,  1872-92,  new  ed.,  ib., 
189J-98)  ;  Gibson,  Short  Lives  of  Saints  for  Every 
Day  in  the  Year  (ib.,  1896-97).  For  British  and 
Irish  saints  particularly,  consult:  Lives  of  the 
English  Saints  ( written  by  various  hands,  at  the 
suggestion  of  John  Henry  Newman,  ib.,  1844-45 ; 
new  ed.,  1900  et  seq.);  Fleming,  A  Complete 
Calendar  of  the  English  Saints  and  Martyrs  for 
Every  Day  of  the  Year  (ib.,  1902). 

SAnrX-ACHETJL,  s&N't&'shgl'.  A  celebrated 
archaeological  site  in  the  Somme  Valley,  Northern 
France.  It  gives  name  to  the  so-called  Acheu- 
lean  epoch  in  French  archseology,  following  the 
Chell^an,  the  oldest  in  their  Paleolithic  period. 
It  was  characterized  by  great  cold  and  the  fauna 
is  a  transition  toward  that  of  the  more  temperate 
climate  that  followed. 

SAINT-AFFBIQUE,  sftN'tAffr^k'.  A  town 
of  the  Department  of  Aveyron,  France,  on  the 
Bourdon  River,  37  miles  east  of  AIM  (Map: 
France,  J  8).  It  is  situated  in  a  beautiful  val- 
ley, between  two  mountains,  and  is  surrounded 
by  meadows,  orchards,  and  vineyards.  The 
streets  are  broad,  but  the  houses  are  mostly  old 
and  mean.  The  town  has  woolen  and  cotton  fac- 
tories and  tanneries,  and  a  lively  trade  in  wool, 
and  is  celebrated  for  Roquefort  cheese,  made 
from  ewe's  milk,  chiefly  in  the  mountain  pastures 
around  the  neighboring  village  of  Roquefort. 
The  town  successfully  resisted  the  Prince  de 
Condfi  in  1628.    Population,  about  5000. 

SAINT  AI/BAKS.  A  municipal  borough  in 
Hertfordshire,  England,  situated  on  a  picturesque 
hill,  21  miles  northwest  of  London.  It  is  close 
to  the  site  of  Verulamium,  the  most  important 
town  in  the  south  of  England  during  the  Roman 
period.  King  Offa  II.  of  Mercia,  in  795,  founded 
an  abbey  in  memory  of  Saint  Alban,  a  Roman 
soldier  and  the  proto-martyr  of  England,  who 
died  at  the  end  of  the  third  or  the  beginning 
of  the  fourth  century.  The  town  grew  up  about 
the  abbey,  which  became  the  most  important  in 
England.  During  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  the 
place  was  the  scene  of  two  battles;  the  first  was 
in  1465,  when  the  Lancastrians  were  defeated 
and  Henry  VI.  was  made  a  captive;  the  second 
in  1461,  when  the  Yorkists  were  defeated. 
(See  Roses,  Wars  of  the.)  In  1877  Saint 
Albans  became  a  bishop's  see.  The  abbey 
is  built,  in  part,  of  Roman  bricks  from 
Verulamium.  The  abbey  church  is  cruciform 
and  one  of  the  largest  in  England.  Its  length 
is  550  feet,  its  breadth  175  feet,  au«l  its  Nor- 
man tower  is  145  feet  high.  Its  earliest  portions 
date  from  about  1080.  The  church  underwent, 
in  1875,  an  extensive  restoration.  The  gate, 
which  is  now  a  school,  is  the  only  extant  portion 
of  the  other  monastic  buildings.  In  Saint 
Michael's  Church  there  is  a  monument  to  Lord 
Bacon,  who  was  Baron  Verulam  and  Viscount 
Saint  Albans.  The  population,  in  1891,  was  12,- 
895;  in  1901,  16,000,  many  of  whom  were  em- 
ployed in  straw-plaiting  and  the  manufacture  of 
silk  goods.  The  various  annals  and  chronicles  of 
Saint  Albans  are  published  in  the  Rolls  Series, 
in  21  volumes.  See,  especially,  Matthew  of 
Paris  and  Roger  of  Wendover. 

SAINT  ALBANS.  A  city  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Franklin  CJounty,  Vt.,  45  miles  northwest 
of  Montpelier;  on  the  Central  Vermont  Railroad 


SAINT  ALBANa 


812 


SAINT-AANAnD. 


(Map:  Vermont,  6  2).  It  is  attractively  situ* 
ated  at  an  elevation  of  400  feet,  about  two  milea 
distant  from  Lake  Champlain.  Near  by  are  the 
Aldis  and  Bellevue  Hills,  which  afford  extended 
views  of  the  Green  Mountains,  Lake  Champlain, 
and  the  Adirondacks.  The  city  has  a  public 
library,  the  Warner  Home  for  the  Destitute,  a 
hospital,  and  the  Villa  Barlow  Convent.  Saint 
Albans  is  noted  as  the  centre  of  large  dairying 
interests,  and  has  a  large  creamery,  several  but^ 
ter  and  cheese  making  establishments,  and  manu- 
factories of  iron  and  steel  bridge  work,  iron  roof- 
ing, and  other  iron  products.  Shops  of  the  Cen- 
tral Vermont  Railroad  also  are  here.  Popula- 
tion, in  1900,  6239. 

Saint  Albans  was  incorporated  as  a  village  in 
1859,  and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1897.  It 
was  a  rendezvous  of  insurrectionist  leaders  dur- 
ing the  Canadian  troubles  of  1837-38.  On  Octo- 
ber 19,  1864,  it  was  raided  by  Confederates  from 
Canada,  who  seized  more  than  $200,000  deposited 
in  the  local  banks.  In  1866  a  party  of  Fenians 
started  from  Saint  Albans  to  attack  Canada,  and 
later  a  force  of  United  States  troops  imder  Gen- 
eral Meade  was  stationed  here  to  prevent  further 
acts  of  hostility  against  Great  Britain.  Consult 
Vermont  Historical  Gazetteer  (Burlington,  1867- 
82). 

SAINT  ALEZAKBEB  KEVSEI,  nSf^sk^. 
A  Russian  military  order  founded  by  Peter  the 
Gftat  in  1722.  It  was  first  conferred  by  Catha- 
rine I.  in  1725.  Only  those  of  the  rank  of 
major-general  are  eligible  for  the  distinction. 
The  decoration  is  an  eight-pointed  red  cross  with 
double  eagles  in  the  angles,  and  in  the  centre 
an  image  of  the  saint  on  horseback,  armed. 

SAIKT-AMANI),  silN't&'maN'.  A  town  in 
the  Department  of  Nord,  France,  7  miles  north 
by  west  of  Valenciennes,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Elnon  and  Scarpe  rivers  (Map:  France,  J  1). 
It  is  noted  for  its  mineral  springs  and  baths.  The 
town  hall  is  the  most  prominent  structure  and 
affords  a  magnificent  view  of  the  surrounding 
coimtiy.  The  town  is  important  for  its  manu- 
facture of  iron  and  steel.  Population,  in  1901, 
13,705. 

SAIKT-AMAiri),  Naphtali  Hebz.  See 
Imbeb,  Nafhtali  Hebz. 

SAIKT-AMAND-MONT-BOKI),  -mOx-rdN. 
The  capital  of  an  arrondissement  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  Cher,  France,  27  miles  north  by  west  of 
Montlucon,  on  the  (]!her  River  (Map:  France, 
J  5).  In  the  vicinity  are  interesting  ruins  of  an 
old  Roman  city.  The  town  is  also  noted  as  the 
birthplace  of  the  great  Cond6.  It  played  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  Hundred  Years'  War.  Popu- 
lation, in  1901,  8326. 

SAINT  AMAKT,  sCN'tA'mftN',  Antoine  Gi- 
RARD,  Sieur  de  (1594-1661).  A  French  poet,  bom 
probably  near  Rouen.  Gautier  calls  him  the 
creator,  with  Scarron  and  Th(k>phile  de  Viau, 
of  burlesque  poetry  in  France.  The  most 
important  of  his  poems  are:  Moise  8auv4  dee 
eaux,  which  contains  some  beautiful  descriptive 
writing;  Solitude ^  which  Boileau  calls  his  best 
work;  and  Alhion,  a  curious  picture  of  English 
manners.  He  published  his  (Euvres  poetiques, 
in  4  parts  (1629,  1631,  1643,  1649),  and  a  Der- 
nier recueil  in  1658.  Consult  Gautier,  Les  gro- 
ieaquea  (Paris,  1844). 


SAINT  ANa)B£WS.  A  royal  burgfa,  sea- 
port, and  watering  place  in  Fifeshire,  ^tland, 
on  Saint  Andrews  Bay,  15  miles  southeast  of 
Dundee  (Map:  Scotland,  F  3).  It  has  two 
small  harbors,  and  is  one  of  the  most  fashionable 
of  Scotch  summer  resorts,  and  its  fine  golf  links 
stretch  along  the  shore  to  the  north  of  the  town 
for  two  miles.  Saint  Andrews  has  been  noted  as 
an  educational  centre  since  1120.  (See  Sauct 
AiTDBEWS,  Univebsitt  OF.)  The  manufacture  of 
golf  clubs  and  balls  is  the  chief  industry.  Saint 
Andrews  being  the  headquarters  of  golfing  in 
Scotland.  Fishing  gives  considerable  employ- 
ment, and  coal  is  mined  in  the  neighborhood. 
There  are  ruins  of  the  cathedral  commenced  in 
1160  and  destroyed  in  1559,  of  the  castle  dating 
from  1200,  and  of  a  Dominican  monastery  found- 
ed in  1274.  Population,  in  1901,  7621.  Consult 
the  monographs  by  Lang  (London,  1893)  and 
Boyd  (ib.,  1892;  another  vol.,  1896). 

SAINT  ANDBEWS,  University  of.  The 
oldest  Scotch  university.  It  was  founded  in 
1411  by  Bishop  Henry  Wardlaw  and  confirmed 
by  a  bull  of  Pope  Benedict  XIII.  It  was  modeled 
in  most  respects  after  the  University  of  Paris 
(q.v.),  and  from  the  very  beginning  received  the 
encouragement  of  the  Scottish  kings.  By  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  there  existed 
already  three  colleges:  Saint  Salvator,  Saint 
Leonards,  and  Saint  Mary,  established  in  1450, 
1512,  and  1537,  respectively.  They  were  at  first 
devoted  mainly  to  theology  and  philosophy,  and 
although  originally  intended  to  combat  heresy, 
they  ]£came  the  strongholds  of  Protestantism, 
particularly  Saint  Leonards.  In  1579  the  col- 
leges were  reorganized.  Saint  Salvator  and  Saint 
L^nards  assuming  the  instruction  of  philosophy, 
law,  and  medicine,  while  theology  was  taught  at 
Saint  Mary's.  The  secular  colleges  were  united 
in  1747.  University  College,  foimded  by  Dr. 
John  Baxter  and  Miss  Baxter  in  1880,  at 
Dundee,  became  affiliated  with  Saint  Andrews  in 
1890.  The  university  library,  founded  in  1456, 
contains  over  115,000  volumes  and  manuscripts. 
The  university's  attendance  in  1902  was  264. 

SAINT  ANDBEW'S  CBOSS.  A  cross  with 
beams  forming  the  letter  X,  so  named  because 
Saint  Andrew  is  said  to  have  suffered  on  such  a 
cross.  Since  it  forms  the  initial  of  the  Greek 
word  for  Christ,  it  was  held  in  great  honor.  It 
is  also  called  Burgundian  cross,  becauae  it  ap- 
peared in  the  Burgundian  arms. 

SAINT  ANN,  Obdeb  of.  A  Russian  order 
founded  in  1735  by  Duke  Charles  Frederick  of 
Holstein-Gottrop  in  memory  of  his  wife,  Anna 
Petrovna.  In  1797  it  was  made  a  Russian  order 
of  merit,  and  its  single  class  was  divided  into 
three,  to  which  two  classes,  for  military  candi- 
dates, were  subsequently  added.  The  decoration 
is  a  red  cross  bearing  the  image  of  Saint  Ann, 
and  is  worn  by  the  first  class  in  connection  w^ith 
an  eight-pointed  star  with  the  Imperial  crown 
and  the  device,  "Amantibus  Justitiam,  Pietatem. 
Fidem."  The  first  class  confers  hereditary  no- 
bility. 

SAINT  ANTHONY,  Falls  of.    See  MmKE- 

APOLIS. 

SAINT  ANTHONSrS  FIBE.    See  Ebtsife- 

LAS. 

SAJNT-ABNATTD,  sAir't&r'ny,  Jacques  Lb- 
BOT  DE   (1796-1854).     A  French  marshal,  boxn 


aAorr-ASKAUD. 


318 


SAINT  BBBNABD. 


in  Paris.  He  helped  suppress  the  ahortive  rising 
in  the  Vend^  in  1832,  and  afterwards  was  sent  to 
Africa.  He  defeated  and  captured  the  Algerian 
chief  Bou-Maza  in  1847  and  was  rewarded  with 
the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  Saint-Amaud 
was  in  Paris  at  the  Revolution  of  1848 
and  fought  against  the  rioters  at  the  head 
of  a  brigade.  In  1851,  after  a  successful 
campaign  against  the  Kabyles,  he  was  made  a 
general  of  division,  recalled  to  France,  and  put 
in  command  of  the  Second  Division  of  the  Army 
of  Paris.  On  October  26,  1851,  he  was  ap- 
pointed War  Minister,  and  was  one  of  the  chief 
agents  of  Napoleon  in  the  coup  d'etat  of  Decem- 
ber 2,  1851.  A  year  later  he  was  made  a  marshal 
of  France  and  grand  equerry  to  the  Emperor. 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  war  in  the  Crimea  Saint- 
Arnaud  was  put  in  command  of  the  French  forces. 
Soon  after  Saint-Amaud  succumbed  to  the  hard- 
ships of  the  campaign,  dying  on  board  a  French 
war  vessel.  His  Lettres  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1855) 
are  autobiographical  in  nature. 

SAINT  ASAPH,  sant  kz^af.  A  city,  standing 
on  a  small  hill  between  the  rivers  Clwyd  and 
Elwy,  in  the  northwest  of  Flintshire,  Wales 
(Map:  Wales,  0  3).  Its  trade  is  agricultural. 
The  chief  building  is  the  cathedral,  a  cruciform 
structure,  dating  from  1284  on  the  site  of  a 
wooden  structure  founded  before  696.  Popula- 
tion, in  1901,  16,372.  Consult  Walcott,  Memo- 
rials of  Saint  Aaaph  (London,  1865). 

8AIKT  AUanSTINB,  ft'gt!is-t€n.  A  city  and 
the  county-seat  of  Saint  John  Ck)unty,  Fla.,  32 
miles  south  by  east  of  Jacksonville ;  on  Matanzas 
Bay,  and  on  the  Florida  East  Coast  Railroad 
(Map:  Florida,  G  2).  -  The  oldest  city  in  the 
United  States,  Saint  Augustine  is  especially  at- 
tractive with  its  narrow  streets,  picturesque  old 
houses,  and  interesting  remains.  The  vicinity 
is  one  of  remarkable  b^uty  owing  to  its  semi- 
tropical  vegetation.  In  the  northern  part  of  the 
city  are  ruins  of  the  old  wall  erected  by  the 
early  settlers  as  a  protection  against  Indian  in- 
cursions. Here,  too,  is  the  ancient  fort  of  San 
Marco  (now  Fort  Marion),  begun  about  1656 
and  finished  a  century  later.  It  covers  four 
acres.  From  this  point  southward  extends  the 
sea  wall,  constructed  by  the  Federal  Government 
— a  popular  promenaae.  An  old  Spanish  con- 
vent occupied  the  present  site  of  Saint  Francis 
barracks  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  wall, 
its  ruins  having  been  utilized  in  the  building  ot 
the  modem  structure.  Near  the  barracks  is  the 
Alicia  Hospital.  The  old  Governor's  palace, 
on  the  Plaza  de  la  Constitucion,  in  the  central 
part  of  the  city,  has  been  rebuilt  and  now  serves 
as  a  United  States  custom  house  and  post-office. 
The  cathedral  dates  from  1793.  Other  features 
are  the  municipal  buildings,  the  Public  Library, 
State  Institute  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb,  the  Mu- 
seum of  the  Institute  of  Natural  Science,  and 
Saint  Joseph's  Academy.  Saint  Augustine  is  of 
some  importance  as  the  centre  of  large  fruit- 
growing interests,  but  is  best  known  as  a  winter 
and  health  resort,  being  noted  for  its  mild 
uniform  climate.  The  mean  annual  temperature 
is  70**  and  the  winter  average  53**.  There  are 
several  large  hotels,  among  which  is  the  Ponce 
de  Leon,  erected  at  a  cost  of  $3,000,000.  Across 
the  bay  from  Saint  Augustine  is  Anastasia  Island, 
with  a  lighthouse  and  quarries  of  coquina,  a 
shelly  formation  which  has  been  used  since  the 


Spanish  regime  for  building  and  paving  pur- 
poses throughout  the  city.  The  government  is 
vested  in  a  mayor,  chosen  biennially,  and  a  coun- 
cil. The  water-works  are  owned  and  operated 
by  the  municipality.  Population,  in  1890,  4742; 
in  1900,  4272. 

In  1513  Ponce  de  Leon,  in  search  of  the 
Tountain  of  Youth,'  seems  to  have  visited  the 
site  of  Saint  Augustine.  Half  a  century  later, 
in  1564,  a  company  of  French  Huguenots  passed 
here  and  settled  a  few  miles  to  the  north,  on 
the  Saint  Johns  River.  Don  Pedro  Menendez  de 
Aviles,  sent  by  Philip  II.  of  Spain  to  expel  the 
intruders,  stopped  here,  August  28,  1565,  Saint 
Augustine's  Day,  and  erected  a  fort.  After 
butchering  the  French  (September  .20)  at  the 
Saint  Johns  he  returned  and  established  a  settle- 
ment— ^the  earliest  within  the  present  limits  of 
the  United  States.  Saint  Augustine  was  burned 
by  Sir  Francis  Drake  in  1586  and  sacked  by  the 
piratical  Captain  Davis  in  1665.  Throughout  its 
early  history  ill  feeling  between  the  Spaniards 
and  the  English  colonists  to  the  north  was 
chronic.  In  1681  a  force  from  Saint  Augustine 
attacked  the  English  settlements  at  Port  Royal. 
Governor  Moore  of  South  Carolina  made  unsuc- 
cessful attacks  on  Saint  Augustine  in  1702  and 
1704,  burning  the  greater  part  of  the  town  on 
the  former  occasion;  and  in  1743  General  Ogle- 
thorpe, having  been  ordered  away  from  Georgia 
by  the  Spanish,  marched  to  Saint  Augustine  and 
besieged  it  unsuccessfully  for  thirty-eight  days. 
In  1763  it  passed  with  the  rest  of  Florida  into 
English  hands  and  was  used  as  a  military  sta- 
tion during  the  Revolution;  but  it  became  Span- 
ish again  in  1783.  In  1821  it  was  transferred  to 
the  United  States,  in  pursuance  of  the  treaty  of 
1819.  During  the  Civil  War  it  was  twice  cap- 
tured by  Union  armies.  Consult:  Fairbanks,  The 
History  and  Antiquities  of  Saint  Augustine  (New 
York,  1858) ;  id.,  The  Spaniards  in  Florida 
(Jacksonville,  1868)  ;  Reynolds,  Old  Saint  Au- 
gustine (Saint  Augustine,  1885) ;  and  a  sketch 
in  Powell,  Historic  Towns  of  the  Southern  States 
(New  York,  1900). 

SAINT  BABTHOI/OHEW.  A  small  island 
of  the  Lesser  Antilles  belonging  to  the  French 
colony  of  Guadeloupe,  and  situated  near  the 
northern  end  of  the  Leeward  group  130  miles 
northwest  of  Guadeloupe  (Map:  West  Indies, 
Q  6).  Area,  8  square  miles.  It  is  about  1000 
feet  high,  arid  and  devoid  of  forest,  but  produces 
some  sugar,  cotton,  and  cacao.  Population,  about 
3000.  The  island  was  colonized  by  the  French 
in  1648,  bought  by  Sweden  in  1785,  and  bought 
back  by  France  in  1877. 

SAINT  BABTHGIiGMEW,  Massacbb  of. 
See  Babtholomew's,  Massacbe  of  Saint. 

SAINT  BEB^ABB,  Fr,  pron.  sftN  b^r'nftr^. 
Great.  A  mountain  pass  in  the  Alps  (q.v.)  east 
of  Mont  Blanc,  8110  feet  above  the  sea,  with 
a  carriage  road  connecting  the  valleys  of  the 
Dora  Baltea  and  the  Rhone  (Map:  Italy,  B  2). 
The  famous  hospice  or  monastery  of  Saint  Ber- 
nard, 17  miles  from  Aosta,  in  Italy,  and  30  miles 
from  Martigny,  Switzerland,  is  almost  at  the 
summit  of  the  pass  beside  a  little  lake  which 
even  in  summer  often  freezes  over.  The  hospice 
entertains  yearly  from  20,000  to  25,000  guests, 
who  contribute  only  a  small  part  of  the  $6000  to 
$80(K)   required   to   maintain   the   establishment. 


SAINT  BEBNABD. 


314 


SAIHT-CHAMOin). 


This  monastery  was  founded  in  962  by  Saint 
Bernard  de  Menthon.  It  is  now  occupied  by 
twenty  Augustine  monks  with  seven  assistants. 
It  is  their  special  mission  with  tho.  aid  of  their 
famous  Saint  Bernard  dogs  to  rescue  travelers 
who  may  be  lost  in  the  snow.  In  the  hospice  are 
engravings  and  pictures  given  by  grateful  trav- 
elers, a  collection  of  coins,  and  numerous  an- 
tiquities found  in  the  vicinity — among  them 
fragments  of  brass  tablets  offered  to  Jupiter 
Poeninus  by  pious  Romans  after  escape  from 
danger.  From  Jupiter  Poeninus,  who  had  here 
at  one  time  a  temple  dedicated  to  him,  the  range 
of  mountains  is  called  the  Pennine  Alps,  the 
mountain  itself  by  the  Italians,  Monte  Giove, 
and,  locally,  Mont  Joux.  This  pass  was  much 
used  by  the  Romans,  particularly  after  the 
foundation  of  Aosta  (q.v.),  was  improved  by 
Constantine,  traversed  by  the  Lombards,  by 
Charlemagne's  uncle,  Bernard,  by  Frederick  Bar- 
barossa,  and  by  large  bodies  of  French  and  Aus- 
trian soldiers  during  the  campaigns  of  1798, 
1799,  and  1800. 

Little  Saint  Bernard  is  a  pass  7170  feet 
above  the  sea  southwest  of  Mont  Blanc,  connect- 
ing the  valleys  of  the  Dora  Baltea  and  the  Is%re. 

SAINT  BEBNABD  DOQ.  The  largest  of 
domestic  dogs,  often  nearly  three  feet  high  at  the 
shoulder  and  150  pounds  in  weight.  The  race 
was  developed  from  an  unknown  origin,  at  the 
Hospice  of  Saint  Bernard,  in  the  Alpine  pass  of 
that  name,  whose  monks  have  maintained  the 
breed  through  centuries  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
aid  to  belated  travelers,  or  rescuing  those  lost  in 
snow-storms.  They  are  also  used  to  test  the  prac- 
ticability of  a  snow-covered  track,  or  the  safety 
of  an  ice-bridge.  Their  capacity  for  tracking  and 
their  keenness  of  nose  equal  that  of  the  best 
bloodhound.  They  are  very  hardy  dogs,  yet  in 
the  middle  period  of  the  nineteenth  century  they 
were  nearly  exterminated,  once  by  a  pest  that 
left  but  one,  and  once  by  an  avalanche,  which 
carried  away  all  but  three  of  the  monks'  dogs. 
Excellent  dogs  for  similar  use  have  been  bred 
and  trained  on  the  Saint  Gothard,  Simplon, 
Grimsel,  and  Furka  passes,  and  in  other  Alpine 
hospices.  Two  varieties  of  Saint  Bernards  are  rec- 
ognized— ^the  smooth-coated  and  the  rough-coated. 
The  shorter-haired  dog  shows  better  its  true 
power  and  shape.  The  standard  of  the  breed 
calls  for  a  tall,  erect  figure,  strong,  muscular,  and 
bony  in  every  part;  a  powerful  and  imposing 
head,  with  a  wide  massive  skull,  and  an  intelli- 
gent expression.  The  supraorbital  ridges  are 
strongly  developed,  and  form  nearly  a  right  angle 
with  the  horizontal  axis  of  the  head.  A  furrow 
runs  up  the  centre  of  the  forehead,  between  the 
supraorbital  arches.  The  skin  on  the  forehead  is 
wrinkled,  but  not  deeply.  The  chops  of  the  upper 
jaw  are  strongly  developed,  like  those  of  the 
bloodhound,  but  turn  with  a  graceful  curve  into 
those  of-  the  lower  edge,  and  are  slightly  over- 
hanging. The  nostrils  are  dilated  and  black ;  the 
ears  lightly  set  on,  and  close  at  the  base,  and  the 
back  edge  standing  away  when  the  dog  is  listen- 
ing; the  eyes  set  more  to  the  side  than  to  the 
front,  the  lids  showing  a  slight  haw.  The  feet 
are  broad,  and  the  toes  strong,  with  a  single  or 
double  dew-claw,  giving  an  extended  surface  to 
the  foot  when  on  the  snow.  The  coat  is  very 
dense,  lying  smooth,  but  in  the  rough-haired  is 
considerably  long,  and  flat  to  slightly  wavy,  and 


the  tail  is  bushier  than  in  the  smooth-ooated  va- 
riety. The  color  may  be  black,  red,  or  white  in 
well-defined  patches.  Consult  works  cited  under 
Dog;  and  see  Plate  of  Dogs. 

SAIKT-BBIEnC,  s&n  br6'$^.  The  capital  of 
the  Department  of  C(^te8-du-Nord,  France,  63 
miles  northwest  of  Rennes,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Gouet  River  (Map:  France,  D  3).  Its  port,  Le 
L6gu6,  is  one  mile  distant  to  the  north  on  the 
English  Channel.  The  town  has  an  attractive 
situation,  and  is  of  considerable  interest  by  reason 
of  its  antiquity.  It  has  a  cathedral  dating  from 
the  thirteenth  century,  and  recently  restored,  the 
Church  of  Notre  Dame  d'Esperance,  also  a  thir- 
teenth-century structure,  and  the  Church  of  Saint 
Michel,  a  modem  edifice.  The  town  carries  on  a 
large  coastwise  trade  in  farm  and  garden  produce 
and  fish,  and  is  largely  interested  in  iron  and 
steel  manufactures.  A  monastery  was  established 
here  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifth  century  by 
Saint  Brieuc,  a  Welsh  missionary.  Saint-Brieue 
was  the  scene  of  much  fighting  during  the  Reign 
of  Terror.    Population,  in  1901,  22,198. 

SAHfT  CATH^ABOTE^  Order  of.  (I)  A 
Russian  order  instituted  in  1714  by  Peter  the 
Great,  and  originally  intended  as  a  special  dis- 
tinction for  his  consort  Catharine,  in  recognition 
of  her  services  in  the  Turkish  campaign  of  1711. 
The  membership  was  subsequently  extended  to  in- 
clude all  the  princesses  of  the  Imperial  house 
and  women  of  the  nobility.  The  decoration,  a  dia- 
mond cross,  has  an  oval  medallion  with  an  image 
of  Saint  Catharine  holding  a  cross,  on  which  are 
the  letters  D.  S.  F.  R.  {Domine,  Salvum  Foe  Re- 
gem), 

SAINT-BBIEnC,  s&N'br^'S^.  The  capital  of 
Lincoln  County,  Ontario,  Canada;  on  the  Welland 
Canal  and  the  Grand  Trunk,  the  Welland,  and 
the  Niagara  Central  railroads;  12  miles  north- 
west of  Niagara  Falls  (Map:  Ontario,  D  4) .  The 
city  has  manufactures  of  machinery  and  agricul- 
tural implements.  The  surrounding  country  is 
picturesque  and  productive.  The  well-known  min- 
eral well  of  Saint  Catharines  supplies  on  an 
average  130,000  gallons  a  day.  Saint  Catharines 
has  been  called  the  Saratoga  of  British  Amer- 
ica. There  are  gas  and  electric  lights,  gravity 
system  of  water-works,  good  sewerage  system, 
and  superior  educational  institutions,  includ- 
ing the  Bishop  Ridley  College,  an  Anglican  estab- 
lishment. Population,  in  1891,  9170;  in  1901, 
9946. 

SAINT  CATHABIKE'S  COLLEGE.  A  col- 
lege founded  at  Cambridge,  England,  by  Robert 
Wodelarke,  or  Woodlark,  Provost  of  King's  Col- 
lege and  chancellor  of  the  university,  in  1473 
(charter  in  1476),  for  a  master  and  three  fellows. 
It  is,  and,  save  in  the  seventeenth  century,  has  al- 
ways been,  one  of  the  smaller  Cambridge  colleges. 
There  were,  in  1902,  a  master,  6  fellows,  and  26 
scholars,  besides  sizars.  Among  the  more  dis- 
tinguished members  of  the  college  may  be  men- 
tioned Archbishop  Sandys,  Dr.  Addenbrooke, 
founder  of  the  hospital  in  Cambridge,  and  the 
naturalist  John  Ray. 

SAINT-CHAMOND^  sftx'sh&'mON^  A  town 
in  the  Department  of  Loire,  France,  situated  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Gier  and  the  Ban,  8  miles 
by  rail  northeast  of  Saint  Etienne  (Map:  France, 
L  6).  It  is  a  flourishing,  well-built  town,  and  is 
the  centre  of  a  district  extensively  engaged  in  the 


fiAXHT-CBAXOND. 


815 


ftAIKt-ClATTDB. 


manufacture  of  laces  and  ribbons.  There  are  also 
dye  works,  naval  and  railway  workshops.  There 
are  coal  mines  in  the  vicinity.  Population,  in 
1901,  15,469. 

SAIHT  CHAHLES.  A  city  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Saint  Charles  County,  Mo.,  20  miles  north- 
west of  Saint  Louis ;  on  the  Missouri  River,  and  on 
the  Wabash  and  the  Missouri,  Kansas  and  Texas 
i  lilroads  (Map:  Missouri,  F  3).  It  is  the  seat 
(.'  the  Linden  wood  Female  College  (Presbyte- 
rian), opened  in  1830,  Saint  Charles  Military  Col- 
lege (Methodist  Episcopal),  founded  in  1834, and 
the  Sacred  Heart  Academy.  The  court  house 
here  is  a  fine  structure,  having  cost  $100,000.  The 
centre  of  a  rich  agricultural  section,  Saint  Charles 
has  also  important  industrial  interests.  The  car 
factory  is  one  of  the  most  extensive  of  its  kind  in 
the  United  States  and  there  are  also  manufacto- 
ries of  cob  pipes,  flour,  brick  and  tile,  furniture, 
and  beer.  The  leading  articles  of  commerce  in- 
clude the  manufacture  products,  tobacco,  lime- 
stone, com,  and  farm  produce.  The  government, 
under  the  revised  chaiter  of  1899,  is  vested  in  a 
mayor,  elected  biennially,  and  a  unicameral  coun- 
cil. The  city  owns  and  operates  the  water  works 
and  electric  light  phint.  Settled  in  1769,  Saint 
Charles  was  incorporated  in  1849.  Population, 
in  1890,  6161 ;  in  1900,  7982. 

SAOrr  CTTAKTiES,  Obdeb  of.  An  order  of 
merit  founded  in  1858  by  Charles  III.  of  Monaco, 
on  the  model  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  The'  dec- 
oration is  a  white  enameled  cross  with  a  red  bor- ' 
der,  surmounted  by  a  crown  and  interwoven  with 
a  wreath  of  laurel  and  olive.  The  central  red 
medallion  bears  two  C's  with  the  legend  Princep8 
et  Patria. 

SAINT  CHBICrrOPHEB,  or  Saint  Kitts. 
One  of  the  Leeward  Islands,  British  West 
Indies,  situated  in  H''  18'  N.  latitude  and  62* 
48'  W.  longitude,  and  covering  an  area  of  65 
sqnare  miles  (Map:  West  Indies,  Q  6).  It  is 
traversed  in  the  centre  by  a  mountain  range,  of 
which  the  highest  peak,  the  extinct  volcano 
Mount  Misery,  is  more  than  4000  feet  high.  The 
climate  is  healthful ;  the  chief  products  are  sugar 
and  rum.  Coffee  and  cotton  are  also  cultivated 
to  some  extent.  Together  with  Nevis  (q.v.)  and 
the  dependency  of  Anguila,  Saint  Christopher 
forms  a  division  of  the  Leeward  group.  Popula- 
tion, in  1891,  30,876;  in  1901,  29,782.  Capital, 
Basse  Terre.  The  island  was  discovered  by  Co- 
lumbus in  1493  and  settled  by  the  English  and 
French  about  1623-25.  It  was  ceded  to  Great 
Britain  by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  in  1713. 

SAINT  CLAIR,  A  borough  in  Schuylkill 
County,  Pa.,  3  miles  north  of  Pottsville ;  on  Mill 
Creek,  and  on  the  Pennsylvania  and  other  rail- 
roads (Map:  Pennsylvania,  E  3).  It  is  situated 
in  a  hilly  r^on,  containing  extensive  deposits 
of  anthracite,  the  mining  of  which  constitutes  the 
leading  industry.  Miners'  squibs  and  fuses  and 
miners'  caps  are  the  principal  manufactures. 
Population,  in  1890,  3680;  in  1900,  4638. 

BACrr  CLAIB^  Lake.  A  lake  belonging  to 
the  Great  Lakes  system,  and  situated  between 
Lake  Huron  and  Lake  Erie,  and  between  the  State 
of  Michigan  and  the  Province  of  Ontario  (Map: 
Michigan^  L  6).  It  is  27  miles  long  and  25  miles 
wide,  and  has  an  area  of  *4?6  square  miles.  It 
receives  the  waters  of  Lake  Huron  through  the 
Saint  Clair  River,  and  discharges  into  Lake  Erie 
TOL.  XV.— 2L 


through  the  Detroit  Rivier.  Its  elevation 
above  sea-level  is  570  feet,  being  6  feet  lower  than 
Lake  Huron,  and  3  feet  higher  than  Lake  Erie. 
Its  greatest  depth  is  21  feet,  and  in  the  north, 
where  it  borders  on  the  mud-flats  of  the  Saint 
Clair  delta,  it  is  very  shallow.  Steamers  draw- 
ing 20  feet,  however,  can  pass  between  the  two 
rivers. 

aAINT  GLAIB,  Asthub  (1734-1818).  A 
Scotch- American  soldier.  He  was  bom  at  Thur- 
so, Caithness-shire,  Scotland;  was  educated  at 
the  university  of  Edinburgh,  joined  the  British 
army  as  an  ensign,  and  in  1758  came  to  Amer- 
ica with  Admiral  Boscawen.  He  served  with 
distinction  under  Amherst  at  Louisburg,  and 
under  Wolfe  at  Quebec;  resigned  his  commis- 
sion in  1762,  and  in  1764  settled  in  Pennsyl- 
vania. He  held  various  civil  offices  until  the 
breaking  out  of  the  Revolution,  when  he  joined 
the  colonial  army  with  the  rank  of  colonel. 
For  his  gallant  services  at  the  battles  of  Three 
Rivers,  Trenton,  and  Princeton,  he  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  major-general  in  1777  and  placed  in 
command  at  Ticonderoga.  He  was  forced  to 
abandon  that  place  to  Burgoyne,  and,  although  ac- 
quitted of  blame  by  court-martial,  lost  his  com- 
mand. Remaining  in  the  army  as  a  volunteer,  he 
again  rose  to  important  positions,  distinguishing 
himself  in  the  operations  which  ended  with  the 
surrender  of  Cornwall  is.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Continental  Congress  1785-87,  becoming  its  presi- 
dent in  the  latter  year,  and  from  1783  to  1789 
was  president  of  the  Pennsylvania  State  Society 
of  the  Cincinnati,  giving  its  name  to  that  city  in 
1790.  In  1789  he  was  made  the  first  Governor  of 
the  Northwest  Territory,  and  in  1791,  as  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  United  States  army,  was 
sent  on  an  expedition  against  the  Miami  Indians, 
which  ended  m  the  disastrous  rout  of  his  forces. 
A  committee  of  investigation  appointed  by  Con- 
gress exonerated  him,  but  he  resigned  his  com- 
mand in  May,  1792,  and  in  1802  Jefferson  removed 
him  from  his  Grovemorship.  His  last  years  were 
spent  in  poverty  and  obscurity.  dJonsult:  A  Nar- 
rative of  the  Manner  in  which  the  Campaign 
against  the  Indiana  in  the  year  1791  was  con- 
ducted under  the  command  of  Major-General 
Saint  Clair  (Philadelphia,  1812) ;  Smith,  The 
Life  and  Public  Services  of  Arthur  Saint  Clair 
(Cincinnati,  1882). 

SAINT  CLAIB  BIVEB.  The  outlet  of  Lake 
Huron.  It  is  41  miles  long,  and  flows  south  on 
the  boundary  between  Michigan  and  Ontario, 
emptying  into  Lake  Saint  Clair  (q.v.)  through 
a  fan-shaped  delta  of  seven  channels  (Map:  Mich- 
igan, L  6) .  The  river  itself  is  navigable,  and  one 
of  the  delta  channels  has  been  improved  by  canal- 
izing a  part  of  it  and  guarding  it  by  embank- 
ments. It  is  being  made  available  for  vessels 
drawing  20  feet.  In  1891  a  tunnel  was  built 
under  the  river  between  Port  Huron  and  Samia, 
measuring  with  its  approaches  3851  yards,  and 
connecting  the  Canadian  Grand  Trunk  and  the 
Chicago  and  Grand  Trunk  railways. 

SAINT-GLAUBE,  sftNlcldd^  The  capital  of 
an  arrondissement  in  the  Department  of  Jura, 
France,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Bienne  and  Ta- 
con,  19  miles  northwest  of  Geneva  (Map:  France, 
M  5).  It  is  an  episcopal  see,  with  a  fourteenth- 
century  cathedral,  the  former  church  of  an  im- 
portant abbey,  which  was  suppressed  at  the  Rev- 
olution.    The  town  has  manufactures  of  toys. 


8AILIH(HL 


808 


RATTjTNOS. 


gain  in  latitude  and  in  departure  when  the  ship's 
track  is  made  up  of  several  pieces,  the  whole 
track  being  called  a  'traverse.' 

In  Figure  2  W  is  the  point  of  departure  and  H 
the  point  of  arrival;  and  WABFGH  is  the 
ship's  track.  The  total  gain  in  latitude  is  equal 
to    (i^— fc+I.— li+ii).     The  total   gain   in   de- 


a  certain  number  of  miles  measured  along  the 


cosL 


parallel  of  latitude,  then   p   is  equal  to 

minutes  of  longitude,  or  if  we  call  the  difference 
of  longitude  D,  we  have  D  =  psecL.  Having 
obtained  the  value  of  p  by  means  of  the  formula 


Fio.  a. 


parture  is  equal  to  (pi+  P«  +  P*  —  P4+P5) .  Each 
value  of  p  and  {  may  be  computed  from  its  own 
triangle. 

In  sailing  due  east  or  west  alonff  a  parallel  of 
latitude  the  difference  of  latitude  (i.e.  I)  is 
zero  and  p  =  d  =  distance  sailed.  But  p  is 
expressed  in  nautical  miles.  To  determine  how 
many  minutes  of  longitude  to  which  it  corre- 
sponds, we  must  determine  the  length  of  a  minute 
of  longitude. 


In  Fig.  3,  W  N  £  S  is  the  meridian  of  the 
earth  passing  through  the  point  P.  0£  =  R  =  the 
equatorial  radius  of  the  earth.  TP  ==  r  =  the 
radius  of  the  circle  of  latitude  passing  through 
the  point  P. 

Circumference  of  circle  of  latitude 2irr 

Circumference  at  equator  2irR' 

Each  of  the  circumferences  is  divided  into  the 
same  number  of  minutes  of  longitude,  therefore 

x' length  of  a  minute  of  longitude  at  P      _r 

X  ""length  of  a  minute  of  longitude  at  equator     R 

Since  the  earth  is  very  nearly  a  sphere,  we  may 
without  serious  error  assume  it  to  be  so.  (See 
Latitude  and  LoNGTTn)E.)  Then  we  have  angle 
TPO  =  angle  POE  =  L  =  latitude  of  P  (near- 
ly) ;  also  OP  =  OE  (nearly) ;  and  cosL  =  ^.  or 
0/  =  tfcosL.    If  p  (=  departure)  correspond  to 


of  plane  and  traverse  sailing,  we  find  D  by  the 
formula  D  =  psecL.  The  value  of  Z,  p,  and 
D  may  be  picked  out  of  a  table  of  right  triangles 
such  as  is  given  in  Bowditch's  Navigator  and 
other  works  of  the  kind,  or  the  triangle  may  be 
solved  in  the  usual  trigonometrical  manner. 

Paballel  Sailing  is  a  special  case  of  plane 
sailing  or  traverse  sailing  in  which  the  course  is 
east  or  west  along  a  parallel  of  latitude.  The 
formulfs  may  be  deduced  from  those  for  travei^e 
or  plane  sailing  by  putting  C  =  90°. 

The  latitude  (L)  used  in  the  foregoing  formu- 
la is  that  of  the  point  of  departure.  If  the 
distance  sailed  is  considerable  and  the  change  in 
latitude  more  than  a  few  miles,  it  is  evident  that 
the  resulting  difference  of  longitude  w^ill  be  con- 
siderably in  error,  for  the  length  of  a  minute  of 
latitude  at  the  latitude  L  differs  from  the  length 
of  a  minute  at  J/  (the  latitude  at  the  point  of 
arrival).  The  exact  average  length  of  a  minute 
of  longitude  is  slightly  greater  than  the  mean 
of  its  lengths  at  the  latitude  of  L  and  L'  and 
slightly  less  than  its  length  at  the  latitude  of 
L  +  L' 
— ^ — '  ^ut  the  error  is  not  large  for  ordinary 

cases,  and  it  is  customary  to  use  the   formula 

D    =    psec    ( — 2 — )•  *"^  ^^^>  together   with 

I  =  dcosC  and  p  =  cfsinC,  which  have  already 
been  given,  constitute  the  formuls  used  in  com- 
puting a  ship's  position  by  'dead  reckoning* 
(q.v.)  when  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  the 
point  of  departure  and  the  courses  and  distances 
sailed  are  known.  Thus,  suppose  a  ship  leaves 
a  place  of  which  the  latitude  is  30®  N.  and  the 
longitude  60^  W.  and  sails  northeast  100  miles 
and  then  S.S.E.  60  miles;  required,  the  latitude 
and  longitude  of  the  place  of  arrival.  The  fol- 
lowing table  is  prepared: 


COT7R8B 

(C) 

Distance 
(d) 

Diff.  lat. 
(1) 

•S?- 

IHir.  long. 
(D) 

N.E 

100 
60 

+70.7 
—65.4 

-70.7 
-28.0 

-«a.i 

S.S.E 

—28.8 

+15.3 

— W.7 

—106.9 

The  latitude  of  the  place  of  arrival  is  there- 
fore 30°  15'  18"  (30**  +  16'.3),  and  the  longitude 


aAiLiHa& 


809 


SAILIHOa 


58*  11'  06*  (60*  — !•  48'.9).  When  the  dis- 
tances sailed  are  short  it  is  customary  to  find 
the  sum  of  the  departures  and  pick  out  (from 
the  table  of  right  triangles)  the  difference  of 
longitude  corresponding  to  the  sum,  using  the 
mean  of  the  latitudes  of  the  place  left  and  the 
place  reached.  While  not  so  exact,  it  is  suffi- 
ciently so  for  ordinary  purposes  of  navigation; 
in  the  example  under  consideration  the  error 
would  be  about  one-half  a  minute  of  longitude. 

Mebcatob  Saiung  is  a  more  accurate  method 
of  determining  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  the 
place  of  arrival,  or  the  course  and  distance  be- 
tween places  of  which  the  latitude  and  longitude 
are  known.  A  complete  demonstration  of  the 
method  requires  too  much  space  for  insertion  in 
this  work.  The  formul®  used  are :  I  =  dcosC ; 
L'  =  L  -f  Z;  p  =  <feinC;  w  =  M'  —  M;  D  =  w 
tanC ;  X'  =  X  d=  D.  In  these  formulae  the  sym- 
bols have  the  same  meaning  as  in  the  other 
sailings.  In  addition,  M  and  M'  are  the  merid- 
ional parts  or  augmented  latitudes  correspond- 
ing to  the  latitudes  of  the  point  of  departure  and 
point  of  arrival  respectively;  and  X  and  X'  are 
the  longitudes  of  these  points.  In  the  accom- 
panying sketches  Fig.  4  is  designed  to  show  the 


Fio.  4. 


FiQ.  6. 


actual  shape  of  a  segment  of  the  earth  in  which 
P  is  the  pole,  EQ  a  portion  of  the  equator,  PE 
and  PQ  meridians,  and  AB,  GH,  and  JK  por- 
tions of  parallels  of  latitude.  Fig.  5  represents 
the  same  segment  of  the  earth  on  Mercator's  pro- 
jection. E'Q'  is  equal  to  EQ,  as  are  also  J'K', 
C/H',  and  A'B'.  In  Fig.  4  the  line  EB  is  a  por- 
tion of  a  loxodromic  curve  or  rhumb-line  passing 
through  E  and  B  and  making  the  same  angle 
with  the  meridians  PE  and  PG  and  all  the  other 
meridians.  In  Pig.  5  the  angles  between  the  lines 
E'B'  and  A'E',  and  E'B'  and  B'Q',  are  preserved; 
and,  in  order  that  this  condition  shall  hold — 
since  A'B'  is  longer  than  AB,  and  since  A'E'  and 
B'Q*  are  parallel — it  is  necessary  that  A'E'  and 
B'Q'  be  longer  than  AE  and  BQ.  A'E'  and  B'Q' 
are  called  the  augmented  latUudea  of  the  points 
A  and  B;  similarly  G'E',  H'Q',  J'E',  and  K'Q' 


are  the  augmented  latitudes  of  the  points  G,  H, 
J,  and  K.  It  follows  from  the  foregoing  that 
the  loxodromic  line  is  a  straight  line  when  laid 
down  on  a  Mercator's  chart,  and  this  is  what 
makes  the  charts  constructed  upon  that  projection 
so  convenient  and  so  widely  used.  While  Mer- 
cator's  charts  are  almost  universally  employed 
for  ocean  navigation,  Mercator  sailing  is  used 
very  little.  The  ordinary  unavoidable  errors  of 
navigation  are  sufficiently  large  to  render  the 
slight  superiority  in  accuracy  over  middle  lati- 
tude sailing  of  no  practical  value,  except  where 
the  distances  are  very  great  or  where  the  ship's 
track  crosses  the  equator  between  the  points  of 
arrival  and  departure. 

In  great  circle  sailing  a  ship  is  made  to  follow 
as  closely  as  practicable  the  arc  of  the  great 
circle  of  the  earth  passing  through  the  points  of 
departure  and  arrival.  Since  the  shortest  line 
between  any  two  points  of  a  sphere  is  the  arc 
of  a  great  circle  passing  through  the  points,  it 
follows  that  a  ship  which  moves  from  one  point 
to  another  on  the  earth's  surface  will  pass  over 
the  shortest  route  when  she  follows  the  arc  of 
the  great  circle  passing  through  those  points. 
Theoretically,  therefore,  ships  should  always  sail 
on  great  circles.  Practically,  this  is  impossible, 
and  is  not  even  generally  desirable.  Great  circles 
make  different  angles  with  every  meridian  they 
cross,  so  that  the  course  would  be  constantly 
changing.  To  effect  this  constant  change  would 
be  difficult  and  very  troublesome.  Furthermore, 
to  follow  the  great  circle  rigorously  would  often 
lead  the  ship  into  bad  weather  or  dangerous 
localities  or  into  regions  where  the  currents  and 
winds  are  adverse.  The  sole  advantage  is  the 
shortening  of  the  distance  sailed.  By  deter- 
mining points  on  the  circle  and  sailing  along 
the  rhumb-line  from  point  to  point,  the  distance 
passed  over  may  be  made  substantially  the  same 
as  on  the  great  circle,  provided  the  rhumb-line 
tracks  be  made  sufficiently  short.  In  many  cases 
it  is  desirable  to  follow  quite  closely  the  great 
circle  for  some  distance  and  then  the  rhiunb- 
line  course  to  some  distant  point  on  the  circle, 
which  is  again  followed  quite  closely  to  the  de- 
signed point  of  arrival.  For  instance,  the  great 
circle  from  Puget  Sound  to  Yokohama  runs 
through  the  Aleutian  Islands  and  into  a  region 
of  fog.  For  this  reason  steamers  do  not  follow 
it  throughout,  but  only  as  far  north  as  desirable, 
when  they  take  the  rhumb-line  course  to  meet  the 
great  circle  again  (a  long  distance  to  the  west- 
ward) in  about  the  same  latitude;  from  this 
point  they  follow  it  in  short  rhumb-line  tracks 
to  the  destination. 

The  determination  of  numerous  points  upon 
the  great  circle  involves  considerable  computa- 
tion work,  and,  while  not  difficult,  it  is  beyond 
the  capacity  of  rule-of-thumb  navigators.  To 
adapt  great  circle  sailing  to  the  comprehension 
of  such  navigators  and  to  avoid  laborious  com- 
putation, many  devices  have  been  invented,  such 
as  charts  on  the  gnomonic  projection,  the  sphero- 
graph,  great  circle  protractors,  etc.  Of  these, 
the  gnomonic  charts  are  decidedly  the  simplest 
and  most  practical.  The  projection  is  upon  a 
plane  tangent  to  the  earth  at  some  selected  point 
on  the  surface,  and  the  point  of  sight  is  the  centre 
of  the  earth.  As  all  planes  cutting  great  circles 
out  of  the  earth  pass  through  the  earth's  centre, 
they  also  pass  through  the  point  of  sight;  and 


8AILIH(HL 

gain  in  latitude  and  in  departure  when  the  ship's 
track  is  made  up  of  several  pieces,  the  whole 
track  being  called  a  'traverse.' 

In  Figure  2  W  is  the  point  of  departure  and  H 
the  point  of  arrival;  and  WABFGH  is  the 
ship's  track.  The  total  gain  in  latitude  is  equal 
to    ih—k+h—h+l^)'     The  total   gain   in   de- 


BAHiiHas. 

a  certain  number  of  miles  measured  along  the 

parallel   of   latitude,   then  p  is   equal   to         j- 

minutes  of  longitude,  or  if  we  call  the  difference 
of  longitude  D,  we  have  D  =  psecL.  Having 
obtained  the  value  of  p  by  means  of  the  formula 


Fio.  a. 


parture  is  equal  to  (pi+  Pt  +  Pt  —  P4+P5).  Each 
value  of  p  and  I  may  be  computed  from  its  own 
triangle. 

In  sailing  due  east  or  west  along  a  parallel  of 
latitude  the  difference  of  latitude  (i.e.  I)  is 
zero  and  p  =  d=  distance  sailed.  But  p  is 
expressed  in  nautical  miles.  To  determine  how 
many  minutes  of  longitude  to  which  it  corre- 
sponds,  we  must  determine  the  length  of  a  minute 
of  longitude. 


of  plane  and  traverse  sailing,  we  find  D  by  the 
formula  D  =  psecL.  The  value  of  I,  p,  and 
D  may  be  picked  out  of  a  table  of  right  triangles 
such  as  is  given  in  Bowditch's  Navigator  and 
other  works  of  the  kind,  or  the  triangle  may  be 
solved  in  the  usual  trigonometrical  manner. 

Parallel  Sailing  is  a  special  case  of  plane 
sailing  or  traverse  sailing  in  which  the  course  is 
east  or  west  along  a  parallel  of  latitude.  The 
formulae  may  be  deduced  from  those  for  traverse 
or  plane  sailing  by  putting  C  =  90**. 

The  latitude  (L)  used  in  the  foregoing  formu- 
Ise  is  that  of  the  point  of  departure.  If  the 
distance  sailed  is  considerable  and  the  change  in 
latitude  more  than  a  few  miles,  it  is  evident  that 
the  resulting  difference  of  longitude  will  be  con- 
siderably in  error,  for  the  length  of  a  minute  of 
latitude  at  the  latitude  L  differs  from  the  length 
of  a  minute  at  L'  (the  latitude  at  the  point  of 
arrival).  The  exact  average  length  of  a  minute 
of  longitude  is  slightly  greater  than  the  mean 
of  its  lengths  at  the  latitude  of  L  and  L'  and 
slightly  less  than  its  length  at  the  latitude  of 
L  +  L' 
— 5 — »  but  the  error  is  not  large  for  ordinary 

cases,  and  it  is  customary  to  use  the  formula 

/L  +  L'\ 
psec    I — 2 — j;  and  this,  together 


D    = 


In  Fig.  3,  W  N  E  S  is  the  meridian  of  the 
earth  passing  through  the  point  P.  OE  =  R  =  the 
equatorial  radius  of  the  earth.  TP  =  r  =  the 
radius  of  the  circle  of  latitude  passing  through 
the  point  P. 

Circumference  of  circle  of  latitude 2irr 

Circumference  at  equator  2irR' 

Each  of  the  circumferences  is  divided  into  the 
same  number  of  minutes  of  longitude,  therefore 

x' length  of  a  minute  of  longitude  at  P  r 

X  ""length  of  a  minute  of  longitude  at  equator     R 

Since  the  earth  is  very  nearly  a  sphere,  we  may 
without  serious  error  assume  it  to  be  so.  (See 
Latitude  and  Lonoitxtde.)  Then  we  have  angle 
TPO  =  angle  POE  =  L  =  latitude  of  P  (near- 

ly) ;  also  OP  =  OE  (nearly) ;  and  cosL  =  g.   or 

0/  =  AOosL.    If  p  (=  departure)  correspond  to 


with 


I  =  (icosC  and  p  =  rfsinC,  which  have  already 
been  given,  constitute  the  formulee  used  in  com- 
puting a  ship's  position  by  'dead  reckoning* 
(q.v.)  when  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  the 
point  of  departure  and  the  courses  and  distances 
sailed  are  known.  Thus,  suppose  a  ship  leaves 
a  place  of  which  the  latitude  is  30**  N.  and  the 
longitude  OO"*  W.  and  sails  northeast  100  miles 
and  then  S.S.E.  60  miles;  required,  the  latitude 
and  longitude  of  the  place  of  arrival.  The  fol- 
lowing table  is  prepared: 


COURSE 

(C) 

Distance 
(d) 

Diff.  lat. 
(1) 

"^^ 

Dlff.  lonff. 
(D) 

N.E 

100 
60 

+70.7 

—70.7 
— 2S.0 

—82.1 

S.S.E 

-26.8 

+16.8 

— W.7 

-108.9 

The  latitude  of  the  place  of  arrival  is  there- 
fore 30°  15'  18"  (30**  +  15'.3),  and  the  longitude 


SArLiNa& 


809 


SATLINOa 


58*  11'  06"  (60*»  — !«*  48'.9).  When  the  dis- 
tances sailed  are  short  it  is  customary  to  find 
the  sum  of  the  departures  and  pick  out  (from 
the  table  of  right  triangles)  the  difference  of 
longitude  corresponding  to  the  sum,  using  the 
mean  of  the  latitudes  of  the  place  left  and  the 
place  reached.  While  not  so  exact,  it  is  suffi- 
ciently so  for  ordinary  purposes  of  navigation; 
in  the  example  under  consideration  the  error 
would  be  about  one-half  a  minute  of  longitude. 

Mebcatob  Sailing  is  a  more  accurate  method 
of  determining  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  the 
place  of  arrival,  or  the  course  and  distance  be- 
tween places  of  which  the  latitude  and  longitude 
are  known.  A  complete  demonstration  of  the 
method  requires  too  much  space  for  insertion  in 
this  work.  The  formula  used  are :  I  =  dcosC ; 
L'  =  L  -f  I;  p  =  <feinC;  w  =  M'  —  M;  D  =  w 
tanC;  V  =  X  dz  D.  In  these  formulae  the  sym- 
bols have  the  same  meaning  as  in  the  other 
sailings.  In  addition,  M  and  M'  are  the  merid- 
ional parts  or  augmented  latitudes  correspond- 
ing to  the  latitudes  of  the  point  of  departure  and 
point  of  arrival  respectively;  and  X  and  X'  are 
the  longitudes  of  these  points.  In  the  accom- 
panying sketches  Fig.  4  is  designed  to  show  the 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  6. 


actual  shape  of  a  segment  of  the  earth  in  which 
P  is  the  pole,  EQ  a  portion  of  the  equator,  PE 
and  PQ  meridians,  and  AB,  GH,  and  JK  por- 
tions of  parallels  of  latitude.  Fig.  5  represents 
the  same  segment  of  the  earth  on  Mercator's  pro- 
jection. E'Q'  is  equal  to  EQ,  as  are  also  JIC', 
GTl'.  and  A'B'.  In  Fig.  4  the  line  EB  is  a  por- 
tion of  a  loxodromic  curve  or  rhumb-line  passing 
through  E  and  B  and  making  the  same  angle 
with  the  meridians  PE  and  PG  and  all  the  other 
meridians.  In  Fig.  5  the  angles  between  the  lines 
E'B'  and  A'E',  and  E'B'  and  B'Q',  are  presented ; 
and,  in  order  that  this  condition  shall  hold — 
since  A'B'  is  longer  than  AB,  and  since  A'E'  and 
B'Q'  are  parallel — it  is  necessary  that  A'E'  and 
B'Q'  be  longer  than  AE  and  BQ.  A'E'  and  B'Q' 
are  called  the  auffmented  laiiiudea  of  the  points 
A  and  B;  similarly  G'E',  H'Q',  J'E',  and  K'Q' 


are  the  augmented  latitudes  of  the  points  Q,  H, 
J,  and  K.  It  follows  from  the  foregoing  that 
the  loxodromic  line  is  a  straight  line  when  laid 
down  on  a  Mercator's  chart,  and  this  is  what 
makes  the  charts  constructed  upon  that  projection 
so  convenient  and  so  widely  used.  While  Mer- 
cator's  charts  are  almost  universally  employed 
for  ocean  navigation,  Mercator  sailing  is  used 
very  little.  The  ordinary  unavoidable  errors  of 
navigation  are  sufficiently  large  to  render  the 
slight  superiority  in  accuracy  over  middle  lati- 
tude sailing  of  no  practical  value,  except  where 
the  distances  are  very  great  or  where  the  ship's 
track  crosses  the  equator  between  the  points  of 
arrival  and  departure. 

In  great  circle  sailing  a  ship  is  made  to  follow 
as  closely  as  practicable  the  arc  of  the  great 
circle  of  the  earth  passing  through  the  points  of 
departure  and  arrival.  Since  the  shortest  line 
between  any  two  points  of  a  sphere  is  the  arc 
of  a  great  circle  passing  through  the  points,  it 
follows  that  a  ship  which  moves  from  one  point 
to  another  on  the  earth's  surface  will  pass  over 
the  shortest  route  when  she  follows  the  arc  of 
the  great  circle  passing  through  those  points. 
Theoretically,  therefore,  ships  should  always  sail 
on  great  circles.  Practically,  this  is  impossible, 
and  is  not  even  generally  desirable.  Great  circles 
make  different  angles  with  every  meridian  they 
cross,  so  that  the  course  would  be  constantly 
changing.  To  effect  this  constant  change  would 
be  difficult  and  very  troublesome.  Furthermore, 
to  follow  the  great  circle  rigorously  would  often 
lead  the  ship  into  bad  weather  or  dangerous 
localities  or  into  regions  where  the  currents  and 
winds  are  adverse.  The  sole  advantage  is  the 
shortening  of  the  distance  sailed.  By  deter- 
mining points  on  the  circle  and  sailing  along 
the  rhumb-line  from  point  to  point,  the  distance 
passed  over  may  be  made  substantially  the  same 
as  on  the  great  circle,  provided  the  rhumb-line 
tracks  be  made  sufficiently  short.  In  many  cases 
it  is  desirable  to  follow  quite  closely  the  great 
circle  for  some  distance  and  then  the  rhumb- 
line  course  to  some  distant  point  on  the  circle, 
which  is  again  followed  quite  closely  to  the  de- 
signed point  of  arrival.  For  instance,  the  great 
circle  from  Puget  Sound  to  Yokohama  runs 
through  the  Aleutian  Islands  and  into  a  region 
of  fog.  For  this  reason  steamers  do  not  follow 
it  throughout,  but  only  as  far  north  as  desirable, 
when  they  take  the  rhumb-line  course  to  meet  the 
great  circle  again  (a  long  distance  to  the  west- 
ward) in  about  the  same  latitude;  from  this 
point  they  follow  it  in  short  rhumb-line  tracks 
to  the  destination. 

The  determination  of  numerous  points  upon 
the  great  circle  involves  considerable  computa- 
tion work,  and,  while  not  difficult,  it  is  beyond 
the  capacity  of  rule-of -thumb  navigators.  To 
adapt  great  circle  sailing  to  the  comprehension 
of  such  navigators  and  fi)  avoid  laborious  com- 
putation, many  devices  have  been  invented,  such 
as  charts  on  the  gnomonic  projection,  the  sphero- 
graph,  great  circle  protractors,  etc.  Of  these, 
the  gnomonic  charts  are  decidedly  the  simplest 
and  most  practical.  The  projection  is  upon  a 
plane  tangent  to  the  earth  at  some  selected  point 
on  the  surface,  and  the  point  of  sight  is  the  centre 
of  the  earth.  As  all  planes  cutting  great  circles 
out  of  the  earth  pass  through  the  earth's  centre, 
they  also  pass  through  the  point  of  sight;  and 


SAINT-PLOXTB. 


820 


SAIHT-OAU  DEMa 


It  has  manufactures  of  pottery  and  coarse  cloth. 
Population,  in  1901,  5634. 

SAINT  FBAK^CIS  BTVEB.  A  tributary  of 
the  Mississippi.  It  rises  near  Iron  Mountain,  in 
southeastern  Missouri,  and  flows  south  into 
Arkansas,  forming  for  a  short  distance  the 
boundary  between  the  two  States  (Map:  Ar- 
kansas, E  2).  It  empties  into  the  Mississippi 
near  Helena  after  a  course  of  450  miles.  The 
greater  part  of  its  course  winds  through  a  low, 
swampy  country  interlaced  with  bayous,  and 
for  about  70  miles  the  river  expands  into  a 
lake  from  1  to  5  miles  wide.  This  serves  as 
an  important  reservoir  during  the  floods  of  the 
Mississippi.  The  river  is  navigable  for  150 
miles. 

SAINT  FBANCIS  XAVIEB,.  z&v^-gr.  Col- 
lege OF.  A  Roman  Catholic  institution  in  the  city 
of  New  York,  founded  in  1847  and  endowed  with 
collegiate  powers  in  1861.  It  is  conducted  by 
the  Fathers  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  is  in- 
tended for  day  scholars  only.  The  college  com- 
prises three  departments — the  college  proper, 
the  graduate  school,  and  the  high  school  de- 
partment— and  confers  the  degrees  of  B.  A.  and 
M.  A.  In  1902  it  had  a  library  of  about  100,000 
volumes,  32  instructors,  and  650  students  in  all 
departments. 

SAINT  OALLy  Fr,  pron.  8%N  g&l  (Ger.  Sankt 
Oallen).  A  northeastern  canton  of  Switzerland, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Canton  of  Thurgau 
and  Lake  Constance,  on  the  east  by  the  Rhine, 
which  separates  it  from  Vorarlbers,  Liechten- 
stein, and  Grisons,  on  the  south  by  Grisons  and 
Glarus,  and  on  the  west  by  Schwyz  and  Zurich 
(Map:  Switzerland,  D  1).  It  incloses  entirely 
the  Canton  of  Appenzell  and  covers  an  area  of 
779  square  miles.  The  north  is  hilly,  while  the 
south  belongs  to  the  region  of  the  Western  Alps, 
the  Ringelspitz,  near  the  southern  frontier,  reach- 
ing an  altitude  of  over  10,500  feet.  The  canton 
belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Rhine  and  its  princi- 
pal river  is  the  Thur. 

The  climate  varies  in  accordance  with  the  con- 
formation of  the  surface  and  is  somewhat  raw  in 
the  mountainous  parts.  Considering  its  uneven 
surface,  Saint  Gail  is  a  very  productive  region, 
over  65  per  cent,  of  its  total  area  being  under 
tillage,  gardens,  and  meadows.  Still  the  domes- 
tic supply  of  agricultural  products  is  insufficient 
to  meet  the  demand,  owing  to  the  density  of  the 
population.  The  grape  and  other  fruits  are  cul- 
tivated in  the  valley  of  the  Rhine  and  in  the 
northern  part.  Saint  Gall  is  among  the  indus- 
trial cantons  of  Switzerland  and  produces  chiefly 
cotton  goods  and  embroideries. 

The  Constitution  of  the  canton  provides  for  a 
legislative  assembly  ( Grosser  Rai ) ,  the  members 
of  which  are  elected  by  the  communes  at  the 
rate  of  one  member  for  every  1500  inhabitants; 
and  an  executive  council  of  seven  members 
elected  by  the  people.  The  referendum  is  in 
force.  The  population  of  the  canton  was  228,174 
in  1888,  and  250,285  in  1900.  Over  one-half  of 
the  inhabitants  are  Roman  Catholics,  and  the 
German  language  is  spoken  by  a  large  majority 
of  the  population.  For  history,  see  Saint  Gall, 
the  capital  of  the  canton. 

SAINT  OALL.  The  capital  of  the  Canton  of 
Saint  Gall  and  one  of  the  most  important  manu- 
facturing centres  of  Switzerland,  situated  at  an 


altitude  of  nearly  2000  feet,  about  50  miles  east 
of  Zurich  and  about  12  miles  from  Lake  Con- 
stance (Map:  Switzerland,  D  1).  It  consists 
of  the  irregular  old  town  on  a  hill  and  the  new 
quarters  in  the  valley  of  the  Steinach.  The 
Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  formerly  an  abbey 
church,  is  a  rococo  building  dating  chiefly  from 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  Bene- 
dictine abbey  was  founded  early  in  the  seventh 
century  by  Saint  Gallus,  an  Irish  monk,  and  was 
one  of  the  most  famous  seats  of  learning  in 
Europe  during  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries. 
The  eighteenth-century  building  is  now  used  by  the 
cantonal  Government.  Its  celebrated  library  con- 
tains about  30,000  volumes,  including  nearly  1600 
incimabula  and  a  number  of  valuable  manuscripts. 
Among  the  educational  institutions  of  the  city 
are  a  cantonal  school,  a  town  library  with 
valuable  manuscripts  of  the  Reformation  period, 
the  museum  of  the  East  Swiss  Geographical-Com- 
mercial Society,  the  museum  of  natural  history, 
and  the  collection  of  the  art  society.  Saint  Gall 
is  the  centre  of  an  extensive  industrial  region 
famous  for  its  embroideries  and  white  goods, 
which  are  exported  all  over  the  world.  Popula- 
tion, in  1900,  33,116.  German  is  spoken  by  most 
of  the  inhabitants.  In  the  eleventh  century  the 
town  acquired  considerable  independence,  and, 
assisted  by  Imperial  privileges  and  its  growing 
economic  importance,  it  succeeded  in  obtaining 
complete  independence  from  its  abbots  in  the 
middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  and  joined  the 
Swiss  Confederacy.  The  abbey  was  abolished 
at  the  introduction  of  the  Reformation  into  Saint 
Gall  in  1529,  but  was  restored  in  1532  and 
finally  abolished  in  1805.  In  1803  the  Canton  of 
Saint  Gall  was  constituted  in  the  reorganizied 
Swiss  Confederacy. 

SAINT-OAUDENSy  sftnt-gA'd§nz,  Augustus 
(1848—).  One  of  the  leading  American  sculp- 
tors. He  was  bom  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  March 
1,  1848,  of  French  and  Irish  parentage,  but  the 
family  came  to  New  York  City  when  the  boy 
was  six  months  old.  At  the  age  of  thirteen 
Augustus  was  apprenticed  to  a  cameo-cut- 
ter; his  long  training  in  this  craft  had  much 
to  do  with  the  delicacy  of  his  later  work  and 
his  fine  feeling  for  relief.  After  studying  draw- 
ing at  the  Cooper  Institute  and  the  Academy  of 
Design,  in  1867  Saint-Gaudens  went  to  Pariii 
and  entered  the  atelier  ef  Jouffroy  in  the  Boole 
des  Beaux-Arts.  He  was  intimately  associated 
with  the  sculptors  Dubois,  Mercid,  Falgui^re. 
and  Saint-Marceaux,  and  identified  with  the 
current  movement  in  French  sculpture,  which 
was  based  rather  upon  the  Italian  Renaissance 
than  classic  work.  In  1870  Saint-Gaudens  went 
to  Rome,  and  in  1873  he  returned  to  America. 
As  the  first  American  sculptor  to  equip  himself 
with  complete  French  training,  his  work  at- 
tracted universal  attention.  His  first  important 
work  was  the  sculptured  decoration  of  the 
chancel  of  Saint  Thomas's  Church  in  New  York 
City,  the  chief  feature  of  which  is  a  large  cross 
surrounded  by  panels  of  kneeling  angels.  Dur- 
ing this  early  period  Saint-Gaudens  made  many 
delightful  portraits  in  extremely  low  relief. 

In  1878  he  was  appointed  member  of  the  in- 
ternational jury  for  the  fine  arts  at  the  Paris 
Exposition.  At  about  this  time  he  modeled  the 
interesting  monuments  of  Admiral  Farragut  for 
Madison   Square  and  of  Governor  Randall  for 


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821 


SAINT  GILES,  GBIPFLEOATE. 


SftiloTB'  Snug  Harbor,  both  exhibited  in  1880.  The 
Fanagut  monument,  the  base  of  which  tvas  de- 
signed by  the  architect,  Stanford  White,  embodies, 
better  perhaps  than  any  other  of  his  works,  all 
Saint-Gaudens's  best  personal  and  artistic  quali- 
ties. In  the  entire  field  of  sculpture  there  is  little 
finer  than  the  two  figures  in  extremely  low  re- 
lief on  the  base  of  this  monument.  His  statue 
of  Deaeon  Chapin  called  "The  Puritan"  in  Spring- 
field, Mass.,  is  a  splendid  idealization.  The 
monument  to  Lincoln  in  Chicago  is  in  the  same 
style  and  spirit,  as  is  also  the  superb  equestrian 
statue  of  General  Logan  in  Chicago. 

Saint-Gaudens  has  been  extremely  successful 
in  certain  poetic  idealizations.  A  figure  called 
'The  Peace  of  God,"  in  Rock  Creek  Cemetery, 
Washington,  the  caryatides  of  a  mantelpiece 
in  the  house  of  W.  K.  Vanderbilt  in  New  York 
City,  and  angels  for  the  tomb  of  Governor  Mor- 
gan, are  fine  examples.  A  fine  equestrian  statue 
of  General  Sherman  has  recently  (1903)  been 
erected  at  the  principal  entrance  to  .Central  Park. 
The  Diana  of  the  Tower  of  Madison  Square 
Garden  in  New  York  City  is  the  only  nude 
statue  which  Saint-Gaudens  has  made.  From 
1884  to  1896  he  was  engaged  upon  an  immense 
work  in  high  relief  representing  Colonel  Shaw 
of  Boston  at  the  head  of  his  colored  troops. 
This,  the  most  ambitious  of  his  productions,  is 
placed  in  Boston  Common,  with  an  elaborate 
architectural   setting. 

BAIHT-OEIiAIS,  Mellin  de  (1491-1668).  A 
Fiench  poet,  the  most  important  member  of  the 
school  of  Clement  Marot,  noted  among  his  con- 
temporaries as  a  court  singer  and  a  skillful 
master  of  language.  He  was  educated  mainly  at 
Bologna  and  Padua,  and,  on  returning  to  France, 
took  orders  and  receiyed  various  valuable  pre- 
ferments. His  work,  though  considerable  in  vol- 
ume, is  mainly  composed  of  very  short  pieces, 
epigrams,  rondeaux,  and  the  like,  composed  in 
a  fluent  and  graceful  style.  His  works  were  edited 
b7  Blanchemain  (Paris,  1873). 

8AIHT  OEOBGE.  One  of  the  Bermuda  Is- 
lands (q.v. ). 

8AIHT  OEOBOE,  Cafe.  See  Cape  Saint 
Gbobob. 

SAINT  OEOBOE,  Constantinian  Obdeb  of. 
An  order  of  Parma  and  Sicily,  probably  estab- 
lished by  the  Byzantine  Emperor  Isaac  II. 
Angelus  about  1190,  under  the  name  of  the  Order 
of  Constantine.  The  order  remained  in  the  fam- 
ily of  the  Angeli  until  it  was  transferred  to  Duke 
Giovanni  Prancesco  Famese  of  Parma  in  1697. 
When  Don  Carlos  came  into  possession  of  Parma, 
and  later  of  Naples,  the  order  was  reorganized 
and  called  after  Saint  George.  The  order  was 
finally  dissolved  in  1860,  when  Sicily  and  Parma 
were  incorporated  with  Italy.  The  decoration  is 
a  red  cross  of  lilies,  bearing  the  image  of  Saint 
<3eorge  and  the  dragon,  the  initial  of  the  name 
of  Christ  and  the  letters  I  H  S  V,  and  A  and 
0.  The  Sicilian  order  had  three  classes,  the 
Parmesan  six.  Consult  Rhodokanaki,  The  Im- 
peridl  Conataniinian  Order  of  Saint  Oeorge  (Lon- 
don, 1870). 

SAIHT  GEOBOE,  Obdeb  of.  (1)  A  Bava- 
rian order  with  six  classes,  established  in  1729, 
and  reorganized  by  King  Louis  II.  in  1871,  with 
the  King  as'  grand  master.  The  candidate  for 
admission  to  the  order  must  show  eight  genera- 


tions of  nobility  on  both  sides.  The  decoration 
is  an  eight-pointed  cross  bearing  the  image  of 
the  Virgin  and  the  letters  V.  I.  B.  L  (Virgini 
Immaculatse  Bavaria  Immaculata).  On  the  re- 
verse is  the  image  of  Saint  Oeorge  with  the  letters 
L  V.  P.  F.  (Justus  ut  Palma  Florebit). 

(2)  A  Russian  military  order  with  four  classes 
founded  in  1769  by  the  Empress  Catharine  II. 
and  confined  to  officers  having  at  least  the 
rank  of  colonel.  The  decoration  is  a  white 
Maltese  cross,  edged  with  gold,  bearing  an  image 
of  Saint  Geroge  and  the  dragon,  and  suspended 
from  an  orange  and  black  ribbon.  See  Plate  of 
Obdebs. 

(3)  A  Hanoverian  order,  established  in  1839 
by  King  Ernest  Augustus,  and  dissolved  in  1866. 
llie  device  was  ''Numquam  Retrorsum." 

(4)  A  Sicilian  military  order  of  merit,  founded 
in  1808.     It  was  dissolved  in  1861. 

(5)  The  original  name  of  the  English  Order 
of  the  Garter.    See  Gabteb,  Obdeb  of  the. 

SAINT  OEOBGE'S  CHANNEL.  An  arm  of 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  which  separates  Southern 
Ireland  from  Wales  and  Southern  England,  and 
unites  the  Irish  Sea  with  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
(Map:  England,  A  5).  It  varies  from  60  to 
about  100  miles  in  width,  is  about  100  miles  long 
from  northeast  to  southwest,  and  has  channel 
depths  ranging  from  300  to  500  feet. 

SAINT-aEBMAINy  s&N'zher'mftK^  Count 
OF  (died  1784).  An  eighteenth-century  charlatan 
of  European  reputation.  His  origin  and  life  his- 
tory are  unknown.  He  pretended  to  be  thousands 
of  years  old,  laid  claim  to  miraculous  powers, 
and  surrounded  himself  with  an  air  of  mystery, 
which,  added  to  his  magnificent  style  of  living, 
fine  manners,  and  an  agreeable  person,  gain^ 
him,  after  1740,  tremendous  notoriety  in  an  age 
that  delighted  in  the  mysteries  of  mesmerism  and 
freemasonry.  He  first  appeared  in  Parisian  so- 
ciety about  1770.  Louis  XV.  of  France  was 
'among  his  dupes.  He  died  at  Cassel.  Consult 
Oettinger,  Graf  Saint-Oermain   (Leipzig,  1846). 

SAINT-QEBMAIN-EN-LAYE,  VlIU'W.  A 
town  in  the  Department  of  Seine-et-Oise,  France, 
11  miles  west  of  Paris,  on  the  Seine  River  (Map: 
France,  H  3).  It  has  an  elevated  site  and, 
with  its  picturesque  surroundings,  is  a  popular 
summer  resort.  A  handsome  terrace,  built  in 
1672,  overlooks  the  Seine  and  affords  an  ex- 
tended view  of  the  river  and  adjacent  country. 
The  Forest  of  Saint-Germain  is  a  magnificent 
park,  covering  an  area  of  11,000  acres.  In 
the  restored  sixteenth-century  royal  castle  are 
a  splendid  museum  of  Gallo-Roman  antiquities 
and  a  chapel  dating  from  1240.  The  town  hall 
has  a  library  and  an  art  gallery.  Saint-Germain 
was  at  one  time  the  summer  home  of  the  French 
Court.  It  was  the  residence  of  the  dethroned 
James  II.  of  England,  who  died  here  in  1701. 
Here  on  August  8,  1570,  was  concluded  the  treaty 
terminating  the  Third  Civil  War.  (See  Hugur- 
N0T8.)     Population,  in  1901,  17,297. 

SAINT  GILES,  CBIPPLEaATE.     One  of 

the  most  notable  and  historic  churches  of  Lon- 
don, the  burial  place  of  George  Fox,  the  author 
of  the  Book  of  Martyrs^  the  explorer  Frobisher, 
and  Milton.  The  church  was  built  in  1545,  and 
was  among  the  few  buildings  spared  by  the  great 
fire  of  London.  Remains  of  the  ancient  London 
wall  are  visible  in  the  churchyard. 


SAINT  QOTTHABD. 


822 


SAINT-HILAIBJB. 


fiAIHT  QOTTHABD,  Fr.  pr<m.  sftN  g6't&r^. 
A  mountain  group  in  the  Lepontine  Alps,  situ- 
ated in  south  central  Switzerland,  on  the  boun- 
dary between  the  cantons  of  Valais,  Uri,  and  Ti- 
cino  (Map:  Switzerland,  C  2).  It  is  a  rugged 
mass  of  granite  and  gneiss,  reaching  in  Pizzo 
Rotondo  an  altitude  of  10,489  feet.  Saint 
Qotthard  is  famous  for  the  pass  over  the 
Alps,  which  at  its  highest  point  rises  to  the 
height  of  6936  feet.  By  means  of  this  pass,  the 
highroad  from  FlQelen,  on  Lake  Lucerne,  is  car- 
ri^  without  interruption  to  Lake  Maggiore,  in 
the  north  of  Italy.  The  road  over  the  pass,  con- 
structed between  1820  and  1832,  is  one  of  the  best 
and  most  convenient  of  the  Alpine  carriage- 
ways, and  is  free  from  snow  for  four  or  five 
months  of  the  year.  It  is  remarkable  for  the 
grandeur  of  its  scenery,  but  has,  however,  been 
little  used  since  the  opening  of  the  railroad.  In 
1869  and  1871  Germany,  Italy,  and  Switzerland 
signed  an  agreement  for  the  construction  of  a 
railway  with  a  tunnel  through  the  Saint  Qot- 
thard. The  tunnel  was  begun  in  1872  and  com- 
pleted in  1881  at  a  cost  of  about  $13,000,000.  It 
is  9%  miles  long,  26  feet  wide,  21  feet  high,  and 
reaches  an  elevation  in  the  centre  of  3786  feet. 
The  approaches  to  the  tunnel  exhibit  the  highest 
order  of  engineering  skill.  Consult  Spittehr, 
Der  Ooiihard  (Frauenfeld,  1897). 

SAINT  HELENA.  An  insular  possession 
of  Great  Britain,  situated  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
in  latitude  15°  55'  S.  and  loxigitude  5**  42'  W., 
about  1200  miles  west  of  Africa  and  about  800 
miles  southeast  of  the  island  of  Ascension,  the 
nearest  land  (Map:  Africa,  D  6).  Area,  47  squiire 
miles.  The  island  is  of  volcanic  origin  and  its 
surface  is  rugged  and  mountainous,  reaching  an 
altitude  of  about  2800  feet  in  the  High  Hills  in 
the  southwest.  The  coasts  are  lined  with  high 
cliffs,  varying  in  altitude  from  600  to  2000  feet. 
The  climate  is  moderate  and  healthful  and  the 
mean  annual  temperature  is  somewhat  over  70**. 
The  forests  have  almost  disappeared,  and  the 
remarkable  indigenous  flora,  which  included  a 
large  portion  of  species  peculiar  to  the  island,  has 
been  almost  wholly  supplanted  by  exotic  species 
introduced  from  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world. 

The  present  economic  importance  of  the  island 
is  insignificant,  its  commercial  importance  having 
greatly  decreased  since  the  construction  of  the 
Suez  Canal.  The  island  is  a  Crown  colony  and 
is  administered  by  a  governor  and  a  council. 
Population,  in  1901,  9850,  including  nearly  4700 
Boer  prisoners.  Saint  Helena  is  connected  by 
cable  with  Europe  and  South  Africa,  and  is  an 
admiralty  coaling  station.  The  capital  and  only 
port  is  Jamestown  in  the  northwest,  a  fortified 
place  with  an  observatory  and  a  population  of 
about  2600. 

Saint  Helena  was  discovered  about  1502  by  a 
Portuguese  navigator,  JoAo  da  Nova,  and  was 
settled  by  the  Dutch  in  1645.  In  1657  it  passed 
to  the  British  East  India  Company,  but  was 
retaken  by  the  Dutch  on  several  occasions. 
The  island  owes  its  fame  to  the  fact  that  it  was 
from  1815  to  1821  the  place  of  exile  of  Napoleon, 
who  died  there  on  May  5,  1821,  in  the  farm-house 
of  Longwood,  about  3  miles  from  Jamestown. 
During  the  South  African  War  (1899-1902) 
many  Boer  prisoners,  including  General  Cronje 
(q.v.),  were  sent  to  Saint  Helena.  Consult: 
Mellisfl,  8aint  Helena:  a  Physical,  Historical,  and 


Topographical  Deaoription  of  the  Island  (London, 
1875) ;  Brooke,  History  of  Saint  Selena  (ib., 
1808-24). 

SAINT  HEI/SN'S.  A  manufacturing  town 
in  Lancashire,  England,  on  an  affluent  of  the 
Mersey,  193  miles  northwest  of  London 
(Map:  England,  D  3).  The  town  is  of  modem 
origin  and  was  incorporated  in  1868.  It 
owns  its  markets,  abattoirs,  water,  gas,  electric 
lighting,  tramways,  dust  destructors,  and  sew- 
age farm.  There  are  several  parks,  notably 
tbe  Victoria,  which  contains  a  museum,  and  tlie 
town  has  a  fine  town  hall,  public, Ubraries,  and  a 
technical  school.  Saint  Helen's  carries  on  an  ex- 
tensive trade  in  coal,  and  has  plate-glass,  copper, 
bottle,  patent  medicine,  and  other  works.  There 
are  collieries  and  deposits  of  stoneware,  clay,  and 
fire-clay.  Population,  in  1861,  18,396;  in  1901, 
84,410. 

SAINT  WkLLEBf  Fr,  pron,  s&i7't&ly&^  or 
SAINT  HELIEB'S.  The  capital  of  Jersey, 
Channel  Islands  (qq-v.),  a  seaport  and  favorite 
watering  place  on  the  south  shore  of  the  island, 
and  on  the  east  side  of  Saint  Aubin's  Bay  (Map: 
France,  D  2).  It  has  an  active  English  and 
foreign  shipping  trade,  fisheries,  iron  foundries, 
perfume  manufactories,  etc.  The  town  is  well 
built  and  granite  paved,  and  has  fine  markets, 
esplanades,  marine  walks,  bathing  places,  aquari- 
um, and  parks.  Victoria  College,  the  Maison  Saint 
Louis  or  Jesuit  College,  with  its  meteorological 
observatory  and  wind  tower,  the  fourteenth-cen- 
tury parish  church,  the  modem  Catholic  cathe- 
dral, hospital,  town  hall.  State  house,  and  public 
library  are  the  chief  buildings.  The  town  is  de- 
fended by  Elizabeth  Castle,  on  a  rocky  island  off 
the  shore,  and  by  Fort  Regent  on  the  southeast, 
built  about  1806  on  a  scarped  granite  rock. 
Population,  29,000. 

SAINT  HENBI,  s&N  tiiN'r^.  A  city  of 
Hochelaga  County,  Quebec,  Canada.  It  is  a 
southwestern  suburb  of  Montreal,  and  a  busy  in- 
dustrial section  with  foundries,  tanneries,  cot- 
ton mills,  manufactures  of  sewing  machines,  rock- 
drill  implements,  etc.  Population,  in  1890, 
13,413;  in  1901,  21,192. 

SAINT  HEN^T,  Okdeb  of.  A  Saxon  mili- 
tary order  founded  in  1736  by  Augustus  III., 
King  of  Poland  and  Elector  of  Saxony.  It  had 
originally  one  class,  which  was  increased  to  three 
in  1807.  The  decoration,  a  gold  and  white  cross 
of  eight  points,  surmounted  by  a  crown,  bears  a 
central  medallion  with  the  efl^  of  Emperor 
Henry  II.  on  a  yellow  ground,  encircled  by  a  blue 
band  with  the  words  "Frid.  Aug.  D.  G.  Bex 
Sax.  Instauravit."  The  reverse  shows  the  Saxon 
arms  with  the  legend  Virtuti  in  Bello. 

SAINT  HER^ENOILD,  Obdeb  of.  A  Span- 
ish order  of  merit  with  three  classes,  founded  in 
1814  by  Ferdinand  VII.  The  order  is  conferred 
for  land  and  sea  service;  the  first  class  on  gen- 
erals and  naval  commanders;  the  second  on  of- 
ficers below  the  rank  of  brigadier;  the  third  on 
officers  of  at  least  10  years*  standing  after  service 
of  25  years.  The  decoration  is  an  eight-pointed 
cross  of  white  enamel  with  a  circular  medallion 
bearing  the  effigy  of  Saint  Hermengild  on  a  blue 
ground,  with  the  inscription  Premio  a  la  oonstan- 
etcp  militar, 

SAINT-HXLAIBE,  sfiN't^'lftr^,  AuousTix 
Francois  C£sAB  (Pbouvencal  de)   (1779-1853). 


SAIHT-HZLAIBE. 


828 


SAX17T.JAC0B. 


Que  of  the  most  eminent  of  French  botanists, 
born  at  Orleans,  France.  He  was  a  member  of  a 
wealthy  French  family,  and  was  trained  by  his 
father  for  a  business  career.  In.  18 16  he  sailed 
for  Brazil,  where  he  spent  six  years  in  exploration 
and  botanical  research,  and  in  1819  he  was 
elected  a  correspondent  of  the  institute.  In  1822 
he  returned  to  France  with  one  of  the  most  val- 
uable collections  of  natural  history  specimens 
that  up  to  that  time  had  ever  been  gathered. 
It  consisted  of  24,000  specimens  of  plants  of  6000 
different  species,  the  greater  part  of  which  were 
new;  2000  birds;  16,0^  insects,  135  quadrupeds, 
and  numerous  other  specimens  of  reptiles,  fishes, 
and  minerals.  For  several  years  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  preparation  of  an  elaborate  work  on  the 
flora  of  Brazil,  which  after  long  delays,  caused 
bj  his  ill-healthy  was  published  in  3  volumes 
in  1825,  under  the  title  Flora  Brasiliw  MeridUm- 
alia,  ou  historie  et  description  de  toutea  lea 
plantea  qui  croiaaant  dana  lea  diffirentea  prov- 
inces du  BrMl.  Meanwhile  he  had  become  pro- 
fessor of  botany  in  the  Faculty  of  Sciences  at 
Paris,  and  in  1830,  on  the  death  of  Lamarck,  suc- 
ceeded him  as  a  member  of  the  Institute.  His 
botanical  investigations  resulted  in  several  dis- 
coveries of  great  value,  including  two  entirely 
new  families,  the  Paronychiae  and  the  Tamaris- 
cinese;  the  difference  between  the  aril  and  the 
arilode,  and  the  direction  of  the  radicule  in 
the  embryonic  sac.  In  addition  to  his  work  on 
the  flora  of  Brazil  he  published  Apereu  d'tm  Voy- 
age dana  Vinterieur  du  Brisil  (1823)  ;  Mimoire 
sur  le  aysi^me  d'agriculture  adopU  par  lea  Bria- 
iliena  (2  vols.  1827)  ;  Voyage  dans  le  district  dea 
diamenta  et  aur  le  littoral  du  Br4ail  (2  vols. 
1833) ;  Voyage  aux  Souroea  du  San  Francisco  et 
dans  le  province  de  Ooyaz  (2  vols.  1847)  ;  and 
Lecous  de  hotanique  comprenant  principalement 
la  Morpoligie  v4getale  (1840-41). 

SAIlTT-HIIiAIBE,  Geofproy.  See  Geoffboy 
Sad7t-Hilaibe. 

SAHTT-HHiAIBE,  Jules  Babth^lemt.  See 

BABTHtLElCY   SaINT-HhAIBB. 

SAINT  Kir^EBT,  Obdeb  of.  The  highest 
Bavarian  order,  founded  in  1444  by  Gerhardt  V., 
and  originally  called  the  Order  of  the  Horn,  from 
the  hunting  horns  which  formed  the  links  of 
the  chain.  The  order  has  but  one  class,  com- 
posed of  an  unrestricted  number  of  members 
of  princely  rank,  with  not  more  than  twelve 
members  of  lower  grade.  The  decoration  is  a 
white  cross  with  eight  points  tipped  with  golden 
balls.  Three  golden  rays  separate  the  arms  of 
the  cross,  which  is  surmounted  by  a  crown. 
The  medallion  represents  the  conversion  of  Saint 
Hubert,  with  the  Gothic  inscription  In  trav 
vast  (Firm  in  faith)  on  a  red  band. 

SAINT  HY^AGINTHE,  iFr.  pron.  sftwt  *'A'- 
B&Nt'.  The  capital  of  Saint  Hyacinthe  County, 
Quebec,  Canada,  on  the  Yamaska  River  and  the 
Grand  Trunk,  the  Canadian  Pacific,  the  Drum- 
roond  County,  and  the  United  Counties  railroads; 
35  miles  east-northeast  of  Montreal  (Map:  Que- 
bec, C  5).  It  contains  a  city  hall,  Saint  Hya- 
cinthe College,  and  monasteries  of  the  Precious 
Blood  and  lS)minican  Fathers.  There  are  manu- 
factures of  leather,  organs,  tools,  boots  and 
shoes,  woolen  and  flannel  goods,  hosiery,  ma- 
chinery, and  farming  implements.  Population, 
in  1891,  7016;  in  1901,  92ia 


SAINT  IQNA'TinS  COLLEGE.  A  Roman 
Catholic  institution  in  Chicago,  111.,  founded  in 
1870,  and  conducted  by  the  Fathers  oif  the 
Society  of  Jesus.  There  are  two  courses:  a 
classical,  with  collegiate  and  academic  depart- 
ments, and  a  commercial.  The  college  confers 
the  degrees  of  Bachelor  of  Arts,  Science,  and 
Philosophy,  Master  of  Arts,  and  Doctor  of  Phi- 
losophy. In  1902  the  students  numbered  500, 
and  the  faculty  36.  The  college  has  no  endow^- 
ment.  Its  property  was  valued  at  $300,000,  and 
the  income  was  $13,000.  The  library  contained 
30,000  volumes. 

SAINT  IGNATinS'S  BEANS.  The  seeds 
of  Strychnos  Ignatii,  a  shrub  or  small  tree  of 
the  natural  order  Loganiaces,  a  native  of  Cochin- 
China  and  the  Philippine  Islands.  The  fruit, 
which  is  about  the  size  of  a  large  pear,  contains 
about  20  brownish  seeds  about  as  large  as  olives, 
rounded  on  one  side,  and  somewhat  angular  on 
the  other,  which  have  been  used  like  nux-vomica 
seeds. 

SAINTIN,  sfiN'tiiN',  Jules  Emile  (1829-94). 
A  French  genre  and  portrait  painter,  born  at 
Lem6  (Aisne).  He  studied  imder  Drolling, 
Picot,  and  Leboucher.  Afterwards  he  spent  sev- 
eral years  (1857-63)  in  the  United  States,  and 
some  of  his  works  are  inspired  by  American  sub- 
jects. Most  of  his  pictures  are  mediocre,  and 
his  treatment  is  likely  to  be  conventional.  His 
paintings  include  portraits  of  Paul  Morphy 
(1860),  Stephen  Douglas  (1860),  in  the  Cor- 
coran Gallery,  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  Mme. 
Camot  (1891).  He  was  elected  an  associate  of 
the  National  Academy  of  Design  in  1861,  and  to 
the  Legion  of  Honor. 

SAINTINE,  s&N't^n',  Xavieb.  The  name  as- 
sumed by  Joseph  FsANgois  Boniface  (1798- 
1865).  A  mediocre  French  novelist,  collaborator 
in  some  200  plays,  and  author  of  Picciola  ( 1837 ) , 
which  won  him  the  Monthyon  prize  from  the 
Academy. 

SAINT  ISABELLA,  Iz'^-beKlA,  Obdeb  of.  A 
Portuguese  Order  founded  in  1801  by  the  Prince 
Regent  (King  John  IV.).  It  consists  of  26 
ladies,  nominated  by  the  Queen.  Its  chief  object 
is  the  supervision  of  the  care  of  the  sick  and 
orphans.  The  decoration  is  a  golden  medallion 
surmounted  by  a  crown  and  surrounded  by  golden 
roses  and  ribbons.  It  bears  the  image  of  Saint 
Isabella  of  Portugal  and  the  device  Pauperum 
Solaiio. 

SAINT  IVES.  A  seaport  and  market-town 
in  Cornwall,  England,  on  oaint  Ives  Bay,  on  the 
Bristol  Channel,  57  miles  west-southwest  of 
Plymouth  (Map:  England,  A  6).  It  is  a  favorite 
bathing  and  winter  resort,  owing  to  its  mild 
climate,  and  is  a  picturesque  town;  its  church, 
a  granite  building  of  the  early  part  of  the  fif- 
teenth century,  stands  on  the  beach.  The  town 
was  incorporated  in  1639,  and  owns  gas  and 
water  works.  It  is  the  headquarters  of  the  pil- 
chard fishery.  In  the  vicinity  are  important  tin 
mines.  Population,  in  1891,  6094;  in  1901,  6700. 
Consult  Matthews,  Saint  Ives  (Saint  Ives,  1884). 

SAINT-JACOB,  sftN'zhft'ky.  A  hamlet  in 
Switzerland,  situated  a  mile  south  of  Basel,  and 
noted  as  the  scene  of  a  great  battle  in  1444  be- 
tween the  Swiss  and  the  Armagnacs  (q.v.)  (Map: 
Switzerland,  B  1).  As  a  memorial  of  this  con- 
flict, a  monument  was  erected  here  in  1872,  and 


8AIHT-JAC0B. 


894 


SAINT  JOHN. 


the  anniversary  of  the  battle  is  celebrated  every 
year.  The  Swiss  fought  for  ten  hours  and  slew 
three  times  their  number^  but  were  themselves 
destroyed,  except  ten  men.  The  wine  of  the 
neighborhood  is  called  Schtoeizer  blut,  or  Swiss 
blood. 

SAINT  JAXES'S  COFFEEHOUSE.  A  for- 
mer noted  resort  on  Saint  James's  Street,  Lon- 
don, a  Whig  gathering-place  during  the  eighteenth 
century.  Swift,  Goldsmith,  Garrick,  and  John- 
son were  among  its  patrons.  It  was  removed 
about  1806. 

SAINT  JAMES  07  THE  SWOBD.  (1)  A 
military  Order  of  Spain,  established  during  the 
reign  of  Ferdinand  II.  of  Leon  and  Galicia,  about 
1170,  and  confirmed  by  Pope  Alexander  III.  in 
1176.  It  had  its  origin  m  an  association  of 
thirteen  knights,  who  banded  together  for  the 
purpose  of  protecting  the  pilgrims  to  the  shrine 
of  Saint  James  of  Compostela  against  the 
attacks  of  the  Moors.  The  Order  played  an 
important  part  in  the  long  struggle  against  the 
Mohammedan  power,  but,  owing  to  its  extensive 
privileges  and  power,  aroused  the  jealousy  of  the 
Crown,  under  whose  jurisdiction  it  was  placed  in 
1493.  In  1522  a  Papal  bull  vested  the  office  of 
grand  master  in  the  Spanish  monarch.  The  in- 
signia of  the  Order  is  a  golden  shield,  bearing  a 
broad  cruciform  sword  in  red.  (2)  A  Portu- 
guese Order  (Sad  Thiago  da  Espada)  established 
as  an  offshoot  of  the  Spanish  Order,  about  1290, 
and  sanctioned  by  a  Papal  bull  in  1320.  The 
Order  attained  exceeding  prosperity  and  in  1666 
was  united  with  the  Crown.  It  was  secularized 
in  1789  and  made  a  civil  and  military  Order  of 
merit.  It  was  reorganized  in  1862,  to  be  con- 
ferred henceforth  for  distinguished  merit  in 
science,  art,  and  literature.  (3)  A  Brazilian 
Order  established  on  the  removal  of  the  Portu- 
guese royal  family  to  Brazil  in  1808.  It  was 
secularized  in  1843  and  suspended  in  1800. 

SAINT  JAXES'S  PALACE.  The  London 
residence  of  the  British  sovereigns,  from  William 
III.  to  the  accession  of  Victoria,  and  now  used 
for  levees  and  drawing-rooms.  The  Court  of 
Saint  James's  is  still  tne  official  designation  of 
the  British  Court.  It  is  a  large  inelegant  brick 
structure  fronting  on  Pall  Mall.  Originally  a 
hospital  dedicated  to  Saint  James,  it  was  re- 
constructed and  made  a  manor  by  Henry  VIII., 
who  added  a  park  to  it,  which  he  inclosed 
with  a  brick  wall,  to  connect  Saint  James's  with 
Whitehall,  then  the  royal  residence.  Additions 
and  improvements  gradually  changed  the  original 
palace,  so  that  little,  if  any,  of  the  old  structure 
remains.  In  1837  the  royal  household  was  trans- 
ferred to  Buckingham  Palace.  Saint  James's 
Park  lies  south  of  the  palace  and  extends  over 
87  acres.  It  is  embellished  with  avenues  of  trees, 
and  a  fine  piece  of  water  in  the  centre.  On  the 
eastern  side  is  the  parade,  where  the  body-guards 
on  duty  are  mustered,  and  where  the  regimental 
bands  perform  in  fine  weather.  On  the  out- 
skirts are  situated  Buckingham  Palace,  Stafford 
House,  and  Marlborough  House.  Consult  Shep- 
pard.  Memorials  of  Saint  James's  Palace  (Lon- 
don, 1894). 

SAINT  JAN'TTA^EIUS,  Obdeb  op.  An  order 
of  knighthood  founded  in  1738  by  Charles  III., 
King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  as  a  reward  for  ser- 
vice in  the  defense  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 


and  fidelity  toward  the  sovereign.  It  became 
extinct  in  1861  on  the  union  of  Sicily  with  the 
Italian  Crown. 

SAINT-JEAN  D'ACBEy  s&N'zh&N^  dAkV.  A 
seaport  of  Syria.    See  Acbe. 

SAINT-JBAN-D'ANGELY,  daWzhAIA'.  The 
capital  of  an  arrondissement  in  the  Department 
of  Charente-Inf6rieure,  30  miles  south  of  Niort, 
on  the  Boutonne  River  (Map:  France,  F  6). 
Its  chief  objects  of  interest  are  the  ruins  of  the 
old  abbey  and  the  thirteenth-century  church. 
PopuUtion,  in  1901,  7041.  The  town  grew  up 
around  a  Benedictine  abbey,  which  the  Calvinists 
destroyed  in  1568.  It  was  a  Protestant  strong- 
hold imtil  its  capture  by  Louis  XIII.  in  1619. 

SAINT  JOHN.  The  chief  town  of  the  British 
West  Indian  island  of  Antigua,  and  capital  of 
the  Leeward  group;  situated  on  the  Tvestem 
side  of  the  island  at  the  end  of  a  somewhat  shal- 
low bay  (Map:  West  Indies,  R  6).  It  is  well 
built  and  has  several  fine  public  buildings.  The 
availability  of  its  harbor  is  somewhat  diminished 
by  the  bar  at  its  mouth,  which  makes  it  inac- 
cessible for  heavier  vessels.  Population,  in  1901, 
9282. 

SAINT  JOHN.  A  city,  seaport,  and  county- 
seat  of  Saint  John  County,  New  Brunswick, 
Canada,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Saint  John  River, 
on  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  and  on  the  Intercolonial, 
the  Canadian  Pacific,  and  the  Grand  Southern 
railroads,  190  miles  northwest  of  Halifax  (Map: 
New  Brunswick,  C  4).  The  harbor  is  one  of  the 
best  on  the  continent;  the  entrance  is  protected 
by  Partridge  Island,  on  which  are  a  lightliouse  and 
a  quarantine  hospital.  The  channel  is  protected 
on  the  east  by  a  breakwater.  The  city  is  built 
on  a  rocky  peninsula,  sloping  up  from  the  harbor, 
and  with  Portland,  a  city  absorbed  since  1889, 
and  Carleton  on  the  west  side  of  the  harbor, 
covers  about  6000  acres.  The  streets  are  laid 
out  at  right  angles;  they  are  wide  and  some  of 
them  are  cuttings  40  feet  deep  through  solid 
rock;  a  steel  cantilever  railroad  bridge  and  a 
highway  suspension  bridge  span  the  river  gorge. 
The  principal  building  materials  are  brick  and 
stone.  Among  the  public  buildings  are  the  court 
house  and  jail,  the  Provincial  Insane  Asylum, 
market  house,  Post-Office,  City  Hospital,  City 
Hall,  Public  Library,  Sailors*  Home,  Wiggins 
Orphan  Asylum  for  Sailors'  Sons,  Protestant  and 
Roman  Catholic  orphan  asylums,  Mechanics'  In- 
stitute, Masonic  and  Odd  Fellows'  halls,  and 
Home  for  Aged  Females.  There  are  electric 
street  railroads  and  municipal  water-works  sup- 
plied from  Little  River.  The  chief  article  of 
export  is  lumber,  but  there  is  also  an  important 
trade  in  fish,  furs,  and  agricultural  produce. 
Saint  John  is  the  commercial  centre  of  New 
Brunswick ;  its  shipping  ranks  third  on  Canada's 
official  register.  The  manufactures  include  ships, 
lumber,  machinery,  tools,  paper,  leather,  car- 
riages, boots  and  shoes,  cotton,  etc.  On  January 
24,  1604,  the  feast  day  of  Saint  John  the  Baptist, 
whence  its  name,  the  Micmac  Indian  settlement 
here  was  first  visited  by  Champlain  and  De 
Monts.  Saint  John  became  a  permanent  Euro- 
pean settlement  in  1635.  From  1643  to  1645  it 
was  the  scene  of  internecine  French  confiicts  and 
of  the  tragic  hanging  of  the  whole  garrison  by  a 
successful  rival  of  the  commander.  In  1768  it  was 
taken  by  an  Anglo-American  force,  although  it 


8AINT  JOHN. 


835 


SAINT  JOHN  OF  JEBtTSAUBK. 


Iiad  become  a  Britisb  possession  under  the  Treaty 
of  Utrecht  in  1713.  Its  modem  growth  dates  from 
1783,  when  it  received  an  immigration  of  10,000 
United  Empire  loyalists.  Its  charter  of  incorpo- 
ration (1785)  is  the  oldest  in  Canada.  Popula- 
tion, in  1891,  39,179;  in  1901,  40,711. 

SAINT  JOHN,  Lake.  A  large  lake  in  the 
ProTinoe  of  Quebec,  Canada,  situated  about  100 
miles  north  of  Quebec  (Map:  Quebec,  D  2).  It 
is  nearly  circular  in  shape,  with  a  diameter  of 
about  25  miles,  and  receives  several  large  streams. 
Its  outlet  is  the  Saguenay  (q.v.).  It  is  encircled 
by  wooded  hills,  is  much  resorted  to  by  sports- 
men, and  is  the  centre  of  an  important  and  fairly 
populous  dairy  region. 

SAINT  JOHN,  Henet.  An  English  states- 
man.   See  BouNGBBOKS,  Viscount. 

SAINT  JOHN,  sftnt  j5n  vr  dn'jin,  Jahes 
AtTGUSTUS  (1801-75).  An  English  author  and 
traveler,  bom  in  Carmarthenshire,  Wales,  Sep- 
tember 24,  1801.  He  went  to  London  in  1817; 
edited  a  Plymouth  radical  paper;  in  1824 
was  appointed  sub-editor  of  J.  S.  Bucking- 
ham's Oriental  Herald;  in  1827,  with  David 
Lester  Richardson,  started  the  Weekly  Re- 
view; in  1829  removed  to  Normandy.  He 
traveled  extensively  in  Egypt  and  Nubia.  Among 
his  numerous  works,  comprising  travel,  fiction, 
and  biography,  are  the  following :  Egypt  a/nd 
Mohammed  AH  (1834);  Manners  and  Customs 
of  Ancient  Qreece  (1824);  Egypt  and  Nuhia 
(1845);  IsiSf  an  Egyptian  Pilgrimage  (1853); 
The  Nemesis  of  Potoer  (1854) ;  There  and  Book 
Again  in  Search  of  Beauty  (1853) ;  Philosophy 
at  the  Foot  of  the  Cross  (1854) ;  History  of  the 
Four  Conquests  of  England  (1862) ;  Life  of  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh  (1868). 

SAINT  JOHN,.  John  Piebgb  (1833—).  An 
American  political  leader,  bom  at  Brookville, 
Ind.  He  enlisted  in  the  Federal  Army  in  1862, 
and  worked  his  way  up  from  private  to  lieuten- 
ant-colonel. At  the  close  of  the  war  he  removed 
to  Missouri,  and  in  1869  settled  at  Olathe,  Kan. 
He  was  elected  Governor  of  Kansas  in  1879.  At 
the  expiration  of  his  term  in  1883  he  accepted 
the  nomination  for  President  on  the  Prohibition 
ticket  and  polled  151,809  votes.  Later,  how- 
ever, he  became  more  radical  in  his  ecoilbmio 
views  than  the  majority  of  his  party,  and  se- 
ceded, becoming  an  independent  and  advocating 
prohibition,  woman  suffrage,  free  coinage  of  sil- 
ver, and  anti-imperialism. 

SAINT  JOHN,  Sir  Sfenseb  (1825—).  An 
English  diplomatist  and  author,  bom  in  London, 
and  educated  by  private  tutors.  He  early  gave 
his  attention  to  the  study  of  the  Malay  lan- 
guage. In  1848  he  went  to  Borneo  as  private 
secretary  to  Sir  James  Brooke,  and  in  1850  he 
accompanied  Brooke  on  a  mission  to  Siam.  From 
1855  to  1861  he  was  Consul-Oeneral  at  Borneo. 
He  was  then  transferred  to  Haiti.  He  was 
afterwards  Consul-General  at  Lima  in  Peru 
(1874).  and  after  being  sent  on  special  missions 
to  Bolivia  (1875)  and  Mexico  (1883)  he  was 
appointed  Minister  Plenipotentiary  to  Mexico 
(1884).  He  was  transferred  to  Stockholm  in 
1893,  and  he  retired  from  the  service  in  1896. 
He  was  knighted  in  1881.  He  is  author  of  Life 
in  the  Forests  of  the  Far  East  (1862)  ;  Life  of 
Sir  James  Brooke,  Rajah  of  Sararcak  (1878  and 
1899) ;  and  Hayti,  or  the  Black  Republic  ( 1885) . 


SAINT  JOHN  OF  JEBtTSALEM,  Knights 
or.  A  military  and  religious  Order,  known  also 
as  the  Hospitolers,  Knights  of  the  Hospital, 
Knights  of  Rhodes,  and  Knights  of  Malta.  Its 
origin  is  very  obscure,  and  frequently  a  great 
antiquity  has  been  claimed  for  tne  Order.  One 
or  more  of  the  hospices  which  were  establishd 
in  the  Holy  Land  by  Pope  Gregory  the  Great,  in 
the  sixth  century,  and  cared  for  by  Charles  the 
Great,  may  have  existed  until  the  time  of  the 
First  Crusade  and  may  thus  have  given  rise  to 
this  Order.  The  special  hospital  at  Jerusalem 
from  which  it  took  its  name  was  either  founded 
or  restored  by  merchants  from  Amalfi  in  1070 
or  earlier.  For  some  years  the  brethren  were 
under  the  rule  of  Saint  Benedict  and  were  en- 
gaged strictly  in  hospital  duties.  After  the  cap- 
ture of  Jerusalem  by  the  Crusaders  in  1099,  a 
hospital  in  honor  of  Saint  John  the  Baptist  was 
founded  in  Jerusalem  and  became  the  cradle  of 
the  later  Order.  The  earliest  authentic  docu- 
ments which  can  be  dated  belong  to  the  years 
1099  and  1100.  The  first  head  of  the  brother- 
hood whose  name  has  been  preserved  was  Gerard, 
who  died  probably  in  1120.  We  know  little  of 
him,  and  are  not  even  certain  of  his  nationality. 
Under  his  administration  the  brethren  followed 
the  rule  of  Saint  Augustine.  His  successor  was 
Raymond  de  Puy,  who  changed  the  hospital 
brotherhood  into  a  military  Order  and  rulcKi  as 
master  tmtil  1158.  It  is  not  certain  that  the 
Order  was  sanctioned  in  1118,  1120,  or  1130,  as 
has  been  generally  stated  by  the  older  writers; 
but  in  1153  Pope  Eugenius  III.  confirmed  the 
privileges  which  had  been  accorded  by  Pascal  II., 
Calixtus  II.,  Honorius  II.,  and  Innocent  II. 
This  confirmation  proves  that  the  Order  had  been 
recognized  earlier. 

The  brothers  were  of  three  classes:  Knights, 
who  were  of  noble  birth;  Priests  or  almoners; 
and  Brethren,  who  were  not  nobles,  but  who  were 
fighting  men.  Most  of  the  members  were  French. 
They  had  to  take  the  three  monastic  vows  of 
poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience.  Their  main 
duty  was  to  aid  in  the  defense  of  the  Holy  Land, 
and  during  the  twelfth  century  the  Hospitalers 
and  Templars  (q.v.)  were  the  chief  defense  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Jerusalem.  At  the  same  time  their 
constant  quarrels  with  one  another  often  endan- 
gered the  kingdom  and  prevented  complete  suc- 
cess in  the  various  military  undertakings.  They 
vied  with  the  Templars  in  wealth  and  ambition, 
and  were  second  only  to  them  in  public  esteem. 
After  the  destruction  of  the  Order  of  the  Tem- 
plars they  succeeded' to  much  of  its  wealth.  There 
were  at  least  twelve  commanderies  of  the  Hos- 
pitalers in  Syria,  and  branches  were  gradually 
established  in  the  countries  of  Western  Europe. 
The  earliest  was  in  France,  and  dates  from  the 
first  years  of  the  twelfth  century.  The  house  of 
the  Hospitalers  at  Prague  dates  from  1159.  In 
all,  their  possessions  in  Europe  were  divided  into 
eight  langues,  or  provinces,  but  some  of  these 
were  not  established  until  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries.  Their  head  was  known  at 
first  as  roaster,  and  later  as  grand  master.  The 
organization  of  the  twelfth  century  was  gradually 
modified,  and  the  final  form,  which  is  now  fol- 
lowed, was  given  to  the  Order  by  the  Grand  Mas- 
ter Pierre  d'Aubusson  (q.v.)  in  1489.  The  Order 
maintained  its  headquarters  in  Syria  until  1290, 
when,  on  account  of  the  rapid  conquests  of  the 


.SAINT  JOHN  OF  mBJJBAmU. 

Mohammedans,  it  waa  removed  to  Cyprus.  Many 
of  the  knights,  however,  remained  in  Acre  until 
its  capture  in  1291.  The  seat  of  the  Order  was 
in  Cyprus  from  1290  to  1310,  and  in  Rhodes  from 
1310  to  1622.  Then  it  passed  successively  to 
Crete,  Messina,  Baise,  Viterbo,  and  in  1530  to 
Malta,  which  was  ceded  to  the  Order  by  Charles 
V.  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire.  Next  to  Pierre 
d'Aubusson  the  most  celebrated  head  of  the  Order 
was  Jean  de  la  Valette,  grand  master  from  1657 
to  1668,  who  defended  Malta  successfully  against 
the  forces  of  Sultan  Solyman  II.  (1666).  During 
all  of  these  centuries,  and,  in  fact,  until  the  close 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  knights  still  con- 
tinued to  fight  against  the  infidel,  and  still  re- 
mained wealthy  and  famous.  In  1798  the  island 
of  Malta  was  seized  by  Napoleon,  whereupon  the 
knights  chose  Paul  I.  of  Russia  as  their  grand 
master,  counting  on  his  aid  against  the  French. 
Paul  did  enter  into  hostilities  with  France,  and 
Malta  was  occupied  by  the  English  in  1800,  and 
though  the  Treaty  of  Amiens  provided  for  its 
retrocession  to  the  Hospitalers,  the  island  has 
remained  an  English  possession.  In  1801  the 
election  of  a  grand  master  was  vested  in  the 
Pope,  who  chose  Bailli  Tommasi.  The  latter 
made  his  seat  at  Catania,  and  the  Order  at  once 
lost  its  political,  social,  and  military  importance. 
After  the  death  of  Tommasi  in  1805,  no  new 
grand  master  was  chosen  until  1879,  when  Leo 
XIII.  re^tablished  the  dignity  and  fixed  the 
headquarters  of  the  Order  at  Rome.  In  the  in- 
terval the  Order  had  been  governed  by  lieuten- 
ants and  by  a  general  council,  meeting  at  Rome. 
Since  1879  the  members  have  entered  into  hospi- 
tal service,  under  the  Convention  of  Geneva. 
They  have  business  offices  in  London,  near  Saint 
John's  gate,  a  relic  of  their  old  priory,  and  in 
other  capitals.  Their  dress  is  a  black  gown  with  a 
white  cross.  The  seal  of  the  Order  has  always 
represented  the  brethren  attending  a  sick  person. 
Many  of  the  records  of  the  local  provinces  have 
been  preserved,  and  some  have  been  printed;  the 
archives  of  the  general  Order,  going  back  to  the 
twelfth  century,  are  still  in  existence  at  La  Val- 
letta, Malta. 

BiBLiooBAPHY.  The  most  important  single 
work  is  the  Gartulaire  g4n6rale  de  Vordre  den 
hospitaliers,  1100  to  1310  (Paris,  1894-1901), 
edited  by  Delaville  le  Roulx.  Of  this  magnifi- 
cent work  three  volumes  and  the  first  part  of 
volume  iv.  have  appeared.  The  editor  had  al- 
ready distinguished  himself  by  numerous  articles 
on  the  history  of  the  Knights  of  Saint  John ;  his 
dates  have  been  followed  in  this  article.  For 
those  who  have  not  access  to  this  great  work, 
the  following  may  be  quoted:  De  Salles,  An- 
nalea  de  Vordre  de  Malte,  etc.  (Vienna,  1889)  ; 
Rey,  Colonies  franques  en  Syrie  aux  12cme  et 
ISeme  sidclea  (Paris,  1883)  ;  Vertot,  Uistoire  des 
chevaliers  hospitaliers  de  Saint-Jean  de  JSrusa- 
lem  (Amsterdam,  1757)  ;  Archer  and  Kingsford, 
The  Crusades   (New  York,  1898). 

SAINT  JOHN  BIVEB.  The  principal  river 
of  New  Brunswick,  Canada.  It  rises  on  the 
boundary  between  Maine  and  Quebec,  and  flows 
first  northeast  through  northern  Maine,  then  east- 
ward on  the  boundary  between  Maine  and  New 
Brunswick,  and  finally  southeast  through  the 
latter  province  till  it  empties  into  the  Bay  of 
Fundy  at  Saint  John  (^lap:  New  Brunswick, 
.B  4).     Its  length  is  about  500  miles,  and  it  re- 


8AINT  JOBCN'S. 

ceives  several  large  tributaries,  such  as  the 
AUegash  and  Aroostook,  which  drain  most  of  the 
lakes  of  northern  Maine.  The  upper  course  of  the 
river  still  passes  through  a  wild  and  sparsely 
inhabited  timber  region.  Shortly  after  entering 
Canadian  territory  it  plunges  in  the  Grand  Falls 
over  a  perpendicular  rock  76  feet  high.  For 
the  last  100  miles  the  river  forms  an  irregular, 
winding,  and  branching  lake-like  expansion,  part 
of  which  is  known  as  Grand  Lake.  Immediately 
before  entering  Saint  John  harbor  in  the  Bay  of 
Fundy  this  expansion  contracts  into  a  narrow, 
rocky  gorge  with  a  fall  of  17  feet,  presenting 
very  peculiar  tide  phenomena.  At  low  tide  the 
river  above  the  gorge  is  12  feet  higher  than  the 
level  of  the  harbor,  but  at  high  tide  it  is  5  feet 
lower,  so  that  the  rapids  are  reversed  with  every 
turn  of  the  tide,  and  vessels  can  pass  through 
the  gorge  only  during  a  short  period  between  ebb 
and  flood.  The  river  is  navigable  for  steamers 
of  considerable  size  80  miles  to  Frederickton,  for 
smaller  steamers  to  Woodstock,  145  miles,  and  at 
high  water  to  the  Grand  Falls,  225  miles.  Above 
the  falls  it  is  again  navigable  40  miles  for  small 
steamers.  By  the  Ashburton  Treaty  its  naviga- 
tion was  made  free  to  citizens  of  the  United 
States. 

SAINT  JOHN  BIVE&.  A  river  of  Qud)ec, 
Canada.    See  Richelieu. 

SAINT  JOHNS.  The  capital  of  Saint  Johns 
County,  Quebec,  Canada,  on  the  Richelieu  River, 
opposite  Iberville,  and  on  the  Grand  Trunk,  Cana- 
dian Pacific,  and  other  railways,  27  miles  south- 
east of  Montreal  (Map:  Quebec,  C  5).  Three 
bridges  span  the  river  and  connect  with  Iber- 
ville. The  chief  buildings  are  the  county  and 
district  offices,  a  lunatic  asylum,  and  military 
barracks.  The  town  has  electric  lighting  and 
water- works,  manufactures  of  pottery,  silk,  etc., 
and  an  important  river  trade  in  lumber,  grain, 
and  agricultural  produce.  Population,  in  1891, 
4722;  in  1901,  4030. 

SAINT  JOHN'S.  The  capital  of  Newfound- 
land, on  the  east  side  of  the  peninsula  of  Avalon, 
on  the  Atlantic  Ocean  (Map :  Newfoundland,  H  5) . 
The  city  is  built  on  sloping  ground  principally  on 
the  northern  side  of  the  harbor.  The  northern 
and- southern  sides  are  connected  by  a  causeway 
and  bridges.  The  city  has  been  improved  greatly 
since  the  disastrous  fire  of  1892,  when  1800 
buildings,  including  two-thirds  of  the  commercial 
establishments,  were  destroyed,  the  loss  amount- 
ing to  about  $16,000,000.  The  Roman  Catholic 
cathedral  stands  on  the  top  of  the  hill  above  the 
city,  225  feet  above  the  sea;  there  is  also  an 
Episcopal  cathedral.  There  are  Saint  Bonaven- 
ture  College  (Roman  Catholic),  and  Anglican, 
Methodist,  and  Presbyterian  colleges.  Saint 
John's  has  a  medical  society  incorporated  in 
18C7;  the  Saint  John's  Athenaeum,  having  a 
large  library;  and  the  library  of  the  Saint 
Joseph's  Catholic  Institute.  Among  the  conspicu- 
ous public  buildings  are :  the  Government  House, 
the  residence  of  the  Governor,  the  House  of 
Assembly,  the  Public  Hospital,  Market-House, 
Court-House,  Custom-House,  Poor-House.  The 
water  supply  is  brought  four  miles  from  Windsor 
Lake.    The  city  is  lighted  bv  gas  and  electricitv. 

The  entrance  to  the  landlocked  harbor,  visible 
only  at  close  range  when  approached  from  the 
seaj  is  marked  by  the  Narrows,  2160  feet  across 


SAXm  JOHN'S. 


82? 


SAIKT  JOHN'S  BVS. 


oaUide,  570  feet  at  the  narrowest  point  from 
Chain  Rock  to  Pancake  rock.  On  the  northern 
side  of  the  Narrows  is  a  cliff  of  sandstone  and 
slate  rock  300  feet  high,  and  above  that  towers 
Signal  Hill,  510  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
On  the  southern  side  of  the  Narrows  there  is  a 
bill  650  feet  high,  on  which  is  a  lighthouse  called 
Fort  Amherst.  Gape  Spear  and  Fort  Amherst 
lights  give  guidance  to  vessels  entering  the  ex- 
cellent harbor.  Around  the  harbor  are  substan- 
tially built  stores,  warehouses,  and  wharves,  a 
dry  dock  capable  of  raising  vessels  of  600  tons, 
and  a  marine  railway.  Saint  John's  receives  the 
bulk  of  the  imports  of  the  colony  and  has  an 
important  trade  in  clothing,  fishermen's  and 
hunters'  outfits,  and  provisions.  Its  capitalists 
are  mostly  non-resident.  The  manufactures  are 
principally  ship-bread,  nets,  iron,  boots  and 
shoes,  furniture,  etc.  It  has  distilleries,  block 
and  rope  factories,  oil  refineries,  breweries,  and 
tamieries.  Business  connected  with  the  fisheries 
absorbs  general  attention ;  there  are  large  exports 
of  seal,  cod,  and  oil.  The  city  is  governed  by  the 
Legislature.  From  a  fishing  hamlet  founded  in 
1580,  Saint  John's  in  1836  had  grown  to  a  town 
of  15,000  inhabitants.  Population,  in  1891,  25,- 
738;  in  1901,  29,594. 

SAINT  JOHNS.  A  village  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Clinton  County,  Mich.,  22  miles  north  of 
Lansing;  on  the  Detroit,  Grand  Haven  and  Mil- 
waukee railroad  (Map:  Michigan,  J  5).  It  is 
mainly  a  residential  place,  and  has  a  ladies' 
library  and  a  fine  union  school  building.  Saint 
Johns  is  situated  in  a  farming  and  stock-raising 
region,  and  is  noted  for  its  manufactures  of  fur- 
niture, including  extension  tables,  and  sashes, 
doors,  and  blinds.  There  are  also  grain  elevators, 
and  manufactories  of  gasoline  engines,  agricul- 
tural implements,  and  quilts.  Population,  in 
1890,3127;  in  1900,3388. 

SAINT  JOHN'S  BBEAD.  The  locust-tree. 
See  Cabob. 

SAINT  JOHNS^tTBY.  A  village  and  the 
oounty-seat  of  Caledonia  Coimty,  Vt.,  34  miles 
east  by  north  of  Montpelier;  on  the  Passumpsic 
River,  and  on  the  Boston  and  Maine  and  the 
Saint  Johnsbury  and  Lake  Champlain  railroads 
(Map:  Vermont,  F  4).  It  has  the  Saint  Johns- 
bury  Academy,  Fairbanks  Museum,  an  art  gal- 
lery, and  a  public  library  with  more  than  16,000 
volumes.  At  Saint  Johnsbury  are  the  works  of 
the  Fairbanks  Scale  Company,  one  of  the  largest 
establishments  of  its  kind  in  the  world,  and 
manufactories  of  steam  hammers,  hoes,  forks,  and 
other  agricultural  implements.  The  village  is 
also  an  important  trade  centre.  The  government 
is  vested  in  a  board  of  village  trustees.  There 
are  two  systems  of  water-works,  one  owned  and 
operated  by  the  municipality.  Population,  in 
1890,3857;  in  1900,  5666. 

SAINT  JOHN'S  COLLEGE.  A  college  at 
Cambridge,  England.  It  was  founded  in  1511  by 
an  endowment  left  by  Lady  Margaret  Beaufort, 
Countess  of  Richmond  and  Derby,  mother  of  Henry 
VII.  The  college  succeeded  to  the  site  and  build- 
ings of  a  Hospital  of  Saint  John,  founded  by 
Henry  Frost  in  1135,  and  altered  to  admit  secular 
students.  The  students,  not  agreeing  with  the 
regulars,  were  removed  in  1284  to  the  new  founda- 
tion of  Peterhouse.  Saint  John's  is  the  second 
college  of  Cambridge  in  size  and  importance. 


The  foundation  consists  of  a  master,  56  fellows, 
60  scholars,  and  9  so-called  'proper'  sizars. 
There  are  some  200  undergraduates  in  all.  The 
college  has  a  considerable  number  of  prizes,  ex- 
hibitions, and  studentships,  and  presents  to  50 
livings.  The  college  buildings  are  extensive  and 
of  great  beauty.  The  library  contains  about 
50,000  volumes,  numerous  letters,  and  over  400 
manuscripts. 

SAINT  JOHN'S  COLLEGE.  A  college  at 
Oxford,  England.  It  owes  its  origin  to  Arch- 
bishop Chichele,  founder  of  All  Souls'  College 
(q.v.),  who  converted  a  house  of  Bemardine 
monks  into  Saint  Bernard's  College  in  1436.  At 
the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries,  Henry  VIII. 
gave  this  college  to  Christ  Church  College,  which 
in  turn  transferred  it  to  Sir  Thomas  White.  He 
established  on  this  foundation  in  1555  the  present 
college,  dedicated  to  the  study  of  sacred  theology, 
philosophy,  and  the  Good  Arts,  and  he  is  there- 
fore its  real  founder.  The  college  was  largely 
added  to  by  the  generosity  of  Laud  (q.v.),  who 
was  for  a  time  its  president.  It  consists  of  a 
president,  15  fellows,  a  number  of  honorary  fel- 
lows, lecturers  and  tutors,  4  Fereday  fellows, 
37  scholars,  a  number  from  the  Merchant  Taylors' 
School,  4  exhibitioners,  a  chaplain,  an  organist, 
and  a  choir,  with  some  175  undergraduates  in  all. 

SAINT  JOHN'S  COLLEGE.  A  non-sectarian 
collegiate  institution  at  Annapolis,  Md.,  char- 
tered in  1784  and  opened  in  1789.  It  was  devel- 
oped from  King  William's  School,  established  in 
1696,  and  is  therefore  one  of  the  oldest  of  Amer- 
ican colleges.  Its  campus  is  picturesquely  situ- 
ated on  &vern  Creek,  a  few  miles  from  Chesa- 
peake Bay,  with  commodious  buildings  valued 
m  1903  at  $250,000.  The  collegiate  department 
embraces  four  courses:  classical,  Latin-scientific, 
scientific,  and  mechanical  engineering,  which  lead 
to  the  degrees  of  Bachelor  of  Arts  and  Bachelor 
of  Science.  There  is  also  a  preparatory  school, 
with  52  students  in  1903,  in  which  year  the  col- 
legiate department  had  an  attendance  of  103 
and  a  faculty  of  10  instructors.  The  endowment 
was  $5000  and  the  income  $23,000.  The  library 
contained  9000  volumes. 

SAINT  JOHN'S  COLLEGE,  FOBDHAM.  A 

Roman  Catholic  institution,  in  the  Borough  of 
the  Bronx,  New  York  City,  organized  in  1841. 
The  administration  was  in  the  hands  of  secular 
priests  until  1846,  when  the  college  was  pur- 
chased by  the  Fathers  of  the  Society  of  Jesus. 
The  estate  embraces  about  70  acres,  with  nine 
buildings.  The  income  in  1902  was  $66,262,  and 
the  value  of  the  college  property  $1,553,200.  In 
1902  the  students  numbered  442,  including  85 
in  the  college,  315  in  the  academic  department, 
and  42  in  the  grammar  school.  There  were  41 
instructors,  and  the  library  contained  53,000 
volumes.  The  college  confers  the  degrees  of  B.A., 
B.S.,  and  M.A. 

SAINT  JOHN'S  EVE.  The  night  before  the 
festival  of  Saint  John  Baptist  (June  24th),  or 
Midsummer  Eve.  It  seems  to  have  been  observed 
with  similar  rites  in  every  country  of  Europe. 
Fires  were  kindled  chiefly  in  the  streets  and 
market  places  of  the  towns ;  sometimes  they  were 
blessed  by  the  parish  priest,  and  prayer  and 
praise  offered  until  they  had  burned  out;  but 
as  a  rule  they  were  secular  in  their  character, 
and   conducted   by   the   laity    themselves.     The 


SAINT  JOHN'S  EVB. 


828 


SAINT  JOSEPH. 


yonng  people  leaped  over  the  flames,  or  threw 
flowers  and  garlands  into  them,  with  merry 
shoutings ;  songs  and  dances  were  also  a  frequent 
acoompaniment.  The  kindling  of  the  fire,  the 
leaping  over  or  through  the  flames,  and  the 
flower-garlands  render  plausible  the  theory  that 
these  rites  are  essentially  of  heathen  origin,  and 
of  a  sacriflcial  character,  possibly  connected  with 
the  worship  of  the  sun. 

SAINT  JOHN'S  BIVEB.  The  principal 
river  of  Florida.  It  rises  in  the  swamps  of 
Brevard  and  Osceola  counties,  and  flows  north- 
ward, roughly  parallel  with,  and  20  miles  from, 
the  Atlantic  coast  (Map:  Florida,  Q  1).  It 
empties  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean  26  miles  south 
of  the  Georgia  boundary.  It  is  a  sluggish  stream 
passing  through  a  low  and  level  coimtry  and 
bordered  by  luxuriant  semi-tropical  vegetation. 
From  its  source  downward  it  passes  through  a 
chain  of  lakes,  the  largest  of  which  is  Lake 
George.  From  that  lake  to  its  mouth,  about 
200  miles,  the  river  expands  into  the  form  of  a 
lagoon  from  one  to  flve  miles  wide.  A  channel 
is  kept  open  by  means  of  jetties  through  the  bar 
at  the  mouth,  and  the  river  has  been  dredged  to  a 
depth  of  18  feet  to  Jacksonville,  about  20  miles. 
There  is  a  depth  of  eight  feet  as  far  as  Lake 
George,  while  small  steamers  ply  regularly  as 
far  as  Enterprise,  230  miles,  and  may  ascend 
some  distance  beyond. 

SAINT  JOSEPH.  A  river  of  southwestern 
Michigan.  After  making  a  detour  into  Indiana 
it  flows  northwest  into  Lake  Michigan  at  the 
town  Saint  Joseph  (Map:  Michigan,  H  7).  It 
is  250  miles  long  and  navigable  about  100  miles 
for  small  steamers. 

SAINT  JOSEPH.  A  city  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Berrien  Ck>unty,  Mich.,  60  miles  by  water 
east  of  Chicago,  III.;  at  the  mouth  of  the  Saint 
Joseph  River,  on  Lake  Michigan,  and  on  the 
Pere  Marquette,  the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan 
Southern,  and  other  railroads  (Map:  Michigan, 
H  7).  A  daily  line  of  passenger  and  freight 
steamboats  connects  with  (Chicago.  Saint  Joseph 
is  a  popular  summer  resort.  Among  its  features 
are  the  Carnegie  Library,  Lake  Front  Park,  and 
Battery  Beach.  The  surrounding  district  is  chiefly 
interested  in  fruit-growing,  and  for  this  industry 
the  city  is  an  important  centre.  There  are  also 
iron  works,  paper  mills,  lumber  mills,  knitting 
mills,  and  manufactories  of  boats,  fruit,  baskets 
and  packages,  motor  bicycles,  and  flour.  The  gov- 
ernment is  administered  by  a  mayor,  elected  an- 
nually, and  a  unicameral  council.  The  city  owns 
and  operates  the  water-works  and  the  electric 
light  plant  First  settled  in  1829,  Saint  Joseph 
was  incorporated  as  a  village  in  1830,  and  re- 
ceived a  city  charter  in  1892.  Population,  in 
1890,  3733;  in  1900,  5155. 

SAINT  JOSEPH.  The  third  city  of  Mis- 
souri and  the  county-seat  of  Buchanan  County, 
on  the  Missouri  River,  62  miles  north  of  Kansas 
City  and  132  miles  south  of  Omaha,  Neb.  (Map: 
Missouri,  B  2).  Nine  railroads  give  the  city 
excellent  transportation  facilities.  They  are  the 
Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe;  the  Chicago, 
Rock  Island  and  Pacific ;  the  Chicago,  Burlington 
and  Quincy;  the  Kansas  City,  Saint  Joseph  and 
Council  Bluffs;  the  Hannibal  and  Saint  Joseph; 
the  Burlington  and  Missouri  River;  the  Chicago 
Great  Western;    the   Saint  Joseph   and   Grand 


Island ;  and  the  Missouri  Pacific.  A  steel  bridge 
connects  the  city  with  its  Kansas  suburb.  El- 
wood. 

Saint  Joseph  is  nine  and  a  half  square  miles  in 
area,  and,  being  built  along  the  bluffs  which  lie 
close  to  the  Missouri  River,  has  an  unsurpassed 
drainage  system.  The  city  has  a  river  front  of 
three  miles.  There  are  280  miles  of  streets,  of 
which  fifty  miles  are  paved.  Vitrified  brick  is  the 
most  popular  paving  material,  but  asphaltum, 
macadam,  and  granite  blocks  are  used  where  the 
service  requires  them.  There  are  85  miles  of 
water  mains  and  52  miles  of  gas  mains  in  the 
city. 

Among  the  prominent  buildings  are  the  court- 
house, the  new  public  library,  live-stock  ex- 
change, high  school,  Carnegie  Library,  post  office, 
and  city  hall.  State  Hospital  for  Insane,  No.  2, 
is  located  here,  as  is  also  the  State  Fish  Hatch- 
ery. Other  features  are  the  Sacred  Heart  Acad- 
emy, Home  for  Little  Wanderers,  Memorial 
Home  for  Aged  People,  Saint  Joseph's  Hospital, 
Ensworth  Hospital,  Benton  Club,  and  the  Com- 
mercial Club.  Mount  Mora  Cemetery  is  of  inter- 
est. There  are  two  medical  collies,  and  a  large 
number  of  private  schools ;  and  thirty  public  and 
four  parochial  schools,  with  an  enrollment  ( 1903) 
of  31,764  pupils.  There  are  more  than  forty 
miles  of  track  in  the  street  railway  system,  at 
the  north  end  of  which  is  Krug  Park,  and  at  the 
south  Lake  Contrary. 

The  stock  yards  have  a  daily  capacity  of  20,000 
cattle,  30,000  hogs,  16,000  sheep,  and  2000  horses 
and  mules.  The  packing  houses  do  a  business  of 
$50,000,000  annually,  exclusive  of  poultry,  which 
is  valued  at  $1,000,000.  Saint  Joseph  has  also 
very  large  shirt  and  overall  factories,  which  with 
other  manufacturing  establishments  give  employ- 
ment to  nearly  20,000  persons.  The  value  of  the 
manufactured  products  is  $35,000,000  a  year,  and 
the  jobbing  trade  amounts  to  $75,000,000.  There 
are  also  harness,  collar,  saddle,  trunk,  plow,  glue, 
candy,  furniture,  shoe,  and  cracker  factories, 
fiour,  hominy,  and  woolen  mills,  maehine  shops, 
foundries,  etc. 

The  mayor  and  council  are  elected  for  two 
years  and  the  president  of  the  council  for  four 
years.  The  city's  revenue  is  $413,800.  Some  of 
the  principal  expenditures  are:  Fire  department, 
$72,000;  police  department,  $68,400;  streets, 
sewers,  and  bridges,  $51,000;  water  service,  $33,- 
000;  and  street  lighting,  $33,000.  The  city  owns 
its  lighting  plant.  The  assessed  valuation  is 
$30,000,000;  and  the  municipal  debt,  $1,108,000. 

Saint  Joseph  dates  from  1826,  when  Joseph 
Robidoux,  an  Indian  trader  and  trapper,  opened 
a  trading  post  a  short  distance  above  the  present 
site  of  the  city,  at  Roy's  Branch.  In  1830  he 
moved  to  the  Blacksnake  Hills,  now  in  the  heart 
of  the  city.  The  first  post  office  was  established 
in  1840,  and  in  1843  'Blacksnake  Hills'  had  a 
population  of  500.  The  plats  of  Saint  Joseph 
were  recorded  July  26,  1843,  when  the  change  in 
name  took  place.  Saint  Joseph  became  the  per- 
manent county-seat  in  1846,  and  in  1853  it  was 
chartered  as  a  city.  During  the  excitement  over 
the  discovery  of  gold  In  California  in  1849,  the 
city  was  a  prominent  outfitting  and  starting 
point  for  miners.  The  first  census  of  Saint 
Joseph,  taken  in  December,  1846,  showed  a  popu- 
lation of  936.  Its  growth  since  the  Civil  War 
has  been  very  rapid,  the  population  in  1870  being 


SAnrr  josbph. 


829 


aAIKT  LAWBSKGB. 


19,565;  in  1880,  32,431;  in  1890,  52,324;  in  1900, 
102,979. 

SAINT  JOSEPH,  Obdeb  or.  A  former  grand- 
ducal  order  of  Tuscany,  founded  in  1514  and  ex- 
tinguished in  1860.  It  had  three  classes,  and  was 
restricted  to  persons  of  noble  birth. 

SAINT-JTINIEK,  sftir'zhv'nft'ftN.  A  town  o! 
the  Department  of  Haute- Vienne,  France,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Vienne,  18  miles  north-north- 
west of  Limoges.  The  beautiful  twelfth-century 
abbey  church  contains  a  sculptured  tomb  of  the 
patron  saint  from  whom  the  town  takes  its  name. 
Saint-Junien  has  a  college.  The  manufactures  of 
gloves  and  straw  paper,  and  the  leather-dressing, 
felt,  and  dog  factories  are  important.  Near  by 
are  a  large  porcelain  plant  and  slate  quarries. 
Population,  in  1001,  11,432. 

SAIHT-JTrST,  zhflst,  Antoink  (c.1767-94). 
A  French  reyolutionary  leader,  bom  at  Decize, 
in  Nivemais.  He  was  the  son  of  a  retired 
cavalry  officer  and  was  educated  at  Soissons 
by  the  Oratorians.  He  went  to  Rheims  to 
study  law,  but  soon  returned  to  his  native  vil- 
lage, where  he  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  lit- 
erature. When  the  Revolution  broke  out  Saint- 
Just  was  in  Paris  in  connection  with  the  pub- 
lication of  his  poem  Organt,  and  he  was  at  once 
transported  with  republican  enthusiasm.  Later  on 
he  became  a  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  National 
Guard  of  his  commune,  and  was  present  at  Paris 
in  1790  to  assist  at  the  F^to  of  the  Federation. 
In  1791  appeared  his  Esprit  de  la  Revolution  et 
de  la  Constitution  de  la  France,  in  which  the 
various  causes  of  the  Revolution  were  dealt  with ; 
and  in  the  following  year  he  was  chosen  Deputy 
to  the  Convention  by  the  electors  of  Aisne.  He 
voted  for  the  death  of  the  King  and  be<»ime  (me 
of  Robespierre's  strongest  and  most  influential 
Bupportors.  In  all  the  fierce  debates  of  this 
period  SaintrJust  took  a  leading  part.  He  also 
displayed  a  great  capacity  for  administrative  or- 
ganization. After  the  fall  of  the  Girondists  in 
June,  1793^  Saint-Just  became  more  prominent 
than  ever.  He  had  been  chosen  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety  in  April, 
and  during  the  Reign  of  Terror  he  showed  liim- 
self  well  fitted  to  be  the  associate  of  Robespierre 
and  Ck>uthon.  On  February  19,  1794,  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  Convention.  He  drew  up 
the  report  which  led  to  the  arrest  and  execution 
of  Danton  and  his  adherents.  With  Robespierre, 
Saint-Just  fell  on  the  fateful  Ninth  Ther- 
midor,  and  with  him  was  guillotined  on  the  fol- 
lowing day,  July  28,  1794.  For  the  life  of  Saint- 
Just,  consults  Fleury,  Saint-Just  et  la  Terreur 
(Paris,  1851),  Hamel.  Histoire  de  Saint-Just  (ib., 
1859),  both  of  which,  however,  are  biased;  one 
of  the  best  brief  accounts  is  that  In  Aulard,  Les 
Orateurs  de  la  L4gislatwe  et  de  la  Convention 
(Paris,  1879-81). 

SAINT  "KTrSB,  One  of  the  Leeward  Islands. 
See  SAiirr  Chbistofhkb. 

SAINT  IiAWBENCE.  A  river  of  North 
America  (Map:  Canada,  R  7).  The  basin  of  the 
Saint  Lawrence  includes  the  entire  system  of 
the  Great  Lakes,  constituting  the  largest  body  of 
fresh  water  in  the  world.  Ite  drainage  area  and 
rate  of  discharge,  however,  are  much  less  than 
those  of  the  Mississippi. 

The  name  Saint  Liawrence  River  is  properly 
confined  to  the  outlet  of  Lake  Ontario,  flowing 


from  the  northeastern  extremity  of  that  lake  in 
an  almost  straight  northeast  course  of  about  700 
miles  to  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence,  through 
which  it  enters  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  For  a  dis- 
tence  of  30  miles  below  Lake  Onterio  the  river  is 
from  4  to  10  miles  wide,  but  this  wide  expanse  is 
filled  with  a  wilderness  of  beautiful  rocky  and 
wooded  islands,  known  as  the  Thousand  Islands, 
ranging  in  size  from  about  20  square  miles  to 
mere  rocks  bearing  a  few  trees.  Below  this  ex- 
pansion the  river  mainteins  an  average  width 
of  1%  miles  as  far  as  Quebec,  narrowing  in 
some  places  to  less  than  a  mile,  and  widening  in 
others  into  lakes  nearly  10  miles  wide.  The  fall 
of  the  river  from  Lake  Onterio  to  Quebec  is  240 
feet,  nearly  the  whole  of  which  is  accomplished 
above  Montreal  in  a  series  of  rapids  separated  by 
long  reaches  of  quiet  water.  The  upper  rapids 
occur  where  the  Laurentian  spurs  cross  the  river 
to  form  the  Adirondacks;  the  lowest  are  the  La- 
chine  Rapids,  just  above  Montreal  harbor,  where 
a  line  of  igneous  rock  traverses  the  plains.  From 
Montreal  to  Quebec  the  river  passes  between  low 
banks  through  a  wide,  cultivated  plain.  Tide- 
water is  reached  at  Three  Rivers,  about  half  way 
between  Montreal  and  Quebec,  and  at  the  latter 
city  the  spring  tide  rises  18^  feet,  while  salt 
water  becomes  noticeable  30  miles  below.  At 
Quebec  begins  the  great  estuary,  which  is  350 
miles  long,  and  widens  gradually  from  10  miles 
below  the  island  of  Orleans  to  about  90  miles  at 
the  west  end  of  Anticosti  Island,  where  it  enters 
the  gulf.  The  south  shore  continues  low  some  dis- 
tance below  Quebec.  The  north  shore  soon  be- 
comes high  and  bold,  and  toward  the  mouth  of 
the  estuaiy  the  south  shore  also  is  lined  with  high, 
rugged,  and  forest-covered  mounteins.  The  chief 
tributeries  of  the  Saint  Lawrence  proper  are  the 
Ottewa,  which  enters  it  from  the  north  through 
several  channels  around  the  islands  at  Montreal, 
and  whose  dark,  amber-colored  waters  flow  side 
by  side  with  the  light  blue  of  the  main  stream 
until  tide- water  is  reached;  the  Richelieu,  the 
outlet  of  Lake  Champlain,  which  enters  the  river 
from  the  south  some  distence  below  Montreal; 
and  the  Saguenay,  flowing  into  the  estuary.  In- 
stead of  the  river  entering  the  ocean  through  a 
shallow  and  shifting  delte,  the  valley  of  the  Saint 
Lawrence  has  been  submerged  through  the  sinking 
of  the  land,  so  that  its  entrance  is  about  90  miles 
wide  and  1200  feet  deep.  A  depth  of  600  feet  ex- 
tends half  way  to  i^bec,  and  the  river  is  100  feet 
deep  nearly  or  quite  up  to  that  city.  Between 
Quebec  and  Montreal  the  natural  depth  is  over  20 
feet,  and  the  channel  has  here  been  deepened  so 
that  the  largest  ocean  steamers  can  pass  up  to  the 
wharves  at  the  latter  city.  Above  Montreal  the 
rapids  are  passed  by  a  series  of  9  canals,  with  a 
totel  length  of  42  miles,  and  provided  with  locks, 
each  of  which  is  45  feet  wide  and  270  feet  long^ 
with  14  feet  of  water  on  the  sills.  These  canals, 
however,  are  used  only  on  the  up-stream  route; 
on  the  return  trip  even  the  passenger  steamers 
descend  the  rapids.  For  the  navigation  of  the 
waterways  above  the  Saint  Lawrence  proper,  see 
Great  Lakes.  Consult  Steckel,  Water  Levels 
(Ottewa,  1893). 

SAINT  IiAWBENCE.  An  island  in  Bering 
Sea,  belonging  to  Alaska,  between  that  Territory 
and  Siberia,  to  the  southwest  of  Cape  Nome 
(Map:  Alaska,  B  3).  Ite  greatest  length  and 
width  are  respectively  90  xniles  and  30  miles. 


SAINT  LAWBfiNGS. 


880 


aAtm?  Lotna 


It  reaches  its  greatest  height  toward  the  east, 
where  the  hills  have  an  elevation  of  over  600 
feet.  On  the  fringe  of  the  Arctic  zone,  the  island 
is  sparsely  peopled  by  Eskimos,  who  engage  in 
whale,  seal,  and  walrus  fisheries,  and  have  trad- 
ing relations  with  the  mainland.  Bering  discov- 
ered the  island  in  1728;  fifty  years  later  it  was 
visited  by  Captain  Cook,  who  thought  it  com- 
prised two  islands,  which  he  named  Saint  Law- 
rence and  Clark. 

SAINT  LAWBENCE,.  Gulf  of.  An  inlet  of 
the  northern  Atlantic,  bounded  by  the  western 
shore  of  Newfoundland,  and  the  shores  of  the 
Canadian  provinces  of  Quebec,  New  Brunswick, 
Nova  Scotia,  and  Prince  Edward  Island  (Map 
Canada,  S  7 ) .  It  has  three  communications  with 
the  ocean — the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle,  between  New- 
foundland and  Labrador;  the  Gut  of  Canso, 
between  the  island  of  Cape  Breton  and  the 
peninsula  of  Nova  Scotia;  and  Cabot  Strait, 
62  miles  wide,  with  the  island  of  Saint  Paul 
in  the  middle,  between  Cape  Breton  and 
Newfoundland.  In  the  opposite  direction  it 
harrows  at  the  western  end  of  Anticosti  into  the 
estuary  of  the  Saint  Lawrence  River.  Besides 
Anticosti,  Saint  Paul's,  and  Prince  Edward  the 
gulf  contains  several  clusters  of  islands,  more 
particularly  in  its  southern  half,  among  them 
being  the  Magdalens.  The  northern  shore,  which 
is  bold  and  rocky,  is  fringed  with  small  islets.  The 
waters  are  frequently  rendered  dangerous  to 
shipping  by  thick  fogs  and  uncertain  currents. 
The  passages  from  the  ocean  to  the  river,  how- 
ever, are  clear,  broad,  and  deep  channels,  the  one 
through  Cabot  Strait  being  1200  feet,  and  the 
one  through  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle  600  feet  deep. 
The  latter  is  the  route  taken  by  transatlantic 
steamers.  The  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence  is  cel- 
ebrated for  the  productiveness  of  its  fisheries. 

SAINT  LAZ^ABtTS,  Obdeb  of.  An  Order  of 
chivalry  founded  in  Palestine  for  the  purpose  of 
caring  for  sick  pilgrims,  and  transferred  to  Eu- 
rope after  the  destruction  of  the  Christian  power. 
The  chief  seat  of  the  Order  was  at  Boigny,  in 
Prance.  It  was  merged  in  the  Order  of  Our  Lady 
of  Mount  Carmel,  founded  in  1807,  and  was 
thenceforward  known  as  the  "Ordre  militaire  et 
hospitaller  de  Saint  Lazare  et  de  Notre  Dame  du 
Mont  Carmel  r6imis."    It  was  dissolved  in  1830, 

SAINT  LEGEB,  sflnt  l&j^Sr  or  sll^In-jSr, 
Babbt  (1737-89).  A  British  soldier  in  the 
American  Revolution.  He  entered  the  army  as 
an  ensign  in  1766,  and  in  the  following  year  was 
sent  to  America  to  fight  against  the  French.  He 
served  under  General  Abercrombie,  took  part  in 
the  siege  of  Louisburg  in  1758,  and  fought  under 
Wolfe  at  Quebec.  When  the  British  Ministry 
planned  the  campaign  of  1777  against  the  re- 
volted colonists,  Saint  Leger,  then  a  lieutenant- 
colonel,  was  chosen  to  command  an  expedition 
which  was  to  go  up  the  Saint  Lawrence  to  Lake 
Ontario,  land  at  Oswego,  and,  with  the  assistance 
of  Sir  John  Johnston  and  the  Indians,  capture 
Fort  Stanwix,  and  then  march  down  the  Mo- 
hawk Valley  and  join  General  Burgoyne.  On 
August  3,  1777,  Saint  I^ger  reached  Fort 
Stanwix,  and  three  days  later  fought  the  battle 
of  Oriskany  (q.v.)  with  a  relief  force  under 
General  Herkimer.  On  the  22d  of  the  same 
month  the  approach  of  a  second  relief  force  un- 
der General  Arnold  produced  such  a  panic  among 


Saint  Leger's  men  that  they  retired  in  great 
haste  to  Canada.  Saint  Leger  continued  to  serve 
in  Canada  and  on  the  northern  border  of  the 
colonies,  and  in  1780  he  was  promoted  colonel. 
He  published  8aint  Leger's  Journal  of  Occur- 
rences in  America  (London,  1780). 

SAINT  LEONARDS,  l&afirdz,  Edward 
BuBTENSHAW  SuGDEN,  Baron  (1781-1875).  An 
English  lawyer,  bom  in  London.  In  1802  he  be- 
gan the  study  of  law,  and  three  years  later  be- 
came known  by  his  Practical  Treatise  of  the  Lave 
of  Vendors  and  Purchasers  of  Estates  (1805). 
He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1807.  He  waa  re- 
turned to  Parliament  in  1828,  was  knighted  and 
made  Solicitor-General  in  1829,  and  became  Lord 
Chancellor  of  Ireland  in  1835,  and  again  from 
1841  to  1840.  He  was  appointed  Lord  Chancellor 
of  England  and  raised  to  the  peerage  in  1852. 
The  fourteenth  edition  of  his  Law  of  Vendors  and 
Purchasers  was  published  in  1862.  He  published 
many  other  valuable  legal  treatises. 

SAINT-Ld,  s&N'iy.  The  capital  of  the  De- 
partment of  Manche,  France,  47  miles  southeast 
of  Cherbourg,  on  the  Vire  River  (Map:  France, 
£  2).  The  principal  building  is  the  Grothic  Cathe- 
dral of  Notre  Dame,  dating  from  the  fourteenth 
century.  It  was  remodeled  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  The  town  hall,  museum,  hall  of  jus- 
tice, and  prefecture  are  among  the  features  of 
the  town.  Horse-breeding  is  extensively  carried 
on,  and  there  are  manufactures  of  cloth,  leather, 
etc.  Population,  in  1901,  11,604.  The  industrial 
prominence  of  the  town  suffered  severely  through 
the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes. 

SAINT-LOUIS,  ^vlWi^.  The  capital  of 
the  French  colony  of  Senegambia,  situated  on  a 
small  i^and  in  the  delta  of  the  Senegal,  about  12 
miles  inland  and  163  miles  by  rail  northeast  of 
Dakar  (Map:  Africa,  C  3).  It  is  a  well  laid  out 
town,  with  a  number  of  public  buildings.  The  cli- 
mate IS  extremely  unhealthful.  At  the  mouth  of 
the  river  is  a  sand  bar  which  practically  deprives 
Saint-Louis  of  all  value  as  a  port.  The  town  was 
founded  in  1626.  The  population,  about  20,000,  is 
extremely  heterogeneous. 

SAINT  LOUIS,  sflnt  loS^s  or  llR^d.  The  chief 
city  of  Missouri  and  of  the  States  formed  from 
the  'Louisiana  Purchase'  of  1803;  in  population, 
the  fourth  city  of  the  United  States  and  the 
principal  city  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  (Map: 
Missouri,  F  3).  It  is  situated  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Mississippi  River,  1170  miles  from  New 
Orleans  and  729  miles  from  Saint  Paul;  about 
20  miles  below  i;he  mouth  of  the  Missouri,  and 
174  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio;  in  lati- 
tude 38«  38'  N.;  longitude  90*»  12'  W. 

Descbiption.  The  city,  as  originally  founded, 
occupied  a  bluff  of  the  'Saint  Louis  limestone,' 
one  of  a  series  extending  north  and  south  along 
the  west  bank  of  the  river,  from  which  the  land 
gradually  rises  westward  in  rolling  hills.  The  low- 
lands of  the  Mississippi,  known  at  this  point  as  the 
American  bottoms,  are  wholly  on  the  east,  or 
Illinois,  side  of  the  river.  Although  in  the  cen- 
tral part  of  the  city  the  original  bluffs  have  been 
graded  away  for  convenience  of  access  to  the 
river,  the  city,  now  extended  north  and  south 
beyond  its  original  site,  still  enjoys  the  ad- 
vantages of  a  limestone  foundation.  It  has  a 
river  frontage  of  19.15  miles,  with  a  depth  in  a 
direct  line  to  the  extreme  western  limits  of  6.6 


SAINT  LOtTia 


881 


BAzisrr  LOtns. 


miles.    The  area  included  within  these  limits  is 
62.5  square  miles. 

The  original  site  of  the  city,  now  a  small  part 
of  the  business  district,  lay  below  the  crest  of  a 
hill,  not  far  from  Broadway,  the  present  north 
and  south  thoroughfare,  which  follows  the  gen- 
eral course  of  the  river,  at  a  minimum  distance 
from  it  approximating  one-eighth  of  a  mile. 
The  city  lies  within  a  curve  of  the  river  having  a 
general  easterly  direction.  The  characteristics 
impressed  on  the  city  by  its  original  French 
founders  exist  now  only  in  a  few  streets  between 
Broadway  and  the  river;  and  even  there,  except 
in  a  few  unchanged  buildings,  such  as  the  Cath- 
olic Cathedral  on  Walnut  Street,  they  are  hardly 
to  be  detected.  The  streets  are  narrower  than 
elsewhere  in  the  city,  and  the  buildings  still  used 
or  formerly  used  for  residences  show  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Colonial  style  in  their  architecture. 

The  tendency  of  the  modem  city  has  been 
toward  exact  regularity.  Wherever  possible,  its 
streets  have  been  laid  out  at  right  angles  from 
north  to  south  and  from  east  to  west.  Market 
Street,  selected  as  the  original  line  dividing  the 
city  into  its  northern  and  southern  portions,  is 
no  longer  a  central  thoroughfare,  but  the  streets 
are  numbered  north  and  south  from  it,  as  they 
are  also  west  from  the  river. 

The  chief  eastern  and  western  thoroughfares 
leading  out  from  the  central  part  of  the  city  are 
Washington  Avenue  and  Olive  Street,  with 
Franklin  Avenue  connecting  with  Easton  Avenue 
to  the  north.  South  of  Olive  Street,  Market  con- 
nects with  Manchester  Avenue,  running  through 
the  city  southwestwardly,  while  Chouteau  Ave- 
nue, the  next  thoroughfare  south  of  Market,  runs 
east  and  west  to  Forest  Park.  Broadway  follows 
the  course  of  the  Mississippi  from  the  River  Des 
Peres  at  the  extreme  south  to  the  extreme  north- 
ern limit  of  the  city.  Grand  Avenue,  planned 
aa  a  boulevard  spanning  the  city  on  the  west,  is 
now  ahnost  centrally  located.  Jefferson  Avenue, 
east  of  it,  unites  with  Broadway  on  both  north 
and  south  to  form  a  complete  thoroughfare. 
West  of  Grand  Avenue — ^where  the  principal  ave- 
nues and  boulevards  are  interrupted  by  parks 
and  places  or  by  the  various  'additions'  made  to 
the  city  independently  of  each  other — ^thorough- 
fares are  formed  only  by  a  connecting  series  of 
streets. 

Buildings.  The  old  Walnut  Street  Cathedral 
is  the  most  notable  survival  of  the  French  period 
of  the  history  of  Saint  Louis.  The  interior 
of  the  Church  of  Saints  Peter  and  Paul,  the 
oldest  German  Catholic  church  in  the  city 
(1848),  is  Gothic.  The  Broadway  Court  House 
(1839-62),  the  best  example  of  the  classic  style 
in  the  city,  is  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross,  sur- 
mounted by  a  dome  198  feet  in  height,  with  a 
rotunda  60  feet  in  diameter.  The  four  circular 
galleries  within  the  dome  give  opportunity  for 
viewing  the  frescoes  by  Wimar;  panels  of  "The 
Discovery  of  the  Mississippi  by  De  Soto,"  "The 
Founding  of  Saint  Louis  by  LaclMe,"  the  Indian 
massacre  of  1780,  and  a  landscape  panel.  There 
are  also  figures  of  Law,  Commerce,  Justice,  and 
Liberty.  The  only  public  building  of  the  same 
school  of  architecture  comparable  in  purity  of 
style  is  the  much  costlier  Federal  Custom  House 
and  Post  Office  ( 1888) .  It  has  a  frontage  of  132 
feet  on  Olive  Street  by  177  feet  on  Eighth  and 
Ninth,  with  a  height  of  184  feet  to  the  top  of  the 

?OL.XV.— M. 


cupola  surmounting  its  dome.  The  new  City  Hall, 
in  Washington  Square,  described  as  Romanesque, 
distinctly  suggests  a  French  h6tel  de  ville  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  The  blended  Renaissance  and 
later  medieval  influences  of  Northern  Europe 
again  predominate  in  the  architecture  of  the  im- 
posing Union  Station,  on  Eighteenth  and  Market 
streets,  directly  west  of  the  City  Hall.  The  new 
buildings  of  the  Washington  University,  the  most 
extensive  and  complete  in  the  city,  are  adapta- 
tions of  the  Tudor-Gothic  fortified  palace.  Ital- 
ian Renaissance  is  the  style  of  the  Museum  of 
Fine  Arts,  whose  facade,  with  sculptures  by 
Kretschmar,  is  perhaps  the  most  satisfactory  in 
the  city.  The  Protestant  Episcopal  Cathedral, 
dating  from  early  in  the  second  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  shows  both  in  exterior  and  inte- 
rior the  infiuence  of  the  Saxon  style  in  modifying 
the  Gothic.  The  Shaare  Emeth  Synagogue,  one 
of  the  most  impressive  of  the  modern  religious 
edifices,  shows  the  Byzantine  influence  modifying 
the  Gothic  in  the  body  of  the  building,  to  which 
is  added  a  campanile  of  the  earlier  Italian  Re- 
naissance, adapted  to  the  Gothic.  The  new  Ro- 
man Catholic  Cathedral,  the  Second  Presbyterian 
Church,  and  the  majority  of  the  important 
church  buildings  erected  since  1880  are  either 
Gothic  or  Renaissance  modifications  of  the  Gothic. 

Of  business  structures  representative  buildings 
are  the  Laclede,  the  Union  Trust,  the  new  Mer- 
cantile Library,  the  Board  of  Education  and 
Public  Library,  the  Oddfellows'  Hall,  the  Rialto, 
the  Commonwealth  Trust,  the  Equitable,  the 
Commercial,  the  Boatmen's  Bank,  the  National 
Bank  of  Commerce,  and  the  collection  of  build- 
ings known  as  'Cupples  Station,'  where  a  consid- 
erable part  of  the  wholesale  trade  of  the  city 
is  centred  at  the  most  advantageous  point  for 
handling  freight.  The  Mercantile  Club  building 
is  in  the  business  centre.  The  buildings  of  the 
Saint  Louis  Club,  the  University,  the  Mar- 
quette, the  Columbian,  the  Union,  and  other 
clubs  away  from  the  business  centre,  represent 
different  styles  of  residence  architecture.  The 
new  buildings  of  the  Saint  Louis  University, 
the  Central  High  School,  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association,  and  others  of  a  pub- 
lic or  semi-public  character,  have  a  general 
tendency  to  reproduce  the  styles  of  the  palaces 
and  unfortified  public  buildings  of  the  fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  centuries  in  England  and  France. 
The  Pilgrim  Congregational  Church,  Saint 
George's  (Protestant  Episcopal),  the  Union 
Methodist  Episcopal,  the  Grand  Avenue  Presby- 
terian, the  Church  of  the  Messiah  (Unitarian), 
the  Beaumont  Street  Baptist  Church,  and  the 
several  Jewish  synagogues  of  the  west  end  repre- 
sent the  more  modern  ecclesiastical  architecture 
of  the  city. 

For  the  buildings  of  the  World's  Fair  of  1904, 
see  Saint  Louis  World's  Faib. 

Parks.  The  twenty-three  public  parks,  places, 
and  gardens  of  the  city  have  a  total  area  of  2183 
acres,  including  that  part  of  Forest  Park  tempo- 
rarily used  as  part  of  the  grounds  of  the  Louisi- 
ana Purchase  Exposition.  Forest  Park,  the 
largest  of  these,  dates  from  1874.  It  is  almost 
directly  west  of  the  business  centre.  Its  area  of 
1371  acres  represents  a  cost  of  $2,304,669  for 
ground  and  improvements.  When  acquired  by 
the  city  it  was  far  from  the  principal  residential 
section^   but   its   attractiveness   has   exerted   so 


8AIKT  LOUIS. 


882 


SAINT  LOUia 


marked  an  influence  that  the  residential  section 
has  grown  toward  it^  and  its  beauties  are  repro- 
duced in  neighboring  private  residence-parks,  or 
'places.'  For  these,  the  number  of  which  is  not 
included  in  the  total  above,  the  city  is  remark- 
able. 

The  principal  parks  of  the  southwestern  part 
of  the  city  are  Tower  Grove  and  the  Missouri 
Botanical  Garden  adjoining  it.  Both  of  these  are 
a  gift  of  the  late  Henry  Shaw,  whose  interest  in 
plants  made  the  Botanical  Garden's  collection  of 
native  and  foreign  flora  one  of  the  most  exten- 
sive in  America.  The  garden,  now  maintained 
for  the  public  by  special  commissioners,  has  an 
arboretum  adjoining  it,  containing  specimens  of 
the  American  forest  trees  which  will  grow  unpro- 
tected in  the  climate  of  Missouri.  Tower  Grove 
Park,  with  an  area  of  206  acres,  ranks  next  to 
Forest  Park  as  the  driving  park  of  the  city.  It 
is  highly  improved,  with  an  impressive  central 
gateway  on  the  east,  opening  on  a  long  avenue, 
which,  as  it  divides  the  park,  has  the  heroic 
bronzes  by  Von  Mueller,  cast  in  Munich  during 
Shaw's  lifetime,  and  by  him  presented  to  the  city. 

Carondelet  Park  (containing  180  acres)  and 
O'Fallon  Park  (158  acres),  rank  next  in  area. 
Lafayette  Park,  with  an  area  of  29  acres,  is  more 
centrally  located  in  what  was  formerly  the  most 
important  residential  section  of  the  southern 
part  of  the  city.  Up  to  the  close  of  1902,  the 
total  cost  of  the  parks,  acquired  and  improved  at 
public  expense,  was  $4,011,862,  inclusive  of  im- 
provements and  maintenance.  This  does  not  in- 
clude the  four  parks  managed  by  special  commis- 
sioners. 

The  most  interesting  objects  of  art  in  the 
parks  are  probably  the  bronze  statues  of  Shake- 
speare, Columbus,  and  Humboldt,  by  Von  Muel- 
ler, in  Tower  Grove.  That  of  Shakespeare  is 
supported  by  a  pedestal  with  bronze  panels,  giv- 
ing in  relief  the  grave  scene  in  Hamlet,  Lady 
Macbeth  in  the  sleep-walking  scene.  Queen  Cath- 
arine confronting  her  accusers,  and  Falstaff  as 
impersonated  by  Ben  De  Bar.  The  reciunbent 
portrait  statue  of  Henry  Shaw  in  the  Shaw 
mausoleum  in  the  Missouri  Botanical  Garden  is 
by  the  same  sculptor.  A  bronze  statue  of  Thomas 
H.  Benton  in  Lafayette  Park  is  the  work  of  Har- 
riet Hosmer.  On  its  pedestal  are  the  words, 
"There  is  East,  there  is  India,"  which  constituted 
the  climax  of  his  speech  made  after  the  with- 
drawal of  his  opposition  to  the  first  transcon- 
tinental railroad.  This  statue,  erected  at  the 
expense  of  the  State,  commemorates  the  comple- 
tion of  the  railroad  connecting  Saint  Louis  with 
the  Pacific  Coast.  Lafayette  Park  contains  also 
a  good  bronze  reproduction  of  Houdon's  statue 
of  Washington.  Wellington  Gardner's  statue  of 
Francis  Preston  Blair  stands  near  the  eastern 
entrance  of  Forest  Park.  J.  Wilson  MacDonald's 
statue  of  Edward  Bates,  Attorney-General  in  Lin- 
coln's first  Cabinet,  is  near  the  southeast  comer 
of  the  same  park.  The  marble  statue  of  Schiller 
in  Saint  Louis  Park  is  a  reproduction  of  the  por- 
trait statue  of  the  poet  erected  at  his  birthplace, 
Marbach.  The  striking  bronze  statue  of  General 
Grant,  first  erected  on  Twelfth  Street,  now  stands 
in  front  of  the  southern  entrance  of  the  City 
Hall.    It  is  the  work  of  Robert  P.  Bringhurst. 

Education,  Librabies.  The  school  system 
of  Saint  Louis  is  notable  in  several  particu- 
lars, chiefly  in  its  application  of  the  theory  of 


manual  training  in  connection  with  the  work 
of  Washington  University,  and  in  its  pioneer 
work  in  illustrating  the  practical  workings  of  the 
theories  of  Froebel.  The  school  buildings  repre- 
sent a  total  cost  of  $6,354,000.  The  number  of 
teachers  employed  at  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year 
1902  was  1724,  with  annual  salaries  of  $1,079,- 
191.  The  number  of  pupils  in  1902,  including 
10,096  in  the  kindergartens,  was  84,774.  The 
annual  expenditure  of  $1,681,907,  out  of  a  rev- 
enue of  $2,155,000  under  the  general  fund,  waa 
for  maintenance  only,  exclusive  of  expenditures 
for  new  buildings  and  improvements.  The  city 
has  began  supplying  free  books,  and  it  supports 
the  free  public  library  as  an  essential  part  of 
the  system  of  public  education. 

Among  the  private  institutions  are  Washing- 
ton University  (q.v.),  with  the  Manual  Training 
School  and  School  of  Fine  Arts,  University  of 
Saint  Louis  (q.v.),  Forest  Park  University  for 
Women,  the  Christian  Brothers'  College,  the 
Saint  Louis  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons, 
the  Homeopathic  Medical  College  of  Missouri, 
the  Missouri  School  for  the  Blind,  the  Kenrick 
Theological  Seminary,  and  the  Saint  Louis  Law 
School,  now  a  department  of  Washington  Univer- 
sity. 

The  principal  libraries  are  the  Public  and  the 
Mercantile.  Among  minor  libraries,  that  of  the 
Missouri  Historical  Society  is  most  important. 
The  Mercantile  Library,  maintained  by  private 
subscription,  occupies  the  upper  portions  of  its 
own  building  on  Broadway  and  Locust  Street.  It 
has  more  than  3000  members,  and  a  total  of  127,- 
000  bound  volumes.  It  is  especially  rich  in 
Americana  relating  to  the  history  of  colonial 
Louisiana  and  the  States  and  Territories  formed 
from  it.  Among  the  objects  of  art  in  its  pos- 
session are  the  marbles  Beatrice  Cenci,  by  Har- 
riet Hosmer;  the  West  Wind,  by  T.  R.  Gould; 
and  portrait  busts  of  Bums  and  Scott  by  Wil- 
liam Brodie,  R.  S.  A.  Among  its  paintings  are  a 
series  of  the  Indian  studies  by  Catlin,  and  the 
most  important  of  Bingham's  canvases  illus- 
trating the  life  of  the  early  West.  The  Public 
Library  has  166,339  volumes  (1903),  with  an  an- 
nual circulation  of  more  than  a  million  volumes. 

Societies,  Clubs,  Theatres.  The  Missouri 
Historical  Society,  the  Academy  of  Science,  the 
Medical  Society,  the  Liederkranz  Society,  and  the 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association  are  promi- 
nent among  the  many  permanent  organizations 
formed  for  other  than  social  or  business  pur- 
poses. The  German  Turner  and  musical  so- 
cieties are  important  and  are  characteristic  of 
influences  which  have  affected  the  city.  The  prin- 
cipal clubs  are  the  Saint  Louis,  the  Mercantile, 
the  University,  the  Noonday,  the  Marquette,  the 
Columbia,  the  (Ik)untry,  the  Office  Men's  (social), 
and  others  which,  like  the  Commercial,  are 
organized  for  business  rather  than  social  inter- 
course. There  are  also  the  Business  Men's 
League,  the  Civic  Federation,  the  Saint  Louis 
Spanish  Club,  the  Interstate  Commercial  Club, 
and  the  Manufacturers'  Association.  Saint  Louis 
has  in  addition  several  permanent  political  clubs 
occupying  their  own  buildings. 

The  principal  theatres  are  the  Olympic,  the 
Grand  Opera  House,  the  Century,  the  Imperial, 
the  Crawford  (Fourteenth  Street),  and  the  Co- 
lumbia. The  Grand  Opera  House  has  a  seating 
capacity  of  2200,  and  the  Olympic  2400. 


SAINT  L0XTI8. 


888 


SAnrr  lohibl 


CoMXEBCi  AND  IiTDUSTBT.  The  railioad  ays- 
terns  of  which  Saint  Louis  is  a  centre  converge 
here  from  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  also 
from  Mexico  and  Canada^  though  the  country  in 
which  the  city  has  fostered  railroad  development 
most  in  marketing  its  output  lies  south  of  Ne- 
braska and  west  of  the  Mississippi.  The  twenty- 
four  railroads  of  which  it  is  a  terminus  have 
dwarfed  the  influence  of  the  Mississippi  as  the 
determining  factor  of  its  trade  without  lessening 
the  great  advantage  of  direct  river  communica- 
tion with  tide  water.  The  total  annual  ship- 
ments by  rail  and  river  were  11,169,848  tons  for 
1902.  The  total  freight  received,  including  coal 
imported  for  home  consumption,  reached  18,477,- 
729  tons.  With  a  capital  and  surplus  of  $87,- 
287,173,  the  banks  and  trust  companies  reported 
annual  clearings  of  $2,506,804,320  for  1902. 

Though  Saint  Louis  is  important  as  a  manu- 
facturing city  and  markets  its  own  industrial 
output,  it  is  still  more  important  commercially 
as  a  distributing  centre  for  products  representing 
the  entire  country.  Its  location  makes  it  a 
point  of  clearing  between  manufactured  products 
and  the  products  of  the  soil  for  which  they  are 
exchanged.  Its  average  annual  receipts  of  grain 
are  70,437,000  bushels;  cotton,  766,000  bales;  cat- 
tle, 1,181,000  head;  hogs,  1,494,000  head;  coal, 
5,648,000  tons;  lead,  2,007,000  pigs;  zinc  and 
spelter,  2,357,000  slabs;  hides,  56,237,000  pounds; 
wool,  26,378,000  pounds.  The  principal  items  of 
its  annual  sales  (in  millions  of  dollars)  are:  Dry 
goods,  120;  groceries,  75;  boots  and  shoes,  50; 
tobacco  and  cigars,  41;  shelf  and  heavy  hard- 
ware, 35;  woodenware,  10;  lumber,  40;  candy, 
4;  beer,  18;  clothing,  7;  furniture,  etc.,  33;  agri- 
cultural machinery  and  vehicles,  20;  iron,  steel, 
and  wagon  materials,  15;  electrical  machinery 
and  supplies,  30;  drugs  and  druggists'  sundries, 
40;  glass,  fflassware,  and  queensware^  5;  terra- 
cotta and  clay  products  and  brick,  5;  stoves  and 
ranges,  3;  paints  and  oils,  6;  hats  and  caps  and 
gloves,  5;  saddlery  and  harness,  5.  The  figures 
in  dollars  given  above  for  tobacco  represent  a 
gross  volume  of  83,593,000  pounds  and  support 
the  claim  of  the  city  as  'the  largest  tobacco  mar- 
ket in  the  world.' 

The  total  number  of  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments in  Saint  Louis  in  the  census  year 
(1900)  was  6732,  with  a  capital  of  $162,179,000 
and  an  annual  product  of  $233,629,000.  The 
most  important  items  were  manufactured  prod- 
ucts of  tobacco,  meat  products,  malt  liquors, 
newspapers,  books  and  periodicals,  clothing,  boots 
and  shoes,  brick  and  stone,  railroad  cars,  bakery 
products,  wagons  and  carriages,  flour  and  grist- 
mill products,  millinery,  iron  and  steel,  and  fur- 
niture. The  minimum  annual  output  represented 
in  any  one  of  these  lines  is  $3,000,000 ;  the  maxi- 
mum (for  manufactured  tobacco)  is  $24,500,000. 
These  figures  do  not  include  the  manufacturing 
activities  of  the  city's  suburbs,  both  in  Missouri 
and  Illinois.  East  Saint  Louis,  the  principal  in- 
dustrial suburb  on  the  Illinois  side  of  the  river, 
is  connected  by  the  magnificent  Eads  Bridge  for 
railroads,  wagons,  and  foot  passengers.  (See 
Bbidqb.)  The  Merchants'  Bridge  connecting  the 
Illinois  terminals  of  Saint  Louis  railroads  with 
the  Union  Station  system  of  terminals  is  for  rail- 
roads only.  The  Union  Station  covers  about 
eleven  acres  of  ground  with  its  main  buildings 
and  adjacent  sheds. 


Saint  Louis  is  a  port  of  entiy.  Its  exports  are 
chiefly  to  Mexico,  Sauth  America,  and  the  West 
Indies.  Its  direct  trade  with  the  Philippines, 
mainly  in  malt  liquors,  has  assumed  some  im- 
portance. The  principal  export  shipments  of 
flour  and  grain  are  to  Central  and  South  Amer- 
ica, Cuba,  England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  Holland, 
and  Germany.  Exports  to  Europe  consist  largely 
of  provisions.  The  principal  items  are  dry-salt 
and  sweet  pickled  meats,  oleo,  lard,  and  hides. 
Exports  of  agricultural  supplies,  hardware,  elec- 
trical supplies,  machinery,  glass,  etc.,  are  mostlv 
to  Spanish  America.  The  direct  imports  through 
the  Saint  Louis  custom  house  were  $4,712,000 
for  the  calendar  year  1902. 

ADiaNISTRATIOlT    AND    MUNICIPAL    AC^iVITIKS. 

Saint  Louis  has  the  combined  administrative  ma- 
chinery of  city  and  county.  The  municipal  gov- 
ernment is  vested  in  a  bicameral  legislative  lx>dy 
with  local  (ward)  representation  through  the 
House  of  Delegates  and  more  general  representa- 
tion through  the  Council,  or  Upper  House ;  and  in 
an  executive  department,  consisting  of  the  mayor 
and  the  departments  under  him.  The  heads  of 
the  more  important  departments  are  chosen  by 
popular  vote,  the  power  to  appoint  heads  of  de- 
partments being  left  to  the  mayor  only  in  those 
considered  of  less  importance.  The  sheriff,  coro- 
ner, civil  and  criminal  courts,  and  police  repre- 
sent the  county  system.  The  police  are  not  sub- 
ject to  the  mayor,  who  has,  however,  the  power 
of  appointing  justices  for  the  city  or  police 
courts.  Under  the  'metropolitan  system,'  final 
control  of  the  police  is  vested  in  the  Governor  of 
the  State,  but  it  is  exercised  through  local  com- 
missioners of  his  appointment.  The  expense  of 
this  virtually  independent  department  is  paid  on 
its  own  estimates  from  the  city  treasury.  The 
management  of  the  public  schools  through  an 
elective  school  board  is  also  independent  of  the 
mayor  and  the  departments  under  him. 

Direct  control  of  public  utilities  extends  only 
to  the  water-supply  system,  streets  and  sewers, 
public  parks,  and  schools.  The  income  from 
franchises  in  1902  was  $205,000,  out  of  total  re- 
ceipts of  $9,261,000,  of  which  $6,581,000  were 
from  taxes  and  licenses,  and  $1,756,565  from 
water  rates.  The  net  expense  of  maintaining  the 
water  service,  exclusive  of  extensions,  etc.,  was 
$537,136.  The  disbursements  for  all  purposes 
were  $8,470,000,  including  $1,200,000  for  public 
debt;  $1,623,000  for  police;  $870,000  for  the 
health  department  and  the  various  public  chari- 
ties under  it;  $765,401  for  the  fire  department; 
$585,000  for  public  lighting;  $438,720  for  main- 
taining and  improving  streets;  $374,350  for  the 
courts;  $180,000  for  prisons;  $165,000  for  elec- 
tions and  registration;  and  $115,000  for  parks. 
The  bonded  debt  of  the  city,  including  new  in- 
debtedness incurred  for  the  promotion  of  the 
Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition,  reaches  $23,916,- 
000.  The  total  value  of  property  as  assessed  for 
taxation  is  $418,046,000. 

The  sewer  system  includes  530  miles  of  com- 
pleted sewers,  costing  $12,024,000.  The  water- 
works have  a  capacity  oif  120,000,000  gallons 
daily,  while  the  daily  consumption  is  less  than 
70,000,000.  The  electric  wires  already  below 
the  surface  occupy  about  170  miles  of  conduits. 
The  street  railroads,  with  a  single-track  mileage 
of  337,  carry  in  average  years  more  than  145,- 
000,000  passengers. 


SAINT  Loxna 


884 


SAINT  LOUIS  WOBLB'S  gAIB. 


Tlie  public  charities  comprise  a  city  dispen- 
sary, city  hospital,  insane  asylum,  female  hos- 
pital, poorhouse,  and  house  of  refuge,  the  last- 
nam^  institution  serving  the  double  purpose  of 
prison  and  reform  school  for  youthful  delin- 
quents. A  juvenile  court  for  dealing  with  these 
offenders  was  introduced  in  1903.  The  Missouri 
School  for  the  Blind  is  maintained  at  the  expense 
of  the  State,  with  none  of  the  features  either  of 
an  asylum  or  a  reformatory.  The  city  health 
department  includes  a  department  of  experi- 
mental bacteriology,  which  serves  in  tracing  and 
checking  germ  diseases,  and  in  the  care  of  the 
water  supply. 

At  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year  1902  the  city 
had  451.5  miles  of  paved  streets,  of  which  249.53 
miles  were  paved  with  macadam  and  the  rest 
with  granite,  asphalt,  telford,  brick  and  brick- 
block,  etc.  Of  the  total  mileage  of  streets,  re- 
ported as  884.16  (1902),  there  were  still  unpaved 
432.66  miles. 

PopuiATiON.  The  population  was,  in  1880, 
350,518;  in  1890,  451,770;  in  1900,  575,238. 
From  1810,  the  date  of  the  first  Federal  census, 
to  1880,  the  totals  include  with  the  city  of 
Saint  Louis  the  population  of  Saint  Louis 
Ck>unty,  which  in  1880  was  separately  enume- 
rated at  31,888.  The  population  of  city  and 
county  prior  to  1880  was  as  follows:  1810,  5667; 
1820,  10,049;  1830,  14,125;  1840,  35,979;  1850, 
104,978;  1860,  190,524;  1870,351,189.  The  poD- 
ulation  of  the  town  itself  was,  in  1799,  925;  18Tu, 
1400;  1820,  4000;  1830,  4977;  1840,  16,469; 
1850,  77,860;  1860,  185,587;   1870,  310,864. 

The  great  growth  between  1840  and  1850  had  for 
one  of  its  causes  the  German  emigration  follow- 
ing the  revolutionary  movement  of  1848.  This 
influence  has  been  continuous.  In  1900,  58,781 
out  of  the  total  of  111,356  foreign-bom  resi- 
dents of  the  city  were  natives  of  the  German  Em- 
pire. This  was  52.8  per  cent.,  exclusive  of  Aus- 
trians  of  German  race.  In  1900,  17.4  per  cent, 
of  the  foreign-bom  population  w^as  of  Irish  nativ- 
ity, 5.02  per  cent,  of  English,  and  4.03  of  Rus- 
sian. In  that  year  Italy,  Austria,  Bohemia,  and 
Poland  had  each  less  than  three  per  cent,  of  the 
total  of  foreign-born  residents.  Although  the 
total  of  foreign-born  is  comparatively  small,  the 
native  population  born  of  white  foreign  parents 
is  239,170,  the  native  population  bom  of  native 
white  parents  being  189,251.  The  total  colored 
population,  including  Chinese,  was  25,853. 

HiSTOBY.  In  1764  Auguste  Chouteau,  then 
only  fifteen  years  of  age,  acting  imder  orders 
from  Pierre  LaclMe  Ligueste,  established  a  fur- 
trading  station  at  Saint  Louis,  and  later  in  the 
same  year  Ligueste  himself  arrived  and  laid  out  a 
town  which  he  predicted  w^ould  become  one  of  the 
largest  cities  in  the  country.  At  first  called  'La- 
clede's Village,'  the  place  soon  was  named  Saint 
Louis  in  honor  of  Louis  IX.  of  France.  In  1762, 
by  secret  treaty,  France  had  ceded  all  her  terri- 
tory west  of  the  Mississippi  to  Spain,  but  the  lat- 
ter did  not  take  possession  until  1770,  when  Saint 
Louis  became  the  capital  of  'Upper  Louisiana,' 
and  Lieutenant-Governor  Don  Pedro  Piemas 
took  possession  with  a  small  body  of  Spanish 
troops.  At  that  time  the  population  was  about 
500.  Though  Spain  continued  in  possession  until 
1803,  the  town  remained  essentially  French. 
On  May  26,  1780,  a  large  force  of  Indians,  in- 
stigated by  the  English,  attacked  the  place,  but 


did  comparatively  little  damage,  though  this 
year  was  afterwards  known  locally  as  'L'ann6e  du 
grand  coup.'  In  1803  'Louisiana'  was  formally 
rctroceded  to  France  in  pursuance  of  the  Treaty 
of  San  Ildefonso  (1800),  but  several  months 
later  the  United  States  came  into  possession  by 
virtue  of  the  'Louisiana  Purchase'  (q.v.).  After 
this,  immigration  from  the  Eastern  States  was 
rapid,  and  Saint  Louis  increased  greatly  in  size 
and  importance.  The  first  newspaper  began  pub- 
lication in  1808,  and  in  1809  the  town  was  incor- 
porated. With  the  appearance  of  the  first  steam- 
boat in  1815  a  new  epoch  began  for  Saint  Louis. 
John  Jacob  Astor  opened  here  the  'Western 
Branch  of  the  American  Fur  Company*  in  1819, 
and  the  annual  shipments  soon  amounted  to 
$200,000.  Saint  Loui?  was  chartered  as  a  city 
in  1822,  though  its  exceptionally  rapid  progress 
did  not  begin  until  about  ten  years  later.  In 
1849  a  fire  destroyed  property  valued  at  $3,000,- 
000,  and  an  epidemic  of  cholera  caused  the  deaths 
of  4000  of  the  64,000  inhabitants.  During  the 
Civil  War  the  sympathies  of  perhaps  the  majority 
of  the  people  were  with  the  South,  and  here  in 
1861  began  the  contest  between  the  Unionists 
and  the  Secessionists  for  the  control  of  Missouri. 
The  Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition,  which  was  to 
have  been  held  here  in  1903  to  commemorate  the 
acquisition  of  'Louisiana'  from  France  in  1803, 
was  postponed  to  1904.  See  Sastt  Louis 
World's  Fair. 

BiBLiooRAPUT.  Reavis,  Saint  Louis,  the  Com- 
mercial Metropolis  of  the  Mississippi  Valley 
(Saint  Louis,  1874)  ;  Overstolz,  The  City  of  Saint 
Louis:  Its  History,  Growth,  and  Industries 
(ib.,  1880);  Yeakle,  The  City  of  Saint  Louis: 
Its  Progress  and  Prospects  (ib.,  1889)  ;  Powell, 
Historic  Towns  of  the  Western  States  (New  York, 
1900) ;  Wandell,  The  Story  of  a  Great  City  in  a 
Nutshell  (Saint  Louis,  1901);  Shephard,  The 
Early  History  of  Saint  Louis  (ib.,  1870)  ;  Billon, 
Annals  of  Saint  Louis  in  Its  Early  Days  Under 
the  French  and  Spanish  Dominations  (ib.,  1886) ; 
Annals  of  Saint  Louis  from  180h  to  1820  (ib., 
1888)  ;  and  Scharf,  History  of  Saint  Louis  (Phil- 
adelphia, 1887). 

SAINT  LOUIS,  Order  of.  A  French  mili- 
tary order  of  merit  with  three  classes,  founded 
by  Louis  XIV.  in  1693,  dissolved  during  the 
Revolution,  restored  by  Louis  XVIIL,  and  final- 
ly extinguished  in  1830.  The  decoration,  a 
white  eight-pointed  cross  with  lilies  in  the  angles, 
bore  the  image  of  Saint  Louis  and  the  inscription 
Lud,  Magn,  inst.  1693,  On  the  reverse  was  a 
flaming  sword  with  the  inscription  Belliooe  Vir- 
tutis  PrcBmium, 

SAINT  LOUIS,  Universitt  of.  A  Roman 
Catholic  institution  under  Jesuit  control,  in  Saint 
Louis,  Mo.,  established  in  1829.  It  comprises 
the  following  departments :  College,  academy,  com- 
mercial, military  science,  philosophy,  medical,  and 
science,  medicine,  and  divinity,  with  a  total  en- 
rollment in  1902  of  864  students,  and  a  faculty 
of  106.  The  buildings  are  valued  at  $900,000,  the 
whole  value  of  the  college  proprty  being  about 
$1,200,000.  In  the  same  year  the  endowment  was 
$184,000,  and  the  income  $42,150.  The  library 
contains  about  43,000  volumes. 

SAINT  LOTTIS  WOBLD'S  FAIB.  An  inter- 
national exposition,  in  Saint  Louis,  Mo.,  beginning 
April  30,  1904,  and  having  for  its  object  the  oele- 


SAINT  LOTTIS  WOBLD'S  FAIB. 


385 


SAINT-HAIiO. 


bration  of  the  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  ac- 
quisition of  the  Louisiana  Territory  by  the  United 
States.  On  June  4^  1900,  Congress  promised  the 
sum  of  five  million  dollars  toward  the  holding  of 
such  an  exposition,  on  condition  that  an  additional 
ten  million  dollars  be  raised  by  Saint  Louis,  and 
in  April,  1901,  the  Louisiana  Purchase  Exposi- 
tion Company  was  incorporated  with  a  capital 
of  six  million  dollars.  In  June  the  site  of  the 
exposition  was  fixed  at  Forest  Park,  a  tract  of 
1142  acres  of  well-worked  forest  land  within 
the  city  limits,  and  including  about  110  acres 
beloDgine  to  Washington  University,  which,  with 
its  buildings,  were  leased  to  the  Expositiqn  Com- 
pany. The  architectural  plan  provided  for  fif- 
teen large  exhibition  buildings,  the  main  group 
of  which  was  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  fan. 
The  apex  of  the  fan  was  formed  by  the  Art 
Palaces,  three  massive  buildings  to  remain  after 
the  exhibition,  of  which  the  central  one  was 
designed  as  a  memorial  building.  Other  notable 
structure*  with  their  dimensions  were:  The 
Electricity  Building,  750  by  525  feet;  the  Varied 
Industrie*  Building,  1200  by  525  feet,  with  a 
tower  400  feet  high;  the  Machinery  Building, 
750  by  525  feet;  the  Transportation  Building, 
1600  by  525  feet;  the  Textiles  Building,  750  by 
520  feet;  the  Manufactures  Building,  1200  by 
525  feet;  the  Mines  and  Metallurgy  and  the 
Liberal  Arts  buildings,  each  750  by  525  feet;  and 
the  Government  Building,  800  by  175  feet. 
Thirty-four  States  and  Territories  made  appro- 
priations amounting  to  more  than  $4,500,000, 
part  of  which  was  expended  in  special  buildings. 
Foreign  governments  also  were  largely  repre- 
sented, and  many  of  them  erected  special  and 
typical  structures;  as,  for  instance,  France, 
which  reproduced  the  Petit  Trianon  of  Versailles. 
The  administrative  system  of  the  Exposition  in- 
eluded  four  executive  divisions:  Exhibits,  Ex- 
ploitation, Works,  and  Concessions  and  Admis- 
sion. The  Division  of  Exhibits  comprised  the 
followmg  fifteen  departments:  Education,  Art, 
Liberal  Arts,  Manufactures,  Machinery,  Elec- 
tricity, Transportation,  Agriculture,  Horticul- 
ture, Forestry,  Mining  and  Metallurgy,  Fish  and 
Game,  Anthropology,  Special  Economy,  and  Phys- 
ical Culture.  The  formal  dedication  occurred 
<m  April  30,  1903. 

SAIHT  IiUCIA,  loS-se'ft.  The  largest  of  the 
British  Windward  Islands,  West  Indies.  It  is 
situated  25  miles  north  of  Saint  Vincent  and  about 
the  same  distance  south  of  Martinique  (Map:  West 
Indies,  R  8).  Area,  233  square  miles.  The  is- 
land is  volcanic  and  mountainous,  with  an  active 
volcanic  peak  over  3000  feet  high.  The  rain- 
fall is  abundant,  and  the  mountains  are  covered 
with  luxuriant  tropical  forests.  The  chief  agri- 
cultural products  are  sugar,  cocoa,  logwood,  cof- 
fee, and  spices.  By  reason  of  the  exceptionally 
good  harbor  at  Castries,  Saint  Lucia  has  more 
shipping  than  any  other  British  West  Indian 
island,  except  Jamaica,  which  it  nearly  equals. 
The  entries  and  clearings  in  1901  amounted  to 
1364,720  tons.  Population,  in  1891,  42,220;  in 
1901,  50,237,  chiefly  n^roes.  Capital,  Castries 
(q.v.).  Saint  Lucia  was  discovered  in  1502  and 
colonized  by  the  French  in  1563.  It  changed 
hands  between  England  and  France  a  number  of 
times,  until  it  became  permanently  a  British 
possession  in  1803.  In  1898  it  suffered  severely 
from  a  hurricane. 


SAIKT  LUKE,  The  Academy  of  (Accademia 
di  San  Luca).  The  academy  of  the  fine  arts  at 
Rome.  In  the  later  Middle  Ages  there  was  a 
guild  of  painters  at  Rome,  whose  sanctuary  was 
the  small  Church  of  San  Luca,  on  the  Esquiline. 
It  first  appears  on  record  in  1478,  when  it  re- 
newed and  revised  its  ancient  statutes,  and  as- 
sumed the  name  "UniversitA  delle  Belle  Arti." 
The  present  academy,  organized  after  the  plans 
of  the  painter  Muziano,  was  first  recognized  in  a 
brief  of  Gregory  XIII.  in  1517,  its  immediate 
recognition  having  been  prevented  by  the  opposi- 
tion of  the  elder  society,  which  it  finally  absorbed. 
Under  Sixtus  V.  Federigo  Zuccari  obtained  a  bull 
(1588)  approving  the  new  organization,  which 
was  placed  under  the,  patronage  of  Saint  Luke, 
and  endowing  it  with  the  revenues  of  the  Church 
of  San  Martino,  the  name  of  which  was  changed  to 
Santi  Martino  e  Luca.  The  inauguration  was  post- 
poned till  November  14,  1593,  under  Clement 
VIII.  The  academy  owed  much  to  Zuqpari,  its  first 
prince,  who  left  it  his  fortune.  In  1700  Clement 
XI.  instituted  and  endowed  the  annual  prized  of 
painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture.  The  con- 
stitution of  the  academy  was  but  slightly  modi- 
fied until  1818.  At  the  head  stood  a  prince,  ap- 
pointed annually,  and  this  office  was  held  by 
some  of  the  most  celebrated  artists,  like  Maratta, 
Lebrun,  and  Canova.  In  1818  Napoleon,  follow- 
ing the  advice  of  Canova,  caused  Pius  VII.  to 
grant  its  present  constitution,  which  has  not 
been  materially  changed  since  the  annexation  of 
Rome  to  the  Kingdom  of  Italy  in  1870. 

There  are  thirty-six  academicians,  chosen  in 
equal  numbers  from  among  the  painters,  sculp- 
tors, and  architects,  besides  foreign  and  hono- 
rary members;  at  the  head  of  the  academy  is  a 
president,  elected  annually.  It  also  maintains  a 
school  of  design,  in  which  instruction  in  paint- 
ing, sculpture,  and  architecture  is  given.  Besides 
its  private  endowment,  the  academy  receives  a 
subsidy  of  35,000  francs  from  the  State.  It  has 
retained  its  quarters  in  the  Via  Bonella,  near  the 
Forum  Romanmn,  where  are  located  its  schools 
and  its  valuable  collection  of  paintings.  The 
latter  contains  good  examples  of  Gaspard  Pous- 
sin,  Claude  Lorrain,  Titian,  Veronese,  Salvator 
Rosa,  Guido  Reni,  and  the  much-discussed  "Saint 
Luke  Painting  the  Madonna,"  formerly  attributed 
to  Raphael.  The  academy  also  possesses  a  small 
collection  of  sculpture,  presented  by  the  artists, 
and  the  valuable  Biblioteca  Sarti,  presented  in 
1881.  It  has  been  of  great  influence  and  celebrity, 
the  French  and  English  academies  having  been 
modeled  upon  it.  Consult  Armand,  L'acadSmie 
de  Saint  Luc  d,  Rome  (Rome,  1866). 

SAINT  LUKE,  Guilds  of.  Mediseval  asso- 
ciations of  painters,  under  the  patronage  of 
Saint  Luke,  formed  to  protect  the  interests  of 
their  members.  Engravers,  printers,  and  mem- 
bers of  other  occupations  related  to  bookmaking 
were  later  received  into  the  guilds,  which  had  a 
long  existence  in  Holland  and  flourished  par- 
ticularly in  Antwerp. 

SAINT-MAIiO^  sftN'm&'iy.  A  seaport  and 
the  capital  of  an  arrondissement  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  Ille-et-Vilaine,  France,  51  miles  north  by 
west  of  Rennes;  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ranee 
River,  on  the  English  Channel  (Map:  France, 
D  3).  It  is  attractively  situated  on  a  rocky 
peninsula,  and  with  its  narrow  winding  streets 
and  sixteenth-century  ramparts  has  a  very  pic- 


SAHfT-MAIiO. 


886 


SAINT  lEABX'S  CHUBCH. 


turesque  appearance.  A  rolling  bridge  (Pont 
Roulant)  connects  Saint-Malo  with  the  suburb 
of  Saint-Servan  across  the  harbor.  The  fif- 
teenth-century parish  church,  a  former  cathedral, 
the  fourteenth-century  castle,  the  casino,  mu- 
seum, and  library  are  noteworthy  features.  The 
town  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  agricul- 
tural produce,  coal,  and  lumber,  has  large  ood- 
fishing  interests  in  connection  with  Newfound- 
land, and  regular  steamship  communication  with 
the  Channel  Islands  and  Southampton.  Ship- 
building and  iron-working  are  also  important 
industries.  Population,  in  1901,  11,486.  Saint- 
Malo  received  its  name  from  Saint  Malo,  a 
Welsh  monk,  who  came  here  in  the  sixth  cen- 
tury. It  was  at  the  zenith  of  its  prosperity  in 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  when 
its  traders  amassed  vast  wealth  as  the  result  of 
their  commercial  and  privateering  ventures.  The 
English  attempted  at  various  times  to  capture 
the  town,  but  were  unsuccessful.  The  tomb  of 
Chftteaubriand  is  on  the  island  of  Grand-Bey,  a 
short  distance  from  the  town. 

SAINT  KABC,  s&n  mUrk.  The  capital  town 
of  the  Department  of  Artibonite,  Haiti,  forty- 
five  miles  northwest  of  Port-au-Prince,  on  Saint 
Marc  Bay  (Map:  Antilles,  L  5).  Its  chief  ex- 
port is  coffee.  Its  municipal  population  is  re- 
ported to  be  20,000. 

SAINT-MABC  GIBABDIN,.  sfiN'mftrk^  zW- 
TJSiT'dkN^,  FHAN9018  AuousTE  (known  as  Mabo 
Girabdin)  (1801-73).  A  French  author  and 
journalist,  bom  in  Paris.  He  obtained  a  professor- 
ship in  the  College  Louis-le-Grand  in  1827  and  in 
the  same  year  began  his  long  political  and  literary 
connection  with  the  Journal  dea  D6bats,  He 
was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in 
1834,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  framing  and 
securing  the  passage  of  the  bill  for  secondary 
education  in  1837,  and  upon  his  reflection  to 
the  Chamber  in  the  same  year  was  made  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Royal  Council  of  Public  Instruction. 
He  retired  from  political  life  after  the  Revolu- 
tion of  1848,  and  until  1871  gave  himself  up 
almost  entirely  to  literary  work.  In  the  latter 
year  he  was  returned  to  the  National  Assembly, 
elected  vice-president,  and  became  an  active  sup- 
porter of  the  policy  of  Thiers.  Saint-Marc  Girar- 
din  lectured  on  literature  at  the  Sorbonne  for 
more  than  thirty  years.  He  published  numerous 
works  on  history  and  literature,  among  which  are, 
Tableau  de  la  marche  et  dea  progria  de  la  lift  Ma- 
ture frangaiae  au  XVIi^me  allele  (1828)  ;  Coura 
de  litt^rature  dramatique  ou  de  Vuaage  dea 
pasaiona  dona  le  drame  ( 1843)  ;  Eaaaia  de  litiira' 
ture  et  de  morale  (1845)  ;  La  Fontaine  et  lea 
fahuliatea  ( 1867 ) ;  La  chute  du  Second  Empire 
(1874);  and  J.  J.  Rouaaeau,  aa  vie  et  aea 
ouvragea  (1875).  Consult  Tamisier,  Saint-Marc 
Qirardin,  4tude  littdraire  (1876). 

SAINT  MARK'S  CHXTBCH  (San  Maboo) 
in  Venice.  Originally  the  chapel  attached  to  the 
palace  of  the  Doge  and  the  national  sanctuary 
of  the  Venetians,  but  since  1807  the  Cathedral 
of  Venice.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  patron 
saint  of  Venice,  the  Apostle  Mark,  whose  reputed 
relics  were  transported  from  Alexandria  to 
Venice  in  828.  The  church  was  built  in  the 
ninth  century,  and  rebuilt  after  a  conflagration 
in  the  tenth.  It  was  a  simple  Romanesque 
Btructure  of  brick,  nearly  of  its  modem  plan. 


though  without  so  extensive  a  narthex,  bat 
adorned  with  lines  of  colored  brick  and  brick  set 
in  patterns,  here  and  there ;  a  very  simple  church 
in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross  with  ^ve  low  cu- 
polas. In  the  eleventh  century  there  began  a 
series  of  alterations  tending  to  make  the  diurch 
still  more  Oriental  than  it  was  originally.  The 
low  brick  cupolas  were  covered  and  roofed  by 
lofty  domes  of  wood  covered  with  metal;  the 
mosaic  decoration  of  the  interior  was  carried 
much  further;  parts  of  the  walls  within  were 
sheathed  with  slabs  of  alabaster;  the  decoration 
by  incrusted  marbles  and  mosaics  was  carried 
into  the  exterior ;  and  finally  in  the  Gothic  period 
(fifteenth  century)  the  pinnacles,  the  crockets, 
and  other  florid  adornment  of  the  exterior  were 
added.  The  result  is  the  church  as  we  have  it 
to-day,  the  most  splendid  piece  of  polychromatic 
architecture  in  Europe,  and  more  splendid  even 
than  Saint  Sophia  at  (Constantinople  in  its  pres- 
ent condition. 

The  church  is  about  two  hundred  and  fifty 
feet  long,  east  and  west,  including  the  great 
narthex,  and  one  hundred  and  seventy  feet  from 
north  to  south  over  the  transepts,  and  the  small 
porches  which,  whether  open  or  not,  complete 
the  arms  of  the  cross.  The  west  front  has  five 
great  porches  opening  upon  the  Piazza  di  San 
Marco,  and  each  porch  so  deep  that  the  con- 
tinuous flat  roof  above  them  affords  a  very 
ample  balcony.  The  famous  bronze  horses  which 
are  supposed  to  have  been  brought  from  Con- 
stantinople and  to  be  of  antique  make  are  set 
above  the  central  porch.  Of  these  ^ve  porches 
three  are  open,  and  on  entering  one  of  those  door- 
ways the  visitor  finds  himself  in  the  great  nar- 
thex. This,  in  its  complete  extent,  surrounds 
the  western  arm  of  the  cross,  that  which  would 
be  the  nave  in  an  ordinary  Western  Romanesque 
church;  but  of  the  three  vestibules  or  arms  so 
made,  one  is  occupied  in  part  by  the  Baptistery 
and  in  part  by  the  chapel  called  the  Cappella 
Zen.  The  narthex  is  vaulted  low,  underneath  a 
gallery  which  opens  into  the  church;  and  these 
vaults  so  near  the  eye  are  covered  with  mosaics 
with  many  parts  of  the  Bible  history.  Most 
of  these  are  of  early  time,  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries,  but  immediately  over  the  main  door- 
way leading  into  the  church  is  a  magnificent 
Saint  Mark  from  drawings  by  Titian. 

On  entering  the  church  the  impression  is  again 
that  of  a  Tow  and  not  impressive  interior. 
Everything  is  near  to  the  eye;  the  mosaics  of 
the  high  vaults  can  be  easily  made  out,  al- 
though the  church  is  not  brightly  lighted  by  day 
and  is  still  more  dim  by  night.  It  is,  however, 
full  of  beautiful  details,  and  these  are  com- 
bined with  singular  skill  and  singular  good  for- 
tune to  produce  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in- 
teriors in  the  world.  Even  when  the  styles  dif- 
fer widely,  and  disagreement  or  even  discordant 
effects  might  be  expected,  the  result  is  harmoni- 
ous and  pleasant  to  the  eye.  The  high  screen 
of  the  choir  with  a  flight  of  steps  leading  to  it; 
the  row  of  statues  which  crowns  this  screen ;  the 
ciborium  behind  it,  under  which  is  the  high 
altar,  and  behind  which  is  to  be  seen  at  certain 
times  the  famous  pala  d'oro,  an  altar-screen  of 
Byzantine  work  in  silver,  silver-gilt,  enamel,  aftd 
precious  stones;  the  alabaster  columns  and 
sheathings  of  the  walls,  the  shrines  and  side 
altars  in  other  parts  of  the  church;    the  deli- 


o   '^ 

z  «p 

liJ     )£ 

>  5 

s 


SAINT  MASK'S  OHUBGH. 


887 


SAINT  MICHAEL. 


eate  low  relief  of  Byzantine  style  which  fronts 
the  parapet  of  the  balconies  and  sometimes  is 
incnisted  in  the  walls;  the  very  beautiful  pul- 
pits and  font;  and  above  all,  the  splendid  har- 
mony of  color  upon  a  ground  of  broken  and 
yaried  gilding,  the  surface  being  made  up  of 
small  t^serse,  which  are  in  different  planes  and 
reflect  the  light  at  different  angles — all  go  to 
produce  a  result  the  most  consummate  that  we 
can  point  to,  of  architectural  effect  produced  by 
colored  light  and  shade,  with  but  little  reference 
to  the  traditional  proportions  of  any  recognized 
style. 

Besides  the  church  proper,  there  are  several 
minor  chapels  other  than  those  mentioned,  and 
on  the  south  there  is  a  very  remarkable  sacristy, 
to  which  is  attached  the  famous  treasury  of 
Saint  Mark's,  which  contains  a  precious  col- 
lection of  church  plate,  jeweled  book-bindings, 
and  other  artistic  treasures  of  the  early  Middle 
Ages.  Ck>nsult:  Ruskin,  The  Stones  of  Venioe 
(London,  1851-63;  reprint  1886);  id.,  Baini 
Mark^s  Rest  (Orpington,  1877-79) ;  Hare,  Yenioe 
(London,  1884)  ;  Boito,  The  Baailica  of  Saint 
Mark  in  Venice^  trans,  by  Scott  (Venice,  1888) ; 
and  Kreutz  and  Ongania,  La  BasiUoa  di  San 
Marco  (Venice,  1881-88),  one  of  the  most 
snmptuous  publications,  consisting  of  numerous 
photographs  and  chromo-Uthographs  on  a  large 
scale.    See  Plate  accompanying  article  Venice. 

SAINT  MABTIN,  sAn  mftr't&N^  An  island 
of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  situated  180  miles  east  of 
Porto  Rico  (Map:  West  Indies,  Q  5).  Area,  37 
square  miles.  It  is  mountainous  and  destitute 
of  forests  and  scantily  watered,  though  it  pro- 
duces and  exports  some  sugar,  cotton,  and  to- 
bacco. It  belongs  partly  to  France  and  partly 
to  the  Netherlands.     Population,  1900. 

SAINT-MABTIN,  Auuas.  See  Beaumont, 
Wi 


SAINT-MAJtTIN,  Louis  Claude  de  (1743- 
1803).  A  French  mystic,  who  wrote  imder  the 
peeudonym  "  Ph.  Inc."  or  "  Philosophe  inconnu." 
He  was  bom  at  Amboise;  studied  law  and 
practiced  at  Tours;  then  entered  the  army, 
and  for  a  time  was  stationed  at  Bordeaux.  There 
Martinez  Paaqualis  began  to  influence  him  with 
his  mystic  laws  of  numbers,  and,  having  come 
under  Swedenborg's  sway  soon  after,  Saint-Mar- 
tm  left  the  army.  His  ErreUrs  ei  vMt6  (1782) 
presents  PasquaUs's  doctrine  for  the  most  part, 
while  the  Uouvel  homme  (1702)  is  tinged  with 
the  mysticism  of  B5hme,  several  of  whose 
works  Saint-Martin  turned  into  French.  The 
modern  Martinists  bear  his  name.  (Consult: 
Matter,  Saint-Martin^  le  pMloaophe  inconnu 
(Paris,  1864);  Claassen,  Saint  Martin  (Stutt- 
gart, 1891). 

SAINT  MABY  AND  ALL  SAINTS,  LIN- 
COLN.   See  Lincoln  Goluxis. 

SAINT  MABY  LE  BOW,  or  Bow  Chuboh. 
A  church  on  Gheapside,  London,  dating  from  the 
second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century.  It  was 
built  from  Wren's  designs  on  the  site  of  an 
earlier  church,  supported  by  stone  arches,  whence 
its  name.  The  lofty  spire,  236  feet  in  height, 
contains  the  famous  Bow  Bells,  which  called 
Dick  Whittington  to  return. 

SAINT  MABY8.  A  city  in  Auglaize  County, 
Ohio,  22  miles  southwest  of  Lima ;  on  the  Miami 
and  Erie  Canal,  and  on  the  Lake  Erie  and  West- 


em  and  the  Toledo  and  Ohio  Central  railroads 
(Map:  Ohio,  B  4).  Near  the  city  is  a  reser- 
voir containing  17,600  acres,  which  supplies 
water  for  the  Miami  and  Erie  Canal.  Saint 
Marys  is  primarily  an  industrial  centre,  its  chief 
establishments  including  machine  shops,  woolen 
mills,  and  manufactories  of  vehicle  wheels,  lum- 
ber products,  chains,  strawboard,  paper  boxes, 
plate  glass,  pumps  and  air  compressors,  and 
flour.  The  government  is  administered  by  a 
mayor  and  a  unicameral  council.  The  water- 
works and  the  electric  light  plant  are  owned  and 
operated  by  the  municipality.  Population,  in 
1890,  3000;  in  1900,  6350. 

SAINT  MABY'S  BIVEB.  The  channel  con- 
necting Lake  Superior  with  Lake  Huron.  It 
flows  40  miles  southeastward  on  the  boundary 
between  the  upper  peninsula  of  Michigan  and 
the  Canadian  Province  of  Ontario  (Map:  Michi- 
gan, J  2 ) .  It  is  divided  by  several  large  islands 
into  two  main  channels,  each  of  which  has 
lake-like  expansions  from  2  to  10  miles  wide. 
It  falls  20  feet.  Most  of  this  descent  oc- 
curs at  the  Saint  Mary's  Rapids,  about  one  mile 
long,  near  the  upper  end.  Transportation  around 
the  rapids  was  at  first  accomplished  by  a  tram- 
way along  the  Michigan  shore,  but  this  method 
was  replaced  in  1855  by  a  ship  canal  with  locks 
built  at  a  cost  of  $1,000,000.  (For  illustration, 
see  Canal.  )  This  was  enlarged  and  improved  by 
the  United  States  Government  in  1870-81  at  a 
cost  of  $2,150,000,  and  again  further  enlarged  in 
1889-96  at  a  cost  of  $5,000,000.  On  the  other 
side  of  the  rapids  a  similar  canal  has  been  built 
by  the  Canadian  Government.  The  volume  of 
traffic  passing  through  these  canals  is  enormous, 
greatly  exceeding  in  gross  tonnage  that  of  the 
Suez  Canal.    See  Gbeat  Lakes. 

SAINT  MABY'S  SEMINABY.  A  Roman 
Catholic  institution  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  estab- 
lished in  1791  by  the  Society  of  Saint  Sulpice. 
It  is  a  branch  of  the  seminary  established  by  the 
society  in  Paris  in  accordance  with  the  decree 
of  the  Council  of  Trent.  There  are  two  depart- 
ments, philosophy  and  theology — the  former 
leading  to  the  aegrees  of  B.A.  and  M.A.,  the  lat- 
ter to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Theology.  The 
courses  cover  two  and  three  years.  The  library 
contains  about  31,000  volumes.  The  attendance 
in  1902  was  235,  and  the  faculty  numbered  15. 

SAINT  MAVBy  Conobegation  of.  See  Bene- 
dictines. 

SAINT  MATTBIGE  (md'rteO  BIVEB.  A 
northern  tributary  of  the  Saint  Lawrence  River, 
Canada,  300  miles  long.  It  rises  in  Lake  Os- 
kelanaio  and  enters  the  Saint  Lawrence  River  at 
the  city  of  Three  Rivers,  9  miles  above  Lake 
Saint  Peter  (Map:  Quebec,  D  4).  It  is  navigable 
near  its  mouth,  and  again  for  75  miles  between 
Grand  Piles  and  the  Hudson  Bay  station  of  La 
Tuque.  It  affords  transportation  for  an  extensive 
limaber  region. 

SAINT  MICHAEL,  ml^el.  A  village  and 
port  of  entry  in  the  Northern  District  of  Alaska, 
125  miles  southeast  of  Nome;  on  the  island  of 
Saint  Michael,  in  Norton  Sound  (Map:  Alaska, 
C  3 ) .  It  has  steamship  connection  with  Seattle, 
Wash.  The  village  is  the  military  headquarters 
of  the  Department  of  Alaska,  and  has  consid- 
erable commercial  importance  as  a  shipping  point 
for  the  Yukon  mining  district.     Saint  Michael 


SAINT  PATJI*. 


840 


SAINT  PAUL'S  CATHEDRAL. 


BliopB  here,  these  and  the  smaller  shops  of  four 
other  roads  employing  about  2500  men.  Saint 
Paul  is  most  important  as  a  wholesale  and  job- 
bing centre,  but  it  also  has  large  manufacturing 
interests,  ranking  second  among  the  cities  of  the 
State.  It  leads  in  the  manufacture  of  boots  and 
shoes,  and  of  men's  clothing.  Among  the  large 
establishments  are  publishing  houses,  breweries, 
foundries  and  machine  shops,  and  fur  houses. 
In  the  census  year  of  1900  the  various  industries 
were  capitalized  at  $28,208,389,  and  had  an  out- 
put valued  at  $38,541,030. 

GovEBNMSNT.  Under  a  home  rule  provision  in- 
serted in  the  State  Constitution  in  1898,  allowing 
all  cities  to  frame  their  own  charters  through  a 
commission  of  15  freeholders  appointed  by  the 
District  Court,  Saint  Paul  adopted  a  new  charter 
in  1900.  This  kept  the  board  plan  which  had 
been  found  to  suit  the  city's  needs.  The  council 
is  bicameral,  consisting  of  an  assembly  of  nine 
members  elected  at  large,  and  a  board  of  eleven 
aldermen,  chosen  by  wards,  one  from  each.  The 
city  elections  occur  on  the  first  Tuesday  in  May 
of  the  even-numbered  years,  when  the  voters 
choose  a  mayor,  treasurer,  comptroller,  four 
justices  of  the  peace,  three  constables,  and  the 
members  of  the  council.  At  every  other  election, 
beginning  with  1902,  two  mimicipal  judges  also 
are  elected.  The  city  departments  are  in  charge 
of  nine  appointive  boards:  water-works,  parks, 
police,  fire,  workhouse,  public  works,  almshouse 
and  hospitals,  education,  and  library.  The  first 
five  have  five  members  each  appointed  by  the 
mayor  for  five-year  terms,  one  member  going  out 
of  office  each  year,  and  are  not  paid.  The  two 
following  are  paid,  there  being  three  members  on 
each  board,  one  appointed  by  the  mayor  every 
year.  The  board  of  education  has  seven  mem- 
bers, serving  without  pay  for  three  years,  being 
appointed  by  the  mayor  in  rotation.  The  library 
board  consists  of  nine  members,  who  serve  with- 
out pay,  three  being  appointed  by  the  District 
Court  every  year.  The  boards  have  as  a  rule 
entire  charge  of  their  respective  departments. 
The  council  fixes  the  aggregate  amount  which 
each  may  spend  annually,  and  beyond  this  no 
board  can  go.  The  mayor  has,  besides  his  large 
appointive  powers,  a  veto  on  all  acts  of  the 
council,  which  may  be  overruled  on  ordinary  mat- 
ters by  a  two-thirds  vote  in  each  Chamber;  in 
matters  requiring  a  two-thirds  vote  to  pass,  by 
a  four-fifths  vote;  and  on  a  measure  to  bond  the 
city  not  to  be  ratified  by  the  people,  it  is  final. 

The  water- works  were  constructed  in  1870  and 
acquired  by  the  city  in  1880  at  a  cost  of  $4,049,- 
854.  Their  value  is  now  estimated  at  $6,000,000. 
The  water  comes  from  a  chain  of  spring-fed  lakes 
on  the  high  land  north  of  the  city,  and  is  distrib- 
uted through  252  miles  of  mains.  The  city  has 
also  an  excellent  sewer  system,  176  miles  in 
length,  an  efficient  system  of  food  and  health  in- 
spection, two  hospitals,  and  public  baths. 

Finance.  The  bonded  debt  on  January  1,  1903, 
was  $7,878,100,  and  the  floating  debt  $1,674,- 
042.50.  The  sinking  fund  was  $664,039.73.  Real 
estate  was  assessed  at  $73,799,715,  and  person- 
alty at  $16,289,440,  making  a  total  of  $90,089,- 
155.  The  tax  rate  was  $31.00  per  thousand.  The 
total  receipts  from  ail  sources  for  1902  were 
$5,263,470.98,  while  the  disbursements  were  $4,- 
861,260.78,  leaving  a  cash  balance  of  $402,201.20 
on  January  1,  1903. 


Population.  Saint  Paul  has  had  an  extraor- 
dinary growth.  In  1850  there  were  1112  inhabit- 
anU;  in  1860,  10,401;  in  1870,  20,030;  in  1880, 
41,473;  in  1890,  133,156;  and  in  1900,  163,065. 
The  census  of  1900  showed  the  foreign  population 
to  be  28.7  per  cent,  of  the  total,  distributed  as 
follows:  German,  27  per  cent,  of  the  total  for- 
eign bom;  Swedish,  21  per  cent.;  Irish,  10.4  per 
cent.;  and  the  remainder  distributed  among  20 
other  nationalities.  As  many  as  72.6  per  cent,  of 
Saint  Paul's  population  were  children  of  foreign- 
ers.   Only  2263  were  negroes. 

HisTOBT.  Saint  Paul  derived  its  name  from  a 
rude  log  chapel  erected  near  the  comer  of  Third 
and  Minnesota  Streets,  in  1841,  by  Father  Lucien 
Galtier,  a  Catholic  missionary  sent  here  by 
Bishop  Loras  of  Dubuque,  who  had  visited  the 
place  in  1839.  Previously  the  site  had  been 
known  as  Imnijiska,  the  Indian  for  'White  Bock,' 
also  Saint  Peter,  from  the  river  at  whose  mouth 
it  stood,  now  called  the  Minnesota.  It  also  bore 
the  name  of  'Pig's  Eye,'  after  a  certain  evU-eyed 
French  voyageur  and  border  ruffian  who  erected 
a  hut  on  the  site  in  1838  and  engaged  in  selling 
spirits  surreptitiously  to  the  Indians  and  to  the 
soldiers  at  the  fort.  The  first  steamboat  visited 
Fort  Snelling  in  1823,  bringing  the  Indian  agent. 
Captain  Taliaferro.  In  the  next  three  years  no 
less  than  fifteen  steamers  visited  the  place.  The 
land  was  opened  for  settlement  in  1837,  and  the 
following  year  Edward  Phalen,  William  Evans, 
and  John  Hays,  three  discharged  soldiers  from 
the  fort,  took  up  claims  in  what  is  now  the  heart 
of  the  city.  In  1848  Minnesota  was  cut  from  Wis- 
consin and  left  without  a  govemment.  The  set- 
tlers at  Saint  Paul  called  a  meeting  to  assemble 
at  Stillwater,  and  there  it  was  agreed  to  ask  Con- 
gress for  a  Territorial  organization,  and  a  com- 
pact was  made  giving  Saint  Paul  the  capital, 
Stillwater  the  prison,  and  Saint  Anthony,  now 
East  Minneapolis,  the  university.  Saint  Paul 
received  its  first  charter  from  the  Territorial 
Legislature  in  1854,  its  population  then  being 
3000.  Three  years  later  the  first  constitutional 
convention  met  here  to  draft  the  present  Consti- 
tution. Consult:  Andrews,  History  of  Saint 
Paul  (Syracuse,  1890)  ;  Williams,  A  History  of 
Saint  Paul  and  of  Ramsey  County  (Saint  Paul, 
1876) ;  and  Warner  and  Foote,  History  of  Ramsey 
County  and  City  of  Saint  Paul  (Minneapolis, 
1881). 

SAINT  PAUL  ^E  LOAKDA,  de  16-an^di, 
or  LoANDA.  The  capital  of  the  Portuguese  West 
African  colony  of  Angola  (q.v.),  situated  on  the 
coast,  in  latitude  8**  48'  S.  and  longitude  13*"  13' 
E.  (Map:  Africa,  F  5).  Its  harbor  is  rendered 
inaccessible  to  large  vessels  by  the  sandy  bar  at 
its  mouth.  Its  climate  is  unhealthful.  The  trade, 
which  exceeds  $5,000,000  per  annum,  is  greatly 
facilitated  by  the  railway  line  which  connects 
Saint  Paul  with  the  interior.  Population  esti- 
mated at  10,000,  including  about'  2000  whites. 

SAINT  PAUL'S  CATHEDRAL,  in  London. 
The  largest  and  most  magnificent  of  all  Prot- 
estant churches,  and  the  most  notable  among 
English  buildings  of  modem  times.  The  site  of 
the  present  building  was  occupied  about  610  by 
a  Christian  church,  probably  of  wood,  dedicated 
to  Saint  Paul,  which  was  destroyed  by  fire  in 
1087.  From  its  ruins  arose  a  much  more  splen- 
did edifice — ^the  immediate  precursor  of  the  pres- 
ent cathedral,  and  commonly  known  as  'Old  Saint 


ST.    PAUL'S   CATHEDRAL,    LONDON 


COPYRIQHTi   19M,  BY  THl  J.  N.  MATTHEWe  CO  ,  BUFFAtOi  N«  r 


SAurr  PAUL'S  cathedbal. 


841 


SAINT  PETEB. 


Fanrs.'  In  1139  the  building  suffered  severely 
from  fire,  but  was  soon  restored  with  greater 
magnificence,  not  finally  completed  till  the  latter 
part  of  the  century.  Old  Saint  Paul's  was  the 
largest  church  in  the  country,  and  the  cloister 
was  90  feet  square,  with  a  beautiful  chapter- 
house in  the  centre. 

In  1666  the  great  fire  of  London  destroyed 
the  old  cathedral,  which  had  twice  previously 
suffered  serious  damage  from  lightning  and  had 
fallen  into  dilapidation.  Sir  Christopher  Wren 
(q.v.)  was  at  first  directed  to  arrange  for  the  re- 
pair of  the  ruined  cathedral,  but  he  opposed  this 
course,  and  it  was  finally  decided  to  abandon 
the  effort  and  to  clear  away  the  site.  The  design 
at  first  prepared  by  the  architect  was  disapproved 
by  the  clergy,  and  Wren  was  finally  compelled  to 
prepare  a  new  design  more  nearly  resembling  Old 
Saint  Paul's  in  plan,  and  this  design,  having  been 
approved  by  King  Charles  II.,  was  carried  out, 
though  with  many  changes  of  detail.  The  edifice 
was  begun  in  1675  and  completed  in  1710  under 
Queen  Anne,  during  Wren's  lifetime. 

The  design  thus  executed  was  a  compromise, 
and  most  of  its  defects  arise  from  the  incom- 
patibility of  the  medifBval  plan  forced  upon 
the  architect,  with  its  excessive  length  and  small 
bays,  and  the  Italian  or  classical  style  of  archi- 
tecture in  which  it  was  carried  out.  In  spite 
of  all  defects,  however,  it  is  a  noble  edifice  and 
one  of  the  finest  creations  of  modem  times.  The 
spacious  rotunda,  as  wide  as  the  nave  and  side- 
aisles  together,  well  suited  to  accommodate  a  vast 
congregation,  resta  on  eight  piers,  and  as  many 
arches  alternately  of  38  and  22  feet  span.  It  is 
m  the  treatment  of  the  smaller  or  intermediate 
arches  that  the  chief  infelicity  of  the  interior 
architecture  is  found,  two  superposed  arches 
taking  up  the  vertical  space  occupied  by  one  of 
the  larger  arches,  but  in  a  manner  exceedingly 
awkward  and  unsatisfactory.  The  nearly  equal 
length  of  nave  and  choir  prevents  alike  the  im- 
pression of  a  long  unbroken  vista,  and  of  a  pre- 
dominantly central  domical  structure  to  which 
all  else  is  subordinated.  The  total  length  is  490 
feet;  the  internal  width  across  the  three  aisles  is 
94  feet;  the  transepts  are  240  feet  over  all  (not 
including  their  columnar  porches) ;  the  dome  is 
internally  108  feet  in  diameter  and  216  feet  high 
to  the  lunette  at  the  crown.  Externally  the  dome 
is  370  feet  high  to  the  summit  of  the  cross. 

The   constructive    skill    displayed    is   of   the 
highest  order;  particularly  bold  was  the  concep- 
tion of  the  brick  core  which  envelops  the  inner 
cupola  and  rises  high  above  it  to  support  the 
stone  lantern   which   crowns   the  edifice.     The 
inward  contraction  of  the  drum,  devised  partly 
for  structural,  partly  for  artistic  reasons,  is  less 
successful.  The  outer  shell  of  the  dome  is  of  wood, 
covered  with  lead.    The  effect  of  this  dome  is  par- 
ticularly successful,  and  it  is  admitted  to  be  one 
of  the  finest  in  existence.    It  is  the  earliest  ex- 
ample of  a  dome  with  a  free-standing  peristyle 
around  the  drum,  later  imitated  in  the  Pantheon 
at  Paris.    The  west  front,  as  seen  from  Ludgate 
BUI,  is  most  striking;  the  two  campaniles  group 
most  harmoniously  with  the  dome,  and,  together 
with  the  portico,  produce  a  most  pleasing  and 
remarkable  effect.    This  front  is,  however,  open 
to  criticism,  as  is  also  the  second  story  of  the 
flank  of  the  exterior  design.    Both  appear  to  in- 
dicate an  upper  story  where  there  is  none,  and  the 


actual  construction  and  true  form  of  the  building 
are  not  expressed  at  all. 

Saint  Paul's  is  the  burial-place  of  many  heroes 
and  men  of  distinction,  whose  tombs  are  in  the 
crypt,  and  whose  monuments  adorn  the  interior 
of  the  cathedral.  Amonf  these  are  Nelson  and 
Wellington,  Collingwood,  Moore,  Howe,  and  many 
other  celebrated  soldiers  and  sailors;  Reynolds, 
Barry,  Opie,  West,  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  and 
other  distinguished  civilians.  The  style  of  many 
of  these  monuments  displays  those  faiUts  of  osten- 
tation and  theatrical  effect  which  are  common  in 
the  sepulchral  art  of  the  eighteenth  century,  but 
a  few  among  them  show  genuine  artistic  merit. 
Consult:  Milman,  Anna&  of  Saint  Paul's  Ca- 
thedral (London,  1868) ;  Simpson,  SaAnt  PauVs 
Cathedral  and  Old  City  Life  (ib.,  1896)  ;  Birch, 
London  Churches  of  the  Seventeenth  and  Eight- 
eenth Centuries  (ib.,  1896) ;  and  Dimock,  Hand' 
hook  of  Saint  PauVs  Cathedral  (ib.,  1900). 

SAINT  PAUL'S  SCHOOL.  A  noted  public 
school  in  London,  England.  It  wajs  founded  in  1509 
by  John  Colet,  Dean  of  Saint  Paul's.  The  first 
schoolhouse  was  erected  in  Saint  Paul's  church- 
yard and  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1666.  It  has 
since  been  rebuilt,  in  1674,  and  again  in  1824.  In 
1884  new  school  buildings  were  erected  at  West 
Kensington,  a  suburb  of  London,  on  16  acres  of 
ground,  llie  school  now  has  an  attendance  of 
over  600  boys,  taught  by  34  masters.  The  gov- 
ernors offer  four  exhibitions  every  year,  ranging 
from  £30  to  £80,  each  tenable  for  four  years  at 
the  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and 
one  of  £50,  at  the  Royal  Academy,  Woolwich. 
In  1900  a  scheme  for  a  day  school  for  400  girls, 
39  of  whom  were  to  be  foundationers,  was  adopt- 
ed. Among  those  who  studied  at  the  school  were 
Milton,  Judge  Jeffreys,  the  Duke  of  Marlborough, 
and  Major  Andr& 

SAINT  PAtri/S  SCHOOL.  A  school  for  boys 
at  Concord,  N.  H.,  incorporated  in  1855.  The 
founder  was  Dr.  Qeorge  C.  Shattuck  of  Boston, 
who  transferred  to  the  trustees  his  country  home 
with  55  acres  of  land,  near  Concord.  The  first 
rector  was  Rev.  Henry  Augustus  Coit,  who  con- 
tinued in  that  position  until  his  death  in  1895. 
The  religious  teiaching  and  worship  are  those  of 
the  Episcopal  Church.  Saint  Paul's  has  an 
active  Alumni  Association  of  about  3000,  two 
literary  societies,  and  a  missionary  society,  and 
maintains  a  monthly  paper,  the  Hong  Sohoias- 
tic€B,  the  oldest  school  paper  in  the  country.  The 
buildings  include  a  fine  Gothic  chapel,  the  Shel- 
don Library,  with  shelf  room  for  40,000  books, 
gymnasium,  laboratory,  and  dormitories.  It  has 
athletic  fields  covering  70  acres  suitably  equipped. 
In  1903  the  students  niunbered  332,  and  the  li- 
brary contained  16,000  volumes. 

SAIKT  PE^TEB.  A  city  and  the  county-seat 
of  Nicollet  County,  Minn.,  75  miles  southwest  of 
Miimeapolis ;  on  the  Minnesota  River,  and  on  the 
Chicago  and  Northwestern  Railroad  (Map:  Min- 
nesota, £  6) .  It  is  the  seat  of  Qustavus  Adolphua 
College  (Lutheran),  opened  in  1876,  and  has  a 
State  Hospital  for  the  Insane  and  a  public  li- 
brary. Samt  Peter  is  the  commercial  centre  of 
an  agricultural  and  lumbering  region.  Its  indus- 
trial plants  include  a  flouring  mill,  furniture  fac- 
tories, shirt  and  trouser  factories,  grain  elevators, 
bottling  works,  woolen  mills,  etc.  The  government 
is  vested  in  a  mayor,  chosen  annually,  and  a  coun- 
cil.   The  water-works  and  electric-light  plant  are 


SAINT  PETEB. 


842 


SAINT  PETEBSBTTBG. 


owned  and  operated  by  the  municipality.  Settled 
in  1854,  Saint  Peter  was  incorporated  in  1858  and 
received  a  city  charter  in  1891.  Population,  in 
1890,  3671;  in  1900,  4302. 

SAINT  PETEB  POBT,  commonly  Saint 
Peter's.  The  chief  town  of  Guernsey,  Channel 
Islands  (q.v.),  defended  by  Fort  George,  on  an 
overhanging  hill,  and  by  the  historic  Castle  Cor- 
net, built  on  a  rocky  islet  now  connected  with  the 
mainland  by  a  breakwater  (Map:  France,  D  2). 
The  town  rises  in  picturesque  terraces  on  the  east 
coast,  and  from  its  central  position  commands  fine 
views  of  all  the  Channel  Islands  and  the  neigh- 
boring French  coast.  It  carries  on  an  important 
English  and  foreign  trade,  especially  in  locally 
grown  market  produce  and  fruit,  and  has  com- 
modious harbors  with  floating  dock  and  building 
yard.  The  fine  parish  church  is  called  the  ca- 
thedral of  the  Channel  Islands.  Elizabeth  Col- 
lege is  a  well-known  educational  establishment, 
and  there  are  excellent  markets,  bathing  places, 
parks,  esplanades,  and  a  well-equipped  public  li- 
brary  with  museum,  art,  and  technical  schools. 
Population,  about  18,000. 

SAINT  PE^EBSBTJBG.  A. government  of 
Kussia,  bounded  by  the  Government  of  Olonetz, 
Lake  Ladoga,  and  Finland  on  the  north,  Nov- 
gorod on  the  east,  Pskov  on  the  south,  and 
Lake  Peipus,  Esthonia,  and  the  Gulf  of  Finland 
on  the  west  (Map:  Russia,  C  3).  Area,  17,250 
square  miles,  exclusive  of  the  water  area.  The 
surface  is  mostly  low.  In  the  south  are  many 
lakes,  streams,  and  marshes.  The  region  is  well 
watered  along  the  boundaries  as  well  as  in  the 
interior,  the  principal  rivers  being  the  Narova, 
the  Neva,  and  the  Volkhov.  There  is  also  an  ex- 
tensive canal  system.  ( See  Ladoga.  )  The  climate 
is  moist  and  unsteady.  The  economic  activity  of 
the  government  is  influenced  greatly  by  the 
capital  and  the  numerous  summer  resorts.  The 
raising  of  cereals  is  inferior  in  importance  to  the 
gardening  and  dairying,  and  there  are  few  manu- 
facturing industries  outside  of  the  capital  and 
Kronstadt.  Population,  in  1897,  2,107,691,  in- 
cluding a  considerable  number  of  persons  be- 
longing to  the  Finnic  race,  besides  German  col- 
onists, Jews,  Poles,  and  various  foreign  elements. 

SAINT  PETEBSBTJBG.  The  capital  of  the 
Russian  Empire,  situated  on  the  delta  of  the 
Neva  and  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  Gulf  of  Fin- 
land, 400  miles  northwest  of  Moscow  ( Map :  Rus- 
sia, D  3).  The  main  part  of  the  city  lies  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  river.  The  remaining  por- 
tion occupies  the  numerous  islands  formed  by 
the  arms  of  the  stream.  The  principal  islands 
are  the  Vasilyevsky,  Peterburgsky,  Aptekarsky, 
Petrovsky,  Kamenny,  Yelagin,  and  Krestovsky. 
All  of  them  are  very  low  and  steadily  gaining  in 
area  owing  to  the  gradual  rising  of  the  coast 
around  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  The  low  situation 
of  Saint  Petersburg  makes  it  liable  to  frequent 
inundations,  caused  usually  by  strong  western 
winds,  which  prevent  the  discharge  of  the  waters 
of  the  Neva.  The  construction  of  canals  and  the 
granite  embankments  have  greatly  alleviated  the 
situation.  The  Neva  and  its  arms  and  tributaries 
are  spanned  by  numerous  bridges,  of  which  the 
most  prominent  are  the  Troitsky,  the  Alexander, 
the  Palace,  and  the  Nicholas. 

The  climate  is  Aery  changeable,  and  on  the 
whole  unpleasant.  Tlie  severe  periods  of  cold 
during  the  winter  are  varied  by  warm  westerly 


gales,  which  raise  the  mean  temperature  above 
that  of  Moscow.  The  summers  are  hot  and  shorty 
and  the  autumns  are  usually  cold  and  damp. 
The  mean  temperature  is  about  16^  F.  in  winter 
and  about  65^  in  summer.  The  peroenta^^  of 
cloudiness  is  nearly  70. 

TopooBAPHT.  The  main  part  of  the  city,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Neva,  is  regularly  laid  out 
in  modem  European  style.  Along  the  river 
are  situated  palaces  and  costly  private  resi- 
dences, as  well  as  the  imposing  Admiralty,  sur- 
rounded by  a  beautiful  garden.  From  the  Ad- 
miralty, which  stands  in  the  centre  of  the  city, 
radiate  three  long  avenues:  the  splendid  and 
fashionable  Nevsl^  Prospect,  the  Voznessensky 
Prospect,  and  the  Gorokhovaya  Street.  The  prin- 
cipal squares  of  this  part  of  Saint  Petersburg 
are  the  Senate  Square,  with  the  famous  eques- 
trian statue  of  Peter  the  Great  erected  by  Catha- 
rine II.  in  1782;  the  Palace  Square,  with  the 
Alexander  Column — a  great  monolith  of  red 
granite,  surmounted  by  the  figure  of  an  ansel; 
and  the  Field  of  Mars,  an  immense  parading; 
ground  embellished  with  a  statue  of  suvaron. 
The  pretentious  monument  to  Catharine  II. 
stands  in  front  of  the  Anitchkoff  Palace^  and 
the  equestrian  statue  of  Nicholas  I.  in  front  of 
the  Mariynsky  Palace.'  In  its  architecture  Saint 
Petersburg  presents  few  striking  features,  al- 
though some  of  its  palaces  and  churches  are 
imposing  in  appearance. 

The  impressive  Cathedral  of  Saint  Isaac  ( 1768- 
1858)  is  built  in  the  shape  of  a  Greek  cross  with 
gilded  cupolas,  magnificent  peristyles,  and  fine 
columns  of  porphyry,  malachite,  and  lapis-lazuli. 
Other  prominent  churches  are  the  Cathedral  of 
Our  Lady  of  Kazan  (1801-11),  an  imitation  of 
Saint  Peter'Sj  with  a  richly  ornamented  interior, 
and  the  Cathedral  of  Saints  Peter  and  Paul 
(1712-33),  in  the  fortress  of  the  same  name,  and 
containing  the  remains  of  the  Russian  monarchs 
since  the  time  of  Peter  the  Great;  and  the 
Alexander  Nevsky  Monastery  in  the  eastern  part 
of  the  city,  the  burial  place  of  many  of  the  most 
prominent  literary  men,  composers,  and  artists  of 
Russia. 

Of  the  well-known  palaces  of  Saint  Petersburg 
(some  of  which  contain  extensive  art  treasures) , 
the  most  notable  is  the  Winter  Palace — a  vast 
structure  of  mixed  style,  facing  the  Neva.  It 
dates  from  the  reign  of  the  Empress  Elizabeth 
(1741-62),  and  was  rebuilt  after  the  fire  of  1837. 
It  contains  a  number  of  magnificent  halls,  deco- 
rated with  war  trophies,  portraits  of  famous 
generals,  and  historical  paintings.  Other  inter- 
esting palaces  are  the  Anitchkoff,  the  residence 
of  the  heir  apparent,  the  Mikhailovsky,  the  Mar- 
ble Palace,  and  the  Taurida  Palace,  built  by 
Catharine  II.  for  Potemkin.  Noteworthy  public 
buildings  besides  the  Admiralty  are  the  Greneral 
Staff,  the  Senate,  the  Gostinny  Dvor,  and  the  old 
Mikhailovsky  Palace  (now  used  as  a  school  of 
engineers). 

Connected  with  the  mainland  by  the  Troitsky 
Bridge  is  a  small  island  occupied  by  the  re- 
nowned fortress  of  Saints  Peter  and  Paul,  the 
nucleus  of  the  capital  and  used  as  a  State 
prison.  On  the  Vasilyevsky  Island  are  the 
exchange  and  the  most  important  educational  in- 
stitutions, including  the  university.  The  Peter- 
burgsky Island  is  principally  a  residential  sec- 
tion.    The  Aptekarsky  Island  has  magnificent 


SAINT  PETEBSBUBa. 


848 


SAINT  PETEBSBTJBG. 


botanical  gardens.  The  remaining  islands  are 
covered  with  numerous  parks  and  private  gar- 
dens, and  have  many  summer  residences.  There  are 
also  a  number  of  summer  resorts  along  the  right 
bank  of  the  Nevka,  while  the  mainland  north  of 
the  main  arm  of  the  Neva  is  occupied  by  indus- 
trial establishments  and  workingmen's  dwellings. 

Saint  Petersburg  has  a  unique  system  of  mar- 
kets and  trading  centres,  in  which  nearly  all  of 
the  retail  trading  is  carried  on.  There  are  twelve 
of  the  former  and  two  of  the  latter,  all  belonging 
to  the  city  and  constituting  a  source  of  profit 
to  the  municipal  treasury.  In  the  two  trading 
eentres  called  Gostinny  Dvor  and  Apraxine  Dvor, 
well  known  all  over  Russia,  clothing  and  foot- 
wear are  chiefly  sold.  In  the  markets  all  sorts  of 
foodstuffs  constitute  the  chief  article  of  trade. 

Educational  Institutions,  Collections,  and 
Chabitdeb.  Saint  Petersburg  is  the  intellectual 
centre  of  Russia.  It  is  more  influenced  by  West- 
em  civilization  than  any  other  part  of  Russia. 
Besides  the  university  (see  Saint  Petersburg, 
UNivEBsmr  of)  there  are  the  Technological  In- 
stitute, the  Military  Academy  of  Medicine,  the 
Military  Academy  of  Law,  the  Nicholas  Military 
Academy,  the  institutes  of  forestry,  mining,  and 
civil  engineering,  the  Imperial  Historico-Philo- 
logical  Institute,  the'  Alexander  Lyceum,  the 
Greek  Orthodox  and  Roman  Catholic  academies, 
the  'corps  of  pages/  and  the  archsological  insti- 
tute. 

There  are  also  institutions  for  the  higher  edu- 
cation of  women  in  medicine  and  philosophical 
and  exact  sciences.  Among  the  special  schools 
mention  should  be  made  of  the  conservatory  of 
music,  founded  and  directed  for  some  time  by 
Rubinstein.  The  Imperial  Public  Library  (1,- 
330,000  volumes  and  some  27,000  manuscripts)  is 
inferior  in  size  only  to  the  Biblioth^ue  Nationale 
and  the  British  Museum.  Its  nucleus  is  the 
2^1uski  Library,  which  was  seized  by  Suva- 
roff  at  Warsaw  in  1794.  Other  important  li- 
braries are  those  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
(about  400,000  volumes  and  13,000  manuscripts) 
and  the  Asiatic  Museum.  There  are  also  a  number 
of  interesting  archives  in  charge  of  the  Holy  Syn- 
od and  the  various  Ministries.  The  Hermitage 
contains  one  of  the  most  prominent  galleries  of 
paintings  in  the  world.  There  are  about  1700 
canvases.  The  Flemish  and  Dutch  schools  (in- 
cluding about  40  Rembrandts),  the  Spanish  col- 
lection (with  especially  the  works  of  Velazquez 
and  Murillo),  and  the  French  school,  with  its 
Claudes,  are  richly  represented.  The  Hermitage 
has  also  an  important  collection  of  sculptures,  an 
extensive  collection  of  Scythian,  Greek,  Egyptian, 
Assyrian,  and  Russian  antiquities,  collections  of 
engravings  and  coins,  and  a  valuable  library. 
The  Academy  of  Art  contains  a  valuable  array 
of  Russian  paintings  and  works  of  modem  French 
landscapists.  The  Alexander  III.  Museum, 
opened  in  1895,  is  devoted  chiefly  to  old  dJhristian 
and  old  Russian  works  of  art.  The  most  note- 
worthy of  the  scientific  organizations  are  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  to  which  are  attached  the 
observatories  at  Pulkova  (q.v.)  and  Vilna,  and 
the  botanical  gardens,  the  Russian  Geographical 
Society,  with  branches  in  Siberia  and  the  Cau- 
casus, the  Russian  Historical  Society,  the  Archse- 
ologioil  Society,  the  Physico-Chemical  Society, 
and  the  Free  Economic  Society. 

There  are  over  300  philanthropical  societies. 


maintaining  more  than  600  charitable  institu- 
tions^ including  about  150  asylums  for  children, 
90  poorhouses,  and  about  100  dispensaries  and 
nurseries;  also  model  tenements,  lodging  houses, 
etc.  The  hospitals  are  maintained  mosily  by  the 
central  Government  and  the  municipality. 

Commerce  and  Industry.  The  capital  forms 
with  its  suburbs  one  of  the  largest  manufactur- 
ing centres  of  Russia,  being  inferior  only  to  the 
industrial  region  of  Moscow.  Of  special  impor- 
tance are  the  textile,  metal,  and  rubber  indus- 
tries. Important  also  are  the  tobacco,  leather, 
and  various  stone  products.  In  1898  the  large 
industrial  interests  were  represented  by  over  §0 
stock  companies,  with  an  annual  output  of  over 
$100,000,000.  These,  however,  indicate  only  a 
part  of  the  industrial  activity,  since  there  are  a 
very  large  number  of  small  industrial  establish- 
ments, engaged  mostly  in  the  production  of  food 
products,  articles  of  apparel,  small  metal  and 
wooden  -wares,  leather  goods,  etc. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  Saint 
Petersburg  had  over  50  per  cent,  of  the  total  for- 
eign trade  of  Russia.  I>uring  the  last  quarter  of 
the  nineteenth  century  the  total  trade  of  Saint 
Petersburg  absolutely  decreased,  although  the  im- 
ports show  a  considerable  absolute  increase.  For 
the  two  years  of  1883  and  1898,  for  instance,  the 
exports  amounts  approximately  to  $62,000,000 
and  $47,000,000,  and  the  imports  to  $46,000,000 
and  $73,000,000  respectively.  The  principal  ex- 
ports are  agricultural  and  dairy  products  and 
lumber;  the  imports  are  composed  of  coal,  met- 
als, various  foodstuffs,  and  manufactures.  By 
the  construction  of  the  sea  canal  to  Kronstadt 
the  port  of  Saint  Petersburg  has  been  made  ac- 
cessible to  the  largest  vessels.  The  incoming 
shipping  of  these  two  places  in  1899  amounted  to 
over  1,600,000  tons.  Only  about  6  per  cent,  of 
the  vessels  carried  the  Russian  flag.  Saint 
Petersburg  is  the  strongest  financial  centre  of 
Russia,  and  an  important  one  in  Europe.  Its 
principal  financial  concerns  are  the  Imperial 
Bank,  the  International  Commercial  Bank,  and 
the  Saint  Petersburg  Discount  Bank. 

Administrative  and  Municipal  Functions. 
The  administration  is  largely  in  the  hands  of  the 
central  Government.  There  is,  however,  a  mu- 
nicipal council  elected  by  a  .very  small  number 
(about  7000)  of  property-owners  for  four  years. 
The  municipality  and  the  central  Government 
own  most  of  the  public  utilities,'  including  the 
water-works  (which  have  lately  been  provided 
with  a  filtering  plant),  the  street  railway  lines, 
the  ferries,  docks,  and  harbors,  and  the  telephone 
lines.  The  street  cleaning  is  only  done  in  part 
by  the  city,  and  the  sewerage  is  far  from  ade- 
quate. Electricity  is  used  only  to  a  limited  ex- 
tent. There  are  as  yet  no  electric  or  cable  street 
railways.  The  annual  budget  balances  at  over 
$9,000,000.  The  revenue  is  derived  principally 
from  taxes  on  real  estate  and  on  business,  and 
from  the  income  on  municipal  property  and 
undertakings.  The  principal  expenditures  are 
on  education,  service  of  the  debt,  maintenance  of 
public  works,  and  charities. 

Population.  The  population  increased  very 
rapidly  during  the  nineteenth  century.  In  ISOO 
it  was  220,000;  in  1864,  539,122;  in  1897,  1,132,- 
677;  and  in  1900,  1,248,739.  It  is  now  (1903) 
estimated  at  over  1,600,000.  The  suburbs,  which 
are  economically  dependent  on  the  city,  had  a 


SAINT  PETBBSBUBQ. 


844 


SAINT  PBTBS'S  CHTTBCH. 


population  of  190,635  in  1900.  Some  peculiar 
features  of  the  population  are  the  large  propor- 
tion of  persons  born  outside  of  the  city  (about 
two-thirds  of  the  total),  the  excess  of  the  male 
sex  (19.5  per  cent,  in  1897),  and  the  predomi- 
nance of  the  peasant  class,  which  constituted 
over  one-half  of  the  total  in  1897.  The  Russians 
form  about  90  per  cent,  of  the  population.  The 
death  rate  was  27  per  thousand  in  1880-95  and 
24  in  1897.  The  percentage  of  illegitimate  births 
is  very  great  (27.7  per  cent.). 

HiSTOBT.  In  1300  the  Swedes  founded  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Neva  the  settlement  of  Landskrona, 
which  was  destroyed  by  Novgorod  (q.v.)  in  the 
lollowing  year.  During  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury a  number  of  settlements  were  founded  along 
the  river  by  Novgorod.  The  territory  remained 
in  the  possession  of  that  city  and  later  of  Mos- 
cow until  the  seventeenth  century,  when  the 
Swedes  succeeded  in  recovering  the  region  around 
the  mouth  of  the  Neva,  and  founded  the  town  of 
Ny5n,  at  the  junction  of  the  Okhta  with  that 
river,  and  the  fortress  of  Ny5nschanz  on  the  op- 
posite shore.  In  1703  the  fortress  was  taken  by 
Peter  the  Great,  who  in  the  same  year  laid  the 
foundations  of  the  fortress  of  Saints  Peter  and 
Paul,  the  nucleus  of  the  future  capital.  The 
foundation  of  Saint  Petersburg  marked  a  revolu- 
tion in  the  history  of  Russia,  as  it  signalized  the 
definite  assumption  by  that  Empire  of  a  place 
among  the  Baltic  Powers,  and  its  entrance  upon 
the  stage  of  Western  politics.  With  his  usual  di- 
rectness and  energy  Peter  I.  divided  the  supervi- 
sion of  the  work  of  building  the  city  between  him- 
self and  his  lieutenants,  and  by  1712  sufficient  ad- 
vance had  been  made  to  permit  the  transfer  of  the 
royal  family  from  Moscow.  Thousands  of  peasants 
were  ordered  from  the  rural  districts  to  the  new 
capital,  and  a  special  tax  was  imposed  to  meet 
the  expenses.  A  scarcity  of  masons  was  met  by 
an  order  forbidding  the  erection  of  stone  build- 
ings throughout  the  rest  of  the  Empire,  and  all 
proprietors  of  over  500  serfs  were  compelled  to 
build  residences  in  the  new  capital  and  spend 
the  winter  season  there.  During  the  reigns  of 
Catharine  I.  and  Peter  II.  the  Russian  popula- 
tion of  the  capital  decreased  considerably.  Anna 
Ivanovna  revived  many  of  the  measures  of  Peter 
I.,  and  Elizabeth  Petrovna,  following  the  policy 
of  her  predecessor,  greatly  increased  the  popu- 
lation of  the  capital  and  added  much  to  its  archi- 
tectural beauty.  Catharine  II.  also  took  great 
interest  in  the  growth  of  Saint  Petersburg,  and 
enriched  it  by  many  beautiful  palaces,  some  of 
them  intended  for  her  favorites. 

Consult:  Hafferberg,  Petershurg  in  seiner  Ver- 
gangenheit  und  Cfegentoari  (Saint  Petersburg, 
1866) ;  Elaroff,  Saini-Petershourg  et  sea  environs 
(ib.,  1892). 

SAINT  PETEBSBTTBGy  Declaration  or. 
An  agreement  between  the  Great  Powers  by 
which  harsh  conditions  of  war  were  to  be  miti- 
gated. In  December,  1868,  a  conference  of  dele- 
^tes  representing  Austria-Hungary,  Bavaria, 
Belgium,  Denmark,  France,  Great  Britain, 
Greece,  Italy,  the  Netherlands,  Persia,  Portugal, 
the  North  German  Confederation,  Russia,  Swe- 
den, Norway,  Switzerland,  Turkey,  and  Wlirttem- 
berg  was  held  at  Saint  Petersburg,  upon  the  in- 
vitation of  the  Russian  Government,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  considering  the  existing  rules  of  war 
with  the  view  of  ameliorating  the  hardships  of 


warfare.  A  declaration  was  agreed  upon  and 
signed  by  the  delegates  present  affirming  that  the 
only  legitimate  object  of  war  should  be  to  weak- 
en the  military  force  of  the  enemy,  which  could 
be  sufficiently  accomplished  by  disabling  the 
greatest  possible  niunber  of  men,  which  object  is 
exceeded  by  the  employment  of  arms  that  use- 
lessly aggravate  the  sufferings  of  disabled  men 
or  render  their  death  inevitable.  The  employ- 
ment of  such  arms  was  declared  to  be  contrary 
to  the  laws  of  humanity  in  view,  and  conse- 
quently the  signatory  Powers  agreed  to  renounce 
in  case  of  war  among  themselves  the  use  of  any 
explosive  projectile  of  less  weight  than  400 
grams  (14  ounces  avoirdupois)  or  one  charged 
with  fulminating  or  inflammable  substances.  The 
United  States  took  no  part  in  this  convention, 
and  has  never  acceded  to  it. 

SAINT  FETEBSBTTBGy  Unive&sitt  of.  An 
institution  which  had  its  inception  in  the  teach- 
ers' institute  established  under  Catharine  11., 
although  Peter  the  Great  previously  {>lanned 
the  establishment  of  a  imiversity  in  his  new 
capital.  In  1803  the  budget  for  a  contemplated 
university  was  confirmed  by  Imperial  edict.  The 
teachers'  institute  was  known  as  the  'Pedagogical 
Institute'  from  1804  to  1816,  when  it  was  re- 
organized as  the  'Higher  Pedagogical  Institute,' 
with  27  teachers,  divided  into  the  sections  of 
philosophy-jurisprudence,  physics,  mathematics, 
and  history-literature.  At  the  same  time  it  re- 
ceived the  right  to  confer  degrees,  thus  placing 
it  practically  on  a  university  basis.  In  1819  an 
Imperial  edict  transformed  tne  institution  into  a 
university.  In  1902  the  university  consisted  of 
the  following  faculties:  (1)  History-philology, 
(2)  physics-mathematics,  (3)  law,  and  (4)  Ori- 
ental. The  attendance  was  3775.  The  library 
contained  144,574  volumes,  306,727  pamphlets, 
and  a  collection  of  9349  manuscripts,  including  a 
large  number  on  Chinese  literature.  The  univer- 
sity includes,  among  other  institutes,  the  Museum 
of  Fine  Arts  and  Antiquities,  a  large  collection 
of  coins,  astronomical  and  meteorological  observa- 
tories, and  a  botanical  garden. 

SAINT  PETER'S  CHXTBCH  (at  Rome). 
The  largest  C?hristian  place  of  worship.  It  is 
closely  connected  with  the  Palace  of  the  Vatican 
and  in  this  capacity  it  has  always  been  used, 
especially  for  the  great  festivities  of  the  Church. 
The  present  church  succeeded  the  Basilica  of  San 
Pietro  in  Vaticano,  one  of  the  original  basilicas 
of  Rome  and  the  largest  of  all.  This  is  still  the 
official  title  of  the  church,  and  distinguishes  it 
from  the  other  churches  in  Rome  which  are  dedi- 
cated to  Saint  Peter.  The  plan  and  general  char- 
acter of  the  old  basilica  are  preserved  in  the 
drawings  engraved  for  the  folio  volume  pre- 
pared to  illustrate  Bunsen's  Die  Basiliken  des 
christlichen  Rom  (1843).  It  was  a  five- 
aisled  basilica,  with  a  large  forecourt  or  atrium, 
and  a  baptistery  and  some  other  minor  struc- 
tures attached  to  the  building.  During  the 
long  residence  of  the  popes  at  Avignon 
(1309-1376)  the  basilica  was  much  defaced  and 
partly  ruined,  and  it  appears  to  have  been  about 
1450  that  Pope  Nicholas  V.  undertook  the  re- 
building in  the  taste  of  the  time.  A  design  was 
made  by  Bernardo  Gambarelli,  more  commonly 
called  Rossellino,  but  of  this  design  very  little 
was  ever  put  into  execution. 


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SAnrr-pzEBBB. 


The  first  pope  to  take  up  the  work  with  vigor 
was  Juliua  XL  (1503-1513),  who  employed  Br&- 
mante  to  make  an  entirely  new  design  for  the 
church.  This  design  is  preserved;  it  includes  a 
great  central  cupola  around  which  the  nave  and 
aisles  are  grouped.  He  died  in  1514,  and  his  suc- 
cessor as  chief  architect  was  Raphael,  having 
as  his  immediate  assistants  the  able  architects 
Gialiano  da  San  Gallo  and  Baldaasare  Peruzzi 
(qq.v.).  It  seems  that  they  changed  the  plan 
to  a  Latin  cross.  In  1546  the  work  was  put 
into  the  hands  of  Michelangelo  Buonarroti,  who 
returned  to  the  Greek  cross,  and  followed 
Bramante's  main  lines  of  the  work,  building 
upon  the  great  piers  of  the  earlier  archi- 
tect. (See  Michelangelo.)  He  carried  up  the 
yaults  and  pendentives  and  all  that  even  now 
exists  leading  up  to  the  great  cupola,  and  he 
made  during  his  lifetime  a  model  in  wood  of 
the  cupola  itself,  which  is  preserved,  and  which 
was  very  closely  followed  in  the  actual  construc- 
tion. Until  his  death  in  1564  Michelangelo  con- 
trolled the  work.  The  cupola  seems  to  have  been 
completed  about  1590  under  the  direction  of 
Giacomo  della  Porta  and  Domenico  Fontana. 
The  final  dedication  of  the  church  was  in  1626. 
The  great  colonnades  inclosing  of  Piazza  di 
San  Pietro,  one  of  the  most  effective  compositions 
of  the  late  neo-classic  style,  was  carried  out  by 
Bernini  (q.v.)  about  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century. 

The  entrance  front,  which  in  this  church  faces 
the  east  instead  of  the  west,  as  is  more  usual, 
bad  not  been  carried  very  far.  This  unfortunate 
neglect  made  it  the  more  easy  for  Carlo  Madema 
to  undertake  his  final  and  most  unfortunate 
changes.  Appointed  architect  in  1605,  he  re- 
turn^ to  the  idea  of  the  Latin  cross,  which  al- 
ways had  many  friends  among  the  clergy  for  rit- 
ualistic reasons.  The  addition  made  in  this 
way  to  the  church  is  in  itself  an  enormous  build- 
ing. Carlo  Madema's  front,  cm  the  Piazza  di  San 
Pietro,  is  not  at  all  a  fine  design;  architects  of 
all  schools  are  agreed  upon  that ;  but  it  could  be 
endured  as  a  tolerable  piece  of  the  decadenza. 
The  serious  mischief  done  is  this,  that  one  has 
to  be  half  a  mile  from  the  church  in  order  to 
see  the  cupola  aright  from  the  east.  The  great 
Piazza  di  San  Pietro,  about  one  thousand  feet 
long,  does  not  give  nearly  sufficient  opportunity 
to  retire  from  the  front  in  order  to  see  the  cu- 
pola. Thus  the  most  important  part  of  the 
church  can  only  be  seen  aright  by  him  who  will 
pass  around  to  the  west  and  northwest  of  the 
church  and  get  permission  to  enter  the  Papal 
gardens  there.  From  a  point  well  chosen  in  that 
region  the  huge  cupola  rises  from  its  substruc- 
tures, themselves  enormous  in  scale,  and  the 
whole  group,  the  mass,  the  artistic  conception 
embodied  in  these  enormous  combinations  of  cut 
stone  is  in  its  main  outlines  one  of  the  finest 
conceptions  of  modem  times. 

The  interior  of  the  church  is  disfigured  by  ex- 
aggerated ornamentation  and  with  strong  con- 
trast of  light  and  dark.  Thus  when  one  enters 
the  church  for  the  first  time  the  most  plainly 
visible  thing  is  apt  to  be  the  adornment  of 
the  great  piers  by  cartouches,  picked  out  in 
strong  contrast  of  light  and  shade  on  the  dark 
maible  surface.  In  ways  like  this  the  great  pro- 
portions of  the  building  are  dwarfed,  and  to  this 
is  to  be  added  the  natural  acceptance  of  the  clas- 


sic system  of  proportion,  in  which  the  architec- 
tural members  are  always  of  the  same  relative 
size,  so  that  a  single  acanthus  leaf  in  the  capitals 
of  the  nave  may  be  five  feet  long.  The  proportions 
of  the  interior,  though  far  from  perfect,  are,  on 
the  whole,  however,  still  to  be  receive^  as  in  ac- 
cordance with  a  fairly  rational  architectural 
tradition.  The  church  grows  on  the  spectator 
continually,  and  the  effect  of  the  great  cupola 
when  seen  from  within  is  one  of  the  most  striking 
and  most  charming  pieces  of  architectural  dec- 
orative work  in  existence. 

The  church  is  crowded  with  altars,  mosaics, 
tombs,  shrines,  statues,  fonts,  and  other  works 
of  art,  insomuch  that  it  forms  a  museum  of  the 
sculpture  and  the  architectural  decorative  work 
of  diree  centuries.  The  most  prominent  of  the 
accessory  structures  inside  the  church  is  the 
great  bronze  Baldacchino,  as  lofty  as  most 
church  towers,  and  covering  the  high  altar. 
Beneath  this  is  a  shrine  or  oonfessionary.  The 
crypt  has  been  carefully  guarded  through  all  the 
change  of  plan  and  through  the  centuries 
of  constantly  renewed  work  on  the  building.  It 
contains  many  precious  monuments  and  frag- 
ments of  the  original  Basilica  of  Saint  Peter, 
of  which  it  marks  the  level,  ten  or  twelve 
feet  below  that  of  the  modem  church.  Con- 
sult: Geymtlller,  Les  pro  jets  primiiifs  pour 
la  hasilique  de  Saint  Pierre  de  Rome  (Paris, 
1880) ;  De  Lorbac,  Saint  Pierre  de  Rome  (ib., 
1879) ;  and  Letarouilly,  Le  Vatican  et  la  haei- 
lique  de  Saint  Pierre  d  Rome  (ib.,  1882). 

SAINT  PETEB'S  COLLEGE.  A  college  at 
Cambridge,  England,  commonly  called  Peter- 
house,  the  oldest  college  in  the  university.  It  ' 
was  founded  in  1284  by  Hugh  de  Balsham,  Bishop 
of  Ely,  for  a  master  and  fourteen  fellows.  It 
was  the  outgrowth  of  an  attempt  by  the  Bishop  to 
introduce  certain  secular  scholars  into  the  Hos- 
pital of  Saint  John  in  1280.  This  ended  in  the 
transfer  of  those  scholars  to  certain  hostels  near 
the  Church  of  Saint  Peter,  which  was  impro- 
priated to  the  new  foundation,  and  gave  it  the 
name  it  bears.  (See  Saint  John's  College.) 
Peterhouse  consists  of  a  master  and  ten  fellows, 
lecturers,  tutors,  and  officers,  honorary  fellows, 
twenty-two  scholars,  and  six  exhibitioners,  and 
some  sixty  undergraduates  in  all.  There  are 
eleven  livings  in  the  gift  of  the  college. 

SAINT-PIESBEy  s&N'pft'ftr^.  A  seaport  on 
1  he  southern  coast  of  the  French  island  of  Reu- 
nion (q.v.),  connected  by  rail  with  Saint-Denis, 
the  capital.  It  has  lost  its  commercial  impor- 
tance since  the  opening  of  the  Port  des  Galets, 
but  has  a  number  of  sugar  mills  and  canning  es- 
tablishments.   Population,  27,520. 

SAIKT-PIEBBE.  Previous  to  1902  the  most 
important  city  on  the  island  of  Martinique 
(q.v.),  French  West  Indies  (Map:  Antilles, 
R  7).  It  lay  at  the  head  of  an  open  bay  on  the 
northwest  coast  of  the  island,  and  at  the  foot 
of  Mont  Pel4e.  It  was  an  attractive  and  well- 
built  town,  and  had  a  cathedral,  a  college,  a  fine 
botanical  garden,  a  theatre,  and  several  handsome 
public  buildings.  The  harbor  was  an  open  road- 
stead, but  the  town  had  considerable  commerce, 
the  exportation  of  sugar  and  rum  being  especially 
important.    The  population  in  1001  was  26,011. 

On  May  8,  1902,  the  entire  city  and  the  neigh- 
boring hamlets  were  destroyed  by  an  explosive 


SAINT-PIEBBE. 


846 


8AINT-PBIVAT. 


eruption  of  Mont  Pel^.  (For  a  description  of 
the  volcano  and  the  nature  of  the  eruption,  see 
P£l££,  Mont.  )  As  only  a  few  of  the  inliabitants 
had  taken  warning  from  the  activity  of  the  vol- 
cano on  the  preceding  days,  practically  the  entire 
population  of  the  city  perished,  the  number  of 
victims,  including  those  in  the  surrounding  dis- 
tricts, being  estimated  at  30,000.  Only  two  per- 
sons actually  in  the  city  at  the  time  of  the  erup- 
tion escaped  death,  one  being  a  prisoner  in  the 
city  jail. 

SAIKT-FIEBBE,  Jacques  Henbi  Bebnab- 
DIN  de4  ( 1737-1814 ) .  A  French  novelist,  essayist, 
and  engineer,  bom  at  Havre,  and  educated  at 
Caen.  He  made  a  voyage  to  Martinique,  became 
an  engineer,  entered  the  army,  was  dismissed  for 
insubordination,  and  for  some  years  led  a  wander- 
ing life,  appearing  at  Malta,  Saint  Petersburg, 
Warsaw,  Dresden,  and  Berlin.  In  1765  he  went 
to  Paris  and  essayed  literary  work,  but  in  1768 
he  obtained  a  Government  post  in  He  de  France, 
where  he  remained  till  1771.  On  his  return  he 
associated  much  with  Rousseau,  on  whom  he 
modeled  his  character  and  his  style.  For  the 
rest  of  his  life  he  remained  in  France,  publishing 
Voyage  d  Vile  de  France  (1773),  Etudes  de  la 
nature  (1783-88),  Paul  et  Virginie  (1787),  and 
La  chaumi^e  indienne  (1790).  His  Harmonies 
de  la  nature  appeared  posthumously.  In  1792 
he  became  superintendent  of  the  Botanical  Gar- 
den of  Paris.  He  was  professor  of  morals  at  the 
Normal  School  in  1794  and  became  a  member 
of  the  Institute  of  1795.  Saint-Pierre's  signifi- 
cance lies  solely  in  the  realm  of  imagina- 
tion and  sentiment,  which  is  often  childlike, 
sometimes  childish.  Paul  et  Virgi^iie  came  at 
the  right  moment.  Cloyed  with  wit,  the  Parisian 
literary  generation  of  that  time  sought  refuge  in 
feeling.  Saint-Pierre  entered  into  the  heritage  of 
the  novelist  Rousseau,  receiving  and  transmitting 
more  of  his  romantic  sentiment  and  sympathy 
with  nature  than  any  other.  Paul  et  Virginie 
attempts  to  realize  Rousseau's  'state  of  nature* 
in  a  tropical  Arcadia,  and  the  death  of  the 
heroine  comes  just  in  time  to  save  the  idyll  of 
innocent  childhood  from  the  sickly  senti- 
mentality on  w^hose  verge  it  often  hangs  trem- 
bling. Stylistically,  Saint-Pierre's  influence  has 
been  very  great.  He  was  the  first  in  France  to 
treat  landscape,  with  intent,  as  the  background 
of  life.  Saint-Pierre's  Works  and  Correspon- 
dence were  edited  with  a  Life  by  Aim6  Martin, 
who  married  his  widow  (Paris,  1818-20).  Con- 
sult: Lescure,  Bemardin  de  Saint-Pierre  (ib., 
1891 )  ;  Maury,  Etude  sur  le  vie  et  les  oeuvres  de 
Bemardin  de  Saint-Pierre  (ib.,  1892)  ;  and  ArvMe 
Barine,  Bernardin  de  Saint-Pierre  (ib.,  1891, 
Eng.  trans.,  Chicago,  1893). 

SAINT-PIEBBEy  Jacques  Leoabdeub  de 
(1698-1755).  A  French  soldier  and  explorer, 
born  in  Normandy  in  1698.  He  entered  the 
French  service  as  an  ensign  of  marines,  and  was 
shortly  afterwards  sent  to  Canada.  In  1750  he 
was  sent  to  explore  the  Northwest  and  to  search 
for  a  route  to  the  Pacific.  He  ascended  the  Sas- 
katchewan River  to  a  place  he  called  *Rock  Moun- 
tain,' and  there  built  Fort  La  Jonqui^re.  Soon 
after  his  return  he  was  ordered  to  the  Ohio  Valley 
region,  and  in  1754  was  commander  of  Fort  Le 
B(Euf  on  French  Creek.  In  the  following  year 
Saint-Pierre  commanded  the  Indian  allies  in 
Dieskau's  expedition  into  New  York,  and  was 


killed  in  the  battle  of  Lake  George.  An  account  of 
his  explorations  in  the  West,  entitled  Journal  som- 
maire  du  voyage  de  Jacques  Legardeur  de  Sainte- 
Pierre,  charge  de  la  d^couverte  de  la  Mer  de 
VOuest,  is  preserved  in  the  British  Museum, 
and  was  published  in  the  collection  of  John  Gil- 
mary  Shea  (New  York,  1862).  Consult  also 
Parkman,  A  Half-Century  of  Conflict  (Boston, 
1892;  later  ed.  1897). 

SAIKT-PIEBBE  AND  MIOTTELOH,  m«'- 
ke-l6N'.  A  French  colony,  47  miles  off  the  south- 
ern coast  of  Newfoundland,  consisting  of  the 
three  islands  of  Saint-Pierre,  Ile-aux-Chiens,  and 
Miquelon,  with  a  total  area  of  93  square  miles 
(Map:  Newfoundland,  D  6).  They  are  rocky 
and  barren,  but  are  of  great  importance  as  the 
centre  of  the  French  cod  fisheries.  In  1901  the 
industry  engaged  over  3600  persons,  and  the 
exports  of  fish  and  fish  products  amounted  in  the 
same  year  to  over  $2,000,000.  The  imports  near- 
ly equaled  the  exports.  Saint-Pierre,  the  capi- 
tal, has  cable  connection  with  Europe  and 
America,  and  regular  steam  communication  with 
Boston  and  Halifax.  The  colony  is  administered 
by  a  Governor  and  is  represented  by  a  Deputy  in 
the  French  Chamber.  Population,  in  1897,  6352, 
including  over  700  British  subjects.  The  islands 
were  ceded  to  Great  Britain  by  France  together 
with  Newfoundland  in  1713,  but  were  recovered 
at  the  conquest  of  Canada,  and  after  changing 
hands  several  times  finally  returned  to  France  in 
1816. 

SAINT-POL-DE-LtOK,  8ftN'p6l'de-lA'6x'.  A 
town  in  the  Department  of  Finist^re,  France, 
half  a  mile  from  its  port,  Rempoul,  on  the  Eng- 
lish Channel,  and  13*^  miles  by  rail  northwest  of 
Morlaix.  It  is  noted  for  a  Romanesque-Gothic 
cathedral  dating  from  the  twelfth  century,  with 
two  granite  spires  180  feet  high,  and  for  the 
fourteenth-century  Chapelle  de  Notre  Dame  de 
Creizker,  with  a  fine  central  tower  and  spire  252 
feet  high,  and  other  interesting  features.  The 
town  was  an  episcopal  see  from  the  sixth  century 
until  the  suppression  of  the  bishopric  in  1790. 
Population,  in  1901,  7846. 

SAINT-POBCHAIBE,  pdr'shftr',  Pottkbt  of. 
A  famous  ware  first  examined  and  recorded  about 
1830,  and  entitled  Talence  Henri  Deux,'  be- 
cause of  the  occurrence  in  its  ornamentation  of 
the  letter  *H'  and  crescents  which  were  sup- 
posed to  be  the  badge  of  Diane  de  Poitiers.  Only 
about  fifty-three  pieces  are  known  to  exist,  of 
which  one  or  two  are  in  Russia  and  the  re- 
mainder are  about  evenly  divided  between 
France  and  England.  The  South  Kensington 
Museum  and  the  Louvre  Museum,  as  also  the 
Mus^  de  Cluny  in  Paris,  contain  each  several 
perfectly  representative  specimens.  . 

The  peculiarity  of  the  pottery  is  that  its 
decorations  are  almost  entirely  by  incrustation, 
pieces  of  dark  red  or  dark  brown  clay  inlaid  in 
the  yellowish  white  of  the  body.  The  shapes 
have  been  cut  out  by  little  dies  strongly  re- 
sembling bookbinders*  stamps,  and  after  the 
incrustation  has  been  made,  the  whole  has  been 
brought  to  a  smooth  surface  and  covered  with  a 
thin  transparent  glaze.  Enamels  are  used  with 
great  moderation. 

SAINT-PBIVAT,  prft'vA',  Battle  of.  A 
name  often  given  to  the  battle  of  Gravelotte 

(q.v.). 


SADrT-otTfiinnif. 


d47 


AAnrr-siMOic. 


fiAnrr-QXTEKTnr,  kAN'tilN^  The  capiUl  of 
jji  arrondissement  in  the  DepartmeDt  of  Aisne, 
France,  95  miles  north  by  east  of  Paris,  on  the 
Somme  River  (Map:  France,  K  2).  One  of  the 
chief  attractions  of  the  town  is  the  Church  of 
Saint  Quentin,  which  dates  from  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. It  is  a  Gothic  structure,  and  is  especially 
noted  for  its  highly  adorned  interior.  The  Hotel 
de  Ville,  a  fourteenth-century  edifice,  with  its 
curiously  constructed  council  hall,  is  also  note- 
worthy. Saint-Quentin  is  of  considerable  indus- 
trial importance  and  the  surrounding  region, 
too,  has  large  manufacturing  interests.  The 
leading  products  are  cotton  and  woolen  textiles, 
sugar,  engines,  billiard  balls,  machinery,  etc. 
Population,  in  1901,  50,278.  The  Roman  name 
for  Saint-Quentin  was  Augusta  Veromanduorum. 
It  suffered  greatly  from  the  attacks  of  the  North- 
men during  its  early  history.  Here  on  August 
10,  1557,  the  Spaniards  under  Emmanuel  Phili- 
bert  of  Savoy  won  a  great  victory  over  the  French 
under  the  Constable  de  Montmorency,  and  here, 
on  January  19,  1871,  the  Prussians  administered 
a  crushing  defeat  to  the  French  under  Faidherbe. 

SAINT  BE^OIS.  A  settlement  of  Catholic 
Iroquois  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Saint  Law- 
rence River,  on  both  sides  of  the  boundary  line 
between  Canada  and  the  United  States,  being 
partly  in  Huntingdon  County,  Quebec,  and  partly 
in  Franklin  County,  New  York.  The  Iroquois 
name  is  Akwesasne.  The  village  was  estab- 
lished about  the  year  1765  by  a  party  of 
Catholic  Iroquois  from  Caughnawaga,  Quebec. 
Being  chiefly  of  Mohawk  descent,  the  Indians 
all  speak  that  language.  They  are  expert  basket- 
makers,  and  neglect  farming  for  that  industry, 
which  proves  quite  remunerative.  They  number 
in  all  about  2500,  of  whom  1320  are  on  the 
Canadian  side. 

SAIHT  BCXNAN'S  WELL.  A  novel  by  Scott 
(1824),  a  picture  of  life  at  a  small  watering- 
place,  with  Clara  Mowbray's  tragic  story  as  a 
background.  Its  beat  feature  is  the  chara[cter  of 
Meg  Dods,  the  innkeeper. 

BAISTSAJAjXB,  s&n's&n^,  Chables  Camilub 
(1835~).  A  French  composer,  bom  in  Paris. 
At  the  age  of  seven  he  became  a  pupil  of  Sta- 
maty  (piano) ;  in  1847  he  joined  Benoist's  class 
at  the  Conservatory,  and  in  1849  won  the  second 
and  in  1851  the  first  organ  prize.  He  competed 
nnsncoessfully  for  the  Prix  de  Rome,  but  secured 
the  appointment  of  organist  of  the  Church  of 
Saint  M«ry  (1853),  resigning  it  in  1858  to  be- 
come organist  of  the  Madeleme.  After  1870  he 
devoted  himself  entirely  to  composition,  concert, 
and  recital  work.  His  first  important  composi- 
tions were  the  symphonic  poons,  Phaiton,  Le 
nuet  d^Omphale,  La  jeunesse  d'Heroule,  and  La 
danae  macabre,  which  last  was  especially  popu- 
lar. His  operas  have  been  the  least  successful  of 
all  his  works,  although  they  bear  strong  evi- 
dence of  his  originality  and  genius.  Together 
with  Massenet,  he  has  shared  the  reputation  of 
being  the  most  classical  French  composer  of  his 
generation.  His  instrumentation,  which  shows  the 
influence  of  BerlioiL  is  strikingly  brilliant  and 
original.  In  1881  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Institute.  In  1894  he  was  made  a  commander  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor.  His  works  include  (be- 
sides those  already  mentioned)  the  operas.  La 
prineeMe  jaune  (1872);  Le  iimltre  d^argent 
ivu  XV.— as. 


(1877) ;  Samson  et  Dalila  (1877) ;  Etienne  Mat* 
eel  (1879);  Henry  VIII.  (1883);  Proaapine 
(1887);  Asoanio  (1890);  Phryn4  (1893);  Fr<$- 
d4gonde  (first  three  acts  by  Guiraud,  last  t^o  by 
Saint-SaSns,  1895) ;  ballets  and  incidental  music; 
three  symphonies,  the  one  in  C  minor  de- 
clared by  Lavignac  to  be  the  finest  example  uf 
orchestration  ever  written;  several  oratorios, 
concertos  for  piano  and  other  instruments,  cham- 
ber music,  songs,  and  church  music. 

SAINTS^UBY,  Geobgs  Edwabd  Bateman 
( 1845 — ) .  An  English  critic  and  literary  histori- 
an, bom  at  Southampton,  October  23,  1845;  edu- 
cated at  King's  College  School,  London,  and  at 
Merton  College,  Oxford.  He  was  classical  mas- 
ter in  Elizabeth  College,  Guernsey  (1868-74),  and 
head  master  of  Elgin  Educational  Institute  ( 1874- 
76).  He  settled  in  London  as  a  journalist  and 
miscellaneous  writer  (1876-96),  and  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  English  literature  in  the 
University  of  Edinburgh  (1895).  Saintsbury 
shows  a  wide  knowledge  of  literature,  foreign  as 
well  as  English,  and  his  judgments,  based  on 
soimd  principles,  are  expressed  in  a  very  read- 
able style.  Among  his  numerous  publi- 
cations are  a  Primer  of  French  Literature 
(1880);  Dryden,  in  "English  Men  of  Letters" 
(1881);  Short  History  of  French  Literature 
(1882)  ;  Marlborough  (1885)  ;  Elizabethan  Liter- 
ature (1887);  Essays  in  English  Literature, 
1780-1860  (first  series,  1890;  second  series, 
1895);  Essays  on  French  Novelists  (1891); 
Nineteenth  Century  Literature  (1896);  The 
Flourishing  of  Romance  and  the  Rise  of 
Allegory  (1897);  Sir  Walter  Scott  (1897);  A 
Short  History  of  English  Literature  (1898); 
Matthew  Arnold  (1899);  the  exhaustive  His- 
tory of  Criticism  and  Literary  Taste  in  Europe 
( 1900  et  seq.)  ;  and  The  Earlier  Renaissance 
(1901). 

SAnrr-SEBVAN,  s^r'vAN^  A  seaport  in  the 
Department  of  Ille-et-Vilaine,  Northern  France, 
less  than  a  mile  from  Saint  Malo  (Map:  France, 
E  3).  It  is  mostly  a  modem  town  with  a  hand- 
some town  hall  and  a  triangular  tower  of  the 
seventeenth  century.    Population,  in  1901,  12,597. 

SAUrrS'  EVEBLASTING  BEST,  The.  A 
religious  work  by  Richard  Baxter  (1650),  used 
by  many  generations  as  a  devotional  book.  Its 
clear  and  beautiful  style,  little  antiquated  by 
the  lapse  of  two  hundred  years,  and  the  manly 
vigor  of  its  piety  have  made  it  an  English  classic. 

SAIHT-SIMOK,  sfiN's6'm6N^  Claude  Hensi, 
Count  de  (1760-1825).  A  French  socialist.  He 
entered  the  army  at  sixteen,  and  came  to  Ameri- 
ca, where  he  served  with  distinction  in  the 
campaign  against  Cornwallis.  On  his  return  to 
France  he  was  made  colonel,  but  in  1785  he 
resigned  from  the  military  service  and  traveled 
extensively  in  Holland  and  Spain.  He  had  already 
conceived  his  mission  in  life  to  be  ''to  study  the 
progress  of  the  human  mind  in  order  to  work 
thenceforth  for  the  perfecting  of  civilization." 
He  took  little,  part  in  the  great  Revolution  of  1789, 
but,  though  a'noble  himself,  voted  to  abolish  titles 
of  nobility.  He  made  a  considerable  fortune  dur- 
ing this  period  by  purchasing  the  confiscated 
estates  of  the  ^rnigr^.  About  this  time  he  con- 
tracted a  marriage  which  proved  unhappy  and 
was  afterwards  dissolved.  His  fortune  was  soon 
exhausted  by  his  extravagant  mode  of  living. 


SAIKT-SIMOir. 


848 


SAINT  SbPHiA. 


and  he  was  obliged  to  work  as  a  copyist.  Ill 
health  compelled  him  to  give  up  eyen  the  pit- 
tance he  could  earn  in  this  way,  and  he  found 
himself  reduced  to  a  condition  of  abject  pov- 
erty. His  family  finally  settled  upon  him  a 
small  pension.  In  1823  he  attempted  suicide. 
Supported  by  his  friends,  he  devoted  himself 
again  to  his  propaganda,  and  succeeded  in  gain- 
ing numerous  disciples,  the  most  famous  of 
whom  were  Augustin  Thierry  and  Auguste 
Comte.    He  died  in  1826. 

The  chief  doctrines  of  Saint-Simon  are  as  fol- 
lows: (1)  The  rules  of  science  should  be  ap- 
plied as  rigorously  to  the  study  of  social  facts 
as  to  the  study  of  facts  of  a  physical  nature. 
(2)  Through  true  science  thus  applied,  the  con- 
dition of  humanity,  and  especially  of  the  poorest 
class,  can  be  improved,  mentally,  physically,  and 
morally.  (3)  To  industry — the  ensemble  of  pro- 
ducers— should  be  given  the  political  power 
heretofore  held  by  the  proprietary  and  military 
classes.  (4)  Society  should  be  reorganized,  tak- 
ing labor  for  the  basis  of  the  entire  hierarchy. 
(5)  To  this  new  society  only  producers  should 
be  admitted,  and  idleness  should  be  proscribed. 
"No  man  has  a  right  to  free  himself  from  the  law 
of  labor."  (6)  In  this  society  workers  should  be 
rewarded  according  to  merit.  ( 7 )  Laborers  must 
unite  and  centralize  their  social  forces  in  order 
to  attain  their  common  end.  (8)  The  three  in- 
stitutions— ^religion,  the  family,  property — 
must  all  be  reorganized  upon  new  bases.  These 
doctrines  were  further  developed  by  the  follow- 
ers of  Saint-Simon  into  the  social  philosophy 
called  after  its  founder  Saint-Simonianism.  This 
school  of  socialism  insists  especially  upon  the  ab- 
olition of  the  law  of  inheritance,  upon  the  social- 
ization of  the  instruments  of  production,  and 
upon  a  system  of  distribution  based  upon  the 
merits  of  the  individual. 

The  following  are'the  principal  works  of  Saint- 
Simon  :  Letire  d*un  habitcuit  de  Oeridve  d  ses  con- 
iemporaina  (1802);  Introduction  aux  travaux 
acientifiques  du  XlX^me  allele  { 1807 ) ;  R^organir 
'sation  de  la  80ci4t4  europ4enne  (1814) ;  Uindua- 
trie,  ou  diacuaaions  politiquea,  moralea  et  pkilo- 
aophiquea  (1817) ;  Du  ayatdme  induatriel  (1821- 
22);  Catichiame  dea  induatriela  (1822-23); 
Opiniona  littSrairea,  philoaophiquea  et  indua- 
triellea  (1825);  Nouveau  chriaticmiame ;  dia- 
logue entre  un  conaervateur  et  un  novateur 
(1825);  Expoaition  de  la  doctrine  de  Saint- 
Simon  (1830-32).  His  complete  works  have 
been  collected  and  comprise  19  of  the  47  volumes 
entitled  CEuvrea  de  Saint-Simon  et  d'Enfantin 
(Paris,  1865-78). 

BiBUOQBAPHT.  Charl6ty,  Eiatoire  du  Saint- 
Simoniame  (Paris,  1896)  ;  Hubbard,  Saint-Si- 
mon, aa  vie  et  aea  travaux  (Paris,  1857) ;  Janet, 
Saint-Simon  et  le  Saint-Simoniame  (Paris,  1878)  ; 
Weill,  Un  pr4ouraeur  du  aocialiamef  Saint-Simon 
et  aon  asuvre  (Paris,  1894);  id.,  UEcole  Saint- 
Simonien/ne,  aon  hiatoire,  son  influence  jusqu*^ 
noa  joura  (Paris,  1896). 

SAIKT-SIMON^  Louis  de  Rottvbot,  Duke  de 
( 1675-1755) .  A  noted  French  writer  of  memoirs. 
He  was  carefully  trained,  entered  the  army  in 
1692,  resigned  his  army  commission  in  1702,  and 
repaired  to  the  Court  of  Louis  at  Versailles.  He 
had  considerable  diplomatic  aptitude,  and  in  1704 
he  proposed  a  method  of  ending  the  Spanish  War 
of  Succession,  which  formed,  in  part,  the  basis 


for  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht.  After  Louis  XlV.'a 
death  (1715)  Saint-Simon  had  a  seat  in  the 
Council  of  the  Regency,  and  was  instrumental  in 
the  degradation  of  Madame  Montespan's  sons,  the 
Duke  de  Maine  and  his  brother  (August  26,  1818), 
an  event  to  which  he  devotes  seventy-seven  pages 
of  his  M4moirea.  He  was  sent  in  1721  on  an  em- 
bassy to  Madrid  to  ask  the  hand  of  the  Infanta 
for  Louis  XV.  In  1723  he  left  Versailles  for  his 
country  seat  at  La  Fertg,  near  Chartres,  where 
he  passed  his  remaining  yeara.  Saint-Simon's 
M&moirea,  written  from  memoranda  b^gun  about 
1699  and  developed  into  notes  (1734-38),  were 
given  their  final  form  from  1739  to  1752,  and 
impounded  for  the  Foreign  Office  in  1761.  (Charles 
X.  gave  the  manuscript  to  General  de  Saint- 
Simon,  and  an  edition  appeared  in  1830,  followed 
by  Ch^ruel's  (30  volumes)  in  1856,  and  by  Bois- 
lisle's  final  and  full  edition  (30  volumes),  begun 
in  1871.  The  preliminary  notes  for  the  MSmoirea 
were  made  in  an  interleaved  copy  of  Dangeau's 
Journal,  and  were  printed  in  19  volumes  in  1854. 
Other  manuscripts  of  Saint-Simon  were  locked 
in  the  Foreign  Office  till  1880,  when  those  con- 
cerning the  Spanish  Embassy  were  printed. 
Eight  more  volumes  appeared  in  1890-92,  but 
the  Mimoirea  are  alone  of  striking  interest.  They 
are,  as  Saint-Simon  calls  them,  "straightfor- 
ward, truthful,  candid,  inspired  with  honor  and 
integrity,"  though  often  misinformed  and  dis- 
torted by  prejudice,  for  Saint-Simon  was  a 
vigorous  hater,  with  a  certain  puritanic  sternness 
that  could  grow  fierce  at  the  persecution  of  the 
Huguenots,  pitiful  over  the  sufferings  of  the 
peasantry,  and  bitter  over  the  infamies  to  which 
in  his  view  Madame  de  Maintenon  (whom  he 
hated  intensely)  degraded  the  Church.  He  saw 
behind  the  sham  facade  of  Louis's  grandeur  "a 
reign  of  blood  and  brigandage,"  and  he  discerned 
no  less  clearly  the  masks  of  individual  character, 
so  that  his  MSmoirea  afford  an  inimitable  por- 
trait gallery,  xle  writes  without  art,  he  is  con- 
fused, ungrammatical  sometimes,  yet  he  makes 
the  reader  share  in  the  action  as  no  other  me- 
moir-writer has  ever  done. 

BiBLiooBAPiiT.  There  is  an  abridged  English 
translation  of  the  M4moirea  by  Bayle  Saint  John, 
The  Memoira  of  the  Duke  of  Saint-Simon  in  the 
Reign  of  Louia  XIV.  and  the  Regency  (London, 
1857 ) .  Consult  also :  Collins,  The  Duke  of  Saint- 
Simon,  in  "Foreign  Classics"  (Edinburgh,  1880) ; 
Sainte-Beuve,  Cauaeriea,  vols,  iii.,  xv.  (ib.,  1857- 
62) ;  id.,  Nouveaux  lundia,  vol.  x.  (ib.,  1863-72). 

SAINT  SOPHIA,  Chubch  and  Mosque  of. 
A  celebrated  structure  at  Constantinople.  The 
first  church  of  this  name  was  built  by  the  Em- 
peror Constantine,  on  the  occasion  of  the  trans- 
lation of  the  seat  of  empire  to  Byzantium,  and  is 
so  called  as  being  dedicated  to  the  Eagia  Sophia 
(holy  wisdom),  or  the  Logos.  The  building  of 
Constantine  was  subsequently  rebuilt  and  en- 
larged by  his  son  Constantius;  this  second 
church  of  Constantius,  having  been  destroyed  in 
404,  was  rebuilt  by  Theodosius  the  younger  in 
415;  and  it  lasted  unaltered  till  the  battle  of 
the  factions  of  the  circus,  under  Justinian,  in 
532,  in  which  year  it  was  totally  destroyed.  The 
present  building  is  substantially  that  which  was 
erected  by  Justinian  in  expiation  of  this  sac- 
rilege. It  was  consecrated  m  537,  and  occupied 
less  than  seven  years  in  its  erection.  Ten  thou- 
sand workmen  are  said  to  have  been  employed 


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upon  it.  Hie  materials  were  supplied  from  every 
part  of  the  empire,  including  columns  and  marbles 
from  ptgan  monuments.  Untold  sums  were  lav- 
ished upon  its  decoration  and  the  sacred  furni- 
ture with  which  it  was  adorned.  The  church  is 
the  masterpiece  of  Byzantine  architecture,  and 
one  of  the  epoch-making  buildings  of  the  world. 
Its  architect  was  Anthemius  (q.v.). 

The  building  may  be  described  as  a  square  of 
241  feet  forming  interiorly  a  Greek  cross,  and 
surrounaed  in  the  interior  by  a  woman's  choir  or 
gallery,  supported  by  magnificent  columns.  In 
the  centre  rises  a  dome,  supported  at  the  front 
and  back  by  two  great  semi-domes,  which  in  their 
turn  rest  upon  smaller  semi-domes,  and  on  the 
sides  by  heavy  buttresses,  the  whole  presenting  a 
series  of  unexampled  beauty.  The  height  of  the 
dome  is  175  feet.  The  building  is  approached  by 
a  double  porch,  which  is  about  100  feet  in  depth. 
The  whole  of  the  interior  was  richly  decorated 
with  marbles  and  mosaics.  Even  in  the  reign  of 
Justinian,  a  further  reconstruction  of  the  build- 
ing became  necessary,  the  dome  having  fallen  in 
in  consequence  of  an  earthquake  in  558,  but  this 
may  be  said  to  have  been  the  last  important 
change  in  the  structure  within  the  Christian 
period  of  Constantinople. 

On  the  occupation  of  that  city  by  the  Turks 
in  1453,  Saint  Sophia  was  appropriated  as  a 
mosque.  All  its  purely  Christian  fittings  and 
internal  structures  were  swept  away.  The  Chris- 
tian emblems  were  either  mutilated  or  covered 
from  view  by  a  coating  of  plaster.  The  latter 
course  was  adopted  throughout  the  building  in 
the  case  of  mosaic  pictures,  containing  represen- 
tatwns  of  the  human  figure,  which  the  Koran 
proscribes  as  unlawful,  and  thus  the  mosaics  have 
in  great  part  escaped  destruction.  The  Sultan 
Abdul  Medjid  having  ordered  a  complete  restora- 
tion of  the  building,  the  mosaics  were  acciden- 
tally brought  to  light,  and,  with  the  consent 
of  the  Sultan,  accurate  copies  were  made  of 
all  of  these  interesting  relics  of  antiquity. 
The  interior  of  the  building  at  present  is 
restored  for  Mohammedan  worship,  the  Chris- 
tian decorations  being  again  carefully  covered 
up.  Consult:  Salzenburg,  Altchristliche  Bau- 
denkmdler  Konstantinopels  (Berlin,  1854);  Pul- 
gfaer,  Lea  anciennea  Sgliaea  byzcmtinea  de  Con- 
•tantinople  (Vienna,  1878-80)  ;  Adamy,  Archi- 
tektonik  der  altchriatlichen  Zeit  (Hanover, 
1884);  Lethaby  and  Swainson,  The  Church  of 
Sancta  Sophia  (London,  1894)  ;  and  Barth, 
"Konstantinopel,"  in  Beruhmte  Kunatstatten 
(Leipzig,  1901). 

SAOTT  STANISLASy  stftn^s-lfts,  Obdeb  of. 
A  Russian  order  of  merit,  of  Polish  origin,  hav- 
ing been  founded  by  King  Stanislas  II.  in  1765. 
After  the  partition  of  Poland  it  lapsed,  and  was 
restored  in  1815  by  the  Czar  Alexander  as  King 
of  Poland.  The  decoration  is  an  eight-pointed  red 
enameled  cross  with  gold  eagles  between  the  arms. 
The  white  medallion  is  surrounded  by  laurel  and 
bears  the  initials  S.  S.  ( Sanctus  Stanislas ) . 

SAIHT  STEFHElTy  st^^ven,  Obdeb  of.  A 
royal  Hungarian  civil  order  with  three  classes, 
founded  in  1764  by  Maria  Theresa.  The  King 
of  Hungary  is  the  grand  master  and  only  nobles 
are  eligible  for  membership.  The  decora- 
tion, a  green  enameled  cross  with  the  crown  of 
Saint  Stephen,  has  a  red  medallion  on  which  is 
a  green  mountain  with  a  crown  bearing  a  silver 


apostolic  cross,  and  the  inscription,  PuhUcuni 
meritorium  Profmium.    See  Plate  of  Obdebs. 

SAINT  THOMAS,  tOm'as.  An  island  in  the 
Gulf  of  Guinea.     See  SXo  TiiOM^. 

SAINT  THOMAS.  One  of  the  Danish  West 
Indian  islands  (see  West  Indies,  Danish),  sit- 
uated 36  miles  east  of  Porto  Rico,  in  latitude  18° 
20'  N.  and  longitude  64°  56'  W.  (Map:  West 
Indies,  P  5).  It  is  about  13  miles  long  from 
east  to  west  and  covers  an  area  of  33  square 
miles.  It  has  a  hilly  surface,  and  rises  in  its 
highest  summit.  West  Mountain,  to  an  altitude 
of  1555  feet.  The  principal  formations  are  por- 
phyry and  granite.  The  climate  is  hot  but  steady, 
and  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  78°  F.  Earth- 
quakes are  frequent.  The  economic  importance 
of  the  islands  has  disappeared  with  the  abolition 
of  slavery  (1848),  which  was  essential  to  the 
sugar  industry.  At  present  the  island  produces 
chiefly  rmn^  and  is  important  on  account  of  its 
situation,  which  makes  it  especially  suitable  for 
a  ooaling  station.  Population,  in  1901,  11,012, 
mostly  descendants  of  negro  slaves.  English  is 
the  predominant  language.  Capital,  Charlotte 
Amalie  (q.v.).  The  island  was  discovered  by 
Columbus  in  1493;  passed  to  the  Danish  West 
India  and  Guinea  Company  in  1671;  and  was 
taken  over  by  the  Crown  in  1754. 

SAINT  THOMAS.  Capital  of  Elgin  County, 
Ontario,  Canada,  a  railway  junction,  15  miles 
south  of  London  and  75  miles  southwest  of  Ham- 
ilton (Map:  Ontario,  B  5).  It  has  manufactures 
of  various  sorts,  the  most  important  of  which  is 
car-building.    Population,  in  1901,  11,435. 

SAINT-VICTOB,  sAN'v-ftk'tOr',  Paul  ds 
(1827-81).  A  French  critic.  He  replaced  Thte- 
phile  Gautier  in  1855  as  dramatic  and  art  critic 
on  the  Preaae,  After  ten  years  of  brilliant  work  on 
this  paper  he  wrote  for  Girardin's  Libert^  ( 1866- 
69)  and  the  Moniteur  Univerael  (1869-81).  His 
most  picturesque  efTort  is  Barbareae  et  bandita 
(1871),  and  his  other  works,  mostly  made  up  of 
his  journalistic  writings,  include  Hommea  et 
diexuD  (1866),  his  masterpiece;  Lea  femmea  de 
Gothe  (1869);  Victor  Hugo  (1885);  Le  the- 
atre contemporain  (1889)  ;  and  Lea  dieux  et  lea 
demi'dieua  de  la  peinture  (1863,  with  Gautier 
and  Houssaye).  Consult  Del j ant,  P<ml  de  Saint- 
Victor   (Paris,  1887). 

SAINT  VIN^CENT.  An  island  of  the  British 
West  Indies,  belonging  to  the  colony  of  the  Wind- 
ward Islands,  and  situated  about  25  miles  south 
of  Saint  Lucia  (Map:  West  Indies,  R  8).  It  is 
oval  in  shape,  with  an  area  of  132  square  miles. 
It  is  of  volcanic  origin,  and  traversed  from  north 
to  south  by  a  ridge  or  mountain  range  which 
rises  near  the  northern  end  in  the  active  volcano 
of  La  SouflTrifere  to  a  height  of  3700  feet.  The 
climate  is  healthful  and  equable,  the  tempera- 
ture ranging  between  90°  and  65°.  The  rainfall 
is  abundant,  the  mountains  are  covered  with  for- 
ests, and  there  are  many  fertile  valleys.  The 
chief  products  are  arrowroot,  cocoa,  cotton, 
fruits,  and  spices.  The  sugar  industry  has  been 
steadily  declining.  Population,  in  1891,  41,054; 
in  1900  (estimated),  44,600,  chiefly  negroes.  The 
capital  is  Kingstown  (q.v.).  Saint  Vincent  was 
discovered  in  1498  by  (Jolumbus.  In  1797  most 
of  the  native  Caribs,  who  had  been  left  in  pos- 
session of  the  island,  were  transferred  to  Ruatftn 
in  the  Gulf  of  Honduras.     The  island  has  re- 


8AIKT  VIKCEHT. 


850 


ftAyA 


cently  suffered  from  two  disasters  following  in 
rapid  succession.  In  1898  it  was  swept  by  an 
unusually  violent  hurricane,  and  in  May,  1902, 
large  parts  of  it  were  devastated  by  the  eruption 
of  La  Soutfri^re  (q.v.)»  occurring  simultaneously 
with  that  of  Mont  Pel6e  (q.v.)  in  Martinique. 
About  one-third  of  the  island  was  laid  waste. 
Several  villages  were  destroyed^  and  about  1500 
persons  were  killed. 

SAINT  VINCEKT,  Cape.  See  Gape  Saint 
Vincent. 

SAINT  VINCENT,  John  Jebvis,  Earl  of.  A 
British  admiral.    See  Jebvis,  John. 

SAINT  VINCENT  DE  PAUL,  sUn  vftN'sftN' 
de  pol.  Society  of.  A  society  of  Catholic  laymen 
founded  in  Paris  in  1835  by  Frederick  Ozanam 
(q.v.),  with  the  object  of  visiting  the  poor  and 
suffering  at  their  dwellings  and  dispensing  to 
them  relief,  promoting  the  elementary  and  re- 
ligious instruction  of  poor  children,  distributing 
moral  and  religious  books,  and  undertaking  any 
other  charitable  work  to  which  its  resources  are 
adequate.  It  is  entirely  unsectarian  in  its  meth- 
ods of  operation.  The  headquarters  are  in  Paris, 
where  the  affairs  of  the  society  are  administered 
by  a  president-general  and  a  council-general. 
There  are  other  subdivisions  of  the  society,  such 
as  the  superior  council,  the  central  council,  and 
the  particular  council,  each  having  its  sphere 
of  authority  strictly  defined.  The  superior  coun- 
cil has  jurisdiction  over  countries  or  sections 
thereof,  into  which  the  society  has  been  intro- 
duced; the  particular  council  is  subject  to  the 
superior  council,  and  generally  has  supervision 
over  the  affairs  of  a  diocese,  while  the  con- 
ference has  charge  of  parish  work. 

SAINT  VITUS'S  DANCE.    See  Chobea. 

SAINT  VLAIVIMIB,  Ruas.  pron,  vlA-dy^- 
m6r.  Order  of.  A  Russian  civil  order  of  merit 
with  four  classes,  founded  by  Catharine  II.  in 
1782.  The  decoration  is  a  red  cross  with  the 
initial  of  the  saint. 

SAINT  VLADIMIBy  University  of.  See 
Kiev. 

SAaS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  2di»,  Coptic  8ai),  A 
city  of  ancient  Egypt,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Canopic  branch  of  the  Nile,  in  latitude 
30°  67'  N.,  near  the  site  of  the  modem 
village  of  Sa  el-Hager.  It  was  the  capital  of 
the  Saitic  nome,  and  is  mentioned  in  very 
early  times  as  the  seat  of  worship  of  the  god- 
dess Neith  (q.v.),  whom  the  Greeks  identified 
with  Athene.  Under  the  Twenty-sixth  Dynasty, 
founded  by  Psammetichus  I.  (q.v.),  the  city  be- 
came the  capital  of  Egypt,  and  was  adorned  with 
many  splendid  buildings.  Herodotus  speaks  with 
special  admiration  of  a  shrine  or  chapel,  hewn 
from  a  single  block  of  granite,  which  Aahmes  II. 
caused  to  be  made  near  Elephantine  and  trans- 
ported to  Sais.  In  the  remarkable  revival 
of  art,  letters,  and  ancient  religious  cus- 
toms which  took  place  under  the  Twenty-sixth 
Dynasty,  Sais  became  famous  as  a  centre  of  cul-. 
ture  and  as  the  seat  of  an  important  theological 
school.  The  BooA:  of  the  Dead  (q.v.)  seems  to 
have  been  the  subject  of  special  study,  and  in  the 
Saitic  revision  of  this  interesting  collection  the 
chapters  composing  it  were  for  the  first  time  ar- 
ranged in  a  fixed  order.  Under  the  Ptolemies  the 
city  declined  in  importance,  though  it  was  prob- 


ably an  episcopal  see  in  early  Christian  times.  The 
buildings  of  the  Saitic  Pharaohs  are  now  marked 
by  heaps  of  rubbish,  and  Mariette's  excavations 
upon  the  site  were  unproductive.  Consult:  Wil- 
kinson, Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient 
Egyptians  (London,  1878) ;  Wiedemann,  Aegyp- 
tische  Oeschichte  (Gotha,  1884-88) ;  Budge,  A 
History  of  Egypt  (New  York,  1902). 

dATVASy  shI^'&z.  Worshipers  of  the  Hindu 
deity  Siva  (q.v.).  They  are  divided  into 
many  sects,  most  of  which  represent  decadent 
schools  of  philosophy.  Most  of  the  Yogins,  or 
ascetic  philosophers,  were  and  are  Saivas,  and 
the  ascetics  called  tfrdhvahdhus  and  AlMamukh- 
as  (i.e.  those  who  held  up  the  arms  and  the 
face  respectively  till  they  became  stiff)  are  usu- 
ally of  this  class.  On  the  other  hand,  many  of 
the  so-called  Saivas,  such  b.b  the  J&ngamas  (Wan- 
derers) and  Da^ins  ( Staff -bearers ) ,  are  not 
necessarily  such.  In  the  earliest  period  there 
are  noticeable  two  marked  tendencies  in  the 
Saiva  cult,  its  democratic  disregard  of  caste  and 
its  psychic  philosophy.  The  Saiva  sects  have  been 
drawn  for  the  most  part  from  the  two  extremes  of 
India's  social  life.  The  lowest  and  moat  unin- 
telligent mendicants,  understanding  only  asceti- 
cism, generally  belong  to  this,  as  do,  for  the  rea- 
son just  stated,  the  philosophers;  while  the  rich 
middle  classes,  especially  those  of  North  India, 
are  followers  of  Vishnu  (q.v.).  The  Parama- 
hansa,  'highest-soul'  Saivas,  are  the  most  spir- 
itual, though  the  modem  representatives  are 
often  more  conspicuous  for  nudity  and  stolidity 
than  for  anything  else.  One  of  the  oldest  of  the 
Saiva  sects  is  that  of  the  Aghoris,  cannibals  de- 
voted to  the  most  disgusting  practices,  but 
known  as  Saivas  for  fifteen  centuries.  Many  of 
the  Saivas  are  Saktas  (q.v.).  Consult:  Wilson, 
Sketch  of  the  Religious  Sects  of  the  Hindus  (Cal- 
cutta, 1846)  ;  Barth,  Religions  of  India  (Boston, 
1882) ;  Hopkins,  Religions  of  India  (ib.,  1896). 

SAJOUSy  8&'zh(^,  Chables  Euchabiste 
(1852~).  An  American  physician,  born  at  sea, 
off  the  coast  of  France.  He  came  to  America  in 
1861,  and  studied  medicine  at  Jefferson  Medical 
College,  Philadelphia.  Professor  of  laryngology 
at  the  Pennsylvania  School  of  Anatomy  (1880- 
84) ,  he  lectured  on  the  same  subject  at  the  clinic 
of  the  Jefferson  Medical  College  from  1884  to 
1890,  but  his  more  important  work,  beginning  in 
1888,  was  as  editor-in-chief  of  the  Annual  and 
Analytical  CyclopcBdia  of  Practical  Medicine. 
In  his  especial  branch,  laryngology.  Dr.  Sajoua 
wrote  Diseases  of  the  Nose  and  Throat  (1886), 
and  invented  several  valuable  operating  tools. 

SaKA^  sha^A.  An  important  system  of  reck- 
oning time  in  India,  us«i  over  practically  the 
entire  country,  and  the  one  exclusively  em- 
ployed in  astronomical  works.  According  to 
native  tradition  it  was  invented  by  King  Sali- 
vahana,  also  called  Saka,  in  a.d.  78,  and  the  era 
is  consequently  sometimes  called  by  his  name. 
It  begins,  like  the  Samvat  (q.v.)  year,  on  the 
full  moon  of  the  month  Chaitra,  which  corre- 
sponds to  March-April,  is  luni-solar  in  character, 
and  is  generally  reckoned  in  expired  years,  so 
that  the  Saka  date  given  represents  the  year  last 
completed.  Christian  dates  are  reduced  to  Saka 
by  the  subtraction  of  78  from  the  Christian  year. 
Consult  Sewell  and  Dikshit,  The  Indian  Calendar 
(London,  1896).. 


SAKAL 


851 


SAXTA& 


flATCAT^  Bftld.  One  of  the  aboriginal  peoples 
of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  regard^  by  prac- 
tically all  authorities  as  true  'Negrito'  in  type. 
The  purest  representatives  of  the  stock  are  found 
in  the  interior  of  the  peninsula,  particularly  in 
southeastern  Perak  and  northwestern  Pahang. 
Physically  the  Sakai  are  undersized,  with  doli- 
chocephaUc  skulls,  dark  brown  skins,  frizzly  or 
woolly  hair,  and  rather  thick  lips.  They  are  still 
nomads,  except  at  a  few  points  on  the  west  coast, 
where  regular  relations  with  the  Malays  have 
led  to  small  plantations  of  rice  and  sugar  cane. 
Elsewhere  they  are  found  in  small  family  groups 
(mostly  two  or  three  families),  with  patriar- 
chate rale,  but  copartnership  of  man  and  wife  on 
a  monogamic  basis.  Their  houses  are  very  primi- 
tive in  character,  and  in  the  regions  where  tigers 
abound  platforms  are  built  in  the  trees.  The 
language  may  be  described  as  monosyllabic  with 
a  strong  agglutinative  tendency,  and  is  divided 
into  several  dialects,  of  which  two  only 
are  knoiNm  to  any  extent.  It  contains  a  number 
of  Malay  loan-words.  Consult:  Stevens,  Materi- 
alien  zur  Kenninis  der  uHlden  St&mme  auf  der 
Halhinsel  Malakka  (Berlin,  1892)  ;  Schmidt, 
Die  SpriMchen  der  Sakei  und  Semang  auf  Malacca 
und  ihr  Verhalinis  zu  den  Mon-Khmer  Sprachen 
(The  Hague,  1901). 

SAKAI,  s&ld^  An  important  manufacturing 
city  in  the  Prefecture  of  Osaka,  Japan,  situated 
on  Osaka  Bay,  six  miles  southwest  of  Osaka 
(Map:  Japan,  D  6).  Its  chief  manufactures  in- 
clude cotton  goods,  cotton  rugs,  sake,  bricks,  cut- 
lery, and  cosmetic  powders.  Population,  in  1898, 
50,203. 

flATTATiAVA,  s&'kA-lft^v&.  A  negroid  people 
living  in  a  number  of  tribes  in  the  western  part 
of  Madagascar.  Physically  they  closely  resemble 
the  Bantu  n^roes  of  Africa,  but  exhibit  many 
results  of  crossing  with  the  Malay  inhabitant 
of  the  rest  of  the  island.  Their  culture  also  is 
very  similar  to  that  of  their  African  neighbors. 
The  weight  of  authority  is  in  favor  of  an  African 
origin  of  the  Sakalava,  though  some  competent 
investigators  regard  them  as  Melanesian  immi- 
grants.   See  Madaoasgab. 

SAXANDESABAD,  s&kSn'der-A-bHd^  A 
town  of  Hyderabad,  India.     See  Secunderabad. 

8AKATA,  sA-krtft.  A  seaport  in  the  Prefec- 
ture of  Yamagata,  Japan,  situated  on  the  western 
coast  of  Hondo,  about  100  miles  south  of  Akita 
(Map:  Japan,  6  4).  It  has  an  extensive  trade 
in  rice.    Population,  in  1898,  21,937. 

BAKE,  sanc&.  The  rice  beer  of  the  Japanese. 
It  contains  only  a  small  percentage  of  alcohol, 
but  in  some  of  its  forms  is  very  intoxicating 
throu^  the  presence  of  fusel  oil.  There  are 
many  varieties,  differing  in  strength,  color,  and 
flavor.  The  best  comes  from  the  Province  of 
Setsu.  Sake  is  used  freely  as  a  beverage,  and  in 
the  ceremonies  connected  with  Confucianism  and 
Shinto.  At  elaborate  feasts  it  is  customary  for 
the  host  to  drink  a  cup  of  sake  with  each  of  his 


SAKHALIN^  sftOcA-ly^^    See  Saohauen. 

SAXI  (South  American  name).  A  monkey  of 
the  South  American  genus  Pithecia,  allied  to  the 
howlers,  but  characterized  by  the  inclination  for- 
ward of  the  lower  incisor  teeth,  much  as  in 
lemurs.  They  have  a  thumb  and  the  tail  is  not 
prehensile.  Associated  with  them  in  these  charac- 


teristics are  the  Uakari  monkeys,  which,  how- 
ever, differ  greatly  in  their  very  short  tails  and 
otherwise.  Most  of  them  have  long,  soft  hair, 
which  has  a  wig-like  appearance  on  the  head, 
forms  a  long,  divided  beard  beneath  the  chin,  and 
makes  the  long  tail  bushy.  Five  or  six  species 
are  known,  all  small,  retiring,  sober  in  their  be- 
havior, and  confined  to  the  valleys  of  the  Amazon 
and  Orinoco.  One  is  the  Brazilian  'couxio' 
{Pithecia  Saiania),  which  is  everywhere  blackish 
brown ;  another  is  the  'couxia,'  or  red-backed  saki 
{Pithecia  chiropotes),  marked  by  a  large  dorsal 
patch  of  reddish  brown.  The  best  known  one, 
perhaps,  is  the  blackish,  'hairy,'  or  Humboldt's 
saki,  or  'parauacu.'  It  is  speckled  gray,  and 
has  a  heavy  hood  of  hair  overhanging  the.  face. 
Consult  Bates,  A  Naturalist  on  t)^  Amazon 
(London,  2d  ed.,  1892).  See  Monkey ;  and  Plate 
of  American  Monkets. 

SAXKABA^  sAk-k&^ra.  A  village  of  Egypt, 
noted  for  its  ancient  mausolea  and  pyramids. 
See  Saqqaba. 

ALKTAB,  shftk^tAz  (Skt.  Sakta,  worshiper  of 
the  divine  energy,  especially  the  female  principle 
of  divinity,  from  4akti,  power).  In  Hindu  re- 
ligion, the  worshipers  of  any  of  the  female  rep- 
resentations of  the  divine  power.  In  its  special 
and  usual  sense,  the  word  is  applied  to  the  wor- 
shiper of  the  female  energy  or  wife  of  Siva  (q.v.) 
alone;  and  the  Saktas  properly  so  called  are, 
therefore,  the  votaries  of  Durga,  or  Devi,  or 
Uma.  Originally,  however,  the  mother-goddess 
worshiped  by  the  Saktas  has  nothing  to  do  with 
Siva  or  any  other  god.  She  was  herself,  as 
Durga,  Parvati,  Kali,  or  simply  as  Great  Mother, 
the  matriarchal  deity  of  the  Dravidians;  but 
subsequently  by  the  Aryans  she  was  regarded 
merely  as  the  female  principle  of  an  androgynous 
god.  As  such,  the  goddess  Sakta,  'female  power,' 
became  synonymous  with  the  female  principle  in 
life,  and  the  worship  of  this  principle,  though 
sometimes  loftily  conceived,  led  to  the  grossest 
licentiousness.  The  works  from  which  the  tenets 
and  rites  of  this  religion  are  derived  are  known 
by  the  collective  term  of  Tantras  (q.v.),  but 
since  in  some  of  these  works  the  ritual  enjoined 
did  not  comprehend  all  the  impure  practices 
recommended  in  others,  the  sect  became  divided 
into  two  leading  branches,  the  Dak^ndoArins  and 
the  V&mdcdrina,  the  followers  of  the  right-hand 
and  the  left-hand  ritual  respectively. 

The  Daksinacarins  are  the  only  respectable 
Saktas.  They  profess,  indeed,  to  possess  a  ritual 
as  pure  as  that  of  the  Vedas.  Their  priests, 
however,  are  not  required  to  know  any  Veda, 
and  they  differ  in  their  practice  from  the  Vedic 
cult  in  the  method  of  performing  sacrifices.  The 
Vamacarins,  on  the  other  hand,  adopt  a  ritual 
of  the  grossest  impurities.  They  profess  the  de- 
sire to  become  one  with  the  deity  by  means  of 
mystic  rites;  but  in  reality  these  rites  are 
simply  orgies  of  lust,  except  where  the  object  of 
the  worshiper  is  to  obtain  aiddhi,  magical 
power,  in  which  case  recourse  is  had  to  mystic 
formulas  at  midnight  in  a  cemetery.  This  wor- 
ship is  not  a  degeneration,  as  has  sometimes  been 
held.  It  is  a  survival  of  the  same  primitive 
mother- worship  that  once  obtained  among  all 
the  Dravidians  as  among  the  Semites.  Some 
Saktas  are  not  Saivas  (q.v.),  but  the  majority 
belong  to  this  class.  See  Siva  and  Saivas,  with 
the  literature  cited  under  the  latter  title. 


SAXUKTAIiA. 


852 


BALADIS. 


&AKJJ1XTALL,  sh&kvn'tA-U.  A  legendary 
Hindu  nymph.  Her  name  occurs  in  the  Yajur- 
v^da  (Bee  Veda)  and  the  Satapatha  BrdhmavM, 
she  is  the  subject  of  an  episode  of  the  Mahabh^ 
rata  (q.y.)>  and  is  mentioned  in  the  PurAftaa 
(q.v.).  She  is  best  known,  however,  as  the 
heroine  of  Kalidasa's  AhkijndnaSakuntaUi,  or 
Sakuntala  Recognized.  The  principal  features 
of  the  legend  of  Sakuntala,  as  narrated  in 
the  Mahabharata,  are  the  following:  She  was  the 
daughter  of  the  saint,  Vi^vamitra,  and  the 
Apsaras,  or  water-nymph,  Menaka.  Abandoned 
by  her  parents,  she  w^as  adopted  by  the  sage 
Kanva,  who  brought  her  up  in  his  hermitage  as 
his  daughter.  While  King  Dushyanta  was  hunt- 
ing in  the  forest,  he  came  by  chance  to  the  hut 
of  Kanva,  saw  Sakuntala,  and  fell  in  love  with 
her.  He  married  her  and  promised  her  that  the 
son  she  would  bear  him  should  be  the  heir  to  his 
throne,  and  that  he  would  take  her  as  his  queen 
to  his  royal  city.  After  the  birth  of  her  child, 
she  remained  at  the  hermitage  until  the  boy  was 
six  years  old;  but  Dushyanta,  unmindful  of  his 

Sromise,  did  not  send  for  her.  Kanva,  therefore, 
irected  her  to  go  to  the  residence  of  Dushyanta. 
This  she  did,  but  when  she  arrived  at  his  palace 
she  was  repudiated  by  the  King  until  a  voice 
'from  heaven  assured  him  that  Sakuntala  had 
spoken  the  truth,  and  that  he  saw  before  him  his 
lawful  son.  Thereupon  he  recognized  her  as  his 
queen,  and  her  son  as  his  heir,  whom  he  named 
Bharata,  and  who  became  the  founder  of  the  race 
of  the  Bharatas.  In  the  drama  Kalidasa  modi- 
fied the  legend  so  as  to  show  that  the  obstacle 
to  her  recognition  was  the  consequence  of  a  curse 
which  Sakuntala  had  incurred  from  a  wrathful 
sage,  who  had  considered  himself  treated  with 
scant  hospitality  by  her  on  one  occasion  when  he 
had  visited  Kanva's  hermitage.    See  Kalidasa. 

6AKYAMTJKI,  sha'kyft-my^nd.  A  name  of 
the  founder  of  the  Buddhist  religion.  See  Bud- 
dhism. 

SAL  (Shorea  rohu8ta).  An  East  Indian  tree  of 
the  natural  order  Dipterocarpaces,  highly  valued 
for  its  timber,  which  resembles  teak  in  properties 
and  uses.  The  great  forests  of  the  southern 
Himalayas,  which  in  some  places  has  been  cut 
down,  have  passed  under  the  care  of  the  Govern- 
ment for  preservation.  Several  related  species 
native  to  India  and  the  Philippine  Islandis  are 
important  timber  trees. 

SALA^  aS/lk.  A  town  of  Sweden,  situated  on 
the  Northern  Railroad,  55  miles  northwest  of 
Stockholm  (Map:  Sweden,  G  7).  It  is  impor- 
tant on  account  of  its  silver  mine,  which  has 
yielded  a  large  output  for  centuries,  and  still 
produces  yearly  over  30,000  oimces  of  silver. 
Population,  in  1900,  6593. 

SALA,  Geobge  Augustus  Henbt  (1828-96). 
An  English  journalist,  bom  in  London.  He 
came  to  America  in  1863  as  special  correspon- 
dent for  the  Daily  Telegraph  of  London ;  and  in 
1864  published  America  in  the  Midst  of  the  War, 
He  acted  as  correspondent  to  the  same  paper  at 
the  Paris  Exposition  ( 1867 )  ;  during  the  Franco- 
German  War  (1870-71);  in  Spain,  Paris,  and 
Venice  (1866-67)  ;  in  Russia  (1876)  ;  and  in  Aus- 
tralia (1886).  He  twice  visited  the  United 
States  as  lecturer  (1879  and  1885).  Sala's  pre- 
tentious style  is  finely  ridiculed  by  Mattnew 
Arnold  in  Friendship's  Garland,  Among  Sala's 
popular  books  of  travel^  made  up  mostly  from  his 


contributions  to  the  Daily  Telegraph,  are  A  Jowr- 
ney  Due  North  (1869);  A  Trip  to  Barhary 
(1866) ;  From  Waterloo  to  the  Pmiiwttla  ( 1867 ) ; 
Rome  and  Venice  ( 1869) ;  America  Revisit^ 
(1882) ;  A  Journey  Due  South  (1885) ;  Things 
I  Have  Seen  (1894) ;  and  the  most  interesting 
Life  and  Adventures  (1896).  His  social  satire  is 
best  represented  by  Twice  Round  the  Clock 
(1869).  He  also  wrote  several  popular  novels: 
The  Baddington  Peerage  (1860) ;  Captain  Dan- 
gerous (1863) ;  and  Quite  AUme  1864). 

SALAAM,  sft-lftm^  (Ar.  sal&m,  peace,  from 
salima,  to  be  safe).  The  common  salutation 
among  Mohammedans  to  those  of  their  own 
faith;  to  non-Mohammedans  a  different  form  is 
used.  The  full  salutation  is  as-sal&m  *ala*kum, 
'peace  be  unto  you,'  and  the  proper  reply  is  loa- 
'alaikum  as-sal&m,  'and  unto  you  peace.'  The  giv- 
ing of  the  salaam  is  a  duty  recommended  by  Mo- 
hammed; the  reply  is  obligatory.  Consult  Lane, 
Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Modem  Egyptians, 
ch.  viii.  (London,  1836). 

SAL^ADHT  (  Salah-ed-Din  Yusuf  ibn  Etub) 
(1137-93).  Sultan  of  Egypt  and  Syria,  bom  at 
Tekrit  of  Kurdish  blood.  After  a  life  of  pleas- 
ure and  study  he  accompanied  his  uncle,  Shirkuh, 
about  1166,  on  an  expedition  dispatched  by  Nu- 
reddin,  Sultan  of  Syria,  to  reinstate  Shawir,  the 
expelled  Vizier  of  Egypt.  When  the  latter,  some 
years  later,  threw  off  his  allegiance  to  Nureddin, 
Shirkuh  made  a  second  invasion  of  Egypt,  over- 
threw Shawir,  assumed  the  vizierate,  and,  dying 
soon  after,  was  succeeded  by  Saladin  ( 1169) .  The 
last  of  the  Fatimite  caliphs  died  in  1171  and 
Saladin  became  absolute  ruler  of  the  country, 
though  he  did  not  proclaim  himself  Sultan  till 
after  the  death  of  Nureddin  in  1174.  Between 
1174  and  1183  Saladin  wrested  Syria  and  most  of 
Mesopotamia  from  the  successors  of  Nureddin. 
During  these  conquests  he  also  warred  against 
the  Christians,  but  without  success.  In  1187  he 
made  a  great  onslaught  upon  the  Kingdom  of 
Jerusalem,  and  in  July  a  desperate  battle  was 
fought  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Tiberias^  which 
ended  in  the  total  defeat  of  the  Christians. 
Guy  de  Lusignan,  King  of  Jerusalem,  the 
grand  master  of  the  Templars  and  Hospitalers, 
and  an  immense  number  of  prisoners  fell  into 
Saladin's  hands.  The  capture  of  Tiberias,  Acre, 
Jaffa,  and  Beirut,  with  many  other  places,  was 
followed  by  the  surrender  of  Jerusalem  in  Oc- 
tober. Tyre  alone  held  out  against  Saladin  un- 
til relieved  by  Conrad  of  Montferrat.  The  armies 
of  the  Third  Crusade,  under  Richard  the  Lion- 
hearted  and  Philip  II.  of  France,  retook  Acre 
after  a  memorable  siege  of  two  years  (1191), 
but,  owing  to  the  dissensions  between  Richard 
and  Philip,  the  great  object  of  the  Crusade,  the 
recovery  of  Jerusalem,  was  left  unaccomplished. 
Richard  entered  into  a  three  years'  armistice  with 
Saladin  by  which  the  coast  from  Jaffa  to  Tyre 
was  left  to  the  Christians  (1192).  Saladin  died 
at  Damascus,  March  3,  1193.  In  Saladin  the 
warrior  instinct  of  the  Kurd  was  united  to  a  high 
intelligence ;  and  even  his  opponents  did  not  deny 
him  the  noblest  qualities  of  chivalry,  courage, 
fidelity  to  treaties,  greatness  of  soul,  piety,  ius- 
tice,  and  moderation.  He  was  not  a  mere  soloier, 
but  also  a  wise  administrator.  Consult:  Stanley 
Lane-Poole,  Saladin  and  the  Fall  of  Jerusalem 
(New  York,  1898) ;  Qaston  Paris,  La  Ugende  de 
Saladin  (Paris,  1893) ;  YuBul  ibn  Rafi^  Th9  Life 


SALAD    PLANTS 


1.  CORN  SALAD  (Valerianella  olitorla).  4.  WATER  CRESS  (Nasturtium  officinale). 

2,  CHICORY  (CiehoHum  Uitybus).  5.  ENDIVE  (CIchorlum  Endlvia). 
8.  DANDELION  (Taraxacum  officinale).  6.  LETTUCE  (Lactuca  eatlva). 

7.  CELERY  (Aplum  gcavolens). 


SALABOr. 


858 


SALAMANCA. 


of  Baladin,  translated  for  the  Palestine  Pilgrims* 
Text  Society  (London,  1899) ;  Marin,  Hisioire 
de  Sahdm,  wlt<m  ^Egypte  et  de  Byrie  (Paris, 
1758). 

8ALAD0,  8&-1&^d6,  Rio.  A  river  of  Northern 
Argentina.  It  rises  among  the  Andean  ranges 
in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  country,  and 
flows  southeast  through  the  Qran  Chaco  till  it 
joins  the  ParanA  River  opposite  the  city  of 
raranfl,  after  a  course  of  ahout  1000  miles 
(Map:  Argentina,  E  9).  It  is  a  shallow,  un- 
navigable,  and  verj  sluggish  stream,  meandering 
over  the  plain  and  frequently  dividing  into  a 
network  of  channels  and  backwaters,  which  dur- 
ing floods  are  merged  into  large  shallow  lagoons. 
At  low  water  it  evaporates  so  rapidly  as  to  be- 
come brackish  in  its  lower  course,  whence  its 
name,  which  means  'salt  river.' 

SALAJDO,  Rio.  A  river  of  Western  Argen- 
tina. It  rises  on  the  slope  of  the  Andes  in  the 
Province  of  Catamarca,  and  flows  southward  in 
a  rambling  course  over  the  plains,  parallel  with 
the  mouniftins,  from  which  it  receives  a  number 
of  tributaries  (Map:  Argentina,  D  11).  It  is 
about  1000  miles  long,  and  was  formerly  the 
most  important  member  of  the  Colorado  River 
system.  Now,  however,  it  never  reaches  the 
(yolorado,  but  is  lost  by  evaporation  in  the  exten- 
sive salt  marshes  80  miles  north  of  that  river. 
There  are  evidences  that  the  process  of  desicca- 
tion of  the  surrounding  plains  is  still  going  on. 

SATiAT)  PIiANTS.  Vegetables  whose  green 
parts  are  used  for  human  food.  The  plants 
80  employed  may  be  divided  into  three  groups: 
Piquant,  or  warm  salads  sucli 
as  cress,  nasturtium,  watercress, 
and  mustard;  bitter,  of  which 
dandelion,  chicory,  and  endive 
are  typical;  and  neutral,  to 
which  belong  such  characterless 
plants  as  com  salad.  Lettuce 
really  belongs  to  the  second 
group,  but  when  properly  grown 
the  bitter  flavor  is  so  greatly 
modified  that  it  approaches  the 
neutral  group.  The  other  bitter 
salads  mentioned  are  similarly 
improved  in  flavor.  Olery,  which 
also  belongs  to  the  bitter  group, 
and  lettuce  are  unquestionably 
the  leading  salads  in  America, 
thousands  of  acres  being  annu- 
ally devoted  to  their  cultivation. 
Cardoon,  which  is  gro\^Ti  in 
much  the  same  way  as  celery, 
is  rarely  cultivated  in  the  Uni- 
ted States,  but  is  popular  in  Europe.  It  grows 
somewhat  larger  than  most  varieties  of  celery. 

In  general  salads  require  a  very  rich,  light, 
well  drained,  fibrous,  loamy  soil  well  exposed  to 
the  sun.  To  be  in  best  condition  they  must  be 
quickly  grown,  gathered  when  in  prime  vegetative 
vigor,  before  any  indications  of  going  to  seed  are 
msnifested,  and  placed  upon  the  table  fn  the 
shortest  possible  time  after  gathering,  before 
they  have  lost  any  of  their  crispness.  See  articles 
upon  the  various  vegetables  mentioned  above. 

SAI/AL.    A  shrub.    See  Gaulthebia. 

SAI.A1CAVCA,  sa'lft-mlinncA.  The  capital  of 
the  Province  of  Salamanca,  in  the  old  Kingdom  of 
^ieon,  and  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  famous 


CIBDOOH  {CynBTA 

CardanculoB). 


university  towns  of  Spain,  situated  on  this 
Tormes  River,  105  miles  northwest  of  Madrid 
(Map:  Spain,  C  2).  It  is  built  on  three  hills 
surrounded  by  a  dreary,  treeless  plain  with  a 
climate  severe  in  winter  and  very  hot  in  sum- 
mer. It  is  surrounded  by  a  wall,  parts  of  which 
are  very  old,  and  a  Roman  bridge  of  27  arches, 
more  than  half  of  which  belong  to  the  original 
structure,  crosses  the  Tormes.  The  town  still 
has  a  medifeval  aspect,  with  narrow  crooked 
streets  lined  with  stately  and  venerable  struc- 
tures. In  the  centre  of  the  town  is  the  large 
Plaza  Mayor,  the  finest  of  its  kind  in  Spain;  it 
is  surrounded  by  colonnades  and  by  lofty  build- 
ings, among  which  is  the  town  hall.  Though  a 
large  part  of  the  town  was  destroyed  during  the 
French  occupation  in  1812,  there  are  still  in  ex- 
istence 25  churches,  some  of  which  date  from  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries,  such  as  the  old 
cathedral,  a  massive  structure  begun  in  1100. 
Immediately  adjoining  it  stands  the  new  cathe- 
dral, begun  in  1509  and  finished  in  1733.  It  is 
essentially  late-Gothic,  and  has  an  imposing  in- 
terior. Opposite  the  cathedrals  stands  the  uni- 
versity building  (see  Salamanca,  Univebsity 
of),  begun  in  1415,  with  an  elaborately  decorated 
plateresque  facade.  Of  the  25  colleges  and 
numerous  old  convents  the  greater  number 
are  in  various  states  of  ruin,  many  having 
been  entirely  destroyed  by  the  French.  Among 
other  interesting  buildings  are  the  Gasa 
de  la  Salina,  now  occupied  by  the  Provincial 
Assembly,  and  the  Ghurcn  of  San  Est4ban,  both 
dating  from  the  fifteenth  century,  and  both  hav- 
ing elaborate  plateresque  facades,  and  the  Gasa  de 
las  Onchas,  whose  facade  is  ornamented  with 
shells.  Industrially  and  commercially  Salamanca 
is  unimportant.  Population,  in  1887,  22,199;  in 
1900,  25,019. 

Salamanca  was  known  in  ancient  times  as 
Elmantica  or  Salamantica.  About  B.C.  220  it  was 
captured  by  Hannibal,  who,  according  to  the  tra- 
dition, spared  the  city  on  account  of  the  heroism 
of  its  women.  It  was  taken  and  retaken  several 
times  by  the  Arabs.  The  town  became  especially 
important  after  the  founding  of  its  university  in 
the  thirteenth  century. 

SALAMAKCA.  A  Mexican  town  of  the  State 
of  Guanajuato,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Lerma  River,  28  miles  south  of  the  city  of  Guana- 
juato (Map:  Mexico,  H  7),  and  on  the  Mexican 
Gentral  Railroad.  It  is  an  important  glove  and 
cotton  manufacturing  centre,  and  contains  an 
establishment  for  the  manufacture  of  porcelain. 
The  first  settlement  in  the  town  was  made  by 
the  Augustinian  Fathers  in  1616.  Its  popula- 
tion, in  1895,  was  13,121. 

SAL'AUAN^CA.  A  village  in  Gattaraugus 
Gounty,  N.  Y.,  62  miles  south  of  Buffalo;  on  the 
Allegheny  River,  and  on  the  Pennsylvania,  the 
Erie,  the  Bufltalo,  Rochester  and  Pittsburg,  and 
other  railroads  (Map:  New  York,  B  3),  It  is 
situated  in  a  rich  farming  ngionv  and  hicff  a  llarge 
trade  in  ^smber  and  iimportant  railroad  inter- 
ests. There  are  railroad  repair  shops  and  yards, 
and  various  manufactures,  including  furniture, 
leather,  and  lumber  products.  The  government 
is  vested  in  a  village  president,  chosen  annually, 
and  a  council.  Settled  in  1860,  Salamanca  was 
incorporated  in  1878.  Population,  in  1890,  3692; 
in  1900,  4251. 

SALAMAKCA,  Univebsitt  of.  A  Spanish 
university,   one   of   the  greatest   and   most   re- 


SALAMANCA. 


854 


8AI.AHO. 


nowned  of  Europe  from  the  fifteanth  to  the 
seventeenth  century.  Founded  by  Alfonso  IX. 
of  Leon  (c.l230),  and  refounded  by  Saint  Ferdi- 
nand of  Castile  in  1242,  it  came  into  prominence 
in  the  reign  of  Alfonso  X.  (q.v.)  (1252-82),  sur- 
named  the  Astronomer.  Its  chief  distinction  was 
in  the  field  of  the  canon  and  civil  law.  Owing  to 
financial  difficulties,  it  led  a  somewhat  checkered 
existence,  but  was  in  alliance  with  and  favored 
by  the  Papa<^,  and  in  some  measure  supported 
by  it.  Its  rise  to  distinction  began  in  the  fif- 
teenth century,  and  in  the  two  succeeding  cen- 
turies, particularly  in  the  sixteenth,  it  was  one 
of  the  dominating  schools  of  Europe.  Here 
Columbus  explained  his  discoveries,  and  here  the 
Copemican  system  was  early  accepted  and  taught. 
From  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  when 
the  number  of  students  reached  6000,  the  univer- 
sity sank  in  size  and  prestige.  It  was  reorgan- 
ized in  1769-77,  but  suffered  much  from  the  po- 
litical disturbances  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Its  present  organization  dates  from  1857.  It  had 
in  1901  a  budget  of  150,000  pesetas,  about  1200 
students,  and  a  library  of  some  80,000  volumes 
and  1000  manuscripts. 

SAIiAMANDEB  (Lat.  aalamandra,  from 
Gk.tf-aXd^i^pa, salamander;  connected  with  Pers. 
samandar,  salamandar).  A  genus  of  European 
tailed  Amphibia  which  inhabit  water  only  in 
their  tadpole  state,  and  return  to  it  only  to  de- 
posit their  eggs,  generally  living  in  moist  places, 
as  under  stones,  roots  of  trees,  etc.  The  general 
form  is  very  similar  to  that  of  newts  (q.v.),  but 
the  tail  is  round,  not  flat.  Salamanders  feed  on 
worms,  slugs,  snails,  and  insects.  They  are  in- 
ert, sluggish,  and  timid  creatures  and  are  per- 
fectly harmless.  The  spotted  salamander  {Sala- 
mandra  masculoaa),  six  or  eight  inches  long, 
black,  with  bright  yellow  stripes  on  its  sides, 
and  livid  blue  beneath,  is  widely  spread  through- 
out Europe.  The  black  salamander  (8aldm<m- 
dra  aira)  is  much  smaller,  black,  the  body 
and  tail  ringed,  the  tail  almost  as  if  formed 
of  beads.  It  is  abundant  in  the  Alps  and  moun- 
tains of  Southern  Germany.  Other  species  are 
found  in  Spain,  Italy,  etc.,  and  in  Asia.  The 
genus  is  not  represented  in  the  United  States. 
'Salamander,'  however,  in  the  United  States  is 
the  common  name  for  all  the  Urodela. 

SAI«AMAKDEB.  A  German  drinking  term 
of  uncertain  significance.  The  custom  to  which 
the  name  is  applied,  called  ewercitium  aalaman- 
dri,  originated  with  the  students  of  Heidelberg 
about  1830.  At  the  command  of  the  president, 
the  drinking  vessels  are  rubbed  about  in  a  circle 
on  the  table  and  emptied.  The  participants  then 
rattle  the  glasses  on  the  table  and  finally  set 
them  down  with  a  simultaneous  crash.  The 
salamander  is  the  most  formal  method  of  drink- 
ing a  health. 

SAL^AMIS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  ZaXo^t,  modem 
name  Kuluri).  A  mountainous  island  of  Greece, 
off  the  Coast  of  Attica,  in  the  Gulf  of  JE^na.  It 
resembles  a  horseshoe  in  shape,  the  opening  being 
to  the  west.  On  the  northeast  it  is  separated 
from  Attica  by  a  strait  about  one  mile  in  width, 
and  on  the  north  by  the  Bay  of  Aleusis,  while 
at  the  northwest  it  approaches  close  to  the  Me- 
garian  coast.  In  the  northeast  of  the  island  was 
the  ancient  town  of  Salamis,  near  the  modem 
Ambelaki,  on  the  bay  opposite  the  Attic  coast. 
The   area   is   about   36   square   miles,   and  the 


population  about  4600.  The  island  is  locl^ 
and  mountainous,  scantily  wooded,  and  barren, 
though  the  coast  districts  and  valleys  yield  a 
little  grain  and  wine.  Salamis  was  early  an 
object  of  strife  between  the  Athenians  and  Me- 
garians,  but  after  long  wars  the  former  secured 
it  early  in  the  sixth  century  b.c.,  and  from  that 
time  it  was  a  part  of  Attica.  Its  chief  celd>rity 
is  due  to  the  decisive  naval  battle  fought  be- 
tween the  Persians  and  Greeks  in  the  strait  be- 
tween the  long  northeastern  promontory  of  the 
island  and  the  coast  of  Attica  (b.c.  480).  The 
Greek  fleet,  under  the  command  of  Themistocles 
and  Eurybiades,  gathered  at  the  island  on  the 
advance  of  Xerxes  against  Athens,  and  is  said 
to  have  intended  withdrawal  to  the  Isthmus 
when  Themistocles  persuaded  Xerxes  to  blockade 
the  straits  during  the  night,  and  in  the 
morning  enter  them  for  battle.  The  result  was 
the  complete  defeat  of  the  Persians,  whose  su- 
perior numbers  and  unwieldy  vessels  were  «■- 
availing  in  the  narrow  waters. 

SALAUIS.  An  ancient  ruined  city  in  the 
middle  of  the  eastern  coast  of  (Cyprus,  the  most 
important  place  on  the  island  (Map:  Turkey  in 
Asia,  E  6).  It  had  a  famous  temple  of  Zeus. 
Its  king,  Euagoras  (410-364),  united  C^ms  into 
one  kingdom.  The  city  fell  to  the  Romans  in 
58  B.C.  It  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  and 
rebuilt  by  Constantine  the  Great,  named  Kon- 
stantia,  and  again  made  the  capital  of  the  island. 
It  was  laid  waste  by  the  Arabs.  The  village 
Hagios  Sergios  is  near  its  ruins. 

SALATffMBd*  s&'l&m'bd.  A  novel  by  Gustave 
Flaubert  (1862).  The  scene  is  laid  in  Carthage 
in  the  time  of  Hannibal,  whose  sister  is  the  tiUe 
character.  The  story  is  brilliantly  realistic,  and 
contains  descriptions  of  great  power,  doding 
often  with  the  weird  and  bizarre. 

SAL  AMMONIAC  (abbreviation  of  Lat  sal 
ammoniaci,  salt  of  ammonium).  The  chloride 
of  ammonium  (NH4CI).  It  is  of  great  value  in 
medicine,  chemistry,  and  the  arU.  It  is  ob- 
tained from  the  ammoniacal  water  of  gas  works, 
by  adding  sulohuric  acid  and  then  sublimating 
the  sulphate  thus  formed  with  sodium  chloride. 
It  may  be  obtained  on  a  small  scale  by  adding 
hydrochloric  acid  to  a  solution  of  ammonia.  In 
nature  it  is  found  in  volcanic  r^ons,  as  an 
efflorescence  on  the  surface  of  rocks  or  as  a  sub- 
limate in  fissures,  crystallized  or  forming  crusts, 
or  stalactites.  It  occurs  as  colorless,  odorless, 
translucent  fibrous  masses,  having  a  bitter 
saline  taste,  is  freely  soluble  in  water,  and  has 
a  specific  gravity  of  1.45.  In  medicine  it  is  used 
as  an  expectorant  in  bronchitis  and  pneumonia, 
being  a  favorite  ingredient  of  cough  mixtures; 
as  a  diaphoretic,  diuretic,  and  alterative  in  rheu- 
matism; as  a  cholagogue  in  various  derange- 
ments of  the  liver;  and  as  an  alterative  in 
neuralgia.  In  catarrhal  inflammations  of  the 
gastro-inteetinal  tract  it  is  used  to  some  extent 
See  Ammonia. 

SALAKG,     stilfing',     or     JUNKSEYLGIT, 

jtlok^s&-l5n^.  An  island  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
belonging  to  Lower  Siam,  situated  at  the  north- 
em  entrance  to  the  Straits  of  Malacca  and  sepa- 
rated by  a  narrow  strait  from  the  Malay  Penin- 
sula (Map:  Siam,  C  5).  It  has  an  area  of  about 
290  Square  miles  and  has  rich  tin  deposits  which 
are  mined  by  Clhinese  and  exported  to  the  adja- 
cent British  settlements.    Population,  12,000. 


SAUOrOASE. 


866 


SALE. 


SALAHGANE  (Fr.,  from  salamga,  the  native 
VMme),  or  Edihlb-Nebt  Swirr.  An  East  Indian 
swift  of  the  genus  Collocalia,  of  which  13  species 
are  known  in  the  Malayan  and  Australian  re- 
gions. All  are  diminutive  in  size,  dark-colored 
above  and  white  below,  with  the  appearance  and 
habits  of  swifts;  and  are  of  interest  mainly  be- 
cause their  nests  are  in  demand  among  the  Chi- 
nese as  the  basis  of  a  soup  regarded  as  a  luxury. 
Theae  swifts  breed  in  large  companies  in  sea- 
fronting  caves,  attaching  their  small  half-cup- 
like  nests  to  the  rock  in  the  dark  interiors  of 
crevices  and  caverns.  They  have  a  glue-like  con- 
sistency,, and  are  formed  mainly  of  a  glutinous 
eallTa  produced  by  the  bird,  with  which  is  fre- 
quently mixed  other  materials,  as  bits  of  straw, 
feathers,  etc.  The  principal  species  is  Collooalia 
fuciphoffo.  See  Plate  of  Swifts  and  Theib 
Nests. 

SALABT  GBAB.  In  United  States  history, 
the  term  popularly  applied  to  the  general  in- 
crease of  the  salaries  of  Federal  officers  in  1873. 
The  act  of  Congress  of  March  3d  of  that  year 
provided  that  the  salary  of  the  President  should 
be  increased  from  $25,000  to  $50,000  per  year, 
that  of  the  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court 
should  be  $10,500  instead  of  $8500,  that  of  the 
Vice-President,  Cabinet  officers,  associate  justices, 
and  Speaker  of  the  House  $10,000  instead  of 
$8000,  that  of  Senators  and  Representatives  in 
Conmss  $7500  instead  of  $5000,  and  that  of 
employees  of  both  Houses  according  to  simi- 
lar proportions.  The  chief  objection  to  the  act 
was  that  as  regards  members  of  Congress  it  was 
made  retroactive  for  a  period  of  two  years.  This 
feature  aroused  great  popular  indignation 
throughout  the  country,  and  the  law  was  repealed 
by  the  act  of  January  20,  1874,  as  r^^arded  all 
its  beneficiaries  except  the  President  and  the 
jnstioes. 

SAIJLTEB,  Bk-W^T  (or  SALEYEB)  ISL- 
AHDB.  A  group  of  islands  in  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago, belonging  to  the  Netherlands,  and  situ- 
ated south  of  Celebes  (Map:  East  India  Islands, 
F  6) .  Area,  about  270  square  miles,  of  which  250 
square  miles  are  covered  by  Salayer  Island, 
the  largest  in  the  group.  They  are  composed 
mainly  of  coralline  limestone  covered  with  very 
fertile  soil,  and  are  well  forested  with  valuable 
timber.  The  chief  products  are  tobacco,  po- 
tatoes, indigo,  and  cotton,  and  excellent  horses 
are  exported  to  Celebes,  with  which  there  is 
regular  steamship  connection.  The  population  of 
the  group  is  about  80,000,  chiefly  Mohammedan 
Malays  engaged  in  commerce,  fisheries,  and 
preparation  of  trepang. 

SALDAHHAy  s&l-da^ny&,  JoAo  Carlos,  Duke 
of  (1791-1876).  A  Portuguese  statesman,  a 
grandson  of  Pombal,  bom  at  Arinhaga.  He 
studied  at  Coimbra,  served  against  the  British, 
and  was  made  a  prisoner  in  1810.  On  his  re- 
lease he  went  to  Brazil,  where  he  was  employed 
in  the  military  and  diplomatic  services.  He  re- 
turned to  Portugal  after  the  declaration  of  the 
independence  of  Brazil.  He  became  Minister  of 
Foreign  Affairs  in  1825,  and  was  Governor  of 
Oporto  in  1826-27.  He  joined  Dom  Pedro  against 
the  usurper  Dom  Miguel,  with  whom  he  con- 
cluded the  convention  of  Evora.  In  1835  he  was 
made  Ifinister  of  War  and  president  of  the  Coun- 
cil, but  resigned  in  the  same  year.  After  the 
revolution  of  1836,  which  he  had  instigated,  he 


went  into  exile  until  recalled  in  1846,  when  he 
formed  a  Ministry,  which  fell  in  1849.  In  1851 
he  organized  a  new  revolt  and  became  chief  Min- 
ister as  the  leader  of  a  coalition  party  formed  of 
Septembrists  and  dissatisfied  Chartists.  He  re- 
mained in  power  until  the  accession  of  Pedro  II. 
in  1856,  and  was  subsequently  Minister  to  Rome 
(1862-64  and  1866-69).  He  became  Prime  Min- 
ister once  more  for  a  few  months  in  1870  (May- 
August),  and  was  sent  in  1871  to  London  as  Am- 
bassador, where  he  died. 

SALE.  A  town  in  Cheshire,  England,  subur- 
ban to  Manchester  (q.v.).  Population,  in  1891, 
9600;  in  1901,  12,000. 

SALE  or  SALES  (AS.  aala,  from  sellan, 
Goth.,  OHG.  aaljan,  to  give,  sell;  connected  with 
Lith.  sulyti,  to  proffer,  offer) .  A  contract  where- 
by the  absolute  or  general  ownership  of  property 
is  transferred  from  one  person  to  another  for  a 
money  consideration,  or  loosely  for  any  considera- 
tion. In  the  latter  case  the  transaction  is  more  ac- 
curately called  a  barter,  trade,  etc.  The  term 
sales  is  used  specifically  by  legal  text  writers  of 
such  transfers  of  personal  property,  the  treatises 
on  that  subject  being  commonly  said  to  treat  of 
*the  law  of  sales.*  For  the  treatment  of  the  sub- 
ject in  relation  to  land,  or  real  property,  see 
Conveyance;  Deed;  Real  Pbopertt. 

Sale  of  F^bsonal  Propebtt.  A  sale  of  per- 
sonal property  is  often  spoken  of  as  a  'bargain 
and  sale'  or  an  'executed  contract  of  sale,'  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  a  contract  to  sell;  that  is,  from 
a  contract  lo  transfer  general  ownership  in  the 
future.  At  common  law  this  contract  could  be 
oral  or  written.  By  the  Statute  of  Frauds  (q.v.) 
a  contract  for  the  sale  of  goods  must  be  in  writ- 
ing if  the  price  exceeds  a  specified  sum,  unless 
there  is  an  acceptance  and  receipt  of  a  part  of 
the  goods,  or  a  part  payment  of  the  price.  The 
general  rule  has  been  laid  down  by  our  courts 
that  where  a  bargain  is  made  for  the  purchase  of 
specific  existing  goods,  and  no  stipulation  is 
made  about  payment  and  delivery,  the  ownership 
passes  at  once  to  the  buyer,  and  the  right  to  the 
price  passes  to  the  seller.  In  Roman  law  a 
sale  was  treated  as  a  conveyance,  and  tradition, 
i.e.  actual  delivery,  was  necessary  to  the  transfer 
of  title.  Again,  Roman  law  required  the  pay- 
ment of  the  price  by  the  purchaser  as  a  condi- 
tion of  title's  passing,  unless  it  was  waived  by 
the  parties.  Modem  European  codes,  although 
founded  on  the  Roman  law,  generally  reject  the 
latter  rule,  while  continuing  the  former. 

The  difference  between  a  sale  and  various  busi* 
ness  transactions  of  a  similar  character  is  per- 
fectly clear  in  principle,  although  at  times  there 
is  practical  difficulty  in  determining  to  what  class 
a  particular  venture  belongs. 

In  rare  instances  the  general  ownership  of 
personal  property  passes  for  a  price  without  a 
contract.  This  is  sometimes  called  a  quasi  sale. 
It  occurs  when  one  who  has  taken  another's 
property  without  his  consent  is  sued  in  trover 
(q.v.)  for  the  value,  and  pays  the  judgment. 
Upon  such  payment  it  is  generally  held  that 
title  is  to  be  treated  as  vesting  in  the  wrongful 
taker,  as  of  the  date  of  taking. 

Requisites  of  a  Valid  Sale  or  CoNTRAcrr  to 
Sell.  These  are  four :  Competent  parties ;  mutual 
assent;  the  existence  of  the  personal  property; 
and  a  price  in  money.  The  first  two  requisites 
have  been  considered,  at  sufficient  length,  in  the 
article  on  contracts    (q.v.).     The  last  one  has 


BALE. 


856 


BALI 


been  referred  to  in  a  preceding  paragraph.  It 
is,  therefore,  necessary  to  discuss  here  only  the 
third.  In  case  of  a  bar^in  and  sale,  the  thing 
sold  must  then  be  in  existence.  At  times,  per- 
sons declare  that  one  sells  and  the  other  buys 
specified  property  which  they  know  is  not  in 
existence.  This  can  take  effect,  in  our  law,  only 
as  a  contract  to  sell;  for  it  is  accounted  an  ele- 
mentary principle  that  a  man  cannot  grant  per- 
sonal property  in  which  he  then  has  no  interest 
or  title.  Accordingly,  if,  before  this  contract  to 
sell  has  been  executed  by  transferring  the  owner- 
ship to  the  buyer,  a  creditor  of  the  seller  levies 
an  execution  (q.v.)  on  the  property,  such  creditor 
will  be  able  to  keep  it.  It  this  country  it  is 
generally  held  that  the  owner  of  property  can 
make  a  valid  bargain  and  sale  of  its  product, 
growth,  or  increase,  even  before  that  comes  into 
actual  existence. 

When  Titu:  Passes.  In  case  of  a  bargain  and 
sale,  title  passes  when  the  contract  is  made.  In 
the  case  of  a  contract  to  sell,  title  is  to  pass  in 
the  future.  If  the  parties  clearly  and  definitely 
state  the  time  or  condition  of  passing  title,  no 
difficulty  arises.  In  the. hurry  and  rush  of  modem 
business  life,  however,  such  definiteness  is  often 
neglected. 

Rule  I.  Where  there  is  a  contract  for  the  sale 
of  specific  goods  and  the  seller  is  bound  to  do 
something  to  the  goods,  for  the  purpose  of  put- 
ting them  into  a  deliverable  state,  the  title  does 
not  pass  until  such  thing  is  done.  In  England, 
it  does  not  pass  until  the  buyer  is  notified  that 
the  thing  is  done. 

Rule  2.  When  there  is  a  contract  for  the  sale 
of  unascertained  or  future  goods  by  description, 
and  goods  of  that  description  and  in  a  deliver- 
able state  are  unconditionally  appropriated  to 
the  contract,  either  bv  the  seller  with  the  assent 
of  the  buyer,  or  bjr  the  buyer  with  the  assent  of 
the  seller,  the  title  thereupon  passes  to  the 
buyer.  Such  assent  may  be  express  or  implied, 
and  may  be  given  either  before  or  after  the  ap- 
propriation is  made. 

The  difficult  questions  under  this  rule  are,  first, 
whether  the  required  assent  has  been  given;  and 
second,  whether  the  appropriation  is  uncondi- 
tional. The  principal  examples  of  a  conditional 
appropriation  are  afforded  by  shipments  of  goods 
C.  O.  D.,  and  under  bills  of  lading  (q.v.)  which 
make  the  goods  deliverable  to  the  seller  or  his 
agent  or  his  assignee.  If  the  seller  takes  a  bill  of 
lading,  making  the  goods  deliverable  to  the  buyer, 
and  does  not  require  payment  for  the  goods  as  a 
condition  of  title's  passing,  the  appropriation  is 
unconditional,  so  far  as  he  is  concerned.  Then 
the  question  arises  whether  the  buyer  has  as- 
sented to  such  appropriation.  Generally  speaJc- 
ing,  he  does  assent  where  he  orders  goods  to  be 
sent  to  him  by  a  common  carrier,  provided  the 
goods  sent  are  of  the  kind  and  quality  which  he 
ordered. 

It  is  often  quite  important  to  determine 
whether  title  passed  at  the  time  of  shipment ;  for 
if  it  did,  any  loss  or  injury  of  the  goods  during 
their  transit  must  be  borne  by  the  buyer,  the 
general  rule  being  that  the  risk  of  loss  or  harm 
goes  with  the  title,  unless  the  parties  have  other- 
wise agreed. 

Conditions  and  Wabbanties.  One  of  the 
most  perplexing  topics  in  the  law  of  sales  is  that 
of  warranty  (a.v.).  In  most  of  our  jurisdic- 
tions,   many    qx   the    seller's    engagements    are 


termed  implied  warranties,  although  they  are 
actually  treated  as  conditions  in  the  decision  of 
cases.  The  English  Sale  of  Goods  Act  of  1803 
(56  and  67  Vict.,  c.  71)  has  simplified  this  topic 
by  defining  'condition'  and  'warranty,'  by  clawi- 
fying  the  various  engagements  of  the  seUer,  and 
by  describing  the  consequences  of  their  breach. 
It  is  believed  that  these  provisions  of  the  stat- 
ute are  an  accurate  codification  of  common  law 
principles,  although  it  must  be  admitted  that 
in  a  few  of  our  States  different  doctrines  obtain. 
A  condition  is  either  a  statement  or  a  promise 
which  forms  the  basis  of  the  contract  of  sale. 
See  Caveat  Emptob;  Mabkbt  Ovebt;  Stoppage 
IN  Tbansitu. 

Consult:  Blackburn,  A  Treatise  <m  the  Efect 
of  the  Contract  of  Bale  (London,  1885) ;  Camp- 
bell, The  Law  Relating  to  the  Sale  of  Goods  (ib., 
1891);  Chalmers,  The  Sale  of  Goods  Act  (ib., 
1896);  Benjamin,  The  Sale  of  Goods  (Boston, 
1899)  ;  Burdick,  The  Law  of  Sales  of  Personal 
Property  (ib.,  1901). 

SALE,  Gedbgb  (1697-1736).  A  translator 
of  the  Koran.  He  was  admitted  to  the  Inner 
Temple  in  1720  and  afterwards  practiced  as  a 
solicitor.  He  early  began  the  si^dy  of  Arabic 
and  acquired  a  thorough  maateiy  of  the  language 
and  a  close  acquaintaaoe  with  Mohamnedui 
thou^t  and  customs,  althouf^  he  never  kife  his 
native  land.  From  1726  till  1734  he  was  eon- 
nected  with  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Christian  Knowledge,  for  wbidi  he  prepared  an 
Arabic  translation  of  the  New  Testament  besides 
acting  as  legal  adviser,  business  manager,  and 
in  other  capacities.  His  translation  of  the 
Koran,  published  in  London  in  1734  and  many 
times  reprinted,  was  the  first  adequate  transla- 
tion of  the  Koran  ever  made  and  is  considered  by 
many  the  best  in  any  language  at  the  present 
time.  The  material  incorporated  from  Moham- 
medan authorities  renders  it  a  commentary  as 
well  as  translation,  and  the  notes  and  prdimi- 
nary  discourse  are  still  of  great  value. 

SALE,  Sir  Robebt  Henbt  (17821846).  A 
British  soldier,  popularly  known  as  the  hero  of 
Jelalabad.  He  was  bom  in  England,  and  was 
the  son  of  Colonel  Sale,  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany's service.  He  took  active  part  in  the  Bur- 
mese War  of  1824-26,  distinguishing  himself  at 
Rangoon,  Bassein,  and  especially  at  Prome.  In 
1838  he  was  given  command  of  the  First  Bengal 
Brigade  of  the  army  on  the  Indus  in  the  Afg^ui 
Expedition,  and  was  severely  wounded  while  lead- 
ing the  storming  party  at  Ghazni.  In  1840  he 
was  sent  to  Kohistan  against  Dost  Mohammed 
Khan,  and,  after  the  capture  of  several  fortresses, 
forced  him  to  surrender  at  Purwan.  When  the 
Afghans  rose  against  the  British  at  the  close  of 
1841,  Sale,  after  forcing  his  way  through  the 
Khurd-Kabul,  Tezen,  and  Jagdalak  passes,  was 
driven  back  upon  Jelalabad,  where  he  was  be- 
sieged by  Akhbar  Khan,  the  son  of  Dost  Moham- 
med. In  April,  1842,  he  made  a  sortie  and  routed 
the  Afghans,  capturing  their  ammunition,  guns, 
and  camp.  He  was  relieved  by  Pollock,  command- 
ing the  punitive  expedition  against  the  Afghans, 
and  participated  with  him  in  the  recapture  of 
Kabul.  Sale  was  mortally  wounded  fightmg 
against  the  Sikhs  at  Mukdi  in  1846. 


BA^LEVL.  The  capital  of  a  district  of  the  i 
name   in   the  Province  of  Madras,    India,  207 
miles  southwest  of  the  city  of  Madras,  on  the 


aALElL 


857 


8AI«BM. 


Timmaiiinnittar  River  (Map:  India,  G  6)^  It  is 
attractively  situated,  in  the  niUy  Shevaroy  region, 
much  resorted  to  for  its  picturesque  scenery, 
and  has  a  college  and  high  schools.  Weaving 
and  the  manufacture  of  carpets  and  cutlery  are 
important  industries.  In  the  vicinity  there  are 
rich  deposits  of  iron  and  limestone.  Population, 
in  1901^  70,621. 

BATiKlf.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Marion  Ck>unty,  111.,  70  miles  east  of  Saint  Louis^ 
Mo.;  on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Southwestern 
and  the  Chicago  and  Eastern  Illinois  railroads, 
and  the  tenninus  of  the  Illinois  Southern  (Map: 
Illinois,  D  5).  It  is  surrounded  hy  a  section 
noted  for  the  production  of  apples,  and  engaged 
also  in  farming  and  stock-raising.  There  are 
eoal  deposits  and  mineral  springs  in  the  vicinity. 
Flour  18  the  principal  manufactured  product. 
PopukUon,  in  1890,  1493;  in  1900,  1642. 

SALEM.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Essex 
Oounty,  Mass.,  16  miles  northeast  of  Boston; 
on  Massachusetts  Bay  and  on  the  Boston  and 
Maine  Railroad  (Map:  Massachusetts,  F  2).  It 
is  situated  on  a  narrow  peninsula.  Salem  is  in- 
timately connected  with  the  history  of  the  colonial 
period,  and  its  quaint  old  houses  and  irregular 
streets  are  of  great  interest.  Hawthorne's  birth- 
place and  early  home,  the  custom-house  where  he 
wrote  the  preface  to  The  Scarlet  Letter,  and  the 
home  of  Roger  Williams  are  especially  note- 
worthy. Other  features  include  three  attractive 
parks :  the  Willows,  the  Common,  and  Mack  Park ; 
the  Essex  Institute,  with  interesting  paintings 
and  relics,  and  a  library  of  100,000  volumes  and 
400,000  pamphlets;  the  Salem  Athenteum,  with  a 
libraiy  of  32,000  volumes;  the  Peabody  Academy 
of  Science,  the  home  of  the  East  India  Museum; 
and  the  public  library,  with  40,000  volumes.  One 
of  the  educational  institutions  is  a  State  Normal 
School.  There  are  in  the  city  an  almshouse,  the 
Bertram  Home  for  Aged  Men,  Home  for  Aged 
Women,  City  Orphan  Asylum,  and  Salem  Hos- 
pital, besides  two  other  hospitals.  Formerly 
noted  for  its  commercial  importance,  Salem  is 
at  present  primarily  an  industrial  city,  the  vari- 
ous industries  having  in  the  census  year  1900  an 
invested  capital  of  $7,450,935,  and  an  output 
valued  at  $12,257,449.  Boots  and  shoes,  cotton 
goods,  leather,  machinery,  and  lumber  products 
constitute  the  leading  manufactures.  The  gov- 
erament  is  vested  in  a  mayor,  chosen  annually, 
and  a  bicameral  council,  and  in  subordinate  of- 
ficials, who  are  either  elected  by  the  council  or 
chosen  by  popular  vote.  For  maintenance  and 
operation,  the  city  spends  annually  about  $552,- 
000,  the  main  items  being:  for  schools,  $118,000; 
interest  on  debt,  $52,000;  streets,  $52,000;  chari- 
ties, $47,000 ;  police  department,  $38,500 ;  munici- 
pal lighting;,  $37,000;  and  fire  department,  $36,- 
000.  The  water-works  are  owned  by  the  munici- 
pality.    Population,  in   1890,  30,801;   in  1900, 

Salem  (the  Indian  Naumkeag),  after  Blym- 
outh,  the  oldest  town  in  Massachusetts,  was 
first  settled  by  Roger  Conant  and  his  associates 
in  1026.  In  1628  (Governor  John  Endicott  at  the 
head  of  a  small  company  came  hither  from  Eng- 
land and  in  1629  the  present  name  was  adopted. 
In  1692  the  witchcraft  delusion  appeared  in  the 
district  later  set  apart  as  Danvers,  and  in  the 
six  months  from  March  to  September  nineteen 
persoDB  were  hanged  and  one  old  man  pressed  to 
death.    On  F^ruary  26,  1775,  a  spall  bod^  of 


English  troops  under  Colonel  Leslie,  sent  from 
Boston  to  destroy  supplies  stored  at  Salem,  was 
met  at  North  Bridge  and  forced  to  retire,  this 
being  one  of  the  first  instances  in  the  colonies 
of  armed  resistance  to  Great  Britain.  For  many 
years  after  the  Revolution,  Salem  was  an  im- 
portant commercial  centre,  and  it  was  by  Salem 
merchants  that  American  trade  was  opened  with 
China,  Japan,  Africa,  and  Brazil.  But,  the  depth 
of  the  harbor  being  insufficient  for  vessels  of 
large  draught,  Salem's  trade  was  gradually 
transferred  to  Boston  and  New  York.  Salem  was 
incorporated  as  a  town  in  1630  and  was  char- 
tered as  a  city  in  1836.  Consult:  Felt,  An- 
nals of  Salem  (Salem,  1845-49) ;  Osgood  and 
Batchelder,  HiMorioal  Sketch  of  Salem  (ib., 
1879) ;  Upham,  Salem  Witchcraft,  with  an  Ac- 
count of  Salem  Village  (Boston,  1867) ;  Webber 
and  Nevins,  Old  Naumkeag  (Salem,  1878) ; 
Nevins,  Witchcraft  in  Salem  Village  (ib.,  1892) ; 
and  a  sketch  in  Powell,  Historic  Totcna  of  the 
New  England  States  (New  York,  1898). 

SALEM.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Salem 
County,  N.  J.,  38  miles  south  by  west  of  Phila* 
delphia;  on  the  Salem  River,  near  its  confluence 
witn  the  Delaware,  and  on  the  West  Jersey  and 
Seashore  Railroad,  and  the  Salem  and  Philadel- 

?hia  Steamboat  Line  (Maj):  New  Jersey,  B  4). 
t  is  an  attractive  residential  place,  and  has  the 
John  Tyler  Library,  with  11,600  volumes,  and  the 
Friends*  Select  Graded  School.  The  surrounding 
region  is  engaged  in  farming.  Salem  is  an  im- 
portant industrial  centre,  its  principal  establish- 
ments including  glass  works,  fruit  and  vegetable 
canneries,  and  manufactories  of  oilcloth,  wall 
paper,  hosiery,  women's  garments,  iron  castings, 
machinery,  and  carriages.  The  government,  un- 
der the  revised  charter  of  1868,  is  vested  in  a 
mayor,  elected  evenr  three  years,  and  a  uni- 
cameral council.  The  water-works  are  owned 
and  operated  by  the  municipality.  Population, 
in  1890,  5516;  in  1900,  5811. 

Settled  in  1675  by  John  Fenwick  and  a  com- 
pany of  Quakers,  Salem  was  incorporated  as  a 
town  in  1695,  and  became  a  city  in  1858.  Dur- 
ing the  Revolution  it  was  alternately  occupied 
by  British  and  American  troops.  Consult  John- 
son, An  Historical  Account  of  the  First  Settle* 
ment  of  Salem  (Philadelphia,  1839). 

SALEM.  A  city  in  Forsyth  County,  N.  C, 
112  miles  west  by  north  of  Raleigh;  on  the 
Southern  and  the  Norfolk  and  Western  rail- 
roads (Map:  North  Carolina,  B  1).  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  Salem  Female  Academy  and  College 
(Moravian),  opened  in  1802.  Salem  is  chiefly 
a  residential  city  adjoining  Winston,  the  coun^- 
seat,  the  two  municipalities  forming  practically 
one  industrial  community.  (See  Winston.) 
Under  the  revised  charter  of  1891,  the  govern- 
ment is  vested  in  a  mayor,  elected  biennially, 
and  a  unicameral  council.  Salem  was  founded 
by  a  body  of  Moravians  in  1766  and  was  for 
many  years  distinctively  a  church  community — 
the  church  having  complete  charge  of  secular  as 
well  as  ecclesiastical  affairs.  Count  Zinzendorf 
drew  up  the  plans  on  which  Salem  was  laid  out. 
Population,  in  1890,  2711;  in  1900,  3642. 

SALEM.  A  city  in  Columbiana  County,  Ohio, 
70  miles  southeast  of  Cleveland;  on  the  Pitts- 
burg, Fort  Wajniie  and  Chicago,  and  the  Pitts- 
burg, Lisbon  and  Western  railroads  (Map:  Ohio, 
J  4) .  It  has  a  public  library.  Salem  is  the  cen- 
tre of  a  coal-mining  region,  and  mfiliufactures 


SALEM. 


868 


SALERNO. 


oomicee,  engines,  steel,  wire  nails,  pumps,  tools, 
feed  cutters,  riveting  machines,  cnina,  stoves, 
tile,  brick,  furniture,  etc.  The  government  is 
vested  in  a  mayor  chosen  biennially,  a  unicam- 
eral council,  and  boards  of  public  service  and 
public  safety.  Settled  in  1807  Salem  was  in- 
corporated as  a  village  in  1830,  and  was  char« 
tered  as  a  city  in  1887.  It  was  a  station  of  the 
underground  railway  (q.v.)  before  the  Civil  War. 
Population,  in  1890,  5780;  in  1900,  7582. 

SALEM.  The  capital  of  Oregon,  and  the  coun- 
ty-seat of  Marion  County,  52  miles  south  of 
Portland;  on  the  Willamette  River,  and  on  the 
Southern  Pacific  Railroad  (Map:  Oregon,  G  5). 
It  is  situated  on  ground  rising  gradually  from 
the  river,  and  has  wide  and  beautifully  shaded 
streets.  The  State  Capitol,  a  handsome  building 
surmounted  by  a  high  dome,  occupies  a  site 
overlooking  the  city.  Other  prominent  struc- 
tures are  the  Federal  building,  city  hall,  court- 
house, State  Penitentiary,  State  Insane  Asylum, 
and  the  opera  house.  Salem  is  the  seat  of  Wil- 
lamette University,  originally  founded  by  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  as  an  Indian  school 
and  opened  as  a  university  in  1844 ;  the  Academy 
of  the  Sacred  Heart ;  and  a  large  Indian  Training 
School.  The  State  School  for  Deaf  Mutes,  the 
State  Institute  for  the  Blind,  and  the  State  Re- 
form School  also  are  here.  The  State  Library  has 
25,000  volumes,  and  there  are  also  in  the  city 
Masonic  and  Odd  Fellows  libraries.  Salem  is 
surrounded  by  a  region  having  extensive  fruit, 
hop,  and  wheat  interests,  and  is  of  considerable 
industrial  importance.  Flour,  woolens,  foundry 
and  lumber  products,  and  machinery  constitute 
the  leading  manufactures.  The  government  is 
vested  in  a  mayor,  elected  biennially,  and  a  imi- 
cameral  council.    Population,  in  1900,  4258. 

Salem  was  laid  out  in  1844  near  the  site  of  a 
Methodist  mission,  established  ten  years  earlier. 
It  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1853.  In  1864,  by 
a  popular  vote,  it  was  made  the  permanent  State 
capital,  though  the  Legislature  had  previously 
met  in  the  city,  and  in  1857  the  Constitutional 
Convention  had  been  in  session  here. 

SALEM.  A  town  and  the  county-seat  of 
Roanoke  County,  Va.,  seven  miles  west  of  Roa- 
noke; on  the  Roanoke  River,  and  on  the  Norfolk 
and  Western  Railroad  ( Map :  Virginia,  D  4 ) .  The 
scenery  afforded  by  the  Alleghany  and  Blue  Ridge 
Mountains  in  the  vicinity  of  Salem  is  very  beau- 
tiful. The  town  is  the  seat  of  Roanoke  College 
(Lutheran),  opened  in  1853;  and  has  a  Lutheran 
and  a  Baptist  orphanage.  Farming,  stock-raising, 
and  fruit-growing  are  the  leading  industries  of 
the  surrotmding  district.  There  are  deposits  of 
iron,  and  several  sulphur  springs.  Salem  manu- 
factures leather,  wagons,  agricultural  implements, 
machinery,  brick,  mattresses,  woolen  goods,  etc. 
The  government  is  vested  in  a  mayor,  chosen  bi- 
ennially, and  a- unicameral  council.  The  water- 
works and  electric  light  plant  are  owned  and 
operated  by  the  municipality.  Settled  in  1802. 
Salem  was  incorporated  in  1836,  and  received 
its  present  charter  in  1892.  The  town  stands  on 
land  originally  granted  by  GJeorge  III.  to  An- 
drew Lewis.  Population,  in  1890,  3279;  in  1900, 
3412. 

SALEMI,  sA-lft'md  (Lat.  Ualicyce).  A  city 
in  the  Province  of  Trapani,  Sicily,  64  miles  by 
rail  southwest  of  Palermo  (Map:  Italy,  G  10). 
It  is  situated  on  a  hill  1450  feet  above  the  sea 


and  four  miles  west  of  the  railway  station.  It 
has  a  ruined  castle,  a  library,  a  technical  school, 
and  a  gymnasium,  and  markets  grain,  wine,  oil, 
and  cattle.  Population  (commune),  in  1901, 
17,004. 

SALEBATUS  (Neo-Lat.,  formerly  sal  aero- 
iu8,  aerated  salt ) .  A  name  applied  to  potassium 
bicarbonate,  which  was  formerly  much  used  in 
cooking,  as  sodium  bicarbonate  (cooking  soda) 
is  used  at  present.  It  may  be  made  by  passing 
carbonic  acid  gas  through  a  solution  of  potas- 
sium carbonate  (K,COt)  &&  loujg  as  any  gas  is 
absorbed,  then  filtering  the  liquid  and  evaporat- 
ing to  crystallization.  Potassium  bicarbonate 
(KHCO,)  is  a  colorless  and  odorless  compound. 
It  still  finds  some  use  in  medicine. 

SALEBKO,  s&ler^n^  (Lat.  Balcmum).  The 
capital  of  the  Province  of  Salerno  (formerly 
Principato  Citeriore),  Italy,  and  the  seat  of  an 
archbishop.  It  is  beautifully  situated  at  the 
head  of  the  Gulf  of  Salerno,  34  miles  southeast 
of  Naples  (Map:  Italy,  J  7).  The  principal 
street  is  the  Corso  Garibaldi  along  the  water 
front.  The  harbor  is  protected  from  sand  by  a 
mole.  There  are  good  hotels,  a  municipal  theatre, 
three  hospitals  and  normal,  classical,  and  tech- 
nical schools.  The  medical  school  of  Salerno  was 
the  doyen  of  medical  faculties  in  Europe.  ({See 
Salebno,  School  of.  )  The  Cathedral  San  Matteo 
was  built  by  Robert  Guiscard  (q.v.)  and  dedi- 
cated in  1084,  but  suffered  by  the  restoration  of 
1768.  Along  the  walls  of  the  atrium  are  four- 
teen ancient  sarcophagi  used  for  Christian  burials 
by  the  Normans.  The  bronze  doors  made  in 
Constantinople  date  from  the  eleventh  century 
and  in  the  interior  are  ancient  mosaics  and  fres- 
coes. On  the  hill  above  the  town  are  the  ruins 
of  a  Lombard  castle.  Salerno  markets  wine,  oil, 
fruit,  cotton,  tobacco,  and  silk,  and  manufactures 
cotton  and  w^oolen  gonods.  The  ancient  Salcmumy 
which  at  the  time  of  the  Second  Samnite  War 
still  belonged  to  the  Samnites,  became  later  a 
Roman  colony.  After  the  fall  of  the  Western 
Empire  the  town  was  successively  held  by  the 
Lombards,  the  Normans,  and  the  houses  of  Hohen- 
staufen  and  Anjou.  Population  (commune),  in 
1881,  31,245;  in  1901,  42,727.  Consult  Schipa, 
Storia  del  principato  longohardo  di  Salerno 
(Naples,  1887), 

SALEKNOy  Gulf  of,  or  Gulf  of  P^stuil 
An  arm  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  on  the  west- 
em  coast  of  Italy,  southeast  of  the  Bay  of 
Naples  (Map:  Italy,  J  7).  It  is  36  miles  wide 
at  its  entrance,  and  sweeps  inland  for  24  miles. 
On  its  shores  are  the  towns  of  Amalfi  and  Sa- 
lerno. 

SALEBNO,  School  of.  A  once  famous  medi- 
cal school  at  Salerno,  Italy.  As  early  as  the 
tenth  century  Salerno  was  famous  for  its  numer- 
ous physicians.  Ordericus  Vitalis  (q.v.),  who 
first  mentions  the  medical  school,  ascribes  to  it 
an  ancient  origin,  but  the  attempt  to  trace  its 
inception  to  Saracen  influence  has  been  refuted 
by  Henschel,  Daremberg,  and  De  Renzi.  After 
the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century  the  system 
of  medicine  -known  as  'Methodism'  in  vogue  at 
Salerno,  whose  chief  representative  in  antiquity 
was  Cselius  Aurelianus,  gave  way  to  that  of 
'Humorism/  based  on  Hippocrates  and  Galen,  and 
from  this  time  dates  the  Medical  Renaissance. 
In  1253  the  faculties  of  Naples  were  transferred 
to  Salerno,  thus  transformmg  it  into  a  univer* 


8ALEBN0. 


859 


fiALICYLATES. 


8ity  for  a  short  time.  They,  hgwever,  returned 
to  Naples  in  1258,  the  union  not  having  realized 
the  anticipated  prosperity.  Women  studied  and 
taught  there,  thus  anticipating  our  coeducational 
institutions.  The  introduction  of  Arabic  medi- 
cine in  other  medical  institutions  was  the  main 
cause  of  decline  of  the  school.  In  the  beginning, 
of  the  fourteenth  century  its  prestige  had  com- 
pletely passed  away,  and  henceforth  its  decline 
continued  until  in  1811  it  was  reduced  to  a  mere 
gymnasium,  and  in  1817  it  ceased  to  exist. 
SALES.    See  Sale. 

SAIiES,  Sauvt  FjtAifciB  db.  See  Fbaitcis  de 
Saues. 

SAIiSTEB  (s&-ll^§r)  ISI^ANBS.  A  group 
of  islands  near  Celebes.    See  Salatek  Islands. 

SAIi^ZA,  s&a&'z&^  Albebt  (1867—).  A 
French  operatic  tenor,  bom  at  Bruges.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Paris  Conservatory  and  made 
his  d6but  at  the  Op6ra  Comique  in  1888.  He 
created  the  rOles  of  MacBS  in  Berlioz's  Prise  de 
Troie  and  Richmond  in  Salvayre*s  Richard  III, 
at  Nice,  in  which  city  he  sang  from  1889  to 
1891.  The  following  year  he  was  engaged  in  the 
Grand  Op^ra,  Paris,  and  appeared  in  the  first 
performances  of  Beyer's  SaUunmhd  and  Verdi's 
Oiello,  In  1898  he  made  his  American  d^but,  and 
was  especially  successful  in  his  interpretations  of 
Italian  rdles. 

8AI«FOBI>,  sftKferd.  A  municipal  county  and 
Parliamentary  borough  in  Lancashire,  England, 
virtually  a  portion  of  the  city  of  Manchester 

(Map:  En^and,  D  3),  It  possesses  an  older 
municipal  history  than  its  larger  neighbor,  hav- 
ing obtained  its  first  charter  in  1231,  and  a  char- 
ter, of  incorporation  in  1844.  Several  railway 
viaducts  and  16  bridges  connect  it  with  Man- 
chester. The  borough  covers  an  area  of  eight  - 
square  miles;  it  has  fine  libraries,  a  museum  and 
art  gallery  in  the  beautiful  Peel  Park,  one  of 
four  parks  with  a  total  area  of  83  acres.  Popu- 
lation, in  1891,  198,139;  in  1901,  220,956.  Con- 
sult:   Darbyshire,    Olde   Manchester   d    Salford 

(Manchester,   1887)  ;   The  Official  Handbook  of 
Manchester  and  Salford  (Manchester,  1899). 

SAI<o6TABJAn,  sh6l^go-t5r-yan.  A  town  of 
Hungary,  in  the  ClJounty  of  Ndgrftd,  78  miles 
by  rail  northeast  of  Budapest.  The  coal- 
mining interests  are  important  and  the  town  has 
iron  works.  There  are,  for  working  men,  a  hos- 
pital, baths,  and  schools.  Population,  in  1900, 
13,552. 

SAIiICIN  (from  Lat.  salix,  willow), 
CJH4(0H)CH,(0C»HiA).  A  member  of  the 
group  of  organic  compounds  to  which  the  term 
^lucosides  is  applied  by  chemists — ^a  group  which 
18  snecially  characterized  by  the  fart  that  each 
of  its  members,  when  exposed  to  the  action  of 
dilute  acids  or  of  ferments,  takes  up  water  and 
breaks  up  into  sugar  and  other  compounds. 
Salicin  occurs  in  the  bark  of  the  various  species 
of  willow  and  poplar.  It  may  be  obtained  in 
small,  colorless,  glistening  prisms  of  an  intense- 
ly bitter  taste,  which  are  readily  soluble  in  hot 
water  and  in  alcohol,  moderately  soluble  in  cold 
water,  and  insoluble  in  ether  and  chloroform. 
If  introduced  into  the  body,  salicin  is  decom- 
posed with  formation  of  salicylic  acid,  which  is 
then  rapidly  absorbed,  probably  in  the  form  of 
its  sodium  salt.  The  physiological  action  of 
salicin  is  therefore  in  almost  all  respects  identi- 


cal with  that  of  salicylic  acid  (q.v.).  Salicin^ 
however,  has  a  much  less  irritating  effect  on  the 
stomach,  and  a  much  weaker  depressing  effect 
on  the  heart,  than  free  salicylic  acid. 

SALIC  LAW  {Lex  Salioa) .  One  of  the  earli- 
est of  the  so-called  'laws  of  barbarians,'  which 
were  put  into  written  form  in  very  corrupt  Latin 
between  the  middle  of  the  fifth  and  the  beginning 
of  the  ninth  century,  and  which  set  forth  tne  cus- 
tomary law  of  the  different  (Jerman  tribes.  The 
Lex  Salica  contains  a  part  of  the  law  govern- 
ing the  Salian  or  Merovingian  Franks.  A  pro- 
logue of  much  later  date  than  the  Lex  itself 
places  its  composition  in  a  period  in  which  the 
Franks  were  governed  by  many  chiefs  {pro* 
ceres)  ;  but  from  internal  evidence  the  Lex  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  drawn  up  in  the  reign  of 
Clovis  and  near  the  close  of  the  fifth  century 
(A.D.  486-496).  It  consists  largely  of  tariffs  of 
'compositions'  to  be  paid  for  various  injuries, 
and  it  deals  mainly  with  what  we  should  call  th^ 
law  of  torts  and  crimes  and  the  law  of  procedure. 
Of  its  original  65  titles,  only  six  or  seven  are  de- 
voted to  the  law  of  family,  property  and  inheri- 
tance. The  older  manuscripts  contain  the  so- 
called  'Malberg  gloss' — ^interpolated  Frank  words 
and  phrases,  which  serve  in  some  cases  to  explain 
the  Latin  words,  in  other  cases  to  indicate  the 
formal  words  to  be  employed  in  legal  proceed- 
ings. 

During  the  following  three  centuries  much 
new  matter  was  inserted  by  private  copyists,  a 
fact  which  renders  the  reconstruction  of  the 
original  text  more  or  less  uncertain.  A  revised 
text,  dating  from  the  Carolingian  period,  in 
which  the  Latin  was  purged  of  its  worst  bar- 
barisms and  the  Malberg  gloss  eliminated,  is 
known  as  the  Lex  Emendata.  The  term  *Salic 
law'  is  often  applied  exclusively  to  that  part  of 
the  law  which  relates  to  inheritance  by  women. 
The  paragraph  reads  as  follows:  "But  of  Salic 
land,  no  portion  of  the  inheritance  shall  come  to 
a  woman;  but  the  whole  inheritance  of  the  land 
shall  come  to  the  male  sex."  It  is  evident 
that  there  is  no  question  here  of  a  woman's  in- 
heriting the  throne,  as  is  popularly  supposed. 
The  term  Salic  law  was  first  employed,  m  this 
sense,  in  connection  with  the  exclusion  of  women 
from  the  throne  in  France  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, during  the  struggle  between  Philip  VI.  and 
Edward  III.  of  England  for  the  French  crown. 
This  law  was  introduced  into  Spain  by  Philip  V. 
in  1714,  but  was  revoked  again  by  Ferdinand 
VII.  in  1830. 

The  best  text  is  Hessels,  Lex  Salica  (Lon- 
don, 1880).  The  literature,  which  is  ex- 
tensive, is  cited  in  Brunner,  Deutsche  Rechts- 
geschichte  (Leipzig,  1887),  i.,  pp.  293  et  seq.; 
Viollet,  Precis  de  Vhistoire  du  droit  Francaia 
(Paris,  1885),  pp.  95  et  seq.;  and  in  Esmein, 
Cours  4lementaire  d^histoire  du  droit  Franca/ia 
(Paris,  1892),  pp.  103  et  seq. 

SALICYLATES  (from  Lat.  salix,  willow), 
Medical  Uses  of  the.  The  chief  salicylates  are 
those  of  sodium  and  lithium,  together  with 
methyl  salicylate  or  in  the  form  of  oil  of  win- 
tergreen.  They  are  employed  in  the  place  of 
salicylic  acid,  because  they  are  less  irritating  to 
the  stomach,  less  depressing  to  the  heart,  and 
less  liable  to  give  rise  to  the  disagreeable  train 
of  svifiptoms  called  salicylism.  The  more  marked 
of  these  are  ringing  in  the  ears,  deafness,  partial 


SALICYLAfBfit. 


8d0 


^At.tf 


blindness,  headache,  vomitin|f,  and  delirium.  The 
ehief  use  of  the  salicylates  is  in  rheumatism,  in 
many  acute  cases  of  which  they  seem  to  possess 
a  specific  effect.  The  sodium  salt  is  more  effec- 
tive in  acute,  the  lithium  salt  in  chronic  rheu- 
inatismi  When  given  in  rheumatic  fever,  sodium 
salicylate  and  salicylic  acid  cause  a  fall  of  tem- 
perature, and  marked  relief  from  pain,  and  it  is 
thought  they  diminish  the  likelihood  of  the  car- 
diac complications  so  characteristic  of  this  dis- 
ease. (See  Rheumatism.)  Salicylate  of  sodium 
is  used  with  success  for  causing  the  absorption 
of  pleural  effusions,  in  conjunction  with  pur^^- 
tives  and  diuretics.  In  qumsy  and  true  tonsil- 
litis, especially  of  rheumatic  origin,  the  salicy- 
lates will  often  prevent  suppuration,  shorten  the 
attack,  and  promptly  relieve  the  pain  and  swell- 
ing. 

Mercury  salicylate  has  the  properties  of  a 
mercurial  rather  than  those  of  salicylic  acid  and 
is  employed  as  a  hypodermic  injection  in  urgent 
cases  of  syphilis.  Bismuth  salicylate  is  an  in- 
testinal antiseptic  much  used  in  Europe.  See 
Salictuc  Acid. 

SALICYLIC  ACID,  €.H4(0H)C00H.  An 
important  compound  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
oxygen,  existing  in  combination  in  various  plants. 
It  is  the  chief  component  of  oil  of  wintergreen, 
which  is  obtained  by  distilling  the  blossoms  of 
the  Gaultheria  procumbens;  it  is  likewise  com- 
bined in  the  volatile  oil  of  betula,  obtained  by 
distilling  the  bark  of  the  sweet  birch  {Betula 
lenta).  Salicylic  acid  is  employed  in  the  manu- 
facture of  certain  dyestuffs;  and  as  it  has  no 
odor  and  acts  as  a  powerful  antiseptic,  it  is  ex- 
tensively used  for  the  preservation  of  various 
articles  of  food,  such  as  eggs,  milk,  fruit,  pickled 
vegetables,  etc.  It  is  also  added  to  wine  and 
beer  to  check  fermentation,  and  thus  to  prevent 
the  formation  of  deleterious  products.    In  small 

?[uantities  the  acid  is  perfectly  harmless.  If  the 
ood,  however,  is  very  poor,  it  requires  a  rather 
large  amount  of  acid  to  mask  its  disagreeable 
qualities  and  keep  it  fit  for  sale.  Now,  the 
combined  effect  of  spoiled  food  and  a  great  deal 
of  the  acid  may  be  more  or  less  injurious;  and 
therefore  the  addition  of  salicylic  acid  to  beer 
has,  in  several  Euronean  countries,  been  forbid- 
den by  law.  The  salts  of  salicylic  acid  do  not 
possess  the  antiseptic  properties  of  the  acid.  The 
salt  most  commonly  used  is  the  salicylate  of 
sodium,  a  white  powder  very  soluble  in  water  and 
having  a  sweetish,  saline  taste.  The  acid,  or 
preferably  its  sodium  salt,  is  used  in  medicine  for 
a  variety  of  purposes.  It  is  a  specific  for  many 
cases  of  acute  rheumatism,  producing  rapid  ces- 
sation of  pain  and  a  lowering  of  febrile  tempera- 
ture. In  many  persons,  however,  the  acid  itself 
and  its  salts  are  liable  to  produce  peculiar  symp- 
toms known  as  salicylism :  there  is  ringing  in  the 
ears,  headache,  irregular  pulse,  etc.  Continued 
administration  of  the  drug  to  such  persons  may 
cause  violent  delirium  and  eventually  death. 

Salicylic  acid  is  manufactured  either  from  oil 
of  wintergreen  or  from  carbolic  acid  (phenol). 
Oil  of  wintergreen  is  composed  mainly  of  methyl 
salicylate,  the  ethereal  salt  or  ester  formed  by 
the  combination  of  methyl  alcohol  with  salicylic 
acid.  When  the  ester  is  boiled  with  caustic 
potash,  it  decomposes  into  its  constituents,  and 
thus  the  acid  is  obtained  in  the  form  of  its 
potassium  salt.  Hydrochloric  acid  readily  takes 
up  the  metal   of   the   latter,   setting   free   its 


salicylic  acid,  which  may  then  be  rendered  pufd 
by  reciystallixation  from  alcohol.  At  present, 
however,  salicylic  acid  is  manufactured  mostly 
from  phenol.  Phenol  (carbolic  acid)  combines 
with  caustic  soda,  yielding  sodium  phenate;  and 
when  the  latter  is  heated  to  120*'  to  140*"  G. 
(250''  to  285''  F.)  with  carbonic  acid  gas  under 
pressure,  or  preferably  with  liquid  carbonic  acid 
in  closed  iron  vessels,  the  sodium  salt  of  salicylic 
acid  is  produced.  This  salt  is  decomposed  with 
hydrochloric  acid,  and  the  salicylic  acid  set  free 
is  purified  by  recrystallizing  from  ordinary  alco- 
hol or  by  distilling  with  a  current  of  steam. 

When  heated  with  lime,  salicydic  acid  loses 
the  elements  of  carbonic  acid  and  is  reconverted 
into  phenol.  Pure  salicylic  acid  is  a  white  ciys- 
talline  substance,  very  soluble  in  alcohol,  spar- 
ingly soluble  in  water,  and  having  a  sweeUsh- 
sour  taste.  Its  presence  in  a  given  article  is 
usually  detected  by  means  of  ferric  chloride, 
which  imparts  to  solutions  of  the  acid  an  in- 
tense violet  coloration. 

SALIDA,  sA-lI^dA  or  Wdk.  A  city  in  Chaffee 
County,  Colo.,  97  miles  west  bv  north  of  Pueblo; 
on  the  Denver  and  Rio  Grande  Railroad  (Map: 
Colorado,  £  2).  It  is  situated  in  a  section 
noted  for  its  mineral  wealth  and  for  its  rich 
agricultural  lands.  There  are  a  smelting  plant 
and  repair  and  construction  shops  of  the  Denver 
and  Rio  Grande  Railroad.  Salida  Academy,  a 
public  library,  and  the  Denver  and  Rio  Grande 
Hospital  are  features  of  the  city.  The  water- 
works are  owned  by  the  municipality.  Popula- 
tion, in  1890,  2586;  in  1900,  3722. 

SALIENT  (Fr.  sallient,  from  Lat.  9aUen9, 
pres.  part,  of  salire,  to  leap) .  In  heraldry  (q.v.) , 
a  lion  represented  in  the  act  of  springing  on 
its  prey. 

SALIENT.    See  fV>BTiFiCATioN. 

SALIEBI,  8&-ly&^r«,  Antonio  (1750-1825). 
An  Italian  composer,  bom  in  Legnano.  In  1765 
he  entered  the  San  Marco  singing  school,  Venice, 
and  shortly  afterwards  went  to  Vienna  as  a  pupil 
of  Gassmann.  In  1770  he  produced  his  first 
opera,  Le  donne  letterate,  with  great  success. 
He  was  a  very  popular  composer  in  his  time, 
but  is  now  almost  entirely  forgotten.  His  chief 
fame  was  as  a  composer  of  dramatic  and  church 
music.  Of  his  operas  Les  Danatdes  (1784)  and 
Tarare  (1787)  are  considered  the  beet.  He  wrote 
in  all  46  operas,  3  oratorios,  8  cantatas,  2  sym- 
phonies, and  many  miscellaneous  compositions. 
Among  his  pupils  were  Beethoven  and  bchubert. 
He  di^  in  Vienna. 

SALIGBAMI,  s&a«-gril'm6.  A  river  of  India. 
See  Gandak. 

SALU,  s&^M  (Lat.,  dancers).  A  Roman 
priesthood,  consecrated  to  the  service  of  the  war- 
god.  They  appear  to  have  existed  in  both  the 
early  communities  that  combined  to  form  the 
city  of  Rome,  those  of  the  Palatine  {Salii  Pala- 
tini) serving  Mars,  those  of  the  Quirinal  (Salii 
Collini  or  Agonenses)  originally  Quirinus.  Later 
the  joint  body  was  regarded  as  under  the  pro- 
tection of  Jupiter,  Mars,  and  Quirinus.  The 
Salii  were  performers  of  the  war-dances  in  honor 
of  the  god.  Each  body  numbered  12,  and  each 
had  its  own  head  and  ritual.  They  wore  the  old 
military  garb,  a  blood-red  tunic,  breastplate,  and 
pointed  helmet,  and  carried  a  sword,  and  espe- 
cially the  sacred  shields  and  spears,  kept  always 


ftAT.TT 


861 


8ALI8BXTB7. 


in  the  BegU,  and  of  which  it  was  said  that  one 
of  each  had  fallen  from  heaven.  Their  chief 
festiyals  seem  to  have  been  the  Quinquatru8  in 
March,  i.e.  at  the  opening  of  the  campaigning 
season,  and  the  Armiluatrium  in  October,  when 
the  purifications  for  the  closed  campaign  were 
made. 

SATf-TNAy  ak'Wuk.  One  of  the  Lipari  Islands 
(q.v.). 

SAUNA.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Sa- 
line County^  Kan.,  100  miles  west  of  Topeka; 
on  the  Smoky  Hill  River,  and  on  the  Union  Pa- 
cific, the  Missouri  Pacific,  the  Chicago,  Rock 
Island  and  Pacific,  and  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and 
Santa  Fe  railroads  (Map:  Kansas,  E  3).  It  is 
the  seat  of  Kansas  Wesleyan  University  ( Metho- 
dist Episcopal),  opened  in  1886.  The  city  also 
has  the  SaUna  Normal  University,  Saint  John's 
School,  a  public  library,  Oak  Dale  Park,  and  a 
fine  Government  building.  Salina  is  the  com- 
mercial centre  of  a  farming  and  stock-raising 
region.  There  are  several  grain  elevators,  two 
large  wholesale  groceries,  and  manufactories  of 
flour,  carriages,  and  foundry  products.  The  gov- 
ernment is  vested  in  a  mayor,  elected  biennially, 
and  a  unicameral  council.  Salina  was  settled 
about  1860,  incorporated  as  a  city  of  the  third 
class  in  1870,  and  received  its  present  charter  as 
a  city  of  the  second  class  in  1878.  Population,  in 
1890,  6149;  in  1900,  6074. 

BATirWAB,  s&l^n&s.  A  city  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Monterey  County,  Cal.,  118  miles  south- 
east of  San  Francisco;  on  the  Southern  Pacific 
Railroad  (Map:  California,  C  3).  It  is  the  cen- 
tre of  a  fertile  section  producing  sugar  beets, 
potatoes,  and  wheat,  and  having  important  dairy- 
ing and  stock-raising  interests.  Flour  and  ma- 
chine-shop products  constitute  the  leading  manu- 
factures. The  Spreckels  Beet  Sugar  Factory, 
one  of  the  largest  concerns  of  its  kind  in  the 
world,  is  four  miles  from  the  city.  Population, 
in  1890,  2339;  in  1900,  3304. 

aALOTA  BTAGE.  A  subdivision  of  the  Silu- 
rian system  red^iving  its  name  from  Salina,  N. 
Y.,  and  comprising  a  series  of  shales  and  marls 
with  beds  of  rock)  sail  and  gypsum.  The  rocks 
are  of  most  importance  in  New  York,  Ohio,  and 
Pennsylvania,  where  they  are  the  basis  of  an  ex- 
tensive salt  industry.    See  Silurian  System. 

SALIKS,  s&lftN^  A  watering-place  in  the 
Department  of  Jura,  France,  30  miles  south  by 
west  of  Besancon,  on  the  Furieuse  River  (Map: 
France,  M  5).  It  is  situated  amid  pictureauque 
scenery  and  has  numerous  mineral  springs.  The 
extensive  thermal  establishment  in  wnich  the  salt 
of  the  springs  is  also  prepared  for  the  market  is 
one  of  the  chief  buildings  in  the  town.  Popula- 
tion, in  1901,  5525. 

BATiTRBTTBYy  sftlz^er-I,  or  New  Sabum.  The 
capital  of  Wiltshire,  England,  an  episcopal  city 
on  the  Avon,  at  its  junction  with  two  affluents,  81 
miles  west-southwest  of  London,  and  23  miles 
northwest  of  Southampton  (Map:  England,  E  5). 
The  town  dates  from  1220,  in  which  year  the  ca- 
thedral was  founded.  The  cathedral,  the  principal 
building  of  Salisbury,  is  one  of  the  finest  speci- 
mens of  early  English  architecture.  It  was 
completed  in  1286.    The  spire  is  the  "most  ele- 

Sint  in  proportions   and  the  loftiest   in   Eng- 
nd."     Its   neight   from  the  pavement   is   406 
feet     The  cathedral  is  473  feet  long;  height  in 


the  interior,  81  feet;  width  oi  great  irafl< 
sept,  203  feet.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a  double 
cross,  is  perfect  in  its  plan  and  proportions,  and 
in  the  main  uniform  in  style.  The  west  front  is 
beautiful  and  graceful,  though  now  stripped  of 
statues,  with  which  it  was  once  enriched.  Other 
interesting  buildings  are  the  bishop's  palace,  the 
deanery,  the  King's  house,  the  hall  of  John  Hallci 
and  the  Poultry  Cross  with  six  arches  built  in 
1330.  There  are  a  fine  museum,  several  impor- 
tant educational  institutions,  and  many  chari- 
ties. The  town  maintains  its  water  supply,  mar- 
kets, river  baths,  technical  school,  public  library, 
sewage  farm,  and  two  cemeteries.  The  trade  is 
chiefly  agricultural ;  cutlery  and  woolen  manufac- 
tures, formerly  important,  are  abandoned.  Popu- 
lation, in  1891,  15,500;  in  1901,  17,100.  Consult 
White,  Salisbury  Cathedral  (London,  1896). 

SALISBUBY.  A  town  in  Litchfield  County, 
Conn.,  63  miles  northwest  of  Hartford;  on 
the  Housatonic  River,  and  on  the  Philadelphia, 
Reading  and  New  England  Railroad  (Map: 
Connecticut,  B  2).  It  is  attractively  situated 
in  a  region  noted  for  its  numerous  lakes 
and  the  general  beauty  of  its  scenery.  It 
has  a  State  School  for  Imbeciles,  Hotchkiss 
School  for  Boys,  and  the  Scoville  Memorial  Li- 
brary, with  over  6000  volumes.  Iron-mining  and 
farming  are  important  industries;  and  there  are 
manufactures  of  cutlery,  cutlery  handles,  car 
wheels,  and  various  foimdry  products.  Popula- 
tion, in  1890,  3420;  in  1900,  3489.  Settled  in 
1722,  and  laid  out  ten  years  later,  Salisbury  was 
incorporated  as  a  town  in  1741.  Ethan  Allen 
lived  here  for  some  years  prior  to  the  Revolution. 
Consult  Rudd,  An  Biatortcal  Sketch  of  Salisbury 
(New  York,  1899). 

SALISBUBY.  A  town  and  the  county-seat  of 
Wicomico  County,  Md.,  100  miles  southeast  of 
Baltimore;  on  the  Wicomico  River  and  6n  the 
Baltimore,  Chesapeake  and  Atlantic  and  the 
New  York,  Philadelphia  and  Norfolk  railroads 
(Map:  Maryland,  P  7).  It  has  large  lumber  in- 
terests, repair  shops  of  the  Baltimore,  (Chesapeake 
and  Atlantic  Railroad,  and  extensive  canning 
establishments.  Flour,  baskets,  fertilizers,  and 
lumber  products  also  are  manufactured.  Under 
the  charter  of  1888  the  government  is  vested  in 
a  mayor,  chosen  biennially,  and  a  unicameral 
council.  Population,  in  1890,  2905;  in  1900, 
4277. 

SAXISBTTBY.  A  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Rowan  County,  N.  C,  118  miles  west  of  Raleigh; 
on  the  Southern  Railway  (Map:  North  Carolina, 
B  2).  It  is  the  seat  of  Livingstone  College 
(African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion),  opened  in 
1882;  of  the  colored  State  Normal  School,  and 
various  secondary  institutions.  The  national 
cemetery  here  contains  12,145  graves,  including 
12,035  of  unknown  dead.  Salisbury  is  in  a  farm- 
ing and  fruit-growing  section,  and  has  shops  of 
the  Southern  Railway,  and  manufactories  of  cot- 
ton, hosiery  and  knit  goods,  wooden  ware,  foun- 
dry and  lumber  produces,  felt  mattresses,  braided 
cord,  and  brick.  The  water-works  are  owned  by 
the  municipality.  A  Confederate  military  prison 
was  situated  in  Salisbury  during  the  Civil  War. 
Population,  in  1890,  4418;  in  1900,  6277. 

SAXISBTTBY,  Edward Elbbidqe  (1814-1901), 
An  American  Orientalist  and  philologist,  bom  in 
Boston.  He  graduated  from  Yale  in  1832  and 
after  a  further  course  of  theology  there,  studied 


AALISBXTBY. 


862 


8ALISHAH  STOCK. 


Ori^tal  lang^iages  in  Paris  and  Berlin.  In  1841 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  Arabic  and  San- 
skrit at  Yale.  In  1854  he  surrendered  his  San- 
skrit work  to  Whitney,  remaining  professor  of 
Arabic  until  1856.  Ue  endowed  the  Sanskrit 
professorship  of  the  college,  and  later  gave  his 
Oriental  library  to  the  university.  He  was  a 
prolific  contributor  on  Oriental  languages  and 
literatures  to  the  Journal  of  the  American  Ori- 
ental Society,  of  which  he  was  the  leading  spirit 
for  many  years.  Consult  Hopkins,  India,  Old 
and  New  (New  York,  1901 ) . 

SALISBXTBY,  Robebt  Abthub  Talbot  Gas- 
coyne-Cecil,  third  Marquis  of  (1830-1903).  An 
English  statesman,  bom  at  Hatfield,  Hertford- 
shire, February  3,  1830;  a  lineal  descendant  of 
Lord  Burleigh  and  Robert  Cecil,  first  Earl  of 
Salisbury.  He  received  his  bachelor's  degree  at 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in  1849,  and  in  1853  was 
elected  fellow  of  All  Souls'  College.  In  the  same 
year  he  entered  Parliament  as  the  representative 
of  Stamford.  With  the  year  1859  he  began  to 
be  considered  as  a  distinct  force  among  the  Con- 
servatives. In  1865  his  elder  brother  died  and 
he  became  heir  to  the  marqulsate  and  assumed 
the  courtesy  title  of  Viscount  Cranborne.  In 
the  Derby  Ministry  of  1866  Lord  Cranborne  was 
taken  into  the  Cabinet  as  Secretary  of  State  for 
India.  He  had  made  a  thorough  study  of  the 
problems  which  this  office  presented,  but  after 
holding  the  office  for  less  than  a  year  resigned 
because  of  his  opposition  to  the  Reform  Bill 
brought  in  by  his  colleagues.  In  1868  his  father 
died  and  he  was  transferred  to  the  House  of 
Lords  as  Marquis  of  Salisbury.  In  1869  he  became 
chancellor  of  the  University  of  Oxford.  This 
was  a  distinct  recognition  of  his  attitude  toward 
Church  questions,  for  from  his  entrance  into 
public  life  he  had  been  a  vigorous  defender  of  the 
Church  of  England.  From  1868  to  1874,  the 
period  of  Gladstone's  first  Ministry,  Salisbury 
was  not  a  very  conspicuous  figure  in  politics,  but 
when  the  Conservatives,  under  Disraeli,  returned 
to  power  in  1874,  Salisbury  again  entered  the 
Cabinet  as  Secretary  of  State  for  India.  He  was 
almost  the  only  Minister  who  heartily  supported 
the  new  Premier's  imperialist  policy.  Because 
of  his  agreement  with  his  chief  on  this  point  and 
his  knowledge  of  Eastern  afi'airs,  he  was  chosen 
in  1876  as  the  British  representative  to  the  Con- 
ference of  Constantinople,  which  was  called  with 
a  view  of  forcing  reforms  upon  the  Porte.  Two 
years  later  Lord  Derbv  withdrew  from  the 
Cabinet  and  Salisbury  took  his  place  as  Sec- 
retary of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs.  In  this 
capacity  he  accompanied  Lord  Beaconsfield  as 
plenipotentiary  to  the  Congress  of  Berlin,  but 
gained  litle  glory  from  the  mission,  as  he 
seemed  to  have  been  entirely  subservient  to 
the  Premier  and  his  jingo  policy.  Upon  the 
death  of  Lord  Beaconsfield  in  1881  Lord  Salis- 
bury was  chosen  leader  of  the  Conservative  Party, 
and  after  the  resignation  of  the  Gladstone  Min- 
istry in  June,  1885,  became  head  of  the  Gov- 
ernment, taking  for  himself  the  Department  of 
Foreign  Affairs.  The  Conservatives  went  out 
of  office  in  January,  1886,  only  to  come  back  in 
July,  after  the  adoption  of  Home  Rule  by  Glad- 
stone had  disrupted  the  Liberal  Party,  and  sent 
a  large  faction  under  Lord  Hartington  and 
Joseph  Chamberlain  into  the  Conservative  ranks. 
In  1887  Lord  Salisbury  once  more  assumed 
as  Premier  charge  of  foreign  affairs.    He  went 


out  of  office  in  1892  and  again  retonied  to  power 
in  1895.  In  1900  he  was  succeeded  in  the  Foreign 
Office  by  Lord  Lansdowne,  remaining,  however,  at 
the  head  of  the  Cabinet  as  Lord  Privy  Seal.  On 
July  11,  1902,  Lord  Salisbury  resigned  his  office 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Arthur  Bal- 
four. During  his  long  tenure  of  office  Ixn-d 
Salisbury  attained  a  leading  position  among 
European  diplomats,  his  policy  being  character 
ized  in  general  by  a  spirit  of  moderation  which 
brought  him  much  criticism  from  those  Eng- 
lishmen who  viewed  with  jealous  ej^ea  the  de- 
velopment of  ambitious  world  policieB  by  the 
Continental  Powers.  Events  of  international 
importance  in  which  Lord  Salisbury  was 
concerned  were  the  misunderstanding  with  the 
United  States  concerning  Venezuela  in  1895-96, 
the  adjustment  of  the  difficult  question  of  Crete 
(1897),  as  well  as  the  delimitation  oi  the 
British  and  German  spheres  of  influence  in 
Africa  (1890).  Toward  the  end  of  his  tenure 
of  office  Lord  Salisbury  withdrew  somewhat  from 
the  public  eye,  partly  as  the  result  of  old  ag^ 
but  partly  because  the  militant  spirit  of  the  new 
imperialistic  (])onversatism  found  a  more  aggres- 
sive leader  in  the  person  of  Joseph  Cham- 
berlain, who  from  the  outbreak  of  the  South 
African  War  was  by  all  odds  the  most  predomi- 
nating figure  in  the  Cabinet.  Lord  Salisbuiy 
died  August  22,  1903.  Among  English  statesmen 
he  ranks  high,  not  for  any  one  great  quality  or 
particular  achievement;  but  because  of  the 
success  that  during  nearly  fifteen  years  of  Im- 
perial rule  attended  his  policy  of  Conservative 
caution.  In  tastes  and  sentiments  an  aristocrat, 
he  did  not  shrink  from  expressing  his  disav- 
proval  of  democracy,  in  his  characteristically 
cynical  but  witty  fashion.  For  hia  biography, 
consult:  Puling  (London,  1885);  Traill  (ib., 
1891) ;  Aitkin  (ib.,  1901) ;  aad  How  (ib.,  1902). 

SALISBTTBT,  Rolun  D.  (1859-).  An 
American  geologist  and  educator,  bom  at  Soring 
Prairie,  Wis.,  and  educated  at  Beloit  College, 
where  he  graduated  in  1881.  He  served  for  two 
years  as  an  instructor  in  the  academy  attached 
to  Beloit,  and  from  1884  to  1891  was  professor  of 
geology  in  the  college,  except  during  a  period 
of  two  years  (1887-88)  spent  in  foreign  study. 
After  a  year's  service  on  Uie  faculty  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin  he  was  called  to  the  chair 
of  geographic  geolc^  at  the  University  of  Chi- 
cago, where  in  1898  he  was  appointed  dean  of 
the  Ogden  School  of  Science.  In  1883  he  became 
connected  with  the  United  States  Geological  Sur- 
vey, and  in  1891  joined  the  New  Jersey  Geologi- 
cal Survey  with  especial  charge  of  the  surface 
geology  of  that  State.  Besides  the  annual  re- 
ports of  the  New  Jersey  Geological  Survey  from 
1882  to  1890  he  wrote:  Pky steal  OeograpKy  of 
New  Jersey  (1896)j  Geography  of  Chicago  and 
It»  Environs  (with  W.  A.  Alden,  1899) ;  The 
Geography  of  the  Region  Around  Devil's  Lake 
and  the  Dalles  of  Wisconsin  (with  W.  W.  At- 
wood,  1900)  ;  and  The  Driftless  Area  of  SoutK- 
western  Wisconsin,  with  T.  C.  Chamberland  {Sitfi- 
teenth  Annual  Report  of  the  United  States 
Oeological  Survey), 

SAOiilSH.  A  North  American  linguistie^tock. 
See  Flathead. 

8ALISHAN  STOCK.  An  important  lingms* 
tic  group  whose  tribes,  with  many  dialectic  va- 
riations, held  nearly  all  the  southern  half  of 


SALISHAN  STOCK. 


863 


SALIVATIOir. 


British  Columbia,  with  the  opposite  coast  of 
VaneouYer  Island,  together  with  nearly  all  of 
northern  and  western  Washington  and  north- 
western Montana  and  Idaho,  besides  one  or  two 
detaehed  tribes  along  the  Oregon  coast.  There  is 
also  strong  probability  that  the  tribes  now  classed 
under  the  Wakashan  (q.v.)  stock  of  Vancouver 
Island,  with  the  more  northern  Hailtzuk,  will 
ultimately  be  proved  to  be  of  the  same  connec- 
tion. They  may  be  classed  roughly  in  two 
groups:  the  fishing  tribes  of  the  coast  and 
Puget  Sound  region,  and  the  root  and  beriy 
gatherers  of  the  interior.  Their  primitive  char- 
acteristics were  of  a  very  low  order.  They  had 
no  agriculture,  and  there  could  hardly  be  said  to 
have  been  any  form  of  government.  The  clan 
system  was  unknown.  The  houses  were  usiially 
laige  communal  dwellings  of  split  cedar  boards. 
Among  the  coast  tribes  the  dead  were  usually 
kid  away  in  canoes  set  upon  posts  in  the  woods, 
and  slaves  were  sacrificed  near  the  spot,  being 
sometimes  bound  and  left  thus  to  starve  to  death. 
There  was  constant  petty  warfare  among  the 
various  small  bands,  the  weapons  being  clubs  and 
bows,  with  protective  body  armor  of  toughened 
hide  or  strips  of  wood.  Scalping  was  not  prac- 
ticed, but  the  slain  were  frequently  beheaded. 
Head-flattening  was  common  among  nearly  all 
the  tribes,  particularly  near  the  coast,  as  was 
also  the  curious  custom  of  potlatch  (q.v.).  All 
the  dialects  are  exceptionally  harsh  and  difficult 
in  pronunciation,  and  but  little  study  has  yet 
been  made  of  them.  The  Chinook  jargon  (q.v.) 
was  also  in  use  as  a  regular  trading  medium. 
The  majority  of  their  tribes  now  retain  but  few 
of  their  aboriginal  characteristics.  Among  the 
eighty  or  more  tribal  divisions  may  be  mentioned 
the  Bellacoola,  Clallam,  Colville,  Flathead  or 
Salish  proper,  Kalispel,  Lake,  Lummi,  Nisqually, 
Okinagan,  Puyallup,  Quinault,  Sanpoil,  Shush- 
wap,  Skokomish,  Songeesh,  Spokan,  Tulalip. 
Their  present  numbers  are  about  20,000,  nearly 
equally  divided  be^^ween  the  United  States  and 
British  Columbia. 

SALIS-SEEWIS,  (7er.  pron.  z&^6s-zfi'v68 ;  Fr. 
8&1^  si'ves',  JoHANN  Gaudenz,  Baron  von 
(1762-1834).  A  Swiss  poet,  bom  in  Bothmar 
Castle,  near  Malans,  Grisons.  In  1779  he  went 
to  Paris  and  entered  the  Swiss  guards,  in  which 
he  advanced  rapidly.  He  returned  to  Switzer- 
land in  1793,  married  the  'Berenice'  of  his  poems, 
and  took  a  prominent  part  in  Swiss  politics,  be- 
coming leader  of  the  patriots  and  inspector-gen- 
eral of  their  forces.  In  1817  he  retired  to  his 
estate  at  Malans.  His  poems  were  first  pub- 
lished in  1793,  and  a  twelfth  enlarged  edition 
appeared  in  1839.  With  Matthisson  he  repre- 
sents the  sentimental  nature  poets,  but  ranks  as 
less  sentimental,  more  individual,  and  more  ob- 
jective than  his  colleague.  His  "Silent  Land," 
in  Longfellow's  translation,  is  well  known  to 
English  readers.  For  his  biography,  consult 
Rdder  (Saint  Gall,  1863}  and  Frey  (Frauen- 
feld,  1889). 

SAIiIVABT  OLAND  (Lat.  salivartus,  relat- 
ing to  saliva,  from  saliva,  spittle ;  connected  with 
6k.  0'(aXor,  sialon,  Russ.  sUna,  Gael,  seile, 
spittle).  A  gland  which  conveys  certain  secre- 
tions into  the  mouth,  where,  when  mixed  with 
the  mucus  secreted  by  the  mucous  membrane, 
they  constitute  the  ordinary  or  mixed  saliva. 
Here  are  three  pairs  of  salivary  glands:  The 
Tou  XV.- 


parotid  gland  is  the  largest  of  the  three  glands 
occurring  on  either  side.  It  lies  upon  the  side 
of  the  face  immediately  in  front  of  the  external 
ear,  and  weighs  from  half  an  ounce  to  an  ounce. 
Its  duct  is  about  two  inches  and  a  half  in  length, 
and  opens  into  the  mouth  by  a  small  orifice  op- 
posite the  second  molar  tooth  of  the  upper  jaw. 
The  walls  of  the  duct  are  dense  and  somewhat 
thick,  and  the  caliber  -is  about  that  of  a  crow- 
quill.  (For  structure,  see  Gland.)  The  subnKiwil- 
lary  gland  is  situated,  as  its  name  implies,  below 
the  jaw-bone,  and  is  placed  at  nearly  equal  dis- 
tances from  the  parotid  and  sublingual  glands. 
Its  duct  is  about  two  inches  in  length,  and  opens 
by  a  narrow  orifice  on  the  top  of  a  papilla,  at 
the  side  of  the  frsenum  of  the  tongue.  The  sub- 
lingual gland  is  situated,  as  its  name  implies, 
under  the  tongue,  each  gland  lying  on  either  side 
of  the  frsenum  of  the  tongue.  It  has  a  number  of 
excretory  ducts,  which  open  separately  into  the 
mouth. 

True  salivary  glands  exist  in  all  mammals 
except  the  Cetaceae,  in  birds  and  reptiles  ( includ- 
ing amphibians),  but  not  in  fishes;  and  glands 
discharging  a  similar  function  occur  in  insects, 
many  mollusks,  etc.  In  insects  and  vertebrates 
this  fluid  is  chiefly  diastatic  in  character,  chang- 
ing starch  to  sugar.  In  mollusks  an  (esophageal 
gland,  called  'salivary,'  secretes  an  acid  fluid, 
which,  like  the  hydrochloric  acid  of  the  verte- 
brate stomach,  is  chiefly  antiseptic  in  its  func- 
tion. Certain  special  glands  pour  their  secre- 
tions into  the  buccal  cavity,  such  as  the  spin- 
ning-gl&n<ls  of  caterpillars  and  the  glands  of 
the  swifts  (q.v.)  that  supply  the  material  of 
their  nests.  For  the  chemical  and  physical  char- 
acters of  the  saliva,  see  Digestion. 

The  most  common  disease  of  the  parotid  is 
the  specific  infiammation  commonly  known  as 
mumps  (q.v.).  These  glands  may  also  become 
acutely  inflamed  during  some  of  the  infectious 
diseases  (e.g.  scarlet  fever,  smallpox,  or  ty- 
phoid), and  in  these  cases  they  readily  go  on  to 
suppuration,  requiring  early  incision.  Many  of 
the  tumors  develop  in  this  site,  some  of  great 
malignancy,  and  they  present  serious  difficulties 
to  operative  interference.  The  facial  nerve  is 
especially  liable  to  injury  during  operation,  with 
resulting  facial  paralysis.  At  times  the  excreting 
duct  becomes  occluded  by  a  calculus  and  a 
troublesome  salivary  fistula  follows  unless  it  is 
promptly  removed.  Increase  of  secretion,  defi- 
ciency of  secretion,  or  an  acid  or  fetid  change 
present  annoying  complications  in  different  dis- 
eases.   See  Salivation. 

SALIVATION  (Lat.  salivatio,  from  salivare, 
to  spit,  from  saliva,  spittle),  or  Ptyalism.  An 
excessive  secretion  of  saliva,  due  to  irritation  of 
the  salivary  glands,  and  usually  attended  with 
soreness  and  swelling  of  the  mucous  membranes 
of  the  mouth  and  throat.  It  is  commonly  in- 
duced by  mercury  or  its  compounds  in  excessive 
and  long  continued  dosage,  but  may  arise  from 
other  drugs,  notably  pilocarpine,  potassium 
iodide,  muscarine,  cantharides,  copper,  gold,  and 
tobacco.  Certain  diseases  also  are  provocative 
of  an  increased  salivary  fiow,  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  parotitis,  quinsy,  hydrophobia, 
scurvy,  hysteria,  stomatitis,  trigeminal  neuralgia, 
and  dental  irritations,  including  the  process  of 
dentition  itself.  It  is  an  occasional  phenomenon 
of  pregnancy  and  menstruation.     Apparent  sali- 


aALIVATIOJr. 


dd4 


SALKOJr. 


vmtion  may  occur  in  facial  paralysis,  diphtiieritic 
paralysis,  chronic  bulbar  palsy,  and  idiocy;  this 
IB  due  rather  to  an  inability  to  retain  the  secre- 
tion than  to  overproduction.  When  due  to  mer- 
cury, salivation  is  manifested  by  a  metallic  taste, 
a  foul-smelling  breath,  and  tenderness  on  pressure 
of  the  jaws  and  teeth.  The  gums  and  tongue 
are  red  and  swollen,  the  latter  coated  heavily 
and  showing  the  imprint  of  the  teeth.  In  severe 
cases  the  gums  may  bleed  and  ulcerate,  the  teeth 
become  loosened,  and  the  cheeks  and  mouth  be- 
come gangrenous.  Pain,  sleeplessness,  fever,  and 
constitutional  depression  may  be  extreme.  For 
the  treatment  of  mercurial  salivation,  see  Mis- 
CUBT  and  Syphilis. 

SALLE,  s&l,  Jean  Baftiste  de  la.  See  La 
Salle. 

SALLEE^  sk'l^,  or  SLA.  A  seaport  of  Mo- 
rocco, situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Bu  Regreb, 
opposite  Rabat  (Map:  Africa,  D  1).  It  is  noted 
for  its  fine  carpets.  The  chief  export  is  wool. 
Sallee  was  formerly  notorious  as  the  haunt  of 
pirates.    Population,  about  10,000. 

SALLOW.  A  popular  name  for  various  spe- 
cies of  willow. 

SAL^XTST  (Gaius  Sallustius  Cbisfus) 
(b.c.  86-34).  A  Roman  historian,  bom  at  Ami- 
temum,  in  the  Sabine  country.  Though  of  a 
plebeian  family,  he  rose  to  official  distinction, 
first  as  quiestor  about  b.c.  59,  and  afterward  as 
tribune  of  the  people  in  52,  when  he  joined  the 
popular  party  against  Milo,  who  in  that  year  had 
killed  Clodius.  His  reputation  for  morality  was 
never  high;  and  his  intrigue  with  Milo's  wife  is 
assigned  as  the  cause  of  his  being  expelled  in 
50  from  the  senate,  althoug.i  his  attachment  to 
Gflesar's  party  is  a  more  plausible  reason  of  his 
expulsion.  In  the  Civil  War  he  joined  the  camp 
of  Giesar;  and  in  47,  when  Caesar's  fortune  was 
in  the  ascendent,  he  was  made  prsetor-elect,  and 
was  consequently  restored  to  his  former  rank. 
When  in  Campania,  at  the  head  of  some  of 
Cesar's  troops,  who  were  about  to  be  transported 
to  Africa,  he  nearly  lost  his  life  in  a  mutiny. 
In  46,  however,  we  find  him  engaged  in  Ceesar's 
African  campaign,  at  the  close  of  which  he  was 
left  as  Governor  of  Numidia.  His  administration 
was  sullied  by  various  acts  of  oppression,  par- 
ticularly by  his  enriching  himself  at  the  expense 
of  the  people.  He  was,  for  these  offenses,  ac- 
cused before  Cffisar^  but  seems  to  have  escaped 
being  brought  to  trial.  His  immense  fortune,  so 
accumulate,  enabled  him  to  retire  from  the  pre- 
vailing civil  commotion  into  private  life,  and  de- 
vote his  remaining  years  to  those  historical  works 
on  which  his  reputation  rests.  He  died  in  b.c.  84. 
His  histories,  ^mich  seem  to  have  been  begun  only 
after  his  return  from  Numidia,  are:  First,  the 
Catilina  or  Bellum  Oatilinarium,  descriptive  of 
Catiline's  conspiracy  in  63 ;  second,  the  Jugurtha, 
or  Bellum  Jugurthinum,  describing  the  war 
between  the  Romans  and  Jugurtha,  the  King  of 
Numidia.  These,  the  only  genuine  works  of 
Sallust  which  have  reached  us  entire,  are  of 
great  but  unequal  merit.  The  quasi-philosophical 
reflections  which  are  prefixed  to  them  are  of  no 
value,  but  the  histories  themselves  are  powerful 
and  animated,  and  contain  effective  speeches  of 
his  own  composition,  which  he  puts  into  the 
mouths  of  his  chief  characters.  With  its  literary 
excellence,  however,  the  value  of  the  Jugurtha 
atops,  as  in  military,   geographical,   and   even 


chronological  details,  it  is  very  inexact  Of 
Sallust's  lost  work,  Historiarum  Lihri  Ownque, 
only  fragments  exist,  some  of  which  were  found 
as  late  as  1886.  Sallust  has  the  merit  of  having 
been  the  first  Roman  who  wrote  what  we  now  un- 
derstand by  history.  The  most  convenient  edition 
of  the  complete  text  of  Sallust's  works  is  that  of 
Eussner  (Leipzig,  1893).  There  are  also  good  edi- 
tions by  Jordtm  (Berlin,  1887)  and  Dietach 
(Leipzig,  1884) ;  and  of  the  Catiline  and  Jugur- 
tha by  Capes  (Oxford,  1884) .  The  most  accessible 
translations  are  those  of  Watson  (New  York, 
1859)  and  Mongan  (1864). 

BALLTJBTf  Gabdens  of.  The  beautiful  gar- 
dens laid  out  by  the  historian  Sallust  on  the 
Quirinal  Hill,  later  the  favorite  residence  of 
several  Roman  emperors,  who  adorned  them  with 
magnificent  works  of  art.  The  gardens  survived 
until  recently  where  the  Villa  Massimi  stood. 

SALLY-FOBT.  In  fortification,  usually  a 
cutting  made  through  the  glacis  by  which  a  sally 
may  l»  made  from  the  covered  way.  The  term 
has  also  been  applied  to  the  postern  leading  from 
under  the  rampart  into  the  ditch.  The  sally- 
port was  an  important  feature  of  all  the  old 
castles  and  fortified  buildings  of  £urope.  See 
Fobtification. 

SALMASIXTSy  sUl-ma^shl-tLs,  Claudius,  or 
Claudk  de  Saumaise  (1588-1655).  A  French 
classical  scholar  and  Protestant,  bom  April  15, 
1588,  at  S^mur-en-Auxois,  France.  After  study- 
ing at  Paris  and  Heidelberg  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor at  Ley  den  (1631),  but,  in  part  because  of 
the  sensation  caused  by  his  Defensio  regia  pro 
Carolo  I,  (1649)  and  Milton's  fierce  rejoinder,  he 
accepted  an  invitation  to  Stockholm  (1650), 
whence  he  returned  in  1651  with  shattered  health 
to  Leyden.  He  died  September,  1655,  at  Spa. 
Salmasius  had  immense  but  ill-dieested  learning. 
He  was  a  great  encyclopsedist,  but  with  little 
method,  and  weak  as  a  textual  critic.  He  is  re- 
membered for  his  discovery  of  the  Greek  Anthol- 
ogy  of  Kephalas  at  Heidelberg  (1606),  for  edi- 
tions of  Scriptorea  Historiw  Augustce  (1620), 
and  for  PliniancB  Exercitationee  in  Solinum 
(1629),  De  Lingua  Hellenistica  (1643),  De 
Usuris  (1638),  and  De  Re  Militari  Romanorum 
(1657).  Salmasius's  Life  and  Letters  appeared 
at  Leyden  (1656).  Consult:  Masson,  Life  of 
Milton,  vol.  iv.  (London,  1858-79) ;  Creuzer, 
Opuacula  Selecta,  vol.  ii.  (Leipzig,.  1854) ;  and 
Saxius,  Onomaaticony  vol.  iv.  (Utrecht,  1775-83). 

SALMOM*  (OF.,  Fr.  saumon,  from  Lat.  aalmo, 
salmon,  leaper,  from  salire,  Gk.  tCK\K$ai,  hallea- 
thai,  to  leap) .  A  large  fish  {8altno  salar)  of  the 
northern  oceans,  ascending  rivers  annually  to 
spawn.  The  name  *salmon'  is  also  used  for  other 
more  or  less  closely  related  species,  and  it  gives 
the  name  to  a  family,  the  Salmonids,.  to  which 
salmon,  trout,  wliitefish,  and  various  related 
forms  of  fishes  belong.  Although  a  small  fam- 
ily, comprising  less  than  100  species,  this  group 
stands  first  in  popular  interest  from  almost  every 
point  of  view.  The  following  are  the  chief  ex- 
ternal characters  of  the  salmon  family: 

Body  oblong  or  moderately  elongate,  covered 
with  cycloid  scales  of  varying  size.  Head  naked. 
Mouth  terminal  or  somewhat  inferior,  varying 
considerably  among  the  different  species,  those 
having  the  mouth  largest  usually  having  also  the 
strongest  teeth.  (See  illustration  under  Fish.) 
Maxillary  provided  with  a  supplemental  bon^ 


SALMON   AND   TROUT  (WESTERN) 


1*  Si^-MON-TROUT  or  8TEELHEAD  (Salmo  Qalrdnerl).  4.  QUINNAT  SALMON  (Oncorhynohus  tschawytscha) 

f  COLUMBIA  RIVER  TROUT  (Salmo  myklaa,  var.  Clarkli).  5.  BLUEBACK  SALMON  (Oncorhynchus  nerka) ;  famale 

«•  HUMPBACK  SALMON  (Onoorhynchua  gorbuacha).  6.  BLUEBACK;  old  mala  In  breading  dress. 


fiALlCOK. 


665 


SALKOir. 


and  fonniiig  the  lateral  margin  of  the  upper 
jaw.  Paeudobranchiffi  present.  Gill-rakers 
vaiying  with  the  species.  Opercula  complete. 
Kg  barbels.  I^rsal  fin  of  moderate  length, 
pkced  near  the  middle  of  the  length  of  the  body. 
Adipose  fin  well  developed.  Caudal  fin  forked. 
Anal  fin  moderate  or  rather  long.  Ventral  fins 
nearly  median  in  position.  Pectoral  fins  in- 
serted low.  Lateral  line  present.  Outline  jof 
belly  rounded.  Vertebrse  in  large  number,  usual- 
ly about  60.  Skeleton  not  strongly  ossified.  The 
stomach  in  all  the  SalmonidfB  is  siphonal,  and 
at  the  pylorus  are  many  (15  to  200)  compara- 
tively large  pyloric  caeca.  The  air-bladder  is 
large.  The  eggs  are  usually  much  larger  than  in 
fishes  generallv,  and  the  ovaries  are  without 
special  duct,  the  ova  falling  into  the  cavity  of 
the  abdomen  before  exclusion.  The  large  size  of 
the  eggs,  their  lack  of  adhesiveness,  and  the 
readiness  with  which  they  may  be  impregnated, 
render  the  Salmonidse  peculiarly  adapted  for 
artificial  culture. 

The  SalmonidflB  belong  to  the  order  of  Isospon- 
dylf,  the  most  primitive  and  least  specialized  of 
the  orders  of  Teleostei  or  bony  fishes.  In  their 
group,  these  fishes  represent  a  high  degree  of 
development,  adaptation  to  swift  rivers  and  the 
need  of  complex  instincts.  The  Salmonide  are  pe- 
culiar to  the  North  Temperate  and  Arctic  regions, 
and  within  this  range  they  are  almost  equally 
abundant  wherever  suitable  waters  occur.  Some 
of  the  species,  especially  the  larger  ones,  are 
marine  and  anadromous,  living  and  growing  in 
the  sea,  and  ascending  fresh  waters  to  spawn. 
Still  others  live  in  running  brooks,  entering 
lakes  or  the  sea  when  occasion  serves,  but  not 
habitually  doing  so.  Still  others  are  lake  fishes, 
approachuig  the  shore  or  entering  brooks  in  the 
spawning  season,  at  other  times  retiring  to 
waters  of  considerable  depth.  Some  of  them  are 
active,  voracious,  and  gamy;  while  others  are 
comparatively  defenseless,  and  will  not  take  the 
hook.  They  are  divisible  into  10  easily  recog- 
nised genera — Coregonus,  Argyrosomus,  Pleco- 
glossus,  Brachymystax,  Stenodus,  Hucho,  Oncor- 
hynchus,  Salmo,  Cristivomer,  and  Salvelinua. 

The  Atlantic  salmon  {Salmo  9<Uar)  is  the 
most  familiar,  although  commercially  not  the 
most  important  of  the  various  species  properly 
called  salmon.  It  is  the  only  black-spotted  sal- 
monoid  found  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard  of  Amer- 
ica. (For  illustration,  see  Colored  Plate  of 
Ameucak  Food  Fishes,  accompanying  article 
Fish  as  Food.)  In  Europe,  where  black-spotted 
trout  {Salmo  fario)  and  salmon  trout  {Salmo 
trutta)  also  occur,  the  true  salmon  may  be  dis- 
tinguished by  the  fact  that  the  teeth  on  the  shaft 
of  the  vomer  mostly  disappear  with  age.  From 
the  only  other  species  {Sahno  irutta)  positively 
known  which  shares  this  character,  the  salmon 
may  be  known  by  the  presence  of  but  11  scales 
between  the  adipose  fin  and  the  lateral  line. 

The  salmon  of  the  Atlantic  is,  as  already 
stated,  an  anadromous  fish,  spending  most  of  its 
life  in  the  sea,  and  entering  the  streams  in  the 
fall  for  the  purpose  of  reproduction.  The  time 
of  running  varies  much  in  different  streams  and 
also  in  dfterent  countries.  As  with  the  Pacific 
species,  these  salmon  are  not  easily  discouraged 
in  their  progress,  leaping  cascades  10  or  12  feet 
in  height,  and  other  obstructions;  or,  if  these 
prove  impassable,  dying  after  repeated  fruitless 
attempts.     The    young    salmon,    or    'parr,'    is 


hatched  in  the  spring.  It  usually  remains  about 
two  years  in  the  rivers,  descendmg  at  about  the 
third  spring  to  the  sea,  when  it  is  known  as 
'smolt.'  The  dusky  cross-shades  found  in  the 
young  salmon  or  parr  are  characteristic  of  the 
young  of  nearly  all  the  Salmonids.  In  the  sea 
it  grows  much  more  rapidly,  and  becomes  more 
silvery  in  color,  and  is  known  as  'grilse.'  The 
grilse  rapidly  develop  into  the  adult  salmon ;  and 
some  of  them,  as  is  the  case  with  the  grilse  of 
the  Pacific  salmon,  are  capable  of  reproduction. 
After  spawning,  the  salmon  are  very  lean  and 
unwholesome,  in  appearance,  as  in  fact,  and  are 
then  known  as  ^kelts.'  The  Atlantic  salmon  does 
not  ascend  rivers  to  any  such  distances  as  those 
traversed  by  the  quinnat  and  the  blue-back;  its 
kelts  for  the  most  part  survive  the  act  of 
spawning.  As  a  food-fish,  the  Atlantic  salmon 
is  similar  to  the  quinnat  salmon,  although 
rather  less  oily.  The  average  weight  of  the 
adult  is  probably  less  than  15  pounds.  The 
largest  one  recorded  was  taken  on  the  coast  of 
Ireland  in  1881,  and  weighed  84%  pounds. 

The  salmon  is  found  in  Europe  between  the 
latitudes  of  45"*  and  75°.  In  the  United  States 
it  is  now  rarely  seen  south  of  Cape  Cod,  although 
formerly  the  Hudson  and  numerous  other  rivers 
were  salmon  streams.  The  land-locked  forms 
of  salmon,  abundant  in  Norway,  Sweden,  Maine, 
and  Quebec,  which  cannot,  or  at  least  do  not, 
descend  to  the  'sea,  should  probably  not  be 
considered  as  distinct  species.  Comparison  has 
been  made  of  numerous  specimens  of  the  common 
land-locked  salmon  {Salmo  aalar,  var.  aehago) 
from  the  lakes  of  Maine  and  New  Brunswick 
with  land-locked  salmon  {Salmo  aalar,  var. 
hardini)  from  the  lakes  of  Sweden,  and  with 
numerous  migratory  salmon,  both  from  America 
and  Europe.  While  showing  minor  distinctions, 
especially  in  size  and  habit,  they  are  structur- 
ally identical.  The  differences  are  not  greater 
than  would  be  expected  on  the  hypothesis  of 
recent  adaptation  of  the  salmon  to  lake  life. 
We  have,  therefore,  on  our  Atlantic  coast  but 
one  species  of  salmon  {Salmo  aalar). 

The  numerous  other  species  of  the  genus 
Salmo  are  usually  known  as  'trout,'  although,  ex- 
cept for  the  better  development  of  the  vomer  and 
greater  backward  extension  of  the  series  of  teeth 
upon  it,  there  is  no  technical  character  of  any  im- 
portance to  distinguish  the  Atlantic  salmon  from 
the  true,  or  black-spotted  trout.  But  the  salmon 
reaches  a  larger  size  than  any  of  these,  and  it  is 
regularly  anadromous.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
running  of  trout  up  the  rivers  to  spawn  is  ir- 
regular, and  most  individuals  are  land-locked,  as 
are  also  certain  dwarf  varieties  of  the  salmon 
(as  the  Sebago  salmon  and  the  ouananiche  of 
Saint  John's  River,  Quebec). 

Most  trout,  however,  enter  the  sea  when  they 
can.  These  sea-run  individuals  often  grow  large 
and  look  like  salmon,  and,  like  the  salmon,  they 
enter  the  rivers  to  spawn.  They  do  not,  how- 
ever, ascend  the  streams  with  as  much  energy, 
nor  do  they  go  as  far,  the  instinct  in  these  re- 
spects being  much  less  perfect.  To  the  large 
species  entering  the  sea,  intermediate  in  struc- 
ture between  trout  and  salmon,  the  name  'salmon- 
trout'  is  applied  in  England.  The  species  so 
named  {Salmo  trutta)  is  considered  by  some  as 
doubtfully  distinct  from  the  ordinary  brown 
trout  of  Europe  {Salmo  fario).  Other  species 
which  may  be  properly  called  salmon-trout,  hav- 


SALHOir. 


866 


BAUBiON. 


ing  the  size,  appearance,  and  habits  of  Salmo 
trutta,  are  the  steelhead  of  California  and 
Oregon  (Salmo  Oairdneri),  the  kawamasu  of 
Japan  {Salmo  Perryi),  and  the  mykiss  of  Kam- 
chatka {Saltno  mykiss).  These  diifer  in  no  im- 
portant respect  from  ordinary  black-spotted 
trout,  and  the  young  in  the  rivers  are  known  as 
*trout.'  Indeed,  it  is  not  certain  that  the  various 
species  of  trout  are  not  originally  land-locked 
salmon-trout,  and  it  is  probable  that  a  change 
of  environment  of  relatively  few  years  might 
transform  the  one  into  the  other.  This  remark 
does  not  apply  to  the  red-spotted  forms  known  as 
'charr'  in  England  and  as  11)rook  trout'  or 
'speckled  trout'  in  America.  These  belong  to  a 
distinct  genus,  Salvelinus.    See  Tbout. 

The  salmon  of  the  Pacific  diverge  considerably 
from  the  Atlantic  salmon,  and  still  more  from 
the  forms  called  'trout.'  The  six  known  species 
of  these  fishes  are  placed  in  a  distinct  genus, 
Oncorhynchus,  which  agrees  with  Salmo  in  gen- 
eral characters,  and  in  the  structure  of  its  vomer, 
but  diifers  anatomically  in  the  increased  number 
of  anal  rays,  branchiostegals,  pyloric  cseca,  and 
gill-rakers.  The  species  of  Oncorhynchus  differ, 
further,  in  their  highly  specialized  reproductive 
instincts,  all  individuals,  male  and  female,  dying 
after  spawning.  The  character  most  convenient 
for  distinguishing  Oncorhynchus,  young  or  old. 
from  all  the  species  of  Salmo  is  the  number  of 
developed  rays  in  the  anal'  fin.  These  in 
Oncorhynchus  are  13  to  20,  in  Salmo  9  to  12. 

The  species  of  Oncorhynchus,  anadromous  sal- 
mon confined  to  the  North  Pacific,  was  first  made 
known  in  1768  by  that  most  exact  of  early  observ- 
ers, Steller,  who  described  and  distinguished  them 
with  perfect  accuracy,  under  their  Russian  ver- 
nacular names.  These  Russian  names  were  in 
1792  adopted  by  Walbaum  as  specific  names  in  a 
scientific  nomenclature;  and  the  six  species  of 
Pacific  salmon  may  be  called :  ( 1 )  Quinnat,  Chi- 
nook, or  king  salmon  {Oncorhynchiis  tsckawy- 
t8clia) ;  (2)  red  salmon,  blueback,  or  sukkegh 
{Oncorhynghus  nerka)  ;  (3)  silver  salmon  or 
coho  {Oncorhynchus  kisutch)  ;  (4)  dog  salmon, 
calico  salmon,  or  haiko,  the  sak6  of  Japan 
{Oncorhynchus  keta)  ;  (5)  humpback  or  pink 
salmon  {Oncorhynchus  gorhuscha)  ;  (6)  masu 
{Oncorhynchus  mcisou)  of  Japan.  These  species, 
in  all  their  varied  conditions,  may  usually  be 
distinguished  by  the  characters  given  below. 

The  quinnat  salmon  {Oncorhynchus  tschawy- 
tscha)  has  an  average  weight  of  22  pounds,  but 
individuals  weighing  70  to  100  pounds  are  oc- 
casionally taken.  It  has  about  16  anal  rays,  15 
to  19  branchiostegals,  23  (9+14)  gill-rakers  on 
the  anterior  gill  arch,  and  140  to  185  pyloric 
ceea.  The  scales  are  comparatively  large,  there 
being  from  130  to  155  in  a  longitudinal  series. 
In  the  spring  the  body  is  silvery,  the  back,  dorsal 
fin,  and  caudal  fin  having  more  or  less  of  round 
black  spots,  and  the  sides  of  the  head  having  a 
peculiar  tin-colored  metallic  lustre.  In  the  fall 
the  color  is  often  black  or  dirty-red,  and  the 
species  can  then  only  be  distinguished  from  the 
dog  salmon  by  its  technical  characters. 

The  blue-back  salmon  {Oncorhynchus  nerka) 
usually  weighs  from  five  to  eight  pounds.  It  has 
about  14  developed  anal  rays,  14  branchiostegals, 
and  75  to  95  pyloric  caeca.  The  gill-rakers  are 
more  numerous  than  in  any  other  salmon,  usual- 
ly about  39  (16-1-23).  The  scales  are  larger, 
there  being  130  to  140  in  the  lateral  line.    In  the 


spring  the  form  is  plumply  rounded,  and  the 
color  is  a  clear  bright  blue  above,  silvery  below, 
and  everywhere  immaculate.  Young  fishes  often 
show  a  few  round  black  spots,  which  disappear 
when  they  enter  the  sea.  Vail  specimens  in  the 
lakes  are  bright  red  in  color,  hook-nosed  and 
slab-sided,  and  bear  little  resemblance  to  the 
spring  run.  Young  spawning  male  grilse  are  also 
peculiar  in  appearance,  and  were  for  a  time  con- 
sidered as  forming  a  distinct  genus.  This  species 
appears  to  be  sometimes  land-locked  in  mountain 
lakes,  in  which  case  it  reaches  but  a  small  size, 
and  is  called  'koko'  by  the  Indians. 

The  silver  salmon  {Oncorhynchus  kisutch) 
reaches  a  weight  of  three  to  eight  pounds.  It  is 
silvery  in  spring,  greenish  above,  and  with  a  few 
faint  black  spots  on  the  upper  parts  only.  In 
the  fall  the  males  are  mostly  of  a  dirty  red.  The 
dog  salmon  {Oncorhynchus  keta)  reaches  an 
average  weight  of  about  nine  pounds.  In  spring 
it  is  dirty  silvery,  immaculate,  or  sprinkled  with 
small  black  specks,  the  fins  dusky.  In  the 
fall  the  male  is  brick-red  or  blackish,  and  its 
jaws  are  greatly  distorted.  The  humpback  sal- 
mon {Oncorhynchus  gorbtischa)  is  the  smallest 
of  the  species,  weighing  from  three  to  six  pounds. 
Its  scales  are  much  smaller  than-  in  anv  other 
salmon.  In  color  it  is  bluish  above,  the  pos- 
terior and  upper  parts  with  many  round  black 
spots.  The  masu  {Oncorhynchus  masou)  is  thus 
far  known  only  from  the  rivers  of  Northern 
Japan.  It  is  very  much  like  the  humpback  sal- 
mon, but  may  be  known  at  sight  by  the  absence 
of  black  spots  on  its  tail. 

The  blueback  abounds  in  Fraser  River  and  in 
all  the  streams  of  Alaska;  the  silver  salmon  in 
Puget  Sound;  the  quinnat  in  the  Columbia  and 
the  Sacramento ;  and  the  dog  salmon  in  some  of 
the  streams  to  the  northward  and  especially  in 
Japan.  All  of  the  five  American  species  have 
been  seen  in  the  Columbia  and  Fraser  rivers; 
all  but  the  blueback  in  the  Sacramento,  and  all 
in  waters  tributary  to  Puget  Sound.  Only  the 
quinnat  has  been  noticed  south  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, as  far  as  Carmelo  River.  The  king  salmon 
and  blueback  habitually  'run'  in  the  spring,  the 
others  in  the  fall.  The  usual  order  of  running  in 
the  rivers  is  as  follows:  tschawyisoha,  nerka^ 
kisutch,  gorhuscha,  keta.  The  economic  valu« 
of  the  spring-running  salmon  is  far  greater  than 
that  of  the  other  species,  because  they  can  be 
captured  in  numbers  when  at  their  best,  while  the 
others  are  usually  taken  only  after,  deterioration. 
To  this  fact  the  worthlessness  of  Oncorhynchus 
keta,  as  compared  with  the  other  species,  is  part- 
ly due.  Its  flesh  at  the  best,  however,  is  soft 
and  mushy. 

The  habits  of  the  salmon  in  the  ocean  are  not 
easily  studied.  King  salmon  and  silver  salmon 
of  all  sizes  are  taken  with  the  seine  at  almost 
any  season  in  Puget  Sound;  this  would  indicate 
that  these  species  do  not  go  far  from  the  shore. 
The  king  salmon  takes  the  hook  freely  in  Monte- 
rey Bay,  both  near  the  shore  and  at  a  distance 
of  six  to  eight  miles  out.  We  have  reason  to 
believe  that  these  two  species  do  not  necessarily 
seek  great  depths,  but  probably  remain  not  very 
far  from  the  mouth  of  the  rivers  in  which  they 
were  spawned.  The  blueback  and  the  dog  salmon 
probably  seek  deeper  water,  as  the  former  is  sel- 
dom taken  with  the  seine  in  the  ocean,  and  the 
latter  is  known  to  enter  the  Straits  of  Fuca  at 
the  spawning  season,  therefore  coming  in  from 


SALMON. 


B67 


SALMON. 


the  open  sea.  The  run  of  the  king  salmon 
beginB  generally  at  the  last  of  March ;  it  lasts, 
with  yarioos  modifications  and  interruptions, 
until  the  actual  spawning  season,  August  to 
November,  the  time  of  running  and  the  propor- 
tionate amount  in  each  of  the  subordinate  runs 
varying  with  each  different  river.  In  the  Sacra- 
mento the  run  is  greatest  in  the  fall,  and  more 
run  in  the  siunmer  than  in  spring.  The  spring 
salmon  ascend  only  those  rivers  which  are  fed 
by  the  melting  snows  from  the  moimtains,  and 
which  have  sufficient  volume  to  send  their  waters 
well  but  to  sea.  Those  salmon  which  run  in 
the  spring  are  chiefly  adults  (supposed  to  be 
mostly  four  years  old).  It  would  appear  that 
the  contact  with  cold  fresh  water,  when  in  the 
ocean,  in  some  way  causes  them  to  run  toward 
it,  and  to  run  before  there  is  any  special  influence 
to  that  end  exerted  by  the  development  of  the 
organs  of  generation.  High  water  on  any  of 
these  rivers  in  the  spring  is  always  followed  by 
an  increased  run  of  salmon.  The  manner  of 
spawning  i»  probably  similar  for  all  the  species. 
Lsually  the  fishes  pair  off;  the  male,  with  tail 
and  snout,  excavates  a  broad,  shallow  'nest'  in 
the  gravelly  bed  of  the  stream,  in  rapid  water,  at 
a  depth  of  one  to  four  feet;  the  female  deposits 
her  eggs  in  it,  and  after  the  exclusion  of  the  milt 
the  pair  cover  them  with  stones  and  gravel.  They 
then  float  down  the  stream  tail  foremost,  never 
swimming  down  stream  or  making  any  effort  to 
reach,  the  sea.  In  the  course  of  from  a  day  to  a 
week  or  two  all  of  them,  both  males  and  females, 
die,  regardless  of  the  distance  of  their  spawning 
beds  from  the  sea.  The  young  hatch  in  from 
120  to  180  days. 

The  salmon  of  all  kinds  in  the  spring  are  sil- 
veiy,  and  the  mouth  is  about  equally  symmetri- 
cal in  both  sexes.  As  the  spawning  season  ap- 
proaches the  female  loses  her  silvery  color,  be- 
comes more  slimy,  the  scales  on  the  back  partly 
sink  into  the  skin,  and  the  flesh  changes  from 
salmon-red,  and  becomes  variously  paler  from  the 
loss  of  oil,  the  degree  of  paleness  varying  much 
with  individuals  and  with  inhabitants  of  differ- 
ent rivers.  In  the  Sacramento  the  flesh  of  the 
?uinnat,  in  either  spring  or  fall,  is  rarely  pale, 
n  the  Columbia  a  feW  with  pale  flesh  are  some- 
time taken  in  spring,  and  a  good  many  in  the 
fall.  In  Eraser  River  the  fall  run  of  the  quinnat 
is  nearly  worthless  for  canning  purposes,  because 
so  many  are  *white-meated.'  In  the  spring  very 
few  are  Vhite-meated,'  but  the  number  increases 
toward  fall,  when  there  is  every  variation,  some 
having  red  streaks  running  through  them,  others 
being  red  toward  the  head  and  pale  toward  the 
tail.  The  red  and  pale  ones  cannot  be  distin- 
guished externally,  and  the  color  is  dependent 
upon  neither  age  nor  sex.  There  is  not  much  dif- 
ference in  the  taste,  but  there  is  no  market  for 
pale-fleshed  salmon. 

As  the  season  advances,  the  difference  between 
the  males  and  females  becomes  more  and  more 
marked,  and  keeps  pace  with  the  development  of 
the  milt,  as  is  shown  by  dissection.  The  males 
have  (1)  the  premaxillaries  and  the  tip  of  the 
lower  jaw  more  and  more  prolonged,  both  of  the 
jaws  becoming  finally  strongly  and  often  ex- 
travagantly hooked,  so  that  either  they  shut  by 
the  side  of  each  other  like  shears,  or  else  the 
mouth  cannot  be  closed.  (2)  The  front  teeth 
become  very  long  and  canine-like,  their  growth 
proceeding  very  rapidly,  until  they  are  often  one- 


half  inch  long.  (3)  The  teeth  on  the  vomer 
and  tongue  often  disappear.  (4)  The  body  grows 
more  compressed  and  deeper  at  the  shoulders,  so 
that  a  very  distinct  hmnp  is  formed ;  this  is  more 
developed  in  the  humpback  and  dog  salmon,  but 
is  foimd  in  all.  (5)  The  scales  disappear,  espe- 
cially on  the  back,  by  the  growth  of  spongy  skin. 
(6)  The  color  changes  from  silvery  to  various 
shades  of  black  and  red,  or  blotchy,  according  to 
the  species.  The  distorted  males  are  commonly 
considered  worthless,  rejected  by  the  canners  and 
salters,  but  are  preserved  by  the  Indians.  These 
changes  are  due  solely  to  influences  connected 
with  the  growth  of  the  reproductive  organs.  They 
are  not  in  any  way  due  to  the  action  of  fresh 
water.  They  take  place  at  about  the  same  time 
in  the  adult  males  of  all  species,  whether  in  the 
ocean  or  in  the  rivers.  At  the  time  of  the  spring 
runs  all  are  symmetrical.  In  the  fall  all  males, 
of  whatever  species,  are  more  or  less  distorted 

As  already  stated,  the  economic  value  of  any 
species  depends  in  great  part  on  its  being  a 
'spring  salmon.'  It  is  not  generally  possible  to 
capture  salmon  of  any  species  in  large  numbers 
imtil  they  approach  the  rivers,  and  the  spring 
salmon  enter  the  rivers  long  before  the  growth 
of  the  organs  of  reproduction  has  reduced  the 
richness  of  the  flesh.  The  fall  salmon  cannot 
be  taken  in  quantity  until  their  flesh  has  de- 
teriorated; hence,  the  dog  salmon  is  practically 
almost  worthless,  except  to  the  Indians,  and  the 
humpback  is  little  better.  The  silver  salmon, 
with  the  same  breeding  habits  as  the  dog  sal- 
mon, is  more  valuable,  as  it  is  found  in  the  in- 
land waters  of  Puget  Sound  for  a  considerable 
time  before  the  fall  rains  cause  the  fall  runs, 
and  it  may  be  taken  in  large  numbers  with 
seines  before  the  season  for  entering  the  rivers. 
The  quinnat  or  Chinook  salmon,  from  its  great 
size  and  abundance,  is  more  valuable  than  all 
the  other  fishes  on  our  Pacific  coast  outside  of 
Alaska  taken  together.  The  blueback,  a  little 
inferior  in-  fiesh,  much  smaller  and  far  more 
abundant  when  Alaska  is  considered,  is  worth 
more  than  the  combined  value  of  the  three  re- 
maining species  of  salmon.  The  pack  of  blu> 
back  salmon  for  1903  is  valued  at  $8,000,000,  the 
catch  of  the  quinnat  at  nearly  $4,000,000. 

The  fall  salmon  of  all  species,  but  especially  of 
the  dog,  ascend  streams  but  a  short  distance  be- 
fore spawning.  They  seem  to  be  in  great  anxiety 
to  find  fresh  water,  and  many  of  them  work  their 
way  up  little  brooks  only  a  few  inches  deep, 
where  they  perish  miserably,  fioundering  about  on 
the  stones.  It  is  the  prevailing  impression  that 
the  salmon  have  some  special  instinct  which 
leads  them  to  return  to  spawn  on  the  grounds 
where  they  were  originally  hatched,  but  there  is 
no  evidence  of  this.  It  seems  more  probable  that 
the  young  salmon  hatched  in  any  river  mostly  re- 
main in  the  ocean  within  a  radius  of  20  to  100 
miles  of  its  mouth.  These,  in  their  movements 
about  in  the  ocean,  may  come  into  contact  with 
the  cold  waters  of  their  parent  river,  or  perhaps 
of  any  other  river,  at  a  considerable  distance 
from  the  shore.  In  the  case  of  the  quinnat  and 
the  blueback,  their  'instinct*  seems  to  lead  them 
to  ascend  these  fresh  waters,  and  in  a  majority  of 
cases  these  waters  will  be  those  in  which  the 
fishes  in  question  were  originally  spawned.  Later 
in  the  season  the  growth  of  the  reproductive 
organs  leads  them  to  approach  the  shore  and 
search  for  fresh  waters,  and  still  the  chances  are 


SALHOV. 


868 


8AI1XO V  DAHGB. 


that  they  may  find  the  original  stream.  But 
undoubtedly  many  fall  salmon  ascend,  or  try  to 
ascend,  streams  in  which  no  salmon  were  ever 
hatched. 

Commercially  speaking,  the  two  principal  spe- 
cies of  Pacific  salmon  are  unquestionably  the 
most  valuable  fishes  in  the  world.  The  market 
value  of  the  entire  salmon  catch  on  the  West 
coast  of  the  United  States,  including  Alaska,  has 
reached  nearly  $20,000,000  annually,  and  this 
vast  amount  is  represented  chiefly  by  the  two 
species,  the  Chinook  and  blueback,  the  catch  of 
the  four  other  species  being  in  comparison  in- 
significant. The  annual  catch  of  salmon  in 
Puget  Sound  has  reached  to  more  than  $4,000,- 
000,  and  consists  chiefly,  as  in  Alaska,  of  blue- 
backs.  The  nm  of  quinnats  begins  in  the  Colum- 
bia River  as  early  as  February  or  March.  At 
first  the  fishes  travel  leisurely,  moving  up  only 
a  few  miles  each  day.  As  they  go  farther  and 
farther  up-stream  they  swim  rather  more  rap- 
idly. Those  that  enter  the  river  first  are  the 
ones  which  will  go  farthest  toward  the  head- 
waters, many  of  them  going  to  spaw^ning  beds  in 
the  Salmon  River  in  the  Sawtooth  Mountains  of 
Idaho,  more  than  1000  miles  from  the  sea.  In 
the  Yukon  the  quinnat  ascends  to  Caribou  Cross- 
ing, 2250  miles  from  the  sea.  Those  which  go 
to  the  headwaters  of  the  Snake  River  in  the 
Sawtooth  Mountains  spawn  in  August  and  early 
September;  those  going  to  the  Big  Sandy  in 
Oregon,  in  July  and  early  August;  those  going 
up  the  Snake  River  to  Upper  Salmon  Falls,  in 
October;  while  those  entering  the  small  lower 
tributaries  of  the  Columbia  or  the  small  coastal 
streams  spawn  even  as  late  as  December.  Ob- 
servations made  at  various  places  indicate  that 
whatever  the  spawning  beds  may  be,  spawning 
will  not  begin  until  the  temperature  of  the 
water  has  fallen  to  54°  F.  If  the  fish  reach  the 
spawning  grounds  when  the  temperature  is 
above  54**,  they  wait  until  the  water  cools  down 
to  the  required  degree.  The  spawning  act  ex- 
tends over  several  days. 

It  has  been  often  stated  and  generally  believed 
that  the  salmon  receive  many  injuries  by  strik- 
ing against  rocks  and  in  other  wavs  while  en 
route  to  their  spawning  grounds,  and  as  a  result 
from  these  injuries,  those  which  go  long  dis- 
tances from  the  sea  die  after  once  spawning. 
An  examination  of  many  salmon  at  the  time  of 
arrival  on  their  spawning  beds  in  central  Idaho 
showed  most  fishes  to  be  entirely  without  mutila- 
tions of  any  kind,  and  apparently  in  excellent 
condition.  Mutilations,  however,  soon  appeared, 
resulting  from  abrasions  received  on  the  spawn- 
ing beds  while  pushing  the  gravel  about  or  rub- 
bing against  it,  and  from  fighting  with  each 
other,  which  is  sometimes  quite  severe.  See 
illustration  under  Boo  Salmon. 

The  blueback  salmon  is  found  from  the  coast 
of  southern  Oregon  northward,  especially  in  the 
Columbia,  Quinialt,  and  Skagit  rivers.  It  en- 
ters the  Fraser  in  enormous  numbers,  and  is  by 
far  the  most  abundant  and  valuable  salmon  in 
Alaska.  In  the  Columbia  River  it  is  called 
*blueback;*  in  the  Fraser  it  is  the  'sockeye/ 
'sawkeye,'  or  'sau-qui;*  in  Alaska  it  is  the  red 
salmon  or  'redflsh;'  while  among  the  Russians  it 
is  the  'krasnaya  ryba.' 

The  death  of  all  the  individuals  of  all  the 
species  of  the  West  coast  salmon  after  once 
spawning  is  in  no  manner  determined  by  distance 


from  the  sea.  The  cause  is  deep-seated  In  its 
nature  and  general  in  its  application,  and  the 
same  as  that  which  compasses  the  death  of  the 
Ephemera  or  May-fiy  after  an  existence  of  but  a 
few  hours,  or  of  all  annual  plants  at  the  end  of 
one   season. 

Other  groups  within  the  Salmonid«D  are  else- 
where considered,  under  Chab^  Tiioitt,  Whuk- 
FisH,  and  certain  speecific  names,  as  Cisoo, 
Namatcush,  etc. 

BiBUOGBAFHY.  Cousult  j^neral  authorities 
mentioned  under  Fish;  especially  GUnther,  Cat- 
Fiahe8,  British  Museum  (London,  1866) ;  Day, 
Fishes  of  Great  Britain,  etc.  (ib.,  1896);  Jor- 
dan and  Evermann,  Fishes  of  North  and  Mid- 
dle America,  part  i.  (United  States  National  Mu- 
seum, Washington,  1896) ;  Jordan  and  Ever- 
mann, Food  and  Oame  Fishes  of  North  America 
( 1901 ) ;  Jordan,  Science  Sketches  ( Chicago, 
1887) ;  Moser,  The  Salmon  and  Salmon  Fisheriet 
of  Alaska  (United  States  Fish  Oommissioo, 
Washington,  1898). 

See  Colored  Plate  of  Foon-FiSHBS;  Plate  of 
Salmon  and  Tbout. 

SALMON,  sft^mfin,  Gboboe  (1819-).  An 
Irish  mathematician  and  divine,  bom  in  Dublin. 
He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College  in  that  city, 
where  he  became  a  fellow  at  the  age  of  twenty. 
He  took  orders,  and  in  1866  became  professor  of 
theology.  He  has  written  extensively  on  theology, 
his  works  including  an  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  the  New  Testament  (7tii  ed.  1894) ;  Non- 
miraculous  Christianity  (2d  ed.  1888) ;  and  The 
InfalUmity  of  the  Church  (2d  ed.  1891).  Bat 
he  is  best  known  for  his  masterly  treatises  on 
mathematics,  his  text-books  being  the  most  ad- 
vanced that  have  appeared  in  English  in  his 
generation.  These  works  are:  Treatise  on  Come 
Sections  (6th  ed.  1879) ;  Treatise  on  Higher 
Plane  Curves  (3d  ed.  1879) ;  Treatise  on  Ana- 
lytic Geometry  (1848);  Treatise  on  Analytic 
Geometry  of  Three  Dimensions  (4th  ed.  1882); 
Lessons  Introductory  to  the  Modem  Higher  AU 
gehra  (1859;  4th  ed.  1885).  These  mathe- 
matical works  have  been  translated  into  several 
languages,  and  the  German  editions  of  Fiedler 
are  especially  well  known. 

SALMOND,  sll'mond,  Stewabt  Dingwaix 
FoBnYCE  (1838—).  A  Scotch  educator,  bom  at 
Aberdeen.  He  was  educated  at  the  University 
and  Free  Church  College,  Aberdeen,  and  at  £r- 
langen  University,  and  was  assistant  professor 
of  Greek  and  examiner  in  classics  at  Aberdeen 
University  from  1861  until  1867.  In  1876  he 
became  professor  of  systematic  theology  and  ex- 
egesis of  the  Epistles  in  the  United  Free  Church 
College,  Aberdeen,  and  he  was  made  principal  of 
the  college  in  1898.  His  original  works  include: 
"Commentary  on  the  Epistle  of  Peter,"  in  Sehafs 
Popular  Commentary  (1883);  "Commentary  on 
the  Epistle  of  Jude,"  in  Pulpit  Commentary 
(1889) ;  The  Christian  Doctrine  of  Immortality 
(1895);  and  he  also  prepared  translations  of 
many  of  the  minor  Latin  writers. 

SALMON  DANCE.  A  dance  of  the  Karok, 
Yurok,  and  Tolowa  tribes  of  American  Indians, 
held  in  the  spring  when  the  salmon  begin  to  run 
up  the  rivers.  The  chief  actor  is  an  Indian  who 
is  deputized  to  retire  into  the  mountains  and 
perform  a  two  days'  fast,  while  the  people  dance. 
On  his  return,  gaunt  from  fasting,  the  people 
hide  themselves,  believing  that  to  look  upon  him 


SALMON  DANCE. 


869 


SALOME. 


would  be  death,  while  he  goes  to  the  river,  takes 
a  salmon,  eats  a  portion,  and  with  the  remainder 
kindles  a  sacred  fire  in  the  sweat-house.  No  man 
may  catch  a  salmon  before  the  dance  nor  for  ten 
days  afterwards,  even  in  case  of  extreme  necessity. 

SALMCKNEUS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  ^akfuaveCt). 
A  king  of  Elis  who  washed  to  be  thought  a  god, 
and  imitated  Jove's  thunder  by  driving  his 
ohariot  over  a  brazen  bridge,  and  lightning  by 
torches  hurled  in  all  directions.  For  this  im- 
piety he  was  killed  by  lightning. 

SALMON  FISHINO,  This  sport  demands 
ihe  exercise  of  all  the  skill  and  experience  which 
the  experienced  angler  may  possess.  It  is  uni- 
versally admitted  that  of  all  the  delights  of  am 
Sngler*s  experience  there  is  nothing  comparable 
with  that  of  rising  and  hooking  a  salmon.  A 
first  essential  is  the  knowledge  of  the  habits 
of  the  fish  and  the  position  of  rod  and  tackle 
that  will  be  equal  to  the  strength  and  courage 
of  the  salinon.  No  arbitrary  rule  can  be  laid 
down  in  the  selection  of  a  rod,  as  much  will 
depend  upon  the  skill,  strength,  and  experience 
of  the  fisnerman;  usually,  a  17 -foot  rod  is  con- 
sidered long  enough  for  ordinary  casting.  A 
moderately  thick  line  will  be  required  if  a 
powerful  rod  is  employed.  A  casting  line,  i.e. 
the  gut  line  connecting  the  reel  line  with  the 
fly,  must  be  selected  according  as  the  water  is 
douded  or  clear,  a  finer  line  being  selected  for 
the  clearer  water.  It  is  in  the  selection  of  flies 
that  the  g^^eatest  differences  of  opinion  exist 
regarding  salmon  fishing.  Some  anglers  employ 
different  patterns  for  every  month  of  the  fishing 
season,  others  certain  patterns  or  types  for  cer- 
tain localities,  while  still  others  believe  that 
certain  shades  of  color  are  necessary  for  certain 
days.  The  consensus  of  opinion  seems  to  be  that 
the  question  of  color  is  more  important  than  that 
of  pattern.  There  is  almost  as  much  divergence 
of  opinion  regarding  hooks,  a  question  which, 
like  that  of  *fies/  must  be  left  to  the  choice  of 
the  angler.  From  the  casting  of  the  fly  to  the 
gaffing  and  landing  of  the  fish  no  definite  rule 
may  be  said  to  apply.  Consult  Cholmondeley- 
Pennell,  Fishing,  m  the  Badminton  Library 
(London,  1886).    See  Fly-Casting;  Fishing. 

SALMON-KTTJiEB.    See  Stickueback. 

SALMON  BIVES.  A  stream  of  Idaho.  It 
rises  in  the  Sawtooth  Mountains,  in  the  south 
central  part  of  the  State,  and  after  a  circuitous, 
mainly  westward,  course,  empties  into  the  Snake 
River,  50  miles  above  Lewiston  (Map:  Idaho, 
A3).  It  is  about  400  miles  long,  and  through- 
out its  length  it  flows  in  a  deep,  cafion-like 
valley,  whose  steeply  sloping  sides  rise  from  3000 
to  4000  feet  above  it. 

SALMON-TBOITT.    See  Salmon. 

SALM-SALMy  zftlm'z&lm^  Felix,  Prince 
(1828-70).  A  German  soldier  of  fortune,  born  at 
Anhalt.  He  was  educated  at  the  cadet  school 
near  Berlin,  and,  after  serving  in  the  Prussian 
and  Austrian  armies,  came  to  the  United  States 
in  1861.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War 
he  was  appointed  to  the  staff  of  Gen.  Louis 
Blenker,  and  later  was  commissioned  colonel  of 
the  Eighth  New  York  Volunteers,  a  German 
regiment.  In  1864  he  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  Sixty-eighth  New  York  Volun- 
teers, and  the  next  year  was  made  brigadier- 
general  and  served  as  post  commander  at  Atlanta. 
At  the  end  of  the  war  he  went  to  Mexico,  where 


he  became  one  of  Emperor  Maximilian's  aides 
and  chief  of  his  household.  Soon  after  Maxi- 
milian's execution  he  returned  to  Europe,  reen- 
tered the  Prussian  service  as  major  in  the 
Grenadier  Guards,  and  was  killed  at  Gravelotte. 
He  published  an  account  of  his  experiences  in 
My  Diary  in  Mexico,  Including  ihe  Last  Days  of 
Emperor  Maximilian  (1868).  Consult  Princess 
Salm-Salm,  Ten  Years  of  My  Life  (New  York, 
1875). 

SALOL  (from  sal-icyl  +  phenrol).  The 
salicylate  of  phenol,  a  white  crystalline  powder, 
nearly  tasteless  and  odorless,  almost  insoluble 
in  water,  but  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  and 
chloroform.  It  is  very  slightly  or  not  at  all 
dissolved  in  the  stomach,  but  in  the  alkaline 
intestinal  secretion  is  split  into  36  parts 
of  phenol  and  64  of  salicylic  acid.  This  fact  is 
utilized  in  testing  the  muscular  activity  of  the 
stomach.  In  the  healthy  stomach  salol  should 
pass  into  the  intestine,  and  after  decomposition 
there  appear  in  the  urine  as  salicyluric  acid 
within  one-half  to  three-quarters  of  an  hour.  If 
this  reaction  cannot  be  obtained  within  an  hour 
after  administration  of  salol  there  is  probably 
some  such  condition  as  dilatation  or  atony  of 
the  stomach.  The  test  for  salicyluric  acid  is  the 
addition  to  the  urine  of  a  few  drops  of  ferric 
chloride,  which  gives  a  reddish-violet  color  with 
that  acid.  The  physiological  effects  of  salol  are 
practically  the  same  as  those  of  salicylic  acid 
(q.v.),  which  is  formed  by  its  decomposition  in 
the  intestine,  but  the  ringing  in  the  ears  and 
other  cerebral  symptoms  are  less  marked  and 
frequent,  and  gastric  disturbance  is  rare  on  ac> 
count  of  its  insolubility  in  the  stomach.  Aside 
from  these  advantages  it  is  inferior  to  sodium 
salicylate  in  the  treatment  of  acute  rheumatism. 
It  is  of  value  as  an  intestinal  antiseptic  in  colitis 
and  similar  affections.  For  the  relief  of  pain  it 
is  often  combined  with  phenacetine  in  cases  of 
influenza. 

SALCXME  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  IcXi&iiii).  The 
name  of  several  women  mentioned  in  later  Jew- 
ish history  or  the  New  Testament.  (1)  The 
wife  of  Alexander  Janneus,  King  of  the  Jews 
B.C.  104-78.  When  her  former  husband.  Aria- 
tobulus  I.,  died  she  released  his  brother,  Alexan- 
der Jannseus,  from  prison  and  gave  him  her  hand 
in  marriage.  At  his  death  she  reigned  as  Queen 
until  her  death  in  b.o  69.  Unlike  her  husband, 
she  favored  the  Pharisees,  and  her  prosperous 
reign  was  considered  by  them  the  golden  period 
of  the  Maccabean  era.  (2)  A  sister  of  Herod  the 
Great,  intensely  jealous  of  any  rivalry  touching 
her  influence  with  her  brother.  She  was  a  wicked, 
unscrupulous  woman,  several  times  married  and 
divorced.  (3)  The  daughter  of  Herodias,  second 
wife  of  Antipas,  and  granddaughter  of  Herod  the 
Great.  Her  skillful  dancing  induced  Antipas  to 
make  the  rash  vow  that  led  to  the  death  of  John 
the  Baptist  (cf.  Mark  vi.  17  et  seq.).  She 
married  Aristobulus,  one  of  the  numerous  de- 
scendants of  Herod,  xuler  of  Lesser  Armenia. 
(4)  Wife  of  Zebedee  and  mother  of  the  Apostles 
James  and  John.  She  was  one  of  Jesus'  most 
devoted  friends,  though  somewhat  over-ambitious 
for  her  sons*  advancement  in  the  coming  Mes- 
sianic kingdom.  Some  suppose  that  she  was 
sister  to  Mary,  the  mother  of  Jesus  (cf.  Matt.  xx. 
20-23;  xxvii.  66;  Mark  xv.  40-41,  xvi.  1,  and 
possibly  John  xix.  25.) 


aALOHOJT. 


870 


SALOJmCL 


SALOHOXr,  8&a^mdn,  Johann  Peteb  (1745- 
1815).  A  Grerman-Englisb  mufiician,  bom  at 
Bonn.  When  young  he  was  attached  to  the  service 
of  Prince  Henry  of  Prussia,  for  whom  he  com- 
posed several  operas.  In  1781  he  visited  Paris 
and  afterwards  Ix>ndon,  where  he  settled  for  the 
rest  of  his  life.  His  series  of  subscription  con- 
certs in  London  in  1790  were  notable.  He  pro- 
duced the  twelve  symphonies  of  Haydn,  known  as 
the  "Salomon  Set."  His  compositions,  include 
songs,  part  songs,  violin  solos,  and  concertos. 
Two  years  before  his  death  he  founded  the  Lon- 
don Philharmonic  Society.  He  was  interred  in 
Westminster  Abbey. 

SALOMON  ISLANDS.  See  Solomon  Isl- 
ands. 

SAL^OMONS,  Sir  David  (1797-1873).  An 
English  merchant,  legislator,  and  writer,  bom  in 
London,  of  Jewish  parentage.  He  early  engaged 
in  commerce  in  London,  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  London  and  Westminster  Bank  in  1832, 
and  was  elected  a  sheriff  for  London  and  Middle- 
sex in  1835.  As  Jews  had  not  formerly  been 
considered  eligible  for  the  shrievalty,  a  special 
act  of  Parliament  was  passed  to  establish  the 
legality  of  his  election.  He  was  instrumental  in 
securing  the  passage  by  Parliament  in  1845  of  a 
bill  enabling  Jews  to  hold  municipal  offices,  and  in 
1847  was  chosen  alderman  of  Cordwainer  ward. 
Ir  1851  he  was  elected  as  a  Liberal  to  Parliament 
from  Greenwich,  but  refused  to  take  the  pre- 
scribed oath.  In  1858  the  oath  prescribed  for 
members  of  Parliament  was  altered  so  that  a 
Jew  could  take  it  without  violating  his  con- 
science, and  from  1859  continuously  until  his 
death  Salomons  represented  Greenwich.  In  1855 
he  was  elected  Lord  Mayor  of  London,  and  in 
1869  was  created  a  baronet.  His  publications 
include :  A  Defense  of  Joint-stook  Banks  ( 1837 )  ; 
The  Monetary  Difficulties  of  America  ( 1837 )  ;  An 
Account  of  the  Persecution  of  the  Jews  at  Damas- 
cus (1840);  Parliamentary  Oaths  (1850);  and 
Alteration  of  Oaths  (1853). 

SALON,  s&'15n^  a  town  of  the  Department 
of  Bouches-du-RhOne,  France,  20  miles  north- 
west of  Aix.  The  fourteenth-century  Church  of 
Saint  Lawrence  contains  the  tomb  of  the  astrol- 
oger Nostradamus.  Near  by,  at  Lancon,  is  a 
Roman  camp  in  good  preservation.  Olive  oil  and 
soap  are  manufactured,  and  there  is  also  a  trade 
in  almonds.     Population,  in  1901,  12,872. 

SALON  (Fr.,  drawing-room).  A  room  de- 
voted to  the  reception  of  company,  and  hence  a 
periodic  reunion  for  conversational  and  social 
purposes.  Such  reunions  have  been  very  common 
in  Paris,  and  have  had  a  marked  influence  not 
only  upon  literature  and  manners,  but  also  upon 
politics.  The  first  salon  proper  was  that  of  the 
H5t€l  de  Rambouillet  (q.v.).  Immediately  after 
the  cessation  of  political  turmoil  Mile,  de  Scu- 
d6ry  (q.v.)  began  her  famous  Saturday  evenings 
in  the  Rue  de  Beauce,  which  were  attended  by 
Conrart,  M^^nage,  Balzac,  Mme.  de  la  Suze,  and 
Mme.  de  S6vign(^,  but  were  looked  down  upon  by 
the  nobility.  The  real  successor  of  the  Marquise 
de  Rambouillet  was  Mme.  de  Sabl6,  who  at  her 
salon  succeeded  in  bringing  together  the  aristoc- 
racy of  intellect  and  that  of  birth.  Salons  now  be- 
gan to  multiply,  and  the  system  flourished  until 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  In  the 
seventeenth  century,  besides  those  already  men- 


tioned, the  salons  of  Ninon  de  TEncloB  and  lime. 
iScarron  (afterwards  de  Maint«non)  were  spe- 
cially famous;  in  the  eighteenth,  those  of  Mme. 
du  Deffand,  of  Mile,  de  Lespinasse,  of  Mme.  Geof- 
rin»  of  Mme.  de  Turpin,  of  Mme.  Necker,  and  of 
Mme.  Roland;  and  in  the  nineteenth,  those  of 
Mme.  de  StaSl,  of  Mme.  R§camier,  of  Mme  Vigte 
le  Brun,  of  Mme.  de  Girardin,  and  of  Mme. 
Mohl  were  among  the  most  conspicuous.  There 
were  salons  which  were  distinctively  political,  or 
literary,  or  philosophic,  but  the  greater  number 
aimed  rather  at  an  eclecticism  which  afforded 
meeting  places  for  all  sorts  of  talents  and  all 
shades  of  belief  or  unbelief.  Consult:  Bassan- 
ville,  Les  salons  d*autrefois  (Paris,  1862-70); 
Wharton,  Salons  Colonial  and  Republican  (Phila- 
delphia, 1900). 

SALON,  The  Pabis.  The  title  by  which  the 
annual  exhibition  of  paintings,  sculpture,  engrav- 
ings, etchings,  pastels,  and  water  colors  is  known, 
and  which  is  held  in  the  Palais  de  I'Industrie, 
Paris,  from  May  Ist  to  June  22d.  The  exhibition 
is  open  to  living  artists  of  whatever  nationality, 
subject  to  their  works  meeting  with  the  ac- 
ceptance of  the  jury  of  experts  elected  by  the 
votes  of  the  exhibitors  themselves.  Those  who  have 
received  the  requisite  number  of  medals  or  other 
recompenses  at  previous  exhibitions  are  placed 
hors  concours,  and  their  works  are  exempt  from 
examination  bv  the  jury.  The  prises,  consisting 
of  various  meoals  and  the  Prix  de  Rome  (q.v.), 
are  within  the  gift  of  the  same  jury,  and  are 
the  object  of  eager  competition. 

Annual  exhibitions  by  members  of  the  Royal 
Academy  were  first  held  at  the  Palais  Royal  in 
1667,  and  in  1669  they  were  transferred  to  the 
Salon  Carre  of  the  Louvre,  whence  they  obtained 
their  name.  The  Revolution  abolished  the  special 
privileges  of  the  members  of  the  Royal  Academy, 
and  in  1791  opened  the  doors  of  the  Salon  to  all 
French  artists.  In  1855  the  Salon  for  the  first 
time  was  held  at  its  present  quarters  in  the 
Palais  de  Tlndustrie. 

Previous  to  1872  the  Salon  was  in  charge  of 
the  artist  members  of  the  Institute,  but  the 
preponderance  of  architects  among  them  led  the 
Government,  in  1872,  to  put  it  in  charge  of  the 
exhibitors  themselves,  organized  as  the  Soci^t^  . 
des  Artistes  Frangais.  Dissensions  consequent 
upon  the  awards  at  the  exposition  of  1889  re- 
sulted in  the  formation  of  tne  Society  Nationals 
des  Beaux- Arts,  which  holds  an  independent  ex- 
hibition in  the  Champs  de  Mars  from  May  15th 
to  July  15th  each  year.  The  Paris  Salon  is  the 
precursor  of  the  similar  exhibitions  in  London 
and  elsewhere. 

SALO^A.  Now  a  village  in  Dalmatia,  near 
Spalato  (q.v.)  ;  formerly  an  important  city  of  the 
Roman  Empire.  Diocletian  was  bom  in  it  and 
retired  to  it  after  his  abdication.  Many  remains 
of  the  Roman  occupation  have  been  brought  to 
light  in  recent  years. 

SALONIKI,  sttld-ne^d  (Turk.  Selanik).  The 
capital  of  a  vilayet  of  the  same  name  and  the 
second  seaport  in  European  Turkey,  situated  at 
the  northern  end  of  an  inlet  of  the  Gulf  of 
Saloniki,  about  140  miles  south  of  Sofia  (Map: 
Balkan  Peninsula,  D  4).  It  lies  partly  on  the 
flat  coast  of  the  inlet  and  partlv  on  the  slopes  of 
Mount  Kissos.  It  is  still  partly  surrounded  by 
white  walls,  and  is  commanded  by  the  citadel 
of   Heptapyrgion   or   Seven   Towers.     Saloniki, 


SALOHIKL 


871 


SALT. 


abounding  in  well-preserved  monuments  of  an- 
tiquify,  is  of  great  arehseological  interest.  The 
triumphal  arch  across  the  former  Via  E^atia 
iB  variously  ascribed  to  Constantine  and  Iheodo- 
tiuB,  and  consists  of  three  archways  of  brick 
covered  with  marble  slabs  and  decorated  with 
bas-reliefs.  The  other  arch,  attributed  to  Ves- 
pasian, was  demolished  in  1867.  The  portico 
with  caryatides,  known  as  Las  Incantadas,  is  be- 
lieved to  be  the  entrance  to  a  hippodrome.  The 
walls  of  the  city  along  the  water  have  been  de- 
molished and  replaced  by  a  magnificent  quay,  at 
the  eastern  end  of  which  is  the  White  Tower  or 
the  Tower  of  Blood,  a  remnant  of  the  ancient 
fortifications. 

The  mosques  of  Saloniki  are  mostly  of 
Byzantine  origin  and  are  characterized  by  great 
splendor.  The  Mosque  of  Saint  Sophia  is  modeled 
after  the  famous  mosque  of  the  same  name  in 
Constantinople,  and  is  crowned  by  a  vast  dome 
with  beautiful  mosaics.  The  Rotonda,  the 
former  Church  of  Saint  George,  also  deserves  es- 
pecial mention  for  its  mosaics.  Saint  Demetrius 
IS  interesting  for  the  originality  of  its  interior 
arrangement. 

The  principal  manufactures  are  morocco 
leather  and  leather  products,  cutlery  and  arms, 
flour,  cotton  yam,  bricks  and  tiles,  and  soap.  By 
its  situation  Saloniki  is  remarkably  well  adapted 
for  a  great  commercial  seaport.  The  new  harbor 
opened  in  1901  is  protected  by  a  breakwater  over 
1800  feet  long,  and  has  a  quay  over  1470  feet 
long,  with  a  long  pier  at  each  end.  The  chief 
exports  of  Saloniki  are  grain,  animals  and  ani- 
mal products,  silk  cocoons,  wool,  tobacco,  opium, 
manganese,  etc.  The  chief  imports  are  textiles, 
sugar,  coflTee,  tobacco,  chemicals,  and  iron  goods. 
The  commerce  of  Saloniki  (excluding  the  coast- 
ing trade)  amounted  in  1000  to  nearly  $18,400,- 
000,  of  which  the  exports  represented  about 
$6,000,000.  The  trade  is  chiefly  with  Great 
Britain  and  Austria-Hungary. 

The  population  is  estimated  at  about  100,000, 
of  whom  the  Jews  form  over  50  per  cent,  and 
the  Mohammedans  about  one-third.  The  pre- 
dominating language  is  Ladino,  a  corrupted  Span- 
ish, introduced  by  the  Jews. 

Saloniki  is  the  ancient  Thessalonica  (q.v.). 
Throughout  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Middle  Ages 
it  belonged  to  the  Byzantine  Empire.  It  has  been 
in  the  hands  of  the  Turks  since  1430. 

8A^IX>P.  A  colloquial  name  for  the  English 
county  of  Shropshire  (q.v.). 

SAIiPA  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  ^dXri|,  salpi,  sort  of 
stock-fish).  A  barrel-shaped  ascidian  existing 
either  as  small,  separate  individuals  or  forming 
a  colony  or  chain  consisting  of  large  individuals. 
Salpa  is  pelagic,  one  species  occurring  in  abun- 
dance off  the  shores  of  southern  New  England, 
while  the  others  mostly  live  on  the  high  seas  all 
over  the  tropical  and  subtropical  regions  of  the 
globe.  The  hermaphroditic  aggregated  or  chain 
salpa  differs  from  the  solitary  asexual  form  in 
being  less  regularly  barrel-shaped  and  without 
the  two  long  posterior  appendages  of  the  latter. 
Salpa  reproduces  parthenogenetically.  as  in  some 
crustaceans  and  insects,  exhibiting  a  true  case  of 
alternation  of  generations  (q.v.)  of  the  kind  called 
'metagenesis.'  Consult  Brooks,  "The  Genus 
Salna,"  in  Memoirs  of  the  Biological  Laboratory 
of  Johns  Hopkins  University,  vol.  ii.  ( Baltimore, 
1803). 


SAIiPfiTBlilBE,  s&l'p&'trd'&r^.  An  old 
ladies'  home  and  hospital  in  Paris.  Begun  by 
Louis  XIV.  in  1656  upon  the  site  of  the  Petit 
Arsenal,  the  SalpOtri^re  has  been  added  to  con- 
tinually, until  to-day  the  forty-five  buildings 
which  cover  its  grounds  accommodate  over  5000 
people — probably  the  largest  institution  of  its 
kind  in  Europe.  A  large  part  of  its  population 
are  superannuated  female  employees  of  the  Gov- 
ernment and  there  are  a  very  large  number  of  in- 
sane women.  .The  hospital  was  used  as  a  prison 
during  the  French  Revolution. 

SAL  FBXTNELLE.    See  Saltpetbe. 

SALSETTE^  An  island  on  the  west  coast  of 
British  India,  situated  immediately  north  of  Bom- 
bay, with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  causeway, 
and  separated  from  the  mainland  by  a  channel 
less  than  a  mile  wide.  The  area  is  about  241 
square  miles.  It  is  chiefly  notable  for  a  number 
of  remarkable  caves  found  at  Kenery  in  the 
middle  of  the  island.  They  are  nearly  a  hundred 
in  number,  are  all  excavated  in  the  face  of  a 
single  hill,  and  contain  elaborate  carvings,  espe- 
cially representations  of  Buddha,  many  of  them 
of  colossal  size. 

SALSIFY  (Fr.  salcifis,  dialectic  sercifi,  OF, 
aercifiy  cerchefi,  from  It.  sasaafrica,  goat's-beard, 
from  Lat.  saxumy  rock  -f-  fricare,  to  rub), Oyster 
Plant,  or  Vegetable  Oyster  ( Tragopogon  porri- 
folius).  A  biennial  plant  of  the  natural  order 
CompositflB,  indigenous  to  the  Mediterranean  re- 
gion and  cultivated  in  Europe,  America,  and 
Australia  for  its  edible  spindle-shaped  root,  8  to 
12  inches  long  and  about  an  inch  in  diameter  at 
the  top.  It  requires  a  deep,  rich  soil,  and  is 
cultivated  like  parsnips,  like  which  it  may  be 
left  in  the  ground  during  the  winter.  In  the 
second  season  it  produces  many-branched  flower 
stalks  three  or  four  feet  high  bearing  terminal 
heads  of  purplish  flowers.  A  yellow-flowered 
variety  of  salsify  {Tragopogon  pratensis)  is  a 
weed  both  in  Europe  and  America. 

SALT  (AS.  sealt,  Goth,  salt,  OHG.  salz,  Ger. 
8alz,  salt ;  connected  with  Lat.  sal,  Gk.  AXt,  hals, 
Olr.  salann,  Lett,  sals,  OChurch  Slav,  soil,  salt). 
The  chloride  of  sodium,  known  mineralogically 
as  halite  (q.v.),  containing  60.41  per  cent,  of 
chlorine  and  39.50  per  cent,  of  sodium.  The  prin- 
cipal sources  of  salt  are  the  ocean,  salt  lakes, 
subterranean  brines,  and  deposits  of  rock  salt. 
Since  all  river  waters  carry  alkalies  in  solution, 
the  accumulation  of  dissolved  materials  may  be- 
come very  great  when  the  rivers  enter  a  reservoir 
which  has  no  other  outlet  than  by  evaporation. 
It  is  in  this  way  that  the  brines  of  salt  lakes 
have  been  formed,  and  the  salt  of  the  ocean 
probably  has  been  derived  also  from  the  wash 
of  the  lands.  The  degree  of  concentration  of 
such  brines  depends  upon  a  number  of  factors, 
such  as  the  volume  of  the  reservoir,  amount  of 
water  supplied,  rate  of  evaporation,  and  the  time 
during  which  the  process  has  been  carried  on.  In 
the  Caspian  Sea  the  dissolved  salt  amounts  to 
only  0.63  per  cent.,  while  the  Mediterranean  con- 
tains 3.37  per  cent.,  the  Atlantic  Ocean  (aver- 
age) 3.63  per  cent.,  and  the  Dead  Sea  22.30  per 
cent.  When  the  water  evaporated  exceeds  that 
entering  the  reservoir,  the  solution  may  become 
saturated,  and  the  salts  will  then  be  deposited 
in  the  order  of  their  solubility,  such  difficultly 
soluble  substances  as  gypsum  being  precipitated 


8ALT. 


872 


BAIiT. 


first,  and  salt^  which  is  very  soluble,  being  de- 
posited last.  The  drying  up  of  lakes  or  the 
evaporation  of  sea  water  in  inclosed  bays  has 
thus  led  to  the  formation  of  rock  salt  deposits. 
These  deposits  are  frequently  interstratified  with 
beds  of  shale,  which  it  is  supposed  were  laid 
down  during  periods  of  high  water  when  the 
streams  washed  an  unusual  quantity  of  sediment 
into  the  lake  or  bay. 

Distribution  and  Pboduction.  The  occur- 
rence of  salt  is  widespread  both  as  regards  its 
geographical  and  geological  distribution.  In 
the  United  States  the  most  productive  deposits 
are  found  in  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Virginia, 
West  Virginia,  Ohio,  Michigan,  Illinois,  Kansas, 
Louisiana,  and  Texas.  Important  quantities  of 
salt  are  won  also  from  the  waters  of  Great 
Salt  Lake  in  Utah  and  from  those  of  San  Fran- 
cisco Bay  in  California.  In  New  York  the  salt 
is  obtained  from  beds  of  the  Salina  series,  where 
it  exists  as  lens-shaped  deposits  of  rock  salt 
which  attain  an  extreme  thickness  of  250  feet. 
Since  the  beds  outcrop  in  the  central  part  of 
the  State  and  dip  southward,  some  of  the  more 
southern  deposits  lie  at  a  depth  of  2700  feet. 
The  Salina  formation  also  carries  salt  in  Michi- 
gan at  a  depth  of  from  1600  to  2200  feet.  The 
great  source  of  salt  in  this  State,  however,  as 
well  as  in  Ohio,  is  the  Lower  Carboniferous,  from 
which  the  brines  sometimes  have  an  added  value 
owing  to  the  presence  of  bromine.  In  West  Vir- 
ginia the  salt  occurs  in  the  Lower  Carboniferous 
along  the  Kanawha  and  Ohio  rivers.  Kansas 
has  recently  attained  importance  as  a  producer 
of  both  brine  and  rock  salt,  which  is  extracted 
from  beds  that  lie  along  the  contact  of  the  Per- 
mian and  Triassic  systems*  at  a  depth  of  from 
450  to  1000  feet.  The  extensive  deposits  occur- 
ring on  Avery  Island  and  the  island  of  Petit 
An»e,  La.,  are  of  recent  geologic  age. 

The  production  of  salt  in  the  United  States 
has  increased  very  rapidly.  The  output  in  1881 
was  6,200,000  barrels  (of  280  pounds),  valued 
at  $4,200,000;  in  1801  it  was  9,987,945  barrels, 
valued  at  $4,716,121;  and  in  1901  it  amounted 
to  20,566,661  barrels,  valued  at  $6,617,449.  A 
considerable  portion  of  the  output  in  recent 
years  has  been  converted  into  the  various  soda 
products.  The  production  by  States  in  1901  was 
as  follows: 

PBOOuonoH  or  Salt  in  thb  Uritkd  States  in  1901 


New  York 

Hlchlsan 

Kansas 

Ohio 

Gallfomia 

Utah 

West  Virginia- 
Other  States.... 


Total. 


Barrels 


ao.6«6.6ei 


Value 


7.a8«.820 

$2,089,834 

7,729.W1 

2,437,677 

2,087,791 

614.865 

1,153.636 

465.924 

flOl.659 

133.666 

834.484 

826.016 

931.723 

94.732 

1.141.669 

466.245 

86,617,449 


In  Europe  the  most  notable  deposits  of  salt  are 
found  in  the  Cheshire  district  of  England;  at 
Stassfurt,  Brunswick,  and  Hanover,  Germany; 
Wieliczka,  Bochnia,  and  Hallstadt.  Austria; 
Mfiramnrofl.  Hungarv:  the  Crimea  and  the  Donetz 
bitm'n.  Bussia :  and  Cardona,  Spain.  The  mines  of 
WieliczVa.  near  Cracow,  are  famous  for  their 
great  antiquity  and  the  unusual  size  of  the  un- 
derground workings.  France  and  Italy  are  ex- 
tensive producers  of  salt  from  sea  water. 


The  production  of  salt  by  the  principal  coon* 
tries  of  the  world  in  1900  waa  as  follows: 

W0BLD*S  PBODUOnOH  OV   SAI/T  IN  1900 

Short  toM 

United  States. 9.9Z1,7QB 

United  Kingdom 3,064.701 

Canada 62,066 

Germany 1,149.386 

Prance 1,199.076 

Aaatria-Hangary 672.612 

Baaala(1699) 1,862,861 

Italj 404.715 

Spain 496,965 

India. 1,U6.6U 

Japan  (1899) 660.884 

Other  countries 81,717 


Total UMlfia 

Extraction  Methods.  The  simplest  method 
of  obtaining  salt  is  by  the  evaporation  of  sea 
water,  but  this  is  seldom  practiced  except  in 
those  countries  which  have  no  supplies  of  sub- 
terranean brines  or  rock  salt.  It  consists  in 
conducting  sea  water  into  shallow  tanks  or  pools 
and  then  evaporating  the  water  by  the  sun's  neat 
After  the  gypsum  has  crystallized  out  the  con- 
centrated brine  is  pumped  into  another  vat  where 
the  salt  evaporates.  Subterranean  brines  are 
extracted  by  driving  wells  through  which  they 
are  then  pumped  to  the  surface.  Brine  salt  is 
also  obtained  from  rock  salt  deposits  by  a  proc- 
ess of  solution.  In  this  case  a  well  is  bored 
down  to  the  salt  stratum  in  the  same  manner  as 
one  bored  for  petroleum  (q.v.).  After  the  drill- 
ing has  been  completed,  it  is  customary  to 
case  the  well  with  a  pipe.  Inside  of  this  there 
is  put  a  second  tubing,  which  usually  extends 
to  a  lower  depth,  than  the  outer  pipe.  The  water 
is  forced  down  between  the  outer  and  inner  tub- 
ing, dissolves  out  the  salt,  and  comes  up  through 
the  inner  tube.  In  some  cases  several  wells  are 
bored,  the  water  being  forced  down  one  and  the 
brine  up  the  other.  On  reaching  the  surface 
it  is  discharged  into  settling  tanks,  in  order  to 
allow  the  suspended  clay  to  settle.  The  brine 
is  then  pumped  to  the  evaporating  vats,  which 
are  either  tanks  with  movable  roofs,  so  that  the 
salt  can  be  evaporated  by  solar  heat,  or  else 
are  placed  over  furnaces,  or  hot  pipes,  and  the 
water  evaporated  by  artificial  heat.  The  latter 
is  the  prevalent  method. 

In  the  solar  process  the  brine  is  pumped  into 
a  series  of  tanks,  in  the  first  of  which  after 
standing  for  a  while  it  becomes  yellowish,  due 
to  the  escape  of  carbonic  acid  gas  and  the  pre- 
cipitation of  the  iron.  In  the  next  series  of 
tanks  the  gypsum  separates,  and  these  are 
known  as  the  lime  tanks.  The  brine  remains 
here  until  the  salt  crystals  begin  to  separate, 
indicating  that  the  point  of  saturation  is  being 
approached.  The  brine  or  pickle  is  now  drawn 
over  into  a  third  series  of  tanks,  in  which  the 
salt  forms  on  the  bottom,  and  is  removed  by 
means  of  rakes  several  times  during  the  season. 
The  solar  process  is  chiefly  adapted  to  the  manu- 
facture of  the  coarser  grades  of  salt.  The  finer 
grades,  such  as  table  salt,  are  produced  by  the 
use  of  artificial  heat  in  the  evaporation  of  the 
brine.  This  is  carried  on  either  in  iron  tanks 
or  kettles.  A  tank  is  about  20  to  24  feet  wide, 
100  feet  lonflT,  and  12  inches  deep.  The  tanks 
rest  on  brick  arches  and  the  heat  is  supplied 
from  grates  set  at  one  end  of  the  tank  and  some- 
what underneath  it.  Two  pans  are  usually 
operated  in  connection  with  each  other,  known 


8ALT. 


878 


8ALT  LAXB  CITY. 


as  the  front  and  the  back  pan.  The  brine  passes 
from  the  latter  to  the  former,  the  supply  being 
kept  up  to  supply  decrease  due  to  evaporation. 
The  grain  of  the  salt  is  sometimes  controlled  by 
addi^  glue,  soft  soap,  or  other  material  during 
the  process  of  evaporation.  In  the  kettle  proc- 
ess the  brine  is  evaporated  in  kettles  having  a 
capacity  of  about  120  gallons.  In  the  bottom  of 
the  kettle  there  is  set  a  pan  having  a  vertical 
handle.  This  is  for  the  purpose  of  catching  the 
gypsum  and  iron  which  separate  first.  When 
these  substances  have  been  precipitated  the  pan 
is  carefully  withdrawn. 

In  the  mining  of  rock  salt  the  deposits  are 
worked  by  the  usual  shafts  and  chambers,  and 
the  product  when  brought  to  tiie  surface  is 
either  shipped  in  large  lumps  or  put  through  a 
breaker,  which  is  a  building  containing  a  series 
of  crushers,  toothed  rolls,  and  screens,  for  the 
purpose  of  breaking  up  the  salt  and  separating 
it  into  the  various  sizes. 

Salt  has  been  and  still  is  used  to  some  extent 
as  a  fertilizer.  It  belongs  to  the  class  of  soil 
amendments  or  improvers.  (See  Manures.) 
Since  it  supplies  no  essential  element  of  plant 
food,  its  value  as  a  soil  improver  is  probably  due 
to  its  physical  action  (attraction  for  water,  etc.), 
or  to  its  ability  to  set  free  inert  plant  food  in  tiie 
soil.   See  Composts. 

BiBUOGRAPHT.  Cadell,  "The  Salt  Deposit  at 
Stassfurt,"  Transactions  Edinburgh  Geological 
Society,  v.,  pt.  i.  (Edinburgh,  1885) ;  Chatard, 
'^Salt-mak^igf  Processes  in  the  United  States," 
Seventh  Anwual  Report  United  States  Geological 
Survey,  p.  497  (Washington,  1888) ;  Merrill, 
'"Salt  and  Gypsum  Industries  in  New  York," 
Bulletin  New  York  State  Museum,  iii.,  No.  11 
(Albany);  Lucas,  'Hock  Salt  in  Louisiana," 
Transactions  American  Insiitute  Mining  Engi- 
neers, vol.  xxxix.  (New  York,  1899) ;  Veatch, 
'The  Salines  of  North  Louisiana,"  Report  on  the 
Geology  of  Louisiana,  (Geological  Survey  of  Lou- 
isiana for  1902  (Baton  Rouge) ;  Bailey,  "Brines 
and  Their  Industrial  Use,"  University  Geological 
Survey  of  Kansas,  vol.  vii.  (Top^a,  1902) ; 
Root,  **The  Manufacture  of  Salt  and  Bromine," 
Qeological  Survey  of  Ohio,  vol.  vi.  (Norwalk) ; 
Cummins,  ''Salt  in  Northwestern  Texas,"  Texas 
Qeological  Survey,  Second  Annual  Report,  p.  444 
(Austin,  1891) ;  Bailey,  ''Saline  Deposits  of  Cali- 
fornia," Bulletin  California  State  Mining  Bu- 
reau, 1902  (San  Francisco). 

For  statistics,  see  volumes  on  Mineral  Re- 
sources, issued  annually  by  the  United  States 
(Geological  Survey  (Washington),  and  also  The 
Minerdl  Industry  (New  York,  annual). 

SALT,  Sir  Trrus  (1803-76).  An  English 
manufacturer,  borp  at  Morley,  in  the  West  Rid- 
ing of  Yorkshire.  He  learned  the  wool-stapling 
business,  and  in  1824  entered  into  partnership 
with  his  father  at  Bradford.  He  was  the  first 
to  make  practical  use  of  Donskoi  wool  in  worsted 
manufacture,  and  in  1830  be  introduced  alpaca 
to  the  British  market.  In  1853  he  opened  a  great 
factory  a  few  miles  from  Bradford,  on  the  River 
Aire,  about  which  there  soon  grew  up  the  town 
of  Saltaire.  His  factories  were  built  with  special 
regard  to  warmth,  light,  and  ventilation,  and  in 
the  town  he  erected  hundreds  of  model  dwellings, 
a  puhlie  dining  hall,  factory  schools,  public 
baths,  and  other  conveniences.  He  was  created 
a  hanmet  in  1869.    Consult:  Balgamie,  Life  of 


Sir  Titus  Salt;  and  Holyrod,  Saltaire  and  Its 
Founder. 

8ALTA,  s&KtA.  A  northwestern  province  of 
Argentina,  bordering  on  Bolivia  and  Cnile  (Man: 
Argentina,  D  8).  Area,  45,000  square  miles.  The 
western  half  is  occupied  by  Andean  ranges,  while 
the  eastern  part  belongs  to  the  Gran  Chaco.  It  is 
abundantly  watered  and  contains  a  considerable 
area  of  agricultural  land.  Grain,  sugar,  and 
various  khids  of  fruit  are  raised  successfully. 
The  mountains  contain  gold,  silver,  copper,  and 
other  minerals,  but  the  principal  occupations  of 
the  inhabitants  are  agriculture  and  cattle-rais- 
ing. Population,  in  1900,  131,938.  Capital, 
Salta. 

8ALTA.  The  capital  of  the  Province  of  Salta, 
Argentina,  situated  among  the  moimtains,  135 
miles  northwest  of  Tucumfln  (Map:  Argentina, 
D  8 ) .  The  town  is  well  built  with  paved  streets, 
and  has  a  cathedral,  a  national  college,  and  a 
normal  school.  A  railroad  runs  to  Buenos  Ayres 
and  an  important  trade  is  carried  on  with  Bo- 
livia. Population,  in  1895,  16,672;  in  1901  (esti- 
mated), 17,500. 

SALT  BUSH.    See  Atbiflex. 

SALT-CAKE.  A  name  applied  to  the  crude 
sodium  sulphate  obtained  when  sodium  chloride 
is  treated  with  sulphuric  acid.    See  Soda. 

SALTILLO,  M-UtVj6,  or  Leona  Vicabio. 
The  capital  of  the  State  of  Coahuila,  Mexico,  sit- 
uated on  the  plateau  5200  feet  above  sea-level 
and  45  miles  southwest  of  Monterey,  on  the 
Mexican  National  Railroad  (Map:  Mexico,  H  5). 
It  is  regularly  laid  out,  and  has  a  handsome 
church,  a  college,  an  athensum,  and  the  Madero 
Institute,  containing  a  library.  The  chief  indus' 
tries  are  the  manufacture  of  blankets  and  shawls, 
cotton  cloth,  and  flour.  The  town  is  an  important 
trade  centre.  Population,  in  1895,  26,801.  Sal- 
tillo  was  founded  in  1586  as  an  outpost  against 
the  Apaches.  Near  the  city  is  Buena  Vista,  the 
scene  of  a  battle  between  the  Mexican  and  the 
United  States  forces  in  1847. 

SALTIBE.    One  of  the  ordinaries  in  heraldry 

SALT  LAKE  CITY.  The  capital  of  Utah 
and  the  county  seat  of  Salt  Lake  County,  near 
the  Jordan  River  and  12  miles  southeast  of 
Great  Salt  Lake;  676  miles  west  by  north  of 
Detfver  (Map:  Utah,  B  1).  The  Union  Pacific, 
the  Rio  Grande  Western,  the  Utah  Central,  and 
other  railroads  enter  the  city.  Salt  Lake  City 
holds  a  unique  place  among  the  towns  of  the 
United  States  as  the  headquarters  of  the  Latter 
Day  Saints,  generally  known  as  Mormons  (q.v.). 
It  is  situat^  in  a  spacious  valley,  more  than 
4300  feet  above  the  sea,  and  surrounded  by 
mountains.  To  the  east  is  Fort  Douglas  (q.v.), 
a  United  States  Government  military  post,  with 
an  extensive  reservation.  There  are  hot  sulphur 
springs  in  the  vicinity,  and  on  the  shores  of 
Great  Salt  Lake  (q.v.)  are  several  bathing  re- 
sorts, of  which  Saltair  and  Garfield  Beach  are 
the  most  popular.  The  city  has  an  area  of 
more  than  51  square  miles.  It  is  laid  out  on  a 
grand  scale,  the  streets  being  broad  and  regular, 
and  pleasantly  shaded.  Irrigation  ditches  line 
the  thoroughfares.  Lawns  and  gardens  add  to 
the  general  attractiveness.  Many  of  the  wards 
contain  public  squares.  Liberty  Park  has  an 
area  of  110  acres. 


SALT  LAKE  CITT. 


874 


SALTPETBE. 


Near  the  centre  of  the  city  is  the  Temple 
Block  (square),  containing  the  Temple,. the  Tab- 
ernacle, and  the  Assembly  Hall — all  together 
forming  the  official  seat  of  the  Mormon  Church. 
The  Temple,  the  most  beautiful  of  the  imposing 
edifices  erected  by  the  Mormons,  was  begun  in 
1853  and  was  finished  in  1893  at  an  estimated 
cost  of  $4,000,000.  The  structure  is  of  granite, 
186  by  99  feet,  and  each  end  is  surmounted  by 
three  lofty  towers.  The  highest  spire  supports 
a  figure  of  the  Mormon  angel  Moroni.  The  Tab- 
ernacle is  an  elliptical  building,  250  by  150 
feet,  having  a  roof  similar  in  shape  to  a  turtle- 
shell.  It  is  noted  for  one  of  the  largest  self- 
supporting  arches  in  the  world  and  for  its 
great  organ.  Its  acoustic  properties  are  superb. 
The  auditorium  seats  several  thousand  persons. 
Among  other  buildings  connected  with  the  Mor- 
mon Church  are  the  former  residences  of  Brig- 
ham  Young,  the  Lion  House,  the  Beehive  House, 
and  the  Gardo  House,  the  tithing  storehouse, 
and  also  the  large  establishment  of  Zion's  Co- 
operative Mercantile  Institution,  whose  annual 
sales  are  said  to  amount  to  more  than  $4,000,000. 
A  monument  in  honor  of  Brigham  Young  is  one  of 
the  features  of  Salt  Lake  City.  The  city  and  coun- 
ty building,  costing  $900,000,  is  the  most  note- 
worthy of  the  public  edifices.  Other  prominent 
structures  are  the  Salt  Lake  Theatre,  the  Expo- 
sition Building,  the  State  Penitentiary,  and  Holy 
Cross  and  Saint  Mark's  hospitals.  The  Uni- 
versity of  Utah  (q.v.)  is  in  Salt  Lake  City,  also 
a  State  Normal  School.  The  private  institutions 
for  secondary  education  include  All  Hallow's 
College  (Roman  Catholic),  Gordon  Academy 
(Congregational),  the  Latter  Day  Saints*  Col- 
lege, Rowland  Hall  (Protestant  Episcopal),  and 
the  Salt  Lake  Collegiate  Institute  (Presby- 
terian). There  are  several  libraries,  of  which 
the  most  important,  aside  from  those  belonging 
to  the  educational  institutions,  are  the  Public, 
with  some  14,000  volumes,  and  the  State  Law 
Library,  with  10.000. 

Salt  Lake  City  is  the  most  important  town 
between  Denver  arid  the  Pacific  Coast.  Its  in- 
terests are  mainly  commercial,  the  city  being  the 
distributing  centre  for  a  vast  and  rich  mining, 
stock-raising,  and  farming  country.  The  produc- 
tiveness of  the  region  is  secured  by  means  of 
irrigation.  The  city  is  the  headquarters  of  sev- 
eral large  mining  companies,  and  has  smelters 
and  mineral  mills.  Its  industrial  importance, 
however,  is  comparatively  small,  the  various  man- 
ufactories in  the  census  year  1900  having  had 
only  $4,049,000  capital  and  an  output  valued  at 
$6,109,000.  Among  the  leading  establishments  are 
car  shops,  breweries,  confectionery  factories, 
boot  and  shoe  factories,  foundries  and  machine 
shops,  lime  and  cement  works,  saddlery  and 
harness  factories,  looking-glass  and  picture  frame 
factories,  tobacco,  cigar,  and  cigarette  factories, 
lumber  mills,  etc.  Electric  power  is  used  by 
many  of  the  factories,  as  well  as  by  the  electric 
lighting  and  the  street  railway  plants.  The 
power  is  electrically  developed  from  a  mountain 
cataract  some  35  miles  from  the  city. 

The  government  is  vested  in  a  mayor,  elected 
eveiy  two  years,  a  unicameral  council,  and  ad- 
ministrative officials,  the  majority  of  whom  are 
appointed  by  the  mayor  with  the  consent  of  the 
cotmcil.  The  city  attorney,  treasurer,  auditor, 
recorder,  and  justices  of  the  peace,  however,  are 
chosen  by  popular  vot«.    The  city  spends  annu- 


ally for  maintenance  and  operation  about  $790,- 
000,  the  principal  items  being:  schools,  $265,000; 
interest  on  debt,  $168,000;  streets,  $60,000;  fire 
department,  $43,000;  police  department,  $40,000; 
water-works,  $37,000;  municipal  lighting,  $31,- 
000.  The  water-works,  built  in  1874,  are  the 
property  of  the  municipality.  The  system  has 
cost  more  than  $4,400,000.  It  now  comprises 
150  miles  of  mains.  The  net  debt  of  the  city  in 
1902  was  $3,505,866;  the  assessed  valuation, 
$33,692,318.  The  population  in  1860  was  8236; 
in  1870,  12,854;  in  1880,  20,768;  in  1890,  44,843; 
in  1900,  53,531. 

The  city  was  founded  in  1847  by  the  Monnons 
under  Brigham  Young,  who,  leaving  the  Missouri 
River  on  April  7,  arrived  at  this  point  on  July 
24.  It  was  organized  as  a  city  in  1851,  and 
until  1868  was  called  Great  Salt  Lake  City. 
About  one-third  of  the  inhabitants  now  are  *G€n- 
tiles.'  Consult:  Bancroft,  History  of  Utah  (San 
Francisco,  1889)  ;  Jones,  Salt  Lake  City  (Salt 
Lake  City,  1889);  Powell  (editor),  Historic 
Totons  of  the  Western  States  (New  York,  1901). 
See  Mormons. 

SALT-MABfiH  CATEBPILLAR  HOTH.  A 
moth  (Leucarctica  acrosa)  found  in  New  England 
and  so  named  because  its  larva^  a  hairy  cater- 
pillar, feeds  on  the  salt  grass  of  the  marshes. 
See  Colored  Plate  of  Moths. 

SALTO,  saKtA.  The  capital  of  the  department 
of  the  same  name,  Uruguay,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  River  Uruguay,  260  miles  northwest  of 
Montevideo,  with  which  it  has  railway  connec- 
tion (Map:  Uruguay,  P  10).  Here  steamers 
from  Montevideo  and  Buenos  Ayres  transship 
their  cargoes  for  Southern  Brazil,  either  by  rail 
or  river  transportation.  The  chief  industries  are 
leather  manufacturing,  the  salting  of  meats,  and 
boat-building.  Commercially  Salio  ranks  second 
to  Montevideo  in  the  Republic.  It  was  founded 
in  1817,  and  its  present  population  is  about 
13,000. 

SALT  OF  TABTAB.  A  commercial  name 
for  crude  potassium  carbonate. 

SALTONSTALL,  sal'ton-st»l,  Gubdon  (1666- 
1724).  A  colonial  Governor  of  Connecticut,  bom 
at  Haverhill,  Mass.  He  graduated  at  Harvard 
in  1684,  and  in  1691  was  ordained  pastor  of  the 
First  Church  (Congregational),  at  New  London, 
Conn.  He  soon  became  prominent  in  politics  and 
was  elected  Governor  of  Connecticut  in  1707,  to 
fill  the  unexpired  term  of  Governor  Winthrop, 
and  was  thereafter  reelected  until  his  death.  It 
was  largely  due  to  him  that  Yale  was  removed 
from  Saybrook  to  New  Haven. 

SALTPETBE  (OF.  salpestre,  Fr.  salp^tre, 
from  Lat.  sal,  salt  -|-  petra,  from  Gk.  r^^, 
rock),  or  Nitre.  A  mineral  potassium  nitrate 
crystallizing  in  the  orthorhombic  system.  It  is 
found  native  in  certain  soils  of  Spain,  Egypt,  and 
Persia,  and  especially  in  East  India,  although  in 
relatively  small  quantities.  Still  smaller  deposits, 
of  local  importance  only,  are  found  in  various 
parts  of  the  world.  In  the  United  States  such 
deposits  occur  in  caves  in  Kentucky  and  else- 
where in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  as  well  as  in 
Tennessee.  Saltpetre  occurs  but  seldom  in  strata, 
being  for  the  most  part  a  product  continually 
formed  by  the  action  of  atmospheric  air  upon 
nitrogenous  organic  matter  in  the  presence  of 
bases.  The  process  of  refining  consists  in 
bringing  the  nitre  into  solution  and  adding  potas- 


8ALTPBTBSI. 


876 


dALUTATlOHa 


simii  carbonate  for  the  removal  of  any  calcium 
or  magnesium  salts  that  may  be  present.  Glue 
is  then  added  to  the  solution,  and  thus,  on  boil- 
ing, a  scum  is  formed  on  the  surface  containing 
any  organic  substances  that  may  be  present. 
When  the  scum  ceases  to  rise  the  liquid  is  al- 
lowed to  settle  and  the  clear  portion  is  run  off 
into  coolers,  from  which  the  nitre  separates  as 
minute  floury  crystals  which  are  finally  washed 
to  remove  all  adhering  mother  liquor.  Much  of 
the  commercial  saltpetre  is  now  made  from  'Chile 
saltpetre'  (see  below)  by  means  of  potassium 
chloride.  Potassium  nitrate  is  readily  soluble 
m  water.  When  heated  to  about  340''  C.  (644° 
F.)  it  fuses  without  decomposition,  forming  a 
thin  liquid,  which,  cast  into  molds,  solidifies  to 
a  white,  translucent,  fibrous  mass  known  as  sai 
f>runeUe.  It  finds  extensive  use  in  the  arts,  as 
in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder  and  other  ex- 
plosives, and  a  small  proportion  is  employed 
in  the  making  of  fireworks  and  matches ;  also  it 
serves  as  a  preservative  for  foods,  as  a  flux  in 
assaying,  as  an  ingredient  of  certain  fire-extin- 
guishers, and  in  medicine. 

Chile  saltpetre^  or  cubic  nitre,  is  the  mineral 
sodium  nitrate  that  is  found  native  along  the 
western  coast  of  South  America,  especially  in 
Northern  Chile  and  Bolivia,  where  it  occurs  in 
beds  several  feet  in  thickness.  The  commercial 
article  is  prepared  by  lixiviation  of  the  crude 
material  with  boiling  water,  concentration,  and 
crystallization.  The  resulting  salt  contains  from 
92  to  97  per  cent,  of  pure  s(^um  nitrate. 

SALT  BAN'OE,  or  Kauibagh.  A  mountain 
range  of  the  Punjab,  India,  between  the  Indus 
and  the  Jhelum  (Map:  India,  B  2).  It  is  a 
rugged  chain  of  rocky  and  barren  peaks  from 
2000  to  5000  feet  high,  and  is  noted  for  immense 
deposits  of  pure  rock  salt. 

SALTS.  Compounds  formed  by  the  substitu- 
tion of  metals  for  the  hydrogen  of  acids.  See 
Acn>s;  Dissociation;  Chemistby  (historical 
section). 

SALTSy  Smelling.  A  preparation  of  carbon- 
ate of  ammonia  with  some  of  the  sweet-scented 
Tolatile  oils,  used  as  a  restorative  by  persons 
suffering  from  faintness.  The  pungency  of  the 
ammonia  is  all  that  is  useful,  the  oils  being 
added  to  make  it  more  agreeable.  Oils  of  laven- 
der, lemon,  cloves,  and  bergamot  are  those  chiefly 
used. 

SALT  SPBIHO.  A  common  term  for  sub- 
terranean saline  waters  which  reach  the  surface 
through  natural  or  artificial  passages.  Aside 
from  their  unusually  large  content  of  dissolved 
minerals  salt  springs  possess  no  distinctive  fea- 
tures of  interest.    1^  Spring  and  Salt. 

SALTXJ8,  sftntis,  Edoab  Evebtson  (1858—). 
An  American  novelist  and  journalist,  bom  in  New 
York  City.  He  received  his  education  in  Saint 
Paul's  School,  Concord,  N.  H.^  and  later  in  the 
Sorbonne  and  the  Universities  of  Munich  and 
Heidelberg.  He  graduated  from  the  Colum- 
bia Law  School  in  1880.  His  first  published 
works  were  biographical  and  philosophical:  Bal- 
aic  (1884)  ;  The  Philosophy  of  Disenchantment 
(1885);  and  The  Anatomy  of  Negation  (1886). 
Later  he  wrote  much  fiction,  dealing  chiefly  with 
contemporary  fashionable  life:  Mr.  IncouVa  Mis- 
adventure (1887);  The  Truth  About  Tristrem 
Varick  (1888) ;  Eden  (1888) ;  A  Transaction  in 


Hearts  (1889) ;  The  Pace  that  Kills  (1889) ;  A 
Transient  Quest  (1889)  ;  Love  and  Lore  (1890) ; 
Mary  Magdalen  (1891);  A  Story  Without  a 
Name  (1891) ;  Imperial  Purple  (1892)  ;  Madame 
Bapphira  (1893);  Enthralled  (1894);  When 
Dreams  Come  True  (1896).  An  elder  brother, 
Fbangis  Saltus  Saltus  (1849-89),  was  a  poet, 
traveler,  and  linguist,  whose  first  volume.  Honey 
and  Gaily  appeared  in  1873.  After  his  death  his 
poems  were  edited  in  four  volumes  by  his  father. 

8ALTYK0FF,  sAl'tI-k6f',  Mikhail.  A  Rus- 
sian writer.    See  Shtchedbin. 

SALTZHAKN,  zWs'miin,  Kabl  (1847-). 
A  German  marine  and  landscape  painter,  bom  in 
Berlin.  He  was  for  three  years  a  pupil  of  Her- 
man Eschke,  then  studied  at  Dttsseldorf,  and 
after  traveling  through  Holland  and  Italy,  set- 
tled in  Berlin.  Some  coast  and  harbor  views 
in  Holland,  as  well  as  delineations  of  the 
agitated  sea,  e.g.  "Entrance  to  Harbor  of  Kol- 
berg"  (1878,  collection  of  German  Emperor),  had 
already  furnished  proof  of  his  remarkable  talent, 
when  the  chance  came  to  him  of  accompanying 
Prince  Henry  of  Prussia  on  his  trip  around  the 
world  in  1878-80.  Of  several  pictures  resulting 
from  that  tour  may  be  mentioned  "Corvette 
Prince  Adalbert  in  the  Strait  of  Magellan"  ( 1833, 
Breslau  Museum),  and  "In  the  Pacific  Ocean" 
(1888,  German  Emperor).  In  the  suite  of  Em- 
peror William  II.  he  visited  Saint  Petersburg  in 
1888,  Norway  in  1889  and  later,  and  from  these 
and  other  journeys  resulted  such  subjects  as 
"William  II.  Whaling  in  Norway"  (1892),  "Sur- 
render of  Danish  Ships  at  Eckemfdrde"  (1894, 
Kiel  Museum),  "Opening  of  Kaiser  Wilhelm- 
Canal"  (1896),  and  "Sailing  Vessel  in  Drift-Ice" 
(1898).  The  National  Gallery  in  Berlin  contains 
"Cruiser  Leipzig  at  Saint  Helena"  (1893)  and 
"Manoeuvre  of  Torpedo-Boats."  In  1888  Saltz- 
mann  was  awarded  the  great  gold  medal  at  Ber- 
lin; in  1894  lie  became  instructor,  and  in  1896 
professor  at  the  Academy. 

SA^US.  The  Roman  goddess  of  health,  cor- 
responding to  the  Greek  Hygeia.  She  had  a 
temple  on  the  Quirinal  Hill  dating  from  B.C.  307. 
She  is  represented  with  a  rudder  and  globe  or 
pouring  a  libation  on  an  altar  encircled  by  a 
serpent. 

SALUTATI,  saiZ5o-ta't«,  or  SAXTTTATO, 
Coluccio  de'  (1330-1406).  An  Italian  humanist. 
In  1375  he  was  appointed  CJhancellor  of  Florence, 
and  in  that  capacity  he  exercised  great  influence 
throughout  Italy.  His  State  papers  were  writ- 
ten in  elegant  Latin.  Among  his  writings  were 
biographies  of  Boccaccio,  Petrarch,  and  Dante, 
and  a  translation  into  Latin  of  part  of  the 
Divina  Commedia.  He  also  directed  the  publi- 
cation of  Petrarch's  epic,  Africa.  Collections  of 
his  epistles  appeared  at  Rome  in  1741  and  1742. 
Consult  Tiraboschi,  Storia  della  letteratura  itali- 
ana,  vol.  xii.  (Florence,  1805-13). 

SALUTATIONS  (Lat.  salutatio,  from  salu* 
.tare,  to  salute,  from  salus,  health,  prosperity, 
from  salvuat,  safe;  connected  with  Skt.  sarva, 
whole,  entire).  The  employment  of  formal  and 
prescribed  methods  of  address  when  one  person 
encounters  another.  Such  greetings  were  for- 
merly graduated  according  to  rank;  in  recent 
times,  with  increasing  democracy,  they  have 
grown  less  and  less  precise.  Salutations  may 
be  made  either  by  w^ords  or  gestures.  With  respect 
to  the  verbal  formulas  they  may  be  classified 


SALTTTATIOVa 


876 


BAIiVABOa. 


nnder  seyeral  heads.  ( 1 )  The  ejcpreasion  of  a  de- 
sire for  the  prosperity  of  the  person  accosted. 
This  depended  originally  on  the  belief  that  a  wish 
for  good  or  evil  micht  be  effective  in  bringing 
about  the  state  of  things  desired  and  produce  a 
corresponding  effect  on  the  individual  toward 
whom  it  was  directed.  We  have  a  simple  example 
in  the  expression  'Your  health ! '  used  m  drinking. 
(2)  The  offering  of  a  prayer  for  the  well-being 
of  any  one,  which  is  continued  in  our  'good  morn- 
ing/ 'good  night/  which  are  abbreviations  for 
'God  give  you  good  morning/  etc.  (3)  Expres- 
sions of  gratitude,  admiration,  or  honor.  Here 
belongs  the  'plural  of  majesty,'  applied  first  to 
kings,  and  by  degrees  made  general. 

Terms  of  respect  like  *your  Honor,'  *your 
Majesty,*  'your  Grace,*  'your  Excellency,*  have 
been  appropriated  to  particular  degrees  of  rank. 
It  is  only  a  more  ancient  variety  of  the  preceding 
use  when  an  idea  of  adoration  is  introduced  of 
which  a  survival  is  seen  in  the  title  of  'Reverend* 
applied  to  clergymen.  Gestures  may  be  regarded 
as  arising  in  the  first  place  from  the  animal  im- 
pulses, as  in  the  pleasure  of  contact  which  induces 
patting  the  cheek  or  hand,  embracing,  and  the 
like.  The  manifestation  of  such  enjoyment  ex- 
hibits much  variation;  thus  kissing  is  by  no 
means  a  imiversal  human  practice,  but  is  rather 
confined  to  certain  peoples.  There  are  likewise 
attitudes  of  subservience,  implying  that  the  in- 
ferior puts  himself  at  the  disposal  of  the  su- 
perior. Here  belong  our  customs  of  bowing  and 
courtesying,  of  lifting  the  hand  in  salute,  and 
the  kneeling  and  prostration  still  practiced  in 
the  Orient.  Denudation  is  a  movement  symbolic 
of  resignation  of  one's  goods  to  a  ruler,  and 
survives  perhaps  in  the  customs  of  lifting  the  hat 
or  removmg  the  glove  before  shaking  hands. 

SALUTES.  Military  courtesies  rendered  by 
non-commissioned  officers  and  men  to  conunis- 
sioned  officers,  and  among  the  latter  by  juniors 
to  seniors  in  rank,  also  the  compliments  paid  by 
the  military  or  naval  services  of  a  nation  to 
the  ruler  or  representative  of  another  nation. 
All  army  officers  salute  on  meeting  and  in 
making  or  receiving  official  reports,  the  junior 
saluting  first,  except  when  the  salute  is  intro- 
ductory to  making  a  report  to  the  representative 
of  a  common  superior,  as  the  adjutant,  officer 
of  the  day,  etc.,  when  ^he  officer  making  the 
report  salutes  first.  Enlisted  men  unarmed  sa- 
lute with  the  hand  farthest  from  the  officer. 
Officers  are  always  saluted  whether  in  uniform 
or  not.  Enlisted  men  unarmed,  whether  covered 
or  uncovered,  salute  before  addressing  an  officer, 
and  again  after  receiving  a  reply.  ^In  the  Eng- 
lish army  this  detail  differs  to  the  extent  that 
soldiers  uncovered  always  salute  by  standing 
simply  to  attention.  Soldiers  in  the  United 
States  Regular  Army  are  required  to  salute,  in  the 
prescribed  form,  officers  of  the  navy,  marines, 
volunteers,  and  militia,  just  as  they  would  their 
own  officers.  When  the  national  or  regimental 
color  standard  uncased  is  carried  past  a  guard, 
or  other  armed  body  the  salute  is  g^ven,  and  the 
field  music  sounds  'to  the  color.'  Officers  and 
men  armed  salute  in  the  manner  prescribed  for 
such  arm,  or  if  unarmed,  make  the  salute  by 
uncovering.  British  regulations  differ  again 
here  in  that  under  no  circumstances,  save  in 
ehurch,  and  during  a  part  of  the  burial  service, 
do  officers  or  men  uncover. 

Salutes  with  Gannon  are  fired  between  sun- 


rise and  sunset  only,  Sundays  usually  exeepUd, 
and  the  national  &g  displayed.  The  namnil 
salute  of  21  guns  is  accorded  to  the  President 
on  his  arrival  and  departure  from  a  militaiy 
poet  or  naval  vessel,  no  other  personal  salute 
being  allowed  in  his  presence.  The  number  of  guns 
prescribed  for  other  officials  is  as  follows:  The 
Vice-President,  19;  Ambassador,  19;  Secretary 
of  War,  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  or  other  Oibinet 
officer,  Ghief  Justioe,  Governor-General,  Governor 
of  State  or  Territory,  or  island.  President  of  the 
Senate,  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives, conunittee  of  Congress,  admiral,  or  gen- 
eral, 17 ;  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  Envoy 
Extraordinary,  vice-admiral,  or  lieutenant-gen- 
eral, 15;  minister  resident,  rear-admiral,  or 
major-general,  13;  charge  d'affaires,  commodore, 
or  brigadier-gieneral,  11;  consul-general,  9;  con- 
sul, 7;  vice-consul,  or  commercial  agent,  5. 

In  the  navy  salutes  are  of  various  kinds.  A 
junior  or  inferior  salutes  a  senior  or  superior  by 
touching  his  cap.  Other  salutes  are  firing  of 
guns,  manning  of  yards,  dipping  of  colors,  etc 
Men  in  boats  salute  by  lying  on  their  oars  or 
tossing  them.  In  the  United  States  and  in  most 
other  services  6-pounder  guns  are  used  for  salut- 
ing when  the  ship  has  pieces  of  that  calibre. 
When  a  man-of-war  fires  a  salute  to  a  foreign 
flag  or  a  foreign  officer  the  salute  is  returned 
gun  for  gun;  but  if  the  salute  is  to  sn 
officer  of  the  same  service  the  latter  only  returns 
the  number  of  guns  to  which  the  junior  is  en- 
titled by  his  rank.  The  salute  by  dipping  of 
colors  is  made  by  a  man-of-war  only  in  answer 
to  a  similar  salute  made  by  a  merchant  vessel. 
As  few  modern  men-of-war  have  yards,  manning 
the  yards  is  no  longer  a  common  usage. 

SALUZZOy  B&-lo9^ts6.  A  city  in  the  Province 
of  Cuneo,  Italy,  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps,  near  the 
right  bank  of  the  Po,  18  miles  by  rail  north- 
northwest  of  Cuneo  (Map:  Italy,  B  3).  It  hss 
a  semi-Gothic  cathedral,  begun  in  1480.  The  man- 
ufactures are  silk  fabrics,  leather  goods,  iron 
ware,  and  hats.  The  chief  trade  is  in  grain,  wine, 
and  cattle.  The  Marquisate  of  Saluzzo,  created 
in  the  first  half  of  the  twelfth  century,  lasted 
till  1548,  when  the  city  was  seized  by  the  French, 
who  gave  it  up  to  Savoy  in  1601.  Population 
(commune),  in  1001,  16,394. 

SALVADOR,  sftl'vA-Ddr^.  The  smallest  and 
most  densely  populated  republic  of  Central 
America,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Honduras,  on 
the  east  by  Honduras  and  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca, 
on  the  south  by  the  Pacific  Coast,  and  on  the 
northwest  by  Guatemala  (Map:  Central  America, 
0  4).    Its  area  is  8135  square  miles. 

TopooBAPHY.  Along  the  northern  border  ex- 
tends the  great  Sierra  Ikfadre  of  Central  America, 
with  many  p^ks  ranging  from  6000  to  8000  feet, 
culminating  in  that  of  Cacaguatique.  Parallel 
with  this  and  about  30  miles  to  the  south  extends 
a  lower  range,  or  rather  elevated  tableland, 
marked  by  clusters  of  volcanic  peaks,  of  which 
Izalco  (q.v.)  is  the  most  noted.  There  are  de- 
posits of  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  lead  in  the  east- 
em  part  of  the  Republic,  iron  in  the  western,  and 
coal  in  the  Lempa  Valley.  There  are  about  150 
mines  in  operation.  Between  the  main  ranges  is 
a  tableland  diversified  by  short  mountain  spurs 
and  drained  largely  by  the  Lempa,  the  chief 
river  of  the  ^Republic,  and  the  San  Miguel.  This 
lofty  valley  constitutes  its  most  fertile,  nuwl 


8ALVAD0B. 


877 


SALVADOR. 


healthful,  and  most  populous  portioo.  Between* 
the  seoond  range  and  the  coast  lies  a  series  of 
plains  broken  by  short  rocky  spurs  that  oeca- 
Bioiially  reach  the  shore.  These  plains  are  for 
the  most  part  marshy  and  unhealthful  during  the 
rainy  season.  In  addition  to  the  rivers  men- 
tioned the  La  Paz  and  Goascorfin  are  of  interest 
in  connection  with  the  boundaries  of  Guatemala 
and  of  Honduras.  The  lakes  are  almost  wholly 
of  volcanic  origin;  Guija,  belonging  partly  to 
Guatemala,  and  Ilopango  are  tiie  most  notable. 
The  principal  harbor,  La  Uni6n  Bay,  an  arm  of 
the  Gulf  of  Fonseca,  is  the  best  in  Central  Amer- 
ica. Earthquakes  and  volcanic  eruptions  are 
common.  Hot  and  cold  mineral  springs  are  found 
in  all  parts  of  the  country. 

Climate.  The  lower  areas  below  2000  feet, 
designated  as  'hot  lands,'  are  torrid  and  generally 
subject  to  fevers.  Lying  between  2000  and  5000 
feet  are  the  temperate  lands,'  enjoying  an  even 
and  delightful  climate.  The  rainfall  is  somewhat 
less  than  in  adjacent  States,  but  sufficient,  the 
rainy  season  lasting  from  May  to  October. 

For  Flora  and  Fauna,  see  these  titles  under 
America.  In  general  Salvador  resembles  the 
rest  of  Central  America  in  its  vegetable  and 
animal  life.  Among  its  special  flora  may  be 
mentioned  the  hoitzUowitl,  whose  product  is 
known  as  'Peruvian  balsam;'  the  pita,  whose 
fibre  is  used  for  thread,  cordage,  and  cloth;  and 
the  yucoa^  utiliased  for  the  manufacture  of  starch. 
A  moderate  supply  of  cabinet  and  building  tim- 
ber exists,  and  many  important  medicinal  and 
dye  plants  are  annually  exported.  Native  rubber 
trees  abound,  but  wasteful  methods  are  em- 
ployed in  extracting  the  product. 

Agbiculture.  The  mountain  valleys  and  table- 
lands are  deeply  covered  by  an  alluvial  soil  which 
renders  this  section  the  richest  agricultural  re- 
gion of  Central  America.  By  far  the  most  im- 
portant crop  is  coflfee,  which  is  grown  everywhere 
m  the  Republic  between  the  altitudes  of  1500  and 
4000  feet.  The  crop  in  1901  amounted  to  55,600,- 
000  pounds.  A  fine  quality  of  indigo,  sugar  for 
home  consumption,  tobacco,  rice  of  the  dry,  up- 
land variety,  a  little  cacao,  and  the  usual  beans, 
eom,  potatoiesy  vegetables,  and  fruits  for  local 
use,  constitute  the  chief  agricultural  products. 
The  cultivation  of  cotton  is  being  encouraged  by 
a  Government  export  boimty.  There  is  excellent 
pasturage,  and  during  recent  years  many  im- 
provements have  been  made  in  the  breeds  of 
cattle. 

Manufactubes.  Aside  from  the  simple  house- 
hold industries  the  manufactures  of  Salvador 
are  not  important.  There  are,  however,  sugar 
refineries  and  distilleries,  whose  products  are 
largely  for  home  consumption,  saw  mills,  starch 
factories,  cordage  works,  and  mills  for  cleaning 
coffee. 

Transpobtation  and  CouMxmiCATiON.  A  nar- 
row-gauge railroad  of  some  00  miles  connects  the 
port  of  Acajutla  with  Sonsonate,  Santa  Ana,  and 
San  Salvador.  Four  steamship  lines  connect  the 
ports  of  the  Republic  with  those  of  the  United 
States,  Europe,  and  South  America.  Salvador 
has  be^  a  member  of  the  postal  union  since  1879 
and  enjoys  a  fair  local  service. 

Commerce.  The  exports  for  1900  amounted  to 
19,132,958,  of  which  amount  coffee  contributed 
$7,132,958;  other  exports  in  order  of  importance 
were  indigo,  balsam,  silver  coin  and  bullion, 
tobacco,  and  sugar.     Owing  to  the  absence  of 


Atlantic  ports,  fruits  are  not  largely  exported. 
In  1901  515  vessels  entered  the  various  ports 
and  the  same  number  cleared ;  the  value  of  dutia- 
ble imports  was  $6,537,876,  and  the  exports  of 
the  same  year,  subject  to  duty,  were  $10,956,046. 
The  chief  imports  were  cottons,  spirits,  ironware, 
machinery,  jewelry,  drugs  and  perfumery,  silks, 
woolens,  earthenware  and  glass,  and  flour. 

Government.  SalviEdor  has  a  centralized  re- 
publican government  under  a  constitution  last 
revised  in  1886.  The  executive  power  is  vested 
in  a  President,  elected  by  popular  vote  to  serve 
four  years,  and  assisted  by  a  Cabinet  of  four  Min- 
isters. The  legislative  branch  consists  of  a  single 
House,  composed  of  three  members  from  each  of 
the  fourteen  departments,  elected  annually.  The 
judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  supreme  court  at 
the  capital,  and  in  five  district  courts,  with  local 
municipal  justices.  Each  of  the  fourteen  depart- 
ments is  in  charge  of  the  Governor,  appointed  by 
the  national  executive.  The  alcaldes  and  other 
municipal  officers  are  elected  by  popular  sufifrage. 

Finance.  The  Government  receipts  for  1901, 
largely  from  import  and  export  duties  and  liquor 
excises,  amounted  to  $6,556,722,  and  the  ex- 
penditures for  the  same  year  to  $7,640,891.  The 
foreign  debt  in  1899,  amounting  to  £726,420,  was 
in  that  year  assumed  by  the  Salvador  Railway 
Company;  the  internal  debt  in  1901  amounted  to 
$8,325,905.  There  are  four  banks  of  issue,  with 
a  total  note  circulation  of  $1,673,854.  The  Gov- 
ernment issues  no  notes,  but  in  1899  took  control 
of  the  mint  erected  in  1892  by  a  private  com- 
pany. An  attempt  to  introduce  the  gold  standard 
in  1892  was  unsuccessful,  as  was  a  later  enact- 
ment in  1897.  The  Salvadorean  peso  varied  in 
value  from  $0.46  in  January,  1901,  to  $0.35  in 
April,  1903.  The  metric  system  was  legally 
adopted  in  1885,  but  the  old  Spanish  measures 
are  almost  universally  used. 

Defense.  See  under  Armies.  Salvador  has 
one  small  cruiser. 

Population.  The  population  of  Salvador  in 
1901  was  1,006,848  (493,893  males  and  512,956 
females),  an  average  of  139  to  the  square  mile. 
Five  per  cent,  of  the  population  is  reported  as 
white,  55  per  cent,  as  Indian,  and  40  per  cent, 
as  of  mixed  blood.  The  capital  is  San  Salvador 
(q.v.),  a  name  often  incorrectly  applied  to  the 
Republic.  The  State  religion  is  Roman  Catholic, 
but  other  sects  are  tolerated.  The  elementary 
schools  in  1893  numbered  585,  with  an  average  at- 
tendance of  29,427;  above  these  are  three  insti- 
tutes for  secondary  instruction,  and  in  the  capital 
there  are  a  higher  college  for  women,  a  poly- 
technic schoel,  two  normal  schools,  and  a  uni- 
versity, with  faculties  of  pharmacy,  jurispru- 
dence, natural  science,  medicine  and  surgery,  and 
civil  engineering.  There  are  public  hospitals  In 
eleven  cities,  asylums  and  training  schools  for 
orphans  of  both  sexes,  and  the  fine  Resales 
Hospital,  costing  $3,500,000,  in  San  Salvador. 

History.  After  the  conquest  of  Central  Ameri- 
ca by  Alvarado  in  1524-25  Salvador  formed  part  of 
the  Captaincy-General  of  Guatemala.  When  Mex- 
ico threw  off  the  Spanish  yoke  in  1821  the  Central 
American  provinces  accomplished  the  same  result 
without  bloodshed.  For  a  time  Salvador  and  her 
sister  provinces  formed  a  part  of  the  ephemeral 
empire  of  Iturbide.  After  his  overthrow  and 
until  1839  it  was  one  of  the  States  of  the  Central 
American  Federation,  but  since  the  dissolution 


SALVADOR. 


d7d 


SALVATIOH  ABICY. 


of  this,  Salvador  has  usually  opposed  the  suc- 
cessive attempts  to  unite  Central  America. 

BiBUOGRAPHT.  De  Belot,  La  republique  de 
Salvador  (Paris,  1865) ;  Squier,  The  States  of 
Central  America  (London,  1868) ;  GonzlLlcz, 
Oeografia  de  Centra  America  (San  Salvador, 
1878)  ;  Carrillo,  Eatudio  hUtdrico  de  la  Amdrica 
Central  (ib.,  1889) ;  Reyes,  Nocionea  de  hiatoria 
del  Salvador  (ib.,  1886);  id.,  Apuntamientoa 
eatadistica  aohre  la  repiihlica  del  Salvador  (ib., 
1889);  "Salvador,"  Bureau  of  American  Re- 
publics Bulletin  58  (Washington,  1892). 

SALVAGE  (OF.  salvage,  from  salver,  sauver, 
Fr.  sauver,  to  save,  from  Lat.  salvare,  to  save, 
from  salvus,  safe).  In  maritime  law,  an 
allowance  in  money  which  is  awarded  by  courts 
of  admiralty  to  those  who  voluntarily  save  a  ship 
or  her  cargo  from  loss  by  peril  of  the  sea  (when 
it  may  be  called  civil  salvage),  or  recover  them 
after  capture  (when  it  is  termed  military  sal- 
vage). The  service  rendered  in  salving  must  be 
voluntary  and  not  one  which  the  person  render- 
ing it  is  under  a  legal  duty  to  perform.  The 
services  of  salvors  must  be  rendered  within  the 
admiralty  jurisdiction  in  order  to  entitle  those 
rendering  them  to  receive  salvage,  as  the  right 
to  salvage  is  not  recognized  by  the  common  law. 

When  the  salvors  are  in  possession  they  have 
a  certain  qualified  property  right  in  the  ship, 
which  does  not,  however,  extinguish  that  of  the 
owners,  but  gives  them  the  right  to  continue  the 
salvage  service  to  the  exclusion  of  other  w^ould- 
be  salvors.  Where  the  first  set  of  salvors  are 
themselves  assisted  by  a  second  set,  the  salvage  is 
divided  according  to  the  respective  merits  of  the 
parties;  but  the  law  favors  the  first  salvors,  and 
only  great  peril  of  the  first  set  or  final  abandon- 
ment of  the  vessel  or  cargo  by  them  will  justify 
interference  on  the  part  of  a  second. 

The  amount  of  the  salvage  to  be  paid  is  not 
fixed  by  any  rule  of  law  or  statute,  but  rests 
within  the  discretion  of  the  admiralty  judge  w^ho 
awards  the  amounts  due  as  salvage.  The  follow- 
ing considerations,  however,  are  of  great  weight 
in  determining  what  amount  shall  be  paid  as 
salvage:  (1)  The  dangers  from  which  the  prop- 
erty is  salved.  (2)  The  danger  to  the  salvors. 
(3)  The  value  of  the  property  salved.  (4)  The 
value  of  the  property  risked  by  the  salvors.  (6) 
The  labor,  time,  and  skill  expended  by  the  sal- 
vors. (6)  The  risk  run  by  the  salvors  of  not 
saving  the  property  and  consequently  of  not  being 
remunerated  for  their  labor. 

Higher  salvage  will  be  usually  decreed  in 
derelict  cases  than  where  an  intention  of  return- 
ing to  the  vessel  temporarily  abandmied  is  clear. 
While  there  is  no  absolute  law  regarding  the  dis- 
tribution of  salvage,  the  owners  of  the  salvor 
vessel  receive  usually  one-third,  the  master  twice 
as  much  as  the  mate,  the  mate  double  a  seaman's 
share,  and  those  who  navigate  the  saved  ship 
into  port,  or  otherwise  take  the  greater  risk, 
double  the  share  of  those  who  remain  on  the 
salvor  vessel.  A  claim  to  salvage  may  be  barred 
by  a  contract,  not  extortionate  or  unconscion- 
able, to  pay  a  fixed  sum  for  the  aid  to  be 
given.  In  such  case  the  rights  of  the  parties 
are  determined  by  the  contract  and  not  by 
the  maritime  law  of  salvage,  and  the  salvors 
may  recover  for  services  rendered  whether  they 
are  successful  or  not.  Another  bar  is  the  ex- 
istence   of    a    custom    of    rendering    assistance 


among  vessels  of  the  same  class,  as  in  the 
steamboat  navigation  of  the  MississippL  Salvage 
adjustments  are  made  and  enforced  in  England 
by  the  Court  of  Admiralty  and  in  the  United 
States  by  the  United  States  District  Courts.  Sal- 
vors have  a  lien  on  the  property  salved,  which 
takes  precedence  over  all  others  and  may  be 
enforced  in  admiralty  by  a  proceeding  in  rem,  or 
the  salvors  may  at  their  option  proceed  against 
the  owner  of  the  property  salved  by  a  proceeding 
in  personam.  See  Admibaltt;  CaptubB;  Lun; 
Maritime  Law;  Debelict;  Peize. 

SALVANDT,  s&I'vUnW,  Nabcisbe  Aghillk, 
Count  de  (1795-1856).  A  French  statesman  and 
historical  writer,  bom  in  Condom  (Gers).  He 
took  part  in  the  campaigns  of  1813  and  1814,  and 
subsequently  in  the  Journal  des  Dihats  attacked 
the  reactionary  policy  of  the  Government.  He  was 
Minister  of  Public  Instruction  in  1837-39  and 
1845-48,  Ambassador  to  Madrid  from  1841  to 
1843,  and  to  Turin  from  1843  to  1845.  In  addition 
to  his  political  and  other  fugitive  writings,  he 
published  the  novel  Don  Alanzo,  ou  VEspagne 
( 1824),  Histoire  de  Pologne  avant  et  sous  le  R4n 
Jean  Sohiesky  (1827-29),  Seize  Mens,  ou  la  rH)o- 
lution  et  les  rivolutionnaires  (1831),  and  other 
works. 

SALVATIEBRA,  sarvA-t^-ar^rft.  A  Mexican 
town  in  the  State  of  Guanajuato,  on  the  River 
Lerma  and  on  the  Mexican  National  Baflroad, 
18  miles  south  of  Celaya  (Map:  Mexico,  J  7). 
Its  most  important  manufactures  are  those  of  cot- 
ton goods.  Its  population,  in  1895,  was  11,008. 
The  parish  church,  Nuestra  Sefiora  de  las  Luces, 
is  one  of  the  best  in  the  bishopric.  The  town 
was  founded  in  1613  during  the  vioeroyalty  of 
the  Count  of  Salvatierra,  and  two  centuries  later, 
April  16,  1813,  was  the  scene  of  a  bloody  con- 
test between  the  royal  forces  under  Iturbide  and 
the  independents  commanded  by  Ram6n  Rayon. 

SALVATION  ABMY,  The.  A  religious  or- 
ganization aiming  to  evangelize  the  masses  who 
are  outside  of  the  influence  of  the  churches.  It  was 
founded  in  England  by  William  Booth  (q.v.), 
who  began  open-air  meetings  in  East  London  in 
1865,  independent  of  ecclesiastical  connections, 
but  himself  still  keeping  in  touch  with  church 
people,  and  finally  established  the  'East  London 
Mission'  in  an  old  wool  house  in  Bethnal  Green. 
The  name  of  'Christian  Mission'  was  assumed  in 
1869,  and  that  of  'Salvation  Army'  in  1878. 
Military  terms  were  substituted  for  the  ecclesi- 
astical designations  which  were  first  adopted. 
Uniforms  were  devised  for  the  laborers,  which 
w^ere  intended  to  be  distinctive  but  plain  and  in- 
conspicuous, and  not  to  depart  too  noticeably 
from  the  usual  costume.  Henoe  they  vary  in 
different  countries  and  are  adapted  to  the  na- 
tional dress. 

The  doctrines  of  the  Salvation  Army  are  in 
harmony  with  those  of  the  orthodox  churches. 
No  distinctions  are  recognized  except  those  of 
individual  ability  and  piety;  and  women  serve 
in  all  duties  on  precisely  the  same  plane  as  men. 
Conventionalities  are  thrown  aside  and  all  per- 
misRible  devices  are  adopted  and  practices  fol- 
lowed that  will  attract  popular  attention.  The 
system  of  government  and  the  nomenclature  are 
absolutely  military.  The  local  districts  and  sta- 
tions are  provinces,  districts,  posts,  etc.;  the 
bodies  of  the  working  force  are  corps ;  the  officers 
are  the  general,  commandants,  colonels,  majorsj 


aALVAnoji  Aftinr.            &?»  oalwik. 

etpUins,    lieutenants,    and    sergeants.      While  during  the  latter  part  of  Mb  life  was  presbyter 

funds  are  derived  from  subscriptions,  the  aim  jb  at  Marseilles.     He  wrote  several  works  on  de- 

to  make  the  poets  self-supporting.    The  general  votional  subjects,  of  which  there  are  extant  Ach^er- 

has  been,  from  the  first,  the  founder,  William  au8  Avaritiam,  a  treatise  against  avarice,  whieh 

Booth,  who  was  ably  seconded  by  his  wife,  Cath-  appeared  in  four  books  un<kr  the  pseudonym  ol 

erine  (Mumford)  Booth,  until  her  death  in  1890.  Timotheus    (c.440  a.d.)  ;  De  OubematUme  Dei, 

For  her  devotion  to  the  work  she  has  been  called  on  the  providence  of  God,  a  work  in  eight  books, 

the  mother  of  the  Salvation  Army.'  written  during  the  inroads  by  the  barbarians 

The  Salvation  Army  has  extended  its  field  of  upon  the  Roman  Empire;  and  nine  pastoral  let- 

operatioiis   until   in    1903    it   carried   on   cam-  ters.     These  works  are  valuable  for  their  vivid 

paigns  in  49  countries  and  colonies  of  Europe,  descriptions  of  the  life  and  morals  of  the  period. 

Asia,  Africa,  America,  and  Australasia.     It  re-  The  best  editions  are  by  Halm   (Berlin,  1877) 

ports  7174  corps,  circles,  and  societies,  with  15,-  and  by  Pauly  (Vienna,  1883). 

590   officers    and    employees.      The    gospel    is  SAIiVIATI,  sal'vfr^'t*.     A  name  freq[uently 

preached  in  31  languages.    The  number  of  social  applied   to   the   Italian  painter  Francesco   dei 

institutions  for  the  poor  is  620,  with  daily  ac-  Rossi  (qv  ) 

rapplied  m  12  months  is  pven  as  4^98,864.  and  ^  American  actor,  son  of  the  Italian  tragfdian 

*^,"iS  m                '"'''^        "        """**  "^  Tommaso  Salvini  (a.vT  BorTat  B^^e  D^ber 

In'  1880  Geoive  Soott  Kailton  was  sent  over  ^L  .1861,  he  was  educated  at  Florence  as  a  civfl 

tJZ  i^i.^*Fl:,^^i^^j9lAJ2til.J^t^LZi^  engineer.    Hft  came  to  America  in  J881,  and  after 

SruKrSU^?''^tS\«::frUy^^,S!  l^^^f  En^ishbecame  an  actor  and  played 

uic  wuiMu  ■"~'^'     ""-•  '•  u«  »vi,u«ujr    vj^  ^^^j^  Qj^y^  Moms  and  Margaret  Matiier.     He 

Irf^^  i^inX  51f!:H"{n"'*hi'Ml^i^  io»«d  his  father's  company  wW  the  latter  came 

of  woi*   are  succinctly  stated  m  the  following  J    ^^.^  ^^^^      j^,  jges.    In  New  York  CSty  he 

Ubk  tdcen  from  the  Pooket  Extort,  prepared  ^^  successes  as  Launcelot   in  Blaine  and  as 

By  tae  Army:  g^^^y  Borgfeldt  in  The  Partners,  but  his  best 

Offlen..  wdMa.  and  mnplojetu....................... ......      «,0M  known  plays  throughout  the  country  were  per- 

%'Si.!!!^^..'!°!!!..^!^.."„!!!°!!!..!™":        »u  h«P8    «<>»*«    CrUtS.    Hamlet,    and    TA«    Three 

letommoditioii  in  aoeiai  iniiutotioiia >,000  Guardsmen.    His  D'Artagnan  was  an  admirable 

£xp«kM  annuaiij  upon  the  poor  oj  America.  performance.    He  died  at  his  father's  home  in 

A^^^il!S^oVb^!aiT&ii;i;i;r:Z.:::::ZZ»m'Z  Florence.    lUly.    December    16,    1896.     Consult 

Industrial  homes,  wood  yards,  and  stores  for  nn-  McKay  and  Wingate,  Famous  American  Actor9 

ASSSS&tiiniiudiiidiu^w^^                                "  'fI?'^Z^'y"^''^^?^L     V       .^^     .^ 

empioTsd) 6«o  SAIiVIKI,  ToicMASO  (1829—),    A  od^rated 

Annaal  Income  from  their  work......... •^S'2S  ItaUan  tragedian,  born  at  Milan.     His  parents 

Outside  employment  found  for  abont 86,000  •^'^"«»   »,A€»g*j^c*M,   a/v  »  «>,v  ^»««»u.     ^ym  ^ 

Fann  eoioDJes. 8  were  actors,  and  when  a  boy  he  showed  such 

AereMB a.80O  talent  for  the  stage  that  he  was  placed  under 

£lJ^ol?«%;i5SS'5Sto.''!"!*"!!!:::::::::::::::;::::      m  the  tuition  of  the  great  Gustevo  wodena.  Afl«r 

Aeeommodatlon  In  same 800  wmnmg  renown  in  juvemle  characters  he  joined 

OirispMsinff  through  yearly 1,800  the  Ristori  troupe.    In  1849  he  entered  the  army 

Babtes  carM  for  in  rescue  homes  dally,  abont 160  .    Tfulian    inHAnpn^ATinA     in    whirh    hia    flervioM 

Psssinff  through  annaally.  about. 800  O'   Italian   maepenoOTce,   in  wnicn  nis  services 

Aecommodatton  for  children  in  orphanages 180  were  conspicuous.    After  the  war  he  appeared  in 

Accommodation  for  children  In  day  nurseries 100  i]^^  Edipo  of  Niccolini  and  achieved  a  great  suo- 

Cbildrsn  settled  on  colonies  with  parents,  about..          280  Alfidri'a  «/»«!    m  wh\oh  ha  nlAvod  not  Itaur 

Chlldrsn  cared  for  in  various  ways,  annually  ^^'    linens  tiauh  nx  wnicn  ne  piayea  nor  iw^g 

about. 1,800  afterwards,  was  perhaps  the  greatest  of  all  hia 

Christmas  dinners,  clothing,  and  toys,  persons    ^^^^  characters.    In  Paris,  where  he  played  Orosmane 

preridedwitb 280.000^  ^.^  VolUire's  Zaire),  Orestes,  Saul,  and  Othello, 

The  Salvation   Army   issues   58   weekly   and  he  was  received  with  great  enthusiasm.    In  1865, 

monthly  periodicals   in   24   languages.     Among  at  the  sixth  centenary  of  Dante's  birthday  in 

them  may  be  mentioned  The  War  Cry  (weekly),  Florence,  Salvini  with  the  other  great  Italian 

The  Young  Soldier  (weekly),  The  Social  Gazette  actors,  Rossi,  Gattinelli,  and  Ristori,  was  invited 

(iveddy),  and  All  the  World   (monthly).     For  to    perform    in    Silvio    Pellico's    Franoeeca   da 

the  history  of  the  Army  and  its  work,  consult  the  Rimini,     His    first   appearance    in   the   United 

works  of  Qcmeral  Booth,  particularly  In  Darkest  States  was  in  1873,  and  he  was  so  well  received 

England  and  the  Way  Out  (London,  1890) ;  the  that  he  repeatedly  returned.    During  his  second 

writings  and  memoirs  of  Mrs.  Booth    (see  the  visit  (1880-81)  he  first  tried  the  experiment  of 

biographical  notice  of  her  husband) ;  the  Life  of  acting  in  Italian  with  a  company  that  spoke 

OenieraZ  Booth,  by  his   son-in-law,   Commander  English.    In  1886  he  and  Edwin  Booth  played  to- 

Booth-Tueker     (New     York,     1800) ;     Railton,  gether  for  three  weeks,  Salvini  as  Othello  and 

Twenty-one    Tears'    Salvation    Army    (London,  Booth  as  lago.    After  Salvini's  last  tour  in  this 

1887) ;  id..  Heathen  England  (ib.,  1891).  country  in  1890  he  retired  from  the  stage  to  his 

SALTATOB.     A  name   (compare  'monitor*)  home  in  Florence.     Consult:   Leaves  from  the 

given  to  various  large  lizards,  as  the  teju  (q.v.).  Autobiography  of  Tommaso  Salvini  (New  York, 

hi  reference  to  the  belief  that  they  warn  persons  18»3)  ;   Ricordi,  aneddoti  ed  impressioni    (Ml- 

of  the  presence  of  a  crocodile  or  alligator.  !»»»  1806)  J  Winter,  Shadows  of  the  Stage  (New 

8ALV ATOB  ROSA.    See  Roba,  Salvatob.  ^^J[^'  l!!!l"      ,        ,        -.•«,«,^      ., 

flSTirR     a^  n SAXWIW,  sftl'w&i',  or  SAIiWEBlT.    A  large 

fitr  vVa      a     o         ''^'  "^^^  ^^  Southeastern  Asia.    It  rises  in  the  south- 

^^^yJA*    Sec  Saqb.  eastern  part  of  Tibet  and  flows  southward  throii^ 

SAL'VIA'HTTS.     A  Christian  writer,  of  the  the  Province  of  Yun-nan,  China,  and  then  through 

fifth  eentuiy.    He  was  a  native  of  Cologne,  and  Burma,  emptying  into  the  Gulf  of  Martaban,  east 


SALWUf. 


680 


ftAL2MAKK. 


of  the  delta  of  the  Irrawaddy  (Map:  Asia,  J  5). 
It  is  over  1500  miles  long.  Almost  the  entire 
course  of  the  river  is  through  a  narrow  valley 
with  steep  sides ;  its  flow  is  often  extremely  swifts 
and  it  is  frequently  interrupted  by  rapids  caused 
by  rocky  reefs  extending  across  the  channel.  Its 
basin  is  narrow^  and  the  tributaries  are  nearly 
all  very  short,  some  of  them  entering  the  main 
stream  by  cataracts.  Consequently  the  river  is  of 
little  importance  for  commerce.  In  Lower  Burma, 
however,  it  is  regularly  navigated  in  stretches  by 
steam  launches. 

SALYAKY,  sAl-yft^n&  A  town  in  the  Russian 
Government  of  BiJai,  Transcaucasia,  situated 
on  the  Kur  (Map:  Russia,  6  7).  It  is  the  centre 
of  the  fisheries  of  the  Kur.  Population,  in  1897^ 
12,120,  chiefly  Tatars. 

SALZBTJBG,  zftlts'bTOrK.  A  duchy  and 
crownland  of  Austria,  bounded  by  Upper  Aus- 
tria on  the  north,  T^rol  and  Bavaria  on  the  west, 
Tyrol  and  Garinthia  on  the  south,  and  Styria  and 
Upper  Austria  on  the  east  (Map:  Austria,  0  3). 
Area,  2767  square  miles.  Salzburg  is  one  of 
the  most  mountainous  r^ons  of  Austria.  The 
Hohe  Tauernr  which  rise  on  its  southern  frontier, 
branch  off  into  numerous  high  spurs  running 
northward  and  are  separated  from  one  another 
by  deep  valleys.  The  northern  part  is  covered 
by  a  continuation  of  the  Salzburg  Alps  and  con- 
tains a  number  of  isolated  mountains,  some  of 
them  exceeding  9000  feet  in'*b,ltitude.  The  chief 
river  is  the  Salzach,  a  tributary  of  the  Inn, 
which  drains  almost  the  entire  area  of  the  region. 
There  are  a  large  number  of  mountain  lakes, 
some  of  them  situated  at  a  very  high  altitude  and 
of  remarkable  picturesqueness.  The  mountain- 
ous surface  of  Salzburg  makes  it  unfavorable  for 
agriculture,  and  the  proportion  of  arable  land  is 
very  limited.  The  cultivation  of  cereals  is  of  minor 
importance  and  the  crops  do  not  suffice  for  the 
domestic  demand.  Cattle-raising  receives  consid- 
erable attention.  Salzburg  is  rich  in  minerals 
and  especially  in  salt,  of  which  it  supplies  over 
8  per  cent,  of  the  total  output  of  Austria.  Iron, 
gold,  and  copper  are  also  mined  to  some  extent. 
The  manufacturing  industries  are  limited  and 
consist  chiefly  of  glass,  iron,  and  marble  works. 
The  house  industries  are  confined  to  the  manu- 
facturing of  coarse  cloth,  stockings,  and  linen. 
There  is  a  State  tobacco  factory,  employing  over 
400  men.  Salzburg  has  a  local  Diet  of  26  mem- 
bers and  sends  6  representatives  to  the  Austrian 
Reichsrat  The  population  in  1900  was  193,247, 
principally  German  Catholics.  Capital,  Salz- 
burg (q.v.). 

The  town  of  Salzburg,  built  on  the  site  of  the 
Roman  Juvavum,  was  made  the  seat  of  a  bishop- 
ric in  696.  In  798  the  see  was  erected  into  an 
archbishopric.  It  gradually  came  into  possession 
of  an  extensive  district,  and  the  archbishops  of 
Salzburg  occupied  a  prominent  position  among 
the  ecclesiastical  princes  of  the  Holy  Roman  Em- 
pire. The  archbishops  expelled  the  Jews  in  1498 
and  some  30,000  Protestant  subjects  in  1731-32. 
In  1802  the  see  was  secularized  and  Salzburg  be- 
came a  temporal  principality  under  Ferdinand, 
the  dispossessed  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany.  In 
1805  it  passed  to  Austria,  and  in  1810  to  Bavaria, 
and  in  1814  was  permanently  united  with  Aus- 
tria. 

SALZBTTBO.  The  capital  of  the  Crownland 
of  Salzburg,  Austria,  charmingly  situated  amid 


mountainous  scenery  on  the  Salzach,  73  milet 
east-southeast  of  Munich  (Map:  Austria,  G  3). 
The  old  town  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  with 
its  narrow  streets,  flat-roofed  houses,  but  beauti- 
ful squares  and  fountains,  is  dominated  by  tiie 
Hohen-Salzburg  citadel,  on  the  Mdnchsberg,  at  an 
altitude  of  about  400  feet  ( 1780  feet  above  sea 
level),  reached  by  a  cable  railway.  Four  iron 
bridges  connect  the  old  with  the  modem  sectioa 
of  the  town.  A  bronze  statue  of  Mozart,  who 
was  bom  here,  adorns  one  of  the  spacious 
squares.  The  site  of  the  ancient  fortifications  is 
now  occupied  by  a  handsome  residential  quarter. 
Among  the  interesting  churches  are  the  seven- 
teenth-century late  Renaissance  cathedral,  the 
twelfth-century  Romanesque  Saint  Peter's,  and 
the  thirteenth-century  Franciscan  Church  with 
an  imposing  Gothic  tower.  In  the  Benedictine 
Abbey  of  Saint  Peter  there  is  a  library  of  over 
40,000  volumes.  The  secular  edifices  include  the 
Grand  Ducal  Palace,  the  Government  buildings, 
the  former  imiversity  buildings,  and  the  Mirabell- 
Schloss,  an  ancient  archiepiscopal  palace,  with  a 
valuable  geological  collection.  Of  special  interest 
are  the  ancient  burial  ground  of  Saint  Peter  and 
the  Summer  Riding  School,  with  galleries  hewn 
out  of  the  solid  rock.  Among  the  educational  in- 
stitutions are  the  Museum  Carolino-Augusteum, 
containing  a  valuable  collection  of  antiquities  and 
a  library  of  over  50,000  volumes;  a  theological 
faculty,  two  upper  gymnasia,  a  normal  school,  a 
priests'  seminary,  and  a  public  library  of  over 
65,000  volumes.  Interesting  features  in  the 
vicinity  in  addition  to  the  fortress  of  Hohen- 
Salzburg,  already  alluded  to,  are  the  Capuziner- 
berg,  with  the  Capuchin  monastery,  the  Gaisberg, 
all  commanding  magnificent  views,  and  the  castle 
Hellbrunn,  with  gardens,  theatre,  etc.  Popula- 
tion, in  1900,  32,934.  For  histoiy,  see  Salzburg 
above.  Consult:  Zillner,  Oeschichte  der  Btadt 
Salzburg  (Salzburg,  1885-90);  Bfihler,  Saklmrg 
und  9eine  Fiiraten  (Reichenhall,  1895). 

SALZBUBO  FESTIVAIi.  An  Austrian 
musical  festival  held  annually  at  Salzburg, 
where  the  works  of  Haydn  and  other  classic  oom- 
posers  are  rendered  with  scrupulous  exactness. 
It  ranks  among  the  representative  festivals  of 
the  world.    See  Musical  Festival. 

SALZXAMMEBOTTTy  z&lts^kftm'mSr-gOSt  An 
alpine  district  covering  the  extreme  southern 
portion  of  the  Austrian  Crownland  of  Upper 
Austria,  together  with  parts  of  Styria  and  Salz- 
burg. It  is  celebrated  for  its  varied  and  pic- 
turesque scenery,  embracing  a  series  of  beautiful 
lakes  bordered  by  lofty,  steep,  and  forest-covered 
mountains.  The  most  noted  of  the  lakes  is  the 
Traun,  an  expansion  of  the  River  Traun,  which 
flows  through  the  district.  The  principal  resorts 
are  Ischl  and  Gmimden.  The  Salzkammergut,  as 
its  name  implies,  is  famous  also  for  its  immense 
salt  deposits. 

SATiZTWANW,  zftlts^m&n,  Chsibtian  Goit- 
HiLF  (1744-1811).  A  German  educator,  bom  in 
S5mmerda,  Thuringia,  and  educated  for  the 
Church  at  Jena.  He  was  pastor  at:  Rohrbom 
(1768-72)  and  then  deacon  at  Erfurt,  where  he 
first  proclaimed  his  belief  in  natural  religion  and 
his  theory  of  isolation  as  a  factor  in  moral  edu- 
cation. In  1781  he  was  called  to  the  Philan- 
thropinum  in  Dessau  to  be  teacher  of  morals  and 
religion.  Three  years  afterwards  he  started  at 
Schnepfenthal  a  school  which  celebrated  its  cen- 


aALZaCAHH. 


881 


SAMAA. 


tenaiy  in  1884.  His  more  important  books  are 
the  ironical  Krebahiichlein  (1780),  with  direc- 
tions for  wrong  education;  Karl  von  Karlaherg 
(1783*88)  and  KonradKiefer  (1794),  pedagogi- 
cal fiction  comparable  to  Pestalozzi's  Leonard 
and  Oerirude;  and  a  vade  mecutn  for  the  teacher, 
the  Ameisenbuchlein  ( 1806) ,  showing  the  obverse 
of  the  Kreh9buchlein.  0)nsu]t  the  memoir  pub- 
lished by  the  school  (Leipzig,  1884). 

SAXZWEDEL,  z&Its^v&'del.  A  town  of  the 
Province  of  Saxony,  Prussia,  110  miles  southeast 
of  Bremen,  on  the  navigable  Jeetze,  a  tributary 
of  the  Elbe  (Map:  Prussia,  D  2).  It  has  some 
edifices  interesting  for  their  architecture  and  a 
valuable  museum  of  prehistoric  relics.  The 
manufacture  of  pins,  machinery,  leather,  and 
chemicals,  and  the  weaving  of  damask  and  linen 
are  the  principal  industries.  Population,  in  1900, 
10,189.  Salzwedel  (1070-1170)  was  the  capital 
of  Altmark,  the  nucleus  of  the  Prussian  State. 

RAKrATTT,  sA'm&N^  Albert  Victob  (1858- 
1900 ) .  A  French  poet,  bom  at  Lille.  He  studied 
at  the  Lyote  and  became  an  employee  in  the  PrC^- 
fecture  of  the  Seine,  a  position  which  he  held 
until  his  death.  His  first  poems  appeared  in  the 
Mereure  de  France,  These  were  collected,  in  1893 
as  Le  jardin  de  IHnfante,  to  which  was  after- 
wards added  L'ume  peneh4e  (1897).  His  other 
published  volumes  include  Auw  flanca^  du  vase 
(1898),  Le  chariot  d'or,  and  the  lyric  drama 
Pol^ph^me  (1901).  His  melancholy,  refined 
verse  is  noted  for  its  melody. 

RAHTATiTg,  aA-mS/lk,  A  Malay  people  on 
Samal  Island,  Davao  Bay,  Southern  Mindanao. 
See  Phiuppine  Islaitdb. 

SAMAiyA,  s&'m&-n&^  or  Saitta  Babbaba  de 
SamanJL  A  seaport  of  Santo  Domingo,  situ- 
ated on  the  nortn  shore  of  the  large  Bay  of 
Samanfi,  64  miles  northeast  of  Santo  Domingo. 
It  is  the  outlet  for  the  fertile  Vega  Real,  and  ex- 
ports cocoanuts,  bananas,  and  cacao.  Population, 
5000; 

RAir ANOy  sA-mfing'.  A  tribal  group  in  the 
Malacca  Peninsula.    See  Semano. 

BAITATO,  s&-mA^n6,  and  BILEHI,  dia&md. 
Two  Persian  dynasties  of  minor  importance.  The 
Samani,  who  traced  their  descent  to  the  Sas- 
sanids  (q.v.),  destroyed  the  Saffarids  in  a.d.  900, 
when  Amr,  the  sixth  Saffarid  monarch,  was  con- 
quered by  Ismail  ibn  Ahmad,  the  third  ruler  of 
the  Samanid  line,  who  established  the  real  power 
of  his  house.  Ismail  extended  his  6way  over 
-Transoxaaia,  Balkh,  Herat,  Seistan,  Khorasan, 
Gui^fran,  Tabirstan,  and  Rai,  but  the  Caspian 
provinces  were  lost  in  the  reign  of  his  son  and 
successor,  Ahmad  11.,  who  died  in  913.  There 
were  eleven  monarchs  of  this  dynasty:  Ahmad 
L  (c.813-864)  ;  Nasr.  I.  (874-892)  ;  Ismail  (848- 
907)  ;  Ahmad  n.  (died  913) ;  Nasr  IL  (died 
942)  ;  Nuh  L  (died  954) ;  Abd-al-Malik  I.  (died 
961)  ;  Mansur  L  (died  976) ;  Nuh  IL  (captured 
997)  ;  Mansur  IL  (blinded  999) ;  and  Abd-al- 
Malik  n.  (dethroned  999).  After  the  death  of 
Abd-al-Malik  his  brother,  tsmail-al-Muntasir, 
maintained  a  resistance  against  the  Alid  dynasty, 
the  conquerors  of  the  Samanids,  until  1004,  when 
he  fell  a  victim  to  ti]tochery.  The  history  of 
Persia  during  the  century  of  Ramani  power  offers 
few  events  of  importance.  The  dynasty  was  a 
peaceful  one,  encouraging  literature  rather  than 
conquest,    .^ong  the  noteworthy  names  in  Per- 


sian literature  who  flourished  during  this  period 
were  Rudagi  (q.v.),  Daqiqi  (q.v.),  and  Firdausi 
,(q.v.),  w^o  began  his  great  epic,  the  Shdh-^Ulmah, 
at  the  Samanid  Court. 

The  Dilemi,  who  came  from  the  Province  of 
Dilem,  on  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  niled  the  Prov- 
ince of  Gurgan,  were  founded  by  Mardawi  (928- 
935),  who  was  murdered  in  a  mutiny  at  Isfahan. 
The  line  had  eight  other  rulers:  Vashmgir  (935- 
967  )>  the  younger  brother  of  Mardawi,  three 
times  driven  from  his  throne,  which  he  thrice 
regained  by  the  help  of  his  ally,  the  Samanid 
Nuh  I.;  Bistun  (976);  Kabus  (976-1012), 
opposed  by  his  son  and  successor,  Minochir; 
Minochir  ( 1012-29 ) ;  Anushirvan  ( 1029-43 ) ; 
Dara  or  Iskander  (1043c  1060) ;  Kai  Kaus,  who 
wrote  his  QabHenafnah  in  1080  or  1082  for  the 
guidance  of  his  son  and  successor,  Gilanshah; 
and  Gilanshah  (1082-C.1090),  who  was  captured 
by  the  Seljuk  Sultan  Malikshah.  (See  Sexjuks.) 
(Consult:  Mirchond,  Hisioire  dee  Samanides, 
translated  by  Defr^mery  (Paris,  1845) ;  Justi, 
Iraniechea  Namenbuch  (Marburg,  1895)  ;  Horn, 
''Geschichte  Irans  in  islamitischer  Zeit,''  in 
Geiger  and  Kuhn,  Orundriaa  der  iraniachen  Phi- 
lologie,  vol.  ii.  (Strassburg,  1900). 

SAmAR,  srm&r.  One  of  the  Philippine  Isl- 
ands, the  easternmost  of  the  Visayan  group.  It 
is  situated  between  latitudes  lO""  42'  and  12''  43' 
J^.  and  between  longitudes  124*"  12'  and  125"*  49' 
E.,  and  is  bounded  on  the  north,  east,  and  south 
by  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  on  the  west  by- 
the  Visayan  Sea  (Map:  Philippine  Islands, 
K  8).  On  the  northwest  it  is  separated  from 
the  southeastern  extremity  of  Luzon  by  the  Strait 
of  San  Bernardino,  11  miles  wide,  and  on  the 
southwest  the  Strait  of  San  Juanico,  one  mile 
wide,  separates  Sftmar  from  Leyte,  It  is  roughly 
oval  in  shape,  narrowing  into  a  long,  pointed 
peninsula  in  the  southeast,  and  has  an  extreme 
length  from  northwest  to  southeast  of  156  miles, 
with  an  average  breadth  of  50  miles.  Its  area  is 
5488  square  miles,  including  about  150  small 
dependent  islands  covering  290  square  miles.  It 
ranks  third  in  size  among  the  islands  of  the 
archipelago. 

The  coasts  of  S&mar  are  more  finely  indented 
than  those  of  any  other  island  in  the  archipelago. 
The  eastern  coast,  which  is  not  very  well  known, 
is  especially  cut  up  into  numerous  small  inlets 
and  headlands,  and  is  fringed  with  islets  and 
rocks.  Nearlv  the  whole  surface  of  the  island  is 
rough  and  hilly,  though  nowhere  exceeding  2000 
feet  in  altitude.  The  mountain  region  of  the  in- 
terior forms  a  forest-covered  and  little  exposed 
wilderness. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Sfimar  has  not- been  well 
explored  and  is  not  yet  being  exploited,  partly 
owing  to  the  hostility  of  the  natives  in  the  in- 
terior. Coal,  gold,  copper,  and  cinnabar  are, 
however,  reported  in  quantities  of  commercial 
value.  The  climate  and  soil  of  the  island  are 
well  suited  to  the  production  of  all  the  staple 
crops  of  the  archipelago,  and  the  output  of  hemp 
is  very  large,  the  normal  amount  annually  ex- 
ported previous  to  the  insurrection  of  1896  being 
28,000,000  pounds.  In  1899  the  export  of  hemp 
amounted  to  21,000,000  pounds.  Sugar,  rice,  and 
cocoanuts  are  also  raised  in  large  quantities, 
while  coffee,  cacao,  '4:obacco,  and  cereals  are 
among  the  minor  products.  Mechanical  indus- 
tries are  still  undeveloped,  though  sugar  and 
cocoanut  oil  are  manufactured  to  some. extents 


8AKA&. 


88d 


SAXAUTAV  LAVaiT ACn. 


There  are  practically  no  roads  in  the  island,  and 
means  of  communication  are  confined  wholly  to 
the  waterways  along  the  coasts  and  the  rivers, 
most  of  the  latter  being  navigable  for  native 
boats.  All  the  towns  and  nearly  all  villages  are 
situated  on  navigable  water,  and  there  is  a  con- 
siderable ooastinf^  trade.  The  inhabitants,  whose 
number  was  estimated  in  1901  at  195,386,  are 
almost  of  pure  Visayan  stock,  and  speak  the 
Visayan  language.  The  island  with  its  dependent 
islets  forms  a  single  province,  whose  capital  is 
Catbalogan  (q.v.). 

SAmar  was  one  of  the  last  of  the  Visayan 
islands  to  remain  in  active  insurrection  against 
the  United  States,  and  its  pacification  presented 
considerable  difficulties,  as  the  natives  burned 
their  villages  and  took  refuge  in  the  pathless 
wilderness  of  the  interior.  Not  till  the  begin- 
ning of  1902  did  sufficient  American  forces  arrive 
to  begin  active  operations  in  the  field,  and  on 
February  18th  Lukban,  the  chief  leader  of  the 
Visayan  insurgents,  was  captured.  His  successor, 
Gueverra,  surrendered  with  all  his  followers  to 
General  Smith  in  April,  and  in  June,  1902,  civil 
government  was  inaugurated  in  the  island.  Con- 
sult the  authorities  referred  to  under  Phujfpiiys 
IsiAims. 

SAMAKAi  8&-m&^r&.  A  government  of  East- 
em  Russia  (Map:  Russia,  H  4).  Area,  over  60,- 
300  square  miles.  The  region  is  divided  by  the 
Samara,  a  tributary  of  the  Volga,  into  two  parts, 
of  which  the  northern  is  largely  hilly  and  abun- 
dantly watered,  while  the  southern  has  the  char- 
acter of  a  steppe  with  a  slight  elevation  in  the 
southeast.  The  principal  river  of  Samara  is  the 
Volga,  which  forms  its  western  boundary  for  a 
distance  of  over  600  miles.  Samara  has  a  fertile 
black  soil,  exhausted  somewhat  by  wasteful 
methods. 

Agriculture  is  the  principal  occupation,  and  a 
considerable  proportion  of  the  product  is  ex- 
ported. There  are  over  10,000,000  acres  under 
cultivation,  chiefly  under  wheat,  rye,  oats,  and 
potatoes.  The  German  colonists  cultivate  tobac- 
co on  an  extensive  scale.  Famines  are  not  in- 
frequent. The  annual  value  of  the  manufactures 
is  only  about  $5,000,000.  The  population  in  1897 
was  2,763,478,  of  whom  the  Russians  formed 
about  70  per  cent. 

SAHARA.  The  capital  of  the  government  of 
the  same  name  in  Eastern  Russia,  situated  at 
the  junction  of  the  Samara  with  the  Volga, 
about  740  miles  southeast  of  Moscow  (Map:  Rus- 
sia, H  4).  It  has  an  excellent  port  and  im- 
mense grain  storehouses.  The  chief  industry  is 
milling.  There  are  a  seminary  for  teachers,  a 
seminary  for  priests,  and  a  public  library  with  a 
museum  of  antiquities.  The  trade  in  grain, 
flour,  tallow,  hides,  wool,  and  horses  is  very  ex- 
tensive. Samara  was  founded  as  a  fort  in  1586, 
Population,  in  1897,  91,672. 

SAMARAKG,  s&'mA-r&ng^.  The  capiUl  of 
the  residency  of  the  same  name  in  Java,  situated 
on  the  northern  coast,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
of  Samarang,  and  about  250  miles  east-southeast 
of  Batavia  (Map:  East  India  Islands,  D  6).  It 
is  an  important  commercial  centre,  although 
its  harbor  is  very  defective  and  practically  in- 
accessible during  the  monsoon.  Population,  in 
1897,  84,244,  including  3355  Europeans. 

BAMAfKLA.  The  central  division  of  ancient 
Palestine  (q.v.). 


BAlfATlTA  (Hd>.  ah6mir&»,  probably  watch 
or  guard,  Aramaic  Skamrof^  Gk.  Zafii^^as, 
Samareia,  Z<M<^y,  Semer6n,  Zo/topAp,  BomwHn, 
:&9/tapt(i9,8emare6n,  Lat.  Samaria),  A  city  of 
ancient  Palestine  (Map:  Palestine,  C  3),  which, 
early  in  the  ninth  century  B.c.y  was  made 
by  Omri  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel 
According  to  I.  Kings  xvi.  23-24,  after  reigning 
six  years  at  Tinsah,  Omri  bought  the  site  from 
one  Shemer,  and  named  tiie  city  which  he  built 
there  after  the  original  owner.  It  was  situated 
on  a  hill  of  more  than  300  feet  elevation,  isolated 
on  all  sides  except  the  east.  It  was  about  six 
miles  northwest  of  Shechem  and  commanded  the 
road  northward  to  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  and 
westward  to  the  coast.  It  was  thus  well  adapted 
for  a  fortified  capital.  Under  Ahab  the  city  be- 
came a  centre  of  Baal  worship.  The  Syrians 
laid  siege  to  it  during  the  reign  of  Ahab  (L 
Kings  XX.  1),  and  again  in  the  time  of  Joram 
(II.  Kings  vi.  24  et  seq.),  but  did  not  capture  it 
It  was  invested  by  Shatmaneser,  King  of  Assyria, 
and,  after  a  siege  of  three  years,  was 
taken  by  his  successor,  Sargon,  in  B.a  722. 
(See  Samaritans.)  Samaria  was  captured  by 
Alexander  the  Great  (B.C.  331),  wtio  killed 
many  of  the  inhabitants  and  replaced  them 
with  Macedonian  colonists.  It  was  taken  and 
completely  destroyed  hy  John  Hyrcanus  (B.C. 
120),  but  was  soon  rebuilt  and  remained  in  the 
possession  of  the  Jews  till  Pompey  restored  it  to 
the  descendants  of  the  expelled  Samaritans.  It 
was  fortified  by  Gabinius.  Augustus  gave  the 
town  to  Herod  the  Great,  who  rebuilt  it  with 
much  splendor  and  called  it  Sebaste,  after  the 
Emperor  (2e/3curri},  from  ZtfiatrT^  =  Augustus). 
Philip  the  Evangelist  preached  Christianity  in 
Samaria  (Acts  viii.  5),  and  in  the  third  century 
it  was  an  episcopal  see.  A  Greek  bishop  still 
derives  his  title  from  Sebaste.  After  the  Moham- 
medan conquest  of  Palestine  the  importance  of 
Sebaste  declined.  It  is  now  a  small  village  (Se- 
bastiyeh),  with  but  few  relics  of  its  former  great- 
ness. 

SAMABITAH  LAVGITAaE  AND  LTT- 
EBATXJBE.  The  Samaritan  belongs  to  the 
Semitic  languages  and  may  be  grouped  with  the 
western  Aramaic  dialects,  although  it  contains 
strong  admixtures  of  Hebrew.  It  is  no  longer 
spoken,  but  is  still  studied  by  a  few  priests  in 
the  small  Samaritan  community  (see  Samaxi- 
TANB)  at  Nabulus,  where  the  common  speech  is 
now  Arabic  The  dialect  is  interesting  from  a 
philological  noint  of  view,  both  because  of  its 
antiquity  and  of  its  'mixed'  character.  Its  his- 
tory may  be  traced  back  to  the  fourth  century 
B.G.,  but  its  beginnings  belong  to  a  still  earlier 
date.  That  it  survived  the  Arabic  conquest  is 
due  to  the  sacred  character  which  it  acauired  in 
the  eyes  of  the  Samaritans  by  virtue  of  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Pentateuch  into  their  dialect.  The 
alphabet  is  a  direct  derivation  of  the  Phcanician 
and  more  antique  in  character  than  the  ordinary 
Hebrew  letters.  Its  phonology  presents  some 
peculiar  characteristics,  the  most  pronounced  be- 
ing the  practical  loss  of  guttural  sounds,  which 
leads  to  considerable  confusion  in  the  writing  of 
words  containing  guttural  letters.  Its  morMol- 
ogy  presents  no  unique  features,  while  its  Tocann- 
lary  contains  many  foreign  words  borrowed  from 
Arabic,  Latin,  and  Greek.  The  literature  is  of 
small  extent  and  of  little  value.  Besides  the 
Samaritan  Pentateuch  and  Targum  <see  Samak- 


aAXABITAV  LAV GtTAGE. 


888 


SAMABITAinL 


TAN  Pentateuch),  it  oonsisti^of  chronicles,  litur- 
jries,  and  hymns.  The  chronicles  include:  (1) 
The  Samaritan  Book  of  Joshua,  an  Arabic  chron- 
icle, ascribed  by  critics  to  the  thirteenth  century, 
taken  in  part  from  the  canonical  Book  of  Joshua, 
with  legendary  additions,  that  charge  the  Jews 
with  bSng  oppressors  of  the  Samaritans,  and, 
after  the  time  of  Eli,  apostates  from  the  faith. 
The  narrative  is  continued  to  a.d.  350,  when  it 
abmptly  ends.  (2)  The  Chronicle  of  the  Qen- 
erations,  professedly  written  by  Eleazer  ben 
Amram,  1142^  and  afterwards  continued  by  many 
bands;  it  gives  a  calculation  of  sacred  times, 
the  age  of  patriarchs,  and  a  list  of  high  priests. 
(3)  The  Chronicle  of  Abulfath,  written  about  the 
middle  of  the  fourteenth  centiury,  is  drawn  from 
the  two  previous  works,  with  additional  legen- 
dary matter.  The  liturgies  and  hymns  belong 
to  different  periods.  The  Samaritans  have  also 
produced  a  number  of  commentaries,  theological 
tracts,  and  grammatical  works,  writt^  in  Arabic. 
Consult:  Petermann,  Brevis  Lingua  SaniaritancB 
Orammatica  (Berlin,  1873) ;  Kohn,  Zur  Bpraehe, 
lAiieratur  und  Dogmatik  der  Bamaritaner  (Leip- 
zig, 1876) ;  id.,  SamariianUcke  Biudien  (Breslau, 
1868) ;  Nutt,  Fragments  of  a  Samaritan  Penta* 
teueh  (London,  1874). 

SAXABITAir  PENTATETTCH.  A  recen- 
sion of  the  conunonly  received  Hebrew  text  of  the 
Pentateuch,  used  by  the  Samaritans,  and  their 
only  canonical  book  of  the  Old  Testament.  None 
of  the  manuscripts  that  have  reached  Europe  is 
older  than  the  tenth  century.  The  variants 
which  it  presents  from  the  Masoretic  text  are 
mostly  of  a  trifling  nature,  representing  chiefly 
different  fashions  of  spelling.  There  are,  how- 
ever, more  important  differences, 'such  as  the  oc- 
currence of  Gerizim.  (See  Ebal  and  Gebiziic.) 
In  the  figures  of  Genesis  v.  and  xi.  are  likewise 
discrepancies  between  the  Masoretic  and  the 
Samaritan  recension,  which  appear  to  be  due  to 
varying  traditions.  There  is  also  one  essential 
alteration  respecting  the  Pentateuchal  ordinances. 
Exodus  xiii.  6,  where  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch 
has  "six  days  shalt  thou  eat  unleavened  bread," 
instead  of  "seven."  The  Samaritan  Pentateuch 
was  printed  in  the  Paris  and  London  polyglots, 
and  an  edition  in  square  Hebrew  characters  was 
published  b^  Blayney  (Oxford,  1790),  but  a 
critical  edition  is  still  a  desideratum.  In  the 
absence  of  such  an  edition  it  is  difficult  to  do 
more  than  to  speculate  on  the  age  and  origin  of 
the  work,  but  there  is  ho  reason  to  suppose  that 
it  is  earUer  than  the  fourth  century  B.C.,  and  it 
may  even  belong  to  the  third.  The  translation 
of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  into  the  Samaritan 
idiom  above  referred  to  (the  Samaritan  Targum) 
is  ascribed  by  the  Samaritans  to  their  high 
priest  Nathaniel,  who  died  twenty  years  before 
Christ,  but  it  can  hardly  be  older  than  the  fourth 
century  aj).  It  follows  the  Hebrew  original 
very  closely.  A  critical  edition  of  it  was  pub- 
lished by  Petermann  and  VoUers  (Berlin,  1872- 
91).  (Consult:  Gesenius,  De  Pentateuchi  Sama- 
ritani  Origine,  Indole,  et  Auctoritate  (Halle, 
1815) ;  Kutt,  Fragments  of  a  Samaritan  Penta- 
teuch (London,  1874). 

8AJCABITANS.  A  term  used  to  designate 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Province  of  Samaria  after 
the  Assyrian  conquest,  and  in  later  times  the 
members  of  a  religious  community  having  its 
ontre  in  Shechem  (Nabulus)  and  the  neighbor- 


ing Mount  Cterizim.  The  territory  of  Samaria 
became  for  the  first  time  a  distinct  political  or- 
ganization after.  Qilead  and  Galilee  had  been  cap- 
tured by  the  Assyrians  in  b.o.  734.  In  B.o.  722 
the  independence  of  this  State  was  lost.  The 
city  of  Samaria  was  probably  taken  by  Shalma- 
neser  IV.,  but  Sargon  claims  the  victory  and  un- 
doubtedly carried  away  a  part  of  the  population^ 
according  to  his  own  account  27,290  persons. 
The  bulk  of  the  Israelitish  population  remained 
in  the  land  subject  to  the  same  tribute  as  before 
{Display  Inscription,  24).  In  ao.  720  Samaria 
united  with  Hamath,  Arpad,  Simyra,  and  Damas- 
cus in  an  unsuccessful  rebellion.  A  number  of 
Arabian  tribes  such  as  the  Tamudi,  Ibadidi,  Mar- 
samani,  and  Hayapa  were  settled  in  the  district 
of  Samaria  by  Sargon  in  B.o.  715.  According  to 
II.  Kings  xvii.  24,  the  King  of  Assyria  brought 
men  from  Babylon  and  from  Oithali  and  from 
Ava  and  from  Hamath  and  Sepharvaim,  and 
placed  them  in  the  cities  of  Samaria.  It  is  prob- 
able that  this  Kingof  Assyria  was  Asshiu'banipal 
(B.O.  668-626).  This  is  undoubtedly  the  King 
meant  by  "the  great  and  noble  Asnapper,"  who, 
according  to  Ezra  iv.  0-10,  brought  a  number  of 
Elamitish  and  Babylonian  peoples  into  the  Prov- 
ince of  Abar  Nahara,  or  Trans-Euphratene. 
Such  deportations  would  be  natural  after  the  con- 
quest of  Elam  in  b.o.  645,  and  the  quelling  of 
Shamash-shum-ukin's  insurrection  in  Babylon, 
Cutha,  and  Sippara  in  b.o.  648.  The  statement 
in  Ezra  iv.  2  that  the  people  of  the  land  had 
been  brought  up  by  Esarhaddon  is  from  the  hand 
of  the  chronicler  and  deemed  by  some  scholars 
unhistorical.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Province 
of  Samaria  in  the  Chaldean  and  Persian  periods 
were  consequently  made  up  of  the  descendants 
of  the  Israelites,  who  had  never  been  deported, 
and  of  the  Arabs,  Babylonians,  and  Elamites  set- 
tled there  by  Sargon  and  Asshurbanipal.  The 
Israelites  naturally  continued  the  worship  of 
Yahweh  and  retained  the  local  traditions  and 
the  household  gods  honored  by  their  fathers.  The 
others  added  the  worship  of  'the  god  of  the  land' 
to  their  veneration  of  the  gods  of  their  fathers. 
But  the  gradual  assimilation  of  the  foreigners  to 
the  native  stock  involved  the  ascendency  of  the 
Yahweh  cult. 

It  has  been  supposed,  on  the  ground  of  the 
chronicler's  statement  in  Ezra  iv.  1-6,  that  the 
Samaritans  desired  to  participate  in  the  build- 
ing of  the  temple  in  Jerusalem,  but  were  refused 
permission  to  do  so,  and  therefore  conceived  a 
hatred  of  the  Jews.  There  is  no  mention,  how- 
ever, of  the  Samaritans,  and  the  historical  nar- 
rative is  subject  to  grave  doubts.  In  'order  to 
show  that  the  completion  of  the  temple  was  pre- 
vented by  enemies  until  the  second  year  of 
Darius,  the  chronicler  refers  to  a  letter  sent  to 
Xerxes  and  another  sent  to  Artaxerxes  by  Tabeel, 
neither  of  which  is  given,  but  produces  in  ecy 
tenso^  the  text  of  letters  written  by  Rehum  and 
Shimshai  to  Artaxerxes,  by  Tatnai  and  Shethar- 
boznai  to  Darius,  by  C)yrus,  and  by  Darius. 
These  letters,  found  in  Exra  iii.-vi.,  are  written 
in 'Aramaic.  There  is  no  indication  in  them 
which  of  the  several  kings  who  bore  the  names 
Xerxes,  Artaxerxes,  and  Darius  is  intended,  and 
even  the  most  plausible  construction  leaves  the 
impression  that  these  documents  should  be  con- 
sidered in  the  same  light  as  the  numerous 
spurious  decrees  and  official  documents  in  Daniel, 
Esther,  Maccabees,  Aristeas,  and  Josephus.    The 


SAHABTTAKa 


384 


8AMABITAHS. 


most  valuable  historical  work  in  Hebrew  from 
the  Persian  period  is  the  Memoirs  of  Nehemiah. 
It  has  been  supposed  that  Sanballat,  Tobiah,  and 
Geshem,  the  enemies  of  the  Judean  governor,  were 
Samaritans.  The  text  rather  suggests  that  San- 
ballat,  the  Horonite,  was  a  Moabite  from  Horo- 
naim,  that  Tobiah  was  an  Ammonite  and  Geshem 
was  an  Arab.  (See  Sanballat.)  Only  a  single 
phrase  in  Nehemiah  iv.  2,  by  which  "his  brothers'* 
is  explained  by  the  addition,  "that  is,  the  army 
of  Samaria"  (according  to  the  Greek  version), 
can  be  urged  in  favor  of  the  former  view,  and  this 
phrase  is  probably  a  late  gloss. 

According  to  Josephus  (Ant.  xi.,  7,  2;  8,  2 
sqq. ) ,  Sanballat,  a  Cuthean,  was  sent  to  Samaria 
as  satrap  by  Darius  III.  (B.C.  336-330),  and 
was  permitted  by  Alexander  to  build  a  temple  on 
Mount  Gerizim,  where  he  made  Manasseh,  his 
son-in-law,  high  priest.  This  Manasseh  is  evi- 
dently identical  with  the  unnamed  son  of  Joiada 
in  Nehemiah  xiii.  28,  who  was  the  son-in-law 
of  Sanballat  and  was  driven  away  by  Nehemiah. 
His  cousin,  Jaddua,  the  son  of  Johanan,  Joiada's 
brother,  was  high  priest  in  the  time  of  Darius 
III.  (Neh.  xii.  22)  and  Alexander  (Josephus, 
I.e.).  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  the  concur- 
rent testimony  of  the  Chronicler  and  Josephus 
as  to  the  high  priest  in  the  days  of  Darius  III. 
and  Alexander.  But  it  is  necessary,  if  this  be  ac- 
cepted, to  assume  that  Nehemiah  and  Sanballat 
began  their  enmity  in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  II. 
(B.O.  404-369)  and  that  Sanballat  in  his  old  age 
was  Satrap  of  Samaria.  The  temple  on  Mount 
Gerizim  was  therefore,  in  all  probability,  built  in 
B.C.  332,  though  no  doubt  there  existed  long  before 
this  time  a  shrine  upon  this  mountain.  How 
much  of  the  older  Israelitish  literature  was  pre- 
served in  Samaria  in  the  Persian  period  is  not 
known,  nor  to  what  extent  the  Yahweh-worship- 
ing  communities  there  kept  in  touch  with  their 
kinsmen  in  Judea.  Their  deep  interest  in  the 
Mosaic  period  and  the  religious  associations  of 
their  own  sacred  places  would  naturally  render 
them  anxious  to  possess  every  document  known  to 
them  as  claiming  Mosaic  authorship.  An  evidence 
of  such  a  desire  to  know  and  to  practice  what 
Moses  taught  is  the  fact  that  the  Pentateuch, 
probably  in  the  form  given  to  it  by  the  editorial 
activity  of  Ezra  (see  Hexateuch),  was  accepted 
by  the  Samaritans.  The  consciousness  of  wor- 
shiping Yahweh  in  the  place  where  he  had  com- 
manded that  an  altar  should  be  built  and  benedic- 
tions pronounced  (see  Ebal  and  Gerizim)  must 
have  given  a  strong  impetus  to  the  Samaritan 
movement.  It  is  not  likely,  however,  that  the 
centralization  of  the  cult  could  be  carried  out 
everywhere  in  the  province.  The  city  of  Samaria 
seems  to  have  been  Hellenized  at  an  early  date, 
and  the  same  is  true  of  Scythopolis.  Nor  is  it 
probable  that  those  who  lived  in  the  Egyptian 
town  of  Samaria  mentioned  in  papyri  from  the 
reign  of  Ptolemy  II.  (B.C.  285-247)  were  adher- 
ents of  the  Shechemite  faith.  Jews  and  Samari- 
tans may  indeed  have  disputed  about  the  legiti- 
mate place  of  a  Yahweh  sanctuary  in  the  time  of 
Ptolemy  VII.  Philometor  (b.c.  181-145),  though 
it  is  not  likely  that  this  discussion  was  held  before 
the  King  and  that  the  deported  Samaritans  were 
put  to  death.  It  is  generally  recognized  that  no 
credence  can  be  given  to  the  alleged  request  of 
the  Samaritans  to  Antiochus  IV:  (b.c.  176-164) 
for  permission  to  dedicate  their  temple  to  Zeus 
Xenios  (Anf.,  xii.  5).  II.  Maccabees  vi.  2  knows 


of  no  such  request.  While  the  SamaritaDS 
did  not  take  a  part  in  the  Maocabean  revolt^ 
they  profited  from  it  at  first,  as  the  Seleucid 
rulers  abandoned  their  policy  of  suppressing  the 
native  cults.  The  worsnip  of  Yahwen  on  MiDunt 
Gerizim  could  consequently  be  resumed.  But 
the  expansion  of  the  Jewish  power  proved  dis- 
astrous to  the  Samaritans.  Jonathan  secured  pos- 
session of  three  districts,  Ephraim,  Lydda,  and 
Kamathaim  (I.  Mace.  xi.  34);  and  John  Hyr- 
canus  destroyed  the  temple  on  Mount  Gerizinu 
In  B.C.  107  the  entire  Province  of  Samaria  be- 
came Jewish  territory,  after  the  fall  of  the  city. 
Though  the  temple  on  Gerizim  was  not  rebuilt,  it 
is  probable  that  a  smaller  shrine  existed  there 
even  during  the  Asmonean  period.  Pompey,  in 
B.C.  63,  restored  Samaria  and  Scythopolis  as  free 
cities,  and  Gabinius  (b.c.  67-56)  rebuilt  Sa- 
maria and  permitted  Samaritans  to  dwell  in  the 
city.  It  was  rebuilt  on  a  still  grander  scale 
by  Herod  (b.c.  37-4)  and  given  the  name  Sebaste 
in  B.C.  27. 

Even  the  city  of  Shechem  was  not  uninfluenced 
by  foreign  thought.  An  evidence  of  this  is  the 
rise  of  sects,  such  as  the  Essenes,  Sabuean3, 
Gorthenes,  and  Dositheans.  The  Essenes  show  so 
marked  a  kinship  to  Neo-Pythagoreanism  that 
it  must  be  accounted  for  either  by  direct  in- 
fluence or  by  a  common  Oriental  source;  and 
the  Dositheans  seem  to  have  derived  from  Greek 
philosophy  the  notion  of  the  eternity  of  matter, 
while  they  adhered  to  the  traditional  idea  of 
the  future  and  rejection  of  the  doctrine  of  a 
resurrection  or  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  It 
is  not  probable  that  Dositheus  regarded  himself 
as  the  Messiah,  nor  can  this  be  affirmed  of  either 
of  the  political  .leaders  who  in  a.d.  3Q  and  in  aj). 
66  were  punished  by  Pontius  Pilate  and  Geratus, 
or  of  Simon  of  Gitta,  perhaps  the  most  influen- 
tial Samaritan  thinker  of  all  time.  It  is  prob- 
able that  the  repudiation  of  the  sects  led  the 
great  body  of  the  Samaritans  nearer  to  the 
Pharisaic  party.  Especially  after  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem  in  a.d.  70  the  intense  zeal  for  the  law 
formed  a  bond  of  union,  and  the  participation  of 
the  Samaritans  in  the  revolt  under  Hadrian 
tended  to  improve  the  relations.  Eminent  Jew- 
ish teachers,  such  as  Rabbi  Akiba  and  Rabbi 
Simon  ben  Gamaliel,  regarded  them  as  oo-reli- 
gionists  and  their  land  as  clean.  In  195  Jews 
and  Samaritans  seem  to  have  taken  sides  to- 
gether with  Piscennius  Niger  against  Septimins 
Severus,  and  as  a  consequence  Shechem  was  se- 
verely punished.  During  the  third  century  the 
attitude  of  the  Jews  changed.  In  the  reign  of 
Diocletian  (284-306)  Rabbi  Abbaha  held  that  the 
Samaritans  should  be  treated  as  pagans.  Christi- 
anity gradually  won  its  way  into  Shechem. 
Bishops  of  Neapolis  and  Sebaste  were  present  at 
the  Council  of  Nicea  (325).  During  the  fifth 
and  sixth  centuries  the  Samaritans  were  subject 
to  cruel  persecutions  by  the  Christian  emperors, 
leading  to  revolts  under  Zeno  in  484  and  Justin- 
ian in  529.  From  the  Imperial  decrees  against 
them  it  is  evident  that  Samaritans  lived  in  Egypt 
and  C)yrenaica,  in  Rome  and  Constantinople,  as 
well  as  in  Syria.  Arabic  writers  such  as 
Masudi  (died  c.950),  Biruni  (died  1038).  and 
Shahristani  (bom  1086),  speak  of  Samaritan 
communities  in  Assyria  and  Egypt.  After  the 
capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Crusaders  in  1099, 
Nabulus  freely  accepted  Christian  rule,  which 
continued    until    Saladin's    victoiy    ol    Lake 


SAMABITAK& 


885 


SAHABKAND. 


Tiberias  in  1187.  The  Mamelukes  of  Egypt  or- 
der^ the  Samaritans  to  wear  red  turbans  in 
1301,  according  to  Suyuti  and  Al-Fath,  and  Wil- 
hehn  of  Baldensel  in  1336  found  such  in  use. 
In  1516  Nabulus  with  the  rest  of  Syria  passed 
under  Turkish  rule.  In  answer  to  letters  sent  by 
Joseph  Scaliger,  epistles' were  forwarded  to  him 
in  1590  from  Samaritans  in  Gaza  and  Cairo. 
Pietro  della  Valla  in  1616  and  1625  found  Sa- 
maritans not  only  at  Nabulus,  but  also  in  Cairo, 
Gaza,  Damascus,  and  Jerusalem.  In  1672  Rob- 
ert Huntington  visited  Nabulus,  where  he  found 
thirty  Samaritan  families.  As  he  was  able  to 
read  the  Samaritan  letters  and  assured  Uiem  that 
there  were  Israelites  in  England,  he  left  the 
impression  that  there  were  Samaritans  in  that 
countiy.  They  consequently  opened  a  corre- 
spondence with  the  Sons  of  Israel,  the  Samaritans 
in  the  cities  of  the  Franks,  or  more  particularly 
'^eir  brethren,  descendants  of  Israel  and  Sa- 
maritans living  in  the  city  of  Oxonia."  Thomas 
Marshall  answered  these  letters  on  behalf  of  the 
brethren  in  Oxford  between  1672  and  1685. 
Three  letters  were  also  sent  to  Ludolf  (1685- 
1689).  Niebuhr  found  Samaritans  at  Nabulus, 
Jaffa,  Jerusalem,  and  Damascus  in  1766.  A 
letter  to  Corancez  in  1808  states  that  there  were 
200  Samaritans  in  Shechem  and  Jaffa.  A  num- 
ber of  letters  were  written  by  the  Samaritans 
to  Silvestre  de  Sacy  between  1808  and  1826,  and 
during  the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe  an  appeal  was 
made  by  them  to  the  French  Government.  Rob- 
inson visited  Nabulus  in  1832,  Barges  in  1854, 
and  Petermann  in  1872.  At  present  fewer  than 
200  persons  survive  of  the  Samaritans,  all  in 
Nabulus  (q.v.). 

While  the  Samaritans  have  at  all  times  agreed 
in  recognizing  the  authority  of  the  law  only,  and 
in  regarding  Mount  Gerizim  as  the  only  legitimate 
place  of  worship,  they  have  manifestly  changed 
their  opinion  on  many  other  questions  under  the 
influence  of  foreign  thought.  Thus  there  is  no 
reason  to  doubt  uie  practically  unanimous  testi- 
mony of  early  writers  that  the  Samaritans  did 
not  accept  the  doctrines  of  a  resurrection  or  the 
immortality  of  the  soul.  But  surrounded  as 
tbey  were  by  Jews,  Christians,  and  Moham- 
medans looking  forward  to  a  resurrection  of  the 
dead,  it  is  not  strange  that  later  they  should  have 
adopted  this  belief.  It  is  found  in  the  Carmina 
Samariiana,  in  the  Chronicles  of  Abulfath,  and  in 
the  letters  to  European  scholars.  Since  the  Sar 
maritans  rejected  the  prophetic  books  and  the 
Psalms  in  which  Jewish  exegesis  especially  found 
references  to  the  Messiah  (q.v«),  they  could  not 
share  the  hope  of  a  king,  a  son  of  David.  But 
Deuteronomy  xviii.  18  suggested  the  coming  of 
a  prophet  like  unto  Moses.  In  the  earliest  testi- 
mony to  a  Samaritan  Messiah  (John  iv.  25)  his 
character  is  that  of  a  prophet.  In  later  times 
the  Messiah  was  called  the  Ta'eh,  or  'The  Re- 
turning One.'  It  is  found  in  Abulfath,  the 
Songs,  and  especially  in  the  Gotha  Code,  963. 
Many  interpretations  of  the  law,  also  found 
among  Sadducees  and  Karaites,  have  no  doubt 
preserved  old  traditions.  But  the  limitation  of 
levirate  marriage  to  betrothed  virgins,  the  stricter 
Tegnlations  as  to  intercoirrse  with  pregnant 
women,  and  the  purification  of  unclean  places 
by  fire,  seem  to  point  to  Indian  and  Persian  in- 
fluence. The  Samaritans  of  Nabulus  go  in  pil- 
grimage to  Mount  Gerizim  annually  for  each  of 
the  three  great  feasts.     They  offer  sacrifice  only 


at    the    Passover.     See    Sahasia;    Sheohxx; 

SaMABITAN  LaNOUAQK  A17D  LiTEBATUBK;  SaKAB- 

ITAN  Pentateuch. 

BiBLiOGBAFHT.  Ccllarius,  Oollectauea  HUioria 
SamaritancB  (Giessen,  1688) ;  Juynboll,  Com* 
mentarii  in  Hiatariam  Oentia  Samcuritanw  (Ley- 
den,  1846) ;  Knobel,  "Zur  Geschichte  der  Samari* 
taner,"  in  Theologisehe  Studien  und  Kritiken 
(Leipzig,  1846) ;  Joseph  Grimm,  Die  Samariter 
und  ihre  Stellung  in  der  Weligeechichie  (Munich, 
1854) ;  Barges,  Les  Samaritains  de  Naplatue 
(Paris,  1855) ;  Kosters,  Het  Heratel  van  Israel 
in  het  Perzische  tijdvak  (Leyden,  1803) ;  Mar- 
quart,  Fundamente  (Gottingen,  1896) ;  Ed. 
Meyer,  Die  Entaiehung  dee  Judentuma  (Leipzig, 
1896)  ;  Torrey,  The  Compoeition  of  Ezra-Nehe- 
miah  (Giessen,  1896)  ;  Cheyne,  Jewish  Religious 
Life  After  the  Exile  (New  York,  1899);  N. 
Schmidt,  "Nehemiah,"  in  The  Biblical  World 
(Chicago,  1899) ;  Freudenthal,  Alexander  Poly- 
hiator  (Breslau,  1875)  ;  Willrich,  Juden  und 
Oriechen  (GSttingen,  1895) ;  id.,  Judaica  (ib., 
1900) ;  BQchler,  Tobiaden  und  Oniaden  (Vienna, 
1899) ;  Appel,  Queationea  de  Rebus  Samaritano- 
rum  sub  Imperio  Romano  Subactis  < Leipzig, 
1874)  ;  Scharer,^  Oeachichte  dea  jUdiachen  VoUces 
(3d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1901);  Hamburger,  article 
''Samaritaner,"  in  Realencyclopadie  dea  Juden* 
tuma  (Strelitz,  1896) ;  Gesenius,  De  8ama» 
ritanorum  Theologia  (Halle,  1822) ;  Wreschner, 
Samaritaniache  Traditionen  (Halle,  1888) ;  Merx, 
Ein  samaritanisches  Fragment  iiber  den  Ta'eh 
Oder  den  Meaaias  (Leyden,  1893) ;  Nutt,  Frag- 
menta  of  a  Bamaritan  Pentateuch  (London, 
1874) ;  Petermann,  Reiaen  (Leipzig,  1860)  ;  De 
Sacy,  Noticea  et  extraita  dea  manuserits  de  la 
biblioth^que  du  roi  (Paris,  1831). 

SAKABKAND,  sfim'^r-kilnd^  A  territory 
in  Russian  Turkestan,  bounded  by  the  Territory  of 
Syr- Darya  on  the  north  and  northeast,  by  the  Ter- 
ritory of  Ferghana  on  the  east,  and 'by  Bokhara 
on  the  south  and  west  (Map:  Persia,  L  1). 
Area,  estimated  at  over  26,000  square  miles.  The 
southern  part,  which  belongs  to  the  Pamir  Alai 
mountain-  system,  is  exceedingly  mountainous 
and  reaches  an  altitude  of  over  18,000  feet,  with 
passes  above  12,000  feet.  Elevations  of  7000  feet 
are  found  in  the  northeast.  The  northern  part 
of  the  territory  belongs  partly  to  th^  barren 
and  waterless  Famine  Steppe  and  partly  to  the 
desert  of  Kizil-Kum.  The  principal  river  is  the 
Zerafshan,  which  drains  with  its  numerous  tribu- 
taries the  southern  part  of  the  territory  and  feeds 
the  irrigation  canals  which  are  so  essential  to 
agriculture  in  Samarkand.  The  Syr-Darya  flows 
through  the  northeastern  part  of  the  territory. 
There  are  also  numerous  salt  lakes,  of  which 
Tuz-khan  yields  large  quantities,  of  salt.  The 
climate  is  hot,  dry,  and  changeable  in  the  lower 
parts  of  the  territory  and  severe  in  the  moim- 
tainous  regions.  The  mean  annual  temperature 
at  Samarkand,  the  capital,  is  about  55°  F.  The 
precipitation  is  very  scanty,  and  malaria  is 
peculiar  to  some  of  the  valleys.  Samarkand  is 
believed  to  possess  great  mineral,  wealth. 

The  agricultural  land  of  Samarkand  is  found 
principally  in  the  south,  along  the  Zerafshan  and 
its  tributaries.  The  holdings  are  6mall  and  the 
price  of  land  very  high.  There  are  at  present 
in  the  territory  over  1,000,000  acres  of  land 
reached  by  irrigation,  and  a  considerable  propor- 
tion of  it  yields  two  crops  a  year.  The  princi- 
pal products  are  wheat,  barley,  and  other  cereals. 


AAXABXAND. 


88e 


SAXBATIOV. 


CkltUm  and  rice  are  raised  in  increasing  qnanti- 
Ues.  Serieulture  and  viticulture  are  also  attain- 
ing great  importance.  Stock-raisins  is  carried 
on  principally  bv  the  nomadic  Kirghizes.  Silk 
and  woolen  goods  are  produced  by  the  natives, 
and  there  are  a  number  of  large  cotton-gin  mills 
and  flour  mills.  Cotton  and  cereals  are  the  prin- 
cipal exports.  The  population  of  the  territory  in 
1897  was  857,847,  almost  exclusively  Moham- 
medans. The  Uzbegs  form  over  two-thirds  ot 
the  total  population. 

SAICABKAND.  The  capital  of  the  territory 
of  the  same  name  in  Russian  Turkestan^  the 
mediaeval  capital  of  Timur,  and  one  of  the  most 
famous  cities  of  Central  Asia^  situated  about  5 
miles  south  of  the  Zerafshan,  with  which  it  is 
connected  bv  a  number  of  canals,  on  the  Trans- 
caspian  Railway,  and  about  140  miles  east  of  Bok- 
hara (Map:  Persia,  K  2).  It  lies  at  an  altitude 
of  over  2200  feet.  Samarkand  consists  of  the 
native  city  and  the  new  Russian  town,  separated 
from  each  other  by  the  citadel.  The  native  city 
is  still  partly  surroimded  by  a  wall,  and  its 
magnificent  architectural  monuments  testify  to 
its  former  splendor.  Its  centre  is  the  vast  square 
of  Righistan,  around  which  stand  three  of  the 
madrasahs,  for  which  Samarkand  is  famous. 

Northeast  of  the  square  of  Righistan  stands 
the  ruined  madrasah  of  Bibi-khan,  attributed  to 
one  of  Timur's  wives.  It  incloses  a  number  of 
mosques  and  a  mausoleum  over  the  graves  of  the 
wives  of  that  ruler.  The  mausoleum  with  the  tombs 
of  Hmur,  his  teacher,  and  relatives,  is  crowned 
with  a  beautiful  dome  of  blue  tiles,  and  the  in- 
terior of  the  room  which  contains  the  tombs  is 
ornamented  with  arabesques  and  gold  inscrip- 
tions. The  finest  mosque  of  Samarkand,  and  one 
of  the  flinest  in  Central  Asia  is  that  of  Shah- 
Zindeh,  outside  of  the  city  walls,  among  the  build- 
ings of  the  summer  palace  of  Timur.  It  is  held 
in  high  veneration  on  account  of  the  remains  of 
Shah-Zindeh  (a  companion  of  Timur),  which  it 
contains,  and  its  interior  decorations  are  prob- 
ably the  most  beautiful  in  Central  Asia. 

The  buildings  of  the  citadel  are  now  used  by 
the  Russians  for  military  purposes.  The  environs 
of  the  city  are  full  of  ancient  ruins.  The 
Russian  part  of  Samarkand  is  well  built,  having 
many  modem  public  buildings.  The  industries 
of  the  native  population  are  important,  and  their 
products  comprise  cotton  and  silk  goods,  wine, 
leather  goods,  potterv,  and  silver  and  gold  wares. 
The  bazaars  are  still  extensive  and  picturesoue, 
but  the  commercial  importance  of  the  city  has 
decreased  since  the  extension  of  the  Transcaspian 
Railway  to  Tashkent  and  Andizhan.  The  chief 
exports  are  cotton,  rice,  silk  and  silk  goods,  fruit, 
hides,  and  wine,  in  1897  Samarkand  had  a  total 
population  of  54,900. 

Samarkand  is  identified  with  the  ancient  Mar- 
akanda,  the  capital  of  the  Persian  Province  of 
Sogdiana,  which  was  destroyed  by  Alexander  the 
Great  in  b.c.  329.  In  the  seventh  century  it  was 
conquered  by  the  Arabs,  under  whose  rule  it  be- 
came a  great  religious  and  intellectual  centre. 
Conquered  and  pillaged  by  Genghis  Khan  in  the 
early  part  of  the  thirteenth  century,  Samarkand 
was  restored  by  Timur  at  the  close  of  the  four- 
teenth century,  and  attained  its  greatest  magnifi- 
cence as  the  residence  of  the  great  conqueror. 
After  the  breaking  up  of  the  empire  of  Timur, 
Samarkand  passed  to  the  Emir  of  Bokhara,  from 
whom  it  was  wrested  by  Russia  in  1868. 


SAXABOW,  tS/mk'T^v,  Gbigob.  A  peen- 
donym  of  the  German  novelist  Oskar  Meding 
(q.v.). 

BAMA'MjiJ.Tg  (named  in  honor  of  the  Rus 
sian  Samarski).  A  mineral  composed  of  the 
oxides  of  a  number  of  rare  metals,  including 
cerium,  yttrium,  columbium,  tantalum,  etc.  It 
has  a  vitreous  to  resinous  lustre,  and  is  of  a  dark 
or  black  color.  It  occurs  with  the  older  rocks, 
and  is  found  in  the  Ilmen  Mountains,  in  the 
Urals,  in  Norway,  in  Sweden,  and  in  the  United 
States  at  various  localities  in  Mitchell  and  Mc- 
Dowell counties,  N.  C.  The  mineral  finds  some 
use  in  commerce  for  the  mantle  employed  by  the 
Welsbach  light,  although  the  difficulty  in  obtain- 
ing the  required  oxides  in  a  pure  condition  pre- 
vents any  very  great  demand  for  it. 

SAHAVfiDA,  s&'mA-v&^dA  (Skt.,  tune-Veda). 
The  name  of  the  third  Veda  (q.v.). 

SAMBAB  (from  Skt.  Samhara,  sort  of  deer). 
The  largest  of  Oriental  deer  {Cervua  unioolor). 
It  is  from  4  to  5  feet  high  and  wears  remarkably 
large  and  heavy  antlers.  These  spread  sometimes 
to  a  width  of  36  inches,  and  hiave  very  large, 


A  SAMBAB  8TAO. 


much  roughened  beams  with  only  two  tines,  one 
near  the  extremity  and  the  other  a  broad  tine 
set  at  an  acute  angle.  Its  range  covers  nearly  the 
whole  Oriental  region,  and  it  is  everywhere  a  deer 
of  the  forests.  Its  hair  is  coarse  and  wiry,  and 
forms  a  mane  on  the  neck ;  and  its  color  is  dark 
brown,  lighter  on  the  buttocks  and  veatral  sur- 
faces. The  fawns  are  not  spotted,  as  is  usual 
with  deer.  In  the  Malayan  islands  there  occur 
several  small  sambar-like  deer,  which  are  be- 
lieved by  many  to  be  related  to  the  mainland 
species.  One  of  these  doubtful  species  {Cervus 
Philippinus)  belongs  to  the  Philippine  and  La- 
drone  Islands,  and  is  scarcely  24  inches  tall,  and 
has  the  brow  tines  shorter  than  the  terminal 
prongs.  Another  closely  related  Philippine  deer 
is  Cervus  Alfredi,  which  is  larger  and  has 
a  coat  spotted — ^yellow  upon  chocolate  brown — 
at  all  seasons.  .  Consult  Lydddcer  and  other 
authorities  cited  under  Deer. 

SAKBATIOK,  or  SABBATIOIT  (Heb.,  from 
8hahhath,  Sabbath).  A  mystic  river  of  Jewish 
legend.  The  earliest  references  are  found  in 
Josephus  and  Pliny.  The  former  {Bel.  Jud„ 
vii.  5,  1)  says  that  Titus  visited  such  a  river 


&AJIBATIOV. 


887 


AAXOAJX  ISLAKBB. 


in  the  neighborhood  of  Beirut  and  that  it 
flowed  <miy  on  the  seventh  day.  Pliny  {Nat, 
Hitt^  zxxL  18)  relates,  in  connection  with  other 
like  marvelBy  that  "in  Judea  there  is  a  river 
which  dries  up  every  sabbath."  Both  Talmuds 
refer  to  it»  and  the  Midrash  Rabba  to  Grenesis 
(I  11)  takes  it  as  a  proof  of  the  divine  ordi- 
nance concerning  the  Sabbath.  In  later  legend 
the  river  became  the  miraculous  protection  of 
the  exiles  against  their  enonies.  The  most  ex- 
tensive form  of  the  story  is  found  in  the  narra- 
tiTe  of  'Eldad'  (ninth  century,  printed  in  Jel- 
linek's  Beik-IiatfUdraaeh,  iii.  6,  Leipzig,  1853-57). 
Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  locate  this 
strange  stream,  and  it  has  been  identified  espe- 
daUy  with  the  Zab  in  Assyria.  Doubtless  the 
story  is  based  on  the  report  of  an  intermittent 
stream  in  some  part  of  tbe  world.  The  elements 
of  the  l^;end  are  found  in  the  Alexander  Ro- 
mance {Pseudo-Callisthenes) ,  where  a  river  flow- 
ing three  days  with  water  and  three  days  wiUi 
sand  is  assigned  to  Egypt.  There  is  also  a 
reference  to  the  river  as  existing  in  India  in 
the  legoid  of  Prester  John.  Ckinsult:  Ham- 
burger, Bealenoyolop&die  dea  Judeniums,  vol.  ii., 
p.  1071  (Strelits,  1883);  a  very  full  discussion 
may  be  found  in  Lewin,  Wo  waren  die  tfehn 
Stimme  /sraeto  sm  suchet^  (Pressburg,  1901). 

SAICBOB^  sftm^bdr.  A  town  in  the  Crownland 
of  Galicia,  Austria,  on  the  Dniester,  47  miles 
louthwest  of  Lemberg  (Map  Austria,  H  2).  It 
manufactures  oil  and  linen,  and  trades  in  flax, 
hemp,  agricultural  produce,  and  cattle.  Popu- 
lation, in  1000,  17,027,  mostly  Poles. 

SAX^OUBNE,  EowABD  Linlbt  (1845—). 
An  English  caricaturist  and  designer.  He  was 
bom  in  London,  and  educated  at  the  City  of 
London  School  apd  at  the  College  of  Chester.  He 
was  intended  for  the  engineering  profession,  but, 
his  drawingB  having  attracted  the  attention  of 
Mark  Lemon  in  1867,  Samboume  was  employed 
by  Punch,  with  which  journal  he  has  since  been 
connected,  having  become  its  chief  cartoonist 
Jsnuary  1,  1901. 

BAIDBB,  sftN^r".  A  river  of  Belgium.  It 
rises  in  the  extreme  northern  part  of  France, 
in  the  Department  of  Aisne,  flows  northeastward, 
and  enters  the  Meuse  at  Namur  after  a  course 
of  118  miles  (Map:  Belgium,  C  4).  It  is  navi- 
gable 100  miles  to  Landrecies  in  France,  whence 
the  Canal  de  la  Sambre  connects  it  with  the 
Oise.  It  flows  through  a  very  populous  region, 
and  forma  an  imporiant  part  of  the  internal 
waterways  of  France  and  Belgium. 

8A1CBTTCTT8.    See  Elder. 

SAKEACA,  sft'mA-a^&.  Aborigines  of  Basi- 
Isn  Island,  Sulu  Archipelago.     See  Philippine 

ISIAKDS. 

SAXKHTA.  A  system  of  Hindu  philosophy. 
SeeSlNKHTl. 

8AM' A  XX jw.  An  ancient  people  of  Samnium 
or  Sabinum,  in  the  mountainous  region  of  Mid- 
dle and  Southern  Italy.  As  their  name  indicates, 
they  were  an  offshoot  of  the  Sabines,  and  be- 
longed to  the  old  long-headed  prehistoric  face. 
Thqr  comprised  four  divisions:  (1)  the  Cara- 
oeni,  on  the  north,  whose  capital  was  Anfidena; 
(2)  the  Pentri,  in  the  centre,  most  powerful  of 
all,  with  their  capital  Bovianum;  (3)  the  Cau- 
dini,  in  the  southwest;  (4)  the  Hirpini,  in  the 
south,  capital  Beneventum.  The  earliest  account 
of  the  Samnites  relates  to  their  conflict  with  the 


they  adopted.     On  the 
ites  took  sides  against 


Oscans,   whose  sp 
founding  of  Bome  the  1 
the  city.    See  Rome. 

SAMCKAK  ISLANDS,  or  SAXCKA  (former- 
ly Naviqatobs' Islands).  A  group  of  islands  in 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  belonging  partly  to  the  United 
States  and  partly  to  Germany,  and  extending 
from  about  latitude  13*"  to  15*"  S.,  and  from 
longitude  1«8*»  to  173'*  W.  They  lie  about  4200 
miles  southwest  of  San  Francisco.  The  group  com- 
prises altogether  14  islands,  of  which  only  Savaii 
(660  square  miles),  Upolu  (340  square  miles), 
Tutuila  (54  square  miles),  and  the  Manua 
group  (26  square  miles)  are  important.  The 
total  area  is  about  1100  square  miles.  .  The  isl- 
ands are  all  volcanic  and  mountainous,  rising 
in  Savaii  to  a  height  of  5413  feet.  Savaii  shows 
signs  of  recent  volcanic  activity.  The  region 
along  the  coast,  however,  supports  a  luxuriant 
vegetation,  and  the  other  islands  are  forest-clad 
to  the  summits  of  the  mountains.  The  coasts  are 
high  and  steep,  but  offer  no  very  good  harbors. 
Earthquakes  are  frequent,  but  seldom  severe. 

The  climate  is  tropical,  with  a  mean  tempera- 
ture of  80**  in  December  and  70»  in  July.  The 
rainfall  is  abundant,  but  the  islands  are  subject 
to  severe  hurricanes.  The  flora  is  similar  to 
that  of  other  Polynesian  groups,  and  the  fauna 
is  extremely  limited.  The  only  indigenous  mam- 
mal is  a  species  of  rat,  but  there  are  several 
reptiles,  including  four  species  of  snake.  Among 
the  birds  the  most  remarkable  is  a  species  oi 
ground  pigeon,  the  Didunculus  8trigiro8tri9, 
which  is  interesting  as  being  a  link  between  the 
African  Treronin®  and  the  dodo.  It  is,  however, 
becoming  extinct. 

The  wealth  of  the  islands  consists  principally 
in  their  rich  vegetation.  The  soil  is  of  extraor- 
dinary fertility  and  well  watered.  The  staple 
product  is  copra,  which  is  produced  on  a  large 
scale  on  European  plantations,  and  which  consti- 
tutes almost  the  sole  article  of  export.  Fruit  is 
also  an  important  product,  and  cacao  is  culti- 
vated on  an  increasing  scale.  Aside  from  agri- 
culture there  are  few  industries.  The  imports 
and  exports  of  the  German  portion  of  the  Samoan 
grou^  in  1901  were  $373,808  and  $241,808  re- 
spectively. The  trade  of  the  American  island 
of  Tutuila  amounted  in  the  same  year  to  over 
$100,000,  the  exports  representing  less  than  one- 
fourth.  The  chief  port  of  the  group  is  Apia 
(q.v.),  on  Upohi,  but  the  best  harbor  is  Pago- 
Pago,  in  Tutuila  (q.v.). 

To  Germany  belong  Savaii  and  Upolu  (qq.v.) 
and  the  adjacent  islets,  and  to  the  United  States, 
Tutuila  (q.v.)  and  the  Manua  group.  German 
Samoa  is  administered  by  an  Imperial  Governor 
and  a  native  chief,  assisted  by  a  native  council. 
The  American  possessions  are  in  charge  of  a 
naval  Governor.  There  are  a  number  of  primary 
schools  maintained  by  Protestant  and  Roman 
Catholic  missions.  The  population  of  German 
Samoa  in  1900  t^as  32,612,  of  whom  347  were 
European,  principally  German,  British,  and 
American.  American  Samoa  has  an  estimated 
population  of  5800. 

The  natives  are  typical  Polynesians  linguis- 
tically and  physically.  Their  somewhat  lifter 
skin  and  alleged  'Caucasoid'  features  have  led 
some  ethnologists  to  class  them  as  'Indonesian' 
and  to  assume  their  afiinity  with  the  white  raoe 
of  the  Eurasiatic  continent,  together  with  the 
other    Eastern    Polynesians — ^Tongans,    Marque- 


aikJEOAV  ISLANDa 


888 


aikJEoa 


Bans,  Hawaiians,  Tahitians,  etc.  Like  many 
other  Polynesian  peoples,  the  Samoans  are  often 
qtiite  ^ood-looking  and  are  generally  well-formed. 
Tradition  and  legend  make  the  Samoan  Archi- 
pelago the  centre  from  which  a  large  portion 
of  the  island-world  of  the  Pacific  was  peo- 
pled. The  Samoans  have  always  been  noted  as 
sailors  and  boat-builders.  They  are  famous  for 
their  legends  and  tales.  Though  they  have  prac- 
.  tically  all  become  Christians,  the  European  and 
later  American  colonization  has  not  been  alto- 
gether to  their  benefit.  In  matter  of  population 
they  seem  to  be  about  holding  tneir  own. 
Beneath  the  acquired  new  religion  and  bor- 
rowed culture  survive  many  old  traits  and  hab- 
its. The  ancient  arts  and  inventions  of  the 
natives  are,  however,  disappearing  before  the 
labor-saving  devices  of  the  whites. 

HiSTOBT.  The  Samoan  Islands  are  probably 
identical  with  the  Baiunann's  Islands,  discovered 
by  the  Dutch  navigator  Roggoveen  in  1722.  In 
1768  Bougainville  gave  the  name  of  Navigators' 
Islands  to  the  group.  Christianity  was  intro- 
duced by  John  Williams  in  1830.  The  various 
islands  were  ruled  by  independent  chiefs,  who 
acknowledged,  however,  the  nominal  authority  of 
a  king  elected  from  one  of  the  noble  families. 
After  1868  the  islands  became  subject  to  con- 
tinual disturbances,  owing  to  the  struggle  be- 
tween rival  candidates  for  the  throne.  These 
dissensions  were  fostered  by  the  representatives 
of  the  three  foreign  Powers  possessing  consider- 
able interests  in  Samoa — Germany,  Great  Britain, 
and  the  United  States.  In  1888  interests  hostile 
to  the  Germans  brought  about  the  election  of 
Mataafa  as  opposition  King  to  Tamasese,  and 
civil  war  broke  out.  Mataafa  made  himself  mas- 
ter of  Apia,  and  in  December  defeated  a  small 
force  of  German  marines.  The  German  consul's 
truculent  action  nearly  brought  on  war  between 
the  Powers,  but  a  conference  was  finally  called 
to  adjust  the  difficulties.  The  Act  of  Berlin, 
June  14,  1889,  proclaimed  the  independence  and 
neutrality  of  the  islands  and  guaranteed  the 
natives  full  liberty  in  the  election  of  their  King. 
The  interests  of  the  Europeans  were  to  be  pro- 
tected by  the  creation  of  a  Supreme  Court,  con- 
sisting of  a  Chief  Justice,  and  the  erection  of 
Apia  into  a  municipality,  the  president  of  which, 
as  well  as  the  Chief  Justice,  was  to  be  nominated 
by  the  three  powers.  In  1898  King  Malietoa 
Laupepa  died,  and  Mataafa  was  elected  his  suc- 
cessor by  an  overwhelming  majority  of  the  people. 
The  election  was  contested  by  Malietoa  Tanu,  a 
nephew  of  the  dead  King,  who  was  declared  by 
Chief  Justice  Chambers,  an  American,  rightful 
King.  Fighting  thereupon  ensued  between  the 
forces  of  Malietoa  and  Mataafa,  who  now  en- 
joyed German  support.  The  latter  was  victorious, 
and  in  January,  1899,  was  recognized  as  pro- 
visional ruler  of  the  islands.  In  Anarch  the 
United  States  man-of-war  Philadelphia  arrived 
at  Apia.  Rear-Admiral  Kautf,  after  conferring 
with  the  representatives  of  the  other  Powers,  re- 
fused to  lend  further  recognition  to  the  Govern- 
ment of  Mataafa.  The  German  consul  issued  a 
proclamation  in  favor  of  Mataafa,  who  accord- 
ingly maintained  his  attitude  of  resistance.  On 
March  15th  the  villages  around  Apia  were  bom- 
barded by  the  British  and  American  ships.  Ger- 
many again  showed  herself  conciliatory,  and  by 
the  agreement  of  December  2,  1899,  between  Ger- 
many, Great  Britain,  and  the  United  States,  the 


Samoan  Islands  were  partitioned  between  Ger- 
many and  the  United  States.  Great  Britain  re- 
ceived compensation  in  the  Solomon  and  Toga 
Islands.  On  March  16,  1889,  a  tidal  wave  de- 
stroyed the  American  and  German  fleets  in  Apia 
roadstead.  Of  the  American  vessels,  the  Trenton 
and  the  Vandalia  were  sunk,  and  the  NipHc  cast 
on  shore,  the  loss  of  life  being  52  officers  and  men* 
Consult:  Turner,  Samoa  a  Hundred  Years  Ago 
(London,  1884) ;  Robert  Louis  Stevenson,  A  Foot' 
note  to  History  (London,  1892). 

SA^OS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Zd^of;  Turk.  Susam 
Adassi).  An  island -off  the  western  coast  of 
Asia  Minor,  separated  by  a  strait  (called  by  the 
Turks  Little  Boghaz),  about  one  mile  in  width, 
from  the  rocky  promontory  of  Mycale,  of  which 
its  mountains  are  a  prolongation.  Its  length 
is  about  30  miles;  its  mean  breadth  about  8 
miles.  A  range  of  mountains  runs  through  the 
whole  island,  attaining  its  greatest  height  at 
the  west,  where  Mount  Kerkis  (the  ancient  Cer- 
ceteus)  reaches  an  elevation  of  4725  feet.  Sa- 
mos  is  still,  as  in  ancient  times,  well  wooded. 
Though  mountainous  toward  the  north  and  west, 
the  east  and  south  contain  fertile  and  well- 
watered  ground,  and  the  island  exports  eon- 
siderable  quantities  of  grapes,  wine,  oil,  caroh 
beans,  and  hides;  its  mountains  furnish  quarries 
of  marble,  and  zinc,  lead,  iron  ore,  emery, 
lodestone,  and  ochre  are  to  be  found.  The  ancient 
city  of  Samoa  was  in  the  southeastern  part  of 
the  island,  near  the  modem  Tigani,  where  can 
still  be  seen  the  remains  of  the  great  moles  of 
the  harbor,  the  ancient  fortifications,  and  the 
aqueduct  cut  through  the  mountain  for  Poly- 
crates  by  Eupalinos.  About  four  miles  away 
was  the  celebrated  Heneum,  or  temple  of  Hera, 
one  of  the  largest  Greek  temples  known  to 
Herodotus,  but  of  which  only  scanty  remains 
are  now  visible.  Excavations  begun  in  1902  by 
the  Greek  Archseological  Society  are  said  to  have 
shown  that  it  had  two  rows  of  Ionic  columns 
on  the  sides  and  three  at  the  ends,  and  that  its 
dimensions  were  64.5  by  109  meters.  On  the 
north  coast  lies  the  modem  capital,  Vathy,  which 
derives  its  name  from  its  deep  (Gk.  |3aA^ 
hathys)  harbor.  The  population  of  the  island  in 
1896  was  49,733,  mostly  Greeks. 

The  early  Greek  settlers  of  the  island  were 
said  to  have  come  from  Epidaurus,  and  the  wor- 
ship of  Hera  certainly  points  to  a  connection 
with  Argolis.  In  the  early  histoiy  of  the  Ionic 
Confederation  Samos  seems  to  have  held  a 
prominent  place.  The  inhabitants  were  bold 
seamen  and  built  up  a  large  commerce  with  Asia 
Minor,  the  Black  Sea,  Egypt,  and  the  west.  Its 
greatest  splendor  was  reached  under  the  tyrant 
Polycrates  (q.v.)  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth 
centurv  B.C.  After  his  death  the  island  suffered 
severely  from  civil  strife  and  the  Persians.  In 
B.C.  479  it  joined  the  Greeks  and  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  League  of  Delos,  and  later  a  free 
ally  of  Athens.  A  revolt  in  B.C.  440  led  to  its 
reduction  to  the  position  of  a  vassal  of  Athens, 
but  it  received  renewed  privileges  in  the  later 
years  of  the  Peloponnesian  War,  when  it  proved 
a  faithful  ally  of  the  Athenian  democracy,  and 
was  the  headquarters  for  the  Athenian  fleet. 
After  the  fall  of  Athens  it  was  occupied  by 
Lysander,  who  established  an  oligarchical  govern- 
ment. By  the  Peace  of  Antalcidas  (B.O.  387) 
the  island  passed  into  the  possession  of  Persia. 
In   B.C.    365    it   was    again   conquered   by    the 


aikJEoa 


889 


SAMPSOir. 


AtheniaiiB,  who  expelled  the  inhabitants,  and  sent 
thither  a  body  of  Athenian  cleruchs,  who  re- 
mained in  possession  till  driven*  out  by 
Perdiccas  after  the  death  of  Alexander  the 
Great  From  this  time  the  ^land  appears 
but  seldom  in  history.  It  took  the  side  of  Anti- 
ochns  and  Mithridates  against  Rome,  and  in  b.c. 
84  was  joined  to  the  Proyince  of  Asia.  Under 
the  Byzantine  emperors  it  was  of  some  impor- 
tance. In  1550  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
Turks.  When  the  War  of  the  Greek  Revolution 
broke  out  none  were  more  ardent  and  devoted 
patriots  than  the  Samians;  and  deep  was  their 
diutppointment  when,  at  the  close  of  the  struggle, 
European  JPplicy  assigned  them  to  their  fortner 
masters.  The  island,  however,  was  placed  in  a 
semi-independent  position  in  1832,  when  it  was 
constituted  as  a  tributary  principality,  under  a 
Trince  of  Samoe,'  who  is  a  Greek  Christian  ap- 
pointed by  the  Sultan,  and  a  national  council, 
which  r^;ulates  the  assessment  of  the  tribute  and 
the  internal  affairs  #  the  island.  The  annual 
tribute  amounts  to  300,000  piastres.  Under  this 
government  the  island  has  rapidly  increased  in 
population  and  enjoys  a  thriving  trade.  Con- 
sult: Panofka,  Res  Samiorum  (Berlin,  1822) ; 
6u6rin,  Description  de  Itle  de  Paimos  ei  de 
8amos  (Paris,  1856) ;  Fabricius,  in  Mittheilun' 
gen  des  arohdoloffischen  Inatiiuts  (Athens,  1884) , 
on  the  aqueduct  of  Eupalinus;  Tozer,  lalanda  of 
theJBgean  (Oxford,  1890). 

SAXOS^ATA.  The  ancient  name  of  Samsat 
(q.v.). 

aAX'OTHE'BIUX  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  2^- 
pm,  Samoa,  Samoa  +  ^^oy,  therion,  diminutive 
of  ^,  iher,  wild  beast) .  An  extinct  giraffe,  found 
fossil  in  Pliocene  deposits  of  the  island  of  Samos, 
in  the  Turkish  Archipelago.    See  Sivatheeiuic. 

SAX^OTHSAOE  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  2a/MM9^«irt 
Hamothrak^),  or  Thbacian  Saicos.  An  island 
in  the  north  of  the  iSgean,  northeast  of  Lemnos 
(iStoltmene).  It  belongs  to  Turkey.  It  is  a 
nigged  and  mountainous  mass,  about  8  miles 
long  by  6  miles  broad.  Its  principal  summit 
(5240  feet)  is  the  highest  point  in  the  Greek 
archipelago.  From  it  the  Iliad  describes  Posei- 
don as  watching  the  battles  around  Troy,  and  in 
spite  of  the  intervening  Imbros,  the  white  sum- 
mit can  be  seen  from  that  point.  During  classi- 
cal times  the  island  plays  no  part  in  history, 
except  as  the  chief  seat  of  the  mysteries  of  the 
Cabeiri  (q.y.)>  In  1457  it  was  occupied  by  the 
Turks.  An  attempt  to  join  in  the  Greek  revolu- 
tion led,  in  September,  1821,  to  a  savage  massa- 
cre of  the  scanty  population.  At  present  the 
island  contains  but  one  town  of  any  size,  Chosa, 
situated  in  a  valley  a  short  distance  from  the 
sbore.  The  ancient  town  can  still  be  identified 
by  its  fortifications,  and  the  site  of  the  ancient 
temples  has  been  carefully  explored.  The  first 
excavators  in  1863  and  1867  were  French,  and 
their  great  prise  was  the  superb  Nike  of  Samo- 
thraoe,  now  in  the  Louvre,  a  very  fine  example 
of  the  Attic  school  of  the  end  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. Mbre  important  was  the  thorough  clearing 
of  the  sanctuary  in  1873-75  by  the  Austrians. 
Consult:  Tozer,  Ulanda  of  the  JEgean  (Oxford, 
1890) ;  Conxe,  Reiae  auf  den  Iiiaeln  dee  ihrakie- 
eken  Meerea  (Hanover,  1860) ;  and  especially, 
Conse,  Hauser,  and  Niemann,  Unterauchungen 
auf  Samothrake  (Vienna,  1875) ;  and  Conse, 
Humann,  and  Benndorf,  Neue  Unterauchungen 
Q^Simothfake  (ib.,  1880). 


8AK0YEDS,  s&'m6-y«ds.  A  branch  of  the 
Finno-Ugrian  (Finnic)  section  of  the  Ural-Al- 
taic stock  of  the  Mongolian  race,  inhabiting  the 
tundras  of  Northeastern  Europe  and  Siberia.  As 
Samoyed  peoples  are  usually  reckoned  the  follow- 
ing: Yureuc,  nomads  of  the  tundras  of  the  Arctic 
O^n  from  the  European  limit  of  the  Samoyeds  to 
the  Asiatic  (Yenesei) ;  Tawgy,  east  of  the  Yurak 
to  Khatanga  Bay;  Yeneseian  Samoyeds,  on  the 
tundras  of  the  lower  Yenesei,  between  the  Yurak 
and  the  Tawsy;  the  so-called  'Ostyak-Samoyeds' 
of  the  woodecT  country  on  the  Obi  and  its  tribu- 
taries between  I^m  and  Tchulym ;  the  Soyotes  of 
the  Sayan  mountain  country,  etc.;  the  Mators, 
on  the  river  Tuba,  north  of  the  Sayan  Moun- 
tains; the  Koibals,  on  the  upper  Yenesei;  the 
Karagass,  on  the  Uda  in  the  Sayan  country; 
the  Kamassinz,  about  Abakansk  and  Kansk,  be- 
tween the  Angara  and  the  Yenesei.  The  Yurak 
and  Tawgy  are  reindeer  nomads  chiefly,  the  Os- 
tyak-Samoyeds  fishers  and  hunters  for  the  most 
part,  the  Yeneseian  Samoyeds  partly  reindeer 
nomads,  partly  hunters  and  fishers.  The  nomadic 
Samoveds  are  tent-dwellers,  the  others  live  in 
huts  known  as  yuria.  The  Samoyeds  are  strong* 
ly  Mongoloid  in  physical  typie,  with  short  stature, 
brachycephalic  head,  oblique  eves,  and  straight 
hair.  Their  culture,  except  where  Russian  and 
Chinese  influence  is  felt,  is  comparatively  primi- 
tive. There  is  evidence  that  they  once  occupied 
a  much  greater  territory  than  at  present,  par- 
ticularly to  the  south,  but  were  driven  back  by 
Tatar  invasions.  The  number  of  the  SamoyedLs 
is  estimated  at  about  20,000,  of  whom  about 
one-third  live  in  European  Russia.  Consult: 
Gastrin,  Ethnologiache  Vorleaungen  ilher  die  aUa^ 
iachen  Vdlker  (Saint  Petersburg,  1857) ;  MUller, 
Derugriaohe  Volkaatamm  (Berlin,  1837) ;  Pauly, 
Description  ethnographique  dea  peuplea  de  la 
Ruaaie  (Saint  Petersburg,  1862). 

SAKPHIBE  {Crithmum).  A  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Umbelliferie.  Common  sam- 
phire {Crithmum  maritimum) ,  a  perennial,  1^ 
feet  high,  is  a  native  of  the  Mediterranean  region 
of  Europe  growing  chiefly  on  rocky  cliffs  near  the 
sea.  It  is  used  in  pickles  and  salads  for  its 
piquant,  aromatic  taste.  It  is  easily  cultivated 
in  ordinary  garden  soil.  Golden  samphire  {Inula 
crithmoidea) ,  of  the  natural  order  Composite,  is 
similarly  used. 

SAMP'SON,  WnxiAM  Thomas  (1840-1902). 
An  American  naval  officer,  bom  at  Palmyra,  N. 
Y.  He  graduated  at  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy  in  1861,  and  during  the  following  three 
years  was  an  instructor  at  the  Academy.  In 
June,  1864,  he  became  executive  officer  of  the 
ironclad  Patapaco  of  the  Charleston  blockading 
squadron,  and  was  on  board  when  that  vessel  was 
destroyed  by  a  submarine  torpedo,  although  he 
himself  escaped  unhurt.  The  ten  years  imme- 
diately after  the  Civil  War  were  spent  by  him 
partly  at  sea  and  partly  as  an  instructor  at  the 
Naval  Academy.  From  1879  to  1882  he  com- 
manded the  Suxitara  on  the  Asiatic  station,  was 
then  for  a  period  in  charge  of  the  Naval  Observa- 
tory, and  from  1886  to  1890  was  superintendent 
of  the  Naval  Academy,  which  under  his  direction 
reached  a  higher  standard  of  efficiency  than  ever 
before.  When,  in  1890,  the  San  Frandaco,  the 
first  modem  steel  cmiser  of  the  new  navy,  was 
put  in  commission,  Sampson,  who  had  reached 
the  grade  of  captain  in  the  preceding  year,  was 
assigned  to  her  command,^  retaining  it  until  1892. 


SAXPfiOjr. 


890 


SAKBOjr. 


From  January,  1893,  until  May,  1897,  he  was 
chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Ordnance,  played  a  con- 
spicuous part  in  the  huilding  up  of  the  new  navy, 
and  came  to  be  recognized  as  one  of  the  world's 
greatest  authorities  on  ordnance.  To  him  more 
than  to  any  one  else  was  due  the  adoption  of 
the  superimposed  turret.  After  the  destruction 
of  the  battleship  Maine  in  Havana  Harbor  on 
February  15,  1898,  he  was  appointed  president 
of  the  naval  court  of  inquiry  to  investigate  the 
occurrence.  Soon  afterwards  Sampson  was  ap- 
pointed, as  acting  rear-admiral,  to  the  command 
of  the  North  Atlantic  Squadron.  He  attained 
the  rank  of  commodore  in  regular  line  of  pro- 
motion on  July  3,  1898.  On  the  same  day  Ad- 
miral Cervera*s  Spanish  squadron  was  destroyed 
off  Santiago  by  the  ships  under  Sampson's  com- 
mand, although  Sampson  himself  was  absent 
until  the  battle  was  practically  over.  After  the 
war  he  served  as  a  Cuban  commissioner,  was 
promoted  rear-admiral  on  March  3,  1899,  and 
until  September,  1901,  was  in  command  of  the 
Boston  (Gharlestown)  Navy  Yard.  He  was  re- 
tired from  active  service  February  9,  1902.  The 
closing  years  of  his  life  were  clouded  by  the 
controversy  between  his  friends  and  the  sup- 
porters of  Admiral  Schley  over  the  question  of 
the  command  of  the  fleet  during  the  battle  of 
Santiago,  the  friends  of  the  latter  asserting  that 
in  Sampson's  absence  the  credit  of  the  victory 
belonged  to  Schley   (q.v.). 

8AMSAT,  sam^sAt,  ancient  SAMOSATA. 
A  village  in  the  Vilayet  of  Aleppo,  Asiatic 
Turkey,  on  the  Euphrates,  130  miles  northeast  of 
Aleppo  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  H  4).  It  was 
the  ancient  capital  of  the  Syrian  Kingdom  of 
Commagene.     The  place  is  inhabited  by  Kurds. 

SAXSHiri,  sftm^shwe^  (Chin.,  Three  Waters). 
A  hien  or  prefectural  city  and  open  port  of 
China,  in  the  Province  of  Kwang-tung,  situated 
about  30  miles  west-northwest  of  Canton  at  the 
point  where  the  Si-kiang  or  *West  River*  joins 
the  Pe-kiang  or  'North  River'  to  form  the 
Chu-kiang  or  *Pearl  River,'  on  which  Canton  is 
situated  (Map:  China,  D  7).  The  city  itself, 
which  has  a  population  of  about  60,000,  stands 
about  half  a  mile  back  from  the  river  bank,  and 
is  in  a  state  of  semi-decay.  It  was  opened  to 
foreign  trade  in  1897  in  accordance  with  a  treaty 
made  earlier  in  the  year  with  Great  Britain.  The 
native  junk  trade  is  immense,  and  there  is  a  con- 
siderable native  canning  industry  here  of  rice- 
birds,  soles,  quail,  etc. 

SAMSKJLBA^  sAms-kft^rii  (Skt,  completion). 
The  name  of  the  forty  essential  rites  of  the 
first  three  castes  of  Hindus.  They  are  the  cere- 
monies to  be  performed  at  the  procreation  of 
a  child,  the  parting  of  the  mother's  hair  in  the 
sixth  or  eighth  month  of  her  pregnancy  to  cause 
the  infant  to  be  a  male,  on  the  birth  of  the  child 
before  dividing  the  navel  string,  the  ceremony  of 
naming  the  child  on  the  tenth  or  twelfth  day, 
feeding  him  with  rice  in  the  sixth  month,  the 
tonsure  in  the  third  year,  investiture  with  the 
Brahmanical  cord  in  the  fifth,  eighth,  or  sixteenth 
year  when  he  is  intrusted  to  a  guru  (q.v.)  to  re- 
ceive his  religious  education,  the  four  vows  on 
beginning  the  study  of  the  Vedas,  the  ritual  bath 
and  return  home  on  the  completion  of  the  course, 
marriage,  the  five  great  offerings,  the  seven  small 
offerings,  the  seven  libations  to  the  fire,  and  the 
seven  Soma  sacrifices.  Other  texts  make  certain 
additions  to  this  list.    Consult:  Jolly,  Recht  und 


BiiU  (Straasburg,  1896);  Hill^randt,  Riival' 
Litteraiur  (ib.,  1897). 

SAM^SOlSr  '(Heb.  ShifMhifn,  from  Shemegh, 
sun).  An  early  Hebrew  hero  whose  story  is 
found  in  the  Book  of  Judges,  chs.  xiii.-xvi.  It 
is  stated  that  he  was  the  son  of  Manoah  of 
Zerah,  of  the  tribe  of  Dan.  Manoah's  wife  was 
barren,  but  an  angel  appeared  to  her  and  pro- 
vided a  son,  who  should  be  a  Nazirite,  i.e.  a 
'consecrated  one.'  The  angel  appears  a  second 
time  at  Manoah's  prayer  and  repeats  his  instruc- 
tions. No  razor  is  to  touch  the  boy's  head.  The 
child  is  bom,  and  his  hair  endows  him  with  a 
supernatural  strength.  His  first  feat  is  his  tear- 
ing a  lion,  when  on  his  way  to  ask  a  Phifistioe 
woman  in  marriage.  Returning  the  same  road, 
to  celebrate  his  wedding,  he  £ids  a  swarm  of 
bees  in  the  lion's  carcass,  and  from  this  pro- 
pounds a  riddle,  which,  through  his  wife's 
treachery,  costs  thirty  Philistines  their  lives. 
He  leaves  his  wife  for  a  while  and  on  returning 
to  her  finds  that  she  has  l%en  given  in  marrisge 
to  another.  In  revenge  he  burns  the  fields  of  the 
Philistines  by  letting  loose  into  them  300  foxes, 
to  whose  tails  he  has  attached  firebrands.  The 
Philistines  in  retaliation  bum  his  wife  and  her 
house,  and  Samson  avenges  this  deed  by  a  great 
slaughter.  He  escapes  to  Judean  territory,  but 
allows  himself  to  be  handed  over  to  the  Philis- 
tines; by  means  of  his  str^igth  he  bursts  the 
ropes  with  which  he  was  tied,  and  obtaining  the 
jawbone  of  an  ass,  kills  a  thousand  Philistines. 
Betrayed  by  a  harlot  at  Gaza,  Samson's  next  deed 
consists  in  carrying  the  doors  of  the  city  gates 
with  the  posts  and  bars  to  the  top  of  a  mountain 
at  Hebron.  Finally  he  is  betrayed  by  his  para- 
mour, Delilah,  in  the  valley  of  Sorek,  to  whom  he 
reveals  that  the  source  of  his  strength  is  his 
hair.  While  he  is  asleep  Delilah  causes  his  locks 
to  be  shorn  and  hands  him  over  to  the  Philis- 
tines. His  eyes  are  put  out  and  he  is  forced  to 
perform  servile  labor.  His  hair,  however,  grows 
again,  and  on  the  occasion  of  a  festival  at  which 
Samson  is  exhibited  as  a  spectacle  to  the  people 
he  pulls  down  the  pillars  of  the  house  in  which 
the  Philistines  had  assemble^  burying  the  mul- 
titude with  himself  in  the  ruins.  His  body  is 
placed  by  his  relatives  in  the  family  sepulchre 
between  Zorah  and  Eshtaol.  The  narrative  ends 
with  the  statement  that  he  judged  Israel  for 
twenty  years. 

Modem  critics  regard  the  chapters  which  con- 
tain the  Samson  story  as  representing  the  same 
circles  which  produced  the  Yahwistic  narrative  of 
the  Hexateuch.  (See  Hexateugh;  Elohist  and 
Yahwist.)  Chapter  xiv.  is  thought  to  show 
traces  of  some  editorial  revision.  While  thus 
held  to  be  derived  from  a  single  literary  source, 
the  narrative  is  thought  to  have  been  pieced  to- 
gether from  a  number  of  tales  orifpnally  inde- 
pendent of  one  another;  chapter  xvi.,  more  par- 
ticularly, represents  a  supplement  added  after 
the  narrative  had  already  been  closed  in  an  earlier 
form.  In  this  chapter  Samson  appears  to  be  at 
the  mercy  of  harlots  and  paramours,*  whereas 
in  chapters  xiii.-xv.  he  is  the  faithful  husband  of 
one  wife.  Despite  the  legendary  character  of  the 
exploits  related  of  Samson,  there  is  no  doubt 
an  historical  background  to  the  narrative.  Sam- 
son belongs  to  the  tribe  of  Dan  and  to  that  por- 
tion of  it  whose  seat  lay  to  the  west  of  Jerusa- 
lem. His  adventures  with  tne  Pbilistmes  rettect 
the  stmggle  between  tne  xianites  and  fniiistines 


fiAxsojr. 


891 


SAinnBL. 


which  WAS  a  factor  that  ultimately  led  to  the 
emigiatioii  of  moflt  of  the  Danitee  (not  neoes- 
saiilj  all)  to. the  extreme  north.  (See  Dan.) 
Samson  appears  to  have  liyed^  indeed,  after  the 
migration  of  the  Danites  to  the  north,  and  to 
have  belonged  to  the  'remnant'  which  did  not 
scruple  to  enter  into  marriage  alliances  with 
Philistines  while  still  preserving  their  hatred  of 
and  opposition  to  the  foreign  yoke,  and  striving 
at  various  times  to  cast  it  off.  That  he  is  repre- 
sented as  a  'Nazirite'  is  due  to  the  desire  to  in- 
vest him  with  a  religious  character.  The  real 
'Nasirites'  (q.v.)  of  the  Old  Testament  are  men 
of  a  quite  different  type  from  Samson.  Gonsidt 
Frazer,  The  Oolden  Bwigh,  i.,  370  et  seq. ;  iL,  283 
et  seo.;  iii.,  390  et  seq.  (2d  ed.,  London,  1900). 
For  the  fiamson  story  in  general,  consult  the  com- 
mentaries of  Judges,  chapters  xiiL-xvi.,  by  Moore, 
Budde,  Nowack,  and  Bertheau;  Doominck,  "Be 
Simsonsage,"  in  Theologisoh  Tijdschrifi,  vol. 
xzviii.  (Leyden,  1894) ;  for  the  mythological 
interpretation,  consult  Goldzinger,  Der  Myihoe 
hd  den  Hehr&em  (Leipsig,  1876 ;  Eng.  trans.,  Lon- 
don, 1877)  ;  Steinthal,  ''Die  Sage  vom  Simson,"  in 
Zeiteckrifi  fur  VSlkerpeychologie,  vol.  ii.  (1861) ; 
Sonntag,  Der  Biohter  Simeon  (Duisburg,  1890). 

SJLKSOH  AOONISTE8,  ftg'd-nls^tdz.  A  dra- 
matic poem  by  Milton  ( 167 1 ) .  The  final  triumph 
of  the  blind  champion  of  Israel  over  his  enemies, 
the  Philistines,  is  told  in  the  form  of  the  Greek 
drama.  Handel  composed  an  oratorio  "Samson" 
(1743),  with  a  libretto  arranged  from  the  poem. 

BAMBUH^  s&m-tiSGa^  (Lat.  Amieus,  from  Gk. 
^A/urit),  An  important  seaport  in  the  Vilayet 
of  Trebizond,  Asiatic  Turkey,  situated  on  the 
flonthem  coast  c^  the  Black  Sea,  about  90  miles 
southeast  of  Sinub  (Sinope)  (Map:  Turkey  in 
Asia,  G  2).  It  is  badly  built  and  unhealthful. 
Its  oommeroe  is  increasing  and  amounted  in  1900 
to  over  $6,000,(XK).  The  chief  imports  are  vari- 
ous manufactures,  and  the  exports  consist  main- 
^  of  cereals,  flour,  and  tobacco.  Its  population 
is  estimated  at  13,000.  The  ancient  town  of 
Amisns,  which  was  1%  miles  northwest,  was  an 
important  Greek  settlement. 

8AKtTBIi  (Heb.  8h9m4l*^h  name  of  God,  per- 
haps in  the  sense  of  'son  of  God').  The  son  of 
Elkanah  and  Hannah,  a  'judge'  and  'prophet,' 
who  plays  a  prominent  part  in  Hebrew  history 
just  prior  to  the  establisoment  of  the  monarchy. 
The  story  of  Samuel  is  told  in  the  first  *of  the 
two  boolu  of  the  Old  Testament  which  bear  his 
name.  Modem  scholars  who  think  that  these 
books  are  a  compilation  find  each  of  the  two 
sources  in  the  account  given  of  Samuel.  (See 
Samuel,  Books  of.)  In  the  older  narrative  he  is 
represented  as  a  'seer,'  attached  to  a  town  in 
the  hiU  country  of  Ephraim,  who  is  consulted  by 
Saul  whOe  in  search  of  the  lost  asses  of  his  father 
(ch.  ix.).  Samuel,  who  has  been  informed  by 
Tahweh  of  Saul's  coming,  receives  him  cordiallv 
and  invites  him  to  a  sacrificial  meal.  On  the  fol- 
lowing morning  he  announces  to  Saul  that 
Tahweh  has  designed  him  to  be  the  deliverer 
of  the  Hebrews  from  the  oppression  of  the  Philis- 
tines and  privately  anoints  nim.  Three  signs  are 
given  to  Saul  by  means  of  which  to  test  the  truth 
of  Samuel's  words.  The  signs  are  fulfilled  and 
soon  the  occasion  presents  itself  which  enables 
Saul  to  raise  the  siege  of  Jabesh-Gilead,  and 
amid  mudi  enthusiasm  he  is  crowned  king.  The 
Uiter  narrative  is  not  only  much  fuller,  but  ac- 
cords to  Samuel  the  preeminent  position  that  he 


occupies  in  biblical  tradition.  It  begins  with 
the  vow  made  by  Hannah,  the  barren  wife  of 
Elkanah,  on  the  occasion  of  a  visit  to  the  sanctu- 
ary at  Shilohy  to  devote  the  child  that  is  prom* 
ised  to  her  through  Eli  to  the  service  of  Yanweh. 
Samuel  is  bom,  and  after  being  weaned  is  handed 
over  to  the  care  of  Eli.  While  engaged  in  tho 
service  of  the  sanctuary,  Yahweh  appears  to  him 
in  the  night  and  announces  the  approaching 
downfall  of  the  house  of  Eli  in  consequence  of  the 
sins  committed  by  the  wicked  sons  of  the  priest. 
The  defeat  of  the  Israelites  by  the  Philistines  at 
Aphek  seems  to  be  the  catastrophe  meant  by  the 
prophecy,  though  in  connection  with  this  event 
and  the  subsequent  restoration  of  the  ark  there 
is  no  mention  of  Samuel.  When  Samuel  next 
appears  he  has  assumed  the  r6le  of  a  general  ad- 
viser to  whom  the  people  look  for  advice;  he  ex- 
horts them  to  turn  from  their  idolatrous  prac- 
tices and  his  intercession  with  Yahweh  brings 
about  the  discomfiture  of  the  Philistines.  Sam- 
uel, moreover,  is  portrayed  as  a  'judge'  adminis- 
tering justice  throughout  Israel  through  a  yearly 
circuit  which  embraced  the  chief  sanctuaries — 
Bethel,  Gilgal,  and  Mizpah.  On  the  approach  of 
old  age,  Samuel  associates  his  two  sons  with  him, 
but  the  latter,  like  the  sons  of  Eli,  did  not  re- 
semble their  father.  For  this  reason  and  because 
they  wanted  to  be  like  other  nations,  the  people 
demand  that  a  king  be  set  over  them.  Samuel 
at  first  opposes  the  request,  which  he  regards  as 
an  act  of  rebellion  against  Yahweh,  but  finallv 
yields,  and  at  a  gathering  of  the  people  in  Mizpah 
directs  that  lots  be  cast  for  the  kins.  The  choice 
falls  on  Saul,  the  son  of  Kish,  the  Benjamite. 
A  farewell  speech  practically  closes  the  public 
career  of  Samuel,  who,  however,  lives  long  enough 
to  announce  to  Saul  that  the  kingdom  will  be 
taken  from  him  because  of  his  disobedience 
to  Yahweh's  command.  (See  Saul.)  He  anoints 
David  and  after  that  retires  from  public  gaze. 
He  dies  at  Ramah  and  is  buried  there. 

Bearing  in  mind  the  general  religious  character 
of  the  later  narrative  (as  set  forth  in  the  article 
Saicuex.,  Books  of),  it  is  not  surprising  to  find 
incidents  introduced  which  are  intended  to  illus- 
trate the  narrator's  conception  of  Israel's  past. 
So  the  supposed  opposition  of  Samuel  to  the 
kingdom  merely  reflects  the  general  point  of  view 
maintained  in  the  Pentateuch,  which  likewise 
looks  with  disfavor  upon  the  whole  period  of 
royalty  and  regards  its  institution  as  the  fatal 
step  in  Israel's  history.  The  scene,  therefore,  be- 
tween Samuel  and  the  people  in  which  he  rebukes 
them  for  desiring  a  king  (I.  Sam.  viii.  10-18) 
may  contain  but  a  slight  historical  kernel  or 
even  be  a  purely  fancihil  elaboration.  In  like 
manner  many  scholars  regard  the  farewell  speech 
of  Samuel  (I.  Sam.  xii.)  as  unhistorical  and  be- 
lieve that  legendary  embellishments  form  a  fac- 
tor in  many  of  the  other  incidents  related  of 
him.  Nevertheless  they  agree  that  the  narrative 
correctly  estimates  the  importance  of  the  posi- 
tion held  by  Samuel  and  the  scope  of  his  influ- 
ence. In  many  respects  he  reminds  of  Moses, 
and  he  is  certainly  the  most  striking  personage  in 
Hebrew  history  between  Moses  and  David.  CJonsult 
the  chapters  on  Samuel  in  the  Hebrew  histories  of 
Stade,Wellhausen,  PiepenbringJGuthe,  and  others. 

SAHTTEL,  Books  of.  Two  of  the  so-called 
historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament.  Original- 
ly they  formed  one  work,  but  were  divided  into 
two  books  in  the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate  and  the 


SAKtmL. 


892 


BAX  ANTOKIO. 


same  ditisipn  has  been  made  by  Hebrew  editors 
since  Bomberg.  In  the  Septuagint  they  are  called 
the  First  and  Second  Books  of  Kings.  The  name 
is  taken  from  Samuel  (q.v.),  the  principal  figure 
in  the  opening  chapters.  The  b€>oks  begin  with  the 
high-priesthood  of  Eli  and  close  with  the  death 
of  David;  four  main  divisions  may  be  noted:  (1) 
the  establishment  of  the  monarchy  by  Samuel 
(I.  i.-xv.) ;  (2)  the  narrative  of  Saul  and  David 
and  the  history  of  Saul's  reign  to  his  death  (I. 
xvi.-II.  viii.) ;  (3)  David's  reign  (II.  ix.-zx.) ; 
(4)  an  appendix  (II.  xxi.-xxiv.).  The  period 
covered  by  the  work  is^  roughly,  one  hundred 
years,  c.  107  7-97  7  b.o. 

In  the  opinion  of  modem  critics  the  books  were 
composed  according  to  the  general  plan  of  ancient 
historiography;  that  is,  they  are  a  compilation  of 
several  documents  more  or  less  skillfully  pieced 
together  with  editorial  comment  and  additions 
revealing  the  point  of  view  from  which  the 
compiler  or  compilers  regarded  the  past.  The 
compilatory  hypothesis  accounts  for  alleged  dupli- 
cation of  incidents,  contradictions,  and  inconsist- 
encies in  the  work  as  it  stands.  For  example,  it 
is  believed  that  we  have  two  accounts  of  the 
choice  of  Saul  as  king,  two  versions  of  David's 
introduction  to  Saul,  two  narratives  of  the  death 
of  Saul;  but  little  effort  seems  to  have  been 
made  to  harmonize  the  chief  sources  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  compiler  of  these  sources ;  the  older 
is  characterized  by  its  graphic  style,  and  by 
the  simple  straightforward  manner  in  which 
events  are  narrated;  the  later  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  religious  views  which  reflect  the  stand- 
ards of  a  later  age  and  by  judgment  of  events 
according  to  those  standards,  "nie  older  narra- 
tive may  be  assigned  approximately  to  the  ninth 
century  B.o.  and  is  the  work  of  a  writer  who  be- 
longs to  the  same  school  as  the  Yahwist  in  the 
Hexateuch  (see  Elohist  and  Yahwist)  ;  the 
later  one  belongs  to  the  eighth  century  and  bears 
traces  of  the  school  of  thought  to  be  distinguished 
in  the  Elohist.  Some  scholars  (as  Budde)  go  so 
far  as  to  identify  these  two  narratives  with  the 
Yahwist  and  Elohist  respectively,  but  this  is  not 
probable.  The  first  combination  of  the  two 
sources  by  a  redaction  took  place  in  the  seventh 
century  before  the  reforms  instituted  by  Josiah 
(B.C.  621  )j  but  in  the  present  form  of  the  two 
books  we  may  detect  a  subsequent  recension  made 
with  the  view  of  bringing  the  narrative  into  ac- 
cord with  the  religious  standpoint  of  Deuteron- 
omy*. This  was  done  mainly  by  the  addition  of 
summaries  at  the  end  of  important  sections  and 
1>y  the  expansion  of  certain  incidents  which  lent 
themselves  to  a  'homileticar  sentiment.  Other 
additions  were  made  by  a  later  school  of  editors 
of  the  fifth  and  fourth  centuries  B.C.,  while  after 
the  separation  of  the  Books  of  Samuel  from  the 
Books  of  Kings,  the  appendix  (II.  Sam.  xxi.- 
xxiv.)  was  added  to  the  former  embodying  miscel- 
laneous fragments,  and  to  this  late  period  like- 
wise belongs  the  insertion  of  the  psalm  known  as 
the  Song  of  Hannah  (I.  Sam.  ii.  1-10). 

For  the  detailed  analysis,  the  distribution  of 
the  two  main  sources,  and  other  problems,  con- 
sult the  commentaries  of  Thenius-Ltthr  (Leipzig, 
1898) ;  Klostermann  (Munich,  1887) ;  Keil 
(Leipzig,  1876) ;  H.  P.  Smith  {International 
Critical  Commentary,  New  York,  1899) ;  the  in- 
troductions to  the  Old  Testament  by  Driver, 
Kuenen,Comill,  Bleek-Wellhausen,  and  Kautzsch ; 


Wellhausen,  Temt  der  BUcher  SamueUs  (Berlhi, 
1871) ;  Driver^  The  Hebrew  Temt  of  Bamuel  (Ox- 
ford, 1890) ;  Budde,  Richter  und. Samuel  (Gies- 
sen,  1890) ;  Budde's  text  in  the  Sacred  Books  of 
the  Old  Testament  (Leipzig,  1894).  See  Sam- 
uel; Saul;  David;  Kings,  Books  of. 

SAMXTBJkl^  s&'nMR^rl'  (Jap.,  guard).*  The 
military  class  in  Japan  during  the  feudal  period, 
or  a  member  of  that  class.  Originally  the  term 
denoted  the  soldiers  who  guarded  the  Mikado's 
Palace;  later  it  was  applied  to  the  whole  mili- 
tary system  and  included:  (1)  the  ehdgun  or 
commander-in-chief;  (2)  the  daimios^  or  terri- 
torial nobles;  and  (3)  their  retainers,  the  priri- 
leged  two-sworded  men,  the  fighting  men,  the 
gentlemen,  and  the  scholars  of  the  countiy.  In 
1868  the  shogunate,  and  in  1871  the  whole  feudal 
system  were  abolished;  the  daimios  returned 
their  lands  to  the  Emperor,  and  they  and  their 
retainers  were  granted  pensions.  The  practice  of 
wearing  swords  was  prohibited.  Finally  in  1878 
the  names  daimio  and  samurai  were  changed  to 
kwazok4  or  'nobility,'  and  ehizoH  or  'gentry* 
respectively.  See  Bubhido;  Daimio.  GDnsult 
Knapp,  Feudal  and  Modem  Japan  {Boston,  1876). 

SAinrAT,  s&m^vftt  (abbreviated  form  of  Skt 
aamwitaara,  year).  The  most  important  system 
of  reckoning  time  in  India.  The  era  is  in  use  in 
Northern  India  generally  except  in  Bengal.  Ac- 
cording to  native  tradition,  the  Samvat  year  was 
introduced  b^  King  Vikrama  (q.v.)  in  B.C.  57. 
A  Samvat  given  date  represents  the  year  list 
completed.  Christian  dates  are  reduced  to  Samvat 
by  adding  57  to  the  Christian  year.  Consult  Sewell 
and  Dikshit,  The  Indian  Calendar  (London,  1896) . 

SANA,  or  SANAA,  sa-nft^  The  capital  of 
the  Turkish  Vilayet  of  Yemen,  Arabia,  situated 
in  a  beautiful  valley  at  an  altitude  of  7300  feet 
(Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  Q  12).  The  cit)r  is  sur- 
rounded by  high  brick  walls,  and  dominated  by 
the  fortress  of  Jebal  Nigcim.  The  old  white 
washed  palace  of  the  Imams,  now  the  residenee 
of  the  Turkish  Governor,  is  a  prominent  feature. 
There  are  numerous  mcraques,  public  baths,  and 
caravanserais.  The  city  has  excellent  bazaars, 
and  there  is  a  flourishing  trade  in  aloes,  skins, 
oofifee,  indigo,  and  gum  arable.  There  are  manu- 
factures of  car  pete,  arms,  jewelry,  silks,  and 
cottons.  Sana  was  taken  by  the  Turks  in  1872. 
Population,  estimated  at  50,000. 

SAN  ANDS^  TUXTLA,  sftn  An-drAa" 
tvs^.  A  Mexican  town  of  the  State  of  Vera 
Cruz,  83  miles  southeast  of  the  city  of  that 
name  and  16  miles  from  the  Gulf  coast  (Map: 
Mexico,  L  8).  The  town  is  situated  in  a  fertile 
valley  producing  in  abundance  maize,  sugar  cane, 
cotton,  coffee,  and  other  tropical  products.  Its 
population  in  1895  was  8855. 

SAN  AN^OEIiO.  A  town  and  the  county-seat 
of  Tom  Green  County,  Texas,  299  miles  northwest 
of  Austin;  on  a  branch  of  the  Concho  River,  and 
on  the  Gulf,  Colorado  and  Santa  Fe  Railroad 
(Map:  Texas,  D  4).  It  is  important  chiefly  as 
a  shipping  centre  for  a  cattle-raising  and  farm- 
ing section,  and  has  some  manufactures.  Oattle, 
wool,  and  pecans  are  the  principal  articles  of 
commerce.  Population,  in  1890,  2615;  in  1900, 
about  4000. 

SANANTOanO.  The  largest  dty  of  Texas, 
situated  80  miles  south  by  west  of  the  State 
capital,  Austin  (Map:  Texas,  E  5).  The  South- 
em  Pacific,  the  International  and  Great  North- 


&AK  AKTOHIO. 


dOd 


&ANBALLAT. 


ein,  the  Missouri,  Kansas  and  Texas,  and  the 
San  Antonio  and  Aransas  Pass  railroads  centre 
here. 

The  altitude  is  651  feet ;  average  annual  tem- 
perature 68**,  with  a  relative  humidity  of  65,  and 
an  annual  rainfall  of  26.76  inches.  There  are  425 
miles  of  streets;  71  of  which  are  macadamized, 
and  14  paved  with  asphalt,  mesquite  blocks,  and 
vitrified  brick.  Some  twenty  i>arks  and  plazas 
add  much  to  the  charm  of  the  city. 

The  various  oUJects  of  interest  include  Fort 
Sam  Houston  (q.v.),  second  in  size  among  the 
military  posts  of  the  United  States;  Brecken- 
ridge  Park,  comprising  200  acres  of  semi-tropical 
woodland  along  the  upper  course  of  the  San  An- 
tonio River;  and  San  Pedro  Park,  of  40  acres. 
The  river  and  San  Pedro  Creek  flow  through  the 
central  portion  of  the  city  and  unite  within  its 
limits.  The  city  hall,  the  'court-house,  the  Fed- 
eral building,  the  Carnegie  Library,  and  the  com- 
bined market-house  and  convention  hall  are  note- 
worthy. Of  buildings  of  historic  interest,  men- 
tion may  be  made  of  the  famous  Alamo  (q.v.), 
San  Fernando  Cathedral,  the  Veramendi  Palace 
(one  of  the  Spanish  survivals,  the  scene  of  the 
death  of  Milam  in  1835),  and,  within  easy  reach 
on  the  San  Antonio  River,  the  ruins  of  four  of 
the  early  Franciscan  missions,  dating  from  the 
perioa  1720-50. 

As  a  resort  for  those  afflicted  with  pulmonary 
diseases,  the  city  has  long  been  noted.  Within 
the  past  few  years  it  has  become  favorablv  known 
for  the  curative  properties  of  its  hot  wells. 

San  Antonio  in  1903  had  143  manufacturing 
establishments,  employing  from  10  to  575  per- 
Bons  each.  There  are  large  breweries,  flouring 
mills,  machine  shojis,  foundries,  iron  works,  and 
eement  works.  The  wholesale  houses  control  to 
a  great  extent  the  trade  of  southwest  Texas  and 
portions  of  Northern  Mexico.  The  industries  are 
largely  dependent  upon  the  stock  interests  of 
this  section,  but  with  the  greater  development 
of  the  agricultural  possibilities  through  irriga- 
tion, they  are  becoming  each  year  more  diversi- 
fied and  more  importont.  San  Antonio  is  a 
leading  live-stock  market. 

The  goveminent  is  vested  in  a  mayor  and  board 
of  aldermen,  elected  biennially,  who  control  the 
various  administrative  departments,  except  that 
of  public  schools,  which  is  under  a  non-partisan 
hoard,  chosen  at  a  separate  popular  election. 
The  assessed  valuation  of  the  city  in  1902  was 
$31,600,000.  The  total  disbursements  for  the 
year  ending  May  31,  1902,  were  |894,483,  of 
which  some  $170,000  were  for  special  street  im- 
provements, $56,322  for  the  police  department, 
$48,800  for  the  fire  department,  and  $80,300  for 
BchoolB.  The  schools  receive  also  a  large  appro- 
priation from  the  State  fund.  A  private  cor- 
poration is  paid  annually  about  $28,500  for 
street  lighting,  and  $24,000  is  expended  in  like 
manner  for  water.  The  water  supply  is  excep- 
tionally good  and  is  obtained  from  12  artesian 
wells,  which  furnish  the  110  miles  of  mains  with 
35,000,000  gallons  a  day.  There  are  also  19 
other  wells  in  the  city,  with  a  combined  daily 
capacity  of  41,000,000  gallons.  In  1897  the  city 
installed  a  system  of  75  miles  of  sewers  at  a 
cost  of  $500,000. 

The  first  permanent  settlement  within  the 
limits  of  the  modem  city  occurred  in  1718,  al- 
though there  may  have  been  temporary  parties 
of  Spanish  raneheroa  in  the  vicinity  a  few  years 


previous.  In  that  year  occurred  the  double 
founding  of  the  mission  of  San  Antonio  de  Valero 
and  of  its  accompanying  presidio  of  San  Antonio 
de  Bexar.  These  three  colonizing  elements — 
ranchmen,  missionaries,  and  soldiers — ^were  joined 
in  1831  by  a  colony  of  56  persons  from  the 
Canary  Islands,  who  formed  the  first  regular 
municipal  organization  in  Texas,  known  as  the 
villa  of  San  Fernando  de  Bexar.  In  1809  the  villa 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  city.  Three  battles 
were  fought  here  during  the  Gutierrez-Magee 
filibustering  expedition  of  1813,  because  of  which 
and  of  the  succeeding  proscription  San  Antonio 
lost  nearly  two-thirds  of  its  population.  Under 
Mexican  rule  its  affairs  were  materially  im- 
proved, but  American  mijgration  thither  was  in- 
significant. In  1835  the  Texan  patriot  army  un- 
der Austin  invested  the  place,  and  on  December 
9th,  after  a  brilliant  assault  led  by  Milam,  it 
capitulated.  Here  on  March  6,  1836,  occurred  the 
storming  of  the  Alamo,  when  the  entire  gar- 
rison of  that  mission  fortress,  after  a  desperate 
resistance,  was  massacred  by  the  Mexican  dic- 
tator, Santa  Ana.  After  the  decisive  battle  of 
San  Jacinto,  American  pioneers  pressed  into  the 
region,  closely  followed  by  the  Germans  in  the 
next  decade.  In  1861  the  city  was  the  scene  of 
the  surrender  of  General  Twiggs,  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Texas,  to  the  CommittcNS  of  Safety  ap- 
pointed by  the  Secession  Convention.  In  1878 
the  first  railroad  reached  the  city,  and  since  then 
its  growth  has  been  rapid.  The  population  in 
1870  was  12,226;  in  1880,  20,560;  in  1890,  37,- 
673;  in  1900,  53,321.  Consult:  Comer,  San  An- 
tonio de  Beaar  (San  Antonio,  1890);  and  the 
files  of  the  Tewaa  Historical  Quarterly  (Austin, 
Texas,  1897—). 

SAN  AKTONIO  DE  LOS  BAfiOS,  sAn  &n- 
Wn^6  dk  Ms  b&^nyto.  A  town  of  Cuba,  in  the 
Province  of  La  Habana,  situated  on  the  Havana- 
Guana  jay  Railroad,  15  miles  southwest  of  Ha- 
vana (Alap:  Cuba,  C  3).  It  is  a  summer  resort, 
and  has  mineral  springs  and  baths.  Population, 
in  1899,  8178. 

SANBAI/LAT  (Heb.  SanhaUaf,  from  Bab. 
8in-uhallit,  Sin  [the  moon-god]  gives  life).  An 
opponent  of  Nehemiah,  at  one  time  Governor  of 
Samaria,  builder  of  the  temple  on  Mount  Geri- 
zim,  and  father-in-law  of  tne  first  Samaritan 
high  priest.  (See  Samabitans.)  Probably  he 
was  a  native  of  Horonaim  in  Southern  Moab. 
According  to  Josephus  {Ant,  xi.  7-8)  San- 
ballat  was  sent  as  satrap  to  Samaria  by 
Darius  III.,  Codomanus  (B.C.  336-330).  When 
his  son-in-law,  Manasseh,  was  driven  away  by 
Nehemiah,  he  promised  to  secure  for  him  high- 
priestly  power  and  dignity  and  to"  make  him 
governor  of  all  the  territory  he  himself  pos- 
sessed if  he  would  retain  his  daughter  as  his 
wife.  As  Sanballat  was  advanced  in  years,  Ma- 
nasseh expected  to  receive  these  favors  from 
Darius.  When,  contrary  to  his  expectations, 
Alexander  proved  stronger  than  Darius,  San- 
ballat sent  troops  to  aid  him  in  the  siege  of  Tyre 
and  was  permitted  to  build  the  temple  on  Geri- 
zim  and  to  instate  his  son-in-law  as  Iiigh  priest, 
after  which  he  died,  in  B.C.  332.  It  is  possible 
that  he  was  Governor  of  Moabitis  before  he  was 
sent  to  Samaria.  From  Nehemiah's  memoirs 
we  learn  that  Sanballat  grieved  when  he  heard 
of  Nehemiah's  arrival  (ii.  10) ;  that  he  was 
angry  when  the  walls  were  repaired  and  planned 
an  attack  (iv.  7,  8) ;  that  he  invited  Nehemiah 


&AKBAIXAT. 


dM 


aAK  CA&LOfi. 


to  a  meeting  in  one  of  the  villages  of  Ono,  which 
Nehemiah  refused  to  attend  (vi.  2-4) ;  that  he 
sent  a  letter  to  Nehemiah  in  which  he  threatened 
to  report  what  he  had  heard  from  Geshem  and 
others,  that  the  walls  were  being  repaired  as  a 
preparation  for  rebellion  and  that  prophets  were 
appointed  to  proclaim  Nehemiah  as  king  (yi. 
5-8) ;  and  that  he  hired  Shemaiah,  Noadiah  the 
prophetess,  and  others  to  trouble  the  Governor 
of  Jerusalem  (vi.  10-14).  While  all  this  clearly 
reveals  Nehemiah's  suspicions  and  furnishes  good 
ground  for  supposing  that  Sanballat  feared  the 
effect  of  the  fortification  of  Jerusalem  and  was 
hostile  to  Nehemiah,  it  supplies  no  evidence  of 
violence,  bad  faith,  or  falsehood  on  his  part. 
Shemaiah's  act  may  have  been  one  of  gen- 
uine friendship  or  of  mistaken  zeal.  Consult 
the  commentaries  on  Ezra  and  Nehemiah; 
Kosters,  Bet  heratel  t>&n  Israel  in  het 
pereiache  tijdvak  (Leyden,  1893)  ;  Marquart, 
Fundamente  iaraelitiacher  und  jiidischer  Oe- 
schichte  (Gottingen,  1896) ;  Torrey,  The  Com- 
poaition  and  Biatorical  Value  of  Ezra^Nehemiah 
(Giessen,  189<S) ;  Schmidt  and  Cheyne,  articles 
"Nehemiah,"  in  the  Biblical  World  (Chicago, 
1899) ;  Cheyne,  Jewish  Religious  Life  After  the 
Eaile  (New  York,  1898) ;  Winckler,  AltorientaU 
ische  Forsehungen  (Berlin,  1899) ;  Sellin,  Stu- 
dien  isur  Entstehungagesohichte  der  fudischen 
Oemeinde  (Leipzig,  1901). 

SAN  BENEDETTO  PO,  sftn  bft'n&-d§t''tO  pO. 
A  town  in  the  Province  of  Mantua,  Italy,  near 
the  Po,  12  miles  southeast  of  Mantua  (Map: 
Italy,  F  2).  It  has  an  eleventh-century  Benedic- 
tine monastery  with  a  church  built  in  1542. 
Bricks  and  wine  are  manufactured.  Population 
(commune),  in  1901,  10,790. 

SAN  BEBNABDINO,  ber'n&r-ds^nd.  A  city 
and  the  county-seat  of  San  Bernardino  County, 
Cal.,  63  miles  east  of  Los  Angeles,  on  the  South- 
em  Pacific  and  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa 
Fe  railroads  (Map:  California,  E  4).  The  vi- 
cinity is  noted  for  its  beautiful  scenery  and 
healthful  climate,  and  for  its  mud,  hot  water, 
and  sulphur  baths.  There  are  a  public  library 
and  a  handsome  court-house.  Fruit,  hay,  and 
alfalfa  are  extensively  cultivated  in  the  sur- 
rounding region,  which  also  has  mining  and 
stock-raising  interests.  The  shops  of  the  Atchi- 
son, Topeka  and  Santa  Fe  Railroad  employ  850 
men.  There  are  also  lumber  mills,  a  box  factory, 
foundries,  and  machine  shops.  The  government, 
under  the  charter  of  1883,  is  vested  in  a  president 
and  board  of  trustees,  who  hold  office  for  two 
years.  San  Bernardino  was  founded  in  1851  by 
a  company  of  Mormons,  who  wished  to  estab- 
lish a  way  station  for  emigrants  to  Utah  by  way 
of  the  Pacific.  The  cit^  stands  on  or  near  the 
site  of  an  abandoned  mission  of  the  same  name. 
In  1864  it  was  incorporated,  but  on  the  with- 
drawal of  the  Mormons  in  1857-58  its  impor- 
tance decreased,  and  it  was  disincorporated  in 
1861.  In  1863  its  charter  was  restored.  Popu- 
lation, in  1890,  4012;  in  1900,  6150. 

SAN  BEBNABDINO,  Stbatt  of.  One  of  the 
two  principal  passages  through  the  Philippine 
Archipelago  (Map:  Philippine  Islands,  J  7).  It 
separates  the  island  of  Sflmar  from  Luzon,  and 
is  part  of  the  route  between  Manila  and  the 
United  States. 

SAN  BLAS,  bUs.  A  seaport  of  Mexico,  in  the 
Territory  of  Tepic,  situated  in  an  unhealthful 


locality  on  the  Pacific  coast,  140  miles  southeast 
of  Mazatlan  (Map:  Mexico,  F  7).  Though  its 
harbor  is  but  an  open  roadstead,  it  is  the  most 
frequented  port  on  the  Pacific  cbaat  of  Mexico 
next  to  Acapuloo  and  MazatlajL  The  exports 
amount  to  about  $350,000  annually,  and  con- 
sist chiefiy  of  silver,  lumber,  rice,  coffee,  and 
mescal.  A  railroad  runs  to  Topic,  and  na  being 
extended  to  Guadalajara.  Popvdation,  about 
4000.  Formerly  the  town  was  an  important  city 
with  a  population  of  20,000.  - 

SAN  BLAS,  Cafe.    See  Cafe  San  Bijls. 

SAN^OBN,  Fbanklin  Benjakin  (1831-). 
An  American  journalist  and  social  reformer, 
bom  at  Hampton  Falls,  N.  H.  He  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1855,  and  in  1856  was  made  secre* 
taiy  of  the  Massachusetts  Kansas  Committee, 
which  led  to  his  knowledge  of  John  Brown,  with 
whose  fame  he  was  closely  connected.  Later  be 
was  active  in  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of 
Charity,  of  which  he  was  secretary  (1863-68) 
and  chairman  (1874-76).  He  reformed  the 
Tewksbury  Almshouse,  aided  in  founding  the 
Massachusetts  Infant  Asylum  and  the  Clark 
Institution  for  Deaf  Mutes,  and  in  ameliorating 
the  treatment  of  the  insane.  In  1879  he  wtt 
made  inspector  of  charities.  He  was  also  active 
in  the  organization  of  the  American  Social  Sci- 
ence Association,  of  which  he  became  (1873) 
chief  secretary,  and  he  aided  in  establishing  the 
Concord  Summer  School  of  Philosophy  (1879). 
For  several  years,  banning  with  1868,  he  was 
editorially  connected  with  the  Springfield  Re- 
publican. He  wrote  Lives  of  Thorean  (1882),  of 
John  Brown  (1885),  his  most  important  book, 
of  A.  Bronson  Alcott,  Emerson,  and  Dr.  S.  £. 
Howe;  and  edited  William  £.  Channing's  Wm^ 
derer  (1871);  Bronson  Alcott's  Sonnets  amd 
Canaoneites  (1882);  his  New  Conneetieut 
(1886) ;  and  for  a  time  The  Journal  of  aocbl 
Science.  A  brief  study  of  Bmerson  appeared  in 
the  Beacon  Biographies  ( 1901 )  r  and  later  he 
edited  essays  of  Thoreau  and  poems  by  W»  £. 
Channing  the  younger. 

SANBOBN,  John  Benjaxin  (1826—).  An 
American  soldier,  bom  in  Epsom,  N.  H.  He 
studied  at  Dartmouth  College,  and  in  1854  was 
admitted  to  the  bar.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War,  as  adjutant-general  and  quarter- 
master-general of  Minnesota,  he  organised  and 
equipped  the  Minnesota  troops,  and  early  in 
1862  became  colonel  of  the  Fourth  Minnesoia 
Volunteers.  He  took  part  in  the  battles  of 
Corinth,  Port  Gibson,  Raymond,  Jackson,  and 
Champion  Hills,  and  in  the  Vicksburg  siege,  and 
was  promoted  to  be  brigadier-general,  his  com- 
mission being  dated  Au^ist  4,  1863.  Placed  in 
command  of  the  Distrid^  of  Southwestern  Mis- 
souri in  October,  1864,  he  fought  a  number  of 
fiucoessful  engagements,  and  effected  treaties 
with  Indian  trills  hitherto  hostile. 

SAN  CABIiOS,  kOr^ds.  A  town  of  the  Prov- 
ince of  Nuble,  Chile,  208  miles  south  of  San- 
tiago, with  which  city  it  has  direct  railway 
connection  (Map:  Chile,  C  11).  The  old 
town  is  irregularly  built,  but  the  newer  portion 
above  the  railway  station  is  much  better  con- 
structed.   Its  population,  in  1885,  was  7277. 

SAN  CABLOS.  A  town  of  the  State  of  ;Za- 
mora,  Venezuela,  106  miles  southwest  of  Carficaa 
(Map:  Venezuela,  D  2).  Population,  in  1891, 
estimated  at  10,420. 


BAZr  OABLOS. 


dd5 


SAKOTI  SPIBITtrS. 


BAX  CABLO0.  A  town  of  Ltueon,  Philippine 
laluids,  in  the  Province  of  PangasinAn,  situated 
aiwut  10  miles -southeast  of  Lingay6n,  near  the 
Jlaidla-Dagupan  Railroad  (Map:  Philippine  Isl- 
ands, E  4).  Population^  estimated,  in  1899,  23,- 
934L 

SAH  CABLOS,  Order  of.  A  Mexican  order 
for  women,  founded  in  1865  by  Emperor  Maxi- 
milian and  extinguished  at  his  death.  The 
decoration  was  a  green  and  white  Latin  cross 
bearing  the  image  of  Saint  Charles. 

BAS  CATALDOy  k&-t&lM6.  A  town  in  the 
Province  of  Caltanissetta,  Sicily,  4  miles  by 
lail  west-southwest  of  Caltanissetta  (Map:  Italy, 
M  10).  It  ha^  a  handsome  church  with  relics 
of  Saint  Cataldus.  There  are  sulphur  mines, 
oil  refineries,  and  a  trade  in  grain  and  fruit. 
Population  (commune),  in  1901,  17,941. 

8AH0HEZ  OOEIXO,  sfin^ch&th  k6-ftKyd, 
Alonzo.    See  Coello,  Alonzo  Saitchez. 

SAHGHO  PANZA,  8p.  pron.  sftn^chd  pOn^thA. 
The  lazy,  good-natured,  pot-bellied  laborer  who 
accompanied  Don  Quixote  as  his  squire  in  Or- 
vantes's  romance.  Famous  for  his  proverbs  and 
shrewd  sense,  he  serves  as  an  admirable  foil  to 
the  knight,  and  at  last  becomes  Governor  of 
Barataria,  over  which  he  presides  with  gro- 
tesque dignity. 

SAVOHUKIATHOK,  sftn^ki^-nl^A-thdn,  or 
SAHCHOHIATHON  ( Lat.,  from  Gk.  Xayxovptd- 
AtfF,  BanchouniaiKSn) .  The  reputed  author  of  a 
Phoenician  history  of  Phoenicia  and  Egypt,  called 
ioivciumk  larofiia,  or  Td  ^oiPuuKd,  Philo  Herenius, 
of  Byblua,  a  Greek  writer  (bom  c.  64  a.d.), 
claims  to  have  translated  Sanchuniathon's  his- 
tory into  his  own  tongue;  but  of  this  transla- 
tion all  is  lost  save  a  few  fragments  relating 
to  mythology  and  cosmology,  which  have  been 
preserved  by  Eusebius  in  his  Prasparaiio  Evan- 
gelica.  According  to  Philo,  Sanchuniathon  lived 
during  the  rei^  of  Semiramis,  the  mythical 
Queen  of  Assyria,  and  dedicated  his  book  to  Abi- 
balus,  King  of  Berytus.  Athemeus,  Theodoret, 
Porphyry,  and  Suidas,  on.  the  other  hand,  speak 
of  him  as  an  ancient  Phoenician  who  lived  'be- 
fore the  Trojan  War.'  There  is  also  a  dis- 
crepaney  between  the  various  ancient  writers 
respecting  the  number  of  books  contained  in  the 
Pkoenikika,  whether  eight  or  nine.  The  genuine- 
ness of  the  fragments  ascribed  to  Sanchuniathon 
has  been  the  subject  of  a  prolonged  discussion. 
The  present  position  of  scholars  may  be  summed 
up  by  the  statement  that  while  the  existence 
of  a  Phoenician  writer  of  the  name  of  Sanchu- 
niathon is  denied,  it  is  believed  that  Philo  em- 
bodied in  his  work  current  traditions  that  belong 
to  a  relatively  high  antiquity,  and  culled  his 
information  from  various  sources.  A  forgery 
purporting  to  contain  Philo's  complete  transla- 
tion of  Sanchuniathon  and  to  have  been  found 
at  the  Convent  of  Santa  Maria  de  Merinhao,  was 
published  by  Wagenfeld  (Bremen,  1837)  and 
translated  into  German  (Ltlbeck,  1837) .  For  the 
text,  conmiitiSanchuniathonis  Fragmenta  (Leip- 
zig, 1826) ;  Mailer,  Fragmenta  Historianim 
OrtBcorum  (Paris,  1848)..  There  is  an  English 
translation  in  Cory,  Ancient  Fragmenta  (London, 
1876) ;  fot  discussion  of  the  problems  involved, 
consult:  Morer,  Die  PhOnisner  (Bonn,  1849) ; 
Renan,  M4moire  »ur  Sanchuniathon  (Paris, 
1858) ;  Pietschman,  Oeschichte  der  Phonieier 
▼OUXY.'QS. 


(Berlin,  1889);  Gutschmid,  Kleine  SchHfimi 
(Leipzig,  1890). 

BAN  CBISTdBAL  BE  LOS  LLAKOS,  krte- 
t(/B&l  d&  l6s  ly&^nds  (formerly  Ciudad  de  la.8 
Casas).  a  town  of  Mexico,  in  the  State  of 
Chiapas,  situated  on  the  plateau  forming  the 
base  of  the  Yucatan  Peninsula^  6600  feet  above 
the  sea  (Map:  Mexico,  N  9).  It  is  surrounded 
by  ruins  of  ancient  Indian  cities,  and  is  built 
on  the  site  of  one  of  these,  Huizacatl&n.  It  has  a 
cathedral,  and  was  the  residence  of  Bishop  Las 
Casas,  the  famous  defender  of  the  Indians.  Up 
to  1892  it  was  the  capital  of  the  State.  Popula- 
tion, in  1895,  12,000. 

SAN'CBOFT,  William  (1617-93).  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  the  most  distin^ished  of 
the  non- jurors  (q.v.).  He  was  bom  in  Suffolk, 
and,  educated  in  the  grammar  school  of  Buiy 
Saint  Edmunds  and  in  Emmanuel  College,  Cam- 
bridge. The  restoration  of  Charles  II.  brought 
Sancroft  the  post  of  chaplain  to  Cosin,  Bishop  of 
Durham.  After  several  preferments  he  was  made 
Archdeacon  of  Canterbuiy  in  1668,  and  in 
1677  he  became  Archbishop  of  Canterbuiy. 
In  1688  James  II.  committed  him  and  six 
other  bishops  to  the  Tower  for  presenting  a 
petition  stating  their  reasons  for  refusing  to 
read  from  their  pulpits  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dulgence (q.v.).  When  James  asked  Sancroft 
to  sign  a  declaration  expressing  abhorrence  of 
the  Prince  of  Orange's  invasion,  he  refused,  and 
afterwards  even  concurred  in  an  invitation  to 
William  of  Orange  to  intervene  in  English  af- 
fairs. His  later  attitude  to  William  is  to  be 
explained  by  the  fact  that  though  he  was  in 
favor  of  declaring  James  incapable  of  ruling, 
and  of  appointing  William  ouaioa  regni,  his  oath 
of  allegiance  to  James  prevented  him  from  sup- 
porting William  as  King.  Accordingly  he  ab- 
sented himself  from  the  convention  held  by  the 
lords  spiritual  and  temporal  to  m^t  the  new 
monarch,  and  after  the  settlement  he  refused, 
along  with  seven  other  bishops,  to  take  the  oath 
of  allegiance  to  the  Government,  in  consequence 
of  which  he  was  suspended  by  act  of  Parliament, 
August  1,  1689.  Consult:  Lathbury,  History  of 
the  Non- jurors  (London,  1846) ;  Burnet,  History 
of  His  Own  Time  (Oxford,  1833) ;  Ranke,  His- 
tory of  England,  Principally  in  the  Seventeenth 
Century  (Oxford,  1876). 

SANCnPICATIOK  (Lat.  sanctificatio,  from 
sanctificare,  to  make  holy,  from  sanctus,  holy  -|- 
facere,  to  make).  In  Protestant  theology,  the 
process  by  which  the  Holy  Spirit  renews  man 
m  the  divine  image,  destroying  within  him  the 
power  of  evil,  and  quickening,  educating,  and 
strengthening  in  him  the  life  of  goodness  and 
holiness.  It  is  distinguished  from  justification, 
which  is  considered  a  judicial  act  on  the  part 
of  God's  free  grace,  liberating  the  sinner  from 
condemnation,  absolving  and  pardoning  him  onee 
for  all. 

8AKCTI  SPlBITirB,  s&ck^t«  spjS^rft-t^s.  A 
town  of  Cuba,  in  the  Province  of  Santa  Clara, 
about  20  miles  from  the  southern  coast  of  the 
island  and  60  miles  southeast  of  Santa  Clara 
(Map:  Cuba,  F  6).  It  was  founded  by  Diego 
Velasquez  in  1614,  and  has  narrow,  crooked 
streets,  and  an  old  church  with  a  high  tower 
dating  from  the  foundation  of  the  town.  A 
railroad  runs  to  the  port  of  Tunas.  Population, 
in  1899,  12,696. 


SAKCTITABY. 


dM 


fiANB. 


8ANCTUABY.  A  sacred  or  consecrated 
place;  sometimes  applied  specifically  to  a  place 
which  gives  protection  to  those  threatened  by 
punishment  or  vengeance.  Among  the  ancient 
Greeks  a  famous  sanctuary  was  a  sacred  precinct 
on  the  northeast  shore  of  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth 
inclosed  by  walls  and  containing  rich  temples, 
altars,  a  theatre,  and  a  stadium  where  the 
Isthmian  games  were  celebrated.  Generally 
throughout  Grecian  civilization  the  temples,  or 
at  least  certain  of  them,  afforded  protection  to 
criminals,  whom  it  was  unlawful  to  drag  from 
them,  although  the  food  which  was  supplied 
might  be  intercepted.  Among  the  Jews  there 
wer^  (Nties  of  refuge  to  which  those  might  flee 
who  had  killed  a  man  unawares.  The  more 
ancient  canon  law  of  the  Western  Church  recog- 
nized this  protection  to  those  who  had  committed 
crimes  of  violence  as  continuing  for  a  limited 
peri6d,  sufficient  to  admit  of  a  composition  of 
the  offense,  or  at  least  to  give  time  for  the  first 
heat  of  resentment  to  pass,  before  the  injured 
par^  could  seek  redress.  In  several  parish 
churches  of  England  there  was  a  stone  seat  be- 
side the  altar  for  those  fleeing  to  the  peace  of  the 
Church,  bne  of  these  seats  remains  at  Beverley 
and  another  at  Hixham.  In  England  it  was  not 
till  1534  that  persons  accused  of  treason  were 
barred  the  privilege  of  sanctuary.  By  an  act 
passed  in  1024  the  privilege  of  sanctuary  for 
crime  was  finally  abolished.  Various  precincts, 
however,  in  and  about  the  old  city  of  London 
continued  to  afford  shelter  to  debtors.  White- 
friars,  adjacent  to  the  temple  known  by  the 
cant  name  of  'Alsatia,'  was  such  a  sanctuary 
where  privilege  from  arrest  prevailed  unless 
against  the  writ  of  the  Lord  Chief  Justice, 
lliese  places  were  foimd  to  harbor  conspirators 
against  the  Government,  and  they  were  finally 
broken  up  by  King  William  in  1697. 

SAJTCY,  sAN'sft',  Nicolas  Haklay  de  (1546- 
1629).  A  Trench  soldier  and  diplomat,  born  in 
Paris.  He  belonged  to  the  younger  branch  of  the 
great  Protestant  family  of  Harlay.  He  became  a 
Catholic  for  a  few  months  in  1572  in  time  to 
escape  death  in  the  Massacre  of  Saint  Barthol- 
omew, but  soon  returned  to  the  Huguenot  faith. 
Subsequently  he  went  to  Switzerland  to  secure 
mercenaries  for  Henry  III.,  pledging  his  own 
valuable  jewels,  among  them  the  famous  Sancy 
diamond.  (See  Diamond.)  His  devotion  to  the 
cause  of  Henry  IV.  caused  the  latter  to  appoint 
him  in  1589  superintendent  of  finances.  Later 
he  served  as  Ambassador  to  England,  and  held 
high  rank  in  the  army^.  His  second  and  final 
conversion  to  Catholicism,  which  his  contempo- 
raries charged  to  his  ambition,  was  satirized  by 
jyAubign^  in  his  Confession  de  Sancy. 

SAND.  A  loose,  incoherent  mass  composed  of 
fine  quartz  grains,  usually  with  a  small  pro- 
portion of  mica,  feldspar,  magnetite,  and  other 
resistant  minerals.  It  is  the  product  of  the 
chemical  and  mechanical  disintegration  of  rocks 
under  the  influences  of  weathering  and  abrasion. 
When  freshly  fomied  the  particles  are  usually 
angular  and  sharply  pointed,  becoming  smaller 
and  more  rounded  by  attrition  when  blown  about 
by  the  wind  or  transported  by  water.  Sand  is 
an  important  constituent  of  most  soils,  and  is 
extremely  abundant  as  a  surface  deposit  along 
the  courses  of  rivers,  on  the  shores  of  lakes  and 
the  sea,  and  in  arid  regions. 


SAHB,  sftNd,  Geobge  (1804-76).  The  name 
assumed  by  Armantine  Lucile  Aurore,  Baroness 
Dudevant,  a  French  novelist.  She  was  bom  in 
Paris,  July  5,  1804.  Her  father,  Maurice  I>upin, 
an  officer,  was  the  grandson  of  Marshal  Saxe,  the 
illegitimate  son  of  Augustus  II.,  King  of  Pobmd. 
She  inherited  a  dashing  temperament,  democratic 
sympathies,  and  a  taste  for  adventure;  but  all 
this  was  modified  first  by  the  training  of  her  aris- 
tocratic grandmother,  with  whom  she  remained 
till  thirteen  at  the  ancestral  homestead  in  Berry, 
then  by  three  years  at  a  Parisian  convent  (called 
le  couveni  des  Anglaiaes),  where  she  developed  a 
strain  of  mystic  idealism.  On  her  grandmother's 
death  she  returned  to  Berry  (1820),  and  after 
two  years  was  persuaded  to  mari^  Casimir  Dude- 
vant (1822),  a  coimtry  souire.  With  him  she 
lived  eight  years.  They  had  two  children,  to 
whom  she  was  devoted.  From  1829  she  lived 
mainly  in  Paris  on  a  slender  allowance,  eked 
out  by  decorative  painting;  in  1831  a  partial 
separation  was  arranged,  and  this  in  1836  was 
made  final.  A  ferment  of  blighted  hope,  social 
discontent,  intimate  knowledge  of  the  aristoc- 
racy, democratic  sympathy,  contact  with  nature, 
ideal  aspiration,  and  religious  sentiment  were  all 
blended  in  her  first  novel  Indiana  (1832).  Mean- 
time she  had  been  writing  insignificant  articles 
in  the  Figaro^  at  the  office  of  which  she  met  Jules 
Sandeau.  With  him  she  wrote  Rose  et  Blanche, 
signed  'Jules  Sand,'  whence  she  took  her  own  pseu- 
donym. In  the  next  forty-three  years  she  pub- 
lished eighty-four  novels,  besides  writing  ten  vol- 
umes of  Correspondancef  eight  of  MSmoires,  and 
five  of  Drames.  Her  work  falls  into  four 
periods.  The  first,  counting  as  typical  Valentine 
(1832),  Ulia  (1833),  Jacques  (1834),  Andr^. 
( 1835) ,  Leone  Leoni  ( 1835) ,  closes  with  Mauprat 
(1837).  Here  the  effort  is  to  project  her  own 
marital  experiences  and  so  assert  an  intense 
individualism.  But  all  reflect  the  grief  and  pride 
of  a  neglected  wife.  The  novels  after  1834  re- 
flect also  the  first  bitter  disillusionment  that 
came  from  her  putting  in  practice  the  theory 
that  passion  should  be  the  rule  of  life.  She  had 
formed  a  very  close  attachment  with  the  poet 
Alfred  de  Musset;  she  journeyed  with  him  to 
Italy  (1833-34)  and  became  estranged  from  him 
under  circumstances  much  written  of  and  not 
yet  wholly  clear.  Her  own  version  of  the  situ- 
ation is  to  be  found,  with  some  novelistic  em- 
bellishment, in  Elle  et  lui  (1859).  Musset's 
brother  Paul  endeavored  to  represent  his  in  Lui 
et  elle  ( 1859) .  This  shipwreck  of  passion,  while  . 
it  weakened  Musset's  character,  greatly  deepened 
hers. 

Returning  to  Paris,  she  made  new  friends, 
among  them  Chopin,  Balzac,  Liszt,  the  painter 
Delacroix,  the  philosophic  priest  Lamennais, 
and,  after  three  years  of  arrested  develop- 
ment during  which  she  wrote  La  demi^ 
Aldini  (1838),  Les  maitres  Mosalstes  (1838). 
Le  compagnon  du  tour  de  France  (1840),  and 
Spiridion  (1840),  she  dazzled  the  world  for 
eight  years  with  brilliant  pleas  for  the  social- 
istic revolution  (1848),  giving  new  lite  to  ro- 
manticism by  sympathetic  study  of  the  working 
class  and  the  peasantry,  in  which  she  preceded 
Sue,  Hugo,  and  Balzac.  This  is  her  second  man- 
ner, typical  of  which  are  Consuelo  (1843),  its 
sequel  La  comtesse  de  Rudolstadt  (1844),  Le 
meunier  d'Angihault    (1845),  and  Le  p4cM  de 


8A]n>. 


897 


fiANBABAC. 


M,  Anioine  (1847).  But  the  objeet  lessons  of 
the  Revolution  cooled  her  enthusiasm,  and  after 
Napoleon's  accession  she  liyed  quietly  at  Berry. 
Here  she  developed  a  third  manner,  idyllic  nat- 
unlism,  forerunners  of  which  had  been  Jeanne 
(1844)  and  La  mare  au  diable  (1846).  Her 
more  noteworthy  novels  of  this  type  are  Franifoia 
U  Chamjn  (1840),  La  petite  Fadetie  (1849), 
and  Let  nudtree  eonneurs  (1853).  The  wider 
social  studies  of  her  fourth  manner  began  in 
1860,  after  some  dramatic  experiments,  with  the 
psychologic  study  Jean  de  la  Roche,  and  this  style 
eomits  as  its  best  novels  Le  marquis  de  Villemer 
(1861)  and  MUe.  la  Quintinie  (1803).  Through 
her  work  there  quivers  a  passionate  rebellion 
against  convention,  moral  or  social.  She  played 
a  great  part  in  the  social  emancipation  of  women, 
without  having  either  an  original  or  a  definite 
social  theoiy.  Her  nature  was  simple,  affection- 
ate, patient,  kind,  without  vanity,  without  pedan- 
tiy,  large  and  frank. 

Her  collected  works  appeared  as  Romans  ei 
nouvelles,  84  vols.;  M6moires,  souvenirs,  impres- 
sions, voyages,  8  vols. ;  ThiAtre,  4  vols. ;  Thidtre 
de  Hohant,  1  vol.  A  Life  and  Study  by  Professor 
Caro,  in  the. ''Grands  ^rivains  francais"  series. 
(Paris^  1888),  is  translated  by  Masson  in  "Great 
Writer  Series"  (London,  1888).  There  is  an  Eng- 
lish monograph  by  Bertha  Thomas  (London, 
1889).  Consult  also:  Talne,  Nouveauw  essais 
(Paris,  1865) ;  Faguet,  XlXdme  sUcU;  Brune- 
ti^re,  Poisie  lyrique,  vol.  i.  (ib.,  1894) ;  but 
especially  George  Sand's  own  Histoire  de  ma  vie, 
published  first  as  a  feuilleton  in  La  Presse 
(ib.,  1854),  afterwards  in  book  form  (ib., 
1876);  and  Carresponddnee  (6  vols.,  ib.,  1882- 
84),  especially  the  letters  to  Flaubert  (q.v.). 
There  are  many  translations  of  George  Sand's 
chief  novels.  The  most  convenient  imiform  edi- 
tion is  in  20  vols.  (Philadelphia,  1901). 

SASD,  zftnt,  Kabl  Ludwio  (1795-1820).  A 
Glennan  student,  known  as  the  assassin  of  the 
dramatist  August  Friedrich  von  Kotzebue  (q.v.). 
He  was  bom  at  Wimsiedel,  in  Bavaria;  studied 
theology  at  Tflbingen  and  Erlaneen,  and  in  1817 
became  affiliated  with  a  Burschenschaft  (q.v.) 
at  Jena.  He  considered  it  his  mission  to  kill 
Kotzebue,  whom  he  regarded  as  a  spy  of  the 
Russian  Court,  and  one  of  the  chief  enemies  of 
popular  liberty.  Entering  the  residence  of  Kotze- 
bue in  Mannhfiim^  March  23,  1819,  he  murdered 
him  with  a  dagger.  He  failed  in  an  attempt  on 
his  own  life,  and  was  decapitated  May  20,  1820. 
The  death  of  Kotzebue  spurred  on  the  champions 
of  reaction  to  greater  activity  and  led  to  the 
enactment  of  the  Carlsbad  Decrees  (q.v.).  Con- 
sult Hohnhorst,  Uehersiehi  der  ffegen  Sand  ffe- 
fukrten  Uniersuohung  (Stuttgart,  1820). 

SAHDAIi.    See  Shoes  and  Shoe  Manufac- 

Tun.. 

SAHDAIiPHOK.  One  of  three  angels  in  the 
Rabbinical  system  of  angelology  who  receive  the 
prayers  of  IsraeUtes  and  weave  crowns  from 
them.  Longfellow  used  the  l^nnd  in  his  poem 
"Sandalphon." 

8AVa>AIiW00I>  (from  OF.,  Fr.  sandal, 
aeutal,  from  ML.,  Neo-Lat.  santalum,  from  Gk. 
•^aXof,  santalon,  edwduMv,  sandanon,  from  Ar. 
vandal,  Pers.,  Hind,  sandal,  eandan,  from  Skt. 
sandana,  sandal-tree,  from  oand,  Lat.  oandere,  to 
■hine).    The  compact,  fine-grained,  costly  wood 


of  sevaral  species  of  the  genu6  Santalum,  of  the 
iftitural  Order  Santalacee,  natives  of  the  East 
Indies  and  tropical  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
It  is  used  for  making  small  ornamental  articles 
and  cabinets  a«d  is  remarkable  for  its  fragrance, 
due  to  an  essential  oil,  which  is  so  obnoxious  to 
insects  that  they  will  not  attack  articles  stored 
in  sandalwood  recefvtacles.  White  sandalwood, 
the  most  common  kind«  is  derived  from  a  small 
tree  ( Santalum  album ) » a  native  of  mountains  in 
the  south  of  India  and  the  Indian  Archipelago. 
It  is  much  branched,  and  resembles  myrtle  in  its 
foliage  and  privet  in  its  fiowers.  The  tree  is  sel- 
dom more  than  30  feet  in  height  and  a  foot  in 
diameter.  A  kind  sometimes  called  yellow  sandal- 
wood is  produced  by  Santalum  Freycinetianum  of 
the  Indian  Archipelago  and  Hawaiian  Islands, 
from  which  it  is  exported  to  China.  Santalum 
Yasi,  which  yields  the  much-valued  sandalwood 
of  the  Fiji  Islands,  is  a  tree  which  has  been 
almost  extirpated  in  Hawaii,  Fiji  Islands,  and 
elsewhere  in  consequence  of  the  demand  for  its 
wood  in  commerce.  A  less  valuable  sandalwood 
(Exocarpus  latifolius)  is  exported  from  some  of 
the  South  Sea  Islands.  Successful  attempts  have 
been  made  to  cultivate  Santalum  album  in  Indii^ 
and  large  plantations  have  been  made  of  it.  ' 
Ked  sandalwood,  or  sanders,  is  the  produce  of 
Pterocarpus  santalinus,  of  the  natural  order 
Leguminosie,  a  native  of  tropical  Asia,  particu- 
larly of  the  mountains  of  the  south  of  India  and 
of  Ceylon.  The  dark-red,  black- veined  heart- 
wood,  which  sinks  in  water,  is  used  as  a  dyestuff, 
and  to  color  certain  druggists'  preparations.  It 
is  also  the  basis  of  some  tooth-powders.  The 
wood  of  Adenanthera  pavonia,  a  relative  of  the 
acacias,  is  sometimes  called  red  sandalwood,  or 
redwood. 

SANDALWOOD  ISLAND,  or  Sumba.  One 
of  the  Sunda  Islands,  in  the  Malay  Archipelago, 
belonging  to  the  Netherlands  and  situated  40 
miles  south  of  the  western  end  of  Flores  (Map: 
East  India  Islands,  E  7) .  Area,  4283  square  miles. 
It  consists  of  an  elevated  plateau  3000  feet  above 
the  sea  with  steep  and  rocK^  coasts,  and  contains 
forests  of  valuable  timber,  including  sandalwood 
and  ebony.  Some  timber  is  expoited,  together 
with  cotton,  spices,  and  edible  birds'  nests ;  horses 
of  an  excellent  breed  are  exported.  The  island 
forms  a  part  of  the  Residency  of  Timor,  and  has 
a  population  estimated  in  1896  at  200,000,  be- 
longing to  the  Malay  race. 

SANDABAO  (OF.  sandarac,  sandarache,  san- 
darax,  Fr.  sandaraque,  from  Lat.  sandaraca,  son" 
daracha,  from  Gk.  ^ap9apdKii,  sandarak€,  red  sul- 
phuret  of  arsenic,  from  Skt.  sind&ra,  minium), 
or  Sandabao  Resin.  A  friable,  dry,  almost 
transparent  yellowish-white  resin,  which  is  im- 
ported from  the  north  of  Africa.  It  is  completely 
soluble  in  oit  of  turpentine,  but  not  entirely 
in  alcohol.  When  heated,  or  sprinkled  on  burning 
coals,  it  emits  an  agreeable  balsamic  smell.  It 
exudes  from  the  bark  of  the  sandarac  tree  (Cal- 
tifris  quadrivalviSf  natural  order  Coniferfe),  a 
native  of  the  northwest  of  Africa,  especially  Air 
geria.  The  best  qualities  of  sandarac  are  brought 
into  commerce  in  the  form  of  small  transparent 
tears  of  a  light-yellow  color.  The  specific  gravity 
of  sandarac  varies  between  1.5  and  1.9.  The  resin 
has  a  faint  aromatic  odor  and  a  bitter  taste.  The 
quantity  of  sandarac  used  is  not  great;  it  is  era- 
ployed  mostly  for  the  same  purposes  as  mastic 
(q.v.).    The  finely  powdered  resin  is  rubbed,  as 


fiANBASAC. 


398 


SAKD-BEIf. 


pounce,  on  the  erasures  of  writing-paper,  after 
which  they  may  be  written  upon  again  without 
the  ink  spreading. 

8AHa>AY,  William  (1843-).  An  English 
theologian,  bom  at  Holme  Pierrepoint,  Notting- 
ham, and  educated  at  Balliol  and  Corpus  Christi 
colleges,  Oxford.  He  was  fellow  of  Trinity  in 
1866  and  lecturer  until  1869.  From  1876  to 
1883  he  acted  as  principal  of  Hatfield's  Hall, 
Durham;  was  professor  oi  exegesis  and  tutorial 
fellow  of  Exeter  until  1895;  and  then  was  ap- 
pointed Lady  Margaret  professor  of  divinity  and 
canon  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  published 
Authorship  and  Historical  Character  of  the 
Fourth  Gospel  (1872) ;  The  Gospels  in  the  Second 
Century  (1876) ;  a  commentary  on  Romans  and 
Galatians  (1878);  Inspiration^  the  Bampton 
Lectures  (1893);  a  commentary  on  Romans 
(1895);  and  The  Catholic  Movement  (1899). 
He  was  an  editor  of  the  Variorum  Bible  (1880- 
89)  and  assisted  Wordsworth  on  the  second  part 
of  the  Old  Latin  Biblical  Tewts  (1886). 

^  SAKD-BIiAST.  A  device  for  engraving,  cut- 
ting, and  boring  glass,  stone,  metal,  or  other  hard 
substances,  by  the  percussive  force  of  a  rapid 
stream  of  sharp  sand  driven  against  them  by 
artificial  means.  The  process  was  invented  by 
Gen.  Benjamin  0.  B.  Tilghman,  of  Philadelphia. 
The  means  of  propulsion  may  be  either  an  air  or 
a  steam  blast,  the  former  being  produced  by  a  fan 
revolving  with  great  velocity  or  by  air  com- 
pressors, the  latter  by  a  boiler  at  high  pressure. 
In  either  case  the  abrading  material,  which  is 
usually  common  hard  sand,  although  small  gran- 
ules of  iron  or  crushed  quartz  are  occasionally 
used,  is  directed  by  a  tube  upon  the  object  to  be 
cut  or  en^aved.  The  engraving  of  the  surface 
of  glass  with  ornamental  figures  is  accomplished 
hy  laying  upon  it  patterns  of  the  desired  objects 
cut  out  of  some  resistant  medium  in  the  manner 
of  stencils.  Another  method,  very  commonly 
used  is  to  cut  the  proposed  pattern  in  sheet  cop- 
per or  brass,  which  is  then  placed  over  the  glass, 
a  brush  of  melted  beeswax  oeing  drawn  over  the 
whole.  The  stencil  is  then  raised,  and  the  pat- 
tern in  exposed  glass  may  then  be  operated  upon 
by  the  blast.  The  ornamentation  of  glass  in 
colors  may  also  be  performed  by*  a  sand-blast. 
The  sand-blast  is  also  useful  in  the  cutting 
of  ornaments  and  inscriptions  upon  stone.  Iron 
stencils  are  sometimes  used  for  the  purpose,  but 
the  most  satisfactory  material  is  found  to  be 
sheet  rubber  of  about  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in 
thickness.  This  is  cemented  upon  the  stone  and 
a  movable  jet  pipe  is  caused  to  traverse  the  sur- 
face of  the  latter  until  the  exposed  portions  have 
been  suflSciently  abraded.  The  wear  upon  the 
rubber  itself  is  slight  and  the  same  stencil  may 
be  used  over  and  over  again.  Another  use  to 
which  the  sand-blast  has  been  successfully  put  is 
in  turning  blocks  of  stone  into  circular  and  other 
forms  in  the  lathe.  Upon  wood  the  action  of  the 
sand-blast  is  not  so  satisfactory.  The  sand-blast 
is  frequently  used  for  cleaning  the  scale  and 
rust  from  iron  and  steel  structures  to  prepare 
them  for  painting. 

8AHDBT,  sftn^)!;  Paul  (1725-1809).  An 
English  water-color  painter,  engraver,  and  cari- 
caturist, bom  in  Nottingham.  With-  his  brother 
Thomas,  he  obtained  employment  in  the  military 
drawing  department  in  tne  Tower  of  London.  He 
settled  at  Windsor  in  1751,  where  his  brother 


was  deputy  ranger  of  the  great  park,  and  sub- 
sequently made  many  drawings  of  Windsor  and 
Eton,  and  also  etched  plates  from  his  own  de- 
si^s.  He  became  drawmg  master  at  Woolwich 
Military  School  in  1768,  and  in  the  same  year 
was  one  of  the  first  28  members  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  where  he  exhibited  water-color  land- 
scapes from  1769  until  1809.  He  greatly 
improved  water-color  painting,  and  united 
high  qualities  as  a  draughtsman  to  consider- 
able artistic  feeling.  His  Scotch  etchings  were 
published  in  1765,  and  his  Welsh  aquatints 
in  1775.  There  are  works  by  him  in  the  Royal 
Library  at  Windsor,  at  South  Kensington,  and  in 
other  collections. — ^His  brother  Thomas  (1721- 
98),  was  also  one  of  the  original  members  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  and  its  first  professor  of  archi- 
tecture. He  built  the  Freemason's  Hall  in  Lin- 
coln's Inn  Fields  in  1776,  and  as  landscape  gar- 
dener and  engineer  laid  out  Windsor  Park  and 
Virginia  Water.  Consult  Sandby,  Thomas  and 
Paul  Sandby  (1892). 

SAND-CBICKET.  One  of  the  long-homed 
grasshoppers  of  the  family  Locustids  and  genus 
Stenopelmatus;  not  a  true  cricket.    See  Gbass- 

HOPPEB. 

SAKD-DAB.  A  reddish-brown  turbot  {Eip- 
poglossoides  platessoides)  of  the  deep  waters  of 
the  North  Atlantic,  doselv  related  to  the  halibut- 
It  is  useful  for  food,  and  is  taJcen  commonly  on 
the  coasts  of  Great  Britain  and  Scandinavia,  and 
from  Maine  to  Greenland.  Two  other  species 
live  in  the  North  Pacific. 

SANB-BOLULB.  One  of  the  smaller  echi- 
noids  of  the  order  Clypeastroidea,  which  have  the 
test  very  much  flattened  and  approximately  cir- 
cular. Those  species  which  have  the  test  per- 
forated by  elongated  holes,  usually  five  or  six  Jn 
number,  are  often  called  'key-hole  urchins/  and 
some  of  the  larger  specif  without  perforations, 
are  called  'sea-worms.'  The  common  sand-dollar 
of  the  Eastern  United  States  is  Echmarachnus 
parma,  and  is  locally  abundant  on  san<^  bottoms 
in  comparatively  shallow  water,  from  New  Jersey 
northward.  It  is  two  or  three  inches  across,  and 
reddish-brown  in  color. 

SANDEAXr^  sftN'dy,  L£onabd  Stlvain  Jules 
(1811-83).  A  French  novelist  and  dramatist, 
bom  at  Aubusson.  He  studied  law  in  Paris, 
turned  to  journalism,  wrote  Rose  et  Blanche 
(1831)  with  George  Sand  (q.v.),  was  made 
keeper  of  the  Mazarin  Library  in  1853  and 
Academician  in  1858.  He  died  in  Paris.  His  bet- 
ter novels  are  Mile,  de  la  Seiffliire  ( 1848,  drama- 
tized, 1851)  and  La  malison  de  Penarvan  (1858). 
He  collaborated  with  Augier  (q.v.)  in  turning 
his  inferior  novel  Sacs  et  parchemins  ( 1851 )  into 
the  great  comedy  Le  gendre  de  Monsieur  Poirier, 
and  wrote  with  him,  also.  La  pierre  de  touohe. 
His  special  domain  is  the  conflict  between  a  ^oor 
but  proud  aristocracy  and  the  wealthy  bouraeouie, 
brought  politically  to  the  front  in  1830.  Consult 
Saintsbury,  Essays  on  French  Novelists  (New 
York,  1891). 

SANDEO,  sflnMek.  A  town  in  Austria.  See 
Neu-Sandbo. 

SAND-EEL^  or  Sand-Lancb.  One  of  a  group 
of  small  fishes  (Ammodytoidei)  consisting  of  a 
single  family,  the  Ammodytidie,  whose  relatiaii* 
ships  are  uncertain.  All  of  the  sand-eels  are 
small  lanceolate  creatures,  with  long,  low,  and 


SANB-SSL. 


399 


SAVDBBSON. 


fragile  donal  and  anal  fins,  and  no  ventral  fins; 
tne  tail  is  smaU  and  forked.  The  skin  has  many 
transverse  folds  running  obliquely  backward  and 
downward,  and  is  clothed  with  small  cycloid 
scales.  Iliey  are  carnivorous  fishes  that  swim 
in  large  schools  near  the  shore  in  all  northern 
regions,  and  bury  themselves  in  the  sand  near 
the  tide  mark.  They  are  collected  as  bait,  make 
an  excellent  pan-fish,  and  furnish  abundance  of 
food  for  salmon  and  other  valuable  fishes.  See 
Plate  of  MuLUETS  and  Allies. 

SAXra>EMAK^  RoBEBT  (1718-71).  Leader 
and  with  John  Glas  (q.v.)  founder  of  the  sect 
of  Glassites  or  Sandemanians.  He  was  bom  at 
Perth,  Scotland,  studied  for  a  short  time  at  Edin- 
burgh University,  and  engaged  in  the  linen  trade. 
Coming  under  the  influence  of  Glas,  he  adopted 
his  views,  became  an  elder  in  his  church  (1744), 
and  married  his  daughter.  He  became  a 
Glassite  preacher  and  in  1760  went  to  London, 
where  he  formed  a  congregation,  whose  members 
took  the  name  of  Sandemanians.  Four  years 
later  he  removed  to  America  and  established  a 
church  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.  (1705),  and  other 
points  in  New  England.  He  died  at  Danbuiy, 
Conn.  His  works  include  three  Letters  on  [J. 
Hervey's]  Theron  and  Aapaaio  (1767),  which  at- 
tracted much  attention;  An  Epistolary  Corre- 
spondence bettoeen  8.  Pike  and  R.  Bandeman 
(1760) ;  Borne  Thoughts  on  CHiristianity  (1764) ; 
Discourses  (with  a  biographical  sketch,  1867). 
Consult  Andrew  Fuller,  Strictures  on  Bandeman- 
ianism  (Nottingham,  1810). 

SAHDEICAHIAHS,  or  Glassites.  A  sect 
founded  in  Scotland  by  John  Glas  (q.v.)  about 
1730  and  extended  in  England  and  America  by 
his  disciple  and  son-in-law  Robert  Sandeman 
(q.v.).  The  sect  was  called  Glassites  in  Scot- 
land, but  Sandemanians  became  the  more  usual 
designation  in  England  and  America.  The  main 
doctrine  of  Glas  was  that  all  national  estab- 
lishments of  religion  and  all  interference  of  the 
civil  authority  in  religious  affairs  are  inconsist- 
ent with  the  true  nature  of  the  Church  of  Christ. 
Both  Glas  and  Sandeman  held. that  saving  faith 
consists  in  'a  bare  belief  of  the  bare  truth,'  which 
belief  they  regarded  as  the  fruit  of  divine  grace 
and  the  work  of  the  Qoly  Spirit.  It  was  consid- 
ered necessary  to  separate  from  the  communion 
and  worship  of  all  societies  which  appeared  not  to 
profess  the  'simple  truth,'  and  it  was  even  held 
unlawful  to  join  in  prayer  with  any  one  not  a 
brother  or  sister  in  Christ.  The  Lord's  Supper 
was  observed  weekly,  and  love  feasts'  or  dinners 
were  held  every  Sunday  at  the  members'  houses. 
There  was  a  commimistic  tendency  in  that  every 
one  was  required  to  consider  all  that  he  had  at 
the  service  of  the  poor  and  the  Church,  and  for- 
bidden to  lay  up  treasures  on  earth  for  any  fu- 
ture or  uncertain  use.  The  discipline  was  primi- 
tive and  severe;  the  kiss  of  charity  was  given 
at  their  meetings  and  foot-washing  of  fellow 
disciples  practic^.  The  sect,  never  very  large, 
steadily  declined  in  numbers  after  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  It  has  been  strongest 
in  America  at  Danbury,  Conn. 

SAHBEBUHG.  A  common  grayish  snipe 
{Calidris  arenaria)  remarkable  for  having  only 
three  toes.  It  is  common  on  the  coasts  of  North 
America  and  along  the  shores  of  large  inland 
bodies  of  water,  in  small  flocks  in  spring  and 
fall.    It  is  sometimes  called  'surf-snipe,'  and  in 


spring,  when  the  plumage  acquires  a  reddish 
tmge  with  black  markings,  it  is  locally  known  as 
*ruddy  plover.' 

SANDEB8,  zftnMSrs,  Daniel  (1819-07).  A 
Cierman  lexicographer,  bom  in  Altstrelitz,  and 
educated  at  Berlin  and  Halle.  From  1843  to  1862 
he  was  rector  of  a  school  in  his  native  town,  and 
then  devoted  himself  to  grammar  and  leadcog- 
raphy.  From  1887  to  his  death  he  edited  the 
Zeitschrift  fUr  deutsohe  Bprache,  He  took  a 
special  interest  in  modern  Greek.  His  Worter- 
huch  der  deutschen  Bprache  (1869-66)  is  a 
standard  work.  He  also  publisned  Worterhuch 
der  Hauptschtoierigkeiten  in  der  deutsohen 
Bprache  (1872),  and,  besides  some  volumes  of 
poetry,  many  works  bearing  on  German  grammaTf 
orthography,  etc.  (1871-82). 

SANBEBS,  Jan.  The  real  name  of  the  Dutch 
painter  Jan  van  Hemessen  (q.v.). 

SAHDEB8,  Nicholas  (c.  1627-81).  An  Eng- 
lish Roman  Catholic  controversialist  and  his- 
torian, bom  in  Charlwood,  Surrey,  and  educated 
at  Winchester  College  and  at  New  College,  Ox- 
ford, of  which  he  became  fellow  in  1648,  and 
professor  of  common  law.  He  was  professor  of 
theology  at  Louvain  until  1672,  and  then  went 
to  Spain,  where  he  urged  the  Catholic  conquest  of 
England.  In  1579  he  was  sent  to  Ireland  as 
Papal  nuncio  to  rouse  rebellion  against  Elisa- 
beth. Sanders's  De  Visibili  Monorchia  Eoolesia 
(1671)  is  a  Catholic  Foxe's  Martyrs,  and  his 
De  Origine  ao  Progressu  Bchismatis  AngUoani 
(1586;  Eng.  version  by  Lewis,  1877),  though  it 
won  for  him  the  name  of  1>r.  Slanders'  in  Eng- 
land at  the  time,  is  not  lacking  is  historical 
value. 

SANa>EBSON,  John  (17831844).  An 
American  classical  scholar  and  miscellaneous 
writer.  He  was  bom  near  Carlisle,  Pa.  Edu- 
cated privately,  he  taught,  went  to  Europe  ( 1836) , 
and  on  his  return  became  professor  of  Latin  and 
Greek  in  the  Philadelphia  High  School.  He  pub- 
lished with  his  brother,  James  H.  Sanderson,  the 
first  two  volumes  out  of  seven  of  the  Biography 
of  the  Signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
(completed  by  other  hands,  reSdited  1866)',  and 
was  also  author  of  Sketches  of  Paris  (1838). 

SANDEB80N,  Robebt  (1687-1663).  An 
English  bishop.  He  was  bom  in  Sheffield,  edu- 
cated at  Lincoln  College,  Oxford;  ordained  in 
1611;  was  rectorof  Wyberton(  1618)  and  of  Booth- 
by  Paynel  from  1619  for  over  forty  years;  pre- 
bendary of  Lincoln  in  1629.  Upon  the  recom- 
mendation of  Laud  he  became  in  1631  chaplain 
to  Charles  I.,  who  in  1642  appointed  him  regius 
professor  of  divinity  at  Oxford;  he  was  ousted 
by  Parliament  in  1648.  At  the  Restoration  he 
was  reinstated  (1660)  and  the  same  year  con- 
secrated Bishop  of  Lincoln;  was  moderator  at 
the  Savoy  conference  between  the  Episcopal  and 
Presbyterian  divines  (1661).  He  published 
Logical  Artis  Compendium  (1618);  De  Jura- 
mento  (1656)  ;  De  Ohligatione  Consoientice  PrtB- 
lectiones  (1660).  His  works  were  republished 
(Oxford,  1854) ,  with  a  Life  by  Izaak  Walton.  As 
a  moral  theologian  his  influence  in  the  Church  of 
England  was  considerable. 

SANDEBSOir,  SiBTL  (1865-1903).  An 
American  operatic  singer,  bom  at  Sacramento, 
Cal.  She  studied  singing  in  France  and  made 
her  d^ut  at  The  Hague  in  1888.    In  1889  she  ap- 


aAZTDEBSOK. 


400 


8AH  DTBQO. 


peared  at  the  Op^ra  Comique  in  Paris.  In  1895 
she  returned  to  the  United  States  and  sang  with 
success  in  French  and  Italian  opera.  Her  repu- 
tation was  established  in  France  by  her  rendering 
of  important  rOlesUn  Massenet's  operas.  In  1897 
she  married  Antonio  Ternr,  and  upon  his  death, 
two  jears  later,  she  took  up  her  residence  in 
Paris.  Her  voice  was  a  soprano  of  great  flexibil- 
ity and  purity  of  tone.    She  died  in  Paris. 

SANDES,  sftnds,  Eloise  (1850—).  The 
founder  of  soldiers'  homes  in  Ireland  and  India. 
She  was  bom  near  the  city  of  Tralee,  County 
Kerry,  Ireland,  and  at  an  early  age  evinced  her 
practical  sympathy  for  the  military  garrisons 
in  Ireland.  Beginning  with  her  own  home,  which 
she  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  rank  and  file 
of  the  Tralee  garrison,  she  was  led  to  invest  her 
own  income  in  the  building  of  a  home  in  Cork, 
which  became  so  successful  that  funds  were 
readily  obtainable  to  carry  on  the  work.  In 
1903  there  were  nearly  twenty  such  institutions 
under  the  care  of  Miss  Sandes,  in  Ireland  and 
India. 

8AHDF0BI)  AND  3CEBT0K.  A  story  by 
Thomas  Day  (1783-89).  It  is  didactic  and  had 
great  popularity  for  many  years. 

SAND-GBOUSE.  A  game  bird  of  the  family 
Pteroclidffi,  related  more  nearly  to  the  pigeons 
than  to  the  grouse.  There  are  rather  more  than 
sixteen  species,  chiefly  African,  but  five  are 
Asiatic  and  two  of  these  occur  also  in  Europe. 
They  are  in  all  important  respects  terrestrial 
pigeons,  modified  for  a  grouse-like  life.  The 
genus  Syrrhaptes  contains  the  three-toed  forms, 
of  which  there  are  two  species.  They  have  the 
feet  feathered.  The  tail  is  long  and  pointed,  the 
middle  feathers  filamentous  and  long-exserted. 
Both  species  occur  in  Asia,  but  occasionally  mi- 
grate into  Europe,  even  as  far  as  England,  in 
great  numbers.  The  genus  Pterocles  contains 
the  four-toed  forms,  of  which  the  best  known 
is  the  common  or  ^banded'  sand-grouse  (Pterocles 
arenaria),  abimdant  in  Southeastern  Europe. 
Another  species  {Pterocles  alchata)  also  occurs 
in  Europe  and  is  sometimes  called  ganga,  a  name 
occasionally  extended  to  the  whole  family.  Con- 
sult: Morris,  British  Game  Birds  (London, 
1891);  Bryden,  Nature  and  Sport  in  South 
Africa  (London,  1897) ;  Elliot,  "A  Study  of  the 
Pteroclidae,"  in  Proceedings  of  the  Zodlogical 
Society  of  London  (London,  1878).  See  Plate 
of  Pabtbidobs,  etc. 

SAND^HAM^  Henbt  (1842—).  A  Canadian 
historical  and  portrait  painter,  born  in  Mon- 
treal. He  studied  under  J.  A.  Eraser  in  his 
native  city,  then  studied  abroad,  and  settled 
in  Boston  in  1880.  His  works  include  "Battle  of 
Lexington,"  "March  of  Time,"  and  "Founding 
of  Maryland,"  and  a  portrait  of  Sir  John  Mc- 
Donald. He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Canadian  Academy  of  Art  in  1880.  His  illustra- 
tions are  also  well  known. 

SAND-BILL  CBANE.  A  very  large  species 
of  crane  (Onis  Mexicana)  found  in  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley  and  southeastward  to  Georgia  and 
Florida.  It  is  a  shy  bird,  with  acute  sight  and 
hearing.  Its  body  is  about  four  feet  long.  The 
name  is  extended  to  other  cranes,  and  is  also 
erroneously  given  in  some  places  to  the  great 
blue  heron.     See  Cbane. 

SANDHOPPEB.  An  amphipod  crustacean. 
These  so  abound  on  sandy  shores  that*  often  the 


whole  surface  of  the  sand  seems  ^  be  alive  with 
the  multitudes  which,  leaping  up  fotm  few  inches 
into  the  air,  fill  it  like  a  swarm  of  diCHMng  flies. 
They  may  also  be  found  by  digging  in  tlft  aand, 
in  which  they  burrow.  Sandhoppers  leap  by 
bending  the  body  together-  and  throwing  it  opcm 
with  a  sudden  jerk.  They  feed  on  almost  any 
vegetable  or  animal  substance,  particularly  on 
what  is  already  dead  and  beginning  to  decay. 
They  are  themselves  the  food  of  crabs,  and  of 
many  kinds  of  birds.    See  Amphifoda« 

SAND'HUBST  BOYAIi  ULITABY  COL- 
LEGE. The  preparatory  college  for  military 
cadets  of  the  British  Army,  corresponding  to  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  (q.v.)  at  West 
Point.  It  is  situated  at  Sandhurst,  Berkshire, 
33  miles  west-southwest  of  London.  Admission 
to  the  college  is  by  open  competition  through 
examinations  which  are  conducted  each  half  year, 
under  the  direction  of  the  Civil  Service  Commis- 
eion.    See  Militabt  Education. 

SAN  DIEGO,  san  d6-&'g6.  A  port  of  entry 
and  the  coimty-seat  of  San  Diego  County,  Cal., 
125  miles  south  by  east  of  Los  Angeles,  on  San 
Diego  Bay,  and  on  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and 
Santa  Fe  Railroad,  and  several  steamship  lines 
(Map:  California,  E  5).  San  Diego  Bay  forms 
a  superb  land-locked  harbor,  22  square  miles 
in  area.  The  Navy  and  the  War  Depart- 
ment have  separately  large  tracts  of  land 
on  the  bay,  for  a  coaling  station  and  fortifica- 
tions respectively,  the  latter  known  as  Fort 
Rosecrans.  A  health  resort  of  some  promi- 
nence, San  Diego  is  favored  by  a  beautiful 
situation  and  a  mild  equable  climate.  It  is 
the  seat  of  a  State  Normal  School,  and  has  the 
Academy  of  Our  Lady  of  Peace,  a  Carnegie  pub- 
lic library,  the  Hospital  of  the  Good  Samaritan, 
and  a  fine  court-house.  Fort  Stockton  and  the 
old  Spanish  mission  are  other  noteworthy  fea- 
tures. Coronado  Beach,  across  the  bay,  with  the 
large  Hotel  del  Coronado,  an  ostrich  farm,  bo- 
tanical gardens,  and  other  attractions,-  is  a 
popular  resort.  San  Diego  has  considerable  com- 
mercial importance  as  the  centre  of  extensive 
lemon  and  other  fruit  interests  and  as  a  port 
of  entry.  The  value  of  the  foreign  trade  in  1901 
was  $1,475,000,  including  export  to  the  amount 
of  $963,000.  The  industrial  establishments  of 
the  city  in  the  census  year  1900  had  an  invested 
capital  of  $1,147,712,  and  an  output  valued  at 
$1 ,309,32 1 .  The  principal  manufactured  products 
are  carriages  and  wagons,  fiour,  furniture,  fertil- 
izers, show  cases,  vinegar,  wine,  citric  acid,  oil 
of  lemon,  of  orange,  etc.  The  government,  under 
the  revised  charter  of  1901,  is  vested  in  a  mayor, 
chosen  every  two  years,  a  bicameral  council,  and 
in  administrative  officials.  Population,  in  1890, 
16,169;  in  1900,  17,700.  In  1769  the  first  Cali- 
fornia mission  was  established  here,  and  in  1835 
the  'pueblo'  was  organized,  San  Diego  thus  being 
the  oldest  municipality  in  the  State.  In  1846 
Commodore  Stockton  took  possession  of  the  place 
for  the  United  States,  and  established  a  fort 
which  is  still  known  as '  Fort  Stockton.  The 
growth  of  the  present  city  dates  from  1867.  The 
charter  now  in  operation  was  granted  in  1889. 
Consult :  Gunn,  San  Diego,  Climate',  Productions, 
Resources,  Topography  (San  Diego,  1887); 
Wood,  HomC'land,  being  a  brief  description  of 
the  city  and  county  of  San  Diego  (ib.,  1901). 


SAV  BIEGQ  BABRACXa 


401 


aAZTDBINGHAM. 


SAH  DIEGO  BABBAGK8  (California).  A 
United  States  military  post  in  the  city  of  San 
Di^.  It  has  quarters  for  two  companies  of 
artillery. 

8AK  DIEGO  DE  LOS  BASSOS,  cUl  16s  b&^- 
nyte.  A  celebrated  health  resort  of  Cuba^  in  the 
Province  of  Pinar  del  Rio,  among  the  mountains 
22  miles  northeast  of  Pinar  del  Rio  (Map:  Cuba, 
B  4).  There  are  sulphurous  springs  and  baths. 
Population,  in  1899,  2419. 

SAH  DOIEINGO.    See  Santo  Domingo. 

8AHDPAPEE.  An  abrading  material  made 
by  coating  paper,  or  less  often  cloth,  with  glue 
and  then  covering  it  with  sand.  Other  polishing 
materials  made  in  a  similar  manner  are  emery 
paper  and  glass  paper.  Sandpaper  is  inter- 
mediate between  glass  paper  and  emery  paper 
in  its  action  on  metals,  and  less  effective  than 
glass  paper  on  wood.  Steel  wool  is  a  substitute 
for  sandpaper,  whose  chief  advantage  is  its 
greater  pliability,  enabling  a  worker  to  polish  or 
smooth  down  irrc^g^ar  parts  of  moldings  or  orna- 
mental woodwork. 

SAKD-PrKE.  One  of  the  local  names  of  the 
sauger  (q.v.),  especially  heard  in  the  Great 
Lakes  region,  where  this  gray  fish  spends  its  time 
mainly  over  sandy  bottom. 

SAHDPIPEB  (so  called  from  its  notes  and 
habit  of  running  along  the  sand).  Any  one  of 
a  numerous  group  of  shore-birds,  of  the  family 
Scolopacidfle,  arranged  in  a  large  number  of 
genera.  'They  are  not  of  large  size,  rarely  over 
one  foot  in  length;  are  very  active  and  graceful 
in  all  their  movements;  their  plumage  not  gay, 
but  of  pleasing  and  finely  diversified  shades  of 
buff,  brown,  gray,  white,  and  black;  their  legs 
are  rather  long,  the  lower  part  of  the  tibia  nak^, 
the  tail  very  short,  the  wings  moderately  long; 
the  bill  rather  long  and  slender,  grooved  through- 
out the  whole  or  a  considerable  part  of  its 
length,  straight  in  some,  and  a  little  arched  in 
otl^rs.  The  feet  have  three  long  toes  before 
and  one  short  toe  behind ;  the  front  toes  are  some- 
times partly  webbed  and  sometimes  cleft  to  the 
base;  in  the  sanderling  (q.v.)  there  are  only 
three  toes.  They  are  good  swimmers,  but  are 
not,  however,  often  seen  swimming;  they  fre- 
quent sandy  shores,  some  of'  them  congregating 
in  numerous  flocks  in  autumn  and  winter;  and 
seek  their  food  by  probing  the  sand  with  their 
bills,  and  bv  catching  small  crustaceans  in  pools 
or  within  the  margin  of  the  water  itself.  Many 
are  birds  of  passage,  visiting  high  northern  lati- 
tudes in  summer,  and  sx>ending  the  winter  on  the 
coasts  of  more  southern  regions.  The  flesh  of  all 
the  species  is  good,  and  some  of  them  are  in 
much  request  for  the  table.  The  sandpipers  all 
build  very  simple  nests  on  the  groimd,  sometimes 
in  exposed  places.  The  eggs  are  usually  3  or  4, 
pyriform,  drab,  olive,  or  buff,  heavily  spotted 
with  dark  brown.  They  are  placed  in  the  nest 
with  the  small  end  at  the  centre.  About  twenty 
species  occur  in  North  America,  of  which  the 
following  are  the  most  important.  The  stilt 
sandpiper  {Micropalma  himantopus)  is  about 
nine  inches  long;  in  the  plumage  in  which  it  is 
seen  in  the  United  States,  it  is  brownish-gray, 

with  white  tail,  upper  tail-coverts,  and  under 
parts.  It  breeds  in  the  Arctic  regions  and  passes 
through  the  United  States  durinc  the  migrations. 

The  knot    (q.v.)    is  a  somewhat  larger  species, 

while  the  'peep'  is  decidedly  smaller,  and  the 


stint  (q.v.)  is  also  very  small.  The  pectoral 
sandpiper,  or  'fat-bird,'  or  'grass-snipe,'  is  a 
ver^  widely  distributed  bird,  nine  inches  long, 
black  and  buff  above,  which  breeds  only  in  the 
extreme  north.  Closely  allied  to  this  species, 
but  smaller  and  with  white  upper  tail-coverts, 
is  the  white-rumped  sandpiper  ( Tringa  fuaciool- 
lis).  The  red-backed  sandpiper  is  the  American 
representative  of  the  dunlin  (q.v.).  The  purple 
sandpiper  {Tringa  maritima)  is  a  beautiful  pur- 
plish species,  eminently  boreal  and  shy  in  its 
habits,  and  rare  except  along  the  Atlantic  coast, 
where  it  is  commonly  called  'rock-snipe.'  Among 
the  largest  sandpipers  are  the  yellowlegs  (q.v.) 
and  the  solitary  sandpiper.  These  represent 
the  genus  Totanus.  The  Bartramian  sandpiper, 
or  'upland  plover*  {Bartramia  longicauda),  is 
common  throughout  Eastern  North  America,  but 
is  a  shy  bird,  frequenting  open  fields  and  pas- 
tures. The  commonest  and  best  known  species 
of  this  group  in  the  Eastern  United  States  is  the 
spotted  sandpiper  or  'tip-up'  {Actitia  macu- 
laria).  It  is  over  seven  inches  long,  green-gray 
above  and  white  below,  marked  and  spotted  with 
black.  It  is  not  unconmion  about  bodies  of  fresh 
water  and  breeds  throughout  its  range,  which  in- 
cludes all  of  North  America.  Consult  general 
works  on  ornithology  and  shooting;  especially 
Elliot,  North  American  Shore  Birds  (New  York, 
1898)  ;  Coues,  Birds  of  the  Northioest  (Washing- 
ton, 1874) ;  Hudson,  The  Naturalist  in  La  Plata 
(London,  1892) ;  Aflalo,  Sport  in  Europe  (ib., 
1901).  See  Colored  Plates  of  Shore-Bibds; 
Egos  of  Wateb  and  Game  Bibds;  Plate  of 
Beach  Bibds. 

SANDPIPES.  Cylindrical  tubes  descending 
perpendicularly  into  the  ground,  especially  in 
chalk  formations,  and  filled  with  sand,  clay,  or 
gravel.  These  tubes  taper  downward,  ending  in  a 
point,  and  most  probably  have  been  produ^  by 
the  solvent  action  of  rain  water  as  it  drains 
downward  through  the  soil. 

8ANDEABT,  zan'drart,  Joachim  von  (1606- 
88).  A  German  painter,  engraver  and  art-his- 
torian, bom  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main.  He  stud- 
ied at  various  times  imder  Merian,  Sadeler, 
and  at  Utrecht  under  Honthorst,  whom  he  ac- 
companied to  England.  In  1627  he  went  to  Italy, 
where  his  portraits  became  so  celebrated  that  he 
was  commissioned  to  paint  several  for  Pope 
Urban  VIII.  He  returned  to  Germany  in  1636, 
settled  two  years  later  at  Amsterdam,  and  in 
1641  on  his  estate  near  Ingolstadt.  Afterwards 
he  established  himself  at  Nuremberg,  where  his 
best-known  work,  "The  Peace-Banquet  in  1649," 
containing  fifty  portraits,  may  be  seen  in  the 
Rathaus.  Of  greater  importance  than  his  paint- 
ings are  his  writings,  esijecially  Die  deutsche 
Akademie  der  edlen  Bau-,  Bild-  und  MalereikUnste 
(1676-79),  revised  by  Volkmann  (1768-76),  crit- 
ical ed.  by  Sponsel  (1896). 

SAND^BAT.  A  small  burrowing  rodent  of 
the  mole-rat  family  (Bathyergidae),  of  which 
about  ten  species  occur  in  Africa  of  the  genus 
Georychus.  The  name  specifically  applies  to  a 
species  in  Cape  Colony  {Qeorychus  Oapensis). 

SANDEINGEEAlflC,  s&n'dring-am.  An  estate 
of  7000  acres  near  Lynn,  in  Norfolk,  which  was 
the  favorite  residence  of  King  Edward  VII.,  as 
Prince  of  Wales.  It  was  bought  in  1862,  and  the 
present  brick  mansion,  in  the  Elizabethan  style, 
was  built  about  1870. 


SAKDBOCOTTirS. 


402 


SAJTDSTOHE. 


-  SAK'BEOCOTTUS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Zapdp6- 
Korroty  Sandrokottoa,  from  Skt.  Candragupta, 
moon-protected).  A  Hindu  king,  probably  a 
native  of  the  Punjab.  For  some  unknown 
reason  he  left  his  home  and  remained  for 
several  years  in  the  service  of  Ghandrames  or 
Nandrus,  King  of  Magadha  (q.v.).  In  some 
way  he  offended  Ghandrames  and  returned  to  the 
Punjab.  Here,  after  the  murder  of  Poms  (q.v.) 
by  Eudemus,  about  B.C.  317,  Sandrocottus  took 
advantage  of  the  racial  hatred  felt  by  the  Hindus 
for  the  Greeks,  which  had  been  increased  by  the 
assassination,  and  headed  a  revolt  during  the 
enforced  absence  of  Eudemus.  The  rebellion 
was  completely  successful,  and  Sandrocottus 
made  himself  master  of  the  Punjab.  He  then 
invaded  Magadha,  which  he  conquered  with  ease, 
and  established  his  capital  at  Pataliputra  (q.v.). 
Here,  in  B.C.  315,  he  founded  the  Maurya  dynasty, 
which  ruled  until  b.c.  178.  About  b.c.  305  Seleu- 
cus  Nicator  (see  SELEUCiDiE)  invaded  India  to 
recover  the  territories  which  the  Greeks  had  lost 
there.  Details  of  this  inroad  are  lost,  but  it  is 
known  that  Seleucus  ceded  to  Sandrocottus  Ge- 
drosia  and  Arachosia,  as  well  as  the  Paropamisus 
and  the  lands  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Indus,  in 
return  for  five  hundred  elephants.  The  treaty 
was  strengthened  by  the  marriage  of  a  daughter 
of  Seleucus  to  the  Indian  King.  This  alliance 
had  a  result  important  for- a  knowledge  of  India 
in  the  fourth  century  before  Christ,  for  Seleucus 
sent  as  an  ambassador  to  the  Court  of  Sandro- 
cottus the  historian  Megasthenes  (q.v.),  the 
fragments  of  whose  India  contain  the  earliest 
non-Hindu  information  concerning  the  country. 
As  the  grandfather  of  Adoka  (q.v.)  Sandrocottus 
is  frequently  mentioned  in  Buddhistic  literature. 
It  is  noteworthy  that  Sandrocottus  is  the  hero 
of  the  single  historical  drama  of  India,  the  Mur 
drdr&kfosa  of  Vidakhadatta  (q.v.).  Consult  Mc- 
Cr indie,  Invasion  of  India  by  Alexander  the 
Qreai  (2d  ed.,  Westminster,  1896). 

SAKD-BOLLER.     See  Tbout-Pebch. 

SAKD6,  HEiniT  Bebton  (1830-88).  An  emi- 
nent American  surgeon,  bom  in  New  York  City 
and  graduated  from  the  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons  in  1854.  He  was  demonstrator  of 
anatomy  in  his  alma  mater,  1856-66;  professor 
of  anatomy,  1867-79;  and  professor  of  surgery, 
1879-88.  He  began  to  practice  his  profession  in 
New  York  City  in  1856,  and  was  associated  with 
the  noted  surgeon  Dr.  Willard  Parker  (q.v.)  from 
1860  to  1870.  He  was  an  occasional  contributor 
to  medical  journals,  but  was  best  known  as  a 
teacher  and  a  skillful  surgeon.  The  part  he 
played,  shortly  before  his  death,  in  the  discussion 
of  'typhlitis'  and  'perityphlitis,'  led  the  way 
to  the  discovery  of  appendicitis  and  the  coining 
of  that  word.  Among  his  published  works,  con- 
tributed to  medical  journals,  are  essays  on 
amaurosis,  bony  ankylosis,  Esmarch's  bloodless 
method,  gleet,  tracheotomy,  intussusception, 
stricture  of  the  urethra,  rupture  of  veins,  and 
septic  peritonitis.  Consult  his  biography  in  Med- 
ical Record,  xxxiv.  (New  York,  1888). 

SANDS,  Robebt  Chables  (1799-1832).  An 
American  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer.  He 
was  born  in  Flatbush,  Long  Island,  graduated  at 
Columbia  in  1815,  and  studied  law.  He  con- 
tributed essays  to  various  journals  and  wrote, 
with  his  friend  J.  W.  Eastbura,  an  epic  of  King 
Phillip's  War,  Yamoyden   (1820).     Though  ad- 


mitted to  the  bar^  he  devoted  himself  to  litera- 
ture, editing  several  short-lived  magazines  and,- 
till  his  deaths  the  Comm^cial  Adveriiaer.  He 
collaborated  with  Bryant  and  Verplandc  in  an 
Annual,  The  Talisman  (1828-30),  and  Tales 
from  the  Olauber  Spa  (1832),  and  wrote 
Life  and  Correspom^ence  of  Paul  Jones  (1831). 
His  Works  were  collected  by  Gulian  C.  Ver- 
planck  with  a  Memoir  (2  vols.,  1834). 

SAND-SHABEL  One  of  the  small  voracious 
sharks  of  the  family  Carchariids,  which  have 
very  sharp,  triangular,  and  finely  serrated  teeth. 


TEETH  OF  BAN0-8HABK. 

These  sharks  are  of  moderate  size,  chiefly  inhabit 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  one  species  {CofrchariM 
littoralis),  gray  in  color,  and  about  five  feet 
long,  is  common  .  off  the  eastern  ooast  of  the 
United  States. 

SANB-SMELT.  The  British  name  for  the 
fishes  of  the  widely  distributed  family  Atherini- 
dse,  allied  to  the  barracudas  and  mullets,  the 
American  species  of  which  are  known  in  general 
as  'silversides'  (q.v.).  Two  species  occur  in 
Great  Britain,  swarming  in  the  creeks  and  estu- 
aries along  the  coast,  and  are  netted  in  great 
numbers  in  spring,  when  spawning,  and  when 
they  make  an  excellent  pan-fish.  The  most  nu- 
merous one  is  Atherina  hepsetus,  about  six  inches 
long,  and  marked  by  a  broad  silvery  stripe 
along  the  side.  The  resemblance  of  certain  re- 
lated species  on  our  Pacific  coast,  especially 
Atherinops  Califomiensis,  has  led  to  its  being 
called  *smelt'  there. 

SANB-SNAKE.  A  small  snake  of  the  boa 
family  and  genus  Eryx,  of  which  several  species 
inhabit  the  Sahara  and  deserts  to  the  eastward. 
They  have  no  apparent  neck,  a  blunt  tail;  are 
variegated  in  dull  tints;  creep  about,  half -buried 
in  sand,  or  explore  holes' in  rocks;  hunt  at  night 
for  insects  and  small  animals;  and  are  often 
carried  about  by  snake  jugglers,  who  mutilate 
the  tail  to  give  the  snake  the  appearance  of  hav- 
ing two  heads. 

SANDSTONE.  A  stratified  rock  composed 
of  grains  of  sand.  The  grains  are  mostly  quartz, 
but  other  minerals,  such  as  mica,  feldspar, 
hornblende,  and  pyroxene,  may  be  present.  With 
an  increase  or  decrease  in  the  size  of  the  grains, 
sandstones  pass  into  conglomerates  on  the  one 
hand,  and  into  shales  on  the  other,  and  by  an 
increase  in  the  percentage  of  lime  carbonate  they 
may  also  grade  into  limestones.  Sandstones  con- 
taining little  cementing  material  between  the 
grains  are  soft,  and  occupy  a  mean  position  be- 
tween consolidated  sandstone  and  loose  sands; 
those  with  much  cementing  material  are  very 
hard.  The  cement,  which  may  be  either  lime 
carbonate,  iron  oxide,  or  silica,  influences  the 
crushing  strength  of  sandstones,  the  last  named 
material  giving  the  greatest  hardness.  Thd 
color  is  usually  traceable  to  the  presence  of 
iron  or  carbonaceous  matter,  and  is  commonly 
brown,  yellow,  red,  gray,  or  white.  Sandstones 
are  widely  distributed  geographically,  and  also 


flANDSTOHB. 


408 


flAJTDWIOH. 


ffeoloeically.  It  may  be  said  in  general  that  thoee 
found  in  the  older  formations  are  harder  than 
those  occurring  in  the  younger  series.  A  num- 
ber of  different  varieties  of  sandstone  have  been 
recognized,  among  which  the  following  may  be 
mentioned:  Quartzite. — ^A  sandstone  which  has 
become  hardened  and  sometimes  more  highly 
silicified  by  metamorphism.  Arkose. — ^A  highly 
feldspathic  sandstone.  Freestone. — A  name  ap- 
plied by  quarrymen  to  many  sandstones  on  ac- 
count of  the  easy  way  in  which  they  can  be 
dressed,  or  cut.  Brotonaione. — ^A  name  formerly 
applied  to  certain  reddish  brown  sandstones 
found  in  the  East,  but  now  applied  to  sandstones 
of  other  colors  coming  from  the  same  locality  as 
the  original  brownstones.  Flagstone, — ^A  hard, 
thinly  bedded,  shaly  sandstone  used  for  pave- 
ments. Bluestone. — ^A  kind  of  flagstone  quarried 
largely  in  southeastern  New  York.  NovacuUte. 
—An  extremely  fine-grained  siliceous  rock  found 
in  Arkansas.  The  most  important  use  of  sand- 
stone is  as  a  building  material,  for  which  it  is 
admirably  adapted  by  reason  of  its  durability 
and  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  wrought.  Cer- 
tain varieties  are  specially  favored  for  struc- 
tural purposes;  in  the  Eastern  United  States  the 
Triassic  brownstones  of  the  Connecticut  Valley, 
the  Berea  sandstone  of  Ohio,  the  Medina  sand- 
stone, and  the  Potsdam  quartzite  of  New  York 
have  been  most  extensively  quarried.  Varieties 
that  are  nearly  free  from  iron  oxide  and  clay 
are  much  sought  after  for  use  in  glass  manu- 
facture and  pottery-making.  Certain  beds  of  the 
Berea  sandstone  of  Ohio  are  of  value  for  grind- 
stones, and  the  novaculite  of  Arkansas  is  hi^ly 
pri29ed  for  making  oilstones. 

The  value  of  sandstone  for  building  purposes 
produced  in  the  United  States  in  1901  was  $6,- 
974,199,  and  the  output  of  bluestone  was  valued 
at  $1,164,481. 

BiBLiooBAPHY.  Kemp,  Handbook  of  Bocks 
(New  York,  1896) ;  Hopkins,  "Brownstones  of 
Pennsylvania,"  in  Annual  Beport  of  Pennsyl- 
vania State  College  (State  College,  1897) ;  In- 
gram, 'The  Great  Bluestone  Industry,"  in  Poptt- 
lar  Science  Monthly,  xlv.;  Buckley,  ''Building 
and  Ornamental  Stones  of  Wisconsin,"  in  Bulle- 
tin Wisconsin  Geological  Survey,  No,  4  (Madison, 
1900).  

SAVDSXrCKEB,  or  Caufosnia  Whiting.  A 
dusky  gray  fish  {Menticirrhus  undulatus)  re- 
lated to  the  Eastern  kingfish,  and  common  along 
the  sandy  coasts  of  southern  California,  where  it 
is  a  food-fish  of  some  importance.  It  receives 
its  name  from  an  erroneous  popular  belief  that 
it  feeds  on  sand. 

SAHDXrS^KY.  A  port  of  entry,  and  the  coun- 
ty-seat of  Erie  County,  Ohio,  63  miles  south  by 
east  of  Toledo;  on  Sandusky  Bay,  and  on  the 
Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern,  the  Balti- 
more and  Ohio,  the  Lake  Erie  and  Western,  and 
the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  Saint 
Louis  railroads  (Map:  Ohio,  E  3).  It  is  finely 
situated,  and  has  a  spacious  harbor.  Cedar 
Point,  a  short  distance  from  Sandusky,  is  an  at- 
tractive summer  resort.  The  State  Fish  Hatch- 
ery, public  library.  Soldiers'  Home,  the  court- 
house, and  Federal  building  are  noteworthy  fea- 
tures. Excellent  transportation  facilities  have 
made  Sandusky  of  considerable  commercial  im- 
portance. A  large  trade  is  carried  on  in  coal, 
fruit,  s'.one,  lime,  and  lumber,  and  there  are  also 
extensive  fish  and  ice  interests.    The  industrial 


establishments  in  the  census  vear  1900  had  an 
invested  capital  of  $4,627,981.  and  an  output 
valued  at  $3,190,342.  Tools,  cnemicals,  agricul- 
tural implements,  lumber  products,  engines,  dy- 
namos, glass,  and  cement  are  the  principal  manu- 
factures. Ship-building  is  another  important  in- 
dustry. The  government,  under  the  general  char- 
ter of  1902,  is  vested  in  a  mayor,  council,  and 
president.  Sandusky  was  settled  in  1817  and 
was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1845.  On  May  16, 
1763,  Fort  Sandusky  here  was  treacherously 
captured  by  the  Indians,  and  all  the  garrison 
except  the  commander.  Ensign  Paully,  massacred. 
Near  by  in  1782  a  force  of  480  men  under  Colonels 
Williamson  and  Crawford  was  defeated  by  a 
larger  Indian  force.  Population,  in  1890,  18,- 
471;  in  1900,  19,664. 

SAND-WASP.  A  wasp  which  makes  its  nest 
in  a  burrow  in  the  soil,  preferably  where  sandy, 
and  provisions  cells  in  wbich  its  eggs  are  placed. 
(See  Digger- Wasp.)  The  most  prominent  species 
is  the  great  yellow  sphecis,  which  stores  cicadas 
in  its  burrows  and  hence  is  called  'cicada-killer.' 

SANiyWIGH  (village  on  the  sands).  A 
town  of  Kent,  England,  one  of  the  Cinque  Ports, 
on  the  Stour,  11  miles  north  of  Dover  (Map: 
England,  H  5).  It  is  rectangular.  The 
houses,  which  seem  crushed  together,  and  the 
architecture  of  which  recalls  the  Plantagenet 
period,  are  strikingly  antique  in  appearance. 
The  Church  of  Saint  Clement's,  with  a  low  Not- 
man  tower,  is  probably  the  most  interesting  edi- 
fice. The  town  owns  a  guild  hall,  three  ancient 
hospitals,  etc.  The  port  admits  small  vessels  of  12 
feet  draught.  The  most  ancient  of  the  (yinmie 
Ports  (q.v.),  it  occupies  the  site  of  the  Ko- 
man  Rutupus.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
eleventh  century,  it  was  the  most  famous  of  all 
the  English  ports.  It  was  incorporated  by  Ed- 
ward III.  Within  the  last  800  ^ears  the  sea  has 
gradually  receded  imtil  Sandwich  is  now  two 
miles  from  the  shore.  Population,  in  1901,  3174. 
Consult  Burrows,  Cinque  Ports  (London,  1883). 

SANDWICH,  Edwabd  Montagu,  Earl  of 
(1625-72).  An  English  admiral,  son  of  Sir  Sid- 
ney Montagu,  a  Royalist,  but  himself  in  his 
early  youth  a  Parliamentarian.  He  raised  a  regi- 
ment when  eighteen,  fought  at  Marston  Moor  in 
1644,  and  in  1645  at  Naseby.  In  1656,  thanks 
to  his  friendship  with  Cromwell,  he  was  ap- 
pointed Blake's  colleague.  Deprived  of  all  com- 
mands save  that  of  admiral,  after  the  fall  of 
Richard  Cromwell,  Montagu  joined  the  party  in 
favor  of  the  Restoration.  His  intrigues  at  this 
time,  and  especially  his  friction  with  General 
Monk,  are  vividly  sketched  in  the  diary  of  his 
secretary,  Samuel  Pepys.  On  the  return  of 
Charles  II.  Montagu  became  Earl  of  Sandwich, 
and  was  intrusted  with  negotiations  for  the 
King's  marriage  with  Catharine  of  Braganza  and 
for  the  cession  of  Tangiers  to  England.  He  won 
the  victory  of  Lowestoft  over  the  Dutch  in  1666, 
and  was  promoted  to  be  commander-in-chief,  from 
which  post  he  was  soon  retired  because  of  his 
permitting  the  illegal  distribution  of  prize  money 
by  his  own  officers.  But  his  popularity  was 
largely  regained  by  his  successful  conclusion  of 
the  treaty  with  Spain  in  1668.  In  1672,  as 
second  in  command  to  the  Duke  of  York,  he  was 
defeated  by  Ruyter  off  Solebay ;  his  flagship  blew 
up  and  he  was  killed.  He  is  best  known  by 
Pepys's  admiring  and  minute  portrayal. 


SAKDWIOH. 


404 


BAJSf  FEUXr  DB  GTTIXOIia. 


SANDWICH,  John  Montagu,  Earl  of  (1718- 
92).  An  English  politician,  notorious  for 
his  political  and  personal  vices.  Ue  succeeded 
to  the  title  at  the  age  of  eleven,  studied  at  Eton 
and  at  Trinity,  Cambridge;  and  after  two  years 
on  the  Continent,  entered  politics,  becoming  a 
lord  of  admiralty.  In  1748  he  became  First 
Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  and  attempted  to  reform 
naval  administration.  Sandwich  first  earned 
the  ill  opinion  of  the  people  by  turning  on  John 
Wilkes,  an  old  friend  and  companion  in  his  in- 
famous ribaldry,  partly  for  political  reasons.  He 
augmented  this  unpopularity  by  his  management 
from  1771  to  1782  of  the  Admiralty,  of  which  he 
was  again  First  Lord,  purely  for  party  purposes, 
and  by  his  keeping  for  years  aa  mistress  Miss 
Martha  Ray,  who  was  shot  in  1779  by  the  Rev. 
James  Hackman,  an  imsuccessful  lover,  and 
whose  murder  revealed  the  story  of  her  life. 
After  the  fall  of  North's  Cabinet  in  1782  Sand- 
wich did  not  return  to  public  life.  Awkward 
and  uncouth  as  he  was  and  the  worst  hated  man 
of  his  time,  he  was  yet  a  man  of  singular  per- 
sonal charm  and  was  much  admired  and  loved 
by  his  departmental  inferiors.  In  the  annals 
of  anecdote  the  Earl  figures  as  inventor  of  the 
'sandwich.' 

SANDWICH  ISLAUDS.  The  former  name 
of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  (q.v.). 

SAJIDY  HILL.  A  village  in  Washington 
County,  N.  Y.,  40  miles  north  of  Troy;  on  the 
Hudson  River,  and  on  the  Delaware  and  Hudson 
Railroad.  It  is  an  important  lumbering  and 
stone-quarrying  centre,  and  is  engaged  also  in 
the  manufacture  of  foundry  and  machine-shop 
products  and  paper,  and  in  the  printing  of  wall 
paper.    Population,  in  1890,  2895;  in  1900,  4473. 

SANDY  HOOK.  A  low,  narrow,  sandy  penin- 
sula, w  spit,  running  about  six  miles  northward 
from  the  coast  ^  ^ew  Jersey,  partly  inclosing 
Lower  New  York  Bay  (Map:  New  Jersey,  E  3). 
Near  its  northern  end  are  Fort  Hancock,  the 
United  States  heavy  ordnance  proving  grounds, 
and  a  lighthouse  90  feet  high. 

SANDYS,  s&n'dls  or  sftndz,  Edwin  (c.1516- 
88).  An  English  archbishop,  bom  at  Hawks- 
head,  Lancashire.  He  graduated  at  Saint  John's 
College,  Cambridge,  in  1541,  became  prebendary  . 
of  Peterborough  in  1549,  and  of  Carlisle  in  1552, 
and  was  appointed  vice-chancellor  of  Cambridge 
in  1553.  He  was  favorable  to  the  Reformation, 
and,  having  preached  in  favor  of  Lady  Jane  Grey, 
was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower,  from  which  he 
escaped  and  fled  to  the  Continent  in  1554.  He 
returned  to  England  on  the  day  of  Elizabeth's 
coronation;  was  made  Bishop  of  Worcester  in 
1559;  of  London  in  1570;  and  Archbishop  of 
York  in  1576.  He  was  a  translator  of  the 
Bishop's  Bible,  and  a  commissioner  to  revise  the 
liturgy.  His  Sermons,  with  Miscellaneous  Pieces 
and  Biographical  Notice  by  the  Rev.  John  Ayre, 
were  published  at  Cambridge  in  1841. 

SANDYS^  Sir  Edwtn  (1561-1629).  An  Eng- 
lish statesman.  The  second  son  of  Archbishop 
Sandys,  he  was  bom  in  Worcestershire,  and  was 
educated  at  Corpus  Christ i  College,  Oxford,  where 
he  was  a  pupil  of  Richard  Hooker,  graduating  in 
1589.  In  1599  he  joined  James  VI.  in  Scotland, 
by  whom,  as  James  I.,  he  was  knighted.  He  was 
a  leading  member  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and 
was  a  member  and  treasurer  of  the  second  Vir- 
ginia Company.     It  was  largely  due  to  his  ef- 


forts that  a  charter  was  obtained  for  the  Plym- 
outh Colony. 

SANDYS,  FBEDiaacK  (1832—).  An  English 
painter  and  draughtsman,  bom  in  Norwich.  He 
studied  with  his  father,  was  associated  with  the 
Pre-Raphaelite  group,  and  became  one  of  the 
most  promising  of  tke  school.  He  caricatured 
Millais's  "Sir  Isumbras  at  the  Ford"  under  the 
title  "A  Nightmare"  (1857),  and  introduced  por- 
traita  of  Millais,  Ruskin,  Rossetti,  and  Hunt 
into  the  sketch,  which  attracted  much  attention. 
Much  of  Sandys's  best  work  was  in  the  form  of 
woodcuts.  His  subjects  were  usually  taken  from 
Scandinavian  mythology  or  mediaval  legends; 
his  draughtsmanship  is  fine,  and  his  conception 
original.  His  paintings  in  oil,  exhibited  during 
the  sixties,  are  few,  but  of  the  highest  order. 
They  include:  "Medea"  (1869) ;  "OrUna;"  "The 
Valkyrie;"  and  "Morgan  le  Fay"  (1864). 

SANDYS,  Gbdbgb  (1577-1644).  An  English 
traveler  and  poet.  The  seventh  son  of  Archbishop 
Sandys,  he  was  born  at  Bishopsthorpe,  Yorkshire, 
and  was  educated  at  Saint  Mary  Hall,  Oxford. 
In  IflQl,  succeeding  his  brother  as  treasurer  of 
Virginia,  he  went  to  America  and  interested  him- 
self in  the  welfare  of  the  colony,  establishing 
iron  works,  and  introducing  ship-building.  He 
published  translations  of  Ovid's  Metamorphoaes 
(1626),  the  first  translation  of  a  classic  made  in 
America;  also  poetical  versions  of  the  Psalms 
(1636) ;  of  Joh,  Ecclesiastes,  and  Lamentations 
(1639);  and  Christ's  Passion:  A  Tragedy 
(1640),  translated  from  the  Latin  of  Hugo  Gro- 
tius.  Consult  Hooper,  The  Poetical  Works  of 
Qeorge  Sandys,  With  an  Introduction  and  Kates 
(London,  1872). 

SANDYS,  John  Edwin  (1844—).  An  Eng- 
lish classical  scholar.  He  was  educated  at  Rep- 
ton  School,  and  at  Saint  John's  Coll^;e,  Cam- 
bridge. In  1870  he  obtained  his  M.A.  and  was 
appointed  tutor  of  Sahit  John's.  From  1867  to 
1877  he  was  classical  lecturer  at  Jesus  College, 
and  in  1876  he  became  public  orator  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cambridge.  Besides  his  many  oon- 
tributions  to  the  dassieal  Review  and  his  nistory 
of  classical  scholarship  in  Traill's  Social  Bng* 
land,  he  published  editions  of  DemcSsthenes,  the 
Bacchos  of  Euripides  (1880),  Cicero's  Orator 
(1885),  and  Aristotle's  Constitution  of  Athens 
(1893).  In  1886  he  published  An  Easter  Vaca- 
tion in  Qreeoe. 

SAN  PELIPE,  fft-le^pA.  The  capital  of  the 
Province  of  Aconcagua,  Chile,  situated  40  milea 
northeast  of  Valparaiso,  and  near  the  base  of 
Aconcagua  (Map:  Chile,  C  10).  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  parks.  It  manufactures  cordage,  and 
has  considerable  trade  with  Ar^[entina,  being  a 
station  on  the  Trans- Andean  Railroad.  Popula- 
tion, in  1896,  11,313. 

SAN  PEIiTPE.  The  capital  of  the  State  of 
Yaracuy,  Venezuela,  120  miles  west  of  Carftcas. 
Cacao,  coffee,  sugar,  fruits,  tobacco,  grain,  and 
brandies  are  produced.  The  town  was  founded  in 
1552  and  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1812. 
Its  population  is  about  5(K)0. 

SAN  PELIPE  DE  JAtIVA,  Hft't^vA.  See 
JAtiva. 

SAN  PElirr  DE  OTJIZOLS,  8&n  ik-WJSfi  dA 
ge-Hdls^  A  town  of  Northeastern  Spain,  in  the 
Province  of  Gerona,  on  the  Mediterranean  ooast^ 
50  miles  northeast  of  Barcelona.     It  manufac- 


BAH  nUTT  DE  OT7IXOIi8. 


405 


SAK  FBANOIBGO. 


tares  ooricB,  which  are  exported  in  large  quanti- 
ticB.  The  salting  of  fish  is  also  important.  There 
is  a  harbor  with  considerable  shipping.  Popula- 
tion, in  1900,  11,253. 

BAS  VBBSAJSmO,  f«r-n&n^d^  (formerly 
IsLA  DB  Lbqn).  a  town  of  Southwestern  Spain, 
m  the  ProYinee  of  Cadiz,  on  the  island  of  Leon, 
near  the  inner  Bay  of  Cadiz,  seven  miles  south- 
east oi  the  city  of  that  name  (Map :  Spain,  B  4) . 
It  is  a  handsome  town,  but  is  surrounded  by  salt 
marshes.  The  principal  public  building,  the  Casa 
ConsiBtorial,  is  one  of  the  finest  of  its  kind  in 
Spain.  There  is  an  important  naval  academy,  and 
outside  the  city  stands  a  large  and  well-equipped 
astronomical  observatory.  The  industries  are 
ivyresented  by  salt  works,  flour  mills,  an  iron 
foondl^  and  manufactures  of  cordage  and  sails. 
A  mile  to  t^  north  lies  the  port  of  La  Carraca, 
with  wharves,  4scks,  and  an  arsenaL  Population, 
in  1887,  29,287;  In  i^OO,  29,802. 

8AH  FBRHAHDO.  13ie  capital  of  the  Prov- 
inoe  of  Colchagua,  Chile,  86  VMles  south  of  San- 
tiago, with  whidi  it  has  railww'  connection 
(Map:  Chile,  C  10).  Its  .populatloft  in  1896 
was  7477. 

8AVFEBHAND0.  A  town  of  Cebfi,  Philip- 
pine Islands,  situated  on  the  east  coast  15  miles 
southwest  of  Cebtl  (Map:  Philippine  Islands, 
H  0).    Population,  estimated,  in  1899,  12,155. 

SAV  FEBHANDO.  The  capital  of  the  Prov- 
ince of  La  Uni6n,  in  Luzon.  Philippines.  It  is 
situated  at  the  entrance  to  tne  Gulf  of  Lingayto 
on  the  highroad  and  projected  railroad  between 
Manila  and  Laoag  (Map:  Philippine  Islands, 
£  3).  It  has  a  harbor  protected  by  a  small 
peninsula.  Population,  estimated,  in  1899,  12,- 
892. 

SAS*  FEBHANDO.  A  town  of  Luzon,  Phil- 
ippine Islands,  in  the  Province  of  Pampanga 
(Map:  Philippine  Islands,  £  4).  It  is  situated 
about  four  miles  northeast  of  Bacolor,  has  a 
telegraph  station  and  is  a  station  on  the  Manila- 
Dagupan  Railroad.  It  is  an  important  centre 
of  the  sugar  industiy,  and  has  several  sugar 
milh  and  large  store-houses.  Population,  esti- 
mated, in  1899,  13,266. 

SAV^FOBD.  A  town  in  York  Coimty,  Maine, 
36  miles  southwest  of  Portland;  on  the  Boston 
and  Maine  Bailroad  (Map:  Maine,  B  9).  It  is 
an  industrial  centre,  its  manufactures  includ- 
ing shoes,  plush,  blankets,  carriage  robes, 
worsted  cloth,  yam,  and  lumber  products.  Set- 
tled about  1740,  Sanford  was  first  incorporated  in 
1768.  Population,  in  1890,  4201;  In  1900,  6078. 
0>nsult  Emery,  The  History  of  Sanford,  Maine, 
16611900  (Fall  River,  1901). 

8AV  FBANGIS^CO.  The  metropolb  of  the 
Pacific  Coast  of  the  United  States  and  thie  largest 
and  most  important  city  of  the  region  west  of  the 
Missouri  River.  It  is  built  on  a  peninsula  washed 
by  the  waters  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  on  one  side 
and  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco  on  the  other,  in 
latitude  37**  47'  66'  N.,  and  longitude  122*  24' 
32*  W.,  and  occupies  a  central  position  on  the 
eoast  line  of  California. 

Descsiftion.  The  city's  area  is  47  square  miles. 
Its  site  is  largely  hilly,  and  it  presents  a  pic- 
turesque appearance  from  the  harbor.  The  part 
devoted  to  commerce  lies  along  the  shores  of  the 
bay,  and  is  moderately  level,  but  the  residential 
districts    are    on    elevated    ground.    The    most 


fashionable  quarters  are  those  which  overlook  the 
ocean,  bay,  and  town.  'Nob  Hill,'  upon  which  the 
men  who  constructed  the  first  ovenand  railroad 
built  their  palatial  homes,  is  about  300  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  ocean,  and  'Pacific  Heights'  rise 
still  higher.  The  Twin  Peaks,'  which  form  a 
background  to  the  leading  thoroughfare,  are  900 
feet  high. 

A  part  of  the  site  of  San  Francisco  is  reclaimed 
from  'the  bay.  Some  of  the  most  substantial, 
structures  in  the  business  section  are  reared  on 
piles  driven  to  bed  rock  through  made  ground, 
and  vast  areas  of  sand  dunes  have  been  leveled  in 
order  to  conform  localities  to  the  street  system, 
which  was  arbitrarily  decided  upon  with  little 
reference  to  contour.  Market  Street,  a  thorough- 
fare several  miles  long,  and  the  streets  south  of 
it,  are  level,  but  those  from  the  north  and  west 
intersecting  it  strike  boldly  at  the  hills  and  have 
gradients  in  some  cases  as  great  as  50  per  cent. 
It  is  this  feature  wjiich  gives  the  town  its  strik- 
ing sky  line.  From  the  bay  it  presents  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  city  with  houses  piled  on  top  of  one 
another,  while  from  the  points  of  vantage  of- 
fered by  the  hills,  views  of  rare  beauty,  embracing 
the  ocean,  the  bay  with  its  islands  and  active 
•ommerce,  the  densely  populated  districts,  and 
the  ilastnnt  moimtains,  may  be  obtained. 

Its  situsttioa  on  a  peninsula  across  which  the 
summer  trade  wiMU  blow  has  given  San  Fran- 
cisco a  unique  climate.  J>uring  thirty  years  of 
observation,  the  lowest  temwerature  recorded 
was  29*  F.,  and  the  highest  lOO'*.  The  lowest 
mean  temperature  for  any  month  during  tlua 
period  was  46*",  and  the  highest,  65*^.  The  mean 
temperature  was  lowest  in  December,  when  it 
averaged  50®,  and  highest  in  September,  reach- 
ing 63°.  Semi-tropical  plants  flourish  in  the 
open  air  throughout  the  winter.  During  the  sum- 
mer months  rain  rarely  falls,  but  the  skies  over 
the  city  are  frequently  clouded  with  fog,  which 
sometimes  descends  in  the  form  of  a  mist.  ^  The 
rainfall  averages  about  21  inches.  The  precipita- 
tion usually  begins  in  October  and  ceases  in  May. 
In  normal  winter,  periods  during  which  the  skies 
are  clear  from  four  to  six  weeks  are  not  infre- 
quent. The  term  'rainy  season'  applied  to  weath- 
er conditions  in  central  and  southern  California 
is  misleading.  It  simply  means  that  there  are 
certain  months  during  which  rain  falls,  and  not 
that  there  is  continuous  rain.  A  prominent  fea- 
ture of  the  climate  is  the  regular  afternoon  wind. 

Except  the  thoroughfares  in  a  very  small 
area  near  the  water  front,  in  the  oldest  part  of 
the  city,  the  streets  are  of  ample  width.  Market 
street,  the  main  artery,  starts  at  the  Ferry  Build- 
ing and  cuts  across  the  town  in  a  southwesterly 
direction.  It  is  intersected  on  the  north  side  by 
streets  laid  out  in  conformity  with  the  cardinal 
points.  This  arrangement  produces  irregular 
blocks  at  the  points  of  intersection,  which  have 
left  some  space  for  placing  monuments.  The 
streets  south  of  Market,  with  the  exception  of 
Mission,  which  describes  a  lengthened  arc,  cut 
each  other  at  right  angles.  The  sidewalks  are 
wide  in  all  parts  of  the  city  and  are  generally 
constructed  of  artificial  stone.  There  are  in  all 
750  miles  of  streets  open  to  travel.  Of  these  104 
miles  are  paved  with  bituminous  rock  laid  on  a 
foundation  of  concrete;  there  is  a  large  propor- 
tion, however,  paved  with  blocks  of  basaltic  rock 
laid  in  sand,  and  in  some  neglected  quarters  cob- 
bles still  remain. 


SAN  FBAKCISCO. 


406 


SAN  PBANCISCO. 


Market  Street  is  the  leading;  thoroughfare,  and 
at  all  times  presents  an  animated  appearance. 
Some  of  the  largest  department  stores  in  the 
city  are  on  this  street,  but  the  chief  shopping  dis- 
trict is  still  in  the  streets  to  the  north  of  that 
thoroughfare — Kearny,  Sutter,  Post,  Geary,  and 
Grant  avenues,  and  Stockton  Street.  Union 
Square,  in  this  locality,  is  becoming  a  fashion- 
able shopping  centre.  An  extensive  system  of 
boulevards  exists,  furnishing  a  continuous,  drive 
of  nearly  20  miles.  It  starts  near  the  heart  of 
the  city,  traverses  the  United  States  military 
reservation  and  Golden  Gate  Park,  skirts  the 
Pacific  Ocean  for  two  or  three  miles,  and  winds 
in  and  out  among  the  hills  lying  southwest  of 
the  town.  In  1903  there  were  274.60  miles  of 
street  car  tracks — 176  electric,  86.68  cable,  4 
horse,  and  8  steam.  One  corporation  controls  244 
miles  of  this  system. 

Pabks.  Golden  Gate  Park,  containing  more 
than  1000  acres,  enjoys  the  distinction  of  having 
been  redeemed  from  a  sand  waste.  There  are  now 
nearly  300  acres  of  close-shaved  sward,  green  and 
attractive  all  the  year  round,  and  a  still  ^eater 
area  is  planted  with  shrubs  and  trees,  semi-tropi- 
cal types  being  largely  predominant.  In  addition 
to  Golden  Gate  Park,  numerous  smaller  parks, 
chiefly  four  blocks  in  extent,  are  scattered 
throughout  the  city.  These  usually  contain  trees 
and  shrubbery  which  remain  green  summer  and 
winter,  several  varieties  of  palms  being  in  evi- 
dence. The  military  reservation  of  the  Federal 
Government,  known  as  the  Presidio  (q.v.),  is 
practically  part  of  the  park  system.  Its  area 
exceeds  that  of  Golden  Gate  Park,  and  it  is  far 
more  favorably  located  for  cultural  purposes. 

In  Golden  Gate  Park  there  are  several  portrait 
statues,  but  none  of  great  merit.  The  monument 
by  Story  to  Francis  Scott  Key,  the  composer  of 
**The  Star-Spangled  Banner,"  is  the  best.  Near 
the  City  Hall  is  an  ambitious  group  of  bronzes, 
which  cost  $50,000,  representing  the  development 
of  California.  There  are  two  noteworthy  pro- 
ductions of  a  local  sculptor,  Douglas  Tilden,  on 
Market  Street.  One  is  designed  to  commemorate 
the  admission  of  California  to  the  Union,  and  the 
other  is  a  vigorous  group  in  bronze  typifying 
the  progress  of  manufactures  in  the  city.  Union 
Square  has  a  lofty  column  to  commemorate  the 
achievements  of  the  navy  during  the  war  with 
Spain. 

Buildings  aitd  Institutions.  The  abundance 
of  excellent  timber  and  a  popular  belief  that  a 
frame  building  is  safer  and  better  in  a  locality 
having  the  peculiar  conditions  of  San  Francisco 
are  responsible  for  the  fact  that  in  1900  there 
were  50,494  frame  and  only  3881  stone  and  brick 
buildings.  The  tendency  to  use  the  more  durable 
materials  is,  however,  growing  rapidly.  The  oc- 
casional occurrence  of  earth  tremors  for  a  long 
time  restrained  the  propensity  to  build  'sky- 
scrapers.' In  1890,  however,  the  proprietor  of 
the  Chronicle  erected  a  ten-story  modem  fire- 
proof building.  This  example  was  soon  followed 
by  other  property-owners,  and  the  city  has  now 
its  share  of  tall  structures,  one  of  them  18  stories 
high.  The  major  part  of  this  class  of  buildings  is 
composed  of  8,  10,  and  12  storied  buildings,  the 
8-storied  being  most  numerous. 

The  most  conspicuous  building  is  the  City  Hall, 
surmounted  by  a  dome  332  feet  high.  It  cost 
over  $6,000,000,  and  twenty-five  years  were  occu- 
pied in  building  it.    It  is  very  solidly  constructed. 


and  its  walls  of  brick  are  covered  with  cement 
Architecturally  it  is  a  composite.  The  interior 
of  the  dome  is  decorated  with  native  marbles. 
The  structure  houses  all  the  administrative  de- 
partments of  the  city  government  and  several 
civil  courts.  The  criminal  and  police  courts  and 
the  poiice  department  occupy  a  modem  building, 
known  as  the  Hall  of  Justice.  It  is  constructed 
of  brick  and  stone  and  is  surmounted  by  a  clock 
tower.  The  post  office,  just  completed,  \b  a 
substantial  structure  of  granite,  costing  over 
$5,000,000.  It  is  not  a  striking  architectural 
production,  but  impresses  by  its  massiveness. 
In  addition  to  the  post  office,  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment maintains  a  mint  and  a  sub-treasury. 

On  the  water  front  the  State  maintains  the 
Ferry  Building,  a  structure  over  800  feet  in 
length,  built  of  a  light-colored  sandstone  and 
surmounted  by  a  graceful  clock  tower.  Through 
this  building  most  of  the  strangers  entering  the 
city  are  obliged  to  pass.  It  conteins  a  lofty  nave 
running  through  its  entire  length,  which  is  fre- 
quently used  for  exhibiting  the  products  of  the 
State.  It  also  houses  a  permanent  exhibit  illus- 
trative of  the  resources  of  California,  maintained 
by  the  State  Board 'of  Trade,  and  a  fine  Alaskan 
ethnological  collection.  A  complete  display  of 
the  mineral  resources  of.  California  is  also  made 
in  the  Ferry  Building  by  the  State  Mining  Bu- 
reau. The  Academy  of  Sciences,  endowed  by 
James  Lick,  is  a  substantial  structure.  It  holds 
a  growing  museum  devoted  to  the  natural  sci- 
ences. In  Golden  Gate  Park  is  situated  the 
Memorial  Museum,  founded  to  commemorate  a 
successful  international  fair  held  in  1894.  The 
Hopkina  Art  Institute,  situated  on  *Nob  Hill/ 
contains  the  nucleus  of  a  fine-art  collection.  The 
building  and  contents  were  presented  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  California  to  be  maintained  for  the 
public.  The  Public  Library  contains  over  100,- 
000  volumes.  At  present  it  is  installed  in  a  wing 
of  the  city  hall,  but  maintains  several  branches. 
In  October,  1903,  bonds  to  the  amount  of  $1,600,- 
000  were  voted  to  provide  a  new  building.  The 
cost  of  maintaining  the  library  is  about  $65,000 
a  year.  In  addition  to  the  Public  Libraiy  there 
are  seven  other  libraries  of  some  importance. 
That  of  the  Mechanics'  Institute  is  the  most  use- 
ful of  these,  the  collection  covering  the  range  of 
the  applied  sciences.  It  has  more  than  70,000 
volumes,  and  property  valued  at  over  $2,000,000. 
The  Sutro  Library  is  a  heterogeneous  collection 
of  over  200,000  volumes.  It  contains  a  large  num- 
ber of  rare  books  and  manuscripts.  The  California 
Historical  Society,  San  Francisco  Medical  So- 
ciety, the  San  Francisco  Law  Library,  the  French 
Library,  and  the  Mercantile  all  have  collections 
exceeding  30,000  volumes. 

None  of  the  churches  are  conspicuous  examples 
of  ecclesiastical  architecture.  The  Roman  Cath- 
olic Cathedral  is  a  brick  structure.  The  Jesuit 
Church  of  Saint  Ignatius,  with  its  accompanying 
college  buildings,  covers  a  full  city  block.  The 
Dominicans  have  an  equally  large  church.  Many 
of  the  older  church  buildings  are  of  frame.  The 
Mission  Dolores  is  a  survival  from  the  days  of 
the  Spanish  occupation.  It  is  built  of  adobe,  and 
care  is  taken  to  preserve  it  as  a  landmark,  al- 
though it  has  none  of  the  attractive  features  of 
many  of  the  churches  built  by  the  friars. 

There  are  47  hospitals,  public  and  private,  and 
many  of  them  are  of  recent  construction.  The 
emergency  system  has  been  well  developed,  and 


,  tCAtE  OF  MILES 

6    1    i    i    i     ^ 


Copyright.  1903,  bf  DoM,  Mild  A  Company. 


8AK  7BAHCI8C0. 


407 


SAN  PBAKCISCO. 


few  dties  are  better  provided  with  the  means  to 
eare  for  the  victimB  of  accidents.  Of  literary, 
scientifie,  and  other  societies  there  is  an  unusual 
number.  Among  the  most  prominent  may  be 
mentioned  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  Astronomical 
Society,  Geographical  Society,  Mechanics'  Insti- 
tute, Pioneers  of  California,  and  Technical  So- 
ciety. There  are  98  public  schools,  including 
four  high  sdiools.  The  attendance  in  1903 
reached  67,603.  In  addition  there  are  numerous 
private  educational  institutions.  The  Roman 
Catholics  maintain  a  s^tem  of  parochial  schools. 
The  attcokdance  at  private  schools  in  1903  was 
14,002. 

Theatbbs,  Clubs,  and  Hotels.  The  leading 
playhouses  are  the  Columbia,  the  California,  the 
Alcazar,  and  the  Grand  Opera  House.  The  Or- 
pheum  and  Fischer's  are  devoted  to  vaudeville. 
The  Tivoli  presents  opera  in  some  form  every 
night  in  the  year.  There  are  several  low-priced 
theatres,  the  most  conspicuous  being  the  Central 
and  Grauman's. 

The  clubs  are  numerous  and  well  housed.  The 
Bohemian,  originally  founded  by  artists  and  lit- 
erary people,  has  a  world-wide  reputation  for  en- 
tertaining noted  visitors.  Its  rooms  are  crowded 
with  excellent  pictures,  many  of  them  gifts  of 
artist  members.  The  Pacific  Union  is  composed 
chiefly  of  wealthy  citizens.  The  Jews  have  two 
prominent  organizations — ^the  Concordia  and  the 
Verein.  The  number  of  women's  clubs  is  large. 
The  leading  ones  are  the  Century,  Sorosis,  Forum, 
Outdoor  Art  League,  and  California.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  last  two  take  an  active  part  in  civic 
matters,  but  the  others  are  devoted  chiefly  to 
social  and  literary  work. 

There  are  many  hotels  of  all  classes.  The  most 
prominent  among  these  are  the  Palace  and  the 
Occidental.  The  Saint  Francis,  a  modem  12- 
story  building  of  steel  and  stone,  is  admirably 
situated  on  Union  Square. 

SuBUBBS.  San  Francisco,  like  all  large  Amer- 
ican cities,  has  felt  the  influence  of  easy  com- 
munication«  The  multiplication  of  street  rail- 
way facilities  has  caused  its  population  to  spread 
out  over  the  greater  part  of  its  area.  These 
transportation  conveniences  have  resulted  in  re- 
ducing the  average  number  of  persons  in  a  dwell- 
ing to  6.4.  The  ease  with  which  the  trans-bay 
cities  of  Oakland,  Alameda,  Berkeley,  San  Rafa- 
el, Sausalito,  and  Belvedere  are  reached  has  also 
contributed  to  that  result.  The  places  named 
are  all  within  40  minutes'  ride  of  San  Francisco, 
and  their  population  of  over  100,000  is  mainly 
composed  of  people  who  to  all  intents  and  pur- 
poses are  San  Franciscans,  most  of  them  being 
engaged  in  business  in  the  city.  The  three  last 
nam^  are  largely  made  up  of  summer  homes. 
The  small  towns  on  the  peninsula  are  also  large- 
ly inhabited  by  San  Franciscans.  Burlingame,  a 
fashionable  resort  modeled  after  Tuxedo,  is  25 
miles  south  of  the  city.  Menlo  Park,  near  by, 
contains  the  residences  of  numerous  wealthy  men. 
Palo  Alto,  the  seat  of  Leland  Stanford  Jr.  Uni- 
versity, is  on  the  peninsula  about  30  miles  from 
the  city,  and  the  California  University  is  sit- 
uated at  Berkeley.  Both  of  these  great  universi- 
ties have  intimate  relations  with  the  city,  the 
latter,  a  State  institution,  maintaining  several 
affiliated  colleges  within  the  city's  boundaries.  A 
part  of  the  great  endowment  of  'Stanford'  is  in 
San  Francisco. 

The  famous  resort,  the  Cliff  House,  from  whose 


piazza  hundreds  of  seals  may  be  seen  disporting 
in  the  water  and  on  the  rocks,  and  the  near-by 
beach,  are  visited  by  many  thousands  every  Sun* 
day  and  holiday.  Mount  Tamalpais,  situated  in 
one  of  the  trans-bay  counties,  is  accessible  by 
ferry  and  train  in  about  two  hours.  Its  eleva- 
tion is  2392  feet,  and  it  commands  a  view  of  the 
city,  half  a  score  of  towns,  and  the  bay  and  the 
ocean. 

Commerce  and  Industbt.  The  importance  of 
San  Francisco  is  due  to  its  position  on  the  bay 
of  that  name  (q.v.),  which  is  accounted  one  of 
the  finest  harbors  in  the  world.  The  area  of  the 
harbor  is  450  square  miles,  and  its  width  varies 
from  5  to  12  miles.  It  is  navigable  by  the  largest 
vessels  for  a  distance  of  over  40  miles  from  its 
single  opening  to  the  ocean,  the  famous  Golden 
Gate,  the  entrance  to  which  is  a  mile  in  width. 
There  are  several  steamship  lines  to  China  and 
Japan,  Australia,  Mexico,  Central  and  South 
America,  and  the  Hawaiian  and  Philippine 
Islands.  An  active  coastwise  commerce  is  carried 
on  with  Alaska,  the  ports  of  Puget  Sound,  and 
those  on  the  southern  coast  of  California.  There 
is  also  regular  communication  with  the  ports  of 
the  Atlantic.  In  addition,  a  large  fleet  of  sailing 
vessels  bear  to  Europe  the  surplus  grain  and 
miscellaneous  merchandise  of  Cabfomia,  most  of 
which  passes  through  this  port. 

In  1902  the  exports  by  sea  to  foreign  countries 
and  Atlantic  ports  were  valued  at  $47,601,422, 
and  the  imports  at  $36,078,270.  A  ^reat  deal  of 
treasure  passes  through  San  Francisco,  the  ex- 
ports by  sea  in  1902  being  $14,851,789,  and  the 
imports  nearly  $12,000,000.  The  exports  of 
wheat  have  reached  as  high  as  24,862,095  cwt. 
in  a  single  year.  In  the  freight  year  ending  June. 
30,  1902,  there  were  13,205,812  cwt.  shipped.  In 
1902  6,636,186  gallons  of  wine  and  brandy  were 
exported  by  sea,  about  one-sixth  of  which  went 
to  foreign  lands.  In  the  same  year  793,156  cases 
of  salmon  were  exported.  Coffee  is  largely  im- 
ported from  Central  America,  Ecuador,  Mexico, 
and  the  East  Indies,  the  quantity  in  1901  being 
43,614,350  pounds.  A  great  part  is  for  distribu- 
tion in  the  States  and  Territories  west  of  the 
Mississippi.  Imports  of  tea  from  China  and 
Japan  were  5,781,204  pounds  in  1902.  The  re- 
ceipts of  customs  amounted  to  $7,850,706  in  the 
year  ending  June  30,  1903.  Five  years  earlier  ' 
they  were  only  $6,393,763.  The  activity  of  trade 
is  reflected  in  the  bank  clearings,  which  aggre- 
gated $1,373,362,025  in  1902.  A  great  increase 
has  been  noted  since  the  Spanish-American  War. 

San  Francisco  is  rated  as  the  tenth  in  impor- 
tance of  the  manufacturing  cities  of  the  United 
States.  The  census  of  1900  credits  it  with  4002 
establishments,  41,978  wage-earners,  $80,103,367 
capital  employed,  and  an  output  valued  at  $133,- 
069,416.  Sugar  refining,  slaughtering,  and  meat 
packing,  and  the  manufacture  of  foundry  and 
machine  shop  products  are  most  important  in- 
dustries. Snipbuilding  has  made  considerable 
progress.  Battleships  and  merchant  vessels  are 
constructed  in  San  Francisco  yards,  the  Oregon 
and  the  Olympia  being  noteworthy  examples  of 
the  former. 

Government  and  Financje.  San  Francisco  is 
governed  under  a  charter  adopted  by  the  people, 
which  went  into  effect  January  1,  1900.  With  the 
exception  of  some  bonds  issued  in  1874-75  for  the 
acquisition  of  a  park,  now  nearly  matured,  and 
to  meet  which  a  sinking  fund  exists,  the  city  is 


SAK  FBAVCI8C0. 


408 


8AV  VBAVCI8C0  BAT. 


absolutely  free  from  debt.  The  charter  under 
which  the  mttkiicipality  is  now  sovemed  is  as 
rigidly  drawn  as  the  act  it  displaced,  limiting 
the  rate  of  taxation  for  ordinary  municipal  pur- 
poses to  1  per  cent,  on  the  assessed  valuation  of 
all  property.  An  extra  tax  may  be  levied  to 
meet  unusual  requirements,  and  there  is  a  com- 
prehensive license  system.  The  asseraed  value  of 
all  property  on  March  1,  1003,  was  $428,000,000. 
The  expenditures  provided  for  in  the  budget  of 
1903  aggregated  $6,150,400,  the  chief  items  be- 
ing: Public  schools,  $1,245,000;  police,  $941,- 
848;  fire  department,  $845,150;  public  works, 
$769,867;  health  department,  $340,000;  street 
lights  and  lighting  public  buildings,  $300,000; 

Eark  fund  $295,000;  free  library,  $63,000.  It 
as  been  found  in  practice,  however,  that  very 
little  is  spared  for  permanent  improvements  from 
the  ordinary  revenues.  There  is  an  active 
movement  in  San  Francisco  looking  to  the  acqui- 
sition of  a  municipal  water  system,  the  present 
supply  being  derived  from  a  private  corpnoration's 
reservoirs  on  the  peninsula.  The  project  con- 
templates the  bringing  of  a  larger  supply  from 
the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  and  the  cost  will 
probably  reach  $25,000,000.  A  two-thirds  vote 
of  the  people  is  required  to  authorize  a  bond 
issue,  in  addition  to  the  safeguards  mentioned, 
the  charter  has  created  a  civil  service  system 
based  on  merit,  and  it  places  ^eat  power  in  the 
hands  of  the  mayor,  who  by  his  veto,  which  can 
be  overriden  only  by  a  five-sixths  vote  of  the 
board  of  supervisors,  can  prevent  the  adoption 
of  separate  items  in  the  budget.  He  is  also  en- 
dowed with  an  extensive  appointing  power  and 
the  right  to  remove  his  own  appointed,  but  the 
courts  have  curtailed  the  latter.  The  board  of 
public  works  is  an  appointive  body  and  has 
control  of  streets,  sewers,  buildings,  and  all 
public  improvements. 

PoPUiATiON.  San  Francisco  has  grown  very 
rapidly.  The  population  in  1860  was  56,802; 
in  1870,  149,473;  in  1880,  233,959;  in  1890,  298,- 
997;  in  1900,  342,782.  One-third  of  the  )>opula- 
tion  in  1900  was  of  foreign  birth.  Of  these  the 
Germans  numbered  35,194;  Irish,  18,963 ;  English, 
Scotch,  and  Welsh,  12,342;  Italians,  7508;  and 
Chinese,  13,954.  The  Chinese  live  in  a  distinct 
quarter,  which  has  taken  on  many  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  their  native  land.  Their  isolation  is 
entirely  voluntary,  and  extends  no  further  than 
the  choice  of  a  place  of  habitation.  This  quarter, 
known  as  'Chinatown,'  is  freely  visited  by  stran- 
gers, who  are  attracted  by  its  Oriental  aspect. 
There  has  been  a  great  diminution  in  the  number 
of  Chinese  in  recent  years,  owing  to  the  opera- 
tion of  the  Exclusion  Act.  In  1890  there  were 
25,833  enumerated.  Though  this  class  of  Ori- 
entals is  diminishing,  Japanese  are  coming  in 
rapidly.  They  aggregate  several  thousand  al- 
ready, but,  unlike  the  Chinese,  they  do  not  segre- 
gate themselves. 

History.  The  first  settlement  in  this  locality 
was  made  on  October  9,  1776,  when  two  Fran- 
ciscan monks,  Palou  and  Cambon,  established 
here  an  Indian  mission,  which  they  called  San 
Francisco  de  Asisi,  the  name  San  Francisco 
having  been  previously  given  (in  1769)  to  the 
bay.  About  this  mission,  after  the  Mexicans 
secured  control  of  California  in  1822,  a  small 
village  called  Dolores  grew  up.  The  mission 
itself  prospered  until  1834,  when  it  was  secular- 
ized, and  in  a  few  years  thereafter  little  re- 


mained but  the  adobe  buildings.  In  1836,  near 
the  best  anchorage  and  three  miles  northeast  of 
the  mission,  a  small  trading  village,  Yerba 
Buena,  was  founded,  and  from  it  tSb  modem 
city  really  developed.  In  1846  the  United  States 
took  possession;  and  in  the  following  year,  its 
population  then  being  450,  Yerba  Buena  ex- 
changed its  old  name  for  that  of  the  mission  and 
the  bay.  On  the  discovery  of  sold  in  California 
in  1848  people  of  every  social  stratum  and  of 
many  nationalities  flocked  hither,  and  the  popu- 
lation of  San  Francisco  increased  with  tre- 
mendous rapidity.  In  March,  1848,  it  was  800; 
in  September,  1849,  it  was  at  least  10,000.  In 
June,  1849,  there  were  scarcely  50  housies;  in 
September  there  were  at  least  500.  The  build- 
ings were  constructed  of  the  most  combustible 
materials  and  were  huddled  close  together,  so 
that  the  early  years  were  marked  by  terrible 
ravages  of  fire.  In  the  five  big  fires  of  December 
14,  1849,  May  4,  1850,  June  14,  1850,  May  2, 
1851,  and  June  2,  1851,  the  property  destroyed 
reached  an  aggr^^te  value  of  $16,000,000.  Ow- 
ing to  the  wild  and  turbulent  character  of  much 
of  the  population  and  the  lax  enforcement  of  law 
by  the  constituted  authorities,  vigilanoe  com- 
mittees were  organized  in  1851  and  1866,  and  for 
a  time  tried,  convicted,  and  punished  criminals 
in  an  extra-judicial  manner.  In  1854  overspecu- 
lation  and  a  diminishing  return  from  the  mines 
caused  a  temporary  check  to  the  growth  of  the 
city;  but  in  1858  a  new  period  of  prosperity 
opened.  San  Francisco  was  incorporated  in 
1850  and  in  1856  the  city  and  the  ooun^  were 
consolidated.  An  earthquake  did  some  damage 
on  October  21,  1868.  In  1877-78  San  Francisco 
was  the  centre  of  the  movement  known  as  Kear- 
neyism  in  California.  (See  Keabnbt,  Denis.) 
With  the  completion  of  the  Union  Pacific  Bail- 
road  to  the  coast  in  1869,  ihe  city  entered  upon 
a  new  period  of  prosperity. 
.  Consult:  Soule  and  others.  The  AnnaU  of  8m 
Franoiaco  (New  York,  1855),  for  a  graphic  con- 
temporary account  of  conditions  during  the  pe- 
riod of  excitement  over  the  discovery  of  gold; 
also  Hoyce,  California  (Boston,  1886) ;  8<m  Fron- 
Cisco  and  lU  Resources  (Denver,  1893) ;  and  a 
chapter  in  Powell  (ed.),  J5f«*Ofio  Toums  of  the 
Western  States  (New  York,  1901). 

BAN  FBIANCISGO  BA Y.  An  inlet  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean  indenting  the  coast  of  California 
(Map:  California,  B  3).  It  is  42  miles  long  and 
from  5  to  12  miles  wide,  and  runs  nearly  parallel 
with  the  coast,  being  separated  from  the  ocean 
by  a  peninsula  7  miles  wide,  at  the  north  end  of 
which  is  the  city  of  San  Francisco.  North  of  the 
city  the  Golden  Gate,  a  passage  one  mile  wide 
and  4  miles  long,  connects  the  bay  with  the  ocean. 
San  Francisco  Bay  is  a  beautiful  sheet  of  water 
completely  shut  in  by  wooded  mountains  1000  to 
over  2000  feet  high.  The  water  is  generally  shal- 
low far  out  from  the  shores,  but  the  Golden  Gate 
and  the  part  of  the  bay  adjoining  San  Francisco 
as  well  as  a  central  channel  running  through  its 
whole  length  have  a  depth  of  30  to  over  100  feet 
On  the  north  the  bay  communicates  with  the  Bay 
of  San  Pablo,  which  is  of  circular  form  with  a 
diameter  of  10  miles,  and  which  further  communi- 
cates through  the  Straits  of  Karquines  with  Sui- 
son  Bay.  The  latter  receives  the  Sacramento  and 
San  Joaquin  rivers,  so  that  the  drainage  of  the 
entire  western  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 
out  tiirough  the  Golden  Gate. 


SAN    FRANCISCO 

CITY    HALL    (UPPER) 
UNION   SQUA^^E    (LOWERi 


BAX  V&AKCI8C0  XOtrKTAIK. 


409 


SAK  OIOVAKKI  IK  FtOBB. 


8AV  FBAHdSCO  KOUNTAIHT.  The  high- 
est peak  in  Arizona,  situated  near  Flagstaff  in 
the  north  central  part  of  the  Territory  (Map: 
Arizona,  C  2).  It  rises  abruptly  5000  feet  above 
the  Colorado  plateau  to  an  altitude  of  12,794 
feet  Its  core  js  of  Yolcanic  formation  and  it  is 
capped  by  a  mass  of  lava  in  which  there  is 
an  extinct  crater.  The  body  of  the  mountain, 
however,  is  formed  by  circumdenudation,  the 
Triassic  sandstone  composing  the  sides  being  pro- 
tected by  the  hard  lava-cap  while  the  surround- 
ing portions  were  worn  away.  The  sandstone 
escarpment  is  now  almost  completely  hidden  by  a 
talus  of  volcanic  detritus.  The  mountain  is  a 
conspicuous  landmark;  the  surrounding  region 
has  displayed  fresh  volcanic  activity  since  the 
denudation  of  the  plateau,  and  from  the  summit 
moie  than  a  hundred  craters  may  be  seen. 

SAHGAIXO^  s&n-gftind.  A  celebrated  family 
of  Italian  architects  of  the  Renaissance. — Giu- 
UANO  (1445-1516),  the  first  to  be  distinmiished 
and  most  important  member  of  the  family,  was 
horn  in  Florence,  the  oldest  son  of  Francesco 
Giamberti,  a  woodworker.  While  very  young  he 
studied  with  Francione,  a  worker  in  tarsia  (q.v.), 
but  he  acquired  his  architectural  training  among 
the  ancient  monuments  of  Rome.  Returning  to 
Florence  to  enter  the  army  in  the  war  with  Naples 
in  1478,  be  gained  great  favor  with  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici  for  his  skill  as  a  military  engineer.  For 
him  he  built  the  villa  at  Poggio  a  Gajano,  where 
Lorenzo  and  his  circle  of  humanists  held  their 
famous  sessions,  the  beautiful  Church  of  Madon- 
na delle  Carceri  at  Prato,  and  the  Augustine 
eonvent  at  Florence,  near  the  San  Gallo 
gate,  from  which  he  derived  the  name  later  as- 
sumed by  the  family.  He  designed  the  Gondi 
Palace  and  the  celebrated  Strozzi  Palace,  for 
which  Benedetto  da  Majano  has  received  the 
credit,  and  built  for  Giuliano  delle  Rovere  the 
fortress  at  Ostia.  After  the  death  of  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici,  he  designed  the  ceiling  of  Santa  Maria 
Maggiore  and  the  cloister  of  &in  Pietro  in  Yin- 
eoli,  and  in  1503  he  designed  the  first  plans  for 
Saint  Peter's.  Replaced  by  Bramante,  he  re- 
tomed  to  Florence  in  1509,  taking-  part  in  the 
capture  of  Pisa.  Upon  the  accession  of  Pope 
Leo  Z.,  formerly  Cardinal  Giovanni  de'  Medici, 
he  was  associate  architect  with  Raphael  at  Saint 
Peter's,  serving  in  this  ca^jacity  for  about  two 
years.  He  died  at  Florence,  October  20,  1516. 
In  the  Uifizi  Gallery  at  Florience,  the  Barberini 
Library  at  Rome,  and  at  Siena,  are  many  of  his 
drawings  which  are  of  extraordinary  merit.  His 
work  as  an  architect,  although  he  was  one  of  the 
most  important  architects  of  the  Early  Renais- 
sance, was  somewhat  overshadowed  by  his  prow- 
ess as  a  military  engineer. 

AiVTOKio  Djl  Sangallo,  the  elder  (1455-1534), 
a  younger  brother  of  Giuliano,  had  a  very  simi- 
lar career,  excelling  both  as  an  architect  and 
military  engineer.  He  was  employed  by  Pope 
Alexander  VI.  in  fortification  work  at  the  Castle- 
of  Sant'  Angelo,  at  Civita  Castellana,  and  at 
Nepi.  He  reconstructed  the  church  at  Arezzo 
and  built  the  fine  portico  of  the  Annunziata, 
Florence,  for  Pope  T.ieo  X.  His  best  work  as  an 
architect  is  the  Chulrch  of  the  Madonna  di  San 
Biagio  at  Monte  Pulciano.  where  he  also  built 
the  Cervini,  Tarugi,  and  Bellflrmini  palaces.  He 
took  part  in  the  defense  of  Florence  when  it  was 
besieged  in  1530,  and  died  December  27,  1534. 


Many  of  his  drawings  and  plans  are  preserved 
at  the  Uffizi  Gallery. 

Antonio  Cobdiani  da  Sanoaixo,  called  the 
younger  (1485-1546),  was  a  son  of  Giuliano. 
He  went  to  Rome  at  eighteen  years  of  age,  stud- 
ied with  Bramante,  and  did  important  woric 
for  forty-one  years  imder  the  popes  Leo  X., 
Clement  VII.,  and  Paul  III.  He  was  employed 
on  the  Castle  of  Sant'  Angelo  and  at  Saint 
Peter's,  nearly  finished  the  Famese  Palace  at 
Rome,  and  completed  the  Santa  Maria  di  Loreto, 
at  Loreto.  With  his  brother  Battista,  he  was  en- 
gaged upon  the  villa  Madama  in  Rome,  usually 
attributed  to  Raphael.  In  1518  he  was  appointed 
to  succeed  Raphael  as  architect  of  Saint  Peter's 
and  of  the  Vatican  Palace.  His  model  for  the 
church  is  still  in  existence.  (See  Saint  Peter's 
Chubch.)  His  work  as  a  military  engineer  was 
very  extensive,  comprising  more  than  a  dozen 
fortifications.  He  died  at  Terni,  October  3, 
1546. 

SANOEBHAUSEN,  z&ng^er-hou'zen.  A  town 
in  the  Province  of  Saxony,  Prussia,  36  miles  by 
rail  west  of  Halle  (Map:  Germany,  D  3).  Saint 
Ulrich  is  a  splendid  basilica,  founded  jn  the 
twelfth  century,  and  recently  rebuilt.  There  are 
two  castles  and  two  hospitals,  dating  from  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries.  The  manu- 
factures include  footwear,  machinery,  and  other 
iron  and  steel  products.  Population,  in  1900, 
12,077,  chiefly  Protestants'.  Sangerhausen  is 
mentioned  in  991. 

SAN  OEBMAN,  sftn  HSr-mfin'.  A  town  of  the 
Department  of  Mayaguez,  Porto  Rico,  10  miles 
south  of  the  town  of  Mayaguez,  on  the  coast,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Guanajibo  (Map:  Porto 
Rico,  A  2).  Su^r,  coffee,  cacao,  tobacco,  and 
fruits  are  the  principal  exports.  Population,  in 
1899,  3954. 

SAN  OIL,  H€l,  or  SAN  JIL.  A  town  of  the 
Department  of  Santander,  C!k>lombia,  150  miles 
northeast  of  the  city  of  Bogotfl,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Gil  River  (Map:  Colombia,  C  2). 
The  manufactures  are  sulphate  of  quinine,  straw 
hats,  and  cotton  counterpanes;  the  agricultural 
products,  cotton,  sugar-cane,  and  tobacco.  Popu- 
lation, in  1886,  10,038. 

SAN  GIMIGNANO,  je'm^-ny&'nd.  A  city  in 
Italy,  7^  miles  by  carriage  roa[d  west  of  Poggi- 
bonsi,  which  is  43  miles  south  of  Florence  (Map: 
Italy,  E  4).  The  walls,  the  towers,  and  the 
Gothic  architecture  present  a  faithful  picture  of 
the  age  of  Dante.  The  Palazzo  Pubblico,  built  • 
1288-1323,  contains  many  ancient  frescoes  and 
paintings.  There  is  an  interesting  public  library. 
The  Church  of  Sant'  Agostino,  built  1463-65,  con- 
tains frescoes  by  Benozzo  Gozzoli,  the  pupil  of 
Fra  Angelico.  Population  of  commune,  m  1901, 
9848. 

SAN  GIOVANNI  A  TEDUCGIO,  sftn  j6- 
vftn'n^  k  t&-d<3R^chd.  A  suburb  of  Naples,  Italy, 
situated  in  the  direction  of  Portici  (Map:  Italy, 
D  11).    Population  of  commune,  in  1901,  20,797. 

SAN  GIOVANNI  IN  FIOBE,  Tn  f^-^rft.  A 
city  in  the  Province  of  0)senza,  Italy,  12  hours 
by  stage  east  of  the  city  of  Cosenza  (Map:  Italy, 
L  8).  It  is  the  principal  place  in  the  lofty  (6326 
feet)  Sila  Mountains.  The  district  produces 
grain,  fruit,  wine,  and  fine  cattle.  Population  of 
commune,  in  1901,  12,114. 


8AK  GIOVANNI  IN  PEBSICETO. 


410 


8ANHEDBIN. 


SAN  GIOVANNI  IN  PEBSICETO,  pftr'sd- 
oh&'t6.  A  town  in  the  Province  of  Bologna,  Italy, 
about  15  miles  by  rail  northwest  of  Bologna.  It 
has  mineral  springs,  manufactures  ironware, 
and  markets  grain.  Population  (commune),  in 
1901,  15,893. 

SAN  GIOVANNI  BOTONBO,  rd-tdnM6.  A 
city  in  the  Province  of  Foggia,  Italy,  28  miles 
northeast  of  the  city  of  Foggia  and  15  miles 
north  of  Fontanarosa,  the  nearest  railway  sta- 
tion (Map:  Italy,  K  6).  It  is  beautifully  situ- 
ated on  a  slope  of  Monte  Gargano.  It  markets 
wine,  oats,  potatoes,  and  cattle,  and  manufac- 
tures linen.  Population  of  commune,  in  1901, 
10,122. 

8ANGIB  (s&n-g€r')  ISLANDS.  A  chain  of 
small  islands  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  belong- 
ing to  the  Netherlands,  extending  from  the 
northeastern  end  of  Celebes  northward  to  Min- 
danao, Philippines,  and  separating  the  Celebes 
Sea  from  the  Pacific  Ocean  (Map:  East  India 
Islands,  G  4) .  It  consists  of  about  50  islands  with 
a  total  area  of  408  square  miles,  of  which  308 
square  miles  are  taken  up  by  Great  Sangir,  the 
largest^  in  the  group.  They  are  of  volcanic  origin. 
There  are  several  active  craters,  notably  Abu  on 
Great  Sangir,  which  has  frequently  caiised  great 
loss  of  life.  The  islands  are  covered  with  for- 
ests yielding  excellent  timber  and  cabinet  woods, 
and  cocoa,  sago,  rice,  tobacco,  and  sugar  are  also 
produced.  The  inhabitants  are  Alfuros,  partly 
Christians  and  Mohammedans,  partly  pagans. 
Together  with  the  neighboring  Talauer  Islands 
the  Sangirs  belong  to  the  Dutch  Residency  of 
Menado,  and  the  coinbined  population  of  the  two 
groups  was  estimated  in   1895  at   113,467. 

SANGBE  DE  CBISTO,  san^^  d&  kr^s^td. 
A  range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  south-central 
Colorado,  bounding  the  San  Luis  Park  on  the 
northeast  (Map:  Colorado,  E  2).  It  rises  steep- 
ly from  the  floor  of  the  park  to  a  height  of  5500 
feet  above  it.  Its  crest  maintains  an  altitude  of 
13,000  feet  above  the  sea  for  15  miles  and  12,000 
feet  for  over  30  miles.  Its  highest  point,  Blanca 
Peak,  has  an  altitude  of  14,390  feet,  and  is  one 
of  the  two  highest  peaks  of  Colorado. 

SANG^TEB^  Chables  (1822-93).  A  Cana- 
dian poet,  bom  at  Kingston,  Ontario.  For  fifteen 
years  he  conducted  newspapers  at  Amherstburg 
and  Kingston;  and  from  1868  to  his  retirement 
in  1886,  he  was  connected  with  the  Post-Ofiice 
Department  at  Ottawa.  He  was  one  of  the  earli- 
est among  the  native  English-Canadian  poets. 
Perhaps  his  best  known  poem  is  the  stirring 
''England  and  America."  His  published  vol- 
umes comprise  The  8t.  Lawrence  and  the  Hague- 
fupy,  and  Other  Poems  (1856)  ;  and  Hesperus  and 
Other  Poems  and  Lyrics  ( 1860) . 

SANGSTEBy  Mabgabet  EiIizabeth  (Mun- 
BON)  (1838—).  An  American  journalist,  poet, 
and  juvenile  moralist,  bom  at  New  Rochelle,  N. 
Y.  She  was  privately  educated,  chiefly  in 
New  York.  She  contributed  to  many  periodicals, 
became  associate  editor,  of  ffearth  and  Home 
(1871-73),  of  The  Christian  At  Work  (1873-79), 
of  The  Christian  Intelligencer  (1879),  of  Har- 
per's Young  People  (1882-89),  and  of  Harper's 
Bazaar  (1889-99),  besides  contributing  regularly 
to  other  journals.  In  book  form  she  published 
Manual  of  Missions  of  the  Reformed  Church  in 
America  ( 1878),  and  numerous  essays  and  poems. 


SANGTJIIiE,  s&n-gen&.  Collective  name  of 
certain  little-known  tribes^  in  Southern  Min- 
danao.   See  Philippine  Iblakds. 

SANGXTINABIA  (Lat.  sanguinaria^  fern.  sg. 
of  sanguinarius,  relating  to  blood,  from  sanguis, 
blood,  so  called  because  supposed  to  stanch  blood, 
but  in  modern  usage  because  of  the  blood-like 
juice).  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Papaveraces.  Sanguinaria  Canadensis,  the  <Hily 
species,  the  bloodroot  or  puccoon  of  Eastern 
North  America,  has  a  fleshy  rootstock  with  a 
red,  acrid  juice,  found  also  in  the  stalks.  The 
large  white  flowers,  which  appear  in  early  spring, 
are  solitary,  and  arise  from  the  root,  on  short 
stalks  usually  surrounded  by  the  solitary  round- 
ish heart-shaped  radical  leaves. 

SANGUINE  (OF.,  Fr.  sanguin,  bloody),  or 
Murrey.    One  of  the  tinctures  in  heraldiy  (q.v.) . 

SAN^HEDBIN  (Heb.  sanhedrhi,  from  Gk. 
ffV949piow,  synedrion,  council,  from  ^f,  syn^  to- 
gether -f  lapci,  hcik-a,  seat) .  The  nam^  in  ancient 
times  of  the  highest  court  of  justice  and  supreme 
council  in  Jerusalem,  in  a  wider  sense  applied  also 
to  lower  courts  of  justioe.  Josephus  designates 
the  council  established  by  Gabimus,  the  Roman 
Governor  of  Syria  (B.C.  57-54),  in  each  of  the 
five  districts  of  Palestine  as  synedrion,  but  this 
intentional  degradation  of  the  Synedrion  at  Jeru- 
salem points  to  the  introduction  of  the  term  at 
an  earlier  period,  and  in  fact  it  occurs  in  the 
Greek  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  (second 
century  b.g).  According  to  the  Talmud,  also, 
the  name  goes  back  to  the  second  century,  for 
the  chief  council  in  the  days  of  John  Hyreanus 
is  called  a  Sadducean  Sanhedrin  {TaL  Bab^  San- 
hedrin,  52b).  The  Sanhedrin  is  identical  with  the 
Oerousia,  which  occurs  as  a  designation  of  the 
chief  Jewish  council  in  the  days  of  Antiochus  the 
Great  (c.200  B.cJ  and  somewhat  later.  The  deg- 
radation of  the  Jerusalem  Sanhedrin  by  Gabinius 
was  only  temporary,  and  soon  after  we  find  the 
council  at  Jerusalem  exercising  supreme  author- 
ity and  even  utilized  by  rulers  to  serve  their  ends. 
The  Sanhedrin  of  Jerusalem,  as  finally  constitut- 
ed, consisted  of  71  members,  and  was  presided  over 
by  the  Ah-heth-din  ('Father  of  the  Tribunal'), 
with  whom  was  associated  in  the  post-Hadrianic 
era  the  NOsl  (Prince).  Its  members  belonged  to 
the  different  classes  of  society.  There  were 
priests;  elders,  that  is,  heads  of  families,  men 
of  age  and  experience;  scribes,  or  doctors  of  the 
law;  and  others  exalted  by  eminent  learning,  but 
we  have  no  authentic  source  for  determining  who 
composed  the  Sanhedrin  or  on  what  principle 
vacancies  were  filled.  The  presidency  ap- 
pears to  have  been  conferred  for  a  time  on  the 
high  priest  in  preference,  if  he  happened  to  pos- 
sess the  requisite  qualities  of  eminence;  other- 
wise 'he  who  excels  all  others  in  wisdom'  was 
appointed,  irrespective  of  his  station.  The  limits 
of  its  jurisdiction  are  not  known  with  oertainty; 
but  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  supreme  decision 
over  life  and  death  and  all  questions  of  general 
importance  were  exclusively  in  its  hands.  Be- 
sides this,  however,  the  regulation  of  the  sacred 
times  and  seasons,  and  many  matters  connected 
with  the  cultus  in  general,  except  the  sacerdotal 
part,  which  was  regulated  by  a  special  court  of 
priests,  were  vested  in  it.  It  fixed  the  beginnings 
of  the  new  moons ;  intercalated  the  vears  when 
necessary;  watched  over  the  purity  of  the  priest- 
ly families  by  carefully  examining  the  pedigrees 


BLOODROOT,    ETC. 


1.  CULVER'S   ROOT  (Leptandra  Vlrglnica).  3.  RED  CLOVER  (Trifoilum  pratense). 

2.  BLOODROOT  (Sanguinaria  Canadensis).  4.  DUTCHMAN'S   BREECHES  (Dicentra  cucullaria). 

5.  BLACK   COHOSH   (Cimicifuga  racemosa). 


&AKHEi>&nr. 


411 


SANITA&T  COMMISSION. 


of  those  priests  bom  out  of  Palestine,  so  that 
none  bom  from  a  suspicious  or  ill-famed  mother 
should  be  admitted  to  the  sacred  service;  and 
the  like.  By  degrees  the  whole  internal  admin- 
istration of  the  commonwealth  was  vested  in  this 
body,  and  it  became  necessary  to  establish  minor 
courts,  similarly  composed,  all  over  the  country, 
and  in  Jerusalem  itself.  Thus  we  hear  of  two 
inferior  tribunals  at  Jerusalem,  each  consisting 
of  23  men  (lesser  synedrion) ,  and  others  of  three 
men  only.  These  courts,  however,  probably  rep- 
resent only  smaller  or  larger  committees  chosen 
from  the  general  body.  Excluded  from  the  office 
of  judge  were  those  bom  in  adultery;  men  bom 
of  non-Israelitish  parents;  gamblers,  usurers; 
those  who  sold  fruit  grown  in  the  Sabbatical 
year;  and,  in  single  cases,  near  relatives.  All 
these  were  also  not  admitted  as  witnesses.  Two 
clerks  were  always  present,  one  registering  the 
condemnatory,  the  other  the  exculpatory  votes; 
and,  according  to  another  opinion,  there  was  still 
a  third  clerk  who  noted  all  the  votes  as  a  kind 
of  check.  The  mode  of  procedure  was  exceeding- 
ly complicated ;  and  such  was  the  caution  of  the 
court,  especially  in  matters  of  life  and  death, 
that  capital  punishment  was  pronounced  in  tne 
rarest  instances  only.  The  general  place  of 
assembly  was  a  certain  hall  {lishkat  hagazist, 
*hall  of  hewn  stones'),  probably  situated  at  the 
southeast  comer  of  one  of  the  courts  of  the 
temple.  With  exception  of  Sabbath  and  feast 
days  it  met  dailv.  The  double  presidency  of  the 
Nasi  and  Ab-beth-din  appears  to  have  been  insti- 
tuted to  insure  greater  impartiality,  those  chosen 
representing  the  two  factions  or  two  diverging 
tendencies  in  the  interpretation  of  the  law.  In 
questions  involving  civil  rights,  the  voting  began 
with  the  principal  members;  in  questions  of  life 
and  death  with  the  yotmger  members,  so  that  they 
might  not  be  influenced  by  the  leaders.  Twenty- 
three  members  constituted  a  quorum  for  judg- 
ments of  life  and  death,  but  if  the  court  showed 
a  majority  of  only  one  for  'guilty,'  the  number 
had  to  be  increased  by  two  successively  till  the 
full  court  was  formed ;  and  only  in  the  case  of  a 
full  court  was  a  majority  of  one  against  the 
prisoner  sufficient  for  condemnation.  The  San- 
hedrin  survived  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  and  what 
it  lost  in  authority  it  gained  in  the  veneration  in 
which  it  continued  to  be  held  by  the  Jews,  both 
in  Palestine  and  in  the  dispersion.  As  late  as 
the  fifth  century  we  find  an  institution  in  Jeru- 
salem that  can  be  regarded  as  a  continuation  of 
the  great  Sanhedrin.  Subsequently,  however,  we 
find  the  name  applied  to  a  body  of  the  most  emi- 
nent scholars  of  Babylonia — ^to  the  70  members 
of  the  learned  assemblies  that  occupied  the  first 
seven  rows. 

BiBUOGRAPHT.  Schttrcr,  Hiaiory  of  the  Jew- 
ish People  in  the  Times  of  Jesus  Christ,  vol.  ii. 
(Edinburgh,  1886-90) ;  Kuenen,  'HJeber  die  Zu- 
sammensetzung  des  Synhedrins,"  in  Oesammelte 
Ahhandlungen  (Freiburg,  1894)  ;  Hoffman,  Der 
oberste  Oerichtshof  in  der  Btadt  des  Heiligthums 
(Berlin,  1878)  ;  Jelski,  Die  innere  Einrichtung 
des  grossen  Bnyedrions  zu  Jerusalem,  etc.  (Bres- 
lau,  1894). 

SAN  IGI7ACI0  DE  AGAfiA,  sftn  6g-n&^- 
th^  dA  k-gB/nyk.    See  Aoana. 

SAN  ILDEFONSO,  Al'd&fdn^sd,  or  La  Gban- 
JA.  A  town  in  the  Province  of  Segovia,  Spain, 
situated  34  miles  northwest  of  Afiidrid  at  an 


elevation  of  nearly  4000  feet,  in  the  region  of  ro- 
mantic beauty  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Sierra 
de  Guadarrama  (Map:  Spain,  C  2).  The  town 
itself  is  beautifully  laid  out  with  fine  plazas, 
promenades,  and  gardens,  and  numerous  monu- 
mental fountains;  it  has  been  called  the  Ver- 
sailles of  Spain.  It  owes  its  existence  to  the. 
splendid  palace  built  there  in  1721-24  by  Philip 
v.,  which  has  since  been  a  summer  residence  of 
the  Spanish  Court.  It  is  a  beautiful  building,  the 
entire  facade  of  which  is  faced  by  a  row  of  tall 
columns  reaching  to  the  roof.  The  interior  is 
luxuriously  furnished,  containing  several  hun- 
dred fine  paintings  and  sculptures.  The  palace  is 
surrounded  by  magnificent  gardens  with  lakes, 
fountains,  and  statues.  Here  occurred  the  so- 
called  'Revolution  of  La  Gran j  a,'  on  the  12th  of 
August,  1836,  when  some  of  the  Liberal  leaders 
compelled  Queen  Christina  to  sign  a  decree  re- 
stormg  the  Constitution  of  1812.  Population,  in 
1900,  3444.    See  San  Ildefonbo,  Tbeatt  of. 

BAN  ILDEEONSO,  Tbeatt  of.  A  secret 
treaty  between  Prance  and  Spain,  negotiated  in 
October,  1800.  France  agreed  to  procure  in  Italy 
for  the  Duke  of  Parma,  the  son-in-law  of  Carlos 
IV.  of  Spain,  a  kingdom  which  should  have  a 
population  of  from  1,000,000  to  1,200,000,  while 
Spain  agreed  to  retrocede  to  France,  six  months 
after  France  had  carried  out  her  part  of  the  agree- 
ment, "the  colony  or  province  of  Louisiana  with 
the  same  extent  that  it  had  in  the  hands  of  Spain 
and  when  France  owned  it,  and  as  it  should  be 
according  to  subsequent  treaties  between  Spain 
and  other  powers."  In  addition  the  treaty  con- 
tained several  less  important  provisions.  The 
preliminary  treaty  was  signed  on  October  Ist, 
and  the  exchange  of  ratifications  took  place  on 
the  30th  of  the  same  month.  The  treaty  was 
modified  in  some  respects  by  a  new  treaty  nego- 
tiated at  Aranjuez,  March  21,  1801  (ratification 
being  exchanged  April  11),  the  immediate  trans- 
fer of  Louisiana  being  provided  for.  The  texts 
of  the  two  treaties  may  be  found  in  De  Clercq, 
Recueil  des^  traits  de  la  France,  vol.  i.  (Paris, 
1864). 

SAN  ISIDBO,  ^-se'drd.  The  capital  of  the 
Province  of  Nueva  Ecija,  in  Luzon,  Philippines 
(Map:  Philippine  Islands,  E  4).  It  is  situated 
on  the  Rio  Grande  de  la  Pampanga,  48  miles 
north  of  Manila,  has  a  telegraph  station  and 
good  road  connections  with  Manila  and  other 
cities  of  Central  Luzon.  Population  (estimated), 
in  1899,  7066. 

SANITABY  COMMISSION  (from  Lat. 
sanitas,  health,  from  sanus,  sound,  healthy,  sane ; 
connected  with  Gk.  0-dot,  sacs,  ffOt,  s6»j  safe, 
sound),  UNiTEa)  States.  An  organization  formed 
during  the  Civil  War  primarily  for  the  relief 
of  the  sick  and  wounded  soldiers  of  the  Union 
army.  On  the  day  on  which  President  Lin- 
coln's call  for  volunteers  was  issued  the  women 
of  various  cities  in  the  North  organized  societies 
for  the  purpose  of  affording  relief  and  comfort 
to  the  sick  and  wounded  volunteers.  They  stated 
their  purpose  to  be  "to  supply  nurses  for  the  sick; 
to  bring  them  home  when  practicable;  to  pur- 
chase clothing,  provisions,  and  matters  of  comfort 
not  supplied  by  the  Grovemment;  to  send  books 
and  newspapers  to  the  camps;  to  preserve  a  rec>- 
ord  of  the  services  of  each  soldier;  and  to  hold 
constant  communication  with  the  officers  of  the 
regiments  in  order  that  the  people  might  be  kept 


8ANITA&Y  COMXISSIOV. 


412 


aAiriTABY  COKiaSSIOtf . 


informed  of  the  condition  of  their  frienda."  On 
April  29,  1861,  the  Women's  Central  Relief  Asso- 
ciation was  organized  at  Cooper  Union,  New 
York,  under  a  constitution  drawn  up  by  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Heniy  W.  Bellows,  and  a  committee  was  ap- 
pointed to  ask  for  the  official  recognition  of  the 
association.  They  were  kindly  received,  but  their 
request  for  the  appointment  of  a  board  with 
power  to  visit  camps  and  hospitals  and  to  super- 
vise the  sanitary  administration  according  to  the 
approved  ideas  of  sanitary  science  was  refused. 
The  Government,  however,  consented  to  allow  the 
commission  to  act  in  an  advisory  capacity  to  the 
medical  department  and  to  visit  the  camps  and 
hospitals  with  a  view  to  recommending  sanitary 
regulations  and  reforms. 

By  an  order  of  the  War  Department  issued 
June  9,  1861,  Dr.  Bellows,  Prof.  A.  D.  Bache 
(chief  of  the  Coast  Survey) ,  Wolcott  Gibbs,  M.D., 
Samuel  G.  Howe,  M.D.,  Prof.  Jeffries  Wyman, 
M.D.,  W.  H.  Van  Buren,  M.D.,  R.  C.  Wood, 
surgeon-general  U.S.A.,  G.  W.  CuUum,  U.S.A., 
and  A.  Shiras,  U.S.A.,  in  conjunction  with  such 
others  as  might  be  associated  with  them,  were 
constituted  "a  Commission  of  Inquiry  and  Ad- 
vice in  Respect  of  the  Sanitary  Interests  of  the 
United  States  Forces."  They  were  to  serve  with- 
out pay,  but  were  to  be  supplied  with  an  office 
at  Washington.  The  commission  was  charged 
with  directing  its  inquiries  to  "the  principles  and 
practice  connected  with  the  inspection  of  recruits 
and  enlisted  men,  the  sanitary  condition  of  volun- 
teers, the  means  of  preserving  and  restoring  the 
health  and  of  securing  the  general  comfort  and 
efficiency  of  the  troops,  the  proper  provision  of 
cooks,  nurses,  and  hospitals,  and  other  subjects 
of  a  like  nature." 

The  commission  was  organized  by  the  election 
of  Dr.  Bellows  as  president  and  Frederick  Law 
Olmsted  as  secretary.  Declining  Government 
support  on  the  ground  that  it  preferred  to  re- 
main independent,  the  commission  addressed  it- 
self for  fimds  to  the  life  insurance  companies  of 
the  country  and  to  the  people  at  large.  Responses, 
although  generous,  were  at  first  insufficient,  but 
in  October,  1862,  the  outlook  was  brightened  by 
the  receipt  of  $100,000  from  the  people  of  Cali- 
fornia. Before  the  close  of  the  war  California 
had  contributed  more  than  $1,300,000.  This  ex- 
ample of  generosity  aroused  enthusiasm  and  ex- 
cited emulation,  so  that  the  receipts  of  the 
commission  increased  from  $20,000  per  month  to 
more  than  $200,000.  The  total  amount  of  cash 
received  in  the  treasury  of  the  commission  during 
the  war  was  $4,924,048.  Next  to  California  the 
largest  amounts  contributed  by  the  States  were: 
Massachusetts,  $121,928;  Nevada,  $107,642; 
Oregon,  $79,406;  Washington  (Territory),  $20,- 
918;  Maine,  $24,938;  New  York,  $20,741.  Even 
Louisiana  contributed  more  than  $3,000.  Many 
foreign  countries  also  aided.  From  London  came 
a  gift  of  $36,700;  from  Paris,  $13,372;  from 
Buenos  Ayres,  $18,412;  from  the  Sandwich  Isl- 
ands, $17,966.  Besides  the  actual  amount  turned 
into  the  treasury  large  siuns  were  raised  and 
expended  by  the  various  branches  of  the  commis- 
sion. The  value  of  contributions  other  than 
money  was  estimated  at  $15,000,000,  four-fifths 
of  which  came  from  local  societies  of  which  there 
were  estimated  to  be  more  than  7,000. 

The  efforts  of  the  commission  were  in  the  first 
place  directed  toward  the  prevention  of  sickness 


and  disease  among  the  soldiers  by  advising  the 
regimental  surgeons  in  the  selection  of  camp  sites, 
by  regulating  the  drainage  and  by  inspecting 
the  food  and  supervising  the  cooking.  To  ameli- 
orate the  condition  of  the  sick  and  wounded  and 
at  the  same  time  prevent  the  spread  of  contagion, 
model  pavilion  hospitals  were  provided.  Soldiers' 
homes  for  the  sick  and  convalescent  were  estab- 
lished in  many  places  to  supply  the  deficiencies 
of  the  Government  medical  service.  During  the 
war  thirteen  such  homes  were  maintained  in  the 
West,  where  more  than  600,000  soldiers  were 
lodged  and  2,600,000  meals  given.  Hospital 
steamers  equipped  with  surgeons  and  nunes 
were  improvised  and  put  on  the  Mississippi  River 
and  its  tributaries.  By  this  means  thousands  of 
wounded  soldiers  were  removed  with  comparative 
comfort  from  the  battlefields  of  the  West  to  well- 
equipped  hospitals  in  the  North.  A  hospital  car 
provided  with  a  sort  of  swinging  bed  or  ham- 
mock was  invented  by  one  of  the  members  of  the 
commission  and  was  put  into  general  use  in 
moving  wounded  soldiers  from  the  battlefields  to 
the  general  hospitals.  During  the  war  225,000 
sick  and  wounded  soldiers  were  transported  in 
hospital  cars  from  various  battlefields  in  the 
East  and  West  to  the  general  hospitals.  One 
of  the  special  services  of  the  commission  was 
the  relief  which  it  afforded  in  the  way  of  hospital 
suppUes  on  the  battlefield.  After  the  battle  of 
Antietam,  when  10,000  soldiers  lay  wounded  on 
the  field  and  the  trains  containing  the  medical 
supplies  were  stalled  near  Baltimore,  the  Sani- 
tary Commission  performed  some  of  its  most 
valuable  service.  Its  long  wagon  train  had  fol- 
lowed the  army^  and  for  several  days  the  onlv 
available  supplies  were  those  which  it  furnished. 
In  this  instance  the  commission  is  said  to  have 
issued  over  28,000  shirts,  towels,  pillows,  etc; 
30  barrels  of  lint  and  bandages;  over  3000 
pounds  of  farina;  over  20,000  pounds  of  con- 
densed milk;  5000  pounds  of  beef  stock  and 
canned  meats;  3000  bottles  of  wine  and  cordial; 
besides  several  tons  of  fruit,  tea,  sugar,  cloth, 
and  hospital  conveniences. 

The  special  relief  service  of  the  commission 
consisted  in  the  establishment  of  temporary  sol- 
diers' homes  at  convenient  depots  where  weak 
and  sick  men  on  the  march  could  be  treated  and 
sent  on  to  camp.  Some  40  or  more  of  these  were 
established  throughout  the  South.  There  was 
also  a  system  of  hospital  directories  organized  for 
the  purpose  of  keeping  a  record  of  solf&ers  in  the 
hospitals  so  that  their  condition  and  where- 
abouts could  be  readily  ascertained.  The  poision 
bureau  and  claim  agency  undertook,  without 
charge,  to  aid  soldiers  in  the  prosecution  of  their 
claims  by  securing  records  or  papers  concerning 
their  service  and  by  advising  such  as  were  ig- 
norant  and  incompetent.  Over  $2,600,000  due  dis- 
charged soldiers  was  secured  for  them.'  The 
hospital  inspection  service  consisted  of  a  corps  of 
physicians  imder  an  inspector  in  chief,  who  vis- 
ited the  general  hospitals  and  reported  to  the 
Sanitary  Commission  such  information  as  was 
deemed  useful  to  the  medical  department.  Final- 
ly the  bureau  of  vital  statistics  collected  a  vast 
amount  of  information  of  permanent  value  rela- 
tive to  the  health  of  the  army,  diet,  influence  of 
climate,  nationality  of  soldiers,  their  physical 
characteristics,  etc.  Consult  Still6,  History  of 
the  United  States  Sanitary  CommisBian  (Philsr 
delphia,  1866). 


8ANITAB7  LAWS. 


41S 


SANITABT  80IEKCB. 


SANITAB7  LAWS.  Statutes  and  regula- 
tions enacted  under  authority  of  the  police  power 
of  the  State  directed  to  the  preservation  of  the 
public  health.  To  the  first  class  belong  quaran- 
tine laws  and  regulations,  both  foreign  and  do- 
mestic ;  statutes  prescribing  the  requirements  for 
the  practice  of  medicine  and  surgery;  ordinances 
prescribing  rules  of  conduct  in  public  places  and 
Tehicles;  and  provisions  for  tenement-house  erec- 
tion and  inspection.  To  the  second  class  belong 
aewer  and  water-supply  systems;  provisions  for 
seavengers  and  street  cleaning,  meat  and  food 
inspection;  ordinances  prohibiting  the  building 
and  maintaining  abattoirs  in  crowded  dis- 
tricts ;  the  prohibition  or  regulation  of  the  manu- 
facture and  sale  of  unwholesome  food  products 
and  adulterated  drugs  and  provisions;  the  estab- 
lishment of  hospitals  and  institutions  for  the  care 
of  children  and  the  insane;  sanitariums  for  the 
treatment  of  tuberculosis  and  epilepsy;  acts  pro- 
viding for  the  incorporation  and  regulation  of 
cemeteries;  the  erection  and  support  of  public 
baths,  public  parks,  and  clean  and  healthful 
places  of  public  amusement. 

Early  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  and 
Uter  in  Elizabeth's  time  there  are  indications  of 
intelligent  restriction  and  regulation  of  unhealthy 
trades  and  occupations,  but  these  enactments 
gradually  fell  into  disuse  until  with  the  in- 
vasion of  Asiatic  cholera,  such  was  the  sanitary 
condition  of  English  town  and  village  life  that 
70,000  persons  perished  in  a  single  year.  The 
sanitary  legislation  that  followed  up  to  the  last 
century  was  mainly  ineffective,  and  there  con- 
tinued to  be  periodical  epidemics  in  England, 
which  swept  away  large  numbers.  It  was  not 
until  1848  that  a  general  system  of  sanitary  legis- 
lation was  established  in  England.  France  and 
the  German  States  had  meanwhile  developed  sys- 
tems adapted  to  their  special  methods  of  admin- 
istration. The  French  system  established  in  1832 
is  characterized  by  councils  of  public  health,  hav- 
JBtt  only  advisory  duties  for  each  department, 
with  the  executory  authority  lodged  in  the  pre- 
fect. The  French  system  is  generally  followed  by 
Belgium,  Spain,  and  Italy,  though  Italy  by  its 
maritime  cities  was  the  pioneer  in  sanitary  legis- 
lation during  the  Middle  Ages.  The  German 
system  is  dominated  by  the  faculties  of  its  great 
medical  institutions  and  relies  for  its  adminis- 
tration upon  the  paternal  attitude  of  the  Govern- 
ment. In  England  and  the  United  States  sani- 
tary laws  are  placed  under  the  control  of  special 
bureaus  or  hoards  of  health,  separate  provisions 
for  this  purpose  being  made  in  the  Federal  and 
State  systems,  the  latter  also  delegating  to  mu- 
nicipal corporations  the  powers  necessary  to  make 
and  enforce  regulations  for  the  protection  of  the 
public  health  within  their  jurisdictions.  (See 
Health,  Boabds  op.)  The  diseases  which  re- 
quire the  attention  of  the  legislator  may  be  classi- 
fied as  endemic,  contagious,  and  epidemic.  (See 
Contagious  Diseases;  Endemic;  Epidemic.) 
Boards  of  health  are  not  liable  for  errors  of  judg- 
ment when  acting  within  their  jurisdiction,  though 
they  are  liable  for  negligence.  Yet  a  city  or  munic- 
ipality cannot  be  held  responsible  for  the  negligence 
of  a  physician  of  the  board,  the  mismanagement  of 
its  hospital,  or  even  the  wrongful  appropriation  of 
property  by  members  of  the  board  of  health,  for 
the  purpose  for  which  the  board  is  created  is 
governmental  in  character  and  the  municipality 


derives  no  benefit  in  its  corporate  capacity  from 
the  performance  of  this  duty. 

See  Police  Power;  Quarantine;  Nuisance, 
etc. ;  and  consult  the  authorities  mentioned  there ; 
also  Lumley,  Public  Health  (5th  ed.,  London, 
1896) ;  Stockman,  A  Practical  Guide  for  Sanitary 
Inspectors  (ib.,  1900). 

SANITABY  SCIENCE.  The  subdivision  of 
hygiene  which  treats  of  ascertained  facts  and 
verified  theories  concerning  preservation  of 
health,  prevention  of  disease,  and  prolongation 
of  life.  The  subject  naturally  subdivides  into  the 
following  principal  topics :  ( 1 )  Those  which  con- 
cern the  surroundings  of  man^  such  as  the  site 
or  soil  on  which  his  dwelling  is  placed;  the  air 
he  breathes;  the  water  he  drinks;  the  character, 
materials,  and  arrangements  of  his  dwelling;  the 
cleaning,  warming,  and  ventilation  of  his  dwell- 
ing, and  the  arrangements  for  the  removal  from 
it  of  excreta;  and  the  general  problem  of  disposal 
of  sewage.  (2)  The  prevention  of  disease.  (3) 
The  personal  care  of  health,  covering  such  points 
as  diet,  exercise,  and  clothing. 

Soil.  -  Soils  may  be  moist  or  dry,  permeable 
or  impermeable,  flat  or  sloping,  etc.  Their 
characteristics  depend,  aside  from  topography, 
upon  the  predominance  of  organic  or  inorganic 
constituents,  water,  and  air.  Loam  contains 
much  organic  matter,  many  earthworms  and  in- 
numerable bacteria.  Deep  soil  is  rarely  con- 
taminated with  excrementitiouB  matter.  At  a 
certain  level,  dependent  upon  the  position  of 
strata  of  clay  and  gravel,  is  a  subterranean  col- 
lection of  water  known  as  'ground  water.'  It 
represents  the  moisture  that  permeates  the  sur- 
face soil  after  that  is  saturated  and  reaches  an 
impermeable  soil  upon  which  it  firmly  lies,  and 
from  whence  it  is  pumped  or  raised  in  wells. 
This  subterranean  sea  is  constantly  in  motion, 
vertically  and  horizontally.  Its  horizontal  mo- 
tion is  toward  the  sea  or  the  nearest  watercourse. 
Its  vertical  motion  is  determined  chiefiy  by  rain- 
fall. Much  importance  has  been  attached  to  it, 
and  the  following  points  may  be  considered  as 
accepted :  ( 1 )  A  permanently  high  ground  water, 
that  is,  within  5  feet  of  the  surface,  is  bad,  while 
a  permanently  low  ground  water,  that  is,  more 
than  15  feet  from  the  surface,  is  good;  and  (2) 
violent  fiuctuations  are  bad,  even  with  an  aver- 
age low  ground  water;  a  comparatively  high 
ground  water  with  moderate  and  slow  fluctua- 
tions may  be  healthful.  The  ground  water  deter- 
mines the  spread  of  certain  forms  of  disease. 
The  rainwater,  in  the  act  of  passing  through  the 
upper  strata  of  earth,  carries  with  it  a  mass  of 
organic  matter  as  well  as  a  host  of  bacteria  and 
disease  germs,  of  which  it  is  robbed  as  it  sinks  to 
the  deepest  soil.  If  well-water  be  augmented  by 
ground  water  which  leaches  in  at  high  level  it 
will  be  contaminated  and  polluted.  Healthy  soils 
are  the  granites,  metamorphic  rocks,  clay  slate, 
limestone,  sandstone,  chalk,  gravel,  and  sand; 
unhealthy  are  clay,  sand  and  gravel  with  clay 
subsoil,  alluvial  soil^  and  marsh-lands.  Among 
the  unhealthy  soils  ought  also  to  be  included  all 
'made'  soils,  particularly  those  that  are  fonned 
so  often  in  towns  from  rubbish  of  all  sorts.  Such 
soils  ought  not  to  be  occupied  as  building  sites 
for  at  least  two  years. 

Sites.  The  proper  site  for  a  dwelling  is  upon 
a  permeable,  porous  soil,  through  which  rain 
may  easily  filter  and  into  which  it  may  carry  or- 


fiANITAET  BCmVCB. 


414 


SAKIIIA&Y  SOIXVCE. 


ganic  matter  from  the  surface;  a  soil  which  has 
a  low  ground-water  level,  and  which  retains  but 
little  dampness;  a  soil  which  admits  of  free  cir- 
culation of  atmospheric  air  with  the  ground  air; 
a  soil  that  does  not  admit  of  collections  of  stand- 
ing water,  and  that  has  slope  enough  to  insure 
drainage.  Where  soil  cannot  be  selected  paving 
and  tree-planting  correct  many  evils.  Paving 
prevents  the  diffusion  of  ground  air  and  the 
entrance  of  sewage  or  contaminated  rainwater. 
Trees  absorb  carbonic  acid  gas  and  moisture  and 
yield  oxygen,  which  in  turn  assists  chemical  con- 
version of  organic  matter.  Cementing  of  cellars 
and  laying  damp-proof  material  upon  foundations 
before  erecting  walls  are  also  protective  measures 
against  dampness  and  pollution.  In  wet  locali- 
ties or  in  settlements  necessarily  built  for  com- 
mercial reasons  near  marshy  land,  through  sub- 
soil drainage  by  means  of  trenches  or  drain-tile, 
the  level  of  the  ground  water  may  be  lowered  to 
a  safe  position.    See  Drainage. 

AiB.  Air  is  an  imperfect  gas  consisting  of 
79  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  and  nearly  21  per  cent, 
of  oxygen,  together  with  small  quantities  of  car- 
bonic acid,  ammonia,  watery  vapor,  and  impuri- 
ties. We  may  neglect  the  consideration  of  the 
small  quantities  of  helium,  neon,  argon,  krypton, 
and  xenon,  the  rare  gases  found  in  the  atmos- 
phere during  recent  chemical  investigations.  Air 
is  the  prime  requisite  for  existence,  and  upon  its 
purity  depends  to  a  large  extent  the  growth,  de- 
velopment, and  health  of  animal  life.  Satura- 
tion of  the  atmosphere  with  water  is  called  100 
per  cent,  of  humidity.  Average  health  demands 
a  humidity  of  from  65  to  75  per  cent.,  the  lowest 
amount  of  aqueous  vapor  in  the  air  being  35  per 
cent.  Impurities  in  the  air  are  from  various 
sources.  Air  is  vitiated  by  respiration,  combus- 
tion of  fuel  or  of  illuminating  gas,  decaying  vege- 
table or  animal  matter,  and  by  gases  arising  from 
manufacturing  and  various  occupations.  Ex- 
pired air  contains  100  times  more  carbonic  acid 
and  nearly  6  per  cent,  less  oxygen  than  ordinary 
atmospheric  air.  Emitting  with  each  expiration 
22  cubic  inches  of  air  and  respiring  18  times  a 
minute,  each  adult  emits  570,240  cubic  inches,  or 
330  cubic  feet  of  air  in  24  hours.  In  this  total 
there  are  14.52  cubic  feet  of  carbon  dioxide. 
Physical  activity  increases  this  total.  Combus- 
tion of  fuel  and  gas  adds  carbon  monoxide  and 
dioxide,  smoke,  and  soot  to  the  atmosphere.  Fac- 
tories, etc.,  add  dust,  chemical  vapors,  and  vola- 
tile substances  to  the  air.  Small  amounts  of 
impurity  do  a  little  damage  to  health,  large 
amounts  undermine  it.  Hence  ventilation  be- 
comes necessary,  that  is,  comparatively  pure  air 
must  be  substituted  in  dwellings  for  vitiated  at- 
mosphere.   See  Heating  and  Ventilation. 

Wateb.  The  atmosphere  is  the  source  of  water 
supply.  The  vapor  of  water  therein  is  condensed 
and  falls  in  the  form  of  rain,  snow,  or  dew. 
Rain,  obviously,  must  carry  down  with  it  the  im- 
purities in  the  atmosphere — j2;ases,  dust,  and  bac- 
teria. It  must  cause  deeper  deposition  of  organic 
matter  as  it  passes  into  the  soil.  It  becomes 
either  surface  water,  augmenting  the  streams  or 
ground  water  supplying  wells  and  subterranean 
reservoirs.  Impure  water  carries  the  germs  of 
many  diseases,  as  typhoid  fever,  diphtheria, 
diarrhoea,  dysentery,  malaria,  cholera,  probably 
yellow  fever,  etc.  The  pollution  of  surface  water 
by  the  entrance  of  sewage  and  of  decomposing 
organic  matter  is  very  easy  and  is  a  prevalent 


cause  of  disease.  See  Filteb  and  Filtration; 
also  Water  Purification;  Water  Supply; 
Water-Works. 

Dwellings.  Besides  the  site  of  a  dwelling 
and  the  desirability  of  its  freedom  from  damp- 
ness and  ground  air,  to  which  attention  has  al- 
ready been  given,  a  house  for  living  or  for  busi- 
ness purposes  should  give  access  to  an  abundance 
of  sunlight.  The  heat  rays,  luminous  rays,  and 
actinic  rays  of  light  all  effect  decoiniKMition  of 
organic  material  and  hasten  reconstruction  pro- 
cesses. The  materials  of  which  houses  are  built 
are  various.  Wooden  dwellings  are  common  in 
country  localities,  but  they  are  always  open  to 
the  objection  of  the  greater  danger  of  fire.  In 
cities  brick  or  stone  is  most  commonly  used,  but 
very  good  dwellings  may  be  made  of  concrete. 
Probably  the  best  material  is  good,  sound,  well- 
bumt  brick.  Dryness  must  be  secured  by  means 
of  damp-proof  courses  along  the  foundations 
and  hollow  walls,  and  cementing  externally.  Non- 
absorbent  surfaces  internally  are  important,  al- 
though some  have  been  inclined  to  attribute  the 
unhealthfulness  of  dwellings  to  the  impermeability 
of  the  walls  obstructing  air  change.  But  where 
air  can  pass  organic  matter  can  lodge  and  be- 
comes a  source  of  danger.  It  is  better,  therefore, 
to  have  non-absorbent  surfaces  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, and  to  provide  for  ventilation  in  other 
ways.  Paint  that  can  be  washed  is  therefore 
better  than  paper.  Care  should  be  taken  to 
scrape  off  all  old  papers  beneath,  as  they  and  the 
paste  used  with  them  tend  to  decompose  and  be- 
come injurious  to  health.  Ceilings  ought  to  be 
impervious  as  well  as  walls,  and  floors  ought  to 
be  made  of  well- fitting  seasoned  wood,  calked 
and  oiled  or  varnished  so  as  to  make  them  water- 
tight. The  proper  cubic  space  has  been  stated. 
Arrangements  snould  be  made  for  change  of  air 
once  in  three  hours,  if  conditions  of  constant 
change  do  not  exist.  The  furniture  of  rooms, 
especially  sleeping  rooms,  ought  not  to  be  too 
massive;  white  curtains  and  hangings  too  often 
form  traps  for  dust  and  organic  matter.  The 
warming  of  houses  is  of  exceeding  importance. 
See  Heating  and  Ventilation. 

Scrupulous  attention  to  cleanlineaa  is  neces- 
sary in  dwellings,  and  there  is  wisdom  in  the 
use  of  rugs  or  loose  carpets  which  may  be  re- 
moved daily  from  rooms  and  thoroughly  cleaned. 
Corners  should  be  thoroughly  freed  from  dust  as 
well  as  nooks  underneath  and  behind  large  pieces 
of  furniture,  spaces  above  rows  of  books,  the 
wall  sides  of  pictures,  etc.,  for  dust  forms  a  well- 
adapted  nidus  for  disease  germs,  especially  of 
the  bacteria  which  produce  suppuration.  Closely 
allied  to  the  ordinary  cleaning  of  the  interior  of 
dwellings  is  the  problem  of  the  removal  of  ex- 
creta, waste,  and  garbage.  Practically  waste 
consists  of:  (1)  Garbage,  including  kitchen 
refuse,  offal,  bones,  etc.;  (2)  refuse,  including 
paper,  dust,  ashes,  clothing,  carpet,  broken  fur- 
niture, iron  and  other  waste  metal,  as  well  as 
'trade  refuse,*  which  includes  excelsior,  straw, 
wood  shavings,  leather  scraps,  tobacco  stalks, 
felt  cuttings,  tin  scraps,  etc.;  and  (3)  sewage, 
including  animal  excrement  (f»cal  and  uri- 
nary), wash  water  from  bathing,  laundering 
clothes,  washing  culinary  utensils,  cleaning 
house,  etc.  Properly  separated,  ashes  and  dust 
are  useful  in  filling  sunken  lots,  marshes,  etc. 
Paper,  metal,  and  most  trade  refuse  have  a  mar- 
ket value.    Sewage  and  garbage  are  valuable  fer* 


aAKITABT  SCIENCE. 


416 


SANITABT  SCIENCE. 


tilixen.  Yet  in  most  cities  all  the  waste  ia 
either  burned  and  destroyed  or  freighted  out  and 
dumped  into  the  sea  or  some  large  body  of  water. 
It  was  calculated  by  a  former  street-cleaning 
commissioner  in  the  old  city  of  New  York  (now 
the  Borough  of  Manhattan)  that  the  dry  refuse 
reached  the  aggregate  of  1,000,000  tons  annually 
and  the  garbage  175,000  tons  annually.  The 
?alu6  of  the  salvable  part  of  this  great  mass  of 
waste  was  stated  to  be  over  $650,000  a  year. 
Sanitati<m  is  concerned  with  the  disposal  of 
garbage.  See  Gabbage  and  Refuse  Disposal; 
Sewage  Disposal;  Plumbing. 

Pbevention  of  Disease.  This  is  a  large  ques- 
tion, on  which  this  article  can  only  briefly  touch. 
Much  depends  upon  knowledge  of  the  fetiology  or 
the  remote  causes  of  disease.  The  best  rule  for 
preventing  disease  is  to  follow  out  carefully  the 
principles  of  general  hygiene  (q.v.)  with  refer- 
ence to  pure  air,  pure  water,  proper  food,  clean- 
liness, etc.  Provision  may  be  made  against 
certain  diseases.  Malaria  (q.v.)  may  be  pre- 
vented by  destroying  mosquitoes  and  depriv- 
ing them  of  their  breeding  places,  as  well  as  by 
screening  doors  and  windows  of  houses  in  ma- 
larious districts.  Smallpox  may  be  prevented  by 
persistent  revaccination.  (See  Vaccination.) 
Typhoid  fever  may  be  prevented  by  boiling  all 
water  before  it  is  drunk  or  used  in  cooking,  by 
cooking  oysters  thoroughly,  by  most  scrupulous 
drenching  of  all  raw  vegetables  which  may  have 
been  watered  with  liquid  manure,  and  by  pre- 
venting insects  from  gaining  access  to  typhoid 
patient's  dejecta  or  clothing  before  thorough  dis- 
infection has  been  practiced.  (For  the  diseases 
transmitted  through  the  agency  of  insects  most 
of  them  preventable,  see  Insects,  Propagation 
OF  Disease  bt.)  In  most  large  cities  compulsory 
notification  to  the  Board  of  Health  is  legal  in 
the  case  of  cholera,  yellow  fever,  plague,  small- 
pox, chicken-pox,  diphtheria  (including  mem- 
branous croup),  typnus,  typhoid,  tuberculosis, 
measles,  and  spotted,  relapsing,  and  scarlet  fevers, 
all  of  which  are  considered  contagious  except 
typhoid.  Isolation  is  practiced  in  all  these  dis- 
eases, partial  or  absolute.  Much  stress  has  been 
laid  upon  di9infection  as  a  means  of  preventing 
disease,  and  if  properly  carried  out  it  has  some 
efficiency.  But  it  is  a  mistake  to  place  too  im- 
plicit reliance  upon  it  as  ordinarily  practiced. 
See  Disinfectants. 

The  Disposal  of  the  Dead.  In  order  to  un- 
derstand the  importance  of  this  subject  one  must 
know  something  of  the  changes  which  the  body 
undergoes  after  death.  A  &dy  that  has  been 
buried  gradually  breaks  up  into  a  large  number 
of  comparatively  simple  compounds,  such  as 
carbonic  acid,  ammonia,  sulphureted  and  car- 
bureted hydrogen,  nitrous  and  nitric  acid,  and 
certain  more  complicated  gaseous  matters  with 
a  very  fetid  odor,  which  finally  undergo  oxida- 
tion; while  the  non- volatile  substances  usually 
enter  into  the  soil,  and  either  pass  into  plants 
or  are  carried  away  by  the  water  percolating  the 
soil.  These  changes  are  accelerated  by  the  worms 
and  other  low  forms  of  life  that  usually  swarm 
in  decomposing  bodies ;  and  the  character  of  the 
soil  materially  influences  the  degree  of  rapidity 
of  destruction.  The  bones  remain  almost  im- 
chan^ed  for  ages.  If  a  body  is  burned,  decom- 
position is  incomparably  more  rapid,  and  differ- 
ent volatile  combinations  may  arise,  the  mineral 
salts  and  a  little  carbon  alone  remaining.    Put- 


ting aside  the  visionary  schemes  for  turning  the 
dead  to  commercial  account,  there  are  three 
methods  of  disposing  of  our  dead  for  considera- 
tion, viz.  burial  in  land  or  in  water,  or  crema- 
tion. At  present  the  question  is  not  urgent;  but 
it  may  become  so  in  a  century  or  two,  if  the  popu- 
lation continues  to  increase  at  the  present  rate. 
Even  in  our  own  time. a  great  change  has  taken 
place,  and  the  objectionable  habit  of  interments 
in  and  around  churches  in  towns  has  been  aban- 
doned, cemeteries  in  the  country  being  now  com- 
monly employed,  except  in  the  case  of  country 
villages.  The  air  over  cemeteries  is,  however, 
always  contaminated,  and  water  percolating 
through  them  is  unfit  for  drinking  purposes. 
The  evils  are  lessened  by  making  the  grave  as 
deep  as  possible,  and  by  placing  not  more  than 
one  body  in  one  grave.  Plants  should  be  freely 
introduced  into  every  cemetery,  for  the  absorp- 
tion of  organic  matters  and  of  carbonic  acid ;  and 
the  most  rapidly  growing  trees  and  shrubs  should 
be  selected,  in  preference  to  the  slowly  growing 
cypress  and  yew.  The  superficial  space  which 
should  be  allotted  to  each  grave  varies  in  differ- 
ent countries  from  30  to  90  feet;  the  depth 
should  be  at  least  6  feet.  It  is  required  by  law 
that  the  grave  spaces  for  persons  above  twelve 
years  of  age  shall  be  at  least  9  feet  by  4,  and 
those  for  children  under  twelve  years,  6  feet  by  3. 
It  is  likewise  required  that  not  less  than  4  feet 
of  earth  should  be  placed  over  the  coffin  of  an 
adult,  and  3  feet  above  that  of  a  child.  The  time 
which  should  elapse  before  a  grave  is  disturbed 
for  a  new  tenant  varies  with  the  soil  and  the  dis- 
tance of  the  body  from  the  surface.  Under  favor- 
able circumstances,  a  coffin  containing  an  adult 
will  disappear  with  its  contents  in  about  ten 
years;  while  in  a  clayey  or  peaty  soil  it  will  re- 
main a  century.  It  is  generally  assumed  that  a 
period  of  fourteen  years  is  sufficient  for  the 
decay  of  an  adult,  but  long  before  this  time  all 
will  have  disappeared  but  the  skeleton.  As  a 
matter  of  expense,  too,  that  of  cremation  is 
greater  than  burial  at  sea.  In  burial  at  sea  the 
body  would  go  at  once  to  support  other  forms 
of  life  more  rapidly  than  in  the  case  of  land 
burial,  and  without  danger  of  evolution  of  hurt- 
ful products.     See  Bubial;  Cbemation. 

Diirr.  Although  about  seventy  elementary 
substances  are  known  to  chemists,  only  a  compar- 
atively small  number  of  these  take  part  in  the 
formation  of  man  and  other  animals;  and  it  is 
only  this  small  number  of  constituents  which 
are  essential  elements  of  our  food.  These  ele- 
ments are,  in  the  order  of  their  abundance,  oxy- 
gen, carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  calcium,  phos- 
phorus,  chlorin,  fluorin,  sulphur,  potassium,  sodi- 
um, magnesia,  and  iron,  with  traces  of  silicon, 
lithium,  and  manganese. 

Carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen  are 
supplied  to  the  system  by  the  proteid  group  of 
alimentary  principles  (see  Diet) — ^viz.  albumen, 
fibrin,  and  casein,  which  occur  both  in  the  animal 
and  vegetable  kingdoms,  and  the  gluten  contained 
in  vegetables.  Animal  flesh,  eggs,  milk,  com, 
and  many  other  vegetable  products  contain  one  or 
more  of  these  principles.  The  gelatinoid  group 
also  introduces  the  same  elements  into  the  sys- 
tem, when  such  substances  as  preparations  of 
gelatin,  calves'  feet,  etc.,  are  taken  as  food.  Car- 
bon, hydrogen,  and  oxygen  are  abundantly  intro- 
duced into  the  system  of  the  carbohydrate  group 
in  the  form  of  sugar  or  starch  (which  occur  in 


SANITABY  SGZEVCE. 


416 


SANITABY  SGIEKGE. 


large  quantity  in  the  cereal  grainB,  leguminous 
seeds,  roots,  tubers,  etc.,  used  as  food),  and  also 
by  organic  acids  (which,  as  citric,  malic,  tartaric 
acid,  etc.,  occur  in  numerous  vegetables  employed 
as  food).  Carbon,  with  hydrogen  and  03^gen, 
occurs  abundantly  in  the  fatty  group  of  alimen- 
tary principles,  as,  for  instance,  in  all  the  fat, 
suet,  butter,  and  oil  that  are  eaten;  in  the  oily 
seeds,  as  nuts,  walnuts,  cocoanuts,  etc.;  and  in 
fatty  foods,  as  liver,  brain,  etc.  Phosphorus  is 
supplied  to  us  by  the  flesh,  blood,  and  bones  used 
as  food,  and  in  the  form  of  various  phosphates 
it  is  a  constituent  of  many  of  the  vegetables 
used  as  food.  The  system  derives  its  sulphur 
from  the  fibrin  of  flesh,  the  albumen  of  eggs, 
and  the  casein  of  milk,  from  the  vegetable  fibrin 
of  com,  etc.,  from  the  vegetable  albumen  of  tur- 
nips, cauliflowers,  asparagus,  etc.,  and  from  the 
vegetable  casein  of  peas  and  beans.  Most  of  the 
culinary  vegetables  contain  it.  Chlorine  and  so- 
dium, in  the  form  of  chloride  of  sodium,  are  more 
or  less  abundantlv  contained  in  all  varieties 
of  animal  food,  and  are  taken  separately  as  com- 
mon salt.  Potassium  is  a  constitutent  of  both 
animal  and  vegetable  food ;  it  occurs  in  consider- 
able quantity  in  milk,  and  in  the  juice  that  per- 
meates animal  flesh ;  and  most  inland  plants  con- 
tain it.  We  derive  the  calcium  of  our  system 
from  flesh,  bones,  eggs,  milk,  etc.  (all  of  which 
contain  salts  of  lime) ;  most  vegetables  also 
contain  lime-salts;  and  another  source  of  our 
calcium  is  common  water,  which  usually  contains 
both  bicarbonate  and  sulphate  of  lime.  Magne- 
sium in  small  quantity  is  generally  found  in  those 
foods  that  contain  calcium.  Iron  is  a  constitr 
uent  of  blood  found  in  meat;  and  it  occurs  in 
smaller  quantity  in  milk,  in  the  yolk  of  egg,  and 
in  traces  in  most  vegetable  foods.  Fluorin  occurs 
in  minute  quantity  in  the  bones  and  teeth,  ob- 
tained from  the  traces  of  fluorin  found  in  milk, 
blood,  etc. 

These  simple  bodies  are  not,  however,  capable 
of  being  assimilated  and  converted  into  tissue  in 
the  animal  body;  this  combination  is  effected  in 
the  vegetable  kingdom,  and  animals  modify  and 
convert  the  complex  compounds  which  they  ob- 
tained from  vegetables.  The  number  of  com- 
bined elements  varies:  thus  water  contains  only 
2;  sugar,  starch,  fat,  and  many  organic  acids 
contain  3 ;  while  casein,  fibrin,  and  albumen,  ex- 
clusive of  the  mineral  salts  in  their  ash,  con- 
tain 5. 

It  would  be  impossible,  and  it  is  quite  un- 
necessary, to  mention  in  this  article  the  diflferent 
animals  and  plants  that  are  used  as  food  by 
different  nations.  The  interested  are  referred  to 
Reich's  Nahrunga-  und  Oenussmittelkunde  ( 1860- 
61). 

Drinks  are  merely  liquid  foods.  They  include : 
Mucilaginous,  farinaceous,  or  saccharine  drinks 
— as  toast-water,  barley-water,  gruel,  etc.,  which 
are  very  slightly  nutritive,  and  differ  but  little 
from  common  water;  aromatic  or  astringent 
drinks — as  tea,  coffee,  chocolate,  and  cocoa,  the 
last  two  of  which  contain  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of.  oil  and  starch;  acidulous  drinks — as 
lemonade,  ginger  beer,  raspberry- vinegar  water; 
drinks  containing  gelatin — the  broths  and  soups, 
which,  if  properly  prepared,  should  contain  all 
the  soluble  constitutents  of  their  ingredients; 
emulsive  or  milky  drinks — as  animal  milk,  the 
milk  of  the  cocoanut,  and  almond  milk,  a  drink 
prepared  from  sweet  almonds  (animal  milk  con- 


tains all  the  essential  ingredients  of  food,  the 
others  are  slightly  nutritive) ;  alcoholic  and 
other  intoxicating  drinks — including  malt  liquor 
or  beer  in  its  various  forms  of  ale,  stout,  and 
porter;  wines;  spirits  in  their  various  forms  of 
brandy,  rum,  gin,  whisky.  Whether  alcoholic 
drinks  constitute  food  is  debatable. 

Excluding  salt,  which  must  be  considered  as  a 
saline  alimentary  principle,  the  most  common 
condiments,  such  as  mustard,  capsicum  (Cayenne 
pepper),  pepper,  the  various  spices,  etc,  owe 
their  action  to  the  presence  of  a  volatile 
oil.  Condiments  and  sauces  afford  little  or  no 
nutrition.  They  do,  however,  exert  special  action 
on  the  nervous  system  to  stimulate  secretion  and 
also  to  retard  tissue  change  and  waste.  Any 
more  than  a  very  moderate  use  is  likely  to  impair 
the  digestion  and  nutritive  processes.  Salt  has 
a  special  value  in  promoting  diffusion  through 
the  animal  membranes  and  in  bringing  some  of 
the  alimentary  principles  into  solution.  Its  de- 
composition probably  furnishes  the  hydrochloric 
acid  to  the  gastric  juice.  ( For  a  general  discus- 
sion of  the  preparation  of  foods,  see  Cookest; 
and  in  this  connection  see,  also.  Adulteration 
and  Food.)  Salted  meat  is,  in  so  far  as  nutri- 
tion is  concerned,  in  much  the  same  state  as  meat 
from  which  good  soup  has  been  made.  After 
flesh  has  been  rubbed  and  sprinkled  with  dry  salt, 
a  brine  is  formed  amounting  in  bulk  to  one-third 
of  the  fluid  contained  in  the  raw  flesh.  This  brine 
is  found  to  contain  a  large  quantity  of  albumen, 
soluble  phosphates,  lactic  acid,  potash  salts, 
creatin,  and  creatinin — substances  which  are  es- 
sential to  the  constitution  of  the  flesh,  which 
therefore  loses  in  nutritive  value  in  proportion 
to  their  abstraction.  For  a  discussion  of  the 
preservation  of  food,  see  Antisefticb;  Food;  jlsd 
Food,  Preservation  of. 

The  method  of  refrigeration  is,  on  a  small  scale, 
familiar  to  every  one  by  the  use  of  ice  in  the 
ordinary  household  refrigerator.  ( See  Refrigera- 
tion.) The  method  of  drying — evaporation  of 
water  by  sun  heat  or  in  ovens — is  largely  applied  to 
meats  and  to  fruits  and  vegetables.  Foodstuffs  so 
treated  reabsorb  moisture  and  deteriorate  after 
a  time.  Certain  fruits,  as  raisins,  figs,  and 
dates,  are  very  palatable  after  such  treatment. 
The  method  of  exclusion  of  air,  sometimes  called 
Appert's  method,  from  its  inventor  (Francois 
Appert,  q.v. ) ,  is  applied  to  every  kind  of  perish- 
able food,  and  constitutes  one  of  the  great  in- 
dustries of  the  world.  It  consists  in  subjecting 
the  article  to  be  preserved  to  a  temperature  suf- 
ficient to  destroy  the  germs  which  cause  decom- 
position, and  then  putting  it  into  tins  or  jars, 
which  are  immediately  made  air-tight.  This 
principle  is  applied  in  the  familiar  'canning*  of 
vegetables  and  fruits.  Certain  special  devices  of 
limited  application  are  resorted  to,  as  the  ex- 
clusion of  air  by  means  of  oils  and  fats  and  var- 
nishes, or  a  layer  of  paraffin. 

The  method  of  antiseptics  finds  application 
chiefly  in  the  use  of  smoke,  sugar,  salt,  alcohol, 
vinegar,  and  saltpetre. 

The  pecuniaiy  economy  of  various  foods  has 
been  the  siAject  of  much  investigation  in 
Europe  and  in  the  United  States.  Protein  is  an 
essential  food,  since  from  no  other  source  can  the 
animal  obtain  nitrogen ;  it  is  also  much  the  cost- 
liest form  of  food.  The  ratios  used  by  Atwater 
are  5.3  and  1  for  the  relative  cost  of  protein  fats 
and  carbohydrates.     It  is,  therefore,  important 


8ANITABY  SGIEKCB. 


417 


SAK  JACIHTO. 


eeonomically  to  obtain  protein  in  its  cheapest 
form,  ami  to  use  no  more  than  is  sufficient  for  the 
requisite  nitrogen  and  then  to  use  carbohydrates 
(starches,  etc.)  in  preference  to  fats  for  carbon 
and  hydrogen.  Oatmeal,  beans,  potatoes,  and 
wheat  flour  are  among  the  cheapest  foods,  con* 
Bidering  their  nutritive  value,  as  oysters,  salmon, 
taid  lobsters  are  among  the  costliest.    See  Food. 

ExBBdSB.  The  most  important  effect  of  mus- 
cular exercise  is  produced  on  the  Ituigs,  the  quan- 
tities of  inspired  air  and  of  exhaled  carbonic  acid 
being  very  much  increased.  Taking  the  air  in- 
spired in  a  given  time  in  the  horizontal  position 
as  unity,  a  man  walking  3  miles  per  hour  in- 
spires 3.22;  and  if  carrying  34  pounds,  3.5;  a 
man  walking  4  miles  per  hour  inspires  5;  and 
when  walking  6  miles  per  hour  no  less 
than  7.  Almost  twice  as  much  carbonic  acid 
is  exhaled  during  exercise  as  during  rest.  Hence, 
muscular  exercise  is  necessarv  for  the  due  re- 
moval of  the  carbon.  The  effect  of  exercise  on 
the  mind  is  not  clearly  determined;  great  bodily 
activity  is  often  observed  in  association  with  full 
mental  activity;  and  better  intellectual  work 
can  be  done  by  one  who  exercises  physically 
daily.  Digestion  is  improved  by  exercise.  The 
appetite  increases,  and  nitrogenous  substances, 
faU,  and  salts,  especially  phosphates  and 
chlorides,  are  required  in  greater  quantity  than 
in  a  state  of  rest.  The  change  of  tisauee  is  in- 
creased by  exercise,  or,  in  other  words,  the  ex- 
cretions give  off  increased  quantities  of  carbon, 
nitrogen,  water,  and  salts.  The  muscles  require 
much  rest  for  their  reparation  after  exercise,  and 
they  then  absorb  and  retain  water,  which  seems 
to  enter  into  their  composition.  So  completely 
is  the  water  retained  in  the  muscles  that  the 
urine  is  not  increased  for  some  hours.  The  old 
rule,  held  by  trainers,  of  only  allowing  the  small- 
est possible  quantity  of  fluid,  is  wrong.  See 
ExEBCisB;  Gymnastics;  Physical  Cultdbb. 

Clothiito.  The  object  of  clothing  is  to  pre- 
serve the  proper  heat  of  the  body  by  protecting  it 
from  both  cold  and  heat,  and  thus  to  prevent  the 
injurious  action  of  sudden  changes  of  tempera- 
ture upon  the  skin.  The  most  important  ma- 
terials of  clothing  are  cotton,  linen,  wool,  silk, 
leather,  and  india-rubber.  Cotton,  as  a  material 
of  dress,  wears  well,  does  not  rapidly  absorb 
water,  and  conducts  heat  much  lees  rapidly  than 
linen,  but  much  more  rapidly  than  wool.  From 
the  hardness  of  its  fibres,  its  surface  is  slightly 
rough,  and  occasionally  irritates  a  very  delicate 
skin.  Its  main  advantages  are  cheaoness  and 
durability.  In  merino  it  is  mixed  with  wool  in 
various  proportions,  and  this  admixture  is  far 
preferable  to  unmixed  cotton.  Linen  is  finer  in 
its  fibres  than  cotton,  and  hence  is  smoother.  It 
possesses  high  conducting  and  bad  radiating 
powers,  so  that  it  feels  cold  to  the  skin;  more- 
over, it  attracts  moisture  much  more  than  cot- 
ton. For  these  reasons,  cottons  and  thin  wool- 
ens are  much  preferrea  to  linen  garments  in 
warm  climates.  Silk  forms  an  excellent  under- 
clothing, but,  from  its  expense,  it  can  never  come 
into  general  use.  Wool  is  superior  both  to  cot- 
ton and  linen  in  being  a  bad  conductor  of  heat, 
and  a  great  absorber  of  water,  which  penetrates 
into  the  fibres  and  distends  them  (hydroscopic 
water),  and  also  lies  between  them  (water  of  in- 
terposition). During  perspiration,  the  evapora- 
tion from  the  surface  of  the  body  is  necessary  to 
reduce  the  heat  which  is  generated  by  exercise. 


When  the  exercise  is  concluded,  evaporation  goes 
on,  and  to  such  an  extent  as  to  chill  the  body. 
When  dry  woolen  clothing  is  put  on  after  exer- 
tion, the  vapor  from  the  surface  of  the  body  is 
condensed  on  the  wool,  and  gives  out  again  the 
large  amount  of  heat  which  had  become  latent 
when  the  water  was  vaporized.  Therefore,  a 
woolen  covering,  from  this  cause  alone,  at  once 
feels  warm  when  used  during  sweating.  In  the 
case  of  cotton  and  linen,  the  perspiration  passes 
through  them,  and  evaporates  from  the  external 
surface  without  condensation;  the  loss  of  heat 
then  continues.  These  facts  make  it  plain  why 
dry  woolen  clothes  are  so  useful  after  exertion. 
In  addition  to  this,  the  texture  of  the  wool  is 
warmer,  from  its  bad  conducting  power,  and  it  is 
less  easily  penetrated  by  cold  wind.  India-ruhher 
clothing  must  be  used  with  caution.  From  its 
being  impervious  to  air,  and  from  its  condensing 
and  retaining  perspiration,  it  is  decidedly  ob- 
jectionable; while,  on  the  other  hand,  its  pro- 
tection against  rain  is  a  very  valuable  property. 

In  relation  to  protection  against  heat,  we 
have  to  consider  the  color  and  not  the  texture 
of  clothing.  White  is  the  best  color,  then  gray, 
yellow,  pink,  blue,  and  black. 

The  snape  and  weight  of  all  articles  of  clothinff 
should  be  such  as  to  allow  of  the  freest  action  of 
the  limbs,  and  in  no  way  to  interfere  by  pressure 
with  the  processes  of  respiration,  circulation,  and 
digestion. 

Pebsonal  Cusai^liness.  Attention  to  the  state 
of  the  skin  is  of  great  importance  in  a  hygienic 
point  of  view.  The  perspiration  and  sebaceous 
matters  which  are  naturally  poured  out  upon  the 
surface  of  the  body,  with  an  intermingling  of  par- 
ticles of  detached  epidermis,  fragments  of  fibres 
from  the  dress,  dirt,  etc.,  if  not  removed,  gradu- 
ally form  a  crust  which  soon  materially  inter- 
feres with  the  due  excreting  action  of  the  skin. 
There  is  little  doubt  that  the  daily  use  of  the 
cold  sponge-bath,  which  less  than  half  a  century 
ago  was  unknown,  and  is  now  a  matter  of  neces- 
sity with  most  healthy  persons  who  have  the 
means  of  using  it,  has  contributed  materially  to 
the  preservation  of  health  and  the  prevention  of 
catarrhal  attacks. 

Consult:  Robinson,  Sewage  Diaposal  (London, 
1882)  ;  Richardson,  The  Field  of  Disease:  A  Book 
of  Preventive  Medicine  (ib.,  1883) ;  Waring,  How 
to  Drain  a  House  (New  York,  1886) ,  and  The  Dis- 
posal of  Sewage  and  the  Protection  of  Streams 
Used  as  Sources  of  Water  Supply  (Philadelphia, 
1886) ;  Plunkett,  Women,  Plumbers,  and  Doctors 
(New  York,  1885) ;  Wilson,  Handbook  of  Hygiene 
and  Sanitary  Science  (Philadelphia,  8th  ed., 
1892) ;  Roechling,  Sewer  Oas  and  Its  Influence 
Upon  Health  (London,  1898);  Reid,  Practical 
Sanitation  (ib.,  1901);  Baker,  Municipal  Engi- 
neering and  8a/nitation  (New  York,  1902) ; 
Sedgwick,  Principles  of  Sanitary  Science  and  the 
Public  Health  (ib.,  1902)  ;  Chapin,  Municipal 
Sanitation  in  the  United  States. 

SAN  JACINTO,  Battle  of.  The  final  battle 
in  the  war  for  Texan  independence,  fought  near 
San  Jacinto  Bay,  Texas,  April  21,  1836,  between 
about  740  Texans,  under  General  Houston,  and 
about  1400  Mexicans,  under  Santa  Anna.  On 
April  20th  the  opposing  forces  took  up  posi- 
tions about  one  mile  apart,  and  after  some  pre- 
liminary skirmishing  the  battle  took  place  on 
the  afternoon  of  the  following  day.  It  was  hardly 
more  tiian  a  sharp  charge  hy  the  Texans,  who 


SAN  JACINTO. 


418 


SAN  JOSE  SCALE. 


rushed  on  with  the  cry  ''Remember  the  Alamo/' 
and  quickly  overcame  the  Mexicans.  Santa  Anna 
fled,  but  was  afterwards  captured.  The  Texans 
lost  only  about  30  in  killed  and  wounded;  the 
Mexicans  1360  in  killed^  wounded,  and  cap- 
tured. 

SAN  JOAQUIN,  Hd'A-ken^  A  town  of  Pa- 
nay,  Philippines,  in  the  Province  of  Iloilo,  situ- 
ated on  the  coasts  about  30  miles  southwest  of 
Iloilo  (Map:  Philippine  Islands,  O  9).  Popula- 
tion estimated,  in  1899,  at  13,918. 

SAN  JOAQUIN.  A  river  of  California, 
draining  the  southern  half  of  the  great 
central  valley  between  the  Coast  Range  ana  the 
Sierra  Nevada  (Map:  California,  C  3).  It  rises 
in  the  latter  range  and  flows  first  southwest  to 
its  junction  with  the  intermittent  outlet  of 
Tulare  Lake,  then  northwest  till  it  unites  with 
the  Sacramento  River  and  enters  the  Bay  of  San 
Francisco,  whence  its  waters  flow  through  the 
Golden  Gate  to  the  Paciflc  Ocean.  The  length 
of  the  river  is  about  360  miles.  It  receives  nu- 
merous tributaries  from  the  mountains  on  either 
side,  one  of  which,  the  Merced,  flows  through  the 
famous  Yosemite  Valley.  The  San  Joaquin  is 
navigable  at  all  seasons  to  Stockton,  50  miles. 

SANJO  SANilYOSHI^  sftn'jy  si-nfl^y^-shd 
(1836-91).  A  Japanese  statesman,  bom  at 
Kioto  of  the  Fujiwara  princely  family.  He  was 
originally  anti-foreign,  and  in  1863  he  was  sent 
by  the  Mikado  to  Yedo  to  demand  reform  and 
more  vigorous  government.  The  Shogun's  party 
in  Kioto  triumphing,  Sanjo  and  six  other  nobles 
fled  to  Choshiu.  After  three  years'  exile,  having 
become  converted  to  liberal  views,  he  returned  to 
Kioto,  was  made  vice-administrator  and  junior 
Prime  Minister,  and  in  1870  Premier,  an  office 
which  he  held  imtil  1886,  when  he  was  made 
Chancellor. 

SAN  JOSil,  Hd-sa^  The  capital  of  Costa 
Rica,  situated  44  miles  east  of  Puntarenas,  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  and  68  miles  west  of  LimOn,  on  the 
Atlantic  coast  (Map:  Central  America,  E  6). 
It  is  regularly  built,  with  broad  macadamized 
streets  crossing  at  right  angles,  and  all  lighted  by 
electric  incandescent  lamps.  There  are  several 
fine  squares  containing  park-like  gardens.  The 
most  prominent  buildings  and  institutions  are  the 
cathedral,  the  National  Museum,  the  school  of 
law,  a  seminary,  the  National  Library,  and  the 
Institute  of  Physical  Geography.  The  elevation 
of  the  town  above  the  sea  is  3868  feet.  It  has  a 
temperate  climate  and  a  good  water  supply. 
It  is  the  centre  of  a  rich  agricultural  region, 
and  the  principal  station  on  the  transcontinental 
railroad  from  LimOn  to  Puntarenas.  Popula- 
tion, in  1897,  25,000.  San  Jos5  was  founded  in 
1738  and  became  the  capital  of  Costa  Rica  on  the 
establishment  of  independence  in  1823. 

SAN  JOSil.  The  principal  seaport  on  the 
Pacific  Coast  of  Guatemala,  situated  54  miles 
southwest  of  the  city  of  Guatemala,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  rail  (Map:  Central  America, 
B  4).  The  harbor  is  provided  with  an  iron 
pier,  and  is  a  station  for  several  lines  of  steamers. 
The  to^vn  exports  coffee,  sugar,  cotton,  dyestuffs, 
and  lumber. 

SAN  JOSl^.  A  town  of  Luzon,  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Batangas,  Philippine  Islands.  It  lies 
7  miles  north  of  Batangas  on  the  projected 
Manila-Batangas  Railroad.     Population,  10,000. 


SAN  JOSi:,  sftn  h6-8&^,  or,  colloquially,  aftn 
0-z&^  The  county-seat  of  Santa  Clara  County, 
Cal.,  50  miles  south  by  east  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, on  the  Southern  Pacific  and  the  Central 
Pacific  railroads  (Map:  California,  C  3).  It  is 
situated  in  the  beautiful  Santa  CUra  Valley,  and 
is  a  popular  health  resort.  San  Jos^  is  the  seat 
of  the  University  of  the  Pacific  (Methodist  Epis- 
copal), with  handsome  buildings  and  a  campus 
covering  17  acres;  the  College  of  Notre  Dame, 
a  Roman  Catholic  institution^  opened  in  1851; 
and  a  State  Normal  School.  Noteworthy  also  are 
the  ciiy  hall,  court  house  and  hall  of  records, 
the  post  office  building,  and  the  high  school  build- 
ing. The  city  has  a  public  library  and  the 
San  Jw6  Library.  There  are  two  parks — Saint 
James  and  the  City  Hall  Park.  Alum  Rock 
Park,  7  miles  distant,  with  its  mineral  springs 
and  picturesque  scenery,  and  the  Lick  Observa- 
tory (q.v.),  on  the  summit  of  Mount  Hamilton, 
18  miles  to  the  east,  attract  many  viators.  San 
Jos6  is  the  centre  of  the  Santa  Clara  Valley, 
which  produces  large  quantities  of  prunes,  apri- 
cots, peaches,  cherries,  grapes,  olives,  wheat, 
and  barley.  It  is  an  important  fruit  packing  and 
shipping  point,  and  also  ranks  high  industrially. 
In  the  census  year  1900  the  various  industries  had 
an  invested  capital  of  $3,534,136,  and  a  production 
valued  at  $4,584,072.  There  are  foundries,  fruit 
canning  and  drying  establishments,  marble  works, 
and  manufactories  of  wine  and  malt  liquors, 
leather,  windmills,  etc.  The  government,  under 
the  revised  charter  of  1897,  is  vested  in  a  mayor, 
elected  every  two  years,  and  a  unicameral  coun- 
cil. Population,  in  1890,  18,060;  in  1900, 
21,500.  The  Pueblo  de  San  Jos6  de  Guadalupe 
was  founded  here  in  1777,  and  the  Mission  of  San 
Jos6  was  established  near  by  in  1797.  In  1846  a 
small  force  took  possession  for  the  United  States, 
and  from  1849  to  1851  San  Jos€  was  the  capital 
of  California.  Consult:  Hall,  History  of  San 
J 086  and  Surroundings  (San  Francisco,  1871); 
Mars,  Reminiscences  of  Santa  Clara  Valley  and 
SanJos6  (ib.,  1901). 

SAN  JOSE  DE  BX7ENAVISTA,  s&n  H^sik' 
d&  bwa'n&-ves't&.  The  capital  of  the  Province  of 
Antique,  in  Panay,  Philippines  (Map:  Philip- 
pine Islands,  F  9).  It  is  on  the  coast  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  province,  is  a  port  of  entry, 
and  has  an  active  coasting  trade  with  Iloilo. 
Population,  estimated,  in  1899,  5621. 

SAN  JOSi!  DE  OtrCXTTA,  VSSnmsH-XJk,  or 
simply  C<5cuTA.  A  town  in  the  Department  of 
Santander,  Colombia,  situated  on  the  Tachira, 
near  the  Venezuelan  frontier  (Map:  Ck>lombia, 
C  2) .  Since  the  earthquake  which  destroyed  the 
town  in  1875  it  has  been  reconstructed  with  broad 
clean  streets  and  a  large  square.  It  is  a  centre 
of  trade  between  Santander  and  Venezuela,  and 
is  the  terminus  of  a  railroad  to  Puerto  Villami- 
zar.     Population,  13,000. 

SAN  JOS]£  SCALEw  An  hemipterous  insect 
{Aspidiotus  pemiciosus)  of  the  family  Coccidie. 
(See  Scale-Insect.)  It  derives  its  popular  name 
from  San  Jos^,  California,  where  Comstock  dis- 
covered and  named  it  in  1880.  It  has  been  consid- 
ered the  most  pernicious  scale-insect  in  the  United 
States,  whence  the  specific  name.  It  was  prob- 
ably introduced  at  San  Josfi  about  1870  on  trees 
imported  from  China  by  James  Lick.  By  1890  it 
had  spread  over  the  greater  part  of  California, 
but  was  not  recognized  east  of  the  Rocl^  Moun- 


SAH  JOSE  SCALE. 


419 


SAN  JXTAK. 


tftins  until  August,  1893,  when  ifc  was  found  by 
Howard  on  a  pear  received  from  Charlottesville, 
Virginia.  Soon  afterwards  the  discovery  was 
made  that  in  1887  or  1888  infested  nursery  stock 
had  been  brought  from  California  by  two  New 
Jersey  nurseries  and  that  unwittingly  nursery 
infested  stock  had  been  sent  out  broadcast.  By 
1895  the  pest  had  become  established  in  many 
nurseries  and  orchards  in  the  majority  of  the 
Eastern  States^  and  in  February,  1898,  the  Ger- 
man Government  prohibited  the  importation  of 
American  fruits  and  plants  to  prevent  the  intro- 
duction of  the  scale.  Other  European  govern- 
ments, Canada,  and  South  Africa  soon  after  is- 
sued similar  decrees.  It  is  now  known  in 
Japan,  China,  and  Australia,  and  in  almost  every 
one  of  the  United  States,  seeming  to  reach  its 
greatest  powers  of  destruction  in  the  best  fruit- 
growing regions. 

The  San  Jos6  scale  does  not  occur  upon  citrus 
fruits,  but  has  attacked  the  limbs,  leaves,  and 
fruit  of  more  than  160  species  of  food  plants, 
including  the  principal  deciduous  fruit  and  orna- 
mental trees  and  shrubs.  When  the  infestation  is 
very  bad,  the  scales  lie  close  together  upon  the 
bark,  frequently  overlapping,  the  young  scales 
clustering  over  the  surface  of  the  older  individ- 
uals. The  general  appearance  of  a  twig  covered 
with  the  scales  is  of  a  grayish,  slightly  roughened, 
scurfy  deposit.  Infested  apple  and  pear  fruits 
show  a  i^dish  discoloration  of  the  skin,  and 
when  severely  attacked,  become  distorted,  rough, 
pitted,  and  frequently  cracked.  Well-grown  ap- 
ple trees  are  resistant  for  several  years,  but 
young  peach  trees  are  often  killed  in  two  sea- 
sons. The  money  lost  to  the  orchard  interest 
of  the  United  States  from  the  work  of  this  insect 
has  been  enormous. 

The  winter  is  passed  by  the  nearly  full-grown 
insects  under  the  protection  of  the  scale.  In 
the  early  spring  the  hibernating  males  emerge, 
and  in  May  the  females  mature  and  begin  to 
give  birth  to  young,  at  the  daily  rate  of  per- 
haps nine  to  ten  young  by  each  mother  for  a 
period  of  six  weeks.  It  is  estimated  that  the  off- 
spring during  a  summer  from  a  single  over-win- 
tering female  may  amount  to  more  than  one  and 
one-half  billions.  Distribution  is  mainly  by  means 
of  nursery  stock,  but  is  also  upon  fruit.  The 
young  are  also  carried  upon  the  feet  of  birds  and 
flying  insects.  Wind  also  has  some  effect  on  the 
distribution.  None  of  the  native  national  enemies 
appear  to  be  very  effective,  although  a  chalcidid 
fly  {Aphelinus  fuacipennia)  destroys  the  adults. 
The  Chinese  ladybird  {Ohilocorua  aimilis),  in- 
troduced by  Marlatt,  may  prove  a  more  effective 
natural  enemy.     See  Ladybird. 

The  principal  remedies  in  use  are  treatment 
with  a  mixture  of  lime,  sulphur,  and  salt,  known 
as  'California  wash,'  with  whale-oil  or  fish-oil 
soap,  preferably  made  with  potash  lye;  with  a 
kerosene-soap  emulsion,  or  with  crude  petroleum ; 
with  a  mechanical  mixture  of  kerosene  and 
water ;  and  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas.  The  last- 
named  treatment  is  now  used  only  for  nursery 
stock,  although  extensive  experiments  have  been 
made  with  orchard  trees. 

Consult:  Howard  and  Marlatt,  Bulletin  No.  3, 
new  aeries.  Division  of  Entomology,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  (Washington,  1896)  ; 
Marlatt,  Circular  No.  i2,  second  series  (ib., 
1902)-;     Johnson,    Fumigation    Methods     (New 


York,  1902) ;  Bulletins  of  agricultural  experiment 
stations. 

SAN  JUAN,  HwlUi.  A  western  province  of 
Argentina,  bounded  by  Chile  on  the  west,  the 
Argentine  Province  of  La  Rioja  on  the  north 
and  east,  and  the  provinces  of  San  Luis  and 
Mendoza  on  the  south  (Map:  Argentina,  D  10). 
Area,  33,715  square  miles.  It  is  traversed  in  the 
west  by  a  number  of  parallel  mountain  chains 
belonging  to  the  Andes,  and  inclosing  fertile  val- 
leys. The  eastern  portion  is  level  and  covered 
for  a  large  part  by  a  saline  steppe  and  arid 
tracts.  €k)ld  and  silver  are  mined  to  some  ex- 
tent and  other  minerals  are  believed  to  exist  in 
large  quantities.  Agriculture  and  cattle-raising 
are  the  chief  occupations.  Besides  wheat  and 
com  large  quantities  of  lucerne  are  raised,  and 
wine  and  olives  are  also  extensively  cultivated. 
The  chief  exports  are  wine  and  cattle.  Popula- 
tion, in  1900,  94,991.    The  capital  is  San  Juan. 

SAN  JXTAN.  The  capital  of  the  Province  of 
San  Juan,  Argentina,  situated  on  the  San  Juan 
River,  85  miles  north  of  Mendoza,  with  which  it 
has  railroad  connection  (Map:  Argentina,  D 
10).  It  has  been  called  an  'oasis  of  civilization,' 
and  is  a  clean  and  well-built  town,  well  paved  and 
drained,  and  provided  with  public  baths.  It  has 
a  national  college,  a  normal  school,  and  a  large 
seminary.  The  wine  trade  is  important,  and  the 
town  exports  cattle  to  Chile.  Population,  in 
1895,  10,410;  estimated  in  1898  at  12,000. 

SAN  JTJAN.  A  town  of  Luzon,  Philippines, 
in  the  Province  of  La  Uni6n,  situated  on  the 
coast,  three  miles  north  of  San  Fernando  (Map: 
Philippine  Islands,  E  3 ) .  Population,  estimated, 
in  1899,  10,211. 

SAN  JTJAN  (full  name  San  Juan  Bautista 
DE  PuEBTO  Rico).  The  capital  of  Porto  Rico, 
situated  on  a  small  coral  island  toward  the  east- 
ern end  of  the  north  coast  (Map:  Porto  Rico, 
C  2).  Tlie  islet  is  about  2^  miles  long,  and 
half  a  mile  wide,  and  is  connected  with  the  main- 
land by  the  Bridge  of  San  Antonio.  The  bay  in- 
closed by  it  is  spacious  and  deep,  and  forms  the 
best  harbor  of  the  island,  though  the  narrow, 
rocky  entrance  is  dangerous  in  stormy  weather. 
The  town  is  surrounded  by  picturesque  walls,  and 
toward  the  sea  presents  a  line  of  fortified  cliffs. 
On  a  promontory  at  the  western  end  stands  the 
Morro  Castle,  built  in  1584,  but  well  preserved. 
The  streets  are  laid  out  in  regular  squares,  and 
are  well  paved  and  shaded. 

On  the  Plaza  de  Santiago  stands  a  statue  of 
Ponce  de  Leon.  There  are  a  number  of  fine 
buildings,  such  as  the  city  hall,  the  custom-house, 
the  former  Captain-General's  palace,  the  barracks, 
and  the  Casa  Blanca,  an  interesting  fortress-like 
building  said  to  have  been  built  by  Ponce  de 
Leon.  There  are  also  a  cathedral  and  an  im- 
mense Dominican  convent.  The  water  supply 
and  sanitary  arrangements  are  defective.  In- 
dustrially and  commercially  the  city  is  not  very 
important.  The  population  of  the  municipal  dis- 
trict in  1899  was  32,048.  San  Juan  was  founded 
in  1511  by  Ponce  de  Leon.  It  was  strongly  forti- 
fied and  several  times  repulsed  the  attacks  of 
English  fleets.  On  May  12,  1898,  during  the 
Spanish-American  War,  its  defenses  were  bom- 
barded by  the  American  fleet  under  Sampson, 
but  the  city  was  not  occupied  by  the  American 
forces  until  after  the  suspension  of  hostilities. 


SAK  JTJAN  BAUnSTA. 


420 


BAJSTKHYA. 


SAK  JUAN  BAUTISTA,  bou-tga'U.  The 
capital  of  the  State  of  Tabasco,  Mexico,  situated 
on  the  Grijalva,  about  30  miles  from  the  coast 
(Map:  Mexico,  N  8).  It  stands  in  a  low  and 
unhealthful  locality  and  is  of  unpretentious  ap- 
pearance. It  has  some  trade  through  its  port, 
Frontera,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river.  It  was 
founded  under  the  name  Villa  Felipe  II,  in  1598, 
afterwards  called  Villa  Hermosa,  and  finally  in 
1821  was  given  its  present  name.  Population,  in 
1895,  9604. 

SAN  JTJAN  BOXTNDABY  DISPXTTE.  A 
dispute  between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  in  regard  to  a  part  of  the  Oregon 
boundary,  which  by  the  treaty  of  June  15,  1846, 
was  made  the  forty-ninth  parallel  to  the  "middle  ol 
the  channel  which,  separates  the  continent  from 
Vancouver  Island,  and  thence  southerly  through 
the  middle  of  said  channel  and  of  Fuca  Straits, 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean."  Afterwards  a  difference 
of  opinion  arose  between  the  two  countries  as  to 
what  'channel'  was  meant;  the  United  States 
maintaining  that  it  was  the  Canal  de  Haro,  and 
Great  Britain  that  it  was  Rosario  Strait,  so 
that  it  remained  unsettled  to  which  government 
Washington  Sound  and  the  islands  in  it  be- 
longed. An  amicable  arrangement  was  effected 
in  1869,  by  which  the  two  governments  jointly 
occupied  the  island,  the  United  States  having  a 
garrison  in  the  south  and  Great  Britain  in  the 
north.  The  Treaty  of  Washington  (1871),  art. 
34,  referred  the  controversy  to  the  Emperor  of 
Germany,  who  decided  for  the  United  States  in 
1872. 

SAN  JTTAN  DE  BOCBOC,  b6k  b6k'.  A  town 
of  Luzon,  Philippines,  in  the  Province  of  Ba- 
tangas.  It  is  situated  on  the  Gulf  of  Tayabas, 
25  miles  east  of  Batangas  (Map:  Philippine  Isl- 
ands, F  6).  Population,  estimated,  in  1899,  14,- 
017. 

SAN  JUAN  DE  LA  CI^NEGA,  s^-a'nft  g&. 
See  CifiNEGA. 

SAN  JTTAN  DEL  MEZQUITAL,  d&l  m^s - 
kA-tal'.  A  Mexican  town  of  the  State  of  Zaca- 
tecas,  90  miles  northwest  of  the  city  of  that  name 
(Map:  Mexico,  G  5).    Population,  in  1896,  7113. 

SAN  JTJAN  DEL  NOBTE,  nOr'tA,  or  Grey- 
town.  The  principal  seaport  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  Nicaragua,  at  the  mouth  of  the  north - 
em  arm  of  the  San  Juan  River  delta,  in  the  ex- 
treme southeastern  corner  of  the  Republic  ( Map : 
Central  America,  F  5).  A  mile  north  of  the 
town  is  the  village  of  America,  the  eastern  ter- 
minus of  the  proposed  Nicaragua  Canal  (q.v.). 
Greytown  lies  in  an  unhealthful  locality.  Its 
harbor  is  rapidly  filling  with  sand,  but  jetties 
have  been  constructed  to  remedy  the  evil.  Popu- 
lation, about  2500. 

SAN  JTTAN  DE  LOS  BEMEDIOS,  r&ma^- 
D^-ds.     See  Remedios. 

SAN  JTTAN  DEL  BIO,  d«l  t^6.  A  town  of 
Mexico,  in  the  State  of  Quer^taro,  27  miles  east 
of  the  city  of  that  name  (Map:  Mexico,  J  7). 
It  is  notea  for  silver-mining  and  for  its  trade  in 
opals.  It  is  an  irregularly  built  town,  founded 
in  1531.    Population,  in  1895,  9040. 

SAN  JTTAN  DEL  STTB,  d&l  soSor.  A  seaport 
of  Nicaragua,  on  the  Pacific  coast,  65  miles 
southeast  of  Managua  (Map:  Central  America, 
D  6).  Its  harbor  is  small,  but  deep,  and  it  is  a 
submarine  cable  station,  and  the  port  for  Rivas. 


The  western  terminus  of  the  proposed  Nieamgua 
Canal  is  a  few  miles  north.    Population,  1000. 

SAN  JTTAN  BIVEB.  The  outlet  of  Lake 
Nicaragua  in  Central  America.  It  leaves  the 
lake  at  its  southeastern  end,  and  flows  110  miles 
in  a  winding  southeast  course  on  the  boundary 
between  Nicaragua  and  Costa  Rica,  emptying 
into  the  Caribbean  Sea  through  a  delta  of  sev- 
eral arms  (Map:  Central  America,  £  5).  The 
mouth  of  one  of  these  forms  the  harbor  of  Grey- 
town  (San  Juan  del  Norte).  The  river  is  broad, 
deep,  and  tranquil,  but  near  the  middle  it  is  com- 
pletely obstructed  by  the » rapids  of  Machuca. 
The  San  Juan  forms  part  of  the  Nicaragua  route 
for  the  proposed  interoceanic  canal.  See  Nica- 
ragua Canal. 

&ANKABJL,  or  SANXABACABYA,  shan'- 
k&-r&-chftr^y&  (c.788-?).  A  Hindu  philosopher 
and  commentator  on  the  VSddnta  (q.v.).  Ac- 
cording to  tradition  he  was  bom  in  the  village 
of  Kalapi  in  Kerala  or  Malabar,  and  was  the 
son  of  Siva^rusarman.  He  founded  a  famous 
school  at  Sringagiri,  but  later  journeyed  as  far 
as  Kashmir  and  died  at  Kanci,  a  village  there. 
About  his  life  many  legends  clustered,  and  he  was 
popularly  regarded  as  an  incarnation  of  Siva 
(q.v.)  on  account  of  his  name  Sankara,  an  epi- 
thet of  Siva.  An  enormous  number  of  works  is 
attributed  to  him,  most  of  which  are  doubtless 
spurious.  He  is  one  of  the  most  important  fig- 
ures in  the  history  of  Hindu  philosophy  because 
of  his  BrahmasHtrahh&fya,  a  commentary  which 
is  indispensable  for  an  understanding  of  the 
BrahmasHtraa  of  Badarayana,  the  founder  of  the 
Vedanta  school  of  philosophy  (edited  at  Bombay, 
1890-91).  Consult:  Windischmann,  Sanoara 
(Bonn,  1833)  ;  Deussen,  System  des  VedAnta 
(Leipzig,  1883);  id.,  Siltra's  des  Ved&nta  (ib., 
1887). 

SAN^EY,  IBA  David  (1840-).  A  Methodist 
evangelist,  born  at  Edinburgh,  Lawrence  County, 
Pa.  In  1870  he  met  Dwight  L.  Moody  (q.v.) 
and  they  became  associated  in  revival  istic  work, 
continuing  together  for  many  years.  They  visited 
Great  Britain  from  1873  to  1875  and  again  in 
1883,  and  made  many  tours  throughout  the 
United  States.  In  these  meetings  Sankey 
had  charge  of  the  singing.  After  severing  his 
connection  with  Moody  he  frequently  eon- 
ducted  meetings  alone.  His  compilations  of  de- 
votional  music,  containing  many  of  his  own 
compositions,  are  Oospel  Hymns,  Sacred  Songs, 
and  Sacred  Songs  and  Solos, 

SANKHYA,  s&n^&  (Skt.  s&hkhyd,  enumera- 
tion). The  name  of  one  of  the  six  great  systems 
of  orthodox  Hindu  philosophy.  It  is  comple- 
mented, deistically,  by  the  Y6ga  (q.v.)  system, 
and,  like  the  two  MimAns&s  (q.v.),  the  Ni^ya 
(q.v.),  and  VMeshika  (q.v.)  systems,  it  pro- 
fesses to  teach  the  means  by  which  eternal  beati- 
tude may  be  attained.  This  means  is  the  dis- 
criminative acquaintance  with  tattva,  or  the 
true  principles  of  all  existence,  and  such  prin- 
ciples are,  according  to  the  Sankhya  system,  the 
following  25:  (1)  Prakrti  (q.v.)  or  Pradhdna, 
the  (intellectual)  basis.  Its  first  production  is  (2) 
Mahat,  the  great,  or  Buddhi,  intellect,  or  the  in- 
tellectual principle,  which  appertains  to  indi- 
vidual beings.  From  it  devolves  (3)  Ahamkdra, 
the  assertion  of  the  ego,  the  function  of  which 
consists  in  referring  the  objects  of  the  world  to 
the  ego.    This  produces  (4-8)  five  tanm^traB,  or 


SAKXHYA. 


421 


SAK  LUIS. 


subtle  elements  which  themselves  are  productive 
of  the  five  gross  elements  (see  20-24) .  Ahaihkara 
further  produces  (0-13)  five  instruments  of  sen- 
sation, the  eye,  the  ear,  the  nose,  the  tongue,  and 
the  skin;  (14-18),  five  instruments  of  action,  the 
organ  of  speech,  the  hands,  the  feet,  the  excre- 
tory termination  of  the  intestines,  and  the  organ 
of  generation;  lastly  (19),  manas,  the  organ  of 
volition  and  imagination.  The  five  subtle  ele- 
ments (see  4-8  )  produce  (20-24)  the  five  gross 
elements,  AkASa,  space  or  ether,  which  has  the 
property  of  audibility,  and  is  derived  from  the 
sonorous  tanmatra;  air,  which  has  the  properties 
of  audibility  and  tangibility,  and  is  derived  from 
the  aSrial  tanmatra;  fire,  which  has  the  proper- 
ties of  audibility,  tangibility,  and  color,  and  is 
derived  from  the  igneous  tanmatra ;  water,  which 
has  the  properties  of  audibility,  tangibility,  color, 
and  savor,  and  is  derived  from  the  aqueous  tan- 
matra; lastly,  earth,  which  unites  the  properties 
of  suability,  tangibility,  color,  savor,  and  odor, 
and  is  derived  from  the  terrene  tanmatra.  The 
twenty-fifth  principle  is  puruaha  (q.v.)  or  soul. 
From  the  union  of  soul  and  Prakrti  comes  crea- 
tion.   Nature  as  matter  is  a  product  of  intellect. 

The  soul's  wish  is  fruition  or  liberation.  In 
order  to  become  fit  for  fruition,  the  soul  is  in  the 
first  place  invested  with  a  linga  4arira,  or  ^kpna 
iarfraf  a  subtle  body,  which  is  composed  of  huddhi 
(2),  ahamkdra  (3),  the  five  tanmdtras  (4-8), and 
the  eleven  instruments  of  sensation,  action,  and 
volition  (9-19).  This  subtle  body  is  invested 
with  a  grosser  body,  which  is  composed  of  the  five 
gross  elements  (20-24),  or  according  to  some,  of 
four,  excluding  Ak&ia,  or,  according  to  others,  of 
one  alone,  earth.  The  grosser  body,  propagated 
by  generation,  perishes;  the  subtle  frame,  how- 
ever, transmigrates  through  successive  bodies. 
Some  assume,  besides,  that  between  these  two 
there  is  a  corporeal  frame,  composed  of  the 
five  elements,  but  tenuous  or  refined,  the  so- 
called  anu9thitna  Sarira.  Besides  the  twenty-five 
prindnles,  the  Sankhya  also  teaches  that  nature 
has  three  essential  gunas  or  characteristics, 
mttva,  being,  sometimes  defined  as  pure  being  or 
goodness ;  rajas,  energy,  or  passion ;  and  tama9, 
darkness,  the  characteristic  of  sloth  and  inertia. 
The  knowledge  of  the  principles,  and  hence  the 
true  doctrine,  is,  according  to  Sankhya,  obtained 
by  three  kinds  of  evidence,  perception,  inference, 
and  right  affirmation,  which  some  understand  to 
mean  the  revelation  of  the  Veda  and  authorita- 
tive tradition. 

The  Sankhya  in  its  first  form  is  atheistical,  but 
it  underwent  a  mythological  development  in  the 
Puranas  (q.v.),  in  the  most  important  of  which 
it  is  followed  as  the  basis  of  their  cosmogony. 
Thus,  Prakriti,  or  nature,  is  identified  by  them 
with  Maya  (q.v.),  and  the  Matsya-Purana  af- 
firms that  Buddhi,  the  intellectual  principle, 
through  the  three  qualities,  being,  passion,  and 
darkness,  became  the  three  g^s,  Brahma,  Vishnu, 
and  Siva.  The  most  important  development, 
however,  of  the  Sankhya  is  that  by  the  Buddhistic 
doctrine,  which  is  mainly  based  on  it.  The 
Sankhya  system  is  probably  the  oldest  of  the 
Hindu  systems  of  philosophy,  for  its  chief  prin- 
ciples are,  with  more  or  less  detail,  already  con- 
tained in  the  secondary  Upanishads  (q.v.) ;  but 
the  form  in  which  it  has  come  down  to  us  is 
probably  older  than  that  in  which  the  other  sys- 
tems are  preserved,  although  the  question  of 
priority  is  very  much  involved. 


The  reputed  founder  of  the  Sankhya  is  Kapila, 
who  is  said  to  have  been  a  son  of  Brahma,  or 
else  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu.  He  taught  his 
system  in  Sutras  (q.v.),  which,  distributed  in 
six  lectures,  bear  the  name  of  Sankya^Pravaoana, 
though  the  antiquity  of  this  work  has  been 
questioned.  The  oldest  commentary  is  that  by 
Aniruddha,  translated  by  Garbe  (Calcutta,  1888- 
92) ;  another  is  that  by  Vijnanabhikshu.  The 
first  summary  of  the  Sankhya  doctrine  is  given 
by  Isvara  Krishna,  in  his  Sdnkhya-K&rikd,  ^ited 
by  Wilson,  with  a  translation  of  the  text  by 
Colebrooke,  and  a  translation  of  the  commentary 
of  Gaudapada  by  himself  (Oxford,  1837).  Ck)n- 
sult:  Hall,  in  the  preface  of  his  edition  of  the 
Sdnkhya-Pravacana  (Calcutta,  1856) ;  id..  Con- 
tribution toward  an  Indeof  to  the  Bibliography 
of  the  Indian  Philosophical  Systems  (ib.,  1859) ; 
(^arbe.  Die  SUnkhya-Philosophie  (Leipzig,  1894) ; 
id.,  Sdnkhya  und  Yoga  (Strassburg,  1890)  ; 
Mailer,  Siw  Systems  of  Hindu  Philosophy  (New 
York,  1899). 

SANKT  INOBEBT,  z&okt  Ingn[>grt.  A  town 
of  the  Palatinate,  Bavaria,  Grcrmany,  14  miles 
west  of  Zweibrticken.  It  has  machinery,  glass, 
and  iron  works,  and  some  coal  mines.  Population, 
in  1900,  14,048. 

SANKT  JOHANN,  yo-hftn'.  A  town  in  the 
Rhine  Province,  Prussia,  on  the  Saar,  opposite 
Saarbriicken  (Map:  Prussia,  B  4).  It  is  the 
shipping  centre  of  the  SaarbrUcken  coal-mining 
district,  and  manufactures  machinery,  iron  ware, 
wire  rope,  etc.    Population,  in  1900,  21,257. 

SANKT  MOBITZ.    See  Saint  Mobitz. 

SANKT  POLTEN,  pel'ten.  An  ancient  town 
in  Lower  Austria,  38  miles  by  rail  west  of  Vienna 
(Map:  Austria,  D  2).  It  has  a  bishop's  semi- 
nary. Ironware,  weapons,  cotton,  paper,  glass, 
and  stoneware  are  manufactured.  Population,  in 
1900,  14,510. 

SANIitrCAB  DE  BABBAMEDA,  s&n  VSd"- 
kftr  d&  bar'r&-ma'D&.  A  town  of  Southern  Spain, 
in  the  Province  of  Cadiz,  situated  among  the  dunes 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Guadalquivir,  16  miles  north 
of  Cadiz  (Map:  Spain,  B  4).  It  is  a  popular 
bathing  resort.  The  vines  covering  the  surround- 
ing dunes  produce  the  excellent  Manzanilla  wine. 
There  are  salt  works  and  flour  mills,  and  dyna- 
mite is  manufactured  in  the  neighborhood.  The 
port  is  Bonanza,  situated  2%  miles  up  the  river; 
it  is  provided  with  a  large  iron  pier,  and  con- 
nected by  rail  with  Jerez.  In  1519  Magellan 
sailed  from  SanltScar  on  his  famous  voyage 
around  the  world.  Population,  in  1887,  22,667; 
in  1900,  23,747. 

SAN  LUCAS,  Cape.    See  Cafe  San  Lucas. 

SAN  LTJIS,  l?5o-es'.  A  central  province  of 
Argentina,  bounded  on  the  north  by  La  Rioja,  on 
the  east  by  Cfirdoba,  on  the  south  by  the  Terri- 
tory of  La  Pampa,  and  on  the  west  by  Mendoza 
and  San  Juan  (Map:  Argentina,  D  10).  Area, 
estimated  at  28,535  square  miles.  The  surface  is 
mountainous  in  the  north,  where  there  are  also 
some  saline  steppes.  The  rest  of  the  province 
is  level,  but  sparsely  watered.  The  Rio  Salado 
runs  along  the  western  boundary.  The  climate 
is  very  dry,  and  the  land  is  unsuited  for  agri- 
culture. The  mineral  deposits  are  extensive  and 
include  copper,  gold,  iron,  graphite,  and  other 
minerals.    Chily  gold  and  copper  are  mined  to  any 


SAN  LUIS. 


422 


SANMABTIK. 


extent.     Population,  in  1900,  01,403.     Capital, 
Ban  Luis  (q.v.). 

SAN  LITIS,  or  San  Luis  de  la  Punta.  The 
capital  of  the  Province  of  San  Luis,  Argentina, 
situated  at  the  southern  end  of  the  Sierra  de  San 
Luis,  140  miles  southeast  of  Menedoza  (Map: 
Argentina,  D  10).  It  has  a  national  college  and 
a  normal  school.  Its  water  supply,  as  well  as 
the  water  used  in  irrigating  the  surrounding  dis- 
trict, is  derived  from  an  immense  artificial  reser- 
voir. The  town  is  noted  for  the  manufacture  of 
ponchos,  and  exports  horses,  hides,  and  vicuua 
wool.    Population,  estimated,  in  1898,  11,000. 

SAN  LITIS.  A  town  of  Luzon,  Philippine 
Islands,  in  the  Province  of  Pampanga,  on  the 
Rio  Grande  de  Pampanga,  about  10  miles  north- 
east of  Bacolor  (Map:  Philippine  Islands,  £  4). 
Population,  estimated,  in  1899,  10,298. 

SAN  LUIS  DE  LA  PAZ,  d&  U  pils.  A 
Mexican  town  in  the  State  of  Guanajuato,  53 
miles  northeast  of  the  city  of  that  name,  situ- 
ated on  a  branch  railroad  from  Dolores  Hidalgo. 
It  has  a  beautiful  parish  church.  Population, 
in  1895,  9601. 

SAN  LUIS  POTOSf,  po'td-se'.  An  inland 
State  of  Mexico,  bounded  by  the  States  of  Coa- 
huila  and  Nueva  Leon  on  the  north,  Tamaulipas 
and  Vera  Cruz  on  the  east,  Hidalgo,  Quer^taro, 
and  Guanajuato  on  the  south,  and  Zacatecas  on 
the  west  (Map:  Mexico,  J  6).  Area,  25,316 
square  miles.  The  greater  part  of  the  State  lies 
within  the  great  Mexican  plateau,  but  near  the 
southeastern  comer  the  plateau  falls  steeply  sev- 
eral thousand  feet  to  the  low  valley  of  the 
PAnuco.  The  climate  is  healthful  in  the  ele- 
vated parts  and  hot  and  unhealthful  in  the  low- 
lands, where  fever  prevails.  The  surface  is  abun- 
dantly wooded  and  the  soil  is  very  fertile  in  the 
valleys,  producing  grain,  rice,  sugar,  and  pepper. 
The  mining  industry,  once  very  extensive,  has 
declined,  though  the  mineral  deposits  are  far 
from  exhausted.  Commerce  and  manufactures, 
however,  are  increasing,  and  the  State  is  one  of 
the  richest  and  most  progressive  in  the  Republic. 
The  capital  is  San  Luis  PotosI  (q.v.).  Popula- 
tion, in  1900,  582,486,  including  a  large  propor- 
tion of  Indians. 

SAN  LITIS  POTOSi.  The  capital  of  the 
State  of  San  Luis  Potosf,  Mexico,  situated  on  the 
plateau  at  the  head  of  the  valley  of  the  Verde, 
215  miles  northwest  of  Mexico,  and  6200  feet 
above  sea  level  (Map:  Mexico,  H  6).  It  is  almost 
hidden  by  luxuriant  gardens,  and  is  regularly 
laid  out,  with  broad  streets  and  numerous  plazas, 
on  one  of  which  is  a  marble  fountain  surmounted 
by  a  statue  of  Hidalgo.  On  the  principal  square 
stands  the  handsome  cathedral  and  the  fine  city 
hall.  Other  notable  buildings  are  the  court- 
house, the  Governor's  palace,  the  mint,  and  the 
Alarc6n  Theatre.  The  city  is  an  important  rail- 
road centre.  It  has  a  considerable  trade  in  cattle, 
wool,  and  hides.  It  derived  its  original  impor- 
tance from  the  famous  silver  mines  in  the  neigh- 
boring Cerro  de  San  Pedro,  discovered  in  1583; 
but  though  the  mines  are  now  almost  abandoned, 
the  city  retains  its  prominence,  and  is  the  fourth 
in  size  in  the  Republic.  Its  population  in  1895 
was  69,050. 

SAN  MABGO  IN  LAKIS,  sHn  mUr^d  to 
l&^m^s.  A  town  in  the  Province  of  Foggia,  Italy, 
on  the  southwestern  slope  of  Monte  Gargano,  18 


miles  north  by  east  of  Foggia  (Map:  Italy,  K 
6).  Cereals  and  fruits  are  produced,  and  wine 
and  olive  oil  are  manufactured.  Population 
(commune),  in  1901,  17,309. 

SAN  MABINO,  mk-r^nfi.  A  republic  in 
Italy,  situated  between  the  provinces  of  Forll 
and  Pesaro-Urbino,  near  the  Adriatic  coast,  12 
miles  southwest  of  Rimini  (Map:  Italy,  G  4). 
Area,  about  38  square  miles;  population, 
about  10,000.  It  is  the  oldest  State  in 
Europe  and  one  of  the  smallest  in  the  world. 
The  district  is  hilly,  the  highest  point 
being  Monte  Titano  (about  2650  feet).  The 
climate  is  healthful.  •  Cattle-raising  and  wine 
production  are  the  chief  occupations.  Stone  fig- 
ures among  the  exports.  The  iminteresting  town 
of  San  Marino  is  situated  on  Monte  Titano,  and 
is  protected  by  a  wall.  It  has  five  churches  and 
a  fine  Parliament  house.  The  governing  kws — 
the  Statuta  Illustrissime  Reipublicae — date  from 
the  Middle  Ages.  In  1847  the  ruling  Grand 
Council  was  transformed  into  a  represen- 
tative chamber,  with  60  life  members,  chosen 
from  the  burghers,  landowners,  and  the  nobility. 
Two  members  are  selected  every  six  months  as 
'reigning  captains.'  From  this  council  an  execu- 
tive council  of  12  is  chosen  yearly.  San  Marino 
has  a  treaty  of  friendship  with  Italy.  There  is  no 
public  debt.  The  revenue  for  1899-1900  was 
about  £11,600,  the  expenditure,  £13,700. 

History.  The  city  of  San  Marino,  said  to 
have  been  founded  in  the  fourth  century  by 
Saint  Marinus  of  Dalmatia,  formed  part  of  the 
Byzantine  exarchate  of  Ravenna,  and,  after  an 
uneventful  existence  under  Lombard  and  Prank- 
ish rule,  gradually  established  its  independence 
with  the  aid  of  the  counts  of  Montefeltro. 
In  1631  it  received  a  formal  acknowledgment 
of  its  independence  from  Pope  Urban  VIII. 
Napoleon  did  not  deign  to  tamper  with  the 
liliputian  republic,  and  sentiment,  probably, 
led  to  the  preservation  of  its  identity  in  1860- 
61,  on  the  formation  of  the  Italian  kingdom,  un- 
der whose  protection  the  Republic  placed  itself 
in  1862.  Consult:  Franciosi,  Qaribaldi  e  la  re- 
puhhlica  di  San  Marino  (Bologna,  1891)  ;  Hautte- 
coeur,  La  rdpuhlique  de  San  Marino  (Brussels, 
1894). 

SAN  MABTIN,  bM  mar-t^^  Joat  de  (1778- 
1850).  A  South  American  general,  distinguished 
for  his  services  in  the  war  of  independence  against 
Spain.  He  was  born  at  Yapeyu  in  Argentina, 
February  25,  1778,  and  as  a  child  was  sent  to 
Spain,  where  he  received  his  education.  He  en- 
tered the  army  and  served  with  distinction 
against  the  French.  In  1811  he  laid  down  his 
rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  and  in  the  following 
year  went  to  Buenos  Ayres,  where  he  threw  in  his 
fortunes  with  the  patriot  cause.  In  Januaiy, 
1813,  he  defeated  the  Spanish  Viceroy  at  San 
Lorenzo  and  in  the  following  year  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  insurgent  army  in  Upper  Peru. 
San  Martin  now  conceived  the  design  of  destroy- 
ing the  Spanish  power  by  overrunning  Chile  and 
then  striking  at  the  stronghold,  Peru.  After 
two  years*  preparation  he  set  out  in  January, 
1817,  from  Mendoza,  with  a  well-drilled  army  of 
4000  men,  crossed  the  Andes  with  much  hardship, 
and  on  February  12th  routed  the  Spaniards  at 
Chacabuco.  This  led  to  the  occupation  of  the 
capital  and  the  establishment  of  the  Republic  of 
which  San  Martin  declined  the  proffered  bead- 


aANHABTIN. 


423 


SAKPOIL. 


ship.  Defeated  at  Cancha  Rayada,  March  19, 
1818,  he  retrieved  his  fortunes  by  a  decisive  vic- 
tory at  the  Maipo,  April  5th,  definitely  ending  the 
Spanish  power  in  Chile.  In  August,  1820,  he  set 
sail  from  Valparaiso  with  an  army  of  4500  men, 
and  landing  at  Pisco,  some  150  miles  south  of 
Lima,  entered  the  capital  in  July,  1821,  and  pro- 
claimed the  independence  of  Peru.  In  August 
he  was  chosen  Protector.  To  Bolivar  (q. v.) ,  who  in 
1822  came  to  the  aid  of  the  Peruvians,  San 
Martin  left  the  task  of  completing  the  conquest 
of  the  country,  resigning  his  command  in  August, 
1822,  and  departing  for  Europe.  He  lived  subse- 
quently at  Brussels  and  in  France,  and  died  at 
Boulogne,  August  17,  1850.  His  life  was  one  of 
devoted  patriotism,  marred  neither  by  vainglory, 
factional  hatred,  nor  personal  interest. 

SAHKICHELI,  sftn'm^-ka^d,  Michele 
(1484-1559).  An  Italian  architect,  born  in  Ve- 
rona. He  went  to  Rome,  worked  under  Bramante, 
and  made  the  acquaintance  of  Michelangelo,  of 
Sansovono,  and  of  Antonio  Sangallo,  with  whom 
he  was  employed  in  repairing  the  fortifications 
of  Central  Italy.  Sanmicheli  is  reckoned  the 
first  to  use  the  bastionary  system  of  fortification. 
He  built  many  beautiful  portals  in  Venice  and 
Verona,  the  Bevilacqua  and  Pompeii  palaces  in 
Verona,  the  latter  feeing  his  masterpiece,  the 
Church  of  the  Madonna  di  Campagna  in  the 
same  city,  and  in  Venice  the  Palazzo  Grimani, 
and  the  Palazzo  Mocenigo,  so  famous  for  its 
facade. 

SAH  MiaXTEL,  m^gkV.  A  city  of  the  Re- 
public of  Salvador,  situated  70  miles  east  of  San 
Salvador  at  the  foot  of  the  volcano  of  San 
Miguel  or  Jucuapa  (Map:  Central  America,  C 
4).  It  is  the  third  city  of  the  Republic  in  size, 
the  capital  of  a  department  of  the  same  name, 
and  the  centre  of  a  rich  agricultural  region.  It 
has  some  foreign  trade,  especially  in  indigo. 
Population,  about  25,000. 

SAir  MIGTTEL  DE  ALLENBE,  d&  kVjkn^' 
d&.    A  town  of  Mexico.    See  Allende. 

SAH  MIGUEL  DE  MAYITMO,  dt  mft-ySS"- 
md.  A  town  of  Luzon,  Philippine  Islands,  in  the 
Province  of  Bulaciin,  situated  22  miles  northeast 
of  Malolos  (Map:  Philippine  Islands,  E  4).  Pop- 
ulation, estimated,  in  1809,  20,460. 

SAir  MINIATO,  m^'n^-A'tf^.  (1)  A  city  in 
the  Province  of  Florence,  Italy,  21  miles  bv  rail 
west-southwest  of  Florence  (Map:  Italy,  E  4). 
The  tenth-century  cathedral  was  remodeled  in 
1488.  The  city  has  an  old  castle,  a  lyceum,  and 
a  seminary.  There  are  manufactures  of  glass, 
leather,  and  straw  goods,  and  olive  oil.  Popula- 
tion (commune),  in  1901,  20,042.  (2)  An  an- 
cient church  near  Florence  (q.v.). 

8AKHAZAB0,  san'n&d-zft^r^  *Jacopo  (1458- 
1530).  An  Italian  author,  bom  at  Naples. 
Trained  at  Naples,  he  was  there  introduced  into 
the  Arcadian  Academy,  in  which  he  was  known 
as  Actius  Svncerus.  Frederick  III.,  to  whom  he 
was  devoted,  gave  him  the  villa  at  Mergellina, 
and  when  Louis  XII.'s  expedition  of  1501  obliged 
Frederick  to  leave  his  realm,  Sannazaro  joined 
him  in  exile,  and  served  him  until  his  death  in 
1504.  Sannazaro's  masterpiece  is  the  Arcadia^  a 
pastoral  composition  in  mingled  prose  and  verse. 
The  work  was  imitated  and  translated  into  foreign 
languages,  and  helped  greatly  to  develop  the  pas- 
toral in  European  countries.    Sannazaro's  minor 


works  in  Italian  comprise  some  short  monologues 
and  a  few  allegorical  farces,  and  his  various 
Rime,  largely  Petrarchian  in  inspiration.  His 
Latin  compositions  are  among  the  best  of  the  time. 
They  include  elegies,  eclogues,  and  epigrams, 
besides  a  longer  poem,  De  Partu  Virginis,  Consult : 
Colangelo,  Vita  di  Jacopo  Satmazaro  (Naples, 
1819)  ;  the  Life  in  the  edition  of  the  Opere  Vol- 
gari  (Padua,  1723)  ;  the  Opere  Laiine  (Amster- 
dam, 1728) ;  an  edition  of  the  Arcadia,  and  a 
discussion  of  its  composition  by  M.  Scherillo,  in 
Arcadia  di  Jacopo  Sannazaro  aecondo  i  manoscrit- 
ti  e  le  prime  stampe  con  note,  etc.  (Turin,  1888). 

SAN  NICOLAS,  sSn  n^^kd-lfts^  A  town  of 
Luzon,  Philippine  Islands,  in  the  Province  of 
Pangasinfin,  situated  about  33  miles  east  of 
Lingay^n  (Map:  Philippine  Islands,  E  3).  Popu- 
lation, estimated,  in  1899,  10,204. 

SAN  NICOLAs,  or  San  NiGOi*is  de  los  Ab- 
BOYos.  A  town  of  Argentina,  in  the  Province  of 
Buenos  Ayres,  on  the  Paran&  River,  40  miles  be- 
low Rosario  and  125  miles  northwest  of  Buenos 
Ayres  (Map:  Argentina,  E  10).  It  is  an  im- 
portant industrial  centre,  and  has  steam  flour 
mills  and  large  beef -preserving  establishments. 
It  is  also  a  considerable  railroad  centre  and  a 
station  for  steamers.  Population,  estimated,  in 
1898,  16,000. 

SANNY2.SIN,  s&n-ny&^sln  (Skt.,  renoun- 
cer).  The  Sanskrit  term  for  one  who  has  re- 
nounced all  earthly  interests  and  has  devoted 
hi^lself  to  a  life  of  asceticism  and  meditation. 
It  referred  originally  to  a  Brahman  in  the  fourth 
and  last  stage  of  his  life.  (See  Bbahmanism.) 
The  meaning  of  the  word  has  been  extended, 
however,  to  include  all  religious  mendicants, 
chiefly  of  the  Sivite  sects  (see  Saivas),  who  sub- 
sist on  alms  and  live  a  life  of  contemplation. 

SAN  PABLO,  pa'bld.  A  town  of  Luzon,  Phil- 
ippine Islands,  in  the  Province  of  Laguna,  situ- 
ated about  16  miles  south  of  Santa  Cruz  (Map: 
Philippine  Islands,  F  5).  Population,  estimated, 
in  1899,  19,537. 

SAN  PEDBO,  peMrd.  The  seaport  of  Los 
Angeles   (q.v.). 

SAN  PEDBO,  pa'drft.  A  town  of  Paraguay, 
90  miles  north  of  Asuncion,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Jujuy  (Map:  Paraguay,  F  8).  It  has  ex- 
ports of  matfi  and  rubber.  Population,  about 
7000. 

SAN  PIEB  D'ABENA,  p«-&r^  d&-ra^n&.  A 
town  in  the  Province  of  Genoa,  Italy,  2%  miles 
west  of  Genoa,  of  which  it  is  a  suburb.  It  has  a 
separate  city  government.  It  contains  the  beau- 
tiful Palazzo  Scassi.  Tlie  Church  of  Santa  Maria 
della  Cella  is  embellished  with  frescoes.  The  city 
has  a  technical  school.  It  is  a  manufacturing  cen- 
tre, with  a  large  sugar  refinery,  machine  shops, 
and  chemical  and  oil  works.  Population  (com- 
mune), in  1901,  34,885. 

SAN^OIL  (apparently  of  North  American 
Indian  origin,  although  sometimes  written  as 
Fr.  Sans  Foils,  hairless).  A  small  tribe  of 
Salishan  stock  (q.v.)  formerly  residing  upon  the 
river  of  the  same  name  and  now  included  with 
other  tribes  of  the  same  region  upon  the  Colville 
reservation,  northeastern  Washington.  Lewis 
and  Clark  in  1804  mention  them  as  Hihighenim- 
mo  J  a  corruption  of  their  name  among  the 
Yakima.  They  are  confederated  with  the  Nes- 
pelim,    speaking   the    same    language,   the   two 


SANPOIL. 


434 


SAVfiXBTT  XJlHOUAOS. 


tribes  being  the  most  aboriginal  in  eastern  Wash- 
ington, and  until  very  recently  adhering  strictly 
to  their  primitive  conditions  and  religion.  In 
1892  the  Sanpoil  were  estimated  at  300  and  the 
Nespelim  at  62.  In  1001  the  whole  body  was 
estimated  at  400. 

SAN  RAFAEL,  T^'ik-^V,  The  county-seat  of 
Marin  County,  Cal.,  16  miles  north  of  San  Fran- 
cisco; on  an  inlet  of  San  Pablo  Bay,  and  on  the 
San  Francisco  and  North  Pacific  and  the  North 
Pacific  Coast  railroads  (Map:  California,  B  3). 
It  is  near  Mount  Tamalpais,  in  a  region  of  pic- 
turesque scenery,  and  is  a  popular  resort.  It 
has  a  Dominican  college,  the  Hitchcock  School. 
Mount  Tamalpais  Military  Academy,  and  a  pub- 
lic library.  Population,  in  1890,  3290;  in  1900, 
3879. 

SAN  BEMOy  rft'm6.  A  city  in  the  Province 
of  Porto  Maurizio,  Italy,  on  the  Riviera,  26 
miles  by  rail  east-northeast  of  Nice  (Map:  Italy, 
B  4) .  The  particularly  mild  climate  has  brought 
it  into  prominence  as  a  winter  resort.  The  old 
town,  situated  on  a  hill,  is  ill-built,  with  narrow 
crooked  streets,  but  the  newer  portion,  along  the 
coast,  has  fine  promenades,  villas,  and  gardens. 
The  city  has  a  thirteenth-century  church,  a 
seminary,  and  a  technical  school.  The  Villa 
Thiem  contains  a  picture  gallery.  The  products 
of  the  neighborhood  are  olives,  lemons,  and 
oranges,  and  there  are  manufactures  of  perfumes 
and  mosaics.  Population  (commune),  in  1901, 
21,440. 

SAN  BOQTJE,  rd^&.  Cafe.     See  Cafe  San 

ROQUE. 

SAN  SAIiVADOB,  s&l'vA-Ddr'.  The  name 
given  by  Columbus  to  the  first  island  which  he 
discovered  in  America.    See  Guanahanl 

SAN  SALVADOB.  The  capiUl  of  the  Cen- 
tral American  Republic  of  Salvador,  situated  a 
little  west  of  the  centre  of  the  country,  25  miles 
from  the  Pacific  coast,  and  near  the  foot  of  the 
extinct  volcano  of  San  Salvador  (Map:  Central 
America,  C  4).  Its  houses  are  all  low,  sur- 
rounded by  wide,  open  areas,  and  generally  in- 
closing a  central  patio,  being  built  with  a  view 
to  withstanding  earthquakes,  to  which  the  locality 
is  particularly  subject.  Many  of  the  large  build- 
ings are  built  of  wood,  including  the  new  cathe- 
dral. Noteworthy  are  the  national  palace,  the 
Casa  Blanca  ('White  House')  or  Presidential 
mansion,  the  university,  national  library,  astro- 
nomical observatory,  and  botanical  garden.  The 
city  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  agricul- 
tural products,  especially  in  indigo.  The  rail- 
road to  the  port  of  Acajutla  was  completed  in 
1900.  Population,  about  30,000.  San  Salvador 
was  founded  in  1525  by  Jorge  de  Alvarado.  It 
has  been  a  number  of  times  nearly  or  quite  de- 
stroyed by  earthquakes,  notably  in  1854  and  in 
1873. 

SANSCXTLOTTES,  sftNTcvi'ldt'  (Fr.,  without 
breeches,  i.e.  wearing  trousers  instead  of  the 
knee-breeches  then  in  fashion).  The  name  given 
in  scorn,  at  the  beginning  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, by  the  Court  party  to  the  democrats  of 
Paris. 

SAN  SEBASTIAN,  sftn  s&'B&s-t^-ftn^  The 
capita]  of  the  Province  of  Guiptkzcoa,  Spain  situ- 
ated on  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  12  miles  from  the 
French  frontier  (Map:  Spain,  D  1).  It  is  built  in 
a  very  picturesque  location  on  a  sandy  isthmus 


connecting  the  rocky  and  steep  Monte  Urgall  with 
the  mainland.  The  town  was  formerly  fortified, 
and  the  mountain  is  still  crowned  by  the  fortress 
of  La  Mota.  On  the  east  the  town  is  bounded 
by  the  Rio  Urumea,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Bay 
of  Concha,  which  affords  a  spacious  anchorage 
protected  by  the  island  of  Santa  Clara,  and  u 
lined  with  a  magnificent  beach  along  its  inner 
shore.  The  old  town  lies  at  the  foot  of  the  moun- 
tain, and  has  been  rebuilt  since  its  destruction 
during  the  siege  of  1813.  A  beautiful  Alameda 
running  across  the  isthmus  separate  it  from  the 
new  town,  which  has  wide,  straight  streets,  and 
handsome  parks  and  promenades.  The  most 
notable  buildings  are  the  town  hall,  with  a  hand- 
some facade,  the  Palacio  de  la  I)iputaci6n  or 
provincial  Government  building,  the  magnificent 
hotel  or  Gran  Casino  facing  the  beach  and 
surrounded  by  a  park,  the  bull  ring  capable 
of  seating  10,000  spectators,  and  the  royal 
palace  of  Miramar,  an  unpretentious  cottage 
built  near  the  beach  some  distance  west  of 
the  town.  San  Sebastiftn  is  the  summer  residence 
of  the  Spanish  royal  family,  the  most  fashionable 
seaside  resort  in  Spain,  and  one  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful in  Europe.  Its  commerce  and  industries  are 
considerable,  and  there  are  a  number  of  fiour 
and  saw  mills,  iron  foundries,  and  manufactures 
of  paper,  beverages,  cloth,  and  hats,  while  the 
fisheries  are  also  very  important.  The  perma- 
nent population  in  1887  was  29,047;  and  in 
1900,  37,703. 

Being  a  fortified  port  near  the  boundary,  San 
Sebastiftn  has  often  borne  the  brunt  of  Franco- 
Spanish  wars.  The  fort  was  occupied  by  the 
French  in  1813,  and  captured  by  the  English  and 
Portuguese  by  an  assault  in  which  the  entire 
town  was  destroyed. 

SAN  SEBASTIAN  DE  GOHEBA,  dA  g^ 
m&^r&.  The  chief  town  of  the  island  of  Gomera 
(q.v.). 

SAN  SEVERING  MABCHE,  sfl'v&re'nd 
mftr^&.  A  town  in  the  Province  of  Macerata, 
Italy,  situated  on  the  Potenza,  32  miles  south- 
southwest  of  Ancona  (Map:  Italy,  H  4).  It  has 
a  cathedral  with  a  Madonna  by  Pinturicchio, 
and  a  library.  Machinery,  metal  and  stone  ware, 
glass,  and  flour  are  manufactured.  There  is  a 
trade  in  wine,  oil,  fruit,  and  cattle.  Population 
(commune),  in  1901,  14,385. 

SAN  SEVEBO,  sA-va'rA.  A  city  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Foggia,  Italy,  19  miles  by  rail  northwest 
of  Foggia  (Map:  Italy,  K  6).  It  has  a  cathe- 
dral, a  seminary^  and  a  technical  school.  The 
country  is  fertile,  producing  grain  and  fruit,  and 
affording  rich  pasturage.  In  1799  San  Severo 
was  destroyed  by  the  French.  Population  (com- 
mune), in  1901,  30,040. 

SAN-SINOy-sAn'sIng'.  The  principal  town  of 
Northeastern  Manchuria,  on  the  Sungari  (Map: 
C!hina,  G  2).  Population,  about  30,000.  A  fort 
and  barracks  are  situated  six  or  seven  miles  to 
the  east.    See  KiBiN. 

SANSEABA,  sAns-kft^rft.  The  name  given  to 
the  forty  rites  incumbent  on  the  three  higher 
castes  of  Hindus.    See  SamskIba. 

SANSKBIT  LANOTTAGE  (Skt.  safMkfta, 
adorned,  perfected,  p.p.  of  aamskar,  to  adorn, 
from  earn,  together  4-  kary  to  make).  The  name 
ordinarily  applied  io  the  whole  ancient  and 
sacred  language  of  India.  It  belongs  properly, 
however,  to  that  dialect  which  was  treated  by  the 


aAHSKBIT  LAKOTTAGS. 


425 


AAKSK&IT  LAKGUAO^. 


Hindu  grammarian  Panini  (q.v.)  and  his  fol- 
lowers. For  the  last  2000  years  or  more,  until 
the  present  day,  this  language  has  led  a  more  or 
less  artificial  life,  being,  like  Latin  during  the 
Middle  Ages,  the  means  of  communication  and 
literary  expression  of  the  priestly,  learned,  and 
cultiYated  castes.  (See  Sanskrit  Literatube.) 
It  is  distinguished  most  obviously  from  the  later 
derived  dialects,  Prakrit  (q.v.)  and  Pali  (q.v.), 
whose  character  and  forms  in  relation  to  Sanskrit 
are  closely  analogous  to  those  of  the  Romance 
languages  (q.v.)  in  their  relation  to  Latin.  On 
the  other  hand,  Sanskrit  is  distinguished,  al- 
though much  less  sharply,  from  the  oldest  forms 
of  Indian  speech,  preserved  in  the  canonical  and 
wholly  religious  literature  of  the  Veda  (q.v.), 
BrahmafiM  (q.v.),  and  Upani^ad  (q.v.).  These 
forms  of  speech  are  in  their  turn  by  no  means 
free  from  important  dialectic,  stylistic,  and  chro- 
nological differences,  but  they  are  comprised 
under  the  one  name,  Vedic  (or,  less  nroperly, 
Vedic  Sanskrit),  which  is  thus  distinguisned  f rom 
the  language  of  Panini,  whose  proper  designation 
is  Sanskrit,  or  classical  Sanskrit. 

Vedic  differs  from  Sanskrit  about  as  much  as 
the  Greek  of  Homer  does  from  classical  Greek. 
The  Vedic  apparatus  of  grammatical  forms  was 
much  richer  and  less  definitely  settled  than  that 
of  Sanskrit,  which  gave  up  much  of  the  earlier 
language  without,  as  a  rule,  supplying  the  proper 
substitutes  for  the  lost  materials.  Many  case- 
forms  and  verbal  forms  of  Vedic  disappeared  in 
Sanskrit.  The  subjunctive  was  lost,  and  about  a 
dozen  Vedic  infinitives  were  reduced  to  a  single 
one  in  Sanskrit.  Sanskrit  also  gave  up  the  most 
important  heirloom  which  had  been  handed  down 
by  the  Indian  language  from  prehistoric  times, 
the  system  of  Vedic  accentuation.  It  must  be 
borne  in  mind,  however,  that  Vedic,  notwithstand- 
ing its  somewhat  unsettled  richness,  and  its  very 
archaic  character,  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a 
popular  tongue,  but  as  the  more  or  less  artificial 
liigh  speech,'  handed  down  through  generations 
by  families  of  priestly  singers.  &th  Vedic  and 
Sanskrit  were  in  a  sense  caste  languages,  based 
upon  popular  idioms.  The  grammatical  regula- 
tion of  Sanskrit  at  the  hands  of  Panini  and  his 
followers,  however,  went  beyond  any  academic 
attempts  to  regulate  speech  recorded  elsewhere  in 
the  history  of  civilization. 

The  Vedic  hymns,  the  earliest  literary  produc- 
tion of  the  Indian  people,  were  composed  in  the 
northwest  of  India,  in  the  river-basins  of  the 
Indus   and  its  tributaries.     The  date  of  these 
hymns  is  unknown,  b.c.  1600  being  the  conven- 
tional assumption;  still  less  known  is  the  time 
when  the  Aryans  commenced  their  entry  into 
India  through  the  passes  of  the  Hindu  Kush. 
Nevertheless  older  forms  lying  behind  the  Vedic 
language  ma^  be  reconstructed  by  the  aid  of  com- 
parative philology.     The  original  home  of  the 
Vedic  people  was  in  the  great  Persian  region  on 
the  northern  side  of  the  Himalayas.    By  compari- 
son of  Vedic  and  Sanskrit  with  the  oldest  forms 
of  Persian  speech,  Avesta  (q.v.)  and  Old  Persian 
(q.v.),  it  is  clear  that  these  languages  are  col- 
lectively mere  dialects  of  one  and  the  same  older 
idiom.     This  is  known  as  the  Indo-Iranian,  or 
Aryan  (in  the  narrower  sense)  language.    The  re- 
constructed  Indo-Iranian   language   differs    less 
from  the  language  of  the  Veda  than  classical 
Sanskrit  does  from  Prakrit  and  Pali.  The  language 
of  the  Persian  Avesta  is  so  much  like  that  of  the 


Veda  that  entire  passages  of  either  literature  may 
be  converted  into  good  specimens  of  the  other  by 
merely  observing  the  special  laws  of  sound  which 
each  has  evolved  in  the  course  of  its  separate 
existence.  This  Indo-Iranian  language,  again, 
is  part  of  the  greater  linguistic  community  of  the 
so-called  Indo-Germanic  languages  (q.v.).  See 
also  Philology. 

Since  the  revival  of  classical  learning  there 
has  been  no  event  of  such  importance  in  the  his- 
tory of  culture  as  the  discovery  of  Sanskrit  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The 
study  of  this  language  opened  up  the  primitive 
Indo-Germanic  period,  and  originated  th^  science 
of  comparative  philology  in  all  its  bearings.  Lin- 
guistic science,  comparative  mythology,  science 
of  religion,  comparative  jurisprudence,  and  other 
important  fields  of  historical  and  philosophical 
study,  either  owe  their  very  existence  to  the  dis- 
covery of  Sanskrit  or  were  profoundly  influenced 
by  its  study.  By  its  aid  the  spiritual  monuments 
of  Zoroaster  (see  Avesta)  were  made  accessible, 
as  well  as  the  stone  monuments  of  the  Persian 
kings  of  the  Achtemenidan  dynasty. 

After  Alexander's  invasion  of  India  i;he  Greeks 
became  acquainted  to  a  certain  extent  with  the 
learning  of  the  Hindus.  The  Arabs  in  the  Middle 
Ages  introduced  the  knowledge  of  Indian  science 
to  the  West,  the  so-called  Arabic  (in  reality  In- 
dian) numerals  among  other  things.  Beginning 
with  the  sixteenth  century,  European  nations,  the 
Portuguese,  Dutch,  Danes,  English,  and  French, 
obtained  a  more  or  less  permanent  foothold  in 
India,  but  they  sought  material  gain  only ;  never- 
theless a  few  European  missionaries  acquired  some 
familiarity  with  Sanskrit,  and  Abraham  Roger 
even  translated  the  Sanskrit  poet  Bhartrihari 
(q.v.)  into  Dutch  as  early  as  1651.  But  the  first 
Sanskrit  grammar  to  be  published  in  Europe,  that 
of  Father  Paulinus  a  Sainto  Bartholomeo,  was 
printed  in  Rome  no  earlier  than  1700.  English 
scholars  in  India,  Sir  William  Jones,  Charles 
Wilkins,  H.  F.  Colebrooke,  H.  H.  Wilson,  and 
others,  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  were 
the  first  real  mediators  between  India  and 
Europe.  Wilkins's  translation  of  the  Bhagavad- 
gita  (q.v.)  and  Jones's  translation  of  the  Sakun- 
tala  (q.v.)  elicited  the  greatest  admiration.  Es- 
pecially in  Germany,  men  like  Herder,  Goethe, 
the  brothers  Schlegel,  and  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt 
were  profoundly  moved  and  attracted  to  the 
new  language,  its  literature,  and  its  theosophy. 
Friedrich  von  SchlegeFs  Ueher  die  Sprache  und 
Weissheit  der  Indier  introduced  the  historical 
and  comparative  method  into  the  science  of 
language.  Soon  afterwards  Franz  Bopp  (see 
Philology;  Bopp),  in  his  treatise,  Ueher  daa 
Konjugation88yatem  der  Sanakritspraohe  (Frank- 
fort, 1816),  laid  the  foundation  of  the  science  of 
comparative  grammar.  Since  then  both  Indology 
and  comparative  philology  have  won  for  them- 
selves permanent  positions  among  the  intellectual 
disciplines  in  all  centres  of  learning  in  Europe, 
America,  and  India. 

The  Sanskrit  language  has  on  the  whole  pre- 
served the  linguistic  conditions  of  the  Indo-Ger- 
manic parent  speech  better  than  any  other  mem- 
ber of  the  Indo-Germanic  family  of  languages. 
In  its  vocalism  it  has  merged  the  two  triads'  of 
vowels  a,  e,  o,  and  d,  5,  6  respectively  into  a  and 
d;  thus  Indo-Germ.  *andho8,  'fiower'  (Gk.  di^t), 
and  *in€no8,  'mind*  (Gk.  fUmt),  are  Skt.  andhaa 
and  manaa;  Indo-Germ.  *p6d,  'foot,'  and  *di-dh€' 


SAKSKEIT  LAHOTTAOE. 


426 


SAKSKBIT  LITEBATTrBfi. 


mi,  'set'  (Gk.  rlSrifu)  are  Skt.  pAd-  and  da- 
dMmt.  With  this  single  exception  Sanskrit  re- 
flects the  prehistoric  system  of  vocal  ism  most  per- 
fectly. The  preservation  of  the  Indo-Germanic 
lingual  vowels,  r  and  /,  as  Skt.  r,  as  Indo-Germ. 
e-drk-om,  *1  have  seen,*  Skt.  a-dr4-am,  or  *tilqo8, 
*wolf,*  Skt.  vrka-8,  led  to  the  recognition  of  the 
fact  that  lingual  and  nasal  vowels  belonged  to 
the  original  stock  of  the  whole  family  of  lan- 
guages, and  was  followed  by  far-reaching  and 
permanent  results  concerning  the  entire  system 
of  vocalism.  The  Indo-Germanic  indeterminate 
vowel  or  sh'wa  (a),  appears  in  Sanskrit  as  i, 
and  its  wide  preservation  in  Sanskrit  led  to 
the  important  theory  of  dissyllabic  roots  or 
stems.  The  preservation  in  many  texts  of  the 
Veda  of  the  old  system  of  accentuation  made  it 
possible  for  Verner  to  discover  his  famous  law 
(see  Vebneb's  Law)  which  explained  the  ap- 
parent exceptions  to  Grimm's  law  (q.v.). 

In  its  consonant-system  Sanskrit  has  preserved 
the  original  five  series  of  mutes :  labials,  dentals, 
palatals,  gutturals,  and  labiovelars  (see  Phi- 
lology), and  has  in  addition  developed  an  im- 
portant sixth  series,  the  Unguals  or  cerebrals, 
mutes  produced  by  the  influence  of  the  r  and  I 
sounds.  Thus  Indo-Germanic  *dendrom,  *tree, 
sUflf  (Gk.  BMfioy),  becomes  Skt.  danda,  'staff;' 
or  the  Vedic  root  nart,  'dance,'  becomes  nat  in 
Sanskrit.  Most  important  is  the  undisturbed 
preservation  in  Sanskrit  of  the  Indo-Germanic 
sonant  aspirates,  hh,  dh,  gh,  which  underwent 
radical  changes  in  all  other  Indo-Germanic  lan- 
guages, as  Indo-Germ.  ^bhei^/1  carry,'  Skt.  hhard- 
mi,  but  Gk.  4>ipw,  Lat.  fero,  Gothic  haira,  etc.  The 
Indo-Germanic  surd  aspirates  are  also  preserved 
most  clearly  in  Sanskrit,  as  th  in  Skt.  vet-tha, 
'thou  knowest,*  Gk.  fohr-da^  Gothic  wais-t;  or  kh 
in  Skt.  4ankha,  'conch-shell,'  Gk.  x&yxot, 

Sanskrit  has  preserved  all  the  Indo-Germanic 
cases,  having  independent  forms  for  the  instru- 
mental and  locative  in  addition  to  the  more  fa- 
miliar cases  of  the  remaining  languages.  In  verb- 
formation  it  has  retained  and  developed  the  dis- 
tinction between  the  so-called  thematic  (^verbs) 
and  non-thematic  (wt- verbs),  which  has  prac- 
ticallv  passed  out  of  the  remaining  languages  of 
the  family  with  the  exception  of  the  Greek. 
Sanskrit  abounds  in  varieties  of  present-systems 
and  aorist-systems,  offering  in  the  last  men- 
tioned respect  strikingly  close  parallels  to  Greek. 
The  modal  forms,  such  as  the  subjunctive,  the  in- 
junctive, and  the  optative,  are  present,  but  have 
never  developed  into  the  delicate  syntactical 
categories  of  either  Greek  or  Latin.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  so-called  secondary  systems  of 
conjugation,  intensive,  desiderative,  and  causa- 
tive, have  become  indeflnitely  productive,  so  that 
theoretically  every  verb  is  entitled  to  any  of 
these  formations,  as  Skt.  afdati,  'he  sits,'  and 
addayati,  'he  sets;'  na^ati,  'he  perishes,'  and 
na^ayati,  'he  destroys.' 

BiBLiOGBAPHY.  Beufcy,  Practical  Grammar  of 
the  Sanskrit  Language  (2d  ed.,  London,  1868) ; 
Mtlller,  Sanskrit  Chramm^r  (ib.,  1870)  ;  Kellner, 
Elementarhuch  der  Sanskrit-Sprache  (3d  ed., 
Leipzig,  1885)  ;  Edgren,  Compendious  Sanskrit 
Grammar  (London,  1885)  ;  Williams,  Practical 
Grammar  of  the  Sanskrit  Language  (4th  ed.,  Ox- 
ford, 1887)  ;  Geiger,  Elementarhuch  der  Sanskrit- 
Sprache  (Munich,  1888)  ;  Kielhom,  Grammar  of 
the  Sanskrit  Language  (4th  ed.,  Bombay,  1896)  ; 
Whitney,   Sanskrit   Grammar    (3d  ed.,   Leipzig^ 


1901) ;  id..  Roots,  Verb-forms,  and  Primary  De- 
rivatives of  the  Sanskrit  Language  (ib.,  1885); 
Wackemagel,  Altindische  Cframmatik  (GOttingen, 
1896)  ;  Macdonell,  Sanskrit  Grammar  (London, 
1901);  Fick,  Sanskrit-Sprache  (Vienna,  no 
date)  ;  Perry,  Sanskrit  Primer  (3d  ed.,  Boston. 
1901)  ;  Speijer,  Sanskrit  Syntaw  (Leyden,  1886) ; 
id.,  Vedische  und  Sanskrit-Syntaw  (Strassburg, 
1896)  ;  DelbrQck,  Altindische  Syntax  (Halle, 
1888) ;  Weber,  Ueher  die  Metrik  der  Inder 
(Berlin,  1863) ;  Ktthnau,  Die  Trishtuhh-Jagati 
Familie  (G<5ttingen,  1886)  ;  Bdhtlingk  and  Roth, 
Sanskrit-Worterhuch  (Saint  Petersburg,  1855- 
75)  ;  Bdhtlingk,  Sanskrit-W&rterbueh  in  kurzerer 
Fassung  (ib.,  1879-89)  ;  Apte,  Practical  Sanskrit- 
English  Dictionary  (Poona,  1890) ;  id.,  Students' 
English-Sanskrit  Dictionary  (ib.,  1893) ;  Capel- 
ler,  Sanskrit-English  Dictionary  (Boston,  1891); 
Macdonell,  Sanskrit-English  Dictionary  (London, 
1893) ;  Williams,  Sanskrit-English  Dictionary 
(new  ed.,  Oxford,  1899)  ;  Uhlenbeck,  Kurzge- 
fasstes  etymologisches  Worierhuch  der  alttn- 
dischen  Sprache  (Amsterdam,  1898-99) ;  id., 
Manual  of  Sanskrit  Phonetics  (London,  1898). 

SANSKRIT  LITESATXTBE.  The  Uterature 
in  Sanskrit  (see  Saitskbit  Languaos),  like  the 
language,  may  be  divided  into  two  periods,  the 
Vedic  and  the  Sanskrit.  Notwithstanding  the 
continuity  of  the  Hindu  writings,  the  spirit  of 
Sanskrit  literature  differs  greatly  from  the  Vedic. 
The  chief  distinction  between  the  two  periods  Ib 
that  the  Veda  (q.v.)  is  essentially  a  religious  col- 
lection, whereas  Sanskrit  literature  is,  with  rare 
exceptions,  profane.  In  the  Veda  the  lyric  and 
legendary  forms  are  in  the  service  of  prayer,  or 
exposition  of  the  ritual;  in  Sanskrit  epic,  didac- 
tic, lyric,  and  dramatic  forms  have  been  devel- 
oped far  beyond  their  earlier  forms  for  the  pur- 
pose of  literary  delectation  and  aesthetic  or  moral 
instruction.  In  Sanskrit  literature,  moreover, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Mahahhdrata  (q.v.) 
and  the  Pur&nas  (q.v.),  the  authors  are  gener- 
ally definite  persons,  more  or  less  well  known, 
whereas  the  Vedio  writings  go  back  to  families  of 
poets,  or  schools  of  religious  learning,  the  indi- 
vidual authors  being  almost  entirely  unknown. 

The  form  and  style  of  Sanskrit  literature 
differs  generally  from  that  of  the  Vedas  (q.v.). 
Vedic  prose  was  developed  in  the  Yajur-Vedas, 
BrahmafMS  (q.v.),  and  Upanifods  (q.v.)  to  a 
tolerably  high  pitch ;  in  Sanskrit,  aside  from  the 
strained  scientific  language  (sUtra)  of  philosophy 
and  grammar,  prose  is  found  in  genuine  litera- 
ture only  in  fables,  fairy  tales,  romances,  and 
partially  in  the  drama.  Nor  has  this  prose  im- 
proved in  literary  and  stylistic  quality,  as  com- 
pared with  the  earlier  variety.  On  the  contrary, 
it  has  become  more  and  more  clumsy  and  hdh 
bling,  full  of  long  awkward  compounds  and  other 
artificialities.  As  regards  the  poetic  medium  of 
classical  Sanskrit,  it  also  differs  from  the  Veda. 
The  bulk  of  Sanskrit  poetry,  especially  the  epic, 
is  composed  in  the  Sldka  metre,  a  development  of 
the  Vedic  a/niL^tuhh  stanza  of  four  octosyllabic 
lines  of  essentially  iambic  ^adence.  But  numer- 
ous other  metres,  usually  built  up  on  Vedic  pro- 
totypes, have  become  more  and  more  elaborate 
and  strict  than  their  old  originals,  and  in  the 
main  they  have  also  become  more  artistic  and 
beautiful. 

Sanskrit  literature  may  be  divided  into  epie, 
lyric,  didactic,  dramatic,  and  narrative.     SsiQ 


SAirSXBIT  LITEBATtTBX. 


427 


SANSKBIT  LITEBATXTBE. 


Fgbtby  falls  into  two  classes,  the  freer  narrative 
epic  termed  ititdsa,  'legend/  or  purana,  'ancient 
tale/  and  the  artistic  or  artificial  epic,  called 
kAvyOj  'poetic  product/  The  great  epic  of  the 
Mahdbh&rata  (q.v.)  is  by  far  the  most  impor- 
tant representative  of  the  former  kind.  Of  some- 
what similar  free  style  are  the  eighteen  Purdnaa 
of  much  later  date.  (See  PusIna.)  The  begin- 
nings of  the  artistic  style  are  seen  in  the  other 
great  Hindu  epic,  the  Rdmayafta  (q.v.) 9  which 
the  Hindus  themselves  regard  as  the  product  of 
a  single  author,  Valmiki.  But  the  finished  epic 
kAvya  is  not  evolved  until  the  time  of  Kalidasa 
(q.v.),  about  the  sixth  century  a.d.  This  uni- 
versal poet  and  dramatist  is  the  author  of  the 
two  best  known  artistic  epics,  the  Kumdra-aam- 
hhaf?a,  or  Birth  of  the  War  God,  and  the 
Raghuvam4af  or  Race  of  Raghu. 

The  Kum&rt^aarhhhava  consists  of  seventeen 
cantos,  the  first  seven  of  which  are  devoted  to  the 
courtship  and  wedding  of  the  deities  Siva  and 
Parvati,  the  parents  of  the  youthful  god  of  war. 
Usually  only  these  seven  are  printed,  owing 
to  the  erotic  character  of  the  remaining  cantos. 
The  real  theme  of  the  poem  appears  only  toward 
the  end,  in  the  account  of  the  destruction  of  the 
demon  Taraka,  the  object  for  which  the  god  of 
war  was  bom.  The  artistic,  or  rather  the  arti- 
ficial, character  of  the  kdvyaa  removes  them  far 
from  the  sphere  of  the  genuine  epic ;  their  interest 
and  power  lies  especially  in  their  wealth  of  de- 
scriptive power  and  delicacy  of  illustration,  and 
not  so  much  in  their  portrayal  of  important  char- 
acters or  stirring  action.  The  Raghuvamia,  in 
nineteen  cantos,  describes  in  the  first  nine  the  life 
of  Rama  together  with  that  of  his  dynasty,  begin- 
ning with  his  forefather  Dilipa.  Then  in  the 
next  six  cantos  comes  the  story  of  Rama  himself, 
the  same  theme  as  that  of  the  R6mayana.  The 
remaining  cantos  deal  with  the  twenty-four  kings 
who  ruled  as  Rama's  descendants  in  Ayodhya. 
The  remaining  k&vyas  deal  for  the  most  part 
with  themes  mm  the  Mahdhhdrata  and  Ramd- 
y<MMi.  The  epic  is  commingled  more  and  more 
with  lyric,  didactic,  and  erotic  elements,  as  well 
as  with  bombast  and  verbal  jugglery  (puns)  of 
every  kind.  The  Hindus  consider  six  kAvyas 
entitled  to  the  name  'great  epic'  {mahakavya) 
in  addition  to  the  two  of  Kalidasa  just  men- 
tioned, the  Kirdtdrjufiiya  of  Bharavi  (q.v.),  de- 
scribing a  combat  between  Siva  and  Arjuna;  the 
Mupdla-vadha  of  Magha,  describing  how  Sisu- 
pala,  son  of  a  king  of  Gedi,  and  cousin  of 
Krishna,  was  slain  by  Vishnu;  the  Ndi^adhfya 
ascribed  to  Harsha  (q.v.),  a  version  of  the  story 
of  Kala,  King  of  Nishadha,  the  hero  of  a  well- 
Imown  episode  of  the  Mahdhhdraia;  and  finally 
the  Bhaltikdvya.  The  last  mentioned  'epic'  is 
ascribed  to  the  lyric  poet  Bhartrihari.  It  tells 
the  story  of  Rama,  but  is  composed  with  the 
avowed  object  of  illustrating  the  rules  of  gram- 
mar, especially  the  irregular  forms  of  the  lan- 
guage- 

Every  form  of  artistic  Sanskrit  literature, 
whether  epic,  dramatic,  or  confessedly  lyric,  has 
a  strong  lyric  cast.  At  the  bottom  these  three 
kinds,  in  the  Hindu  poet's  hands,  are  but  the- 
matically  differentiated  forms  of  the  same  poetic 
endowment.  Ornate  figures  of  speech,  singly  or 
in  masses,  luxuriant  richness  of  coloring,  car- 
ried into  literary  composition  from  the  gor- 
geousness  of  the  climate,  flora,  and  fauna  of 
India;  subtle  miniature  painting  of  every  sensa- 
TOL.XV.-a8. 


tion  and  emotion — ^these  are  the  common  charac- 
teristics of  Hindu  artistic  poetry.  Ltbig  Poetbt 
can  hardly  do  more  than  emphasize  or  specialize 
these  conditions,  yet  it  has  its  individual  traits, 
the  most  important  of  which  is  the  refined  elabo- 
ration of  the  single  strophe  in  distinction  from 
continuous  composition.  The  forms  of  these 
strophes  are  very  elaborate,  and  almost  in- 
finitely varied.  Nowhere  else  in  literature  have 
poets  expended  so  much  ingenuity,  patience,  or 
art  upon  the  elaboration  of  metric  form;  no- 
where is  the  attempt  made  so  persistently  to 
harmonize  the  sentiment  of  a  stanza  with  its 
metrical  coloring. 

The  most  elaborated  of  the  longer  lyric  com- 
positions are  the  MSghadUta,  or  Cloud  Mes- 
senger, and  the  fttusarhhdra,  or  Cycle  of  Sea- 
sons, both  by  Kalidasa.  The  theme  of  the  former 
is  a  message  sent  by  an  exiled  Yaksha  (elfin)  to 
his  love  by  a  cloud.  The  first  part  of  the 
poem  describes  the  scenes  through  ^  which 
the  cloud  will  pass  in  its  course;  in  the 
second  part  the  Yaksha  pictures  his  far- 
off  home  and  the  charms  of  his  beloved,  whom  he 
imagines  tossing  on  her  couch,  sleepless  and 
emaciated,  through  the  watches  of  the  night. 
When  the  cloud  beholds  her,  let  it  tell  of  his  own 
longings,  how  in  creepers  he  beholds  her  form, 
in  the  eyes  of  startled  hinds  her  glances,  in  the 
moon  her  lovely  face,  and  in  peacocks'  plumes 
her  shining  tresses.  May  the  cloud,  after  de- 
livering his  message,  return  with  reassuring 
news,  and  never  himself  be  separated  from  his 
lightning  spouse.  The  Cycle  of  Seasons  is  fa- 
mous for  its  descriptions  of  India's  tropical  na- 
ture, interspersed  with  expressions  of  human 
emotion.  Spring,  that  causes  the  downpour  of 
the  pollen  of  the  mango  blossoms,  that  intoxi- 
cates the  world  with  his  fragrance,  and  swarms 
with  honey-drunk  bees,  arouses  sweet  longings  in 
every  breast.  In  the  rainy  season,  when  the  lover, 
confined  at  home  by  the  downpour  of  the  waters, 
shivers  with*  cold,  his  long-eyed  love  presses  him 
to  her  heart,  and  turns  the  dreary  aay  to  sun- 
shine. The  poet's  deep  sympathy  with  nature, 
his  keen  powers  of  observation,  and  his  skill  in 
depicting  an  Indian  landscape  are  equaled  by 
his  subtle  appreciation  of  every  human  mood. 

The  bulk  of  lyrical  poetry,  however,  is  in 
single  miniature  stanzas  which  suggest  strongly 
the  didactic  sententious  proverb  poetry  which 
the  Hindus  also  cultivated  with  great  success. 
In  fact,  the  most  famous  collection  of  such  stan- 
zas, that  of  Bhartrihari  (q.v.)  consists  of  both 
lyric,  didactic,  and  philosophic  poems.  Bhartri- 
hari, who  lived  in  the  seventh  century,  is  perhaps 
the  most  remarkable  poet  of  India  next  to  Kali- 
dasa. Apparently  he  was  also  a  prominent  gram- 
marian, and  he  certainly  was  a  good  deal  of  a 
philosopher.  His  stanzas,  300  in  number,  are 
divided  into  three  'centuries,'  the  SrHgara-iataka, 
or  Century  of  Love,  the  Niti-4ataka,  or  Century 
of  Wisdom,  and  the  Vdirdgya-6aiaka,  or  Century 
of  Renunciation.  There  is,  of  course,  no  action 
in  these  stanzas.  Ever  and  again,  within  the 
narrow  frame  of  a  single  stanza,  the  poet  pic- 
tures the  world  of  him  for  whom  the  wide  uni- 
verse is  woman,  from  whose  eyes  there  is  no 
escape. 

The  second  great  master  of  the  erotic  stanza 
is  Amani,  who  is  probably  of  a  later  date  than 
Bhartrihari.  His  collection  is  known  as  AmarU' 
Maka,  or  Century  of  Amaru.    He  also  is  a  mas- 


8AN8EBIT  LITEBATtTBE. 


42d 


flANflyUra  LITEBATtTBfi. 


ter  in  the  art  of  painting  all  the  moods  of  love, 
bliss  and  dejection,  anger  and  devotion.  Neither 
he  nor  the  other  Indian  lyrists  treat  love  from 
the  romantic  or  ideal  point  of  view ;  it  is  always 
sensuous.  But  delicacy  of  feeling  and  expression, 
and  refined  appreciation  of  those  qualities  which 
attract  irresistibly,  only  finally  to  repel,  lift 
their  stanzas  high  above  either  the  coarse  or  the 
commonplace.  It  is  'minne-song/  flavored  with 
the  universal,  though  rather  theoretical,  Hindu 
pessimism. 

Even  in  lyrics  the  Hindu's  deep-seated  tend- 
ency toward  speculation  and  reflection  is  evident. 
Not  only  has  it  been  the  basis  of  much  that  is 
highest  and  best  in  the  religion  and  philosophy  of 
India,  but  it  has  also  assumed  shape  in  another 
very  important  product  of  Hindu  literature,  the 
Gnomic,  Didactic,  Sententious  Stanza,  which 
may  be  called  the  Provebb.  Bohtlingk  has  col- 
lected from  all  parts  of  Sanskrit  literature  some 
8000  of  these  stanzas;  they  begin  with  the 
Mah/ibhdrata,  and  are  found  in  almost  every 
moral  appended  to  the  fable  literature.  Their 
keynote  is  again  the  vanity  of  human  life,  and 
the  superlative  happiness  that  awaits  resigna- 
tion. The  mental  calm  of  the  pious  anchorite, 
who  lives  free  from  all  desires  in  the  solitude 
of  the  forest,  is  the  only  remedy  for  human 
unrest.  But  for  him  who  remains  in  the  world 
there  is  also  a  kind  of  salvation,  namely,  virtue. 
When  a  man  dies  and  leaves  all  his  treasures 
and  his  loved  ones  behind,  his  good  works  alone 
can  accompany  him  on  his  journey  into  the  next 
life.  Hence  the  practical  value  of  virtue  almost 
overrides  the  pessimistic  view  of  the  vanity  of 
all  human  action.  These  gnomic  stanzas  were 
frequently  composed  or  gathered  up  into  collec- 
tions. Bhartrihari's  above-mentioned  two  cen- 
turies on  wisdom  and  renunciation  are  compo- 
sitions of  this  sort.  A  Kashmirian  poet  named 
Silhana  is  the  author  of  the  Sdnti-iataka,  or 
Century  of  Tranquillity,  and  another  collection 
is  designated  Mdha-miidgcara,  or  Hammer  of 
Folly.  There  are  many  other  collections  from  all 
periods,  but  naturally  the  ethical  saw  is  most 
at  home  in  the  fables  of  the  Pancatantra  (q.v.) 
and  Hit6padMa  (q.v.).  These  works  go  back  to 
Buddhist  models,  which  recall  the  fact  that  the 
Dhammapadaf  a  Buddhist  collection  of  apho- 
risms, contains  perhaps  the  most  beautiful  and 
profound  words  of  wisdom  in  all  Hindu  litera- 
ture. It  may  be  said  that  there  is  scarcely  a 
conceit  or  adage  of  the  proverb  literature  of 
other  peoples  that  may  not  be  paralleled  in 
Hindu  stanzas. 

The  Sanskrit  Dbama  is  one  of  the  latest, 
though  one  of  the  most  interesting  products  of 
Sanskrit  literature.  With  all  the  uncertainty 
of  literary  dates  in  India  there  is  no  reason 
for  assuming  for  this  class  of  works  a  date 
earlier  than  the  fifth  or  sixth  century  of  our  era. 
Certain  Vedic  hymns  in  dialogue  are  all  that  the 
earliest  time  suggests  as  a  possible,  but  very 
doubtful,  basis  of  the  drama.  The  Sanskrit  name 
for  drama  is  nAtaka,  from  the  root  na4,  nart,  'to 
dance.'  The  word  therefore  means  literally 
'ballet;'  it  is  not  doubtful  that  dances  con- 
tributed something  to  the  development  of  the 
drama.  In  various  religious  ceremonies  of  earlier 
times  dancing  played  a  part ;  at  a  later  time  the 
cult  of  Siva  and  Vishnu,  and  especially  of  Vish- 
nu's incarnation,  the  god  Krishna,  was  accom- 
panied   by    pantomimic    dances.      These    panto- 


mimes reproduced  the  heroic  deeds  of  these  gods 
and  were  accompanied  by  songs.  Popular  rep- 
resentations of  this  sort,  the  so-called  Ydtnu, 
have  survived  to  the  present  day  in  BengaL  They 
are  not  dissimilar  to  the  mystery  plays  of  the 
Christian  Middle  Ages,  and  their  modem  continu- 
ation, the  passion  plays.  The  god  Krishna  and 
Radha,  his  love,  are  the  main  characters,  but 
there  are  also  friends,  rivals,  and  enemies  of 
Radha.  The  YUktras,  a  mixture  of  music,  dancing, 
song,  and  improvised  dialogue,  while  undoubtedly 
in  some  way  connected  with  the  origin  of  the 
drama,  are  nevertheless  separated  by  a  very  wide 
gap  from  the  finished  product  of  the  n&taka,  as 
it  appears  in  such  dramas  as  the  SakuntaUi.  of 
Kalidasa,  or  the  MrcchakafikA  (q.v.),  or  Toy 
Cart,  of  Sudraka   (q.v.). 

It  is  still  a  moot  question  whether  Western 
(Greek)  influence,  particularly  the  New  Attic 
comedy  of  Menander,  as  reflected  in  Plautus  and 
Terence,  has  not  in  some  measure  contributed 
to  the  shaping  of  the  Hindu  drama.  It  is  known 
that  Greek  actors  followed  Alexander  the  Great 
through  Asia,  and  that  they  celebrated  his  vic- 
tories with  dramatic  performances.  After  the 
death  of  Alexander,  Greek  kings  continued  to 
rule  in  Northwestern  India.  Brisk  commerce 
was  carried  on  between  the  west  coast  of  India 
and  Alexandria,  the  later  centre  of  Greek  literary 
and  artistic  life.  Greek  art  and  Greek  astronomy 
undoubtedly  exercised  strong  influence  upon 
Hindu  art  and  science.  The  chief  points  of 
resemblance  between  the  Hindu  drama  and  the 
Greek  comedy  are  as  follows:  The  Hindu 
drama  is  divided  into  acts  (from  one  to  ten) 
separated  by  various  periods  of  time,  from  one 
day  to  long  periods;  the  acts  proper  are  pre- 
ceded by  a  prologue  spoken  by  the  stage  man- 
ager (autradhara) .  The  stage  was  a  simple  ros- 
trum not  shut  off  from  the  auditorium  by  a  cur- 
tain, but,  on  the  contrary,  the  curtain  was  in  the 
background  of  the  stage,  and  was  called  yava- 
nika,  that  is,  Greek  curtain  {'Iuvik^),  The 
characters  of  the  Hindu  drama  resemble  in  some 
respects  those  of  the  Attic  comedy.  There  are 
bayaderes  and  parasites,  braggarts,  and  cun- 
ning servants.  Especially  the  standard  comic 
figure  of  the  Hindu  drama,  the  vidii^ka,  the 
unromantic  friend  of  the  hero,  has  been  compared 
with  the  go-between,  the  8€rvua  currens,  of  the 
Grseco-Roman  comedy.  The  vidushaka  is  a 
hunchbacked,  bald  dwarf  of  halting  gait,  and  is 
the  clown  of  the  piece.  Though  a  Brahman  by 
birth — with  maliciously  humorous  intent — ^he 
does  not  speak  Sanskrit,  but  a  popular  dialect, 
Prakrit  (q.v.),  like  the  women  (with  rare  ex- 
ceptions) and  all  the  inferior  personages  of  the 
play.  He  plays  the  unfeeling  realist,  intent  upon 
every  form  of  bodily  comfort,  especially  a  good 
dinner,  to  the  hero's  sentimental  flowery  roman- 
ticism. Although  it  is  not  possible  to  prove  that 
one  or  the  other  external  feature  of  the  Hindu 
drama  may  not  be  due  to  some  outside  influence, 
its  inner  matter  is  certainly  altogether  national 
and  Indie.  The  themes  are  for  the  most  part 
those  of  the  heroic  legend  in  the  epies,  or  they 
move  in  the  sphere  of  the  actually  existing  Hindu 
courts.  On  the  whole,  they  are  not  different  from 
those  that  figure  in  the  tales  and  romances  which 
are  worked  up  in  narrative  form.  It  must  not 
be  forgotten  that  certain  general  coincidences  be- 
tween the  drama  and  the  theatre  of  different 
peoples  are  due  to  the  common  psychological 


SAirSXBIT  UTEBATXTBfi. 


429 


AAK8XEIT  LITERATtrBfi. 


traits  of  all  peoples;  hence  genuine  historical 
connection  in  such  matters  requires  the  most 
exacting  proof. 

The  chief  dramatic  writer  of  India  is  Kalidasa, 
master  at  the  same  time  also  of  epic  and  lyric 
poetry.  Three  dramas  are  ascribed  to  him:  the 
Sakuntala,  the  Urva^,  and  the  Maldvikagnimi- 
tram,  or  Malavika  and  Agnimitra.  From  a  time 
somewhat  earlier  than  that  of  Ealidasa  comes 
the  drama  Mrcchakatika,  the  Toy  Cart,  said 
to  have  been  written  by  a  king  by  the  name 
of  Sudraka,  who  is  praised  ecstatically  in  the 
prologue  to  the  play.  It  is  altogether  likely  that 
some  poet  at  Sudraka's  court,  perhaps  Dandin 
(q.T.),  wrote  the  play,  and  out  of  gratitude  for 
benefits  received,  endowed  the  King  with  the  glory 
of  its  authorship.  Similarly  during  the  seventh 
century  a  king  named  Harsha  (q.v.)  is  said  to 
have  composed  three  dramas:  Ratn&vali,  or  the 
String  of  Pearls;  the  'S^gananda,  whose  hero  is 
a  Buddhist,  and  whose  prologue  is  in  praise  of 
Buddha ;  and  the  Priyadar^ikii.  From  the  eighth 
century  date  the  dramas  of  Bhavabhuti  (q.v.), 
a  South  Indian  poet,  who  is,  next  to  Kalidasa 
and  Sudraka  (Dandin),  the  most  distinguished 
of  the  Hindu  dramatists.  His  most  celebrated 
drama  is  the  Mdlatimadhava,  or  Malati  and 
Madhava;  and  the  two  dramas  Mahaviracarita 
and  Uttarar6macarita,  both  of  which  deal  with 
Rama,  the  hero  of  the  Rdmdyana.  Finally  may 
be  mentioned  Visakhadatta,  the  author  of  the 
Mudr&raksasa,  the  Seal  of  the  Minister  Kak- 
shasa,  a  drama  of  political  intrigues,  whose  com- 
position also  dates  from  the  eighth  century. 

It  is  not  possible  within  a  short  space  to 
characterize  the  great  variety  of  all  these  themes, 
the  different  talents  of  their  authors,  and  the 
style  and  literary  quality  of  these  compositions. 
"Action  is  the  body  of  the  drama,"  such  is  the 
dictum  of  the  Hindu  theorists.  Precisely  what 
we  should  call  dramatic  action  is  not  the  promi- 
nent quality  of  the  compositions  of  the  greatest 
poet  of  them  all,  Kalidasa.  His  dramas  are 
distinguished  rather  by  tenderness  of  feeling  and 
delicacy  of  touch.  They  are  lyric  rather  than 
dramatic.  The  action  is  slow,  the  passions  are 
profound  rather  than  elemental.  The  deepest 
feelings  are  portrayed  in  delicate  forms  which 
never  broach  upon  violence  or  coarseness,  but, 
on  the  contrary,  are  almost  over-nice.  At  the 
height  of  their  sentiments,  in  profound  misery,  the 
hero  and  the  heroine  still  find  time  to  institute 
comparisons  between  their  own  feelings  and  the 
phenomena  of  nature.  There  is,  indeed,  a  plethora 
in  them  all  of  mango  trees  and  pa^ala-blossoms, 
of  creepers  and  lotus,  of  bimba-lips,  of  gazelles, 
flamingoes,  and  multicolored  parrots.  Yet  they 
are  always  artistic  and  finished,  especially  when 
the  climate  and  life  of  India  is  borne  in  mind, 
and  their  beauty  suggests  strongly  the  genius  of 
Goethe. 

No  department  of  Indian  literature  is  more  in- 
teresting to  the  student  of  comparative  litera- 
ture than  that  of  the  Fables  and  Fairy  Tales. 
There  is  scarcely  a  single  motive  of  the  European 
fable  collections  that  does  not  appear  in  some 
Hindu  collection;  and  there  is,  indeed,  good  rea- 
son for  believing  that  the  bulk  of  this  kind  of 
literature  originated  in  India.  The  earliest  and 
most  important  collection  of  Hindu  fables  is 
Buddhistic,  and  is  written  in  Pali;  it  seems 
to  reach  back  to  the  fourth  century  B.C.  This 
collection  is  known  as  the  Jatakas    (q.v.),  or 


Birth  Stories.  Buddha  himself  is  made  to  appear 
in  every  one  of  them  in  the  guise  of  the  wise  or 
successful  animal  of  the  fable,  and  he  himself 
points  the  moral  of  the  fable  in  the  usual  didac- 
tic proverb  stanza.  This  feature  is,  of  course, 
secondary,  but  the  fables  themselves  are  very  old. 
The  two  most  important  Sanskrit  collections,  the 
Pancatantra  and  the  Hitdpade^a,  are  based  upon 
Buddhist  sources.  A  noteworthy  feature  of  the 
Sanskrit  collections  of  fables  and  fairy  tales  is 
the  insertion  of  a  number  of  different  stories 
within  the  frame  of  a  single  narrative,  a  style  of 
narration  which  was  borrowed  by  other  Oriental 
peoples,  the  most  familiar  instance  being  the 
Arabian  Nights.  The  Pancatantra,  or  Five 
Books,  the  most  celebrated  Sanskrit  collection, 
existed  at  least  as  early  as  the  first  half  of  the 
sixth  century  a.d.,  since  it  was  translated  by 
order  of  King  Khosru  Anushirvan  (531-579)  into 
Pahlavi  ( q.v. ) ,  the  literary  language  of  Persia  at 
that  time.  It  passed  from  the  Pahlavi  into 
Arabic,  Greek,  Persian,  Turkish,  Syriac,  Hebrew, 
Latin,  and  German;  and  from  German  into  other 
European  languages.  The  Buddhistic  origin  of 
the  Pancatantra  was  effaced  as  much  as  possible 
by  the  Brahman  redactors  by  means  of  omissions 
and  changes.  The  name  Pancatantra  is  probably 
not  original,  having  perhaps  displaced  Karataka 
and  Damanaka,  or  some  similar  title  derived  from 
the  names  of  two  jackals  in  the  first  book.  This 
may  be  surmised  because  the  title  of  the  Syriac 
version  is  Kalilag  and  Damnak,  of  the  Arabic 
version  Kalilan  and  Dimnah,  Both  the  Panca- 
tantra and  the  Eitopadeia,  or  Salutary  Instruc- 
tion, were  originally  intended  as  manuals  for  the 
instruction  of  princes  in  domestic  and  foreign  pol- 
icy. The  Hit6padHa,  said  to  have  been  composed 
by  Narayana,  professes  to  be  an  excerpt  from  the 
Pancatantra  and  other  books. 

The  most  famous  collection  of  fairy  tales  is 
the  very  extensive  Kathusaritsdgara,  or  Ocean  of 
Rivers  of  Stories,  composed  by  the  Kashmirian 
poet  Somadeva  (q.v.)  about  A.D.  1070.  Three 
much  shorter  collections  are  in  prose.  The  8uka- 
saptati  (q.v.),  or  Seventy  Stories  of  the  Parrot, 
in  which  a  wife  whose  husband  is  abroad,  and  who 
is  inclined  to  solace  herself  with  other  men,  is 
for  seventy  nights  cleverly  entertained  and  de- 
terred by  the  story-telling  parrot  until  her  hus- 
band returns,  is  one  of  the  best.  The  Vetdla-pan- 
caviMati,  or  Twenty-five  Tales  of  the  Vampire,  is 
known  to  English  readers  under  the  title  of  Vikram 
and  the  Vampire.  The  third  collection  is  the  Sim- 
hdsana-dv&trimHka,  or  Thirty-two  Stories  of  the 
Lion-seat  (throne),  in  which  the  throne  of  King 
Vikrama  tells  the  stories.  All  these  collections 
have  an  outer  frame  story,  within  which  a  cer- 
tain part  of  the  common  Hindu  stock  of  tales  is 
inserted.  A  few  Prose  Romances  of  more  inde- 
pendent character,  dating  from  the  sixth  and 
seventh  centuries,  may  be  mentioned  in  this  con- 
nection. The  Hindu  theorists  class  them  as 
poems  ( kdvya ) ,  but  they  are  much  more  like  our 
OA^Ti  earlier  novels.  The  Da^a-kum&ra'Carita,  or 
Adventures  of  the  Ten  Princes,  a  story  of  com- 
mon life  and  a  very  corrupt  society,  reminds  one 
of  the  Siinplicifisimus  of  Grimmelshausen.  Its 
author  is  Dandin  (q.v.),  and  it  probably  dates 
from  the  sixth  century  a.d.  Vdsavadattd,  by 
Subandhu  (q.v.),  of  somewhat  later  date,  is  a 
highly  artificial  romance,  which  formed  the 
stylistic  basis  of  the  K&damhari,  by  Bana  (q.v.)  ; 
the  latter  narrates,  in  stilted  language  and  long 


8AN8XBIT  LITBBATXrBfi. 


480 


SANSOVOrO. 


compounds,  the  romantic  sentimental  love  story  of 
an  ineffably  noble  prince  and  the  equally  ineffably 
beautiful  and  virtuous  fairy  princess  Kadambari. 
Other  works  of  this  class,  known  as  carita,  con- 
tinue to  be  composed  at  a  later  time.  The  same 
term,  carita,  is  also  used  for  Chbonicles,  or 
quasi-historical  literature.  Historical  works  in 
the  European  sense  do  not  exist  in  India.  The 
nearest  approach  to  history  in  our  sense  of  the 
word  is  the  R&jatarangitU  (q.v.),  or  the  Chron- 
icle of  Kashmir,  by  Kalhana.  A  modern  work  of 
a  similar  kind,  but  of  much  smaller  extent  is  the 
KfitUavafn^&vaUcarita,  the  chronicle  of  a  series 
of  royal  families  who  reigned  in  Bengal.  It  was 
composed  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

India  abounds  in  all  forms  of  Scientific  Lit- 
ESATUBE,  written  in  tolerably  good  Sanskrit  even 
to  the  present  day.  The  ancient  legal  books  of 
the  Veda  continue  in  modem  poetical  Dharmor 
iastraa  and  Smrtis,  of  which  the  Law-hooka  of 
ManU  (see  Manu)  and  Ydjnavalkya  are  the  most 
famous  examples.  Rooted  in  the  Unanishads 
(q.v.)  are  the  six  Hindu  systems  of  pnilosophy 
and  their  abundant  writings.  (See  the  articles 
MTmamsa,  Ntata,  Samkhya,  Vaisesika,  VE- 
DANTA,  and  Y(5ga.)  Grammar,  etymology,  lexi- 
cography, prosody,  rhetoric,  music,  and  architec- 
ture each  own  a  technical  literature  of  wide  scope 
and  importance.  The  earliest  works  of  an  ety- 
mological character  are  the  Vedic  glosses  of 
Yaska  (see  Nibukta)  ;  later,  but  far  more  im- 
portant, is  the  grammar  of  Panini  ( q.v. ) ,  one  of 
the  greatest  grammarians  of  all  times,  and  his 
commentators  Katyayana  and  Patanjali.  Mathe- 
matics and  astronomy  were  eagerly  cultivated 
from  very  early  times,  the  so-called  Arabic  nu- 
merals coming  to  the  Arabs  from  India,  and  desig- 
nated by  them  as  Hindu  numerals.  Indian  medical 
science  must  have  begun  to  develop  before  the 
beginning  of  our  era,  for  one  of  its  chief  authori- 
ties, Caraka,  was  the  chief  physician  of  King 
Kanishka  in  the  first  century  a.d.  The  germs  of 
Hindu  medical  science  reach  back  to  the  Aiharva- 
Veda.  (See  Veda.)  The  Bower  manuscript,  one 
of  the  oldest  of  Sanskrit  manuscripts  (probably 
fifth  century  A.D.),  contains  medical  statements 
which  agree  verbally  with  passages  in  the  works 
of  Su^ruta  and  Caraka,  the  leading  authorities 
on  this  subject. 

BiBLiOGRAPHT.  A  brief  but  convenient  sketch 
of  Sanskrit  literature  is  Macdonell,  History  of 
Sanskrit  Literature  (New  York,  1900).  The 
bibliographical  notes  at  the  end  of  the  book  are 
a  safe  guide  to  more  extensive  study.  The  Ger- 
man work  of  Schroeder,  Indien»  Litteratur  und 
Cultur  (Leipzig,  1887),  contains  a  fuller,  very 
instructive  and  very  readable  account  of  San- 
skrit literature;  copious  translations  and  digests 
of  the  texts  themselves  make  this  work  especially 
practical  and  helpful.  The  History  of  Ancient 
Sanskrit  Literature,  by  Max  Mttller  (2d  ed.,  Lon- 
don, 1860),  is  limited  to  the  Vedic  period  and 
does  not  really  bear  upon  the  present  theme. 
Weber's  Akademische  Vorlesungen  Uher  indische 
Litteratur geschichte  (2d  ed.,  Berlin,  1876,  trans- 
lated by  T.  Zachariae,  London,  1878,  with  addi- 
tional notes  by  Weber) ,  is  a  learned  and  technical 
work  not  at  all  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the 
general  reader,  and  is  now  partly  antiquated, 
though  still  valuable.  Readable  and  popular  in 
style  are  Frazer,  Literary  History  of  India  (New 
York.  1898),  and  Monier-Williams,  Indian  Wis- 
dom  (London,  1876),  which  contains  numerous 


specimens  of  Sanskrit  literature  in  translations. 
The  Grundriss  der  indo-arischen  Philologie,  com- 
menced under  the  editorship  of  BOhler,  and  con- 
tinued after  his  death  by  Kielhorn  (Strassburg, 
1896  et  seq.),  covers  the  entire  domain  of  Indo- 
Aryan  antiquity,  and  contains  authoritative  in- 
formation regarding  many  points  and  problems 
of  Sanskrit  literature. 

SANSOVINO,  Bftn's6-ve^n6h  Andbea,  properly 
Andbea  Contucci  (1460-1520).  One  of  the 
principal  Florentine  sculptors  of  the  High  Renais- 
sance. He  was  bom  at  Monte  San  Sovino,  near 
Arezzo,  and  studied  at  Florence  with  Antonio 
Pollajuolo  and  Bertoldo.  The  most  important 
of  his  early  works  are  reliefs  of  the  "Annuncia- 
tion," a  "Pietft,"  and  the  "Coronation  of  the 
Virgin,"  in  Santo  Spirito,  Florence.  About  1490 
he  was  appointed  sculptor  and  architect  to  John 
IL,  King  of  Portugal,  for  whom  and  his  succes- 
sor, Emanuel  I.,  he  built  a  royal  palace  and  exe- 
cuted sculptures,  of  which  a  bronze  bas-relief 
of  John  and  a  statue  of  Saint  Mark  still  exist 
at  Coimbra.  After  nine  years'  absence,  he  re- 
turned to  Florence  and  occupied  himself  with  a 
font  for  the  Baptistery  at  Volterra  (1502);  a 
"Madonna  and  Child"  and  a  "Saint  John  Bap- 
tist" for  the  cathedral  at  Genoa  (1504) ;  and  a 
group,  the  "Baptist  of  Christ,"  above  the  doors  of 
the  Baptistery  at  Florence.  Though  completed  a 
century  later  by  Vincenzo  Danti,  the  figures  are 
as  beautiful  in  conception  and  execution  as  their 
disposition  is  monumental. 

After  1505  he  went  to  Rome  and  executed  for 
Pope  Julius  II.  his  two  chief  works,  the  monu- 
ments of  the  two  cardinals  Sforza  and  Basso  in 
the  Church  of  Santa  Maria  del  Popolo.  He  made 
for  a  chapel  of  the  Church  of  San  Agostino  a 
"Madonna  with  Child  and  Saint  Anne,"  and  went 
to  Loreto  in  1513  to  superintend  the  decoration 
of  the  Casa  Santa,  most  of  which  was  exe- 
cuted by  his  pupils,  and  is  mannered  in  style. 
His  statues  are  executed  with  admirable  tech- 
nique and  are  mild  and  beautiful  in  conception, 
but  they  possess  the  generality  of  type  derived 
from  the  antique  common  to  the  High  Benais- 
sance,  with  a  conse<juent  loss  of  characteristic 
and  individual  qualities.  Consult:  Schdnfeld, 
Andrea  Sansovino  und  seine  Schule  (Stuttgart, 
1881 )  ;  Rosenberg,  in  Dohme,  Kunst  und  KUnstler 
Italiens  (Leipzig,  1879). 

SANSOVINO,  Jacopo  (Tato)  (1477-1570). 
A  Florentine  sculptor  and  architect  of  the  High 
Renaissance.  He  was  bom  at  Caprese,  near 
Florence,  the  son  of  Antonio  Tatti;  but  he 
adopted  the  name  of  Sansovino  from  Andrea,  his 
first  master.  His  first  work  as  a  sculptor  was  a 
"Saint  John"  submitted  in  competition  with  Ra- 
faello  di  Montelupo.  At  Rome  he  gained  the 
friendship  and  patronage  of  Bramante,  and  Pope 
Julius  II.  employed  him  to  restore  antique  statues. 
Returning  to  Florence,  he  modeled  the  beautiful 
nude  "Bacchus,"  now  in  the  UflSzi,  and  many  other 
figures.  In  1511  he  returned  to  Rome  and  fash- 
ioned the  colossal  "Madonna"  for  the  Church  of 
San  Agostino.  His  design  for  the  Church  of 
San  Giovanni  dei  Fiorentini  in  Rome  was  chosen 
over  those  of  Raphael,  Sangallo,  and  Penud,  but 
an  injury  forced  him  to  leave  the  completion  of 
the  structure  to  Antonio  di  Sangallo.  , 

When  Rome  was  sacked  in  1527,  Sansovino 
took  up  his  permanent  residence  at  Venice,  where 
he  held  for  many  years  the  foremost  position 


8AK80VIN0. 


4dl 


SANTA  ANNA. 


among  architects.  After  completing  the  restora- 
tion of  Saint  Jdark's  he  was  given  charge  of  the 
Church,  Campanile,  and  Piazza  di  San  Marco.  He 
completed  the  Scuola  della  Misericordia,  the  in- 
terior of  San  Francesco,  built  the  Zecca,  the  Fab- 
briche  Nuove,  and  the  LK>ggietta  of  the  Campanile, 
for  which  he  executed  four  statues,  a  David,  an 
Apollo,  a  Mercury,  and  a  Minerva.  From  1536  to 
1548  he  built  the  Library  of  Saint  Mark,  "the 
most  beautiful  profane  edifice  in  Italy."  With 
the  high  development  of  his  architectural  skill 
went  a  deterioration  of  taste  in  his  sculptures 
and  the  exaggeration  of  form,  responding  no  doubt 
to  the  demands  of  the  time,  made  these  decora- 
tive elements  notably  out  of  harmony  with  the 
buildings  they  adorned.  In  his  other  buildings, 
palaces  like  the  Comaro  and  Marino  on  the 
Grand  Canal,  and  churches  like  San  Giorgio 
dei  Greci  and  San  Giuliano,  the  tendencies  of 
the  Decadence  were  all  exemplified,  an  over- 
loading of  ornament,  and  an  exaggeration  of 
sculptural  form  that  in  his  followers  developed 
into  the  extravagant  style  known  as  Imroque.' 
Consult:  Vasari,  Vite  (Florence,  1887);  Te- 
manga.  Vita  di  Sansovino  (Venice,  1752)  ;  Rosen- 
beig,  in  Dohme,  Kunst  und  Kunatler  Italiens 
(Leipzig,  1879). 

SAJTS-SOTJCI,  Afi'BSC'By  {Ft,,  free  from 
care).  A  royal  palace  at  Potsdam,  Prussia, 
erected  by  Frederick  the  Great  in  1745-47,  where 
he  spent  his  last  years.  The  impretentious,  one- 
storied  buildings  situated  in  a  splendid  park,  and 
adorned  with  a  fine  colonnade,  contain  many  per- 
sonal relics  of  the  King. 

SAV  STEFANO,  s&n  sU-fa^nA,  Tbeatt  of. 
See  Beblin,  Congbess  of;  Russo-Turkish  Wab. 

SAHTA  AHA,  a&a^tA  tS/nk.  The  largest  city 
of  the  Republic  of  Salvador,  situated  28  miles 
northwest  of  San  Salvador  (Map:  Central  Amer- 
ica, C  3).  It  IB  the  capital  of  the  Department 
of  Santa  Ana,  is  regularly  laid  out  with  straight 
and  well-paved  streets,  and  has  several  fine  pub- 
lic buildingB.  The  country  is  very  fertile,  and 
the  city  is  the  centre  of  the  sugar  trade.  It  is 
connected  by  railroad  both  with  the  capital  and 
the  port  of  Acajutla.    Population,  33,000. 

SAHTA  AHA.  The  county-seat  of  Orange 
County,  Cal.,  30  miles  south  by  east  of  Los  An- 
geles; on  the  Southern  Pacific  and  the  Atchison, 
Topeka  and  Santa  Fe  railroads  (Map:  California, 
E  5).  It  has  a  public  library  and  the  Orange 
County  Teachers'  Library,  and  a  fine  court-house. 
The  district  is  engaged  extensively  in  fruit- 
growing, and  has  large  dairy,  nut,  and  celeiy  in- 
terests. Santa  Ana  is  important  commercially. 
Santa  Ana  was  settled  in  1870  and*  was  incor- 
porated in  1888.  Population,  in  1890,  3628;  in 
1900,  4933. 

SAHTA  AHHAy  or  AHA,  Antonio  Lopez  de 
( 1795?-1876) .  A  Mexican  general  and  politician, 
born  at  Jalapa.  Entering  the  army  at  the  age 
of  fifteen,  he  first  attracted  attention  in  1821  as 
an  adherent  of  Iturbide  (q.v.)  in  the  events 
leading  up  to  the  overthrow  of  the  Spanish  power. 
In  18iK2  he  became  commandant  of  Vera  Cruz,  but 
on  being  accused  of  harboring  designs  inimical  to 
the  Government,  turned  agamst  Iturbide  in  De- 
cember of  the  same  year  and  headed  a  rebellion 
which  took  shape  as  the  Plan  of  Casa  Mata,  and 
gafaied  support  so  rapidly  that  Iturbide  hastened 
to  anticipate  overthrow  by  resigning.  In  1828 
Santa  Anna  took  the  field   as  a   partisan   of 


Guerrero,  whom  he  aided  in  his  successful  at- 
tempt to  supplant  Pedraza  as  President.  He  be- 
came, in  the  following  year.  Minister  of  War  and 
commander-in-chief,  and  in  August  and  September 
achieved  distinction  by  expelling  from  the  coun- 
try a  Spanish  army  of  invasion,  thus  ending  the 
last  attempt  on  the  jpart  of  Spain  to  reestablish 
its  authority  in  Mexico.  Personal  ambition  led 
him  to  rise  in  insurrection  against  both  Guerrero 
and  Guerrero's  successor,  Bustamante,  after 
whose  enforced  resignation  in  1832,  Pedraza,  now 
an  ally  of  Santa  Anna,  held  the  chief  power  for 
some  time.  In  February,  1833,  Santa  Anna  was 
chosen  President  as  the  chief  of  the  Federalist 
Party,  whose  aim  was  to  establish  a  centralized 
government  in  Mexico.  Gomez  Farias  was  chosen 
Vice-President,  and  to  him  Santa  Anna  left  the 
cares  of  office  and  the  odium  of  a  generally  un- 
popular policy,  while  he  himself  retired  to  his 
hacienda,  whence,  however,  he  kept  a  close 
watch  on  the  progress  of  events.  From  federal- 
ism Santa  Anna  moved  backward  toward  reaction 
and  monarchism  and  entered  into  close  relations 
with  the  Clericals.  This  led  to  republican  insur- 
rections, the  most  formidable  of  which  was  sup- 
pressed with  severity  by  Santa  Anna  in  1836. 
The  Texas  colonists  having  undertaken  to  organ- 
ize a  government  of  their  own,  Santa  Anna  set 
out  to  reduce  them  to  obedience.  In  February, 
1836,  he  attacked  San  Antonio,  and  on  March  6th 
captured  the  Alamo  (q.v.).  On  April  2 let,  how- 
ever, General  Houston,  who  was  being  pursued  by 
Santa  Anna,  suddenly  turned  and  defeated  the 
Mexican  army  at  San  Jacinto  (q.v.).  Santa  Anna 
was  captured,  and  after  promising  to  exert  his 
infiuence  for  obtaining  the  independence  of 
Texas  was  allowed  to  go  to  the  United  States, 
whence  he  returned  in  1837  to  Mexico.  In 
November,  1838,  he  defended  Vera  Cruz  against 
a  french  fleet,  and,  from  the  loss  of  a  leg  in 
the  combat,  derived  for  a  time  enormous  popu- 
larity. In  the  disordered  condition  of  the  coun- 
try many  turned  to  him  for  a  strong  leader,  and 
in  October,  1841,  he  became  President  with  dic- 
tatorial powers.  He  ruled  entirely  in  the  inter- 
ests of  the  Federalist  Party  till  June,  1844,  when 
he  was  elected  Constitutional  President.  Disaf- 
fection was  rife,  however,  and  in  November  an 
insurrection  headed  by  Paredes  led  to  his  over- 
throw. He  was  taken  prisoner  early  in  1845  and 
banished.  The  threatened  war  with  the  United 
States  probably  hastened  his  recall  in  July,  1846 ; 
in  December  he  was  made  Provisional  President, 
and  soon  after  he  took  the  field  against  the  Amer- 
ican forces.  On  February  22-23,  1847,  he  was 
defeated  by  General  Taylor  at  Buena  Vista 
(q.v.).  This  was  followed  by  his  defeat  at  the 
hands  of  Grcneral  Scott  at  Cerro  Grordo  (q.v.)  on 
April  18th.  After  the  occupation  of  the  City  of 
Mexico  by  the  American  army  Santa  Anna  re- 
signed the  Presidency,  made  an  attempt  to  recap- 
ture Pueblo,  and  failing,  sailed  for  Jamaica, 
whence  he  went  to  Venezuela.  In  1853  he  was 
recalled  and  elected  President  for  one  year.  After 
a  series  of  intolerable  and  despotic  acts  he  issued 
a  decree,  December,  1853,  declaring  himself  Pres- 
ident for  life,  with  the  title  of  Serene  Highness. 
The  inevitable  rebellion  broke  out  in  March,  1854, 
and  after  fifteen  months  campaigning  in  the 
Western  States,  Santa  Anna  realized  the  hope- 
lessness of  his  position  and  in  August,  1855, 
sailed  from  Vera  Cruz  for  Cuba.  He  lived  for 
some  time  in  Venezuela  and  Saint  Thomas,  and 


&A17TA  ANNA. 


482 


SANTA  CLABA. 


in  1864y  during  the  French  invasion,  returned  to 
Mexico^  where  he  attempted  to  play  a  part  in 
affairs,  but  was  compelled  by  Bazaine  to  leave 
the  country.  Still  striving  for  political  power, 
he  reappeared  at  Vera  Cruz  in  1867,  but  was 
made  prisoner  and  once  more  sent  into  exile.  He 
lived  subsequently  in  the  United  States,  returned 
to  Mexico  after  the  death  of  Juarez,  and  died  in 
the  City  of  Mexico,  June  20,  1876,  poor  and 
neglected.  An '  able  soldier  and  a  master  of 
intrigue,  with  a  remarkable  capacity  for  antici- 
pating and  manipulating  public  opinion,  Santa 
Anna  enjoyed  a  longer  period  of  public  life  than 
any  of  his  contemporaries  in  the  political  vicis- 
situdes of  nineteenth-century  Mexico  None  of 
the  general  histories  of  Mexico  contain  an  ade- 
quate treatment  of  this  perplexing  personality; 
Wilson,  Mexico  (New  York,  1856),  gives  a  useful 
contemporary  accoimt  of  the  man  at  the  height  of 
his  career. 

SANTA  BABBASA,  barn)&-r&.  A  town  of 
the  department  of  the  same  name,  Honduras,  on 
the  Santiago,  110  miles  northwest  of  the  capital, 
Tegucigalpa  (Map:  Central  America,  D  3).  In 
the  vicinity  are  mines  of  gold,  silver,  nickel,  and 
zinc.  The  country  produces  extensively  grain, 
sugar  cane,  coffee,  cacao,  and  rice.  The  town 
has  some  manufactures  of  hats  and  spirits.  It 
is  a  place  of  deposit  for  Puerto  Cortes.  Popula- 
tion, about  8000. 

SANTA  BABBABA.  A  town  of  Panay, 
Philippine  Islands,  in  the  Province  of  Iloilo,  sit- 
uated II  miles  north  of  Iloilo  (Map:  Philippine 
Islands,  G  9).  Population,  estimated,  in  1899, 
13,000. 

SANTA  BABBABA.  The  county-seat  of 
Santa  Barbara  County,  Cal.,  100  miles  west  by 
north  of  Los  Angeles,  on  Santa  Barbara  Channel 
and  on  the  Coast  Line  of  the  Southern  Pacific 
Railroad  (Map:  California,  D  4).  Santa  Bar- 
bara is  known  as  the  'Newport  of  the  Pacific' 
It  is  picturesquely  situated  on  a  slope  rising 
gradually  from  the  shore  to  the  old  Franciscan 
Mission,  340  feet  above  the  bay.  This  mission, 
the  most  important  and  best  preserved  of  the 
California  missions  and  the  only  one  in  which 
ministrations  have  never  ceased  since  its  found- 
ing, was  established  in  1786.  Santa  Barbara 
enjoys  a  mild,  equable  climate,  owing  to  peculiar 
topographical  conditions.  Important  buildings 
are  the  Potter  Hotel,  built  in  1902  at  a  cost  of 
more  than  a  million  dollars,  the  famous  *Los 
Baflos  del  Mar,'  Saint  Anthony's  College,  and  the 
Anna  S.  C.  Blake  Sanatorium.  The  Public  Li- 
brary contains  more  than  16,000  volumes.  The 
region  produces  large  quantities  of  beans,  English 
walnuts,  lemons,  and  olives.  There  are  extensive 
lemon-packing  establishments  in  the  city.  The 
government  is  vested  in  a  mayor  and  a  unicam- 
eral council,  elected  every  two  years.  Santa 
Barbara  was  founded  as  a  Spanish  presidio  in 
1782.  The  city  was  laid  out  in  1852,  incorporated 
in  1874,  and  received  its  present  charter  in  1900. 
Population,  in  1890,  5964;  in  1900,  6587. 

SANTA    BABBABA    BE     OCAMPO,     d& 

6-kam'pA  (or  simply  Ocampo).  A  Mexican  town 
of  the  State  of  Tamaulipas,  57  miles  south  of 
Ciudad  Victoria  (Map:  Mexico,  J  6).  Its  parish 
church  is  the  second  in  importance  in  the  State. 
The  region  is  fertile,  producing  maize,  beans,  and 
tropical  fruits.  The  town  was  founded  in  1749 
by  the  Franciscans.     Population,  in  1895,  9079. 


SANTA  BABBABA  BE  SAXANI,  A'. 

m&-n&'.  A  seaport  of  Santo  Domingo.  See 
SamanA. 

SANTA  CASA,  lO/sk  (It.,  Holy  House).  A 
celebrated  shrine  in  Loreto,  Italy,  said  to  be  the 
house  in  which  the  Virgin  Mary  lived  at  Naza- 
reth, miraculously  transported  to  its  present  site 
in  1295. 

SANTA  CATHABINA,  krt&r^nft.  A  State 
of  Brazil,  bounded  by  the  State  of  Paran&  on  the 
north,  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  east,  Rio  Grande 
do  Sul  on  the  south,  and  Argentina  on  the  west. 
Area,  28,624  square  miles.  The  coast  is  low,  but 
a  short  distance  inland  extends  the  Serra  G^I, 
which  exceeds  in  its  highest  summits  6000  feet 
The  climate  is  hot  on  the  coast  and  temperate 
in  the  elevated  interior.  Santa  Catharina  is 
naturally  well  adapted  for  agriculture  and 
stock-raising,  but,  though  the  latter  is  well 
advanced,  the  scarcity  of  population  greatly 
hinders  its  development.  The  chief  agricultural 
products  are  sugar,  tobacco,  mate,  manioc,  and 
corn.  Agriculture  is  encouraged  by  State  boun- 
ties. (Doal  deposits  have  been  discovered  in  the 
Serra  Geral,  and  the  coal  mines  have  been  con- 
nected by  a  railroad  with  the  coast.  The  popula- 
tion in  1890  was  283,769,  including  a  very  large 
European,  chiefly  German,  element. 

SANTA  CATHABINA.  The  capital  of  the 
State  of  Santa  Catharina,  Brazil.    See  Desterbo. 

SANTA  CLABA,  kla^rJL.  A  province  of 
Cuba,  occupying  the  central  portion  of  the  island, 
and  bounded  by  the  sea  on  the  north  and  south, 
the  Province  of  Matanzas  on  the  west,  and 
Puerto  Principe  on  the  east  (Map:  Cuba,  E  4). 
Area,  9560  square  miles.  The  interior  is  an  un- 
dulating plateau  with  a  number  of  detached  hills 
or  mountain  groups  rising  in  the  southeast  to 
a  height  of  about  3000  feet.  The  southwestern 
portion  consists  of  the  vast  swamps  known  as  the 
Cienaga  de  Zapata.  The  north  coast  is  lined 
with  numerous  -islets.  The  chief  river  is  the 
Sagua,  the  largest  on  the  whole  north  coast  of 
the  island  and  navigable  20  miles.  The  province 
contains  some  of  the  largest  sugar  plantations 
and  factories,  while  tobacco  is  also  largely  raised, 
and  the  upland  savannas  offer  rich  pasturage. 
It  is  also  rich  in  minerals,  and  asphalt,  silver, 
and  copper  are  mined.  Population,  in  1899,  356,* 
536.    The  capital  is  Santa  Clara  (q.v.). 

SANTA  CLABA^  or  Villa  Claka.  The  cap- 
ital of  the  Province  of  Santa  Clara,  Cuba,  sit- 
uated nearly  in  its  centre  on  the  Cuban  main 
trunk  railroad  and  in  a  somewhat  elevated 
savanna  region  (Map:  Cuba,  E  4).  It  is  a 
pleasant,  well-built  town  with  wide  streets.  Good 
tobacco  is  grown  in  the  district,  and  there  is  an 
asphalt  mine  producing  10,000  tons  annually, 
while  petroleum  deposits  and  graphite,  gold,  and 
copper  are  also  found  in  the  neighborhood.  Be- 
sides the  main  trunk  line  to  Havana  there  are 
railroads  running  to  the  ports  of  Cienf  u^os  on  the 
south  and  Sagua  la  Grande  on  the  north.  Popu- 
lation, in  1899,  13.763.  Santa  Clara  was  founded 
in  1664  or  1689.  During  the  revolution,  1895  to 
1898,  it  was  an  important  fortified  post  of  the 
Spaniards  and  the  centre  of  active  operations. 

SANTA  CLABA.  A  town  in  Santa  Clare 
County,  Cal.,  47  miles  southeast  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, on  the  Southern  Pacific  and  the  South 
Pacific  Coast  Line  railroads  (Map:  Calif omiayC 


SANTA  CLABA. 


488 


SANTA  CBirZ. 


3).  It  is  the  seat  of  Santa  Clara  College  (Roman 
(^tholie),  opened  in  1851,  and  of  the  Notre 
Dame  Academy.  Alameda  Avenue,  traversing  a 
beantifal  country,  extends  as  far  as  San  Jos6, 
three  miles  distant.  Santa  Clara  is  situated  in  a 
fertile  valley  enga«[ed  chiefly  in  fruit-growing, 
farming,  and  cattle-raising.  Prunes,  apricots, 
peaches,  herries,  and  nuts  are  produced  exten- 
sively. The  most  important  manufactures  are 
millwork,  sashes  and  doors,  windmills,  coffins, 
and  leather.  Green  and  cur^  fruits  are  prepared 
and  packed  and  shipped  in  large  quantities.  The 
^erament,  under  the  revised  charter  of  1874, 
18  administered  by  a  president  and  a  board  of 
trustees,  who  hold  office  respectively  for  one  and 
two  years.  Santa  Clara  was  settled  in  1780  and 
incorporated  in  1852.  Population,  in  1890,  2801 ; 
in  1900,  3650. 

SANTA  CBOGE,  kr(/chA  (It.,  Holy  Cross). 
A  famous  church  in  Florence,  formerly  belonging 
to  the  Franciscans,  and  the  Pantheon  of  the 
Florentines.  It  was  begun  in  1294  (possibly 
1295),  after  the  designs  of  Amolfo  di  Cambio 
(q.v.),  the  principal  Florentine  architect  of  the 
period,  and  was  nearly  completed  before  his 
death  (c.l302).  In  1320  the  first  services  were 
held,  and  in  1442  it  was  formally  dedicated 
in  the  presence  of  Pope  Eugenius  IV.  The  grace- 
ful, slender  tower  was  completed  after  the  de- 
signs of  Baccani  in  1847,  and  the  unfortunate 
fi^ade  was  built  in  1857-63.  The  building  is  in 
the  Florentine  Gothic  style;  its  design  and  deco- 
ration are  simple.  Santa  Croce  is  a  perfect 
museum  of  Florentine  art  of  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries.  Especially  noteworthy  are 
the  celebrated  frescoes  from  the  life  of  John 
the  Baptist  and  Saint  Francis  by  Giotto  in 
the  Bardi  and  Peruzzi  Chapels.  Among  its  other 
treasures  are  a  ''Crucifixion,"  an  "Annunciation," 
and  a  bronze  statue  of  Saint  Louis  of  Toulouse 
by  Donatello,  and  a  rich  Renaissance  pulpit  by 
Benedetto  da  Majano.  Buried  within  the  church 
are  Michelangelo  (whose  monument  is  by  Vasa- 
ri),  Alfieri  (with  a  monument  by  Canova) ,  Mach- 
iavelli,  Galileo,  and  the  composers  Cherubini  and 
RossinL  There  is  also  a  fine  monument  to  Dante 
by  Stefano  Rioci.  From  Arnolfo's  Gothic  clois- 
ters adjoining  the  church  is  the  entrance  to 
what  is,  perhaps,  the  most  perfect  small  chapel 
of  the  early  Renaissance,  the  Capella  dei  Pazzi 
(1420),  by  Brunelleschi,  who  also  designed  the 
second  cloisters  of  the  church.  Consult:  Moise, 
Banta  Croce  (Florence,  1845) ;  Frey,  Loggia  de* 
Lanzi  (Berlin,  1885). 

SANTA  CBirZy  krTR^th.  A  territory  of  Ar- 
gentina, occupying  the  southern  part  of  Pata- 
gonia and  bcrnnd^  by  Chile  on  the  west  and 
Booth,  the  Territory  of  (yhubut  on  the  north,  and 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  east  (Map:  Argentina, 
C  13).  Area,  estimated  at  from  110,000  to 
180,000  square  miles.  A  number  of  rivers  trav- 
erse the  territory  from  west  to  east.  Santa  Cruz 
is  the  least  populous  portion  of  the  republic,  hav- 
ing had  a  civilized  population  in  1900  of  only 
1444.    The  capital  is  Gallegos,  a  village. 

EUkNTA  CBTJZ.  An  eastern  department  of 
Bolivia,  bounded  by  Brazil  on  the  east,  the  Bo- 
livian Department  of  C!huquisaca  on  the  south, 
Potosf  and  Cochabamba  on  the  west,  and  Beni 
on  the  north  (Map:  Bolivia,  E  7).  Area,  esti- 
mated at  126,340  square  miles.  It  is  covered 
with  great  forests  in  the  north,  while  the  south- 


em  part  belongs  to  the  Llanos  de  Chi^uitoa.  The 
northern  part  of  Santa  Cruz  is  dramed  by  the 
Mamorg.  The  Rio  Grande  River,  one  of  its  head- 
streams,  is  navigable.  The  climate  is  hot  and  un- 
healthful,  but  the  soil  is  fertile  and  yields  sugar, 
coffee,  cacao,  cotton,  rice,  and  common  cereals. 
There  is  some  cattle-raising,  and  the  forests  yield 
rubber  and  drugs.  Population  estimated  in 
1900  at  210,800^  more  than  half  of  whom  were 
Indians.    Capital,  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra  (q.v.) . 

SANTA  CBTJ2S.  A  town  of  the  State  of 
Guanajuato,  Mexico,  40  miles  southeast  of  the 
city  of  that  name,  on  the  Mexican  National  Rail- 
road.    Population,  in  1896,  7440. 

SANTA  CBTJZ.  The  capital  of  the  Province 
of  Laguna  in  Luzon,  Philippine  Islands,  situated 
on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Bay  Lagoon,  35  miles 
southeast  of  Manila  (Map:  Philippine  Islands, 
F  5).  It  has  well-built  public  and  ecclesiastical 
buildings.  It  has  an  active  trade  with  Manila 
by  way  of  the  lagoon  and  the  Pasig  River,  and  is 
noted  for  the  manufacture  of  palm  brandy.  Pop- 
ulation (estimated),  in  1899,  13,141. 

SANTA  CBXTZ,  or  Sainte  Croix.  The  larg- 
est of  the  Danish  West  India  Islands,  situ- 
ated 37  miles  south  of  Saint  Thomas  (Map: 
West  Indies,  P  6).  Area,  74  square  miles.  The 
surface  is  hilly  in  the  interior.  Along  the  coasts 
there  are  level  tracts  of  fertile  soil  which  produce 
sugar  and  rum.  Santa  Cruz  was  discovered  by 
Columbus  on  his  second  voyage.  It  was  sold  by 
France  to  a  Danish  company  in  1733.  Pppula- 
tion  (estimated),  in  1897,  18,430.  Chief  town, 
Christiansted  (q.v.). 

SANTA  CBXTZ.  The  county-seat  of  Santa 
Cruz  C]k>unty,  Cal.,  80  miles  south  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, at  the  mouth  of  the  San  Lorenzo  River,  on 
Monterey  Bay  and  on  the  Southern  Pacific  Rail- 
road and  several  steamship  lines  (Map:  Cali- 
fornia, B  3).  It  is  a  watering  place  of  consid- 
erable repute.  There  are  the  curiously  carved 
cliffs  extending  for  miles  along  the  coast,  Sequoia 
Park,  and  the  celebrated  Big  Tree  forest,  a  few 
miles  distant.  The  Public  Library  contains  15,000 
volumes.  The  leading  manufactures  are  leather, 
lime,  cement,  asphalt,  gunpowder,  and  lumber 
products.  The  government,  under  the  charter  of 
1876,  is  vested  in  a  mayor,  chosen  biennially,  and 
a  unicameral  council.  Gn  the  site  of  Santa  Cruz 
a  Spanish  mission  of  the  same  name  was  estab- 
lished in  1791.  Population,  in  1890,  5596;  in 
1900,  5659. 

SANTA  CBUZ,  Andres  (1794-1866).  A  Bo- 
livian general  and  politician,  bom  at  La  Paz 
in  Bolivia.  In  1820  he  joined  the  patriots  and 
was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general 
in  1822  for  his  services  at  Pichincha.  After 
the  defeat  at  the  Desaguadero  he  went  to  Lima, 
was  employed  by  Bolivar  on  various  diplomatic 
missions,  and  was  military  chief  and  president  of 
the  council  of  government  previous  to  the  elec- 
tion of  Lamar  as  President  of  Peru  in  1827.  In 
1828  he  was  elected  President  of  Bolivia  for  ten 
years  and  immediately  began  to  apply  his  plans 
for  uniting  Peru  and  Bolivia.  By  1836  he  had 
so  far  subjugated  Peru  that  he  was  appointed  by 
Congress  protector  of  the  confederation.  Chile, 
alarmed  at  these  successes,  began  war  against 
Santa  Cruz  and  defeated  him  completely  at  Yun- 
gay  in  1839. 


SANTA  CBTTZ  DE  LA  PALMA. 


484 


BAlfTA  FE. 


SANTA  CBTTZ  DE  LA  PALMA,  dA  U  pftl^- 
ni&.  The  capital  of  Palma,  one  of  the  Canary 
Islands,  situated  on  a  bay  of  the  eastern  coast 
of  the  island  (Map:  Spain,  F  5).  It  is  a  thriv- 
ing commercial  town  with  a  good  harbor,  having 
shipyards,  and  ship-building  being  the  chief  in- 
dustry. It  exports  fruit,  wine,  cochineal,  and 
tobacco.    Population,  in  1900,  7383. 

SANTA  CBTTZ  DE  LA  SIEBBA,  d&  U 
sd-^r^rft.  Capital  of  the  Department  of  Santa 
Cruz,  Bolivia,  situated  170  miles  northeast  of 
Sucre  (Map:  Bolivia,  E  7).  It  has  a  cathedral 
under  construction  and  a  national  college  with 
faculties  of  law,  medicine,  and  theology.  There 
are  flour  and  sugar  mills,  and  a  considerable 
trade  with  the  Indians  of  the  plains.  Popula- 
tion, 11,000. 

SANTA  CBTTZ  DE  NAPO,  dft  n^pd.  A  town 
of  Marinduque,  Philippines,  situated  at  the  head 
of  a  bay  on  the  northeast  coast  of  the  island 
(Map:  Philippine  Islands,  G  6).  It  has  a  well- 
protected  harbor  with  safe  anchorage  for  large 
steamers,  and  provided  with  a  stone  breakwater 
1000  yards  long.  Population,  estimated,  in 
1899,  15,797. 

SANTA  CBTTZ  DE  TENEBIFE,  tk'nkT^tk 
(Eng.  Teneriffe,  t6n'c-rlf').  The  capital  of  the 
Canary  Islands,  situated  at  the  head  of  a  bay 
near  the  northeastern  end  of  the  island  of 
Teneriffe  (Map:  Spain,  F  5).  It  is  defended 
on  the  seaward  side  by  several  forts  and  is 
well  built,  with  straight  streets  and  modern 
houses.  The  principal  square,  the  Plaza  de  la 
Constituci6n,  contains  a  large  monument  with 
a  statue  by  Canova.  The  principal  buildings  are 
the  house  of  the  Captain-Qeneral,  the  civil  gov- 
ernment building,  and  the  hospitals;  the  town 
has  a  high  school,  a  school  of  navigation,  a  pre- 
paratory academy,  a  public  library,  and  a  mu- 
seum of  natural  history.  An  aqueduct  five  miles 
long  supplies  water  from  the  mountains.  The 
harbor  is  protected  by  a  breakwater  and  has 
good  facilities  for  coaling.  Santa  Cruz  is  the 
second  seaport  in  the  Canary  Islands.  It  exports 
sugar,  cochineal,  almonds,  wine,  cattle,  and  agri- 
cultural products.  Its  population  in  1887  was 
18,830;  in  1900,  35,055. 

Santa  Cruz  was  founded  by  the  Spaniards  in 
1494.  It  was  attacked  by  an  English  fleet  under 
Blake  in  1657,  and  by  Nelson  in  1797 ;  it  was  in 
the  latter  engagement  that  Nelson  lost  his  arm. 
The  city  became  capital  of  the  islands  in  1822. 

SANTA  CBTTZ  ISLANDS.  A  group  of  seven 
large  and  a  number  of  small  islands  in  Melanesia, 
in  latitude  IP  S.,  longitude  166**  E.,  north  of 
the  New  Hebrides  and  southeast  of  the  Solomon 
Islands  (Map:  Australasia,  J  4).  Aggregate 
area,  356  square  miles.  The  large  islands  are 
mountainous  and  volcanic,  the  smaller  mostly  of 
coral  formation.  The  climate  is  hot,  moist,  and 
unhealthful.  The  vegetation  resembles  that  of 
New  Guinea,  and  includes  the  mangrove,  cocoa- 
nut,  sago-palm,  and  breadfruit  tree.  The  inhab- 
itants (about  7000)  are  mostly  Melanesians, 
though  in  some  of  the  islands  Polynesians  pre- 
dominate. They  are  still  uncivilized  and  hostile 
to  Europeans.  The  islands  are  now  under  the 
administration  of  the  British  High  Commissioner 
for  the  Western  Paciflx;.  They  were  discovered 
by  Mendafia  in  1595. 

SANTA  TH,  fa.  A  province  of  Argentina, 
situated  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Republic 


and  bordered  by  the  ParanA  River  on  the  east 
(Map:  Argentina,  £  10).  Area,  50,916  square 
miles.  The  surface  is  mostly  level,  well  wooded  in 
the  northern  part,  and  especially  well  adapted  for 
agriculture  and  stock-raising.  The  chief  rivers 
are  the  Paranft  and  its  tributary  the  Salado.  The 
climate  is  not  unhealthful,  and  the  rainfall  is 
sufficient.  The  agricultural  lands  are  found 
chiefly  along  the  Paranft,  where  large  plantations 
are  situated.  Wheat,  com,  flax,  and  fuoeme  are 
the  chief  agricultural  products.  There  are  a 
number  of  large  industrial  establishments,  such 
as  flour  and  saw  mills,  tanneries,  sugar  mills, 
foundries,  and  brick  yards.  The  railway  mile- 
age of  the  province  is  the  largest  in  the  Republic. 
Population,  in  1900,  536,236.  The  chief  commer- 
cial town  is  Rosario,  on  the  Paranft,  and  the  cap- 
ital is  Santa  F6  (q.v.). 

SANTA  Fii.  The  capital  of  the  Province  of 
Santa  F6,  Argentina,  situated  on  an  arm  of  the 
Paranft  River  at  its  confluence  with  the  Salado, 
95  miles  north  of  Rosario  (Map:  Argentina,  £ 
10).  It  is  a  well-built  city,  with  a  modem 
aspect,  and  has  several  lines  of  street  railroads. 
Its  chief  institutions  are  a  large  Jesuit  college, 
a  normal  school,  and  a  seminary.  Railroads  con- 
nect it  with  all  the  important  cities  of  the  Re- 
public, and  a  short  road  runs  to  its  port,  Colas- 
tin6.  The  chief  industry  is  ship-building,  and  the 
principal  exports  are  lumber,  wool,  and  cattle. 
Population,  in  1895,  15,099;  of  the  commune, 
24,755. 

SANTA  FR  The  capital  of  New  Mexico, 
and  the  county-seat  of  Santa  Fe  County,  on 
Santa  Fe  River  and  on  the  Atchison,  Topeka 
and  Santa  Fe  and  the  Denver  and  Rio  Grande 
railroads  (Map:  New  Mexico,  F  2).  The  city 
as  originally  laid  out  bv  the  Spaniards  has  been 
much  changed  since  the  American  occupation. 
The  old  Spanish  buildings  which  still  remain  are 
constructed  mostly  of  adobe.  The  main  business 
structures  centre  about  the  Plaza,  upon  one  side 
of  which  is  the  palace,  an  edifice  where  the  vari- 
ous Governors  of  the  Territory  from  the  early 
Spanish  times  to  the  present  have  resided.  In 
the  historical  museum  connected  with  the  palace 
are  early  Spanish  paintings  and  interesting  re- 
mains of  the  Indian  and  Spanish  periods.  Other 
places  of  interest  are  the  partially  reconstructed 
Cathedral  of  San  Francisco,  the  Church  of  San 
Miguel,  and  old  Fort  Marcy.  Santa  Fe  also  has 
the  Capitol,  a  penitentiary,  a  Federal  building,  a 
hospital,  and  the  Territorial  Orphan  Asylum. 
The  educational  institutions  comprise  Saint 
Michael's  College,  schools  for  the  deaf  and 
dumb,  the  Loretto  Convent,  and  the  Government 
and  Saint  Catherine's  Indian  schools.  The  most 
important  industries  are  stock-raising  and  min- 
ing. There  are  also  deposits  of  kaolin  and  clay 
in  the  vicinity.  The  government  is  vested  in  a 
mayor,  chosen  annually,  and  a  unicameral  coun- 
cil.   Population,  in  1890,  6185;  in  1900,  5603. 

A  party  of  Spaniards  visited  the  site  of  Santa 
Fe  in  1542  and  found  there  a  large  Indian  pud>lo 
with  a  population  estimated  at  15,000.  About 
1605,  the  pueblo  being  then  deserted,  the  Spanish 
made  a  settlement  here  under  the  name  *La 
Ciudad  Real  de  la  Santa  ¥6  de  San  Francisco,' 
enslaved  the  Indians  in  the  neighborhood,  and 
opened  up  extensive  gold  and  silver  mines.  In 
1690  the  Indians  captured  the  place  and  expelled 
the  Spaniards,  who,  however,  regained  possession 


8AKTA  FE. 


485 


BAJSTTA  MATTBA. 


in  1692.  On  Aujerust  18,  1846,  it  was  occupied, 
without  opposition,  by  United  States  troops 
under  General  S.  W.  Kearny.  In  1851  it 
was  chartered  as  a  city  and  became  the  capital 
of  the  newly  organized  Territory  of  New 
Mexico.  A  trade  with  Missouri,  opened  in  1804 
and  facilitated  in  1825  by  the  improvement 
of  the  'Santa  Fe  Trail,'  became  very  important 
subeequent  to  1840.  Consult:  Bancroft,  History 
of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  (San  Francisco, 
1884),  and  a  chapter  by  Hodge  in  Powell's  His- 
toric Totons  of  the  Western  States  (New  York, 
1901). 

aAHTA  Fi  DE  BOOOT^  d&  bo'gMa^  The 
capital  of  Colombia.     See  BogotA. 

BABTAIAy  or  SONTHALS.  A  people  of 
Dravidian  stock  in  Western  Bengal,  Northern 
Oriasa,  and  Bhagalpur.  They  are  of  low  stature, 
and  dolichooepl»lic,  with  dark  skins,  and  wavy 
hair.  Some  of  the  Santals  are  good  agricultur- 
ists; others,  in  the  more  remote  parts  of  the 
country,  are  still  practically  in  the  hunting 
stage.  Except  the  few  who  have  been  converted 
to  Hinduism  or  to  Christianity,  the  Santals  are 
'nature-worshipers'  with  a  sun  cult  and  a  belief 
in  evil  spirits.  Their  native  system  of  govern- 
ment is  village  patriarchism.  Like  the  Dravid- 
ian  Tamils,  the  Santals  have  furnished  many 
temporary  or  permanent  emigrants  from  Hindu- 
stan, who  have  settled  in  Farther  India.  The 
Santals  are  generally  monogamous,  although 
polygamy  and  polyandry  are  not  at  all  unknown 
among  them.  A  grammar  of  the  Santal  lan- 
guage has  been  published  (Benares,  1873)  by 
Skrefsrud,  and  a  collection  of  "Traditions  and 
Institotions  of  the  Santhals,"  written  down  from 
the  dictation  in  Santali  of  Kolean  Haram,  an  old 
Santal,  appeared  at  Benagoria  in  1887.  Consult: 
Man,  Sonthalia  and  the  Sonthals  (London, 
1867) ;  Dalton,  Descriptive  Ethnology  of  Bengal 
(Calcutta,  1872). 

SAKTA  MAJtGHEBITA  UGXTBE,  mUr'- 
gft-re^tft  U-g^r&.  A  seaport  and  bathing  resort 
in  the  Province  of  Genoa,  Italv,  15  miles  east- 
southeast  of  Genoa  (Map:  Italy,  D  3).  Coral 
fisheries  are  carried  on  and  there  are  manu- 
factures of  olive  oil  and  rope.  Population  (com- 
mune), in  1901,  7169. 

8AHTA  KABiA^  mA-re'A.  A  town  of  North- 
em  Luzon,  Philippine  Islands,  in  the  Province  of 
Iloeo  Sur,  situated  two  miles  from  the  coast  and 
11  miles  southeast  of  Vigan,  on  the  highroad  and 
projected  railroad  from 'Manila  to  Laoag  (Map: 
Philippine  Islands,  E  2).  Population,  estimated, 
in  1890,  10,030. 

SANTA  MABIA,  Bominoo  (1820-90).  A 
South  American  politician,  bom  in  Santiago 
de  Chile.  He  was  obliged  to  leave  Chile 
because  of  his  share  in  the  events  of  1850-51  and 
was  again  exiled  in  1858.  Upon  his  return  to 
Chile  he  held  the  positions  of  Minister  of  Finance 
(1863-64),  envoy  to  Peru,  judge  of  the  Supreme 
Court  (1868),  and  president  of  the  Court  of 
Appeals  (1874).  He  was  a  member  of  President 
Pinto's  Cabinet,  with  the  portfolios  of  Foreign 
Affairs,  the  Interior,  and  War,  and  was  President 
of  the  Republic  in  1881-86,  when  he  again  be- 
came president  of  the  Court  of  Appeals.  Many 
of  the  present  railroads  were  built  during  his  ad- 
ministration, the  Araucanian  Indians  were 
brought  into  subjection,  and  the  disputes  with 


Peru  arranged  on  a  more  secure  peace  basis.  His 
works  include  Biografia  de  Jos4  Miguel  Infante 
( 1853)  and  Memoria  historica  sohre  la  abdicaci&n 
del  director  Don  Bernardo  0*Higgins  (1868). 

SANTA  MASL^  CAPTTA  VETERE,  k&^- 
poo-A  vft'tA-rft.  A  city  of  South  Italy,  in  the 
Province  of  Caserta,  15  miles  north  of  Naples, 
located  on  the  site  of  ancient  Capua,  of  whose 
stones  it  was  partly  rebuilt  (Map:  Italy,  J  6). 
It  is  an  active,  thriving,  attractive  place,  with  a 
population  of  22,146  (commune)  in  1901.  Its 
large,  reconstructed  cathedral,  dating  from  1766, 
has  five  naves  and  52  columns.  The  Roman  ruins 
attract  many  sight-seers.  Ancient  Capua,  in  Cam- 
pania, was  second  only  to  Rome  among  the  cities 
of  Italy  in  wealth  and  population.  Under 
the  name  of  Volturnum  it  was  the  chief  of 
the  twelve  cities  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
the  Etruscans  in  this  part  of  Italy.  In  B.C.  343 
it  formed  an  alliance  with  Rome  for  protection 
against  the  Samnite  tribes  of  the  mountains. 
After  the  battle  of  Cannae,  b.c.  216,  the  popular 
party  opened  the  gates  to  Hannibal,  whose  army 
rapidly  degenerated  here  under  the  new  corrupt- 
ing surroundings.  The  Romans  obtained  posses- 
sion of  the  city  in  b.c.  211.  In  the  fifth  century 
A.D.  Capua  was  devastated  by  the  Vandals  un- 
der Genseric.  It  recovered  its  pi*osperity  again 
to  some  extent,  but  was  totally  destroyed  by  the 
Saracens  in  840.  Among  the  antiquities  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  is  the  amphitheatre  constructed 
of  travertin,  of  which  well-preserved  arches  cor- 
ridors, and  seats  for  spectators  still  remain. 

SANTA  MARLA.  DEL  FIOBE,  del  f«-d^rft. 
The  Duomo  or  cathedral  of  Florence  (q.v.). 

SAKTA  MABIa  de  PAKDI,  p&nM6.  A 
town  of  Luzon,  Philippine  Islands,  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Bulacfln,  situated  near  the  Manila-Dagu- 
pan  Railroad,  nine  miles  east  of  Malolos  (Map: 
Luzon,  £  7 ) .  It  was  a  handsome  and  well-built 
town,  but,  as  it  was  used  as  a  military  centre  by 
the  insurgents,  it  was  burned  by  the  American 
troops  and  now  consists  chiefly  of  nipa  huts. 
Population,  estimated,  in  1899,  10,508. 

SANTA  MABIA  MAOGIOBE,  m&d-j(/rft. 
One  of  the  oldest  churches  in  Rome,  reputed  to 
have  been  built  about  352  by  Pope  Liberius  and 
reerected  in  the  fifth  century.  Old  marble  columns 
and  mosaics  of  this  date  are  preserved  in  the 
nave,  also  fine  fifteenth -century  mosaics  of  the 
Coronation  of  the  Virgin.  Over  the  altar  in  the 
Borghese  Chapel  is  an  old  picture  of  the  Virgin 
ascribed  to  Saint  Luke.  This  is  one  of  the  five 
'patriarchal  churches*  and  derives  its  name  of 
Saint  Mary  Major  from  its  importance  among  the 
eighty  churches  in  Rome  dedicated  to  the  Virgin. 

SANTA  MABTA,  mUr^t&.  The  capital  of 
the  Department  of  Magdalena,  Colombia,  on  the 
Caribbean  coast,  45  miles  east  of  the  mouth  of 
the  Magdelena  River  (Map:  Colombia,  CI).  It 
has  a  cathedral,  and  is  a  port  much  frequented 
by  vessels  plying  among  the  Antilles.  Popula- 
tion, about  6000.  Santa  Marta  was  founded  in 
1525.  It  was  long  an  important  centre  of  ex- 
ploration and  conquest  and  was  repeatedly  sacked 
and  several  times  entirely  destroyed  by  pirates 
and  Indians.  Near  the  town  is  the  hacienda 
where  Simon  Bolivar  died  in  1830. 

SANTA  MATTBA,  mou^rA,  or  Leucadia 
(Mod.  Gk.  Levkas),  One  of  the  Ionian  Islands, 
belonging  to  Greece,  oflf  the  west  coast  of  Acar- 


BAlfTA  MAXrUA. 


486 


SANTA  BOSA. 


nania,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  passage 
about  a  mile  wide  (Map:  Greece,  B  3).  Area, 
109  square  miles.  It  is  traversed  from  north  to 
south  by  a  range  of  hills  which  end  at  the  south- 
em  extremity  in  high  white  cliffs.  The  inhabit- 
ants, who  numbered  31,769  in  1896,  are  engaged 
chiefly  in  fishing  and  the  manufacture  of  salt. 
Chief  town,  Amaxichi  (q.v.). 

SANTAKA,  sAn-ta'na,  Pedro  (1801-64).  A 
President  of  Santo  Domingo,  bom  at  Hineha.  In 
1844,  when  Juan  Pablo  Duarte  rebelled  against 
Haitian  rule,  Santana  inflicted  upon  the  Haiti- 
ans a  crushing  defeat  at  Azua  that  practically 
decided  the  war.  Soon  afterwards  he  was  pro- 
claimed supreme  chief  of  the  Dominican  Republic, 
and  upon  the  organization  of  a  regular  govern- 
ment he  was  elected  its  first  President.  In  1848 
he  was  succeeded  by  Jimenes.  At  the  time  of 
the  Haitian  invasion  under  Soulouque  (q.v.),  in 
1849,  Santana  with  a  force  of  scarcely  400  routed 
Soulouque's  force  of  4000.  He  then  defeated 
Jimenes  and  for  a  time  ruled  as  didtator.  In  1853 
he  was  again  elected  chief  magistrate.  During  this 
administration  he  repelled  another  invasion  of  the 
Haitians.  In  1856  he  was  deprived  of  power 
and  succeeded  by  Baez.  In  1858,  however,  Baez 
was  driven  into  exile  and  Santana  again  be- 
came President.  In  March,  1861,  practically 
on  his  own  authority,  he  ceded  Santo  Domingo 
to  Spain.  He  was  appointed  Captain-General, 
but  soon  resigned.  In  August,  1863,  when  an 
illiterate  peasant  organized  the  rebellion  which 
finally  swept  the  Spaniards  from  the  island,  San- 
tana went  to  the  city  of  Santo  Domingo  and  of- 
fered his  services  in  vain  to  the  Spanish  authori- 
ties. His  death  occurred  only  a  few  months  be- 
fore Spain  acknowledged  the  regained  independ- 
ence of  Santo  Domingo. 

SANTANDEB,  sttn'tAn-dftr'.  The  capital  of 
the  Province  of  Santander  in  Old  Castile,  and 
one  of  the  principal  seaports  of  Northern  Spain. 
It  is  charmingly  situated  on  the  north  shore  of 
a  land-locked  inlet  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay  (Map: 
Spain,  D  1 ) .  There  are  few  buildings  of  interest 
except  the  old  Gothic  cathedral  dating  from  the 
thirteenth  century.  The  town  has  a  provincial 
high  school,  a  normal  and  a  nautical  school,  and 
a  theological  seminary.  On  the  beach  of  Sardi- 
nero  are  hotels  and.  bathing  establishments. 
The  fisheries  are  important,  and  there  are  salt- 
ing and  pickling  establishments,  sugar  and  oil 
refineries,  iron  foundries,  and  manufactures  of 
glass,  candles,  soap,  perfumes,  sulphuric  acid  and 
other  chemicals,  and  cotton  goods.  The  harbor  is 
spacious  and  deep  and  provided  with  ship  yards 
and  extensive  wharves,  accessible  for  the  largest 
ships  and  recently  improved  and  enlarged.  The 
chief  exports  are  iron  ore,  of  which  406,996  tons 
were  exported  in  1898,  preserved  food,  flour, 
paper,  wine,  and  manufactured  articles.  Popu- 
lation, in  1887,  42,125;  in  1900,  54,346. 

SANTANDEB.  A  department  of  Colombia, 
South  America,  bounded  by  Venezuela  on  the 
north  (Map:  Columbia,  *C  2).  Area,  16,- 
409  square  miles.  It  is  traversed  by  the  East- 
em  Cordillera  of  the  Andes,  and  the  greater  part 
of  its  surface  is  mountainous.  In  the  plains 
along  the  Magdalena  are  cultivated  sugar,  cacao, 
coffee,  tobacco,  and  cotton.  Gold,  silver,  and 
other  minerals  are  mined  to  some  extent.  The 
population  was  estimated  in  1806  at  660,000. 
Capital,  Bucaramanga   (q.v.). 


SAKTAMDEB,  Francisco  de  Pauia  (1792- 
1840).  A  South  American  statesman,  bom  at 
Rosario  de  Cdcuta,  New  Granada.  Immediately 
upon  the  proclamation  of  independence  in  1810 
Santander  joined  the  patriots  and  fought  under 
Nariilo  and  Bolivar,  and  was  on  Bolivar's  staff 
in  1817-18.  He  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
general  of  divison  at  the  battle  of  Bozaca  in  1819 
and  was  appointed  by  Bolivar  Vice-President  of 
the  State  of  Cundinamarca,  and  in  1821  was 
elected  Vice-President  of  Colombia.  He  was  re- 
elected in  1827^  and  during  Bolivar's  repeated 
absences  ruled  the  country  with  wisdom  and 
decision.  Afterwards  he  opposed  Bolivar  and 
was  condemned  to  death  for  supposed  complicity 
in  a  conspiracy  to  murder  hinu  Santander's  sen- 
tence was  changed  to  exile,  and  he  remained 
abroad  until  his  election  to  the  Presidency  of 
New  Granada  in  1832.  His  administration  was 
beneficial,  and  after  his  term  ended  in  1836  he 
was  twice  elected  to  Congress.  He  wrote  Apun- 
tamiento  para  las  memoriae  de  Columbia  y 
Nueva  Oranada  (1837). 

SANT'  ANQiELO,  Castlx  of.    See  Hadbian, 

Tomb  of. 

SANTABEM,  sftN'tA-rftN^  A  river-port  of 
Portugal,  capital  of  the  District  of  Santarem,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Tagus,  40  miles  northeast 
of  Lisbon  (Map:  Portugal,  A3).  It  carries  on 
an  active  trade  in  wine  and  olive  oil  with  Lis- 
bon. Population,  in  1900,  8704.  Santarfem  was 
formerly  an  important  fortified  place. 

SAKTABEM.  A  town  of  the  State  of  Par&, 
Brazil,  440  miles  west  of  the  city  of  that  name, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tapajds,  near  its  con- 
fluence with  the  Amazon  (Map:  Brazil,  G  4).  It 
controls  the  rubber  trade  of  the  Tapaj6e.  The 
rich  agricultural  and  pastoral  region  also  pro- 
duces cacao.  Near  Santarem  is  an  agricultural 
colony  composed  of  emigrants  from  the  Southern 
United  States.    Population,  in  1889,  about  4500. 

SANTA  BITTA  DXTBiO,  sftN'tA  rlftft  doo- 
rouN',  Josfi  DA  (1737-84).  A  South  American 
poet,  bom  near  Marianna,  Minas  Greraes,  Brazil. 
He  studied  in  the  Jesuit  College  at  Rio  de 
Janeiro  and  at  the  University  of  Coimbra,  and 
entered  the  Order  of  Saint  Augustine  at  Leira. 
Afterwards  he  lived  in  Rome  and  about  1778  re- 
turned to  Coimbra  as  professor  of  theology,  and 
prior  of  his  Order.  His  most  important  work  is 
the  epic  CaramurU  (1781),  a  description  of  the 
discovery  and  colonization  of  Bahia  by  Diego 
Alvares. 

SANTA  BOSA,  siin^tA'  r5^s&.  A  town  of  the 
department  of  the  same  name,  Guatemala,  30 
miles  southeast  of  the  capital.  It  is  an  extensive 
live-stock  centre  and  the  district  produces  sugar, 
coffee,  and  grains.  Its  climate  is  far  from 
salubrious,  ^nce  undrained  areas  are  near.  Pop- 
ulation, about  6300. 

SANTA  BOSA.  The  capital  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Copftn,  Honduras,  160  miles  northwest 
of  Tegucigalpa  (Map:  Central  America,  D  3). 
It  has  a  college.  Grold,  silver,  and  copper  mines 
are  near;  tobacco,  coffee,  sugar,  and  grain  are 
produced  in  abundance.    Population,  alx>ut  6700. 

SANTA  BOSA.  The  county-seat  of  Sonoma 
County,  Cal.,  52  miles  north  of  San  Francisco,  on 
the  Southern  Pacific  and  the  California  North- 
western railroads  (Map:  California,  B  2).  It  is 
the  seat  of  the  Pacific  Methodist  College  (Meth- 


SANTA  BOSA. 


487 


SANTIAGO. 


odiflt  Episcopal,  South),  opened  in  1861,  and  of 
the  Ursuline  Academy  of  the  Sacred  Heart. 
Among  other  features  are  the  public  library,  city 
hall,  and  court  house.  The  adjacent  country  is 
noted  for  its  extensive  fruit-growing  and  nursery 
interests.  The  city  is  engaged  largely  in  wine- 
making  and  fruit-canning  and  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  leather,  woolen  goods^  flour,  lumber 
products,  etc.  Large  basalt  quarries  are  worked 
in  the  vicinity.  Canned  goods,  fruit,  wine,  hops, 
grain,  hay,  cattle,  flour,  wool,  and  leather  con- 
stitute the  principal  shipments.  The  government 
is  vested  in  a  mayor,  chosen  every  two  years,  and 
a  unicameral  council.  Population,  in  1890,  5220 ; 
in  1900,  6673. 

SANTA  ROSA  DE  LOS  OSOS,  d&  Ids  o'sds. 
A  town  of  the  Department  of  Antioquia,  Colom* 
bia,  near  the  Gauca,  170  miles  northwest  of 
BogotA.  It  is  in  the  vicinity  of  rich  gold  de- 
posits, but  antiquated  methods  are  employed  in 
working  them.  Its  high  altitude  (8560  feet) 
gives  it  a  genial  and  healthful  climate.  Popula- 
tion, in  1892,  10,059. 

SANTA  BOSAlIa,  r()'s&-l§^&.  A  town  of 
the  State  of  Chihuahua,  Mexico,  80  miles  south- 
east of  the  State  capital,  on  the  Mexican  Central 
Railway  (Map:  Mexico,  F  4).  It  is  celebrated 
for  its  hot  sulphur  baths.  Population,  about 
8000. 

SANTA  TECLA^  t^kOA,  or  Nueva  San  Sal- 
vador. A  town  of  the  Republic  of  Salvador, 
eight  miles  southwest  of  the  capital,  San  Salva- 
dor, in  a  picturesque  valley  at  the  foot  of  the 
volcano  of  the  same  name  (Map:  Central  Amer- 
ica, C  4).  The  town  is  well  built,  with  broad, 
straight  streets  and  notable  public  edifices  such 
as  the  hospital,  municipal  building,  and  the  Con- 
cepciOn  and  Carmen  churches.  Its  pUusa  de 
armas  is  the  most  beautiful  in  the  Republic. 
Santa  Tecla  was  founded  in  1854  after  the  de- 
struction of  San  Salvador  by  an  earthquake. 
The  attempt  to  make  this  the  capital  was  not 
successful.    Its  population  in  1890  was  13,715. 

SANTATANA,  sftn'tA-yft^nA,  Geobge  (1863 
— ).  An  American  poet,  educator,  and  philoso- 
pher, of  Spanish  parentage,  bom  in  Madrid.  He 
was  graduated  from  Harvard  College  in  1886, 
where  he  became  instructor  and  assistant  profes- 
sor in  philosophy.  His  first  volume  of  verse,  en- 
titled Sonnets  and  Other  Poems,  appeared  in  1894, 
and  was  remarkable  for  the  depth  of  thought  and 
finished  quality  of  the  verse.  In  1896  he  published 
The  Sense  of  Beauty,  an  inquiry  into  the  physical 
and  psychological  causes  for  the  sesthetic  sense 
in  man;  in  1898  appeared  Lucifer,  a  Theological 
Tragedy;  in  1900  a  volume  of  essays  entitled 
Interpretations  of  Poetry  and  Religion;  and  in 
1901  The  Hermit's  Christmas^  and  Other  Poems. 

SANTEE^  The  chief  river  of  South  Caro- 
lina. It  is  formed  near  the  centre  of  the  State 
by  the  junction  of  the  Congaree  and  Waterce  or 
Catawba,  both  of  which  rise  in  the  Blue  Ridge 
in  North  Carolina  (Map:  South  Carolina,  D  3). 
The  combined  stream  flows  southeast  and  enters 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  by  two  arms  south  of  Win- 
yah  Bay.  It  is  150  miles  long  to  the  junction, 
and  450  miles  to  the  source  of  the  Catawba. 
Steamers  can  navigate  to  Columbia  on  the  Con- 
garee and  to  Camden  on  the  Wateree. 

8ANTEBAM0  IN  OOLLE,  san'tft-r^md  to 
k61^.     A  town  in  the  Province  of  Bari,  Italy, 


23  miles  southwest  of  Bari  (Map:  Italy,  L  7). 
It  markets  cereals,  wine,  fruit,  and  cattle.  Popu- 
lation (commune),  in  1901,  13,662. 

SANTEBBE,  sftN't^r^,  Antoine  Joseph 
(1752-1809).  A  French  revolutionist,  bom  in 
Paris.  In  1789  he  was  the  owner  of  a 
large  brewery  in  the  Faubourg  Saint-Antoine. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  he 
commanded  a  battalion  in  the  National  Guard; 
took  part  in  the  storming  of  the  Bastille,  and 
became  a  flerce  Jacobin.  He  stirred  up  the 
imeute  of  the  Champ  de  Mars  in  1791  and  led 
in  the  events  of  June  20  and  August  10,  1792. 
As  commander  of  the  National  Guard  he  was 
present  at  the  trial  and  execution  of  Louis  XVI., 
whose  last  words  he  ordered  the  drums  to  drown. 
Made  general  of  division  in  1793,  he  led  an 
army  against  the  Vend6ans,  but  was  beaten.  He 
was  arrested  and  imprisoned  till  the  fall  of 
Robespierre.  After  the  institution  of  the  Direc- 
tory he  lost  all  prominence. 

SANTI,  sftn't^,  Giovanni  (c.  1435-94).  An 
Italian  painter  and  poet,  father  of  Raphael.  He 
was  bom  in  CJolbordolo,  in  the  Duchy  of  Urbino, 
was  a  petty  merchant  for  a  time,  then  studied 
under  Piero  della  Francesca,  and  seems  to  have 
been  an  assistant  of  Melozzo  da  Forli.  He 
painted  several  altar-pieces,  two  now  in  the  Ber- 
lin Museum;  a  Madonna,  in  the  Church  of  San 
Francesco,  in  Urbino;  one  at  Santa  Croce  in 
Fano;  one  in  the  National  Gallery  at  London; 
and  another  in  the  gallery  at  Urbino;  an  An- 
nunciation at  the  Brera  in  Milan ;  and  a  Jerome 
in  the  Lateran.  His  poetry  includes  an  epic 
in  the  honor  of  the  Duke  of  Urbino  and  a  long 
discourse  on  painting.  Consult  Schmarsow, 
Giovanni  Santi  (Berlin,  1887),  in  which  quota- 
tions and  summaries  of  his  poems  are  given  and 
a  very  sympathetic  criticism  of  his  simple  style, 
chill  coloring,  and  graceful  treatment  of  the 
figure. 

SANTIAGO,  s&n't6-a^g6  (SAo  Thiaoo).  The 
largest  and  most  important  of  the  Cape  Verde 
Islands  (q.v.). 

SANTIAGO.  A  central  province  of  Chile, 
bounded  on  the  east  by  Argentina,  on  the  west 
by  the  Pacific,  on  the  south  by  the  provinces  of 
O'Higgins  and  Colchagua,  and  on  the  north  by 
Valparaiso  and  Aconcagua  (Map:  Chile,  C  10). 
Area,  5223  square  miles.  It  is  traversed  in  the 
east  and  west  by  mountain  ranges  inclosing  a 
central  valley.  It  is  but  scantily  watered  and 
agriculture  is  possible  only  by  irrigation.  Min- 
eral deposits  and  springs  occur  in  several  parts 
of  the  province,  and  large  quantities  of  salt  are 
obtained  from  the  lagoons  on  the  coast.  Popula- 
tion, in  1895,  415,636.     Capital,  Santiago. 

SANTIAGO,  or  Santiago  np  Chile.  The 
capital  of  Chile  and  of  the  Province  of  Santiago, 
situated  on  a  small  tributary  of  the  Maipo  in 
the  central  valley  between  the  coast  range  and 
the  Andes,  40  miles  southeast  of  Valparaiso 
(Map:  Chile,  C  10).  The  location  is  extremely 
romantic,  being  surrounded  by  mountains  on  all 
sides.  On  the  east  tower  the  snow-clad  Andes, 
Bome'of  whose  loftiest  summits,  including  Acon- 
cagua, are  in  plain  sight.  Several  hills  rise  with- 
in the  city,  such  as  the  steep  red  porphyry  crag  of 
Santa  Luofa,  about  200  feet  high,  on  which  the 
first  settlers  withstood  a  six  years'  siege  by 
the  fierce  Araucanian  Indians.     It  is  now  laid 


SAKTIAGO. 


488 


SAimAaO  DE  CT7BA. 


out  as  a  public  park;  there  are  several  large 
parks  within  and  around  the  city,  in  which  irri- 
gation maintains  a  luxuriant  vegetation,  although 
the  rainfall  is  very  scanty  and  the  surrounding 
plains  are  naturally  arid.  The  houses  are  gen- 
erally built  in  the  old  Spanish  style,  one  or  two 
stories  high,  with  a  central  patio,  and  often  with 
extensive  gardens. 

Santiago  is  the  most  populous  city  on  the 
entire  western  slope  of  America,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  San  Francisco.  An  extensive  system  of 
street  railroads  traverses  the  city  in  all  direc- 
tions. During  the  last  two  or  three  decades 
numerous  large  buildings,  several  stories  high  and 
of  solid  stone  construct fon,  with  artistic  facades, 
have  been  built,  including  many  sumptuous  pri- 
vate residences.  The  streets  are  exceptionally 
well  paved,  clean,  and  broad.  The  Alameda  or 
Avenida  de  las  Delicias,  which  divides  the  city 
into  two  halves,  is  one  of  the  finest  boulevards 
of  South  America.  It  is  more  than  300  feet 
wide,  lined  with  several  rows  of  poplars,  and 
ornamented  with  fountains  and  statues,  many 
of  the  latter  being  the  spoils  of  the  Peruvian 
war.  The  prominent  buildings  are  the  large  mint, 
the  Exposition  Palace,  the  Hall  of  Congress,  a 
magnificent  opera  house,  the  cathedral,  and  the 
university  building.  The  university,  the  head  of 
the  educational  system  of  the  country,  was 
founded  in  1743,  and  has  faculties  of  law,  phi- 
losophy, medicine,  and  science,  with  over  1000 
students.  Other  educational  institutions  are  the 
Pedagogical  Institute ;  the  National  Library,  con- 
taining in  1897  101,000  volumes;  the  National 
Museum,  one  of  the  foremost  in  Siouth  America; 
normal,  military,  trade,  and  agricultural  schools ; 
an  astronomical  observatory;  and  a  botanical 
garden.  The  industries  are  unimportant,  but 
there  is  some  trade,  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  for- 
eigners. Santiago  is  connected  by  railroad  with 
Valparaiso,  Concepci6n,  and  Buenos  Ayres.  Popu- 
lation, in  1885,  189,392;  in  1900,  269,886.  San- 
tiago was  founded  in  1541  by  Pedro  de  Valdivia. 

SANTIAGO^  Battle  of.  See  Spanish- 
American  War. 

SANTIAGO,  Kio  Grande  de,  or  Kio  San- 
tiago. The  largest  river  in  Mexico.  It  rises  in 
a  small  lake  at  the  foot  of  the  volcano  of  Toluca, 
near  Mexico  City,  and  flows  under  the  name  of 
Rio  Lerma  first  northwest,  then  west  through 
the  States  of  Mexico  and  Guanajuato,  emptying 
into  Lake  Chapala  (q.v.),  on  the  boundary  be- 
tween Michoacfin  and  Jalisco.  Issuing  from  the 
north  end  of  the  lake  as  the  Rio  Santiago,  it  fiows 
northwest  through  Jalisco  and  the  Territory  of 
Tepic,  and  empties  into  the  Pacific  Ocean  near 
San  Bias.  Its  total  length  is  about  550  miles.  In 
its  upper  course  it  has  a  very  swift  current,  and 
below  Lake  Chapala  it  breaks  through  the  Sierra 
Madre  in  deep  and  rocky  gorges,  where  it  is  ob- 
structed by  reefs  and  falls.  In  its  extreme  lower 
course  it  is  very  shallow,  so  that  no  part  of  it 
is  permanently  navigable. 

SANTIAGO  DE  OOMPOSTELA,  d^  k^m- 
pA-stalA,  or  CoMPOSTELLA.  A  celebrated  to^vn  of 
Galicia,  Northwestern  Spain,  in  the  Province  of 
La  Corufia,  situated  among  th€  mountains  28 
miles  south  of  Corunna  (Map:  Spain,  A  1). 
Tradition  ascribes  its  origin  to  the  finding  in  the 
ninth  century  of  the  remains  of  the  Apostle 
Saint  James  (Santiago),  the  patron  saint  of 
Spain.     According  to  the  legend  the  spot  was 


pointed  out  to  Bishop  Theodomir  by  a  star, 
whence  the  place  was  called  'Campus  Stelbe' 
(field  of  the  star) ,  later  corrupted  to  Compostela. 
A  church  was  built  over  the  grave,  which  became 
the  goal  of  vast  numbers  of  pilgrims.  The  church 
was  destroyed  by  the  Moors  in  997,  and  in  1082 
the  present  cathedral  was  begun.  It  is  a  vast 
cruciform  granite  structure,  and  the  best  example 
of  the  ear^  Romanesque  architecture  in  Spain. 
The  facade,  which  dates  from  1738,  is  very  elab- 
orately decorated  in  baroque  style.  The  crypt 
contains  the  shrines  of  the  Apostle  and  his  two 
disciples.  The  city,  which  is  the  see  of  a  metro* 
poHtan  archbishop,  contains  several  other 
churches  and  a  large  number  of  convents  and 
other  ecclesiastical  buildings,  some  of  which,  such 
as  the  convents  of  San  Francisco  and  San  Mar- 
tin, are  of  great  size.  The  large  Hospital  Real, 
opposite  the  cathedral,  was  built  in  1501  by 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  for  the  reception  of  pil- 
grims, who  are  still  numerous.  There  are  a 
university,  founded  in  1504,  and  several  acad- 
emies.   Population,  in  1900,  24,917. 

SANTIAGO  BE  CXTBA,  dA  k7B^B&.  The 
largest  province  of  Cuba,  occupying  the  eastern 
end  of  the  island,  bounded  on  the  northwest  by 
the  Province  of  Puerto  Principe  and  surrounded 
on  the  other  sides  by  the  sea  (Map:  Cuba,  J  6). 
Area,  12,468  square  miles.  This  is  the  highest 
and  most  mountainous  part  of  Cuba.  The  moun- 
tains are  divided  by  the  valley  of  the  Canto,  the 
largest  river  of  Cuba,  which  traverses  the  prov- 
ince from  east  to  west.  Along  the  south  coast 
runs  the  well-defined  range  of  the  Sierra  Maestra, 
rising  in  the  Pico  de  "[J^rquino  to  a  height  of 
8320  feet.  In  the  east  tl^e  range  merges  with  the 
northern  mountains  in  a  wilderness  of  hills, 
ridges,  and  precipices.  There  are  numerous  fer- 
tile valleys  in  the  province,  yielding  all  the  ag- 
ricultural products  of  the  island,  ana  the  mineral 
wealth  is  extensive,  consisting  especially  of  cop- 
per, and  including  also  iron,  mercury,  and  marble. 
The  chief  industries  are  mining,  sugar  and  tobac- 
co manufacture,  cattle-raising,  and  the  exploita- 
tion of  the  forests,  which  yield  fine  cabinet  woods. 
Population,  in  1899,  327,715.  The  capital  is 
Santiago  de  Cuba. 

SANTIAGO  BE  CUBA.  The  capital  of  the 
province  of  the  same  name  in  Cuba,  and  the  second 
city  of  the  Republic  in  size  and  importance.  It 
lies  at  the  northeastern  end  of  the  Bay  of  Santiago, 
on  the  southeastern  coast  of  the  island,  470  miles 
in  a  straight  line  southeast  of  Havana  (M[ap: 
Cuba,  K  6).  The  bay  is  a  harbor  of  the  first 
class,  very  deep  and  capacious,  and  completely 
land-locked.  It  is  5  miles  long,  with  an  average 
breadth  of  1%  miles,  and  has  an  extremely  nar- 
row entrance,  in  one  place  only  220  yards  wide. 
The  entrance  is  protected  by  the  fortresses  of 
Morro  and  Socaba,  which  crown  the  rocty  clifiTs, 
but  are  more  picturesque  than  formidable. 
Within  the  entrance  are  the  BateriA  de  la  Estrella 
and  several  minor  defenses.  The  bay  and  the 
city  are  inclosed  by  mountains  which  cut  off 
the  sea  breezes  and  render  the  location  hot  and 
unhealthful.  The  mean  temperature  in  sum- 
mer is  88**  and  in  winter  82*.  The  city  is 
built  on  a  sloping  amphitheatre  of  hills,  with 
generally  crooked  and  hilly  streets  and  one- 
storied  houses.  Previous  to  the  American  occu- 
pation the  streets  were  badly  paved  and  un- 
clean,  while   yellow   fever   was   prevalent,   but 


SAKTIAQO  BE  CXTBA. 


4dd 


filAKTHXAKA. 


these  eonditions  are  now  very  greatly  improved. 
Water  is  brought  to  the  city  by  an  aqueduct,  but 
the  supply  is  irregular.  The  best  street  is  the 
broad  and  level  Calle  de  Christina,  running  along 
the  water  front.  The  Plaza  de  Armas,  which  has 
four  parterres  planted  with  trees,  is  surrounded 
by  some  of  the  best  buildings  in  the  city,  includ- 
iotg  the  Government  palace  and  the  cathedral. 
The  latter  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  largest 
churches  in  the  island.  The  Government  palace, 
theatre,  market,  military  hospital,  and  the  Hos- 
pital de  Garidad  are  modem  buildings^  the  last 
mentioned  being  one  of  the  best  in  the  city. 
The  industries  are  largely  dependent  on  the  rich 
mining  districts  in  the  neighborhood.  Copper 
and  manganese  are  mined,  but  the  iron  mines 
are  the  most  extensive,  employing  4000  hands, 
and  producing  monthly  nearlv  50,000  tons  of  ore 
for  export  to  the  United  States.  In  the  city  are 
iron  foundries  and  machine  shops,  and  also  a 
number  of  tobacco  factories.  The  commerce  is 
very  extensive  both  with  foreign  countries  and 
with  the  remainder  of  Cuba.  The  domestic  trade, 
which  until  then  was  carried  on  chiefly  by  coasting 
steamers,  was  afforded  additional  facilities  by  the 
completion  in  1902  of  the  Cuban  main  trunk  rail- 
road traversing  the  whole  length  of  the  island 
from  Havana  to  Santiago.  The  exports  are  to- 
bacco, coffee,  sugar,  iron  ore  and  manganese,  and 
cabinet  woods.     Popuktion,  in  1899,  43,090. 

Santiago  was  founded  in  1514  by  Diego  Ve- 
lasquez. It  was  soon  after  made  the  capital  of 
Cul»,  which  it  remained  for  about  a  century. 
In  common  with  other  towns  on  the  Spanish 
Main,  it  suffered  many  vicissitudes  from  pirates 
and  hostile  fleets.  In  the  Spanish- American  War 
of  1898  it  became  the  chief  objective  point  of 
the  American  attack  on  account  of  the  fact  that 
the  Spanish  fleet  under  Admiral  Cervera  had 
taken  refuge  in  the  harbor.  The  city  was  in- 
vested by  the  American  army  under  General 
Shafter  and  by  a  blockading  squadron  under 
Sampson.  The  heights  of  El  Caney  and  San 
Juan,  in  front  of  the  town,  were  stormed  on  July 
1st ;  the  fighting  continued  on  the  2d ;  on  July  3d 
the  Spanish  fleet,  attempting  to  escape,  was 
destroyed  outside  the  harbor  entrance;  and  on 
July  14th  the  commanding  general,  Toral,  capit- 
ulated, the  formal  surrender  taking  place  on 
July  17  th.    See  Spaihsh- Amebic  AN  Wab. 

SANTIAGO  DE  CUBA,  Societt  or  the 
Abut  of.  An  hereditary  military  association, 
organized  in  Santiago  de  Cuba  on  July  1,  1898, 
and  completed  at  Camp  Wickoff,  Montauk  Point, 
Long  Island,  on  September  15,  1898,  by  the  adop- 
tion of  a  constitution  and  the  election  of  officers. 
It  has  for  its  object  to  preserve  the  memory  of 
the  events  of  the  campaign  which  resulted  in 
the  capture  of  Santiago  on  July  17,  1898.  It 
admits  to  membership  all  those  officers  and  sol- 
diers of  the  United  States  army  who  constituted 
the  expeditionary  force  to  Santiago  de  Cuba, 
and  who  worthily  participated  in  the  campaign 
between  the  dates  of  June  14  and  July  17,  1898. 
The  insignia  consists  of  a  badge  pendant  from  a 
ribbon.  The  badge  is  in  the  form  of  a  Maltese 
cross.  The  colors  of  the  ribbon  are  those  of 
Spain,  yellow  and  red.  The  motto  of  the  society 
is,  "As  he  died  to  make  men  holy,  let  us  die  to 
make  men  free."    The  membership  is  about  3500. 

8AHTIAOO  DE  LAS  VEaAS,  dft  l&s  va^- 
gfts.    A  town  of  Cuba,  in  the  Province  of  La 


Habana.  situated  in  a  healthful  location  8  milefl 
south  of  Havana  (Map:  Cuba,  C  3).  Its  leading 
industry  is  the  manufacture  of  tobacco.  Popu- 
lation, in  1899,  7151. 

SANTIAGO  BEL  ESTEBO,  te-tft'r^.  A 
province  of  Argentina,  bounded  on  the  north 
by  £1  Chaco,  on  the  east  by  Santa  F6,  on  the 
south  by  C6rdoba,  and  on  the  west  by  Catamarca 
and  Tucumfin  (Map:  Argentina,  £  9).  Area, 
39,764  square  miles.  Witn  the  exception  of  the 
western  part,  which  is  somewhat  mountainous, 
the  surface  of  the  province  is  generally  level, 
and  is  very  largely  covered  with  forests,  though 
the  southern  part  consists  more  of  open  pampas, 
and  takes  in  a  portion  of  the  Salinas  (^randes. 
It  is  watered  by  the  Saladillo  and  the  Salado,  and 
has  a  fertile  soil.  Lumbering  is  the  chief  in- 
dustry, and  there  are  a  large  number  of  steam 
saw-mills.  Agriculture  and  stock-raising  are 
also  important.  Population,  in  1900,  180,612. 
Capital,  Santiago  del  £stero. 

SANTIAGO  BEL  ESTEBO.  The  capiUl  of 
the  province  of  the  same  name,  in  Argentina, 
situated  on  the  river  Dulce,  on  the  railroad 
lines  from  Tucum&n  to  C6rdoba  and  Santa 
F6  (Map:  Argentina,  £  9).  It  has  a  national 
college  and  a  normal  school,  but  has  declined 
in  importance.  Population,  in  1895,  9817.  It 
was  founded  in  1552,  being  the  oldest  town  in  the 
Republic. 

SANTIAGO  BE  LOS  CABALLEBOS,  d& 
16s  ka'B&-lyft'r6s.  A  town  of  the  Republic  of 
Santo  Domingo,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Yac[ul 
River,  24  miles  south  of  Puerto  Plata,  with  which 
it  has  railway  connection  (Map:  Antilles,  M  5). 
It  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  the  most  fertile 
and  healthful  valley  of  the  Republic,  known  as 
the  Vega  Real,  and  is  the  largest  town  of  the  in- 
terior, with  a  flourishing  trade  in  tobacco.  Popu- 
lation, about  10,000. 

SANTILLANA,  san't^lya^ni,  Inigo  L6fez 
DE  Mendoza,  Marqu6s  de  (1398-1458).  A  noted 
Spanish  soldier,  poet,  and  scholar,  bom  at  Car- 
rion de  los  Condes,  Old  Castile,  the  son  of  an 
admiral  and  nephew  of  the  Grand  Chancellor 
Pedro  Lopez  de  Ayala.  From  early  manhood  a 
prominent  figure  at  the  Court  of  Juan  II.  of 
Castile,  he  was  invested  with  the  Marquisate  of 
Santillana  for  his  successful  campaign  against 
the  Moors  of  Granada,  in  1437-39,  and  was 
created  Count  of  Real  de  Manzanares  for  his 
part  in  deciding  the  battle  of  Olmedo  (1445). 
He  joined  the  conspiracy  which  brought  about  the 
downfall  of  the  favorite  Alvaro  de  Luna,  in  1453, 
but  after  1454  took  less  and  less  part  in  public 
affairs,  devoting  himself  chiefly  to  literary  pur- 
suits, and  died  at  Guadalajara.  While  not  an 
original  genius,  Santillana  was  an  extremely 
skillful  versifier,  gifted  with  unusual  imitative 
powers  which  enabled  him  to  reproduce  with 
great  felicity  the  characteristics  of  the  most  dis- 
similar writers.  He  contributed  much  toward 
the  transformation  of  Castilian  poetry  after 
classical  Italian  and  courtly  Provencal  models 
and  was  the  first  in  Spain  to  compose  sonnets  in 
imitation  of  Petrarch.  These  are,  however,  of 
prevalently  historical  interest,  while  genuine 
lyrical  charm  pervades  his  SerraniMaa (pastorals) , 
of  which  the  song  of  the  "Vaquera  de  la  Finojosa" 
attained  the  widest  popularity.  Among  his 
didactic  poetry  are  to  be  especially  noticed  the 


8ANTILLAKA. 


440 


SAiraO  DOMXKGO. 


Proverhios  or  El  Centiloquio  (1449),  a  collection 
of  one  hundred  proverbs  in  eight-line  stanzas; 
the  Didlogo  de  Btas  contra  Fort  una  (1448) ;  and 
the  Doctrinal  de  privadoa  (1463).  The  dream- 
dialogue  Comedieta  de  Pomsa  is  an  allegorical 
poem  in  Dantesque  manner,  founded  on  the  dis- 
astrous naval  combat  off  Ponza,  in  1435,  in  which 
the  kings  of  Aragon  and  Navarre  and  the  Infante 
of  Castile  were  taken  prisoners  by  the  Genoese. 
Santillana's  complete  Ohras  were  edited  by  Ama- 
dor de  los  Rios  (Madrid,  1852).  Consult  Tick- 
nor,  History  of  Spanish  Literature,  i.  (Boston, 
1872). 

SAKT'LEY^  Charles  (1834— ).  An  English 
barytone  singer,  born  in  Liverpool.  He  studied 
singing  in  Italy,  later  with  Garcia  in  London, 
and  appeared  on  the  stage  first  in  1857.  In  1859 
he  married  Gertrude  Kemble,  a  well-known  so- 
prano. He  was  for  a  few  years  with  the  Carl 
Rosa  Opera  Company,  but  his  greatest  successes 
came  on  the  concert  and  oratorio  platform.  He 
toured  with  great  success  in  America  in  1871 
and  1891,  in  Australia  in  1889-90,  and  in  Cape 
Colony  in  1893.  In  1892  he  published  Student 
and  Singer,  His  ballads,  songs,  and  church 
music  are  well  known. 

SANTO  DOMINCK),  sftn'td  d6-mto'g6,  or 
DaMiNiCAN  Republic.  A  republic  in  the  West 
Indies  occupying  the  eastern  and  larger  part  of 
the  island  of  Haiti  (q.v.),  with  an  estimated  area 
of  over  18,000  square  miles  (Map:  West  Indies, 
M  6) .  Through  the  centre  of  the  western  part  of 
Santo  Domingo  extend  the  Cordilleras  del  Cibao, 
which  form  the  backbone  of  the  island.  Through 
the  eastern  part  stretches  the  Muertos  range. 
Though  mountainous,  the  whole  region,  which  is 
richly  forested,  lends  itself  readily  to  tillage. 
The  numerous  small  plains  are  traversed  by 
navigable  rivers,  and  are  unsurpassed  for  fertil- 
ity. The  principal  product  is  sugar,  which  is 
ciutivated  on  extensive  plantations,  but  largely  by 
foreign  capitalists.  Cacao,  coffee,  and  bananas 
are  also  grown  extensively,  and  there  are  valu- 
able forests  of  mahogany.  Of  late  there  has 
been  some  attempt  to  increase  the  cotton  output, 
and  American  capital  has  been  invested  in  the 
exploitation  of  the  rich  mineral  resources,  which 
comprise  iron,  gold,  copper,  coal,  salt,  and  a  few 
other  minerals. 

The  commerce  is  very  small,  considering  the 
vast  natural  resources  of  the  Republic.  The  im- 
ports were  $2,246,000  in  1897  and  $2,986,921  in 
1901,  and  the  exports  $3,568,000  in  1897  and 
$6,224,000  in  1901.  The  chief  exports  are  sugar, 
cacao,  coffee,  mahogany,  tobacco,  bananas,  and  an- 
imal products.  Over  60  per  cent,  of  the  trade 
is  witn  the  United  States.  The  chief  ports  are 
Santo  Domingo,  Sanchez,  and  Puerto  Plata.  The 
communication  and  transportation  facilities  are 
utterly  inadequate.  There  are  altogether  about 
130  miles  of  railway  lines  connecting  the  ports 
of  Sanchez  and  Puerto  Plata  with  the  interior. 
The  Constitution  of  Santo  Domingo,  adopted  in 
1844,  and  repeatedly  modified  since  then,  pro- 
vides for  a  President  elected  indirectly  for  four 
vears  and  assisted  by  an  appointed  Cabinet.  The 
legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  National  Congress 
consisting  of  twenty-four  deputies,  elected  for 
two  years,  by  restricted  suffrage.  The  governors 
of  the  provinces,  the  prefects,  and  magistrates  are 
appointed  by  the  President.  The  finances  of  the 
Republic  are  in  a  deplorable  state.    The  revenue 


is  derived  almost  exclusively  from  cuBtoms  du- 
ties, and  the  budget  balances  at  something  over 
$2,000,000.  The  foreign  debt  amounted  in  1902 
to  over  $18,900,000  and  the  internal  debt  to  $2,- 
845,550  gold  and  $10,126,629  silver.  The  stan- 
dard of  value  is  the  gold  dollar  of  the  United 
States,  adopted  in  1897,  but  the  actual  circula- 
tion is  composed  of  depreciated  paper  and  debased 
silver.  The  Roman  Catholic  religion  is  recog- 
nized by  the  State.  Primary  instruction  is  ob- 
ligatory and  gratuitous,  and  a  number  of  second- 
ary schools  are  maintained  by  the  State.  The 
Republic  maintains  a  small  standing  army  and  a 
navy  of  three  small  gimboats.  The  population, 
estimated  at  500,000,  is  composed  principally  of 
a  mixed  race  of  Spanish  and  abori^nes,  mulat- 
toes  and  negros.  The  predominating  language 
is  Spanish.    The  capital  is  Santo  Domingo. 

History.  The  history  of  Santo  Domingo  forms 
a  part  of  that  of  Haiti  (q.v.)  till  1844.  In 
February  of  that  year  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Spanish  part  of  the  island  proclaimed  their  in- 
dependence under  the  leadership  of  Don  Pedro 
Santana,  who  became  first  President  of  the  Do- 
minican Republic.  He  was  followed  in  1848  by 
the  Creole  Jimenez,  whose  weak  rule  invited  an  at- 
tack by  Faustin  I.  (Soulouque),  Emperor  of 
Haiti.  Santana  was  made  dictator  and  defeated 
Faustin  at  Ocoa,  April  21,  1849.  Another  at- 
tempt bv  the  Haitian  ruler  in  the  following  year 
met  witn  a  like  result.  Buenaventura  Baez,  who 
was  chosen  President  in  1849,  was  succeeded  in 
1853  by  his  rival  Santana,  who  held  power  till 
1856,  in  which  year  he  repelled  a  third  invasion 
from  Haiti.  He  was  succeeded  by  Baez,  but  in 
1858  he  regained  power  and  ruled  absolutely 
until  1861.  In  that  year  he  proclaimed  the 
annexation  of  Santo  Domingo  to  Spain,  and  his 
action  was  at  first  acquiesced  in  by  the  people. 
The  harshness  of  the  Spanish  rule,  however,  led 
to  an  insurrection  in  1863,  headed  by  Jos6  Maria 
Cabral,  who  in  December,  1864,  defeated  the  roy- 
alist forces  near  La  Ganela.  In  May,  1865,  Spain 
acknowledged  the  independence  of  the  Republic. 
Baez  was  chosen  President,  but  was  driven  out  in 
1866  and  was  succeeded  by  Cabral.  The  latter 
in  turn  had  to  fiee  in  1868,  and  Baez  once  more 
held  power  till  1873.  During  his  administration 
occurred  the  negotiations  with  the  United  States 
looking  toward  the  annexation  of  Santo  Domingo, 
a  favorite  project  with  certain  politicians  in  the 
United  States  since  the  early  forties.  During  the 
early  part  of  President  Grant's  administration. 
General  O.  E.  Babcock  was  sent  by  the  Presi- 
dent to  inquire  into  the  conditions  of  the  island 
and  its  resources.  While  there  he  negotiated  a 
treaty  of  annexation  (November  29,  1869),  by 
which,  on  payment  by  this  Government  of  $1,150,- 
000,  the  Dominican  Republic  was  to  become  part 
of  the  United  States.  The  treaty  was  ratified  by 
the  Dominican  people,  but  met  with  bitter  oppo- 
sition in  the  United  States  Senate,  and  was 
finally  rejected  by  a  tie  vote.  A  Congressional 
commission  visited  the  island  in  1871  and  pre- 
sented an  exhaustive  report  entirely  favorable 
to  annexation.  It  was  laid  before  Congress  by 
the  President,  but  no  action  was  taken  upon  it. 
The  Dominican  Government  renewed  its  over- 
tures in  1874,  but  met  with  no  success.  After 
the  Presidency  of  Gonzales  (1873-79)  there  came 
a  period  of  disturbed  politics.  In  1884  Ulisse 
Heureaux  was  chosen  President,  and  after  two 
years  again  obtained  office.     He  ruled  with  reso- 


fiAKTO  DOMINQO. 


441 


SANTO& 


hition  and  reestablished  order,  but  perished  by 
assassination  in  October,  1899.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Jimenez,  who  in  turn  was  driven  out 
by  General  Vasquez  in  1902. 

BiBUOGBAPHY.  Marl^,  Histoire  descriptive 
de  Saint  Domingo  (Tours,  1869) ;  Klein,  San 
Domingo  (Philadelphia,  1870) ;  Gabb,  "On  the 
Topography  and  Geology  of  Santo  Domingo/' 
in  Transactions  of  the  American  Phiioaophtcal 
Society,  vol.  xv.  (ib.,  1873)  ;  Hazard,  8anto  Do- 
mingo, Past  and  Present  (London,  1873)  ;  Ltol, 
La  r^puhlique  dominioaine  (Paris,  1888)  ;  Abad, 
Le  repiAhlica  domenecana:  resefia  generalesta- 
distica  (Santo  Domingo,  1889);  Merino,  Ele- 
mentos  de  geografia  fisica,  politica  e  histdrica  de 
la  rep^hUca  dominicana  (Santo  Domingo,  1889)  ; 
Jordan,  Qeschichte  der  Insel  Haiti  (Leipzig, 
1849). 

SAHTO  DOMINOO.  The  capital  of  the  Re- 
public of  Santo  Domingo,  situated  on  the  south 
coast,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ozama  (Map: 
West  Indies,  M  5).  The  city  is  re^larlv 
built,  but  its  streets  are  unpaved.  It  is  still 
surrounded  by  picturesque  walls,  and  contains 
interesting  remains  from  former  times,  such 
as  large  and  well-built  stone  mansions,  which 
now  lie  in  ruins,  contrasting  strangely  with  the 
straw-thatched  dwellings  of  the  present  inhab- 
itants. There  is  a  large  Gothic  cathedral,  which 
was  the  resting  place  of  the  bones  of  Columbus 
until  1796,  when  what  was  believed  to  be  the 
body  of  the  discoverer  was  transferred  to  Ha- 
vana, though  the  Dominicans  claim  that  it  still 
rests  in  their  cathedral.  A  large  statue  of  Co- 
lumbus stands  in  the  principal  square.  Other 
buildings  and  institutions  worthy  of  mention  are 
a  former  Jesuit  college,  a  normal  school,  two  hos- 
pitals, an  arsenal,  and  barracks.  The  district  is 
fertile.  The  city  exports  much  sugar  and  coffee. 
Its  harbor,  however,  is  an  open  and  dangerous 
roadstead,  and  the  river  is  accessible  only  to  very 
small  vessels.  Population,  25,000.  Santo  Do- 
mingo is  the  oldest  European  settlement  in  Amer- 
ica, having  been  founded  by  Bartholomew  Colum- 
bus in  1496. 

SAH^ONIK  (from  santon-ic,  from  Lat.  San^ 
tonicus,  relating  to  the  Santoni,  from  Santonif  a 
people  of  Aquitania;  especially  the  Santonicum 
absinthium,  Santonic  wormwood,  also  called  8an- 
tonica  herha,  Santonic  herb,  which  abounded  in 
Aquitania),  Ci^HmO,.  A  neutral  vegetable  prin- 
ciple obtained  from  santonica,  the  unexpanded 
flower-heads  of  Artemisia  pauciflora,  a  perennial 
plant  of  the  order  Compositee,  growing  in  Persia 
and  Asia  Minor.  Santonin  is  colorless,  odorless, 
crystalline,  practically  insoluble  in  water.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  efficacious  of  the  class  of  medi- 
cines known  as  anthelmintics  or  vermicides  for 
roundworms.  Two  very  |)eculiar  symptoms  oc- 
cur after  the  administration  of  santonin.  The 
urine  often  acquires  a  reddish  tint,  which  may 
give  rise  to  an  unfounded  suspicion  of  the  pres- 
ence of  blood  in  that  fluid ;  and  under  its  influ- 
ence vision  becomes  remarkably  affected  for  a 
few  hours,  every  object  appearing  either  yellow 
or  green,  red,  blue,  or  violet  to  the  patient.  This 
change*  may  come  on  suddenly.  It  passes  off, 
leaving  no  ill  effects. 

SAirrOBIN,  sfin'tA-ren'  (Anc.  Thera;  Mod. 
Gk.  Thira).  An  island  in  the  ^Egean  Sea  be- 
longing to  the  Greek  nomarchy  of  the  Cyclades 
(l&p:  Balkan  Peninsula,  E  6).    It  is  situated 


30  miles  south  of  Naxos,  and  120  miles  east 
of  the  southeastern  extremity  of  the  Morea,  and 
has  an  area  of  27  square  miles.  It  is  crescent- 
shaped,  forming  with  two  smaller  islands  the 
edge  of  an  ancient  crater  now  occupied  by  a  cir- 
cular sheet  of  water  into  which  the  coasts  fall 
precipitously  to  a  great  depth.  The  island  con- 
sists chiefly  of  volcanic  material  and  rises  in  the 
volcano  of  Hagios  Ilias  to  a  height  of  1916  feet. 
Within  historical  times  several  new  volcanic 
islets  have  risen  from  the  surrounding  water,  the 
last  in  1866.  The  island  is  treeless  and  poorly 
watered,  but  the  volcanic  soil  is  not  unfertile, 
and  wine  is  produced  and  exported.  Another  im- 
portant article  of  export  is  pozzuolana.  Popula- 
tion, in  1889,  11,924.  The  chief  town  is  Thira, 
with  a  population  of  1050.  The  island,  under 
the  name  of  Thera,  was  an  important  commercial 
State  in  ancient  times  and  the  mother  country 
of  the  powerful  colony  of  Cyrene  in  Africa.  Re- 
mains of  prehistoric  dwellings  have  been  found 
in  Therasia  and  Southern  Santorin,  buried  in  part 
under  an  early  eruption,  of  which  the  date  cannot 
be  determined  with  certainty.  Mycenaean  re- 
mains have  also  been  found.  The  early  inscrip- 
tions preserve  a  very  primitive  form  of  the  Greek 
alphabet,  containing  only  twenty  of  the  twenty- 
two  letters  of  the  Semitic  alphabet,  and  lacking 
the  supplementary  signs,  though  these  were  added 
under  Ionian  influence.  (See  Alpeulbet.)  Not 
only  are  the  remains  on  the  island  important  for 
the  prehistoric  civilization  of  the  Mgea,n,  but 
the  excavation  of  the  ancient  city  of  Thera  on 
the  southeast  coast,  which  was  begun  in  1898,  has 
thrown  much  interesting  light  on  the  local  his- 
tory and  life  of  a  Greek  island,  especially  during 
the  Hellenistic  and  Roman  periods.  Consult: 
Hiller  von  Gaertringen  and  others,  Thera,  Unter- 
suchungen,  Vermessungen  und  Ausgrahungen  in 
den  Jahren  1895-1898  (vol.  i.,  Berlin,  1899;  vol. 
iv.,  Berlin,  1902).  The  inscriptions  are  pub- 
lished in  Inscriptiones  OrcectB  Insularum  Maris 
/EgcBi,  fasc.  iii.  (Berlin,  1898): 

SANTOBINI,  san'td-re'n^,  Giovanni  Do- 
MENico  (1681-1737).  An  Italian  anatomist, 
born  in  Florence  and  educated  there  by  the 
Jesuits.  He  studied  medicine  in  Pisa,  under  Mal- 
pighi,  and  then  practiced  in  Florence,  where  he 
was  professor  of  anatomy.  His  medical  writings, 
especially  those  on  anatomy  and  obstetrics,  were 
long  in  high  repute.  Among  his  anatomical  dis- 
coveries, his  name  is  borne  by  the  emissary 
veins  leading  out  of  the  sinuses  of  the  skull, 
the  tubercles  or  cartilaginous  knobs  of  the  lar- 
ynx, the  risory  muscles,  and  the  gaps  or  fissures 
m  the  external  ear. 

SANTOS,  siln'tAs.  A  seaport  of  Brazil,  in  the 
State  of  Sao  Paulo,  situated  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  200  miles  southwest  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and 
25  miles  south  of  SHo  Paulo,  the  capital  of  the 
State,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  railroad 
( Map :  Brazil,  H  8 ) .  It  is  a  handsome  city,  with 
well  paved  and  shaded  streets,  and  fine  public 
gardens.  There  is  also  a  good  water  supply,  but 
the  location  is  nevertheless  one  of  the  most  un- 
healthful  in  South  America,  being  subject  to  an- 
nual epidemics  of  yellow  fever.  Recent  drainage 
works  have,  however,  somewhat  improved  its 
sanitary  condition.  The  harbor  ranks  next  to  that 
of  Rio  in  importance,  and  in  the  amount  of  its 
trade  and  shipping.  It  is  provided  with  wharves 
accessible  for  large  ships,  and  in  1900  699  ves- 


aAKTOS. 


442 


aAO  PATTLO. 


6els,  with  a  total  of  869,718  tons,  entered,  and 
about  as  many  cleared.  A  large  number  of  immi- 
grants pass  through  this  port.  Santos  is  now  the 
principal  outlet  for  the  great  coffee-producing 
State  of  SSo  Paulo,  having  in  recent  years 
supplanted  Rio  de  Janeiro  as  the  greatest  coffee- 
exporting  port  in  the  world.  The  export  in  1900 
amounted  to  5,849,114  bags  of  132  pounds  each, 
or  more  than  twice  the  amount  exported  by  Rio 
in  the  same  year.  The  value  of  the  year's  export 
of  coffee  alone  was  about  $44,000,000.  Popula- 
tion, in  1900,  estimated  at  41,000. 

SANTO  TOMiB,  td-m^s^  A  town  of  Central 
Luzon,  Philippines,  in  the  Province  of  Batangas, 
situated  25  miles  north  of  Batangas,  on  the  main 
road  and  projected  railroad  between  that  city  and 
Manila  (Map:  Philippine  Islands,  F  5).  Popu- 
lation, estimated,  1899,  10,769. 

SANTTTAO,  a&n'VSifou^.  A  seaport  of  the 
Province  of  Fu-kien,  China,  situated  on  the  south- 
west point  of  the  island  of  Santo,  in  the  Samsah 
inlet,  in  latitude  26"  40'  N.,  longitude  119°  39'  E. 
It  was  voluntarily  opened  to  foreign  residence 
and  trade  by  the  Chinese  Government  May  8, . 
1899.  The  harbor  is  well  sheltered  by  mountains. 
The  tide  rises  24  feet,  but  a  jetty  500  feet  long 
enables  cargo  to  be  landed  at  all  times.  Santuao 
is  a  great  tea  centre. 

SAN  VICENTE,  sftn  v^thgn^tA.  A  town  of 
the  Republic  of  Salvador,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Acahuapa  River,  32  miles  east  of  San  Sal- 
vador (Map:  Central  America,  C  4).  It  manu- 
factures rehoaoSf  silk  shawls,  shoes,  hats,  salt, 
spirits,  and  cigars.    Population,  about  10,000. 

SANZIO,  Raphaex.    See  Raphael  Santi. 

SlO  CARLOS  DE  CAMPINAS,  soun  k^r^- 
16s  dft  k&m-pe^n&s.    A  town  of  Brazil.    See  Caic- 

PINAS. 

8l0  FRANCISCO,  frftN-s^s'kd.  The  chief 
river  of  Eastern  Brazil  (Map:  Brazil,  K  6). 
It  rises  on  the  Serra  da  Canastra  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  State  of  Minas  Geraes,  and  flows  first 
northeast  through  that  State  and  the  State  of 
Bahia,  then  eastward  on  the  boundary  between 
Bahia  and  Pemambuco,  and  finally  southeast 
between  Alagoas  and  Sergipe,  emptying  into  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  200  miles  southwest  of  Pernam- 
faoico.  Its  total  length  is  about  1800  miles.  The 
greater  part  of  its  course  lies  on  the  semi-arid 
plains  of  the  Brazilian  plateau,  and  there  are  no 
large  forests  on  its  banks.  Ih  its  extreme  upper 
course  it  is  a  torrential  stream  descending  irom 
the  mountains  in  a  series  of  rapids  as  far  as  the 
confluence  with  the  Rio  das  Velhas,  where  it  be- 
comes navigable  for  large  vessels.  For  the  next 
1000  miles  of  its  course  over  the  plateau  it  is  a 
broad,  deep,  and  navigable  river  until  it  begins 
the  descent  of  the  escarpment,  about  200  miles 
from  the  sea.  Here  it  is  completely  obstructed 
by  a  series  of  rapids  which  end  in  the  magnifi- 
cent Falls  of  Paulo  Affonso,  where  the  river,  nar- 
rowed to  a  width  of  60  feet,  plunges  over  a  rocky 
ledge  in  three  leaps  with  a  total  height  of  265  feet. 
Below  the  falls,  which  have  been  called  the  'Ni- 
agara of  Brazil,'  the  river  flows  for  some  distance 
through  a  deep  cafion,  and  only  for  the  last  135 
miles  of  its  course  is  it  navigable  for  sea-going 
vessels.  It  enters  the  ocean  by  two  mouths,  both 
of  which  are  partly  obstructed  by  bars,  though 
they  admit  vessels  of  15  feet  draught  at  high 


water.  A  short  railroad  has  been  built  around 
the  falls,  and  another  road  connects  Bahia  with 
Joazeiro  on  the  upper  course  of  the  river,  which 
is  regularly  navigated  by  inland  steamers.  The 
tributaries  of  the  Silo  Francisco  are  all  compara- 
tively short,  though  several  are  navigable.  The 
largest  is  the  Rio  Grande,  one  of  whose  branches, 
the  Rio  Preto,  has  continuous  water  connection 
with  a  branch  of  the  Tocantins. 

SAO  JO JlO  B^EL  REI,  soun  zh6-ouir^  d^  Tift 
A  town  of  the  State  of  Minas  Geraes,  Brazil, 
sixty-six  miles  southwest  of  Ouro  Preto,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  river  Mortes,  a  tributary  of 
the  Rio  Grande.  It  is  an  important  commercial 
centre,  with  railroad  connection  with  Sabaril 
and  Rio  de  Janeiro.  The  town  was  founded  in 
1670  and  was  formerly  celebrated  for  its  gold 
and  diamond  mines.  Now  its  chief  industry  ia 
stock-raising,  with  extensive  exports  of  hides, 
lard,  and  cheese.    Population,  about  10,000. 

SlO  LEOPOLDO,  la'd-pdPd6.  A  town  of 
the  State  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  Brazil,  on  a 
branch  of  the  lower  Jacuhy,  twenty  miles  north 
of  the  capital,  Porto  Alegre  (Map:  Chile,  0  9). 
The  town  is  in  a  rich  agricultural  region,  peopled 
almost  wholly  by  Germans,  many  of  whom  are 
descendants  of  the  first  German  colony  of  Brazil, 
established  here  in  1824.  Population,  aboat 
7000. 

SlO  LXJIZ  DE  MARANHlO,  iSHfibf  dft 
ma,'r&-nyouN^  A  city  of  Brazil.  See  MabanhIo. 

SAdNE,  son  (ancient  Arar),  A  river  of 
France,  the  most  important  a£9uent  of  the  Rhone 
(Map:  France,  L  5).  It  rises  in  the  Faucilles 
Mountains  in  the  Department  of  Voeges,  and 
flows  south  past  Gray,  Chalon,  and  MAoon  to  its 
confluence  with  the  Rhone  at  Lyons.  It  is  300 
miles  long,  and  navigable  to  Corre,  232  miles. 
Canals  connect  it  with  the  Loire,  the  Seine,  the 
Meuse,  the  Moselle,  and  the  Rhine.  Hie  chief 
aflluents  are  the  Doubs  and  Ognon.  Consult 
Hamerton,  The  8a&ne  (London,  1888). 

SAdNE,  Haute.  A  department  of  France. 
See  Haute- Sa6ne. 

SAdNE-ET-LOIRE,  4  Iwftr.  A  southeastern 
department  of  France,  bounded  on  the  east  by  the 
Department  of  Jura  and  the  river  SaOne,  and  on 
the  west  by  the  Department  of  Nifevre  and  the 
river  Loire  (Map:  France,  L  6).  Area,  3,302 
square  miles;  population,  in  1806,  621,337;  in 
1901,  620,360.  The  country  consists  for  the  most 
part  of  fertile  plains,  watered  by  the  rivers  which 
give  their  names  to  the  department,  and  sepa- 
rated by  rich  vine-clad  hills.  The  most  important 
cereals  are  wheat  and  oats.  Coal  is  mined  ex- 
tensively, and  there  are  important  iron  manufac- 
tures, the  works  of  Le  Creusot  (q.v.)  being  in 
this  department.     Capital,  Mftcon. 

BKO  PATTLO,  soun  pou^6.  A  State  of  Bnudl, 
situated  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  Republic 
and  bounded  by  Minas  Geraes  on  the  north  and 
east,  Rio  de  Janeiro  on  the  east,  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  and  the  State  of  Paranft  on  the  south,  and 
Matto  Grosso  on  the  west  (Map:  Brazil,  H  8). 
Area,  112,280  square  miles.  The  narrow  strip  of 
low  coastland  is  succeeded  by  a  mountain  chain 
running  parallel  to  the  coast.  The  country  west 
of  the  mountains  is  an  elevated  plateau,  traversed 
by  numerous  river  valleys.  The  western  portion, 
adjoining  the  Paranft  River,  is  little  known  and 
inhabited  only  by  roving  Indians.    The  chief  riv- 


fiLAO  PAtTLO. 


US 


£ULO  I^StoMfi. 


ers  of  the  State  are  the  Pardo,  Tiet6,  and  the 
Aguapehy,  all  of  them  tributaries  of  the  Paranft, 
and  partly  navigable.  The  climate  is  generally 
moderate  and  healthful  and  only  the  coast  is  ex- 
cessively hot,  while  frost  occurs  on  the  plateau. 
The  soil  is  of  great  fertility  and  is  so  well  adapted 
for  the  cultivation  of  coffee  that  Sfto  Paulo  has 
become  the  chief  coffee-producing  State  of  Brazil. 
Sugar-cane  is  also  produced  in  the  coast  land,  and 
stock-raisinff  is  carried  on  extensively  in  the  inte- 
rior. The  chief  manufactured  products  are  cotton 
goods,  cigars  and  tobacco,  and  some  iron  products. 
Commercially- SSo  Paulo  occupies  a  very  promi- 
nent position.  The  annual  value  of  its  exports 
amounts  to  nearly  $150,000,000,  of  which  coffee 
fonns  over  90  per  cent.  The  commerce  and  man- 
ufactures are  largely  in  German  hands.  The  cap- 
ital, S2o  Paulo,  is  connected  by  rail  with  the 
chief  seaport,  Santos^  as  well  as  with  Kio  de 
Janeiro  and  the  railway  lines  of  Minas  Geraes. 
Population  of  the  State,  in  1890,  1,384,753,  in- 
cluding a  large  European  element. 

SiO  PAXTIiO.  The  capital  of  the  State  of 
Silo  Paulo,  Brazil,  and  the  second  largest  city 
in  the  Republic.  It  is  situated  210  miles  south- 
west of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  on  a  plateau  having  a 
mild  and  healthful  climate,  and  separated  from 
its  port,  Santos,  25  miles  distant,  by  the  Serra  do 
Mar  (Map:  Brazil,  H  8).  It  has  a  modem  ap- 
pearance, with  long,  busy  streets,  traversed  by 
street  railroads,  lighted  by  electricity,  and  lined 
with  fine  shops  and  warehouses.  The  most  nota- 
ble buildings  are  the  cathedral,  the  Government 
building,  wnich  is  an  old  Jesuit  college,  dating 
almost  from  the  foundation  of  the  city,  the  epis- 
copal palace,  the  treasury,  and  the  magnificent 
Ypiranga  Palace,  erected  to  commemorate  the 
Declaration  of  Independence.  There  are  also  a 
large  and  well-equipped  hospital  and  a  celebrated 
law  school.  Sfto  Paulo  is  the  industrial  centre 
of  the  State,  tlie  principal  manufactures  being 
articles  of  consumption.  It  also  has  a  large 
trade,  and  is  the  centre  of  the  State  railroad  sys- 
tem. Its  growth  during  the  last  two  decades  has 
been  exceedingly  rapid,  and  is  largely  due  to  Ger- 
man and  Italian  immigration.  Its  population  in 
1890  was  64,934,  and  in  1900  it  was  estimated  at 
100,000.  The  city  was  foimded  by  the  Jesuits  in 
1554  as  a  mission  station. 

Bio  BOQTTE,  ro^A,  Cape.     See  Cape  San 

EOQUE. 

8A06HYAKT,  sou'shy&nt  (Av.  saoSyant,  he 
who  is  to  save,  fut.  part,  of  »il,  Skt.  ifl,  to  swell, 
prosper).  The  Iranian  Messiah.  In  the  earlier 
parts  of  the  Avesta  the  term  is  frequently  used 
in  the  plural  to  denote  those  who  by  their  special 
sanctity  and  zeal  further  the  cause  of  Zoroastri- 
anism,  and  also  to  refer  to  such  saints  as  will 
appear  at  the  millennium,  where  they  will  assist 
in  the  complete  renovation  of  the  world  which 
will  then  take  place.  In  its  special  and  more 
usual  sense,  however,  the  Saoshyant  is  the  last 
and  greatest  of  the  three  millennial  prophets,  who 
is  to  usher  in  the  day  of  judgment  oi  all  man- 
kind. This  religious  concept  is  not  certainly  men- 
tioned, although  it  may  be  implied,  in  the  oldest 
portions  of  the  Avesta  (q.v.),  the  Gathas  (q.v.), 
but  in  the  later  Avesta,  especially  in  the  nine- 
teenth yasht,  the  idea  is  developed,  while  the 
Pahlavi  texts  (see  Pahiavi  LANorACE  and  Ltt- 
KRATUBE)  give  the  doctrine  in  full  detail.  Ac- 
VOL.  XV.— ». 


cording  to  Parsi  m^rthology  Zoroaster  (q.v.)  thrioe 
approached  his  third  wile,  Uvovi,  but  without 
union.  The  seed  was  preserved  in  the  Lake  of 
Kansava,  which  is  identified  with  tlM  modern 
Hamun  swamp  in  Seistan.  At  the  end  of  nine 
out  of  the  twelve  thousand  vears  which  elapse  be- 
tween the  creation  and  the  day  of  judgment,  a  vir- 
gin bathes  in  Lake  Kansava,  conceives,  and  bears 
the  first  of  the  millennial  prophets,  Ukhshat- 
ereta  or  Aushetar.  After  another  thousand  years 
a  second  virgin  in  like  manner  bears  Ukhshat- 
nemah  or  Aushetar-mah,  and  when  this  millen- 
nium expires,  Astvat-ereta,  the  great  Saoshyant, 
is  bom.  During  these  three  thousand  years  the 
world  continually  grows  better,  so  that  even  in 
the  time  of  Ukhshat-nemah  but  one-third  of  man- 
kind is  evil,  while  human  food  consists  only  of 
vegetables  and  milk,  and  is  taken  but  once  in 
three  days.  When  Astvat-ereta  comes  the  prep- 
arations for  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  begiu, 
commencing  with  the  first  man,  Gayomart,  and 
the  primal  pair,  Mashya  and  Ji^Iashyoi.  This 
takes  fifty-seven  years,  during  which  the  Saosh- 
yant is  assisted  by  fifteen  men  and  fifteen  maidens. 
After  the  judgment  Astvat-ereta,  with  his  help- 
ers, performs  a  sacrifice  of  the  ox  Hadhayos  or 
Sarsaok  and  the  white  Hom  plant  (see  SQma). 
From  these  ofiTerings  a  mystic  drink  is  prepared 
which  gives  immortality  to  all  mankind.  After 
this  the  Saoshyant,  together  with  his  helpers, 
gives,  at  the  command  of  Ormazd  (q.v.),  recom- 
pense to  all  according  to  their  deeds. 

The  origin  of  the  Saoshyant  concept  is  uncer- 
tain. One  is  naturally  inclined  to  derive  it  from 
Babylonia,  whence  certain  Iranian  ideas  were 
certainly  borrowed.  Of  this,  because  of  the 
meagre  eschatological  literature  of  Assyria  and 
Babylonia  (see  Eschatology ) ,  there  is  little  evi- 
dence, for  Marduk,  who,  like  Ninib  and  Gula,  is 
called  the  'restorer  of  the  dead  to  life,'  and  who 
triumphs  over  Tiamat  in  the  cosmic  battle  which 
is  transferred  in  Zoroastrianism  as  in  Judaism 
from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  world,  is 
scarcely  an  analogue.  The  revivification  given 
by  Marduk  is  only  some  such  boon  as  deliverance 
of  the  sick  from  disease.  Neither  do  the  religions 
of  India  afford  any  parallel  to  Astvat-ereta.  So 
far  as  the  material  at  present  available  goes,  the 
idea  is  specifically  Iranian.  The  analogy  of  the 
Zoroastrian  with  the  Judseo-Christian  Messiah 
idea  is  striking,  especially  in  the  teaching  of  the 
apocryphal  books,  as  the  apocalypses  of  Ezra, 
Paul,  and  John,  and  of  the  Gospel  of  Nico- 
demus  (cf.  also  Revelation  xi.  3)  that  Enoch  and 
Elijah,  or  Moses  and  Elijah  (cf.  also  Matthew 
xvii.  3),  are  to  precede  the  Messiah.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  may  be  possible  that  the  religious 
influence  of  Persia  on  the  Jews  has  been  over- 
estimated, and  that  the  Saoshyant  and  the  Mes- 
siah were  independent  developments.  Consult: 
Jackson,  "Iranische  Religion,"  in  Geiger  and 
Kuhn,  Grundriss  der  iranischen  Philologie,  vol. 
ii.  (Strassburg,  1900-03)  ;  Casartelli,  Philoaophy 
of  the  Mazdayasnian  Religion  Under  the  Sasaa- 
nids  (Bombay,  1889)  ;  Soderblom,  La  vie  future 
d*aprd8  le  Mazd^iame  (Paris,  1901) ;  Boklen,  Ver- 
wandtschaft  der  fudiach-chriatlichen  tnii  der 
paraiachen  Eachatologie  (Gottingen,  1902). 

SiO  THOME,  fiouN  tA-mA',  or  Saint  Thomab. 
An  island  belonging  to  Portugal,  and  situated  oflf 
the  west  coast  of  Africa  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea, 
270  miles  south  of  the  mouth  of  the  Niger  (Map: 


flAO  tnaOMfi. 


444 


dAPRI&. 


Africa,  E  5).  Area,  358  square  miles.  It  is 
volcanic  and  mountainous,  being  more  than  7000 
feet  high.  The  rainfall  is  abundant,  and  nearly 
the  whole  island  is  covered  with  luxuriant 
forests.  The  chief  product  is  cacao,  of  which 
14,914  tons  were  exported  in  1901.  Coffee  and 
cinchona  are  also  exported.  There  is  consider- 
able trade,  the  exports  in  1900  being  valued  at 
$3,808,035.  The  capital,  Cidade  de  Sfto  Thom6, 
is  the  residence  of  a  governor,  whose  jurisdiction 
extends  also  over  the  neighboring  Prince's  Island. 
Population,  in  1900,  37,776,  90  per  cent,  of  whom 
were  negroes. 

SAP  (AS.  «flpp,  OHG.  saf,  Ger.  Baft,  sap; 
probably  from  Lat.  aapay  must).  The  popular 
name  for  the  watery  solutions  found  in  plants, 
and  without  exact  scientific  significance.  It  is 
properly  applied  only  to  the  juices,  though  some- 
times used  to  designate  the  slimy  protoplasm 
which  escapes  from  the  delicate  layers  of  cells 
lying  between  the  bark  and  the  wood  in  shrubs  or 
trees.  It  exists  in  the  interior  of  the  protoplasm 
of  active  cells  and  also  dead  and  otherwise  empty 
cells,  such  as  wood.  The  water  absorbed  by 
the  protoplasm  is  first  secreted  in  the  form  of 
minute  droplets;  these  enlarge  and  merge 
one  by  one,  until  at  maturity  usually  only 
one  large  sap  cavity  (vacuole)  occupies  the 
centre  of  the  protoplasm.  (See  Growth,  Fig. 
5.)  This  water  takes  up  into  solution  many 
of  the  foods  manufactured  by  the  plant  and 
also  a  great  many  of  the  mineral  salts  which 
enter  the  plant  from  without.  It  is,  therefore, 
a  solution  of  a  variable  but  very  large  number 
of  the  most  diverse  materials.  The  solution  is 
usually  very  dilute,  although  in  cells  of  storage 
tissues  a  considerable  percentage  of  reserve  food 
may  be  present.  Thus  in  the  cultivated  beet  the 
percentage  of  cane  sugar  in  the  sap  runs  from 
10  to  17,  while  various  gums,  proteids,  and  salts 
are  also  present  in  smaller  amounts.  Expressed 
sap  is  utilized  for  flavoring  palatable  drinks,  for 
sugar-making,  for  making  various  liquors,  as 
pulque,  etc.  The  sap  of  trees  is  popularly,  but 
erroneously,  supposed  to  ascend  in  the  spring 
and  descend  in  the  autumn.  The  amount  of 
sap  in  such  plants  increases  from  summer  until 
early  spring.  Through  the  winter  the  tissues 
are  saturated,  and  in  cold  climates  they  freeze 
solid.    See  Conduction. 

SAP  (OF.  sappe,  Fr.  sap,  hoe,  mattock,  from 
ML.  sappQf  aapa,  hoe,  mattock,  probably  from 
Gk.  ^Kardwri,  skapanB,  hoe,  from  ^Kdrrtiv,  akap- 
iein,  to  dig).  A  military  term  denoting  a  nar- 
row trench,  subsequently  widened,  which  is  con- 
tinually prolonged  in  the  desired  direction,  by 
digging  away  the  earth  at  its  head,  and  utilizing 
the  same  as  a  cover  for  the  working  party.  A 
single  or  full  sap  is  a  trench  with  the  parapet 
constructed  at  the  head,  and  on  its  exposed 
flank.  A  double  sap  is  so  called  when  both 
flanks  and  the  head  of  the  sap  are  exposed  to 
fire;  two  full  saps  are  driven  parallel  and  very 
near  to  each  other,  each  with  its  parapet  on  the 
outer  flank.  The  double  sap  is  formed  by  re- 
moving the  strip  of  earth  dividing  the  two  nar- 
row trenches,  the  result  being  a  single  wide 
trench  or  sap  with  a  parapet 'on  each  side.  Run- 
ning a  sap  has  always  h^en  a  difficult  as  well 
as  dangerous  operation,  owing  to  the  command 
of  fire  possessed  by  the  enemy,  and  soon  came 
to  be  restricted  to  night  operations.    The  modem 


searchlight  and  other  electrical  contrivances, 
however,  make  the  hazard  as  great  by  night  as 
it  would  be  by  day.  The  sol£ers  formerly  de- 
tailed and  trained  for  this  work  in  the  British 
Army  were  known  as  sappers.  See  Siege  and 
Siege  Works. 

SAPAJOTTy  or  SAJOTT.  A  French  rendering  of 
an  obscure  native  name  in  Brazil  (see  Sai), 
now  applied  to  the  typical  American  monkeys  of 
the  genus  Cebus,  of  which  many  species  are 
known.  The  group  includes  some  of  the  largest 
of  American  monkeys  as  well  as  those  which 
have  the  largest  brain  capacity  and  show  the 
greatest  intelligence.  The  monkeys  which  range 
the  farthest  north  are  also  sapajous.  One  of 
the  most  noteworthy  species  is  the  'white-fronted' 
{Cebus  albifrons),  common  in  the  forests  at  the 
headwaters  of  the  Amazon  and  easily  recognized 
by  its  light  brown  color  and  white  forehead. 
Like  the  tribe  generally,  they  live. in  troops  of 
30  or  more  and  are  great  jumpers,  leaping,  it  is 
said,  40  or  50  feet  from  tree  to  tree,  when  neces- 
sary. They  are  often  made  pets  of,  but  are  ex- 
tremely jealous  and  are  restless  and  irritable. 
One  of  the  largest  species  is  Cebus  oUvaoeus, 
which  is  44  inches  long,  20  of  which  belongs  to 
the  tail.  The  'sapajous'  of  the  genus  Ateles  in- 
clude the  well-known  coaitas  or  spider-monkeys 
(q.v.).  Perhaps  the  best  known  of  all  is  the 
weeper  sapajou,  or  'capuchin'  [Cebus  oapucinus)^ 
whose  fur  has  a  golden  tinge,  and  is  short  and 
even  all  over  its  head  as  though  'roached.'  Young 
ones  are  constantly  made  captive.  See  Plate  of 
American  Monkeys. 

SAPAK  WOOD,  SAPPAN  WOOD  (Maky 
sapang) ,  or  Bukkum  Wood.  The  wood  of  Cxsal- 
pina  Sappan,  an  East  Indian  tree,  about  40  feet 
high,  with  twice  pinnate  leaves,  and  racemes  of 
yellow  flowers,  much  used  as  a  red  dye,  which  is 
not  easily  fixed.  It  is  largely  exported  from 
Singapore  and  other  East  Indian  ports  to  Cal- 
cutta and  to  Europe. 

SAP-CHAPEB.  One  of  many  species  of  ceto- 
nian  beetles  which  have  mouth-parts  formed  for 
the  sipping  or  lapping  of  vegetable  juices  rather 
than  for  boring  or  chewing.  They  feed  indif- 
ferently upon  the  sap  which  exudes  from  wounds 
in  trees  or  upon  the 
juices  of  over-ripe  or 
injured  fruit  or  oth- 
er succulent  vegetable 
growth  and  upon  pol- 
len. One  of  the  com- 
monest species  in  the 
United  States  is  the  . 
brown  sap-chafer  {Eu- 
phoria inda),  a  rather 
large  brown  variegated 
beetle  which  appears 
abundantly  in  the  au- 
tumn over  a  large  part 
of  the  Western  States.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  the 
spring  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and 
the  larvae,  which  are  white  grubs  closely  resem- 
bling the  larvffi  of  the  May-beetles  and  the  fig- 
eater  or  June-beetle  (qq.v.),  feed  upon  decaying 
vegetable  matter  and  soil  humus. 

SAPHIB,  sft'f^r,  MoRiTZ  Gottlieb  (1796- 
1858).  An  Austrian  humorous  writer,  bom  at 
Lovas-Ber^ny,  Hungary.  He  edited  the  Vienna 
Humorist  from  1837  to  1858,  and  his  humorous 


BBOWS  8AP-CHAFBB. 


ftAPBlft. 


448 


SA^dTACfiJEL 


readings  in  that  city  enjoyed  much  popuhirity  in 
their  time.  His  publications,  such  as  the  Flie- 
gendes  Album  fur  Em»t,  Soherz,  Humor  und 
lehenafrohe  Laune  (1846),  and  Kanveraation^- 
lesikon  fur  €feisi,  Witz  und  Humor  (2d  ed. 
1860),  are  now  little  read.  They  display  chiefly 
a  faculty  for  clever  plays  upon  words. 

8APHIBE  B'EATT,  s&'ftr'  dd  (Fr.,  water- 
sapphire),  or  DiCHBOiTE.  A  gem  variety  of 
iolite.  When  cut  it  shows  a  very  fine  play  of 
colors,  presenting  different  shades  of  blue,  bluish 
white,  and  yellowish  gray,  according  to  the  di- 
rections in  which  the  mineral  is  viewed. 

SAP'On>A^C£iE  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from 
BapinduSy  from  Lat.  aapo,  soap),  The  Soapbebbt 
Family.  A  natural  order  of  dicotyledonous 
trees,  twining  tendril-bearins  shrubs,  and  a  few 
herbaceous  cumbers,  about  1000  known  species, 
natives  of  warm  climates,  especially  of  South 
America  and  India,  about  300  species  of  lianas 
occurring  in  the  tropics.  None  are  natives  of  Eu- 
rope, and  Sapindus  and  Serjania  are  the  only  in- 
digenous genera  in  the  United  States.  The  tim- 
ber of  some  species  is  valuable;  Guarana  bread 
is  made  from  the  seeds  of  a  species  of  this  order ; 
the  leaves  of  another  ( Cardiospermum  Halicaca- 
bum)  are  used  as  a  boiled  vegetable  in  the 
Moluccas;  and  the  fruits  of  some  species,  as 
Nephelium  and  Litchi,  are  excellent.  The  chief 
genera  of  the  order  Sapindacese  are  Serjania, 
Paullinia,  Sapindus,  Litchi,  Nephelium,  Cupania, 
Blighia,  Dodonsea,  and  Koelreuteria. 

SAPI-T7TAH.  The  Malay  name  of  the  anoa 
(q.v.).  For  illustration,  see  Plate  of  Buffaloes. 
SAFO  (Sp.,  large  toad).  A  South  American 
name  for  various  toad-fishes  (q.v.)  especially 
one  of  the  genus  Porichthys,  or  'midshipmen,' 
a  species  {Porickthya  notatus)  very  abundant 
along  the  California  coast.  It  lives  under  stones 
near  the  shore,  and  is  locally  known  as  the 
'singing- fish,'  on  account  of  a  peculiar  humming 
noise  made  with  its  air-bladder.  It  is  about  15 
inches  long,  olive  brown  with  coppery  reflections, 
the  sides  marked  with  broad  bars,  and  the  pores 
of  the  lateral  line  bead-like  and  shining. 

SAP'ODU/LA  (Sp.  aapotilla,  diminutive  of 
aapota,  zapote,  from  Aztec  zapotl,  sapota  tree). 
A  tree  of  the  natural  order  Sapotaceae  (q.v.) .  The 
fruit  has  a  sub-acid  pulp  which  is  highly  es- 
teemed for  dessert  in  the  West  Indies,  where  the 
tree  is  native  and  whence  it  has  been  introduced 
into  many  other  tropical  countries. 

SAPOBTy  s&-pd^n6.  A  Virginia  tribe  of 
Siouan  stock  (q.  v.)  known  in  history  as  the 
confederates  of  the  kindred  Tutelo,  both  tribes  be- 
ing now  extinct.  The  Saponi  are  first  mentioned 
in  1670  by  the  German  traveler  John  Lederer 
(q.v.),  who  visited  their  town  on  what  appears  to 
have  been  Otter  Greek,  southwest  of  Lynch- 
burg. Besides  Lederer's  early  notes  we  have  some 
valuable  ethnologic  information  concerning  the 
Saponi  from  William  Byrd  (q.v.),  in  charge  of 
the  Virginia  boundary  survey  of  1728,  who  visited 
their  town  and  had  one  of  their  men  in  his  service 
as  guide  and  hunter.  They  still  made  fire  by 
rubbing  two  dry  sticks  together,  and  new  fire 
was  always  made  for  each  ceremonial  occasion. 
They  made  spoons  from  buffalo  horn,  and  their 
women  wove  baskets  and  dress  fabrics  from  the 
fibre  of  'silk  grass'  (yucca).  They  had  horses, 
but  were  awkward  riders.     They  had  strict  re- 


gard to  religious  taboos.  The  men  were  desdribed 
as  having  something  great  and  venerable  in  their 
countenances,  beyond  what  was  common  among 
savages.     See  also  Occaneechi;  Tutelo. 

SAPON'IEICA^ION.  See  Esters;  Fats; 
Oils;  Soap. 

SAP^ONIN  (from  Lat.  sapo,  soap),  CajH^Ow. 
A  glucoside  contained  in  various  plants,  including 
the  Saponaria  officinalia,  or  soapwort,  the  Poly- 
gala  senega^  the  fruit  of  the  horse-chestnut,  etc. 
It  is  readily  extracted  from  the  root  of  soapwort 
by  means  of  boiling  alcohol,  which,  as  it  cools, 
deposits  the  saponin  as  an  amorphous  sediment. 
It  derives  it  name  from  its  behavior  with  water, 
with  which  it  forms  an  opalescent  fluid  that 
froths  when  shaken,  like  a  solution  of  soap,  if 
even  -n^  P^'^  ^^  saponin  be  present.  By  the 
action  of  dilute  acids  saponin  breaks  up  into 
sapogenin,  Gi4HbO^  and  sugar. 


SAPODiiiLA  {Acbras  Sapota). 

SAPOBTA,  s&'pOr'tA',  Gaston,  Marquis  de 
(1823-95).  A  French  botanist  and  paleontologist, 
bom  at  Saint  Zacharie  (Var).  He  served  in  the 
army,  then  devoted  himself  to  vegetable  paleon- 
tology, and  in  1876  became  a  corresponding  mem- 
ber of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences.  Besides 
many  contributions  to  periodicals,  of  which  part 
were  on  the  climate  of  geological  periods,  he 
wrote:  Le  monde  des  pUmta  avant  Vapparition  de 
Vhomme  (1878);  L'ivolution  du  rdgne  v4g^tal 
(with  Marion,  1881-85)  ;  Origine  paUontologique 
dea  arhrea  cultiv^a  (1888);  and  a  genealogical 
study.  La  famille  de  Mme,  de  84vign4  en  Pro- 
vence (1889). 

SAP'OTA^CEiE  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from 
Sapota^  from  Sp.  aapota,  zapote,  sapota  tree), 
The  Sapodilla  Family.  A  natural  order  of 
dicotyledonous  trees  and  shrubs,  often  abound- 
ing in  milky  juice,  which  in  many  species  yields 
gutta-percha.  There  are  nearly  400  known 
species,  chiefly  natives  of  the  tropics,  and  the  re- 


SAPOTACEA 


446 


&APPOBO. 


mainder  of  subtropical  countries.  The  fruits  of 
some  are  pleasant,  as  the  sapodilla  and  other 
species  of  the  genus  Achras,  the  star  apple 
(q.v.)  and  other  species  of  Chrysophyllum,  vari- 
ous species  of  Mimusops,  Lucuma,  etc.  The  genus 
Bassia  contains  species  valuable  for  the  oils 
which  they  yield.  The  seeds  of  Mimusops  Elengi 
also  yield  oil  abundantly.  The  following  genera 
embrace  species  which  yield  gutta-percha,  some 
of  them  at  one  time  being  almost  the  only  sources 
of  that  product:  Payena,  Palaquium,  Bassia,  Is- 
onandra  or  Dichopsis,  and  Mimusops. 

SAPPHTRFi  (OF.,  Fr.  saphir,  from  Lat.  aap- 
phirus,  from  Gk.  ^^dir^cpof,  aappheiroa,  sapphire, 
or  perhaps  lapis  lazuli,  from  Heb.  aapplr,  sap- 
phire). A  blue  variety  of  corundum  (q.v.),  high- 
ly prized  as  a  gem.  It  is  similar  in  composition 
to  the  ruby,  but  it  is  somewhat  harder  and 
of  slightly  higher  specific  gravity.  It  crystallizes 
in  the  hexagonal  system,  usually  in  the  form  of 
double  pyramids.  The  sapphire  has  a  beautiful 
blue  color,  although  spotted  varieties  are  not 
rare,  the  yellow,  white,  and  blue  spots  being  some- 
times sharply  separated  or  agam  grading  into 
each  other.  Heating  the  stone  drives  the  blue 
color  away  permanently.  The  value  of  the  gem 
increases  with  the  depth  of  the  color  up  to  the 
limit  of  translucency,  the  most  prized  specimens 
having  a  corn-flower  blue  tint.  Asteria  is  the 
name  applied  to  an  imperfectly  transparent 
variety  which,  when  cut  in  the  form  of  a 
dome,  shows  six  star-like  rays.  Sapphires  of 
good  color  and  size  are  more  common  tnan  rubies 
and  much  cheaper.  A  specimen  of  good  color, 
weighing  two  or  three  carats,  has  about  the  same 
value  as  a  diamond  of  equal  size.  Some  very 
large  sapphires  have  been  found;  one  of  951 
carats  was  recorded  in  1827  as  being  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  King  of  Ava.  Other  large  stones 
are  in  the  museum  of  the  Jardin  des  Plantes, 
Paris.  Sapphires  occur  in  very  much  the  same 
regions  as  the  ruby,  and  indeed  the  two  are  often 
found  together.  The  best  sapphires  come  from 
Siam,  where  they  are  mined  in  the  loose  surface 
deposits  which  yield  the  ruby.  They  are  also 
found  in  Burma,  Ceylon,  and  Kashmir,  and  at 
many  localities  in  Australia.  The  Australian 
sapphires  are  not  regarded  with  much  favor,  ow- 
ing to  their  dark  color.  In  the  United  States 
the  most  valuable  stones  are  obtained  in  North 
Carolina  and  Montana.  In  the  former  State 
they  are  found  in  gravel  deposits,  from  which 
they  are  separated  by  a  washing  process.  The 
Montana  deposits,  the  most  important  discovered 
in  recent  years,  occur  as  bars  on  the  upper  Mis- 
souri River,  and  also  in  an  igneous  dike,  which 
can  be  traced  for  several  miles.  The  stones  are 
obtained  chiefly  from  the  decomposed  portion  of 
the  dike  and  are  separated  from  the  matrix  by 
washing.  They  range  in  weight  from  less  than 
one  carat  up  to  four  or  five  carats.  The  pro- 
duction of  sapphires  in  the  United  States  in 
1901  was  valued  at  $90,000,  almost  the  entire  out- 
put coming  from  Montana. 

Bibliography.  Bauer,  E deist einkunde  (Leip- 
zig, 1896)  ;  Kunz,  Oems  and  Precious  Stones 
(New  York)  ;  Pratt,  "The  Occurrence  and  Dis- 
tribution of  Corundum  in  the  United  States," 
United  States  Oeolocrical  Survey  Bulletin  No, 
180  (Washington,  1901). 

SAPPHO  (Lat.,  from  Ok.  2oir0(6).  A  Les- 
bian poetess  of  good  family,  a  contemporary  of 


AlcflBUs  (c.600  B.C.)  and  with  him  the  chief 
creator  of  the  .^k>lian  personal  lyric.  Sappho  is 
for  us  chiefly  a  name — ^a  theme  for  the  fervent 
rhetoric  evoked  by  impassioned  contemplation  of 
the  few  exquisite  fragments  of  her  poems  that 
time  has  spared,  a  type  of  the  highest  achieve- 
ment of  woman  in  literature,  a  symbol  and 
synonym  of  the  intoxication  of  •  absolute  lyric, 
'all  fire  and  dew.'  She  was  born  possibly  at 
Eresos,  more  probably  at  Mitylene,  where  she 
lived  until  she  was  exiled  by  an  uprising  of  the 
democratic  party  against  the  oligarchs.  From 
her  poems  we  infer  that  she  practiced  and 
taught  her  art  in  a  coterie,  club,  or  school 
of  maidens,  to  whom  she  was  devotedly  attached, 
whom*  she  addressed  in  the  language  of  passionate 
adoration,  and  whose  bridal  odes  she  composed 
when  they  left  her  to  marry.  Familiar  to  all 
poets  and  lovers  is  the  legend  of  her  unrequited 
love  for  Phaon  and  of  her  casting  herself  down 
from  the  promontory  of  Lover's  Leap  to  that 
"Leucadian  grave  which  hides  too  deep  the  su- 
preme head  of  song"  (Swinburne).  Alcseus  is 
said  to  have  been  her  lover  and  to  have  addressed 
her  in  the  words,  "Violet-tressed,  sweetly  smiling, 
pure  Sappho,  fain  would  I  speak,  but  shame  for- 
bids." To  this  she  replied,  "If  thy  desire  was  of 
aught  fair  and  good,  shame  had  not  beset  thine 
eyes,  but  thou  hadst  spoken  thereof  frank  and 
true." 

The  ancients  read  her  poems  in  nine  books. 
The  extant  fragments  include  (1)  the  ode  to 
Aphrodite,  twenty-seven  lines  in  Sapphic  strophes 
quoted  by  the  critic  Dionysius  of  Halicamassus 
as  an  example  of  the  'smooth  style;'  (2)  the 
"Blest  as  the  iramortel  gods  is  he,"  to  name  it 
by  Ambrose  Philips's  hopelessly  inadequate 
translation,  four  Sapphic  strophes  cited  by  Lon- 
ginus  as  a  specimen  of  the  sublime;  and  (3) 
some  hundred  or  more  single  lines  and  stanzas 
in  a  great  variety  of  lyric  metres.  They  may  be 
found  in  Bergk's  Poetcg  Lyrid,  in  the  Teubner 
Anthologia  Lyrica,  and,  with  English  transla- 
tions added,  in  Wharton's  Sappho.  Some  ad- 
ditional fragments  have  recently  been  recovered 
from  Egyptian  papyri.  The  chief  motives  of 
Sappho's  poems  are  love  and  the  beauty  of  na- 
ture. They  contain  no  profound  thoughts  and 
few  striking  images,  and  the  exquisite  beauty  of 
their  diction  and  the  liquid  lapse  of  the  rhythm 
can  no  more  be  rendered  into  English  than 
Keats's  odes  could  be  translated  into  French  or 
German.  Swinburne,  in  "On  the  Cliffs,"  thus 
strives  to  reproduce  the  impression  of  one  wistful 
waif  of  verse: 

••  /  loved  tbe«,—hB,tk,  one  tenderer  note  than  all— 
AtthiSt  of  old  time,  odc0— one  low.  lon^fall. 
Sighing— one  long,  low,  lovely,  lovelera  call. 
Dying— one  pause  In  song  bo  flamellke  fast — 
A  tthis,  Jongalnee  in  old  time  oveipaat — 
One  soft  first  pause  and  last. 
One.— then  the  old  rage  of  rapture's  fieriest  rain 
Storms  all  the  music-maddened  night  again." 

SAPPHO'S  LEAP.  The  high  cliff  anciently 
called  Leucadia  or  Leucas,  now  Cape  Ducato,  on 
Santa  Maura,  one  of  the  Ionian  Islands.  From 
it  Sappho  the  poetoss  is  said  to  have  thrown 
herself  into  the  sea  on  account  of  her  hopeless 
love  for  Phaon. 

SAPPOBO,  sap'pA-rft.  The  capital  of  the 
island  of  Yezo,  Japan,  situated  ^on  the  Ishigari 
River,  a  short  distance  from  the  western  coast 
(Map:  Japan,  G  2).  It  has  an  agricultural  col- 
lege, a  museum  with  specimens  of  the  work  of 


SAPPOBO. 


447 


SA&AGEKS. 


aborigines,  and  a  botanical  garden.  The  manu- 
facturing establishments  include  saw,  flour,  and 
sugar  mills  and  a  flax  factory.  Sapporo  owes  its 
importance  to  its  connection  with  the  coloniza- 
tion of  Yezo,  since  1870.  Population,  in  1898, 
37,482. 

SAPROPHYTE  (from  Gk.  «raTp6f,  saproa, 
rotten  +  ^vt6p,  phyion,  plant).  A  plant  which 
contains  no  chlorophyll  and  which  derives  its 
nourishment  from  dead  organic  matter.  Sapro- 
phytes are  among  the  active  agents  which  rid  the 
earth  of  the  remains  of  animals  and  plants, 
which  would  otherwise  accumulate.  Among 
flowering  plants  there  are  some  symbiotic  sapro- 
phytes such  as  Indian  pipe  (Monotropa),  and 
certain  orchids  (as  Corallorhiza ) .  These  grow 
in  rich  humus,  the  underground  portions  general- 
ly associated  with  a  fungous  mycelium.  (See 
Mycobhiza.)  Among  the  ferns  and  their  allies 
the  saprophytic  habit  has  also  been  developed  to 
some  extent ;  but  saprophytism  is  best  illustrated 
among  the  fungi,  where  entire  groups  exhibit 
this  mode  of  life.    See  Symbiosis. 

SAPSUCKEB.  Any  of  various  American 
woodpeckers  alleged  to  suck  the  sap  of  trees; 
properly  the  yellow-bellied  woodpecker  {8phy- 
rapicua  va/riua),  which  breeds  in  Canada  and 
migrates  through  the  United  States  in  spring 
and  autumn.  It  is  of  medium  size,  black  above, 
with  white  markings  and  a  white  rump ;  forehead, 
crown,  chin,  and  throat  crimson  in  the  male,  less 
so  in  the  female;  breast  with  a  broad  black 
patch;  belly  pale  sulphur-yellow.  ITiese  colors 
are  highly  variable.  It  has  the  habit  of  pecking 
squarish  holes  in  great  number  in  the  spring,  in 
the  bark  of  sweet-sapped  trees,  eating  to  some 
extent  the  new  wood  beneath,  and  the  sap,  and 
catching  the  insects  attracted  by  the  sweet  ex- 
udation. Its  breeding  habits  are  similar  to  those 
of  woodpeckers  generally.  Several  other  species 
of  the  genus  are  known  in  the  West,  that  com- 
mon  on  the  Pacific  coast  (Spyrapicua  ruber) 
having  the  whole  head,  neck,  and  chest  of  the 
adults  of  both  sexes  red.  See  Woodpeckeb;  and 
consult  authorities  there  cited. 

SAPTABSHI,  s&p-t&r^shd  (Skt.,  the  seven 
sages,  seven  bright  stars  of  Ursa  Major).  A 
systan  of  reckoning  time  in  India,  especially  in 
Kashmir,  although  formerly  current  also  in 
Multan  and  elsewhere.  It  is  based  on  the  theory 
that  the  seven  Rishis  (the  seven  bright  stars  of 
Ursa  Major)  move  through  the  zodiac  in  2700 
years,  at  the  rate  of  one  nakshatra,  or  twenty- 
seventh  of  the  ecliptic,  each  century.  In  ordinary 
reckoning  the  hundreds  are  omitted.  In  calcula- 
tion 47  must  be  added  to  the  Saptarshi  year  to 
find  the  corresponding  Saka  (q.v.)  year,  and  24- 
25  to  determine  the  Christian  equivalent.  Con- 
sult Sewell  and  Dikshit,  The  Indian  Calendar 
(London,   1896). 

SAPTTCAIA  NUT  (Brazilian  name).  The 
seed  of  Lecythis  Ollaria,  a  lofty  Brazilian  tree, 
of  the  natural  order  Lecythidace®.  The  urn- 
shaped  fruit  as  large  as  a  child's  head,  which 
opens  by  a  deciduous  lid,  contains  several  oval 
somewhat  pointed,  slightly  bent  seeds  or  nuts, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  allied  Brazil  nut  (q.v.), 
which  is  inferior  in  flavor  but  is  far  more  ex- 
tensively exported. 

SAQOABA,  s&k-kft^iA,  or  SAKKABA.  An 
Egyptian  village  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile,  in 
latitude  29**  52'  N.,  situated  on  the  edge  of  the 


Libyan  desert,  about  three  miles  from  the  river. 
It  stands  in  the  midst  of  the  ancient  necropolis 
of  Memphis  (q.v.),  and  around  it  are  some  of  the 
most  interesting  monuments  in  Egypt.  Saqqara 
means,  in  Arabic,  'hawk's  nest,'  but  the  word  is 
probably  a  corruption  of  the  old  Egyptian  name 
containing  the  name  of  Sokar,  the  Memphitic  god 
of  the  dead.  In  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
village,  and  to  the  west  of  it,  are  the  pyramids  of 
Pepi  I.  and  his  son  Mer-en-K§,  of  the  Sixth 
Dynasty;  that  of  Pepi  II.,  another  son  of  Pepi  I., 
lies  a  little  farther  south.  To  the  north  are  the 
pyramids  of  Teti,  the  founder  of  the  Sixth 
Dynasty,  and  of  Unas,  the  last  King  of  the  Fifth 
Dynasty.  All  these  pyramids  were  opened  in  1881, 
and  the  walls  of  their  sepulchral  chambers  were 
found  to  be  covered  with  long  inscriptions  of  a 
religious  character.  Between  the  pyramids  of 
Unas  and  Teti  lies  the  great  step-pyramid  of 
Saqqara,  which  has  been  attributed  to  King 
Zoser,  and,  if  this  be  true,  it  is  undoubtedly  the 
oldest  pyramid  in  existence.  It  consists  of  six 
stages,  is  about  190  feet  in  height,  and  contains 
numerous  corridors  and  chambers.  Near  it  are 
the  subterranean  tombs  of  the  Apis  bulls  and  the 
remains  of  the  Serapeum  (q.v.).  In  this  vicinity 
are  the  tombs  of  a  number  of  nobles  of  the 
Fifth  and  Sixth  Dynasties.  They  are  of  great 
architectural  interest  and  their  inner  walls  are 
covered  with  reliefs  and  paintings  giving  vivid 
illustrations  of  Egyptian  life  and  customs  under 
the  Old  Empire.  (Consult:  Lepsius,  Denknuiler 
(Berlin,  1849-58) ;  Wilkinson,  Mannera  and  Cua- 
tama  of  the  Ancient  Egyptiana  (London,  1878) . 

SARA,  sH^rft.  A  town  of  Panay,  Philippine 
Islands,  in  the  Province  of  Iloilo,  situated  2 
miles  northwest  of  Concepcidn  (Map:  Philippine 
Isla;ids,  H  8).  Population,  estimated,  in  1899, 
10,950. 

SARABANDE  {Ft.  aarahande,  from  Sp.  zara- 
handa,  probably  from  Pers.  aarhand,  fillet,  from 
aar,  head  -|-  hand,  boiid).  Originally,  a  slow 
dance  said  to  be  of  Saracenic  origin ;  and  hence  a 
short  piece  of  music,  of  deliberate  character,  and 
with  a  peculiar  rhythm,  in  three-quarter  time, 
the  accent  being  placed  on  the  second  crotchet  of 
each  measure.  The  sarabande  forms  an  essential 
part  of  the  suites  written  by  Handel,  Sebastian 
Bach,  and  others  of  the  old  masters,  for  the 
harpischord  or  clavichord.  All  extra  movements 
were  inserted  after  the  sarabande.  The  dance 
became  popular  in  Europe  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, but  it  was  bitterly  attacked  by  Cervantes 
and  other  Spanish  writers  for  its  indecency,  and 
Philip  II.  suppressed  it  for  a  time.  A  modified 
form  of  it,  however,  was  introduced  in  France, 
and  in  England  it  became  a  popular  country 
dance. 

SARACEKS  (OP.  aarracen,  aarracin,  aarra- 
zen,  Fr.  aarraain,  from  Lat.  Saraceni,  from  Gk. 
Zapomjr^r,  8arak&u>aj  Saracen,  from  Ar.  Sarqin, 
pi.  of  iarqiy,  from  Sarq,  rising  sun,  from  Saraqa, 
to  rise).  A  name  variouslv  employed  by  medi»- 
val  writers  to  designate  the  Mohammedans  of 
Syria  and  Palestine,  the  Arabs  generally,  or  the 
Arab-Berber  races  of  Northern  Africa,  who  con- 
quered Spain  and  Sicily  and  invaded  France.  At 
a  later  date  it  was  employed  as  a  synonym  for 
infidel  nations  against  whom  crusades  were 
preached,  and  was  thus  applied  to  the  Seljuks 
of  Iconium,  the  Turks,  and  others.  The  name 
appeared  as  early  as  the  first  century  of  the 


aABACE^& 


448 


SABAsnr. 


Christian  Era,  when  it  was  applied  by  Greek 
writers  to  some  Arab  tribes  of  the  Syrian  Desert, 
of  Northwestern  Arabia,  and  of  the  Desert  of  Tih. 
In  the  hundred  years  following  the  Hejira  (a.d. 
622)  a  Saracen  empire  was  established  which  ex- 
tended from  Turkestan  to  the  shores  of  the  At- 
lantic. Mohammed  made  himself  master  of 
Mecca  in  629^  and  the  first  caliphs^  Abu-Bekr 
and  Omar,  between  632  and  641,  conquered  Syria, 
Palestine,  Persia,  and  Egypt.  By  709  the  Sara- 
cens had  extended  their  sway  over  Northern 
Africa  to  beyond  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar.  They 
then  crossed  over  to  Spain  (711),  nearly  the 
whole  of  which  they  subjugated.  From  Spain 
they  poured  into  Gaul,  where  their  progress  was 
arrested  by  Charles  Martel,  near  Poitiers,  in 
732.  Sicily  was  conquered  by  them  between  827 
and  878,  and  early  in  the  tenth  century  they 
extended  their  incursions  far  into  the  Burgundian 
territories.  The  disruption  of  the  great  Saracen 
realm  began  about  the  middle  of  the  eighth  cen- 
tury, when  the  western  portion  tore  itself  away 
from  the  rest,  becoming  a  separate  State,  with 
Cordova  as  its  capital.  For  a  general  sketch  of 
the  history  of  the  Saracens,  consult:  Freeman, 
The  Saracens  (London,  1876)  ;  Ockley,  The  Sara- 
cens (London,  1847).  See  Ababia;  Caliph; 
Ommiads;  Abbassioes;  Cbusade. 

SABAOOSSA,  slSi'Tk-g(^^ak  (Sp.  Zaragoza). 
The  capital  of  the  Province  of  Saragossa,  Spain, 
and  formerly  of  the  Kingdom  of  A  r agon,  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ebro,  115  miles  in  a 
straight  line  from  its  mouth,  and  165  miles 
northeast  of  Madrid  (Map:  Spain,  E  2).  It 
stands  in  the  midst  of  a  desert  plain,  but  is  im- 
mediately surrounded  by  a  well- irrigated  and 
fertile  huerta.  Two  bridges  cross  the  Ebro  to 
the  northern  suburb,  one  a  handsome  stone  bridge 
of  seven  arches,  the  other  a  railroad  bridge.  The 
central  nucleus  of  the  town  still  retains  its  old 
aspect,  with  narrow,  winding  lanes,  lined  with 
ola  houses  of  solid  construction  and  often  richly 
decorated,  many  of  them  being  the  former  palaces 
of  nobles,  but  now  generally  in  a  dilapidated  con- 
dition. The  surrounding  portions  of  the  town 
are  modem  and  regularly  built,  with  broad 
streets  and  shade  boulevards.  The  most  promi- 
nent buildings  of  the  city  are  its  two  cathedrals, 
the  old  Gothic  Cathedral  of  La  Seo,  built  between 
1119  and  1520,  and  that  of  Nuestra  Sefiora  del 
Pilar,  begun  in  1681.  The  latter  contains  the 
sacred  pillar  on  which  the  Holy  Virgin  is  be- 
lieved to  have  appeared  to  Saint  James.  Other 
notable  buildings  are  the  Church  of  San  Pablo, 
in  the  Transition  style  of  the  thirteenth  century; 
the  Gothic  Church  of  Engracia,  partly  destroyed 
during  the  siege  of  1808;  the  Castillo  de  la 
Aljaferfa,  built  by  the  Moors  and  later  used  as 
the  royal  residence  of  Aragon;  the  Audiencia, 
formerly  the  palace  of  the  counts  Luna ;  and  the 
Lonja,  or  Exchange,  a  handsome  and  richly  deco- 
rated Renaissance  building.  Saragossa  has  a  uni- 
versity founded  in  1474,  with  800  students,  a  vet- 
erinary school,  a  superior  normal  school,  schools 
of  music  and  fine  arts,  as  well  as  of  com- 
merce and  trade,  and  a  botanical  garden.  The 
city  is  an  important  railroad  centre,  and  its 
commerce  and  manufactures  are  thriving.  It  has 
iron  foundries,  machine  shops,  flour  and  paper 
mills,  breweries,  and  manufactures  of  chocolate, 
preserves,  glass,  chemicals,  soap,  and  candles. 
Population,  jn  1887,  92,407;  in  1900,  98,125, 


Saragossa  is  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Iberian 
Salduha.  Its  strategic  importance  was  recognized 
by  the  Romans,  who  maae  it  a  military  colony 
under  the  name  of  Ccesarea  Augusta,  from  which 
its  Spanish  name  is  a  corruption.  It  was  in  the 
possession  of  the  Moors  from  712  to  III 8,  when 
it  was  taken  by  Alfonso  I.  after  a  long  siege. 
Saragossa  is  especially  famous  for  the  heroism 
with  which  the  citizens,  led  by  Palafox  (q. v.),  de- 
fended it  against  a  large  French  army  in  1808-09. 
The  French  finally  captured  the  city  after  a  hard- 
fought  contest  in  which  they  suffered  great  losses. 

SABAOOSSA,  Maid  of.    See  Agustina. 

SABAJEVO,  sa^rft-yft-Yd.     See  Serajevo. 

SAB^ANAC  LAKE.  A  village  in  Franklin 
County,  N.  Y.,  130  miles  northeast  of  Utica,  in 
one  of  the  most  picturesque  portions  of  the 
Adirondack  Mountains;  near  the  head  of  the 
Lower  Saranac  Lake,  and  on  the  New  York  Cen- 
tral and  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  railroads 
(Map:  New  York,  F  1).  It  is  a  noted  pleasure 
and  health  resort  and  the  business  centre  of  the 
Adirondack  region.  Near  by  are  the  Adirondack 
Cottage  Sanatorium  for  Consumptives  and  the 
State  Hospital  for  Incipient  Tuberculosis.  Popu- 
lation, in  1890,  768;  in  1900,  2594. 

SABAKSK,  B&-rAnsk^  The  capital  of  a  dis- 
trict in  the  Government  of  Penza,  Russia,  on  the 
Saranka,  87  miles  north  of  the  city  of  Penn 
(Map:  Russia,  C  4).  It  is  of  some  commercial 
importance  on  account  of  its  fair.  Population, 
in.  1897,  13,743. 

SABAPXTIi,  sa'r&-p<5^^  A  town  an  the  Gov- 
ernment of  Vyatka,  Russia,  situated  on  the  Kama, 
388  miles  southeast  of  Vyatka  (Map:  Rus- 
sia, H  3 ) .  It  has  extensive  tanneries  and  hoot 
factories  and  a  considerable  trade  in  grain.  Pop- 
ulation, in  1897,  21,395. 

SABA  SAMPSON,  Miss.  A  play  by  Leasing 
produced  in  1755.  Its  eenttmentality  made  it 
very  popular  in  its  day,  but  it  is  interesting  now 
only  as  the  first  introduction  of  middle-class  life 
in  German  tragedy. 

SABASATE,  eSL'TA-sH^iA,  Pablo  de  (1844-). 
A  Spanish  violinist,  bom  in  Pamplona.  He  stud- 
ied the  violin  at  the  Paris  Conservatory  under 
Alard,  and  harmony  under  Reber,  winning  prizes 
in  1857  and  1859.  In  1889  he  visited  America 
with  Eugene  d' Albert,  and  played  in  New 
York  and  other  cities,  with  great  success. 
His  playing  is  characterized  by  a  wonderful 
technique  and  a  delicate  and  refined  tone. 
Max  Bruch  wrote  for  him  his  Scotch  fantasy 
and  second  concerto,  and  Lalo  his  concertos  and 
symphonie  espagnole,  Sarasate's  compositions 
are  for  his  own  instrument,  and  are  light  and 
Spanish  in  character. 

SABASIK,  sa'r&'z&N^  Faul  (1856-).  A 
Swiss  naturalist  and  traveler,  bom  in  Basel,  and 
educated  there  and  in  Wttrzburg.  Together  with 
his  cousin,  Fritz  Sarasin,  he  explored  Ceylon 
(1883-86)  and  they  published  on  their  return 
Ergehnisse  naturtoissenschaftlicher  Forschungen 
auf  Ceylon  ( 1887-93) ,  containing  valuable  zoolog- 
ical and  ethnological  data.  After  a  second  trip 
to  Ceylon  in  1890,  they  turned  their  atten- 
tion to  the  island  of  CJelebes,  which  they  ex- 
plored in  1893-96,  and  which  they  described  in 
Materialien  zur  Naturgeschichte  der  Insel  C^klM 
(1898). 


8ABASVATI. 


449 


SABATOV. 


SABASVATI,  s&-r&8h^T&-t«.     A  Hindu  god- 
dess.   See  Vac. 

SAB'ATCKOA,  Battles  of.  Two  important 
battles  of  the  American  Revolution,  fought  on 
September  19  and  October  7,  1777.  Early  in 
May,  1777,  Burgoyne,  with  an  English  army  of 
about  10^000,  started  from  Canada  toward 
Albany.  His  army  was  weakened  by  Baum's 
defeat  at  Bennington  (q.v.),  and  by  the 
frequent  guerrilla  attacks  of  the  American  mili- 
tia. Crossing  the  Hudson  on  September  13th, 
he  approached  Bemis  Heights,  where  the  Ameri- 
can army,  under  General  Gates  (q.v.),  had  taken 
up  a  strong  position.  On  the  19th  he  advanced 
with  4000  men  to  attack  the  American  left,  but 
was  met  by  General  Benedict  Arnold  with  a  foro^ 
of  3000  at  Freeman's  Farm.  Here  a  battle  raged 
for  two  hours,  until  darkness  intervened,  neither 
side  gaining  a  decisive  advantage  and  each  side 
losing  from  600  to  1000  of  its  number.  This 
has  been  variously  called  the  battle  of  Freeman's 
Farm,  the  first  battle  of  Bemis  Heights,  the  first 
battle  of  Stillwater,  and  the  first  battle  of  Sara- 
toga. Burgoyne,  finding  that  his  supplies  were 
cut  off,  and  despairing  oi  any  immediate  aid  from 
New  York,  resolved,  as  a  last  resort,  to  hazard 
another  attack.  Accordingly  on  October  7th  he 
advanced,  with  1500  picked  men,  to  turn  the 
American  left.  Immediately  his  right  was  at- 
tacked by  General  Poore  and  his  left  by  General 
Morgan ;  while  Arnold,  though  then  without  tech- 
nical authority,  dashed  to  the  front  and  took 
general  command  of  the  American  forces.  For 
some  time  the  result  remained  in  doubt,  but  the 
English  gradually  gave  way  after  the  gallafat 
commander  of  their  right.  General  Frazer,  had 
been  mortally  wounded ;  and  by  a  final  attack,  in 
which  Arnold  was  severely  wounded,  thiey  finally 
were  forced  behind  their  intrenchments.  This  en- 
gagement has  also  been  called  by  some  the  battle 
of  Bemis  Heights,  or  of  Stillwater.  During  the 
night  the  English  retreated  and  took  up  a  strong 
position  about  12  miles  from  Saratoga  (q.v.), 
on  the  site  of  the  present  Schuylerville.  Mean- 
while American  recruits  were  swarming  in 
from  all  sides,  and  soon  Burgoyne  was  entirely 
surroimded,  his  supplies  cut  off,  and  his  forces 
strictly  confined,  by  a  continual  bombardment, 
within  narrow  lines.  Not  daring  to  risk  an- 
other battle  and  fearing  an  immediate  attack 
from  vastly  superior  numbers,  he  opened  nego- 
tiations with  Gates,  who  at  first  demanded  an 
unconditional  surrender,  but  subsequently,  on  the 
16th,  agreed  to  what  was  called  the  'Convention 
of  Saratoga.'  The  English  were  to  march  out 
with  the  honors  of  war,  and  were  to  be  allowed 
to  embark  at  Boston  for  England  on  condition 
that  they  would  not  serve  again  in  America  dur- 
ing the  war.  Accordingly  on  the  17th  Burgoyne 
formally  surrendered  his  army  of  between  5000 
and  6000  men  to  Gates.  Congress  subsequently 
refused  to  ratify  the  'convention,'  and  the  British 
troops,  excepting  a  few  officers,  were  detained  as 
prisoners  first  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston  and 
later  at  Charlottesville,  Va.,  and  elsewhere,  until 
the  close  of  the  war.  The  victory  aroused  the 
greatest  enthusiasm  throughout  the  country,  and 
was  the  determining  event  that  led  France  to 
form  an  alliance  with  the  United  States.  Con- 
sult: Carrington,  The  Battles  of  the  American 
Revolution  (New  York,  1876) ;  Stone,  The  Cam- 
jmign  of  Lieut.-Oen,  Burgoyne  (Albany,  1877) ; 
Walworth,  Battles  of  Saratoga  (Albany,  1891)  ; 


and  Baron  Riedesel's  Memoirs  and  Letters  and 
Journals  (trans,  by  Stone,  Albany,  1868). 

SABATOOA  SFBINGS.  A  village  in  Sar- 
atoga Coimty,  N.  Y.,  39  miles  north  of  Albany, 
on  the  Delaware  and  Hudson,  the  Adirondack, 
and  the  Fitchburg  railroads  (Map:  New  York, 
G  2).  It  is  one  of  the  leading  summer  resorts 
in  the  United  States,  with  mineral  springs  having 
a  wide  reputation  for  their  medicinal  properties. 
Races  are  held  here  during  August,  and  the  floral 
fete  in  September  also  contributes  largely  to  the 
popularity  of  the  resort.  Saratoga  Lake,  4  miles 
distant,  is  much  frequented  for  sailing  and  fish- 
ing. Saratoga  Springs  is  noted  for  its  large, 
well-equipped  hotels.  In  the  Convention  Hall, 
which  has  a  seating  capacity  of  6000,  a  number 
of  political  and  other  conventions  have  been  held. 
The  village  has  an  Athenaeum,  the  library  of  the 
Fourth  Judicial  District,  and  a  public  library ;  an 
art  gallery.  Saint  Faith  School,  Saint  Christina 
Home  for  Orphans,  and  a  hospital.  One  of  the 
State  armories  is  located  in  Saratoga  SprinjB^. 
The  most  important  industries  are  the  bottling 
of  mineral  waters,  the  preparation  of  carbonic 
acid  gas  for  market,  and  the  manufacture  of 
druggists'  and  doctors'  supplies  and  foundry 
products.  The  government,  under  the  revised 
charter  of  1895,  is  vested  in  a  president  and 
boa,rd  of  trustees  who  hold  office  for  two  years. 
Population,  in  1890,  11,975;  in  1900,  12,409. 

The  Indians  early  gave  to  this  locality  the 
name  Sarachtague.  In  1693  Major  Peter  Schuy- 
ler defeated  a  large  force  of  French  and  Indians 
about  three  miles  from  the  present  village.  In 
1767  Sir  William  Johnson,  when  very  ill,  was 
brought  to  the  site  of  the  present  Ballston  Spa 
by  his  Indian  friends,  and  quickly  recovered. 
About  1773  a  log  cabin  was  built  near  here,  and 
in  1777  General  Philip  Schuyler  erected  the  first 
frame  house  in  the  vicinity.  The  village  really 
dates  from  about  1792,  and  was  incorporated  in 
1826.  (See  Sabatooa,  Battles  of.)  Consult: 
Stone,  Reminiscences  of  Saratoga  (New  York, 
1875) ;  Brandow,  The  Story  of  Saratoga  and  His- 
tory of  Schuylennlle  (Albany,  1900) ;  and  a 
sketch  in  Powell's  Historic  Towns  of  the  Middle 
States  (New  York,  1899). 

SABATOV^  sa'rft-t^f'.  A  government  of  Rus- 
sia, bounded  by  the  governments  of  Simbirsk  and 
Penza  on  the  north,  the  Volga  on  the  east,  As- 
trakhan on  the  south,  the  Province  of  the  Don 
Cossacks  on  the  southwest,  and  Tambov  on  the 
west  (Map:  Russia,  F  4).  Area,  32,640  square 
miles.  The  surface  is  elevated  and  well  wooded 
in  the  north,  while  the  central  and  southern  parts 
have  the  character  of  a  steppe.  The  region  along 
the  Volga  is  hilly.  Besides  the  Volga  the  prin- 
cipal rivers  of  the  government  are  the  Med- 
vieditza,  the  Khoper,  and  the  Ilovlya — all  tribu- 
taries of  the  Don.  Saratov  belongs  to  the  black 
soil  belt.  Agriculture  is  carried  oii  extensively, 
and  large  quantities  of  grain  are  exported  by 
the  Volga.  The  principal  cereals  are  rye,  wheat, 
and  oats.  Tobacco  is  cultivated  on  a  large  scale 
and  gardening  for  export  forms  an  important 
occupation  in  the  region  along  the  Volga.  The 
annual  value  of  the  manufactures,  principally 
fiour,  is  over  $12,000,000.  The  export  trade  in 
grain  is  heavy.  Population,  in  1897,  2,419,884, 
mostly  Great  Russians. 

SABATOV.  The  capital  of  the  government 
of  the  same  name  in  Russia,  situated  on  the  right 


SABATOV. 


450 


SABG0FHAOTr& 


bank  of  the  Volga,  about  200  inileB  southwest  of 
Samara  (Map:  Russia,  G  4) .  It  is  well  laid  out, 
but,  like  most  Russian  provincial  towns,  is  built 
chiefly  of  wood.  It  has  a  theological  seminary 
and  a  museum  with  a  school  of  drawing  and  a 
library  attached  to  it.  Flour  mills,  oil  presses, 
and  distilleries  are  the  principal  industrial  es- 
tablishments of  the  city.  The  export  trade  in 
grain  is  considerable.  Population,  in  1897,  137,- 
109,  including  many  descendants  of  French  and 
Grerman  settlers.  The  town  was  founded  in  the 
sixteenth  century. 

SABA  VIA,  sA-ra'vyA.  A  town  of  Western 
Negros,  Philippine  Islands,  situated  on  the  north- 
west coast,  15  miles  north  of  Bac<3lod  (Map: 
Philippine  Islands,  G.  9) .  Population,  estimated, 
in  1899,  15,304. 

SABA  WAS,  sa'ri-wilk'.  A  British  protec- 
torate on  the  northwestern  coast  of  Borneo 
(q.v.). 

SABAWAXESE.  The  natives  of  Sarawak, 
in  Northwestern  Borneo,  comprising  the  Punans 
(various  wild  but  gentle  tribes  of  savages  scat- 
tered over  the  interior — ^nomadic  hunters  repre- 
senting the  lowest  type  of  culture)  ;  Kalamantan 
(more  or  less  agricultural  communities  belong- 
ing to  scattered  and  usually  weak  tribes  along 
the  coast  and  certain  rivers)  ;  Kenyah-Kayan 
(immigrants  several  centuries  ago  from  Dutch 
Borneo— well-organized  and  powerful  tribes  who 
have  exterminated  or  enslaved  some  of  the 
smaller  aboriginal  groups)  ;  Iban,  or  Sea  Dayaks 
(originally  on  Batang  Lupan  and  Saribas  rivers, 
their  spread  being  comparatively  recent) ;  and 
Malays  (now  rather  mixed  by  contact  with 
indigenous  coast  populations)  on  the  coast  and 
for  a  short  distance  up  some  of  the  rivers. 
Consult:  Brooke,  Ten  Tears  in  Saraioak  (Lon- 
don, 1866) ;  Dcnison,  Tour  Among  the  Land 
Dyaks  of  Upper  Borneo  (Singapore,  1879)  ;  Roth, 
The  Natives  of  Sarawak  a/nd  British  North  Bor- 
neo (London,  1896). 

SABGET^  sAr'sA',  Francisque  (1828-99).  A 
French  dramatic  critic,  born  at  Dourdan.  He 
taught  in  the  provinces  (1851-58),  on  coming  to 
Paris  wrote  first  for  the  Figaro,  and  in  1859  be- 
came dramatic  critic  of  L* Opinion  Nationale 
(1859-67),  and  then  of  Le  Temps,  with  which  he 
was  connected  till  his  death,  contributing  also  to 
About's  Diameuvi^me  Sidcle  and  other  journals. 
Public-spirited,  but  never  partisan,  he  voiced 
with  lively  wit  and  shrewd  common  sense  the 
average  opinion  in  drama  and  in  social  reform. 
Sarcey  is  often  charged  with  excessive  admiration 
of  mere  stagecraft.  His  dramatic  articles  were 
not  collected  during  his  life,  save  for  two  series 
of  Com6diens  et  oomMiennes  (1878-84)  and  Le 
ih^Atre  (1893).  A  fuller  selection  by  Larroumet 
is  announced.  Sarcey  wrote  also  Souvenirs  de 
feunesse  (1885)  And  Souvenirs  d*dge  mUr  (1892), 
translated  by  Carey,  Recollections  of  Middle  Life 
(1893)  ;  an  Histoire  du  si^ge  de  Paris  (1871)  ; 
and  several  novels. 

SABCINA  (Lat.,  bundle),  or  Sarcinula.  A 
genus  of  minute  plants  of  very  low  organization, 
sometimes  reckoned  among  algee,  and  sometimes 
among  fungi.  A  number  of  forms  or  species  are 
known.  Although  the  most  common  seat  of 
sarcinse  is  the  human  stomach,  they  have  like- 
w^ise  been  detected  in  the  stomach  of  tlie  tortoise, 
the  rabbit,  the  dog,  the  ape,  and  in  the  onpcum  of 
the  fowl;  in  the  urine,  in  the  lungs,  in  tlip  fspces 


and  intestinal  canal,  in  the  fluid  of  the  ventricles 
of  the  brain,  in  cholera  stools,  in  the  fluid  of 
hydrocele,  and  in  the  bones. 

Sarcinse  are  present  in  vomited  fluids  in  cer- 
tain forms  of  dyspepsia. 

SABCOLACTIC  ACID.    See  Lactig  Acid. 

SABCOLEMMA  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  vip^, 
sarw,  flesh  -\-  X^/ipta,  lemma,  husk).  A  term  ap- 
plied to  the  delicate  sheath  which  invests  each 
primary  muscular  fibre.    See  Musclk. 

SABCOMA.    See  Tumob. 

SABCOFHAOTTS  (Lat.  sarcophagus,  from 
Gk.  aapK0if>dy9s,  sarkophagos,  flesh-eating,  from 
vdp^,  sarx,  flesh  -f  4»ayu9,  phagein,  to  eat). 
Any  large  coffin  designed  not  to  be  buried,  but  to 
be  placed  in  the  open  air  or  in  a  tomb  where  it 
may  be  seen.  The  material  is  usually  stone.  The 
name  was  derived  from  the  ancient  belief  that 
coffins  made  from  a  certain  stone  found  near 
Assos  possessed  the  propeily  of  consuming  the 
body  with  the  exception  of  the  teeth  within  forty 
days.  Egypt  is  probably  the  place  of  origin. 
Here  the  sarcophagus  is  the  dwelling  of  the  dead. 
In  the  great  tombs  of  the  pyramid-builders  and 
later  kings  it  is  a  huge  block  of  granite  in  which 
is  hollowed  a  receptacle  for  the  mummy  case, 
while  another  block  forms  the  cover.  The  orig- 
inal idea  of  the  house  is  sometimes  indicated  by 
the  rounded  roof.  In  less  prosperous  times  and 
in  poorer  tombs  the  sarcophagi  are  of  clay  or  of 
wood,  often  elaborately  painted  or  decorated  with 
inlaid  work  in  glass  and  paste.  About  the 
seventh  century  b.c.  another  form  of  stone  sar- 
cophagus is  found  which  reproduces  the  mummy 
case,  showing  the  human  head  and  outline  of  the 
swathed  form.  This  type  is  especially  common 
in  Phoenicia  and  Phoenician  lands,  such  as  Cy- 
prus, Carthage,  and  some  of  the  Sicilian  settle- 
ments. Especially  noteworthy  is  a  large  group 
of  these  'anthropoid'  sarcophagi  made  of  white 
Greek  marble,  and  showing  clear  proof  in  the 
human  heads,  sculptured  in  relief  on  the  lids,  of 
Greek  workmanship.  This  series  begins  shortly 
after  the  Persian  wars  and  continues  down  to 
about  tlic  time  of  Alexander  the  Great.  Among 
the  Greeks  the  use  of  sarcophagi  seems  to  have 
been  borrowed  from  the  East,  and  appears  first  in 
Asia  Minor.  In  general,  the  Greek  and  Asiatic 
sarcophagi  are  distinctly  of  the  house  or  temple 
type,  often  showing  in  relief  the  gables,  columns, 
and  other  architectural  details.  On  the  early 
sarcophagi  of  Cyprus  these  forms  are  less  clear, 
and  the  custom  of  decorating  the  sides  with 
scenes  in  relief  is  found.  In  Greece  sarcophagi 
proper  were  not  used  till  late  in  the  fifth  century 
and  do  not  seem  to  have  been  very  generally  em- 
ployed at  any  time.  Greek  sarcophagi  are  con- 
sequently not  numerous,  and  the  finest  specimens 
were  found  in  a  tomb  at  Sidon  in  1887.  Of  the 
seventeen  sarcophagi,  one  is  an  Egyptian  anthro- 
poid, and  the  others  Greek,  four  oi  them  being 
richly  decorated  with  reliefs.  The  earliest  of 
these,  'the  sarcophagus  of  the  Satrap,'  belongs 
to  the  time  shortly  after  the  Persian  wars,  and 
shows  Ionic  art  of  the  transitional  period.  The 
'Lycian  Sarcophagus'  is  evidently  of  the  end  of 
the  fifth  century  and  inspired  by  the  sculptures 
of  the  Parthenon.  To  the  earlier  fourth  century 
belongs  the  'Sarcophagus  of  the  Mourners,'  which 
is  in  the  form  of  a  temple,  between  the  columns 
of  which  are  standing  or  seated  women,  whose 
faces  and  attitudes  are  the  embodiment  of  woe. 


SABC0FHAOXT& 


451 


SABDICA. 


It  is  clearly  the  work  of  an  artist  who  was  fa- 
miliar with  the  great  Athenian  grave- reliefs. 
Lastly,  near  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  was 
produced  the  wonderful  'Alexander  Sarcopha- 
gus,' with  its  vigorous  scenes  of  the  battle  and 
the  chase,  reproduced  in  a  striking  combination 
of  relief  and  color. 

The  Etruscans  early  employed  sarcophagi  of 
stone  or  clay,  with  the  sides  decorated  in  relief, 
while  on  the  lid  recline  the  full-length  figures  of 
the  dead,  singly  or  not  infrequently  in  pairs. 
The  work  is  that  of  the  Etruscan  artist,  but  he 
evidently  drew  his  inspiration  from  Greek 
sources.  Owing  to  the  Roman  custom  of  burning 
the  dead,  sarcophagi  are  very  rare  during  the 
Republic  and  early  Empire.  The  finest  and  earli- 
est example  is  the  peperino  sarcophagus  of  L. 
Cornelius  Scipio  Barbatus,  consul  b.c.  298,  in 
the  Vatican.  The  house  form  has  here  passed 
over  into  a  style  much  more  nearly  resembling 
an  altar.  In  the  second  century  of  our  era, 
however,  burial  became  much  more  common,  and 
with  this  period  begins  the  long  series  of  sculp- 
tured sarcophagi  so  common  in  museums.  In 
general  the  achitectural  forms  are  entirely  ne- 
glected, nor  is  the  Etruscan  imitation  of  the  bed 
retained,  even  when  there  is  a  reclining  figure  on 
the  lid.  Moreover,  while  the  Greek  sarcophagi 
seem  in  general  to  have  stood  in  the  open  air 
as  grave  monuments,  and  hence  were  sculptured 
on  all  sides,  the  Roman,  like  the  Etruscan,  were 
placed  against  the  walls  of  tomb  chambers,  so 
that  the  back  is  usually  plain.  Along  with  the 
usual  rectangular  oblong  box  we  find  an  oval 
usually  decorated  with  vertical  waving  lines, 
while  on  the  front  is  a  medallion  containing  a 
mythological  scene  or  a  portrait.  In  the  Roman 
sarcophagi  the  decoration  of  the  front  with  an 
elaborate  composition  in  relief  plays  an  impor- 
tant part.  The  choice  of  scenes  is  varied.  Some- 
times the  theme  is  drawn  from  daily  life,  but 
more  often  the  mythology  of  Greece  has  been 
used.  The  custom  was  continued  in  Christian 
times,  with  the  substitution  of  biblical  scenes 
for  those  of  pagan  myths.  Consult:  Hamdi  Bey 
and  Reinach,  Une  nicropole  royale  d  Sidon 
(Paris,  1892  et  seq.) ;  Robert,  Die  antiken  Sarko- 
phagreliefs  (Berlin,  1890-97). 

SABB  (Lat.  sarda,  sardius,  from  Gk,ffdp9iosj 
sard,  Sardian,  from  Xdp9€is,  Sardeia,  Sardis, 
capital  city  of  Lydia ) .  A  translucent  red  variety 
of  chalcedony  that  differs  from  camelian  by  the 
deepness  of  its  color.  It  was  highly  prized  by  the 
ancients,  who  used  it  as  a  gem.  It  was  credited 
by  early  writers  with  numerous  virtues,  and,  ac- 
cording to  Epiphanius,  it  conferred  upon  its 
wearer  a  "cheerful  heart,  courage  and  presence, 
and  protected  him  from  witchcraft  and  noxious 
humors.*' 

8ABa>ANAPAaiTTS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Zap^o- 
idroXoff,  corrupted  from  Assyrian  Asahur-hani- 
pal,  Asshur  begets  a  son)  (b.c.  668-624).  The 
last  great  Assyrian  monarch.  The  son  of  Esar- 
haddon  (q.v.),  he  found  himself  possessed  of  the 
empire  in  its  greatest  extent,  but  also  the  heir 
of  the  difiSculties  which  were  pressing  on  the  east 
and  north  from  the  hordes  of  Cimmerians,  Scy- 
thians, and  Medes.  The  father  died  at  the  be- 
ginning of  his  third  campaign  in  Egypt,  and  the 
duty  of  continuing  the  war  devolved  upon  the 
son.  Memphis  was  occupied  and  the  land  re- 
turned to  its  nominal  allegiance,  but  upon  the 


withdrawal  of  the  army  revolt  broke  out,  which 
resulted  in  another  invasion  and  the  ruthless 
destruction  of  Thebes,  the  southern  capital.  But 
the  Assyrian  hold  was  so  weak  that  Psamme- 
tichus  declared  his  independence  within  a  few 
years,  and  Egypt  was  irrevocably  lost  to  Assyria 
(about  B.C.  663).  A  long  siege  of  Tyre  begun 
by  Esarhaddon  resulted  in  capitulation.  Tire- 
some wars  in  Elam,  on  the  north,  and  in  Arabia, 
disturbed  much  of  the  reign.  The  most  serious 
blow  to  the  safety  of  the  empire  came  with  the 
bold  insurrection  of  Shamash-shum-ukin,  a 
younger  son  of  Esarhaddon,  who  had  been  made 
Regent  of  Babylonia  by  his  father  as  a  sop  to  the 
pride  of  that  land.  After  a  bitter  and  protracted 
struggle,  in  which  Elam  helped  the  rebel,  the 
latter  was  defeated  and  perished,  and  his  ad- 
herents were  cruelly  punished.  To  this  punish- 
ment of  Babylonia  belongs  the  colonization  of 
Samaria  attributed  by  Ezra  iv.  10  to  'Asnapper,' 
which  is  a  corruption  of  AsshurbanipaPs  name. 
Asshurbanipars  policy  as  a  warrior  seems  to 
have  been  purely  defensive.  He  soon  felt  the  im- 
possibility of  holding  Egypt,  refused  assistance 
to  Gyges  of  Lydia  in  his  struggle  with  the  Cim- 
merians, and  was  content  with  maintaining  the 
old  lines  of  his  empire  as  intact  as  possible 
against  the  barbarian  swarms  which  broKe  into 
the  kingdom  upon  his  death.  His  greatest  fame  as 
a  monarch  rests  in  his  works  of  peace.  He  built 
magnificently,  both  in  Nineveh  and  in  the  sacred 
cities  of  Babylonia,  neglecting  his  political  du- 
ties for  those  of  a  religious  devotee  and  a  littera- 
teur. In  his  palace  at  Nineveh  he  gathered  a 
great  library,  in  which  were  deposited  copies  of 
the  ancient  literature  of  the  south,  and  to  which 
his  scholars  added  their  own  contributions.  ( See 
Nineveh.)  It  is  to  this  wonderful  collection, 
discovered  again  by  Layard  and  Rassam,  that 
modern  science  owes  much  of  its  knowledge  of 
Babylonian  literature  and  religion.  The  King's 
magnificence  left  its  impression  upon  later  tra* 
dition,  and  he  is  one  of  the  few  Assyrian  kings 
distinctly  mentioned  by  the  Greeks,  although  his 
memory  is  distorted  by  legends  and  errors  which 
make  of  him  a  mere  Sybarite.  The  classical 
story  of  his  self-destruction  in  a  great  funeral 
pyre  is  probably  based  on  the  fate  of  the  last 
King,  Sin-shar-ishkun.  For  the  history,  consult : 
George  Smith,  History  of  Aasurhanipal  (London, 
1871),  and  the  histories  of  Assyria;  for  the  in- 
scriptions, Jensen,  in  Keilinschriftliche  Bihlio- 
thek,  ii.  (Leipzig,  1889)  ;  Bezold,  Kurzgefaaster 
Uchcrhlick  iiber  die  hahylonisch-assyrische  Lit- 
tcratur  (Boston,  1886)  ;  for  the  buildings  and 
library,  Layard,  Nineveh  and  Its  Remains  (Lon- 
don, 1848),  and  Monuments  of  Nineveh  (ib., 
1849)  ;  Hilprecht,  Explorations  in  Bible  Lands 
(Philadelphia,  1903). 

SABLES.  An  ancient  city  of  Asia  Minor. 
See  Sardis. 

BAB/JXlCAf  Council  of.  A  council  held, 
probably  in  the  year  343,  at  Sardica,  in  Illyria, 
the  present  Sofia.  It  was  summoned  by  the 
emperors  Constantius  and  Constans,  in  concert 
with  Pope  Julius  I.,  for  the  purpose  of  discuss- 
ing the  difficulties  arising  from  the  deposition 
of  Saint  Athanasius  and  other  bishops,  and  gen- 
erally testifying  against  innovations  in  doctrine 
in  regard  to  the  person  of  Christ.  It  also  went 
into  questions  of  discipline,  and  passed  a  number 
of  canons  which  have  been  famous  and  important 
in  the  subsequent  history  of  the  Church.     By 


8ABDICA. 


453 


SASDINIA. 


some  scholars^  such  as  Baronius  and  Mansi,  an 
ecumenical  character  has  been  attributed  to  it, 
but  this  is  denied  hj  the  great  majority. 

8ABDIKE  (Lat.  aardina,  aarda,  from  Gk. 
vap^piif  adfida^  sardine,  from  Zapd(6,  Bardo,  Sar- 
dinia). One  of  the  small  fishes  of  the  herring 
family  (Clupeids)  which  are  preserved  in  oil  and 
canned;  properly,  the  European  Clupea  pilchar- 
du8,  very  common  in  the  Mediterranean  and  ad- 
joining ocean,  appearing  in  great  shoals.  Many 
young  fishes  of  related  species,  however,  are  also 
utilized  in  the  same  way  and  mixed  with  them. 
In  curing  sardines  they  are  first  carefully 
eviscerated,  washed,  and  then  exposed  to  the  sun 
or  to  a  current  of  air  imder  cover.  They  are  next 
put  into  boiling  oil  in  which  they  remain  for  a 
short  time,  then  taken  out,  drained,  and  put  into 
square  tin  boxes.  The  boxes  packed  with  sardines 
are  filled  up  with  oil,  the  lid  is  soldered  on,  and 
they  are  placed  for  a  short  time  in  boiling  water 
or  exposed  to  hot  steam.  In  the  south  of  France 
sardines  are  sometimes  cured  in  red  wine,  and 
then  known  as  'sardines  anchois^es.' 


A  FOBUIi  BARDIHB. 

Several  species  of  small  Clupeidse  much  re- 
sembling the  sardine  are  found  in  various  parts 
of  the  world,  and  are  used  in  the  same  way  as 
the  sardine  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  Califor- 
nia sardine  {Clupea  cceruleus)  closely  resembles 
the  European  sardine,  gets  about  12  inches  long 
and  is  an  excellent  food- fish,  but  is  not  canned. 
The  sardine  fisheries  are  very  extensive,  both  in 
America  and  Europe.  (See  Fishebies.)  In  the 
Eastern  States  the  young  of  several  small  fishes 
have  been  put  up  in  oil,  like  sardines,  especially 
young  menhaden,  and  sold  under  various  trade 
names.  They  are  cheap  and  acceptable,  but  not 
BO  good  as  true  sardines.  Consult:  Goode, 
Fishery  Industriea,  section  i.  (Washington, 
1884).  Compare  Anchovy.  See  Pilchabd;  and 
Plate  of  Hebbino  and  Shad. 

SABDIKOA  (It.  Sardegna,  Gk.  2apd(£, 
8ardd),  An  island  belonging  to  Italy,  next  to 
Sicily  the  largest  island  in  the  Mediterranean 
Sea.  It  is  situated  between  latitudes  38** 
62'  and  41  *»  16'  N.,  and  between  longitudes 
8°  8'  and  9°  49'  E.,  south  of  Corsica,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  the  Strait  of  Bonifacio,  nine 
miles  wide  (Map:  Italy,  C  7).  The  nearest 
point  of  the  Italian  mainland  lies  115  miles 
northeast  of  the  northeastern  extremity  of  the 
island.  Sardinia  has.  roughly  the  shape  of  an 
oblique  parallelogram  with  an  extreme  length  of 
168  miles  and  a  width  of  89  miles.  Its  area  is 
9294  square  miles,  including  the  small  islets 
along  the  coasts. 

The  greater  part  of  the  island  is  mountainous, 
especially  along  the  eastern  coast,  but  it  is  less 
elevated  than  Corsica.  The  highest  point  is 
Monte  Gennargentu,  near  the  centre  of  the  island, 
with  an  altitude  of  6365  feet.  The  southwestern 
mountain  group,  containing  the  richest  mineral 
deposits,  is  separated  from  the  remaining  high- 


land by  the  low  plain  of  Campidano,  ronning 
with  a  breadth  of  12  miles  between  the  Gulfs 
of  Cagliari  and  Oristano.  The  rivers  of  Sar- 
dinia are  all  unimportant.  The  climate  is  mild, 
like  that  of  the  other  Mediterranean  lands, 
and  very  warm  in  summer.  The  average  annual 
rainfall  is  only  17  inches,  and  the  summers  are 
very  dry.  Large  portions  of  the  island  are  sub- 
ject to  malaria.  In  spite  of  the  drought,  the 
vegetation  is  rich,  and  forests  still  cover  about 
one-fifth  of  the  area.  The  date  palm  is  here  in- 
digenous. Geologically  the  island  consists  almost 
wholly  of  crys^lline  rocks  with  granite  pre- 
dominating. The  plain  of  Campidano  is  covered 
with  Tertiary  deposits,  and  there  are  small  areas 
of  older  sedimentary  rocks.  The  chief  mineral 
veins  are  found  in  the  porphyritic  flows  in  the 
southwest. 

Some  of  the  mines  were  worked  by  the  Car- 
thaginians and  the  Romans.  Mining  was  re- 
sumed in  the  nineteenth  century  and  has  assumed 
extensive  proportions.  It  now  gives  employment 
to  about  12,000  persons.  The  principal  minerals 
are  lead,  silver,  zinc,  copper,  magnesium,  anti- 
mony, lignite,  granite,  and  salt.  The  last  is  a 
State  monopoly.  The  value  of  the  annual  min- 
eral output  is  over  $3,000,000. 

Sardinia  is,  like  Sicily,  an  agricultural  coun- 
try with  a  fertile  soil,  but  the  agricultural  con- 
ditions differ  greatly  in  the  two  islands.  The 
minute  holdings  of  Sardinia  present  a  striking 
contrast  to  the  extensive  estates'  and  the  large 
proportion  of  the  landless  class  of  Sicily,  while 
the  gradual  adoption  of  modem  methods  in  the 
former  island  compares  favorably  with  the  back- 
wardness prevailing  in  the  latter.  The  raising 
of  cereals  shows  a  downward  tendency,  while 
the  area  under  vineyards  is  constantly  increas- 
ing, amounting  in  1900  to  more  than  200,000 
acres,  and  yielding  an  average  annual  output 
of  about  5,000,000  gallons  of  wine.  Viticulture 
has  attained  a  very  high  state  of  development 
in  Campidano,  in  the  Province  of  Cagliari.  Olives 
are  cultivated  on  the  western  coast.  Stock-rais- 
ing is  also  progressing,  and  the  native  breed  of 
cattle  is  being  improved  by  importations  from 
abroad.  The  tuimy  fisheries  are  showing  signs 
of  decline. 

Sardinia  exports  principally  minei^ls,  wine, 
olives,  salt,  fish,  and  charcoal,  and  imports  cot- 
ton and  woolen  goods,  coal,  iron  products,  and 
various  manufactures.  Since  the  conclusion  of 
the  Franco-Italian  treaty  in  1898  the  commerce 
is  growing.  The  island  is  well  provided  with 
transportation  facilities  and  has  a  considerable 
coastwise  shipping.  It  is  divided  into  two  prov- 
inces, Cagliari  and  Sassari.  Education  is  at  a 
low  ebb,  although  considerable  progress,  espe 
cially  in  technical  instruction,  has  bran  made  of 
late.  There  are  universities  at  Cagliari  and 
Sassari.  The  population  was  682.002  in  1881, 
and  791,754  in  1901.  The  capital  is  Cagliari  (q.v.). 

Ethnologt.  Owing  to  their  isolation,  the 
Sardinians  are  one  of  the  most  homogeneous 
ethnic  groups  in  Europe.  They  have  the  shortest 
stature,  manv  of  them  measuring  only  50  to  60 
inches,  the  brownest  eyes  and  hair,  less  than 
one  per  cent,  being  fair-corn plexioned,  and  the 
longest  heads  of  all  the  Italian  populations.  The 
height  of  Sardinian  soldiers  is  given  as  1.619 
meters  (63.6  inches).  An  older,  dwarfish  race  is 
revealed  by  ancient  graves,  the  skulls  from  which 
measure  only  1150  cubic  centimeters. 


SABDnriA. 


468 


SASDINIA. 


HiBTOBT.  Sardinia,  at  first  called  by  the 
Greeks  Ichnusa  and  Sandaliotis,  from  its  resem- 
blance to  a  human  footprint,  and  afterwards 
Sardo,  a  word  of  Phcenician  derivation,  was 
colonized  at  a  verj  early  period.  Archaeologists 
have  thought  they  found  remains  of  a  very 
ancient  Phcenician  occupation  and  perhaps  of  a 
subsequent  one  by  Egyptians,  but  these  are 
largely  speculations,  as  are  the  surmises  con* 
oeming  the  primitive  inhabitants.  The  first 
really  historical  event  is  the  partial  conquest  by 
the  Carthaginians  about  b.c.  550.  They  made  the 
island  a  great  corn-producing  country.  They 
practically  completed  the  conquest  in  B.c.  260, 
but  in  239,  when  Carthage  was  threatened  by  a 
revolt  of  her  mercenaries,  Rome  accepted  the 
island  from  the  mutinous  troops,  and  made  it  a 
province  of  the  Republic.  It  was  not  reduced  to 
complete  submission  until  b.c.  235.  It  was 
guarded  with  care  by  Rome,  as  a  natural  part  of 
her  western  Mediterranean  domain  and  as  one 
of  the  valuable  granaries  of  the  capital. 

Sardinia  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Vandals  in 
Aj>.  458,  and  was  subjected  to  the  Eastern  Em- 
pire in  533,  but  finally  fell  into  the  power  of  the 
Saracens  about  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century. 
These  were  driven  out  in  their  turn  by  the 
Pisans  and  Genoese  in  the  eleventh  century,  and 
the  island  was  bestowed  by  the  Pope  upon  Pisa, 
one  of  whose  deputy  governors  obtained  the  erec- 
tion of  Sardinia  into  a  kingdom  (1164)  by 
Frederick  I.  Frederick  II.  made  his  son  Enzio 
King  of  Sardinia  in  1238,  but  in  1250  the  Pisans 
reconquered  the  island.  The  popes,  who  had 
long  claimed  a  right  of  suzerainty  over  the  isl- 
and, gave  it  in  1296  to  James  II.  of  Aragon,  and 
it  continued  in  the  possession  of  Spain  till  1708, 
when  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British.  By 
the  Peace  of  Utrecht  (1713)  it  was  given  to  the 
Elector  of  Bavaria  and  by  him  transferred  to 
Austria  in  the  following  year  in  exchange  for 
the  Upper  Palatinate.  In  1720  Austria  gave  it 
to  the  Duke  of  Savoy  in  exchange  for  Sicily,  and 
it  has  since  that  time  formed  a  part  of  the  do- 
minions of  the  House  of  Savoy. 

BiBUOGRAPHT.  Boullier,  L*tl€  de  Sardaigne 
(Paris,  1865) ;  Maltzan,  Reise  auf  der  Inael  Bar- 
dinien  (Leipzig,  1869) ;  Bennet,  La  Corse  et  la 
Sardaigne,  Etude  de  voyage  et  de  climatologie 
(Paris,  1876) ;  Tennant,  Sardinia  and  Its  Re- 
sources (London,  1885) ;  Edwards,  Sardinia  and 
the  Sardes  (ib.,  1889) ;  Vuillier,  The  Forgotten 
hks  (New  York,  1896) ;  Pais,  La  Sardegna 
prima  del  dominie  romano  (Rome,  1881). 

8ABDIHIA,  EiKGDOic  of.  A  former  Italian 
kingdom,  and  the  nucleus  of  the  present  Kingdom 
of  Italy.  It  included  the  duchies  of  Savoy, 
Aosta,  and  Genoa,  the  former  -Duchy  of  Mont- 
ferrat,  part  of  the  old  Duchy  of  Milan,  the  Prin- 
cipality of  Piedmont,  the  County  of  Nice,  and  the 
islands  of  Sardinia  »and  Caprera. 

The  modem  Kingdom  of  Sardinia  was  origi- 
nated by  a  treaty  (August  24,  1720)  between 
Austria  and  the  Duke  of  Savoy  (q.v.),  by 
which  the  latter  agreed  to  surrender  Sicily  on 
receiving  in  exchange  the  island  of  Sardinia,  and 
the  erection  of  his  States  into  a  kingdom.  Of 
the  kingdom  thus  constituted  the  island  which 
gave  its  name  was  held  in  slight  regard,  the 
principal  territories  being  on  the  mainland.  The 
active  life  of  the  kingdom  was  in  Piedmont 
(^.v.),  wl)^|%  was  Turi?)  the  ro^al  capital^  aqd 


Piedmont  is  frequently  referred  to  in  nine- 
teenth-century history  instead  of  Sardinia.  In 
1730  Victor  Amadeus  I.,  the  last  Duke  of 
Savoy  and  first  Kinff  of  Sardinia,  resigned  the 
throne  to  his  son,  Charles  Emmanuel  I.  (1730- 
73).  The  latter,  by  joining  with  France  and 
Spain  against  Austria,  obtained  (1738)  the  terri- 
tories of  Tortona  and  Novara,  to  which  were 
further  added  (1748)  the  County  of  Anghiera 
and  other  districts.  Charles  Emmanuel  was 
the  author  of  the  code  known  as  the  Corpus  Caro- 
linum.  During  the  reign  of  Victor  Amadeus  II. 
(1773-96)  the  French  Revolutionary  armies  in- 
vaded Savoy,  and  the  victories  of  Napoleon  led 
the  King  to  conclude  peace  in  1796  at  the  sacri- 
fice of  Savoy  and  Nice.  Cuneo,  Alessandria,  and 
Tortona  were  garrisoned  by  French  troops. 
Charles  Emmanuel  II.  (1796-1802)  was  at  first 
an  ally  of  France ;  but  the  Directory  in  1798  com- 
pelled him  to  give  up  Piedmont,  which  in  1802 
was  incorporated  with  France.  In  that  year 
Victor  Emmanuel  I.  succeeded  Charles  Emman- 
uel, his  realm  being  limited  to  the  island  of 
Sardinia.  The  Congress  of  Vienna  (1814-15) 
reinstated  the  House  of  Savoy  in  its  former  pos- 
sessions, to  which  the  territories  of  the  ez« 
tinguished  Republic  of  Genoa  Were  added. 
Victor  Emmanuel  I.  (1802-21)  made  his  entry 
into  Turin  May  20,  1814.  His  return  restored  the 
ancient  misgovemment ;  and  the  reactionary 
policy  in  this  and  other  Italian  States  called 
forth  the  activity  of  the  Carbonari  (q.v.)  and 
other  secret  associations,  whose  aims  were  sup- 
ported by  a  portion  of  the  nobility  and  army, 
and  by  the  heir  presumptive  to  the  throne, 
Charles  Albert,  Prince  of  Savoy-Carignan.  The 
military  insurrection  in  March,  1821,  brought 
on  a  general  revolution.  The  King  abdicated 
in  favor  of  his  brother,  Charles  Felix  (1821- 
31),  the  Austrians  came  to  the  rescue  of  abso- 
lutism, and  the  revolutionary  movement  was 
Sielled.  On  the  death  of  (Charles  Felix  the 
der  line  of  Savoy  became  extinct,  and  the  suc- 
cession fell  to  the  cadet  branch  of  Savoy-Cari- 
gnan (see  Savot,  House  of),  whose  rights  had 
been  recognized  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  and 
Charles  Albert  (1831-49)  ascended  the  throne. 
The  liberals  were  gratified  with  some  slight  re- 
forms, but  the  power  of  the  clergy  was  untouched. 
The  internal  administration  was,  however,  car- 
ried on  with  energy.  In  1842  the  Eling  began  a 
gradual  but  progressive  liberal  policy,  relaxed 
the  severity  of  the  censorship,  reformed  the 
judicial  administration  and  prison  discipline,  and 
abolished  the  feudal  system  in  Sardinia.  On 
February  8,  1848,  the  King  announced  a  new 
and  extremely  liberal  constitution,  which  was  pro- 
claimed some  weeks  afterwards;  a  Parliament 
was  convoked  in  April.  In  the  midst  of  these 
changes  the  Revolution  in  Southern  and  Central 
Italy  broke  out,  and  Charles  Albert,  who  was 
saluted  with  the  title  of  'the  Sword  of  Italy/  put 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  movement,  and  de- 
clared war  against  Austria.  On  the  day  after 
the  fatal  rout  of  Novara  (March  23,  1849) 
Charles  Albert  abdicated,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Victor  Emmanuel  II.  The  further  his- 
tory of  Sardinia  is  merged  with  that  of  Italy 
(q.v.).  Consult:  Gallenga,  History  of  Piedmont, 
translated  from  the  Italian  (London,  1856)  ; 
Manno,  Storia  modema  delta  Sardegna  (Flor- 
ence, 1858) ;  Ricotti,  Storia  della  monarehia 
piemontese  (ib.,  1861-69), 


BABDIB. 


454 


aABGEHT. 


8ABa)IS,  or  SAB'DES  (Lat.,  from  Gk. 
24pd€if,  Bardeia,  Ionic  Zdpdccf,  Sardiea,  Idpdis, 
Sardia).  An  ancient  city  of  Asia  Minor,  the 
capital  of  Lydia,  situated  at  the  northern  base 
of  Mount  Tmolus,  on  the  Pactolus,  60  miles  east- 
northeast  of  Smyrna  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia, 
0  3).  The  city  is  first  mentioned  by  uEschylus. 
It  was  taken  by  the  Cimmerians  in  the  reign  of 
King  Ardys  (b.c.  680-631).  In  the  reign  of 
Croesus,  the  last  Lydian  King,  Sardis  attained 
its  highest  prosperity.  It  became  the  residence 
of  the  Persian  satraps  after  the  overthrow  of 
the  Lydian  monarchy.  The  lonians  burned  it 
about  B.C.  499,  and  a  little  later  Xerxes  as- 
sembled his  vast  army  at  Sardis  for  the  invasion 
of  Greece.  It  was  of  importance  under  the 
Romans.  It  is  one  of  the  seven  churches 
mentioned  in  the  Book  of  Revelation.  The  town 
was  almost  completely  destroyed  by  Timur  in 
1402.  Traces  of  the  ancient  city  are  still  visible, 
notably  the  famous  Ionic  temple  of  Cybele  and 
the  tomb  of  Alyattes.  8art,  the  modern  Sardis, 
is  a  poor  village  with  a  few  straggling  houses  and 
tents  of  nomadic  tribes. 

SABDONYX  (Lat.  sardonyx,  from  Gk. 
aapS6pv^,  sardonyx,  from  cdpdtos.  aardios,  sard, 
from  Ddp^if,  BardeiSy  Sardis,  the  ancient  cap- 
ital of  Lydia  in  Asia  Minor  -|-  dn;(,  onyx,  onyx, 
nail).  A  variety  of  quartz.  It  resembles  onyx 
and  usually  consists  of  layers  of  red  (carnelian) 
and  white  (chalcedony).  It  finds  some  use  as  a 
gem,  being  employed  for  brooches  and  other 
forms  of  jewelry. 

SABDOXT,  sftr'doo',  Viciorien  (1831—).  A 
French  dramatist,  born  in  Paris.  He  at  first 
studied  medicine,  then  history,  taught  for  a  time, 
and,  failing  in  early  dramatic  efforts,  of  which 
La  taveme  dea  6tudiania  (1854)  was  the  first 
acted,  he  became  a  hack  journalist  and  writer. 
He  fell  into  poverty,  and  was  nursed  through  a 
fever  by  Mile,  de  BrC^court,  afterwards  his  wife, 
who  introduced  him  to  the  noted  actress  and 
theatrical  manager  Mile.  D^jazet,  for  whom  he 
wrote  plays  of  ephemeral  popularity,  among  them 
Monaieur  Oarat  (1860).  When  he  had  once 
achieved  notoriety  Sardou  produced  comedies  with 
astonishing  rapidity,  four  in  1861,  Lea  pattea  de- 
tnouche,  from  Poe's  Purloined  Letter,  Picoolino, 
Lea  femmea  fortea,  Noa  intimea ;  three  in  1862, 
Lea  ganachea,  a  satire  on  the  republican  agita- 
tion, La  papillonne.  Lea  prcmnrea  armea  do 
Figaro;  and  nearly  a  score  in  five  years,  all  bril- 
liant in  dialogue,  all  genre  pictures  of  modern 
social  life,  never  serious  or  stern  in  moralizing, 
bitter  only  in  Lea  ganachea,  almost  always  suc- 
cessful. Of  these  the  best  is  La  famille  Benoiton 
(1865).  The  same  rein  was  pursued  during  the 
last  years  of  the  Empire  {Beraphinc,  1868;  Pa- 
trie,  1869;  Femande,  1870),  with  a  political  di- 
gression in  Noa  bona  villageoia  (1866).  That 
Sardou  was  a  sincere  Bonapartist  he  showed  after 
Napoleon's  downfall  in  Le  roi  Carotte  (1871) 
and  Ragdbaa  ( 1872) ,  a  fierce  attack  on  Gambetta, 
with  Napoleon  III.  and  Garibaldi  in  the  back- 
ground. In  1878  he  entered  the  Academy  and 
in  1880  aroused  clamor  if  not  applause  by 
Daniel  Rochat,  a  plea  for  civil  marriage,  and 
(with  Najac)  Divorgona,  a  daring  farce,  which 
had  a  financial  success  then  almost  unparalleled 
in  France.  The  plays  of  the  eighties  are 
more  significant.  Odette  (1881)  and  Fedora 
(1882)   show  social  and  political  satire  develop- 


ing into  character-study,  centred  round  a  single 
figure,  usually  a  woman.  In  this  vein  BeraphinCf 
Femande,  and  Dora  (1877)  were  early  experi- 
ments. Theodora  (1884),  Georgette  (1885),  and 
La  Toaca  ( 1887 )  lead  up  to  the  historic  and  spec- 
tacular dramas  of  the  nineties  {CUopdtra,  1890; 
Thermidor,  1891;  Madame  BanaOine,  IS93;  Gia- 
monda,  1894;  Marcelle,  1895;  Robeapierre,  1898; 
and  Dante,  1903).  Of  this  style  Patrie  (1869) 
and  La  Haine  (1874)  were  the  forerunners.  These 
later  plays  were  composed  to  be  heard  and  seen, 
not  to  be  read,  and  they  have  not  been  published. 
Occasional  scenes  show  literary  elaboration,  but 
the  general  effect  is  of  exalted  vaudeville.  Sar- 
dou's  importation  into  serious  drama  of  sensation 
and  spectacle  has  tended  to  corrupt  the  stage 
and  to  make  it  artificial  and  insincere.  Critical 
notices  of  Sardou  are  in  Lacour,  Troia  tMdtres 
(Paris,  1880)  ;  Matthews,  French  DramatisU 
(New  York,  1881)  ;  Sarrazin,  Daa  moderne 
Drama  der  Franzoaen  (Stuttgart,  1888) ;  I>oiunic, 
Ecrivaina  d*aujourd'hui  (Paris,  1895). 

SAB^OENT,  Charles  Sprague  (1841—).  An 
American  forester  and  botanist,  bom  in  Boston 
and  educated  at  Harvard  (class  of  1862).  He 
became  director  of  the  Arnold  Arboretum  at 
Cambridge  in  1872,  and  in  1879  was  appointed 
professor  of  arboriculture  in  Harvard  University. 
Professor  Sargent  planned  the  Jesup  collection 
of  woods,  now  in  the  American  Museum  of 
Natural  History,  New  York  City,  and  described 
it  in  1885.  He  edited  the  posthumous  papers  of 
Asa  Gray  in  1889,  and  wrote  Report  on  the 
Foreata  of  North  America  (1884),  Foreat  Flora 
of  Japan  (1894),  and  the  great  work  entitled 
Bilva  of  North  America  (14  vols.,  1891-1902). 

SABOENT,  Epes  (1813-80).  An  American 
editor,  poet,  and  dramatist.  He  was  born  at 
Gloucester,  Mass.,  and  was  educated  at  the  Bos- 
ton Latin  School,  and  at  Harvard  College.  After 
a  brief  connection  with  the  Boston  Advertiaer 
and  Atlaay  he  went  (1839)  to  New  York  as  as- 
sistant editor  of  The  Mirror,  returned  (1846)  to 
Boston,  where  for  several  years  he  edited  the 
Transcript,  and  then  devoted  himself  to  prepar- 
ing school  text-books  and  popularizations  of 
literature.  He  wrote  four  dramas.  The  Bride  of 
Oenoa  (1846),  Vclaaco  (1837),  Change  Makes 
Change,  and  The  Prieateaa.  The  more  note- 
worthy of  his  many  juvenile  or  adolescent  stories 
are:  Wealth  and  Worth  (1840)  ;  Whut*a  to  he 
Done?  (1841)  ;  Fleetwood  (1845) ;  and  Peculiar, 
a  Tale  of  the  Great  Tranaition  (1863).  His 
poems  are  collected  in  Bonga  of  the  Bea  (1847), 
Poema  (1858),  etc.  Among  miscellaneous  works 
may  be  named:  The  Life  and  Bervicea  of  Henry 
Clay  (1843)  ;  American  Adventure  by  Land  and 
Sea  (1847)  ;  Arctic  Adventurea  by  Bea  and  Land 
(1847).  He  is  chiefly  remembered  for  the  song, 
"A  Life  on  the  Ocean  Wave." 

SARGENT,  Henry  (1770-1845).  An  Ameri- 
can painter  and  soldier,  born  in  Gloucester,  Mass. 
He  was  educated  at  Dummer  Academy,  near 
Newburyport,  and  in  Boston,  and  afterwards 
studied  art  in  London  under  Copley  and  West, 
Some  time  after  his  return  to  Boston  he  became 
adjutant-general  of  the  State  of  Massachusetts, 
and  was  aide  successively  to  Governor  Brooks 
and  Governor  Strong.  He  also  represented  Bos- 
ton in  the  Legislature.  His  works  include  "Din- 
ner Party,"  "Christ's  Entrance  into  Jerusalem," 
''Landing  of  the  Pilgrims,"  owned  by  the  Pilgrim 


SAAGEKT. 


455 


SA&aENT. 


Society  of  Plymouth,  and  a  portrait  of  Peter 
Faneuil,  in  Faneuil  Hall,  Boston. 

SABGENTy  John  Singeb  (1856~).  An 
American  portrait  and  fi^re  painter,  born 
in  Florence,  Italy,  January  12,  1856.  He  took  a 
course  of  classical  studies  at  Florence,  where 
he  was  also  enrolled  as  a  pupil  of  the 
Academy,  and  as  a  youth  made  studies  of  the 
old  masters.  He  traveled  extensively  with 
his  parents,  and  at  the  age  of  eighteen  became 
the  pupil  of  Carolus  Duran  in  Paris.  He  speed- 
ily acquired  many  of  his  master's  best  qualities, 
assisting  him  in  his  decoration  of  the  Luxem- 
bourg, into  which  he  introduced  Duran's  por- 
trait. Among  his  first  exhibited  pictures  "En 
route  pour  la  p^he"  (1878),  a  group  of  fisher 
girls  upon  the  beach,  and  "Neapolitan  Children 
Bathing"  (1879^  attracted  much  attention. 
Charming  souvenirs  of  his  visit  to  Spain  in  1879, 
and  of  the  influence  of  Velazquez,  are  the  "Smoke 
of  Ambergris"  (1880)  and  "El  Jaleo"  (1882, 
Boston  Museum),  a  S{)anish  dance.  He  continued 
to  reside  in  Paris,  exhibiting  yearly  at  the  Salon, 
until  in  1884  he  removed  to  London,  where  he 
has  since  resided.  He  has  received  the  highest 
medals  and  honors,  including  the  Grand  Prix  at 
the  Paris  expositions  of  1889  and  1900,  and  is 
a  member  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design,  the 
Society  of  American  Artists,  the  Soci6t6  Nation- 
ale  des  Beaux-Arts,  and  the  Royal  Academy;  in 
1889  he  was  made  chevalier,  and  in  1895  officer 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  In  1887  and  in  1889  he 
visited  the  United  States,  residing  chiefly  in  New 
York  and  Boston. 

Sargent's  work  is  characterized  by  a  singular 
truth  of  vision  and  readiness  of  hand.  He  has 
viewed  widely  the  whole  field  of  creative  art, 
and  has  studied  with  a  shrewd  intelligence  the 
methods  and  precedents  of  the  past.  The  mar- 
velous facility  of  hand  and  vivacity  of  vision  that 
characterize  his  work  seem  to  be  the  cumulative 
result  of  the  knowledge  thus  acquired,  in  con- 
junction with  a  constant  and  conscientious  refer- 
ence to  nature. 

Among  the  best  known  of  his  portraits  are 
those  of  Carolus  Duran  and  Dr.  Pozzi  (1879)  ;  a 
"Young  Lady"  (1881) ;  "Hall  of  the  Four  Chil- 
dren" (1882);  "Madame  Gauthereau"  (1884); 
"Carnation  Lily,  Lily  Rose"  (1885,  South  Ken- 
sington Museum)  ;  Lady  Playfair  (1885)  ;  Henry 
Marquand  (1887,  Metropolitan  Mujseum)  ; 
Claude  Monet  (1888);  Edwin  Booth,  Lawrence 
Barrett,  and  Joseph  Jefferson,  painted  for  the 
Players'  Club  (New  York,  1890).  He  exhibited 
nine  works  at  the  Columbian  Exposition  (1893), 
among  which  were  Ellen  Terry  as  Lady  Macbeth, 
and  the  charming  portrait  of  young  Homer  Saint- 
Gaudens.  His  later  sitters  include  Mrs.  Meyer 
and  her  Children  (1897)  ;  Wertheimer,  the  Lon- 
don art  dealer  (1898),  and  his  daughters 
(1901)  ;  Col.  Ian  Hamilton  (1899)  ;  Lady  Elcho, 
Mrs.  Adeane,  and  Mrs.  Tenant  (1900).  In  1903 
he  again  visited  the  United  States,  portraying 
President  Roosevelt,  Secretary  Hay,  and  other 
notables  at  Washington,  and  a  number  of  persons 
of  Boston. 

Although  chiefly  known  as  a  portrait  painter, 
Sargent  has  created  figure  pieces,  like  "Carmen- 
cita"  (1890,  Luxembourg),  of  the  highest  order, 
and  his  mural  decorations  in  the  Boston  Public 
Library  rank  with  the  best  work  of  the  kind. 
He  received  the  latter  commission  in  1890,  and 
spent  the  winter  of  1891-92  in  making  preparatory 


studies  in  Egypt.  In  1892-94  he  completed  on« 
of  the  ends  of  the  great  hall  now  named  after 
him,  with  such  success  that  his  commission  was 
extended  to  include  the  entire  hall.  The  subject 
represented  is  the  "Pageant  of  Religion,"  illus- 
trating certain  stages  of  Jewish  and  Christian 
history.  In  one  end  of  the  hall  he  has  portrayed 
the  triumph  of  monotheism  over  the  polytheism 
of  the  ancient  world,  in  weird  allegorical  repre- 
sentations, even  making  use  of  relief.  Particu- 
larly impressive  are  the  figures  of  the  Hebrew 
Trophets*  upon  the  side  walls,  in  which  he  has 
created  types  worthy  of  comparison  with  those 
of  Michelangelo  in  the  Sistine  Chapel.  Consult 
Caffin,  American  Masters  of  PMniing  (New 
York,  1902). 

SABOENT,  Lucius  I^Ianlius  (1786-1867). 
An  American  author,  bom  in  Boston.  After 
graduating  at  Harvard,  he  studied  law,  but  soon 
turned  his  attention  to  literary  and  philanthropic 
work.  For  thirty  years  he  lectured  on  temper- 
ance, and  in  the  same  interest  published  Tem- 
perance Tales,  a  series  of  twenty-one  stories, 
which  began  in  1835  and  which  passed  through 
more  than  100  editions.  Among  his  other  writ- 
ings were:  Dealings  icith  the  Dead,  by  a  Sexton 
of  the  Old  School  (1856);  Reminiscences  of 
Samuel  Dexter  (1858)  ;  The  Irrepressible  Conflict 
( 1861 )  ;  and  some  poems.  Consult  Sheppard, 
Reminiscences  of  LuciUs  M,  Sargent  (1889). 

SABOENT,  Nathan  (1794-1875).  An 
American  journalist  and  politician,  bom  at  Put* 
ney,  Va.  After  studying  law,  he  began  to  prac- 
tice at  Cahawba,  Ala.,  where  in  1816  he  was  ap- 
pointed county  and  probate  judge.  He  lived  in 
Buffalo  from  1826  to  1830,  when  he  went  to 
Philadelphia  to  undertake  the  publication  of  a 
newspaper  in  the  interest  of  the  Whig  Party. 
He  afterwards  became  the  Washington  corre- 
spondent of  the  United  States  Oasette,  writing 
under  the  signature  of  Oliver  Oldschool;  was 
Register  of  the  United  States  Treasury  in  1851- 
53,  and  was  Commissioner  of  Customs  from  1861 
to  1867.  His  best  known  publication  is  Public 
Men  and  Events  (1875),  a  book  of  character 
sketches  containing  some  valuable  information. 

SABGENT,  WiNTHROP  (1753-1820).  An 
American  soldier  and  pioneer,  bom  at  Gloucester, 
Mass.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1771, 
and  during  the  Revolutionary  War  served  in  the 
patriot  artillery,  rising  to  the  rank  of  major. 
After  the  close  of  the  war  he  became  interested 
in  Western  land  schemes,  and  having  been  em- 
ployed by  Congress  as  a  surveyor  in  what  was 
afterwards  the  Northwest  Territory,  he  was,  in 
1786,  elected  one  of  the  two  delegates  from  Suf- 
folk County  in  Massachusetts  chosen  to  aid  in 
forming  the  Ohio  Company.  After  its  organiza- 
tion he  was  chosen  secretary  and  in  conjunction 
with  Manasseh  Cutler  (q.v.)  purchased  land  on 
its  behalf.  The  next  year  Congress  appointed 
him  Secretary  of  the  Territory.  In  1798  he  was 
appointed  Governor  of  Mississippi  Territory  and 
took  up  his  residence  at  Natchez.  He  died  while 
on  a  voyage  to  Philadelphia.  He  was  one  of  the 
authors  of  Papers  Relative  to  Certain  American 
Antiquities  (1776),  and  in  1803  he  published  a 
poem  entitled  Boston. 

SABGENT,  WiNTHROP  (1825-70).  An  Ameri- 
can ftiithor  and  lawyer,  born  in  Philndelphia.  He 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1845.  and  at  the  Harvard  Law  School  in  1847, 


SA&C^SKT. 


45d 


fiAfiMISKM  Dfi  OAMBOA. 


and  later  settled  in  New  York  City.  He  devoted 
much  of  his  time  to  historical  research  and  pub- 
lished works  dealing  with  the  colonial  and  Revo- 
lutionary periods,  including  History  of  an  Expe^ 
dition  Against  Fort  Duquesne  in  1755,  Under 
Major-Oeneral  Edtoard  Braddock  (1856);  Life 
and  Career  of  Major  John  Andr4  ( 1861 ) ;  The 
Loyal  Verses  of  Joseph  8tanshury  and  Dr,  Jona- 
than Odell  (1860) ;  and  Loyalist  Poetry  of  the 
Revolution  (1860). 

SABGON^  s&r^gdn.  The  name  of  an  early 
Babylonian  king  and  of  a  famous  ruler  of  As- 
syria. (1)  Sargon  I.  {Shargani-shar-ali) ,  a 
Semitic  ruler  of  Agade,  the  biblical  Aocad  (Gen. 
z.  10),  a  North  Babylonian  city,  at  a  date  which, 
upon  the  authority  of  a  late  Babylonian  state- 
ment and  of  archaeological  evidence,  is  placed  by 
some  scholars  at  b.c.  3800,  while  others  place 
it  1000  years  later.  An  interesting  story  re- 
sembling that  of  the  youth  of  Moses  and  of 
Cyrus  is  told  of  his  rise  to  power.  He  seems 
to  have  been  the  first  to  bring  all  Babylonia  under 
the  control  of  one  Semitic  dominion;  at  the  same 
time  he  carried  his  arms  far  beyond  the  Eu- 
phrates Valley,  claiming  to  have  conquered  Elam, 
and  making  progress  into  the  west.  His  great 
buildings  at  Nippur,  along  with  those  of  his 
son  Naram-sin,  likewise  a  redoubtable  conqueror, 
have  been  unearthed  by  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania expeditions.  Consult:  Hilprecht,  Ew- 
cavations  in  Bible  Lands  (Philadelphia,  1903); 
Winckler,  in  Keilinschriftliche  Bihliothek,  iii. 
(Berlin,  1889)  ;  Rogers,  History  of  Babylonia 
and  Assyria  (New  York,  1901).  (2)  Sargon  II. 
{SharrU'Ukin,  'a  god  has  established  the  king* 
— ^an  etymological  play  on  the  name  of  the  earli- 
er conqueror,  by  which  name  he  w4s  also  known), 
King  of  Assyria,  B.C.  722-705.  He  followed  Shal- 
maneser  IV.,  but  how  he  came  to  the  throne  is 
not  known.  His  first  achievement  was  the  cap- 
ture of  Samaria,  after  its  three  years'  siege  by 
his  predecessor  (II.  Kings,  xviii.  et  seq.).  How- 
ever, he  was  not  present  at  this  triumph,  being 
engaged  with  a  rebellion  raised  by  Merodach- 
baladan  in  Babylon,  whom  Sargon  was  unable  to 
subdue.  In  the  west  rebellion  soon  broke  out,  led 
by  Hamath  in  Central  Syria  and  by  Gaza,  at  the 
instigation  of  Egypt;  but  he  defeated  these  foes 
at  the  battles  of  Karkar  and  Raphia  (B.C.  720). 
The  next  decade  was  occupied  with  the  laborious 
conquest  of  the  aggressive  State  of  Urartu  to  the 
north,  which  was  annexed  to  the  Empire,  and 
with  extensive  conquests  in  Media.  In  B.c.  711 
another  rebellion  broke  out  in  South  Syria, 
having  its  centre  in  Ashdod,  Judah  also  being 
implicated  (cf.  Isa.  xx.).  But  the  cities  which 
opposed  Sargon's  arms  easily  succumbed.  He 
then  imdertook  the  subjection  of  Babylon,  and 
drove  out  Merodach-baladan  by  brilliant  cam- 
paigning, being  finally  recognized  as  the  legiti- 
mate lord  of  the  land  (B.C.  709).  His  ability 
as  a  conqueror  not  only  secured  to  him  the  tra- 
ditional limits  of  the  Assyrian  Empire,  but  also 
extended  them  in  every  direction,  and  in  the 
west  into  Cilicia,  Cappadocia,  and  Cyprus.  The 
last  years  of  his  reign  were  occupied  with  great 
building  operations,  notably  in  connection  with 
a  new  capital,  Dur-sharrukin,  the  modem  Khor- 
sabad  (q.v.).  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Sen- 
nacherib (q.v.).  Consult:  Winckler,  Keilsckrift- 
texte  Harqons  (Leipzig,  1889)  ;  Peiser.  in  Keilin- 
mshriftliche  Bihliothek,  ii.  (Berlin,  1890)  ;  and 
the  histories  of  Rogers  and  others. 


8ABE,  sark,  or  SEBCa  The  fourth  in  size, 
but  most  picturesque,  of  the  Channel  Islands 
(q.v.),  6  miles  east  of  Guernsey  (Map:  France, 
D  2).  It  consists  of  Great  and  Little  Sark,  con- 
nected by  the  Couple,  a  natural  causeway,  150 
yards  long,  15  feet  broad,  and  384  feet  high. 

SAJbXATIAHS,  s&r-ma^shanz.  An  ancient 
tribe  who  in  the  time  of  Herodotus  (fifth  century 
B.C.)  lived  between  the  Caspian  Sea,  the  Don,  and 
the  Sea  of  Azov.  Later  they  subdued  the  Scy- 
thians of  the  great  plains  north  of  the  Black 
Sea,  to  which  the  name  of  Sarmatia  was  ex- 
tended. They  spoke  the  same  language  as  the 
Scythians,  and  are  now  thought  to  have  been 
one  of  a  group  of  tribes  of  which  the  Scythians 
are  the  best  known.  Herodotus  describe  some 
of  the  ancient  tribes  of  the  Don  as  semi-civilized, 
while  others  were  in  the  lowest  stage  of  bar- 
barism. Remains  of  the  Sarmatians  have  been 
found  in  the  burial  mounds  in  their  former  habi- 
tat, and  it  is  supposed  by  some  that  they  were 
the  ancestors  of  the  Slavs  (q.v.).  Among  the 
Sarmatian  tribes  were  the  Roxolani  and  the 
Jazyges.  Some  of  the  latter  pushed  as  far  west 
as  the  plains  of  modem  Hungary. 

SAKMTEKTO,  sftr^m^-an^td,  Domingo  Faus- 
TINO  (1811-88).  President  of  Argentina.  He 
was  born  at  San  Juan  in  Argentina,  and  for  some 
time  lived  as  a  teacher  at  San  Luis.  For  op- 
posing Rosas  he  was  compelled  to  flee  about  1830 
to  Chile,  where  he  worked  as  clerk  and  teacher. 
He  returned  to  San  Juan  in  1836,  established  a 
school  there  for  girls,  and  edited  a  literary  paper, 
but  was  imprisoned  on  a  pNolitical  charge,  and 
forced  once  more  to  go  to  Chile.  There  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  question  of  public  instruction, 
founded  the  first  normal  school  in  South  Ameri- 
ca, and  in  1845  was  sent  by  the  Chilean  Govern- 
ment to  visit  the  educational  institutions  of 
Europe  and  the  United  States.  After  1847  he 
acted  as  the  editor  of  several  journals.  In  1851 
he  returned  to  the  Argentine  Republic,  and  fought 
in  the  war  against  the  dictator  Rosas.  To  him  was 
due  the  establishment  of  a  Department  of  Public 
Instruction,  of  which  he  became  Minister  in  1860. 
In  close  succession  he  filled  the  offices  of  Minister 
of  Interior,  Governor  of  San  Juan,  Minister  to 
Chile,  and  finally  Minister  to  the  United  States 
from  1865  to  1868,  when  he  was  chosen  President 
of  the  Argentine  Republic.  Amonff  his  important 
works  are :  Viajes  por  Europa,  Africa  y  Amiriea 
(1848) ;  Argaripolis,  6  la  capital  de  los  Eatados 
Confederados  (1850)  ;  OiviluBaci&n  y  barbaric,  6 
Facundo  Quiroga  y  Aldao  (1851).  The  results 
of  his  sojourn  in  America  were  his  Vida  de 
Abrahdn  Lincoln  (1866),  and  Las  escuelas,  base 
de  la  prosperidad  en  los  Estados  Uni^  (1868). 

8ABKIEKT0  DE  OAMBOA^  da  gam-bd"*, 
Pedbo  (C.1530-C.1591).  A  South  American  navi- 
gator, bom  in  Galicia,  Spain.  He  was  sent  in  1579 
from  Callao  in  Peru  with  a  small  fleet  to  inter- 
cept Drake,  then  cruising  along  the  coasts  of  Pern 
and  Mexico,  and  further  to  explore  the  Straits  of 
Magellan.  On  his  return  to  Spain  in  1580  be 
gave  King  Philip  a  description  of  the  locality, 
which  decided  him  to  fortify  it  as  a  stronghold, 
and  a  year  afterwards  Sarmiento  and  Diego 
Flores  V%ldez  were  sent  there,  in  charge  of  a 
large  expedition.  Sarmiento  established  a  colony 
at  San  Felipe,  now  known  as  Port  Famine,  but 
on  his  way  back  to  Spain  he  was  captured  by  the 
English,  and  he  was  not  released  until   1588. 


fiAfiMISNTO  I>£  QAHBOA. 


457 


ftAl>iaAT>AftTT.T.A, 


Only  a  few  of  the  unfortunate  colony  escaped 
starvation. 

SAJBt^NIA.  A  port  of  entry  and  the  capital  of 
Lambton  County,  Ontario,  Canada,  on  the  Saint 
Clair  River  and  the  Grand  Trunk  Railroad,  oppo- 
site Port  Huron,  Mich.,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  a  steam  ferry  and  by  a  railroad  tunnel  be- 
neath the  river  (Map:  (jntario,  A  5).  It  is  the 
last  port  of  entry  for  Canadian  vessels  bound  to 
the  upper  lakes.  Samia  has  manufactures  of 
ale  and  beer^  lumber^  iron  castings,  machinery, 
woodenware,  woolens,  leather,  etc.  Population, 
in  1891,  6602;  in  1901,  8176. 

SABNO,  sHr^nd.  A  city  in  the  Province  of 
Salerno,  Italy,  situated  on  the  Samo,  12  miles  by 
rail  northwest  of  Salerno  (Map:  Italy,  J  7). 
The  city  is  dominated  by  the  ancient  castle  of 
Count  Francesco  Coppola.  Paper,  silk,  cotton, 
linen,  and  hempen  fabrics  are  manufactured. 
The  chief  products  are  grain,  olives,  grapes,  and 
sulphur.  Samo  was  a  coimtship  before  it  was 
incorporated  with  Naples.  Near  Samo  occurred 
a  battle  in  553,  in  which  Narses  defeated  the 
Goths,  and  ended  their  reign  in  Italy.  Popula- 
tion (commune),  in  1901,  18,475. 

SABPSa>ON  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  T^aprijSup).  (I) 
In  Greek  mythology,  the  son  of  Zeus  and  Europa. 
He  became  King  of  the  Lycians,  and  his  father 
gave  him  the  privil^e  of  living  through  three 
generations.  (2)  A  Lyclan  prince,  the  grand- 
son of  the  preceding,  or,  according  to  some,  the 
son  of  Zeus  and  Laodamia.  Homer  represents 
him  as  an  ally  of  the  Trojans,  distinguished  for 
courage,  and  slain  by  Patroclus,  after  which 
Apollo  rescued  and  purified  his  body  and  had  it 
transported  into  Lycia  for  burial. 

8ABPI,  sar'p^,  Paolo  (1652-1623).  An  Ital- 
ian historian  and  supporter  of  the  Reformation. 
He  was  a  Venetian  by  birth.  He  entered  the 
Servite  Order  at  the  age  of  thirteen,  taking  the 
name  of  Frft  Paolo,  by  which  he  is  often  known. 
He  taught  theology  and  philosophy  with  success, 
and  studied  other  sciences  eagerly,  making  some 
notable  discoveries  in  anatomy.  He  was  ordained 
priest,  and  in  1579  became  provincial  of  his  Order. 
He  returned  to  Venice  in  1588  and  pursued  his 
studies;  but  his  intimate  relations  with  the  op- 
ponents of  the  Church  caused  some  suspicion  of 
his  orthodoxy,  and  three  applications  for  a 
bishopric  were  refused.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
conflict  between  the  Republic  of  Venice  and  Paul 
v.,  he  threw  himself  vigorously  into  the  anti- 
Papal  party,  and  became  the  official  coimselor  of 
the  Republic  in  ecclesiastical  matters.  Under  his 
advice  Venice  banished  the  Jesuits  from  its  terri- 
tory. In  1606  he  was  summoned  to  Rome  to  ap- 
pear before  the  Inquisition,  but  refused  to  obey. 
He  maintained  his  relation  with  Protestant  lead- 
ers in  various  coimtries,  and  began  his  History  of 
the  Council  of  Trent,  which  gives  him  his  greatest 
fame,  though  it  is  so  colored  by  his  violent  preju- 
dices as  to  be  thoroughly  untrustworthy.  It  was 
published  in  London  (1619)  by  Marcantonio  de 
Bominis  and  at  Geneva  (1629),  probably  by 
Diodati.  For  his  biography,  consult  lives  by 
Robertson  (London,  1894),  Campbell  (Turin, 
1875),  Balan  (Venice,  1887),  Pascolato  (Milan, 
1893);  Trollope,  Paul  the  Pope  and  Paul  the 
Friar  (London,  1860) ;  Fontanini,  Storia  arcana 
deUa  vita  di  P.  Barpi  (Venice,  1803). 

SABPSBOBG,  sarps'bOr-y'.  A  town  of  the 
Province  of  Smaalenene,  Norway,  on  the  right 


bank  of  the  Glcnnmen,  68  miles  by  rail  south- 
southeast  of  Christiania.  Its  port  on  the 
Christiania  Fiord  is  Sannesund.  The  town  is 
regularly  built.  To  the  north  lies  the  Jake  of 
Glengsholen;  to  the  east  are  the  immense  falls  of 
the  Glommen,  140  feet  broad  and  74  feet  high. 
The  town  owes  its  importance  to  the  utilization 
of  this  natural  power  for  mills.  There  are  cal- 
cium carbide,  wood  pulp,  paper,  aluminum,  spin- 
ning, weaving,  and  saw  mills.  Population,  in 
1900,  6888.  Sarpsborg  was  founded  in  the 
eleventh  century  and  was  destroyed  by  the  Swedes 
in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  new  town  dates 
from  1840. 

SAB'BACEOaiAy  Side-Saddle  Floweb,  or 
Pl^HEB  Plant.  A  genus  of  singular  marsh 
plants,  natives  of  North  America.  Sarracenia 
purpurea  is  common  from  Hudson  Bay  to  South 
Carolina;  the  other  species,  of  which  there  are 
four  or  five,  are  confined  to  the  Southern  States. 
They  are  perennial  herbs  with  radical  leaves  and 
scapes,  which  bear  one  or  more  large  flowers.  The 
leafstalks  are  hollow  and  urn-shaped,  the  blades 
articulated  at  their  apices,  and  fitting  like  a  lid — ^ 
a  form  which  suggested  the  popular  names.  The 
genua  is  the  type  of  the  smf^ll  natural  order  Sar- 
raceniacese,  of  which  the  other  genera  are  Heli- 
amphora,  which  has  been  discovered  in  Guyana, 
and  Darlingtonia  in  California.  All  the  species 
are  insectivorous  through 'their  peculiarly  modi- 
fied leaves.  Consult  Darwin,  Insectivorous  Plants, 

SAB'BACElHA^CRaL  An  order  of  plants. 
See  Sabsacenia. 

SABBATT,  s&'ry,  Jacques  Rose  Febohtaitd 
Emile  (1837—).  A  French  physicist  and  en- 
gineer, born  in  Perpignan  and  educated  in  Paris 
at  the  Ecole  Polytechnique.  In  1878  he  became 
director  of  the  central  depot  for  saltpetre  and 
powder,  was  named  chief  engineer  in  1879,  be- 
came professor  of  mechanics  in  the  Polytechnic 
in  1883,  was  elected  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
in  1886,  and  in  1897  was  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  inspector-general.  Sarrau's  especial  study  was 
explosives,  and  with  Vieille  he  invented  a  reg- 
istering pressure  gauge.  In  physics  his  main 
research  was  on  the  compressibility  of  gases 
(Paris,  Oomptes  Rendus  (1882,  et  seq.),  and  he 
determined  the  critical  point  of  oxygen.  Among 
his  writings  besides  contributions  to  periodicals 
are  Les  effets  de  la  poudre  et  des  substances  ew- 
plosives {IS7 4-7 6),  Cours  de  m4canique{lSSS'B9), 
Cours  d'artillerie  (1893),  and  Th4orie  des  ex- 
plosifs  (1893-95). 

SAB8APABILLA  (Sp.  zarzaparilla,  zareO' 
parrilla,  sarsaparilla,  from  earza,  bramble,  from 
Basque  sartzia,  bramble  +  *parilla,  *parrilla, 
diminutive  of  parra,  trained  vine,  or  from 
Parillo,  name  of  a  physician  said  to  have  been 
the  .first  to  employ  it).  This  medicine,  formerly 
much  used,  is  the  produce  of  several  species  of 
Smilax  (see  Smilacks),  Sarsaparilla  officinalis, 
Sarsaparilla  medica,  and  other  undetermined  va- 
rieties. They  are  woody  vines  with  prickly  angu- 
lar stems;  the  first  with  large  ovate-oblong, 
acute,  heart-shaped,  leathery  leaves;  the  second 
with  shortly  acuminate  smooth  leaves,  the  lower 
ones  heart-shaped,  the  upper  ones  approaching  to 
ovate.  Thp  Rhnibn  are  natives  of  warm  parte  of 
America,  Sarsaparilla  officinalis  being  found  in 
South  America  and  Sarsaparilla  medusa  on  the 
Mexican  Andes.  Some  botaniste  regard  them  as 
mere  varieties  of  one  species. 


SA&SAPABILLA. 


458 


SABn. 


The  part  of  the  plant  used  in  medicine  is  the 
dried  roots,  which  are  of  about  the  thickness  of 
a  goose-quill,  generally  many  feet  in  length,  red- 
dish brown,  covered  with  rootlets.  They  are 
folded  in  bundles  about  18  inches  long,  are  scent- 
less, taste  mucilaginous,  feebly  bitterish,  faintly 
acrid.  Sarsaparilla  was  formerly  considered 
a  diaphoretic,  diuretic,  and  alterative,  and  was 
used  extensively,  especially  in  syphilis  and  rheu- 
matism. It  is  now  known  to  be  practically  inert, 
and  aside  from  its  use  as  a  vehicle  for  potassium 
iodide  in  the  form  of  the  compound  syrup  of  sar- 
saparilla it  is  chiefly  employed  in  'spring  medi- 
cines' and  other  much  advertised  'blood-purifiers,' 
which  are  harmless  as  far  as  the  sarsaparilla  is 
concerned  and  profitable  to  their  makers.  See 
Smuax. 

SAB'SEI/.  A  small  detached  tribe  of  Atha- 
pascan stock  (q.v.),  originally  a  part  of  the 
Beaver  Indians  of  Peace  River,  but  later  taking 
refuge  for  protection  with  the  Blackfeet,  and  now 
settled  upon  a  reservation  upon  the  headwaters 
of  the  Saskatchewan,  near  Calgary,  Alberta  Prov- 
ince, Canada.  They  are  described  as  lazy,  de- 
graded, and  demoralized  generally,  yet  law-abid- 
ing. They  number  about  230,  of  whom  30  claim 
to  be  Christians. 

SABS^IELD,  Patrick,  Earl  of  Lucan 
(1646-93).  An  Irish  J^acobite  soldier.  He  was 
born  at  Lucan,  near  Dublin;  received  a  military 
education  in  France;  entered  the  English  army 
and  rose  to  the  rank  of  colonel  in  1686.  He 
served  under  Monmouth  in  France,  but  was  in 
the  victorious  army  when  Monmouth  was  defeated 
at  Sedgemoor.  He  was  a  Roman  Catholic  and  at 
the  revolution  was  a  member  of  Parliament.  He 
supported  King  James  II.  in  his  effort  to  retain 
the  crown,  accompanied  him  to  France,  and 
thence  to  Ireland,  and  fought  at  the  battle  of  the 
Boyne.  William  III.  was  forced  by  him  to  raise 
the  siege  of  Limerick  in  1690.  In  1691  he  com- 
manded the  reserve  at  Aughrim,  and  after  a  gal- 
lant defense  of  Limerick  obtained  fair  terms  of 
surrender  and  was  allowed  to  retire  to  France, 
where  he  became  mar^chal  de  camp  in  the  French 
service.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle 
of  Steenkirke  in  1692,  and  at  Neerwinden  in 
1693,  where  he  was  woxinded,  dying  shortly  after- 
wards. 

SABTAIN,  sftr-tan',  John  (1808-97).  An 
English  engraver  and  editor,  active  chiefly  in 
America.  He  was  bom  in  London,  October  24, 
1808.  He  studied  line  engraving  under  John 
Swain,  and  while  yet  a  lad  illustrated  Otley's 
Early  Florentine  school  (1826).  In  1828  he 
began  to  practice  mezzotint,  which  he  was  the 
first  to  introduce  into  America.  In  1830  he  emi- 
grated to  Philadelphia,  where  he  developed  a 
prodigious  activity,  not  only  in  his  profession, 
but  as  editor  of  two  magazines  and  in  serving 
as  a  member  and  councilor  of  many  societies  of 
art.  As  an  engraver  he  has  left  works  of  con- 
siderable value.  Two  of  the  largest  and  most 
important  plates  are  "Christ  Rejected"  (1862), 
after  Benjamin  West,  and  "The  Iron-Worker  and 
King  Solomon"  (1876),  after  Christian  Schues- 
sele ;  among  others  are  those  of  Penn  and  Martin 
Van  Buren,  after  Inman,  and  Henry  Clay,  after 
John  Nagle.  He  also  practiced  portrait  painting 
in  oil  and  miniature  painting  on  vellum  and 
ivory,  though  with  less  success,  and  designed  sev- 
eral public  monuments,  the  principal  of  which  is 


the  Washington  and  Lafayette  Monument  in 
Philadelphia.  Among  his  numerous  important 
positions  was  that  of  chief  administrator  of  fine 
arts  at  the  Centennial  Exhibition  in  Philadelphia 
in  1876.  He  died  in  Philadelphia,  October  25, 
1897,  leaving  a  family  of  talented  children. 

Emilt  Sabtau?  (1841 — ),  mezzo-tint  en- 
graver, etcher,  and  portrait  and  genre  painter, 
studied  at  the  Pennsylvania  Academy,  and  with 
Luminals  in  Paris.  She  has  engraved  a  number 
of  framing  prints,  besides  many  portraits  for 
book  illustrations.  Her  painting  "Reproof" 
(1876)  gained  a  medal  at  the  Centennial  Exposi- 
tion. From  1881  to  1883  she  was  editor  of  Our 
Continent f  and  since  1886  has  been  principal  of 
the  Philadelphia  School  of  Design  for  Women. 
In  1900  she  was  sent  to  Paris  by  the  United 
States  Government  as  delegate  to  the  Interna- 
tional Congress  on  Instruction  in  Drawing. 

Samuel  Sabtain  (1830 — ),  engraver  on  steel, 
son  and  pupil  of  John  Sartain,  has  been  chiefly 
engaged  in  engraving  portraits  and  other  plates 
for  book  illustration.  His  prints  include  "Clear 
the  Track,"  after  Christian  Schuessele  (1854); 
"Christ  Blessing  Little  Childrfen,"  after  Sir 
Charles  Eastlake  ( 1861 )  ;  the  "Song  of  the  An- 
gels," after  Thomas  Moran ;  and  various  portraits 
after  Thomas  Sully,  John  Neagle,  and  others. 
Consult  John  Sartain,  Reminiscences  of  a  Very 
Old  Man  (New  York,  1899). 

SABTAIN^  William  (1843—).  An  Ameri- 
can landscape  and  genre  painter.  He  was  bom  in 
Philadelphia,  the  son  of  John  Sartain,  the  en- 
graver, under  whom  he  worked  until  1867.  From 
1867  to  1869  he  studied  under  Christian  Schues- 
sele and  at  the  Pennsylvania  Academy,  after 
which  he  went  to  Paris,  studying  under  Yvon 
and  Bonnat.  He  sketched  throughout  Europe 
and  in  Algiers,  first  exhibiting  at  the  Royal 
Academy,  London,  in  1875,  returning  to  the 
United  States  in  the  following  year.  Sartain  is 
professor  of  the  life  class  of  the  Art  Students' 
League,  New  York  City,  and  is  one  of  the  origi- 
nal members  of  the  Society  of  American  Artists. 
Among  his  works  in  oil  are  an  "Italian  Head" 
(1876);  "Narcissus"  (1878),  Smith  College, 
Massachusetts;  and  "Lucia,  Near  Algiers;"  in 
water-color  are  an  "Arab  Caf6"  (1880),  and  a 
"View  of  the  Ghetto,  Venice."  "In  the  Hacken- 
sack  Valley"  and  the  "End  of  Day"  are  examples 
of  his  latest  works. 

SABTHE,  siirt.  A  northwestern  inland  de- 
partment of  France,  north  of  the  Loire  (Map: 
France,  F  4).  Area,  2396  square  miles.  Popula- 
tion, in  1896,  425,077 ;  in  1901,  422,699.  It  is  a 
region  of  plains  traversed  by  low  hills  and  by 
undulations  and  watered  by  the  River  Sarthe. 
Agriculture  is  the  leading  industry;  mining  and 
manufacturing  are  also  important.  Capital,  Le 
Mans. 

SABTI,  sar't^,  Giuseppe  (1729-1802).  An 
Italian  composer,  born  at  Faenza.  He  studied 
under  Padre  Martini  at  Bologna,  and  in  1751 
produced  his  first  opera,  Pompeo  in  Armenia, 
which  was  performed  at  Faenza  with  great  suc- 
cess. His  principal  operas  were  Le  gelosie  f>illane 
and  Qiulio  Sahino.  In  1779  he  became  maestro  di 
cappella  of  the  Milan  Cathedral,  and  thereafter 
limited  himself  to  the  composition  of  church 
music.  In  1784  he  went  to  Saint  Petersburg  as 
music  director  to  the  Court  of  the  Empress 
Catharine.     His  operas  are  30  in  number;  but 


ANDREA   DEL  SARTO-MADONNA  OF  THE   HARPIES 

FROM   THE    PAINTING   IN   THE   UFFIZI    GALLERY,  FLORENCE 


SABTL 


460 


8A&TWI1I1L. 


the  only  compositioii  by  which  he  is  now  known 
is  his  beautiful  sacred  terzett,  Amplius  Lava  Me. 

8ABT0,  Bilr't^  Andrea  del  (1487-1531).  A 
Florentine  painter  of  the  High  Renaissance,  the 
greatest  colorist  of  the  school.  He  was  born  at 
Gualfondo,  near  Florence,  July  16,  1487,  the  son 
of  Angelo,  a  tailor  (Sarto),  whence  the  name 
usually  given  him.  In  1604  his  father  went  to 
Florenoe  and  apprenticed  his  son  to  a  goldsmith. 
The  lad's  talent  having  attracted  the  attention 
of  Giovanni  Basile,  a  local  painter,  the  latter 
instructed  him,  afterwards  placing  him  with 
Piero  di  Cosimo.  Andrea  learned  more,  however, 
from  the  cartoons  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  and 
Michelangelo  then  exhibited  in  the  Sala  del  Papa. 
In  the  Sala  del  Papa  he  met  Franciabigio  (q.v.) , 
with  whom  he  was  associated  until  about  1512. 
In  1508  he  became  a  member  of  the  Painters' 
Guild,  and  in  1513  occurred  his  supposed  disas- 
trous marriage  with  Lucretia  del  Fede,  the  beau- 
tiful young  widow  of  a  hatmaker. 

Vasari's  account  of  this  lady  has  taken  strong 
hold  of  the  popular  imagination — witness  Brown- 
ing's celebrat^  poem — and  is  even  accepted  by 
biographers.  We  are  told  that  she  was  the  evil 
genius  of  his  life,  hindering  his  work,  racking  him 
with  jealousy,  wasting  his  substance.  There  is, 
however,  no  evidence  confirmatory  of  Vasari's 
statements;  whatever  there  is,  goes  to  disprove 
them.  His  dislike  was,  perchance,  due  to  the 
blows  which  he  tells  us  the  vixenish  lady  was 
wont  to  inflict  upon  her  husband's  pupils,  of 
whom  he  was  one. 

Before  his  journey  to  France  Andrea  was  con- 
sidered a  famous  painter  and  had  been  intrusted 
with  important  fresco  commissions,  which  he 
completed  after  his  return  to  Florence.  In  these 
frescoes  his  progress  as  an  artist  may  best  be 
traced.  In  Santa  Annunziata,  the  church  of  the 
Servites,  he  painted,  1509-14,  seven  of  the  ten 
frescoes  in  the  cloister.  Five  are  scenes  from  the 
life  of  Filippo  Benozzi,  founder  of  the  Order ;  but 
the  finest  are  the  ''Adoration  of  the  Kings"  ( 1511 ) , 
and  especially  the  "Birth  of  the  Virgin"  (1514), 
which,  although  the  composition  is  imitated  from 
Ghirlandajo,  shows  all  of  Andrea's  best  qualities. 
In  the  lunette  over  the  entrance  to  the  cloister 
he  painted  the  celebrated  "Madonna  del  Sacco," 
in  reality  a  **Holy  Family,"  and  so  called  from 
the  sack  of  com  upon  which  Joseph  sits  reading 
to  the  beautiful  and  dignified  Madonna.  This 
picture  is  the  acme  of  Andrea's  coloristic  produc- 
tion in  fresco.  Another  famous  series  of  ten 
scenes  from  the  life  of  John  the  Baptist,  in  the 
cloister  of  the  Scalzi,  was  executed  in  brown 
monochrome,  1511-26.  Th^  absence  of  color  in 
this   work    incited    the    artist    to    display    his 

rut  gifts  of  composition  and  narrative  power, 
the  refectory  of  the  Convent  of  San  Salvi  he 
Minted,  besides  earlier  panels,  his  celebrated 
fresco  of  the  "Last  Supper" — ^the  only  represen- 
tation of  the  subject  worthy  to  be  compared  with 
Leonardo's.  He  has  chosen  the  moment  subse- 
quent to  that  depicted  by  Leonardo,  when  Christ 
and  Judas  dip  their  bread  into  the  dish.  Less 
monumental  and  impressive  than  his  predeces- 
sor's, his  representation  is  fresh  in  treatment, 
brilliant  and  soft  in  color.  The  former's  cele- 
brated portrayal  of  the  action  by  means  of  the 
hands  is  almost  equaled  by  his  follower. 

Andrea's  easel  pictures  may  best  be  studied  at 
Florence.    Among  those  in  the  Pitti  Palace  are 
the    "Annunciation"     (1512),    "Disputa,"    two 
^OL.  XV.-80. 


"Holy  Families"  (1523  and  1629),  a  large  "Pie- 
tft,"  the  "Adoration  of  the  Virgin,"  and  several 
portraits,  including  one  of  himself  and  wife,  also 
ascribed  to  Franciabigio.  The  best  known  in  the 
Uffizi  are  "Madonna  with  the  Harpies"  (see  Ma- 
donna), "Saint  James  Caressing  Little  Chil- 
dren," and  two  portraits  of  himself.  In  the 
Academy  of  Florence  is  a  picture  of  stately 
saints,  and  in  the  Cathedral  of  Pisa,  Saints 
Catharine,  Margaret,  and  Agnes  are  among  the 
most  charming  female  figures  Andrea  ever  paint- 
ed. Dresden  possesses  "Abraham's  Sacrifice" 
(replica  at  Madrid) ;  the  Louvre  his  "Charity" 
and  a  "Holy  Family;"  Berlin  a  portrait  of  his 
wife  and  a  "Madonna  with  Saints"  (1528). 

Andrea  died  qf  the  plague  January  22,  1531, 
and  was  buried  in  the  church  of  the  Servites,  n^r 
his  own  frescoes.  He  was  far  the  greatest  colorist 
south  of  the  Apennines,  and  his  works  will  bear 
comparison  with  those  of  the  great  Venetian 
masters.  Silvery  in  the  frescoes  and  tending 
toward  gold  in  easel  pictures,  his  colors  are  al- 
ways clear,  luminous,  and  harmonious.  He  was 
an  accomplished  chiaroscurist,  and  in  line  he 
was  second  only  to  Michelangelo  &nd  Leonardo. 
His  drawings,  of  which  the  best  collections  are 
in  the  Louvre  and  the  Uffizi,  are'  often  essentially 
modern  in  character.  Such  technical  merits,  in- 
deed, made  him  deserving  of  the  title  the  "Fault- 
less Painter;"  he  only  lacked  that  sense  of  the 
truly  significant  possessed  by  the  greatest 
geniuses.  The  effect  of  his  work  is  often  inter- 
fered with  by  the  use  of  too  much  statuesque 
drapery. 

Consult:  Vasari,  Vite  (ed.  Milanesi,  Florence, 
1880;  English  translation,  Blashfield  and  Hop- 
kins, New  York,  1896)  ;  Biadi,  Notizie  imdite 
della  vita  d* Andrea  de  Sarto,  etc.  (Florence, 
1830) ;  Reumont,  Andrea  del  Sarto  (Leipzig, 
1835)  ;  Janitschek,  in  Dohme,  Kunat  und  KUnst- 
lerltaliene  (ib.,  1876). 

SABTOBITJS  VON  WALTEB8HATT8EN, 
sRr-to'rA-ys  fdn  vIlKtftrs-hou'zen,  August,  Baron 
( 1852 — ) .  A  German  economist,  bom  in  GK5ttin- 
gen.  He  was  educated  in  the  University  of 
GiJttingen,  became  professor  at  Zurich  in 
1885,  and  in  1888  was  called  to  a  chair  of 
economics  in  Strassburg.  His  principal  works 
deal  with  American  economic  and  industrial  prob- 
lems and  include:  Die  Zukunft  des  Deutecktums 
in  den  Vereinigten  Staaten  (1885)  ;  Nordamerikor 
nische  Oewerkschaften  (1886);  Modemer  Sozia- 
lismue  in  den  Vereinigten  8 1 oaten  von  Amerika 
(1890)  ;  Arheit8verfas8ung  der  englischen  Kolo- 
nien  in  Nordamerika  (1894)  ;  and  HandeUhilanz 
der  Vereinigten  Staaten  von  Amerika  ( 1901 ) . 

SABTOB      BESABTTJS.        See      Cabltle, 

Thomas. 

SABTB.  The  term  denoting  the  settled 
(farming  and  commercial)  population  of  certain 
regions  of  Turkestan,  Persia,  and  Afghanistan,  as 
opposed  to  the  nomadic.  It  has  more  of  a  topo- 
graphical than  of  an  ethnological  significance, 
being  applied  sometimes  to  the  Tadjiks,  who  arc 
Aryans,  and  at  others  to  the  Uzbegs,  who  are  of 
Turkic  stock. 

SABT^XTELL,  Henbt  Parkeb  (1792-1867). 
An  American  botanist,  bom  in  Pittsfield,  Mass. 
His  ^eat  herbarium  came  into  the  possession  of 
Hamilton  College.  The  last  years  of  his  life  were 
spent  on  the  study  of  the  sedges,  and  in  1848  he 
published  two  parts  of  Caricea  AmericancB  Sep- 


8ABTWELL. 


460 


ftAg^ATJT^Aft 


tentrionalis   Exsiccatw,   which   was  never   com- 
pleted. 

SA^TTH,  Old.  A  former  city  and  borough 
and  now  a  parish  in  Wiltshire,  England,  on  a 
hill  two  miles  to  the  north  of  Salisbury  (q.v.). 
It  dated  from  the  time  of  the  Bomans,  by  whom 
it  was  known  as  Sorhiodunum,  and  remained  an 
important  town  under  the  Saxons.  A  Witenage- 
mote  was  held  at  Old  Sarum  in  960;  and  here 
William  the  Conqueror  assembled  all  the  barons 
of  his  kingdom  in  1086.  In  1220  the  cathedral 
was  removed  to  New  Sarum,  now  Salisbury 
(q.v.),  and  was  followed  by  most  of  the  inhab- 
itants. In  Henry  VII.'s  time  it  was  almost 
wholly  deserted.  Traces  of  walls  and  ramparts 
and  of  ita  cathedral  and  castle  are  still  seen. 
Though  without  a  house,  two  members  repre- 
sented it  in  Parliament  till  Old  Sarum  became 
proverbial  as  the  type  of  a  rotten  borough.  It 
was  disfranchised  by  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832. 
William  Pitt,  Earl  of  Chatham,  first  sat  in  Par- 
liament for  Old  Sarum  in  1735.  Population  of 
parish,  300. 

SABZANA,  s&rd-zS/nk.  A  city  in' the  Prov- 
ince of  Genoa,  Italy,  on  the  Magra,  eight  miles 
by  rail  east  of  Spezia  (Map:  I^ly  D  3).  The 
Gothic  cathedral,  begun  in  1355,  is  rich  in  paint- 
ings and  marbles.  The  ancient  citadel  is  used 
as  a  prison.  There  are  a  seminary  and  a  tech- 
nical school.  Sarzana  has  manufactures  of  silk 
and  glass ;  wine  and  olive  oil  are  made.  Popula- 
tion (commune),  in  1901,  12,141. 

SASKATCHOBWAN.  A  large  river  of  Can- 
ada forming  the  upper  course  of  the  Nelson  River 
(q.v.),  together  with  which  it  forms  one* of  the 
four*great  river  systems  of  North  America  east 
of  the  Continental  Divide  (Map:  Canada,  K  6). 
It  rises  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  by  two  main 
branches,  the  North  and  South  Saskatchewan, 
which  unite  near  Prince  Albert  in  Saskatchewan 
Territory,  whence  the  main  stream  flows  east- 
ward to  the  northwestern  corner  of  Lake  Winni- 
peg. The  main  river  has  a  length  of  282  miles, 
and  the  total  length,  including  the  South  Branch, 
is  1090  miles.  The  North  Branch  rises  in  the 
glaciers  on  Mount  Hooker  and  flows  east  on  the 
southern  border  of  the  forest  country  through  the 
Territories  of  Alberta  and  Saskatchewan.  The 
South  Brancfh  has  several  headstreams,  some  of 
which  rise  in  the  extreme  northern  part  of  Mon- 
tana. Its  course  after  leaving  the  mountains 
lies  entirelv  within  the  Great  Plains.  It  flows 
northeast  through  Alberta,  Assiniboia,  and  Sas- 
katchewan. Before  entering  Lake  Winnipeg  the 
main  river  flows  through  several  lakes,  the  larg- 
est of  which,  Cedar  Lake,  is  30  miles  long.  Be- 
tween Cedar  Lake  and  its  mouth  it  is  interrupted 
by  rapids.  The  whole  river  is  narrow,  and  the 
South  Branch  is  obstructed  by  shoals  and  sand 
bars.  Steamers,  however,  ascend  the  North 
Branch  to  Edmonton,  850  miles  from  Lake  Win- 
nipeg, and  smaller  boats  can  go  150  miles  farther 
to  Rocky  Mountain  House. 

SASKATCHEWAN.  A  district  of  Canada, 
lying  northwest  of  Manitoba,  between  lati- 
tudes 62®  and  55®  N.,  embracing  an  area  of 
114,000  square  miles  (Map:  Northwest  Terri- 
tories, H  4).  The  surface  is  a  rolling  prairie 
sloping  to  the  east  and  broken .  at  intervals  by 
groups  of  hills,  the  most  prominent  being  those 
paralleling  the  Saskatchewan  River  on  the  south. 
The   northeastern  half   of  the   district   is   well 


wooded  with  forests  of  aspen  poplar,  pine,  and 
spruce;  the  southwestern  half  is  prairie  land  in 
the  main,  only  the  hills  being  wooded.  The  win- 
ters are  very  cold,  but  are  free  from  blizzardB, 
and  the  'atmosphere  is  clear  and  exhilarating. 
The  summers  are  warm,  and,  though  short,  per- 
mit the- growth  and  maturing  of  many  varieties 
of  farm  crops.  Precipitation  is  light  (aDout  13 
inches),  but  is  greatest  in  the  growing  summer 
months  when  it  is  most  needed.  Over  the  greater 
portion  of  the  southern  half  the  soil  is  very  rich. 
Wheat,  oats,  barley,  and  the  root  crops  thrive, 
the  conditions  being  especially  favorable  for 
wheat,  which  is  beginning  to  be  extensively  raised 
inj:he  district.  The  Saskatchewan  River  (q.v.) 
is  an  important  factor  in  the  development  of  the 
district,  inasmuch  as  it  afi'ords  navigation  the 
entire  length  of  the  region,  and  by  way  of 
Lake  Winnipeg  admits  of  water  communication 
with  the  country  to  the  south.  With  some  ex- 
pense in  the  removal  of  obstacles  now  in  its 
course  a  navigable  length  of  1500  miles  will  be 
afl'orded,  making  possible  a  water  communication 
with  the  coal  fields  to  the  west.  Another  means 
of  communication  has  been  established  by  the 
construction  of  the  Qu'Appelle,  Long  Ehke  and 
Saskatchewan  Railroad,  which  connects  Prince 
Albert  with  Regina,  on  the  trunk  line  of  the  Ca- 
nadian Pacific  Railroad.  Lakes  Winnipeg  and 
Winnipegoosis,  which  project  well  into  the  east- 
ern end  of  the  district,  are  of  value  not  only 
for  purposes  of  navigation,  but  also  for  the  enor- 
mous numbers  of  whitefish,  pickerel,  sturgeon, 
and  other  varieties  of  fish  which  they  contain. 
Settlements  in  the  district  are  most  numerous  in 
the  southeast  part  and  along  the  course  of  the 
Saskatchewan,  the  Prince  Albert  region  in  the 
centre  of  the  district  being  the  most  highly  de- 
veloped. In  1901  the  total  population  was  25,- 
679.  For  governmental  purposes  it  is  a  part  of 
the  Northwest  Territories  (q.v.).  The  seat  of 
administration  is  Battleford. 

SASSAFRAS  (Sp.  aasafraa,  variant  of  sdUa- 
fraSj  aalsifraWf  aaxifraga,  from  Lat.  sawifragOf 
maidenhair,  stone-breaker,  from  saamm,  rock  -\- 


frangere,  to  break) ,  Sassafras.  A  genus  of  trees 
or  shrubs  of  the  natural  order  Lauraoe«.  The 
sassafras  tree    {Sassafras  officinale)    of  North 


SASflAntAISL 


461 


fiULdfitAKlDJS!. 


America,  found  from  Canada  to  Florida  and  west 
of  Kansas  and  Texas,  sometimes  attains  a  height 
of  100  feet,  has  deciduous,  entire,  or  three-lobed 
leaves,  yellow  flowers,  and  small  dark-blue  fruit. 
The  wood  is  soft,  light,  coarse-fibred,  dirty  white 
and  reddish  brown,  with  a  strong  but  agreeable 
smell,  and  an  aromatic,  rather  pungent,  sweetish 
taste.  The  thick  spongy  bark  of  the  root  contains 
a  volatile  oil,  oil  of  sassafras,  widely  used  as  a 
flavoring  for  confectionery.  The  leaves  are  said 
to  be  used  for  flavoring  soups,  as  well  as  for  the 
abundant  mucilage  they  contain. 

SASSAV^IBiB,  or  SAS8AKIDS.  The  last 
native  dynasty  of  Persia,  which  ruled  from  about 
AJ>.  226  until  about  641.  The  Sassanids  succeed- 
ed the  Arsacids  (q.v.),  and  derived  their  name 
from  Sasaan,  the  grandfather  of  Ardashir,  the 
first  ruler  of  this  line.  Ardashir  I.  came  to  the 
throne  in  226  and  reiened  until  241.  His  father, 
Papak,  was  a  princeling  of  Chir,  not  far  from 
Istakhr  ( Persepolis ) ,  and  obtained  for  his  son 
from  his  suzerain,  the  Bazrangi  King  Gaochithra, 
the  position  of  commander-in-chief  of  Darabgerd. 
This  position  was  utilized  by  Ardashir  to  secure 
kingly  power.  He  extended  his  sway  with  the 
help  of  his  father,  who  murdered  Gaochithra  and 
declared  his  eldest  son  Shahpuhr  (Sapor)  King  in 
defiance  of  the  Psrthian  sovereign,  Artabanus  V. 
On  Papak's  death  Shahpuhr  was  King  for  a  short 
time,  but  being  killed  by  an  accident  while  en- 
gaged in  an  expedition  against  his  brother  Arda- 
shir,  the  latter  seized  the  throne.  He  put  to 
death  all  his  rivals,  including  his  elder  brothers, 
and  crowned  a  series  of  minor  conquests  by  the 
defeat  and  death  of  Artabanus  at  Hormizdagan 
in  224.  Two  years  later  the  capital,  Ctesiphon, 
yielded  to  him.  In  Armenia,  however,  which  he 
invaded  in  228,  he  met  with  no  lasting  success, 
and  in  Georgia  the  Arsacid  dynasty  was  able  to 
bid  him  defiance.  An  attack  on  the  Romans  was 
practically  futile,  despite  his  victories  at  Nisibis 
and  Carrhx  in  237. 

Ardashir  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Shahpuhr 
(Sapor)  I.  (241-272),  who  continued  his  father's 
policy.  Undeterred  by  a  defeat  in  242  by  the 
Boman  Gordianus  at  Ras  el  Ain  (Resaina),  he 
secured  by  a  treaty  with  Philippus,  the  successor 
of  Gordianus,  both.  Armenia  and  Mesopotamia 
(244).  The  great  event  of  his  reign  was  his  vic- 
tory over  the  Roman  Emperor  Valerian  (q.v.)  at 
Edessa  (Antioch  Callirho§),  in  Northern  Mesopo- 
tamia, in  260.  In  261  Shahpuhr  met  with  a  re- 
verse at  the  hands  of  Odenathus  (q.v.),  who 
took  Carrhte  and  Nisibis  and  threatened  Ctesi- 
phon itself.  The  invader  was  forced  to  retreat, 
Aowever,  and  the  remainder  of  Shahpuhr's  rule 
was  quiet  and  uneventful.  The  four  following 
kings-Ormazd  I.  (272-273),  Bahram  I.  (273- 
276),  Bahram  II.  (276-293),  and  Bahram  III. 
(293) — were  not  espeoiany  noteworthy;  hot 
Narses  I.  (293-303),  a  son  of  Shahpuhr  I.,  after 
a  temporary  victory  over  Terdat  (Tiridates)  of 
Armenia,  was  finally  defeated  by  Galerius  in  296, 
losing  not  only  Armenia  and  Atropatene,  but 
Iberia  also,  which  came  imder  Roman  control. 
Onnazd  II.  (303-309)  was  followed  by  his  posthu- 
mous son,  Shahpuhr  II.  (309-379),  whose  reign 
is  one  of  the  most  noteworthy  in  the  Sassanid 
period.*  It  is  marked  in  ecclesiastical  history  by 
bitter .  persecutions  of  the  Christians  begun  in 
342,  arising  from  close  affiliations  of  the  Per- 
sian Christians  with  the  Eastern  Empire  of  By- 
stntium,  an  hereditary  foe  of  Persia.    War  with 


Byzantium  soon  broke  out,  at  first  with  varying 
success.  In  345  Shahpuhr  was  utterly  defeated 
at  Singara.  In  359  the  war  began  anew,  but, 
despite  several  victories  in  Armenia,  the  Persians 
made  little  real  headway  until  Constantius  was 
succeeded  by  Julian  the  Apostate  (q.v.),  who 
was  defeated  and  slain  at  Ctesiphon  in  363.  This 
victory  restored  to  Persia  all  that  she  had  lost, 
and  indirectly  added  Iberia  and  other  Caucasian 
provinces  to  her  sway.  The  success  of  Shahpuhr 
reestablished  the  glory  of  the  Sassanids. 

He  was  followed  by  his  step-brother,  Ardashir 
II.  (379-383),  and  his  son,  Shahpuhr  III.  (383- 
388 ) ,  >(¥ho  lost  much  of  Armenia  Minor  and  was 
killed  in  a  mutiny,  being  succeeded  by  his  brother, 
Bahram  IV.  (388-399).  Yezdegird  I.  (399-420), 
whose  reign,  like  the  preceding  one,  was  marked 
by  petty  events  in  Armenia,  but  who  personally 
was  upright  and  peaceful,  was  followed  by  Bah- 
ram v.,  sumamed  Gur  (420-438).  In  the  begin- 
ning of  his  reign  he  conquered  the  Haltal  ( Heph- 
thalites,  or  White  Huns),  but  a  persecution  of  the 
Christians  involved  him  in  a  war  with  the  Byzan- 
tine Empire,  which  resulted  in  his  defeat  (421). 
His  son  Yezdegird  II.  (438-457)  remained  at 
peace  with  the  west,  but  attempted  to  compel  the 
Christian  Armenians  to  give  up  their  faith  and 
crushed  the  Armenian  forces  kt  Avarayr  in  451. 
He  was  followed  by  his  two  sons,  Ormazd  III. 
(457-459)  and  Firuz  (459-484).  The  reign  of 
the  latter  was  marked  by"  wars  with  the  White 
Huns,  against  whom  he  made  two  expeditions, 
the  first  of  which  was  unsuccessful,  and  the 
second  disastrous,  Firuz  himself  being  slain  near 
Balkh.  His  brother  Balash  (Vologeses)  (484- 
488)  succeeded  him,  but  was  dep««ed  and  fol- 
lowed by  Kavadh  (Kobad)  I.  (488-531), 
whose  rule  was  interrupted  for  a  short  time 
by  the  usurpation  of  his  brother  Jamasp 
(496-498).  In  this  reign  Mazdak  (q.v.) 
promulgated  his  doctrines,  and  as  *  a  result 
of  his  favor  to  them  Kavadh  was  for  a  while 
deprived  of  his  throne.  He  waged  war  with 
the  Greeks  and  at  one  time  Belisarius  (q.v.),  the 
general  of  Justinian,  was  his  opponent.  He  wais 
followed  by  his  son  Khosru  (Cnosroes)  I.  (531- 
579),  sumamed  Anushirvan,  'the  Immortal 
Souled.'  His  reign  was  chiefly  occupied  with 
wars  against  the  Byzantines.  After  a  brief 
period  of  peace,  Khosru  invaded  Syria  in  540, 
vexed  by  the  successes  of  his  rival  Justinian 
(q.v.)  in  Italy  and  Armenia  and  by  his  inter- 
ference in  Oriental  politics.  Belisarius,  however, 
prevented  him  from  doing  serious  injury,  al- 
though a  large  Byzantine  army  under  Narses  was 
routed  by  the  Persians  in  543.  The  second  Byzc  n- 
tine  war  dragged  on  from  550  until  557,  when  it 
practically  ended  with  the  defeat  of  the  Persians 
at  Phasis,  near  the  Black  Sea.  Khosru  then 
turned  his  arms  against  the  White  Hims,  whom 
he  conquered  (557).  In  572  a  third  Greek  war 
was  begun  by  Justin  II.,  who  refused  to  abide 
longer  by  the  treaty  which  his  uncle  Justinian 
had  made  with  Khosru.  The  Sassanid  King 
overran  Armenia,  but  suffered  defeat  in  the  plain 
of  Melitene  (Malitia).  The  Greeks  then  invaded 
Persia,  and  Khosru  sued  for  peace,  but  died  be- 
fore the  negotiations  were  completed.  This  reign 
marks  the  climax  of  the  Sassanid  dynasty,  and 
the  golden  age  of  Pahlavi  literature. 

Khosru  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Ormazd  IV. 
578-590),  whose  reign  was  an  unfortunate  one. 
Not  only  were  his  wars  in  Armenia  unsuccessful, 


fiASAAKIBJB. 


4611 


8ATAHI81L 


but  his  general  Bahrain  Chubin,  who  had  been 
deposed  from  his  command  hj  Ormazd,  revolted 
in  589.  At  the  same  time  the  King  became 
suspicious  of  his  son,  Khosru  Parwez,  who  im- 
plored the  aid  of  the  Emperor  Maurice.  Or- 
mazd  was  dethroned  and  succeeded  by  Khosru 
(590-628).  In  604,  as  the  avenger  of  Maurice, 
who  had  been  murdered  by  the  Emperor  Phocas, 
he  took  the  field  against  the  Greeks,  who  made 
but  a  feeble  resistance  to  him,  despite  the  efforts 
of  Heraclius  (q.v.).  The  Persians  overran  Ar- 
menia and  in  614  pnenetrated  Syria,  and  even  con- 
quered Egypt,  which  they  held  until  618.  This 
was,  however,  the  last  conquest  of  the  Sassanids. 
In  623  the  tide  turned  and  Heraclius  inflicted 
defeat  after  defeat  on  ELhosru,  until  in  627  the 
King  was  thrown  into  prison  by  one  of  his 
younger  sons,  Kavadh  Sheroe,  and  murdered  the 
year  following.  This  son,  who  ascended  the 
throne  as  Kobad  II.,  after  a  reign  of  six  months 
was  the  victim  of  a  pestilence  which  devastated 
the  country.  He  was  followed  by  his  infant 
son,  Ardashir  III.  (629-630),  who  was  murdered 
by  Shahrvarez  or  Farrukhan,  the  Persian  com- 
mander-in-chief, himself  assassinated  in  less  than 
two  months.  Rapid  changes  of  rulers  followed, 
and  such  was  the  anarchy  in  Persia  at  this  time 
that  between  the  death  of  Khosru  II.  in  628  and 
the  accession  of  Yezdegird  III.  in  632  there  were 
twelve  occupants  of  the  throne.  Yesdegird  III. 
(632-651),  a  grandson  of  Khosru,  was  the  last  of 
the  Sassanids.  At  the  time  of  his  accession  the 
Arabs  were  just  entering  upon  their  great  career 
of  conquest.  After  subjugating  Syria  they  turned 
toward  Persia.  The  Persians  resisted  bravely, 
but  their  forces  were  overthrown  by  those  of  the 
Caliph  Omar  at  Kadisiyah  (now  Kadder)  about 
635.  In  the  following  year  Ctesiphon  fell,  and  a 
series  of  conquests  gave  the  Arabs  complete  do- 
minion over  Persia.  In  641  or  642  the  defeat  of 
the  PersilUis  at  Nehavend  terminated  the  reign 
of  Yezdegird,  who  as  a  fugitive  dragged  out  a 
miserable  existence  until  he  was  murdered  by  a 
peasant  for  his  clothing  in  651. 

The  Sassanid  rule  was  in  general  beneficial  to 
Persia.  The  arts  and  sciences  flourished,  the 
government  was  just,  and  the  ancient  faith  of 
Zoroaster,  which  had  declined,  was  revived  and 
restored  almost  to  its  pristine  purity. 

Consult:  Rawlinson,  The  Seventh  Oreat  Orien- 
tal Monarchy  (London,  1876)  ;  Naldeke,  Oe- 
achiohte  der  Peraer  und  Araher  zur  Zeit  der  8ar 
saniden  aus  der  arahi8chen  Chronik  de8  Tahari 
nhersetzt  (Leyden,  1879)  ;  Casartelli,  Philosophy 
of  the  Mazdayasnian  Religion  Under  the  Baa- 
Manida  (Bombay,  1889)  ;  justi,  Iranisches  Na- 
menhuoh  (Marburg,  1895) ;  id.,  "Geschichte  Irans 
von  den  Altesten  Zeiten  bis  zum  Ausgang  der 
Sftsftniden,"  in  Geiger  and  Kuhn,  Orur^risa  der 
iraniachen  Philologie  (Strassburg,  1900)  ; 
Browne,  Literary  Hiatory  of  Peraia  (London, 
1902). 

BABBABl,  sA&^sk-T^.  The  capital  of  the  Prov- 
ince of  Sassari,  in  the  northern  part  of  the  island 
of  Sardinia,  10  miles  from  the  Gulf  of  Asinara 
(Map:  Italy,  C  7).  It  has  broad  streets,  spacious 
squares,  and  several  fine  modem  buildings.  The 
fifteenth-century  cathedral  has  a  richly  sculp- 
tured facade.  The  university,  founded  in  1634, 
contains  a  natural  history  collection  and  a  large 
library.  There  are  several  churches  and  palaces, 
a  new  theatre,  a  lyceum,  a  gymnasium,  a  semi- 
nary, and  a  technical  institute.    Sassari  carries 


on  a  busy  trade,  chiefly  with  Genoa,  in  grain, 
wine,  fruits,  olive  oil,  and  skins.  There  are 
manufactures  of  lead,  zinc,  matches,  and  leather. 
Population  (commune),  in  1881,  36,317;  in  1901, 
38,268.  The  port  of  Sassari  is  Porto  Torres,  10 
miles  to  the  northwest,  with  a  population,  in 
1901,  of  4433. 

SAS80FEBBAT0,  sfts'sd-f^r-ra'td,  GiovAirin 
Battista  Salvi  (1605-85).  An  Italian  painter, 
so  called  from  his  birthplace,  the  Castle  of  Sasso- 
ferrato,  near  Urbino.  He  was  son  and  pupil  of 
Tarquinio  Salvi,  and  studied  at  Rome  and  Naples. 
He  painted,  besides  his  own  portrait  now  in 
the  Ufiizi,  only  religious  subjects.  -  The  ''Ma- 
donna del  Rosario"  in  the  Church  of  Saint 
Sabina  in  Rome  and  a  "Crucifixion"  in  North 
Cray  Church,  Kent,  are  his  best  works.  Others, 
also  simple  and  devout,  are  the  "Adoration  of  the 
Shepherds"  and  "Joseph's  Workshop,"  both  in 
the  Naples  Museum,  a  "Magdalen"  in  Hampton 
Court  Palace,  and  at  the  Louvre  an  "Assump- 
tion," two  Madonnas,  and  a  "Sleeping  Child 
Jesus." 

SASSTTIiITCH,.  s&s-fiR^^^ch,  Vera  (1853-). 
A  Russian  revolutionist.    See  Zasulitch. 

SASTEAN,  s&s^t^-on,  Shastika,  or  Shasta. 
One  of  the  numerous  small  linguistic  families  of 
Indians  who  formerly  lived  in  the  California-Ore- 
gon region.  They  called  themselves  Kutikikanac. 
Their  home  was  the  region  drained  by  the  Kla- 
math River  and  its  tributaries  from  the  western 
base  of  the  Cascade  range  to  the  point  where  the 
Klamath  fiows  through  the  ridge  of  hills  east  of 
Happy  Creek.  They  extended  over  the  Siskyou 
range  northward  as  far  as  Ashland,  Ore.  They 
are  now  reduced  to  a  mere  handful,  the  most  of 
them  on. the  Grande  Ronde  and  Siletz  Reserva- 
tions in  Oregon.  -  The  men  are  smaller  and 
weaker  than  the  women,  who  are  charged  with 
about  all  the  work  of  their  industrial  life. 

SATAN.    See  Devil. 

SATANISM.  The  cult  of  Satan  and  an 
important  phase  of  occultism.  From  the  char- 
acter of  its  worship  it  is  necessarily  secret,  and 
precise  details  are  difficult  to  acquire.  The  im- 
pression which  generally  prevails,  however,  that 
Satanism  is  a  recent  and  spasmodic  outburst  of 
diabolical  sacrilege,  is  certainly  incorrect.  The 
cult  is  an  old  one,  and  in  its  origins  reaches  far 
back  into  primitive  religion,  while  it  is  appa- 
rently a  conglomerate  of  at  least  three  entirely 
distinct  components.  Considering  first  the  actual 
phenomena  presented  by  Satanism,  it  may  be  said 
that  the  cult  reaches  its  acme  in  the  Black  Mass, 
which  stands  to  it  in  the  same  relation  as  stands 
the  White  (or  Christian)  Mass  to  the  Catholic 
Church.  The  Black  Mass  is  the  direct  opposite 
of  the  White  Mass.  The  celebrant  of  the  masa^ 
who  must  have  been  a  priest,  is  clad  only  in  hia 
sacrificial  vestments,  of  which  the  chasuble  may.- 
bear  the  figure  of  a  goat,  while  the  scarlet  biretta 
is  held  by  a  woman  dressed  in  scarlet  who  serves 
as  deacon.  Upon  the  altar  is  an  inverted  cross. 
Incense  is  used  during  the  mass,  but  is  mingled 
with  some  foul-smelling  substance.  The  Black 
Credo,  which  is  a  blas^emous  antithesis  of  the 
Apostles'  Creed,  is  then  recited. 

The  form  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass  itself  has 
chanered  since  the  seventeenth  century.  In  the 
mediieval  period  and  as  late  as  the  famous  Black 
Masses  performed  by  Abbfi  Ouibourg  on  the  per- 
sons of  Mme.  de  Montespan  and  others,  the  altar 


SATANISM. 


468 


SATINWOOD. 


was  the  reclining  body  of  a  nude  wcmian,  who 
held  in  her  outstretched  hands  the  lighted  can- 
dles. The  substances  employed  in  the  elements 
were  numerous.  Hosts  which  had  been  conse- 
crated according  to  the  rites  of  the  Church,  either 
by  Satanist  priests  or  by  true  priests  from  whom 
they  were  stolen  by  false  communicants  orgiui- 
ized  for  this  purpose,  played  an  important  part. 
Of  the  other  components,  at  least  in  former  times 
according  to  some  authorities,  the  least  objection- 
able, were  the  wafers  prepared  from  the  ashes  of 
one  murdered  child  mixed  with  the  blood  of  an- 
other. On  the  completion  of  the  sacrilege  of  the 
.  Bftaek  Hoet  follows  the  defiance  of  Christ  and  the 
ettitation  of  Satan,  after  which  the  Black  Mass 
apparently  becomes  in  some  cases  a  mere  orgy  of 
lieaitiousness. 

Satanism  seems  to  be  in  great  part  a  surviTal 
of  the  worship  of  demons,  for  it  does  not  r^;ard 
Satan  as  beneficent  in  any  way,  or  as  Ul-treated, 
but  as  a  fiend  more  powerful  than  the  powers  of 
good,  who  have  been  unable  to  keep  the  promises 
which  they  have  made  to  the  world.  The  Satan- 
ists  thus  stand  in  contrast  to  two  classes  of  Devil- 
worshipers,  with  whom  they  have  certain  points 
in  conunon — the  Ophites,  on  the  one  hand,  a 
Gnostic  sect  who  r^arded  Yahweh  as  evil,  but 
the  serpent,  because  of  his  gift  of  knowledge  to 
the  world  (Gen.  iii.  5),  as  the  greatest  boief actor 
and  deity  of  mankind,  and  the  Persian  Yezidis, 
on  the  other,  who  believe  that  the  Devil  will  be 
restored  to  heaven  and  that  those  who  are  kind 
to  him  in  this  time  of  his  distress  will  be  re- 
warded by  him  then,  while  those  who  are  his 
enemies  now  will  be  pimished  by  him  in  the 
future  world.  But,  furthermore,  it  is  clear  that 
phallicism  plays  an  important  part  in  this  cult, 
both  from  the  goat  and  the  prominence  given  to 
women  in  the  ceremonies,  as  well  as  from  numer- 
ous details  of  the  Black  Mass.  A  striking  ana- 
logue may  be  drawn  in  this  respect  between  Sa- 
tanism and  the  vdnUlcdrya9,  or  sectaries  of  the 
left-hand  Tantra  worship  of  India  (see  Saktas). 
Satanism  may,  therefore,  be  regarded  in  a  very 
real  sense  as  a  .survival  of  old  pagan  demon  and 
fertility  cults.  This  natural  survival,  however, 
became  oomplicated  by  a  revolt  against  the  Cath- 
olic (Thurch,  probably  about  the  twelfth  century. 
This  side  of  the  cult  soon  became  the  more  pro- 
nounced and  now  absorbs  at  a  superficial  glance 
all  interest  in  the  subject.  It  is,  indeed,  to  this 
that  Satanism  probably  owes  its  continued  ex- 
istence! The  connection  of  Satanism  with  magic 
and  sorcery  is  very  close.  Indeed,  the  practical 
object  of  the  Black  Mass  is  to  prepare  Black 
Hosts  for  magic  purposes.  Those  resorting  to 
this  mass  naturally  gained  the  reputations  of 
witches  and  wizards,  especially  in  mediaeval 
times  when  the  ceremonies  were  often  held  at  old 
Druidical  dolmens,  which  already  had  supersti- 
tious associations.  The  entire  idea  of  the  witches' 
Sabbath,  made  famous,  for  instance,  by  Goethe's 
scene  of  the  Walpurgis-Night  in  Faust,  is  based 
on  this  cult. 

The  history  of  Satanism  is  obscure.  Attempts 
have  been  made  to  prove  Gilles  de  Laval,  Baron 
de  Retz  (1396-1440)  (see  Bluxbeabd),  one  of  its 
first  adherents,  but  even  in  its  organized  form  it 
is  probably  much  earlier.  It  existed  pertinacious- 
ly with  a  recrudescence  in  the  reign  of  Louis 
XIV.,  and  is  still  practiced,  especially  in  France, 
but  probably  in  lessening  degree.    Its  American 


stronghold  is  said  by  some  to  have  been  the  Hh 
fated  city  of  Saint  Pierre  in  Martinique. 

Consult:  Michelet,  La  saroUre  (Paris,  1890) ; 
Huysmans,  Ld-has  (ib.,  1891) ;  Bois,  Les  petite9 
religions  de  Paris  (ib.,  1894) ;  id.,  Le  satanisme 
et  la  magic  (ib.^  1895) ;  id.,  Le  monde  invisible 
(ib.,  1902) ;  Jaulmes,  Le  satanisme  et  la  super- 
stition au  moyen  Age  (Montauban,  1900).  See 
also  Demonolooy;  Magic;  Ophites;  Phalu- 
CI8M;  Witchcbaft;  Yezidis. 

SATAKSTOE.  A  novel  by  James  Fenimore 
Cooper  (1845).  It  is  a  tale  of  colonial  life  in 
New.  York.  The  title  is  the  name  of  a  neck  in 
Westchester  County,  near  Hell  Gate. 

aATAN^A  (Kiowa  8et-rain-ti,  White  Bear) 
(?-1878).  A  prominent  Kiowa  chief  distin- 
guished alike  for  his  prowess  on  the  warpath 
and  for  his  eloquence,  which  gained  for  him  the 
title  of  the  'Orator  of  the  Plains.'  He  was  con- 
sidered next  in  authority  to  the  elder  Lone  Wolf 
(q.v. ) .  He  was  already  acknowledged  as  a  chief  in 
1864,  and  first  came  into  official  prominence  as 
one  of  the  signers  of  the  Medicine  Lodge  treaty  of 
1867,  by  which  his  people  agreed  to  come  in  upon 
a  reservation.  For  an  attack  upon  a  wagon  train 
in  Texas  in  1871,  in  which  seven  white  men  were 
killed,  Satanta  and  two  other  chiefs  were  ar- 
rested, tried  for  murder,  and  sentenced  to  life  im- 
prisonment in  the  Texas  penitentiary.  Here  he 
committed  suicide  by  throwing  himself  from  an 
upper  story  of  the  hospital. 

JJATAPATHA-BRXHlTATyA,  sh&'t&pttt^A- 
br2lK^m&-n&  (Skt.,  Brahmanical  treatise  of  the 
hundred  paths).  The  title  of  a  well-known  San- 
skrit work  connected  with  the  White  Yajur-Veda, 
See  Brahman  A;  Sanskrit  Literature;  Veda. 

SATELLITES  (OF.,  Fr.  satellite,  from  Lat. 
satelles,  attendant).  Certain  celestial  bodies 
which  revolve  round  some  of  the  planets,  as  these 
latter  revolve  round  the  sim.  Astronomers 
sometimes  apply  to  them  the  generic  term 
'secondary  planets.'  The  earth.  Mars,  Jupiter, 
Saturn,  Uranus,  and  Neptune  (qq.v.)  each  pos- 
sess one  or  more  of  these  attendants.  The  mo- 
tion of  all  the  satellites  with  the  exception  of 
those  of  Uranus  and  Neptune  is  direct,  i.e.  from 
west  to  east.  The  satellites  of  Uranus  and  Nep- 
tune, whose  planes  of  revolution  are  nearly  per- 
pendicular to  the  ecliptic,  have  a  retrograde  mo- 
tion, i.e.  revolve  from  east  to  west.  The  eclipses, 
inequalities,  inclinations,  and  reciprocal  attrac- 
tions of  the  satellites  have  been  carefully  noted 
from  time  to  time,  and  the  theory  of  their  mo- 
tions, at  least  of  the  most  prominent  of  them, 
has  been  found  to  coincide  with  that  of  the  moon. 
See  Mooif. 

SATnr  (OF.,  Fr.  satin,  Olt.  setino,  from  ML. 
setiniis,  satin,  silken,  from  seta,  silk,  from  Lat. 
seta,  swta,  bristle,  stiff  hair).  A  fabric  or  form 
of  weave  in  which  so  much  of  the  filling  is 
brought  uppermost  in  the  weaving  as  to  give  a 
more  lustrous  and  unbroken  surface  to  the  cloth 
than  is  seen  when  the  varp  and  filling  cross  each 
other  more  frequently.  The  term  satin  is  very 
rarely  applied  to  any  other  than  silk  fabrics,  but 
there  are  woolen,  linen,  and  cotton  satins  known 
in  the  markets,  which  are  usually  called  sflteens. 
See  Weaving  for  full  explanation  of  satin  and 
other  weaves. 


SAtunwOOD.    a  beautiful  ornamental  wood 
obtained  from  both  the  West  and  East  Indies. 


8ATIHWOOD. 


464 


flATUVACnOH. 


The  former  is  the  better  kind,  and  is  supposed 
to  be  the  product  of  a  moderate-sized  tree.  Pari- 
narium  Guianensis,  and  probably  other  species. 
That  from  the  East  Indies  is  less  white  in  color, 
and  is  produced  by  Chlorozylon  Sweitenia.  Both 
are  much  used  by  cabinet-makers  and  for  mar- 
quetry, etc.  In  Florida  a  kind  of  satinwood  is 
produced  by  Zanthozylum  cribrosum.  It  is  found 
in  the  Keys  of  Florida  and  Santo  Domingo, 
Porto  Rico,  and  Bermuda* 

SATIBE  (Lat.  satira,  satura,  medley,  from 
aatur,  full,  from  aat,  enough).  The  name  given 
by  the  Romans  to  a  species  of  poetry,  of  which 
they  claimed  to  be  the  inrentors.  According  to 
grammarians,  the  complete  term  was  satura  ianw, 
from  which  lanof,  meaning  'a  plate,'  dropped 
away.  Among  the  Greeks  the  satire  waa  called 
sillos,  meaning  *squint-eyed.'  A  certain  number 
of  these  ailloi,  in  elegiac  verse,  were  composed  by 
Xenophanes  (d.  about  B.c.  500),  who  burlesqued 
Homer  and  Hesiod.  Some  fragments,  too,  have 
survived  of  the  ailloi,  in  hexameter  verse,  of  Timon 
of  Phlius  (d.  B.C.  268),  who  waged  war  on  the 
philosophers.  In  the  comedies  of  Aristophanes 
satire  assumed  wide  scope.  And  yet  for  Western 
Europe,  satire  dates  only  from  Latin  literature. 
The  oldest  Roman  satires  were  medleys  of  scenic 
or  dramatic  improvisations  expressed  in  vary- 
ing metres  (Livy,  vii.,  2),  like  the  Fescennine 
verses  (q.v.),  but  the  sharp  banter  and  rude 
jocularity  of  these  unwritten  effusions  bore  little 
resemblance,  either  in  form  or  spirit,  to  the 
earnest  and  acrimonious  criticism  that  formed 
the  essential  character  of  the  later  satire.  The 
earliest — so  far  as  we  know — ^who  wrote  aaturw 
were  Ennius  and  Pacuvius ;  but  the  metrical  mis- 
cellanies of  these  authors  seem  to  have  been  little 
more  than  serious  and  prosaic  descriptions,  or 
didactic  homilies  and  dialogues.  Lucilius  (d.  B.c. 
103)  is  universally  admitted  to  be  the  first  who 
handled  men  and  manners  in  that  peculiar  style 
which  has  ever  since  been  recognized  as  distinctly 
satirical  and  an  effective  weapon  for  personal 
attack.  After  the  death  of  Lucilius,  satire,  as 
well  as  other  forms  of  literature,  languished; 
nor  do  we  meet  with  any  satirist  of  note  till  the 
age  of  Horace,  whose  verse,  though  sharp  at 
times,  is  in  the  main  humorous  and  playful. 
Persius  (q.v.)  resembles  Horace  in  many  ways, 
but  is  fundamentally  more  serious  and  sincere. 
It  is  different  with  Juvenal,  somewhat  later,  for 
whom  satire  became  a  a(Eva  indignatio,  a  savage 
onslaught  on  the  open  vice  of  the  capital.  After 
Juvenal  we  have  no  professed  satirist,  but  of 
several  writers  in  whom  the  same  element  is 
found.  Martial,  the  epigrammatist,  is  perhaps 
the  most  notable. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  the  satirical  spirit 
showed  itself  abundantly  in  the  general  literature 
of  France,  Italy,  Germany,  England,  and  Scot- 
land. Men  who  have  a  claim  to  the  character  of 
satirists,  par  excellence,  are  Ulrich  von  Hutten, 
one  of  the  authors  of  the  Epiatolof  Ohscurorutn 
Virorum,  Erasmus,  Rabelais,  William  Langland, 
Skelton,  Sir  David  Lindsay,  and  George  Buchanan. 
Among  the  Elizabethans  were  Nash,  Marston, 
Bishop  Hall,  and  Donne.  In  France,  satire  as  a 
formal  literary  imitation  of  antiquity  appeared 
early.  Setting  aside  the  Fabliaux,  Rutebeuf,  Jean 
de  Meung,  and  other  mediseval  writers,  Vauquelin 
may  be  considered  one  of  the  founders  of  modern 
French  satire.   The  satirical  verses  of  Mottin,  of 


Sigogne,  and  of  Berthelot,  of  Mathurin  Begnier, 
L'Eapadon  satirique  of  Fouqueraux,  and  he 
Pamaaae  aatirique,  attributed  to  Thfophile 
Viaud,  are  foul  in  expression,  and  remind  us  that 
at  this  time  a  satire  waa  understood  to  be  an 
obscure  work — ^the  seventeenth-century  scholars 
supposing  that  the  name  had  scmiething  to  do 
with  Satyr,  and  that  the  style  ought  to  conform 
to  what  m4;ht  be  thought  appropriate  to  the  ety- 
mology. IXiring  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenUi 
centuries  both  England  and  France  prodvuxd  pro- 
fessed satirists,  who  have  not  been  surpaased 
by  the  best  either  of  their  forerunners  or  their 
followers.  The  names  of  Bntler,  Diyden,  Pope,- 
and  Churchill  in  fik^tead,  of  Boileau  and  Vol- 
taire in  Franee,  are  taovmg  the  greatest.  Edward 
Yeuag  and  Dr.  Johnaon  were  also  dlatinguished 
aatirists.  It  may  be  notioed,  however,  as  a  dis- 
tinguishing characteristic  of  Dryden,  Boileau, 
Young,  Pope,  Churchill,  and  Johnson,  and  as  a 
mark  of  the  difference  of  the  times  in  which  they 
lived,  that  it  is  no  longer  the  Church  that  is  as- 
sailed, but  society,  political  opponents,  literary 
rivals,  etc  Swift,  Arbuthnot,  and  Junius  were 
the  great  prose  satirists  of  their  time. 

Satire  in  the  shape  of  political  squibs  and  lam- 
poons, is  abundant  in  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries.  Butler's  Hudibraa  is  one 
long  caricature  of  the  Puritans;  most  of  the 
playwrights  of  the  Restoration  were  royalist  la- 
tirists — unscrupulous  and  indecent  partisans. 
Dryden  himself  was  but  facile  prinoepa  in  the 
company.  Andrew  Marvel  is  the  most  famooa 
name  on  the  side  of  liberty.  The  Beggara*  Opera 
of  the  poet  Gay  is  a  very  fine  bit  of  political 
satire.  Gifford  and  Wolcot,  better  known  as 
Peter  Pindar,  also  deserve  mention  in  an  histori- 
cal -view,  though  their  intrinsic  merits  are  small. 
Incomparably  superior  to  all  their  contemporaries 
and  among  the  first  order  of  satirists  were  Bums 
and  Cowper.  Meanwhile  in  France,  since  Vol- 
taire, no  great  name  had  appeared,  except,  per- 
haps, that  of  B^ranger.  In  Germany  the  most 
conspicuous  modem  names  are  those  of  Rabener, 
Hagedom,  KUstner,  Lichtenberg,  Stolberg,  Wie- 
land,  Tieck,  Jean  Paul,  Platen,  and,  notably, 
Heine;  but  none  of  these  adhered  strictly  to  the 
classic  models.  Of  nineteenth-century  satirists  in 
England  the  best  are  Byron,  James  and  Horace 
Smith,  Hunt,  Hood,  and  Browning,  in  poetry, 
and  Hook,  Jerrold,  Thackeray,  Disraeli,  and 
Carlyle  in  prose.  The  United  States  are  excel- 
lently represented  by  Irving,  Lowell,  Holmes, 
Artemus  Ward,  and  Mark  Twain.  Recent  brilliant 
examples  of  the  lighter  satire  are  the  'Dooley' 
papers  contributed  by  F.  P.  Dunne  to  various 
American  and  English  journals,  and  Ashby-Ster- 
ry*s  'Bystanders'.  Consult  Nettleship,  The  Ro- 
man Satura  (Oxford,  1878) ;  Keller,  Satur  (Kiel, 
1888) ;  Hannay,  Satire  and  Satiriaia  (London, 
1854).  See  the  authors  and  the  literature  men- 
tioned in  this  article;  also  BuBissquE;  Cabica- 
tube;  Fabliaux;   Pabodt. 

SATIBE  MiiriFP^fiB,  B&'t«r^  mi'nft'plk^  See 
M£nipp£e. 

SATIBOXASTIZ  (from  Lat.  aatira,  satire 
+  Gk.  fidffrt^,  maatiw,  scourge) .  A  comedy  bf 
Thomas  Dekker  (1602)  in  which  Ben  Jonson  fig- 
ures as  Horace,  junior.  It  is  a  good-humored 
retort  to  Jonson's  Poetaater, 

SATISFACnOir.  See  Accord  aivb  Bahb- 
paction. 


8ATLEJ. 
SATTLBJ.    A  riTer  of  India.    See  Sutucj. 


466 


SATTJBH. 


BATOIiU,  84-t6nft,  Francesco  (1831— )• 
An  Italian  cardinal,  bom  at  Perugia,  where  he 
pursued  his  studies  at  the  Diocesan  Seminary. 
Pope  Leo  XIII.  appointed  the  young  priest  to 
a  professorship  in  the  Roman  Seminary  and 
School  of  the  Propaganda.  In  1888  Satolli  was 
made  titular  Archbishop  of  Lepanto.  Later, 
when  new  questions  came  to  the  Church  in  the 
United  States,  Mgr.  Satolli  was  sent  out  as  Papal 
Ablegate  with  plenary  power  (November,  1892), 
which  was  confirmed  by  his  appointment  in  Jan- 
uary, 1893,  as  Apostolic  Delegate  to  the  American 
Church,  with  an  official  .residence  in  Washington. 
Mgr.  Satolli  has  written  several  valuable  works, 
amon^  them  a  commentary  on  Saint  T)|omas 
Aquinas,  and  a  Course  in  Philosophy,  much  used 
in  Catholic  institutions  of  learning.  He  was 
elevated  to  the  cardinalate  in  1895,  and  was  re- 
called and  succeeded  by  Archbishop  Sebastiano 
Martinelli  in  1896. 

SAtOKALJA-TTJHELT,  Bha't6-r6-ly6  Wf- 
hti-y*.  The  capital  of  the  County  of  Zemnlm, 
Hungary,  105  miles  northeast  of  Budapest  (Map: 
Hungary,  G  2).  It  is  picturesquely  situated  at 
the  baae  of  the  Hegyalja,  one  of  the  offshoots  of 
the  Carpathians.  It  has  a  Piarist  gymnasium 
and  ia  noted  for  its  wine  and  tobacco.  Popula- 
tion, in  1900,  16,712. 

BATOW;  8&t'6,  Sir  Ebnest  Mason  (1843—). 
A  British  diplomatist  and  scholar,  bom  in  Lon- 
don. After  graduation  at  University  College, 
London,  he  entered  the  British  civil  service.  In 
the  consular  service  in  Japan  he  rose  to  be  Jap- 
anese secretary  to  the  British  Legation;  received 
the  decoration  of  Saint  Michael  and  Saint 
George;  was  transferred  to  Siam  as  consul-gen- 
eral in  1883,  and  became  Minister  there  in  1885. 
In  1888  he  became  Minister  Resident  at  Monte- 
video, and  in  1893  was  sent  to  Morocco  as  Envoy 
Extraordinary  and  Minister  Plenipotentiary,  and 
two  years  later  to  Japan,  whence  in  the  autumn 
of  1900,  after  the  Boxer  uprising,  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  Peking,  where  he  took  a  prominent  posi- 
tion in  the  settlement  of  the  indemnity  and  other 
questions.  With  Hawes  he  edited  the  first  and 
second  editions  of  Murray's  Hand  Book  for  Japan 
(1882),  and  with  Ishibashi,  an  English-Japanese 
Dictionary  (1876).  He  wrote  the  Jesuit  Mission 
Pres9  in  Japan,  1591-1610  (1888),  and  many 
papers  of  great  learning  and  of  the  highest  value 
in  the  Transactions  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of 
Japan,  particularly  in  connection  with  Shinto 
(q.v.). 

SATSTTXAy  s&t'sT!R^m&,  or  SAfiSHiu.  A 
province  of  Japan,  occupying  the  southern  portion 
of  the  island  of  Kiushiu,  and  now  included  in 
the  Prefecture  of  Kagoshima  (q.v.).  It  was  long 
held  as  a  fief  of  the  princely  House  of  Shimadzu, 
has  produced  a  large  number  of  able  men,  and  has 
always  played  a  very  important  part  in  the 
history  of  the  country.  The  clan  had  a  leading 
place  in  the  revolution  of  1868.  Its  states- 
men have  preponderated  in  the  national  coun- 
cil for  many  years.  The  province  is  noted 
for  its  faience.  It  was  at  Kagoshima,  the  chief 
town  of  the  province,  that  Francis  Xavier  landed 
in  1549  to  begin  his  missionary  labors.  For  the 
Satsuma  Rebellion,  see  Saigo. 

SAT^TEBLEE,  Henrt  Yates  (1843— ).  An 
American  bishop  of  the  Episcopal  Church.  He 
was  bom  in  New  York  City,  and  received  his 


degree  from  Columbia  Coll^  in  1863.  In  1866 
he  completed  the  course  of  the  General  Theologi- 
cal Seminary,  and  was  ordained  priest.  He  be- 
came attached  to  Zion  parish,  Wappinger's  Falls, 
N.  Y.,  as  assistant  in  1865,  and  in  1875  was  made 
rector.  In- 1882  he  removed  to  New  York  City 
and  became  rector  of  Calvary  Church,  a  post  he 
retained  for  fourteen  years.  In  1896  he  was  con- 
secrated first  Bishop  of  Washington,  D.  C.  His 
principal  published  work  is  A  Creedless  Oospel  and 
the  Oospel  Creed  (1894),  a  book  inspired  by  the 
Parliament  of  Religions  held  in  Chicago  in  1893. 

SATTEBLEE,  Walter  (1844—).  An  Ameri- 
can painter  and  illustrator,  bom  in  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.  He  graduated  at  Columbia  College  in 
1863,  studied  at  the  Academy  of  Design,  and 
afterwards  under  Edwin  White  and  (1878-79) 
imder  JAon  Bonnat  in  Paris.  He  became  an 
associate  of  the  National  Academy  in  1879,  and 
in  1886  took  the  Clarke  Prize.  His  paintings 
include  "The  Runaways,*'  "The  Old  Garden," 
"The  Feast  of  Flora,"  "An  Old  Time  Croquette," 
and  "Old  Ballads." 

SATTTEATION  (Lat.  saturatio,  from  satu- 
rare,  to  fill,  saturate,  from  satwr,  full;  con- 
nected with  sat,  satis,  enough).  A  term  in  psy- 
chology signifying  purity  of  color  sensation,  that 
is,  relative  deficiency  of  black  or  white  admix- 
ture. Together  with  color-tone  and  brightness, 
saturation,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the*  color 
intensity  of  a  given  color,  determines  the  total 
color  impression.  A  saturated  color  tone,  which 
is  obtained  only  by  spectrum  analysis,  is  free 
from  all  mixtures  of  other  color-tones.  The 
external  stimulus  producing  a  pure  color  sensa- 
tion, or  saturation,  is  a  light  vibration  of  single 
wave-length.  Light  vibrations  of  many  wave- 
lengths produce  such  compound  color  sensations 
as  yellowish  white,  reddish  white,  etc  One  of 
all  wave-lengths  of  the  optical  spectrum  produces 
a  zero  saturation,  that  is,  white. 

SATUBDAY  BEVXEW,  The.  A  London 
weekly  review  of  politics,  literature,  science,  and 
art,  founded  in  1855  by  John  Douglas  Cook, 
under  whose  editorship  it  maintained  a  high 
rank  in  its  class.  The  editor  since  1898  has 
been  Harold  Hodge,  a  prominent  worker  in  Lon- 
don social  questions. 

SATTTBN  (Lat.  Batumus,  OLat.  8a*eum%is, 
ScBtumus;  connected  with  sator,  sower,  serere,  to 
sow,  and  ultimately  with  OChurch  Slav.  s^t«, 
Lith.  seti,  OHG.  sAen,  Ger.  saen,  Ooth.  saian,  AS. 
s&wan,  Eng.  sow).  An  ancient  Roman  divinity 
who  presided  over  the  sowing  of  the  seed.  His 
festival  occurred  on  December  17,  after  the  con- 
clusion of  the  winter  sowing.  (See  Satubnalia.) 
A  temple  was  built  in  B.C.  497  (according  to  the 
story)  at  the  foot  of  the  Capitol,  and  became 
later  the  place  of  deposit  for  the  State's  treasury. 
Early,  however,  the  identification  with  the  Greek 
Cronus  arose,  and  the  offerings  to  Saturn  were 
made  according  to  the  Greek  rite.  Probably  in 
consequence  of  this  identification  arose  the  legend 
that  Saturn  was  an  ancient  king  of  Latium,  un- 
der whose  gracious  rule  the  whole  of  Italy  had 
enjoyed  a  golden  age.  In  the  Greek  myth 
Cronus  {Kp6pot)  appears  as  the  eldest  of  the 
Titans  (q.v.),  son  of  Uranus  and  Gea.  He  mu- 
tilated his  father  and  became  the  ruler  of  the 
universe.  To  guard  against  danger  of  an  over- 
throw, he  swallowed  his  children  by  Rhea  as 
fast  as  they  were  bom.     At  last,  after  the  birth 


8ATTTBN. 


466 


SATURTffATJA. 


of  ZeoB,  she  tricked  him  into  swallowing  a  stone 
wrapped  in  swaddling  clothes.  Zeus,  as  he  grew 
up,  persuaded  his  father  to  disgorge  his  elder 
children,  and  presently  began  the  war  against  the 
forceful  rule  of  the  Titans  that  he  might  estab- 
lish a  reign  of  law.  After  a  fierce  conflict  Cronus 
was  cast  into  Tartarus.  Later  poets  represent 
him  as  afterwards  released  and  ruling  in  hap- 
piness over  the  Isles  of  the  Blessed.  Qronus 
seems  to  owe  much  of  his  existence  to  the 
desire  of  explaining  the  race  of  Zeus  and  his  po- 
sition of  supreme  power.  Only  at  Athens  and 
Olympia  were  there  special  shrines  and  offer- 
ings to  him,  and  a  festival  in  bis  honor,  the 
Cronia.  In  representations  of  Cronus  his  head 
was  usually  covered  with  a  mantle,  and  in  his 
hand  was  the  curved  scimiter  or  knife,  harpe,  or 
sickle. 


case,  any  temporary  disturbance  or  pertarbatioii 
would  suffice  to  disrupt  it,  and  the  fragments 
would  be  precipitated  on  the  planet.  Nor  can 
the  ring  be  liquid.  The  only  remaining  con- 
clusion is  that  it  is  composed  of  a  very 
large  number  of  small  satellites,  analogous  to 
the  ring  of  small  planetoids  (q.v.)  surrounding 
our  sun,  and  lying  between  the  orbits  of  Man 
and  Jupiter.  This  theory  of  the  rings  has 
received  strong  confirmatory  evidence  from 
spectroscopic  observations  made  in  1895  by 
Keeler.     See  Planets. 

Satellites.  Saturn  has  at  least  eight  satel- 
lites. A  ninth  was  discovered  photographically 
in  1899  at  the  Arequipa*  (Peru)  station  of  the 
Harv&rd  University  observatory;  but  this  dis- 
cover^ still  lacks  confirmation.  Their  elements 
are  given  in  the  following  table : 


RAinD 

Discoverer 

Date  of 
discovery 

Sidereal 
revolution 

Greatest  distance 

from  Saturn  in 

term  of  its 

equatorial  radios 

Mass.  that  of 
Satnm 
being  1 

Mimas 

W.  Herscbel 

July    18.  1789 
Aug.  39.  1789 
Mar.  21,  1684 
Mar.  21.  1684 
Dec.    28.  1672 
Mar.  26.  1666 
Sept.  16.  1848 
Oct.    26.  1671 

0  d.  22  h.  87  m. 
Id.    8h.  63  m. 

1  d.  21  h.  18  m. 

2  d.  17  h.  41  m. 
4  d.  12  h.  26  m. 

16  d.  22  h.  41  m. 
21  d.    6h.  89  m. 
79  d.    7h.  66  m. 

8.07 
8.94 
4.87 
6.26 
8.78 
90.22 
24.49 
68.91 

O.00000007 

Bnorelade 

W.  Herscbel 

O.OOOOOOBK 

Tetnys 

J.  1).  GasslDi 

o.ooooouo 

Dlone 

.r  D.  CadSinI 

0.00000187 

Rhea 

J.  D.  Casslni 

0.00000400 

Tftan 

Hnyg>eiis 

0.00021377 

Hyperion 

(J.  P.  Bond 

Japetus. 

J.  D.  Casslni 

SATTTRN.  The  sixth  of  the  planets  in  order 
of  distance  from  the  sun  and  the  second  in  size. 
Its  distance  from  the  sun  varies  between  861  and 
911  millions  of  miles;  period  of  revolution,  about 
20  solar  years;  axial  rotation  period,  about 
10  hours  14  minutes;  the  apparent  angu- 
lar diameter  of  the  disk,  between  14  seconds  and 
20  seconds;  diameter,  73,000  miles;  volume,  760 
times  that  of  the  earth;,  mass,  75  times  the 
earth's.  Therefore  Saturn's  density  is  only  one- 
eighth  that  of  the  earth,  or  not  much  more  than 
one-half  that  of  water.  The  inclination  of  the 
axis  to  Saturn's  orbit  is  about  27°.  This  planet 
is  in  many  respects  the  most  interesting  of  all. 
The  first  glance  at  it  with  a  telescope-  always 
gives  one  a  feeling  of  astonishment.  The  bright 
ball  of  the  planet  is  set  in  the  centre  of  a  lumi- 
nous oval  ring,  and  surrounded  by  at  least  eight 
moons;  truly  a  planetary  system  of  extreme 
complexity  and  of  surpassing  beauty.  The  ring 
system  was  discovered  by  Galileo  in  1610,  just 
after  the  invention  of  the  telescope,  but  he  did 
not  explain  correctly  what  he  saw.  He  thought 
the  planet's  ball  had  two  appendages  or  anew, 
and  announced  that  it  was  triple.  Huggins,  in 
1666,  gave  the  correct  explanation  of  the  visible 
phenomena,  and  showed  that  the  planet  must 
be  surrounded  by  a  ring.  The  ring  system  is 
round,  but  appears  oval  as  a  result  of  foreshort- 
ening, since  the  plane  of  the  ring  is  not  square 
to  our  line  of  vision.  Indeed,  at  times  the  ring 
plane  may  pass  through  the  earth,  and  then  we 
see  the  ring  edgewise,  which  makes  it  appear 
simply  as  a  thin  bright  line.  At  other  times 
the  ring  disappears  altogether,  in  consequence  of 
its  plane  passing  between  the  earth  and  the  sun. 
When  this  occurs,  only  the  side  of  the  ring  to- 
ward the  sun  is  illuminated.  Modem  observers 
have  found  the  ring  to  be  in  reality  triple,  consist- 
ing of  concentric  parts.  Mathematical  re- 
searches have  shown  that  its  durability  would 
be  impaired  if  it  were  solid.     If  such  were  the 


SATTTBN,  Temple  of.  A  temple  in  the 
Roman  Forum,  consecrated  in  b.c.  491  by  the 
Consuls  Sempronius  and  Minucius,  and  restored 
about  B.C.  44  by  Munatius  Plancus.  It  stood 
at  the  foot  of  the  Clivus  Capitolinus,  where  eight 
of  its  marble  columns  on  a  substructure  16  feet 
in  height  still  form  one  of  the  conspicuous  mon- 
ument of  the  Forum.  The  temple  was  from 
very  early  times  not  only  a  place  of  worship,  but 
also  a  public  treasury.  It  was  the  only  temple 
in  Rome  which  might  be  entered  with  uncovered 
head,  and  the  first  to  use  wax  tapers. 

SATTTBKALIA  (Lat.  nom.  pi.,  relating  to 
Saturn,  from  Satumus,  Saturn).  An  ancient 
Roman  festival  celebrated  in  honor  of  Saturn 
(q.v. ) .  The  festival  began  on  December  17th,  and 
the  public  religious  rites  were  confined  to  that 
day.  The  festivities,  however,  lasted  during  the 
later  Republic  for  seven  days,  and  Augustus 
made  the  holiday  cover  three  days,  which  his 
successors  extended  to  five.  That  this  was  orig- 
inally an  agricultural  festival,  connected  wiSi 
the  end  of  late  sowing,  and  also  the  turning  of 
the  year  at  the  winter  solstice,  there  can  be 
little  doubt;  but  the  whole  ritual  has  becna  so 
transformed  by  the  Hellenizdng  of  Saturn  and 
his  worship  that  the  original  elements  can  scarce- 
ly be  discerned.  The  change  is  connected  with 
the  lectisternium  at  the  Temple  of  Saturn  in  B.C. 
217,  when  a  public  banquet  was  held  and  this 
new  celebration  of  the  Saturnalia  enjoined  in 
perpetuity.  The  sacrifices  were  offered  with  un- 
covered head,  i.e.  in  the  Greek  fashion,  and  the 
public  feast  is  certainly  Greek.  At  the  sacrifice 
the  senators  and  knights  wore  the  toga,  but  this 
was  laid  aside  for  the  banquet.  After  the  ban- 
quet the  populace  roamed  through  the  city, 
shouting  lo  Saturnalia,  The  next  day  the  usual 
bath  was  taken  very  early,  as  there  was  no  time 
later.  A  family  sacrifice,  of  a  young  pig,  fol' 
lowed,  and  the  rest  of  the  day  and  the  following 
days  were  given  up  to  the  exchange  of  calls,  pros- 


aATTTBHAIJA. 


467 


flATXaER. 


ents,  and  banquets,  at  which  a  king  was  chosen 
whom  all  must  obey.  Favorite  presents  were  wax 
tapers  and  little  clay  or  pastry  images  (the 
sigillaria).  In  fact,  we  aie  told  that  the  days 
following  the  17th,  on  which  these  figures  were 
sold,  were  called  the  Sigillaria.  IHiring  this 
period  the  courts  and  schools  were  closed,  and 
military  operations  were  suspended  that  the 
army  might  celebrate.  A  special  feature  of  the 
Saturnalia  was  the  freedom  given  to  the  slaves, 
who  even  had  first  place  at  the  family  tables 
and  were  served  by  their  .masters.  Later  specu- 
lation interpreted  this  as  a  reminiscence  of  the 
Golden  Age  under  King  Saturnus.  On  Decem- 
ber 16th  occurred  the  Coneeralia,  and  on  Decem- 
ber 1 9th  the  Opalia,  in  honor  of  Gonsus  and  Ops, 
both  of  whom  seem  to  have  been  deities  connected 
with  tlie  storing  of  the  grain.  Later  legend 
identified  Ops  with  the  Greek  Rhea,  and  made 
her  the  wife  of  Saturn,  though  R  is  quite  possible 
that  originally  she  was  more  closely  connected 
with  Consus. 

SATUBNIAN  VEBSE  (Lat.  Satumiua,  re- 
lating to  Saturn,  from  Saturnus,  Saturn).  The 
name  given  by  the  Romans  to  that  species  of 
verse  in  which  their  oldest  poetry  was  composed. 
In  the  usage  of  the  later  poets  and  grammarians 
the  phrase  is  applied  in  a  general  way  to  denote 
the  rude  and  unfixed  measures  of  the  ancient 
Latin  ballad  and  song,  and  is  not  intended  to 
determine  the  character  of  the  metre,  and  it  is 
also  applied  to  the  measure  used  by  Nsevius,  which 
has  been  held  by  many  scholars  to  be  an  im- 
portation from  Greece.  Satumian  verse  con- 
tinued in  use  down  to  the  time  of  Ennius  (q.v.)» 
who  introduced  the  hexameter  (q.v.).'  Accord- 
ing to  Hermann,  the  basis  of  the  verse  is  con- 
tahied  in  the  following  schema : 

^^ — ^^1^ — ^^. 

which,  as  Macaulay  happily  points  out,  corre- 
sponds exactly  to  the  nursery  rhyme. 

The  qne^ii  was  In  the  p&rlpr  |  dating  br6ad  and  hdney. 

In  the  treatment  of  it  a  wide  and  arbitrary 
freedom  was  taken  by  the  old  Roman  poets,  as 
is  proved  by  the  still  extant  fragments  of 
Nsevius,  Livius  Andronicus,  Ennius^  and  of  the 
early  epitaphs  and  inscriptions.  Consult: 
Mommsen,  History  of  Rome,  i.,  chap,  xv.; 
Teuffel-Schwabe-Warr,  History  of  Roman  Litera^ 
ture  (London,  1891).  The  slight  remains  of 
Satumian  verse  .will  be  found  in  Ritschl, 
Satumiw  Poeseos  ReliquicB  (Bonn,  1854),  and 
the  inscriptions  only  in  Buecheler,  Anthologia 
Latina  (Leipzig,  1895). 

BATTSBJSrUNTJB,  Lucius  Apuletub  (  ?-b.c. 
100).  A  Roman  demagogue,  tribune  of  the  people 
in  B.C.  102  and  100.  He  procured  his  reflection  by 
the  help  of  Marius  and  Glaucia,  as  well  as  by  the 
murder  of  his  opponent.  To  this  violence  and 
to  the  alliance  with  the  popular  party  it  is  sup- 
posed Satuminus  was  led  because  of  his  re- 
movalby  the  senate  from  the  post  of  qusestor 
at  Ostia.  In  the  first  year  of  his  tribunate  he 
had  introduced  a  law  of  mafestas,  by  which  the 
old  right  of  trial  under  the  charge  of  perduelUo 
by  a  board  of  two,  with  right  of  appeal  to  the 
comitia,  was  superseded.  In  his  success  Satumi- 
nus overstepped  the  mark  by  his  grain  laws, 
which  almost  gave  away  the  public  com.  He 
caused  the  murder  of  Memmius,  who  contested 
Glauda's  reSlection.    The  popular  uprising  drove 


him  and  Glaucia  to  the  Capitol.  They  surren- 
dered to  Marius,  but  were  killed  in  the  Curia, 
where  Marius  had  put  them  for  safe-keeping. 

SATYB  (Lat.  Satyrus,  from  Gk.  Xdrvpot, 
Satyr).  In  Greek  mythology,  one  of  the  deities 
or  spirits  of  the  woods  and  hills,  usually  repre- 
sented in  early  art  with  goat's  ears,  tails,  and 
hoofs,  often  bearded  and  old,  though  in  later 
times  these  bestial  traits  are  much  reduced,  and 
scarcely  extend  beyond  the  pointed  ears,  and  oc- 
casionally a  small  tail.  In  the  fourth  century 
B.O.  we  find  the  graceful  youth,  whose  animal 
nature  is  scarcely  indicated,  while  in  Hellenistic 
times  appears  the  different  tyye  of  the  rough 
peasant  boy,  whose  features  show  plainly 
his  vulgar  and  mischievous  disposition.  From 
Hesiod  down  they  are  constant  figures  in  Greek 
literature  as  well  as  art,  especially  as  compan- 
ions of  Dionysus.  They  appear  as  sensual  pur- 
suers and  ravishers  of  the  woodland  nymphs, 
fond  of  wine,  and  also  of  the  music  of  the  woods, 
playing  the  syrinx,  fiute,  and  even  the  bagpipe. 
See  Furtwangler,  Der  Satyr  aus  Pergamon  (Ber- 
lin, 1880). 

SATYB.  A  member  of  a  subfamily  (Saty- 
rinse)  of  medium-sized,  usually  brown  or  gray 
butterflies,  the  wings  of  which  are  very  generally 
ornamented,  especially  on  the  under  sides,  by 
eye-like  spots.  About  sixty  species  occur  in  the 
United  States.  They  are  weak  filers  and  most 
of  them  are  forest-lovers,  although  some  are 
found  upon  the  Western  prairies.  The  veins  of 
the  fore  wings  are  greatly  swollen  at  the  base. 
The  larve  are  cylindrical  and  are  distinguished 
from  other  American  butterfiies,  except  those  of 
the  genus  Chlorippe,  by  their  bifurcated  anal  ex- 
tremities. They  are  usually  pale  green  or  light 
brown,  and  feed  upon  grasses  or  sedges,  remain- 
ing concealed  during  the  day  and  emerging  at 
dusk  to  feed.  In  the  tropics  the  satyrs  are  often 
gaily  colored.  One  very  rare  species  (CEneis 
semidiCB)  is  remarkable  on  account  of  its  dis- 
tribution. It  occurs  in  the  United  States  only 
on  the  highest  peaks  of  the  White  and  Rocl^ 
Mountains,  and  is  believed  to  have  been  a  species 
of  wide  distribution  in  glacial  times.  When  the 
ice  broke  up,  the  mass  of  the  butterflies  were 
exterminated  by  the  encroaching  heat,  but  a  few 
individuals  survived  in  the  congenial .  coolness 
remaining  on  the  peaks  of  the  highest  mountains. 

SATJBA  ANT  (Sauha,  South  American  In- 
dian name) .  A  neotropical  leaf -cutting  ant  {(Eco- 
doma  cephalotes),  which  makes  very  remarkable 
underground  mines.  They  excavate  a  series  of 
tunnels  and  nests  which  extend  through  many 
square  yards  of  earth,  and  are  said  to  have  tim- 
neled  imder  the  bed  of  the  River  Parahyba  at  a 
spot  where  it.  was  as  broad  as  the  Thames  at 
London  Bridge.  H.  W.  Bates  has  shown  that  in 
the  communities  of  this  ant  there  are  surely  five 
castes — ^males,  females,  small  ordinary  workers, 
large  workers  with  very  large  hairy  heads,  and 
large  workers  with  large  polished  heads. 

SAUOEB,  or  Sand-Pike.  A  pike-perch  (q.v.) 
of  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Upper  Mississippi 
tributaries,  more  elongated  and  cylindrical  than 
the  wall-eyed  pike,  with  a  distinct  black  blotch 
on  the  base  of  the  pectoral  fin.  It  is  10  to  18 
inches  long.  This  fish  is  also  locally  known  as 
'gray  pike,'  *rattle-snake  pike,'  'ground  pike,' 
and  'horafish.'  See  Plate  of  Pebohes  of  Nobth 
Amebica. 


BAJJQEBTaB. 


468 


BAXnL 


BATXaEBTIBS,  sa'gSr-Uz.  A  village  in  Ulster 
County,  K.  Y.,  12  miles  north  of  Kingston;  on 
the  Hudson  River,  and  on  the  West  Shore  Rail- 
road (Map:  New  York,  F.  3).  It  is  in  a  farm- 
ing region,  and  has  important  stone  quarries. 
Paper,  blank  books,  brick,  and  cement  are  manu- 
factured. There  is  a  public  library.  The  first 
settlers  probably  came  as  early  as  1687,  and  in 
1710  a  colony  of  Palatines  settled  here.  Until 
1811,  when  the  town  was  incorporated,  Sauger- 
ties  was  part  of  Kingston.  The  village  was  in- 
corporated in  1831.  Population,  in  1890,  4237; 
in  1900,  3697.  Consult:  Brink,  The  Early  His- 
tory of  Baugerties  (Kingston,  N.  Y.,  1902). 

BAJJOOV.  A  low  swampy  island  of  Bengal, 
India,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hugli  (Map:  India, 
£  4).  It  is  one  of  the  holy  places  of  the  Hindu 
religion,  noted  formerly  for  its  infant  sacrifices. 
It  is  visited  by  multitudes  of  pilgrims  in  Novem- 
ber and  January  at  the  time  of  the  full  moon, 
when,  after  the  ceremony  of  purification,  a  great 
fair  takes  place.  The  island  has  an  area  of  225 
square  miles,  chiefly  covered  with  lungle,  infested 
by  tigers  and  other  wild  animals.  Among  its 
structures  are  a  lighthouse,  visible  15  miles,  and 
meteorological  stations.  The  population  is  not 
large,  a  cyclone  and  a  tidal  wave  having  de- 
vastated the  island  in  1864,  sweeping  away  over 
two-thirds  of  the  inhabitants. 

8ATTOTXS,  sft'gOs.  A  town,  including  three 
villages,  in  Essex  County,  Mass.,  8  miles  north 
of  Boston;  on  the  Saugus  River  and  Massa- 
chusetts Bay,  and  on  the  Boston  and  Maine  Rail- 
road (Map:  Massachusetts,  F  3).  It  has  a 
public  library  with  more  than  6000  volumes. 
Brick,  BPicMy  And  woolen  goods  are  manufac- 
tured. The  government  is  administered  by  town 
meetings,  convening  annually.  Saugus  was  in- 
corporated in  1815.  Population,  in  1890,  3673; 
in  1900,  5084. 

SAuJL  (from  their  own  name,  Osagi,  of  uncer- 
tain etymology,  also  known  as  Sac,  and  frequent- 
ly referred  to,  in  connection  with  their  con- 
federated tribe,  under  the  compound  title  of  Sacs 
and  Foxes).  A  prominent  and  warlike  tribe  of 
Algonquian  stock  (q.v.),  formerly  holding  both 
banks  of  the  Mississippi  and  the  entire  Rock 
River  region  in  northwestern  Illinois,  eastern 
Iowa,  and  southwestern  Wisconsin,  with  a  por- 
tion of  Missouri.  According  to  tradition  they 
once  lived  at  Ottawa  River,  Canada,  but,  with 
other  tribes;  were  driven  out  by  the  attacks  of 
the  Iroquois.  About  1670  they  were  found  by 
the  French  in  northern  Wisconsin,  in  immediate 
vicinity  of  their  close  kindred,  the  Muskwaki  or 
Foxes.  From  this  position  the  two  tribes  were 
gradually  pressed  southward  by  .the  Ojibwa. 
The  Foxes  suffered  severely  in  a  war  with  the 
French,  and  in  a  great  battle  with  the  Ojibwa 
about  1760  were  so  greatly  reduced  that  they 
were  forced  to  confederate  with  the  Sauk,  who 
retained  the  leading  position.  On  the  conquest 
of  the  Illinois  about  1765  the  Sauk  took  pos- 
session of  the  Rock  River  country  of  Illinois  and 
the  adjacent  territory  in  Iowa.  In  1832  a  con- 
siderable party,  led  by  Black  Hawk  (q.v.),  com- 
bined to  resist  the  execution  of  a  treaty  by  which 
the  Indians  were  to  give  up  all  their  lands  east  of 
the  Mississippi,  but  in  the  short  war  they  were 
defeated.  The  Indians  were  removed  to  the  west 
side  of  the  Mississippi,  in  Iowa,  and  subsequently, 
in  different  bodies,  to  Kansas  and  the  Indian 


Territory.  A  part  of  those  who  removed  to 
Kansas,  chiefly  of  the  Muskwaki  or  Fox  tribe, 
afterwards  returned  to  Iowa  and  repurchased 
lands  near  Tama.  In  1903  the  Sauk  and  Musk- 
waki numbered  together  about  930.  As  a  people 
they  are  strongly  conservative. 

SATTL  (Heb.  sMfll,  asked  [of  Yahweh],  or 
devoted  [to  Yahweh],  pass.  part,  of  shdal,  to  ask). 
The  first  King  of  Israel,  the  beginning  of  whose 
reign  is  placed  at  about  b.c.  1050.  He  was  a  son  of 
Kish,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin.  The  account  of 
his  career,  embodied  in  I.  Sam.  ix.  to  II.  Sam.  L, 
represents  a  combination  of  the  two  chief  sources 
believed  by  modem  critics  to  be  found  in  the 
books  of  Samuel  (q.v.).  As  a  consequence  it 
is  asserted  that  we  have  two  varying  accounts  of 
the  manner  in  which  he  came  to  occupy  his  posi- 
tion as  head  of  the  people.  According  to  one  of 
these  accounts,  i^  was  while  searching  for  the 
lost  asses  belonging  to  his  father  that  he  en- 
countered the  seer  Samuel,  who  announced  to 
Saul  that  he  was  destined  to  deliver  Israel  from 
the  oppression  of  the  Ammonites  and  PhilistineB. 
Soon  afterwards  Nahash,  a  chief  of  the  Ammon- 
ites, laid  siege  to  Jabesh-Gilead.  The  inhabitants 
appealed  to  the  West-Jordan  tribes  for  aid,  and 
when  the  news  reached  Saul  he  gathered  a  force 
with  which  he  inflicted  a  crushing  defeat  on 
Nahash.  At  Samuel's  bidding  the  people  then 
gathered  at  Gilgal  and  solemnly  crowned  Saul 
as  King.  The  other  account  represents  the  peo- 
ple as  dissatisfied  with  their  condition  and  de- 
manding of  Samuel  that  a  king  be  placed  at 
their  head.  Samuel,  wtile  rebuking  the  people, 
nevertheless  yields  to  the  popular  request  and 
at  an  assembly  held  at  Mizpah  Saul  is  chosen. 

Those  who  accept  the  above  theory  conclude 
from  these  varying  accounts  that  it  was  not  ao 
much  Samuel's  interference  as  the  natural  course ' 
of  events  that  brought  Saul  forward.  The  chief 
efforts  of  his  career  were  directed  toward  re- 
ducing the  power  of  the  Philistines.  In  a  series 
of  well-dir^rted  campaigns  he  drove  the  Philis- 
tines back  to  their  territoiy  along  the  seacoast 
He  was  equally  successful  in  his  campaign  against 
the  Amalekites.  His  victory  over  them  repre- 
sents the  climax  in  his  career.  Intertribal 
jealousies  and  fsEtaiily  intrigues  loosened  the 
union  of  the  tribes  after  the  crisis  had  b€«n  tem- 
porarily passed,  while  the  growing  popularity  of 
the  youthful  David  (q.v.),  originally  introduced 
at  ^ul'e  court  as  a  skillful  harp-player,  brought 
out  the  worst  elements  in  Saul's  nature.  A 
strange  melancholy  settled  upon  him,  and  this  ill- 
ness, which  at  times  resembled  madness,  was  a 
factor  leading  to  the  quarrel  between  Sanl  and 
David;  and  while  David  was  obliged  to  take 
flight,  he  did  more  harm  to  Saul's  cause  by  alli- 
ances with  the  enemies  of  Israel  than  he  could 
possibly  have  done  had  he  remained  in  Saul's 
service.  Encouraged  by  this  state  of  aff^aira, 
the  Philistines  roused  themselves  to  renewed  ac- 
tion, and  at  Mount  Gilboa  succeeded  in  defeating 
the  Hebrew  army.  Saul's  three  sons  perished  in 
the  battle,  while  the  King  himself,  when  he  real- 
ized the  desperateness  of  the  situation,  *'fell  on 
his  sword"  and  thus  put  an  end  to  his  life. 
Consult :  the  chapters  on  Saul  in  the  Hebrew  his- 
tories of  Stade,  vol.  i.  (Qiessen,  1881),  Guthe 
(Freiburg,  1899),  Kenan  (Paris,  1887),  Piepen- 
bring  (ib.,  1899),  Kent  (New  York,  1891),  and 
Wellhausen  (Berlin,  1895).    See  David. 


8AXTL. 


469 


flAXrmiBBSON. 


SAIFXi.  (1)  An  oratorio  by  Handel  (q.T.)« 
(2)  A  poem  by  Robert  Browning  (q.v.)* 

BATTUCY,  a6'a^,  Louis  F£LiciEif  Jobeph 
Caiohabt  db  (1807-80).  An  Oriental  numis- 
matist and  antiquary.  He  was  bom  at  Lille, 
studied  at  tbe  Ecole  Polytechnique,  in  1838  be- 
came professor  of  mechanics  at  Mets,  and  was 
later  appointed  oonseryator  of  the  museum  of 
artillery  at  Paris.  His  activity  was  mainly  de- 
voted to  numismatics  and  archaeology.  L[i  1842 
he  became  a  member  of  the  French  Academy. 
Among  his  publications  may  be  mentioned  E9^i 
de  clas9ificatum  de»  Buites  monMaires  hyzaniinM 
{ 1836) ;  Reeherchea  9ur  la  numiamaiique  punique 
(1843) ;  Recherohea  9ur  la  numiamatique  judo- 
ique  (1854);  Voyage  en  Terre-Bainte  (1865); 
Sept  aUelea  de  VhietoWe  judatque  (1874) ;  and 
Histoire  dee  MaehaUee  (1880). 

BAXTIiT  SAIHTE  XABIB,  8S5  sftnt  mA'r«, 
Fr.  pron,  s5  sftwt  mA'rft'.  A  port  of  entry  of 
Algoma  District,  Ontario,  Canada,  opposite  its 
Michiffan  namesake,  on  the  Saint  Mary's  River 
and  &e  Saint  Mary's  Falls  ship-canal  (Map: 
Ontario,  N  9) .  A  railway  bridge,  one  mile  long, 
spans  the  river  between  the  two  towns  and  con- 
nects the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad  with  the 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway  by  the  Sault  or  "Soo" 
branch  line.  The  town  has  agricultural,  mining, 
manufacturing,  and  shipping  interests.  It  owns 
its  water-works  and  electric  lighting  plant. 
Population,  in  1891,  2414;  in  1901,  7169. 

SATTIiT  SAIHTE  XABIB.  The  county-seat 
of  Chippewa  County,  Michigan,  350  miles  west- 
northwest  of  Detroit;  on  the  Saint  Mary's  River, 
and  on  the  Canadian  Pacific,  the  Duluth,  South 
Shore  and  Atlantic,  and  the  Minneapolis,  Saint 
Paul  and  Sault  Ste.  Marie  railroads  (Map: 
Michigan,  J  2).  The  ship  canal  here,  connecting 
Lakes  Superior  and  Huron,  is  noted  for  its  exten- 
sive freight  traf&c.  New  locks  have  been  con- 
structed from  time  to  time  by  the  Federal  Grov- 
ernment  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  constantly 
increasing  commerce.  The  last  of  these,  costing 
about  $4,000,000,  was  opened  in  1896.  It  is  800 
feet  long  and  100  feet  wide,  and  will  admit  ves- 
sels drawing  21  feet  of  water.  (For  illustration, 
see  CavaSs.)  Other  noteworthy  features  are  the 
International  Bridge  across  the  rapids  of  the 
Saint  Mary's  River,  a  public  library,  Fort  Brady, 
and  Canal  Park.  The  water  power  afforded  by  the 
rapids  near  the  city  generates  electrical  energy 
equivalent  to  100,000  horse  power.  The  power  is 
utilized  by  several  important  industries.  There 
are  lumber  mills,  paper  mills,  a  carbide  manufac- 
toiy,  dredginff  machinery  works,  flour  and  woolen 
milk,  and  fish-packing  establishments.  The  gov- 
erament,  under  the  revised  charter  of  1897,  is 
vested  in  a  mayor,  elected  biennially,  and  a  uni- 
cameral council.  In  1641  the  Jesuit  Fathers 
Raymbanlt  and  Jogues  established  a  mission 
here,  but  it  was  soon  abandoned.  In  1662  Father 
Marquette  founded  here  the  first  permanent  set- 
tlement within  the  present  limits  of  Michigan. 
At  this  place  in  1671  the  French  convoked  a  great 
congress  of  the  Indian  nations.  Sault  Sainte 
Marie  was  firat  incorporated  in  1887.  Popuk- 
tion,  in  1890,  5760;    in  1900,  10,538. 

SAXnCABEZ,  sA'mA^rft^  James,  Baron  de 
(1757-1836).  A  British  admiral.  He  was  bom 
in  the  Isle  of  Guernsey  and  entered  the  British 
navy  in  1770.  He  distinguished  himself  during 
the  attack  on  Charleston  in  1776,  and  was  under 


Sir  Hyde  Parker  in  the  action  of  the  Dogger 
Bank  in  1781.  In  1782,  as  commander  of  the 
Rueeell,  he  shared  Rodney's  victory  over  De 
Grasse.  After  living  some  yeara  on  shore,  he 
made  a  gallant  capture  of  the  French  frigate 
La  Ronton  in  1793.  He  fought  in  the  battles  of 
rOrient  (1795),  Saint  Vincent  (1797),  and  the 
Nile  (1798).  He  became  Rear-Admiral  of  the 
Blue  in  1801,  and  in  the  same  year  gained  a 
splendid  victory  over  the  French  and  Spanish  off 
Cadiz  (July  12).  He  subsequently  commanded 
the  Baltic  fleet  for  a  number  of  yeara.  He  be- 
came admiral  in  1814,  vice-admiral  of  Graat 
Britain  in  1821,  and  was  raised  to  the  peerage 
in  1831. 


SATTXITB,  sd'mpr'.  The  capital  of  an  arron- 
dissement  in  the  Department  of  Maine-et-Loire, 
France,  28  miles  southeast  of  Angera  (Map: 
France,  F  4).  It  is  dominated  by  a  castle- 
crowned  hill  and  is  built  partly  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Loire  and  partly  on  an  island.  The  school 
for  cavalry,  founded  here  in  1768,  occupies  a 
magnificent  building,  and  has  extensive  parade 
grounds.  Other  prominent  features  include  the 
Church  of  Saint  Pierre,  dating  from  the  twelfth 
century,  the  pilgrimage  Clhurch  of  Notre  Dame 
de  Nantilly,  the  sixteenth-century  town  hall,  the 
century,  the  pilgrimage  Chureh  of  Notre  Dame 
College,  and  Museum  of  Science  and  Archieology. 
The  town  is  noted  for  its  wines  and  manufactures 
enameled  goods.  Saumur  was  one  of  the  leading 
centres  of  Protestantism  in  France,  but  lost  half 
of  its  population  and  its  commercial  prestige  by 
the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  Popu- 
lation, in  1901,  16,233. 

SATJKa)EBS,  Fbedbbigk  (1807-1902).  An 
American  librarian  and  author,  bom  in  London, 
England.  He  came  to  New  York  (1837),  en- 
ga^d  in  publishing,  and  was  a  pioneer  in  the 
agitation  for*  international  copyright.  For  some 
time  he  was  city  editor  of  the  Evening  Poet, 
In  1859  he  became  assistant  librarian  of  the  As- 
tor  Library,  and  head  librarian  in  1876,  resign- 
ing in  1896.  Amonff  many  volumes,  chiefly  of 
ephemeral  interest,  the  more  noteworthy  were: 
Salad  for  the  Solitary  by  an  Epicure  (1853); 
Salad  for  the  Social  (1856),  both  frequently  re- 
printed; Evenings  unth  the  Sacred  Poete  (1869) ; 
Pastime  Papers  (1885) ;  and  Story  of  Some  Fa- 
mous  Books  ( 1887 ) .  He  edited,  with  H.  T.  Tuck- 
erman.  Homes  of  American  Authors  (1853). 

SATTNDEBS,  Richabd.  The  name  used  by 
Benjamin  Franklin  for  the  supposed  author  of 
Poor  Richard's  Almanac, 

SATTNDEBS,  Thomas  Bailet  (I860—).  An 
English  author,  bom  in  Alice,  Cape  O)lony,  and 
educated  at  King's  College,  London,  and  at  Uni- 
versity d^ollege,  Oxford.  He  translated  Schopen- 
hauer's essays  under  the  titles  The  Wisdom  of 
Life,  Studies  in  Pessimism,  The  Art  of  Litera- 
ture,  and  On  Human  Nature  (1889-96) ;  maxims 
and  reflections  from  Groethe  (1893);  and  Har- 
nack's  Christianity  and  History  (1896),  Thoughts 
on  Protestantism  (1899),  and  What  is  Christian- 
ity (1900);  and  wrote  Schopenhauer  (1901), 
and  Professor  Hamack  and  His  Oxford  Critics 
(1902). 

8ATTNa>EBS0N,  or  SANDERSON,  NiCHO- 
i::as  (1682-1739).  An  English  mathematician, 
bom  at  Thurlston,  near  Penniston,  in  York- 
shire. When  only  one  year  of  age  he  lost  his 
sight  from  smallpox.    In  spite  of  this  infirmity. 


aATTNDEBSOir. 


470 


SATT8STTRE. 


he  bedtme  proficient  in  the  classics  and'in  mathe- 
matics. At  the  age  of  25  he  was  taken  to  Christ's 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  had  hoped  to  be 
admitted.  Lack  of  means,  however,  barred  him 
from  becoming  a  student  there,  but  by  the  con- 
sent of  Whiston,  then  Lucasian  professor,  he 
was  allowed  to  lecture  on  mathematical  physics. 
On  Whiston's  expulsion  from  his  professorship, 
Saunderson  was  considered  for  the  place,  and 
finally,  by  special  royal  patent,  was  made  M.A. 
(1711)  and  installed  in  it.  He  was  a  fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  (1719).  Saunderson  was  an 
indefatigable  teacher.  His  Algebra^  written  dur- 
ing his  later  years,  was  published  soon  after  his 
death  (2  vols.,  1740-41).  A  few  years  later  some 
of  his  manuscripts  were  published  under  the  title. 
The  Method  of  Fluxions,  etc.  (1751),  and  an 
abridged  edition  of  his  Algebra  appeared  (1761). 
For  his  biography,  consult  the  preface  to  his 
Algebra  (Cambridge,  1740-41). 

SATTPPE,  zoupV,  Hermann  (1809-93).  A 
German  classical  scholar,  bom  at  Wesenstein, 
near  Dresden.  After  studying  at  Leipzig,  he  was 
professor  extraordinary  at  the  University  of 
Zurich  in  1838-45 ;  director  of  the  Gymnasium  at 
Weimar  in  1845-56,  and  finally  professor  of  phi- 
lology at  the  University  of  G5ttingen,  where  he 
remained  until  his  death.  Sauppe  won  his  great- 
est fame  by  his  researches  in  the  field  of  Greek 
oratory.  Among  his  works  on  this  subject  are 
editions  of  the  Oratores  Attici  (9  vols.,  with  Bai- 
ter, 1839-50) ;  selected  orations  of  Demosthenes 
(1845);  and  the  Epistola  Critica  ad  Oodofre- 
dum  Hermannum  (1842),  considered  one  of  the 
most  valuable  modern  treatises  on  the  method- 
ology of  textual  criticism.  His  other  works  in- 
cluded editions  of  Philodemy's  De  Vitiia,  liber  x. 
(1853) ;  Plato's  Protagoras  (1857,  4th  ed.  1854), 
which  appeared  in  a  well-known  Sammlung 
griechischer  und  lateinischer  Schriftsteller  mit 
Anmerkungen,  founded  by  Sauppe  and  Haupt,  in 
1848;  and  Eugippii  Vita  8.  Severini  (pub- 
lished in  the  Monumenta  Germania  Historica), 
His  library  was  bought  by  Bryn  Mawr  College. 

SATJBEL.  A  small  active  carangid  marine 
fish  of  the  genus  Trachurus.  One  species 
{Trachurus  saurtis)  is  mainly  South-European, 
and  is  known  to  the  English  as  horse-mackerel; 
another  {Trachurus  symmetricus)  is  the  'horse- 
mackerer  of  California.  These  fishes  share  the 
names  'jureV  and  *gascon'  with  related  genera. 
See  Plate  of  Hobse  Mackebel. 

SATTBET,  s6'iA',  Emile  (1852—).  A  French 
violinist,  bom  at  Dun-le-Roi,  Cher.  He  studied 
at  the  Paris  Conservatory  and  was  a  pupil  of 
B^riot  at  Brussels.  From  1880  to  1881  he  was 
teacher  at  Kullak's  Akademie  in  Berlin,  and,  in 
1890,  was  appointed  professor  of  the  violin  at  the 
London  Royal  Academy  of  Music  to  succeed 
Sainton.  Among  his  works  are:  Oradus  ad  Par- 
nassum  du  violoniste  (1894)  ;  2  violin  concertos; 
about  130  other  pieces  for  the  violin,  with  or 
without  the  orchestra;  20  grandes  etudes;  12 
6tudes  artistiques;  and  about  25  transcriptions. 

SATJBIA  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Gk.  awpos, 
sauros,  lizard).  A  subclass  of  the  Reptilia,  in- 
cluding the  Autosauri  or  Lacertilia  (lizards), 
and  the  Ophidia  (snakes),  defined  by  Gadow  as 
reptiles  with  movable  quadrate  bones,  with  a 
transverse  external  cloacal  opening,  near  the 
posterior  lateral  corners  of  which  open  the  rever- 
sible  paired  copulatory  organs.     See   Reptile. 


Consult  Gadow,  Amphibia  and  Reptiles  (Loiidon« 
1901). 

SAUBIN,  s6'rftN',  Jacques  (1677-1730).  A 
celebrated  French  Protestant  preacher.  He  was 
born  at  Nfmes,  studied  at  Geneva,  and  was 
chosen  minister  of  a  Walloon  church  in  London  in 
1701.  In  1705  he  settled  at  The  Hague,  where  his 
extraordinary  gift  of  pulpit  oratory  was  much 
admired.  As  a  preacher,  Saurin  has  often  been 
compared  with  Bossuet,  whom  he  rivals  in  force, 
if  not  in  grace  and  subtlety  of  religious  senti- 
ment. His  discourses  upon  the  more  memorable 
events  in  the  Bible  were  published  at  The  Hague, 
1728-39,  and  his  sermons,  1748-65;  an  English 
translation  of  the  latter  appeared  at  London, 
1824.  Consult  his  Life,  by  Berthault  (Paris, 
1876). 

SATJBOP^IDA  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from 
Gk.  (ToO^f,  saurosy  lizard  -j-  0^ir,  opsis,  appear- 
ance). A  division  of  Vertebrata,  proposed  by 
Huxley  to  include  the  birds  and  reptiles,  which 
are  closely  related,  as  contrasted  with  the  Ichthy- 
opsida  (fishes  and  amphibians),  or  with  the 
Mammalia. 

SAX7BY,  or  Saubt  Pike.    See  Skipjack. 

SATJSAQE.    See  Packing  Indubtkt. 

SAUSAGE  POISON.  A  disease,  sometimes 
called  BoTULiSMUS,  caused  by  eating  diseased 
sausage  or  ham.  In  1898  Van  Ermengem  discov- 
ered in  unboiled  ham,  as  well  as  in  the  spleen  of 
persons  who  were  poisoned  -  by  eating  of  it,  a 
rod-shaped  bacterium  with  spore  formation  at 
its  end,  which  he  termed  bacillus  botulismw. 
Filtered  and  germ-free  solutions  of  this  ham 
contained  a  toxin  fatal  to  animals.    See  Teichi- 

NIASIS. 

SAUSSIEB,  86'syfi<,  Ffiux  Gustate(1828— ). 
A  French  general,  bom  at  Troyes.  He  studied 
at  Saint-Cyr  and  entered  the  army  as  lieutenant 
in  1850.  He  fought  in  Algeria,  took  part  in  the 
Crimean  War,  the  Italian  War  of  1859,  and  the 
Mexican  expedition,  and  in  1869  was  made  colo- 
nel. In  the  Franco-(jrerman  War  he  distinguished 
himself  at  Colombey-Nouilly  and  Gravelotte. 
Taken  prisoner  at  Metz  in  1870,  he  escaped,  re- 
turned to  France  by  way  of  Austria  and  Italy, 
and  joined  the  Army  of  the  Loire.  He  was  made 
a  brigadier-general,  and  from  1871  to  1873  served 
against  the  Kabyles  in  Africa.  In  1873  he  was 
returned  as  Deputy  for  the  Department  of  Aube. 
and  in  the  National  Assembly  adhered  to  the 
Left  Centre,  taking  an  active  share  in  all  ques- 
tions of  military  reform.  In  1878  he  became 
general  of  division,  in  1881  was  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army  in  Algeria  and  repressed  a 
formidable  uprising  in  Tunis,  and  in  1884  was 
appointed  military  governor  at  Paris.  He  re- 
tired in  1898. 

SATJSSTJBE^  s^syr^,  Horace  B^Ntoicr  de 
( 1740-99) .  A  Swiss  physicist  and  geologist  born 
at  Conches,  near  Geneva.  When  only  twenty-two 
years  of  aige  he  obtained  the  professorship  of 
physics  and  natural  philosophy  at  the  University 
of  Geneva.  In  1768  he  commenced  the  series  of 
scientific  journeys  that  have  made  him  famous, 
during  the  course  of  which  he  traversed  the  Alps, 
the  Jura,  the  Vosges,  and  the  mountains  of  Eng- 
land, trance,  Germany,  'Italy,  and  other  coun- 
tries. The  results  of  his  extensive  observations  of 
the  geological,  botanical,  and  meteorological  fea- 
tures of  the  mountainous  region  he  visited  were 


&ATT88TTBS. 


471 


aAVAGS'S  STATIOH. 


embodied  in  Voyages  dans  lea  Alpea  (4  vols.,  1770- 
06).  His  'Writings  include:  Ohaervatians  8ur 
Vicorce  des  feuilles  ei  des  p^talea  (1762);  Db 
PfXBcipuia  Errorum  Noatrorum  Cauais,  ea  Mentis 
Facultatibus  Oriundia  (1762);  De  Electrxoiiate 
(1766)  ;  De  Aqua  (1771) ;  and  Suf"  VhygromStrie 
( 1783 )  y  the  last  named  embodying  the  results  of 
researches  in  regard  to  the  properties  of  moisture- 
laden  air. 

SATTSSTTBBy  Nicoias  Th^odobe  de  (1767- 
1845).  A  Swiss  botanist,  son  of  Horace  de 
Saussure,  bom  in  Geneva  and  educated  there. 
He  assisted  his  father  in  his  physical  researches 
and  in  his  orographical  studies,  and  made  some 
valuable  experiments  as  to  atmospheric  density. 
But  his  work  on  plant  physiology,  RecTierchea 
chimiques  sur  la  v6gHation  (1804),  is  his  great 
claim  to  fame.  He  was  the  first  to  undertake  a 
quantitative  analysis  of  the  nutriment  of  plants 
and  urged  the  thesis  that  the  vegetable  organism  is 
formed  from  carbonic  acid  abstracted  from  the  air. 

SAXJTSKKES,  s^'tam^  A  village  in  the  De- 
partment of  Gironde,  France,  27  miles  by  rail 
southwest  of  Bordeaux.  It  is  situated  in  the 
famous  white-wine  producing  region  of  South- 
western France  and  gives  its  name  to  the  best 
brands.     Population,  in  1901,  934. 

aAV^AGE,  James  (1784-1873).  An  Ameri- 
can political  leader  and  antiquary,  bom  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  and  educated  at  Harvard.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  State  Executive  Council,  of  the 
Constitutional  Convention  of  1820,  and  at  dif- 
ferent times,  of  both  branches  of  the  Legislature. 
He  founded  and  was  successively  secretary, 
treasurer,  vice-president,  and  president  of  the 
Boston  Provident  Institution  for  Savings.  Among 
his  publications  are  editions  of  John  Winthrop's 
History  of  yew  England  from  1630  to  •1649 
(1825-26  and  1853),  and  a  valuable  (}enealogioal 
Dictionary  of  the  Firat' Settlera  of  Neuo  England 
{ 1860-64 ) .  Ck>nsult  Hilliard,  Memoir  of  the  Hon. 
James  Savage  (Boston,  1878). 

SAVAGE,  MiNOT  JuDSON  (1841-)..  A  Uni- 
tarian clergyman.    He  was  bom  at  Norridgewock, 
Me.,  entered  Bowdoin  College,  but  left  before  the 
end  of   his  course,  and  pursued  his  theological 
studies  at  Bangor  Seminary.     Commissioned  by 
the  American  Home  Missionary  Society  in  1864, 
he  spent  the  three  following  years  at  San  Mateo 
and  Grass  Valley,  Cal.,  then  settled  at  Framing- 
ham,   Mass.,  but  removed  to  Hannibal,  Mo.,  in 
1869.      While  preaching  in  the  latter  place  his 
views  underwent  so  decided  a  change  that  he  at 
length  withdrew  from  the  Congregational  Church, 
and  in  1873  became  pastor  of  the  Third  Unitarian 
Church  of  Chicago.    The  next  year  he  was  called 
to  the   Church  of  the  Unity  in  Boston  and  re- 
mained  there  until   1896,  when  he  removed  to 
New  York  and  became  minister  at  the  (Dhurch 
of    the    Messiah,   ranking  among  the   advanced 
thinkers  of  his  denomination.    He  has  published 
The  Religion  of  Evolution  (1876) ;  Life  Queations 
(1879);  The  Morale  of  Evolution   (1880);  Be- 
lief in,  Qod  (1881) ;  Beliefa  About  Man  (1882) ; 
Beliefs  About  the  Bible  (1883)  ;   Man,  Woman, 
and    Child    (1884);    Social   Problems    (1886); 
My     Creed     ( 1887 ) ;    Jeaua    and    Modern    Life 
(1893) ;  Life  Beyond  Death  (1899)  ;  The  Paaaing 
and  the  Permanent  in  Religion  ( 1901 ) . 

SAVAGB,   RiCHABD    (M743).     An  English 
poet,  who  was,  according  to  the  current  legend. 


an  illegitimate  son  of  Richard  Savage,  Lord 
Rivers,  by  the  Countess  of  Macclesfield.  The 
Countess,  while  living  apart  from  her  husband, 
Charles  Gerard,  second  Earl  of  Macclesfield,  bore 
to  Lord  Rivers  two  children,  a  daughter,  who 
died  in  infancy  (1695),  and  a  son,  christened 
Richard  Smith  ( Januaiy  18,  1697),  who  seems  to 
have  died  the  year  of  his  birth.  The  Earl  ob- 
tained a  divorce  from  his  wife  (1698),  who  mar- 
ried  (1700)  Colonel  Henry  Brett  (d.l724).  The 
poet,  Richard  Savage,  probably  of  obscure  birth, 
openly  claimed  to  1^  the  son  christened  Richard 
Smith.  According  to  the  usual  story,  to  which 
Dr.  Johnson  gave  currency  in  his  famous  Life  of 
Savage  (1744),  the  child,  neglected  by  the 
Countess,  was  committed  to  a  nurse  and  afterwards 
to  her  mother.  Lady  Mason,  who  sent  him  to  a 
grammar  school  at  Saint  Albans.  The  Countess 
prevented  Lord  Rivers  from  leaving  him  £6000,  at- 
tempted to  have  him  kidnapped  and  sent  off  to  the 
Wesl  Indies,  and  finally  in  despair  apprenticed 
him  to  a  London  shoemaker.  An  accident  revealed 
the  secret  of  his  birth,  and  the  boy  quitted  his 
obscure  trade.  The  entire  account  was  de- 
rived solely  from  Savage's  own  statements,  and 
is  now  wholly  discredited.  Savage  profited  by 
the  legend.  In  1727  Savage  killed  a  man  in  a 
tavern  brawl  and  was  sentenced  to  death,  but  a 
pardon  was  obtained  by  the  intercession  of  the 
Countess  of  Hertford.  Lord  I^rconnel,  a  nephew 
of  Mrs.  Brett,  received  him  into  his  household. 
In  course  of  time  the  two  men  quarreled,  and 
Savage  was  thrown  upon  the  world. ..  On  the 
death  of  Laurence  Eusden  (1730),  Savage  tried 
to  obtain  the  laureateship,  but  failed.  The 
Queen,  however,  permitted  him  to  address  odes 
to  her,  and  conferred  upon  him  a  pension  of  £60 
a  year.  Two  years  after  the  death  of  the  (}ueen 
a  pension  of  the  same  amount  was  raised  by 
Pope  and  others  (1739),  and  Savage  was  sent 
off  to  Swansea  in  Wales.  After  staying  there  for 
a  year  he  went  to  Bristol,  where  he  was  arrested 
for  debt.  He  died  in  prison  August  1,  1743. 
His  works  comprise:  Woman'a  a  Riddle  (per- 
formed 1716) ;  The  Convocation,  a  poem  (1717) ; 
Sir  Thomaa  Overbury,  a  tragedy  (1723);  The 
Baatard,  a  poem  (1728) ;  The  Wanderer,  a  poem 
(1729) ;  and  considerable  occasional  verse. 

SAVAGE  ABMSTBONO,  George  Fbakcis. 
See  Abmstbong,  George  Francis  Savage. 

SAVAQE  ISLAND.    See  Niue. 

SAVAGE'S  STATION^  or  ALLEK'S 
FARM,  Battle  of.  A  battle  fought  near 
Savage's  Station,  about  10  miles  east  of  Rich- 
mond, Va.,  on  June  29,  1862,  during  the  Penin- 
sular campaign  of  the  (IJivil  War,  between  a  part 
of  McCIellan's  Federal  Army  of  the  Potomac, 
under  Generals  Sumner  and  Franklin,  and  a  part 
of  Lee's  Confederate  Army  of  Northern  Virginia, 
under  General  Magruder.  It  was  one  of  the 
Seven  Days'  Battles  (q.v.)  fought  by  General 
Mc(71ellan  during  his  change  of  base  from  the 
York  to  the  James  River.  After  the  battle  of 
Gaines's  Mill  (q.v.)  Generals  Heintzelman,  Sum- 
ner, and  Franklin  were  directed  by  McClellan  to 
hold  the  Federal  lines  immediately  south  of  the 
Chickahominy.  This  force  was  weakened  on  the 
29th  by  the  withdrawal  of  Heintzelman  across 
White  Oak  Swamp,  and  by  the  retirement  of 
Slocum's  division  of  Franklin's  corps,  which  had 
suffered  severely  at  Gaines's  Mill.    ()n  the  same 


BiLVAaS'S  STATZOll. 


47a 


fiAVAVVAa. 


day  Magruder,  expecting  to  be  supported  by  Jack- 
son, who  had  been  ordered  to  cross  the  Ghicka- 
hominy  at  Sumner's  Upper  Bridge  and  strike  the 
Federal  right  flank,  but  who  had  been  unavoid- 
ably delayed,  attacked  the  Federal  force  witli 
great  energy,  first  at  Allen's  Farm  and  then  at 
SaTage's  Station,  but  was  finally  repulsed.  The 
Federals,  however,  withdrew  across  White  Oak 
Swamp  during  the  night,  leaving  to  the  Con- 
federate 2500  sick  and  wounded  men  in  the  field 
hospital  at  Savage's  Station.  Before  and  after 
the  battle  the  Federals  destroyed  here  large  quan- 
tities of  their  supplies  and  munitions  of  war. 
Consult:  Johnson  and  Buel  <eds.).  Battles  and 
Leaders  of  the  Civil  War  (vol.  ii.,  New  York, 
1887);  and  Webb,  The  Peninsula  (New  York, 
1881). 

aAVAn,  s&vl'^,  or  SAWAn.  The  largest 
and  westernmost  of  the  Samoan  Islands  (q.v.) 
(Map:  Samoa,  C  5).  It  is  over  40  miles  long 
and  has  an  area  of  660  square  miles.  It  is  moun- 
tainous and  covered  with  craters.  The  highest 
peak  of  the  island,  as  well  as  of  the  group,  is 
Mua  (4000  feet).  The  coasts  are  mostly  precipi- 
tous and  inaccessible,  the  only  place  of  anchor- 
age being  Mataatu,  in  the  north.  The  interior 
is  densely  wooded  and  sparsely  inhabited,  but 
there  are  stretches  of  fertile  land  along  the 
coasts.  The  island  belongs  to  Germany  and  is 
divided  into  six  administrative  districts.  Popu- 
lation, in  1000,  13,201. 

SAVANNAH.  The  second  largest  city  of 
Georgia  and  the  county-seat  of  Chatham  County, 
situated  on  the  west  bank,  of  the  Savannah 
River,  18  miles  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  (Map: 
Georgia,  £  3).  Geographically  and  commercially 
it  enjoys  a  position  of  unusual  advantage;  his- 
torically, it  is  one  ot  the  most  interesting  cities 
of  the  South.  The  climate,  greatly  infiuenced  by 
the  Gulf  stream,  is  mild  and  pleasant.  Though 
it  is  hot  in  summer,  cool  breezes  prevail  at  night. 
The  average  temperature  is  66  degrees. 

Savannah  is  situated  on  a  plateau  50  feet 
above  sea  level.  The  plan  of  the  city,  in  all  its 
extensions,  has  followed  that  originally  pro- 
jected by  Oglethorpe.  The  streets,  broad  and 
straight  and  luxuriantly  shaded,  cross  each  other 
at  right  angles.  The  number  of  trees  and  their 
beauty  have  given  Savannah  the  name  of  'Forest 
City.'  Among  them  are  magnolias,  japonicas, 
and  catalpas.  The  squares  of  the  cit^  which,  in 
the  original  design,  were  intended  as  rallying 
places  for  the  colonists,  are  especially  noteworthy. 
Forsyth  Park  is  the  largest  of  these  places  of  re- 
sort. A  handsome  monument  to  the  Confederate 
dead  stands  in  the  Parade  Ground,  the  southern 
extension  of  the  park.  In  other  squares  are  monu- 
ments in  honor  of  Gen.  Nathanael  Greene,  Wil- 
liam Washington  Gordon,  builder  of  the  Central 
of  Georgia  Railway,  Sergeant  William  Jasper, 
the  Revolutionary  patriot,  and  Count  Casimir 
Pulaski. 

Among  the  more  imposing  public  buildings  are 
the  Post-Office,  the  Custom-House,  the  (>)unty 
CoUrt-House,  the  City  Exchange,  the  Telfair 
Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  and  the  Public 
Library.  The  church  edifices  are  numerous  and 
handsome,  the  style  of  architecture  representing 
in  large  measure  old  colonial  ideals.  There  are 
a  number  of  good  private  schools,  besides  an 
efficient  public  school  system.    Telfair  Hospital 


for  Women,  Savannah  Hospital,  Saint  Joaeph'i 
Hospital,  and  the  Georgia  Infirmary  for  Colored 
People  are  prominent  institutions.  Near  the 
city  are  several  salt  water  resorts,  which  an 
largely  frequented  during  the  sununer. 

Savannah  is  surrounded  by  a  fertile  territoiy, 
especially  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  rioe, 
cotton,  sugar-cane,  vegetables,  and  fruits.  Four 
great  railway  lines  enter  the  city:  tlie  Atlantic 
Coast  Line,  &e  Seaboard  Air  Line,  the  Southern, 
and  the  dJentral  of  Georgia.  Its  facilities  for  the 
eiqpeditious  handling  of  ocean  and  coastwise 
freights  in  large  quantities  have  made  it  the  most 
prosperous  of  South  Atlantic  ports.  The  broad 
chaimel  is  26  feet  in  depth,  and  is  being  im- 

S roved  by  the  Government  to  afford  a  greater 
epth.  The  terminals  of  the  railroads  occupy 
in  the  aggregate  three  miles  of  wharves.  Savan- 
nah is  the  first  cotton  port  on  the  South  Atlantic 
coast  and  the  first  naval  stores  port  in  the 
world.  Its  exports  of  lumber  are  large  and  are 
rapidly  increasing.  The  annual  export  of  phos- 
phate rock  exceeds  that  of  any  other  South  At- 
lantic port.  The  total  foreign  commerce  for  the 
year  1901  amounted  to  $47,384,000,  mostly  ex- 
ports, making  it  rank  fifth  among  Atlantic  ports. 
Though  Savannah  is  preeminently  a  shipping 
centre,  considerable  manufacturing  is  carried  on, 
but  diiefly  for  local  markets,  ^ere  are,  how- 
ever, large  railroad  car  and  repair  shops,  fer- 
tilizer manufactories,  foundries  and  machine 
shops,  cottonseed  oil  mills,  lumber  mills,  patent 
medicine  factories,  etc.  In  the  census  year  1900 
the  various  industries  had  $5,716,000  capital  and 
an  output  valued  at  $6,462,000. 

The  ffovemment  is  vested  in  a  mayor  and  a 
board  of  aldermen,  elected  every  two  years.  Most 
of  the  administrative  officers  are  chosen  by  the 
city  •council,  the  park  and  tree  commissioners, 
however,  being  nominated  by  the  mayor  and 
confirmed  by  the  council.  The  board  of  educ- 
tion is,  in  a  large  degree,  a  self-perpetuating 
body,  entirely  removed  from  partisan  politics. 

Population,  in  1800,  5146;  in  1850,  15,312;  in 
1860,  22,292;  in  1870,  28,235;  in  1880,  30,709;  m 
1890,  43,189;  in  1900,. 54,244.  The  toUl  in  1900 
included  28,090  persons  of  negro  descent.  The 
foreign-bom  population  was  small,  only  3434. 

Savannah  was  settled  in  1733  by  a  small  com- 
pany imder  the  leadership  of  Gen.  James  Edward 
Oglethorpe.  (See  Gbobgia.)  During  the  next 
few  years  a  considerable  number  of  German, 
English,  and  Scotch  immigrants  arrived,  among 
them  (in  1735)  being  Charles  and  John  Wesley. 
During  the  Revolutionary  War  Savannah  was 
fortified  by  the  Americans,  and  in  December, 
1778,  when  occupied  by  a  force  of  less  than  1000, 
under  Howe,  it  was  attacked  and  captured,  De- 
cember 29th,  by  3000  British  under  Colonel  Camp- 
bell. In  the  fall  of  1779  an  allied  army  of  French 
and  American  troops,  under  IVEstaing  and  Lin- 
coln, attempted  to  recapture  it,  but  were  repeat- 
edly repulsed,  and  in  the  disastrous  attadc  of 
October  9th  the  allies  lost  more  than  800  men. 
Count  Pulaski  and  Sergeant  Jasper  being  mor^ 
tally  wounded.  Savannah  was  incorporate  as  a 
city  in  1789.  In  1796,  and  again  in  1820,  it  was 
ravaged  by  fire,  the  loss  being  more  than  $1,000,- 
000  in  the  first  case  and  more  than  $4,000,000 
in  the  second.  The  first  steamship  to  cross  the 
Atlantic  was  owned  and  projected  in  Savannah, 
was  named  after  the  city,  and  sailed  from  this 


fiAVAimAfi. 


47ft 


&Avi0inr. 


port  (in  1819)  on  its  Toyage  to  Liverpool.  On 
December  10,  1864,  General  Sherman  reached  Sa- 
vannah, thus  completing  his  famous  march  to  the 
sea.  The  city,  then  having  a  population  of  about 
25,000,  was  defended  by  General  Hardee  with  a 
Confederate  force  of  18,000;  but  Sherman  cap- 
tured Fort  McAllister  (q*v.)  on  the  13th,  and 
on  the  20th,  while  the  Federal  army  was  pre- 
paring to  open  siege  operations  on  all  sides, 
Hardee  hurriedly  withdrew  by  means  of  a  pon- 
toon bridge,  destroying  the  navy  yard  with  the 
ironclad  ram  Savannah,  but  leaving  160  heavy 
guns,  large  quantities  of  ammunition,  and  some 
30,000  bales  of  cotton.  Sherman  left  late  in 
Januaiy  on  his  march  through  the  Carolinas, 
but  Savannah  was  held  by  a  Federal  garrison 
until  the  doee  of  the  war.  Consult :  C.  C.  Jones, 
Jr.,  and  others.  History  of  Savannah  to  the  Close 
of  the  Eighteenth  Century  (Syracuse,  1800) ;  Lee 
and  Agnew,  Historical  Record  of  Savannah 
(Savannah,  1869) ;  and  Siege  of  Savannah  in 
1779  (Albany,  1866). 

8AVAHNAH  SIVES.  A  river  forming  the 
boundary  between  Georgia  and  South  Carolina. 
It  rises  in  the  Blue  Ri^e,  and  flows  southeast, 
entering  the  Atlantic  O^n  through  the  T^bee 
Koads,  after  a  course  of  450  miles  (Map: 
Cieorgia,  D  2).  Its  upper  course  is  rapid,  and 
the  river  carries  a  great  deal  of  silt,  which  is 
'  deposited  near  its  mouth  in  low  islands  and 
spits,  dividing  tiie  river  into  narrow  channels. 
IHie  entrance  is  being  extensively  improved  by 
means  of  jetties,  and  a  26-foot  chajomel  will  be 
secured  to  the  city  of  Savannah,  18  miles  from 
the  sea.  The  river  is  navigable  for  small  steam- 
ers 230  miles  to  Augusta. 

SAVANNAS  (OSp.  savana,  sheet,  from  Lat. 
sahanum,  from  Ok.  ^d/3ai«v,  linen  cloth,  towel). 
Plant  societies  intermediate  between  forests  and 
grasslands  and  associated  with  transitional  con- 
ditions. Climatic  savannas,  which  are  abundant 
in  many  tropical  and  warm  regions,  are  park- 
like, the  undergrowth  being  largely  grassy  and 
the  trees  scattered  irregidarly.  C^casionally 
edaphie  savannas,  probably  influenced  by  the 
granng  of  animals,  may  occur  in  temperate  re- 
gions, especially  in  river  bottoms. 

SAVABYy  sft'vft'r^,  Anne  Jean  Mabie  Ren£, 
Duke  of  Rovigo  (1774-1833).  A  French  general, 
bom  at  Marcq  (Ardennes).  In  1797  he  accom- 
panied Desaix  to  Egypt,  and  after  Marengo 
(1800)  Napoleon  made  him  a  colonel  and  aide- 
de-camp,  in  1802  he  became  general  of  brigade 
and  was  made  chief  of  the  secret  police ;  in  1804, 
as  commandant  of  troops,  stationed  at  Vincennes, 
be  presided  at  the  shameful  execution  of  the 
Duke  d'Enghien.  In  the  wars  of  180607  he  ac- 
quired high  military  reputation,  his  victory  at 
Ostroknka  (Februaiy  16,  1807)  being  a  brilliant 
achievement.  He  distinguished  himself  also  at 
Friedland  (June  14,  1807),  and  was  created  Duke 
of  Rovigo  in  the  beginning  of  the  following  year. 
He  was  then  sent  to  Spain  by  the  Emperor  and 
negotiated  the  arrangements  b^  which  Joseph 
Bonaparte  became  King  of  Spain.  In  1810  ba- 
vary  replaced  Fouch^  as  Minister  of  Police  and 
held  office  until  1814.  After  the  fall  of  Napo- 
leon, he  was  confined  by  the  British  Government 
at  Malta  for  seven  months,  when  he  succeeded  in 
making  his  escape,  and  landed  at  Smyrna.  He  re- 
turned to  Paris  in  1818,  and  was  reinstated  in 


his  titles  and  honors.  In  1823  he  removed  to 
Rome,  having  given  offense  to  the  Court  by  his 
pamphlet  Sur  la  catastrophe  de  Mgr,  le  Due 
d'Enghien,  in  which  Talleyrand  was  charged  with 
the  responsibility  for  the  Duke's  death,  but  at 
the  close  of  1831  he  was  recalled  by  Louis 
Philippe  and  appointed  commander-in-chief  of 
the  Army  of  Africa.  He  died  in  Paris.  His 
M ^moires  (Paris,  1828)  are  valuable  for  the 
Napoleonic  period. 

SAVE,  sav  (Ger.  Sau).  A  tributary  of  the 
Danube.  It  rises  in^he  northwestern  part  of  the 
Austrian  Crownland  of  Oamiola,  and  flows  south- 
east and  east  through  Croatia  and  along  the 
southern  borders  of  Slavonia,  which  it  separates 
from  Bosnia  and  Servia  till  it  joins  the  Danube 
at  Belgrade,  after  a  course  of  about  450  miles 
(Map:  Austria,  £  4).  In  its  lower  course  it  is 
a  sluggish  stream,  winding  between  marshy 
banks,  while  its  shoals  and  variable  volume  ren- 
der navigation  difficult.  It  is,  however,  navigable 
for  steamers  as  far  as  Sissek,  365  miles.  It  re- 
ceives .its  principal  tributaries  from  the  right. 
These  include  the  Kulpa,  Una,  Vrbas,  Bosna,  and 
Drina. 

SA^VEBY,  Thomas  (c.1650-1716).  An  Eng- 
lish inventor,  bom  in  Shilstone,  Devonshire.  He 
became  a  military  engineer,  but  devoted  himself 
to  mechiuiical  inventions,  devising  a  machine  for 
polishing  plate  glass  in  1696  and  in  the  same 
year  a  pair  of  paddle-wheels  worked  by  a  cap- 
stan set  between  them  on  a  boat,  a  scheme  de- 
scribed in  a  pamphlet  Navigation  Improved 
(1698;  reprinted  in  1858  and  in  1880).  But  his 
fame  rests  on  the  steam  pumping  engine  which 
he  patented  in  1698,  and  which  was  the  first  to 
come  into  practical  use,  especially  in  the  im- 
proved form  it  took  after  the  association  of 
Savery  with  Newcomen  (q.v.)-.  Savery  wrote 
The  Miner's  Friend  (1698),  which  contains  a  de- 
scription of  his  engine. 

SAViaUAHO,  sil'v«-lya^n6.  A  town  in  the 
Province  of  Cuneo,  Italy,  on  the  Maira,  32  miles 
by  rail  south  of  Turin  (Map:  Italy,  B  3).  It 
is  surrounded  by  walls,  and  has  a  triumphal 
arch.  There  are  a  technical  school  and  a  libra- 
ry. Savigliano  manufactures  railway  material, 
wagons,  silks,  linens,  and  sugar,  and  trades  in 
cattle,  hemp,  and  fruit.  Here  in  1799  the  allied 
Russians  and  Austrians  defeated  the  French. 
Population  (commune),  in  1901,  17,321. 

SAVIQirr,  s&'v6'ny^,  Fbiedhich  Karl  vok 
(1779-1861).  One  of  the  most  distinguished  of 
modern  European  jurists,  the  founder  of  the  mod- 
em historical  school  of  jurisprudence.  He  was 
bom  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  a  descendant  of 
an  ancient  family  of  Lorraine.  He  studied  at 
Marburg  (1803-08),  taught  theie,  at  Landshut 
(1808-10),  and  at  Berlin  (1810-42).  In  1842  he 
ceased  to  teach  and  became  a  member  of  the  Prus- 
sian Ministry,  his  especial  charge  being  the  prepa- 
ration of  le^slative  measures.  In  1848  he  retired 
to  private  life.  In  1803  he  published  a  treatise  on 
the  Law  of  Possession  {Recht  des  Besitzes)  which 
gave  him  a  European  reputation.  In  1814, 
in  reply  to  a  pamphlet  by  Thibaut,  advocating  the 
preparation  of  a  code  of  laws  for  Gennany,  he 
published  his  Vocation  of  Our  Time  for  Legisla- 
tion  and  Jurisprudence  {Beruf  unserer  Zeit  fUr 
Oesetzgehung  und  Rechtswissenschaft) ,  In  his 
essay  he  took  the   groimd  that  German  legal 


&AVI0NY. 


474 


fiAVXHOfi  BAKK. 


scienoQ  was  not  sufficiently  developed  to  warrant 
such  an  undertaking,  but  he  also  set  forth  the 
limitations  and  the  perils  of  codification  with  a 
precision  and  force  that  have  not  been  excelled. 
In  insisting  that  law  is  a  product  of  the  life  of 
each  nation,  he  gave  to  the  historical  school  of 
jurisprudence  ^ts  theoretical  basis.  In  1815,  in 
cooperation  with  other  jurists,  he  established  the 
Zeitachrift  f^r  geachichtliche  Rechtawissenschaft, 
which  continued  to  appear  until  1850.  Its  mod- 
ern successor  is  the  Zeitachrift  der  Bavigny- 
Stiftung  fUr  Rechtageachichte,  Between  1816 
and  1831  he  published  his*  Hw^ory  of  Roman 
Law  in  the  Middle  Agea  {Oeachichte  dea 
romiachen  Rechta  im  MitteUUter) ,  and  between 
1835  and  1853  his  Syatem  of  Modem  Roman 
Law  {Syatem  dea  heutigen  rtSmiachen  Rechta), 
which  remained  unfinished.  His  miscellaneoiis 
writings  were  collected  and  published  in  1850.  In 
addition  to  his  services  to  historical  jurispru- 
dence, Savigny  did  much  to  promote  a  more 
fundamental  analysis  of  legal  conceptions.  There 
are  lives  of  Savigny  by  Strutzing  (Berlin,  1862) 
and  Landsberg  (Leipzig,  1890). 

SAVILE,  sftv^l,  or  SAVILLE,  Geobge,  Mar- 
quis of  Halifax  ( 1633-95) .  An  English  politician 
and  statesman,  bom  at  Thomhill.  He  was  a  con- 
fidential adviser  of  Charles  II.,  by  whom  he  was 
created  Earl  of  Halifax  in  1679  and  Marquis  of 
Halifax  in  1682.  In  the  latter  vear  he  was  also 
made  Lord  Privy  Seal,  the  highest  post  in  the 
realm.  In  this  position  he  used  his  influence  to 
oppose  the  ambition  of  James,  Duke  of  York,  and 
to  advance  the  interests  of  the  Duke  of  Mon- 
mouth. When  James  came  to  the  throne  he  re- 
tained Savile  among  his  advisers,  but  in  a  lower 
office — ^the  presidency  of  the  council.  He  was, 
however,  almost  immediately  dismissed  from  the 
council  because  of  his  opposition  to  the  repeal  of 
the  Test  and  Habeas  Corpus  Acts.  When  the 
storm  broke  over  James  he  attempted  to  con- 
ciliate the  Marquis,  who  seems  to  have  met  the 
King's  advances  half-way.  But  on  the  arrival  of 
William  Halifax  went  over  to  him  and,  next  to 
Somers,  exercised  the  greatest  influence  in  bring- 
ing about  the  new  regime.  He  was  again  ap- 
pointed Lord  Privy  Seal,  but  he  gradually  with- 
drew from  political  activity.  His  last  years  were 
spent    almost   entirely    in    literary    work.      In 

Solitics  he  was  moderate,  and  worked  for  what 
e  believed  to  be  his  country's  good,  regardless 
of  party  interests  and  prejudices.  This  mental 
attitude,  however,  made  him  generally  suspected 
and  disliked,  and  gained  him  the  name  of  ^Trim- 
mer,'  which  he  accepted  as  a  far  from  opprobious 
appellation.  His  numerous  pamphlets  are  pub- 
lished in  a  volume  entitled  Miacellaniea  by  the 
Moat  Noble  George  Lord  SavUe,  late  Marquia 
and  Earl  of  Halifax  (London,  1700).  Consult: 
Burnet,  Hiatory  of  Hia  Own  Time  (Oxford, 
1833)  ;  Engliah  Hiatorical  Review,  October,  1896. 
SAVILE,  sftvll.  Sir  Henby  (1549-1622).  An 
English  scholar,  born  at  Bradley,  in  York- 
shire. He  entered  Brasenose  College,  Oxford,  but 
was  transferred  to  Merton  (Allege  in  1561,  and 
became  fellow  of  that  college  in  1565.  Sub- 
sequently he  visited  many  places  on  the  Con- 
tinent, collecting  manuscripts,  and  on  his  return 
was  appointed  Greek  and  mathematical  tutor  to 
Queen  Elizabeth,  1578;  provost  of  Eton,  1596; 
warden  of  Merton  College,  1585-1621.  He  was 
knighted  by  James  I.  in  1604.    He  foimded  at 


Oxford  the  Savilian  professorships  of  geometry 
and  astronomy,  and  gave  liberally  to  the  uni- 
versity besides  the  gift  of  his  valuable  libraiy. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  translation  of  The  End  of 
Nero  and  Beginning  of  Oalba,  fower  Bookea  cf 
the  Hiatoriea  of  Comeliua  Tacit  ua;  The  Life 
of  Agrioola,  uHth  Notea  (Oxford,  1591) ;  a  folio 
edition  of  the  Rerum  Anglioarum  Scriptorea  foat 
Bedam  Prcaoipui  (Oxford,  1596) ;  and  a  folio 
edition  of  the  works  of  Saint  Qixysostom  in  8 
vols.  (1610-13). 

SAVIK,  or  S A  VINE  (OF.,  Fr.  sahine,  It 
aavina,  from  Lat.  aavina,  savin,  for  Sabina  herha, 
Sabine  herb),  Juniperua  Sabina,  A  low,  much- 
branched,  widely  spreading  shrub,  with  small, 
imbricated  evergreen  leaves.  It  grows  on  moun- 
tains in  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  America,  bean 
small  black  berries,  covered  with  a  pale  blue 
bloom,  and  has  strong  smelling  aromatic  leaves. 
Two  pounds  of  the  tops  yield  about  five  ounces  of 
limpid  and  nearly  colorless  oil  with  the  odor  of 
the  plant  and  a  hot  acrid  t^ste.  Tliis  oil  is 
sometimes  used  medicinally. 

SAVINOS  BANS.  An  institution  for  the 
accumulation  and  profitable  employment  of  small 
sums,  chiefly  the  savings  of  the  poorer  classes. 
Savings  banks  originated  in  the  philanthropic 
movement  of  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
An  institution  of  this  nature  was  in  operation 
in  Hamburg  in  1778;  another  was  founded  in  * 
Oldenburg  in  1786.  In  England  a  savings  bank 
was  foimded  in  London  in  1708.  In  the  first  two 
decades  of  the  nineteenth  century  such  institu- 
tions were  established  throughout  Western 
Europe;  in  1816  the  first  one  in  America  was 
founded  at  Philadelphia,  and  by  1820  ten  sav- 
ings banks  were  in  operation  in  the  United 
States.  Sinoe  that  time  such  banks  have  in- 
creased steadil^r  in  number,  until  at  present  no 
civilized  State  is  wholly  without  them. 

Tbustkb  Savings  Banks.  Early  savings  banks 
were  all  founded  by  philanthropists  who  acted 
simply  as  trustees  for  the  depositors,  giving  their 
services  gratuitously  in  manaA:ing  the  funds  de- 
posited with  them.  Practically  the  same  plan 
is  followed  by  most  of  the  private  savings  banks 
of  England  and  by  the  mutual  savings  banks  of 
America.  The  system  is,  however,  subject  to 
fraud  and  reckless  management — evils  which  are 
of  a  serious  nature,  sinoe  they  check  the  tendency 
to  save  which  the  bank  exists  to  develop.  In 
many  cases  the  Government  endeavors  to  mini- 
mize the  risk  of  bad  management  by  prescribing 
the  classes  of  securities  in  which  savings  banks 
may  invest.  National,  State,  and  munidpU  bonds 
and  real  estate  mortgages  are  favorite  forms  of 
investment  in  the  United  States. 

Joint- Stock  Savings  Banks  exist  in  large 
numbers,  especially  in  the  western  part  of  the 
United  States.  Owing  to  the  necessity  of  earn- 
ing profits,  it  is  impossible  for  these  banks  to 
make  any  great  effort  to  secure  very  small  de- 
posits; hence  their  educational  value  is  limited. 
The  chief  purpose  they  serve  is  the  productive 
employment  of  savings  of  those  who  enjoy  con- 
siderable incomes. 

Savings  Banks  in  the  United  States.  The 
following  table,  from  Hamilton,  Savinga  Inatitih 
tiona,  page  190,  illustrates  the  growtJi  of  savings 
banks  (mutual  and  joint-stock)  in  the  United 
States: 


fiAVIl^ad  AAKK. 


475 


aAVOITA. 


laao. 

1840. 
IMO. 

isw. 

1880. 
1900. 


Number 

or 

banks 


10 
61 
378 
•38 
921 
1.002 


Number  of 
depositors 


8.636 

78.701 

608.870 

2.886.662 

4.268.893 

6.107.063 


Deposits 


$1,138,676 

U.051.620 

149.277.604 

819.106.973 

1.624.844,606 

2.449.647.806 


Average 
due  each 
depositor 


$131.66 
188.09 
216.13 
360.71 
368.03 
401.10 


Oermanj 

United  Kingdom 

France 

Japan 

Italy 

Austria 

Russia 

Belgium 


The  efficiency  of  a  system  of  savinga  banks 
may  be  roughly  measured  by  the  ratio  of  ac- 
counts to  the  total  population.  By  this  test,  the 
American  system  does  not  prove  wholly  satis- 
factory. While  the  New  England  States  show 
one  account  to  two  of  the  population,  the  West- 
em  States  show  only  one  to  18,  the  Middle 
States  one  to  48,  and  the  Southern  States  one 
to  406. 

Municipal  SAyiNos  Banks.  Municipal  action 
in  ^couragin^  saying  b^gan  in  Germany.  A 
municipal  savings  bamc  was  organized  in  Karls- 
ruhe about  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury; another  was  founded  at  Berlin  in  1818. 
Institutions  of  this  type  are  now  found  through- 
out Germany,  operating  in  the  country  districts 
as  well  as  in  the  towns.  They  are  also  the  pre- 
dominant type  of  bank  in  Austria  and  France, 
and  the  plan  has  been  successfully  employed  in 
Italy,  Switzerland,  Russia,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and 
Japan.  It  presupposes  a  highly  efficient  mimici- 
pal  government,  and  general  confidence  in  the 
officials  on  the  part  of  the  lower  classes.  These 
banks  are  for  the  most  part  organized  as  quasi- 
private  corporations,  having  power  to  own  prop- 
erty, make  oinding  contracts,  and  sue  and  be  sued 
before  the  courts.  Managers  and  officials  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  municipaliiy.  In  large  cities  the 
organization  consists  of  a  central  office  with 
branches  located  where  they  will  be  most  con- 
venient to  wage-earners.  Sometimes  these  banks 
undertake  to  send  officials  to  the  homes  of  small 
depositors,  to  collect  weekly  sums  for  deposit. 
These  banks  have  proved  highly  successful,  not 
only  furnishing  excellent  facilities  for  saving,  but 
also  rendering  available  a  supply  of  capital  for 
local  uses.  Loans  on  real  estate  are  the  principal 
form  of  investment. 

Postai.  Savings  Banks.  See  under  that  head- 
ing. 

ScHOOi*  Savings  Banks.  A  great  deal  of  at- 
tention has  recently  been  given  to  plans  for  train- 
ing school  children  in  habits  of  saving.  Priscilla 
Wakefield  experimented  with  a  school  savings 
bank  early  in  the  nineteenth  century.  The  plan 
was  tried  in  several  parts  of  Europe  in  the  first 
half  of  the  century,  but  first  received  general 
recognition  in  1866  through  the  efforts  of  Pro- 
fessor Laurent  in  Belgium.  The  principle  has 
been  widely  adopted  both  in  Europe  and  in 
America.  Its  usefulness,  however,  has  not  as  yet 
been  entirely  established. 

The  table  below,  from  the  International  Year 
Book,  1902,  gives  the  chief  facts  with  regard  to 
savings  banks  in  the  more  important  modern 
nations. 

Consult:  Hamilton,  Savinga  Institutiona  (New 
York,  1902) ;  Wolff,  ''Savings  Banks  at  Home 
and  Abroad,"  Journal  of  the  Royal  Statistical 
Society,  vol.  Ix.;  article  "Sparkassen"  in  Con- 
rad's Handw&rterbuch  der  Staatsunsaensohaften, 
vol.  vi.  (Jena,  1901).  See  Bank. 
Tpl.  xv.-jo. 


1896 
1901 
1900 
1900 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1900 


No.  of  de- 
positors 


13.864.927 
10.434.877 
10.680,866 
5.826,578 
5.669.590 
4.792.611 
8,936,778 
8,537,167 


Total 
deposits 


$1,929,332,000 
936.117,000 
824,932,000 
86.948.000 
448.700,000 
833.210.000 
428,346.000 
231.684.000 


Average 
deposit 


$139.25 

89.71 

77.20 

6.34 

79.14 

173.86 

108.83 

66.60 


SAVITAB,  sa'v^tar  (Skt.,  generator,  vivifier, 
stimulator).  In  Hindu  mythology,  the  sun  in  his 
vivifying  aspect.  Eleven  hymns  of  the  Rig- Veda 
are  in  his  honor,  and  his  name  is  mentioned  in  all 
about  170  times.  The  preeminent  characteristic 
of  Savitar  is  his  golden  nature  and  equipment, 
his  eyes,  hands,  tongue,  and  arms  being  of  gold, 
while  he  is  drawn  by  radiant  steeds  in  a  golden 
car  with  a  golden  pole.  His  hair,  moreover,  is 
yellow,  and  his  garments  are  tawny.  All  these 
attributes,  of  course,  typify  the  sun.  Savitar  is 
one  of  the  most  powerful  of  gods,  but  his  power 
is  uniformly  beneficent.  In  the  later  Vedic 
period  he  comes  to  be  identified,  on  account  of  the 
creative  work  of  the  sun,  with  Prajapati  (q.v.)« 
It  is  significant  that  the  most  holy  verse  of  the 
Rig- Veda,  the  Sdvitri  (q.v.),  is  in  honor  of 
Savitar.  After  the  Vedic  period  this  god  sinks 
into  obscurity,  and  is  no  longer  worshiped.  Con- 
sult; Muir,  Original  Sanskrit  Texts,  vol.  v.  (Lon- 
don, 1872)  ;  Bergaigne,  Religion  Vddique,  vol.  iii. 
(Paris,  1883);  Macdonell,  Vedic  Mythology 
(Strassburg,  1897).    See  P^^an;  StJBTA. 

S2.VITBT,  6a'vMrft  (Skt.,  ray  of  light).  The 
name  of  the  most  sacred  verse  of  the  Rig- Veda 
(iii.  62,  10).  It  corresponds  in  sanctity  to  the 
first  chapter  of  the  Koran  for  the  Mohammedans 
and  to  the  Lord's  Prayer  for  the  Christians.  It 
is  addressed,  as  its  name  implies,  to  Savitar,  the 
sun  in  his  vivifying  aspect.  The  Savitri  is  re- 
peated by  orthodox  Brahmans  At  their  morning 
and  evening  devotions,  and  at  other  times  of 
special  religious  importance.  The  name  Savitri 
is  also  sometimes  given  to  the  wife  and  daugh- 
ter of  Brahma  (q.v.)*  Another  Savitri  figures 
as  the  heroine  of  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
episodes  of  the  Mahftbharata  (q.y.).  The  episode 
has  been  edited  by  Geiger  in  his  Elementarhuch 
der  Sanskrit-Sprache  (Munich,  1888),  and 
translated  into  English  by  Arnold  in  his  Indian 
Idylls  (London,  1883). 

SAVOIE,  s&'vwa'  (Fr.  for  Savoy).  A  south- 
eastern department  of  France,  bordering  on  Italy 
(Map:  France,  N  6).    Area,  2,388  square  miles; 

opulation,  in  1896,  259,790;   in  1901,  254,781. 

t  is  in  the  region  of  the  Alps,  which  reach  in 
the  Pointe  Aiguille  iin  altitude  of  12,670  feet. 
The  River  Rhone  forms  the  western  boundary  for 
30  miles,  and  with  its  aCQuent,  the  Is^re,  drains 
the  department.  The  climate  varies  according  to 
elevation,  and  is  bracing  and  healthful.  Wheat, 
rye,  maize,  the  grapevine,  tobacco,  mulberries, 
and  apples  are  cultivated.  There  are  important 
manufactures  of  cheese.    Capital,  Chambgry. 

SAVOIE,  Haute.  A  department  of  France. 
See  Haute-Savoie. 

SAVONA^  8&-vyn&.  A  city  in  the  Province 
of  Genoa,  Italy,  situated  on  the  Gulf  of  Genoa, 
25  miles  by  rail  west-southwest  of  Genoa  (Map: 
Italy,  C  3).  It  is  a  well-known  Riviera  (q.v.) 
city  with  fine  boulevards  and  well-built  modem 


Yi 


fiAVOlTA. 


476 


fiAVOlTABOLA. 


houMS.  The  sixteenth-centui^  Renaiasanoe  cathe- 
dral oontaina  isome  good  paintings.  Savona  has 
a  handsome  theatre,  an  episcopal  palace,  a  tech- 
nical institute,  and  a  school  of  navigation.  There 
are  also  a  library  and  a  small  picture  gallery. 
The  city  has  important  iron  and  steel  foundries 
and  extensive  potteries.  Other  manufactures  are 
cloth,  glass,  leather,  firearms,  chemicals,  and 
perfumery.  Ship-building  and  fisheries  are  also 
carried  on.  Population  (commune),  in  1881, 
29,614;  in  1901,  38,355.  Savona  was  known  as 
8avo  under  the  Romans.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it 
was  a  prosperous  maritime  republic,  but  finally 
succumbed  to  Genoa. 

SAVONABOLA,  sa'v6-n&-rol&,  Girolamo 
(1452-98).  A  noted  Italian  preacher  and  re- 
former. He  was  bom  at  Ferrara  September  21, 
1452.  He  received  a  good  education  and  entered 
the  Dominican  Order  at  Bologna  in  1475.  Fif- 
teen years  passed  before  he  came  prominently 
into  public  notice,  and  during  that  period  he 
went  through  the  usual  routine  of  monastic  life. 
In  1490  he  went  to  the  Monastery  of  San  Marco 
in  Florence  and  began  to  preach  sermons  of 
such  boldness  and  fervor  that  he  immediately 
drew  many  hearers.  Savonarola  was  then  nearly 
forty  years  old,  but  his  religious  seal  had  in 
it  all  the  quality  and  fire  of  a  younger  man's 
temperament.  Savonarola's  nature  was  em- 
inently one-sided;  he  was  a  religious  enthu- 
siast, who,  seeing  about  him  corruption  and  ill- 
doing,  found  the  courage  to  raise  his  voice 
in  reproach  and  in  so  doing  suddenly  discovered 
the  secret  of  popular  approval  and  success.  From 
the  pulpit  in  the  Church  of  San  Marco,  or  of  the 
Duomo  near  by,  he  would  improvise,  in  hasty, 
emphatic  fashion,  vivid  denunciations  of  the 
abuses  of  the  day,  of  the  licentiousness  of  the 
great,  of  the  worldliness  of  the  dignitaries  of  the 
Church;  much  of  his  preaching  was  mystical, 
prophetic,  and  apocalyptic.  These  denunciations 
possess  one  special  feature  that  appeals  particu- 
larly to  the  many  for  whom  the  history  of  Flor- 
ence is  chiefiy  the  history  of  Italian  art.  Sa- 
vonarola's brief  period  of  infiuence  came  just  as 
the  earlier  inspiration  of  the  religious  painters 
was  dying  out,  just  as  the  great  Cinquecento 
period  was  dawning.  His  voice  was  raised  loudly 
against  the  corrupting  influences  that  were 
paffanizing  art,  and  it  may  be  recalled  that  his 
influence  was  all-powerful  with  Botticelli,  while 
the  grief-stricken  Fra  Bartolommeo  practically 
ceased  to  paint  after  the  death  of  one  he  loved 
and  looked  on  as  a  prophet. 

Unfortunately,  Savonarola's  rapid  rise  coin- 
cided with  a  period  of  great  political  disturbance. 
Florence,  long  a  democratic  republic,  had  passed 
under  the  sway  of  the  Meoici.  Lorenzo  the 
Magnificent,  who  died  in  1492,  had  tried,  but 
unsuccessfully,  to  win  over  Savonarola,  whose 
denunciations  were  openly  directed  at  the  reign- 
ing house  and  its  supporters.  But  two  years 
after  the  accession  of  Lorenzo's  son  and  suc- 
cessor, Piero,  in  1494,  Charles  VIII.  of  France 
invaded  Italy  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army 
to  assert  a  claim  to  the  throne  of  Naples.  Piero 
at  first  opposed  the  French,  then  treated,  but  dis: 
played  such  weakness  that  his  opponents  took 
courage  and  rose,  driving  him  from  Florence. 
The  Piagnoni  (weepers)  then  came  into  power, 
and  this  puritanical  democratic  party  was  that 
in  which  Savonarola  had  found  his  most  fer- 


vent  supporters.  His  infiuence  now  dominated 
the  government  of  the  city  and,  imf ortunately  for 
him,  some  of  his  eloquent  appeals  of  former 
years  were  construed  into  a  prophecy  of  the 
coming  of  the  French.  Events  had  proved  him 
a  true  prophet,  and  the  faith  of  the  people  in 
their  preacher  accordingly  increased.  His  voice 
rose  louder  and  still  louder  in  denunciation  of 
men  and  things.  He  aimed,  in  fact,  at  establish- 
ing an  ideal  Christian  commonwealth.  So  great 
was  his  hold  on  those  who  listened  to  his  preach- 
ing that  for  some  months  Florence  was  pro- 
foundly moved  by  religio&s  enthusiasm  and  ap- 
peared a  new  city.  The  preacher's  sway  did  not 
last  long;  he  had  set  his  standard  too  hig^  and 
the  Florentines  soon  wearied  of  virtue.  Beaction 
set  in.  The  party  of  the  Medici,  known  as  the 
Arrabbiati  (maddened),  began  to  recover  ground. 
Savonarola  had  extended  the  field  of  his  attacks 
to  the  Pope,  Alexander  VI.,  who,  inspired  per- 
haps more  by  political  than  by  religious  motives, 
became  hostile  to  the  Dominican  preacher. 

In  1495  Savonarola  was  forbidden  to  appear 
in  the  pulpit  for  some  months.  Internal  dis- 
sension in  Florence  provoked  severe  measures  on 
the  part  of  the  Piagnoni  against  the  Arrabhiati, 
and  the  popularity  of  the  democratic  party 
rapidly  declined,  as  did  that  of  Savonarola.  In 
1497  the  Pope  appears  to  have  excommunicated 
him,  but  Savonarola  declined  to  accept  the  Papal 
command  and  openly  rebelled  from  the  authority 
of  the  Pope.  Shortly  afterwards  the  Arrabbiati 
won  some  measure  of  success  in  the  city  elec- 
tions, and  Savonarola  was  ordered  to  discontinue 
his  preaching.  A  Franciscan  friar  was  then  put 
up  to  accomplish  the  Dominican's  complete  down- 
fall, and  proposed  as  a  test  of  their  respective 
merits  the  ordeal  by  fire:  the  two  champions 
were  to  pass  down  a  long  and  narrow  lane  of 
fire  between  two  lofty  piles  of  blazing  logs. 
Savonarola's  enthusiastic  disciples  accepted  Uie 
Franciscan's  challenge  without  hesitation  and 
offered  to  follow  their  prophet  into  the  flames. 
He,  however,  was  apparently  already  losing 
faith.  He  allowed  another  Dominican  to  take  his 
place,  but  on  April  7,  1498,  when  all  Florence 
assembled  to  witness  the  trial,  endless  delays 
and  difficulties  resulted  in  a  fruitless  adjourn- 
ment. It  was  evident  that  the  popular  enthu- 
siasm was  dead,  that  Savonarola  had  lost  his  hold 
on  the  Florentines.  The  Arrabbiati  now  felt 
they  could  push  their  attack  home.  The  Convent 
of  San  Marco  was  attacked;  Savonarola  was  im- 
prisoned and  tried  for  heresy  and  sedition.  Hie 
trials,  secular  and  religious,  were  long  and  ac- 
companied by  much  torture,  under  which  be 
broke  down.  On  May  23, 1498,  he  was  hansed  and 
twio  other  Dominicans  with  him,  ana  their 
bodies  were  burned.  Pastor  declares  in  his  Hit- 
tory  of  the  Popes  that  from  the  letter  of  the 
Papal  commissioners,  May  23,  1498,  it  is  evident 
that  the  charge  of  heresy  in  Savonarola's  case 
is  to  be  understood  in  the  constructive,  not  in  the 
strict,  sense.  His  writings  were  numerous,  an 
excellent  selection  from  them  being  that  by  Vil- 
lari  and  Casanova,  Scelta  di  prediohe  e  scritti 
(Florence,  1898).  For  bibliographies  of  works 
on  and  by  Savonarola,  see  Oherardi,  Nuovi  doeu' 
menti  e  atudj  (ib.,  1888) ;  Olschki,  BibUotheoa 
Savonaroliana  (ib.,  1898).  The  standard  history 
of  his  life  is  by  Villari  (Eng.  transL,  London, 
1899),  in  addition  to  which  the  following  may 


&AVOHA&0IJL 


477 


SAVOY*. 


bd  consulted:  Hurtand,  Lettres  de  8ai>onarola 
(Paris,  1900) ;  Pastor,  Zur  Beurtheilung  iSfavo- 
naroia'tf  ( Freiburg,  1898) ;  Horsburgh,  Savonarola 
(London,  1901);  O'Neil,  Savonarola  (Boston, 
1898)  ;  id..  Was  Savonarola  Excommunicated f 
(ib.,  1900) ;  Luitto,  II  vero  Savonarola  (Florence, 
1897 ) ;  Gruyer,  Illustrations  des  Merits  de  Savo- 
narola €t  ses  paroles  sur  Vart  (Paris,  1879) ; 
Sehnitzer,  Quellen  und  Forschungen  zur  Oe- 
schichte  Savonarolas  (Munich,  1902)  ;  Lucas, 
Frd  CHrolamo  Savonarola  (London,  1900). 

SAVONHEBTE,  sA'v6n'r^,  La  (Fr.,  soap 
factory).  A  carpet  factory  in  Paris,  established 
by  Maria  de'  Medici  in  1604  and  included  in  the 
Gobelins  in  1826.  Its  name  is  derived  from  the 
use  to  which  it  was  originally  put. 

8AVOBY  (OF.  savoree,  sadree,  sadariege, 
saturiffe,  Fr.  savor4e,  from  Lat.  satureia,  savory), 
Satureia,  A  genus  of  annual  or  perennial  herbs 
and  sub-shrubs  of  the  natural  order  Labiatce, 
natives  of  Southern  Europe  and  the  East.  The 
common  or  summer  savory  {Satureia  hortensis), 
an  annual  6  to  12  inches  high,  with  white  or  lilac 
flowers,  commonly  cultivated  in  kitchen  gardens 
for  flavoring  food,  has  a  strong,  agreeable  aro- 
matic smell,  and  pungent  taste.  Winter  savory 
(Satureia  montana),  a  sub-shrub  with  prickly 
pointed  leaves  and  larger  flowers,  is  used  in  the 
same  way.  Summer  savory  is  propagated  by 
seed;  winter  savory  usually  by  slips  and  cut- 
tings.   See  Plate  of  Flowebs. 

SA^OBY,  Sir  William  Scjovell  (1826-95). 
An  English  surgeon,  bom  in  London,  and  edu- 
cated at  Bartholomew's  Hospital,  in  the  College 
of  Surgeons,  and  at  London  University.  In  the 
hospital  be  was  surgical  and  anatomical  demon- 
strator (1849-59),  surgeon  (1867-91),  and  gov- 
ernor (1891-95).  But  his  most  important  post 
was  that  of  lecturer  on  surgery,  a  double  chair, 
which  he  occupied  with  a  colleague  from  1869 
to  1870,  and  alone  until  1889,  receiving  £200Q 
a  year  during  the  latter  decade.  In  the  Koyal 
College  of  Surgeons  he  was  president  from  1885 
to  1889.  Savory  became  surgeon  extraordinary 
to  the  Queen  in  1887;  and  in  1890  a  baronet.  His 
declaration  against  'Listerism'  in  1879  ranks  him 
with  the  conservatives  and  he  was  a  man  of 
ability  rather  than  brilliancy.  He  wrote  Life 
and  Death  (1863). 

SAVOY,  sft-voi'  (Fr.  Savoie).  Formerly  a 
duchy  lying  between  Italy  and  France,  subse- 
quently a  part  of  the  Kingdom  of  Sardinia  (q.v.), 
and  since  1860  a  part  of  France.  Savoy  is 
situated  in  the  region  of  the  Western  Alps.  It 
borders  on  the  north  on  Lake  Geneva,  and  on 
the  west  it  is  bounded  partly  by  the  Rhone,  whose 
afliuents  drain  the  region.  In  the  southeast  the 
Graian  Alps  form  a  great  wall  on  the  side  of 
Piedmont.  The  summit  of  Mont  Blanc,  the  high- 
est peak  of  the  Alps,  is  within  the  borders  of 
Savoy.  Jhere  are  several  lakes,  among  them 
Bonrget  and  Annecy,  and  a  number  of  mineral 
springs,  the  most  noted  being  those  of  Aix-les- 
Bains,  Saint-Gervais,  and  Evian.  The  inhabitants, 
Savoyards,  are  essentially  French.  Under  Sar- 
dinian rule  Savoy  was  divided  into  the  provinces 
of  Chablais,  Faucigny,  G^nevois,  Maurienne, 
Savoy  Proper,  Upper  Savoy,  and  Tarantaise.  The 
largest  town  in  the  region  is  Chamb^ry.  The 
region  constitutes  the  departments  of  Savoie 
ai3  Haute-Savoie  (qq.v.).  Savoy  was  included 
in  the  Roman  provinces  of  Gallia  Transpadana 


and  Gallia  Narbonensis.  It  was  OVefrUn  in  the 
early  part  of  the  fifth  century  a.d.  by  the  Bur- 
gundians,  who  in  534  came  under  the  domination 
of  the  Franks.  Its  subsequent  history  is  brat 
traced  under  Bubgundt,  and  from  the  beginning 
of  the  eleventh  century  under  Savot,  Housb  of. 

SAVOY,  House  of.  The  oldest  reigninff  fam- 
ily in  Europe,  a  cadet  branch  of  which,  that  of 
Savoy-Carignan,  occupies  the  throne  of  Italy. 
The  house  was  founded  by  Humbert  (c.  1003- 
C.1056),  who  was  constable  of  the  Emperor  Con- 
rad II.  He  seems  to  have  received  from  Ru- 
dolph III.,  last  King  of  Aries,  the  territories, 
partly  French  and  partly  Italian,  which  formed 
the  nucleus  of  the  little  sub-Alpine  State  of 
Savoy,  and  with  these  the  title  of  Count  ( 1027 ) . 
His  loyalty  to  Conrad,  who  annexed  the  Arletan 
dominions  to  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  gained 
for  him  additional  territories  and  Imperial  rec- 
ognition of  his  title  about  1036.  His  son  Oda 
(died  C.1060)  succeeded  to  the  title,  and  by  his 
marriage  with  Adelaide,  Countess  of  Turin,  he 
greatly  extended  his  dominions.  In  the  suc- 
ceeding three  centuries  the  possessions  of  the 
family  were  largely  extended  in  Piedmont,  and 
parts  of  Switzerland  came  under  its  sway.  In 
the  thirteenth  century  the  house  was  divided 
into  a  Savoyard  and  a  Piedmontese  line,  but  in 
1418  Piedmont  was  reunited  with  Savoy.  Ama- 
deus  VI.  of  Savoy  (1343-83)  was  a  vigorous  and 
able  ruler.  Amadeus  VII.  (1383-91)  secured 
Nice  and  thus  gave  Savoy  an  outlet  to  the  sea. 
Amadeus  VIII.  (1391-1461)  by  his  support  of  the 
Emperor  Sigismund  secured  the  erection  of  Savoy 
into  a  duchy  ( 1416) .  In  1434  he  handed  over  his 
authority  to  his  son  Louis  and  retired  to  a  her- 
mitage. Five  years  later,  although  he  was  not  a 
priest,  he  was  elected  Antipope  by  the  Council  of 
Basel  as  Felix  V.  (q.v.),  but  he  was  not  recog- 
nized by  the  Church  at  large. 

At  the  time  of  the  Reformation  the  authority 
of  the  dukes  of  Savoy  over  Geneva  came  to  an 
end,  and  they  were  dispossessed  of  their  Swiss 
territories.  During  the  wars  between  the  Em- 
peror Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.  of  France,  the 
latter  in  1535  seized  the  dominions  of  the  House 
of  Savoy,  which  were  not  restored  until  the 
Treaty  of  Cateau-Cambr^sis,  in  1559,  when  they 
were  handed  over  to  Emmanuel  Philibert  (1559) ; 
this  able  and  energetic  prince,  the  victor  of  Saint- 
(^entin  (q.v.),  restored  the  broken  prosperity 
of  the  country,  and  did  away  with  the  Austrian 
and  French  factions.  His  son,  Charles  Emmanuel 
I.  (1580-1630),  called  the  Great,  who  married 
a  daughter  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  was  en- 
gaged in  long  wars  with  France,  which  allowed 
him  to  retain  the  strategically  important  Saluzzo, 
which  he  had  conquered,  only  at  the  cost  of  con- 
siderable territory  along  the  Rhone.  At  the  close 
of  his  reign  he  engaged  in  the  War  of  the  Man- 
tuan  Succession,  in  which  Savoy  was  an  ally  of 
the  Hapsburgs  against  Louis  XIII.  The  contest 
was  terminated  soon  after  the  accession  of  Victor 
Amadeus  I.  (1630-37),  who  in  1631  received  part 
of  Montferrat,  but  was  forced  to  surrender  the 
important  fortress  of  Pinerolo  and  other  places 
to  France.  Victor  Amadeus  I.  did  much  for  the 
internal  improvement  of  the  coimtry  and  reor- 
ganized the  University  of  Turin.  This  brief 
reign  was  followed  by  minorities  and  regencies 
during  which  the  State  formed  a  buffer  l^tween 
France  and  Spain  and  suffered  at  the  hands  of 


SAV6Y. 


478 


fitAW. 


both.  Victor  Amadeus  II.  (1675-1732)  married 
a  niece  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  was  compelled  for  a 
time  to  submit  to  the  demands  of  the  French 
King,  who  forced  him  to  persecute  the  Waldenses, 
and  finally  hy  imposing  humiliating  requirements 
upon  him  drove  him,  in  1690,  into  the  Grand  Al- 
liance. In  1696  a  treaty  very  favorable  to  Savoy 
detached  the  duchy  from  the  Grand  Alliance. 
Victor  Amadeus  II.  entered  the  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession  as  the  ally  of  France  and 
was  placed  in  command  of  the  combined  French 
and  Spanish  armies.  He  was  defeated  at  Chiari 
in  1701  by  his  cousin.  Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy. 
In  1703  the  Duke  gave  up  the  French  alliance 
and  joined  Austria.  The  French  under  VendOme 
then  overran  and  devastated  Piedmont,  but  after 
VendOme's  recall  they  were  routed  by  the  Duke 
and  Prince  Eugene  under  the  walls  of  Turin, 
September  7,  1706.  Victor  Amadeus  II.  in  the 
Treaty  of  Utrecht  (1713)  was  accorded  by  Spain 
the  possession  of  Sicily.  The  alliance  with  Aus- 
tria also  added  the  remainder  of  Montferrat  to 
Savoy.  Sicily  was  exchanged  in  1720  for  Sar- 
dinia (which  had  been  given  to  Austria),  and 
Victor  Amadeus  II.  assumed  the  title  of  King 
of  Sardinia.  (For  the  subsequent  history  of  the 
House  of  Savoy,  see  Sardinia,  Kingdom  of,  and 
Italt.)  In  1831  the  succession  to  the  throne  of 
Sardinia  passed  to  Charles  Albert  of  the  line  of 
Savoy-Carignan.  (See  Cabignano.)  Charles  Al- 
bert was  followed  in  1849  by  his%on  Victor  Em- 
manuel II.,  who  in  1861  assumed  the  title  of 
King  of  Italy.  Victor  Emmanuel  in  1860  ceded 
Savoy  and  Nice  to  France.  He  was  succeeded  in 
1878  by  Humbert.  The  latter's  son,  Victor  Em- 
manuel III.,  ascended  the  throne  on  the  death 
of  his  father  in  1900. 

Consult:  Saint  Genis,  Hiatoire  de  Savoie 
(Chamb^ry,  1868),  a  comprehensive  study,  based 
on  the  sources,  from  the  origins  to  1860;  Do- 
neaud,  La  maison  de  Savoie  (Paris,  1869)  ;  Wiel, 
The  Romance  of  the  House  of  Savoy,  1003-1519 
(New  York,  1898).  See  Italy;  Chables  Albebt; 
Cavoub;  Victob  Emmanuel  II.;  Humbebt  I.; 
ViCTOB  Emmanuel  III. 

SAVOY,  The.  A  chapel  in  London,  on  the 
Thames,  occupying  tlie  site  where  once  stood  the 
palace  built  in  1245  by  Peter,  Earl  of  Savoy  and 
Richmond.  In  this  building  the  French  King 
John  II.  was  imprisoned  after  his  capture  at  the 
battle  of  Poitiers  in  1356.  The  palace  was  twice 
the  object  of  popular  violence.  It  narrowly 
escaped  destruction  in  an  outbreak  caused  by 
the  Duke  of  Lancaster's  protection  of  Wiclif; 
and  in  Wat  Tyler's  insurrection  it  was  burned 
and  made  a  heap  of  ruins.  In  1505  Henry  VIII. 
erected  on  these  ruins  a  house  for  the  sup- 
port of  destitute,  diseased,  helpless,  and  home- 
less persons.  This  well-intended  charity  soon 
became  a  refuge  for  the  dissolute  and  vicious. 
It  was  suppressed  by  Edward  VI.,  but  was  re- 
stored by  Queen  Mary,  and  profusely  refurnished 
by  the  ladies  of  her  Court  from  their  private 
resources,  but  in  the  management  of  this  estab- 
lishment great  abuses  prevailed.  Its  officials  em- 
bezzled the  funds,  and  the  inmates  continued 
to  come  from  the  degraded  and  criminal  classes. 
The  combined  hospital  and  poorhouse  maintained 
a  nominal  existence  under  the  reign  of  Queen 
Anne.  In  building  the  Waterloo  Bridge  in  1810, 
the  deep  foundations  on  which  the  ancient  build- 
ings had  rested  were  all  removed.    Nothing  re- 


mained but  the  chapel  built  alongside  thesd 
ruins  by  Henry  VI 1.  This  chapel  was  made  a 
church  oy  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  was  one  of  tiie 
chapels  royal,  under  the  name  of  Saint  Mary-le- 
Savoy.  It  was  injured  by  fire  in  1864,  but  was 
rebuilt  and  furnished  for  public  worship  by 
Queen  Victoria.  The  vaults  beneath  contain  the 
remains  of  many  persons  of  distinction.  Con- 
sult Loftie,  Memorials  of  the  Savoy  (London, 
1878). 

SAVOY  CONFEBENCE.  The  name  given 
to  an  ecclesiastical  conference  held  in  1661  at  the 
Savoy  Palace,  London,  between  the  Episcopalian 
and  Presbyterian  divines,  with  the  view  of  ascer- 
taining what  concessions  would  satisfy  'the  latter, 
and  thereby  lead  to  "a  perfect  and  entire  unity 
and  uniformity  throughout  the  nation."  During 
the  rule  of  Cromwell  the  Church  of  England  had 
been  in  a  very  anomalous  condition.  Most  of  the 
clergy  who  held  office  during  the  early  period  of 
the  civil  wars  were  strong  Royalists,  and  either 
were  ejected  or  fled  when  the  cause  of  the  Parlia- 
ment triumphed.  Their  places  had  been  supplied 
in  many  cases  by  zealbus  Presbyterians — a  rather 
numerous  body  In  England  at  that  time — and  thus 
it  happened  at  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.  that 
a  considerable  section  of  the  ministers  within  the 
Church  were  hostile  to  the  reintroduction  of 
Episcopalian  order  and  practice.  Aware  of  this 
feeling,  yet  desirous  of  not  adopting  severe  meas- 
ures, if  such  could  possibly  be  avoided,  the  King 
issued  letters  patent  dated  March  25th,  appoint- 
ing twelve  bishops,  with  nine  clergymen  as  as- 
sistants on  the  side  of  the  Episcopal  Church,  with 
an  equal  number  of  Presbyterian  divines,  'io 
advise  upon  and  review  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer."  Consult  the  "Order  for  the  Savoy  Con- 
ference," in  Gee  and  Hardy,  Documents  lUus- 
trative  of  English  Church  History,  pp.  588-594 
(London,  1896).  Richard  Baxter,  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  Presbyterian  Party,  drew  up  a  're- 
formed liturgy'  which  the  Episcopalian  commis- 
sioners would  not  look  at,  considering  the 
wholesale  rejection  of  the  older  one  ultra  vires 
on  their  part.  It  was  never  used,  but  was  re- 
published by  Prof.  C.  W.  Shields,  Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer  .  ,  ,  as  amended  hy  Westminster 
Divines,  1661  (Philadelphia,  1867;  newed..  New 
York,  1880).  Finally,  the  parties  separated 
without  arriving  at  any  conclusion;  and  this 
fruitless  attempt  at  'comprehension'  was  fol- 
lowed in  1662  by  the  Act  of  Uniformity  (q.v.). 

SAVn,  s&-v?R^  (or  SAVOU)  ISLANDS.    A 

group  of  three  islands  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies, 
situated  between  longitudes  122''  and  123''  E., 
and  latitudes  10°  25'  and  10"  36'  S.,  southwest  of 
Timor  and  southeast  of  Sandalwood  (Map:  East 
India  Islands,  F  7).  The  largest  of  the  group, 
Great  Savu,  has  an  area  of  about  240  square 
miles.  The  soil  is  fertile  and  produces  rice, 
indigo,  sugar,  tobacco,  etc.  The  population  con- 
sists of  Malays,  and  once  numbered  nearly  40,- 
000.  The  present  estimate  is  about  16,000,  of 
whom  13,000  are  on  Great  Savu. 

SAW  (AS.  saga,  OHG.  saga,  sega,  (3er.  Sage, 
saw;  connected  with  Lat.  secare,  to  cut,  securis, 
axe).  An  important  tool  used  in  working  tim- 
ber and  metal.  The  wood  saw  usually  oonsists  of 
a  long  strip  of  thin  steel,  with  one  edge  cut 
into  a  continuous  series  of  sharp  teeth.  The  two 
chief  classes  of  saws  are  cross-cut  saws  and  rip- 
saws.    In  the  former  the  teeth  are  designed  to 


SAW. 


479 


SAWMILL. 


cut  at  right  angles  to  the  fibre  of  the  wood, 
while  in  the  latter  they  are  adapted  to  cutting  in 
the  direction  of  the  fibre  and  are  alternately  bent 
or  set  so  that  they  make  a  broader  cut  than 
the  thickness  of  the  blade.  The  hand-saw  has  a 
blade  broader  at  one  end  than  the  other,  and  a 
wooden  handle  fixed  to  the  broader  end.  During 
the  nineteenth  century  the  circular  saw,  patented 
by  Samuel  Miller  in  England  in  1777,  came  into 
universal  use  wherever  machinery  could  be  had 
for  working  it.  It  is  generally  so  fitted  as  to 
be  worked  under  a  flat  bench,  a  part  only  of  the 
blade  projecting  through  a  narrow  slit  cut  in  the 
top  of  the  bench.  It  is  revolved  with  great 
rapidity,  and  the  wood  resting  on  the  bench  is 
pushed  against  the  saw.  Circular  saws  are  made 
in  diameters  from  1  inch  to  70  inches,  and  are 
extensively  used  in  sawing  logs  into  boards, 
planks,  and  other  forms  of  timber.  (See  Saw- 
mill; WooD-WoBKiNG  Machinery.)  The  hand- 
saw was  invented  in  1808  by  William  Newberry, 
an  Englishman.  It  consists  of  a  very  long  band 
or  web,  as  it  is  called,  of  steel,  usually  very 
narrow,  and  with  finely  cut  teeth.  The  two  ends 
are  joined  together  so  as  to  form  an  endless  band, 
which  is  passed  over  two  revolving  drums,  one 
above  and  the  other  below  the  working-bench, 
through  holes  in  which  the  saw  passes.  The 
cylinder  saw  or  crown  saw  is  another  variety, 
which  was  an  invention  of  great  antiquity.  It 
is  used  for  cutting  curved  staves  for  barrels, 
button  blanks,  sheaves,  and  other  special  forms. 
(See  CoopEBAGE.)  For  descriptions  of  saws  for 
metal- working,  see  Metal- Wobking  Machineby. 

SAWAH,  s&-vi'6.  The  largest  of  the  Samoan 
Islands.     See  Savaii. 

SAWDUST.  A  by-product  obtained  from 
sawmills  and  other  wood-working  machinery. 
Besides  its  uses  as  a  packing  material,  a  stuffing 
for  dolls  and  cushions,  and  an  absorbent  covering 
for  floors,  such  substances  as  vegetable  charcoal, 
tar,  oxalic  acid,  and  wood  alcohol  are  made  from 
it  In  preparing  oxalic  acid  the  sawdust  is  first 
saturated  with  a  concentrated  solution  of  soda 
and  potash  in  the  proportion  of  two  of  the  former 
to  one  of  the  latter;  it  is  then  placed  in  shallow 
iron  pans,  under  which  flues  run  from  a  furnace, 
whereby  the  iron  pans  are  made  hot,  and  the 
saturated  sawdust  rims  into  a  semi-fluid  pasty 
state.  It  is  stirred  about  actively  with  rakes,  so 
as  to  bring  it  all  in  contact  with  the  heated 
surface  of  the  iron,  and  to  granulate  it  for  the 
succeeding  operations.  It  is  next  placed  in 
similar  pans,  only  slightly  heated,  by  which  it  is 
dried.  In  this  state  it  is  oxalate  of  soda  mixed 
with  potash.  It  is  then  placed  on  the  bed  of  a 
filter,  and  a  solution  of  soda  is  allowed  to  per- 
colate through  it,  which  carries  with  it  all  the 
potash,  leaving  it  tolerably  pure  oxalate  of  soda. 
It  is  then  transferred  to  a  tank,  in  which  it  is 
mingled  with  a  thin  milk  of  lime,  by  which  it 
is  decomposed,  the  lime  combining  with  the  acid 
to  form  oxalate  of  lime,  and  the  soda  being  set 
free.  Lastly,  the  oxalate  of  lime  is  put  into  a 
leaden  cistern;  and  sulphuric  acid  is  poured  in; 
this  takes  up  the  lime,  and  sets  free  the  oxalic 
acid,  which  readily  crystallizes  on  the  sides  of 
the  leaden  cistern,  or  on  pieces  of  wood  placed  on 
purpose. 

In  making  charcoal  the  sawdust  from  hard 
and  soft  w<x)ds  must  be  kept  separate,  as  the 
former  requires  much  more  intense  heat  than 
th?  latter.    After  careful  sifting  the  sawdust  is 


carbonized  in  fire-clay,  plumbago,  or  cast-iron 
retorts.  The  resulting  charcoal  is  sifted  to  re- 
move the  calcareous  matter  which  has  been  de- 
tached during  the  burning  process.  This  char- 
coal is  used  to  remove  unpleasant  flavors  from 
wine  and  as  a  filtering  medium,  especially  in 
distilleries.  An  English  patent  was  taken  out 
in  1896  for  making  an  artificial  wood  from  a 
mixture  of  sawdust  and  certain  quantities  of 
gums,  resins,  or  other  suitable  agglutinants, 
either  in  a  dry  state  or  dissolved,  the  compound 
being  subjected  to  pressure  at  a  temperature  high 
enough  to  melt  the  gums.  According  to  another 
English  patent,  taken  out  a  year  later,  sawdust 
may  be  so  prepared  as  to  be  non-inflammable,  to 
be  used  as  a  jacketing  for  boilers  and  similar 
purposes.  Sawdust,  like  other  wood,  may  also 
be  distilled  by  a  proc- 
ess which  not  only 
saves  the  charcoal,  but 
also  furnishes  such 
products  as  alcohol 
and  tar. 

SAWnSH.  One  of 
the  elongated,  shark- 
like rays  of  the  family 
Pristidee,  remarkable 
for  prolongation  of  the 
snout  into  a  flat  bony 
sword,  armed  on  each 
edge  with  about  twen- 
ty large  bony  leeth,  a 
formidable  weapon  for 
killing  prey  among 
shoals  of  fishes,  slay- 
ing them  right  and 
left.  Whales  are  said 
to  be  killed  by  saw- 
fishes occasionally,  and 
the  saw  has  been  some- 
times driven  through 
the  hull  of  a  ship. 
About  five  species  are 
known,  living  in  the 
warm  flpaa  One  the  rostral  cartilage 
warm  seas,     une,  zne  ^y.^^  ^^  shagreen. 

*pez     sierra'     of    the 

West  Indies,  is  common  about  Florida  and  in  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  ascends  the  Mississippi  and 
other  Southern  rivers.  It  is  often  15  feet  long,  a 
fourth  of  which  measures  the  'saw.*  It  plays 
havoc  with  fishermen's  nets.  See  Plate  of  Lam- 
preys AND  Dogfish. 

A  family  of  sharks  (Pristiophoridae)  similarly 
armed  occurs  in  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

SAW-FLY.  A  hymenopterous  insect  of  the 
superfamily  Tenthredinoidea,  so  named  on  ac- 
count of  the  saw-like  ovipositor  of  the  female, 
which  serves  to  drill  holes  in  vegetable  tissues 
and  to  assist  in  conveying  the  eggs  into  these 
holes.  The  saws  are  mechanically  perfect  tools. 
About  2000  species  are  known,  most  of  which 
are  found  in  temperate  and  cold  regions. 
Many  saw-flies  in  the  larval  stage  are  highly 
injurious  to  vegetation.  The  largest  of  the  com- 
mon North  American  saw-flies  is  Cimhex  Ameri- 
cana,  whose  eggs  are  laid  in  the  leaves  of  the 
elm,  birch,  linden,  and  willow.  See  Rose  In- 
sects; Peab  Insects;  Currant  Insects. 

SAWHIIX.  The  mill  or  machine  by  which 
logs  are  sawed  into  boards  and  timber;  by  popu- 
lar extension,  the  building,  with  its  machinery,  in 
which  timber  is  sawed.    The  first  form  of  si^w 


TOOTH  OF  A  SAWnSH. 

Section  of  the  roBtrnm  in- 
cluding one  tooth  (a) :  b,  os- 
sified part  of  rostnim ;  e,  canal 
for  veesels  supplying  the 
tooth ;  d,  medullarj  cavity  of 
e,  granular 


SAWmiiL. 


480 


SAWKILL. 


mill  was  the  sash  sawmill,  whose  general  con- 
struction and  operation  are  shown  by  Fig.  1.  In 
this  the  saw,  which  is  simply  a  properly  toothed 
straight  band  of  steel,  is  strained  taut  by  means 


disk,  and  this  means  the  cutting  of  a  wider 
gash  or  kerf  and  a  waste  of  a  greater  portion 
of  the  log  in  sawdust.  All  things  considered, 
it  was  found  impracticable  to  employ  a  circular 
saw  much  exceeding 

m 


'Cross  Heacf 


6Mh 


Ccnrhfy^ 


Fia.  1.  81.8H  SAWMILL. 

of  the  rectangular  frame  or  sash,  and  this  sash  is 
given  a  vertical  reciprocating  movement  between 
upright  guide  timbers  by  means  of  a  connecting 
rod  whose  lever  end  extends  to  a  crank  on  one 
end  of  an  engine  or  water-wheel  shaft.  The  log 
to  be  cut  is  fed  endwise  against  the 
saw  by  means  of  a  traveling  carriage. 
In  usual  practice  the.  sash  sawmill 
makes  about  150  strokes  per  minute 
and  produces  about  2000  feet,  board 
measure,  in  ten  hours.  The  next  de- 
velopment in  sawmills  was  the  invention 
of  the  'muley'  sawmill  (Fig.  2),  the 
chief  merit  of  which,  compared  with  the 
sash  sawmill,  was  the  great  reduction  in 
the  weight  of  the  reciprocating  parts. 
The  saw  is  clamped  to  two  light  cross- 
heads,  one  at  each  end,  which  work  up 
and  down,  but  is  not  strained  or  kept 
taut  by  tension  as  it  was  in  the  sash  in 
the  earlier  sash  sawmill.  To  keep  the 
saw  straight  in  its  movement,  upper  and 
lower  guides,  aided  by  the  cross-heads 
and  the  log  itself,  were  depended  upon. 
The  muley  sawmill  was  followed  by  cir- 
cular sawmills. 

In  the  circular  sawmill  the  saw  is  a 
circular  disk  of  steel  with  teeth  on  its 
edge.  This  is  mounted  on  a  shaft  which 
is  given  rapid  rotary  motion  by  gearing 
or  belting  operated  by  a  water-wheel  or 
steam  engine.  The  saw  projects  some- 
thing less  than  half  its  diameter  above 
the  frame  or  carriage  on  which  the  log 
is  placed  and  fed  endwise  against  the 
teeth.  The  circular  sawmill  gave  a  con- 
tinuous cutting  motion  of  from  6000  to 
9000  feet  per  minute,  with  which  great 
advantage,  however,  it  combined  a  num- 
ber of  disadvantages.  Its  rigidity  or 
capacity  to  maintain  a  true  plane  of 
rotation  decreases  with  the  diameter 
of  the  saw,  or,  in  other  words,  with  the  depth 
of  cut,  and  this  is  obviously  just  the  reverse 
of  the  requirements.  The  only  way  to  increase 
its  rigidity  is  to  increase  the  thickness  of  the 


six  feet  in  diameter. 
Less  than  half  of 
this  diameter  is  the 
cutting  depth  of  the 
saw.  To  saw  logs  of 
greater  diameter  than 
about  two  feet,  there- 
fore, it  is  necessary 
to  employ  two  saws, 
one  moimted  above  so 
as  to  cut  a  kerf 
downward  into  the 
log  and  the  other 
moimted  in  the  ordi- 
nary way  to  cut  a 
kerf  upward  to  meet 
the  kerf  formed  by 
the  upper  saw.  It 
has  been  estimated 
by  reliable  authori- 
ties that  the  kerf  waste  with  circular  saws  is 
about  20  per  cent,  greater  than  with  the  band 
sawmill,  which  succeeded  them  in  the  order  of 
development. 

The  band  sawmill  (Fig.  3)  was  known  long 
before  the  circular  sawmill  had  come  into  general 
use,  but  its  adoption  was  delayed  for  many  years 


n^sHtaa 


Fia  a.  «  MULXT '  SAWIOLL. 


FlO.  8.  AMEBJOAN  BAND  BAWMXLL. 


by  the  difficulty  of  making  saws  which  would 
endure  under  the  severe  service.  When  once  it 
was  possible  to  secure  durable  saws  the  develc^ 
ment  of  the  band  sawmill  was  exceedingly  rapid. 


SAWMILL. 


481 


8AXE. 


and  it  is  now  generally  used  for  sawing 
timber  in  all  countries  where  the  lumber  indus- 
try has  reached  a  high  plane  of  commercial  im- 
portance. This  mill  consists  of  a  frame  or  stand- 
ard carrying  two  broad-faced  wheels  mounted  one 
above  the  other.  Over  these  wheels  a  continuous 
band  of  steel  works  exactly  like  a  belt  between 
two  pulley-  wheels.  This  steel  band  is  the  saw 
and  the  logs  are  fed  endwise  against  its  toothed 
edge  by  traveling  carriages.  In  a  modern  band 
sawmill  the  saw  has  a  continuous  cutting  speed 
to  80,000  feet,  board  measure,  per  day. 

The  most  recent  development  in  sawmills  is 
the  gang  sawmill,  and  this  has  received  its 
hi^est  development  in  Europe,  where  the  size  of 
timber  is  smaller  than  in  America.  A  gang  saw- 
mill operates  on  much  the  same  principle  as  the 
old  sawmill  illustrated  in  Fig.  1.  Indeed,  if  we 
imagine  the  single  saw  of  Fig.  1  to  be  replaced 
by  a  dozen  or  more  parallel  saws  spaced  equal 
distances  apart  we  have  a  very  correct  notion  of 
a  gang  sawmill,  except  that  in  modem  construc- 
tion the  mill  is  a  compact  self-contained  con- 
struction of  iron  and  steel,  which  often  is  in  one 
pieee  with  the  steam  engine  which  operates  it. 
The  gang  sawmill  usually  operates  on  timber 
which  has  been  roughly  squared  by  band  or  cir- 
cular sawmills,  and  its  merit  is,  as  is  quite 
obvious,  that  it  cuts  the  whole  timber  into  boards 
in  one  passage  through  the  mill.  The  forms  of 
sawmills  which  have  been  described  are  special- 
ized for  such  work  as  sawing  shingles,  clapboards, 
etc.,  by  arranging  and  grouping  the  saws  and  by 
providing  special  carriages  for  automatically 
feeding  Uie  timber  to  the  saws  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  produce  the  particular  form  of  timber  re- 
quired. A  sawmill  plant  is  a  plant  in  which 
logs  from  the  lumber  camps  are  sawed  into  rough 
lumber.  According  to  the  United  States  census 
there  were  in  the  United  States  in  1000  31,883 
sawmill  plants  in  operation.  These  plants  repre- 
sented a  capital  of  $805,785,226,  employed 
229,717  wage-earners,  consumed  raw  material 
valued  at  $226,138,992,  and  turned  out  a  finished 
product   valued   at  $422,812,061.     See  Lumbbb 

IlfDUSTBT;  WOOD-WOBKING  MaCHINEBT. 

SAWNEY.    See  National  Nicknames. 

SAW-VXPER.  A  small  viper  of  the  Old 
World  deserts,  marked  with  a  dorsal  series  of 
light  spots,  and  a  zigzag  line  along  each  side 
suggesting  the  teeth  of  a  saw.  It  is  fierce,  ag- 
gressive, and  very  poisonous;  and  it  has  the  pe- 
culiarity of  making  a  "curious,  prolonged,  almost 
hissing  sound,  by  rubbing  the  folds  of  the  sides 
of  the  body  against  one  another,  when  the  ser- 
rated lateral  scales  grate  together."  The  most 
widely  distributed  species,  called  'eja'  in  Bg3rpt, 
is  Echis  carinata,  occurring  from  Morocco  to 
Northern  India;  a  second  species  {Bohis  ooUh 
rata)  inhabits  Arabia  and  Palestine.  Consult 
authorities  cited  under  Vipeb. 

SAW-WHET  OWL.  A  small  brown-streaked 
owl  {yyctala  Acadica),  without  ear-tufts,  rather 
common  in  the  Northeastern  States  and  Canada, 
so  named  from  its  curious  rough  cry. 

SAW^YEBy  Leicesteb  Ambbose  (1807-98). 
An  American  biblical  scholar,  one  of  the  first 
of  the  higher  critics  in  this  country.  He  was 
bom  in  Pincknev,  N.  Y.,  studied  at  Hamilton 
College  and  at  Princeton  Theological  Seminary, 
was  ordained  to  the  Presbyterian  ministry  in 
1832,  but  l«ft  that  oommunion  in  1864,  after  hav- 


ing been  pastor  in  New  York  apd  Connecticut 
and  president  of  Central  College,  Ohio,  and  en- 
tered the  Congregational  ministry.  Sawyer 
abandoned  the  doctrine  of  verbal  inspiration,  re- 
translated the  Bible,  publishing  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  1858  and  the  prophetical  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  in  1860,  and  wrote:  Elements  of 
Biblical  Interpretation  (1834);  Organic  Chria- 
tianity   (1854);  and  Final  Theology  (1879). 

SAZy  s&ks,  Chables  Joseph  (1791-1865).  A 
Belgian-French  instrument  maker,  bom  at  Di- 
nant-sur-Mense.  In  1815  he  established  him- 
self in  Brussels  and  soon  became  known  for  his 
brass  instruments,  although  he  also  made  other 
instruments.  He  is  credited  with  the  discovery 
of  the  exact  proportion  for  the  scale  of  wind  in- 
struments most  conductive  to  a  full  roimd  tone. 
Together  with  his  son,  Aoolphe  (1814-94),  he 
made  many  improvements  in  musical  instru- 
ments. Adolphe  perfected  the  clarinet  and  the 
bass  clarinet,  and  invented  the  saxophone  (q.v.) 

SAZA  BUBEA  (Lat.,  red  stones).  A  sta- 
tion of  the  ancient  Via  Flaminia,  eight  miles 
north  of  Rome,  so  called  from  the  red  volcanic 
tufa  of 'the  locality.  Here  Maxentius  was  de- 
feated in  312  by  Constantine. 

SAXE^  John  Godfbet  ( 1816-87 ) .  An  Ameri- 
can humorous  poet.  He  was  bom  in  Highgate, 
Vt.,  and  graduated  at  Middlebury  College.  He 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1843,  and  in  1850  bought 
the  Burlington  (Vt.)  Sentinel,  which  he  ran  for 
six  years.  He  then  became  Attorney-General  of 
Vermont  and  deputy  collector  of  customs.  Later 
he  was  editor  of  the  Albany  (N.  Y.)  Evening 
Journal,  wrote  and  lectured,  and  published  verses 
in  the  Knickerbocker  Magazine  and  Harper's 
Weekly,  His  works  include :  Progress:  A  Satiri- 
cal Poem  (1846);  Poems  (1850);  The  Money- 
King,  and  Other  Poems  (1869);  Clever  Stories 
of  Many  Nations  Rendered  in  Rhyme  (1865); 
The  Masquerade,  and  Other  Poems  ( 1866)  ; 
Fables  and  Legends  of  Many  Countries  (1872) ; 
Leisure-Day  Rhymes  (1875).  His  verse  abounds 
in  burlesque  and  puns,  but  there  are  not  wanting 
sketches  with  genuine  human  interest. 

SAXE,  s&ks,  Maubice,  Count  de  (1696-1750). 
A  French  marshal,  bom  at  Goslar,  Germany. 
He  was  the  illegitimate  son  of  Augustus  the 
Strong,  Elector  of  Saxony  and  King  of  Poland, 
and  uie  Swedish  Countess  Aurora  von  K(Snigs- 
mark.  When  only  twelve  years  of  age  he  joined 
the  army  of  Prince  Eugene,  and  took  part  in  the 
capture  of  Lille  and  the  siege  of  Toumay.  In 
1711  he  served  with  the  Russo-Polish  army  be- 
fore Stralsund.  He  took  part  in  a  campaign 
against  the  Turks  in  1717,  and  in  1720  he  went 
to  Paris,  where  he  studied  military  tactics  and 
engineering.  In  1726  he  was  elected  Duke  of 
Courland,  but  he  incurred  the  enmity  of  both 
Russia  and  Poland  and  was  compelled  to  retire 
to  France  in  the  following  year.  Joining  the 
French  army  on  the  Rhine,  under  the  Duke  of 
Berwick,  he  distinguished  himself  at  the  siege  of 
Philippsburg  (1734),  and  in  the  battle  of  Et- 
tingen.  For  these  services  he  was  made  a  lieu- 
tenant-general in  1736;  and  on  the  breaking  out 
of  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  he  ob- 
tained the  command  of  the  left  wing  of  the 
French  army  which  was  appointed  to  invade 
Bohemia.  He  captured  Prague  and  Eger  (1741) 
and  showed  signal  ability  in  the  field,  and  in 
1744  was  made  a  marshal  of  France  and  ap- 


ftATlg, 


482 


SAXE-MEororoEiir. 


pointed  to  command  the  French  army  in  Flan- 
ders. In  the  following  year  he  laid  siege  to  Tour- 
nay.  On  May  11,  1746,  he  met  the  combined 
forces  of  the  English,  Hanoverians,  Dutch,  and 
Austrians  under  the  Duke  of  Cumberland  at 
Fontenoy,  and  after  a  desperate  struggle  in 
which  the  allies  were  disorganized  by  his  artil- 
lery fire,  won  a  decisive  victory.  During  the  four 
succeeding  months  every  one  of  the  strong  for- 
tresses of  Belgium  fell  into  his  hands.  On  October 
11,  1746,  Marshal  Saxe  gained  the  victory  of 
Raucoux  over  the  allied  armies  under  Charles 
of  Lorraine,  for  which  he  was  rewarded  with  the 
title  of  Marshal-General  of  France,  an  honor 
which  only  Turenne  had  previously  obtained. 
At  Laffeld  (July  2,*  1747)  the  English  army 
under  the  Duke  of  Cumberland  was  again  de- 
feated by  Saxe,  and  the  capture  of  the  fortress 
of  Bergen-op-Zoom  brought  the  allies  to  think 
of  peace.  The  Dutch,  however,  were  still  dis- 
posed to  hold  out,  till  the  capture  of  Maestricht 
(1748)  destroyed  their  hopes,  and  the  Peace  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle  followed.  Saxe  died  November 
30,  1760.  Saxe's  work  on  the  art  of  war,  en- 
titled Mes  reveries,  was  published  at  Parifa  in 
1767,  and  contains  many  novel  and  audacious 
ideas.  In  1794  appeared  his  Lettres  et  m^oires. 
For  his  life,  consult :  De  Broglie,  Maurice  de  Saxe 
et  le  Marquis  d*Argen8on  (Paris,  1891). 

SAXE-ALTENBXTBG,  &nen-b<n5rK.  A  duchy 
and  constituent  State  of  the  German  Empire,  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  two  nearly  equal  parts,  of  which 
the  western  is  situated  between  Saxe- Weimar  and 
Keuss,  and  the  eastern  between  Reuss  and  Sax- 
ony. There  are  also  a  number  of  small  exclaves. 
The  total  area  is  611  square  miles.  The  eastern 
part  is  broken  somewhat  by  the  offshoots  of 
the  Erzgebirge  and  has  an  undulating  surface. 
The  western  part  belongs  to  the  region  of  the 
Thuringian  Forest  and  is  more  mountainous. 
The  Saale  waters  the  western,  and  the  Pleisse 
the  eastern  part.  The  latter  portion  is  agricul- 
tural and  very  fertile.  In  the  western  part  these 
conditions  are  less  favorable,  but  the  forests  are 
an  important  source  of  income.  Stock-raising  is 
well  developed.  There  are  considerable  deposits 
of  lignite.  The  chief  manufactures  are  woolens, 
gloves,  iron  products,  glassware,  porcelain,  and 
woodenware.  The  Diet  consists  of  30  mem- 
bers, of  whom  9  represent  the  most  highly 
taxed  citizens,  9  towns,  and  12  the  rural 
districts.  The  members  of  the  Diet  are  elected 
directly  for  three  years.  Saxe-Altenburg  has 
one  vote  in  the  Bundesrat  and  returns  one  Deputy 
to  the  Reichstag.  Population,  in  1890,  170,864; 
in  1900,  194,914,  chiefly  Protestants.  Capital, 
Altenburg  (q.v.). 

History.  In  the  Middle  Ages  a  part  of  the 
region  now  comprised  within  Saxe-Altenburg 
was  an  Imperial  domain,  until  in  1329  it  was 
acquired  by  the  margraves  of  Meissen.  Another 
part,  which  was  ruled  by  the  landgraves  of 
Thuringia,  also  passed  into  the  possession  of  the 
same  house.  *  Upon  the  division  of  the  Wettin  lands 
in  1485  Saxe-Altenburg  fell  to  the  Ernestine  line, 
from  which  it  passed  after  the  War  of  the  Schmal- 
kald  League  (1546-47)  to  the  Albert ine  branch. 
The  town  of  Altenburg  and  some  other  places, 
however,  were  restored  in  1664  to  the  Ernestine 
branch.  The  elder  House  of  Altenburg  was 
founded  in  1603  and  became  extinct  in  1672.  The 
greater  portion  of  the  land,  thereupon,  was 
united  with  Gotha.    Upon  the  extinction  of  the 


ducal  line  of  Gotha  in  1825,  Altenburg  passed 
in  the  following  year  to  Duke  Frederick  of  Hild- 
burghausen,  who  founded  the  new  line  of  Saxe- 
Altenburg.  The  duchy  became  a  member  of  the 
North  German  Confederation  in  1866  and  of  the 
German  Empire  in  1871. 

SAXE-COBTTBGhOOTHA,  k^UR^rK  g/tk.  A 
duchy  and  constituent  State  of  the  German  Em- 
pire, consisting  of  the  two  duchies  of  Goburg 
and  Gotha^  the  former  bordering  on  Bavaria  and 
the  latter  on  Prussia.  Area,  756  square  miles. 
Both  portions  of  the  duchy  belong  to  the  r^on 
of  the  Thuringian  Forest  and  are  mountainous 
with  well  watered  and  wooded  fertile  vall^s. 
Agriculture  is  the  principal  occupation  and  con- 
siderable crops  of  cereals  are  raised.  The  vine 
is  cultivated  to  some  extent  in  Coburg.  Stock- 
raising  is  also  well  developed.  The  manufac- 
tures comprise  machinery,  safes,  small  iron  and 
steel  ware,  textiles,  paper,  buttons,  leather,  foot- 
wear, etc.  Both  duchies  are  well  supplied  with 
transportation  facilities.  The  duchies  of  Coburg 
and  Gotha  have  two  separate  Chambers  of  11 
and  19  members  respectively,  elected  directly 
by  restricted  suffrage  for  four  years.  The  com- 
mon affairs  of  the  two  duchies  are  transacted 
by  the  two  Chambers  meeting  in  common, 
alternately  at  Coburg  and  Gotha.  There  is 
one  Ministry  divided  into  two  sections  and 
presided  over  by  the  Minister  of  State.  Saxe- 
Coburg-Gotha  is  represented  by  one  member  in 
the  Bundesrat  and  returns  two  Deputies  to  the 
Reichstag.  Population,  in  1890,  206,613;  in 
1900,  229,660,  almost  exclusively  Protestants. 

HiSTOBT.  The  town  of  Coburg  was  acquired 
about  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century  Irj^  the 
House  of  Wettin  (see  Saxont),  and  upon  the 
partition  of  the  Wettin  lands  in  1486  it  fell  to 
the.  Ernestine  line.  In  1680  Albert,  the  son  of 
Ernest  the  Pious  of  Saxe-Gotha,  founded  the 
line  of  Saxe-Coburg,  which,  however,  became  ex- 
tinct in  1699.  In  1736  Coburg  was  acquired  by 
the  Duchy  of  Saxe-Saalfeld,  which  became  the 
Duchy  of  Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld,  with  Coburg  as 
its  capital.  In  1826  Duke  Ernest  III.  ceded 
Saalfeld  to  Saxe-Meiningen,  receiving  Gotha  in 
exchange,  and  henceforth  called  himself  Ernest  I. 
of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.  The  feudal  Constitution 
survived  in  Gotha  down  to  1849,  when  a  liberal 
one  was  inaugurated.  The  connection  between 
Coburg  and  Gotha  was  merely  personal  until 
1862,  when  a  constitution  was  enacted  for  both 
duchies,  the  unfon  being  further  consolidated  in 
1874.  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  joined  the  North  Ger- 
man Confederation  in  1866  and  in  1871  became  a 
member  of  the  German  Empire. 

SAXE-MEININGEN,  mi^nlng-€n.  A  du<^ 
and  constituent  State  of  the  German  Empire,  in 
Thuringia,  extending  in  the  shape  of  a  crescent 
along  the  northern  boundary  of  Bavaria.  Area, 
963  square  miles.  It  belongs  principally  to  the 
region  of  the  Thuringian  Forest  and  has  a  hUly 
surface,  watered  by  the  Werra,  the  Saale,  and 
some  tributaries  of  the  Main.  Saxe-Meiningen  is 
not  well  adapted  for  agriculture.  The  forests, 
which  belong  largely  to  the  Crown,  and  public 
foundations  cover  a  considerable  proportion  of 
the  area  and  yield  material  for  the  production  of 
woodenware.  Stock-raising  is  unimportant.  The 
mineral  products  include  slate,  iron,  and  salt 
The  manufacturing  industries  are  well  developed. 
They   produce   glassware,   cast-iron   goods,   tex- 


8AXE-MEIKINOEN. 


488 


SAXO  G&AMMATICTTa 


tiles,  leather,  porcelain  ware,  etc.  Saxe-Meiningen 
manufactures  toys  of  papier-mach6,  principally 
at  Sonneberg.  There  are  numerous  flour  mills 
and  cigar  factories.  The  Diet  consists  of  24  mem- 
bers, of  whom  4  are  elected  by  those  paying  the 
highest  land  taxes,  4  by  those  paying  the  highest 
personal  taxes,  and  16  by  the  remaining  citizens 
for  a  term  of  six  years.  Population,  in  1890, 
223,832;  in  1900,  260,731,  of  whom  244,810  were 
Protestants.    The  capital  is  Meiningen  (q.v.). 

HiSTOBT.  The  line  of  Saxe-Meiningen  was 
founded  in  1681  by  Bemhard,  the  third  son  of 
Ernest  the  Pious  of  Saxe-Gotha.  In  1826  Duke 
Bemhard  added  to  his  possessions  the  Principal- 
ity of  Saalfeld  and  most  of  Hildburghausen,  to- 
gethtf  with  parts  of  Gotha  and  Coburg.  In  1829 
a  constitutional  form  of  government  was  estab- 
lished, and  in  1848  a  number  of  liberal  reforms 
were  introduced.  Saxe-Meiningen  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  North  Grerman  Confederation  in  1866 
and  in  1871  of  the  German  Empire. 

SAX2-WEIMAB-EISENACH,  yl'm&r  I^ze- 
nfto.  A  grand  duchy  and  constituent  State  of  the 
German  Empire  in  Thuringia,  consisting  of  the 
three  main  divisions  of  Weimar,  Eisenach,  and 
Neustadt,  and  24  small  exclaves.  Area,  1388 
square  miles.  The  District  of  Weimar  belongs  to 
the  Thuringian  highlands;  that  of  Eisenach  is 
touched  by  the  Thuringian  Forests  on  the  north 
and  the  Rh5n  Mountains  on  the  south;  the  Dis- 
trict of  Neustadt  has  also  a  more  or  less  hilly 
surface.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Saale  and  the 
Ihn  in  Weimar,  the  Werra  in  Eisenach,  and  the 
White  Elster  in  Neustadt.  Agriculture  is  the 
chief  occupation.  The  principal  crops  are  rye, 
wheat,  barley,  oats,  potatoes,  hay  and  fodder,  and 
various  kinds  of  beets.  Fruit  and  the  vine  are 
cultivated  to  some  extent.  Stock-raising  is  an  im- 
portant industry,  and  the  forests  are  exploited 
extensively.  Industrially,  Saxe- Weimar  occupies 
a  very  prominent  position  among  the  minor  Sax- 
on States.  Crockery  and  pottery  and  various  tex- 
tiles, yams,  and  hosiery  are  exported.  Other 
manufactures  are  beet  sugar,  leather,  paper, 
woodenware,  and  footwear.  The  Constitution  of 
the  grand  duchy  dates  from  1816  and  is  thus  the 
oldest  in  Germany.  The  Diet  is  composed  of  33 
members,  of  whom  5  are  returned  by  the 
landed  aristocracy,  6  by  those  paying  the  highest 
taxes,  and  23  are  elected  indirectly  by  the  re- 
maining citizens;  the  term  is  three  years.  The 
grand  duchy  has  one  vote  in  the  Bundesrat  and 
returns  three  Deputies  to  the  Reichstag.  Popula- 
tion, in  1890,  326,091;  in  1900,  362,873,  chiefly 
Protestants. 

HiSTOBT.  Weimar  appears  in  the  tenth  cen- 
tury as  a  possession  of  the  counts  of  Orlamiinde, 
from  whom  it  passed  in  1376  to  the  House  of 
Wettin.  On  the  partition  of  the  Wettin  lands  in 
1485  Weimar  passed  to  the  Ernestine  line.  The 
elder  line  of  Weimar  was  founded  in  1572  by 
John  William,  Duke  of  Saxony,  who  died,  how- 
ever, in  the  following  year.  In  1603  followed 
the  establishment  of  the  younger  line  of  Weimar 
by  John,  the  son  of  Jchn  William.  John  died  in 
1*605,  and  after  a  regency  of  some  four  years 
was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  John  Ernest, 
who  in  1619  embraced  the  cause  of  the  Elector 
Palatine  Frederick  against  the  Empire.  (See 
Thtbty  Years*  Wab.)  John  Ernest  was  suc- 
ceeded in  1626  by  his  brother  William,  who  in 
1630  made  common  cause  with  Giistavus  Adol- 
phus.     William's  brother,  Bemhard  of  Weimar 


(q.v.),  became  one  of  the  most  celebrated  anti- 
Imperialist  generals  of  the  later  part  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War.  In  1640  William  made 
a  division  of  the  Weimar  territories  with  his 
brothers,  Albert  and  Ernest,  and  is  thus  con- 
sidered as  the  foimder  of  a  new  line  of  Saxe- 
Weimar.  The  ducal  lands  were  partitioned  in 
1672  among  the  lines  of  Weimar,  Jena,  and 
Eisenach,  of  which  the  two  latter  became  ex- 
tinct in  1690  and  1741,  respectively,  their  terri- 
tories being  united  with  Weimar.  Under  the  cele- 
brated Amalia  (q.v.).  Regent  for  her  son  Charles 
Augustus  (q.v.),  and  under  this  enlightened 
prince  Weimar  became  the  great  centre  of  Ger- 
man literature,  the  home  of  Goethe,  Herder, 
Schiller,  and  Wieland,  among  others.  At  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna  in  1815,  Cnarles  Augustus  re- 
ceived the  title  of  Grand  Duke,  together  with  an 
increase  of  territory.  A  constitutional  govern- 
ment was  established  in  1816,  and  in  spite  of  the 
policy  of  repression  enforced  by  the  Federal  Diet 
on  the  German  princes  under  the  inspiration  of 
Metternich,  the  government  system  of  Saxe- Wei- 
mar continued  comparatively  liberal.  In  1866  it 
joined  the  North  German  Confederation  and  in 
1871  became  a  member  of  the  German  Empire. 

SAXHORN.  A  brass  wind  instrument,  in- 
vented by  Adolph  Sax  in  1842.  It  is  a  successor 
to  the  ophicleide  (q.v.).  See  MusiOAL  Instru- 
ments. 

SAXIEBAGA'CEwa:.  An  order  of  plants. 
See  Saxifrage. 

SAXIEBAGE  (Lat.  aattifrage,  maidenhair, 
stone-breaking,  from  saxum,  rock  4"  frangere,  to 
break ;  so  called  because  supposed  to  break  stones 
in  the  bladder),  Sawi- 
fraga.  A  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural 
order  Saxif  ragaceae,  in- 
cluding about  160  spe- 
cies of  erect  or  de- 
cumbent, mostly  per- 
ennial, herbs,  natives 
chiefly  of  mountainous 
tracts  in  north  tem- 
perate and  Arctic  re- 
gions, sometimes  at 
the  limits  of  perpetual 
snow.  The  cultivated 
varieties,  obtained 
from  many  different 
species,  are  commonly 
grown  on  rockeries. 
Some  are  densely  tuft- 
ed moss-like  plants, 
which  form  a  flowery 
turf.  The  most  com- 
mon wild  species  of 
the  United  States  are  '"^''•"^  ^c^iSpfto")f  "''**** 
early  saxifrage  (Saxi- 

fraga  Virginiensis)  and  swamp  saxifrage  (8axi- 
fraga  Pennsylvanica)  in  wet  ground.  Saxi- 
fraga  sarmentosa,  a  well-known  Chinese  species, 
is  generally  grown  as  a  hanging  basket  plant. 
The  cultivated  varieties  grow  well  on  ordinary 
good  soil.  They  are  propagated  by  division  or 
cutting  in  the  spring  or  by  seeds  sown  as  soon  as 
they  are  ripe  in  cold  frames.  Most  species 
prefer  higher  ground.  See  Plates  of  SpiRiEA, 
ETC.;   Mountain  Plants. 

SAXO  GBAMMAT^CXTS  (Lat.,  Saxo  the 
grammarian).    The  most  celebrated  of  the  earljr 


SAXO  OBAMUATICUa 


484 


SAXOHT. 


Danish  chroniclers.  He  lived  in  the  twelfth 
century  and  was  secretary  to  Archbishop  Abso- 
Ion.  He  is  said  to  have  died  at  Roeskilde  after 
1208.  His  work  is  entitled  Oeata  Danorum,  or 
Historia  Danioa,  and  consists  of  16  books.  The 
earlier  portions  are  not  critical,  but  in  regard  to 
times  near  his  own  Saxo  Grammaticus  is  an  in- 
valuable authority.  According  to  his  own  state- 
ment, he  derived  his  knowledge  of  the  remoter 
period  of  Danish  history  from  old  songs,  runic 
inscriptions,  and  the  historical  notices  and  tra- 
ditions of  the  Icelanders.  A  characteristic  fea- 
ture of  the  work  is  the  large  number  of  trans- 
lations of  early  verses,  most  of  which  are  pre- 
served only  in  this  form.  The  best  edition  of  the 
Historia  Vanica  is  that  undertaken  by  P.  E. 
Mtiller,  and  finished  by  J.  M.  Velschov  (Copen- 
hagen, 1839).  The  first  nine  books,  dealing 
with  the  heathen  age,  have  been  translated  into 
English  by  0.  Elton,  with  explanatory  notes  by 
F.  York  Powell,  and  issued  by  the  English  Folk 
Lore  Society  (London,  1892).  For  Saxo's  treat- 
ment of  the  Hamlet  story,  see  Amleth. 

SAXON  ART.    See  Anglo-Saxox  Abt. 

SAZONLAND.  The  section  of  Transylvania 
to  which  large  numbers  of  Germans  migrated  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  and  where  their  descendants 
still  live. 

SAXONS  (Lat.  Saxones;  connected  with 
OHG.  sahs,  AS.  seax,  archaic  Eng.  sax,  knife, 
sword,  Lat.  Mxum,  rock,  stone).  A  Germanic 
people  who  first  appear  in  history  after  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Christian  Era. 

The  earliest  mention  of  the  Saxons  is  by 
Ptolemy  in  the  second  century  a.d.,  at  which  time 
they  appear  to  have  dwelt  in  what  is  now  Hol- 
stein.  In  the  third  and  fourth  centuries  they 
pressed  southward  into  the  region  of  the  Weser, 
where  they  encountered  the  Chauci  and  Angri- 
varii,  who  were  subdued  and  absorbed.  In  the  sec- 
ond half  of  the  fourth  century  we  find  them 
breaking  into  the  Roman  dominions.  By  the 
close  of  the  sixth  century  all  Northwest  Germany 
as  far  east  as  the  Elbe  had  come  to  be  the  land 
of  the  Saxons.  They  invaded  Britain  perhaps  as 
early  as  the  third  century;  in  the  fifth  century 
they  occupied  the  coasts  of  Normandy.  In  the 
fifth  and  sixth  centuries  a  part  of  the  Saxons 
passed  over  into  Britain,  where  the  Jutes  had 
already  established  themselves,  and  where  they 
were  joined  by  the  Angles.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  seventh  century  the  Anglo-Saxon  conquest  of 
Britain  was  in  a  great  measure  completed.  Pepin, 
King  of  the  Franks,  attacked  the  Saxons  in  Ger- 
many (the  Old  Saxons)  successfully,  and  Charles 
the  Great  subdued  them  after  fierce  wars  (772- 
804),  and  forced  their  chiefs  to  accept  Chris- 
tianity. ( See  Chables  the  Great.  )  In  the  course 
of  the  ninth  century,  when  under  the  descendants 
of  Charles  the  Great  a  strong  central  power  had 
ceased  to  exist  in  Germany,  a  great  national 
Saxon  duchy  rose  into  existence.  This  old  Duchy 
of  Saxony  was  dissolved  toward  the  close  of  the 
twelfth  century,  and  the  name  of  Saxony  passed 
over  to  an  entirely  different  region  from  that 
which  had  been  the  home  of  the  Saxons.  See 
Saxony.  Consult  Hey,  Die  slatcischen  Siedel- 
ungen  im  Konigreich  Sachsen  (Dresden,  1893). 

SAXON  SWITZERLAND.  A  mountainous 
district  in  the  eastern  part  of  Saxony  (q.v.). 

SAXONY.  A  kingdom  and  a  State  of  the 
Oerman  Empire,  bordered  on  the  north  and  east 


by  the  Prussian  provinces  of  Saxony  and  Silesia, 
on  the  southeast  by  Bohemia,  on  the  southwest  bv 
Bavaria,  and  on  the  west  by  Reuss,  Saxe-Wei- 
mar,  Saxe-Altenbur^,  and  Prussian  Saxony 
(Map:  Germany,  E  3).  It  is  triangular  in 
form,  with  its  longest  side  along  the  Austrian 
frontier.  Its  present  limits  were  defined  in  1815. 
Area,  5787  square  miles.  It  is  the  fifth  German 
State  in  size. 

Saxony  is  a  country  of  moderate  elevations. 
The  highlands  of  the  southeast  merge  very  grad- 
ually into  the  plains  of  the  north.  Over  half  of 
the  total  surface  is  arable.  Along  the  Bohemian 
frontier  are  the  important  Erzgebirge,  with  the 
Elster  Mountains  at  the  southern  apex  of  the 
country  and  the  granite  Lusatian  group  at  the 
extreme  eastern  corner.  On  the  northwest  the 
slope  is  to  the  plain  of  Leipzig  from  a  second  and 
parallel  range  extending  from  the  southwest  to 
the  vicinity  of  DObeln  in  the  northeast.  The 
highest  peak  of  Saxony  is  in  the  Erzgebirge — ^the 
Fichtelberg  (about  4000  feet),  rising  south  of 
Chemnitz.  The  Elbe  River  enters  near  the  east- 
em  end  of  the  Erzgebirge,  and  here  is  found  the 
famous  district  known  as  Saxon  Switzerland. 
Its  low  but  picturesque  heights  of  the  Elbsand- 
stein  (sandstone)  Mountains,  with  their  won- 
derful castellated  rock  formations,  its  forests  of 
pine,  and  the  narrow  curving  river  valley  form  a 
region  of  great  beauty.  The  Elbe,  the  only  great 
commercial  waterway  of  Saxony,  traverses  the 
kingdom  in  a  northwestern  direction.  The  Mulde 
fiows  north  through  the  northwestern  part.  There 
are  no  lakes.  The  climate  is  on  the  whole  mod- 
erate, agreeable,  and  favorable  to  agriculture. 
The  rainfall  is  abundant.  The  precipitation  is 
principally  in  the  summer  months. 

Saxony  has  long  been  celebrated  for  its  rich 
silver  mines  at  Freiberg.  They  were  discovered 
in  the  twelfth  century.  Coal,  mostly  lignite,  is 
abundant  in  the  Plauen  region.  Iron,  lead,  and 
tin,  besides  other  minerals,  as  well  as  marble 
and  precious  stones,  are  mined.  There  are  nu- 
merous mineral  sprins  resorts,  Bad  Elster  be- 
ing the  best  known.  About  one-fourth  of  Saxony 
is  covered  with  forests,  nearly  half  of  the  forest 
area  being  owned  by  the  State.  About  90 
per  cent,  of  the  trees  are  conifers.  The  an- 
nual income  from  the  forest  lands  is  large.  Of 
the  population  approximately  one-fifth  are  en- 
gaged in  agriculture  and  stock-raising.  Rye, 
oats,  potatoes,  and  hay  have  the  largest  acre- 
ages. Fruit-raising  latterly  has  greatly  in- 
creased in  importance.  Sheep-raising  and  the 
quality  of  the  wool  have  both  seriously  declined. 
Horse-breeding  is  still  important.  In  1900  there 
were  688,953  cattle,  166,730  horses,  74,628  sheep, 
139,796  goats,  and  576,953  swine. 

Saxony  has  long  been  a  famous  manufacturing 
country.  About  one-fourth  of  the  population 
is  connected  with  the  manufacturing  interests, 
which  are  still  increasing  as  compart  with  the 
agricultural.  The  most  extensive  and  highly  de- 
veloped branch  of  manufacturing  is  the  manufac- 
ture of  textiles.  Linens,  cottons,  woolens,  silks, 
worsteds,  muslins,  hosiery,  laces,  embroideries, 
damask,  ticking,  clothing,  furniture,  paper  of  all 
kinds,  smoking  pipes,  famous  watches,  cutlery, 
glass,  steam  machinery,  and  pianos  may  be  men- 
tioned among  the  prominent  manufactures.  The 
celebrated  Meissen  or  Saxon  porcelain  is  produced 
at  the  State  Porcelain  Factory  at  Meissen.  Sax- 
ony makes  famous  glassware,  and  originated  the 


SAXOHT. 


486 


SAXOHT. 


art  of  tin-plating.  The  piintinff  of  booka  and 
maps  ia  carried  on  on  a  vast  scale.  The  serpen- 
tine stone  induBtry  employs  many  hands.  The 
sugar  manufactories  (the  first  dating  from  1883) 
have  increaaed  greatly  in  importance.  The  choco- 
late shipments  are  large.  Milling  and  smelting 
are  important  indnstries.  Since  the  Middle  Ages, 
when  the  great  fairs  of  Leipzig  were  founded, 
and  it  shared  in  the  immense  trade  from  the  Le- 
vant, Saxony  has  been  important  in  the  commerce 
of  mid-Europe.  It  is  the  centre  of  the  transit 
trade  of  mid-Germany,  and  the  book  trade  of 
Leipzig  leads  the  world.  Saxony  is  a  heavy  ship- 
per to  the  United  States,  especially  in  textiles, 
leather  goods,  and  musical  instruments.  The 
Elbe  ana  other  streams  are  canalized  and  trans- 
port an  enormous  amount  of  freight.  All  the 
classes  of  institutions  for  furthering  and  protect- 
ing the  industrial  interests  are  adequately  de- 
veloped and  represent  a  highly  complicated  and 
effective  system  of  industrialism  and  finance. 

The  government  is  a  constitutional,  hereditary 
monarchy,  under  the  Constitution  of  1831,  which 
has  frequently  been  modified.  The  Ministry  of 
State,  wnich  shares  the  executive  power  with  the 
King,  is  composed  of  six  Ministers  representing 
Finance,  War,  Interior,  Justice,  Foreign  Affairs, 
and  Public  Instruction.  There  are  two  Chambers. 
The  first  corresponds  to  a  Senate  and  is  composed 
of  princes  and  persons  occupying  high  positions 
both  religious  and  secular.  Its  president  is 
named  by  the  King.  The  Lower  House  contains 
82  members,  indirectly  elected.  Thirty-seven  are 
from  towns  and  45  from  the  rural  communities. 
Dresden  is  the  capital.  Saxony  has  four  votes  in 
the  Bundesrat  and  sends  23  members  to  the 
Reichstag. 

The  budget  covering  1902  and  1903  balanced  at 
about  $68,600,000,  including  about  $17,500,000  of 
extraordinary  expenses  (i.e.  for  public  works). 
The  State  railways  contribute  most  largely  to 
the  revenues,  the  direct  taxes  next.  The  public 
debt  in  1902  amounted  to  $245,000,000.  The  total 
public  property  was  valued  at  $337,000,000.  The 
proper^  consists  chiefly  of  railways  ( 1900  miles) 
and  forest  lands.  The  King's  annual  civil  list  lis 
nearly  $900,000. 

The  population  in  1900  was  4,202,216 — an  in- 
crease of  about  11  per  cent,  over  1895.  Saxony 
is  the  third  German  State  in  population.  The 
density  is  high — 72.6  per  square  mile.  The  in- 
habitants are  nearly  all  Lutheran  Evangelicals, 
but  the  Court  for  the  last  two  hundred  years  has 
been  Catholic.  The  educational  system  is  of 
the  most  complete  order.  The  university  at 
Leipzig  stands  at  its  head.  In  Dresden  is  the 
royal  technical  high  school,  and  at  Freiberg  is 
the  most  famous  mining  academy  in  the  world. 
Leipzig  has  a  celebrated  royal  conservatory  of 
music,  and  Dresden  has  also  a  royal  music 
school.  Saxony  is  famous  for  its  art  collections, 
libraries,  museums,  associations  for  the  advance- 
ment of  knowledge,  and  its  Dresden  Opera,  for 
more  particular  mention  of  all  of  which  see 
BsESDKN  and  Leipzio. 

HiSTOST.  Saxony  was  the  name  originally  giv- 
en to  the  country  which  was  the  home  of  the 
great  Lower  German  stock  (see  Saxons),  ex- 
tending from  the  Eider  River  and  the  Zuyder 
Zee  to  where  Cassel  and  Magdeburg  are  now. 

Charles  the  Great,  King  of  the  Franks,  began 
the  coMuest  of  the  Saxons  in  772.  Their  great 
leader  widukind  (Wittekind)  submitted  and  ac- 


cepted baptism  in  785,  but  their  subjugation  was 
not  complete  until  804.  By  forcing  a  large 
number  of  Saxons  to  settle  in  different  parts  of 
his  dominions,  and  by  colonizing  their  territories 
with  Frank  settlers,  Charles  the  Great  succeeded 
in  incorporating  them  into  his  own  empire.  A 
number  of  bishoprics  were  erected  by  Charles  and 
his  immediate  successors  in  the  Saxon  land,  which 
was  soon  Christianized.  By  the  Treaty  of  Ver- 
dun (843)  the  country  was  given  to  Louis  the 
German.  The  people  were  so  harassed  by  Slavs 
and  Northmen  that  powerful  marks  (see  Mask) 
were  created  for  the  purpose  of  protection.  Lu- 
dolf  was  appointed  first  Duke  (Herzog)  of  a 
mark  on  the  west  side  of  the  Elbe,  and  he  and  his 
descendants  gradually  extended  their  power  over 
the  whole  of  Saxony.  This  was  the  original  of  the 
old  national  Saxon  Duchy.  Ludolf  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Bruno,  who  was  followed  by  Otto  the 
Illustrious  (d.  912),  who  added  Thuringia  to 
the  duchy.  His  son  Henry,  sumamed  the  Fowler 
(912-936),  was  ejected  King  of  Germany  in  919, 
founding  a  dynasty  which  ruled  Germany  until 
its  extinction  in  1024. 

Henry  the  Fowler  created  the  Schleswig  Mark, 
to  protect  the  country  from  the  Danes.  He  also 
conquered  the  tribes  between  the  Elbe  and  the 
Oder,  creating  the  East  Mark,  which  he  protected 
by  strongly  fortified  castles  and  border  towns. 
f\Lrthermore,  the  country  which  later  became  the 
powerful  Mark  of  Brandenburg  imder  Albert  the 
Bear  was  conquered.  Henry  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Otho  I.  the  Great,  whose  coronation  by 
the  Pope  at  Rome  in  962  inaugurated  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire  of  the  German  Nation.  Otho  had 
to  wage  continuous  war  against  his  rebellious 
nobles,  and  to  gain  support  gave  the  Duchy  of 
Saxony  in  960  to  his  loyal  follower,  Hermann 
Billung.  When  the  duchy  lapsed  with  the  death 
of  Magnus,  the  last  of  the  Billungs,  in  1106, 
Henry  V.  gave  the  duchy  to  Lothair,  Count  of 
Supplinburg,  one  of  the  most  powerful  German 
princes,  who  ascended  the  Imperial  throne  in 
1125,  with  the  aid  of  the  Papal  party.  In  1127 
he  gave  the  Duchy  of  Saxony  to  his  son-in-law, 
Henry  the  Proud,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  of  the  House 
of  Guelph,  who  also  inherited  extensive  private 
possessions  in  Saxony  through  his  mother,  a 
member  of  the  Billung  family.  The  Emperor 
Conrad  III.,  of  the  House  of  Hohenstaufen,  would 
not  allow  Henry  to  have  the  two  duchies  and  be- 
stowed the  Saxon  Duchy  on  Albert  the  Bear,  who 
in  1134  had  received  the  North  Mark.  'During 
the  strife  which  ensued  Henry  died.  In  the 
meantime  the  Saxons  had  revolted  against  Albert. 
After  Henry's  death  the  Emperor  took  away  the 
duchy  from  Albert,  bestowing  it  in  1142  on  Henry 
the  Lion  (q.v.),  the  young  son  of  Henry  the 
Proud.  Albert  was  allowed  to  rule  the  Mark  of 
Brandenburg,  which  was  composed  of  the  North 
Mark  and  a  part  of  the  East  Mark,  as  an  inde- 
pendent State. 

Henry  the  Lion  at  this  time  had  almost  royal 
possessions.  But  his  insolent  and  defiant  atti- 
tude toward  the  Emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa 
brought  about  his  downfall  (1180-81)  and  the 
dissolution  of  the  old  Saxon  Duchy.  To  Bern- 
hard  of  Ascania,  son  of  Albert  the  Bear,  was 
given  the  title  of  Duke  of  Saxony  and  a  small  dis- 
trict between  the  Elbe  and  the  Weser,  while  the 
rest  of  the  great  duchy  was  divided  among  power- 
ful bishops  and  princes.    Henry  was  allowed  to 


aAZONY. 


486 


8AZ0HT. 


keep  only  Brunswick  and  LUneburg.  Anhalt  and 
Wittenbeig  also  belonged  to  Bembard,  and  wben 
bis  two  grandsons,  Jobn  II.  and  Albert,  divided 
tbeir  possessions  in  1260,  tbey  created  two  small 
ducbies  of  Saxe-Lauenbnrg  and  Saxe-Wittenberg. 
The  capital  of  tbe  latter,  Wittenberg,  was  en- 
tirely outside  of  the  old  duchy.  Both  duchies 
claimed  the  electoral  privilege,  including  the 
office  of  grand  marshal;  but  in  1356  the  Golden 
Bull  confirmed  the  claims  of  Wittenberg.  The 
Ascanian  line  became  extinct  in  1422  with  Albert 
III.  In  1423  the  Emperor  Sigismund  conferred 
the  Duchy  of  Saxe-Wittenberg,  together  with  the 
electoral  dignity,  on  Frederick  the  Warlike,  Mar- 
grave of  Meissen,  of  the  House  of  W'ettin,  in  con- 
sideration of  aid  received  in  wars  waged  against 
the  Hussites.  The  name  of  Saxony  was  gradually 
extended  to  the  Mark  of  Meissen  and  the  other 
old  possessions  of  the  House  of  W>ttin,  and  thus 
came  to  denote  a  very  different  region  from  the 
old  Saxon  Duchy.* 

Frederick  the  Warlike  was  descended  from 
Henry  of  Eilenburg,  who  had  received  the  Mark 
of  Meissen  in  1089.  In  1123  Meissen  passed  to 
Conrad  of  Wettin.  He  divided  the  lands  among 
his  sons,  and  their  descendants  followed  the  same 
policy.  Under  Margrave  Otho  the  Rich  (1166- 
90)  the  Leipzig  fairs  were  established.  One  of 
his  descendants,  Henry  the  Illustrious  (1221-88), 
inherited  Thuringia.  In  the  fourteenth  century 
the  Pleissnerland  (including  Altenburg,  Zwickau, 
and  Chemnitz)  became  a  possession  of  Meissen. 
In  1381  Frederick  the  Warlike  became  Margrave. 
His  successor  was  his  son,  Frederick  II.,  the  Gen- 
tle (1428-64),  who  gained  some  territory,  but  in 
1446  began  a  destructive  civil  war  between  Fred- 
erick and  his  brother  W^illiam  for  the  possession 
of  Thuringia.    It  was  ended  in  1451. 

Frederick  II.  was  succeeded  by  his  two  sons, 
Ernest  (1464-86)  and  Albert  (1464-1600),  who, 
in  accordance  with  the  will  of  their  father, 
reigned  conjointly  over  the  hereditary  domains  of 
the  family,  but  in  1486  the  territories  were  di- 
vided, most  of  Thuringia,  the  Electoral  Duchy  of 
Saxony,  and  other  territories,  with  the  electoral 
dignity,  going  to  the  Ernestine  or  elder  line, 
which  still  rules  in  the  Saxon  duchies,  and  Meis- 
sen and  other  territories  (including  the  city  of 
Leipzig)  to  the  Albertine  line,  which  survives  in 
the  Kingdom  of  Saxony.  W^ittenberg  was  the 
capital  of  the  electoral  line,  while  Dresden  be- 
came the  capital  of  the  Albertine  or  ducal  line. 
Ernest  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Frederick 
the  Wise  (1486-1525),  the  friend  and  pro- 
tector of  Martin  Luther,  and  one  of  the  most 
influential  of  the  German  princes.  His  brother 
and  successor,  John  the  Constant  (1525-32),  was 
still  more  a  partisan  of  the  reformed  doctrines, 
as  was  also  John's  son  and  successor,  John  Fred- 
erick the  Magnanimous  (1532-47).  The  latter 
and  Philip,  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  were  at  the  head 
of  the  League  of  Schmalkald  in  the  disastrous 
war  waged  against  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 
(1646-47).  Through  the  defeat  at  Mtihlberg 
(q.v.)  John  Frederick  lost  his  electoral  dignity 
and  the  bulk  of  his  dominions,  which  were  trans- 
ferred to  the  Albertine  line.  The  Thuringian  ter- 
ritories alone  were  left  to  the  Ernestine  princes. 
See  Saxe-Weimab,  Saxe-Eisenach,  Saxe-Cobubg- 
G<yrHA,  etc. 

Albert,  the  founder  of  the  younger,  ducal,  or 
Albertine  line,  was  succeeded  by  his  sons,  George 


the  Bearded  (1600-39)  and  Heniy  the  Pious 
(1539-41),  a  zealous  Protestant,  after  whom 
came  the  celebrated  Maurice  (1541-53),  who, 
though  a  Protestant,  gave  his  aid  to  the  Emperor 
against  the  League  of  Schmalkald,  and  was  re- 
warded with  the  electoral  title  and  the  greater 
portion  of  the  estates  of  his  vanquished  cousin. 
He  afterwards  turned  against  the  Emperor  and 
secured  the  triumph  of  Lutheranism  in  Germany. 
Maurice's  brother  Augustus  (1553-86)  estab- 
lished numerous  excellent  institutions  and  con- 
siderably increased  his  territories  by  purchase 
and  othem'ise.  Christian  I.  (1686-91),  a  weak 
prince,  surrendered  the  reins  of  government  to  his 
chancellor,  Crell,  who  was  sacrificed,  in  the  suc- 
ceeding reign  of  Christian  II.  (1591-1611),  to  the 
vengeance  of  the  offended  nobility.  John  Georjje 
I.  (1611-66)  fought  on  the  side  of  Austria  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Thirty  Years*  War  (^.v.),  was 
afterAK'ards  forced  into  a  half-hearted  alliance  with 
Gustavus  Adolphus  (1631),  and  in  1635  con- 
cluded a  separate  peace  with  Austria  by  which 
he  obtained  Upper  and  Lower  Lusatia. 

From  the  time  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  Sax- 
ony ceased  to  be  the  leading  Protestant  State  in 
Germany,  its  power  being  overshadowed  by  that 
of  Brandenburg.  John  George's  sons,  John 
George  II.  (1656-80),  Augustus,  Christian,  and 
Maurice,  divided  the  paternal  estates,  the  three 
latter  founding  cadet  lines,  all  of  which  became 
extinct  before  1750.  The  reigns  of  John  George 
in.  (1680-91)  end  John  (George  IV.  (1691-94) 
are  unimportant.  That  of  Frederick  Augustus  I., 
known  as  Augustus  the  Strong  (1694-1733), 
well-nigh  ruined  the  hitherto  prosperous  electo- 
rate. (See  Augustus  I.)  Frederick  Augustus 
was  chosen  King  of  Poland  in  1697,  embracing 
Catholicism,  which  remained  the  religion  of  his 
successors.  His  attempt  with  Peter  the  Great 
and  the  King  of  Denmark  to  dismember  Sweden 
brought  down  upon  him  and  his  two  States  the 
vengeance  of  Charles  XII.  (q.v.).  Poland  was 
devastated  and  Saxony  exhausted  of  money  and 
troops.  The  King's  habits  were  most  extravagant, 
and  to  maintain  his  lavish  magnificence  he  sold 
important  portions  of  territory.  Frederick  Au- 
gustus II.  (1733-63)  contended  with  Stanislas 
Leszczynski  (q.v.)  for  the  Polish  throne,  being 
recognized  as  King  in  1735.  He  plunged  Saxony 
into  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  (see  Sco- 
CESSION  Wabs)  and  into  the  Seven  Years'  War 
(q.v.) ,  and  a  long  time  elapsed  before  it  recovered 
prosperity.  (See  Augustus  II.;  BRiJHL.)  Fred- 
erick Augustus  (1763-1827)  joined  Prussia  against 
Napoleon  in  1806,  his  army  participating  in  tbe 
disastrous  battle  of  Jena.  The  pressure  of  the 
French  compelled  him  to  join  the  Confederation 
of  the  Rhine  in  1806;  at  the  same  time  he  as- 
sumed the  kingly  title  as  Frederick  Augustus  I. 
(q.v.).  He  became  the  ally  of  Napoleon,  who, 
after  the  Peace  of  Tilsit  in  1807,  conferred  upon 
him  the  newly  created  Duchy  of  Warsaw  (see 
Poiand)  ;  and  the  Saxon  troops  fought  at  Wa- 
gram,  in  Russia,  and  at  Leipzig.  After  the  over- 
throw of  Napoleon  at  Leipzig  (October,  1813) 
he  was  for  a  time  a  prisoner  in  the  hands  of  the 
allies,  and  the  Congress  of  Vienna  (1814-15)  de- 
prived him  of  more  than  half  of  Saxony,  which 
was  handed  over  to  Prussia,  although  he  was  al- 
lowed to  retain  the  title  of  King.  He  did  much 
for  the  internal  welfare  of  his  country. 

Anthony  (1827-36)  reformed  the  entire  lejis- 


SAzomr. 


4d7 


ftAY. 


lative  system  of  the  kingdom,  and  granted  a  lib- 
eral constitution,  being  urged  thereto  by  a  popu- 
lar outbreak  in  the  autumn  of  18^.  His  nephew, 
Frederick  Augustus  II.  (1836-54),  who  had  been 
Regent  for  several  years,  succeeded,  but,  though 
he  was  favorably  to  constitutionalism,  the  nev 
system  did  not  work  well.  In  1840  there  was  an  ' 
insurrection  in  Dresden,  which  was  suppressed 
by  Prussian  arms.  Toward  the  close  of  the 
King's  reign  he  was  a  mere  tool  in  the  hands  of 
the  reactionary  party,  headed  by  his  brother 
John,  who  succeeded  him  in  1854.  John's 
policy  was  guided  by  Count  Beust  (q.v.),  Prus- 
sia's inveterate  enemy,  and  Saxony  was  kept 
in  line  against  Bismarck's  policy.  She  joined 
Austria  in  the  Seven  Weeks*  War  (q.v.),  shared 
in  the  defeat  of  Sadowa,  and  was  compelled  to 
join  the  North  German  Confederation  (1866). 
In  1871  Saxony  became  a  member  of  the  new 
German  Empire.  John  was  succeeded  October  29, 
1873,  by  his  son  Albert 

Bibliography.  LangsdorfiT,  Die  Landtoirtschafi 
im  Kanigreich  Sachsen  his  1883  (Dresden, 
1889) ;  Creduer,  Die  geologische  Landesunter- 
suchung  des  Konigreichs  Sachsen  (Leipzig,  1883- 
87);  Gcbauer,  Die  Volkswirtschaft  im  Konig- 
reich  Sachsen  (Dresden,  1889-91);  Fricker, 
Orundriss  des  Staatsrechts  des  Konigreichs 
Sachsen  (Leipzig,  1891);  Bottiger,  Oeschichte 
des  Kurstaates  wtd  Konigreichs  Sachsen  (2d  ed., 
Gotha,  1867-73)  ;  Gretschel,  Oeschichte  des  siich' 
sischen  Yolks  und  Staates  (2d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1862- 
63). 

SAZONT.  A  province  of  Prussia,  bounded  by 
Hanover  and  Brunswick  on  the  north,  Branden- 
burg and  Silesia  on  the  east,  the  Kingdom  of 
Saxony  and  the  Thuringian  States  on  the  south, 
and  Hesse-Nassau,  Hanover,  and  Brunswick  on 
the  west  (Map:  Prussia,  D  2).  It  it  broken  up 
by  numerous  enclaves  belonging  to  other  prov- 
inces. It  covers  an  area  of  9750  square  miles. 
The  surface  is  level  in  the  north,  while  the 
western  and  southern  parts  belong  to  the  region 
of  the  Harz  Mountains  and  the  Thuringian  For- 
est. It  is  watered  chiefly  by  the  Elbe  with"  its 
tributary  the  Saale  and  several  tributaries  of 
the  Weser,  most  of  them  navigable.  Saxony 
is  one  of  the  most  fertile,  and  agriculturally 
the  best  developed,  parts  of  the  (Serman  Em- 
pire. Its  chief  crops  are  rye,  wheat,  oats, 
barley,  and  sugar  beets.  Tobacco  and  the 
vine  are  also  cultivated  to  some  extent.  Garden- 
ing is  carried  on  extensively  and  the  yield  of 
fruit  is  very  considerable.  The  raising  of  do- 
mestic animals,  and  especiieilly  sheep,  is  also  very 
important.  There  are  rich  deposits  of  lignite 
and  rock  salt,  and  iron,  copper,  silver,  and  nickel 
are  found.  There  are  manufactures  of  metal- 
ware,  arms,  machines,  tools,  etc.  Chemical  works, 
woolen  and  linen  mills,  tanneries,  paper  and 
sugar  mills,  shoe  factories,  and  distilleries  are 
prominent.  The  centres  of  commercial  activity 
are  Magdeburg  and  Halle.  Administratively 
the  province  is  divided  into  the  three  districts 
of  Magdeburg,  Merseburg,  and  Erfurt.  The 
capital  is  Magdeburg.  In  the  Prussian  Landtag 
the  province  is  represented  by  38  delegates  in 
the  Lower  and  30  members  in  the  Upper  Chamber, 
while  to  the  German  Reichstag  it  returns  20 
members.  Population,  in  1900,  2,833,224,  chiefly 
Protestants.    The  province  was  formed  in  1815. 

SAXOPHONE  (from  Saw  -f  Gk.^i^Hf,  phdnS, 
Bound,  voiced.     A  musical  Instrument  invented 


about  1840  by  Adolphe  Sax.  It  consists  of  & 
conical  brass  tube,  having  about  twenty  lateral 
orifices  covered  by  keys,  and  it  is  played  by 
means  of  a  mouthpiece  and  a  simple  reed,  like 
the  clarinet.  The  compass  of  the  various  instru- 
ments of  this  family  extends  over  five  octaves 
from  lA  to  a'.  The  music  for  all,  even  the 
lower  saxophones,  is  written  in  the  treble  clef. 

SAZTON,  Joseph  (1799-1873).  An  Ameri- 
can inventor,  bom  at  Huntingdon,  Pa.  He  re- 
ceived a  common  school  education,  and  at  an 
early  age  made  improvemente  in  nail-making 
machinery.  He  went  to  Philadelphia  in  1817, 
and  while  there  invented  a  machine  for  cutting 
the  teeth  of  chronometer  wheels,  and  an  escape- 
ment and  compensating  pendulum  for  clocks,  and 
constructed  a  clock  for  the  steeple  of  Independ- 
ence Hall.  He  went  to  London  in  1828,  and  resid- 
ed there  nine  years,  enjoying  the  acquaintence  of 
Faraday.  On  his  return  to  Philadelphia  he  su- 
perintended the  making  of  machinery  for  the 
United  States  Mint,  and  afterwards  had  charge 
of  the  construction  of  standard  weighte  and  meas- 
ures, accurate  sete  of  which  he  furnished  to 
National  and  Stete  governments.  Among  his  in- 
genious contrivances  may  be  mentioned  the  mir- 
ror comparator  for  comparing  standard  meas- 
ures, and  a  new  form  of  machine  for  dividing 
them;  the  deep-sea  thermometer,  used  by  the 
United  Stetes  Coast  Survey  in  exploring  the  Gulf 
Stream;  the  self -registering  tide  gauge,  and  the 
immersed  hydrometer. 

SAY,  s6,  Jean  Baptiste  (1767-1832).  An 
eminent  French  economist,  bom  at  Lyons.  His 
father  intended  him  for  business  life  and  gave 
him  some  experience  in  England.  In  1790  he 
took  up  the  profession  of  journalism,  and  in  1794 
became  editor  of  the  Decade  philosophique  litt4- 
raire  et  politique.  In  1799  he  was  called  to  the 
tribunate  by  Napoleon,  and  was  assigned  to  the 
Committee  of  Finance.  In  1803  he  published  the 
first  edition  of  his  Trait6  d*6conomie  politique. 
Its  views  on  finance  displeased  Napoleon,  and  as 
the  author  was  unwilling  to  modify  them,  his 
retirement  to  private  life  followed.  In  1819  he 
became  professor  of  industrial  economy  at  the 
Conservatoire  des  Arte  et  Metiers,  and  in  1830 
professor  of  political  economy  at  the  Collie  de 
France.    He  died  November  15,  1832. 

Say  may  properly  be  regarded  as  a  popular- 
izer  of  the  work  of  Adam  Smith.  While  he  can- 
not be  classed  with  him  and  Ricardo  as  sjt 
original  thinker,  he  made  some  importent  con- 
tributions to  economic  theory,  among  them  the 
familiar  division  of  the  science  into  Production, 
Distribution,  and  Consumption,  the  theory  of  the 
productivity  of  capitel,  and  the  distinction  be- 
tween profits  and  intereste.  In  his  advocacy  of 
free  trade  he  went  beyond  Adam  Smith.  His 
work  exercised  a  wide  influence,  not  only  in 
France,  but  in  other  countries  as  well. 

SAY,  Le6n  (1826-96).  A  French  economist. 
He  was  a  grandson  of  Jean  Baptiste  Say,  and 
came  into  prominence  through  his  connection  with 
the  Journal  des  D6hats,  exercising  a  great  influ- 
ence on  the  financial  administration  of  the  coun- 
try. In  1817  Say  was  made  prefect  of  the  De- 
partment of  the  Seine  and  the  next  year  Minister 
of  Finance.  Six  times  thereafter  he  held  the  finan- 
cial portfolio.  He  presided  over  the  international 
monetary  conference  at  Paris  in  1879,  and  was 
sent  to  London  in  1880  as  ambassador  to  nego- 


SAT. 


488 


&ATCSL 


tiate  a  treaty  of  commeroe,  but  failed.  A  large 
part  of  the  remainder  of  his  life  was  spent  in  one 
House  or  the  other  of  the  French  Legislature. 
Say  was  a  very  prolific  writer  on  financial  sub- 
jects. A  comprehensive  Diotionnaire  dea  finances, 
a  standard  authority  upon  French  financial  prac- 
tice and  history^  was  published  under  his  super- 
vision. His  work,  Lea  finances  de  Ut  France 
(1883),  in  four  volumes,  gathers  together  his 
various  expositions  of  financial  questions  arising 
during  a  long  parliamentary  career.  He  wrote 
also:  Hiatoire  de  la  caiaae  d'escompte  (1848); 
Rapport  8ur  le  payement  de  VindemniH  deguerre 
(1874) ;  Lea  aolutiona  d4mooraiiquea  de  Ut  quea- 
iion  dHmpdta  (1886);  Turffot  (1887);  David 
Hume  (1888);  Cohden  (1891). 

SAY,  Thomas  (1787-1834).  An  American 
zoologist,  bom  in  Philadelphia.  In  1812  he  be- 
came one  of  the  foimders  of  the  Academy  of 
Natural  Sciences  in  Philadelphia  and  its  first 
curator.  In  1818  he  took  part  in  a  scientific 
exploration  of  Georgia  and  Florida,  and  in  1819- 
20  he  was  zoologist  to  Long's  expedition  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  Say  was  a  collector  of  insects 
and  moUusks,  and  his  works  describing  them  were 
the  beginnings  of  the  sciences  of  entomology  and 
oonchology  in  America.  His  larger  works  were: 
Vocahulariea  of  Indian  Languagea  (1822); 
American  Entomology  (1824-28);  American 
Conchology  (1830-34).  He  became  interested 
in,  and  after  1826  a  member  of  the  Socialistic 
community  at  New  Harmony,  Ind.,  where  he 
died. 

SAYAH.    See  Ghat  Root. 

BiYAlfA,  s&^-nA  (M387).  A  Sanskrit 
commentator,  who  flourished  at  the  courts  of 
Sangama  II.  and  Harihara  II.,  kings  of  Vijay- 
anagara,  the  modem  Hampi  on  the  'nmgabnadra, 
in  the  Bellary  district  of  Madras.  He  terms 
himself  also  the  teacher  and  minister  of  Bukka 
I.  (1379-99)  of  the  same  line.  Between  1331 
and  1386  Sayana  was  abbot  of  the  monastery 
of  Sringiri.  Although  few  details  of  his  life  are 
known,  it  is  clear  that  he  belonged  to  a  family 
of  importance  both  in  political  and  in  religious 
circles.  By  far  the  most  important  work  of 
Sayana  was  his  commentary  on  the  Rig- Veda. 
Internal  evidence  shows  that  this,  like  several 
other  commentaries  ascribed  to  him,  was  only 
partly  his,  and  that  his  incompleted  work  was 
finished  by  the  school  of  commentators  which  he 
founded.  The  varying  estimates  given  to  this 
gloss  have  formed  one  of  the  hardest  problems  of 
Vedic  interpretation.  (See  Veda.)  The  'tra- 
ditional' school  accepted  Sayana  as  its  guide. 
Herein  the  traditionalists'  were  in  sharp  con- 
flict with  the  'linguistic'  or  philological  school. 
The  safest  plan  seems  to  be  a  combination  of  the 
two  methods,  so  that  the  results  of  comparative 
philology  and  of  tradition  serve  as  a  mutual 
check.  This  commentary  has  been  admirably 
edited  by  Max  Mdller  in  his  Rig-Veda-Samhita 
(2d  ed.,  4  vols.,  Oxford,  1890-92).  Besides  this 
there  is  a  long  list  of  works  attributed  either  to 
Sayana  or  to  his  brother  Madhava,  who  was 
also  called  Vidyaranya.  In  his  commentaries  he 
devoted  himself  almost  exclusively  to  texts  of  the 
Vedas,  Brahmanas,  Upanishads,  and  other  early 
religious  texts.  Comparatively  few  of  his  works 
have  been  published,  although  his  commentary 
on  the  Atharva  is  printed  in  an  edition  of  this 
Veda  by  Pandit   (Bombay,  1896),  that  on  the 


litar^a  Ara^yaka  by  Agase  (Pootta,  1806),  on 
the  SAma  Veda  by  Samasrami  (Calcutta,  1874- 
76),  on  the  Ta^ya  MahAhrUhmafta  by  Vedanta- 
vagisa  (ib.,  1869-74),  on  the  Vatfiiabrdhma^a  by 
Burnell  (Mangalore,  1873),  on  the  Tdittiriya 
Iranyaka  and  on  the  T<iittinya  Brahmana,  by 
Apte  (Poona,  1897-98).  A  list  of  the  works 
attributed  to  Sayana  is  given  by  Aufrecht,  Cata- 
logue Catalogorum  (Leipzig,  1891-1903). 

SAY^BOOK.  A  town  in  Middlesex  County, 
Conn.,  19  miles  west  by  south  of  New  London, 
on  the  New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford 
Railroad  (Map:  Connecticut,  F  4).  Population, 
in  1900,  1634.  In  1636  a  small  fort  was  built 
in  what  is  now  Old  Saybrook,  and  during  the 
Pequot  War  was  commanded  by  Lion  Gardiner. 
In  1639  (jreorge  Fenwick,  as  agent  for  the  Con- 
necticut patentees,  settled  here  and  named  the 
place  in  nonor  of  Lord  Say  and  Sele  and  Lord 
Brooke,  the  two  most  influential  men  in  the  com- 
pany represented  by  him.  For  six  years  Saybrook 
was  an  independent  colony,  but  in  December,  1644, 
Fenwick  ceded  the  settlement  and  the  land  in  its 
vicinity  to  the  (Connecticut  colony,  receiving  in 
retum,  for  ten  years,  the  proceeds  from  taxes 
levied  on  the  domestic  trade  in  beaver,  and  from 
a  tax  levied  on  live  stock,  and  duties  collected 
on  such  com  and  biscuit  as  were  carried  out  of 
the  river.  The  amount  thus  paid  has  been  esti- 
mated at  £1600.  Saybrook  was  the  early  home  of 
Yale  College,  which  remained  here  until  removed 
to  New  Haven  in  1716.  In  1708  the  celebrated 
Saybrook  Platform,  for  Church  government,  was 
adopted  here.  Saybrook  formerly  included  the 
towns  of  Old  Saybrook,  Westbrook,  Essex,  Ches- 
ter, and  part  of  Lynn. 

SAYBROOK  PLATFORH.  A  name  given 
to  certain  articles  adopted  by  a  synod  consisting 
of  twelve  ministers  and  four  laymen,  represent- 
ing the  churches  of  Connecticut,  which  met  at 
Saybrook,  September  9,  1708.  The  articles  pro- 
vided that  the  churches  of  the  colony  should  be 
grouped  in  'consociations'  or  standing  councils, 
by  which  questions  of  discipline  and  church  mat- 
ters such  as  the  installation  and  dismissal  of 
ministers  should  be  decided.  Ministers  were 
grouped  in  associations  and  an  annual  'general 
association'  was  provided.  The  articles  were  ap- 
proved by  the  Lc^slature  and  carried  into  effect 
m  1709.  They  remained  the  legally  reoognittd 
standard  till  1784. 

SAYOE^  sfts,  Abchibald  Henbt  (1846—).  An 
English  Orientalist.  He  was  bom  at  Shire- 
hampton,  and  graduated  at  Queen's  College,  Ox- 
ford, where  he  became  fellow  in  1869.  From 
1874  to  1884  he  was  a  member  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment Company  of  the  Bible  Revision  Committee. 
From  1876  to  1890  he  was  deputy  professor  of 
comparative  philology  at  Oxford  and  became 
professor  of  Assyriology  in  1891.  Professor 
Sayce  is  an  exceedingly  fertile  writer,  whose 
activity  covers  a  large  range  of  subjects — 
Assyriology,  Oriental  history,  biblical  criticism, 
the  Hittites,  comparative  philology,  and  ceneral 
archaeology.  Through  his  popular  books  he  has 
become  widely  known  to  the  eeneral  public 
Among  his  works  may  be  mentioned:  An  Aa- 
ayrian  Grammar  for  Comparative  Furpoaea 
(1872);  The  Prinoiplea  of  Comparative  Philol- 
ogy (1874);  Introduction  to  the  Science  of 
Language  (1879;  4th  ed.  1900);  The  MoMh 
menta  of  the  Hittitea  ( 1881 ) ;  The  Ancient  Bm- 


&AYCS. 


480 


BCALA. 


ptref  of  the  East  (1884) ;  Assyria  (1885) ;  the 
Hibbert  Lectures  on  Babylonian  Religion 
(1887);  The  Races  of  the  Old  Testament 
(1891);  The  Higher  Criticism  and  the  Verdict 
of  the  Monuments  (1894) ;  Patriarchal  Palestine 
(1895).  B.e  sAbo  edited  the  Records  of  the  Past, 
2d  series   (1888-92). 

SAYBEy  sAr.  A  borough  in  Bradford  County, 
Pa.,  59  miles  nqrthwest  of  Scranton,  on  the  Sus- 
quehanna River,  and  at  the  terminus  of  a  divi- 
sion of  the  Lehigh  Valley  Railroad  (Map:  Penn- 
sylvania, E  2).  It  has  the  R.  A.  Packer 
Hospital.  There  are  shops  of  the  Lehigh  Valley 
Railroad,  wheel  and  foimdry  works,  metal  works, 
a  picture-frame  factory,  a  foundry,  and  manu- 
factories of  various  iron  products.  Sayre  was 
settled  in  1840,  and  received  its  present  charter 
in  1891.     Population,  in  1900,  5243. 

8AYBE,  Lewis  Albebt  (18204900).  An 
American  surgeon,  bom  at  Madison,  N.  J.  He 
graduated  at  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons in  New  York  in  1842,  and  during  the  fol- 
lowing ten  years  was  prosecutor  in  surgery  there. 
He  was  also  for  many  years  connected  with 
Bellevue  Hospital  and  the  Charity  Hospital  on 
Blackwell's  Island.  He  published  Practical  Man- 
ual of  the  Treatment  of  Club-Foot;  Lectures  on 
Orthopcedio  Surgery;  and  Spinal  Curvature  and 
Its  Treatment, 

8AYBE,  Stephen  (1734-1818).  An  Ameri- 
can adventurer,  bom  on  Long  Island.  He  was 
educated  at  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  and  after 
engaging  in  various  pursuits  went  to  London, 
where,  in  1774,  during  the  Wilkes  excitement, 
he  was  elected  a  sheriff.  Soon  afterwards  he  was 
committed  to  the  Tower  on  a  charge  of  plotting 
to  overturn  the  Government,  but  five  days  later 
was  discharged  on  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus.  Dur- 
ing the  Revolutionary  War  he  made  himself  con- 
spicuous in  the  capitals  of  Northern  Europe  by 
his  activity  in  behalf  of  the  United  States, 
though  he  was  entirely  without  authorization 
from  the  American  Government  except  during  a 
brief  period  when  he  was  secretary  to  Arthur 
Lee  (q.v.)  in  Berlin.  His  claims  for  remunera- 
tion for  these  services  were  repeatedly  refused 
by  Congress  until  1807,  when  it  allowed  him  a 
certain  sum  for  his  services  in  Berlin.  In  1795 
he  became  a  violent  opponent  of  Washington's 
administration  and  was  especially  bitter  in  at- 
tacking the  Jay  Treaty. 


SCAD  (probably  a  variant  of  shad;  less  plaus- 
ibly explained  as  from  Ir.,  Gael,  sgadan,  herring) . 
Any  of  several  fishes  of  the  family  Carangids,  or 
horse-mackerels;  especially  a  small  species 
{Trachurus  trachurus),  rare  in  America,  but 
numerous  and  valuable  on  the  southern  coast  of 
Europe.  It  is  a  foot  long,  and  greenish,  with 
silvery  sides  and  a  dusky  opercular  spot.  (See 
Plate  of  Hobse-Mackebels,  etc.)  The  name 
is  also  applied  to  species  of  other  genera  of  the 
family,  especially  to  a  small  similar  fish,  the 
mackerel-scad  {Decapterus  punctatus),  common 
along  the  eastern  American  coast,  and  especially 
about  the  West  Indies,  where  also  is  a  second 
species.  Other  names  for  them  are  'antonino,' 
*cigar-fish,'  'round-robin,'  and  'quia-quia.' 

SCffiVOLAj,  8^y^6-\k,  Gaius  Mucins.  See 
Pobsena. 

SCALA,  ska^,  DELLA.  The  name  of,  an  Ital- 
ian family,  whose  seat  was  Verona,  of  which 
place  the  Ghibelline  Mastino  della  Scala  was 
elected  podestd  in  1260.  He  became  perpetual 
captain  of  the  city  and  Imperial  vicar,  and  was 
assassinated  in  1277.  His  successors,  Alberto 
(d.  1301),  Bartholomew  (d.  1304),  and  Alboino 
(d.  1311),  extended  the  influence  of  the  family. 
The  greatest  of  the  family  was  Can  Francesco, 
or  Can  Grande,  as  he  was  called  (1291-1329), 
who  filled  his  Court  with  sculptors  and  poets, 
preeminent  among  whom  stands  Dante,  who 
eulogizes  his  patron  in  glowing  terms  in  the 
Paradise,  He  was  a  friend  of  Henry  of  Lux- 
emburg, who  appointed  him  Imperial  vicar  and 
head  of  the  Ghibelline  League  of  Lombardy.  He 
carried  on  a  bitter  warfare  with  Padua  and  ex- 
tended his  power  over  Este,  Cremona,  Monselioe, 
Feltre,  Vicenza,  and  Treviso.  Under  Mastino 
II.  (d.  1351)  the  family  declined  in  influence, 
and  in  1 387  Verona  came  under  the  dominion 
of  the  Visconti. 


8CABBABD-FISH. 

Frost-Fish. 


See      Cutlass-Fish  ; 


SCABIES.    See  Itch;  Mange. 

SCABIOXTS  (OF.,  Fr.  scabieuse,  from  ML. 
seabiosa,  fem.  sg.  of  Lat.  scabiosus,  rough,  scaly, 
from  scabies,  scurf,  scab;  so  called  because  re- 
garded as  a  remedy  for  skin  diseases),  Scabiosa, 
A  genus  of  herbs  of  the  natural  order  Dipsa- 
cacese,  natives  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere.  The 
flowers  are  collected  in  terminal  heads,  sur- 
rounded by  a  many-leaved  involucre,  which  re- 
sembles the  head  of  a  species  of  Composite. 
The  deviPs-bit  scabious  {Scabiosa  Succisa),  com- 
mon in  European  pastures,  is  astringent  and  was 
formerly  in  medicinal  repute  in  skin  eruptions. 
The  root  is  very  abruptly  pointed,  on  which  ac- 
count Middle  Age  superstition  regarded  it  as 
bitten  off  by  the  devil,  out  of  envy,  because  of 
its  usefulness  to  mankind. 


SCABIOUS  {SeaMosA  Saceiaa). 

SCALA,  La  (It.,  the  staircase).  A  famous 
theatre  in  Milan,  Italy,  built  in  1778,  next  in 
size  to  the  San  Carlo  Theatre  at  Naples,  and 
holding  3600  spectators. 


^ALA  SAltTA.  490 

SCALA  SANTA,  sUn^tA.  See  Lateban, 
Church  op  Saint  John. 

SCALCHI,  skailce,  Sofia  (1850-).  An 
Italian  operatic  singer,  born  in  Turin.  She 
made  her  d^but  in  Mantua,  in  1866,  and  sang 
in  opera  throughout  Europe.  In  1883  she  made 
her  first  appearance  in  the  United  States,  where 
she  became  a  great  favorite.  Her  voice,  a  rich 
contralto  of  extensive  compass,  enabled  her  also 
to  sing  mezzo-soprano.  Her  most  successful 
rdles  include  Siebel  in  Gounod's  Faust;  Fides 
in  Meyerbeer's  ProphHe;  Amneris  in  Verdi's 
Atda;  Arsace  in  Rossini's  Semiramide ;  and 
Pierotto  in  Donizetti's  Linda  di  Chamounix, 

SCALD-HEAD.    See  Favus. 

SCALDS.    See  Bubns  and  Scalds. 

SCALE  (Lat.  scala,  staircase,  ladder,  from 
acandere,  to  climb,  Skt.  akandj  to  spring,  ascend). 
In  music,  a  succession  of  notes  arranged  in  the 
order  of  pitch,  and  comprising  those  sounds 
"which  may  occur  in  a  piece  of  music  written  in 
a  given  key.  The  scale  consists  of  a  series  of 
seven  steps  leading  from  a  given  note  (fixed  on 
as  the  tonic  or  key-note)  to  its  octave,  which 
may  be  extended  indefinitely  up  or  down,  so  long 
as  the  sounds  continue  to  be  musical.  For  an 
explanation  of  the  principles  on  which  these 
scales  are  founded,  and  of  their  derivation  from 
the  harmonic  triad,  see  Majob;  Minob.  See  also 
Gbeek  Music;  Modes. 

SCALE  INSECT  (AS.  scealn,  sceale,  ORG. 
scala,  Ger.  Schale,  shell,  husk,  scale,  Goth,  skalja, 
tile;  connected  with  OChurch  Slav.  skolXka,  mus- 
sel, Russ.  skala,  bark,  shell,  Lith.  skelti,  to  split ; 
probably  connected  ultimately  with  Eng.  shell). 
Any  insect  of  the  family  Coccid»  (q.v.),  some- 
times also  called  *scale-bug/  or  *bark-louse.'  The 
scale  insects  are  distinguished  from  their  nearest 
allies  by  the  absence  of  wings  in  the  females,  by 
the  possession  of  only  two  wings  in  the  males,  by 
the  absence  of  any  mouth  or  feeding  apparatus 
in  the  adult  males,  which,  instead,  are  usually 
supplied  with  large  supplementary  eyes.  Further, 
in  both  sexes  the  legs  (when  present)  terminate 
in  a  single  claw  at  the  tip  of  a  single-jointed 
tarsus.  The  group  is  now  divided  into  twelve 
subfamilies,  which  are  distinguished  as  follows: 
The  true  scale-bearers  belong  to  the  subfamilies 
Conchaspinse  and  Diaspins,  the  scale  in  the 
former  group  being  composed  of  secreted  matter, 
in  the  latter  cast  skins  and  secreted  matter  to- 
gether. The  so-called  'naked'  scales  compose  the 
ten  other  subfamilies,  nearly  all  the  species  of 
which  secrete  some  substance  which  more  or  less 
disguises  them.  The  subfamilies  are  more  or  less 
characterized  as  follows:  Dactylopiinie  (mealy 
bugs,  q.v.),  covered  with  a  white,  waxy,  pow- 
dery secretion  which  sometimes  forms  long,  ap- 
parently fibrous  bundles;  Lecaniinse  proper,  a 
cleft  posterior  extremity  in  the  female;  Hemi- 
coccinre,  lar,v8e  with  abdominal  lobes;  Tachar- 
diins,  lac  insects  (see  Lac),  inclosed  in  a 
resinous  cell  with  three  orifices ;  Coccinae,  no  anal 
tubercles  in  the  female;  Idiococcinae,  short  an- 
tennae; Brachyscelinae,  gall-making  coccids.  In 
each  of  these  subfamilies  the  males  have  simple 
eyes;  in  the  Ortheziinse  and  Monophlebinse  they 
have  compound  eyes.  The  last-named  group, 
mainly  Australian,  contains  the  largest  species, 
some  of  which  are  more  than  an  inch  long. 

The  scale  insects  live  upon  the  sap  of  plants, 
and  with  few  exceptions  are  considered  pests. 


SCAL£  iKSfiCT. 

(See  San  Jos6  Scale;  OTSTEB-SnlstL  BAMt* 
Louse ;  Orange  Insects.)  Since  they  are  in- 
significant in  appearance  and  are  attached  to 
all  parts  of  the  plant,  some  of  them  have  spread 
upon  nursery  stock  and  fruit  and  have  become 
cosmopolitan  in  their  distribution.  With  many 
the  original  home  is  a  matter  of  doubt. 

Among  the  most  notable  American  scale  inaects 
are  the  following:  Cottony  cushion  scale  {Icerya 
Purchasi),  once  troublesome  in  California,  but 
subdued  by  a  ladybird  {Novius  cardinalis)  im- 
ported from  Australia  (see  Ladtbibd)  ;  species 
of  the  genus  Kermes,  remarkable  for  the  gall-like 
form  of  the  adult  females,   which  cloeefy  re« 


BAN  JOS£  80AI.B. 

A  youDg  larva;  a  pear  covered  with  scale  Insecte;  and 
the  acolee,  enlarged. 

semble  small  oak  galls;  cottony  maple  scale  {PuU 
vinaria  innumerahilis) ,  a  brown  naked  scale 
which  secretes  a  large,  white,  waxy,  unribbed 
egg-mass;  black  scale  of  the  orange  and  olive 
{Lecanium  olecB),  a  cosmopolitan  species,  trouble- 
some in  California;  hemispherical  scale  (Leca- 
nium hemisphcerieum) ,  a  common  greenhouse 
pest  throughout  the  world,  living  out  of  doors 
upon  citrus  trees  in  the  Gulf  States.  Of  the  true 
armored  scales,  aside  from  those  mentioned,  there 
are  the  scurfy  bark-louse  of  the  apple  (Chtonaspis 
furfurus) ; pine-leaf  scale  {Chionaspis pinifoluB) ; 
and  the  common  rose  scale  {Diaspis  rosc^),  aHof 
which  are  often  troublesome  upon  their  host 
plants.  Most  scale  insects  are  oviparous.  Certain 
species,  however,  are  viviparous,  and  some  must 
be  parthenogenetic.  With  one  species,  the  common 
'flat'  scale  {Lecanium  hesperidum),  which  is  cos- 
mopolitan and  a  frequent  denizen  of  hothouses, 
tlie  male  has  never  been  found,  although  the  fe- 
males occur  in  incalculable  numbers. 

Remedies  foe  Scale  Insects.  In  temperate 
regions,  with  those  species  which  hibernate  in 
the  egg  stage,  scale  insects  can  usually  be  con- 
trolled by  spraying  the  plants  with  kerosene 
emulsion  in  the  early  spring  as  soon  as  the 
young  have  hatched,  the  young  insects  being  un- 
protected by  a  scaly  covering.  With  species  which 
hibernate  in  the  adult  or  half-grown  condition 
protected  by  the  scale,  and  which  give  birth  to 
young  at  irregular  and  prolonged  periods,  purs 
kerosene   and  crude   petroleum  may  be  li^tlly 


SCALE  1K8ECT. 


491 


SCALES  OF  NOTATlOir. 


FIjUTKD  walb. 

m  full-grown  female ;  b,  same, 

aftfar  Mcretton  of  fluted  egg-aac. 


sprayed  upon  dormant  fruit  trees,  generally  in 
the  bright  sunlight,  when  evaporation  will  be 
so  speedy  that  the  trees  will  remain  uninjured. 
Many  treatments  of  this  kind  have  been  success- 
ful, but  others  have  resulted  in  the  loss  of  valu- 
able trees.  Petroleum  and  water  mixed  by  spe- 
cially devised  pumps 
has  been  effective.  A 
mixture  of  unslaked 
lime  (30  pounds), 
sulphur (20  pounds), 
and  salt  (15  pounds) 
has  been  successful 
in  California  against 
armored  scales,  and 
in  portions  of  the 
East  also.  The  in- 
gredients are  placed 
together  in  a  barrel 
with  thirty  or  forty  gallons  of  water  and  boiled 
with  steam  for  three  or  four  hours.  The  mix- 
ture should  be  diluted  to  sixty  gallons  and  should 
preferably  be  applied  hot.  It  leaves  a  limy  coat- 
ing which  acts  as  a  deterrent  to  the  young  scales, 
and  when  not  washed  off  by  rains  it  retains  its 
value  for  several  weeks.  Whale-oil  or  fish-oil  soap, 
preferably  made  with  potash  lye,  is  dissolved  in 
water  by  boiling  at  the  rate  of  two  pounds  of 
soap  to  a  gallon  of  water,  and  makes  an  excel- 
lent winter  wash  for  armored  scales.  If  applied 
hot  and  on  a  warm  day  in  winter  it  can  easily 
be  put  on  trees  with  an  ordinary  spray  pump.  On 
a  cold  day,  however,  it  will  clog.  Many  of  the 
States  have  passed  laws  to  prevent  the  intro- 
duction of  nursery  stock  unless  accompanied  by 
a  certificate  from  a  State  official  or  a  recognized 
expert  that  it  has  been  inspected  and  found  free 
from  scale  insects,  or  unless  it  has  been  fumi- 
gated with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas.  To  perform 
this  fumigation  at  a  nursery  a  small  air-tight 
fumigation  house  is  usually  constructed.  See 
Insecticide. 

Consult:  Green,  Coccidw  of  Ceylon  (London, 
1896-90)  ;  Comstock,  Manual  for  the  Study  of 
Insects  (Ithaca,  1895)  ;  Howard,  The  Insect 
Book  (New  York,  1902)';  Cockerell,  "Tables  for 
the  Determination  of  the  Genera  of  Coccidie,"  in 
the  Canadian  Entomologisi  (London,  Ont., 
1899)  ;  Marlatt,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No,  127, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  (Wash- 
ington, 1901)  ;  Marlatt,  Circular  ^2,  second 
series  (ib.,  1902). 

SCAIiES.  Small  plates  arising  from  the  skin 
and  forming  the  covering  or  armature  of  the 
bodies  of  various  animals,  as  fishes,  lizards, 
snakes,  and  a  few  mammals.  In  fishes  they  are 
present  in  most  forms  as  calcified  plates  in  the 
skin,  which  may  be  so  minute  as  to  be  almost 
microscopic,  or  in  the  form  of  large  plates. 
Agassiz  classified  scales  into  placoid,  ganoid, 
ctenoid,  and  cycloid,  and  classified  fishes  into 
these  four  groups.  The  most  primitive  scales, 
found  in  the  elasmobranchs^  consist  of  a  basal 
plate  of  dentine  bearing  a  central  spine,  covered 
externally  by  an  enamel  coat.  The  former  is 
derived  from  the  derma  and  the  enamel  is  se- 
creted by  the  epidermis.  These  are  the  placoid 
scales,  and  they  show  a  great  similarity  in 
their  structure  and  development  to  teeth  (q.v.). 
In  ganoid  scales  the  basal  portion  is  formed  as 
in  placoid  scales  and  is  covered  by  a  coating  of 
smooth,  hard  substance  called  ganoin.  These 
Vol.  XV.— 82. 


are  generally  of  a  rhomboid  form,  as  in  the  gar- 
pike  (Lepidosteus).  Both  ctenoid  and  cycloid 
scales  may  occur  within  the  same  family,  or  even 
smaller  group,  so  that  their  lack  of  importance 
as  characters  upon  which  to  base  a  classification 
must  be  conceded.  Among  the  Amphibia  more 
or  less  calcified  or  ossified  scales  are  entirely 
restricted  to  the  Stegocephali  and  Apoda.  Those 
of  the  former  group  (which  is  extinct)  were 
small  and  partly  calcified  or  perhaps  ossified, 
"and  we  can  only  surmise,"  says  Gadow,  "that 
these  scales  were  covered  by  corresponding 
dermal  sheaths."  The  modem  csecilians  have 
a  partial  scale-armature  which  consists  of 
calcareous  cell-secretions,  and  is  consequently 
an  entirely  mesodermal  product  of  the  deeper 
layers  of  the  cutis.  ( See  Molting.  )  Reptiles  have 
from  the  earliest  times  been  characterized  by 
their  coating  of  scales  in  most  groups.  The 
term  in  its  ordinary  sense,  however,  applies 
mainly  to  the  covering  of  modem  lizards  and 
snakes.  The  scales  of  these  creatures  are  formed 
by  the  cutis,  and  have  a  horny  epidermal  cover- 
ing, which  peels  off  periodically  when  the  skin 
is  'shed.'  In  some  lizards  they  are  nearly  absent ; 
in  many  they  contain  *osteoderms'  or  ossified  por- 
tions of  the  cutis,  over  a  part  or  all  of  the  body. 
Snakes  never  have  osteoderms.  Well-developed 
scales  overlap,  but  in  some  cases  lie  flat,  edge  to 
edge. 

In  birds,  where  a  semblance  of  scales  appear, 
as  in  the  penguins,  they  are  to  be  accounted  for 
as  modified  feathers ;  and  in  scaly  mammals,  such 
as  the  manis,  and  the  scale-tailed  squirrel 
(Anomalurus),  the  scales  are  formed  of  ag- 
glutinated hairs. 

SCALES  OF  NOTATION.  Systems  for 
Writing  numbers  have  been  formed  with  various 
bases;  those  known  to  have  been  used  by  civil- 
ized or  semi-civilized  peoples  are  chiefly  the 
quinary  (scale  of  5),  denary  (scale  of  10),  duo- 
decimal (scale  of  12),  vicenary  (scale  of  20), 
and  sexagesimal  (scale  of  60)  systems.  The 
binary  system  (scale  of  2)  was  advocated  by 
Leibnitz  for  scientific  purposes.  Such  a  system 
requires  only  the  figures  0,  1,  and  reduces  the 
fundamental  operations  to  addition  and  subtrac- 
tion. But  these  advantages  are  offset  by  the  ex- 
cessive repetitions  of  the  digits  to  express  ordi- 
nary numbers.  Thus  289  is  expressed  in  the 
binary  scale  100,100,001.  The  ternary  and  quater- 
nary systems,  the  latter  of  which  is  known  to 
have  been  used  by  certain  savage  tribes,  are 
open  to  the  same  objection.  The  quinary  system 
(scale  of  5)  probably  originated  in  the  practice 
of  finger  reckoning.  (See  Finger  Symbolism.) 
It  is  known  to  have  been  used  by  many  savage 
tribes,  especially  among  the  primitive  South 
Americans  and  probably  among  the  early  Rus- 
sians. The  senary  system  (scale  of  6),  septenary 
(scale  of  7),  octary  (scale  of  8),  and  nonary 
(scale  of  9)  may  be  said  to  exist  in  theory  only. 
The  denary  scale  as  a  system  of  numeration  is 
practically  co-extensive  with  civilization.  It, 
like  the  quinary  scale,  doubtless  originated  in 
the  finger  reckoning  of  primitive  peoples.  This 
system  owes  its  popularity  largely  to  the  sim- 
plicity and  power  of  the  Hindu  notation.  The 
base  12  of  the  duodecimal  scale  ma^  have  been 
suggested  by  the  twelve  lunations  in  the  solar 
year.  Its  popularity  among  the  Romans  is  well 
attested,  and  the  dozen,  gross,  shilling,  foot,  and 


SCALES  07  NOTATION. 


492 


SCALLOP. 


pound  are  evidenoes  of  its  longevity.  The  nota- 
tion for  such  a  system  would  evidently  require 
12  figures  and  possess  peculiar  advantages.  Thus, 
of  12  units  are  all  integral,  while 
10  units  are  not.  For  manipulation 
iirect  measurement  which  depend  upon 
the  convenient  graduation  of  the  measuring 
scale  the  duodecimal  system  is  convenient,  but 
for  the  other  purposes  of  calculation  the  decimal 
scale  is  superior.  The  primitive  Scandinavians, 
the  Caribbees,  and  the  Mexicans  seem  to  have 
used  the  scale  of  20.  The  sexagesimal  system 
(scale  of  60)  was  undoubtedly  originated  by  the 
Babylonian  priests  for  astronomical  calculations. 
Perhaps  the  Babylonians  also  divided  their  days 
into  60  equal  parts,  as  is  found  in  the  Veda  cal- 
endars of  the  ancient  Hindus.  This  system  was 
also  used  among  the  Greeks,  having  been  intro- 
duced by  Hipparchus. 

For  the  history  of  various  scales,  consult: 
Tylor,  Primitive  Culture  (London,  1871);  Co- 
nant.  The  Number  Concept  (New  York,  1896), 
and  the  bibliographies  there  given.  For  doubts 
as  to  the  commonly  accepted  origin  of  the  sexa- 
gesimal system,  consult  Sayce  and  Bosanquet, 
"Babylonian  Astronomy,"  in  the  Monthly  Notices 
of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society  (1880,  vol>xl.. 
No.  3). 

SCAL^GEB,  Joseph  Justus  (1540-1609).  A 
celebrated  French  scholar,  the  tenth  child  of 
Julius  Csesar  Scaliger,  bom  August  4,  1540,  at 
Agen,  in  Guienne,  whence  at  the  age  of  twelve  he 
was  sent  to  the  collefi;e  of  Bordeaux.  A  pestilence 
breaking  out  in  Bordeaux,  he  was  recalled  by  his 
father,  who  put  him  under  a  narrow  but  rigorous 
classical  training,  under  which  he  attained  great 
proficiency  as  a  Latinist;  and  in  his  nineteenth 
year,  on  the  death  of  his  father,  he  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  studied  Greek  under  the  famous  Tume- 
bus.  He  was  less  indebted,  however,  to  any 
master  than  to  himself;  and  finding  that  his 
progress  was  slow  under  his  great  preceptor,  he 
closeted  himself  alone  with  Homer,  and  in  21 
days  read  him  through,  with  the  aid  of  a  Latin 
translation,  and  committed  him  to  memory.  In 
less  than  four  months  he  mastered  all  the  Greek 
poets.  Hebrew,  Syriac,  Persian,  and  most  of 
the  modern  European  languages  were  acquired 
in  rapid  succession.  He  was  a  professor  at 
Geneva,  1^72-74;  became  a  Protestant,  and  was 
thus  cut  off  from  any  considerable  appoint- 
ment in  France.  Except  that  he  traveled  a  good 
deal,  and  visited  the  chief  universities  of  France 
and  Germany,  and  even  found  his  way  to  Scot- 
land, we  know  little  of  his  life  up  to  1693.  In 
that  year  he  was  invited  to  succeed  Lipsius 
in  the  chair  of  literature  at  the  University 
of  Leyden,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life. 
He  died  January  21,  1609,  recognized  as  the 
leading  scholar  in  Europe.  He  was  a  man  of  im- 
mense vigor  of  understanding  and  must  be  cred- 
ited with  having  been  the  first  to  lay  down  in 
his  treatise  De  Emendatione  Temporum  (Paris, 
1583)  a  complete  system  of  chronology  formed 
upon  fixed  principles.  It  was  this  achievement 
that  secured  for  him  the  title  of  father  of  chrono- 
logical science.  It  was  subjected  to  much  emen- 
datory  criticism  by  critics  like  Petavius,  and 
also  by  himself,  ite  errors  having  been  partly 
corrected  by  him  in  his  later  work,  the  Thesaurus 
Temporum  (Amsterdam.  1658).  Among  the 
classical  authors  whom  he  criticised  and  anno- 


tated are  Theocritus,  Seneca  (the  tragedies), 
Varro,  Ausonius,  Catullus,  Tibullus,  Propertius, 
Manilius,  and  Festus.  His  other  works  are:  De 
Trihus  Sectis  Judosorum;  Poemata;  Epistola;  a 
translation  into  Latin  of  Arabian  proverbs,  ete. 
Interesting  notices  of  him  are  preserved  in  the 
two  volumes  of  Scaligerana,  which  embody  his 
conversations.  Consult:  Bemay,  Joseph  Justus 
Bcaliger  (Berlin,  1855),  with  a  list  of  his  works; 
Mark  Pattison,  "The  Lives  of  the  Two  Scaligers," 
in  Essays,  ed.  by  Nettleship  (Oxford,  1889). 

SCALIGEBy  Juuus  Cjesab  (1484-1558). 
An  Italian  classical  scholar,  bom  at  Riva,  on 
Lake  Garda,  Italy.  Up  to  his  forty-second  year 
Giulio  Bordoni,  as  he  was  originally  called,  re- 
sided chiefly  in  Venice  or  Padua,  engaged  in  the 
study  of  medicine  and  natural  science.  In  1529 
he  went  to  Agen  to  practice  medicine  and  resided 
there  until  his  death.  He  left  a  mass  of  publica- 
tions and  a  great  reputation  for  the  extent  and 
depth  of  his  learning.  His  best  known  publications 
are:  Commentarii  in  Hippocratis  Librum  de  In- 
somniis;  De  Causis  Lingucs  Latincs  Libri  XV 1 1 1. , 
celebrated  as  the  first  considerable  work  written 
on  the  Latin  language  in  modem  times,  and  not 
without  value  even  to-day;  his  Latin  translation 
of  Aristotle's  History  of  Anim^ils;  his  Exercita- 
tionum  Exotericarum  liber  quintus  dedmus  de 
Subtilitate  ad  Hieronymum  Cardanum;  his  seven 
books  of  Poetics  (also  in  Latin,  and  on  the  whole 
his  best  work) ;  his  Commentaries  on  Aristotle 
and  Theophrastus ;  his  two  orations  against  Eras- 
mus; his  Latin  poems,  etc.  Consult:  Pattison, 
Essays  (Oxford,  1889) ;  Nisard,  Les  gladiateura 
de  la  r6publique  des  lettres  (Paris,  1860)  ;  Bou- 
rousse  de  Laffore,  Jules  CSsar  de  VEscale  (Agen, 
1860)  ;  Magen,  Documents  sur  Julius  Ccesar 
Bcaliger  et  sa  famille  (ib.,  1873). 

SCALLOP  (OF.  escalope,  from  MDutch  sehel 
pe,  Dutch  schelp,  shell;  probably  connected  with 
Eng.  scalp,  scale,  shell).  A  bivalve  moUusk  of 
the  family  Pectinidse.  The  outline  is  regularly 
fan-shape,  though  one  valve  is  often  more  convex 
than  the  other.  The  hinge  is  extended  by  ears, 
and  in  most  species  both  valves  have  ribs  radiat- 
ing from  the  umbo  to  the  margin.  The  animal 
has  a  small  foot.  Some  of  the  species  are  capable 
of  attaching  themselves  by  a  byssus;  they  are 
capable  also  of  leaping  by  opening  and  rapidly 
closing  the  valves.  Two  species  occur  along  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States,  the  common 
scallop  {Pecten  irradians)  and  the  larger  and 
handsomer  Northern  one  {Pecten  Islandicus), 
which  is  sometimes  four  or  five  inches  across,  the 
valves  very  much  fiattened  and  without  radiating 
ridges;  the  latter  species  is  found  from  Vineyard 
Sound  northward,  but  is  most  common  along  the 
coast  of  Maine,  Nova  Scotia,  etc.  The  common 
scallop  is  scarcely  half  the  size  of  the  other,  the 
shell  is  considerably  arched,  and  the  radiating 
ridges  are  prominent.  The  scallop  is  in  great 
demand  as  a  delicacy,  the  large  adductor  muscle 
being  the  part  specially  sought  after. 

Careful  and  extended  studies  on  the  breeding 
habits  of  the  scallop  of  Narragansett  Bay  have 
been  made  by  Risser.  It  is  a  hermaphrodite,  and 
the  entire  mass  of  eggs,  probably  more  than  a 
million,  may  be  discharged  in  the  course  of  an 
hour  and  a  half.  The  breeding  season  is  in  June. 
The  eggs,  which  may  be  artificially  fertilised,  are 
spherical  and  about  ^^^  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
The  embryo  begins  to  swim  within  36  hours  after 


BCALLO^. 


498 


SCAMKOITT. 


fertilisation,  and  the  shells  are  formed  when  the 
young  is  48  hours  old,  with  the  characteristic 
shape.  The  4aeallop  spawns  when  one  year  old, 
when  the  average  size  is  about  2^  inches 
i«om  the  hinge  to  the  ventral  margin.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  the  scallop  does  not  live  more  than 
two  years,  and  it  is  evident  that  taking  scal- 
lops less  than  a  year  old  is  most  injurious  to 
the  industry.  Scallops  which  are  marked  with 
the  'line  of  growth*  are  those  which  have 
spawned.  Although  the  ordinary  scallop  is  re- 
garded as  a  delicacy,  the  great  Northern  scallop 
{Pecten  tenuicostatus) ,  common  in  retired  har- 
bors on  the  Labrador  coast  and  in  the  Gulf  of 
Saint  Lawrence,  is  still  more  delicious  eating. 

Foflsil  scallops  are  common  in  the  rocks  of  all 
formations  above  the  Silurian.  For  embryology 
and  culture,  consult  Risser,  Slat  Report  Commis- 
sioner of  Rhode  Island  Fisheries  (Providence, 
1901).  For  fossil  species,  consult  Zittel  and 
Eastman,  Textbook  of  PaUsontology,  vol.  i.  (Lon- 
don, 1900).  See  Colored  Plate  of  Clams  and 
Mussels. 

SGAIXOP.     A  device  in  heraldry.     See  Es- 

CALOP. 

SCAIiP  (probably  connected  with  MDutch 
schelpe,  Dutch  schelp,  OHG.  sceliva,  dialectfc 
Ger.  Schelfe,  shell,  husk,  scale,  and  ultimately 
with  Eng.  shell,  scale).  The  term  employed  to 
designate  the  outer  covering  of  the  skull.  Except 
in  the  fact  that  hair  in  Iwth  sexes  grows  more 
luxuriantly  on  the  scalp  than  elsewhere,  the 
skin  of  the  scalp  differs  slightly  from  ordinary 
skin.  Besides  the  skin,  the  scalp  is  composed  of 
the  expanded  tendon  of  the  occipito-frontal  mus- 
cle, and  of  intermediate  cellular  tissue  and  blood- 
vessels. Injuries  to  the  scalp  are  to  be  treated 
according  to  the  usual  antiseptic  methods  with 
especial  care  to  drainage,  since  any  extensive  sup- 
purative process  beneath  the  tendon  of  the  oc- 
eipito- frontalis  muscle  is  likely  to  cause  serious 
trouble.  Extensive  injuries  with  accompanying 
brain  shock  of  course  require  absolute  rest.  Burns 
of  the  scalp  are  very  liable  to  be  followed  by 
erysipelas  and  diffuse  inflammation,  but  the  brain 
is  comparatively  seldom  affected  in  these  cases. 
Tumor  of  the  scalp  is  not  uncommon,  the  most 
frequent  being  the  cutaneous  cyst  popularly 
known  as  teen  (q.v.),  and  the  vascular  tumor. 

SGAIjPING.  The  custom  of  removing  the 
scalp  of  a  slain  enemy,  a  practice  common  to 
all  the  Indian  tribes  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
and  in  the  arid  Southwest  and  the  region  of  the 
upper  Columbia,  but  apparently  unknown,  unless 
as  an  intrusive  custom,  among  the  Eskimo,  along 
the  Northwest  coast,  on  the  Pacific  coast  west  of 
the  Cascade  range  and  the  Sierras,  excepting 
with  a  few  California  tribes,  or  in  Mexico  and 
southward.  It  is  said  to  have  existed  also  among 
the  ancient  Scythians.  The  reason  for  scalping 
seems  to  be  that  the  scalp  was  the  best  possible 
evidence  of  the  warrior's  prowess  and  the  most 
convenient  souvenir  for  ornamentation  and  ex- 
hibition. Men,  women,  and  children  alike  were 
scalped,  but  no  scalp  was  ever  knowingly  taken 
from  the  living  enemy.  The  scalp  trophy  con- 
sisted of  the  skin,  with  the  hair  attached,  from 
the  crown  of  the  head  over  a  circular  diameter 
of  about  four  inches.  With  the  warriors  of  the 
tribes  which  practiced  this  custom  the  hair  on 
this  portion  of  the  head  was  always  permitted  to 
grow  its  full  length  and  was  carefully  braided 


and  ornamented  with  beads  or  other  trinkets,  it 
being  held  a  point  of  honor  not  to  shave  the 
Bcalplock.  The  scalp  was  removed  by  drawing 
the  knife  in  a  circle  around  the  scalplock  and 
giving  a  strong  pull,  sometimes  even  using  the 
teeth  to  help  the  operation.  The  scalp  was  then 
stretched  on  a  little  hoop  to  dry,  after  which  it 
was  painted  on  the  under  side  with  red  paint 
and  mounted  at  the  end  of  a  light  rod,  to  be 
carried  by  the  women  in  the  subsequent  scalp 
dance.  It  was  afterwards  kept  by  the  warrior 
between  the  covers  of  his  shield,  to  be  taken  out 
on  ceremonial  occasions  and  fastened  at  his 
horse's  bridle,  or  was  put  with  the  tribal  'medi- 
cine,' or  perhaps  sacrificed  to  the  sun  by  hang- 
ing it  upon  a  tree  or  pole  in  some  lonely  spot. 
If  opportunity  permitted,  the  remainder  of  the 
hair  with  the  skin  attached  was  taken  at  the 
same  time  to  be  divided  into  scalplocks  for  use 
as  fringes  upon  *war  shirts'  or  leggings. 

The  custom  of  scalping  was  adopted  by  the 
whites  and  extensively  practiced,  frequently  with 
direct  official  encoura^ment,  in  all  the  border 
wars  from  King  Philip's  War  down  to  within 
the  last  thirty  years.  The  border  fighters  of  a 
later  period  invariably  scalped  their  slain  In- 
dians when  opportunity  permitted,  and  during 
the  Revolutionary  struggle  both  English  and 
American  officers  encouraged  their  Indian  allies 
in  the  practice  by  offers  of  bounties  and  rewards, 
even,  in  some  cases,  where  the  scalps  taken  were 
those  of  white  people.  The  Mexican  Grovemment 
formerly  employed  a  company  of  American  scalp- 
hunters  against  the  Apache  at  the  fixed  price 
of  one  ounce  of  gold  per  scalp.  Scalps  were 
taken  by  troops  in  the  Modoc  war  in  1873. 

SCAMANa)EB  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  ^KdfuipSpos, 
Skamandros).  The  ancient  name  of  a  river  in 
the  Troad,  which,  according  to  Homer,  was  also 
called  Xanthus  (Gk.,  yellow)  by  the  gods.  The 
Scamander  rose  in  Mount  Ida  (q.v.),  and,  flow- 
ing west  and  north,  discharged  itself  into  the 
Hellespont,  after  being  joined  b^  the  Simois, 
about  two  miles  from  its  mouth.  Like  most  other 
points  in  Trojan  topography,  the  identity"  of  this 
river  has  been  disputed.  It  is  now  clear  that  it 
is  the  modern  Mendereh,  though  its  course  has 
probably  changed  since  ancient  times. 

SCAMANa)BIXJS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Zmfuii^/Mot, 
Skamandrios) .  The  son  of  Hector  and  Andro^ 
mache,  called  Astyanax  (q.v.)  by  the  Trojans. 

SCAMMOinr  (OF.  scammonee,  scamonee, 
scammonie,  Fr.  scammon^e^  from  Lat.  scam- 
monea,  scammonia,  from  Gk.  aKamuavla^  skam- 
monia,  scammony ) .  A  gum  resin  of  an  ashy  gray 
color,  rough  externally,  and  having  a  resinous, 
splintering  fracture.  Few  drugs  are  so  uni- 
formly aaulterated  as  scammony,  which  when 
pure  contains  from  81  to  83  per  cent,  of  resin 
(which  is  the  active  purgative  ingredient),  6  or 
8  of  gum,  with  a  little  starch,  sand,  fibre,  and 
water.  The  ordinary  adulterations  are  chalk, 
flour,  guaiacum,  resin,  and  gum  tragacanth. 
Scammony  is  an  excellent  and  trustworthy  ca- 
thartic of  the  drastic  kind.  The  resin  of  scam- 
mony, which  may  be  extracted  from  the  crude 
drug  by  means  of  alcohol,  possesses  the  advantage 
of  being  always  of  a  nearly  uniform  strengtn, 
and  of  being  almost  tasteless.  The  scammony 
mixture,  composed  of  four  grains  of  resin  of 
scammony,  triturated  with  two  ounces  of  milk 
until  a  uniform  emulsion  is  obtained,  forms  an 


scAHHomr. 


404 


teAHDUTAVIAK  KU&IC. 


admirable  purgative.  Another  popular  form  for 
the  administration  of  scammony  is  the  com- 
pound powder  of  scammony,  composed  of  scam- 
mony, jalap,  and  ginger.  Scammony  is  fre- 
quently given  surreptitiously  in  the  form  of 
biscuit  to  children  troubled  with  threadworms. 
Scammony  is  derived  from  Convolvulus  scam- 
monia  (natural  order  ConvolvulaoeaB),  growing  in 
Asia  Minor,  in  Greece,  and  in  the  south  of  Rus- 
sia. It  is  a  perennial,  with  a  thick,  fleshy,  taper- 
ing root  3  to  4  feet  long,  and  3  to  4  inches  in  di- 
ameter, which  sends  up  several  smooth,  slender, 
twining  stems,  w^ith  leaves  shaped  like  arrow- 
heads, on  long  stalks.  All  parts  contain  a  milky 
juice.  The  scammony  plant  is  not  cultivated,  but 
the  drug  is  collected  from  it  where  it  grows  wild. 
The  ordinary  mode  of  collecting  scammony  is  by 
laying  bare  the  upper  part  of  the  root,  making 
incisions,  and  placing  shells  or  small  vessels  to 
receive  the  juice  as  it  flows,  which  soon  dries  and 
hardens  in  the  air. 

SCAICOZZI,  skft-mdt's^,  Vincenzo  (1552- 
1C16).  An  Italian  architect,  born  in  Vicenza. 
He  studied  under  Sansovino  in  Venice.  In  1852 
he  had  become  master  of  works  of  the  Pro- 
curatie  Nuove,  and,  going  to  Rome  in  1585,  came 
under  the  influence  of  Fontana  and  Bernini.  His 
later  works  in  the  Baroque  style  include  the 
Cornaro  Palace  on  the  Grand  Canal.  To  an  earlier 
and  less  ornate  period  belong  the  Barbari  monu- 
ment in  the  Church  of  the  Caritft,  which  first 
made  him  famous,  and  the  library  of  Saint 
Mark's,  which  he  completed.  He  wrote  Idea  dell* 
architettura  universale  { 1615) .  Consult  the  Life 
by  Scolari   (Treviso,  1837). 

SCAMPy  or  Bacalao.  A  name  in  Florida  for 
either  of  two  species  of  grouper  (q.v.),  of  the 
genus  Mycteroperca,  both  excellent  food- fishes. 

SCANa)EBBEa  (from  Turk.  Iskenderheg) , 
Prince  Alexandeb  (c.1404-68).  A  celebrated 
patriot  chief  of  Albania.  His  real  name  was 
George  Castriota,  and  his  father,  John  Cas- 
triota,  was  one  of  the  hereditary  princes  of 
Epirus.  In  1413  he  was  delivered  to  the  Turks 
as  one  of  the  hostages  for  the  allegiance  of  the 
Albanian  chiefs,  and  his  beauty  and  intelligence 
so  pleased  Amurath  II.  that  he  was  lodged  in 
the  royal  palace  and  brought  up  in  Islamism. 
Placed  at  the  head  of  a  Turkish  force,  he  fled 
in  1443  with  some  three  hundred  companions  to 
his  native  country  and  by  a  stratagem  made 
himself  master  of  the  town  of  Croia.  At  the 
news  of  his  success,  the  whole  country  rose  in 
insurrection,  and  in  thirty  days  he  had  driven 
every  Turk,  except  the  garrison  of  Sfetigrad,  out 
of  the  country.  He  raised  an  army  of  15,000 
men  with  which  he  scattered  (1444)  a  Turkish 
force  of  40,000  men.  Three  other  Turkish  armies 
shared  the  same  fate.  The  Venetians,  too,  were 
made  to  feel  the  power  of  the  Albanian  leader. 
Amurath  II.  took  the  field  in  1449  against 
Scanderbeg  and  stormed  many  of  the  principal 
fortresses,  but  was  baffled  at  Croia  (1450). 
Scanderbeg's  splendid  success  brought  him  con- 
gratulations and  substantial  aid  from  the  Pope 
and  the  sovereigns  of  Naples  and  Aragon.  Mo- 
hammed II.  granted  him  favorable  terms  in  1461, 
and  Scanderbeg  thereupon  entered  Italy,  where 
he  maintained  the  cause  of  the  Aragonese  in 
Naples  against  the  partisans  of  the  House  of 
Anjou  (1461-62).  At  the  instigation  of  the 
Pope,  he  broke  the  truce  with  the  Turks  in  1464. 


Mohammed  II.  dispatched  two  great  armies  for 
the  reduction  of  Albania,  and  Croia  was  unsuc- 
cessfully besieged  in  1466;  but  the  restless  and 
indomitable  chief,  worn  out  with  incessant  toil, 
died  at  Alessio  on  January  17,  1468.  The  war 
continued,  but  the  great  mainstay  of  the  country 
was  now  wanting,  and  before  the  end  of  1468 
the  Turkish  power  had  been  firmly  established  in 
Epirus.  Scanderbeg  is  said  to  have  vanquished 
the  Turks  in  twenty-two  pitched  battles.  Con- 
sult: Pisko,  Skanderbeg  (Vienna,  1894);  Gib- 
bon, Decliner  and  Fall,  ed.  Bury,  vol.  vii.  (Lon- 
don and  New  York,  1900). 

SCAN'DINA^VIA.  A  name  generally  used 
as  a  collective  term  for  the  three  kingdoms 
of  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark.  In  a 
more  restricted  and  purely  geographical  sense 
the  name  is  confined  to  the  great  peninsula  of 
Northern  Europe,  including  only  Norway  and 
Sweden.  The  name  Scandia  was  first  employed 
by  the  Romans  to  designate  a  large  island  sup- 
posed to  lie  north  of  the  Baltic  Sea.  This  was 
probably  Southern  Sweden,  which  still  bears  the 
name  of  Sk&ne,  and  which  was  then  not  known 
to  be  connected  with  the  mainland  in  the  north. 

SCANDINAVIAN  LANGXrAGES  AND 
LITERATUBE.  See  Danish  Language  and 
Literature;  Norwegian  Language;  Norwegian 
Literature;  Swedish  Language;  Swedish 
Literature. 

SCANDINAVIAN  MUSIC.  Since  the  be- 
ginning '  of  the  sixteenth  century  music  has 
been  extensively  cultivated  in  Scandinavia,  but 
until  the  nineteenth  century  all  forms  were 
modeled  after  the  music  of  Italy,  Germany,  and 
France. 

Denmark.  The  earliest  operas  written  upon 
Danish  texts  were  by  German  composers  who 
lived  in  Denmark.  The  more  prominent  among 
these  are  J.  A.  Schulz,  Kunzen,  Weyse,  and 
Kuhlau.  The  first  native  Danish  composer  of 
note  is  Berggreen  (1801-80),  whose  opera  Bille- 
det  og  Bust  en  appeared  in  1832.  In  the  works 
of  Joahn  Peder  Emilius  Hartmann  (1806-1900) 
specifically  northern  traits  appear,  so  that  be 
is  to  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  a  national 
Danish  school.  This  new  school  obtained  gen- 
eral recognition  through  the  works  of  Gade 
(1817-90),  in  whose  overtures  and  symphonies 
distinctive  Scandinavian  themes  are  developed. 
Hartmann's  son,  Emil  Hartmann  (1836-98), 
added  several  operas  to  the  Danish  repertoire. 
Although  in  his  instrumental  works  he  strictly 
adheres  to  classical  forms,  he  gives  them  a  na- 
tional coloring  by  consciously  emphasizing  the 
Scandinavian  element.  Winding  (1835-99)  was 
an  instrumental  composer  of  merit,  in  whose 
works  the  national  element  appears  rather  as 
the  expression  of  his  natural  talent  than  as  a 
conscious  attempt  to  obtain  local  color.  Han- 
nerik  (1843 — )  at  first  attracted  some  atten- 
tion with  his  'Northern  Suites,  but  gradually  sub- 
ordinated Scandinavian  characteristics  to  an  ex- 
cessive technical  development  of  the  orchestra. 
The  younger  Danish  composers  include  Ludwig 
Schylte  ( 1848 — ) ,  whose  works  are  also  warmly 
appreciated  outside  of  Denmark,  and  Enna 
(I860—),  whose  opera  The  Witch  created  a  sen- 
sation in  1892  in  Copenhagen.  In  the  field  of 
dance  music  Denmark  has  produced  Lumbye 
(1810-74),  who  wrote  about  300  dances  that  are 
remarkable     for     their    original     and    piquant 


SCANDINAVIAN  MTJSIC. 


495 


SCANDINAVIAN  MYTHOLOGY. 


rhythms  and  melodic  invention.  Special  mention 
must  be  made  of  the  great  seventeenth-century 
master,  Danish  by  birth,  though  he  lived  chiefly 
in  Germany,  Dietrich  Buxtehude  (1637-1707). 
He  is  one  of  those  who  created  a  distinctly  in- 
strumental style  for  the  organ  and  materially 
advanced  not  only  the  style  of  organ-playing, 
but  also  the  instrumental  forms  of  the  toccata 
and  fugue. 

Sweden.  During  the  sixteenth  century  Gus- 
tavus  Vasa  attach^  many  noted  foreign  artists 
to  his  Court,  and  thus  in  Sweden  also  the  cultiva- 
tion of  music  at  first  remained  in  the  hands  of 
foreigners.  The  first  composer  of  note  was  a  Ger- 
man, Hfiifner  (1759-1833),  who  settled  in  Stock- 
holm in  1780.  In  his  operas  he  is  a  mere  imi- 
tator of  Gluck^  but  in  his  Swedish  songs  he 
struck  a  distinct  national  tone.  He  also  did 
much  for  the  cause  of  Swedish  music  by  his  ar- 
rangements and  publication  of  old  Swedish  na- 
tional folk-song^  and  the  restoration  of  the 
melodies  in  the  *'Svensk  choralbok."  The  first 
native-bom  composer  of  significance  was  Franz 
Berwald  (1796-1868),  who  wrote  some  good 
chamber-music  and  six  operas,  and  attracted  the 
attention  of  Liszt  and  Billow.  Of  more  impor- 
tance is  Lindblad  (1801-78),  the  teacher  of 
Jenny  Lind.  He  wrote  little  besides  songs,  which, 
however,  are  remarkable,  especially  in  their  skill- 
ful use  of  local  color.  Hallstrom  (1826 — )  is 
highly  esteemed  by  his  compatriots  for  his 
operas,  which  are  characteristically  Swedish. 
Sadermann  (1832-76)  was  a  musician  of  rare 
talent,  a  master  of  orchestral  writing,  and  be- 
came well  known  outside  of  Sweden  for  his 
lai^e  works  for  chorus  and  orchestra.  His  har- 
mony is  refined  and  individual,  his  melodic  in- 
vention original.  A  composer  much  esteemed  for 
his  symphonies,  overtures,  and  chamber-music  is 
Norman  (1831-85).  The  operas  of  Hall6n 
( 1846 — )  are  strongly  influenced  by  Wagner,  yet 
they  also  preserve  Swedish  characteristics. 
Sjogren  (1853 — )  has  written  songs  and  beauti- 
ful compositions  for  the  piano.  He  enjoys  the 
reputation  of  being  Sweden's  greatest  melodist. 
Stenhammar  (187(> — )  attracted  considerable  at- 
tention through  four  concerts  for  the  piano.  His 
other  works  include  choral  ballads,  overtures,  and 
three  string  quartets. 

Norway.  The  way  for  national  Norwegian 
composers  was  prepared  by  Lindemann  (1812- 
87),  who  collected  and  published  more  than  600 
folk-songs.  The  first  native  composer  is  Kjerulf 
(1815-68).  The  number  of  his  works  is  small, 
but  both  his  songs  and  his  instrumental  music 
show  national  characteristics.  Svendson  (1840 — ) 
has  an  international  reputation.  His  works  are 
thoroughly  individual  and  often  betray  the  com- 
poser's nationality  by  a  certain  harshness,  al- 
though in  his  orchestral  works  he  follows  the 
neo-German  school  of  programme  music,  as  be- 
comes evident  from  the  titles  of  some  composi- 
tions: prelude  to  BjOmson's  Siguard  Slemhe, 
overture  to  Romeo  and  Juliet^  legend  for  orches- 
tra Zarahayde,  Northern  Camevoel.  In  his  two 
symphonies  op.  4  and  15  he  uses  the  form  estab- 
lished by  the  classic  masters,  but  does  not  hesi- 
tate to  introduce  national  melodies.  Norwegian 
music  suffered  a  serious  loss  through  the  prema- 
ture death  of  the  talented  Nordraak  (1842-66). 
At  a  very  early  age  he  was  attracted  by  the 
peculiarities  of  Norwegian  folk-music.  Shortly 
Defore    his    death    he    became    acquainted    with 


Grieg  (q.v.),  who  at  that  time  was  under 
the  influence  of  Hartmann  and  Gade,  and  Nor- 
draak soon  aroused  in  his  new  friend  the  same 
enthusiasm  which  he  himself  felt  for  Norwegian 
melodies. 

The  works  of  Sinding  (1856 — )  have  at- 
tracted universal  attention.  He  does  not  confine 
himself  to  the  exclusive  cultivation  of  national 
traits,  but  employs  the  larger  forms  (symphony, 
chamber-music,  concertos).  If  he  is  somewhat 
lacking  in  the  refinement  and  delicacy  of  Grieg, 
he  exhibits  greater  power  in  delineating  passion. 
Consult:  Von  Ravn,  "Skandinavische  Musik,"  in 
supplement  to  MendePs  Lexikon  (Leipzig,  1882) ; 
H.  Riemann,  Oeschichte  der  Mtisik  seit  Beethoven 
(Leipzig,  1901) ;  Soubise,  Histoire  de  la  musique 
(**Etat8  Scandinaves")   (Paris,  1901). 

SCANDINAVIAN  and  TEUTONIC  MY- 
THOLOGY. The  religion  of  the  Germanic  peo- 
ples. Teutonic  mythology  is  so  largely  based 
upon  Scandinavian  sources  as  to  render  the  two 
terms  almost  synonjTnous.  The  number  of  nature 
gods,  with  marked,  strong  individuality,  is  small ; 
the  proportion  of  spirits  and  demons,  elves, 
dwarfs,  and  giants,  walkyries,  swan-maidens,  and 
norns,  unusually  large.  Most  of  these  creations 
are  mere  folk-lore  or  poetic  personifications, 
rather  than  real  mythic  figures,  founded  upon  a 
definite  fact  in  outside  nature,  or  some  permanent 
element  in  the  inner  consciousness  of  man. 

The  final  conversion  of  the  Northern  Teutons 
to  Christianity  took  place  about  a.d.  1000.  The 
native  sources  of  mythology  are  in  general  not 
earlier  than  that  date,  many  of  them  much  later. 
The  Elder  or  Poetic  Edda  (see  Edda)  dates 
from  the  tenth  century;  the  Younger  or  Prose 
Edda  and  the  Sagas  are  About  two  centuries 
later.  Both  these  dates  make  it  likely,  first,  that 
the  native  ideas  on  the  subject  are  present  in  an 
advanced  and  tangled  form,  considerably  re- 
moved from  the  mythic  roots  that  started  them ; 
secondly,  that  there  is  a  strong  admixture  of 
Christian,  and  perhaps  even  classical  ideas. 
There  are  indeed  foreign  infiuences  in  Scandi- 
navian mythology,  but,  despite  this  non-Teutonic 
element,  the  mythology  is  essentially  national 
in  spirit  and  character. 

The  Scandinavian  gods  are  anthropomorphic, 
like  the  Greek  gods,  but  not  as  plastic  as  they. 
Their  personality  is  rugged,  even  if  they  fall 
short  both  in  the  graceful  fancy  and  the  fin- 
ished mastery  of  the  Greek  deities.  In  the  main, 
however,  the  gods  portray  men:  Odin  (q.v.) 
is  a  powerful,  shrewd,  not  unkindly  old  man; 
Loki  is  ill-tempered,  fickle,  deceitful,  and  calum- 
niating; Balder  is  wondrously  fair,  beloved  of 
all;  Thor  performs  incredible  deeds,  but  only 
when  he  has  his  hammer  Mjollnir;  Frigg  is 
Odin's  busy  housewife,  the  mother  of  Balder 
(q.v.).  The  gods  are  human  in  their  needs  and 
infirmities;  they  eat  and  drink — solemnly  and 
copiously,  as  Teuton  gdds  should.  Odin  has 
lost  an  eye,  having  pledged  it  for  a  draught  from 
the  fountain  of  Mimir,  the  source  of  all  wisdom ; 
Tyr  has  lost  a  hand;  Balder  perishes.  Their 
character,  their  emotions,  and  such  morality  as 
they  claim  are  entirely  human.  They  are  kind 
or  ferocious,  shrewd  or  foolish.  Frigg,  Odin's 
wife,  is  the  highest  representation  of  heavenly 
virtue;  she  is  the  severe,  rather  shrewish  guar- 
dian  of   domestic   virtue   and    sexual   morality. 

The  absence  of  truly  lofty  traits,  cesthetical  or 


SCANDINAVIAN  MYTHOLOGY. 


496 


SCANDINAVIAN  MYTHOLOGY. 


ethical,  from  the  character  of  the  gods  is  reflected 
in  their  worshipers.  There  is  no  piety,  nor  is 
there  much  faith  beyond  the  assurance  that  the 
gods  are  likely  to  take  a  hand  in  the  affairs  of 
men.  Neither  gods  nor  men  are  always  acting 
rightfully,  nor  are  accursed  deeds  always 
avenged.  Hence  the  gloomy  idea  of  the  so-called 
noma  (q.v.).  Over  and  above  the  natural  se- 
quence of  either  divine  or  human  events,  and 
above  right  and  wrong,  there  is  a  higher  in- 
exorable law  which  dominates  over  gods  and  men 
alike.  Hence,  too,  the  power  of  gods  and  men  is 
often  dependent,  not  upon  their  inner  quality, 
but  rather  upon  external  conditions,  or  upon 
the  possession  of  sundry  magical  objects.  Odin's 
throne  Hlidhskjalf  enables  him,  or  any  one  else 
who  may  happen  to  sit  on  it,  to  see  all  the 
world,  and  Thor's  strength  depends  upon  his 
hammer.  The  gods  called  -^sir  (q.v.)  fasten 
the  hell  wolf  Fenrir  (see  Fenrib;  RaonabOk) 
with  the  fetter  Gleipnir,  made  out  of  the  sound 
caused  by  the  footfall  of  cats,  of  the  beards  of 
women,  the  roots  of  mountains,  the  breath  of 
fish,  and  the  spittle  of  birds. 

The  Edda  furnishes  an  account  of  creation, 
and  of  the  Scandinavian  Olympus,  which  presents 
a  fair  average  of  Teutonic  ideas  on  these  sub- 
jects. The  first  and  eldest  of  the  gods  is  Odin, 
the  All-Father,  who  lives  from  all  ages,  rules 
over  all  his  realm,  heaven  and  earth,  and  man. 
All  the  righteous  shall  live  and  be  with  himself 
in  Walhalla  (q.v.)  ;  but  the  wicked  fare  to  Hel 
and  thence  into  Nifiheim  (q.v.)  or  Niflhel,  be- 
neath in  the  ninth  world.  At  first  neither  heaven 
nor  earth  existed,  only  a  yawning  abyss.  Then 
the  giants  made  a  citadel  for  the  gods  called 
Asgard  (q.v.),  to  which  the  gods  ascended  by 
the  rainbow  bridge  called  Bifrost  (q.v.).  There 
Odin  sits  in  his  high  seat.  His  wife  is  Frigg, 
and  their  offspring  are  the  iEsir  (q.v.).  Odin's 
first  son  is  Thor  (q.v.),  the  strongest  of  the  gods. 
He  has  a  hanmaer^  called  Mjollnir,  a  strength- 
belt,  and  iron  gloves  that  he  may  hold  his 
hammer's  haft.  Balder  is  Odin's  second  son, 
fair  and  beautiful,  and  praised  by  all.  Tyr 
(q.v.)  is  daring  and  stanch,  while  Bragi  (q.v.) 
is  famous  for  wisdom,  clever  in  speech  and 
song-craft.  Among  others  who  are  good  and  great 
are  Heimdallr  (see  Ra.onabok),  Hoenir,  Vidh- 
arr,  and  Vali.  Loki  (q.v.),  fair  of  face,  ill  in 
temper,  and  fickle  of  mood,  is  called  the  back- 
biter of  the  iEsir,  the  speaker  of  evil  speech  and 
shame  of  all  gods  and  men,  whom  he  constantly 
deceives.  The  highest  seat  of  the  gods  is  at  the 
ash-tree  Yggdrasil  (q.v.).  One  of  the  three  roots 
of  this  *world-tree*  goes  to  heaven  to  the  J5sir. 
A  second  reaches  to  the  winter  giants.  Under 
that  root  is  the  spring  of  Mimir  (q.v.),  Odin's 
uncle.  There,  once  upon  a  time,  came  Odin, 
and  begged  a  drink.  His  wisdom  was  exhausted, 
and  the  end  of  things  seemed  near.  Mimir  asked 
for  the  eye  of  Odin  as  a  pledge,  which  the  god 
sacrificed.  The  third  root  reaches  to  lowest  hell. 
A  fair  hall  stands  under  the  ash  by  the  spring, 
and  out  of  it  come  the  three  norns  *Has-been' 
iVrdhr),  'Being*  {Verdhandi) ,  and  *Will-be' 
{Skuld),  and  grave  on  a  shield  the  destiny  of 
men. 

The  heroes  that  have  fallen  in  battle,  from  the 
beginning  of  the  world,  go  to  Odin  in  Wal- 
halla. Odin's  'battle-maidens,'  the  walkyries, 
protect  his  favorites,  and  grant  them  victory. 
But»  when  their  day  has  come,  the  walkyries^ 


who  have  hitherto  been  invisible,  reveal  them- 
selves, and  conduct  the  fallen  heroes  to  Walhalla. 
There  they  eat  of  the  fiesh  of  the  boar  Soehrim- 
nir  every  day  and  drink  the  mead  from  the  goat 
Heidhrun.  Every  day  the  heroes  put  on  their 
armor  and  fight  with  each  other  for  their  sport. 
At  evening  they  ride  home  to  Walhalla  and  sit 
down  to  drink.  But  an  uncertain  future  throws 
its  shadow  even  over  the  citadel  of  the  gods,  for 
no  one  knows  when  the  enemies  of  the  Jssir  will 
break  their  bonds  and  cause  the  downfall  of  the 
world.    See  Ragnab5k. 

Only  a  small  stock  of  the  Teutonic  divinities 
can  be  traced  with  certainty  to  the  Indo-Ger- 
manic  period.  In  Scandinavian  tivar,  a  collec- 
tive designation  of  the  gods,  and  in  the  name  Tyr, 
Old  High  German  Zio,  we  have  the  shining  sky- 
god  of  the  prehistoric  myth,  reflected  by  Sanskrit 
devas,  Lithuanian  devaa,  Old  Irish  dia,  'god,'  Lat. 
divus,  'divine.'  The  direct  equation  of  T^,  Zio, 
w^ith  Vedic  Dyduf  pitar,  Greek  Zc>f  vaript  Lat. 
Jupiter  (q.v.),  has  been  questioned,  but  there 
is  no  doubt  that  Tyr,  Zio  is  the  prehistoric  sky 
and  day  god.  The  Scandinavian  ^8ir,  German 
Asen,  another  generic  designation  of  the  gods, 
points  with  great  certainty,  through  Sanskrit 
asUf  'life,  spirit,'  Avestan  athhu,  'lord,'  to  the 
Asura-Ahura,  the  highest  generic  name  ifor  Indo- 
Iranian  divinities.  Odin  or  Wotan  may  not  be 
severed  from  the  Vedic  storm  god  Vata  (q.v.), 
'Wind.'  Slight  phonetic  obscurities  notwith- 
standing, the  Scandinavian  god  and  goddess 
Fjorgynn  and  Fjorgyn  are  identical  with  the 
Lithuanian  Perkunas,  Vedic  Parjanya  (q.v.),  'god 
of  thunder.'  Less  certain,  though  probable,  is 
the  connection  of  the  words  for  elf  (Anglo- 
Saxon  celfr,  Scandinavian  tUfr)  with  the  r^hu 
(see  RiBHUS)  of  the  Veda.  Both  types  of  divini- 
ties are  famed  for  skill  rather  than  strength; 
they  are  probably  divinities  of  light,  connected 
with  the  fashioning  of  the  seasons  and  the  year. 

In  the  common  Teutonic  period  three  mighty 
gods  and  one  goddess  were  worshiped,  Tjrr,  Odin, 
Thor,  and  Frigg.  Four  days  of  the  week,  Tues- 
day, Wednesday,  Thursday,  and  Friday,  were 
consecrated  to  them.  Tyr,  the  ancient  eky  god, 
became  a  war  god  and  lost  his  early  importance. 
Wodanaz  (Scandinavian  Odin)  was  originally 
a  storm  god.  In  the  belief  of  the  Germans  he 
figures  as  the  leader  of  the  'Furious  Host,'  or 
'Wild  Hunt.'  The  souls  of  the  dead  are  thought 
to  sweep  with  him  through  the  air,  so  he  be- 
comes the  leader  of  the  souls  and  god  of  the  dead. 
He  develops  also  into  a  god  of  war,  and  finally 
in  the  Scandinavian  North  into  the  head  of  Wal- 
halla, creator,  orderer  of  the  world,  and  god  of 
wisdom.  Each  day  he  lets  fly  his  two  ravens, 
Huginn  and  Munin  (thought  and  memory); 
when  they  return  they  alight  upon  his  shoulders, 
and  tell  him  of  all  that  comes  to  pass  and  ail 
that  is  to  be. 

The  most  popular  god  of  Scandinavia  is  Thor. 
His  mother  is  Fjorgyn,  a  female  personification 
of  thunder,  and  he  is  himself  thunder  personified. 
He  is  sumamed  Hlorridhi,  'roarer;'  his  hair  and 
beard  are  red,  typifying  the  lightning,  and  he 
wields  the  hammer  Mjollnir,  \niich  returns  of 
itself  to  the  hand  of  the  god  after  crushing  his 
enemies.  In  many  myths  he  is  the  chief  de- 
fender of  the  heavenly  citadel  Asgard  against  the 
attacks  of  the  giants.  He  is  a  popular  god  in 
distinction  from  the  more  aristocratic  Odin, 
being   simple    and   rough,   passionate,   and  de- 


8CAHDINAVIAK  MYTHOLOGY. 


497 


SCANDINAVIANS. 


voted  to  eating  and  drinking.  Thor's  picture  is 
carved  on  the  seat  of  honor  of  the  master  of  the 
house,  to  bring  comfort  and  prosperity  to  the 
household. 

The  last  of  the  Teuton  divinities,  to  whom  was 
consecrated  a  day  of  the  week,  is  Frigg,  the 
wife  of  Odin.  With  him  she  surveys,  from  his 
seat  Hlidhskjalf,  the  whole  universe,  and  knows, 
as  Odin's  confidante,  the  fates  of  men.  She 
is  in  charge  of  marriage,  of  housewifely  success 
and  happiness,  and  of  marital  fidelity.  Sterile 
women  pray  to  her  for  children,  and  she  gives  aid 
in  the  throes  of  childbirth.  Veiled,  with  a  dis- 
taff in  her  hand,  and  a  bunch  of  keys  at  her 
aide,  she  typifies  the  true  Teuton  housewife.  She 
is  the  devoted  mother  of  Balder,  and  weeps  when 
he  is  slain.  The  Scandinavian  myth  has  created 
a  goddess  Freyja  (q.v.),  in  addition  to  Frigg, 
as  a  female  abstraction,  or  sister,  of  the  male  god 
Freyr.  The  latter  is  one  of  the  Vanir,  a  class 
of  gods  who  appear  to  be  in  some  kind  of  opposi- 
tion to  the  .£sir.  As  Freyr  is  a  god  of  love  and 
fruitfulness,  his  female  counterpart  Freyja  is 
the  fairest  of  goddesses,  beneficent,  and  invoked 
in  affairs  of  love,  and  is  invoked  in  company  with 
Frigg. 

The  two  most  important  remaining  characters 
of  Scandinavian  mythology  are  Balder  and  Loki. 
Balder,  the  son  of  Odin,  and  husband  of  Nanna, 
is  the  darling  of  the  gods.  He  is  so  fair  that 
light  streams  from  him,  and  the  whitest  of  all 
flowers  is  likened  to  him.  He  has  an  evil  dream 
of  impending  danger,  and  therefore  Frigg,  his 
mother,  puts  all  animate  and  inanimate  things 
under  a  vow  not  to  harm  Balder.  On  the  field 
the  gods,  certain  not  to  hurt  him,  begin  to  throw 
all  sorts  of  objects  at  him.  Nothing  harms  him. 
Loki  changes  into  a  woman  and  extracts  from 
Frigg  the  information  that  she  had  put  all  things 
under  a  vow,  except  the  mistletoe,  which  was 
too  young  to  be  able  to  do  him  harm.  Loki  then 
puts  the  mistletoe  into  the  hands  of  Hodhr, 
^alder's  brother,  to  shoot  as  an  arrow.  The  mis- 
sile hits  the  mark  and  Balder  falls  dead.  The 
kernel  of  the  myth  is  probably  the  vanishing  of 
the  summer  sun  in  winter.  Balder,  god  of 
physical  light,  has  become  the  emblem  of  purity 
and  innocence.  Balder's  death  ushers  in  the  de- 
struction of  the  world  in  RagnarSk  (q.v.) 

Loki  is  deceitful  and  malicious  in  character, 
and  his  naturalistic  basis  is  problematical.  He 
appears  only  in  the  Scandinavian  myth.  Though 
he  often  goes  in  the  company  of  the  gods,  him- 
self one  of  the  i^^lsir,  yet  on  the  whole,  whatever 
his  origin,  Mephistophelian  deviltry  is  a  constant 
element  of  his  character.  Both  his  origin  and 
name  have  been  traced  to  Lucifer.  His  part  in 
Balder's  death  has  been  shown  above.  Loki  once 
ate  the  heart  of  a  courtesan,  became  pregnant 
thereof,  and  gave  birth  to  monsters,  the  wolf 
Fenrir,  the  serpent  Midhgardh,  and  Hel  (q.v.), 
the  goddess  of  death.  As  a  boatswain  upon  a 
ship  he  leads  the  dark  powers  against  the  Mbit 
at  Ragnar9k.  No  Teutonic  god  has  been  ex- 
plained more  variously,  as  Fire,  as  the  equivalent 
of  the  Vedic  demon  Vritra,  as  Prometheus,  Vul- 
can, Lucifer,  and  other  types.  His  name  is  sup- 
posed to  mean  'the  closer*— a  vague  and  doubtful 
appellation.  It  seems  likely  that  he  contains 
at  least  in  part  a  demonic  personification  of 
Rre,  and  as  such  Richard  Wagner  pictured  him 
in  his  Nibelungen  tetralogy. 

Consult:   MfiUer,  Oeachiohte  und  Byatem  der 


altdeutschen  Religion  (G($ttingen,  1844) ;  HoltE- 
mann,  Deutsche  Mythologie  (Leipzig,  1874) ; 
Wolf,  Beitrcge  zur  deutaohen  Mythologie  (GOt- 
tingen,  1852-54) ;  Mannhardt,  Germanieche 
Mythen  (Berlin,  1868) ;  id.,  Die  Gottenoelt  der 
deutaohen  und  nordiachen  Volker  (ib.,  1860) ; 
Grimm,  Deutache  Mythologie  (4th  ed.,  ib., 
1875-78) ;  Simrock,  Handhuch  der  deutaohen 
Mythologie  (6th  ed.,  Bonn,  1878);  Andersen, 
Mythologie  aoandinave  (Paris,  1886) ;  Hahn, 
Odin  und  aein  Reich  (Berlin,  1887) ;  Meyer,  Oer- 
tnaniaohe  Mythologie  (ib.,  1891)  ;  Gummere, 
Oermanio  Origina  (New  York,  1892)  ;  Kauff- 
mann,  Deutache  Mythologie  (2d  ed.,  Stuttgart, 
1893)  ;  Golther,  Handhuch  der  germamachem 
Mythologie  (Leipzig,  1895)  ;  Hermann,  Deutache 
Mythologie  (ib.,  1898)  ;  Mogk,  "Germanische 
Mythologie,"  in  Paul,  Orundriaa  der  germani- 
achen  Philologie,  vol.  ii.  (2d  ed.,  Strassburg, 
1898) ;  La  Saussaye,  Religion  of  the  Teutons 
(translated  by  Vos,  Boston,  1902). 

SCANDINAVIAKS.  People  of  the  Scandi- 
navian group  of  the  Teutonic  stock  consisting  of 
the  Norwegians,  Swedes,  Danes,  and  Icelan&rs. 
They  are  long-headed  blonds.  Prehistoric  re- 
mains show  that  Scandinavia  was  settled  in  the 
Neolithic  Stone  Age,  probably  by  migrants  from 
the  Eurasian  steppes  who  followed  a  more  north- 
em  route  than  the  Slavs  and  developed  the 
physical  characters  which  are  noticeable  in  the 
Teutonic  stock.  Scandinavia  is  believed  by 
many  to  be  the  true  home  of  the  Teutonic  race, 
These  original  migrants  were  the  (jrotar  and 
Svear,  who  are  now  collectively  grouped  as  the 
Scandinavians. 

The  settlement  of  Scandinavia  began  after 
the  retreat  of  the  ice  cap  of  the  Glacial  period; 
hence  the  earliest  and  by  far  the  most  abundant 
traces  of  Neolithic  man  are  found  in  the  south- 
em  portion.  Nowhere  is  the  sequence  of  culture 
periods  more  orderly  than  in  this  region,  and 
from  this  fact  the  students  of  Scandinavia  have 
been  foremost  in  giving  to  the  science  of  archae- 
ology a  sequential  basis.  The  burial  places  of 
the  Polished  Stone  Age  in  Southern  Sweden  and 
Norway  consist  of  dolmens,  stone  graves,  and 
mounds;  funeral  chambers  with  galleries  and 
kitchen-middens  (q.v.)  are  also  found.  The 
Bronze  Age  brought  in  a  higher  civilization,  and 
through  this  age  and  the  succeeding  age  of  iron 
to  the  historic  period  may  be  traced  an  increasing 
culture.  With  the  Iron  Age  came  the  alphabet 
and  the  writing  of  rimes,  the  use  of  which 
survived  in  Gothland  till  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  Scandinavians  appear  in  history  at  the  time 
of  the  sea-roving  expeditions,  when  they  came  in 
actual  contact  with  many  civilized  nations  and 
carried  back  to  the  north  coins  and  art  works  of 
these  nations.  The  trade  in  amber,  which  fol- 
lowed a  well-known  route,  also  had  its  effect  up- 
on the  culture  of  Scandinavia.  The  inexhaustible 
supply  of  food,  especially  of  fish,  gave  rise  to 
early  commerce  between  the  peoples  of  this 
region  and  the  nations  to  the  south,  explaining 
largely  the  diffusion  of  foreign  culture  in  Scan- 
dinavia. The  Swedes  have  taken  less  of  blend- 
ing than  the  Norwegians  or  Danes,  and  preserve 
the  best  type  of  the  early  migrants,  especially  in 
the  Dalecarlians.  The  only  foreign  types  of  the 
region  are  the  Laps  and  the  settlements  of  short- 
heads  on  the  west  coast  of  Norway. 


SCAFA. 


498 


SCASkABIBXDJB. 


SCAPA.  The  popular  designation  of  the 
Society  for  Checking  the  Abuses  of  Public  Ad- 
vertising, in  London,  founded  for  the  purpose 
of  restraining,  through  legislation  and  social  in- 
fluence, the  disfigurement  of  towns  and  rural 
districts  by  glaringly  hideous  business  announce- 
ments. It  has  been  fairly  successful  in  London, 
where  it  has  been  instrumental  in  abolishing 
certain  abuses,  mostly  the  obnoxious  "sky-signs." 
It  publishes  a  journal,  A  Beautiful  World. 

SCAPHOID  BONE  (from  Gk.  aKcupoeiS^s, 
skaphoeides,  boat-shaped,  bowl-shaped,  from 
(rKd^Tff  skaphe,  ffKd<f>oSj  akaphos,  boat,  bowl  + 
cT^of,  eidos,  shape).  A  term  applied  to  a  some- 
what boat-shaped  bone  in  the  carpus  or  wrist 
(see  Hand),  and  in  the  tarsus  of  the  foot  (q.v.)« 

SCAPHOP^ODA  (Keo-Lat.  nom.  pi.  from  Gk. 
ffKd<t>rij  skaphSf  <rjcd0of,  akaphos,  boat,  bowl  + 
irouj,  pouSy  foot).  A  class  of  mollusks  repre- 
sented by  the  tooth-shells  (Dentalium).  The 
scaphopods  are  intermediate  between  the  gastro- 
pods and  pelecypods.  The  shell  is  white,  very 
long  and  slender,  slightly  curved,  and  open  at 
both  ends.  The  scaphopods  are  found  in  shallow 
water  near  shore,  chiefly  in  the  warmer  parts  of 
the  world.  Fossil  scaphopod  shells  are  known 
from  Paleozoic  rocks,  but  they  were  not  common 
until  the  Cretaceous. 

SGAPIN,  sk&'p&N^  The  valet  of  L^andre  in 
Molifere's  comedy  Lea  fourheriea  de  Scapin  a 
master  in  deceit,  who  manages  the  love  affairs 
of  his  master  and  friend  by  false  pretenses,  and 
finally  gains  forgiveness  by  feigning  a  dying 
state.  The  name  became  current  in  France  for  a 
trickster,  and  the  Abb6  de  Pradt  called  Napoleon 
'Jupiter   Scapin.' 

SCAPITIiA  (Lat.,  shoulder),  or  Shouldeb- 
Blade.  a  flat  triangular  bone,  which,  when  the 
arm  hangs  loosely  down,  extends  posteriorly  and 
laterally  from  the  first  to  about  the  seventh  rib. 
It  presents  for  examination  an  outer  convex  and 
an  inner,  smooth,  concave  surface,  three  borders 
(a  superior,  an  inferior  or  axillary,  and  a  pos- 
terior), three  angles,  and  certain  outstanding 
processes. 

Its  outer,  or  posterior,  surface  is  divided  into 
two  unequal  parts,  the  supraspinous  fossa,  and 
the  infraspinous  fossa,  by  the  spine,  a  crest 
of  bone  commencing  at  a  smooth  triangular  sur- 
face on  the  posterior  border,  and  running  across 
toward  the  upper  part  of  the  neck  of  the  scapula, 
after  which  it  alters  its  direction,  and  projects 
forward  so  as  to  form  a  lofty  arch,  known  as  the 
acromion  process,  which  overhangs  the  glenoid 
cavity,  or  receptacle  for  the  head  of  the  humerus 
or  main  bone  of  the  arm.  This  acromion  serves 
to  protect  the  shoulder-joint,  as  well  as  to  give 
great  leverage  to  the  deltoid  muscle  which  raises 
the  arm.  It  is  this  process  which  gives  to  the 
shoulder  its  natural  roundness.  From  the  upper 
part  of  the  neck  there  proceeds  a  remarkable 
curved  projection,  called  the  coracoid  process, 
from  its  supposed  resemblance  to  the  beak  of  a 
raven.  It  is  about  two  inches  long,  and  gives 
attachments  to  several  muscles.  The  upper 
border  of  the  scapula  presents  a  notch,  which  in 
the  recent  state  is  bridged  over  with  a  ligament, 
and  gives  passage  to  the  suprascapular  nerve. 
This  bone  articulates  with  the  clavicle  and 
humerus,  and  gives  attachment  to  no  less  than 
sixteen  muscles,  many  of  which,  as  the  biceps. 


triceps,  deltoid,  and  serratus  magnus,  are  veiy 
powerful  and  important. 

SCAPXJLAB  (ML.  acapularium,  aoapulare, 
from  acapularis^  pertaining  to  the  shoulders,  from 
Lat.  acapula,  shoulder).  A  portion  of  the  mo- 
nastic habit  in  certain  religious  Orders.  It  con- 
sists of  a  long  strip  of  serge  or  stuff  which  passes 
over  the  head,  one  flap  hanging  down  in  front, 
the  other  behind.  With  the  growth  of  pious  con- 
fraternities of  people  living  in  the  world  but  af- 
filiated with  the  religious  Orders,  the  practice 
grew  up  and  is  usual  to-day  among  devout 
Roman  Catholics  of  wearing  a  small  scapular, 
which  is  simply  two  little  pieces  of  cloth  joined 
by  strings.  These  scapulars  are  of  different  col- 
ors according  to  the  confraternities  of  which  they 
are  the  badges.  The  oldest  and  most  widespread 
of  such  associations  is  that  of  Our  Lady  of  Mount 
Carmel,  founded  by  Saint  Simon  Stock,  sixth 
general  of  the  Carmelites  (q.v.),  in  1251,  as  a 
consequence  of  a  revelation  which  he  believed 
himself  to  have  received  from  the  Blessed  Virgin 
Mary  in  a  vision.  The  granting  of  the  scapular 
is  generally  a  privilege  of  religious  Orders,  and 
the  wearing  of  them  is  encouraged  by  many  in- 
dulgences. By  benediction  they  acquire  the  char- 
acter of  sacramentals  (q.v.). 

SCAB,'AB.^1DM  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from 
Lat.  acarabcBua,  beetle;  connected  with  Gk.  Kdpa- 
/Sot,  karahoa,  Skt.  iarahha,  ialahha,  locust  -f 
Gk.  eldos,  eidoa,  form),  or  Chafebs.  A  family 
of  beetles  of  the  lamellicom  group,  many  of  re- 
markable size  and  strange  structure.  About  13,- 
000  species  are  already  known,  and  about  300 
new  species  are  described  each  year.  The  leaflets 
of  the  antennie  are  well  adapted  to  each  other 
and  may  be  separated;  the  number  of  visible 
ventral  segments  of  the  abdomen  is  six.  The 
family  is  divided  into  five  subfamilies:  Coprinse, 
Melolonthinse,  Rutelinse,  Dynastins,  and  Ce- 
toniinae.  The  Coprinse  (about  5000  species) 
have  already  been  treated  under  Dung-!Beetle. 
The  Melolonthinffi  (4000  species)  resemble  the 
common  May  beetle,  and  their  larvae,  for  the 
most  part,  live  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground 
and  feed  upon  the  roots  of  various  plants,  fre- 
quently doing  great  damage  to  pasture  land.  The 
rose-chafer  (see  Rose  Insects)  is  a  prominent 
representative  of  this  group.  Many  of  the  adult 
beetles  feed  upon  leaves  of  trees  and  smaller 
plants,  but  some,  usually  found  upon  flowers, 
feed  upon  pollen,  and  are  of  some  service  in  the 
cross-fertilization  of  plants.  The  Rutelinse(  about 
1500  species)  are  insects  of  brilliant  metallic 
colors,  and  are  more  abundant  in  tropical  than  in 
temperate  regions.  Their  larvae  resemble  those 
of  the  Melolonthinae.  Well-known  examples  of 
this  group  in  the  United  States  are  the  goldsmith 
beetle  {Cotalpa  lanigera) ,  the  spotted  vine-chafer 
{Pelidnota  ptinctata),  and  the  wonderfully  beau- 
tiful Pluaiotua  glarioaa,  from  Arizona,  which  is 
pale  green  in  color,  and  has  the  margins  of  all 
parts  of  the  body  and  broad  stripes  on  the  elytra 
of  a  pure  polished  gold  color.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  beetles  in  the  world,  and  is  fig^ 
ured  on  the  Colored  Plate  of  Beetles.  The  Dy- 
nastinae,  which  comprise  many  very  conspicu- 
ous insects,  include  only  about  1000  species, 
among  which  are  some  of  the  largest  insects  in 
existence,  especially  in  the  genera  Dynastes  and 
Megasoma.  The  males  of  these  genera  and  others 
bear  large  horns  upon  the  head  and  prothorax, 


SCAHABfflSTDiB. 


499 


SCABLATTI. 


the  use  of  which  in  the  economy  of  the  species 
cannot  be  conjectured.  Their  larvse  are  usually 
strongly  curved,  and  feed  upon  decaying  vege- 
table matter.  The  Cetoniinse  (about  1600  spe- 
cies) occur  mostl^r  in  the  tropical  regions  of  the 
Old  World.  During  flight  the  elytra  of  these 
beetles  remain  clos^,  the  wings  extending  out 
from  beneath  the  base  of  the  wing-covers.  Some 
of  the  species  eat  honey,  others  overripe  or  de- 
caying fruits,  and  others  lick  the  sap  from 
wounded  trees.  To  this  group  belong  the  sap- 
chafer,  the  goliath  beetle,  and  the  June  beetle 
(qq.v.)  of  the  Southern  United  States.  Both 
adults  and  larvs  of  some  species  live  in  ants' 
nests.  See  Beetle;  Chafer;  Rose-Chafer ;  see 
also  Figs.  7  and  9  of  Plate  Beetles;  also  the 
figure  of  larva  of  a  beetle  in  the  same  article, 
which  ia  a  good  example  of  the  scarabsBid  type  of 
larva. 

SCAA'AB^fiOTS    (Lat.,  beetle).     A  black  or 
metallic  colored  dung-beetle,  the  Ateuchus  Sacer 
or  Scarah<EU8  ^gyptiorum,  common  in  Mediter- 
ranean countries,  and  especially  in  Egypt.     The 
Egyptian  name  of  the  insect  was  kheper,  from  a 
stem   meaning  *to  become,  to  come  into  being,' 
and  a^  picture  of  the  beetle  was  the  usual  ideo- 
graphic sign  for  the  verbal  stem  and  its  deriva- 
tives.     The  Egyptians  believed  that  no  female 
of  the   species  existed,  but  that  the  male,  con- 
travening the  ordinary  law  of  generation,  himself 
produced  the  egg  and  thus  perpetuated  his  ex- 
istence by  his  own  act.    The  scarabaus,  therefore, 
became   the  type  and  emblem  of  all  'self-begot- 
tep*  deities,  and  in  particular  of  the  god  Kheperi, 
whose  name  signifies  *he  who  is   (in  process  of) 
becoming.'    This  deity  typified  the  rising  sun,  re- 
newing its  birth  each  morning,  and  he  is  usually 
represented  as  a  man  with  a  scarabteus  upon,  or 
in  place  of,  his  head.    The  scarabspus  was  also  the 
type  of  the  human  soul  emerging  from  the  mum- 
mjr,  just  as  the  beetle  emerged  from  its  egg,  and 
flying  upward  to  heaven,  and  thus  the  insect  be- 
came a  symbol  of  the  resurrection  and  of  immor- 
tality. From  a  very  early  period  scarabcei,  carved 
out  of  metal  or  of  stone,  or  molded  in  faience, 
were  used  as  amulets.    They  were  inscribed  with 
religious  texts,  with  the  names  of  deities  or  fa- 
mous  kings,  or  with  symbolic  magical  devices, 
and  'were  worn  by  the  living  or  placed  upon  the 
mummies  of  the  dead.    Such  carv'ed  scarahapi  are 
usually   called   scarabs,   and   large   numbers   of 
them  have  been  found  dating  from  nearly  all  pe- 
riods of  Egyptian  history.     In  the  earlier  speci- 
mens the  wings  are  folded;   in  later  times  the 
beetle   is  not  infrequently  represented  with  the 
wings  extended.    In  the  mummy,  a  large  scarab, 
inscribed  with  a  particular  chapter  of  the  Book 
of   the  Dead    (q.v.),  usually  replaced  the  heart 
of  the  deceased,  which  was  removed  during  the 
process  of  embalmment.   By  virtue  of  this  amulet 
the  deceased  was  enabled  to  pass  the  ordeal  of 
the  'weighing  of  the  heart'  at  the  final  judgment. 
(See  Dead,  Judgment  of  the.)    Consult:  Wiede- 
mann, Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians   (Xew 
York,    1897);   Petrie,   Historical  Scarabs    (Lon- 
don,  1899);   Myer,  Scarabs    (ib.,   1894);   Ward, 
Sacred  Beetle  (New  York,  1902). 

SCARAMOUCH  (Fr.  scaramouche,  from  It. 
Moaramuccia,  skirmish).  A  character  in  the  old 
Italian  comedy,  originally  derived  from  Spain, 
l-epresenting  a  military  poltroon  and  bra^adocio. 
He  was  dressed  in  a  sort  of  Hispano-Neapolitan 


costume,  entirely  black,  with  a  mask  open  on  the 
forehead,  cheeks,  and  chin,  and  regularly  re- 
ceived an  inglorious  drubbing  at  the  hands  of 
Harlequin  or  Polichinelle.  The  most  celebrated 
actor  of  the  character  was  the  Neapolitan  come- 
dian Tiberio  Fiorilli  (1608-96),  who  lived  in 
France  after  1640  and  was  better  known  as 
Scaramouche  than  by  his  own  name. 

SCABBOBOTJGH,  skilr^irA  or  skar^ttr-A.  A 
seaport  and  health  resort,  popularly  called  the 
*Queen  of  English  Watering  Places,*  in  Yorkshire, 
England,  in  the  North  Riding,  37  miles  northeast 
of  York  (Map:  England,  F  2).  The  town  is 
built  in  successive  terraces  and  crescents  on  ris- 
ing ground  around  a  beautiful  bay  open  to  the 
south  and  southwest,  and  protected  on  the  north- 
east by  a  promontory  ending  in  a  castle-crowned 
height,  which  looks  out  on  the  North  Sea.  Two 
bridges  span  the  picturesque  ravine  of  Ramsdale 
Valley  and  connect  the  western  or  ancient  part 
of  the  town  with  its  large  and  fashionable  south- 
ern suburb.  There  is  a  fine  promenade  pier,  and 
the  tidal  harbor,  inclosed  by  three  piers,  has  a 
lighthouse  and  floating  dock.  The  chief  buildings 
are  the  spa,  an  extensive  aquarium,  museum,  and 
market  hall.  The  municipality  owns  considerable 
real  estate  and  the  water  and  gas  supplies,  and 
has  built  a  marine  drive  and  sea  wall  around  the 
castle,  two  and  one-fourth  miles  in  length.  There 
are  manufactures  of  jet;  a  coasting  trade;  and 
lucrative  fisheries.  The  castle  was  erected  about 
the  year  1136.  Here  Piers  Gaveston  (q.v.)  was 
besieged  by  the  barons  in  1312.  It  was  twice 
besieged  by  the  Parliamentary  forces.  It  serves 
as  a  barrack,  and  is  fortified  by  batteries.  Popu- 
lation, in  1891,  33,800;  in  1901,  38,200.  Consult 
Haviland,  Scarborough  as  a  Health  Resort  (Lon- 
don, 1884). 

SCABFSKIN.    See  Skin. 

SCABIA,  skft^r^A,  Emil  (1838-86).  An 
Austrian  dramatic  bass  singer,  bom  at  Gratz. 
He  made  a  successful  debut  in  1860,  at  Pesth,  as 
Saint-Bris  in  Les  Huguenots.  In  1862  he  went  to 
London  to  finish  his  studies  under  Garcia. 
Afterwards  he  was  engaged  at  Dessau,  Leipzig, 
Dresden,  and  finally  at  the  Court  Opera  in  Vien- 
na. He  w^as  a  most  remarkable  bass  and  was 
celebrated  as  an  interpreter  of  Wagner,  creating 
the  rCAe  of  Wotan  at  Bayreuth  in  1876,  and 
Gumemanz  {Parsifal)   in  1882. 

SCABIDiE  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Lat. 
scarus,  from  Gk.  axdpos,  skaros,  sort  of  sea-fish). 
A  large  family  of  tropical  bony  fishes  compris- 
ing the  parrot-fishes  (q.v.).  The  body  is  oblong 
with  large  scales,  and  often  gorgeously  colored. 

SCABLATTI,  skAr-Ult't^,  Alessandro  (1649- 
1725).  An  Italian  composer,  bom  at  Trapani  in 
Sicily.  In  1680  Scarlatti  visited  Rome,  and  com- 
posed his  first  opera,  L'onestd  nelV  amorct  first 
performed  at  the  Court  of  Queen  Christina  of 
Sweden.  His  opera  Pompeo  was  performed  at 
Naples  in  1684.  In  1693  he  composed  the  ora- 
torio /  dolori  di  Maria  sempre  Vergine,  and  the 
opera  Tcodore,  in  which  (so  far  as  known) 
orchestral  accompaniments  were  first  introduced 
to  the  recitatives,  and  a  separate  design  was 
given  to  the  accompaniments  of  the  arias.  In  the 
following  eight  years,  during  part  of  which  time 
he  wa«  maestro  di  capella  at  Naples,  he  produced 
various  operas,  the  most  remarkable  being  Lao- 
dicca   e  Berenice^   composed  in   1701.     Between 


CCABLATTI. 


500 


8CABLET  FEVER. 


1703  and  1709  he  was  maestro  di  capella  at  Santa 
Maria  Maggiore  at  Rome;  he  then  returned  to 
Naples,  and  in  1716  produced  11  Tigrane,  His 
musical  works  comprise  117  operas,  several  ora- 
torios, and  a  great  deal  of  church  music,  besides 
various  madrigals  and  other  chamber  music.  He 
was  the  founder  of  the  Neapolitan  school,  in  which 
were  trained  most  of  the  great  musicians  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  His  modulations,  often  un- 
expected, are  never  harsh,  and  never  difficult  for 
the  voice.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first 
composer  or  musician  to  divide  the  strings  into 
four  parts.  His  instrumentation  is  both  bold 
and  skillful;  and  his  orchestration  shows  that 
he  had  a  knowledge  and  appreciation  of  the  art 
of  grouping  instruments  of  differing  timbre 
which  was  remarkable  for  his  time. 

SG ABLET  (OF.  eacarlate,  Fr.  4carlate,  from 
ML.  scarlatum,  scarlet,  scarlet  cloth,  from  Pers. 
saqalAt,  aiqalAt,  suql&ty  scarlet  cloth).  A  vivid 
red  color,  inclining  toward  orange.  It  was 
formerly  obtained  exclusively  from  the  cochineal 
(q.v.)  insect,  treated  with  zinc  chloride  and 
cream  of  tartar,  but  it  is  also  now  derived  from 
coal-tar  (q.v.).  It  is  frequently  used  in  the  fine 
arts  and  in  dyeing,  and,  like  purple,  was  esteemed 
a  color  particularly  suitable  for  costly  attire. 

SGABLET  EEVEB,  or  Scarlatina.  One  of 
the  exanthemata  or  eruptive  fevers.  It  is  a  con- 
tagious disease  and  is  characterized  by  fever,  sore 
throat,  a  bright  red  eruption,  and  a  tendency  to 
acute  inflammation  of  the  kidneys.  Children  are 
chiefly  affected,  and  one  attack  protects  against 
another.  This  explains  its  rarity  in  adult  life. 
Scarlatina  is  extremely  infectious  and  contagious, 
and  the  contagium  has  been  carried  by  books, 
papers,  and  clothing  for  long  distances.  Three 
varieties  of  the  malady  are  usually  described, 
viz.:  The  ordinary  form,  scarlatina  simplex,  in 
which  the  rash  and  fever  are  present,  with  but 
few  throat  symptoms;  scarlatina  aatginosa,  in 
which,  in  addition  to  the  rash  and  fever,  the 
throat  is  severely  affected;  and  scarlatina  ma- 
ligna, in  which  the  attack  is  violent  and  the 
system  is  rapidly  overwhelmed  with  the  in- 
fection. This  form  is  usually  fatal  in  two  or 
three  days. 

Scarlet  fever  begins  as  a  rule  suddenly,  after 
an  incubation  period  of  from  4  to  6  days, 
with  a  chill,  vomiting,  headache,  languor,  pains 
in  the  back  and  limbs,  and  loss  of  appetite.  The 
temperature  rises  rapidly  to  103"  or  106**  F., 
and  remains  high  during  the  course  of  the  disease. 
The  rash  appears  from  12  to  36  hours  after  the 
first  symptoms,  first  on  the  chest  and  neck,  but 
spreading  over  the  entire  body  in  a  few  hours. 
It  consists  of  minute  red  spots  set  closely  to- 
gether, so  that  the  skin  is  covered  with  a  bright 
red  flush.  About  the  fifth  day  the  rash  begins 
to  fade  and  is  followed  by  desquamation  or  shed- 
ding of  the  superficial  layers  of  the  skin.  This 
occurs  in  the  form  of  white  branny  scales;  in 
some  cases  the  epidermis  peels  off  in  large  flakes 
or,  more  rarely,  complete  molds  of  the  hands, 
fingers,  or  toes  are  cast  off.  During  the  des- 
quamative stage  the  disease  is  believed  to  be 
most  contagious.  The  throat  and  tonsils  are 
dark  red  and  swollen,  the  latter  sometimes  cov- 
ered with  a  yellowish  secretion.  The  tongue  is 
at  first  thickly  covered  with  white  fur,  but  this 
soon  disappears,  leaving  a  bright  red,  raw  sur- 
face, studded  with  prominent  papillae,  giving  rise 


to  the  appearance  known  as  'strawberry  tongne.' 
About  tne  fifth  day  of  the  fever  the  disea% 
begins  to  abate;  the  temperature  falls,  the  rash 
fades,  and  convalescence  is  gradually  establisfael 
In  severe  cases,  however,  the  mental  faculties  are 
dulled,  delirium  is  frequent,  particularly  toward 
night,  and  drowsiness,  deepening  to  coma,  super- 
venes. Death  may  occur  at  this  point  from  ex- 
haustion, or  it  may  occur  later  from  various 
complications.  The  principal  of  these  are  nephri- 
tis and  otitis  media  (q.v.).  The  latter  is  set 
up  by  extension  of  the  inflammation  from  the 
throat,  and  a  resulting  abscess  of  the  middle  ear, 
with  rupture  of  the  drum  membrane  and  chronic 
otorrhcea,  is  set  up.  Both  ears  may  be  affected 
simultaneously,  and  in  a  young  child  permanent 
deafness  or  deafmutism  may  result.  In  violent 
inflammations  of  the  middle  ear  the  mastoid  cells 
may  be  involved,  and  meningitis,  abscess  of  the 
brain,  or  pyaemia  from  thrombosis  of  the  lateral 
sinus  leads  to  a  fatal  termination.  Nephritis 
is  usually  first'  recognized  during  conva- 
lescence, while  desquamation  is  going  on.  Some 
swelling  of  the  face  and  feet  may  be  noticed,  and 
the  urine  is  found  to  be  scanty,  high-colored,  and 
albuminous.  Dropsy  may  become  general  and 
death  supervene.  The  mortality  in  scarlatina 
may  be  low  in  mild  epidemics,  but  in  others  rise 
to  30  or  40  per  cent. 

Scarlet  fever  presents  very  little  characteristic 
pathology.  While,  from  itis  course,  symptoms, 
and  pathology,  unquestionably  an  infectious  dis- 
ease, it  has  as  yet  baffled  all  attempts  to  deter- 
mine its  specific  micro-organism.  The  most  char- 
acteristic lesion  is  that  of  the  skin.  This  is  a 
simple  dermatitis.  As  a  result  of  this  dermatitis 
there  is  an  infiltration  of  the  papillx  and  layer 
just  beneath  with  leucocytes.  In  some  cases  hem- 
orrhages occur  into  the  skin.  This  acute  inflam- 
mation stimulates  the  proliferation  of  epithelium, 
and  the  more  than  normally  rapid  casting  off  of 
the  surface  cells  constitutes  the  'peeling*  or  des- 
quamation so  characteristic  of  the  later  stages 
of  the  disease.  This  appearance  of  the  skin,  while 
quite  characteristic  during  life,  is  often  very  in- 
distinct after  death.  Infiammations  of  the  mu- 
cous membranes  of  the  pharynx,  larynx,  tonsils, 
and  bronchi  are  of  almost  constant  occurrence. 
This  inflammation  may  be  simply  catarrhal  in 
character  or,  more  rarely,  is  diphtheritic.  Still 
more  rarely  it  is  of  a  gangrenous  nature.  Acute 
inflammation  of  the  lymjm  nodes  sometimes  oc- 
curs. This  may  be  of  the  nature  of  a  simple 
hyperplasia  with  or  without  exudation,  or  the 
glands  may  go  on  to  suppuration.  The  spleen  is 
usually  enlarged.  Acute  inflammation  of  the 
kidney  is  common,  while  inflammations  of  the 
pericardium  and  endocardium  and  of  the  lungs 
are  not  infrequent  complications  or  sequells. 
Whatever  the  speciflc  organism  of  scarlet  fever, 
it  certainly  has  the  effect  upon  the  body  tissues 
of  rendering  them  much  more  susceptible  than 
they  normally  are  to  infection  by  other  patho- 
genic micro-organisms.  The  most  common  is  a 
streptococcus  infection  causing  croupous  inflam- 
mations of  the  mouth  and  upper  respiratory 
tract.  It  is  probable  that  the  inflammations  of 
lymph  nodes,  the  suppurative  conditions  which 
frequently  occur,  the  pneumonia,  pericarditis, 
endocarditis,  etc.,  are  usually  the  result  of  a 
secondary  infection  by  pyogenic  micro-organisms. 
The  Klebs-Loeffler  bacillus  or  bacillus  of  true 
diphtheria  is  sometimes  present  in  scarlet  U^^* 


SCABLET  FBVBB. 


601 


SCABBOir. 


The  treatment  is  that  of  f eyers  in  general.  Iso- 
lation is  essential.  Absolute  rest,  liquid  diet,  and 
a  well-ventilated  room  should  be  provided.  The 
temperature  is  kept  down  by  means  of  appro- 
priate drugs,  cooling  drinks,  cold  sponging,  or 
bathing;  the  action  of  the  kidneys  and  slan  is 
promoted  by  these  measures  and  by  the  adminis- 
tration of  diuretic  medicines.  The  strength  is 
supported  by  frequent  liquid  feedings  and  by 
giving  suitable  amounts  of  whisky  or  brandy. 
Antiseptic  sprays  and  douches  help  to  prevent 
the  throat  infection  through  the  Eustachian  tubes 
to  the  ears,  and  render  the  patient  more  com- 
fortable. Ihiring  the  period  of  desquamation  the 
body  should  be  wash^  night  and  morning  with 
soap  and  warm  water,  and  in  the  intervals 
smeared  or  rubbed  with  carbolized  oil  or  oint- 
ment to  prevent  particles  of  epithelium  from 
being  carried  off  into  the  atmosphere  bearing  con- 
tagion with  them.  At  least  six  weeks  should 
elapse  before  the  patient  is  allowed  to  mingle 
with  his  fellows.  Treatment  of  the  principal 
complications  of  scarlatina  is  considered  under 
Nephritis  and  Otitis  Media. 

SCABLET  LETTEB,  The.  A  novel  by 
Nathaniel  Hawthorne  (q.v.). 

SCABLET  SNAXE.  A  brilliant  red  snake 
{Oaoeola  elapsoidea)  marked  with  jet-black, 
white-bordered  rings,  dwelling  in  the  Southern 
United  States;  it  is  allied  to  the  milk-snake. 

SCABOiETT,  Sir  James  Yobke  (1799-1871). 
An  English  general.  He  was  the  second  son  of 
Sir  James  S^rlett,  Baron  Abinger,  was  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  entered  the  army, 
was  gazetted  major  to  the  Fifth  Dragoon  Guards 
in  1830,  and  commander  of  the  regiment  in  1840. 
When  the  war  with  Russia  broke  out  he  was 
given  command  of  the  Heavy  Brigade  and  fired 
his  first  shot  before  Sebastopol  in  1854.  During 
the  battle  of  Balaklava,  on  October  25th, 
Scarlett,  receiving  news  of  an  attack  from 
the  Russians,  moved  on  to  KadikOi,  where  he 
was  surprised  by  the  enemy,  2000  strong.  In 
order  to  save  his  troops  from  annihilation,  Scar- 
lett led  300  of  his  men  up  the  hill  into  the  centre 
of  the  Russian  ranks,  and,  supported  a  little  later 
by  400  of  the  remaining  squadrons,  broke  through 
and  scattered  their  forces.  Later  in  the  day  Lord 
Lucan  prevented  him  from  making  a  second 
charge  with  his  brigade.  It  was  on  this  occasion 
that  the  Light  Brigade  made  its  celebrated  charge. 
Scarlett  was  promoted  major-general  and  made 
K.G.B.  for  his  services  at  Balaklava.  In  1855  he 
succeeded  Lord  Lucan  as  commander  of  the 
British  cavalry  in  the  Crimea  and  did  notable 
work  there  breaking  in  the  recruits.  At  the  close 
of  the  war  he  was  given  the  command  of  the 
Aldershot  camp,  which  he  retained  until  his  re- 
tirement from  active  service  in  1870. 

SCABLET  TANAGEB,  or  Fibe-Bibd.     See 
TAifAOER;  and  Colored  Plate  of  Song  Bibds. 
8CABP.    The  interior  slope  of  a  ditch.    See 

FOBTIFICATION ;  ReDOUBT. 

SCABPA,  skar'pA,  ANTOino  (1747-1832).  An 
Italian  anatomist,  bom  at  Motta,  near  Treviso. 
He  was  educated  at  Padua;  in  1772  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  anatomy  in  Modena,  in 
1783  at  Pavia,  where  in  1814  he  became  director 
of  the  faculty  of  medicine.  He  became  one  of  the 
greatest  clinical  surgeons  in  Europe.  Perhaps 
Scarpa's   greatest   achievement  was   to   demon- 


strate that  the  heart  was  supplied  with  nenree. 
He  died  in  Pavia  after  being  blind  for  manjr 
years.  'Scarpa's  triangle'  is  iKiunded  by  the  lid- 
ductor  longus,  the  sartorius,  and  the  crural  arch. 
It  is  so  named  because  Scarpa  first  tied  the 
femoral  artery  in  it  for  popliteal  aneurism. 

SCABFANTO,  skar'pftn-td  (Lat.  Carpathus, 
Gk.  Kdpra^f,  Karpathos).  An  island  of  the 
i£gean  Sea  belonging  to  Turkey,  situated  mid- 
way between  the  islands  of  Rhodes  and  Crete 
(Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  B  5).  It  is  31  miles 
long,  8  miles  in  extreme  breadth.  Area,  126 
square  miles.  It  has  bare  mountains,  reaching 
a  height  of  4000  feet.  There  are  ruins  of  towns 
in  several  places.  Population,  about  8000,  mostly 
workers  in  wood.    Chief  town,  Aperi. 

SCABFE.  In  heraldry  (q.v.),  a  diminutive 
of  the  bend  sinister. 

SCABBON,  sk&'rON',  Paul  (1610-«0).  A 
French  realistic  novelist  and  burlesque  humorist, 
bom  in  Paris.  His  well-to-do  father  was  bigoted, 
his  step-mother  cruel.  One  induced  him  to  take 
orders,  the  other  cheated  him  of  his  inheritance. 
He  was  educated  for  the  Church.  He  had  a  gay 
youth,  was  a  welcome  guest  both  of  the  aristo- 
cratic salons  and  of  the  less  prim  Marion  De- 
lorme  and  Ninon  de  FEnclos.  Then  he  was 
sent  to  Le  Mans,  was  taken  by  his  bishop  to 
Rome  (1635),  and  made  canon  (1636).  Symp- 
toms of  nervous  disease  now  appeared  and 
made  him  from  1638  till  death  a  constant  in- 
valid and  an  intense  sufferer.  ''My  shins  and 
thighs,"  he  says,  "first  made  an  obtuse  angle, 
then  a  right  angle,  and  at  last  an  acute  one.  My 
thighs  and  my  body  make  another,  and  since  my 
head  bends  over  on  my  stomach,  I  am  shaped 
quite  like  a  Z"  In  this  plight  and  having  to 
earn  his  bread,  Scarron  was  taken  to  Paris,  and 
from  1645  to  1655  he  wrote  comedies  and  farces 
that  made  him  for  the  moment  the  unquestioned 
leader  in  this  field  and  also  gave  him  intimate 
knowledge  of  the  theatrical  life  of  the  time.  Then 
in  1646  he  refreshed  his  memories  of  provincial 
life  at  Le  Mans  and  began  to  weave  the  comic  as- 
pects of  province  and  stage  into  his  Roman  co- 
mique  (1651-57),  many  episodes  of  which  have 
both  brilliancy  and  humor.  Soon  after  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  first  volume  (1651)  Scarron  pre- 
pared to  emigrate  to  America,  but  while  recruit- 
ing colonists  for  that  end  he  met  Mile.  d'Aubign^, 
who  had  just  returned  thence  empty  of  purse  but 
full  of  wit  and  beauty.  Mingled  sentiment  and 
pity  led  to  their  marriage  ( 1652) ,  and  there  was 
no  more  thought  of  America.  Under  the  care  of 
her,  who  was  to  win  the  love  of  Louis  XIV.  as 
Madame  de  Maintenon,  Scarron  lived  eight  years, 
editing  a  comic  journal,  writing  dramas,  a  trav- 
esty of  Vergil  (1658),  and  eight  remarkable 
Nouvelles  magi-comiquea  (1659),  which  fur- 
nished models  for  Moli^re's  Tartuffe  and  Harpa- 
gon,  a  plot  for  his  Ecole  dea  femtnea,  and  for 
Sedaine's  Qageure  impr^vue,  and  a  title  for 
Beaumarchais's  Barhier  de  Seville.  Scarron's 
poetry  and  drama  introduced  Spanish  and  Italian 
burlesque  into  France.  His  fiction  did  the  same; 
but  it  marked  also  an  advance  in  natural  char- 
acter-drawing and  in  the  technique  of  rapid 
narration.  The  popularity  of  the  Roman  co- 
mique  was  immediate  and  perennial.  It  was  re- 
peatedly reprinted  and  many  times  continued, 
best  by  Offray.  Good  modern  editions  are  by 
Foumel    (Paris,  1857)   and  France   (ib.,  1881). 


SCABBON. 


5oa 


8CEPTBE. 


Scarron*s  (Euvres  were  collected  in  10  volumes 
(Paris,  1737)  and  in  2  volumes  (ib.,  1877),  and 
the  dramatic  works  in  1  volume  (ib.,  1879).  There 
is  a  translation,  The  Comical  Works  of  Scarron, 
with  an  introduction  by  Jusserand  (London, 
1892).  Consult:  Morillot,  Scarron  et  le  genre 
burlesque  (Paris,  1888)  ;  Le  Breton,  Le  roman 
au  XVII^me  aiccle  (ib.,  1890)  ;  Korting,  Qe- 
schichte  des  franzosischen  Romans  im  XVILJahr- 
hundert  (Oppeln,  1891);  and  Peters,  Scarron 
und  seine  spanischen  Quellen  (Eriangen,  1893). 

SCABTAZZINI,  skur'tA-tse'n^,  Johann  An- 
dreas (1837-1901).  A  Swiss  theologian  and  a 
Romance  scholar,  bom  at  Bondo  (Orisons)  and 
e<fucated  at  Basel  and  Bern.  He  preached  for 
a  time  near  Bern,  then  taught  Italian  in  the 
cantonal  school  of  Chur,  was  pastor  at  Soglio 
from  1875  to  1884,  and  spent  his  last  years  at 
Fahrwangen  (Aargau).  He  edited  Tasso  (2d 
ed.,  1882)  and  Petrarch  (1883),  but  his  great 
contribution  to  Italian  literature  was  his  work 
on  Dante,  which  includes  Dante  Alighieri,  seine 
Zeit,  sein  Lehen  und  seine  Werke  (1869,  2d  ed. 
1879),  Abhandlungen  uber  Dante  (1880),  Dante 
in  Qermania  (1880-83),  the  excellent  Dante,  vita 
ed  opere  (1883,  and  1894  under  the  title  Dan- 
iologia),  an  edition  of  the  Dirina  Commedia 
(1874-82),  Prolegomeni  (1890),  Dantelland- 
buch  (1892),  an  edition  of  the  Commedia 
(1893,  2d  ed.  1895),  the  Enciclopcdia  Dantesca 
(1896-98),  Dante  als  Oeisteshcld  (1896),  and 
Concordanza  delta  Divina  Commedia  (1901). 

SCAXTP  (from  Icel.  ska1p-h(ena,  scaup-duck). 
Any  of  several  ducks  of  the  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere, of  the  same  genus  (Aythya)  as  that 
of  the  canvasback  and  redhead,  and  having 
similar  habits.  The  typical  scaup  is  that  of 
the  Old  World  {Aythya  marila),  represented  in 
North  America  by  a  variety  (nearctica),  com- 
monly called  *bluebill,'  *broadbill,*  or  'black- 
head.' It  is  18  inches  or  more  in  length.  The 
male  has  the  head,  neck,  and  upper  part  of  the 
breast  and  back  black;  the  sides  of  the  neck 
glossed  with  rich  green;  the  back  white,  spotted 

and  striped  with 
black  lines ;  the 
speculum  white. 
The  female  has 
brown  instead  of 
black,  and  old  fe- 
males have  a  broad 
white  band  around 
the  base  of  the 
bill.  The  flesh  of 
the  scaup  duck  is 
tough,  and  has  a 
strong  fishy  flavor. 
Closely  allied  but 
smaller  is  the  leaser  scaup,  or  *little  blue- 
bill,*  etc.  {Aythya  affmis) ,  which  has  the 
head  glossed  with  purple  instead  of  green.  A 
third  species  is  the  ring-necked  duck  or  *moon- 
bill*  {Aythya  collaris),  in  which  the  brown  of 
the  fore  parts  is  interrupted  by  a  pale  band  about 
the  neck.  All  these  breed  in  the  north,  but  are 
abundant  in  the  spring  and  fall  throughout  the 
United  States  on  the  larger  bodies  of  fresh  water, 
as  well  as  along  the  coast. 

SGEATTA.  A  small  coin,  usually  of  silver, 
but  sometimes  of  gold,  used  in  Britain  during 
the  seventh  century,   the  earliest   type  of  coin 


BILL  or  A  BCAUP. 


known  there  after  those  of  the  Boman  occupa- 
tion. 

SCENES  OF  CLEBICAL  LIFE.  A  group 
of  stories  by  George  Eliot  (1858),  originally  pub- 
lished in  Blacktcood^s  Magazine,  comprising  her 
first  attempts  in  fiction  and.  depicting  faithfully 
a  society  which  she  knew  well. 

SCENIC  AND  HISTOBIC  PBE8EBVA 
TION  SOCIETY,  American.  A  nati9hal  or- 
ganization for  the  protection  of  American  scenery 
and  the  preservation  of  American  landmarks,  in- 
corporated by  the  New  York  State  Legislature  in 
1895.  In  1897  the  State  of  Xew  York,  at  the  in- 
stance of  the  society,  bought  33  acres  of  land 
around  Stony  Point,  the  scene  of  Gen.  Anthony 
Wayne's  exploit  in  1779,  and  intrusted  the  im- 
provement of  the  property  to  the  society.  In  1900 
the  State  bought  about  35  acres  at  the  head  of 
Lake  George,  in  New  York  State,  made  famous  by 
events  during  the  French-and- Indian  and  Revo- 
lutionary Wars,  which  it  has  erected  into  a  State 
reservation.  In  1903  the  society  secured  fa- 
vorable action  from  the  New  York  City  Govern- 
ment for  the  preservation  of  Fraunces's  Tavern, 
Manhattan,  the  scene  of  Washington's  farewell  to 
his  officers.  These  illustrate  the  scope  of  the 
society's  operations. 

SCENT  GLANDS  (from  OF.,  Fr.  sentir,  to 
feel,  perceive,  smell,  from  Lat.  .sentire,  to  per- 
ceive by  the  senses;  connected  with  Goth,  sinps, 
journey,  OIIG.  sinnan,  to  strive  after,  Ger.  sin- 
nen,  to  perceive).  A  large  and  diversified  group 
of  glands  found  in  many  animals,  generally  open- 
ing into  the  terminal  portion  of  the  intestine 
near  the  anus.  The  secretion  of  these  glands  is 
nearly  always  repulsive  (to  man,  at  least),  and 
in  some  cases,  as,  notably,  that  of  the  skunk,  is 
employed  as  a  means  of  defense.  The  term  is 
more  strictly  applied  to  the  glands  occurring  in 
many  camivora  and  rodents,  which  consist  of 
follicles  that  empty  their  secretion  into  small 
sacs  with  muscular  walls  and  narrow  orifices, 
placed  one  on  each  side  of  the  anus.  The  civet 
cat  has  an  anal  sac  on  each  side  of  the  vent,  as 
well  as  two  other  sacs  opening  by  a  common  out- 
let in  front  of  the  vent.  From  the  latter  sacs  is 
excreted  the  substance  known  as  civet  (see 
Civet),  which  is  employed  in  the  composition  of 
perfumes.  In  the  beaver  analogous  glands  are 
found  in  both  sexes  near  the  genital  orifices,  in 
the  form  of  large  pyriform  sacs,  called  preputial 
glands,  which  furnish  the  castoreum  of  commerce. 
From  castoreum  is  prepared  the  castor  of  the 
pharmacopoeia. 

SCEFTBE  (Lat.  sceptrum,  from  Gk.  vK^pow, 
sk^ptron,  staff,  from  fftHjrTtiP,  ak^tein,  to  prop, 
to  throw;  connected  with  Skt.  kfip,  to  throw). 
A  staff  of  some  precious  material  serving  from 
time  immemorial  as  the  most  notable  symbol  of 
royalty.  Both  in  the  Old  Testament  and  in 
Homer,  the  most  solemn  oaths  are  sworn  by  the 
sceptre,  and  Homer  speaks  of  the  sceptre  as  an 
attribute  of  kings,  princes,  and  leaders  of  tribes. 
The  sceptre  was  in  very  early  times  a  truncheon 
pierced  with  gold  or  silver  studs.  Ovid  speaks  of 
it  as  enriched  with  gems,  and  made  of  precious 
metals  or  ivory.  The  sceptre  of  the  kings  of 
Rome,  which  was  afterwards  borne  by  the  consuls, 
was  of  ivory  and  surmounted  by  an  eagle.  Some 
sceptres  are  surmounted  by  a  cross,  by  a  hand 
in  the  act  of  benediction,  or  by  some  suitable 


SCEPTB£. 


503 


dCfiABOW. 


royal  emblem,  such  as  the  fleur-de-lis  of  France. 
The  sceptre  of  the  English  monarch  is  cruciform 
in  appearance,  and  dates  from  the  days  of 
Charles  II. 

SCSA.CK,  sh&k,  Adolf  Fbiedrich,  Count 
(1815-94).  A  German  poet  and  critic,  bom  near 
Schwerin.  He  studied  law  and  entered 
the  service  of  the  Grand  Duke  of  Mecklenburg. 
During  a  stay  in  Berlin  Schack  perfected  him- 
self in  Sanskrit,  Arabic,  and  Persian.  More 
scholar  than  poet,  Schack  was  at  his  best  in  his 
translations,  especially  the  Spanischea  Theater 
(1846),  Firdu8i  (1865),  8trophen  dea  Omar  Chi- 
jam  (1878),  Orient  und  Occident  (1890),  and 
Englische  Dramatiker  (1893).  His  original  verse 
includes  Qedichte  (1867),  the  romance  Ehen- 
hUrtig  (1876),  y^chte  dea  Orienta  (1874),  and 
Luatapiele  (1891).  As  a  critic  his  work  was  dis- 
tinctly excellent,  his  chief  titles  being  Geachichte 
der  dramatiachen  Litteratur  und  Kunat  in  8pa- 
nien  (1845-56),  Poeaie  und  Kunat  der  Araher  in 
Spanien  und  8izilien  (1865,  2d  ed.,  1877),  and 
the  historical  works  Die  Normannen  in  Sizilien 
(1889)  and  Mazzini  und  die  italieniache  Frei- 
heit  (1891).  Schack's  autobiography  appeared 
In  1887  under  the  title  Ein  halbea  Jahrhundert 
(Stuttgart,  1894),  his  collected  works  in  1891 
(2d  ed.),  and  his  posthumous  poetr}%  edited  by 
Winkler,  in  1896.  Consult  the  sketches  by  Rogge 
(Berlin,  1883),  Brenning  (Bremen,  1885),  and 
Berg  (Frankfort,  1896). 

SCHADOW^  shaMd,  Friedrtch  Wilhelm 
(1789-1862).  A  German  historical  and  religious 
painter.  He  was  the  virtual  founder  of  the  old 
Diisseldorf  school,  bom  in  Berlin,  the  son  of  the 
following,  studied  painting  under  Weitsch,  and  in 
1810  proceeded  to  Rome,  where  he  joined  the 
Nazarites  (see  Pre-Raphaelites ) ,  and  became  a 
convert  to  Catholicism.  His  part  in  their  joint 
frescoes  in  the  Casa  Bartholdi  (now  in  the  Na- 
tional Gallery,  Berlin)  was  "Jacob  with  Joseph's 
Coat"  and  "Joseph  in  Prison."  These  are  the 
most  important  works  of  his  Roman  period, 
although  his  Madonnas  and  portraits  sfiow  a 
greater  technical  skill,  upon  the  basis  of  which 
he  was  called  in  1819  to  be  professor  in  the  Berlin 
Academy.  His  principal  work  at  Berlin  was  a 
large  "Bacchanal,"  upon  the  ceiling  of  the  Royal 
Theatre;  but  he  also  painted  a  number  of  Madon- 
nas and  other  religious  subjects  and  "Poesy,"  one 
of  his  best  easel  pictures. 

His  high  success  as  a  teacher  was  the  cause 
of  his  appointment  as  director  of  the  Diissel- 
dorf Academy.  He  entirely  reorganized  the  in- 
struction there,  and  it  was  to  his  teaching  that 
the  success  and  productivity  of  the  Diisseldorf 
school  (q.v.)  was  chiefly  due.  Unlike  his  prede- 
cessor Cornelius,  he  practiced  oil  painting,  rather 
than  fresco,  placing  greater  weight  upon  color. 
He  favored  the  historical  and  the  religious  pic- 
ture and  was  much  opposed  to  the  genre  and 
landscape  afterwards  practiced  by  his  pupils. 
His  principal  production  during  this  period  was 
"The  Wise  and  the  Foolish  Virgins"  (1837, 
StUdel  Institute,  Frankfort)  ;  among  other  re- 
ligious paintings  are  the  "Four  Evangelists'* 
(Werdersche  Kirche,  Berlin)  and  "Christ  and 
His  Disciples  at  Emmaus"  (National  Gallery, 
ib.). 

In  1840  he  went  to  Italy,  whence  he  returned 
more  austere  in  religion  and  uncompromising  in 
advocating  purely  religious  painting.    His  latest 


works  include  "Heavenly  and  Earthly  Love,** 
"Piety  and  Vanity  in  Their  Relation  to  Religion," 
and  allegorical  representations  of  "Heaven," 
"Purgatory,"  and  "Hell,"  after  Dante.  In  1859 
he  resigned  the  directorship  of  the  academy.  He 
died  at  Diisseldorf.  As  an  author  he  is  well 
known  by  his  lecture,  Ueher  den  Einftuaa  dea 
Chriatentuma  auf  die  hildende  Kunat  (Dtlssel- 
dorf,  1843),  and  the  biographical  sketches,  Der 
moderne  Vaaari  (Berlin,  1854).  Consult  Htibner, 
Sckadow  und  aeine  Schule  (Bonn,  1869),  and  the 
authorities  referred  to  under  DtJssELDOBF  School 
OF  Painting. 

SCHADOW,  JOHANN  GOTTFBIED  (1764-1850). 
An  eminent  German  sculptor,  who  inaugurated  a 
new  epoch  in  plastic  art,  marked  by  the  return 
to  the  simple  truth  of  nature  and  to  antique 
models,  after  a  period  of  mannerism.  Born  in 
Berlin,  May  20,  1764,  the  son  of  a  tailor,  he  be- 
came the  pupil  of  Tassaert  in  1776  and  simul- 
taneously studied  drawing  at  the  Academy.  Mar- 
ried in  1785,  he  went  to  Italy,  and  was  power- 
fully impressed  at  Florence  by  the  works  of  Gio- 
vanni da  Bologna  and  Michelangelo,  yet  more 
deeply  still  in  Rome  by  the  antique  sculptures  in 
the  Vatican  and  the  Capitol,  which  he  studied 
with  indefatigable  zeal.  Having  worked  tem- 
porarily in  the  studio  of  Trippel,  he  found  the 
intercourse  with  Canova  more  instructive.  In 
1786  he  won  the  first  prize  in  the  Concorso  di 
Balestra,  with  the  group  in  terra-cotta  "Andro- 
meda Delivered  by  Perseus,"  and  upon  1  is  return 
to  Berlin  was  elected  a  member  and  one  of  the 
four  rectors  of  the  Academy,  and  appointed  Court 
sculptor,  in  1788.  Schadow*s  most  important 
works  date  from  the  next  two  decades,  and  in 
their  unpretending  simplicity  give  the  full  im- 
pression of  life  and  individual  truth.  Chronologi- 
cally, they  include  the  "Hercules  Slaying  the 
Centaur  Eurytion"  (1789),  on  the  Hercules 
Bridge ;  the  "Monument  of  Count  von  der  Mark"  ■ 
(1789-91),  in  the  Dorotheenstadt  Church.  A 
number  of  reliefs  of  antique  subjects,  in  the  vari- 
ous state  rooms  of  the  royal  palace,  belong  to 
the  same  period.  Then  followed  the  statue  of 
"Frederick  the  Great"  (1793)  at  Stettin,  that 
of  "Ziethen"  (1794)  and  that  of  "Prince  Leopold 
of  Anhalt-Dessau"  (1800),  both  at  Gross- 
Lichtterfelde  (replicas  in  bronze,  Wilhelms- 
platz,  Berlin).  For  the  Brandenburg  gate  he 
modeled  the  "Quadriga  of  Victory"  (1789-94), 
the  statue  of  "Mars"  (1794),  and  the  16  metopes 
of  the  "Combat  Between  the  Centaurs  and 
Lapithje"  (1794).  Of  his  perfect  success  in 
rendering  female  grace  and  beauty,  the  exquisite 
group  of  "Crown  Princess  Louise  and  Her 
Sister"  (1795-97,  Royal  Palace,  Berlin)  is 
sufficient  proof.  A  splendid  specimen  of  his 
treatment  of  the  nude  form  is  the  life-size  re- 
clining figure  of  a  woman  ( 1797) ,  long  designated 
erroneously  as  the  "Nymph  Salmacis"  by  Thor- 
waldsen.  Intimate  characterization  distinguishes 
a  bronze  group  of  "Frederick  the  Great  with  His 
Greyhounds"  (1816),  at  Sans-Souci.  Schadow 
concluded  his  monumental  plastic  work  with  the 
statues  of  "BlUcher"  (1819),  at  Rostock,  and 
"Luther"  (1821),  at  Wittenberg,  and  his  last 
piece  in  marble  was  the  statuette  of  a  "Girl  Re- 
posing"' (1826),  in  the  National  Gallery,  Berlin. 
Since  1792  he  had  also  fashioned  about  a  hundred 
portrait  busts  of  the  Hohenzollern  and  other 
prominent   personages^    among    them   those    for 


8GHAD0W. 


504 


SCHAXTHAUfiEir. 


the  Walhalla,  near  Regensburg,  including 
"Frederick  the  Great,"  "Charlemagne,"  "Henry 
the  Fowler,"  "Copernicus,"  "Kant,"  "Wieland," 
and  others,  and  that  of  "Goethe"  (1816),  in 
the  National  Gallery.  Due  credit  should  be 
given  also  to  his  numerous  drawings,  ranking 
with  the  best  of  his  time,  more  than  1000 
of  which  are  preserved  at  the  Berlin  Acad- 
emy. He  published:  Wittenherga  Denkmaler  der 
Bildnerei,  Baukunst  und  Malerei  (1825) ;  Lehre 
von  den  Knocken  und  Muskeln,  etc.  (1830); 
Polyklet,  Oder  von  den  Mctszen  dea  Mensohen  nach 
dem  Oeschlecht  und  Alter  (1834;  6th  ed.  1886)  ; 
and  its  sequel  Nationalphysiognomienf  etc.  (1835; 
2d  ed.  1867),  each  with  30  plates.  From  1816 
to  his  death,  January  28,  1850,  he  was  director 
of  the  Berlin  Academy,  highly  gifted  and  suc- 
cessful  as   a   teacher. 

His  son  and  pupil,  Rudolph  (1786-1822),  bom 
in  Rome,  returned  thither  from  Berlin  in  1811, 
and  under  the  influence  of  Thorwaldsen  followed 
the  lines  of  classicism.  He  was  most  successful 
with  genre  figures,  such  as  the  "Sandal-Binder" 
(1817),  in  the  Glyptothek  at  Munich,  which 
also  contains  his  portrait  bust  of  "Vittoria  Cal- 
doni"  (1820).  Most  of  his  works  found  their 
way  into  England.  His  principal  composition, 
the  heroic  group  of  "Achilles  Defending  Penthe- 
silea"  (modeled  1821),  was  executed  in  marble 
by  Emil  Wolff,  for  the  royal  palace  in  Berlin. 
Consult:  Eggers,  in  Dohme,  Kunst  und  Kiinstler 
(Leipzig,  1886) ;  Donop,  in  Allgemeine  deutsche 
Biographic,  xxx.  (ib.,  1890)  ;  and  Bode,  Oe- 
8chichte  der  deutachen  Plaatik  (Berlin,  1887). 

SCHAFA&IK,  shyfar-zhftk.  A  Slavic  phil- 
ologist.   See  SAFAfiiK. 

SCHAfEB^  sha'fSr,  Edward  Albert  (1860 
— ) .  An  English  physiologist,  born  in  London  and 
educated  in  University  College.  He  became  as- 
sistant professor  of  physiology  in  1874,  and  was 
.  Jodrell  professor  from  1883  to  1899,  when  he 
was  named  professor  of  physiology  in  Edinburgh. 
Besides  valuable  papers  on  muscular  structure, 
on  the  chemistry  of  blood  proteids,  on  absorp- 
tion, and  on  the  rhythm  of  volimtary  contrac- 
tion, he  wrote  A  Courae  of  Practical  Hiatology 
(1877),  and  Eaaentiala  of  Hiatology  (1886),  and 
edited  Quain's  Element  a  of  Anatomy  (with  G.  D. 
Thane,  8th,  9th,  and  10th  editions),  and  an  Ad- 
vanced Text-Book  of  Phyaiology  by  Britiah  Phyai- 
ologiata  (1898). 

8CHAFEB,  Karl  (1844—).  A  German  archi- 
tect, bom  and  educated  at  Cassel,  where  he 
taught  in  the  Polytechnic  ( 1868-70) .  In  1870  he 
became  university  architect  in  Marburg,  whence 
he  removed  in  1878  to  Berlin.  There  he  was 
decent  in  the  School  of  Technology  and  in  1884- 
94  professor  of  medieeval  architecture.  In  1894 
he  was  appointed  to  a  chair  of  mediaeval 
architecture  in  the  Karlsruhe  Institute  of  Tech- 
noloji^.  Schafer  planned  the  very  successful 
buildings  of  Marburg  University,  the  Holzhausen 
Castle  near  Kirchhain,  and  the  Equitable  Build- 
ing in  Berlin.  He  wrote  Omamentale  Olaa- 
malereien  dea  Mittelaltera  und  der  Renaiaaance 
(1881-88,  with  Rossteuscher),  Holzarchitektur 
Deutachlanda  vom  H,  hia  18.  Jahrhundert  (1884- 
88),  and  Die  muatergUltigen  Kirchenhauten  dea 
Mittelaltera  in  Deutachland  (1892  sqq.). 

SCHAFF,  shftf,  Philip  (1819-93).  A  dis- 
tinguished Church  historian.  He  was  bom  at 
Chur,  Switzerland,  January  1,  1819;  studied  at 


Stuttgart,  Tflbingen,  Halle,  and  Berlin;  traveled 
in  1841  as  private  tutor  in  France,  Switzerland, 
and  Italy,  and  returned  to  Berlin  an4  lectured  on 
theology  1842-44.  On  inviiation  from  the  Ger- 
man Keformed  Church  he  came  to  America  in 
1844  and  became  professor  of  theology  in  the 
German  Reformed  Theological  Seminary  at  Mer- 
cersburg.  Pa.  In  1864  he  removed  to  New  York 
City  and  was  secretary  of  the  New  York  Sab- 
bath Committee  till  1869.  He  lectured  at  An- 
dover  on  Church  history  1862-67.  In  1870  he  be- 
came connected  with  Union  Theological  Semi- 
nary first  as  professor  of  theological  cyclopaedia 
and  Christian  symbolism  (1870-74),  next  of  sa- 
cred literature  (1874-87),  and  finally  of  Church 
history  (1887-93).  He  died  in  New  York  City. 
His  most  important  works  are  his  Hiatory  of  the 
Chriatian  Church  (1868-90),  his  translation, 
adaptation,  and  editing  of  Lange's  Commentary 
on  the  Holy  Scripturea  (1864-86),  The  Schaff- 
Herzog  Encyclopedia  of  Religioua  Knowledge 
(3d  ed.  1891),  and  his  collecting  and  introducing 
of  The  Creeda  of  Chriatendom  (1877-84).  His 
deepest  desire  was  for  the  union  of  Christendom, 
and  his  last  speech  was  in  its  behalf  at  the  Chi- 
cago Parliament  of  Religions  (1893).  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  American  branch  of 
the  Evangelical  Alliance  and  was  long  its  hon- 
orary secretary.  Consult  his  Life  by  his  son,  D. 
S.  Schaff  (New  York,  1897),  which  contama  a 
full  list  of  his  publications. 

SCHAFFEB^  sh&f^fgr,  Julius  (1823-1902).  A 
German  musician,  born  at  Krevese,  in  the  Alt- 
mark.  He  studied  theology,  and  later  phi- 
losophy, at  Halle  and  in  Leipzig,  but  upon  he- 
coming  intimate  with  Robert  Franz,  and  through 
him  coming  in  contact  with  Schumann,  Men- 
delssohn, Gade,  and  others,  he  gave  himself  up 
entirely  to  music.  In  1850  he  studied  under 
Dehn  at  Berlin,  and  five  years  afterwards  be- 
came musical  director  to  the  Grand  Duke  at 
Schwerin,  where  he  founded  and  conducted  the 
"Schlosskirchenchor."  In  1860  he  became  mu- 
sical director  at  the  university  and  conducted  at 
the  Singakademie,  Breslau,  having  succeeded 
Reinecke.  Among  his  works  are  three  books  in 
defense  of  Franz's  "additional  accompaniments" 
to  scores  by  Bach  and  Handel,  namely:  Zicei 
Beurtheiler  von  Dr.  R,  Franz;  Fr.  Chryaander 
in  aeinen  Clavierauaziigen  zur  deutachen  Hdndei- 
Auagahe;  and  R.  Franz  in  aeinen  Bearheitungen 
alterer  Vocalwerke;  excellent  choral  books; 
songs  and  part-songs. 

SCHAFFHAXJSEN,  sh&f-hou^zen.  The  north- 
ernmost canton  of  Switzerland,  bounded  by  the 
Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  except  on  the  southwest, 
where  the  Rhine  separates  it  from  the  cantons 
of  Zurich  and  Thurgau  (Map:  Switzerland, 
C  1).  Area,  114  square  miles.  The  canton 
forms  a  part  of  the  Rhine  valley.  In  the  north- 
em  part  are  mountainous  spurs  from  Baden. 
Numerous  streams  flow  toward  the  Rhine  and 
render  even  the  higher  portions  of  the  region 
cultivable.  The  products  include  cereals,  vege- 
tables, and  wine,  and  domestic  animals  of  Swa- 
bian  and  Swiss  breeds  are  raised.  The  manu- 
facturing industries  are  centred  at  Schaffhausen 
(q.v.),  the  capital.  Schaffhausen  is  one  of  the 
most  democratic  cantons  of  Switzerland.  Its  con- 
stitution, dating  from  1876,  and  modified  in 
1895,  provides  for  a  legislative  assembly  (Gros- 
ser Rat)  elected  for  four  years,  at  the  rate  of  one 


SCHAlTHAtTSEK. 


505 


8CHANB0BPSL 


member  for  every  500  inhabitants,  and  an  elected 
executive  council  of  5  members.  The  initiative 
and  obligatory  referendum  are  in  force.  Schaff- 
hausen  sends  two  representatives  to  the  Federal 
Council.  Population,  in  1900,  41,514,  principally 
German-speaking  Protestants. 

SGSAITHAXJSEN.  The  capital  of  the  can- 
ton of  the  same  name  in  Switzerland,  situated 
on  the  Khine  at  an  altitude  of  1295  feet,  about 
25  miles  north  of  Zurich  (Map:  Switzerland, 
C  1).  The  town  is  quaint  and  contains  many 
gabled  houses  dating  from  the  sixteenth  and  the 
seventeenth  centuries.  There  are  an  interest- 
ing early-Romanesque  basilica  dating  from  the 
eleventh  century,  the  seventeenth-century  town 
hall,  the  museum  with  the  town  library,  and  the 
Imthumeum,  containing  a  theatre,  a  picture  gal- 
lery, a  concert  hall,  etc.  Above  the  town  rises 
the  massive  sixteenth-century  tower  of  Munot, 
with  its  fine  terrace,  and  at  the  western  end  of 
the  town  lies  the  F&senstau  Promenade.  Schaff- 
hausen  is  connected  by  two  bridges  with  the  vil- 
lage of  Feuerthalen  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the 
Rhine.  The  manufactures  are  of  wide  range,  in- 
cluding various  iron  and  steel  products,  scientific 
instnunents,  machinery,  watches,  yams,  textiles, 
pottery,  etc.  Population,  in  1900,  15,400,  most- 
ly Protestants.  Schafifhausen  is  mentioned  as  a 
city  in  the  twelfth  century  and  soon  after  became 
a  free  city  of  the  Empire.  It  joined  the  Swiss 
Confederation  in  1501.  Two  miles  below  SchatF- 
hausen  are  the  famous  Falls  of  the  Rhine,  one 
of  the  grand  scenic  features  of  Central  Europe. 
In  three  leaps  over  the  rough  ledge  the  river 
here  descends  nearly  100  feet. 

SCSXnXE^  sh&f^e,  Albert  (1831—).  A 
German  economist  and  sociologist.  He  stud- 
ied theology  at  Tubingen,  and  from  1850 
to  1860  be  edited  the  BchwabiscKer  Merkur 
at  Stuttgart.  Professor  of  political  economy 
at  the  University  of  Tttbingen  (1860-68),  he 
subsequently  became  a  professor  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Vienna.  From  February  imtil  October  of 
1871  he  was  Austrian  Minister  of  Commerce. 
Upon  the  overthrow  of  the  Ministry  he  went  to 
Stuttgart,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  literary 
work.  Among  his  best  known  publications  are 
Die  QtUnteaaenz  des  Sozialismua  (1874)  and 
Die  Aussichtslosigkeit  der  Sozialdemokratie 
(1885).  His  Bau  und  Lehen  des  aozialen  Kor- 
pers  <  1875-78,  new  ed.  1896)  undertakes  to  con- 
struct a  thoroughgoing  sociological  system.  His 
other  important  works  are  Die  Nationalokono- 
mie  (1861),  a  third  edition  of  which  appeared 
in  1873  under  the  title  Das  geaellachaftliche 
System  der  menschlichen  Wirtachaft  (1873), 
and  Kapitalismua  und  Sozialiamua  (1870). 

SCHAFHXuTL,  shAfhoi-t'l,  Karl  Emil  von 
(1803-90).  A  German  geologist  and  physicist, 
whose  early  writings  on  acoustics  and  on  the 
preparation  of  steel  and  iron  were  under  a 
pseudonym,  the  Latinized  equivalent  of  his 
name,  Pellisov.  He  was  born  in  Ingolstadt, 
studied  mathematics  and  mineralogy  at  Land- 
shut  and  English  methods  of  puddling  and 
forging  iron  at  Sheffield  and  in  1843  be- 
came professor  of  geology,  mineralogy,  and  min- 
ing in  Munich,  where,  six  years  afterwards, 
he  was  appointed  librarian  of  the  university. 
His  most  important  work  was  the  introduction 
into  Bavaria  of  what  he  had  learned  at  Shef- 
field.     Schafh&utl    devised   many   mathematical 


and  physical  instruments,  of  which  his  areometer^ 
photometer,  and  phonometer  are  most  valuable. 
Besides  his  writings  on  geology  and  physics, 
which  appeared  in  English  and  German  technical 
reviews,  he  published  on  the  history  of  music,  to 
which  he  especially  devoted  himself  in  his  later 
years,  Ein  Spaziergang  durch  die  liturgische 
Musikgeachichte  der  katholischen  Kirche  (1887), 
and  Aht  Qeorg  Josef  Vogler  (1888). 

8CHALCKEN,  sh&lk^en,  Godfbi£D  (1643- 
1706).  A  Dutch  genre  painter,  born  in  Made. 
Ue  received  his  art  training  under  Hoogstraten 
and  in  the  studio  of  Gerard  ]>ou.  In  1699  he  was 
in  England  and  painted  a  portrait  of  William 
III.,  now  in  The  Hague  Museum  (another  copy  in 
Amsterdam).  But,  excepting  this  and  a  few 
other  portraits  and  some  historical,  mythological, 
and  landscape  studies,  Schalcken  produced  small 
and  artificially  lighted  canvases.  Among  these, 
mention  may  be  made  of  "Old  Woman  Scouring 
a  Pan,"  and  "Soldier  Giving  Money  to  a  Woman," 
in  the  London  National  Gallery;  "Ceres  Seeking 
Proserpine"  and  "Old  Man  Writing,"  at  the 
Louvre;  "Girl  Blowing  Out  Taper,"  at  Munich; 
"Girl  Reading  Letter,"  in  the  Dresden  Gallery; 
and  "Toilet  by  Candle,"  at  The  Hague,  all  with 
wonderfully  mellow  treatment  and  warm  color- 
ing. His  sister,  Mabia,  and  his  nephew,  Jakob 
(1684-1722),  painted  so  much  in  Godfried's  man- 
ner that  their  work  is  often  confused  with  bis. 

SCHALXEy  shIlKke.  An  industrial  commune 
of  Prussia,  7  miles  north  of  Essen,  with  impor- 
tant coal  mines,  iron  and  steel  works,  machine 
shops,  coke  ovens,  tin-plate  works,  chemical  fac- 
tories, glass  and  mirror  works.  Population,  in 
1900,  26,077. 

SCHALL,  sh&l,  JoHANN  Adam  von  (1591- 
C.1665).  A  celebrated  Jesuit  missionary  to  China. 
He  was  born  of  noble  family  at  Cologne  in  1591, 
entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1611,  and  went  as 
a  missionary  to  China  in  1617.  He  succeeded 
not  only  in  forming  a  flourishing  mission,  but 
was  ultimately  invited  (1631)  to  the  Imperial 
Court  at  Peking,  where  he  was  intrusted  with  the 
compilation  of  the  calendar  and  the  direction 
of  the  public  mathematical  school,  being  himself 
created  a  mandarin.  Through  this  favor  with 
the  Emperor  Schall  obtained  an  edict  v/hich  au- 
thorized the  building  of  Roman  Catholic  churches 
and  the  liberty  of  preaching  throughout  the  Em- 
pire, and  in  14  years  the  Jesuit  missionaries  in  . 
the  several  provinces  are  said  to  have  received 
into  the  Church  100,000  proselytes.  On  the  death 
of  this  Emperor  (1661),  however,  a  change  of 
policy  fatal  to  the  prospects  of  Christianity  took 
place.  Schall  was  thrown  into  prison  and  sen- 
tenced to  death,  and  although  released  on  May 
18,  1665,  he  had  suffered  so  much  that  he  died 
soon  after.  For  a  portrait  of  him  in  the 
costume  of  a  mandarin,  see  illustration  under 
Costume,  Ecclesiastical.  Consult  Platzweg, 
Lehenabilder  deutacher  Jeauiten  in  auawdrtigen 
Miaaionen  (Paderborn,  1882). 

SCHAMYL^  sha'mll.  A  patriot  chief  of  the 
Caucasus.    See  Shamyl. 

SCHANDOBFH,         shan'dOrp  (properly 

SKAMDBUP),SoPHUS  (1837-1901).  A  Danish 
poet  and  novelist,  who  excelled  in  portraying 
the  life  of  the  Danish  middle  and  lower  classes. 
Bom  and  educated  in  Ringsted,  he  studied  first 
theology  and  then  the  Romance  languages.  He 
possessed  a  keen  sense  of  humor  and  remarkable 


SCHANDOBPfi. 


6oe 


8CHABWEKKA. 


powers  of  observation.  One  of  his  best  novels  is 
Bmaafolk  (1880),  the  story  of  a  peasant  girl 
beset  by  the  temptations  of  a  large  city.  His 
other  works  include  Uden  Midtpunkt  (1878), 
Thomas  Fria'  Histoire  (1881),  Hkovfagedes 
homene  (1884),  Det  gamle  apothek  (1885),  Fra 
Isle  de  France  og  fra  Horo  (1888),  and  Stillelius 
Folk  (1892). 

SCHANZ,  shunts,  Geobq  (1853-).  A  Ger- 
man economist,  born  in  Grosabardorf  and  edu- 
cated in  Munich,  Wtirzburg,  and  Strassburg.  He 
was  employed  in  the  Statistical  Bureau  in  , 
Munich,  became  professor  at  Erlangen  in  1880, 
and  in  1882  was  called  to  the  chair  of  economics 
in  WUrzburg.  In  1884  he  became  editor  of  the 
Finanzarchiv,  and  it  is  with  finance  and  the 
history  of  commerce  that  his  works  especially 
deal.  He  wrote:  Die  deutschen  Oesellenverhande 
(1877)  ;  Englische  HandcUpoliiik  gegen  Ende  des 
Mittelalters  (1881);  Beitrage  zur  Frage  der 
Arheitalosenveraicherung   ( 1 895- 1 902 ) . 

SCHANZ,  Martin  von  (1842—).  A  German 
classical  philologist,  born  at  Uechtelhauscn,  in 
Bavaria.  In  1875  he  became  professor  of  classi- 
cal philology  in  the  University  of  Wiirzburg.  His 
studies  were  chiefly  directed  to  Plato,  historical 
Greek  syntax,  and  the  history  of  Roman  litera- 
ture. His  most  important  published  works  are: 
BeitrUge  zur  voraokratiachen  Philoaophie  ( 1 867 )  ; 
Btudium  zur  Oeachichte  des  Platonischcn  Textea 
(1874)  ;  Platonia  Opera  (1st  critical  ed.  1874)  ; 
and  numerous  editions  of  separate  dialogues. 
After  1882  he  edited  Breitrage  zur  kiatorischen 
Syntax  der  griechischen  8prache.  His  Romiache 
Litteraturgeachichte  (1898,  et  seq.)  is  important 
for  its  comprehensive  survey  of  every  field,  its 
objectivity  and  impartiality,  and  the  excellence 
of  its  characterizations. 

SCHAFEB,  sha^r,  Fbitz  (1841  —  ).  A  Ger- 
man sculptor,  bom  at  Alsleben,  Prussian  Saxony; 
pupil  of  the  Berlin  Academy  and  of  Albert  Wolff; 
instructor  of  the  academy  in  1875-90  and  elected  a 
member  of  it  in  1880.  Besides  some  figures  for 
the  **War  Monument"  at  Halle,  he  produced  the 
statues  of  Bismarck  (1879)  and  Moltke  (1881, 
both  at  Cologne),  Gauss  (1880,  Brunswick), 
Lessing  (1881,  Hamburg),  Krupp  (1889,  Essen), 
Liebig  (1890,  Giessen),  BlUcher  (1893,  Caub), 
the  monuments  to  Goethe  (1880,  Berlin)  and 
Luther  (1890,  Erfurt)  ;  the  equestrian  statue 
of  William  I.  (1901,  Aix-la-Chapelle)  ;  and  an 
heroic-size  "Victory"  (1885,  Arsenal,  Berlin). 
To  the  adornment  of  Sieges-All^  in  Berlin  he 
contributed  the  statue  of  the  Great  Elector 
(1901). 

SCHABF,  sharf,  John  Thomas  (1843-98). 
An  American  antiquary  and  historian,  bom  in 
Baltimore,  Md.  He  served  in  both  the  Confederate 
army  and  navy,  was  several  times  wounded,  and 
once  narrowly  escaped  being  put  to  death  as  a 
spy.  Later  he  engaged  in  journalism  and  in 
Baltimore  was  at  different  times  editor  of  the 
Evening  Newa^  Sunday  Telegram^  and  Morning 
Herald.  He  devoted  much  attention  to  history, 
and  made  a  collection  of  many  thousands  of  doc- 
uments, pamphlets,  and  other  historical  ma- 
terial, which  he  gave  in  1891  to  Johns  Hopkins 
University.  His  publications  include:  Chroniclra 
of  Baltimore  (1874);  History  of  Maryland  (3 
vols.,  1879-80)  ;  History  of  Baltimore  City  and 
County  (1881)  ;  History  of  Western  Maryland  (2 


vols.,  1882)  ;  History  of  Philadelphia  (3  Tols., 
1884)  ;  Hiatory  of  the  Confederate  State  Navy 
(1887) ;  and  Hiatory  of  Delaware  (1888). 

SCHABNHOBST,  sh^ra^idrst,  Gerhasd  Jo- 
HANN  David  von  (1756-1813).  A  Prussian  gen- 
eral, founder  of  the  modem  Prussian  militaiy 
system.  He  was  bom  in  Hanover.  He  entered 
the  military  service  of  his  native  State  in  1778, 
was  teacher  in  the  artillery  school  of  Hanover 
about  1780,  and  was  engaged  in  the  campaigns 
in  Flanders  in  1793-95.  In  1801  he  waa  called 
.  into  the  Prussian  service  and  became  director  of 
the  Prussian  military  school.  He  served  in  the 
field  in  the  disastrous  campaigns  of  1806-07,  and 
was  then  made  president  of  the  commission 
charged  with  the  reorganization  of  the  Prussian 
army  and  head  of  the  War  Department.  Work- 
ing in  harmony  with  the  other  regenerators  who 
came  to  Prussia  in  her  need,  he  accomplished 
this  in  spite  of  the  distrust  and  opposition  of 
the  old-time  Prussians.  Universal  service  was 
not  secured  until  his  death,  but  he  laid  down 
the  principles  and  prepared  the  way  for  its 
adoption.  Enrollments  of  foreigners  were 
abolished,  corporal  punishments  were  limited  to 
flagrant  cases  of  insubordination,  promotion  for 
merit  was  established,  and  the  military  adminis- 
tration organized  and  simplified.  The  organiza- 
tion of  the  Landwehr  or  reserve  was  begun.  So 
promptly  were  the  results  of  this  work  seen  that 
the  Prussian  army,  which  had  been  so  ineifective 
before  Tilsit,  was  able  to  play  an  important 
part  in  the  final  campaigns  against  Napoleon. 
Scharnhorst  was  wounded  in  the  battle  at  Gross- 
gorschen  May  2,  1813,  and  died  at  Prague  June 
28th.  Consult  his  biography  by  Klippel  (3 
vols.,  Leipzig,  1869-71),  which  is  devoted  espe- 
cially to  his  reforms  and  their  results. 

SCHABWENKA,  shAr-vftDacA,  Phiupp 
(1847 — ).  A  German  pianist  and  composer, 
born  in  Samter,  Posen,  and  brother  of  Xaver 
Scharwenka.  He  was  educated  at  the  Posen 
G^nnnasium,  and  in  1865  was  enrolled  as  a 
pupil  of  the  Kullak  'Neue  Akademie  der 
Tonkunst*  in  Berlin,  where  he  was  a  special  pupil 
of  WQrst  and  H.  Dorn.  In  1870-81  he  taught 
theory  and  composition  at  the  academy  and  then 
took  up  a  similar  position  at  his  brother's  con- 
servatory. His  compositions  are  regarded 
highly  and  include  many  charming  numbers 
for  orchestra,  pianoforte,  violin,  'cello,  and  voice; 
the  choral  works,  Herhatfeier  Op.  44,  and  Sakun- 
tala,  for  solo  and  orchestra;  two  symphonies; 
Arkadische  Suite ;  and  a  festival  overture,  Dorper- 
Tanzweise,  for  chorus  and  pianoforte. 

SCHABWENKA,  Xaveb  (1850-).  A  Car- 
man composer  and  pianist,  born  at  Samter.  He 
was  educated  at  Kullak's  Academy  in  Berlin 
under  Kullak  and  Wfirst.  In  1874  he  be- 
gan a  series  of  very  successful  tours  through- 
out Europe  and  America,  and  in  1881  be 
established  his  conservatory  in  Berlin.  Ten 
years  later  he  remo\ed  to  New  York  City 
and  became  director  of  the  Scharwenka  Con- 
servatorj'  there.  His  Berlin  school  meanwhile 
amalgamated  with  that  of  Karl  Klindworth,  and 
in  1898  he  returned  to  Germany  and  assumed 
charge  of  the  Klindworth-Scharwenka  Conserva- 
tory. His  works  include  the  opera  Mataswtntha 
(1896),  a  symphony  in  C  minor,  and  consider- 
able  chamber  and  pianoforte  music.     Perhaps 


SCHABWSHSA. 


507 


filCHEELfi. 


his  most  popular  compositions  have  been  his 
Polish  dances. 

SCHiLSSBUBOy  shds^oi^rK  (Hung.  Segea- 
vdr).  A  royal  free  city,  and  the  capital  of  the 
County  of  Gross-Kokel  (Nagy-Kilkttll6),  Hun- 
gary, on  the  Great  Kokel,  80  miles  by  rail 
northwest  of  Kronstadt  (Map:  Hungary,  J  3). 
The  town  has  a  Protestant  gymnasium,  with  a 
free  library  and  museum,  and  a  Catholic  normal 
school.  It  is  noted  as  the  scene  of  the  defeat 
of  the  Hungarian  army  by  the  Russians,  July 
31,  1849,  the  celebrated  poet  Petofi  (q.v.)  being 
among  the  Hungarian  dead.  Population,  .in 
1900,  10,857. 

SCHAJTFELEIN,  shoi'fe-lln,  Hans  Leon- 
hard  (c.  1480- 1540).  A  German  painter,  born  in 
Nuremberg.  He  became  the  pupil  and  assistant 
of  Dttrer,  whom  he  imitated.  .  His  treatment  of 
drapery  is  peculiarly  good,  but  his  own  manner 
is  often  rather  careless.  His  best  works,  apart 
from  drawings  for  woodcuts,  among  which  those 
illustrating  the  Theuerdank,  his  designs  for  a 
wedding  dance,  and  cuts  for  the  Bible  are  most 
important,  are  the  following  paintings:  "The 
Dying  Virgin"  (two  subjects),  "Coronation  of 
the  Virgin,"  "Christ  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee," 
"Crowned  with  Thorns,"  "On  the  Cross,"  and 
"Mount  of  Olives,"  in  the  Munich  Pinakothek;  a 
"Visitation,"  in  the  Dublin  Gallery ;  and  two  por- 
traits belonging  to  the  Duke  of  Northumberland. 

SCHAUTFLEB,  shouflSr,  William  Gott- 
lieb (1798-1883).  A  Protestant  missionary  in 
Turkey.  He  was  bom  at  Stuttgart,  Germany, 
and  went  with  his  parents  at  the  age  of  six  to 
Odessa,  Russia.  Having  decided  to  become  a 
missionary,  after  a  brief  visit  to  Turkey  he  came 
to  America  and  after  four  years  of  study  at 
Andover  was  ordained  in  1831  and  sent  by  the 
American  Board  to  Paris  to  study  Arabic  and 
Persian  with  De  Sacy,  and  Turkish  with  Prof. 
Kieffer.  He  went  to  Constantinople  and  preached 
in  German,  French,  Spanish,  Turkish,  and  Eng- 
lish. By  appointment  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
and  American  Bible  societies  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into  the  Turkish 
language.  He  published  an  ancient  Spanish  ver- 
sion of  the  Old  Testament,  revised  by  himself, 
with  the  Hebrew  original,  in  parallel  columns,  a 
grammar  of  the  Hebrew  language  in  Spanish,  and 
a  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  lexicon  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment in  the  same  language;  also  Meditationa 
on  the  Last  Days  of  Christ,  discourses  de- 
livered in  Constantinople  (1837).  He  returned 
to  America  in  1877,  and  died  in  New  York  City. 
Consult  his  Autobiography  (New  York,  1887). 
His  son,  Rev.  A.  F.  Schauffler,  bom  in  Constanti- 
nople, has  been  for  many  years  a  promoter  of 
city  missions  in  New  York  City. 

SCHAXTMBUBG-LIPPE,  shoum^boorK  llp'- 
pe.  A  principality  and  constituent  State  of  the 
German  Empire,  bounded  by  the  Prussian  prov- 
inces of  Hanover  and  Westphalia  and  coveiing  an 
area  of  131  square  miles  (Map:  Germany,  0  2). 
Its  surface  is  somewhat  mountainous  in  the  north 
and  well  wooded.  Agriculture  and  gardening  are 
pursued  actively  in-  the  southern  part,  and  coal 
is  mined  in  the  east.  The  chief  manufacture  is 
linen.  The  principality  is  represented  by  one 
member  in  the  Bundesrat  and  returns  one  Deputy 
to  the  Reichtsag.  Population,  in  1890,  39,163; 
in  1900,  43,132,  almost  exclusively  Protestants. 
Capital,  Lippe  (q.v.).  The  mling  dynasty  was 
Tou  XV.-88. 


founded  in  1640  by  a  cadet  of  the  Lippe  family, 
who  inherited  the  countship  of  Schaumbui|f.  The 
State  was  created  a  principality  in  1807.  In  1866 
it  joined  the  North  German  Confederation  and 
in  1871  became  a  member  of  the  German  Empire. 

SCHECHTEB,  shSK^tSr,  Solomon  (1847—). 
A  distinguished  Jewish  scholar.  He  was  bom  at 
Fokshani,  Rumania,  and  studied  at  Vienna  and 
later  at  Berlin.  Under  the  patronage  of  the 
Montefiore  family  he  went  to  England,  where  his 
literary  studies  began.  In  1892  he  became  resuier 
in  Rabbinic  at  Cambridge  University.  In  1894 
he  visited  America  to  lecture  at  Gratz  College, 
Philadelphia,  upon  "Some  Aspects  of  Jewish 
Theology."  His  discovery  in  1896  of  a  page  of 
the  Jewish  original  of  Ecclesiasticus  {Ben-Sira) 
led  to  a  visit  to  Cairo  to  examine  the  Geniza  (or 
store-chamber  for  disused  books)  of  the  Jewish 
synagogue,  and  he  was  enabled  to  bring  back  the 
whole  collection,  consisting  of  80,000  pieces, 
which  he  presented  to  his  university.  Cambridge 
rewarded  him  with  the  degree  of  LL.D.,  and  with 
the  position  of  curator  of  Oriental  literature. 
He  also  received  the  appointment  to  the  Hebrew 
professorship  at  University  College,  London.  In 
1901  the  Jewish  Theological  Seminary  in  New 
York  was  reorganized  and  endowed  on  condition 
of  Dr.  Schechter's  becoming  its  president;  he 
accepted  the  offer  and  came  to  New  York  in  the 
spring  of  1902.  His  best  known  work  is  his  pub- 
lication with  Dr.  C.  Taylor  of  The  Wisdom  of 
Ben-Sir  a  (1899),  the  fruits  of  the  Geniza  frag- 
ments. Other  important  works  are  Ahot  de 
Rabbi  Nathan  (1887),  Studies  in  Judaism 
(1896),  Midrash-Hag-gadol  (vol.  i.,  1902),  Baad- 
yana  (1903). 

SCHEEL,  sh&l,  Hans  von  (1839-1901).  A 
German  economist  and  statistician,  bom  in  Pots- 
dam. He  studied  at  Halle,  Jena,  and  Berlin, 
in  1868  was  appointed  to  the  post  of  assistant  to 
Hildebrand  in  the  Statistical  Bureau  at  Jena, 
taught  at  the  Agricultural  School  at  Proskau 
1869-71,  became  professor  at  Bern  in  1871, 
and  Director  of  the  German  Statistical  Bureau 
at  Berlin  in  1891.  His  works  include  Sooialismus 
und  KommunismuSf  Politische  Oekonomie  als  Wis* 
sensehaft,  Die  Erujerbseinkunfte  des  Stoats  (in 
Schonberg's  Handbuch, 4th  ed.,  1896), Die  Theorie 
der  sozialen  Frage  ( 187 1 ) ,  Eigentum  und  Eirbrecht 
(1877),  Progressive  Besteuerung  (1875),  and  a 
version  of  Ingram's  Present  Position  and  Pros- 
pects of  Political  Economy  (1879),  and  publica- 
tions on  statistics.  Consult  Kollmann,  Hitde- 
brands  Jahrbuch  (1902,  vol.  Ixxviii.,  pp.  677-97). 

SCHEELE,  shA^e,  Cabl  Wilhelm  (1742-86). 
An  eminent  Swedish  chemist,  born  at  Stralsund. 
In  1767  he  settled  at  Stockholm  as  an  apothe- 
cary, and  in  1770  removed  to  Upsala.  It  was 
during  his  residence  at  Upsala  that  he  carried  on 
those  investigations  in  chemical  analysis  which 
proved  so  fruitful  in  important  and  brilliant  dis- 
coveries. In  1777  he  removed  to  Hoping.  The 
chief  of  his  discoveries  were  tartaric  acid  (1770), 
chlorine  (1774),  baryta  (1774),  oxygen  (1774, 
independently  of  Priestley),  and  glycerin  (1784). 
In  experimenting  on  arsenic  he  discovered  the 
arsenite  of  copper,  which  is  known  as  a  pigment 
under  the  name  of  Scheele's  green  or  mineral 
green.  In  1782  he  succeeded  in  obtaining,  for  the 
first  time,  hydrocyanic  acid  in  a  separate  form. 
The  mode  and  results  of  his  various  investiga- 
tions were  communicated  from  time  to  time,  in 


SCHEEIiE. 


508 


8CHEIKEB. 


the  form  of  memoirs,  to  the  Academy  of  Stock- 
hohn,  of  which  he  was  an  associate.  A  com- 
plete edition  of  his  works  was  published  by 
Hermbstftdt  (Berlin,  1793).  Consult:  Hays, 
The  Life  Work  of  Carl  Wilhelm  Scheele  (New 
York,  1884) ;  Cap,  Scheele,  chimiate  su^doie 
(Paris,  1863) ;  Thorpe,  "Scheele,"  in  Nature  for 
1892;  Nordenskjdld,  Nachgelaaaene  Brief e  und 
Aufzeichnungen  von  Carl  Wilhelm  Scheele 
(Stockholm,  1892). 

SCHEELE,  Knut  Henniiyo  Gezelius  von 
(1838—).  A  Swedish  Lutheran  theologian,  bom 
in  Stockholm  and  educated  at  Upsala.  There  he 
became  docent  in  1865  and  professor  in  1879,  and 
in  1885  was  made  Bishop  of  Wisby.  In  1893,  on 
the  tercentenary  of  the  Upsala  decree,  he  was  the 
King's  representative  to  the  United  States,  and 
in  1901  represented  his  university  and  nation 
at  the  Yale  Bicentennial.  His  works  on  theologi- 
cal symbolics  (1885)  and  on  the  Church  Cate- 
chism (1886)  were  published  in  German  versions. 

SCHEELITE  (named  in  honor  of  Carl 
Scheele,  who  first  discovered  tungstio  acid  in  the 
mineral).  A  mineral  calcium  tungstate  crystal- 
lized in  the  tetragonal  system.  It  has  a  vitreous 
lustre,  and  runs  in  color  from  white,  through 
yellow,  to  red  and  green.  It  occurs  with  crystal- 
line rocks,  tin  ores,  and  various  tungsten  min- 
erals, and  is  found  in  Bohemia,  Saxony,  the  Tyrol, 
Hungary,  C!hile,  and  in  the  United  States  at  va- 
rious localities  in  Connecticut,  North  Carolina, 
Nevada,  and  Colorado.  It  finds  some  use  in  the 
manufacture  of  tungstic  acid,  especially  as  the 
metal  tungsten  is  being  more  and  more  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  steel.  Its  use  has  also 
been  suggested  in  the  preparation  of  glazes  for 
porcelain,  but  without  great  success. 

BCS&FESL,  shA'far^,  Chables  (1820-98).  A 
French  diplomat  and  Orientalist,  bom  in  Paris 
and  educated  at  the  Ecole  Sp^ciale  des  Langues 
Orientales  Vivantes.  He  entered  the  Foreign 
Office  and  served  as  dragoman  in  Jerusalem, 
Smyrna,  Alexandria,  and  Constantinople.  In 
1857  he  became  professor  of  Persian  in  Paris, 
succeeding  Quatrem^re ;  and  ten  years  afterwards 
became  president  of  the  Ecole  Sp^ciale  des 
Langues  Orientales  Vivantes,  whence,  after  more 
important  service  in  the  East  in  1860  and  1862, 
he  was  transferred  to  the  College  de  France. 
Schefer  edited  many  Persian  texts  and  a  Persian 
chrestomathy  (1883-85),  and  edited  and  trans- 
lated into  French  a  great  mass  of  material  bear- 
ing on  the  history  and  early  exploration  of  Cen- 
tral Asia,  the  most  important  of  which  was 
included  in  the  Recueil  de  voyages  et  de  docu- 
ments pour  servir  d  Vhistorie  de  geographic  (with 
Cordier,  1882-97 ) .  His  collection  of  manuscripts 
is  in  the  Biblioth^ue  Nationale. 

8CHEFE&,  Shaffer,  Leopold  (1784-1862).  A 
German  poet  and  novelist,  bom  at  Muskau.  His 
works  include:  Vigilien  (1842)  ;  Oedichte  (1846)  ; 
the  didactic  and  religious  Laienbrevier  (1834), 
one  of  his  best  works ;  Weltpriester  ( 1846)  ;  Hafis 
in  Bellas  (1853).  Some  of  his  novels  are  Kleine 
Romane  (1837-39),  Oraf  Promnitz  (1842),  and 
Achtzehn  Tochter  (1847). 

SCHBF'FEL,  Joseph  Viktor  von  (1826-86). 
A  German  poet  and  novelist,  bom  at  Karlsruhe, 
Febraary  16,  1826.  He  studied  law,  philology, 
and  literature  at  Heidelberg,  Munich,  and  Berlin, 
aerved  judicially  at  Silckingen  (1860)  and  Bmch- 
Bal   (1852),  traveled  in  Italy,  Switzerland,  and 


France,  and  from  1857  to  1859  was  librarian  at 
Donaueschingen.  In  1864  he  settled  permanently 
at  Karlsruhe.  His  first  book,  Der  Trompeter 
von  Sackingen,  was  written  at  Capri  and  Sor- 
rento in  1852,  and  is  the  most  popular  German 
epic  of  the  century;  it  is  half  playful,  half 
melancholy,  wholly  romantic,  and  with  the  real- 
ism of  fond  memories.  His  historical  novel 
Ekkehard,  written  at  Saint  Gall  and  Heidelberg 
(1854-55),  and  based  on  systematic  investigation, 
is  a  blending  of  history  and  poetry,  vivid  and 
faithfully  picturesque.  Soon  afterwards  he  pub- 
lished Gaudeamus,  a  collection  of  student-songs. 
After  1857  Scheffers  health  began  to  give  way 
and  his  spirits  with  it.  His  later  poems,  tales, 
and  novels,  Frau  Aventiure  (1863),  Juniperus 
( 1881 ) ,  Der  Heini  von  Steier  and  Hugideo  ( 1884 ) , 
never  attained  the  popularity  of  his  earlier 
works. 

SCHEF'FEB,  Fr.  pron.  shSffftr',  Art  ( 1796- 
1858).  A  French  painter  of  the  romantic  school. 
He  was  born  at  Dordrecht,  Holland,  February 
12,  1795.  He  studied  drawing  at  Lille  and  in 
1811  'vi'ent  to  Paris,  where,  in  the  studio  of 
Gu^rin,  he  had  G^ricault  and  Delacroix  for  fel- 
low students,  and  with  them  defied  the  ultra- 
classical  teachings  of  Gu^rin.  He  preserved  his 
connection  with  the  new  romantic  movement  in 
the  expression  of  sentiment,  but  in  execution  he 
aimed  more  for  purity  of  form.  The  three 
classes  of  subjects  affected  by  him  serve  in 
a  general  way  to  divide  his  life  into  three 
periods.  His  attention  was  first  attracted  to 
scenes  from  real  life,  in  the  depiction  of 
which  he  showed  his  sympathy  with  suffering, 
like  "The  Soldier's  Widow"  (1821);  "Death 
of  (36ricault"  (1824),  now  in  the  Louvre; 
"Orphans  at  the  Tomb  of  Their  Mother"  (1824)  ; 
"The  Suliote  Women"  (1827).  His  second  period 
shows  him  absorbed  in  ideal  scenes  drawn  from 
the  works  of  (loethe  and  Schiller,  Byron  and 
Dante.  Among  these  are  "Ck>unt  Eberhard,"  in 
the  Louvre;  the  "Submission  of  Wittekind"  and 
the  "Battle  of  Ztllpich,"  in  the  Versailles  Mu- 
seum. In  1830  he  painted  the  first  of  his  series 
dealing  with  Marguerite.  To  this  subject  he 
frequently  returned,  the  final  one  of  the  series, 
"Marguerite  at  the  Fountain,"  being  painted  in 
1858.  The  third  period,  characterized  by  his  re- 
ligious subjects,  is  not  distinctly  marked  off 
from  the  second,  for  he  began  the  religious  pic- 
tures with  the  "Christus  Consolator"(  1837), -now 
in  the  Museum  Fodor,  Amsterdam.  After  1840 
he  was  largely  occupied  with  sacred  themes  and 
reached  his  highest  achievement  in  "Christ  Weep- 
ing Over  Jerusalem,"  "Christ  Tempted  of  Satan," 
and  the  "Christ  of  the  Reed." 

The  taste  of  recent  years  has  deprived  Scheffer 
jof  the  high  place  he  once  occupied  when  the 
illustrative  qualities  of  art  were  more  in  favor. 
Consult:  His  Life  by  Mrs.  Grote  (London,  1860)  ; 
Im-Thum  (Ntmes,  1876)  ;  and  Vitet,  Ary  Schef- 
fer Album  (Berlin,  1861). 

SCHEF'FLEB,  Johakn.  A  German  poet. 
See  Angelus  Silesius. 

SCHEHERAZADE.  In  the  Arabian  Nights, 
the  wife  of  Schahriah,  Sultan  of  India,  to  whom 
she  relates  a  story  each  night  for  a  thousand 
and  one  nights,  and  by  exciting  his  interest 
escapes  the  usual  fate  of  his  wives. 

SCHEINEB,  shl^ngr,  Chbistoph  (c.l57^ 
1650).    A  German  astronomer,  born  at  Wald,  in 


8CHEIKEB. 


509 


SCHEIiLING. 


Swabia.  B»>vas  professor  of  Hebrew  and  mathe- 
matics at  Freiburg;  and  from  1610  to  1616  at  In- 
golstadt,  and  after  several  years  in  Rome  became 
rector  of  the  Jesuit  College  of  Neissa  in  Silesia.  In 
his  Tres  EpistoUs  ad  Marcum  Velserum  (1612), 
Scheiner  claimed  to  have  seen  sim  spots  as  early 
as  March,  1611,  and  thus  aroused  the  enmity  of 
Galileo,  whom  Scheiner  further  provoked  by  up- 
holding the  old  thesis  of  a  'stable'  earth  and  a 
'mobile'  sun  ( 1651 ) .  His  great  work  on  the  sun, 
containing  the  results  of  about  two  thousand  ob- 
servations (made  with  an  equatorial  telescope  of 
the  type  now  called  Sisson's),  was  the  Rosa 
Ursina  (1630).  Scheiner  invented  a  helioscope 
and  a  pantograph. 

SCHXINEB,  Julius  (1858—).  A  German 
astronomer,  bom  in  Cologne  and  educated  at 
Bonn.  He  became  assistant  at  the  astrophysical 
observatory  in  Potsdam  in  1887  and  its  observer- 
in-chief  in  1898,  three  years  after  his  appoint- 
ment to  the  chair  of  astrophysics  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Berlin.  Scheiner  paid  special  attention  to 
celestial  photography  and  wrote  Der  Lichttoech- 
9el  Algols  (1882),  Spektralanalyse  der  Oestime 
(1890) ,  Ausmessung  des  Orionnebels  nach  photo- 
graphischen  Aufnahmen  (1896),  Strahlung  und 
Temperatur  der  Sonne  (1899),  and  Bau  des 
WeltalU  (1901).  In  1899  he  began  the  publica- 
tion of  the  Photographische  Himmelskarte,  Zone 
-f  «•  Jns  -h  40"*  Deklination. 

SCHELDT,  skelt  (Dutch  Schelde,  Fr.  Es- 
oaut).  A  river  of  Belgium.  It  rises  in  France 
in  the  Department  of  Aisne  and  flows  first 
north  past  Valenciennes  into  Belgium,  then 
northeast  past  Ghent  to  Antwerp,  l^low  which 
city  it  empties  into  the  large,  branching  estuary 
which  meiges  with  the  Rhine  delta  and  opens  by 
several  wide  channels  into  the  North  Sea  through 
Southwestern  Holland  (Map:  Belgium,  C  3).  Its 
total  length  is  267  miles,  and  it  is  navigable  210 
miles,  while  below  Antwerp  it  is  accessible  to 
the  largest  ships.  A  system  of  canals  connects 
it  with  the  chief  cities  of  Belgium  and  Northern 
France.  The  Dutch  monopolized  the  navigation 
of  the  lower  Scheldt,  and  levied  a  toll  on  foreign 
vessels  until  the  river  was  made  free  by  the 
Treaty  of  Brussels  in  1863. 

SCHELLIKQ,  shelving,  Friedbich  Wilhelm 
Joseph  von  (1775-1854).  A  German  philosopher. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  country  clergyman,  and  was 
bom  at  Leonberg,  in  Wttrttemberg.  He  studied 
at  Tflbingen  and  Leipzig,  and  in  1798  was  called 
to  be  professor  extraordinarius  in  Jena.  Here  he 
found  himself  in  a  remarkable  social  and  literary 
circle,  comprising  among  others  the  brothers 
Schlegel  with  their  wives,  Tieck,  Steffens,  and 
Nova  lis.  With  Groethe,  too,  he  was  on  good 
terms,  while  Schiller's  philosophical  views  re- 
pelled him.  Schelling's  philosophical  tendencies 
nad  been  originally  determined  by  Fichte ;  in  fact, 
he  was  at  first  an  enthusiastic  advocate  of  the 
Fichtean  idealism,  and  his  earliest  writings, 
Ueher  die  Moglichkeit  einer  Form  der  Philoso- 
phie  uherhaupt  (1795),  and  Vom  Ich  als  Princip 
der  Philosophie  (1795),  were  composed  in  this 
spirit.  Gradually,  however,  Schelling  diverged 
from  his  master,  who  soon  came  to  seem  to  him 
one-sided.  The  first  result  of  his  departure  from 
Pichte's  view  was  the  once  famous  IdentiUits- 
philosophiey  which  attempted  to  show  that  'sub- 
ject* and  'object,'  the  'ideal'  and  the  'real'  are 
completely  undifferentiated  in  the  absolute,  and 


that  in  nature  there  is  a  preponderance  of  the 
objective,  while  in  consciousness  there  is  a  pre- 
ponderance of  the  subjective.  The  'philosophy  of 
identity'  reminds  one  of  Spinozism  (see  Spinoza) 
in  maintaining  a  featureless  ground  of  all  exist- 
ence. It  differs  from  Spinozism  in  regarding  the 
snbjectives  and  the  objectives  as  everywhere  pres- 
ent together  in  the  phenomenal  world,  but  with 
varying  preponderance  of  the  two  elements.  The 
principal  works  in  which  this  view  is  more  or 
less  completely  developed  are :  Ideen  zu  einer  Phi- 
losophie der  Natur  (1797);  Von  der  Weltseele 
(1798) ;  Erster  Entwurf  eines  Systems  der  Na- 
turphilosophie  (1799);  and  System  des  trans- 
cendentalen  Idealismus  (1800).  In  1803  he  was 
called  to  Wttrzburg  as  professor  of  philosophy. 
Here  his  views  underwent  another  change.  He 
gave  up  the  philosophy  of  'identity,'  and  began 
to  champion  a  mystical  view,  according  to  which 
all  finitude  is  the  result  of  a  fall  from  the  abso- 
lute— a  fall  the  effects  of  which  the  course  of 
history  has  to  repair.  This  theory  is  first 
broached  in  Philosophie  und  Religion  (1804). 
In  his  later  'woiks^Philosophische  Untersuchungen 
aher  das  Wesen  der  menschlichen  Freiheit 
(1809),  Denkmal  der  Schrift  Jacohis  von  den 
gottlichen  Dingen  (1812),  and  Ueber  die  Oott- 
heiten  von  Samothrake  (1815),  he  became  more 
and  more  theosophical.  He  was  now  strongly 
imder  the  influence  of  Bruno  (q.v.)  and  Bohme 
(q.v.),  and  maintained  that  within  the  absolute 
there  is  a  dark  irrational  ground,  which  gradu- 
ally becomes  clarified,  thus  giving  development 
to  the  idea  of  Gcd.  Meanwhile,  in  1806,  he  had 
gone  to  Munich  as  member  of  the  Academy  of  Arts. 
From  1820  to  1826  he  lectured  at  Erlangen.  In 
1827  he  was  elected  professor  at  the  newly  estab- 
lished University  of  Munich,  and  fourteen  years 
later  he  went  to  Berlin  as  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Science.  This  position'  carried  with  it 
the  privilege  of  lecturing  in  the  University  of 
Berlin.  Between  1815  and  1842  Schelling  pub- 
lished only  two  minor  productions.  This  was  due 
to  the  fact  that  a  most  formidable  adversary  to 
him  had  arisen  in  his  old  college  friend  Hegel 
(q.v.),  who,  though  older,  had  at  first  been  an 
ardent  disciple  of  Schelling's.  During  the  reign 
of  Hegel  in  the  world  of  German  philosophy 
Schelling  preserved  a  silence  which  was  not 
broken  till  1834,  three  years  after  Hegel's  death; 
then  he  wrote  a  preface  to  Becker's  translation 
of  one  of  Cousin's  Writings.  In  this  preface  he 
criticised  Hegel's  views  as  being  too  exclusively 
idealistic  and  as  giving  no  recognition  to  the 
empirical  side  of  reality.  He  died  at  the  baths  of 
Ragatz,  in  Switzerland,  August  20,  1854. 

Schelling's  complete  works  were  published  by 
his  son  K.  F.  A.  Schelling  (Stuttgart  and  Augs- 
burg, 1856,  et  seq.).  The  second  part  contains 
his  Berlin  lectures.  For  Schelling's  life,  see  Plitt, 
Aus  Schellirigs  Lehen  in  Brief  en  (Leipzig,  1869- 
70).  Kuno  Fischer,  in  the  6th  volume  of  his 
Oeschichte  der  neuem  Philosophie,  gives  a  full 
biography  in  addition  to  an  account  of  his  philos- 
ophv.  See  also  Watson,  Schelling's  Transcendental 
Idealism  (Chicago,  1883) ;  A.  Seth  (Pringle  Pat- 
tison),  The  Development  from  Kant  to  Hegel 
(London,  1882)  ;  Koeber,  Die  Cfrundprincipien der 
Schellingschen  Naturphilosophie  (Berlin,  1882) ; 
Groos,  Die  reine  Vemunfttoissenschaft  (Heidel- 
berg, 1889) ;  also  the  histories  of  philosophy  by 
Ueberweg-Heinze,  H5ffding,  Windelband,  and 
Bergmann. 


8CHBM. 


610 


BCWBMy  shem,  Axjixandeb  Jacob  (1826-81). 
An  American  statistician.  He  was  bom  in  West- 
phalia, and,  after  studying  at  the  universities  of 
Bonn  and  Tdbingen,  edited  Westphalian  news- 
papers until  1851,  when  he  came  to  the  United 
States.  Here  he  was  engaged  as  professor  of 
Hebrew  and  modem  lanffuages  at  Dickinson  Col- 
1^  (1854-60),  but  resigned  in  1860  to  devote 
himself  to  literature.  From  1874  until  his  death 
he  was  assistant  superintendent  of  schools  in 
New  York.  He  edited  statistical  almanacs  for 
1860  and  1868-69;  published  a  Latin-English 
School  Lexicon  (with  Rev.  George  R.  Crooks, 
1857) ;  a  Cyolopcpdia  of  Education  (with  Henry 
Kiddle,  1877 ) ;  and  was  one  of  the  editors  of  The 
Methodist  and  of  The  Methodist  Quarterly  Re- 
view.  He  edited  the  Deutsch-Amerikanisches 
ConversationS'Lewicon  (12  vols.). 

SCHEMKITZy  shem^nlts  (Hung.  Belmecz- 
hdnya).  A  royal  free  city  and  the  capital  of 
the  County  of  Hont,  Hungaiy,  in  a  narrow  moun- 
tain gorge,  66  miles  north  of  Budapest  (Map: 
Hungary,  F  2).  There  are  six  suburbs.  The 
academy  for  mining  and  woodcraft,  embracing 
collections  of  minerals  and  a  chemical  laboratory, 
is  the  chief  architectural  feature.  There  are  a 
ruined  castle  and  a  Piarist  seminary.  Cigars 
and  shoes  are  manufactured.  Schemnitz  is  fa- 
mous for  its  mines,  which  extend  under  the  town, 
and  produce  gold  and  silver,  as  well  as  copper, 
iron,  and  sulimur.  It  was  made  a  free  royal  city 
in  the  twelfth  century.  Population,  in  1900, 
16,370. 

SGHENCK,  sk^Dk,  Robebt  Cuicmino  (1809- 
90).  An  American  soldier,  political  leader,  and 
diplomat,  bom  at  Franklin,  O.  He  graduated  at 
Miami  University  in  1827,  later  studied  law,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1831.  In  1851-53  he 
was  Minister  to  Brazil.  While  in  South  America 
he  negotiated  treaties  between  the  United  States 
and  the  Argentine  Republic,  Uruguay,  and  Para- 
guay. Upon  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he 
was  appomted  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers. 
In  1861  he  aided  in  clearing  the  mountains 
of  West  Virginia  of  Confederates,  and  the  next 
spring  he  commanded  the  Federal  right  wing 
at  Cross  Keys.  At  the  second  battle  of  Bull 
Run  he  led  his  troops  with  the  utmost  gal- 
lantry and  was  severely  wounded.  He  was  then 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  major-general  of  vol- 
unteers, but  resigned  his  commission  in  1863. 
He  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1863  to  1870, 
and  was  successively  chairman  of  the  Committee 
on  Military  Affairs  and  chairman  of  the  Commit- 
tee on  Ways  and  Means.  In  1871  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Joint  High  Cllommission  which  drew  up 
the  Treaty  of  Washington,  and  was  Minister  to 
England  from  1871  to  1876,  when  he  resigned  in 
consequence  of  accusations  made  against  him  in 
connection  with  the  Emma  Silver  Mine  fraud. 
Subsequent  investigations  cleared  him  of  all  sus- 
picion of  complicity. 

SCHENECTADY^  ske-nek'tA-dl.  The  couni^- 
seat  of  Schenectady  (bounty,  N.  Y.,  17  miles  north- 
west of  Albany;  on  the  Mohawk  River  and  the 
Erie  Canal  and  on  the  New  York  Central  and 
Hudson  River,  the  Delaware  and  Hudson,  and  the 
Fitchbur^  railroads  (Map:  New  York,  F  3).  It 
rises  gfradually  from  the  Mohawk  River.  The 
more  elevated  section  is  principally  residential, 
and  has  the  grounds  and  buildings  of  Union  Col- 
lege (q.v.)^  a  non-sectarian  institution  opened  in 


1796.  Noteworthy  are  the  court  house,  city  hmll. 
Van  Curler  Opera  House,  the  Public  Ldbraiy* 
high  school  building,  and  Ellis  HoepitaL  8chfr- 
nectady  is  important  industrially.  In  1900,  $6,- 
517,864  capital  was  invested  in  its  various  manu- 
facturing establishments,  whose  output  i^as  val- 
ued at  $9,288,387.  There  are  large  electrical 
works,  locomotive  works,  foundries  and  machine 
shops,  bottling  works,  and  manufactones  of  pat^ 
ent  medicines,  brooms,  and  brushes.  The  govern- 
ment, under  the  revised  charter  of  1897,  is  vested 
in  a  mayor,  chosen  biennially,  and  a  unicameral 
council,  and  in  administrative  officials.  For  main- 
tenance and  operation  the  city  spends  annually 
about  $400,000,  the  principal  items  being: 
Schools^  $85,000;  interest  on  debt,  $60,000;  water 
works,  $60,000;  municipal  lighting,  $30,000;  fire 
department,  $30,000;  streets^  $30,000;  police, 
$30,000.  The  water  works,  which  represent  an 
outlay  of  $1,236,610,  are  owned  and  operated  by 
the  municipality.  The  population  in  1890  was 
19,902;    in  1900,  31,682. 

Schenectady  was  settled  in  1662  by  Arendt  Van 
Gorlear,  on  the  site  of  the  great  Mohawk  'Castle' 
and  capital  of  the  Five  Nations,  Schonowe.  On 
February  8,  1690,  the  French  and  Indians  mas- 
sacred 60  and  captured  between  80  and  90  of  its 
250  inhabitants,  and  destroyed  60  of  its  66 
houses.  In  1748  another  massacre  occurred  in  its 
immediate  vicinity.  Schenectady  was  chartered 
as  a  borough  in  1765  and  became  a  city  in 
1798.  In  1819  a  large  part  of  the  town  was 
destroyed  by  fire.  Consult:  Howell  and  Mun- 
sell.  History  of  Schenectady  County  (Albany, 
1886),  and  a  sketch  in  Powell,  Historic  Tauma 
of  the  Middle  States  (New  York,  1899). 

8CHENK  sheok,  August  (1815-91).  A  Ger- 
man botanist  and  geologist,  bom  at  Hallein. 
After  being  docent  in  Munich,  and  professor  in 
WQrzburp,  he  was  from  1868  to  1887  professor 
at  Leipzig.  On  prehistoric  fiora  Schenck  was 
one  of  the  greatest  of  German  authorities.  He 
wrote  Beitr^ge  eur  Flora  der  Vonoelt  (1863), 
Fossils  Flora  des  Keupers  und  der  r&tischen  For- 
mation (1864),  Fossile  Flora  der  Orenz9chiehten 
des  Keupers  und  Lias  Frankens  ( 1865-67 ) ,  and  in 
Richthofen's  China  (1882),  a  summary  of  the 
flora  from  the  anthracite  and  Jurassic  formations. 

8CHENX,  JoHANN  (1753-1836).  An  Aus- 
trian composer,  bom  at  Wiener-Neustadt.  In 
1778  he  composed  a  mass,  which  became  popular 
throughout  Germany,  and  in  1785  his  first 
operetta.  Die  Weinlese,  was  produced  at  Vienna. 
This  was  followed  by  nearly  a  dozen  others  of 
similar  character,  of  which  the  most  important 
was  Der  Dorfharbier  (1796). 

8CHENXSL,  shSok'el,  DAinEL  (1813-85).  A 
Swiss  theologian,  bom  at  D6gerlin,  in  the  Canton 
of  Zurich.  After  studying  at  Basel  and  Gdttin- 
gen,  he  lectured  and  taught  at  Basel  in  1838-41, 
and  returned  there  in  1849  as  professor  and  mem- 
ber of  the  Church  (Douncil,  having  in  the  mean- 
while officiated  as  first  parish  priest  at  Schaff- 
hausen.  In  1851  he  became  professor,  director 
of  the  seminary,  and  university  chaplahi  at  Hei- 
delberg. Of  his  numerous  writings  the  following 
partake  essentially  of  the  character  of  mediatory 
theology:  Das  W^sen  des  Protestatttiamus 
( 1845-51 ) ;  Oespr&che  Uher  Protestantismus  und 
Katholicismus  (1853) ;  Der  Vnionsheruf  des 
Protestantismus  (T855) ;  and  Die  Reformatoren 
und  die  Reformation   (1856).     A  transition  to 


8CHBHKBL. 


611 


8CHETTBB&-KJC8TMEB. 


liberal  doctrines  distinguishes  Die  christliehe  Dog- 
matik  vom  Standpunkt  dea  Oeu}isaens  (1858-50). 
In  1863  he  participated  in  the  foundation  of  and 
presided  over  the  Grerman-Protestant  Union, 
whose  principles  were  elucidated  in  his  Christ- 
entum  und  Kirche  im  Einklang  unit  der  Kultu- 
renttDidclung  (1867-72),  and  in  Der  deuiache 
Proieatantenverein  und  aeine  Bedentung  in  der 
Oegenwart  (1871).  Much  hostility  was  excited 
by  his  Chorakterhild  Jeau  (1864,  4th  ed.  1873). 
His  subsequent  publications  include:  Friedrich 
Schleiermacher  ( 1868) ;  Luther  in  Worma  und  in 
Wiitetiherg  (1870);  and  Dea  Chriatuahild  der 
Apoatel  und  der  nach  apoatoliachen  Zeit  (1870). 
He  also  edited  the  Bibelleteikon  (5  vols.,  Leipzig, 
1869-75). 

SCHEHKENDOBF^  shfiok^en-ddrf ,  Max  von 
( 1783-1817).  A  German  poet,  bom  in  Tilsit  and 
educated  at  Kdnigsberg.  During  the  War  of 
Liberation,  in  which  he  took  an  active  part, 
Schenkendorf  was  associated  with  Amdt  and 
Kdmer  in  the  writing  of  patriotic  songs.  His 
poems  were  published  as  Oedichte  ( 1815) ,  Poeti- 
acker  NacMaaa  (1832),  and  Samtliche  Oedichte 
(1837  and  1871).  For  his  life,  consult  Hagen 
(Berlin,  1863)  and  Knaake  (Tilsit,  1800). 

8CHESEB,  sh&'rftr^,  EDicoin)  (1815-80).  A 
French  theologian  and  literary  critic.  He  was 
bom  in  Paris,  studied  theology  in  England 
and  Strassburg,  and  in  1846  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  exegesis  at  Geneva.  Owing  to  the 
changes  in  his  religious  convictions,  he  resigned 
hia  professorship  in  1850,  and  in  1860  removed 
to  Versailles,  where  he  headed  a  liberal  move- 
ment in  the  French  Protestant  Church.  After  the 
establishment  of  the  Republic  he  was  elected,  in 
1871  a  member  of  the  National  Assembly,  and  in 
1875  a  life  Senator.  His  publications  include: 
MSangea  de  critique  religieuae  (1860) ;  M^langea 
d^hiatoire  religieuae  (1864);  Etudea  critiquea 
aur  la  litt^ature  contemporaine  (1863-05),  of 
which  George  Saintsbury  translated  Eaaaya  on 
English  Literature  (London,  1801) ;  and  biog- 
raphies of  Alexander  Vinet  (1853),  Diderot 
(1880),  and  Melchior  Grimm  (1887).  Consult 
hia  Life  by  Gr§ard  (Paris,  1800). 

8CHBBEB,  sh&'rSr,  Whjoelm  (1841-86).  A 
German  critic  and  literary  historian.  He  was 
bom  in  Berlin,  studied  there  and  at  Vienna,  and, 
after  holding  professorships  at  Vienna  and 
Strassburg,  was  in  1877  appointed  professor  of 
the  histoiy  of  modem  German  literature  at 
Berlin.  In  1874  he  had  founded  at  Strassburg 
with  Ten  Brink  the  valuable  series,  Quellen  und 
Forachungen  zur  Sprach-  und  Kulturgeachichte 
der  germaniachen  Volker.  Scherer's  great  work 
was  the  Oeachichte  der  deutachen  Litteratur 
(1883,  and  often  ;Eng.  tr.  1886),  which  is  marked 
by  scientific  method,  by  grasp  of  the  development 
of  national  literature,  and  by  clarity  of  style. 
Besides,  he  wrote  Deutsche  Studien,  on  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  (1870-78;  2d  ed. 
1801),  a  Oeachichte  der  deutachen  Dichtung  in 
the  same  period  (1875),  Zur  Oeaechichte  der 
deutachen  Bprache  ( 1868) ,  Anfcnge  dea  deutachen 
Proaaromana  (1877),  Jakoh  Orimm  (2d  ed. 
1885),  and  Aua  Goethea  FrUhzeii  (1870). 

SCHEBKAir^  shftr^mlin,  Lucian  (1864—). 
A  German  Orientalist,  first  docent,  and  in  1001 
extraordinary  professor  of  Sanskrit  language  and 
Literature  in  Munich.  He  wrote  Philoaophiache 
Hjfmnen  aua  der  Rig-  und  Atharva-Veda-San- 


hit&  (1887),  and  Materialien  eur  Oeachichte  der 
indiachen  Viaionalitteratur  (1802),  and  in  1804 
became  the  editor  of  the  Orientaliache  Bihlid- 
graphie. 

SCHEBB,  sher,  Johannes  (1817-86).  A  Ger- 
man literanr  critic,  born  at  Hohenrechberg, 
Swabia,  and  educated  at  the  universities  of 
Zurich  and  Tttbingen.  In  the  Revolution  of  1848 
he  took  so  prominent  a  part  that  he  was  forced 
to  flee  to.  Switzerland.  After  1860  he  taught  in 
the  Zurich  Polytechnic.  He  wrote  some  purely 
humorous  sketches,  a  few  novels,  of  which  the 
most  popular  was  Michel,  Oeachichte  einea 
Deutachen  unaerer  Zeit  (1858;  7th  ed.  1806); 
a  series  of  literary  and  cultural  histories  and 
essays,  notably  Allgemeine  Oeachichte  der  Lit' 
teratur  (1851;  10th  ed.  1000) ;  Deutache  Kultur- 
und  Sittengeachichte  (1852;  11th  ed.  1002); 
Oeachichte  der  engliachsn  Litteratur  (1854;  3d 
ed.  1883) ;  Oeachichte  der  deutachen  Frauenuwlt 
(4th  ed.  1870)  ;  and  biographies  of  Schiller 
(1850;  last  ed.  1000)  and  of  Blficher  (1862;  4th 
ed.  1887).  German  critics  compare  him  to 
Carlyle,  because  of  his  vivid  style,  his  vehement 
bias,  and  his  biting  wit. 

8CHEBZEB,  shSr'tsSr,  Kabl  yon  (1821- 
1003).  An  Austrian  traveler  and  author.  He 
was  bom  at  Vienna  and  in  1852-55,  with  Moritz 
Wagner,  visited  the  United  States,  Central  Amer- 
ica, and  the  West  Indies.  In  1857-50  he  accom- 
panied the  Novara  expedition  around  the  world. 
On  his  return  he  was  knighted,  and  in  1866  was 
made  Ministerial  counselor  in  the  Department  of 
Commerce.  In  •I860  he  accompanied  the  Austrian 
expedition  to  Eastern  Asia,  and  in  1872  entered 
the  diplomatic  service,  becoming  Consul-General 
in  Smyrna.  In  1875  he  was  transferred  to  Lon- 
don, in  1878  to  Leipzig,  and  in  1884  to  Genoa. 
He  was  an  acute  observer  and  wrote  many  vol- 
umes,, among  the  more  important  being  Beiaen  in 
Nordamerika  (with  Wagner,  1854),  Wander- 
ungen  durch  die  mittelamerikaniachen  Frei- 
ataaten  ( 1857 ) ,  Reiae  der  caterreichiachen  Fregat- 
ta  Novara  um  die  Erde  (1861-62,  and  statistical 
section,  1864),  Fachmdnniache  Beriohte  Uher  die 
oaterreichiach-ungariache  Ewpedition  nach  Btam. 
China  und  Japan  (1872),  Smyrna  (1873),  and 
Daa  wirtachaftliohe  Lehen  der  V6lker  (1885). 

SCHEBZOy  sker^ts6  (It.,  jest,  sport).  In 
music,  a  term  applied  to  an  instrumental  compo- 
sition of  a  lively,  piquant  character,  admitting 
sudden  and  violent  contrasts  of  dynamic  shading. 
The  term  was  originally  used  as  a  direction-mark 
for  performers.  In  the  modem  sonata  or  sym- 
phony, however,  the  scherzo  is  an  essential  move- 
ment. It  was  first  introduced  by  Beethoven,  who 
greatlv  extended  the  form  and  gave  it  its  spe- 
cial character,  in  his  Second  Symphony,  where 
it  takes  the  place  of  the  minuet  in  the  symphonies 
of  Haydn  and  Mozart.  Even  in  Haydn's  time 
the  minuet  in  the  symphony  had  lost  its 
original  stately  character,  and  Beethoven's  first 
scherzo  is  more  like  the  minuet  than  the  form 
which  he  perfected  later  in  the  Eroioa.  Schu- 
mann, in  the  first  and  second  of  his  symphonies, 
becomes  an  innovator  through  the  introduction  of 
tvDO  trios,  instead  of  the  usual  one. 

SCHEXTBEB-KESTNEB,  shoi^rSr-kest^nCr, 
Fr.  pron.  shS'rftr'  kfist'nftr',  Auouste  (1833—). 
A  French  chemist  and  politician.  He  waa  bom 
at  Mtthlhausen,  Alsace,  and  studied  chemistry 


SCHEXTBEA-EESnOBB. 


512 


SCHILLEB. 


in  Paris.  Becoming  interested  in  the  efforts 
to  improve  the  condition  of  the  working- 
man,  he  founded  for  that  purpose,  in  1865,  a  co- 
operative society.  He  was  elected  a  representa- 
tive from  the  Upper  Rhine  in  the  National  As- 
sembly in  1871,  and  in  1875  he  was  elected  to  the 
Senate.  In  1879  he  succeeded  Gambetta  as  di- 
rector of  the  journal  La  R6publique  Francaiae. 
During  the  Dreyfus  excitement  he  was  conspicu- 
ous among  those  who  believed  in  the  prisoner's 
innocence,  and  he  testified  at  Zola's  trial.  In  ad- 
dition to  several  scientific  monographs,  he  pub- 
lished Principes  4limentaire8  de  la  th4orie 
chimique  dea  types  appliques  auw  comhinaiaona 
organiquea  (1862). 

SCHEVENINQEir,  sKlI'vcn-Io'Gen.  A  noted 
bathing  resort  in  South  Holland,  the  Nether- 
lands, on  the  coast,  about  two  miles  northwest  of 
The  Hague,  with  which  it  is  incorporated  and 
connected  by  a  fine  shaded  all^,  a  canal,  and  an 
electric  road  (Map:  Netherlands,  0  2).  It  has 
a  fine  Kurhaus  and  is  visited  annually  by  over 
20,000  guests.  Here,  in  1653,  the  English  gained 
a  great  naval  victory  over  the  Dutch  under  M. 
Tromp,  who  was  killed,  and  here  De  Ruyter,  in 
1673,  defeated  the  combined  fieets  of  England 
and  France.    Population,  in  1900,  about  20,000. 

SCHIAPABELU,  ske'&-pA-rgn6,  Giovanni 
(1835 — ).  An  Italian  astronomer,  born  at 
Savigliano,  in  Piedmont.  He  studied  in  Turin, 
in  Berlin  under  Encke,  and  at  Pulkova,  under 
W.  Struve.  In  1859  he  returned  to  Italy  and 
became  second  astronomer  at  the  Milan  observa- 
tory, and  in  1862  its  director,*  continuing  in 
that  position  until  1900.  In  1861  he  discovered 
the  planetoid  Hesperia.  In  1877  he  discovered 
certain  markings  on  the  surface  of  Mars, 
the  so-called  'canals.'  (See  Mabs.)  He  has  also 
announced  that  he  has  been  able  to  observe  mark- 
ings on  the  surface  of  Mercury  and  to  fix  the 
period  of  its  axial  rotation  as  the  same  as  that 
of  its  sidereal  rotation.  This,  however,  has  not 
yet  been  sufficiently  confirmed  by  other  astrono- 
mers. ( See  Mebcury.  )  Of  his  numerous  impor- 
tant writings  may  be  mentioned  The  Relation  Be- 
tween Comets  and  Falling  Stara  (1871);  The 
Precuraora  of  Copernicus  in  Antiquity  (1873); 
Observations  on  the  Movement  of  Rotation  and 
the  Topography  of  the  Planet  Mara  (1878-86). 

SCHIAVONE,  skrA-vc/nA.  Andrea  (c.l522- 
82).  The  appellation  of  Andrea  Meldolla  (Me- 
dolla,  or  Medula),  an  Italian  etcher  and  en- 
graver. He  was  bom  at  Sebenico  (Dalmatia), 
and  went  early  to  Venice  and  worked  as  a 
house  decorator.  He  thus  came  under  the  notice 
of  Titian,  whose  studio  he  entered  and 
by  whom  he  was  strongly  influenced.  Giorgione 
and  Tintoretto  also  left  their  mark  upon  his  style. 
Indifferent  in  design,  he  succeeded  to  a  marked 
degree  in  acquiring  the  Venetian  color.  He  was 
one  of  the  first  painters  of  landscape  for  its  own 
sake.  Among  his  paintings  are  a  "Pieta"  and  a 
"Madonna  with  Two  Saints"  (Dresden)  ;  "The 
Adoration  of  the  Shepherds"  (Uffizi)  ;  "Jupiter 
and  lo"  (Saint  Petersburg);  ceiling  and  wall 
paintings  in  the  Libreria  and  San  Rocco,  Venice, 
and  elsewhere.  His  etchings  and  engravings  are 
inferior. 

SCHIEDAM,  sKe'dUm'.  A  river  port  of  South 
Holland,  the  Netherlands,  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Schie  with  the  Meuse,  three  miles  west  of 


Rotterdam  (Map:  Netherlands,  C  3).  The  town 
is  noted  for  its  numerous  distilleries  of  Holland 
gin,  which  is  exported  together  with  grain.  Pop- 
ulation, 1900,  27,126. 

SCHTEFKEB,  shSf'ner,  Franz  Anton  (1817- 
79).  A  Russian  Orientalist,  born  in  Reval 
(Esthonia),  and  educated  at  Saint  Petersburg 
and  Berlin.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Saint  Petersburg  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1852 
and  was  chosen  librarian  of  that  body  in  1863. 
Among  his  studies  on  the  languages  of  Central 
Asia,  the  most  important  were  on  Tibetan 
literature,  especially  as  a  source  for  North 
Indian  Buddhism.  In  1868  he  edited,  and  in 
1869  translated  into  German,  an  edition  of  Tara- 
natha's  history  of  Buddhism.  He  also  devoted 
himself  to  the  Ural-Altaic  and  Sibiric  languages, 
translated  the  Kalevala  (1852) ,  and  wrote  on  the 
Tush  (1856),  Udic  (1863),  Tchetchents  (1864), 
and  Kasikumutch  (1866)  dialects. 

SCHIE  VELBEIK^  she^f  el-bln,  Hermann  ( 1817- 
67 ) .  A  German  sculptor,  bom  in  Berlin,  where  he 
became  the  pupil  of  Wichman.  After  an  appren- 
ticeship of  three  years  he  went  to  Saint  Peters- 
burg, and  executed  much  decorative  work,  besides 
some  statuary,  for  the  Winter  Palace  and  Saint 
Isaac's  Cathedral.  In  1841  he  won  the  great  prize 
of  the  Academy  of  Berlin,  and  after  a  shoit  so- 
journ in  Rome,  returned  to  execute  the  group  of 
"Palla«  Athene  Instructing  the  Youth  in  the  Use 
of  Weapons,"  for  the  palace  bridge.  Numerous 
plastic  works  for  the  royal  palaces  and  various 
public  buildings  bear  witness  to  his  activity  in 
Berlin,  but  his  masterpiece  was  the  grand  frfeze, 
more  than  two  hundred  feet  in  length,  depict- 
ing in  a  series  of  impressive  scenes  the  "Destruc- 
tion of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum,"  in  the  Greek 
court  of  the  New  Museum.  The  plaster  model 
of  this  extensive  and  harmonious  composition  is 
in  the  National  Gallery.  Distinguished  for  rich- 
ness of  imagination,  noble  conception,  and  intense 
poetic  feeling,  Schievelbein  faithfully  adhered  to 
the  traditions  of  the  school  founded  by  Schadow 
and  Ranch. 

SCHILLEB,  shlll^r,  Johann  Chsistoph 
Friedbich  von  (1759-1805).  A  famous  German 
poet  and  dramatist,  bom  at  Marbach,  Wfirttem- 
berg,  November  10,  1759.  Schiller's  father  was 
a  military  surgeon  and  captain;  his  mother  an 
innkeeper's  daughter  with  a  taste  for  music. 
As  a  child  he  showed  imagination,  and  desired  to 
•become  a  clergyman,  but  the  autocratic  Duke 
Karl  of  Wflrttemberg  "gently  kidnapped"  him 
for  his  military  academy,  aptly  named  "Solitude" 
(1773),  against  his  will  and  his  parents'  de- 
sire. Here,  under  stern  yet  whimsical  discipline, 
Schiller  pined  and  read  with  omnivorous  hunger, 
especially  Shakespeare,  Lessing,  Klopstock, 
Goethe's  Werther,  and  the  sensational  "Storm  and 
Stress"  (q.v.)  dramas  of  Klinger  and  Leise- 
witz.  Clandestinely  he  began  to  write,  and  when, 
in  1775,  the  school  was  moved  to  Stuttgart,  he 
took  up  the  study  of  medicine,  but  he  continued 
his  poetic  essays,  and  in  1777  set  to  work  on 
Die  Rduher,  the  first  of  his  published  plays,  in- 
tended as  an  emphatic  protest  against  the  exist- 
ing political  conditions  of  which  he  had  himself 
been  a  victim. 

On  graduating  from  the  ducal  school  (Decem- 
ber 14,  1780),  Schiller  was  forced  to  take  service 
as  regimental  surgeon,  galled  alike  by  his  func- 
tions and  his  dress.     His  rebellious  mood  was 


SCHILLER 

FROM  A  PORTRAIT  BY  ANTON  GRAFF 


SCHHiLEB. 


518 


SCHILLBS. 


shown  by  a  poem  on  the  death  of  his  friend 
Weckerlin,  a  bitter  defiance  of  society  and  its 
conventional  creed.  Die  RAuher,  printed  at  his 
own  expense  (1781),  made  an  immediate  and 
deep  impression.  In  a  somewhat  weakened  form 
it  was  produced  (January  13,  1782)  with  great 
applause,  though  its  style  was  in  part  as  rough 
and  unpolished  as  its  plot  was  \mnatural.  Schil- 
ler, who  had  gone  surreptitiously  to  Mannheim  to 
witness  it,  was  sentenced  to  two  weeks'  arrest  and 
forbidden  topublish  anything  whatever.  He  es- 
caped from  Wtlrttemberg  ( September,  1782 )  with 
a  romantic  friend,  Streicher,  and  for  eight  months 
remained  in  retirement  with  a  generous  pa- 
troness, Frau  von  Wolzogen,  at  Bauerbach.  An 
historical  drama,  Fiesco,  was  nearly  completed  at 
the  time  of  Schiller's  escape.  This  he  sold  to 
the  Mannheim  theatre  for  ten  louis,  and  began 
with  fresh  enthusiasm  a  third,  Luise  Mill^ny 
later  called  Kahale  und  Liehe,  on  local  political 
conditions,  and  a  fourth  on  Don  Carlos^  son  of 
Philip  II.  of  Spain,  in  whose  tragic  fate  Schiller's 
letters  show  that  he  had  been  for  some  years 
interested.  He  also  made  love  to  his  patroness's 
daughter,  which  induced  the  mother  to  help  him 
*to  establish  himself  at  Mannheim  (July,  1783), 
where  he  had  an  offer  of  permanent  engagement 
as  dramaturgist,  which,  however,  he  was  soon 
compelled  to  cancel  because  of  illness.  Fieako 
was  produced  in  January,  1784,  and  failed. 
It  was  a  disguised  political  manifesto,  more 
radical  and  democratic  than  the  Mannheim 
public  would  tolerate^  and  it  lacked  intrinsic 
value;  but  it  is  of  interest  as  Schiller's 
introduction  to  historical  drama,  in  which  his 
greatest  dramatic  successes  were  later  to  be 
achieved.  Kahale  und  Liebe,  which  was  en- 
thusiastically received  at  Mannheim  in  April, 
1784,  was  political  also,  but  it  was  genuinely 
national  and  became  immediately  popular,  touch- 
ing the  grander  passions  of  human  nature,  and 
being  recognized  as  the  best  German  drama  of 
oontemporaiy  life. 

Under  the  influence  of  Wieland  (q.v.),  Schiller 
now  began  to  turn  Don  Carlos  into  blank  verse. 
He  left  Mannheim  (April,  1785),  in  debt,  but 
famous,  and  passed  nearly  two  years  in  Gohlis, 
near  Leipzig,  and  in  Dresden,  in  close  association 
with  KSrner,  father  of  the  patriotic  poet,  and 
himself  a  Maecenas,  who  lent  Schiller  money. 
Here  Schiller's  morbid  spirit  yielded  to  the  ex- 
cessive hopefulness  voiced  in  his  Ode  to  Joy  {An 
die  Freude),  and  in  some  declamatory  passages 
of  Don  Carlos,  which  was  not  finished  until  May, 
1787,  for  work  on  it  had  been  interrupted  by 
historical  and  philosophic  studies,  as  well  as  by 
an  unfinished  attempt  at  prose  romance,  Der 
Oeisterseher.  A  brief  passion  for  Henriette  von 
Amim  was  not  allowed  to  interrupt  a  platonic 
affection  for  the  fascinating  and  emancipated 
Charlotte  von  Kalb,  and  this  affection  contrib- 
uted not  a  little  toward  Schiller's  choice  of 
Weimar  as  his  next  place  of  abode  (July,  1787). 

The  sensational  success  of  Don  Carlos  was 
Schiller's  sufficient  passport  to  the  German 
Athens,  whose  Duke  had  already  given  him  a 
title.  Its  genuine,  heartfelt,  and  pathetically 
preposterous  enthusiasm  for  ^humanity'  fell  in 
with  the  spirit  of  the  French  Revolution  and 
earned  its  author,  in  August,  1792,  the  honor  of 
French  citizenship.  Schiller  was  warmly  received 
in  literary  Weimar.    Herder  and  Wieland  were 


cordial;  Goethe,  however,  was  in  Italy.  Schiller 
now  turned  from  the  drama  to  history,  and  in 
1788  won  scholarly  consideration  by  the  first 
volume  of  a  study  of  the  revolt  of  the  Nether- 
lands from  Spain  {Oeschiohte  des  Abfalls  dee 
Niederlande) ,  He  completed  also  as  much  as  he 
ever  wrote  of  the  Oeisterseher,  and  published  two 
short  poems,  Die  KUnstler  and  Die  U^otter  Ortech'- 
enlands,  significant  because  they  mark  the  be- 
ginning of  the  classical  influence  that  was  soon 
to  change  the  whole  character  of  his  work.  He 
also  did  critical  work  on  Wieland's  Deutsoher 
Merkur,  studied  Euripides  and  Homer,  and  foun4 
new  joy  of  life  in  the  acquaintance  of  Char- 
lotte von  Lengenfeld  (bom  November  22,  1766), 
whom  he  afterwards  married.  With  this  inspira- 
tion he  set  to  work  to  write  himself  out  of  debt, 
in  the  course  of  which  he  exasperated  Goethe  by 
criticism  of  Egmont,  But,  tnough  their  rela- 
tions for  six  years  after  their  first  meeting  ( Sep- 
tember 7,  1788)  were  those  of  distant  courtesy, 
Goethe  procured  Schiller  an  appointment  as  ad- 
junct professor  of  history,  without  pay,  at  Jena, 
then  the  chief  university  centre  of  German  cul- 
ture. Here  his  first  lectures  were  sensationally 
successful,  but  his  financial  embarrassments  con- 
tinued, till  relieved  bv  a  salary  of  200  thalers, 
procured  through  the  friendly  offices  of  Frau  von 
Stein  (q.v.).  Soon  afterwards  he  married  (Feb- 
ruary, 1790) .  In  the  next  year  overwork  brought 
on  illness,  from  which  Schiller  never  wholly  re- 
covered, but  a  magnanimous  gift  from  Prince 
Frederick  Christian  of  Holstein-Augustenburg, 
of  1000  thalers  annually  for  three  years,  relieved 
him  from  pressing  burdens.  He  completed  a 
history  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  (1793),  and 
drew  from  the  Aesthetics  of  Kant  inspiration  for 
essays  on  that  subject  in  the  literary  journals 
Thalia  and  Die  Horen,  that  contributed  essential- 
ly to  the  development  of  taste  and  criticism  in 
Germany.  The  most  remarkable  of  these,  On  the 
Naive  and  Sentimental  in  Poetry  (1796),  was 
written  after  Schiller  had  formed  with  Goethe 
the  friendship  that  was  to  guide  and  inspire 
Schiller's  later  years. 

This  period  of  prose  composition  had  been  in- 
terrupted in  1793  by  illness.  Schiller  gave  up 
his  lectures  at  Jena  and  spent  a  year  wandering 
in  search  of  health.  He  had  now  become  men- 
tally ripe  for  intellectual  communion  with 
Goethe.  Their  meeting,  by  a  prearranged  chance, 
was  a  mutual  surprise.  Their  acquaintance  grew 
almost  immediately  to  a  friendship  of  rounded 
completeness.  Their  correspondence  extends  to 
more  than  1000  letters  and  is  a  monument  to 
literary  unselfishness.  They  were  constantly  to- 
gether, and  talked  tmreservedly  of  their  work  and 
plans.  Together  they  edited  Die  Horen,  and 
soon,  through  his  Wilhelm  Meister,  Goethe  won 
Schiller  back  to  poetry.  Die  Ideale,  Das  Ideal 
und  das  Lehen,  Der  Spaziergang  (1796),  are 
witnesses  to  this  new  spirit  and  mark  the  high- 
est reach  of  Schiller's  philosophic  muse.  Their 
common  part  in  the  literary  controversy  of 
the  day  is  marked  also  by  the  400  Xenien^  "part- 
ing gifts"  of  epigram  in  the  Musenalmanaoh 
(1796). 

And  now  Schiller  was  ready  for  the  loftiest 
flights  of  his  dramatic  genius.  For  ten  years  this 
talent  had  lain  fallow,  but  thev  were  years  of 
spsthetic  ripening.  The  realistic  spirit  of 
Goethe  inspiring  a  great  idealist  was  now  to  pro- 


SCHHiliBB. 


514 


8CHILLBB. 


dace  the  claBsic  Schiller.  But  first  came  the 
great  ballad  year  (1797).  While  arranging  ma- 
terials for  Wallen8tein,  on  which  composition 
was  not  b^^n  till  November,  Schiller  wrote  Der 
Tauoher,  Die  Kraniohe  des  Ibykus,  Der  Hand- 
gohuh,  Der  Ring  des  Polykratea,  Ritter  Toggen- 
hurg,  and  Der  Gang  nach  dem  Eisenhammer,  all 
familiar  to  every  German  schoolboy,  and  re- 
markable for  depth  and  intensity.  In  1797 
Schiller  began  also  that  most  prized  of  German 
lyrics,  Das  Lied  von  der  Glocke  (1799),  and  in 
1798  added  to  the  list  Die  BUrgschaft  and  Der 
Kampf  unit  dem  Drachen.  In  November,  1797, 
lied  by  Goethe's  counsel,  he  began  to  cast  some- 
what in  its  present  form  Wallensteins  Lager,  the 
introduction  to  the  Piccolominiy  and  Wallensieins 
Tod,  and  by  New  Year  he  told  Goethe  that  he 
had  surpassed  his  best  former  self  as  "the  fruit 
of  our  intercourse."  It  was  not,  however,  till 
September,  1798,  that  he  saw  his  way  clear  to  the 
present  trilogy,  again  during  a  visit  to  Goethe, 
and  Wallensteins  Lager,  with  the  Prolog,  was 
acted  at  Weimar,  October  12,  1798,  with 
great  enthusiasm.  Die  Piccolomitvi,  the  trilogy's 
second  part,  was  forwarded  also  by  Goethe 
at  every  turn,  and  so  effectively  that  it 
was  finished  by  Christmas  and  acted  on  Jan- 
uary 30,  1799,  td  a  public  which  seemed  awed 
by  a  loftier  spirit  uian  had  yet  crossed  the 
(jerman  stage.  Again  Schiller  visited  Goethe 
for  three  weeks  in  Weimar,  and  before  the  end  of 
March  Wallensieins  Tod  was  completed.  The 
drama  was  presented  in  its  complete  form  April 
16,  17,  and  20,  1799,  ever  memorable  days  in  the 
annals  of  Weimar  and  of  the  German  stage.  As 
an  acting  play  Wallenstevn  has  never  been  sfir- 
passed  in  Germany.  It  revealed  a  new  Schiller  to 
the  world  and  to  himself.  Wallenstein  was  a 
drama  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  of  the  inevitable 
conflict  between  the  old  order  and  the  new,  be- 
tween genius  and  duty,  between  love  and  loyalty. 
Schiller  left  Weimar  resolved  to  put  on  the  stage 
the  tragedy  of  Mary  of  Scotland.  Maria  Stuart 
was  elaborated  during  a  visit  to  Goethe,  in  May, 
1799,  and  acted  in  June,  1800.  His  work 
suffered  constant  interruption  from  ill  health, 
but  he  had  never  shown  such  mastery  of  the 
technique  of  his  craft  as  in  Maria  Stuart.  The 
versification  is  smoother  than  in  Wallenstein, 
the  arrangement  more  artistic,  the  story  more 
dramatically  unfolded,  but  the  conception  is  in- 
ferior and  the  chief  characters  lack  tragic  depth. 
It  is  the  pathos  of  Mary's  fate  more  than  its 
tragic  necessity  that  impresses  the  spectator. 
Schiller  now  occasionally  replaced  Goethe  in  the 
management  of  the  Weimar  Court  Theatre,  and 
thus  found  occasion  to  adapt  Shakespeare's  Mac- 
heth  to  its  needs.  Traces  of  this  work  are  ob- 
vious in  his  next  'romantic  tragedy,'  Die  Jung- 
frau  von  Orleans,  an  idealization  of  Joan  of  Arc, 
first  acted  in  Leipzig,  September  18,  1801.  It 
was  an  unparalleled  popular  triumph,  for  it  ac- 
corded with  the  romantic  taste.  It  is  now  less 
admired. 

In  the  autumn  of  1801  Schiller  visited  Dresden 
and  was  so  attracted  to  ideals  of  classic  art,  by 
what  he  saw  in  its  museums,  that  his  next 
drama,  Die  Braut  von  Messina,  was  severely 
classical  in  structure  and  conception.  It  was  not 
completed  until  1803.  Herein  relentless  Nemesis 
app^rs  in  awful  simplicity.  In  stateliness  and 
dignity  of  diction,  in  classic  irony,  the  drama  is 


supreme  in  Germany,  but  it  did  not  win  popular 
applause. 

Before  Die  Brant  von  Messina  had  been  acted, 
Wilhelm  Tell,  Schiller's  last  drama,  was  already 
well  advanced,  and  two  plays  had  been  adapted 
from  the  French  of  Picard  {Encore  des  MhiecK- 
mes  as  Der  Neffe  als  Onkel  and  Midiocre  et  Ram- 
pant as  Der  Parasit).  Meantime  Schiller  had 
been  ennobled.  He  was  glad  of  it  "for  Lolo's  and 
the  children's  sake."  Work  on  the  final  form  of 
Tell  was  begun  in  August,  1803,  and  the  play 
was  finished  in  February,  1804,  after  much  study 
for  effects  of  'local  color'  and  interruptions  from 
the  insatiable,  inquisitive  Madame  de  StaSl, 
whose  society,  he  told  Goethe,  was  'suffocating.' 
Her  departure  from  Weimar  made  him  feel  "as 
though  he  had  recovered  from  a  severe  illness." 

Tell  is  sharply  differentiated  from  all  that  goes 
before.  Here  success  crowns  a  sane  activity, 
fate  yields  to  will,  the  visionary  reformer  of  Die 
Rauber  and  Don  Carlos  has  become  a  practical 
realist.  This  growing  serenity  well  befits  the 
poet's  last  work  and  crowning  achievement.  The 
story  of  the  Swiss  hero  struck  a  patriotic  chord, 
for  Germany  was  then  on  the  eve  of  her  deepest 
humiliation.  No  German  drama  had  before  nor. 
has  since  produced  so  deep  or  enduring  an  im- 
pression. Schiller  was  invited  to  Berlin  and 
royally  welcomed.  Prostrated  by  illness  on  his 
return,  he  did  little  during  some  months  of  suf- 
fering but  sketch  out  Demetrius,  a  drama  taken 
from  Russian  history,  showing  that  his  power  of 
tragic  conception  and  dramatic  execution  was  at 
its  highest  at  his  untimely  death  in  Weimar, 
May  9,  1805. 

BiBUOGRAPHT.  Schiller's  complete  works  hare 
been  best  edited  by  Goedeke  (Stuttgart,  1867-76), 
and  by  Boxberger  and  Birlinger  in  Kiirschner's 
Deutsche  NationaUlitteratur  (Berlin,  1882-91). 
Useful  also  is  the  Hempel  edition  by  Boxbei^r 
and  Von  Maltzaha  (Berlin,  1868-74) ;  the  poems 
are  edited  by  Vichoff  (6th  ed.,  Stuttgart,  1887). 
An  English  translation  appeared  in  Bohn's  Li- 
brary (London,  1846-49).  Consult  the  biog- 
raphies by  Karoline  von  Wolzogen  (Stuttgart 
and  Tttbingen,  1830),  Viehoff  (Stuttgart,  1875), 
Dfintzer  (Leipzig,  1881;  Eng.  trans.,  London, 
1883),  Brahm  (Berlin,  1888),  Minor  (Berlin, 
1890)  ;  and  those  in  English  by  Carlyle  (London, 
1825),  Bulwer-Lytton  (ib.,  1844),  Sime  in 
Foreign  Classics  (Edinburgh,  1882),  Nevinson 
in  Oreat  Writers  Series  (ib.,  1889),  Thomas 
(London,  1902).  Consult  also  Schiller's  corre- 
spondence with  Goethe  (Stuttgart,  1881),  Hum- 
boldt (ib.,  1876),  his  wife,  Charlotte  von  Schil- 
ler, and  her  sister  (ib.,  1879),  KSrner  (new 
ed.,  ib.,  1895-96).  For  critical  studies,  see  Kuno 
Fischer,  Schiller,  Drei  Vorlesungen  (Frankfort, 
1858-61 )  ;  id.,  Friedrioh  Schiller:  Akademiscke 
Festrede  (Leipzig,  1860)  ;  the  curious  collection 
of  contemporary  criticisms  in  Braun,  Schiller  und 
Goethe,  Urtheile  ihrer  Zeitgenossen  (Berlin, 
1882)  ;  and  the  following  monographs:  Belling, 
Die  Metrik  Schillers  (Breslau,  1883)  ;  Ueberweg, 
Schiller  als  Historiker  und  PhUosoph  (Leipzig, 
1884);  Fielitz,  Studien  isu  Schiller's  Drame% 
(ib.,  1886)  ;  Koster,  Schiller  als  Dramaturg  (ib., 
1890)  ;  Bellerman,  Schiller's  Dramen  (2d  ed., 
Berlin,  1897-98)  ;  Bulthaupt,  Dramaturgie  (9th 
ed.,  Oldenburg,  1902).  Translations  of  Schiller's 
lyrics  by  Merivale  (London,  1844),  Bowring 
(ib.,  1851),  and  Lytton  (ib.,  1887)  are  note- 
worthy, as  is  Coleridge's  condensed  version  of 


SCHHiliBB. 


515 


8CHIS1C. 


Wdllenstem.  Documents  and  other  memorials 
of  Schiller  are  in  the  Schiller  Archiv,  united  in 
1889  with  the  Goethe  Archiv  in  Weimar.  The 
BchiUer-Stiftung  is  a  fund  raised  to  commemorate 
the  centenary  of  the  poet's  birth,  its  income  be- 
ing devoted  to  the  aid  of  needy  men  of  letters. 

SCHH/LIKO,  Johannes  (1828—).  A  Ger- 
man sculptor,  bom  at  Mittweida,  Saxony.  He 
studied  chiefly  under  Rietschel  at  Dresden,  and 
Drake  at  Berlin.  After  winning  a  prize  at  Dres- 
den, which  enabled  him  to  study  for  three  years 
at  Rome,  he  returned  to  that  city  in  1856,  and 
became  professor  in  the  Academy  in  1868.  His 
first  works  to  attract  attention  were  the  four  ad- 
mirable groups  of  "Morning,"  "Noon,"  •'Even- 
ing," and  "Night,"  on  the  Brtthl  Terrace  in  Dres- 
den; of  importance  are  also  the  monument 
to  Schiller  at  Vienna;  the  colossal  group  of 
"Dionysos  and  Ariadne"  in  a  chariot  drawn  by 
mmthers,  on  the  facade  of  the  Royal  Theatre  at 
Dresden;  and  the  monument  to  Emperor  Wil- 
liam I.  at  Wiesbaden  (1894).  His  masterpiece  is 
the  celebrated  national  monument  in  the  Nieder- 
wald  (unveiled  in  1883),  in  which  the  colossal 
figure  of  Germania  is  especially  remarkable.  His 
works  represent  the  transition  from  the  classical 
to  the  romantic  style,  and  are  characterized  by 
a  high  sense  of  the  beautiful  and  by  careful  exe- 
cution. (Donsult  Pecht,  Deutsche  Kunailer,  iv. 
(N5rdlingen,  1885). 

SCHUK^EB,  Eabl  (1803-67).  A  German 
botanist,  the  pioneer  of  modem  botanical  mor- 
phology. He  was  bom  in  Mannheim  and  was 
educated  for  the  Church,  but  in  1826  began  the 
study  of  botany  at  Munich.  There  he  was  docent 
for  many  years,  spending  much  of  his  time  in 
geological  expeditions  in  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees, 
in  1849  he  received  a  pension  from  the  Grand 
Duke  of  Baden  and  removed  to  Schwetzingen. 
Schimper's  Beachreihung  dea  Symphytum  Zeyheri 
(1835)  expressed  the  theory  of  phyllotaxis, 
which  he  had  formulated  several  years  before, 
and  which  is  his  chief  claim  to  fame.  Consult 
Volger,  Lehen  und  Leistungen  dea  Naturforachera 
Karl  Schimper  (Frankfort,  1889). 

SCHIMPEB,  WiLHELM  Phiufp  (1808-80). 
A  German  geologist  and  botanist,  best  known  for 
his  valuable  studies  of  the  mosses.  He  was  bom 
in  Strassburg,  studied  there,  and  in  1835  became 
assistant  in  the  University  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  of  which  he  was  made  director  in  1839. 
He  taught  mineralogy  and  botany  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Strassburg  and  wrote  Bryologia  Euro- 
paa  (with  Bruch  and  GUmbel,  1836-55;  supple- 
ment, 1864-66),  Iconea  Morphologiccd  (1860), 
PaUjBontologica  Alaatioa  (1854),  and  Traits  de 
paUontologie  v^gMale  (1869-74).  Consult  Grade, 
Quillaume   Philippe  Schimper    (Colmar,   1882). 

BOHIHKEL,  shIokM,  Kabl  Fbiedbioh  (1781- 
1841).  An  eminent  German  architect.  He  was 
bom  at  Neuruppin,  Brandenburg,  March  13, 1781, 
and  studied  the  principles  of  drawing  and  design 
at  Berlin  under  David  and  Friejirich  Gilly.  In 
1803  he  went  to  Italy  to  extend  his  professional 
knowledge;  but  on  his  return  in  1805  he  found 
the  aspect  of  public  affairs  so  threatening  that  he 
could  obtain  little  employment,  and  was  forced 
to  take  up  landscape  painting.  In  May,  1811, 
he  was  elected  a  member  of,  and  in  1820  becnme 
professor  at,  the  Berlin  Academy  of  Fine  Arts. 
Other  offices  and  honors  were  also  conferred  on 
him.     He  died  at  Berlin  October  9,  1841.    His 


principal  structure  was  the  Old  Museum  (1825- 
30),  an  admirable  edifice  in  Greek  style;  other 
designs  to  which  he  chiefly  owes  his  reputation 
are  those  of  the  Royal  Guard-house  (1816-18), 
the  Royal  Theatre  (1819-21),  the  memorial  of 
the  war  of  the  liberation  (1821),  the  palace 
bridge  (1822-24),  the  new  Potsdam  gate,  the 
artillery  and  engineers*  school,  in  Berlin;  the 
casino  and  the  Church  of  Saint  Nicholas  in  Pots- 
dam; and  a  great  number  of  castles,  country 
houses,  churches,  and  public  buildings.  Schinkel 
was  a  man  of  powerful  and  original  genius;  his 
designs  are  remarkable  for  the  unity  of  idea  by 
which  they  are  pervaded,  and  the  vigor,  beauty, 
and  harmony  of  their  details.  His  tendencies, 
were  classical  and  he  succeeded  admirably  in 
adapting  Grecian  forms  to  the  need  of  modem 
buildings.  Consult:  Aua  Schinkela  Naohlaaa, 
edited  by  Wolzogen  (Berlin,  1862-64) ;  and  the 
biographies  by  Kugler  (ib.,  1842),  BStticher  (ib., 
1857),  Quast  (Neuruppin,  1866), Herman  Grimm, 
Woltmann,  Dohme  (Leipzig,  1882),  Pecht  (N6rd- 
lingen,  1885),  and  Ziller  (ib.,  1897). 

SGHIO,  sW6.  A  town  in  the  Province  of 
Vicenza,  Italy,  20  miles  by  rail  northwest  of 
Vicenza  (Map:  Italy,  F  2).  It  has  an  eight- 
eenth-century cathedral  and  noted  wool  fac- 
tories. There  are  also  marble  quarries,  and  silk, 
clay,  and  dye  works.  Population  (commune), 
in  1901,  13,494. 

SCHIPPEB^  shlp^Sr,  Jakob  (1842-).  A 
German  philologist  and  English  scholar,  bom  in 
Oldenburg.  He  studied  modern  languages  in 
Bonn,  Paris,  Rome,  and  Oxford,  collaborated  on 
the  revision  of  Bosworth's  Anglo-Saxon  Diction- 
ary, and  was  professor  of  English  philology  at 
K5nigsberg  from  1872  until  1877,  when  he  re- 
ceived a  like  chair  in  Vienna.  There  he  was 
elected  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1887,  and 
acted  as  editor  of  the  Wiener  Beitrage  zur  eng- 
liachen  Philologie  (1895-1900).  He  published 
Engliache  Metrik  (1881-88),  an  important  work, 
supplemented  by  a  Orundriaa  der  engliachen 
Metrik  (1895);  Zur  Kritik  der  Shakeapeare- 
Bacon-Frage  (1889),  and  Der  Bacon-Bacillua 
( 1896),  and  editions  of  the  Alexis  legends  (1877- 
87),  of  Dunbar's  poems  (1892-94),  and  of  Al- 
fred's version  of  Bede's  ecclesiastical  history 
(1897-99). 

SCHIBMEB^  sh^r^mSr,  Johanit  Wilhixic 
(1807-63).  A  German  landscape  painter  and 
etcher,  bom  at  Jttlieh.  He  studied  under  Scha- 
dow  at  Dilsseldorf,  and  in  1853  was  appointed 
director  of  the  art  school  at  Karlsruhe.  He  be- 
came known  as  one  of  the  flrst  of  the  so-called 
Dfisseldorf  landscape  school.  His  romantic, 
classic,  and  biblical  subjects  include  *The  Grotto 
of  Egeria"  (1842),  in  the  Leipzig  Museum; 
"Twelve  Scenes  from  the  History  of  Abraham" 
(1869-62),  and  "An  Italian  Park,"  in  the  Na- 
tional Gallery  at  Berlin;  four  scenes  of  the 
"GJood  Samaritan"  (1857),  and  "Storm  in  the 
Campagna,"  at  Karlsruhe,  and  pictures  in  many 
other  galleries  in  European  cities. 

SCHISM,  Western  or  Gbeat.  A  celebrated 
disruption  of  communion  in  the  Catholic  Church, 
which  arose  out  of  a  disputed  claim  to  the  suc- 
cession to  the  Papal  throne.  On  the  death  of 
Gregory  XI.,  in  1378,  a  Neapolitan,  Bartolomeo 
Prignano,  was  chosen  Pope  by  the  majority  of 
the  cardinals  in  a  conclave  at  Rome  under  the 
name  of  Urban  VI.    Soon  afterwards,  however,  a 


SCHI81C 


516 


SCHLAOIN  T  WEIT. 


number  of  these  cardinals  withdrew,  revoked  the 
election,  which  they  declared  not  to  have  been 
free,  owing  to  the  violence  of  the  factions  in 
Rome  by  which  the  conclave  had,  according  to 
them,  been  overawed;  and,  in  consequence,  they 
proceeded  to  choose  another  pope  imder  the  name 
of  Clement  VII.  The  latter  fixed  his  seat  at  Avi- 
gnon, while  Urban  VI.  lived  at  Rome.  Each 
party  had  its  adherents,  and  in  each  a  rival  suc- 
cession was  maintained  down  to  the  Council  of 
Pisa  in  1409,  in  which  assembly  both  popes,  the 
Roman  Pope  Gregory  XII.  and  the  Avignon  Pope 
Benedict  XIII.  (Pedro  de  Luna),  were  deposed, 
and  a  third,  Alexander  V.,  was  elected.  He  died 
a  few  months  later,  and  was  succeeded  by  John 
XXIII.  A  new  council  was  convoked  at  Con- 
stance in  1414,  by  which  not  alone  the  former 
rivals,  but  even  the  new  pontiff  elected,  by  con- 
sent of  the  two  parties,  at  Pisa,  were  set  aside, 
and  Otto  Colonna  was  elected  under  the  name  of 
Martin  V.  In  this  election  (1417)  the  whole 
body  may  be  said  to  have  acquiesced;  but  one 
of  the  claimants,  Benedict  XIII.,  remained  ob- 
stinate in  the  assertion  of  his  right  till  his  death 
in  1424.  The  schism,  however,  may  be  said  to 
have  terminated  in  1417,  having  thus  endured 
nearly  forty  years.  Consult,  especially,  Gayet, 
Le  grand  schiame  d'occideni,  d*apri8  les  docu- 
ments contemporaina  (Paris,  1899  et  seq.),  and 
the  authorities  referred  to  under  Papacy. 

SCHIST.    See  Cbtstaixine  Schist. 

SCHISTOSITT,  or  Foliation.  A  structure 
exhibited  by  many  metamorphosed  rocks,  which 
is  characterized  by  a  parallel  arrangement  of  the 
minerals  and  a  tendency  to  split  or  cleave  into 
plates.  It  is  produced  by  a  recrystallization  of 
the  constituents  of  a  rock  under  the  influence  of 
metamorphic  processes,  such  as  heat  and  great 
pressure.  Among  the  crystalline  schists  this 
structure  is  very  prominent,  such  types  as 
chlorite  schist,  talc  schist,  and  aetinolite  schist 
cleaving  almost  as  readily  as  slate. 

SCHIZOOAHY,  skl-zOg'a-ml  (from  6k. 
^xii'ftPf  achieein,  to  split  +  yd/juoty  gamoa,  mar- 
riage). That  method  of  reproduction  in  which  a 
sexual  worm  is  produced  (1)  by  fission  or  self- 
division,  when  it  is  said  to  be  'fissiparous,*  or  (2) 
by  budding  or  gemmation,  from  a  sexless  worm, 
such  as  occurs  in  Syllis,  etc.,  when  it  is  said  to  be 
'gemmiparous.'  Thus  schizogamy  is  a  form  of 
parthenogenesis   (q.v.). 

SCHIZOGONTy  skl-zdg^o-nl  (from  Gk.  <rx^^£F, 
achizein,  to  split  +  -  yopta^  'gonia^  generation, 
from  y6wos,  gonoa,  seed).  A  kind  of  asexual 
generation,  or  self-fission,  observed  in  many 
ophiuroids  (q.v.)  or  brittle-stars,  especially  in 
the  young,  and  also  in  starfishes,  as  species  of 
Aster ias,  etc.  In  such  cases  the  animal  volun- 
tarily divides  through  the  disk  in  the  shortest 
direction,  i.e.  from  the  mouth  (oral)  side  to  the 
upper  (aboral)  side,  each  separate  half  regenerat- 
ing the  missing  parts  as  well  as  the  additional 
arms.  The  division  is  brought  about  in  most 
cases,  and  perhaps  all,  says  Morgan,  by  the  con- 
traction of  the  muscles,  and  their  arrangement  in 
connection  with  the  form  of  the  body  is  the  real 
cause  of  the  act.    Compare  Regeneration. 

SCHIZOMTCETES,  skTz'6-mt-se^t$z  (Neo- 
Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Gk.  ffxll^^p,  aehizein,  to  split 
+  fiOini9,  mykea,  mushroom ) ,  Bacteria,  Fission 
FuNoi.     One  of  the  six  great  groups  of  fungi. 


closely  related  to  the  blue-green  algie  (Gjfanch 
phycew,  q.v.).  They  are  minute  one-celled 
plants,  the  smallest  known  organisms.  They  re- 
produce by  fission  (q.v.),  and  also  pass  into  a 
resting  condition  (the  so-called  spore),  in  which, 
by  secreting  a  protective  wall,  some  can  with- 
stand a  temperature  above  the  boiling  point  of 
water.    Some  bacteria  develop  slime  by  the  swell* 


■s'ft^ 


TABIODB  FORMS  OP  BACTKBIA. 

ing  of  the  outer  portions  of  the  cell  wall,  so 
that  the  cells  lie  in  a  mass  of  mucilage.  Many 
are  free-swimming  ciliated  organisms^  darting 
and  twisting  rapidly  through  the  water.  Al- 
though most  species  are  unicellular,  several  of 
the  higher  groups  are  filamentous,  in  this  re- 
sembling the  higher  blue-green  algse.  Many  are 
held  to  be  responsible  for  certain  diseases  of 
man,  animals,  and  plants,  among  which  are 
diphtheria,  bubonic  plague,  and  pear  blight; 
others  (zymogenic  bacteria)  to  produce  chemi- 
cal changes  associated  with  decomposition  and 
some  forms  of  fermentation  (qq.v.)  ;  others 
(chromogenic  and  photogenic)  produce  conspicu- 
ous pigments  or  emit  light. 

SCHIZOP'OBA.  See  Crustacea;  Opossum- 
Shrimp. 

SCHLAGINTWEIT,  shlft^gTnt-vIt.  The  name 
of  three  explorers,  sons  of  the  Bavarian  oculist 
Joseph  Schlagintweit  (1792-1854).  Hermann 
VON  Schlagintweit  (1826-82),  Adolf  (1829- 
57),  and  Robert  (1833-85),  traveled  widely 
in  Europe  and  Asia,  and  in  1859  were  raised 
to  the  nobility  by  the  King  of  Bavaria.  They 
first  attracted  attention  by  their  writings  on  the 
geography  of  the  Alps,  entitled  Unterawfhungen 
iiher  die  phyaikaliache  Oeographie  der  Alpen 
(1850)  and  Neue  Unterauchungen  (1854),  which 
included  an  atlas  and  a  dissertation  on  the  phys- 
ical geography  of  the  Kaisergebirge.  In  1851 
Hermann  became  privat-docent  in  meteorology 
and  physics  at  the  University  of  Berlin,  and  two 
years  later  Adolf  began  to  lecture  on  geology 
at  Munich.  In  the  spring  of  the  latter  year  the 
three  brothers  received  commissions  from  the 
King  of  Prussia  and  from  the  British  East  India 
Company  to  study  the  meteorology  and  geology 
of  the  Himalaya  Mountains.  They  reached  Bom- 
bay in  October,  1854,  and  proceeded  thence  by 
different  routes  over  the  Deccan  to  Madras. 
During  the  next  spring  and  summer  Adolf  and 
Robert  explored  the  Northwest  Provinces,  trav- 
ersed the  passes  of  the  main  chain  of  the  Hima- 
layas, and,  after  passing  the  Ibi  Gamin  (which 
they  ascended  to  the  height  of  6788  meters,  the 


8CHULOINTWEIT. 


517 


BGHLBOEIi. 


greatest  altitude  then  attained  by  scientists), 
entered  Tibet.  In  1856  they  went  to  ISimla, 
where  they  were  joined  by  Hermann,  who  had 
been  in  Sikkim  and  Assam.  From  Simla  they 
again  crossed  the  Western  Himalayas  into  Tibet; 
and  then,  while  Hermann  and  Kobert  went  to 
Leh  in  Ladakh  and  crossed  the  Karakorum  and 
the  Kuen-lim,  Adolf  explored  Western  Tibet  and 
the  country  about  the  Upper  Indus.  Later  in 
the  year  Robert  crossed  the  country  drained  by 
the  Indus.  Afterwards  Hermann  and  Robert 
settled  in  Berlin,  where  they  opened  a  museum 
and  spent  much  of  the  remainder  of  their  lives 
studying  and  classifying  their  collections.  Adolf 
went  once  more  to  Leh  and  again  crossed  the 
Karakorum  and  the  Kuen-lun.  In  August, 
1857,  while  traveling  in  Chinese  Turkestan,  he 
was  arrested,  taken  to  Kashgar,  the  capital, 
and  there  beheaded.  Hermann  and  Robert  pub- 
lished a  report  of  their  explorations  under 
the  title.  Results  of  a  Scientific  Mission  to 
India  and  High  Asia  (with  atlas,  1860-66),  the 
substance  of  which  Hermann  subsequently  trans- 
lated into  German  as  Reisen  in  Indien  und 
Hochasien  (1869-80).  Robert  later  traveled  ex- 
tensively in  the  United  States  and  recorded  his 
impressions  in  several  works,  including:  Kali- 
fomien  (1871);  Die  Mormonen  (2d  ed.  1873); 
and  Dte  Pt^rien  (1876).  Another  brother,  EiaL 
(1835—),  is  known  for  his  studies  of  the  lan- 
guage and  history  of  Tibet. 

SCHLAH,  shlfin.  A  town  of  Bohemia,  Aus- 
tria, 44  miles  by  rail  northwest  of  Prague 
(Map:  Austriai  D  1).  It  has  a  Franciscan  mon- 
astery, agricultural,  art,  and  industrial  schools, 
and  several  hospitals.  There  are  extensive  coal 
fields  and  important  manufactures  of  iron,  ma- 
chinery, chemicals,  and  cotton.  Population,  in 
1900,  9494. 

SCHIiANGENBADE,  shlftng^en-ba'de.  A 
well-known  watering  place  5  miles  northwest  of 
Wiesbaden,  Germany.  It  is  delightfully  situated 
in  a  forested  vale,  and  is  mostly  frequented  by 
women.  The  waters  are  alkaline.  The  old  Kur- 
haus  dates  from  1694.    Population,  in  1900,  374. 

SCHIiATTEB,.  shlftt^gr,  Adolf  (1852—).  A 
German  theologian,  bom  in  St.  Gallen,  Switzer- 
land. He  became  professor  in  Bern  in  1888,  in 
Berlin,  in  1893,  and  in  Tubingen  in  1897.  He 
wrote  Der  Olauhe  im  Neuen  Testament  (1885; 
2d  ed.  1896) ;  commentaries  on  Romans  (3d 
ed.  1895),  on  Hebrews  (3d  ed.  1898),  on  James 
and  the  Johannine  Epistles  (2d  ed.  1900),  on 
Matthew  (2d  ed.  1900);  on  John  (1899),  and 
on  Mark  and  Luke  ( 1900)  ;  Zur  Topographie  und 
Qeschichte  Paldstinas  (1893);  and  Israels  Qe- 
schichte  von  Alexander  des  Orossen  his  Hadrian 
(1901).  With  Cremer  he  edited  Beitrdgen  zur 
FGrderung  Christlicher  Theologie  (1897  et  seq.). 

8CHLATTEB,  Francis  (1856—?).  A  cob- 
bler who,  because  of  miraculous  cures  attributed 
to  him,  became  known  as  The  Healer.'  He  was 
bom  of  German  peasants  in  the  village  of  Elser, 
in  Alsace-Lorraine.  In  1884  he  emigrated  to  the 
United  States,  where  he  worked  at  his  trade  in 
various  cities  until  1892,  when  he  thought  that  a 
voice  bade  him  sell  his  business,  give  the  money 
to  the  poor,  and  devote  his  life  to  healing  the 
sick.  He  was  then  in  Denver,  Col.,  but  soon  after 
entering  upon  his  mission  left  that  city,  and,  trav- 
eling on  foot,  visited  Kansas  Gity,  Hot  Springs, 
Arkansas,  £1  Paso,  San  Diego,  San  Francisco,  and 


Albuquerque.  At  the  latter  place  in  July,  1895| 
he  suddenly  became  famous.  Crowds  gathered 
about  him  daily,  hoping  to  be  cured  of  their  dis* 
eases  by  simply  clasping  his  hands.  The  follow- 
ing month  he  returned  to  Denver,  but  did  not  re- 
sume his  healings  until  September.  Meantime,  a 
great  multitude  had  gathered  there  to  receive 
treatment  from  him.  Schlatter  is  said  to  have 
refused  all  reward  for  his  services,  and  when 
money  was  given  to  him  in  such  a  way  that  it 
could  not  be  returned  it  was  asserted  that  he  dis- 
tributed it  among  the  poor.  His  manner  of  living 
was  of  the  simplest,  and  he  taught  no  new  doc- 
trine. He  said  only  that  he  obeyed  a  power 
which  he  called  'Father*  and  from  this  power  he 
claimed  to  receive  his  healing  virtue.  On  Novem- 
ber 13  he  disappeared,  leaving  behind  him  a  brief 
note,  in  which  he  declared  that  his  mission  was 
ended. 

8CHLATTEB,  Michael  (1716-90).  A  Ger- 
man Reformed  minister.  He  was  bom  at  Saint 
Gall,  and  was  educated  there  and  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Helmstedt.  He  entered  the  ministry, 
and  in  1746  was  sent  by  the  synods  of  Hol- 
land to  the  German  Reformed  emigrants  in  Penn- 
sylvania. He  was  pastor  of  the  German  Re- 
formed churches  in  Philadelphia  and  German- 
town,  1746-51,  and  organized  churches  in  Penn- 
sylvania, New  Jersey,  Maryland,  and  Virginia. 
He  assisted  in  organizing  the  Synod  of  the  Ger- 
man Reformed  Church  in  1747,  but  in  1765  gave 
up  pastoral  work,  so  as  to  devote  himself  to  the 
organization  of  schools  among  the  Germans,  in 
which  English  should  be  taught.  In  1757  he 
was  chaplain  of  an  expedition  to  Nova  Scotia 
against  the  French,  returned  in  1759,  and 
preached  at  Chestnut  Hill,  now  part  of  Philadel- 
phia, and  elsewhere.  He  was  still  a  royal  chap- 
lain when  the  .Revolutionary  War  broke  out,  but, 
espousing  the  cause  of  the  colonies,  he  was  im- 
prisoned in  1777,  when  the  British  took  Philadel- 
phia. 0)nsult  his  Life  by  H.  Harbaugh  (Phila- 
delphia, 1857). 

SCHLECHTA^  shl€K^t&,  Ottokab  Mabia  von 
(1825-94).  An  Austrian  Orientalist.  He  was  bom 
in  Vienna,  studied  there,  was  dragoman  in  Con- 
stantinople from  1848  to  1860,  and  from  1870  to 
1874  was  Consul-General  at  Bucharest,  where  he 
represented  the  Danube  Commission,  and  whence 
he  was  transferred  to  Teheran  to  act  as  Plenipo- 
tentiary there.  The  Schlechta  collection  of  Ori- 
ental manuscripts  is  now  in  the  Vienna  Imperial 
Library.  He  wrote  Die  osmanischen  Qeschicht- 
schreiher  der  neuem  Zeit  (1856),  Der  Katnpf 
zwischen  Persien  und  Russland  in  Transkaukasien 
(1864),  Manuel  terminologique  frangais-ottoman 
(1870),  and  valuable  translations  from  the  Per- 
sian. 

SCHLEOEL,  shlft'gcl,  August  Wilhelm  von 
(1767-1845).  A  distinguished  German  critic, 
poet,  and  Orientalist.  He  was  bom  at  Hanover, 
September  8,  1767,  and  studied  at  G5ttingen. 
He  first  began  to  win  prominence  in  literature, 
while  a  lecturer  at  Jena,  by  his  contributions  to 
Schiller's  Horen  and  Musenalmanachf  and  to  the 
Allgemeine  Litteraturzeitung,  About  the  same 
time  his  translation  of  Shakespeare  began  to  ap- 
pear (1797-1810),  the  influence  of  which  on  Ger- 
man poetry  and  on  the  German  stage  was  alike 
great.  The  poet  Tieck  undertook  a  revision  of 
the  work,  together  with  a  translation  of  such 
plays  as  Schlegel  had  omitted  (1825,  1839,  1843). 


SCHLEOEL. 


518 


The  Schlegel-Tieck  translation  is  universally  con- 
sidered better  than  any  other  rendering  of  Shake- 
speare in  a  foreign  language.  Thanks  to  Schlegel 
and  Tieck,  Shakespeare  has  become  a  national 
poet  of  Germany.  Schlegel  also  delivered  at  Jena 
a  series  of  lectures  on  esthetics,  and,  with  his 
brother  Friedrich  (q.v.),  edited  the  Athenaum 
(1798-1800),  a  severely  critical  authority  of  high 
rank.  He  published,  besides  his  first  volume  of 
poems,  Oedichte  (1800),  and,  in  company  with 
his  brother,  the  Charakteristiken  und  Kritiken 
(1801).  In  1801  Schlegel  left  Jena  for  Berlin, 
where  he  gave  a  series  of  lectures  on  literature, 
art,  and  the  spirit  of  the  time.  In  1803  appeared 
his  Ion,  an  antique  tragedy  of  considerable  merit. 
It  was  followed  by  his  Spanisohes  Theater  ( 1803- 
09),  consisting  of  five  pieces  of  Calderon's,  ad- 
mirably translated,  the  effect  of  which  has  been 
to  make  that  poet  a  favorite  with  the  German 
people,  and  his  Blumenstriiuase  der  italienischen, 
spanischen  und  portugieaiachen  Poeaie  (Berlin, 
1804),  a  charming  collection  of  southern  lyrics, 
from  the  appearance  of  which  dates  the  naturali- 
zation in  (merman  verse  of  the  metrical  forms  of 
the  Romanic  races.  In  1804,  having  become 
estranged  from  his  wife,  a  daughter  of  Professor 
Michaelis  of  GOttingen,  Schlegel  entered  the 
household  of  Madame  de  StaSl  as  a  tutor  of  her 
children.  He  traveled  much,  visiting  Italy, 
France,  Austria,  and  Sweden.  He  wrote  in 
French  a  Comparaison  de  la  Ph^dre  d'Euripide 
avec  oelle  de  Raoine  (1807).  Probably  his  most 
valuable,  and  certainly  his  most  widely  popular 
work,  was  the  Vorlesungen  "uber  dramaiische 
Kunai  und  Litteraiur  (1809-11),  originally  de- 
livered at  Vienna,  in  the  spring  of  1808,  and 
translated  into  most  European  languages. 

Between  1811  and  1816  Schlegel  published  a 
new  collection  of  his  poems  {Poetische  Werke), 
which  contains  his  masterpieces,  ''Arion,"  "Pyg- 
malion," "Sankt  Lucas,"  and  is  notable  for  the 
richness  and  variety  of  its  poetic  forms.  In  1818 
Schlegel,  now  raised  to  the  nobility,  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  history  in  the  University  of 
Bonn,  and  devoted  himself  especially  to  the  his- 
tory of  the  fine  arts  and  to  philological  research. 
He  was  one  of  the  first  students  of  Sanskrit  in 
Germany,  and  published  at  Bonn  an  Indische 
Bihliothek  (1820-26).  About  1817  Schlegel  mar- 
ried a  daughter  of  Professor  Paulus  of  Heidel- 
berg, but  they  parted  in  1821.  Schlegel  was  quar- 
relsome, jealous,  and  ungenerous  in  his  relations 
with  literary  men,  and  did  not  even  shrink  from 
slander  when  his  spleen  was  excited.  He  died 
in  Bonn,  May  12,  1845.  Consult:  Pichtos,  Die 
Aeathetik  A,  W.  von  Bchlegels  in  ihrer  geschicht' 
lichen  Entuncklung  (Berlin,  1894)  ;  and  Bemays, 
Zur  Entstehungageschichte  dee  Schlegelschen 
Shqkapeare  (Leipzig,  1872). 

SCHLEGEL,  Fbiedrich  von  (1772-1829).  A 
Grerman  literary  historian,  critic,  and  writer  on 
aesthetics,  brother  of  August  Wilhelm  von 
Schlegel,  born  at  Hanover.  He  studied  philosophy 
at  Gottingen  and  Leipzig,  and  in  1797  published 
his  first  work.  Die  Oriechen  und  Riimer,  which 
was  followed  in  1798  by  his  Geschichte  der  Poesie 
der  Oriechen  und  Romer.  The  chief  vehicle  at 
this  time  for  the  dissemination  of  his  philosophi- 
cal views  of  literature  was  the  Atheniium,  an 
organ  of  the  romantic  school,  edited  by  himself 
and  his  brother.  In  Lucinde,  an  unfinisned  novel 
(1799),  he  cynically  reveals  his  relations  with 


Dorothea  Veit,  who  had  left  her  husband,  a 
Berlin  banker,  in  1798  and  ultimately  married 
Schlegel  in  Paris  (1804).  Proceeding  to  Jena, 
he  began  there  as  a  privat-dooent,  delivering 
lectures  on  philosophy,  which  met  with  amall 
favor,  and  still  editing  the  AiKenaum,  to 
which  he  also  began  to  contribute  poems  of 
his  own«  In  1802  appeared  his  Aktrooa,  a  trag- 
edy, .in  which  the  classical  and  romantic  ele- 
ments are  queerly  blended.  From  Jena  he  soon 
went  to  Paris,  where  he  gave  philosophical  lec- 
tures, edited  the  Europa,  a  monthly  journal 
(1803),  and  applied  himself  to  the  languages  of 
Southern  Europe,  and  to  Sanskrit,  the  fruits 
of  which  were  seen  in  his  treatise  Ueher  die 
Sprache  und  Weisheit  der  Indier  (1808).  Dur- 
ing his  residence  in  Paris  he  also  published  a 
Sammlung  romaniiacher  Dichtungen  dea  Mittel- 
altera  (1804). 

He  returned  to  Germany  in  1804  and  settled  at 
Cologne.  There,  in  1808,  he  and  his  wife  joined 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  a  change  which 
powerfully  affected  his  future  literaiy  career.  In 
the  same  year  Schlegel  went  to  Vienna,  where  he 
was  employed  by  the  Archduke  Charles  as  a  sec- 
retary, and  wrote  fervent  proclamations  against 
Napoleon.  In  1811  appeared  the  lectures  he  had 
delivered  at  Vienna,  under  the  title,  Ueher  die 
neuere  Oeachichte,  and  in  1815  his  Oeachichte  der 
alten  und  neuen  lAtteratur,  In  1819  he  made  a 
trip  to  Italy.  In  1822  a  collected  edition  of  his 
writings,  in  12  volumes,  was  published  by  himself. 
Subsequently  he  delivered  at  Vienna  and  Dresdoi 
lectures  on  the  "Philosophy  of  Life"  [Philoaophie 
dea  Lebena,  1828) ,  on  the  "Philosophy  of  Histoty" 
{Philoaophie  der  Oeachichte,  1829),  and  on  tiie 
"Philosophy  of  Language"  {Philoaophie  der 
SprachCy  1830).  He  died  in  Dresden.  His  manu- 
scripts were  published  by  Windischmann  (Bonn, 
1836-37).  Consult  Friedrich  Schlegel,  Brief e  an 
aeinen  Bruder,  edited  by  Walzel  (Berlin,  1890). 

SCHLEICH^  shllK,  Eduard  (1812-74).  A 
German  painter,  bom  at  Harbach,  near  Landshut, 
Bavaria.  In  all  his  pictures  the  play  of  sunlight, 
the  clouds,  the  haze  over  the  sun,  and  sky  effects 
are  particularly  fine.  His  landscapes  are  to  be 
found  in  all  the  principal  salleries  of  Germany. 
Consult  Pecht,  Deutache  KUnatler,  iv.  (N5ra- 
lingen,  1885). 

SCHLEICHEB,  shllK^Sr,  August  (1821-G8). 
A  German  philologist,  bom  at  Meiningen.  He  was 
educated  at  Leipzig,  Tfibingen,  and  Bonn.  In 
1850  he  was  appointed  professor  extraordinary  of 
classical  philology  at  Prague,  becoming  full  pro- 
fessor of  German,  comparative  philology,  and 
Sanskrit  three  years  later.  Here  he  began  the 
study  of  Lithuanian  and  the  Slavic  languages. 
In  1857  he  was  called  to  Jena  as  professor 
of  the  science  of  language  and  (Sermanic  phi- 
lology, and  remained  there  until  his  death. 
Schleicher's  importance  in  the  history  of  com- 
parative philology  is  due  to  the  fact  that  he  sums 
up  in  his  Kompetidium  der  vergleichenden  Gram- 
matik  der  indogermaniachen  Sprachen  { 1862 ;  4th 
ed.  1876)  the  results  achieved  by  the  science  up 
to  that  date.  His  Handhuoh  der  litauiachen 
Sprache  (1856-57)  and  his  Litauiache  M^rchen, 
Sprichworte,  Riitael  und  Lieder  { 1857 )  are  still 
of  value,  while  his  Deutache  Sprache  (1860;  6th 
ed.  1888)  is  a  book  of  more  popular  interest 
Among  his  other  works  the  most  important  are: 


SOHIiBICHBS. 


519 


ptmri^niMf  a  emrtii. 


Zur  i>ergleichenden  Bprachgeachiohte  (1848) ;  Die 
Spraehen  Europaa  (1850);  Die  Danoinische 
Tkeorie  und  die  Spraohwiaeenachaft,  in  which  he 
enunciated  the  so-called  Stammhaumthearie  of  the 
odgin  of  dialects  (see  Phu^ologt)  (1863;  3d  ed. 
1873)  ;  Ueher  die  Bedeuiung  der  Spracke  fur  die 
Naturgeachiohte  dee  Menechen  (1865) ;  Formefi- 
lehre  der  kirchenelatDiachen  Spracke  (1853) ;  an 
edition  of  the  Lithuanian  poems  of  Christian 
Donaleitis  (1865);  and  the  posthumous  Lout- 
und  Formenlehre  der  polabiaehen  Spracke 
(1871).  Consult  Lefmann^  August  SoJUeioker 
(Leipzig,   1870). 

SGHIiEIBEHy  shllMcn,  Matthias  Jakob 
(1804-81).  A  German  botanist,  bom  at  Ham- 
burg. After  beginning  a  course  of  law  at 
Heidelberg,  he  turned  his  attention  to  nat^ 
nral  history  and  studied  for  several  years 
at  the  universities  of  G5ttingen  and  Berlin. 
In  1839  he  became  a  professor  of  botany  at 
Jena.  There  he  remained  until  1863,  and  after 
a  brief  residence  at  Dresden  became  in  1864  pro- 
fessor of  botanical  chemistry  and  anthropology  at 
the  University  of  Dorpat.  This  position  he  held 
for  little  more  than  a  year,  when  ne  settled  again 
in  Dresden  and  devoted  himself  to  private  re- 
search and  authorship.  His  most  important 
work  was  his  Orundzuge  der  Wisseneckaftlioken 
Botanik  (2  vols.,  1842,  4th  ed.  1862),  in  which 
he  emphasized  the  inductive  method  of  botani- 
cal research,  and  sharply  attacked  the  hazy  philo- 
sophical treatment  of  morphological  questions. 
Among  his  other  works  were:  Beitrage  zur  Bo- 
tanik (1844);  Studien,  pepul&re  Vortr&ge 
(1857);  Die  Landenge  von  Sues  (1858);  Zur 
Tkeorie  dee  Erkennens  durck  den  Oesicktainn 
(1861) ;  Die  Pfla/nze  und  ikr  Lehen  (1864) ;  Pur 
Baum  und  Wald  (1870) ;  Die  Rose  (1873) ;  Dae 
Baez  (1875) ;  Die  Romantik  dee  Martyriume  hei 
den  Juden  im  Mitielalter  (1878);  Dae  Meer 
(1887). 

SCHLEIEBMACHEB,  shli^er-mAK'^r,  Fried- 
UCH  Ernst  Daniel  ( 17681834) .  A  German  theo- 
logian and  philosopher,  bom  in  Breslau.  Strong 
religious  influences  were  brought  to  bear  upon  the 
boy,  not  only  at  home,  but  also  at  the  Moravian 
schools  in  Niesky  and  Barby,  where  he  spent  four 
years  (1783-87).  He  spent  two  years  (1787-89)  at 
the  University  of  Halle,  after  which  he  became 
private  tutor.  In  1794  he  was  ordained  to  the 
ministiy  and  became  assistant  to  a  clergyman  at 
Landsberg.  In  1796  he  was  appointed  chaplain  at 
the  C;harit4  Hospital  in  Berlin,  where  he  contin- 
ued for  six  years.  He  was  on  terms  of  intimate 
friendship  with  the  Romanticists,  especially 
Schlegel,  and  he  sympathized  with  many  of  their 
tastes  and  aims,  yet  with  a  profound  convic- 
tion of  the  necessity  of  religion,  which  they 
did  not  share.  His  first  important  literaiy 
work,  Ueher  die  Religion,  five  discourses 
«  upon  religion  (1799),  was  designed  to  vindicate 
the  claims  of  religion  to  the  attention  and  re- 
spect of  the  cultivated.  In  the  discourses  one 
can  trace  a  pantheistic  tendency,  derived  from 
Spinoza,-  a  philosopher  whom  Schleiermacher 
|[reat1y  admired.  The  ilfonoZo<7en  were  published 
m  1800,.  and  exhibit  the  influence  of  Fichte's 
subjective  idealism.  The  first  collection  of 
Schleiermacher's  sermons  appeared  in  1801,  fol- 
lowed later  by  several  other  collections,  all  of 
which  had  a  wide  circulation.  From  1802  to  1804 
Schleiermacher  was  Court  preacher  at  Stolpe, 


in  Pomerania,  where  he  published  his  Chrund* 
linien  einer  Kritik  der  hiekerigen  Sittenlekre,  For 
the  next  two  years  he  was  professor  extraor- 
dinary and  university  preacher  at  Halle,  where 
he  b^g;an  the  publication  of  his  translation  of 
Plato,  a  work  which  gave  him  an  assured  posi- 
tion among  classical  scholars.  Here  also  he 
wrote  a  critical  essay  on  First  Timothy,  rejecting 
the  Pauline  authorship,  chiefly  on  the  basis  of 
internal  evidence.  In  1800  he  took  up  his  perma- 
nent residence  in  Berlin,  where  he  became  pastor 
of  the  Dreifaltigkeitakirche  and  professor  at  the 
newly  founded  university.  As  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  he  was  brought  into  asso- 
ciation with  De  Wette,  Niebuhr,  and  many  other 
eminent  men.  His  influence  over  the  Protestant 
Church  for  a  Quarter  of  a  century  was  most 
marked,  and  he  may  almost  be  said  to 
have  dominated  contemporary  German  theology.- 
At  the  third  centennial  anniversary  of 
the  Protestant  Reformation  (1817),  Schleier- 
macher took  an  active  part  in  promoting  the 
imion  of  Lutheran  and  Reformed  churches,  a  step 
toward  ecclesiastical  comprehensicm  which  ac- 
corded well  with  his  convictions  of  what  the 
Christian  Church  should  be.  His  Kurze  Darstel- 
lung  des  tkeologiechen  Studiums  (1811)  was  an 
important  contribution  to  that  subject,  and 
proved  of  great  value  in  '  rightlv  directing  the 
development  of  theolo^cal  education  in  Germany. 
Probably  the  most  important  of  all  Schleier- 
macher's writings  was  his  treatise  on  Christian 
faith,  commonly  cited  under  the  name  Olauhens- 
lehre  ( 1821 ;  3d  ed.  1835) ,  one  of  the  truly  great 
theological  systems  of  histoiy.  For  insight, 
erasp,  and  power  of  presentation,  it  has  proper- 
ly been  compared  with  the  works  of  Origen  and 
Calvin,  but  in  its  general  point  of  view  it  re- 
sembles the  former  far  more  than  the  latter.  The 
Orundries  der  philosophischen  Ethik  was  pub- 
lished posthumously  by  his  pupil  Twesten 
(1841). 

The  works  and  teaching  of  Schleiermacher 
mark  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  Christian 
thought.  He  restored  religion  to  its  place  as 
a  normal  and  necessary  element  of  human  nature, 
by  pointing  out  a  neglected  factor,  feeling.  Ra- 
tionalistic morals  had  for  a  long  time  usurped 
the  place  which  religion  ought  to  occupy,  but  had 
left  men  dissatisfi^.  Schleiermacher  recalled 
them  to  their  rightful  spiritual  privileges.  In- 
deed, in  his  analysis  of  religion,  he  over-em- 
phasized the  truth  he  had  rediscovered,  making 
religion  consist  essentially  in  a  'feeling  of  abso- 
lute dependence.'  The  subjective^  character  of 
his  theology  laid  him  open  to  severe  criticism 
from  the  orthodox  side,  yet  so  genuine  was  his 
religious  faith,  and  so  central  was  the  place  of 
Christ  in  his  teaching,  that  he  escaped  ecclesias- 
tical censure.  His  influence  has  been  strongly 
felt  in  Great  Britain  and  America.  Schleier- 
macher's SdtnmtUche  Werke,  in  30  vols.,  appeared 
at  Berlin  in  1835-64.  Selected  Sermons,  trans- 
lated by  M.  F.  Wilson,  was  published  in  London, 
1890;  Speeches  {Reden),  translated  by  John 
Oman,, in  London,  1893.  Consult:  The  Life  of 
Schleiermacher,  translated  by  Rowan  (Lon- 
don, 1860)  ;  Domer,  History  of  Protestant  Theol- 
ogy (Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh,  1871)  ;  Lichtenberg- 
er,  History  of  German  Theology  in  the  Nineteenth 
Century  (Eng.  trans.,  ib.,  1889)  ;  Frank,  Ge- 
schichte  und  Kritik  der  neueren  Theologie  (2d  ed., 
Erlangen,  1895) ;  Pfleiderer,  Protestant  Tkeology 


8CHUIISBMACHE&. 


520 


8CHLB8WICh-fiOIi8TE  JLN . 


in  Germany  Since  Kant    (Eng.  tranB.,  London, 
1890). 

SCHLEIZ,  shuts.  The  second  residence  town 
of  the  Principality  of  Reuss,  Younger  Line,  Ger- 
many, in  a  fertile  district,  20  miles  northwest 
of  Plauen  (Map  Germany,  D  3).  Among  the 
architectural  features  of  the  town  are  a  late 
Gothic  church  with  the  burial  vaults  of  the 
rulers,  and  the  palace  of  the  Prince  with  a  li- 
brary. Schleiz  has  a  provincial  deaf  and  dumb 
asylum,  industrial  art  schools,  and  a  workhouse. 
It  manufactures  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  metal 
wares,  and  to^s.  In  the  vicinity  is  a  picturesque 
castle  belonging  to  the  Prince.  Population,  in 
1900,  6331. 

SGHLESWIG,  shlas^viK  (Danish  Sleevig). 
Until  1864  a  duchy  belonging  to  Denmark,  sep- 
arated from  Holstein  by  the  £ider  (Map:  Den- 
mark, 0  4).  In  1866  it  was  annexed  to  Prussia 
as  a  part  of  the  Province  of  Schleswig-Holstein 
(q.v.). 

SCHLESWIG.  The  capital  of  the  Province 
of  Schleswig-Holstein,  Prussia,  at  the  west  end 
of  the  Schlei,  87  miles  by  rail  north  by  west  of 
Hamburg  (Map:  Prussia,  0  1).  It  consists 
chiefly  of  a  single  semicircular  street,  and  is 
divided  into  Friedrichsberg,  Lollfuss,  and 
the  Altstadt.  Its  principal  structures  are  the 
twelfth-century  Romanesque  Gothic  Cathedral, 
restored  in  1894,  containing  an  oak  shrine  with 
398  carved  figures;  Saint  Michael's  Ohurch 
(1100),  recently  rebuilt;  and  the  church  and 
palace  of  Gottorp.  The  industries  are  fishing, 
the  manufacture  of  leather  and  machinery,  and 
the  shipping  of  coal,  cereals,  and  lumber.  Schles- 
wig  is  first  mentioned  in  804  as  Sliestorp.  It 
was  made  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  in  948,  and 
received  municipal  privileges  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. It  was  the  residence  of  the  Danish  Govern- 
or of  Schleswig-Holstein  from  1731  to  1846.  In 
1865  it  passed  to  Prussia.  Population,  in  1900, 
17,909. 

SCHLESWIG  HOLSTEIN,  hdl'stln.  A 
province  of  Prussia,  occupying  the  most  north- 
erly part  of  the  German  Empire,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  district  about  Memel.  It  is  bound- 
ed by  Jutland  on  the  north,  the  Baltic  Sea,  Ltl- 
beck,  and  Mecklenburg- Schwerin  on  the  east, 
Hamburg  and  Hanover  on  the  south,  and  the 
North  Sea  on  the  west  ( Map :  Prussia,  0  1).  The 
former  duchies  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein  con- 
stitute the  northern  and  southern  halves  re- 
spectively. Its  area  is  about  7340  square  miles. 
The  surface  is  generally  flat.  The  eastern  coast 
land,  which  is  indented  by  several  deep  and  nar- 
row fiords,  and  which  is  more  elevated 
than  the  western,  contains  most  of  the  agricul- 
tural land  of  the  province.  The  interior  is  chiefly 
moorland,  a  continuation  of  the  Lflneburg 
heath  on  the  south.  The  soil  along  the  western 
coast  consists  of  marshy  but  fertile  marine  al- 
luvium, and  the  land  is  here  so  low  that  it  has  to 
be  protected  from  the  sea  by  dikes.  The  west 
coast  is  lined  by  a  series  of  sandy  islands  in- 
closing shallow  lagoons,  which  are  in  great 
part  dry  at  low  tide.  The  principal  rivers 
flow  into  the  North  Sea.  The  Elbe  forms  the 
southern  boundary  of  the  province,  and  the  Eider 
separates  the  former  duchies  of  Schleswig  and 
Holstein.  The  province  is  traversed  by  several 
canals,  the  most  important  of  which  is  the  new 


Kaiser  Wilhelm  Oanal,  connecting  the  North 
Sea  with  the  Baltic. 

Agriculture  is  the  chief  occupation  of  the 
province.  The  production  of  wheat,  rye,  oats, 
barley,  potatoes,  hay,  beets,  etc.,  is  considerable. 
Schleswig-Holstein  has  long  been  famous  for  its 
excellent  cattle,  which  are  exported  all  over  the 
world  for  breeding  purposes.  Horses  are  also  ex- 
tensively raised.  The  fisheries  are  of  limited  ex- 
tent. The  oyster  banks  owned  by  the  State  show 
signs  of  exhaustion.  The  mineral  production  is 
small,  and  confined  chiefly  to  iron  and  turf. 

Manufacturing  industries  are  little  developed. 
Metal  ware  and  some  machinery  are  produced, 
and  there  are  several  textile  mills,  shipyards, 
sugar  reflneries,  distilleries,  etc.  The  advantageous 
position  of  the  province  between  the  North  Sea  and 
the  Baltic  has  contributed  largely  to  its  commer- 
cial developmenr.,  which  is  much  greater  than  the 
natural  resources  of  the  province  would  warrant. 
The  shipping  is  very  considerable  in  the  three 
chief  ports  of  Altona,  Flensburg,  and  Kiel,  the 
last  being  also  an  important  naval  port.  Ad- 
ministratively the  province  is  conterminous  with 
the  District  of  Schleswig,  the  seat  of  government 
being  at  the  town  of  Schleswig.  In  the  Prussian 
Landtag  the  province  is  represented  by  19  mem- 
bers in  the  Lower  and  11  in  the  Upper  Ohamber. 
It  returns  10  members  to  the  German  Reichstag. 
Population,  in  1900,  1,387,587,  almost  wholly 
Protestant.  There  were  135,000  Danes.  Danisu 
is  still  the  predominating  language  in  the  north- 
ern districts. 

History.  Schleswig  was  annexed  to  the  Ger- 
man Kingdom  in  the  tenth  century  and  was  con- 
stituted a  so-called  mark.  The  town  of  Schles- 
wig became  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  in  948.  The 
region  was  obtained  by  the  Danish  King  Knut 
(Oanute)  from  the  Emperor  Oonrad  II.  in  1027, 
and  for  a  long  time  it  was  administered  as  a  sepa- 
rate sovereignty  by  members  of  the  Danish  royal 
house.  In  the  course  of  the  thirteenth  century 
Schleswig  was  transformed  into  an  hereditary 
duchy,  which  remained  a  flef  of  Denmark.  In 
1375  Schleswig  passed  into  the  possession  of 
the  counts  of  Holstein  of  the  House  of  Rendsburg. 
Margaret  of  Denmark  confirmed  this  union  by  a 
treaty  in  1386,  Schleswig  continuing  as  before  a 
Danish  flef,  with  a  provision  that  it  should  never 
be  incorporated  with  Denmark.  In  1460,  after 
the  extinction  of  the  Rendsburg  line,  Schleswig 
and  Holstein  placed  themselves  under  the  rule 
of  Christian  I.  of  Denmark,  of  the  House  of  Ol- 
denburg. This  union  was  in  the  nature  of  a 
dynastic  one  merely,  and  it  was  stipulated  that 
Schleswig  and  Holstein  should  never  be  sep- 
arated from  each  other.  As  ruler  of  Holstein 
the  King  of  Denmark  became  a  member  of  the 
Germanic  body.  In.  1474  Holstein  was  erected 
from  a  county  into  a  duchy.  The  Danes  always 
regarded  Schleswig  as  Danish  and  the  mass  of 
the  people  were  until  recently  Danish.  Under 
the  House  of  Oldenburg  the  nobility  became  more 
and  more  Germanized.  By  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century  the  German  population  had 
become  as  numerous  as  the  Danish.  Holstein 
had  at  an  early  period  become  completely  Ger- 
manized. 

After  the  Napoleonic  wars  the  King  of  Den- 
mark entered  the  Diet  of  the  German  Confedera- 
tion as  Duke  of  Holstein.  King  Christian  VIII., 
who  ascended  the  throne  in  1839,  made  it  the 
chief  aim  of  his  policy  to  bring  Schleswig-Hol- 


8CHLESWIO-HOLSTEIN. 


521 


SCHLEY. 


stein  into  a  closer  union  with  Denmark  and  to 
put  an  end  to  the  peculiar  form  of  dependence 
existing  between  the  duchies  and  the  rest  of  the 
oionarcny.  The  popular  sentiment  in  Denmark 
demanded  that  Schleswig  at  least  be  made  an 
int^ral  part  of  the  Danish  realm.  In  1846  the 
King  aroused  great  indignation  in  the  duchies, 
where  the  Salic  law  of  succession  was  held  to  ob- 
tain, by  issuing  a  little  patent  in  which  he  de- 
clared that  in  Shleswig,  as  well  as  in  a  part  of 
Holstein,  the  succession  would  be  regulated  in 
the  same  manner  as  in  Denmark.  The  impor- 
tance of  this  declaration  was  increased  by  the 
tact  that  the  early  extinction  of  the  Oldenburg 
line  was  anticipated.  Christian  VIII.  died  in 
January,  1848,  and  was  succeeded  by  Frederick 
VII.,  the  last  of  his  dynasty,  who  announced  his 
intention  of  incorporating  Schleswig  with  Den- 
mark. Thereupon  the  people  of  Schleswig-Hol- 
stein,  aroused  by  the  news  of  the  February  Revo- 
lution in  France,  rose  in  rebellion  and  appealed 
to  their  German  brethren  for  aid.  Germany 
was  now  in  a  state  of  revolution,  and  troops 
were  despatched  by  Prussia  and  other  States, 
which,  with  the  Schleswig-Holstein  forces,  drove 
the  Danes  beyond  the  frontiers  of  Schleswig. 
Frederick  William  IV.  of  Prussia,  who  had  en- 
gaged reluctantly  in  the  contest  and  who  was 
influenced  by  the  hostile  attitude  of  Russia  and 
England  toward  the  Schleswig-Holsteiners,  con- 
cluded the  armistice  of  Malm5  in  August,  1848. 
In  1849  Denmark  ventured  to  renew  the  strug- 
gle^  Her  forces  were  repeatedly  defeated,  but 
in  1850  Prussia  definitely  abandoned  the  cause 
of  Schleswig-Holstein,  and  the  patriots  were  al- 
lowed to  succumb  to  the  superior  strength  of 
the  Danes.  At  the  beginning  of  1851  Prussia 
and  Austria  intervened  in  favor  of  Denmark 
and  the  Schleswig-Holsteiners  were  compelled 
to  lay  down  their  arms.  The  European  Powers 
in  the  London  conference  of  1852  upheld  the 
claims  of  Denmark  in  regard  to  Schleswig  and 
provided  for  the  succession  of  Prince  Christian 
of  Glficksburg  to  the  Danish  throne  in  case  of 
the  extinction  of  the  royal  line.  On  the  death 
of  Frederick  VII.  in  1863  without  heirs,  Prince 
Frederick  of  Augustenburg^  put  forward  the 
claims  of  his  house  to  the  succession  in  Schles- 
wig-Holstein under  the  Salic  law,  disregarding  a 
renunciation  made  by  his  father,  Christian  of 
Augustenburg,  in  1852,  and  asked  the  German 
Diet  to  declare  the  London  protocol  of  no  force. 
He  was  at  once  hailed  as  their  lawful  sovereign 
by  the  people  of  the  duchies.  Christian  of 
GlQcksbur^succeeding  to  the  Danish  throne  as 
Christian  EX.,  was  compelled  by  Danish  public 
sentiment  to  ratify  the  fundamental  constitution 
for  Denmark  and  Schleswig.  The  German  Diet 
supported  the  claims  of  Augustenburg  and  de- 
clared a  federal  execution  in  favor  of  Holstein, 
sending  federal  troops  there.  At  the  close  of 
1863  a  ducal  government  was  established  at  Kiel 
under  the  Prince  of  Augustenburg. 

Schleswig-Holstein  now  became  a  pawn  in  the 
great  game  which  Bismarck  was  playing  for  the 
nnificntion  of  Germany.  (See  Bismabck;  Geb- 
ifAirr.)  Bismarck  easily  induced  Austria  to 
eo5perate  with  Prussia  in  the  affairs  of  the  duch- 
ies. The  German  Diet  was  asked  by  the  two 
Powers  to  demand  the  withdrawal  of  the  Danish 
Constitution,  and  when  the  Diet  refused  to  inter- 
fere in  the  affairs  of  Schleswig,  Austria  and 
Prussia  made  the  demand  themselves  as  an  ulti- 


matum, and  upon  the  refusal  of  Denmark  thej 
at  once  began  hostilities.  Denmark  hoped  to 
resist  long  enough  to  secure  intervention  by  other 
Powers,  but  neither  France,  England,  nor  Russia 
was  inclined  to  interfere.  In  February,  1864, 
the  allied  forces  advanced  into  Schleswig.  The 
outniuubered  Danes  were  forced  back  from  one 
line  of  defense  to  another,  and  Christian  IX«  was 
compelled  to  accept  humiliating  terms  of  peace, 
embodied  in  the  Treaty  of  Vienna  of  October  30, 
1864.  Schleswig,  Holstein,  and  Lauenburg  were 
ceded  to  Austria  and  Prussia.  By  the  terms  of 
the  Convention  of  Gastein,  Ajigust  14,  1866,  the 

r visional  government  of  Schleswig  was  assumed 
Prussia  and  that  of  Holstein  by  Austria, 
Prussia  purchasing  Austria's  right  in  Lauen-' 
burg.  The  other  German  States  and  the  Prus- 
sian people  vainly  objected  to  these  high-handed 
proceedings  of  the  governments  of  Berlin  and 
Vienna.  The  military  occupancy  of  the  two 
duchies  by  the  rival  Powers  soon  brought  out 
their  essential  hostility.  Austria  finally  placed 
the  affairs  of  Holstein  before  the  Diet  of  the 
German  Confederation,  whereupon  Prussia 
charged  her  rival  with  a  violation  of  the  Gastein 
agreement  and  the  Prussian  troops  entered  Hol- 
stein, which  the  Austrians  abandoned,  throwing 
the  whole  question  into  the  Diet  (June,  1866), 
This  was  the  immediate  occasion  of  the  Seven 
Weeks*  War  (q.v.),  which  was  followed  by  the 
formal  incorporation  of  Schleswig-Holstein  with 
Prussia. 

Consult:  Osten,  Schleswig-Holstein  in  geo- 
graphischen  und  geschichtlichen  Bildem  (4th 
ed.,  Flensburg,  1893) ;  Krfiger,  Organisation  der 
StaatS'  und  8elbstverwaltung  in  der  Provinz 
Schleswig-Holstein  (Kiel,  1888)  ;  Hass,  Oeo- 
logische  Bodenbeschaffenheit  Schlestoig-Holsteins 
(ib.,  1889)  ;  Sach,  Das  Herzogtum  Schlesioig  in 
seiner  ethnographischen  und  nationalen  Entwiok- 
lung  (Halle,  1896) ;  Waitz,  Schleswigs  Qe- 
schichte  (Gdttingen,  1851-54) ;  id.,  Kurze 
schlestdg-holstetnische  Landesgeschichte  (Kiel, 
1864) ;  Handelmann,  Oeschichte  von  Schleswig 
(ib.,  1873)  ;  and  on  the  later  history  of  the 
duchies,  Droysen  and  Samwer,  Die  HerzogtUmer 
Schlesioig  und  das  Konigreich  Danemark  (Ham- 
burg, 1850)  ;  Gosch,  Denmark  and  Germany 
Since  1815  (London,  1862),  one  of  the  best  ac- 
counts in  English  of  the  complicated  question  of 
the  succession. 

SCHLETTSTADT,  shlSt'stAt.  A  town  of 
Alsace-Lorraine,  Germany,  on  the  111,  27  miles 
south-southwest  of  Strassburg  (Map:  Grermany, 
B  4).  The  thirteenth-century  Gothic  cathedral 
is  one  of  the  finest  in  Alsace.  The  eleventh- 
century  Church  of  Saint  Fides  is  also  interesting. 
The  town  has  a  normal  shool  and  a  public  libra- 
ry. The  principal  industries  are  the  making  of 
wire  rope,  tanning,  and  lumbering.  Schlettstadt 
was  a  free  Imperial  city  in  the  Middle  Ages.  It 
was  captured  by  the  French  in  1634  and  strongly 
fortified.  Population,  in  1890,  9418;  in  1900, 
9306. 

SCHLEY^  shift,  WmpiELD  Soorr  (1839—). 
An  American  naval  officer,  bom  in  Frederick 
County,  Md.  He  graduated  at  the  United  States 
Naval  Academy  in  1860,  and  as  inidshipman  on 
the  Niagara  went  on  a  cruise  to  China  and  Japan 
in  1860-61,  and  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
lieutenant  in  1862.  After  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War  he  served  on  the  Winona  with  the  West 


SCHIiiSY. 


523 


SCHLISKAKK. 


Gulf  blockading  squadron.  Subsequently  he  was 
attached  to  the  Monongahela  and  Richmond,  and 
took  part  in  all  the  engagements  preceding  the 
capture  of  Port  Hudson.  From  1864  to  1866  he 
was  executive  officer  of  the  Wateree  of  the  Pacific 
squadron,  attaining  the  rank  of  lieutenant-com- 
mander in  the  latter  year.  He  was  an  instructor 
at  the  Naval  Academy  from  1866  to  1869,  and  in 
1870  was  assigned  to  the  Benicia  on  the  China 
station,  where  he  remained  three  years,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  capture  of  the  Korean 
forts  on  the  Salee  River  in  June,  1871.  In  1874 
he  was  promoted  tathe  rank  of  commander  and 
was  again  detailed  as  an  instructor  at  the  Naval 
Academy.  From  1876  to  1879  he  commanded  the 
Essew  OB  the  Brazil  station.  In  1884  he  com- 
manded the  third  naval  expedition  sent  by  the 
United  States  Government  to  the  relief  of  Lieut. 
A.  W.  Greely  (q.v.),  and  after  passing  through 
1400  miles  of  ice  found  Greely  and  the  six  sur- 
vivors of  his  band  at  Cape  Sabine,  Grinnell  Land. 
From  1885  to  1889  Schley  was  chief  of  the  Bu- 
reau of  Recruiting  and  Eijuipment,  and  in  1888 
attained  the  rank  of  captain.  In  1889-91  he  com- 
manded the  cruiser  Baltitnore  in  the  Southern 
Pacific.  After  several  years'  service  as  a  light- 
house inspector,  he  was  placed  in  command  of 
the  New  York  in  1895,  and  in  1897-98  was  chair- 
man of  the  Lighthouse  Board.  He  reached  the 
rank  of  commodore  in  February,  1898,  and  after 
the  formal  declaration  of  war  against  Spain,  al- 
though the  lowest  on  the  list  of  commodores,  was 
plac^  in  command  of  the  'Flying  Squadron.'  On 
May  13th  he  sailed  southward  from  Hampton 
Roads  in  order  to  find  and  if  possible  destroy 
the  Spanish  fleet  of  Admiral  Cervera.  He 
touched  at  Cienfuegos,  and  after  considerable 
hesitation  and  delay  established  the  blockade  of 
Santiago,  in  whose  harbor  it  was  finally  ascer- 
tained on  May  29th  that  the  Spanish  fieet  lay. 
At  the  beginning  of  June  Admiral  Sampson  ar- 
rived with  his  ships  and  assumed  command.  The 
blockade  was  maintained  until  the  morning  of  the 
3d  of  July,  when  the  attempt  of  the  Spanish 
squadron  to  escape  from  the  harbor  ended  in  its 
complete  destruction  by  the  American  blockading 
squadron,  which,  during  the  temporary  absence 
of  Sampson,  was  under  the  command  of  Schley. 
Hie  Brooklyn,  with  Commodore  Schley  on  board, 
bore  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  contest,  particular- 
ly in  the  pursuit  and  destruction  of  the  Chrisid" 
hal  CoUn,  but  a  peculiar  'loop'  movement  which 
Schley  ordered,  and  which  blanketed  the  fire  of 
some  of  the  other  battleships,  and  caused  the 
Tewaa  to  deviate  from  her  course  in  order  to 
escape  beinff  run  down,  caused  much  adverse 
criticism.  On  August  10th  he  became  a  rear- 
admiral,  and  was  appointed  a  member  of  the 
commission  to  arrange  for  the  evacuation  of 
Porto  Rico  by  the  Spanish.  He  retired  from 
active  service  October  9,  1901.  After  the  close 
of  the  war  his  conduct  during  the  operations 
leading  up  to  the  battle  off  Santiago  and  in  the 
battle  itself  became  the  subjects  of  criticism,  both 
ofiicial  and  unofficial,  to  such  an  extent  that 
Schley  finally  asked  for  a  court  of  inquiry  to 
investigate  the  charges  brought  against  him.  A 
court  consisting  of  Admiral  Dewey  (president), 
and  Rear-Admirals  Benham  and  Ramsay,  sat 
from  September  21  to  November  7,  1901,  took  the 
testimony  of  more  than  seventy-five  witnesses, 
and  on  December  13th  made  its  report.  The 
'majority'  report,  signed  by  all  three  members, 


found  that,  while  Schley's  conduct  in  the  battle 
showed  personal  courage,  in  the  operations  prior 
to  June  Ist  it  was  marked  by  "vacillation,  dil- 
atoriness,  and  lack  of  enterprise,"  that  he  was 
slow  to  obey  express  commands  of  his  com- 
mander-in-chief, that  his  dispatches  were  "in- 
accurate and  misleading,"  and  that  his  loop* 
movement  in  the  battle  of  July  3d  was  unsea- 
manlike  and  unnecessary.  Admiral  Dewey  pre- 
sented a  'minority'  report,  upholding  Schley  in 
some  minor  respects.  The  recommen&tion  of  the 
court  that  no  action  be  taken  was  subsequently 
ap]proved  by  the  President.  Schley  wrote  in  col- 
laboration with  James  Russell  Soley  (q.v.)  The 
Rescue  of  Greely  (1886). 

SCTTTiTEMANN,  shle'm&n,  Heinbich  (1822- 
90).  A  famous  excavator  and  archeologist, 
born  in  Neu-Buckow,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin. 
From  the  age  of  twelve  to  fourteen  he  studied  in 
the  Realschule  in  Neustrelitz  and  then  became 
apprentice  as  grocer's  clerk  in  Fiirstenberg. 
After  five  years  his  health  broke  down, 
and  he  walked  to  Hamburg,  where  he  shipped  for 
South  America  as  cabin  boy.  The  vessel  was 
wrecked  off  the  Dutch  coast,  but  Schliemann  was 
saved  and  taken  to  Amsterdam.  Here  he  held 
a  humble  position  in  a  commercial  house,  but 
by  his  enormous  industry  acquired  a  knowledge 
of  all  the  important  modem  languages.  His 
ability  and  lingi^istic  attainments  were  recog- 
nized by  his 'subsequent  employers,  B.  H.  Schroe- 
der  A,  Co.,  in  1846,  when  they  sent  him  to  Saint 
Petersburg  as  their  agent.  In  the  following  year 
he  embarked  in  business  on  his  own  account.  For 
Ihe  next  sixteen  years  he  was  successful  in  busi- 
ness, traveled  much,  and  by  mere  chance  on  July 
4,  1850,  being  present  in  California  at  the  time 
that  State  was  received  into  the  Union,  beoune  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States.  He  finally 
retired  from  business  with  a  large  fortune  in 
1863.  He  then  settled  in  Paris,  and  gave  himself 
up  entirely  to  archaeological  studies.  During  the 
year  1868  he  visited  Corfu,  Ithaca,  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, and  Asia  Minor,  and  finally,  in  1870,  be- 
gan excavations  in  the  Troad  on  the  hill  of  His- 
sarlik,  where  he  believed  the  remains  of  ancient 
Troy  would  be  discovered.  The  excavations  were 
continued  by  him  for  twelve  years,  and  fiiially 
completed  by  Dr.  DOrpfeld  in  1892.  Althoo^ 
many  of  Schliemann's  extravagant  claims  as  to 
the  results  obtained  are  untenable,  the  excava- 
tions which  he  began  at  Hissarlik  were  the  first 
of  a  long  series  of  undertakings  which  have  given 
us  new  knowledge  of  the  early  civilization  of  the 
Greeks.  From  1876  to  1878  he  carried  on  ex- 
cavations at  Mycenae,  and  in  1878  at  Mount 
Athos,  and  at  Ithaca.  In  1881-82  he  excavated 
at  Orchomenos,  and  continued  the  work  there 
in  1886.  In  1884-85  he  laid  bare  the  ruins  of  the 
great  palace  at  Tiryns,  and  in  1889  he  returned 
to  Tropr.  He  died  at  Naples  and  is  buried  near 
the  Ilissus  at  Athens.  His  many  publicaiions 
include:  Ithaka,  der  Peloponnee  und  Troja 
(1869);  Trojaniache  AltertUmer  (1874);  Jfy- 
kena  (1878;  English  ed.,  New  York,  1878); 
Ilois  (1881;.  English  ed.,  New  York,  1881)  lOr- 
chomenos  (1881)  ;  Troja  (in  an  English  ed..  New 
York,  1883;  German  ed.,  Leipzig,  1884).  His 
autobiography  was  edited  by  his  wife  (Leipzig, 
1891).  The  best  general  account  of  Schlieman^s 
life  and  work  is  to  be  found  in  Schuchhardt's 
Schliemanne  Ausgrahungen  in  Troja,  Tiryns,  My- 
kena,  Orchomenos,  Ithaka  (2d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1891), 


SCTTTiTRMAMT. 


698 


flGTTM-AT.irAT.'mg-iJ 


traoslated  under  the  title  Schliemann's  Ewoava- 
tiona  and  Arohwological  and  Historical  Studies 
(London,  1891). 

SCHIilK,  shllk,  Fbanz,  Count  (1789-1862). 
An  Austrian  cavalry  general,  bom  in  Prague. 
In  the  campaign  of  1813-14  he  took  a  promi- 
nent part,  winning  the  rank  of  major.  In  1844 
he  had  become  field-marshal  lieutenant,  and 
in  the  winter  of  1848  he  was  ordered  into  Upper 
Hungary  at  the  head  of  a  corps  of  only  8000 
men,  with  which  he  at  first  carried  on  a  suc- 
cessful campaign  against  a  superior  force,  but 
was  soon  forced  to  retreat.  He  joined  Win- 
dischgriltz's  forces  and  contributed  to  the  victory 
of  KApolna.  In  1869  he  commanded  the  second 
Austrian  army,  which  formed  the  right  wing  at 
Solferino. 

SCHIJTZ,      shuts,      JOHANN      EUSTACH      TON 

GdBTZ,  Ck)unt  of  (1737-18^1).  A  Prussian  diplo- 
mat, bom  at  Schlitz  and  educated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Strassburg.  In  1778  he  went  as  the 
secret  agent  of  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia  to  Mu- 
nich and  Zweibrficken,  with  the  special  mission 
of  preventing  the  cession  of  Lower  Bavaria  to 
Austria  after  the  death  of  Maximilian  Joseph. 
In  1779-85  he  was  Ambassador  to  Russia  and  ren- 
dered important  services,  though  he  failed  to  pre- 
vent Russia's  withdrawal  from  her  alliance  with 
Prussia.  After  the  death  of  Frederick  II.  he  went 
to  the  Netherlands  for  the  purpose  of  reconciling 
the  Stadtholder's  €rovemment  and  the  democratic 
party.  From  1788  to  1806  he  was  the  Pmssian 
representative  at  the  Imperial  Diet  at  Regens- 
burg.  He  took  part  in  the  peace  congress  held 
at  Rastatt  in  1797-99,  and  served  as  a  member 
of  the  Imperial  commission  formed  to  execute 
the  provisions  of  the  Treaty  of  Lun^ville  ( 1801 ) . 
He  resigned  from  the  State  service  after  the 
Treaty  of  Tilsit  (1807).  His  writings  include: 
M^moires  ou  prScis  historique  sur  la  neutralit4 
artn^e  (1801);  M4moires  et  actes  authentiques 
relatifs  aux  n^gociations  qui  ont  pric4di  le  por- 
tage de  la  Pologne  (1810)  ;  M4moire  historique 
de  la  n^gociations  en  1778  (1812).  His  posthu- 
mous Historische  und  poUtische  Denkumrdig- 
heiten  were  published  in  1827-28. 

SCHLOMHiOH,  shl^^mllK,  Oskab  (1823- 
1901).  A  German  mathematician,  bom  in 
Weimar.  He  studied  at  Jena,  Berlin,  and  Vienna, 
became  privat-dooent  at  Jena  in  1844,  and  two 
years  later  assistant  professor.  In  1849  he  was 
called  to  the  Polytechnic  Institute  at  Dresden  as 
professor  of  higher  mathematics  and  analytical 
mechanics.  He  was  widely  known  as  editor 
(from  1856)  of  the  Zeitschrift  fUr  Mathematik 
und  Physik  (Leipzig) , usually  called  Schlomileh's 
Zeitschrift.  He  wrote:  Handhueh  der  algebrai- 
schen  Analysis  (6th  ed.  1881);  Analytische 
Studien  ( 1848) ;  Compendium  der  hShem  Analy- 
sis (1853) ;  TJebungshuch  zum  Studium  der 
hShern  Analysis  (4th  ed.  1888) ;  OrundzUge  einer 
wissenschaftlichen  Darstellung  der  Oeometrie 
des  Masses  (7th  ed.  1888) ;  Analytische  Oeome- 
trie des  Raumes  (last  ed.  1898).  Consult  Zeit- 
schrift far  Mathematik,  vol.  xlvi.  (Leipzig,  1901 ; 
with  portrait). 

SGHL08SEB,  shl^^sl^r,  Fsiedbich  Chbis- 
TOPH  (1776-1861).  A  Gferman  historian,  bora  at 
Jever,  Oldenburg.  He  studied  at  65ttingen,  was 
for  several  years  a  private  tutor,  then  a  librarian 
in  Frankfort,  and  m  1817  was  called  to  Heidel- 
berg as  professor  of  history.  His  most  notable 
TOI..  xy.-34. 


works  are  the  Qeschichte  des  18.  Jahrhunderts, 
continued  by  Schlosser  in  the  later  editions  till 
the  fall  of  Napoleon,  and  the  Weltgest^ichte  fur 
das  Deutsche  Volk;  both  have  been  translated 
into  English  and  other  tongues.  Schlossefs  his- 
torical writing  was  done  from  the  ethical,  rather 
.  than  the  severely  critical  point  of  view,  and  has 
enjoyed  considerable  popularity. 

SCHLQzEB,  shlSt'ser,  August  Ludwig  von 
( 1735-1809) .  A  CSerman  historian,  bom  at  Gagg- 
stadt.  He  studied  theology  and  the  Oriental 
languages  at  Wittenberg  and  G^dttingen,  went  to 
Stockholm  and  Upsala  in  1755,  and  returned 
to  Gattingen  in  1759,  to  study  music.  From  1761 
to  1769  he  was  in  Saint  Petersburg,  and  then  be- 
came professor  at  Gdttingen.  The  most  impor- 
tant of  his  works  are:  Allgemeine  nordische 
Qeschichte  (1772);  Weltgeschichte  im  Auszuge 
und  Zusammenhange  (1792  and  1901),  and  Vor- 
hereitung  zur  Weltgeschichte  fUr  Kinder  (6th 
ed.  1806),  with  both  of  which  he  did  pioneer 
work  by  a  more  intelligent  and  spirited  treat- 
ment of  imiversal  history.  (Consult  Zermelo's 
August  Ludwig  Schlozer  (Berlin,  1875). 

SGHLOZEB,.  KuBD  von  (1822-94).  A  Ger- 
man diplomat  and  historian,  bom  in  Ltlbeck, 
and  educated  at  Gr5ttingen,  Bonn,  and  Ber- 
lin. He  entered  the  Prussian  service  in  1850, 
became  secretary  of  the  legation  at  Saint  Peters- 
burg in  1857,  at  Rome  in  1863,  Minister  of 
the  North-Crerman  Confederation  in  Mexico  in 
1867,  German  Ambassador  at  Washington  in  1871, 
and  in  1882  Prussian  Ambassador  to  Rome,  where 
he  took  a  prominent  part  in  settling  the  Kultur- 
kampf.  He  retired  from  public  life  in  1892. 
Among  his  works  are:  Choiseul  und  seine  Zeit 
(2d  ed.  1887) ;  Qeschichte  der  deutschen  Ostsee- 
Under  (1850-53) ;  and  Friedrich  der  Qrosse  und 
Katharina  II.  (1859). 

SGHLtfTEB,  shlg^t€r,  Andbeas  (1664-1714). 
A  German  sculptor  and  architect.  He  was  bom 
in  Hambui^,  as  the  son  of  a  sculptor,  studied  in 
Italy,  and,  after  spending  three  years  at  Warsaw 
as  architect,  was  called  in  1694  to  Berlin  as 
Court  architect.  But  he  lost  the  favor  of  Fred- 
erick I.,  and  spent  the  last  two  years  of  his  life 
in  the  service  of  Peter  the  Great,  in  Russia. 
Schlater's  most  famous  works  are  the  decora- 
tions in  the  Potsdam  'Marmorsaal,'  the  main 
part  of  the  Charlottenburg  Castle,  the  Berlin 
Arsenal,  with  its  masks  of  dying  warriors,  an 
equestrian  statue  of  the  Great  Elector  (1703, 
his  masterpiece ) ,  the  northern  part  of  the  Berlin 
Castle,  and  the  mausoleum  of  Frederick  I.  and  his 
consort.  He  is  reckoned  the  greatest  German 
sculptor  of  his  day,  and  in  Berlin  alone  there  are 
more  than  eighty  of  his  statues.  For  his  biogra- 
phy, consult  Kldden  (Berlin,  1855),  Adler  (ib., 
1862),  and  Gurlitt  (ib.,  1890). 

SGHMALKALDEir,  shm&l-kaKden,  or 
SMALCALD.  A  town  in  the  Province  of 
Hesse-Nassau,  Prussia,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Stille  and  the  Schmalkalde,  18  miles  southwest  of 
Crotha  (Map:  Prussia,  D  3).  It  has  been  largely 
modernized,  but  retains  its  double  walls,  ancient 
court  house,  and  castle.  Interesting  features  are 
the  fifteenth-century  Gothic  church,  with  a  fa- 
mous organ,  and  the  Luther  fountain.  There  are 
iron  mines  and  salt  baths.  The  manufactures 
are  chiefly  of  hardware.  Schmalkalden  is  first 
mentioned  in  874.     It  is  famous  as  the  scene 


acmCALKALBEK. 


624 


SCHHBBXiIVO. 


of  the  formation  of  the  Crerman  Protestant 
League  in  1531.  (See  Schmalkaldic  League.) 
Population,  in  1890,  7318;  in  1900,  8726. 

SGHMALXALDIG  LEAGUE.  The  name 
ffiven  to  the  defensive  alliance  organized  at 
Schmalkalden  (q.v.),  December  31,  1530,  by  a 
number  of  Protestant  princes  and  Imperial  cities, 
and  formally  concluded  April  4,  1531.  Chief 
among  the  organizers  of  the  League  were:  tJohn 
the  Constant,  Elector  of  Saxony;  his  son,  John 
Frederick  (who  succeeded  to  the  Electorate  in 
1532) ;  and  Philip,  Landgrave  of  Hesse.  The 
rulers  of  Saxony  and  Hesse  were  empowered  to 
manage  its  affairs.  The  object  of  this  alliance, 
which  was  soon  greatly  extended,  was  the  defense 
of  the  religion  and  political  freedom  of  the  Prot- 
estants against  the  power  of  the  Emperor  Charles 
V.  Against  the  League  the  Emperor,  engaged 
as  he  was  at  the  time  in  contests  with  the  Turks 
and  French,  found  himself  unable  to  contend, 
and  in  1532  he  was  forced  to  grant  the  religious 
peace  of  Nuremberg.  Finally,  however,  in  1546, 
he  resolved  to  turn  his  guns  against  the  Protes- 
tants, and  the  War  of  the  Schmalkaldic  League 
ensued,  in  which  the  Emperor  had  the  support 
of  Maurice,  the  ambitious  Duke  of  Saxony,  of 
the  Albertine  line,  who  was  induced  to  betray 
the  Protestants  by  the  promise  of  the  Electorate 

'of  Saxony.  The  Protestant  forces,  under  John 
Frederick,  were  totally  routed  at  MUhlberg 
(April  24,  1547),  and  both  the  Elector  and 
Philip  of  Hesse  fell  into  the  Emperor's  hands. 
This  defeat  finished  the  war.  The  object  of  the 
League,  the  guaranty  of  the  liberty  of  religion 
to  the  Protestants,  was  subsequently  effected  by 
Maurice,  then  Elector  of  Saxony,  who,  having 
rejoined  the  Protestants,  by  a  brilliant  feat  of 
diplomacy  and  generalship  compelled  the  Em- 
peror to  grant  the  Treaty  of  Passau  (August  2, 
1552),  by  which  this  freedom  was  secured.     For 

•  references,  see  Reformation;  also  Chabi£s  V.; 
Saxe,  Maurice,  Count  of;   Gebmant. 

SCHHABDA,  shm&rM&,  Ludwig  Karl  (1819 
^).  An  Austrian  naturalist  and  traveler,  born 
at  Olmtttz,  Moravia.  He  studied  in  Vienna,  and 
became  professor  in  1850,  at  the  University  of 
Graz,  where  he  founded  the  Zoological  Museum, 
and  in  1852  at  Prague.  In  1853-57  he  traveled 
around  the  world,  and  in  1862  was  appointed 
professor  at  the  University  of  Vienna.  For  the 
Government  he  investigated  the  industry  of  fish- 
eries on  the  Austrian  (1863-65)  and  French 
(1868)  coasts,  and,  after  having  retired  from 
service  in  1883,  visited  Spain  and  the  African 
coast  in  1884,  1886,  and  1887.  His  publications 
include:  Andeutungen  au8  dem  Seelenlehen  der 
Thiere   (1846);    Zur  'Natwgeachichte  der  Adria 

(1852)  ;Die  geographische  Verhreitung  der  Thiere 

(1853)  ;  Zur  Naturgeschiohte  Aegyptens  (1854)  ; 
Neue  wirhellose  Thiere  (1859-61)  ;  Reise  urn  die 
Erde  (1861)  ;  and  a  textbook  for  higher  institu- 
tions, entitled  Zoologie  (1877-78). 

SGHMABSOW,  shmftr'sd,  August  (1853—). 
A  German  art  historian,  born  at  Schildfeld, 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  and  educated  in  Zurich, 
Strassburg,  and  Bonn.  He  became  docent  of 
the  history  of  art  at  GOttingen  in  1881,  pro- 
fessor there  in  1882,  at  Breslau  in  1886,  went  to 
Florence  in  1892,  and  thence  to  Berlin  in  1893. 
He  founded  the  Florence  Institute  for  the  History 
of  Art  in  1888,  and  wrote  biographies  of  David 


D'Angers,  Ingres,  and  Proudhon  in  Dohxne's 
Kunat  und  Kilnstler;  Leibniz  und  8cotteliu8 
( 1877 )  ;  Raphael  und  Pinturicchio  in  Siena 
(1880);  Melozzo  da  Forli  (1886);  DonateUo 
(1886);  Giovanni  8anti  (1887);  Martin  f?on 
Lucca  (1889);  Maaaccio-Studien  (1895-96), 
with  atlas;  BarooX;  und  Rokoko  (1897);  and 
Plaatik,  Malerei  und  Reliefkunat   (1899). 

SCHMAUK,  shmouk,  Theodore  Ehaitdel 
(I860—).  An  American  Lutheran  clergyman 
and  author,  bom  in  Lancaster,  Pa.  He  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  at  the 
Lutheran  Theological  Seminary  in  Philadelphia, 
and  went  as  pastor  to  Lebanon,  Pa.,  in  1883. 
Afterwards  he  became  literary  editor  of  The 
Lutheran  (1889),  editor-in-chief  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  Review  (1892)  and  of  other  Lutheran 
publications.  His  works  include:  The  Negative 
Criticiem  of  the  Old'  Testament  ( 1894) ;  Cate- 
chetical Outlines  (1892) ;  and  Manual  of  Bible 
Geography  (1901). 

SGHXEXS,  shmgks.     See  TlRAFf^BED. 

SCHMELLEB,  shm^l^gr,  Johann  Andbkas 
(1785-1852).  A  German  philologist.  Fe  was 
born  at  Tirschenreuth,  Bavaria,  and  studied  in 
Munich.  His  studies  of  Grerman  dialects  began 
with  Bavarian,  and  in  1821  he  published  Die 
Mundarten  Bayems  (supplemented  by  a  lexicon, 
1827-36).  From  1828  until  his  death  he  taught  in 
the  University  of  Munich.  Schmeller  edited  the 
Eiliand  (1830) ;  the  Old  High  German  Evange- 
lienharmonie  (1841)  ;  the  Muspilli  (1832)  ;  La- 
teinische  Oedichte  des  10.  und  11.  Jahrhunderts 
(1836)  ;  Cannina  Burana  (1847)  ;  and  Hadamar 
von  Laber's  Jagd  (1850).  His  CimbrischeB 
Worterbuch  was  edited  by  Bergmann  in  1855. 
Consult  Nicklas,  Schmellers  Leben  und  Wirken 
(Munich,  1885). 

SCHMEBLING^  shm^r^ing,  Anton,  Ritter 
von  (1805-93).  A  distinguished  Austrian  states- 
man, born  in  Vienna,  where  he  studied  law  and 
in  1829  entered  the  Government  service.  As  an 
opponent  of  Mettemich's  policy  he  was  sent  to 
represent  Austria  at  the  Frankfort  Parliament, 
and  presided  over  it  after  the  retirement  of  Gol- 
loredo.  Elected  to  the  National  Assembly,  he 
advocated  a  constitutional  monarchy,  and  was 
appointed  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  and  of  the 
Interior  by  the  Viceregent,  Archduke  John.  Prus- 
sian influence  having  prevailed  against  his  efforts 
to  uphold  the  Austrian  hegemony,  he  retired,  ajid 
in  Vienna  entered  Schwarzenberg's  Cabinet  as 
Minister  of  Justice,  in  which  capacity  he  created 
the  trial  by  jury.  At  variance  with  the  reac- 
tionary policy  of  Prince  Schwarzenberg,  he  re- 
signed in  1851,  soon  after  became  chairman  of 
the  Senate  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  in  1858 
President  of  the  Provincial  (Ik)urt  of  Appeals. 
The  popular  opposition  to  the  federal  October 
diploma  of  1860  led  to  the  appointment  of 
Schmerling  as  Minister  of  State  to  promote  the 
transformation  of  Austria  into  a  constitutional 
monarchy,  but  his  failure  to  overcome  the  op- 
position of  the  Hungarian  Diet  to  his  measures 
forced  him  to  resign  in  1865,  whereupon  he  was 
appointed  President  of  the  Supreme  Court.  In 
1867  he  was  made  a  life  member  of  the  House  of 
Lords,  where  he  repeatedly  acted  as  first  vice- 
president,  and  since  1879  led  the  party  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  policy  of  Count  Taaffe.  For  his 
biography,  consult  Ameth  (Vienna,  1895). 


SCHHTD. 


525 


SCHMIDT. 


BCHXID,  shmit,  Christoph  von  (1768-1854). 
A  German  writer  of  juvenile  works,  bom  at 
DinkelsbQhl.  His  principal  juveniles,  which 
were  very  popular  and  were  translated  into 
French  and  English,  are  Biblische  Oeschichte 
fur  Kinder^  Der  Weihnachtaahend,  Oenofeva, 
Ostereier,  Das  Blumenkorhchen,  and  Ersaahlungen 
fur  Kinder  und  Kinderfreunde  (1823-29).  His 
autobiography,  Erinnerungen  aus  meinem  Lehen^ 
was  published  in  1871. 

SCSOCTD,  Hermann  yon  (1815-80).  A  Ger- 
man novelist  and  dramatist,  bom  at  Weizen- 
kirchen^  Austria,  and  educated  at  Munich.  In 
1870  he  became  manager  of  the  G&rtnerthor 
Theatre,  but  resigned  the  position  after  a  few 
years.  His  plays,  collected  in  1853,  include 
several  historical  dramas^  such  as  Karl  Stuart 
and  Columbus,  but  his  greater  success  was  in 
portraying  peasant  life,  as  in  Die  Z*toidertourz*n 
(1878)  and  Der  Loder  (1880).  In  his  novels, 
too,  such  as  Almenrausch  und  Edelu^eiss,  Der 
Haherrneister,  etc.,  he  is  at  his  best  when  de- 
scribing Bavarian  customs. 

8CSHID,  Matthias  (1835—).  An  Austrian 
genre  painter,  bom  at  See,  in  the  Paznau  Valley, 
Tyrol.  He  got  his  early  training  in  painting  at 
home,  and  in  1853  went  to  Munich,  where  in 
1856  he  entered  the  Academy.  In  1871  he  became 
a  pupil  of  Piloty  and  turned  from  religious  sub- 
jects to  satiric  genre  pictures  of  the  Tyrolese 
priesthood,  like  "Mendicant  Friars*'  and  ^"A 
Judge  of  Morals"  (1872).  A  later  manner,  free 
from  anti-clerical  animus,  is  shown  in  "The 
Betrothal"  (1879),  "His  Reverence  Lathered" 
(1883),  "Going  on  a  Pilgrimage"  (1886),  and 
"The.  Holiday  Orator"  ( 1893 ) . 

SCHMIDT,  shmit,  Erich  (1853 — ).  A  (]^r- 
man  historian  of  literature,  born  at  Jena,  son 
of  Oskar  Schmidt.  He  studied  Germanic  phi- 
lology and  literary  history  at  Graz,  Jena,  and 
Strassburg,  established  himself  as  privat  docent 
«l  Wftrsburg  in  1875,  became  professor  at  Strass- 
hvTg  in  1877,  at  Vienna  in  1880,  and  director  of 
the  Goethe  archive  at  Weanar  in  1885.  Thence 
he  was  called  to  Berlin  in  1887,  to  succeed  Wil- 
helm  Scherer  in  the  chair  of  (^rman  language 
and  literature.  Devoted  almost  exclusively  to 
the  investigation  of  modern  literature,  especially 
of  the  classical  period,  he  published:  Richard- 
son, Rousseau,  und  Goethe  (1875);  Lenz  und 
Klinger  (1878);  Heinrich  Leopold  Wagner 
(1879);  Beitrage  zur  Kenntnis  der  Klopstock- 
schen  Jugendlyrik  (1880);  Charakteristiken 
(1st  series  1886;  2d  series  1900) ;  and  the  ex- 
cellent biography  of  Lessing  (2d  ed.  1899).  He 
edited  two  volumes  of  the  Schriften  der  Ooethe- 
Gesellschaft  (Weimar,  1886  and  IS9S) ;' Faust, 
for  the  Weimar  edition;  and  in  1887  he  pub- 
lished Goethe's  Faust  in  ursprunglicher  Gestalt 
(3d  ed.  1894),  discovered  by  him  in  Dresden. 

SCHICEBT,  Fbiedbich,  Baron  (1825-91).  A 
distinguished  architect,  bom  at  Frickenhofen, 
Warttemberg.  He  studied  under  Breymann  and 
Mauch  in  the  Polytechnic  at  Stuttgart.  At  the 
age  of  eighteen  he  obtained  work  as  a  mason  on 
the  cath^ral  at  Cologne,  where  after  two  years 
he  became  a  master  mason.  In  1857  he  was  called 
to  the  Milan  Academy  as  professor,  and  was 
awarded  the  contract  for  restoring  the  Church  of 
Sant'  Ambrogio.  In  1859  he  settled  in  Vienna, 
was  appointed  professor  at  the  academy  in  1860, 
architect  of  Saint  Stephen's  in  1863,  and  was 


raised  to  a  baronetcy  in  1888.  His  principal 
buildings  in  Vienna  are  the  church  of  th^ 
Lazarists  (1860-62),  the  parish  church  at  FOnff 
haus  (1864-74),  the  gymnasium  (1863-66),  and 
the  new  city  hall  (1872-83),  his  most  imposing 
work.  He  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  exponents 
of  the  Gothic  style  in  German  architecture.  Con- 
sult Reichensperger,  Zur  Charakteristik  des 
Baumeisters  Friedrich  Freiherrn  von  Schmidt 
(Diisseldorf,  1891). 

SCHMIDT,  Geobo  Fbiedbich  (1712-75).  A 
German  engraver  and  designer,  bom  in  Berlin. 
He  studied  art  there  under  Busch,  and  under 
Larmessin  in  Paris.  In  1744  he  was  appointed 
engraver  to  Frederick  II.,  in  Berlin,  and  in  1757 
he  was  summoned  to  Saint  Petersburg  by  the 
Empress  Elizabeth  to  engrave  her  portrait  and 
to  organize  a  school  of  engraving.  His  engrav- 
ings and  etchings  in  the  style  of  Rembrandt  rank 
with  the  best  work  of  the  eighteenth  century  in 
Germany.  He  engraved  about  200  plates,  the 
best  of  which  are  "The  Empress  Elizabeth  of 
Russia,"  "Coimt  Nicholas  Eszterhftzy,*'  "Pierre 
Mignard,"  "The  Virgin  and  Child  with  Saint 
John,"  "The  Raising  of  Jairus's  Daughter,"  and 
"The  Mother  of  Rembrandt." 

SCHMIDT,  Henbt  Immanuel  (1806-89).  An 
American  clergyman  and  educator.  He  was  born 
at  Nazareth,  Pa.,  and  was  educated  at.  the  Mo- 
ravian Academy  and  Theological  Seminary  of  his 
native  place.  He  joined  the  Lutheran  denomina- 
tion and  during  the  earlier  years  of  his  career 
held  pastorates  in  Bergen  County,  N.  J. ;  at  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  and  at  Palatine,  N.  J.  He  also 
taught  at  Hartwick  Seminary,  N.  Y.;  Pennsyl- 
vania College,  Gettysburg,  Pa.,  and  later  at  the 
theological  seminary  of  that  place.  In  1848  he 
became  professor  of  the  German  language  and 
literature  at  Columbia  College.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  History  of  Education  ( 1842.;  10th  ed. 
1858 ) ;  The  Scriptural  Character  of  the  Lutheran 
Doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper  (1852) ;  Course  of 
Ancient  Geography  (1860). 

SCHMIDT,  Johannes  (1843-1901).  A  Ger- 
man philologist,  bom  at  Prenzlau,  Prussia,  and 
educated  at  Bonn  and  Jena.  In  1868  he  obtained 
a  position  as  docent  in  comparative  philology  at 
Bonn  and  became  adjunct  professor  in  1873..  In 
the  same  year  he  was  called  to  the  professorship 
of  comparative  philology  at  Gratz,  and  in  1876 
he  accepted  a  similar  chair  in  Berlin,  where  he 
remained  until  his  death.  His  first  important 
contribution  was  his  'wave  theory*  with  reference 
to  the  relationship  of  the  Indo-Germanic  lan- 
guages. (See  Philology.)  Among  the  most 
important  of  his  numerous  works  were:  Die 
Verwandtschaftsverhdltnisae  der  indogermanisch- 
en  Sprachen  (1872);  Ueher  die  Theilung  des 
indogermanischen  Sprachstammes  (1873);  Zur 
Geachichte  des  indogermanischen  Vokalism^is 
( 1875) ;  Die  Pluralbildungen  der  indogermanisch- 
en Neutra  (1889);  Die  Urheimat  der  Indoger- 
manen  und  das  europdische  Zahlsystem  (1890) ; 
and  Kritik  der  Sonantentheorie  (1895).  He  was 
joint  editor  with  Ernst  Juhn  of  the  Zeitschrift 
fUr  vergleichende  Sprachforschung  from  1876 
until  his  death. 

SCHMIDT,  JoHANN  Fbiedbich  Julius  ( 1825- 
84).  A  German  astronomer,  bom  in  Eutin.  He 
was  employed  in  the  Hamburg  Observatory 
(1842-45),  and  for  a  short  time  at  a  private 
observatory  at  Bilk.     He  became  assistant  ob- 


SCHMIDT. 


626 


SCHMIDT. 


server  at  Bonn  (1846),  obaerver  at  OlmfltE 
( 1853) ,  and  director  of  the  observatory  at  Athens 
(1868),  where  he  remained  till  his  death.  He 
studied  the  physical  nature  of  comets  and  of 
the  moon,  the  brightness  and  periodicity  of  stars, 
and  physical  geography,  especially  that  of  Greece. 
Besides  his  contributions  to  the  Aatronomische 
Nachrichten  and  to  the  Puhlicationa  de  Vohsenxi' 
ioire  d'Ath^nes,  he  published  a  revision  of  Lohr- 
mann's  chart  of  the  moon  (1877)  and  a  very 
valuable  independent  chart  (1878),  and  wrote 
Der  Mond  (1856),  Vulkansiudien  (1874),  and 
Studien  Uher  Erdhehen  (1875). 


SCHMIDT,  JuuAN  (1818-86).  An  eminent 
German  historian  of  literature,  bom  at  Marien- 
werder.  West  Prussia.  He  studied  history  and 
philology  at  K5nigsberg,  taught  in  Berlin  from 
1842  to  1846,  and  went  to  Leipzig  in  1847  as 
contributor  to  the  Orenzhoten,  which  he  owned 
and  edited,  conjointly  with  Gustav  Freytag,  from 
1848  to  1861.  Returning  to  Berlin,  he  conducted 
for  two  years  the  Berliner  Allgemeine  Zeitung, 
then  confined  himself  to  the  field  of  literary  his- 
tory. His  first  work  of  importance  was  the 
Oeachichte  der  Romaniik  im  Zeitalter  der  Revo- 
lution und  Beaiauration  (1847).  His  numerous 
critical  articles  for  the  Orenzhoten  formed  the 
basis  for  his  Oeachichte  der  deutachen  National- 
litteratur  im  19.  Jahrhundert  (1853)  ;  5th  ed., 
revised  and  enlarged,  under  the  title  Oeachichte 
der  deutachen  Litteratur  aeit  Leaainga  Tod  ( 1865- 
67).  Into  this  was  subsequently  incorporated 
his  Oeachichte  dea  geiatigen  Lehena  in  Deutaeh- 
land  von  Leibniz  hia  auf  Leaainga  Tod  (1860-64), 
and  both  works  appeared  combined  as  Oeachichte 
der  deutachen  Litteratur  von  Leibniz  bia  auf 
unaere  Zeit  (1886-96).  Noteworthy  are  also 
Oeachichte  der  franzoaiachen  Litteratur  aeit  der 
Revolution  1789  (2d  ed.  1873-74);  Ueberaicht 
der  engliachen  Litteratur  im  19,  Jahrhundert 
( 1859) ;  Schiller  und  aeine  Zeitgenoaaen  ( 1859) ; 
and  the  collections  of  ingenious  essa3r8  Bilder 
aua  dem  geiatigen  Leben  unaerer  Zeit  (1870-74), 
and  Protrata  aua  dem  19,  jahrhundert  (1878). 
Julian  Schmidt  exercised  more  infiuence  upon 
the  period  of  German  intellectual  life  in  which 
he  worked  than  has  been  accorded  him.  As  a 
critic  in  journals  and  periodicals,  his  discussions 
comprised  the  entire  scope  of  intellectual  life  in 
science,  arte,  and  politics.  The  forte  of  his  criti- 
cism, especially  in  regard  to  works  of  art,  lay 
in  an  almost  infallible  instinct  to  perceive  truth, 
power,  and  sterling  worth,  which  quality  enabled 
nim  to  teach  his  contemporaries  not  to  borrow 
their  views  of  things  from  remote  chains  of 
thought,  but  to  trust  the  spontaneity  of  their 
own  feelings. 

SCHMIDT,  Eabl  (1812-95).  An  Alsatian 
Lutherian  theologian.  He  was  bom  and  edu- 
cated and  died  in  Strassburg,  and  was  pro- 
fessor of  theology  in  the  university  from  1837 
to  1877.  He  wrote,  in  French  and  German, 
numerous  excellent  works,  of  which  may  be 
mentioned  his  biographical  studies  of  Gerson, 
Tauler,  Roussel,  Vermigli,  Farel,  Viret,  Melanch- 
thon,  and  Nicolas  of  Basel,  and  of  the  (^rman 
and  other  mediaeval  mystics.  His  Eaaai  hiatorique 
aur  la  80c\4t4  civile  dana  le  monde  romadn  et' 
aur  aa  tranaformation  par  le  chriatiamame 
(1853)  was  translated  into  English  under  the 
title.  The  Social  Reault  of  Early  Ohriatianity 
(London,  1886)  • 


SCHMIDT,  Max  (1818-1901).  A  German 
landscape  painter,  bom  in  Berlin,  where  he  stud- 
ied in  the  Art  Academy  under  Begas  and  ScMr- 
mer.  He  was  largely  influenced  in  his  choice  of 
subjects  and  in  his  treatment  by  his  familiarity 
with  Egypt  and  Greece,  and  paid  little  heed  to 
Gennan  scenes  until  1854,  but  then  treated  them 
with  rare  poetic  feeling.  In  1868  he  became  in- 
structor at  the  School  of  Arts  in  Weimar,  and  in 
1872  went  to  the  KSnigsberg  Academy.  His  chief 
works  are  the  Oriental  frescoes  in  the  Berlin  Mu- 
seiun,  ''Wood  and  Mountain"  (1868)  and  ''A 
View  on  the  Spree''  (1877),  both  in  the  Berlin 
National  Galleiy.  He  wrote  Die  Aquarellmalerm 
(7th  ed.  1901). 

SCHMIDT,  MAXTMn.TAiy  (1832—).  A  Ger- 
man novelist  and  humorist,  bora  at  Eschlkam, 
Bavaria.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the  Ba- 
varian army  from  1850  to  1872,  when  he  retired 
and  settled  at  Munich  to  devote  himself  exclu- 
sively to  his  literary  work.  Among  the  best  of 
his  numerous  tales  and  novels,  dealing  vividly 
and  realistically  with  the  people  and  scenery  of 
the  Bavarian  Mountains,  should  be  mentioned: 
Volkaerzahlungen  aua  dem  Bayriachen  Wold 
(1863-69);  Der  Schutzgeiat  von  Oberammergau 
(1880);  'a  Auatragaatuberl;  Der  Oeargithaler 
(1882);  Die  Fiacherroal  von  St,  Heinrich 
(1884);  Der  Muaikant  von  Tegemaee  (1886); 
'a  Liael  von  Ammeraee  (1887) ;  Die  KOnischen 
Freibauem  {IS95),  Gradually  these  productions 
fell  off  in  literary  merit,  as  the  author  became 
more  and  more  prolific.  Lasting  success  at- 
tended his  Humoreaken  (1892),  the  collection  of 
dialect  poems  Altboariach  (1884),  and  several 
popular  plays,  dramatised  from  his  novels.  He 
also  published  the  autobiography  Mevne  Wander- 
ung  durch  70  Jahre  (1902).  His  OeaammeUe 
Werke  appeared  in  popular  edition  of  34  vols. 
(Reutlingen,  1898-93). 

SCHMIDT,  Nathakisx  (1862—).  An  Ameri- 
can Hebraist,  bom  at  Hudiksvall,  Sweden,  and 
educated  at  Stockholm  University,  at  Colgate 
University,  and  at  the  University  of  Berlin.  He 
was  professor  of  Semitic  languages  and  litera- 
ture in  Colgate  University  from  1888  to  1896, 
and  then  became  professor  of  the  same  branches 
at  Cornell.  He  contributed  to  the  Enoyclopadia 
Biblioa,  to  the  Jewiah  Encyclopcedia,  and  to 
the  New  International  Eneyclopoedia,  and 
wrote:  Biblical  Criticiam  and  Theological  Belief 
(1897)  ;  The  Republic  of  Man  (1899) ;  Eecle9ias- 
ticua  (1903) ;  The  Son  of  Man  and  the  Son  of 
Ood  in  Modem  Theology  (1903). 

SCHMIDT,  OsKAB  (1823-86).  A  German 
zodlogist,  born  at  Torgau.  After  studying  at 
Halle  and  Berlin,  he  began  to  lecture  on  sodlogy 
at  Jena  in  1846,  became  professor  there  in  1849, 
and  successively  at  Cracow  (1855),  Graz  (1857), 
and  Strassburg  (1872).  His  reputation  is  based 
upon  the  handbook  of  comparative  anatomy,  the 
9th  ed.  of  which,  by  Lang,  was  issued  under  the 
title  Lehrbuch  der  vergleichenden  Anatomie  der 
ujirbelloaen  Tiere  (1888-94).  He  also  wrote  a 
Lehrbuch  der  Zoologie  (1853),  and  for  advanced 
classes  Leitfaden  der  Zoologie  (4th  ed.  1882). 
From  1860  he  devoted  himself  more  especially 
to  the  investigation  of  Spongise,  and  published 
on  this  subject  several  treatises.  His  other  writ- 
ings include:  Ooethea  Verh&ltnia  zu  den  organi- 
achen  Naturwiaaenachaften  ( 1853) ,  Daa  Alter  der 
Menachheit  und  dw  Paradiea,  with  Frana  Unger 


aCHXIDT. 


527 


( 1866) ;  Dewendenzlehre  und  DarwUUatMU  ( 1873 
3d  ed.  1884) ;  and  Die  SHugethiere  in  ihrem 
Verhdltnia  gur  Vorwelt  (1884). 

SCHlCIBTy  WII.H1XM  Adolf  (1812-87).  A 
prominent  German  historian,  bom  in  Berlin,  where 
he  studied  history  and  philology,  and  in  1839  es- 
tablished himself  as  lecturer.  In  1845  he  be- 
came professor  there,  in  1851  at  Zurich,  and  in 
1860  at  Jena.  As  a  member  of  the  Reichstag  in 
1874-76,  he  belonged  to  the  National  Liberal 
Party.  His  more  important  works  include:  Oe- 
mshichie  der  Denk-  und  Olaubensfreiheit  im  erBten 
Jahrhundert  der  Kaiserherrachaft  und  des  Christ- 
entums  (1847);  Preussens  deuUche  Politik  (3d 
ed.  1867)  ;  ZeiigenSssische  Oeschichten:  I.  Frank- 
reich  von  1815  W«  18S0.  II,  Oeaterreich  von 
1830  bis  1848  (1859) ;  Eleaaz  und  Lothringen  (3d 
ed.  1870) ;  TabUauw  de  la  revolution  frangaise 
fuhlii%  sur  les  papiera  in4dits  du  dSpartement  et 
de  la  police  eecrite  de  Paris  (1867-71) ;  Pariser 
Zustdnde  ujohrend  der  Revolutionszeit  1789-1800 
(1874-76) ;  Das  PeHkleisehe  Zeitalier  (1877-79) ; 
Ahhandlungen  zur  alien  Cfesehichie  (1888).  He 
edited  the  8th  issue  of  Becker's  Weltgesohichte, 
22  Yols.  (Leipzig,  1874-79).  Ck>n8ult  Landwehr, 
Zur  Erinnerung  an  Adolf  Schmidt  (Berlin, 
1888). 

SCHmDTLEIH,  shmlt^m,  Jakob.  A  Ger- 
man theologian.    See  Andbea,  Jakob. 

SGHKIDT-BIMFIiEB.  rlm^plSr,  Hebmann 
(1838 — ).  A  German  ophthalmologist,  bom  in 
Berlin  and  educated  there.  After  acting  as  clini- 
cal assistant  to  Grftfe  he  went  in  1871  to  Mar- 
burg, where  he  started  a  university  clinic  for  dis- 
eases of  the  eye,  and  whence  in  1890  he  was  called 
to  G6ttiiigen.  Soon  afterwards  he  went  to  Halle. 
He  wrote  Ueher  Blindsein  (1882),  AugenheU- 
hunde  nnd  Ophthalmoakopie  (1885;  7th  ed. 
1901),  and  Erkrankungen  des  Augea  im  Zusam- 
menhang  mit  anderen  Krankheiten  (1898). 

BCHMITZ,  shmlts,  BvuKO  (1858-).  A  Ger- 
man architect,  bom  in  DQsseldorf  and  trained  in 
the  academy  of  that  city.  He  received  the  first 
prize  for  his  design  of  a  memorial  to  Victor 
Emanuel  in  Rome  and  built  a  national  monument 
in  Indianapolis,  a  museum  in  Linz,  and  another 
in  Stockholm,  the  new  synagogue  in  Berlin,  and 
the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Memorial  on  the  KyffhUuser, 
which,  with  memorials  to  the  same  Emperor  at 
the  Porta  Westphalica  and  at  Rheineck,  near 
Coblenz,  ranks  him  as  one  of  the  foremost  of  Ger- 
man architects. 

8CH1COLI.es,  8hm6nsr,  Gubtay  (1838—). 
A  distinguished  German  economist  and  historian, 
bora  at  Heilbronn.  He  studied  at  Tabincen,  in  1864 
became  professor  extraordinary,  and  in  1865 
professor  ordinary  at  Halle.  In  1872  he  was 
called  to  the  University  of  Strassburg,  in 
1882  to  the  University  of  Berlin.  Schmoller 
gained  at  a  comparatively  early  age  a  reputa- 
tion as  a  leader  of  the  historical  school  of 
economics.  The  great  majority  of  his  numer- 
ous books  have  been  devoted  to  some  phase  of  in- 
dustrial history.  He  has  done  besides  much 
work  in  the  history  of  economic  thought.  Among 
his  best  known  works  are:  Strassburg  gur  Zeit 
der  Zunfikdmpfe  (1775);  Zur  Literaturge- 
9ci€^te  der  Stoats*  und  Sozialwissenschafien 
(1888);  Dm  Merkantilsystem,  translated.  The 
Mercantile  System  (1896) ;  Grundriss  der  allge- 
meinen    Volksunrthsehafttlehre    (1900).      Since 


1881  Schmoller  has  been  editor  of  the  Jahrbueh 
fur  Oeaeizgebung,  Verwaltung  und  Volksu^irth- 
schaft  im  Deutachen  Reich,  From  1878  to  1903 
he  edited  a  series  of  monographs  entitled  StaatS' 
und  SozialwissenschaftUehe  Forsohungen, 

SGHMTTCK^By  Beale  Melanchthon  ( 1827- 
88).  An  American  Lutheran  theologian,  best 
known  for  his  liturgical  labors.  He  was  bom 
in  Gettysburg  and  studied  there  in  college  and  in 
the  theological  seminary.  He  held  pastoral 
charges  in  Martinsburg,  Va.  (1845-51),  and  in 
Allentown  (1852-62),  Easton  (1862-67),  Read- 
ing (1867-81),  and  Pottstown,  Pa.  (1881-88). 
With  Mann  and  Germann  he  edited  the  American 
revision  of  the  Hallesche  Nachrichten.  Schmucker 
founded  many  Lutheran  schools  and  took  a  prom- 
inent part  in  the  preparation  of  the  common 
service  now  in  use  in  the  Lutheran  Ghurch. 

SCHXXJCKEB>  or  SMT7CKEB,  Samuel 
MosHEiM  (1823-63).  An  American  author.  He 
was  bom  at  New  Market,  Va.,  graduated  at 
Washington  College  in  Pennsylvania  in  1840, 
became  a  Lutheran  minister,  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1850,  and  devoted  most  of  his  later  years 
to  writing.  His  publications  include:  Life  of 
John  O,  Fremont,  vnth  his  Emplorations  (1856)  ; 
Life  and  Times  of  Alewinder  Hamilton  (1856) ; 
Life  and  Times  of  Thomae  Jeffereon  (1857) ;  The 
Yankee  Sla/oe-Driver  (1857) ;  Life  of  Dr.  EUsha 
Kent  Kane  and  Other  American  Ewplorers 
(1858) ;  Life  and  Times  of  Henry  Clay  (1859) ; 
Blue  Laws  of  Connecticut  (I860)  ;  History  of  the 
Modem  Jews  (1860) ;  and  the  first  volume  of  A 
History  of  the  Civil  War  in  the  United  States 
(1863). 

SCHMTJCXEBy  Samuel  Simon  (1799-1873). 
An  American  Lutheran  divine.  He  was  bom  at 
Hagerstown,  Md. ;  graduated  at  the  University  of 
Pennsvlvania,  1819;  studied  in  Princeton  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  and  was  ordained  a  Lutheran 
minister  in  1821.  He  was  pastor  of  a  church  in 
Newmarket,  Va.,  1820-26;  professor  of  didactic 
theolo^  and  chairman  of  the  faculty  in  Gettys- 
burg Theological  Seminary  1826-64.  He  was  the 
leader  of  the  low-church  Lutheran  party  who 
are  connected  with  the  General  Synod,  and  was 
better  known  outside  of  his  communion  than  any 
other  Lutheran  minister.  Of  his  numerous  pub- 
lications may  be  mentioned:  Fraternal  Appeal 
to  the  American  Churches  on  Christian  "Union 
(1838),  which  prepared  the  way  for  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Evangelical  Alliance;  The  American 
Lutheran  Church  (1851) ;  The  Church  of  the  Re- 
deemer  as  Developed  Within  the  General  Synod 
of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  (1870). 

SCHNAASE,  shn&^z^,  Kabl  (1798-1875).  A 
distinguished  (^rman  art-historian  and  jurist, 
with  Rumohr,  Waagen,  and  Kugler,  one  of  the 
founders  of  modem  art-history,  who  conceived 
art  in  its  connection  with  the  universal,  cultural, 
and  intellectual  life.  Bom  at  Danzig,  he  began 
the  study  of  law  in  1816  and  matriculated  at 
Heidelberg  also  imder  Hegel,  whom  he  followed  to 
Berlin.  Assessor  at  Konigsberg  in  1826,  he  was 
promoted  to  other  positions  at  Marienwerder 
(1829),  and  at  Dfisseldorf,  where  he  took  great 
interest  in  the  newly  awakening  artistic  life,  and 
in  1848  was  appointed  councilor  at  the  Supreme 
Court  in  Berlin,  but  resigned  in  1857  to  confine 
himself  to  his  studies.  With  Griineisen  and 
Schnorr  he  founded  in  1858  the  ChristUche  Kunst- 
blatt,  sojoumed  in  Rome  in  1865-66^  and  settied 


SCHKAASB. 


528 


8CHHET2L 


at  Wiesbaden  in  1867.  As  an  author  he  made 
himself  first  known  by  his  Niederlandische  Briefe 
(1834),  which  bore  witness  to  his  philosophic- 
historical  conception  of  art,  and  was  followed  by 
numerous  minor  treatises  and  essays.  His  mas- 
terwork,  however,  is  the  Oeschichte  der  bildenden 
Kunaie  (1843-64;  2d  ed.  1865-79),  which  created 
an  epoch  in  the  development  of  the  modem  science 
of  art.  In  contradistinction  to  other  art-his- 
tories, based  on  formal  criticism,  Schnaase  in  it 
sought  to  deduce  the  manifestations  of  artistic 
production  from  the  physical,  moral,  and  intel- 
lectual peculiarities  of  nations  and  to  demon- 
strate how  all  other  vital  elements  pervade  artis- 
tic life.  With  rare  universality  of  scientific 
training  he  treated  art-history  as  an  integral 
part  of  the  history  of  civilization.  Consult  his 
biography  by  Lfibke  (Stuttgart,  1879). 

SCHNABEL,  shn&^el,  John  Gottfried 
(c.1690).  A  German  author,  who  was  known 
under  the   pseudonym  of   Gisander.     During  a 

gart  of  his  career  he  was  in  the  service  of  Count 
tolberg,  but  very  few  other  facts  concerning 
him  are  known.  He  wrote  some  of  the  best  ''Rob- 
insonaden,"  or  imitations  of  Robinson  Crusoe, 
that  appeared  in  German,  such  as  Wunderliche 
Fata  einiger  Seefahrer  (1731-43),  Die  Inseln  im 
Siidmeere  (republished  1826),  and  the  famous 
Die  Insel  Felsenherg  (republished  1827). 

SCHNECKENBXnElGEB,  shn$k^en-b^rK-Sr, 
Max  (1819-49).  A  German  poet,  bom  in  Thal- 
heim,  Wtlrttemberg.  He  was  partner  in  an  iron 
foundry  at  Burgdorf,  near  Bern.  His  best  known 
poem,  Die  Wacht  amRhein,  although  composed  in 
1840,  did  not  become  famous  imtil  the  outbreak  of 
the  Franco-Prussian  War.  It  was  set  to  music  by 
Karl  Wilhelm. 

SCHNEEBEBG,  shn&^rK.  A  town  in  the 
Kingdom  of  Saxony,  Germany,  19  miles  by  rail 
southeast  of  Zwickau  (Map:  Germany,  £  3). 
Mining  and  lace-making  are  the  main  industries. 
Kobalt  is  chiefly  mined.  The  Schneeberger  brand 
of  snuff  is  well-known.  The  late  Gothic  church 
contains  a  fine  crucifixion  by  Cranach  the  elder. 
Population,  in  1900,  8762. 

SCHNEIDElCtfHL,  shnl^de-myl.  A  town  of 
the  Province  of  Posen,  Prussia,  153  miles  by  rail 
northeast  of  Berlin  (Map:  Prussia,  G  2).  The 
town  has  handsome  churches,  a  'Catholic  semi- 
nary, and  a  provincial  deaf  and  dumb  asylum. 
There  are  important  glass  works.  Population,  in 
1900,  19,655,  of  whom  6399  were  Protestants. 

SCHNEIDEB,  shnl'dSr,  Friedbich  (1786- 
1853).  A  German  composer,  bora  at  Alt-Walters- 
dorf,  Saxony.  He  attended  the  Zittau  Gymnasium 
and  later  the  Leipzig  University.  In  1821  he  was 
called  to  Dessau  as  Court  Kapellmeister,  hav- 
ing become  famous  the  year  previous  by  the 
production  of  his  great  oratorio,  Das  Welt- 
gerieht.  While  at  Dessau  he  did  much  to- 
ward perfecting  the  Court  orchestra,  conducted 
the  Singakademie,  established  the  Xieder- 
tafel,'  and  founded  a  school  of  music  in  1829, 
which  flourished  until  1854.  Among  his 
works  are  the  oratorios,  Die  SUndflutf  Christus 
der  Meister,  Pharao,  Oethsemane  und  Oolgotha, 
and  Absalom,  He  also  wrote  masses,  motets, 
pianoforte  and  tiolin  music,  symphonies,  and 
songs. 

SCHNEIDEB,  Johaxn  Gottlob  (1750-1822). 
A  German  classical  philologist,  bom  in  Saxony, 


and  educated  at  the  universities  of  Leipsifi  and 
Gottingen.  In  1776  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  ancient  languages  and  history  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  and  in  1811, 
when  the  university  was  moved  to  Breslau,  he 
went  there  as  university  librarian.  He  published 
many  editions  of  the  classical  writers,  particular- 
ly those  relating  to  natural  history.  These  include 
the  works  of  i£lian,  Nicander,  and  the  8crijh 
tores  Rei  Rustuxs;  he  further  edited  Xenophon, 
Vitruvius,  Aristotle's  Politics,  Natural  History, 
Economics,  Physics,  etc.  One  of  the  largest  of  his 
publications  was  a  critical  Oriechisch-deutsches 
Worterbuch,  in  2  vols.  (Zttllich,  1797-98;  3d  edL, 
Leipzig,  1819-21).  Consult  Bursian,  Oeschichte 
der  klassischen  Philologie  in  DeutscMand  (Leip- 
zig, 1883). 

SCHKEIDEB,  Louis  (1805-78).  A  German 
actor  and  author,  bom  in  Berlin,  the  son  of  a 
musical  conductor,  whom  he  accompanied  on  his 
travels  until,  in  1820,  he  secured  an  engagement 
at  the  royal  theatre  in  Berlin.  For  twenty- 
eight  years  a  great  favorite  as  a  comedian  there, 
he  wrote  several  plays  and  operettas,  the  most 
successful  of  which  were  Der  Heiratsantrag  auf 
Helgoland,  Der  Schauspieldirektor  and  Der 
Kwtmdrker  und  die  Picarde.  When,  in  1848, 
he  retired  to  Potsdam,  Frederick  William  IV. 
appointed  him  his  reader  and  made  him  an  aulie 
councilor,  in  which  capacity  he  continued  un- 
der William  I.  During  the  campaigns  of  1866 
and  1870-71  he  accompanied  the  headquarters  of 
the  army  as  reporter  for  the  Staats-Anzeiger. 
Besides  the  historical  novel,  Der  base  Blick  (2d 
ed.  1871),  he  published:  Oeschichte  der  Oper 
und  des  koniglichen  Opemhauses  in  Berlin 
(1852);  Konig  Wilhelm  (1869);  Kaiser  Wil- 
helm, 1867-71  (1875).  Two  works  appeared 
posthumously  and  aroused  great  interest:  Aim 
meinem  Leben  (1879-80)  and  Aus  dem  Leben 
Kaiser  Wilhelms  (1888). 

SCHKEIDE  wiM ,  shnlMe-vIn,  Fbiedbich 
Wilhelm  (1810-56).  A  German  classical 
scholar.  He  was  bom  at  Helmstedt,  and  was 
educated  at  GOttingen,  where  he  was  professor  of 
classical  literature  from  1837  until  his  death. 
His  works  include  Delectus  Poesis  Orcseorum 
Elegiaccs,  lambiccB,  Melic<B  (1838-39);  Beit- 
rage  zur  Kritik  der  PoetoB  Lyrici  Orcsci  (1844) ; 
Martial's  Epigrammata,  with  critical  com- 
mentary (1842;  text,  1853  and  1866)  ;  and  Soph- 
ocles, with  critical  commentary  <7  vols.,  1849- 
54,  frequently  regdited  by  A.  Nanck).  After 
1846  he  edited  the  well-known  PhilologuM,  which 
he  had  founded. 

SCHITETZ,  shnets,  Jean  Victor  (1787-1870). 
A  French  historical  and  genre  painter.  He  was 
bom  in  Versailles,  and  studied  in  Paris  under 
David,  Regnault,  Gros,  and  Gerard.  He  is  im- 
portant as  marking  a  transition  between  .  the 
Neo-Classicists  of  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  and  the  Romanticists.  Schnet2 
was  made  a  member  of  the  Institute  in  1837,  and 
director  of  the  French  Academy  at  Rome  in  1840. 
Among  his  best  works  are  the  decorations  of  the 
ceiling  in  the  Septi^me  Salle,  in  the  Louvre; 
"Vow  to  the  Madonna"  (Luxembourg) ;  "Gypsy 
Woman  Foretelling  the  Future  of  Sixtus  V." 
(1820,  replica  Raczynski  collection,  Berlin) ;  the 
"Vintager  Asleep;"  "Bride  of  the  Goatherd." 
His  best  historical  painting  is  "Saint  Elizabeth," 
in  Notre  Dame  des  Bonnes  Nouvelles,  Paris. 


8CHNITZEB. 


529 


SCHOLASTICISM. 


SGHNITZEBy  shnlts^Sr,  Eduabd.  A  German 
tiraveler.    See  Emin  Pasha. 

SCHNITZLEB^  shnltsHSr,  Johann  (1836- 
93).  An  Austrian  physician,  famed  as  a  pul- 
monary specialist,  bom  at  Gross-Kanisza,  Hun- 
gary, and  educated  at  Budapest  and  Vienna.  He 
was  assistant  in  Oppolzer's  clinic  from  1863  to 
1867,  and  in  1878  became  professor  in  the  Uni- 
Yersity  of  Vienna.  He  was  the  principal  founder 
of  the  Vienna  polyclinic.  He  wrote:  Pneu- 
matische  Behandlung  der  Lungenund  Herzkrank- 
heiten  (1876);  Diagnose  und  Therapie  der 
LaryngO'  und  Tracheostenoaen  ( 1877 ) ;  and 
Lungensyphilis  und  ihr  Verhaltnis  stur  Lung- 
ensckwindsucht  (1880). 

SCHirOSB  VON  CABOLSFELD,  shn6r  f 6n 
kt'rdls-f^lt,  Julius  (1794-1872).  A  German  his- 
torical and  religious  painter.  He  was  bom  at 
Leipzig,  where  he  received  his  first  instruction 
from  his  father,  the  painter  Johann  Veit  Schnorr 
(1764-1841).  He  afterwards  studied  in  the  Acad- 
emy at  Vienna,  from  which  he  seceded  with  the 
group  of  painters  headed  by  Overbeck,  going  to 
Rome  in  1816.  (See  Pbe-Raphaeutes.)  His 
share  in  their  joint  commission  to  decorate  the 
Villa  Massimi  was  a  fresco  of  Orlando  Furioso— 
his  principal  work  at  Rome.  In  1827  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  in  the  Academy  of  Munich 
and  commissioned  by  King  Louis  I.  to  decorate 
five  rooms  of  the  Kbnigsbau  with  frescoes  from 
the  Nibelungenlied,  and  three  rooms  in  that 
part  of  the  royal  palace  called  the  Festsaalbau 
with  encaustic  pamtings  of  subjects  from  the 
history  of  Charlemagne,  Frederick  Barbarossa, 
and  Rudolph  of  Habsburg.  In  1846  he  was  made 
professor  in  the  Academy  and  director  of  the 
picture  gallery  at  Dresden. 

Schnorr 's  painting  shows  the  general  char- 
acteristics of  the  Nazarite  Brotherhood  (see 
OvEBBECK;  Pre-Raphaelites),  except  that  it  is 
less  extreme,  both  in  spirit  and  technical  methods. 
His  Bihel  in  Bildem,  an  admirable  work,  enjoyed 
wide  popularity.  His  principal  easel  paintings 
include  the  "Alms  of  Saint  Roche"  (Leipzig, 
Museum),  and  the  ''Family  of  John  the  Baptist 
Visiting  the  Family  of  Christ"  (Dresden  Gal- 
lery). Consult  Valentin,  in  Dohme,  Kunst  und 
KUnstler  des  XIX,  Jdhrhunderts  (Leipzig,  1882). 

SCHHOSB  VON  CABOLSTEIJ),  Ludwig 
Ferdinaivd  (1789-1863).  A  German  painter, 
bora  at  Leipzig,  brother  of  the  preceding.  He 
studied  at  the  Vienna  Academy,  of  which  he  be- 
came a  member  in  1836,  and  was  appointed  cus- 
todian of  the  Belvedere  Gallery  in  1841.  His 
works  include  **The  Erl-King"  (1821,  Ferdi- 
nandeum,  Innsbmck) ;  "The  Liberation  of  Peter" 
(1836,  Dresden  Museum)  ;  and  "Christ  Feeding 
the  Four  Thousand"  (1839,  ib.). 

SCHOELCHEB,  sh&l'shar^,  Victor  (1804-93). 
A  French  politician,  born  in  Paris.  He  is  chief- 
ly known  as  an  advocate  of  the  abolition  of  slav- 
ery in  the  French  colonies.  With  a  view  to  study- 
ing all  the  aspects  of  the  question,  he  traveled 
in  Mexico,  Cuba,  and  the  United  States  in  1829. 
In  1848,  as  Under-Secretary  for  the  Navy,  he  se- 
cured the  passage  of  a  law  abolishing  slavery  in 
the  French  colonies.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Constituent  Assembly  and  of  the  National  As- 
sembly from  1848  to  1850  and  voted  with  the 
Extreme  Left.  Expelled  from  France  after 
the  coup  d'etat  of  December  2,  1851,  he  remained 
in  England  till  the  fall  of  the  Second  Empire, 


when  he  returned  to  France,  and  during  the  siege 
of  Paris  commanded  the  artillery  of  the  National 
Guard.  Among  his  writings  are  an  English  Life 
of  Handel  (1857) ;  Des  ooUmiea  francataea,  A6o- 
lition  immediate  de  VeacUwage  (1842);  La  f€^ 
mille,  la  proprHH  et  le  chriatianiame  ( 1837 ) ;  Le 
vrai  8aint-PatU  (1879);  and  Vie  de  Touaaaint 
Louverture   (1889). 

SCHOfFEB,  shSf^Sr,  Peter  (c.l425-c.l603). 
An  early  German  printer.  He  was  bom  at  Gerns- 
heim,  and  in  early  life  was  a  copyist  in  Paris. 
About  1450  he  be<»me  an  assistant  in  the  print- 
ing establishment  of  Gutenberg  and  Fust,  at 
Mainz.  After  the  retirement  of  the  former,  he 
became  Fust's  partner,  and  with  him  printed 
the  Paalter  (1457).  He  is  said  to  have  intro- 
duced many  improvements  in  the  art  of  print- 
ing, but  his  claim  to  the  discovery  of  the  method 
of  casting  metal  types  is  not  generally  recog- 
nized.   He  married  the  daughter  of  Fust. 

SCHOFIELDy  sko'feld,  John  MoAlusteb 
(1831  —  ).  An  American  soldier,  bom  in  Chau- 
tauqua County,  N.  Y.  He  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1853;  was  assistant  professor  of  natu- 
ral and  experimental  philosophy  there  from 
1855  to  1860,  and  was  then  for  a  time  professor 
of  physics  at  Washington  University,  Saint 
Louis,  Mo.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil 
War  he  became  major  of  the  First  Missouri 
Volunteers,  served  as  chief  of  staff  for  General 
Lyon  during  the  operations  in  Missouri,  and  took 
part  in  the  battles  of  Du^  Spring  and  Wilson's 
Creek.  Afterwards  as  brigadier-general  of  vol- 
unteers he  commanded  the  State  troops  and  the 
district  of  Saint  Louis,  until  placed  in  command  of 
the  Army  of  the  Frontier  in  1862.  In  November, 
1862,  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  major- 
general  of  volunteers.  In  1864  he  was  assigned 
to  the  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Ohio.  In 
Sherman's  campaign  in  Georgia  he  commanded 
the  Twenty-third  Corps.  He  received  his  ap- 
pointment as  brigadier-general  in  the  Regular 
Army  for  his  services  at  the  battle  of  Frank- 
lin (q.v.),  November  30,  1864,  in  which  he  de- 
feated the  Ck)nfederate8  under  General  Hood. 
With  his  command  he  was  transferred  to  North. 
Carolina,  and  was  appointed  to  the  command  of 
that  department.  On  February  22,  1865,  he  occu- 
pied Wilmington,  fought  the  battle  of  Kinston 
March  8-lOth,  and  joined  Sherman  at  Goldsboro, 
March  22,  1865.  He  was  Secretary  of  War  ad 
interim  from  May,  1868,  to  March,  1869;  was 
then  placed  in  command  successively  of  the 
Department  of  the  Missouri  and  of  the  Di- 
vision of  the  Pacific.  In  July,  1876,  he  was 
appointed  superintendent  of  the  United  States 
Military  Academy,  and  from  1882  to  1883  had 
command  of  the  military  division  of  the  Pacific. 
He  then  conomanded  successively  the  divisions  of 
the  Missouri  and  of  the  Atlantic,  and  was  Com- 
manding General  of  the  United  States  Army  from 
1888  to  1895,  when  he  retired  with  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general.  He  published  Forty-aim 
Yeara  in  the  Army  (New  York,  1897). 

SCHOLASTICISM  (from  Lat.  acholaaticus, 
Gk.  cxo^^oioTiKit,  acholaatikoa,  relating  to  school, 
learned,  from  cx^X-Zj,  schoU,  learning,  leisure, 
school).  A  term  applied  in  its  commonest  ac- 
ceptation to  the  teaching  of  those  who  devoted 
themselves  in  the  mediaeval  schools  to  the  sci- 
ences, especially  philosophy  and  theology.  Not 
only  the  latter  branches,  however,  but  the  whole 


SCHOLASTICISM. 


580 


8CHOLASTICIS1L 


speculative  science  of  the  Middle  Ages,  is  some- 
times included  under  the  term  scholasticism. 
This,  however,  is  obviously  an  exaggeration,  since 
mediieval  speculation  ran  in  such  markedly  di- 
verging channels  as  the  Arabian,  Jewish,  and 
Greek  philosophies,  while  against  the  current  of 
genuine  scholasticism  there  were  all  along  two 
directly  anti-scholastic  movements — ^pure  ration- 
alism and  mysticism.  Again^  scholasticism  is 
not  unfrequently  made  to  stand  for  a  method  of 
demonstration  chiefly  characterized  by  fideism, 
apriorism,  logomachy,  endless  subtlety,  and  hair- 
splitting, whose  sole  organ  is  supposed  to  be  the 
deductive  syllogism.  This  interpretation,  how- 
ever, is  justified  only  as  regards  the  method  of 
its  adherents  of  inferior  rank,  and  of  its  for- 
mative and  declining  periods. 

Scholasticism  is  essentially  a  Weltanschauung 
— ^a  synthetic  view  of  the  universe,  embracing  the 
world,  man,  and  God  with  their  inter-relations, 
in  so  far  as  this  is  attainable  by  the  aid  of 
experience,  reason,  and  revelation  cooperating  in 
due  subordination.  Thus  regarded  it  is,  sub- 
jectively, one  of  the  countless  efforts  of  the 
human  mind  to  obtain  a  unified  comprehension 
of  reality.  Objectively  and  in  its  developed  form, 
scholasticism  is  a  systematized  result  of  this 
striving  for  unity,  an  orderly  synthetic  view  of 
reality. 

Among  the  peculiarities  which  on  the  whole 
differentiate  it  from  other  world-views  the  fol- 
lowing especially  deserve  attention:  (1)  The 
completeness  of  its  criteria,  and  consequently  of 
the  materials  which,  resulting  from  their  co- 
ordination, combine  in  its  composition.  Con- 
sciousness, sense-experience,  intellectual  intui- 
tion, reasoning,  inductive  and  deductive  demon- 
stration, human  testimonv  conjoin  in  it  with 
divine  revelation  in  the  endeavor  to  ascertain  the 
ultimate  nature  of  the  reality  that  presents  itself 
to  the  mind.  Sense-experience  and  the  inductive 
process  were,  it  is  true,  inadequately  and  un- 
critically employed  by  the  medieval  scholastics, 
but  this  defect  has  been  made  good  by  their 
modem  successors.  (2)  Its  method  combines 
analysis  with  synthesis,  induction  with  deduc- 
tion— ^a  union  which,  harmonizing  the  process 
of  inquiry  and  proof  with  man's  dual  nature,  can 
alone,  it  is  asserted,  engender  intellectual  per- 
fection. (3)  The  continuity  of  its  evolution. 
The  beginnings  of  scholasticism  are  traced  his- 
torically to  Socrates,  the  results  of  whose  search 
for  the  permanent  element  in  the  contingent,  the 
universal  in  the  particular,  were  developed  by 
Plato.  .The  Platonic  system  was  pruned  of  its 
idealistic  excrescences  and  its  extremely  dualistic 
view  of  human  nature  by  Aristotle.  Into  the 
Greek  synthesis  Saint  Augustine  built  many  of 
the  conceptions  derived  from  Christian  revela- 
tion ;  and  thus  enlarged  and  interpreted,  it  passed 
through  the  more  immediately  formative  stages 
of  the  earlier  Middle  Ages,  and  through  the  hands 
of  Saint  Anselm,  to  receive  a  mature  develop- 
ment in  the  thirteenth  century  under  the  influ- 
ence of  Saint  Thomas  Aquinas.  Then  followed 
the  age  of  decline  and  arrested  progress.  In  the 
second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  it  came 
forth  in  renewed  vigor,  and  has  since  been  assimi- 
lating to  its  organism  the  results  of  philosophical 
criticism  and  empirical  research.  Tlie  scholastic 
synthesis  is  therefore  the  outcome  of  a  rational 
eclecticism  on  independent  and  original  lines. 

Its    philosophical    content   is   mainly   derived 


from  Aristotle,  though  in  following  him  the 
schoolmen  were  by  no  means  servile.  Other  ays- 
tems,  Platonism,  Neo-Platonism,  Stoicism, 
Pythagoreanism,  as  well  as  the  philosophical 
speculations  of  the  Fathers,  enter  into  its  body. 
Its  theological  content  Ib  the  truths  of  revelation 
as  glean^  from  the  Bible,  ecclesiastical  tradi- 
tion, and  the  authoritative  pronouncements  of 
the  Church.  Scholasticism  has  also  been  defined 
as  the  application  of  Aristotle  to  theology,  or 
the  expression  of  the  facts  and  realities  of  revela- 
tion in  the  mind-language  of  the  Peripatetics. 
The  definition  is  true  so  far.  as  it  goes,  but  is 
inadequate.  The  inference,  however,  should  not 
be  drawn  that  the  Catholic  Church  has  com.- 
mitted  herself  to  Aristotle's  philosophy.  She 
makes  use  of  it,  indeed,  as  a  standard  of  expres- 
sion, but  she  indorses  none  of  its  tenets  that  are 
not  necessarily  accepted  by  plain  common  sense; 
for,  like  every  other  philosophy,  it  contains  ele- 
ments implicated  in  the  very  nature  of  the  mind, 
combined  with  other  peculiar  debatable  features 
which  are  the  product  of  human  ingenuity. 

HiSTOBT  OF  THE  SCHOLASTIO  MOVEMBNT.      The 

more  immediate  history  of  mediaeval  scholasti- 
cism  may  be  divided  into  four  periods:  (1)  The 
formative  period,  reaching  from  the  ninth  to  the 
closing  of  the  twelfth  oentuiy.  (2)  The  period 
of  maturity.  (3)  The  period  of  decline.  (4) 
The  subsequent  stage  culminating  in  what  is 
known  as  Neo-scholasticism  of  the  present  day. 
Two  distinct  currents  run  through  the  history 
of  mediieval  speculation — ^the  strictly  scholaatie 
and  the  mystical.  Indications  of  the  divergence 
of  these  two  streams  are  noticeable  in  the  Patris- 
tic period,  but  the  distinction  became  broad  and 
deep  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Scholasticism  repre- 
sents the  speculative,  mysticism  the  contempla- 
tive phase  of  thought.  Scholasticism  strives  to 
comprehend  truth  by  the  investigations  of  rea- 
son ;  m3rsticism  by  the  methods  of  oontemplationy 
by  the  sympathies  and  emotions  of  the  heart.  The 
two  schools,  however,  were  at  one  in  their  rever- 
ence for  Christian  truths,  and  whatever  their 
differences  on  other  points,  they  supplemented 
each  other's  teaching  and,  on  the  whole,  so 
counterbalanced  one  another  as  to  prevent  either 
from  pushing  its  doctrine  to  a  dangerous  ex- 
treme. 

During  the  first  period  the  broader  outlines  of 
the  scholastic  synthesis  were  gradually  laid.  The 
first  attempts  were  vast  accumulations  of  raw 
material,  general  cydopiedias  or  summaries  of 
the  intellectual  possessions  of  the  age,  like  the 
Origines  of  Isidore  of  Seville^  the  De  Natura 
Rerum  of  Bede,  and  the  De  Universo  of  Rhabanus 
Maurus.  Gradually  the  special  philosophical 
problems  differentiate  themselves,  and  the  broken 
threads  of  the  ancient  and  patristic  traditions 
are  gathered  up.  The  dominant  subject  of  study 
was  dialectic,  and  the  question  of  tne  nature  of 
universals,  with  which  the  period  may  properly 
be  said  to  haVe  opened,  mainly  absorbed  atten- 
tion. There  speedily  developed  a  ridiculous 
despotism  of  formal  logic,  mainly  due  to  the 
wrong  philosophical  orientation  of  the  early 
schoolmen  owing  principally  to  their  meagre  sup- 
ply of  philosophical  literature.  The  earlier 
scholastics  drew  their  doctrines  from  conflicting 
sources.  Mutilating  one  author,  misunderstand- 
ing another,  ignoring  in  all  the  historical  and 
logical  relation,  they  elaborated  irregular  sys- 
tems without  always  knowing  how  to  escape  in- 


8GH0LA8TI0IS1C 


681 


SCHOLASTIGISM. 


conBLBtency.  In  dialectics  Aristotle  held  undis- 
puted away.  Metaphysics  was  a  bizarre  union 
of  Aristotelian  and  Platonic  ideas.  From  the 
TtfruBtM  was  borrowed  the  theory  of  the  principle 
of  causality,  from  Aristotle  the  scheme  of  the 
four  causes.  The  Platonic  doctrine  of  ideas  was 
brought  to  the  front  together  with  the  Aristote- 
lian theories  of  substance,  nature,  person,  and  the 
categories.  Indirectly,  through  Saint  Ambrose 
and  Bo€thius,  the  composition  of  matter  and  form 
was  known,  though  this  organic  doctrine  of  the 
Peripatetics  plays  but  an  insignificant  part  and 
was  always  misunderstood.  Cosmological  teach- 
ings show  the  same  uncertainty.  Under  the  infiu- 
ence  of  the  Platonic  theory  of  the  world-soul,  or 
the  fatum  of  the  Stoics,  an  autonomous  life 
was  attributed  to  nature,  though,  on  the  other 
hand,  some  of  the  ablest  of  the  schoolmen  (Ab6- 
lard,  John  of  Salisbury)  maintained  with  Aris- 
totle the  individuality  of  every  natural  substance, 
two  theses  that  it  is  impossible  to  reconcile. 

Up  to  the  thirteenth  century  the  psychology  of 
the  schools  is  principally  Augustiman  and  Pla- 
tonic. Man  is  a  microcosm,  a  mirror  of  the  uni- 
verse. From  Saint  Augustine  is  taken  the  divi- 
sion of  faculties  and  the  theory  of  knowledge.  To 
these  studies  on  the  psychical  -  activities  were 
united  observations  on  the  empirical  and  physio- 
logical life,  inspired  by  Arabian  science.  On  the 
nature  of  man,  whatever  concerned  the  ori^  and 
destiny  of  the  soul  was  eagerly  studied.  The  re- 
lation between  body  and  soul  was  explained  on  the 
Platonic  theoiy — ^the  soul  being  held  to  be  united 
to  the  body  as  the  pilot  to  the  ship,  the  rider  to 
his  horse.  Although  the  Aristotelian  definition  of 
the  soul  as  'the  actus  primus  of  the  body'  was 
well  known,  the  soul  was  not  held  to  be  the 
Bubsiantial  form  of  the  organism,  for  this,  ac- 
cording to  the  conceptions  of  the  time,  would 
have  Wn  to  regard  it  as  a  property  of  matter. 
Theodicy  was  always  considered  as  one  of  the 
most  important  chapters  in  scholastic  philosophy. 
The  Fathers  of  the  Church,  the  pseudo-Diony- 
sius,  and  BoSthius  had  left  long  dissertations  on 
the  existence  of  God ;  therein  are  found  the  Aris- 
totelian ideas  on  the  prime  mover,  the  Neopla- 
tonic  conceptions  of  the  demiurge,  of  a  Supreme 
Being,  and  the  Pythagorean  traditions  on  num- 
ber. On  the  whole,  if  we  except  theodicy,  which, 
fragmentary  though  it  was,  remained  faithful  to 
the  true  genius  of  scholasticism,  in  the  philoso- 
phy of  UkiB  period  the  effort  to  amalgamate 
heterogeneous  and  incompatible  elements  was  the 
chief  defect. 

The  scholastic  movement  reaches  its  fullest 
medieval  development  in  the  thirteenth  century 
with  the  great  teachers  of  the  age,  Albertus 
Magnus,  Siint  Thomas  Aquinas,  Saint  Bona- 
ventura,  and  Duns  Scotus.  Its  dominant  traits 
are  now:  (1)  Comprehensiveness.  Acquainted 
with  all  the  problems  suggested  by  a  complete 
philosophical  S3rstem,  the  scholastics  offer  defi- 
nite solutions  ready  for  unitive  coordination. 
(2)  Individuality  of  the  philosophers.  The  thir- 
teenth century  was  a  century  of  individualities. 
While  all  the  great  schoolmen  agreed  in  a  number 
of  fundamental  theories,  each  of  them  imprinted 
upon  this  common  fund  the  mark  of  his  person- 
ality. (3)  The  prominence  given  to  psychologi- 
cal and  metaphysical  problems.  In  psychology, 
the  genesis  of  loiowledge  and  the  nature  of  the 
soul;  in  metaphysics,  the  theories  of  matter  and 
form,  of  the  nature  and  of  the  origin  of  sub- 


stances, of  the  principle  of  individuation  sum  up- 
the  main  objects  of  controversy. 

The  intensity  of  Christian  faith  among  the 
contemporaries  and  successors  of  Charlemagne 
explains  the  ingress  of  scholastic  philosophy 
upon  the  domain  of  theology.  The  dispute  con- 
cerning predestination  raised  the  problem  of 
liberty  and  its  relation  to  God's  providence  and 
justice;  the  controversy  of  Pascnasius  on  the 
Eucharistic  Presence  occasioned  dissertations  on 
substance  and  accident ;  the  dogma  of  the  Trinity 
suggested  discussions  on  the  concepts  of  nature, 
individuality,  person;  the  mystery  of  transub- 
stantiation  and  of  the  divine  simplicity  provoked 
the  study  of  physical  processes.  However,  before 
long  the  philosophical  questions  were  disengaged 
from  their  theological  setting.  Distinction  be- 
tween the  two  sciences  was  deduced  from  the 
diversity  of  their  principles,  their  methods,  and 
their  special  objects,  a  distinction  which  is  ex- 
plicitly laid  down  and  developed  in  the  first 
question  of  the  8umma  Theologica  by  Saint 
Thomas. 

The  decline  of  scholasticism  followed  rapidly 
on  its  maturity.  The  causes  which  led  to  its 
ruin  acted  slowly  but  steadily.  Of  these  causes 
some  are  internal,  the  exhaustion  of  the  move- 
ment itself;  others  external,  the  decline  of 
studies,  and  the  progressive  encroachments  of 
anti-scholastic  philosophies.  Lack  of  originality 
is  the  first  symptom  of  this  decay.  From  the 
fourteenth  century  the  number  of  those  who  de- 
voted themselves  to  the  study  of  philosophy  ffrew 
in  colossal  proportions.^  Universities  multiplied, 
and  thus  facilitated  the  growth  of  philosophical 
pursuits.  Entire  orders  engaged  in  the  prevalent 
controversies.  But  these  multitudinous  philoso- 
phers no  longer  thought  for  themselves.  They 
enrolled  themselves  with  some  great  school,  led 
by  some  illustrious  thinker.  As  with  all  the 
writers  of  periods  of  decline,  they  were  mere  com- 
mentators upon  the  thoughts  of  others. 

As  schools  increased  individuality  decreased. 
The  thirteenth  century  was  marked  by  distinct 
personalities;  the* fourteenth  and  fifteenth  were 
periods  of  impersonal  thought.  Apart  from  the 
Terminists  the  schoolmen  after  the  thirteenth 
century  discovered  no  new  modes  of  speculation. 
But  terminism  was  a  symptom  of  decay,  for  in 
its  work  is  noticeable  another  mark  of  decompo- 
sition which  was  not  slow  to  invade  all  scholas- 
ticism, the  deterioration  in  the  scholastic  syn- 
thesis. The  new  theories,  those  of  Occam,  for 
example,  were  at  ill  accord,  in  more  than  one 
pointy  with  the  scholastic  synthesis,  without, 
however,  being  in  confiict  with  its  organic  princi- 
ples. The  passionate  disputes  of  the  Terminists, 
Scotists,  and  Thomists  also  largely  contributed  to 
disturb  the  economy  of  scholasticism. 

Scholasticism  itself  departed  further  and 
further  from  the  dignified  and  precise  language 
of  the  thirteenth  century.  Uncouth  expressions 
which  hitherto  had  appeared  only  sporadically 
and  for  the  most  part  in  Arabo-Latin  transla- 
tions multiplied  rapidly  from  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury; even  the  spelling  in  use  with  professors 
betrayed  an  unpardonable  ignorance  of  Latin. 
Terminism  and  Scotism  must  assume  the  greater 
part  of  the  responsibility  for  this  decadence.  And 
as  defect  in  form  engenders  confusion  of  ideas 
there  appears  also  a  deterioration  in  scholastic 
methods.  Under  pretext  of  clarity,  distinctions, 
sub-distinctions,  terms,  and  counter-terms  were 


scholasticism: 


582 


SCHOLASnCISK. 


multiplied.  These  abuses  were  furthered  by  the 
progressive  advance  of  an  exaggerate  dialectic. 
The  thirteenth  century  looked  upon  dialectics  in 
theory  and  practice  as  a  mental  discipline  pre- 
paratory to  the  study  of  physics,  metaphysics, 
and  morals.  The  altering  of  this  relation  inev- 
itably led  to  the  despotism  of  formalism.  There 
were  some  symptoms  of  this  intellectual  malady 
at  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century;  it 
progressed  gradually  until  it  had  undermined  the 
vitality  of  scholasticism. 

Mental  enervation  became  apparent  in  the  in- 
tellectual centres  of  the  time — the  religious 
Orders  and  the  universities.  The  former  re- 
mained for  the  time  the  principal  nurseries  of 
science;  but  zeal  for  study  lessened  as  discipline 
relaxed.  Among  the  many  teachers  eager  for 
quick  results  there  were  comparatively  few  who 
by  personal  and  persevering  effort  rom  above  the 
prevailng  mediocrity.  The  University  of  Paris 
fell  rapidly  from  its  grandeur,  and  scholasticism, 
which  had  risen  with  it,  was  dragged  down  in  its 
fall.  Yielding  to  intrigue,  the  Faculty  of  The- 
ology trifled  with  academic  rules ;  they  facilitated 
the  'actus  scholastici,'  shortened  the  years  of 
study,  and  made  examinations  matters  of  form. 
The  Faculty  of  Arts  fell  into  a  like  condition 
and  thus  brought  on  its  own  ruin.  The  arts 
being  an  obligatory  stage  to  theology,  men  with 
money  and  ambition  had  an  obvious  interest  in 
abridging  their  study  as  much  as  possible. 

While  scholasticism  as  a  movement  was  pass- 
ing through  these  days  of  storm  and  stress  its 
synthesis  was  preserved  intact.  Men  of  mental 
breadth  and  insight  like  Gajetan  (1496-1534), 
Franciscus  Sylvestris  Ferrariensis  (1474-1528). 
Bafiez  (1528-1604),  Vasquez  (1651-1604),  Tole- 
tuB  (1532-1596),  and  above  all  Suarez  (1548- 
1617),  preserved  and  developed  the  scholastic  or- 
ganism. 

During  the  nineteenth  century  philosophers 
like  Kleutgen  and  Stockl  in  Germany;  Ozanam, 
De  Broglie,  Farges,  Blanc,  Gardair,  and  many 
others  in  France;  Liberatore,  Sanseverino,  Cor- 
noldi,  and  Zigliara,  in  Italy;  Halmes  and  Cortes, 
in  Spain;  Ward  and  Harper,  in  England,  have 
been  bearers  of  the  scholastic  teachings  to  the 
present  age.  A  strong  impulse  to  the  Neoscho- 
lastic  movement  was  given  by  Leo  XIII.  in  many 
public  utterances,  notably  by  his  encyclical 
^temi  Patria  (1879),  in  which  he  urges  a  re- 
turn to  the  study  of  the  great  schoolmen,  es- 
pecially Saint  Thomas,  not,  indeed,  with  a  view 
to  a  wholesale  reimportation  of  scholasticism  in 
its  full  mediaeval  content,  but  with  an  eye  to  its 
extension,  completion,  and  adaptation  to  the  in- 
tellectual requirements  and  modes  of  thought  of 
the  present  age.  A  valuable  aid  in  this  direction 
is  the  critical  edition  of  the  works  of  Saint 
Thomas  now  being  published  at  Rome  under  the 
Papal  auspices.  The  establishment  at  Louvain 
of  the  'Institut  Sup^rieur  de  Philosophic'  under 
the  presidency  of  M.  Mercier  was  also  largely 
due  to  the  broad  policy  of  Leo  XIII.  A  sys- 
tematic series  of  works  on  Neoscholasticism  em- 
anates from  the  Institute,  as  does  likewise  the 
Revue  N^oscholastiquej  a  quarterly  now  in  its 
tenth  year.  The  Revue  de  PkUosophie  (Paris), 
the  Philosophisches  Jahrhuch  (Fulda),  the  An- 
nalcs  de  Philosophie  ChrMienne  ( Paris ) ,  and  Dt- 
vu8  Thomas  (Piacenza)  are  among  the  well- 
known  periodicals  devoted  to  the  same  movement. 

The  Scholastic  Synthesis.    So  much  for  the 


history  of  scholasticism  as  a  movement.  Tbe 
result,  the  synthesis,  can  be  here  barely  touched 
upon.  The  scholastic  sees  the  world  of  reality 
with  the  triple  eye  of  sense,  reason,  and  faith. 
These  organa  are  distinct,  and  each  in  its  limited 
sphere  independent.  They  are  all  necessary  to 
a  complete  survey  of  reality,  and,  under  normal 
conditions  critically  discernible,  are  mutually 
corroborative.  Under  their  harmonious  interac- 
tion the  world  of  reality  is  seen  to  embrace  Crea- 
tor  and  creature,  the  latter  emanating  from  the 
former  as  from  its  primary  archetypal  and  effi- 
cient cause.  The  irrational  world  is  synthesized 
in  the  rational,  and  by  it,  through  a  reasonable 
service  active  and  passive,  referred  to  its  first 
principle  and  final  end.  The  method,  way,  and 
means  to  this  return  of  the  creature  to  the  Crea- 
tor is  manifest  in  the  synthesis  of  both,  the 
Incarnate  Word  and  His  organized  economy. 
These  are  the  broad  lines  of  the  scholastic  syn- 
thesis. 

Separated  from  the  elements  derived  from  reve- 
lation, the  purely  rational  lines  of  the  synthesis 
are  the  following.  It  is  the  aim  of  philosophy 
to  interpret  the  universal  order  of  things  in  its 
constituent,  efficient,  and  final  causes.  That  order 
is  made  up  of  four  departments  as  manifested 
under  as  many  ascending  degrees  of  intellectual 
abstraction:  (1)  The  real  order  which  the  mind 
considers  but  does  not  make,  and  which  falls 
under  the  scrutiny  of  physics,  mathematics,  and 
metaphysics;  (2)  the  mental  order  which  the 
mind  makes  by  reflectively  considering  its  own 
acts,  the  sphere  of  logic;  (3)  the  moral  order 
which  the  mind  makes  by  reflective  consideration 
of  the  acts  of  the  will,  the  domain  of  ethics;  (4) 
the  external  order  which  the  mind  makes  in  con- 
sidering man's  external  productive  acts,  the  order 
of  the  arts  liberal  and  mechanical. 

The  supreme  synthetic  ideas  of  the  metaphys- 
ical order  are  act  (perfect  determination)  and 
potency  (determinability).  On  these  rests  the 
distinction  between  the  infinite — ^whose  existence 
is  demonstrated  a  posteriori — as  actus  purus, 
unalloyed  perfection,  and  the  finite  being  com- 
bining act  with  potency.  The  relations  of  God, 
the  Infinite,  to  the  finite  are  inferred  from  His 
intelligence  and  will,  and  are  summed  up  under 
three: 

(1)  Exemplarism:  The  divine  ideas,  or  the 
different  phases  of  God's  essence  perceived  by 
His  intellect  as  imitable  outwardly,  are  the  ulti- 
mate ontological  basis  of  all  finite  realities  and 
the  ultimate  basis  of  their  cognoscibility  and  our 
rational  certitude.  (2)  Greationism:  The  finite 
proceeds  from  the  Infinite  as  the  term  of  the 
creative  act.  Cvod's  creative  efficiency  terminates 
at  the  very  substance  of  the  finite;  in  this  con- 
ception the  scholastic  transcends  the  Aristotelian 
concept  of  the  causa  motriw,  (3)  Providence: 
The  Creator  is  necessarily  conserver  and  pro- 
vider. The  finality  immanent  in  creation  and  di- 
rected to  an  ultimate  rational  purpose  is  con- 
ceived by  the  scholastics  in  a  higher  and  more 
consistent  light  than  it  was  by  the  ancient 
Greeks. 

The  mingling  of  potency  and  act,  the  determin- 
able and  the  determined,  shows  itself  in  the  finite 
by  a  triple  composition — (1)  that  of  matter  and 
form ;  (2)  the  individual  and  the  general  essence; 
(3)  essence  and  existence.  (1)  The  duality  of 
matter  and  form  was  derived  from  the  Aris- 
totelian theory  of  physical  processes  and  trans*. 


SCHOLASTICISM. 


588 


8CH0LL. 


ferred  to  metaphysics.  In  the  corporeal  world 
everything  is  constituted  of  a  homogeneous  and 
a  heterogeneous  principle,  of  a  principle  of  dif- 
ference and  unity,  of  passivity  and  activity.  The 
root  of  the  one  is  matter^  of  the  other  form. 
Matter  cannot  subsist  without  form.  The  highest 
forms,  the  human  soul  and  «upemal  spirits,  can 
exist  without  matter.  Form  is  the  root  of  speci- 
fication; matter  of  individuation;  but  in  this 
capacity  matter  must  be  considered  in  connection 
with  quantitative  dimensions.  Form  is  to  mat- 
ter as  act  to  potency.  (2)  In  the  finite  individ- 
ual the  individuation  and  the  abstract  essence  are 
not  really,  but  only  virtually  distinct.  This  gives 
the  mind  a  basis  for  abstracting  the  essence — ^the 
direct  universal  ( universale  in  re )  — and  elaborat- 
ing it  by  comparison  and  reflection  into  the  reflex 
universal  {universale  post  rem  in  mente).  The 
individual  is  to  the  essence,  the  singular  to  the 
tmiversal,  as  act  to  potency.  (3)  Essence  and 
existence  in  the  finite  are  really  distinct  after  the 
analogy  again  of  act  and  potency. 

Mathematics  and  physics  may  be  here  dis- 
missed. Scholastic  physics  was  based  on  the 
Peripatetic  and  manifests  its  shortcomings,  but 
together  therewith  an  insight  into  physical 
processes  and  the  phenomena  of  motion  which 
theoretical  physics  of  the  present  age  cannot  af- 
ford to  despise. 

Psychology  was  with  the  schoolmen,  as  with 
Aristotle,  a  branch  of  physics,  a  point  of  view  to 
which  recent  physiological  psychology  has  re- 
turned. The  soul  is  united  to  the  body  as  form  to 
matter.  The  soul  is  therefore  the  root  of  unity 
and  activity  in  the  organism.  From  it  all  vital 
operation,  vegetative,  sensitive,  intellective,  ap- 
petitive, locomotive,  proceeds.  The  immediate 
principles  of  these  operations  are  the  powers  or 
faculties,  all  of  which  are  rooted  in  the  soul, 
though  the  senses — ^the  inner  and  the  outer  senses 
and  the  sensuous  appetites — ^are  blended  with  the 
chemical  matter  of  the  organism,  on  which  they 
therefore  intrinsically  and  essentially  depend. 
Other  powers  transcend  the  material  organism  as 
such,  and,  though  dependent  thereon  for  their  ob- 
ject matter,  operate  with  a  certain  autonomy  of 
their  own.  These  intrinsically  dependent  energies 
are  the  intellect  and  will.  Being  immaterial, 
they  manifest  the  immateriality  of  their  root, 
the  substance  of  the  soul.  The  soul  is,  therefore, 
no  product  of  matter.  It  is  the  term  of  the  crea- 
tive act,  and,  being  simple  and  immaterial,  is 
necessarily  incorruptible,  i.e.  immortal. 

Scholastic  epistemology  is  based  on  the  prin- 
ciple that  knowledge  sensuous  and  intellective 
consists  in  the  assimilation  of  object  to  subject — 
an  assimilation  engendered  by  the  cooperation  of 
the  two.  The  stimulation  of  the  psychic  cog- 
nitive power  by  the  object  was  called  the  species 
impressa,  the  reaction  of  the  faculty  the  species 
esepressa.  In  intpllective  cognition  the  object  is 
presented  through  the  phantasm  from  which  the 
active  intellect  abstracts  the  intelligible  species. 
In  the  wake  of  cognition  follows  appetition  sen- 
sitive or  intellective.  The  latter — the  will — is 
like  every  other  power  necessitated  as  to  its  gen- 
eral object,  the  good  as  such;  though  in  respect 
to  this  or  that  good  it  is  undetermined  and  in- 
trinsically free. 

Ethics  was  dominated  by  the  concept  of  final- 
ity immanent  in  man  as  it  is  in  the  universe, 
loin's  objective  end  is  the  vision  of  the  infinite 
truth  and  the  enjoyment  of  the  infinite  good,  i.e. 


God.  He  is  physically  free,  however,  to  place  his 
end  in  the  finite.  If  he  do  he  will  fail  of  his- 
ultimate  perfection  and  incur  unending  loss.  The 
natural  law  of  conduct  is  the  reflection  of  the 
eternal  law  in  consciousness.  Acts  are  good  or 
bad  according  as  they  are  in  accord  or  discord 
with  human  nature  in  its  concrete  existence. 
Special  ethics  and  politics  unfold  and  apply  the 
natural  law  to  the  special  individual  relations  of 


There  are  obvious  objections  to  the  scholastic 
S3nithesis.  It  is  accused  of  being  one-sided,  of 
neglecting  the  historic  and  inductive  method,  of 
being  unprogressive,  of  merely  imfolding  what 
was  already  contained  in  received  data,  of  bring- 
ing no  new  facts  to  light,  but  simply  analyzing 
the  facts  at  hand  which  it  took  for  granted.  All 
these  and  other  such  charges  may  with  some 
obvious  restrictions  be  admitted.  Nevertheless 
scholasticism  centred  the  human  mind  on  certain 
fundamental  truths  essential  to  the  complete 
spiritual  development  of  the  race. 

BiBLiOGBAPHT.  De  Wulff,  Histoire  de  la  phi- 
losophie  medi^vale  (Paris,  1899)  ;  Werner,  Der 
heiUge  Thomas  von  Aquino  (Regensburg,  1858- 
59) ;  id..  Die  Scholastik  des  sp&teren  Mittelalters 
(Vienna,  1881-87);  id.,  Franz  Suarez  und 
die  Scholastik  des  letzten  Jahrhunderts  (Regens- 
burg, 1860-61)  ;  Willmann,  Oeschichte  des  IdeaU 
ismus  (Brunswick,  1894-97)  ;  Kleutgen,  Philoso- 
phie  der  Vorzeit  (Mtinster,  1863)  ;  Stockl,  Lehr^ 
huch  der  Oeschichte  der  Philosophic  (Mainz, 
1870)  ;  Gutberlet,  Lehrhuch  der  Naturphilosophie 
und  der  Psychologic  (MUnster,  1896) ;  Haureau, 
Philosophic  soholaetique  (Paris,  1872-80)  ; 
Farges,  Etudes  philosophiques  (Paris,  1891  et 
seq.);  Balmes,  Fundamental  Philosophy  (Eng. 
trans,  by  Brownson,  New  York,  1856)  ;  Ward, 
Philosophy  of  Theism  (London,  1884) ;  Harper, 
Metaphysics  of  the  School  (ib.,  1872-84);  Rick- 
aby,  First  Principles  of  Knowledge  (ib.,  1888) ; 
Maher,  Psychology  (ib.,  1889)  ;  Boedder,  Nat- 
ural Theology  (ib.,  1889)  ;  DriscoU,  Ood:  a  Con- 
tribution to  a  Philosophy  of  Theism  (New  York, 
1900)  ;  Urraburfi,  Institutiones  PhUosophiccB 
(Valladolid,  1892  et  seq.). 

SCHOLIASTS,  skyil-ftsts  (MGk.  «rxoXawmJf, 
scholiast€s,  commentator,  from  ^'x^^^^^'';  scholi- 
azein,  to  write  commentaries,  from  o-x^Xxoy, 
scholion^  commentary,  from  o^oXi^,  schoUy  learn- 
ing, school).  A  name  applied  to  annotators  of 
classical  works,  especially  Greek.  These  com- 
mentaries, scholia,  were  written  on  the  margin  or 
between  the  lines  of  the  manuscripts,  and  included 
explanations  and  interpretation  of  every  kind. 
The  earliest  form  of  interpretation  consisted  of 
nothing  more  than  glosses  on  difficult  or  unusual 
words,  but  with  the  Alexandrians  learned  com- 
ment in  the  larger  sense  began  and  continued 
through  the  Byzantine  Age.  In  Latin  we  have 
important  scholia  to  Terence,  Vergil,  Horace, 
Statins,  and  others.  For  a  history  of  the  Greek 
annotators  of  antiquity,  consult  Wilamowitz- 
Muellendorf,  Herakles,  introduction  to  vol.  i. 
(Berlin,  1889). 

SCHUlL,  sh5l,  Adolf  (1805-82).  A  German 
archaeologist  and  critic,  bom  at  Brtinn,  Austria, 
and  educated  at  Tflbingen  and  Gottingen,  In  1843 
he  was  appointed  director  of  the  Art  Institute  iij 
Weimar,  where  he  was  made  librarian  in  chief  ii^ 
1861.  He  wrote  Die  Tetralogien  der  attischen 
Tragiker    (1839),    Sophokles    (1842),    Weimara 


8CH0LL. 


684 


SGHOXBxmax. 


MerktDurdigkeiten  { 1847 ) ,  and  many  oontributions 
to  the  criticism  of  Goethe.  Consult  the  biography 
by  his  son  Friedrich  (Berlin,  1883). — ^Uis  son 
RtTDOLF  (1844-93)  was  born  in  Weimar  and  after 
studying  at  Gdttingen  and  Bonn  traveled  in  Italy 
with  Theodor  Mommsen.  He  was  successively 
professor  at  Greifswald,  Jena,  Strassburg,  and 
Munich.  He  wrote  Legia  Duodecim  Tahularum 
ReHquUp  (1866)  and  De  Synegoria  Atticia 
(1875). — ^His  brother  Fbiedbich  (1850—)  stud- 
ied at  Gdttingen  and  Leipzig,  and  in  1877  became 
professor  at  Heidelberg.  Best  known  as  a  pupil 
of  Ritechl,  Scholl  was  one  of  the  co-editors  of 
the  Teubner  text  of  Plautus  (1892-95). 

SCHOLL,  shdl,  AuRtUEN  (1833t-).  A  French 
loumalist,  dramatist,  and  miscellaneous  writer, 
born  at  Bordeaux.  Having  studied  at  the  Col- 
lege de  Bordeaux,  he  went  to  Paris  in  1860.  He 
founded  successively  Le  Nain  Jaune,  Le  Club,  Le 
Jockey,  Le  Lorgnon  (1869).  After  the  Franco- 
German  War  he  was  on  the  staff  of  L*Ev4nement 
(1872-82),  then  editor-in-chief  of  Le  Voltaire 
(1882-83),  and  an  editor  of  L'Echo  de  Porta 
(1883-86).  Scholl  published  in  1851  a  volume 
of  verses,  Deniae,  He  collaborated  in  many 
dramas  and  showed  his  clever  and  piquant  wit 
at  its  best  in  L'eaprii  du  boulevard  (1883)  and 
L'amour  appria  aana  maitre  ( 1891 ) . 

SCHttLLy  shsl,  Maximilian  Samson  Fbied- 
bich (1766-1833).  A  German  historian  and 
diplomat,  bom  at  Harskirchen,  in  Nassau-Saar- 
brllcken.  Having  embraced  the  principles  of  the 
French  Revolution,  he  for  a  time  held  office  in 
Strassburg,  but  was  compelled  to  flee  to  Ger- 
many. Subsequently  he  held  various  diplomatic 
positions  in  the  Prussian  service,  and  he  accom- 
panied Hardenbe^  to  the  congresses  of  Vienna, 
Aix-la-dThapelle,  'ftplitz,  Troppau,  Laibach,  and 
Verona.  His  many  published  works  include :  Hia- 
toire  de  la  litt4rature  romaine  (1815)  ;  Recueil 
de  pUcea  offideUea  deatin^ea  d  d4tromper  lea 
Francaia  aur  lea  &o6nementa  quiae  aont  paaa4a 
depuia  quelquea  ann4ea  (1814-16);  Recueil  dea 
pi^cea  relativea  au  congr^a  de  Vienne  (1816-18)  ; 
a  continuation  of  Koch's  Hiatoire  abrdg^e  dea 
irait4a  de  paiw,  etc.  (1817-18);  Archivea  hia-, 
toriquea  et  politiquea  (1818-19);  Tableau  dea 
r^volutiona  de  V Europe  (1823) ;  and  Coura  d'hia- 
toire  dea  Mata  europ6ena  depuia  le  bouleverae- 
meat  de  Vempire  romain  juaqu'en  1789  (1830- 
36),  his  most  elaborate  work. 

SCHOLTEK,  sK6Kt^,  Jan  Hbndbik  (1811- 
85).  A  Dutch  theologian.  He  was  bom  at 
Vleuter,  near  Utrecht,  studied  at  Utrecht, 
and  was  minister  at  Meerkerk  (1838-40). 
He  was  professor  of  theology  at  the  Athe- 
nsum  of  Franeker,  1840-43,  and  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Leyden,  1843-81.  Scholten  was  the 
head  of  the  critical  school  of  theology  in  Holland, 
and  in  some  of  his  views  approached  the  position 
of  the  Tflbingen  school  of  Germany.  He  pub- 
lished many  works,  the  greater  number  dealing 
with  questions  of  New  Testament  criticism  or 
theology.  Most  of  them  are  accessible  in  French 
or  German  translations.  He  summed  up  his 
teaching  in  his  farewell  address,  Afachiedarede 
(1881).  Consult  Kuenen,  Levenabericht  van  I, 
Henrietta  Scholten  (Amsterdam,  1875). 

SOHOLZ,  shdlts,  Bebnhabd  (1835—).  A 
German  composer,  bom  at  Mainz.  He  studied 
the  piano  with  Ernst  Pauer  and  theory  with 
S.  W.  Dehn.    In  1856  he  was  appointed  teacher 


of  theory  at  the  Royal  School  of  Music  in  Munich, 
and  from  1859  to  1865  was  kapellmeister  at  the 
Court  Theatre  in  Hanover.  In  1883  he  succeeded 
Raflf  as  director  of  the  Hoch  Conservatoiy  at 
Frankfort.  Besides  the  operas  Carlo  Boaa 
(1858),  Morgiane  (1870),  Der  Trompeter  wm 
Sdokingen  (1877),  and  Ingo  (1898),  he  com- 
posed a  requiem,  cantatas,  a  symphony,  a  string 
quintet,  and  other  chamber  music,  chond  works, 
and  songs.  His  best-known  work  is  his  setting 
of  SchiUer's  Lied  von  der  Olocke,  for  solo, 
chorus,  and  orchestra. 

SCHbMANir,  sh6^m&n,  Geobg  Fbiedbich 
( 1793-1879) .  A  German  philologist  and  arcluBol- 
ogist.  He  was  bom  at  Stralsund,  and  after 
studying  at  Greifswald  and  Jena  was  professor  of 
classical  literature  at  the  former  university  from 
about  1826  till  his  death.  His  works,  which  refer 
chiefly  to  Greek  law  and  literature,  are  distin- 
guished by  their  profundity  and  clearness. 
Among  the  most  important  are:  Der  attiache  Pro- 
zeaa  (with  Meier,  1824,  reSdited  by  Lepsius,  1883- 
87);  Qriechiache  Altertumer  (1850-59;  Eng. 
trans,  by  Hardy  and  Mann,  1880) ;  several 
grammatical  works  and  critical  editions  of  Issus 
(with  translation,  1831)  ;  Plutarch's  Agis  et 
Cleomenea  (1839);  .^Bschylus's  Prometheua 
(1844);  Cicero's  De  Natura  Deorum  (1850); 
and  Hesiod's  Theogony  (1868).  Selections  from 
his  minor  works  on  Greek  history,  mythology, 
and  archieology  were  published  in  his  OpuaeuUk 
Academica  (1856-57). 

SCHOMBEBGy  sh6m^rK,  Fbedebick  Her- 
mann, Duke  of  (1615-90).  A  German  soldier 
of  fortune,  bom  at  Heidelberg.  He  served  in 
the  army  of  the  United  Provinces  and  in  the 
French  army.  During  the  War  of  Liberation  in 
Portugal  he  held  important  commands  and 
finally  succeeded  in  compelling  Spain  to  rec- 
ognize the  independence  of  that  country  (1668). 
In  1675,  again  serving  with  the  French  army  in 
Catalonia,  he  won  the  grade  of  marshal.  He  left 
France  in  1685,  and  after  serving  a  short  time 
with  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  was  appointed 
by  the  Prince  of  Orange  his  second  in  command 
in  the  English  expedition  of  1688.  Afterwaros 
(1689)  he  received  the  title  of  Duke  of  Schom- 
berg  in  the  English  peerage,  was  made  a  Kni^t 
of  the  Garter,  and  also  master  of  the  ordnance, 
besides  receiving  a  srant  of  £100,000  from  Parlia- 
ment. In  the  expedition  against  Ireland  he  took 
a  prominent  part,  but  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
the  Boyne. 

SCHOMBTTBGK^  shSm^bCRJrK,  Sir  RoBBin 
Hermann  (1804-65).  A  traveler  and  explorer, 
bom  at  Freiburg,  in  Prussian  Saxony.  He  emi- 
grated to  the  United  States  in  1829,  and  the  next 
year  removed  to  Anegada,  one  of  the  British  West 
India  islands,  which  he  thoroughly  explored. 
In  1835  the  Royal  Geographical  S^iety  sent  him 
on  a  scientific  expedition  to  British  Guiana, 
where  he  explored  a  vast  tract  of  territory  previ- 
ously almost  unknown.  In  1840  he  was  sent  to 
Guiana,  where  he  spent  another  four  years  ex- 
ploring the  Hinterland  and  surveying  the  bourn- 
daries  of  the  colony.  The  so-called  'Sehombui^gk 
line'  played  an  important  part  in  the  controversy 
between  Great  Britain  and  Venezuela.  (See  Vbh- 
BZUELA.)  In  1844  he  was  knighted.  Four 
years  later  he  was  appointed  British  oonsnl 
at  Santo  Domingo,  and  m  1857  he  was  promoted 
to  be  Consul-General  at  Bangkok.    Hb  publiahed 


SOHOlCBTntOX. 


686 


SCHONBKAVir. 


works  include:  Deacription  of  BriiUh  Ouiana, 
Geographical  and  Statistical  (1840);  Twelve 
Views  in  the  Interior  of  (}uiana  (1840) ;  History 
of  Barhadoes  (1847).  His  most  famous  botan- 
ical discovery  was  that  of  the  Victoria  regia 
(q.v.)._ 

8CHOK,  shen,  HEiinacH  Theodob  yon  (1773- 
1856).  A  Prussian  statesman,  born  in  Lithuania. 
He  studied  law  and  political  science  at  Kdnigs- 
berg.  In  1793  he  entered  the  Government  ser- 
vice and  was  rapidly  promoted,  serving  as 
Governor.  After  the  Peace  of  Tilsit  he  rendered 
great  assistance  in  carrying  out  the  reforms  of 
Stein  and  Hardenberg,  and  to  him  is  attributed 
the  authorship  of  the  Politisches  Testament, 
which  Stein  issued  upon  his  retirement  from 
office.  In  1816  Sch5n  was  appointed  Governor  of 
West  Prussia,  and  eight  years  afterwards  of  the 
whole  Province  of  Prussia.  Under  his  adminis- 
tration many  reforms  were  made.  He  wa^  an 
ardent  liberal,  and  it  was  partly  through  his 
efforts  that  upon  the  accession  of  the  new  King 
in  1840  a  demand  was  made  for  a  constitution. 
SchOn  was  made  Minister  of  State,  but  his  ideas 
were  too  advanced  for  Frederick  William  IV., 
and  he  found  it  expedient  in  1842  to  retire  from 
political  life.  His  memoirs  and  correspondence 
were  published  by  his  son  under  the  title  of  Aim 
den  Papieren  des  Ministers  und  Burggrafen  fxm 
Marienburg  Theodor  von  Schon  (1875-83).  Ckm- 
suit  Seeley^  Life  and  Times  of  Stein  (Cambridge, 
1878). 

SCHdNBACH,  shen^ftK,  Anton  (1848—). 
An  Austrian  Germanic  philologist,  bom  at  Rum- 
burg,  Bohemia.  After  studying  in  Vienna  and 
under  Scherer  and  Mallenhoff,  in  Berlin,  he  be- 
gan to  lecture  at  Vienna  in  1872,  and  was  ap- 
pointed professor  at  the  University  of  Graz  in 
1873.  Besides  valuable  editions  of  Old-German 
sacred  poetry  and  prose,  such  as  Ueher  die 
Marienklagen  (1874),  Altdeutsche  Predigten 
(1886-91),  Auslese  altdeutseher  Segensformeln 
(1893),  he  published  Beitr'age  zur  Charakteristik 
Hawthomes  { 1884) ;  Walther  von  der  Vogehceide 
(2d  ed.,  1896) ;  Ueher  Hartmann  von  Aue 
(1894);  Das  Christentum  in  der  altdeutschen 
Heldendichtung  (1897);  Qesammelte  Aufs&tze 
zur  neueren  Litteratur  in  Deutschland,  Oester- 
reieh,  Amerika  (1900) ;  Studien  eur  Erzahlungs- 
litteratur  des  Mittelalters  (1898-1902);  and 
Ueber  Lesen  und  Bildung  (6th  ed.,  1900),  which 
met  with  great  approbation.  Conjointly  with 
Bemhard  Seuffert  he  edits  the  Orazer  Studien  zwr 
deutsehen  Philologie  (Graz,  1895  et  seq.). 

SCHtfNBEIN,  shSn^In,  Christian  Fbied- 
SXCH  (1799-1868).  A  German  chemist,  bom  at 
Metzingen,  Wttrttemberg.  He  studied  natural 
science  at  Tubingen  and  Erlangen  and  became 
professor  at  Basel  in  1828.  In  1839  he  discovered 
odBone  and  in  1845  invented  guncotton,  from 
which,  by  dissolution  in  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and 
ether,  he  obtained  the  material  called  collodion, 
which  soon  found  application  in  surgery.  His 
works  include:  Das  Verhalten  des  Eisens  zum 
Sauerstoff  (1837);  Beitrage  zur  physikalischen 
Chemie  (1844) ;  Ueher  die  Erzeugung  des  Ozons 
( 1844) ;  Ueher  die  langsame  und  rasche  Verhren- 
nung  der  KiSrper  in  atmosphMacher  Luft  ( 1846) . 
For  his  biography^  consult  Hagenbach  (Basel, 
1868)  and  Kahlbaum  and  Schaer  (Leipzig,  1901). 

SCHOmBEBO,  shSn^&rK,  or  Mahbisch- 
ScHdNBEBO.    A  town  of  the  Province  of  Moravia, 


Austria,  on  the  River  Tess,  159  miles  by  rail 
east-southeast  from  Prague  (Map:  Austria,  £  2). 
It  lies  in  a  charming  valley,  has  a  handsome 
church,  and  a  weaving  and  agricultural  schooL 
It  is  an  industrial  centre,  with  large  manufac- 
tures of  textiles.  Population,  in  1900,  11,636, 
mostly  Germans. 

SCHONBEBO,  Gustav  von  (1839—).  A 
German  economist,  born  in  Stettin  and  educated 
in  Bonn  and  Berlin.  In  1869  he  went  to  Basel, 
in  1870  to  Freiburg,  and  in  1873,  as  professor  of 
political  economy,  to  Tabingen,  where  in  1899  he 
was  appointed  chancellor  of  the  university. 
Among  his  works  are:  Zur  wirtschaftlichen  Be- 
deutung  des  ■  deutsehen  Zunftwesens  im  MitteU 
alter  (1868) ;  Die  VoUcstoirtschaft  der  Oegenwart 
(1869);  Die  Frauenfrage  (1873);  Die  sittlich- 
religiose  Bedeutung  der  sozialen  Frage  (2d  ed. 
1876) ;  Zur  Handwerkerfrage  (1876) ;  SodalpoU- 
tik  des  Deutsehen  Reichs  (1886) ;  and  Volkswirt- 
sohaftliche  Ahhandlungen  (1886;  4th  ed.  1898). 
He  was  one  of  the  editors  of  a  Handhuch  der 
politischen  Oekonomie  (4th  ed.  1896-98). 

SCHONBBXTNN,  sh&i^r\m.  A  famous  palace 
in  the  outskirts  of  Vienna,  the  summer  residence 
of  the  Imperial  family  (Map:  Austria,  B  5). 
Here  the  Treaty  of  Schdnbrunn  between  Austria 
and  France,  following  the  victory  of  Napoleon 
at  Wagram,  was  signed  on  October  14,  1809. 
Austria  surrendered  ^Izburg,  part  of  Upper  Aus- 
tria, and  Carinthia,  Carniola,  most  of  Croatia, 
the  Adriatic  coast-land,  and  the  territory  which 
she  had  taken  in  the  third  partition  of  Poland 
(1795). 

SCHONEBEGX,;  sh9^ne-bek.  A  town  in  the 
Province  of  Saxony,  Prussia,  on  the  Elbe,  8  miles 
south-southeast  of  Magdeburg;  (Map:  Prussia, 
D  3).  It  has  important  chemical  works  and  salt 
refineries.  It  also  manufactures  matches,  colors, 
buttons,  machinery,  artificial  guano,  etc.  There 
is  a  trade  in  grain,  timber,  and  coal.  Population, 
in  1900,  16,257. 

SCHSHEBEBG,^  shS^ne-b€rK.  A  residential 
suburb  of  Berlin  (q.v.).  It  is  the  seat  of  an 
aSrial  navigation  bureau  of  the  Cterman  army, 
and  has  an  observatory  and  a  large  private 
insane  asylum.  The  manufactures  include  sul- 
phite-cellulose, photographic  apparatus,  paper, 
lightning-rods,  and  military  supplies.  There  is 
also  a  large  railway  repair  and  construction  shop. 
Population,  in  1900,  96,069. 

SCH'ONEPELD,  shS^ne-felt,  Henbt  (1856—). 
An  American  composer  and  pianist,  bom  in 
Milwaukee,  Wis.  In  1874  he  went  to  Leipziff 
for  study.  He  returned  to  America  in  1879,  and 
settled  in  Chicago,  where  he  conducted  several 
musical  societies,  and  was  on  the  faculty  of  the 
Hershey  School  of  Music.  He  was  one  of  the 
first  American-bom  composers  to  use  negro  folk- 
songs. He  became  a  member  of  both  the  Chicago 
and  the  New  York  Manuscript  Society.  His  com- 
positions include  €h/psy  Melodies,  lAherty,  In 
the  Sunny  South,  Rural  Symphony,  Reverie,  Sere- 
nade, Valse  Brilliante,  and  Kleine  Tanz  Suite. 

SCHONEMANN,  shS^ne-m&n,  Anna  Eliba- 
BETH  (1768-1817).  A  friend  of  Goethe,  bora  in 
Frankfort-on-the-Main.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
a  wealthy  merchant,  was  betrothed  to  C^oethe  in 
the  spring  of  1775  and  inspired  his  poems  to 
"Lili."  The  engagement  was  soon  broken,  and  in 
August  she  married  Baron  von  Tttrckheim,  who 


BCHONEKAim. 


536 


8CH0NTHAH. 


later  became  Mayor  of  Strassburg.    Consult  Von 
Darckheim,  LilUa  Bild  (2d  ed.,  Munich,  1894). 

SCHONGAXTEBy  shon'gou-gr,  Mabtin 
(c.1440-91).  A  painter  and  engraver  of  the 
early  Suabian  school,  the  greatest  German  artist 
of  the  fifteenth  century.  He  was  commonly  called 
Martin  Schon  or  Hiibsch  Martin,  by  reason  of  his 
beautiful  art.  He  was  bom  at  Kolmar,  Alsace, 
the  son  of  Kaspar  Schongauer,  a  goldsmith  of 
Augsburg,  who  had  settled  at  Kolmar  before 
1440.  Martin  probably  practiced  at  first  his 
father's  craft,  and,  turning  to  painting  at  an 
early  period,  was  presumably  instructed  by 
Kaspar  Isenmann,  then  the  most  prominent 
painter  of  Kolmar,  whose  influence  is  trace- 
able in  Schongauer*8  work.  Whether  he  after- 
wards studied  under  Rogier  van  der  Weyden 
is  open  to  doubt,  but  he  surely  passed  an  appren- 
ticeship in  the  Netherlands  and  was  deeply  im- 
pressed by  the  works  of  Rogier,  emancipating 
himself  only  gradually  from  their  influence.  After 
his  return  he  established  at  Kolmar  a  studio  for 
painting  and  engraving,  frequented  by  numerous 
disciples  and  assistants.  While  engaged  upon  a 
commission  at  Breisach,  he  died  on  February  2, 
1491. 

The  number  of  Schongauer's  authenticated 
paintings  is  very  limited,  and  his  artistic  devel- 
opment can  therefore  be  more  easily  estimated 
from  his  engravings.  His  earl^  period  is  best 
represented  by  the  ^'Madonna  in  an  Arbor  of 
Roses"  (1473),  now  in  the  Schongauer  Museum 
at  Kolmar,  a  highly  finished  work,  in  which  the 
Flemish  type  is  unmistakable.  Of  later  date  is,  in 
the  same  museum,  the  series  of  sixteen  panels, 
depicting  the  "Passion  of  Christ,"  in  which 
native  German  influences  preponderate.  A  similar 
progress  may  be  observed  in  the  two  altar  wings 
with  the  "Annunciation"  and  the  "Child  Adored 
by  the  Virein  and  Saint  Anthony."  His  latest 
stage  is  well  exemplified  by  two  exquisite  small 
pictures  of  the  "Holy  Family,"  in  the  Pinakothdc 
at  Munich  and  the  Vienna  Museum. 

As  an  engraver,  Schongauer  ranks  as  the  fore- 
most artist  of  his  day.  His  modeling  and  shad- 
ing are  firm  and  delicate,  the  compositions  highly 
picturesque,  and  the  landscape  backgrounds  ex- 
ceed anything  previously  achieved  in  German  art. 
Among  his  117  plates  some  of  the  most  remark- 
able are  the  "Bearing  of  the  Cross,"  "The  Annun- 
ciation," "Christ  on  the  Cross,"  "The  Wise  and 
Foolish  Virgins,"  "The  Temptation  of  Saint 
Anthony,"  "Christ  Enthroned,"  and  the  ideal 
figure  of  "Saint  Agnes."  The  most  comprehensive 
reproduction  of  his  engravings  is  Amand-Durand, 
(Euvre  de  Martin  Schongauer,  with  text  by  Du- 

elessis  (Paris,  1881).  Consult:  Schmidt,  in 
)ohme,  Kunat  und  KUnatler  (Leipzig,  1877) ; 
Bach,  **Neues  liber  Martin  Schongauer,"  in  Re- 
portorium  filr  Kunstunssenschaftf  xxii.  (Berlin, 
1899) ;  Goutzwiller,  Le  mua^e  de  Colmar  (Paris, 
1876)  ;  Burckhardt,  Die  Schule  Martin  Schon- 
gauers  am  Oberrhein  (Basel,  1888)  ;  and  Janit- 
Bchek,  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Malerei  (Berlin, 
1890). 

SCH5NLEB£B,  shgnOa-bSr,  Gustay  (1851 
— ).  A  German  landscape  painter,  bom  in 
Bietigheim,  Wtlrttemberg.  He  studied  in  Stutt- 
gart and  Munich.  In  1880  he  was  called  to  the 
Academy  of  Karlsruhe,  of  which  institution  he 
afterwards  became  director.  Among  his  principal 
paintings  may  be  mentioned:   "Port  of  Rotter- 


dam" (1879) ;  "Quinto  al  mare"  (1888)  ;  "Caa- 
tello  di  Paraggi"  (1893);  "Summer  Storm  at 
Rapallo"  (1898);  and  numerous  other  coast 
scenes  in  Italy,  Holland,  and  England,  besides 
village  views  in  Germany.  As  a  colorist  Schon- 
leber  is  subdued,  preferring  the  lights  of  storm 
and  mist.  In  drawing  he  has  the  precision  of  the 
Renaissance  allied  to  the  most  modern  composi- 
tion. He  is  known  also  as  an  etcher  and  illus- 
trator. 

SCHUNLEIN,  shSnain,  Johann  Lukas 
(1793-1864).  A  German  professor  of  medicine, 
born  in  Bamberg.  He  studied  medicine  at  Lands- 
hut,  Jena,  Gdttingen,  and  WUrzburg.  After 
teaching  at  WUrzburg  and  Zurich  he  w^as  caUed 
to  Berlin  in  1839.  There  he  taught  therapeutics 
and  pathology  and  directed  the  clinical  depart- 
ment in  the  university.  He  was  also  appointed 
physician  to  Frederick  William  IV.  He  wrote 
Allgemeine  und  spedelle  Pathologie  und  The- 
rapie  (1832)  and  Kliniache  Vortr&ge  im  Charity 
Krankenhause  zu  Berlin  (1842).  Consult  Vir- 
chow,  Oeddchtnisrede  auf  Schonlein  (Berlin, 
1865). 

SCHOnN,  shSn,  Alois  (1826-97).  An  Aus- 
trian genre  painter,  bom  in  Vienna  and  educated 
in  the  academy  of  that  city.  In  1848  he  enlisted 
as  a  sharpshooter  in  a  Tyrolese  regiment  and  saw 
service  in  Italy.  There  and  afterwards  in  Hun- 
gary he  gained  material  for  his  first  pictures. 
In  1850-51  SchOnn  studied  under  Horace  Vernet 
in  Paris.  He  then  traveled  in  the  southern 
regions  of  Austria  and  the  East,  which  gave  him 
subjects  for  many  of  his  best  known  canvases, 
such  as  "On  the  Coast  of  Genoa"  ( 1872,  Vienna 
Museum),  Arab  Story  Tellers,  Turkish  Vintage 
Festival,  etc.  Gypsy  life  in  Hungary  was  also 
one  of  his  favorite  subjects,  as  shown  by  "Villag^e 
Gypsies  in  Upper  Hungary"  (Gotha  Museum). 

SCHSHTHAB',  sfaen'tftA,  Frjlsz  loir  C19C8 
— ).  An  Austrian  dramatist,  bom  in  Vienna. 
After  serving  four  years  in  the  navy  he  went  on 
the  stage  and  also  began  to  write  for  periodicals. 
His  first  successful  dramatic  effort  was  Das 
Mddchen  aus  der  Fremde  (1879),  upon  which 
followed  the  farce  Sodom  and  Gomorrha  (1880), 
and,  in  collaboration  with  Moser,  Der  Zugvogel 
and  Krieg  und  Frieden,  played  on  all  the  stages 
of  Germany.  In  1883-84  stage  manager  of  the 
Stadtheater  in  Vienna,  he  lived  afterwards  al- 
ternately in  Berlin  and  on  his  estate  at  Bmnn, 
near  Vienna,  and  finally  settled  at  Dresden.  Of 
his  numerous  comedies,  often  partaking  of  a 
farcical  character,  may  be  mentioned:  Unsre 
Frauen  (with  Moser,  1881)  ;  Der  Schwahenstreich 
(1882)  ;  with  his  brother  Paul:  Der  Rauh  der 
Sahinerinnen,  Frau  Direktor  Striese  (1885),  and 
Daa  gelohte  Land  (1892);  with  Kadelburg: 
Ooldfiache  (1886),  Die  heruhmie  Frau  (1887), 
Der  Herr  Senator  (1894)  ;  and  with  Kopell-Ell- 
feld:  Komtesse  Guckerl  (1895),  RenoMsa/nce,  Die 
goldene  Eva  (1896),  and  Florio  und  Flavio 
(1901).  Several  of  his  plays  are  well  known  on 
the  American  stage. 

His  brother  Paul  (1853 — ),  after  serving  in 
the  army,  became  a  journalist  in  Vienna,  and 
published  numerous  tales  and  novels,  notably: 
Welt'  und  Kleinstadtgeachichten  (1889);  £ifi^- 
atraaaenzauher  (1894);  Schlechte  Raaee  (1894); 
Oeherden  der  Liebe  ( 1895) ;  Wiener  Lufi  ( 1897) ; 
Enfant  terrible  (1897)  ;  Brave  und  acMimme 
Frauen  (1901);  and  Pariaer  Modell   (1902),  a 


SCHONTHAJT. 


587 


8CH00L& 


novel.     Also  Die  elegante  Welt.  Handbuch  der 
vi>mehmen  Lehenaart  (6th  ed.  1895). 

8CHOODIC,  akm^dik.  A  river  of  Maine.  See 
Saint  Cboix. 

8CH00I/CBAPT,  Heitbt  Rows  (1793-1864). 
An  American  ethnologist.  He  was  bom  in  Wa- 
tervliet  (now  Guilderland) ,  New  York.  He 
studied  mineralogy  and  chemistry  for  a  year  in 
Union  College,  and  in  1817  began  the  publication 
of  a  work  on  Viireology.  In  1817-18  he  made  a 
tour  of  the  West,  especially  through  southern 
Missouri  and  Arkansas,  to  study  mineralogy  and 
geology.  The  restrlt  was  a  volume  entitled  A 
View  of  the  Lead  Mines  of  Missouri.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  he  received  an  appointment  from  the 
Government  to  explore  the  Upper  Mississippi  and 
the  copper  regions  of  Lake  Superior.  In  1822  he  was 
made  agent  for  the  tribes  about  Lake  Superior, 
and  thenceforth  turned  his  attention  to  history  and 
ethnology.  In  1831  he  was  one  of  the  principal 
founders  of  the  Algic  Society,  in  Detroit,  devoted 
to  the  antiquities  and  ethnology  of  the  American 
aborigines.  In  1836  he  was  instrumental  in  set- 
tling land  disputes  with  the  Chippewas,  and  by  the 
treaties  then  effected  the  United  States  became 
possessed  of  vast  territory,  worth  many  millions 
of  dollars.  It  was  while  he  was  engaged  as  Super- 
.intendent  of  Indian  Affairs  in  this  Northern  De- 
partment that  he  published  his  Algic  Researches 
(1839).  From  this  period  Schoolcraft  gave  his 
attention  to  literary  pursuits.  His  chief  contri- 
bution to  the  history  of  Indian  affairs  was  his  six 
quarto  volumes  entitled  Historical  and  Statistical 
Information  Respecting  the  History,  Condition, 
and  Prospects  of  the  Indian  Tribes  of  the  United 
States  (1851-57).  The  work  is  partly  from  his 
pen  and  partly  a  collection  of  essays  of  greater  or 
less  value  by  others.  Among  his  other  publica- 
tions the  most  important  are:  Oniota;  or  the  Red 
Race  of  America  (1844)  ;  Hotes  on  the  Iroquois 
(1846);  Personal  Memoirs  of  a  Residence  of 
Thirty  Years  with  the  Indian  Tribes  on  the 
American  Frontiers  (1863). 

SCHOOL  DISEASES.    See  Hygiene. 

SCHOOL  POB  SCANDAL,  The.  A  very 
popular  comedy  by  Richard  Brinsley  Sheridan, 
produced  in  1777.  Much  of  the  action  centres  in 
the  devotees  of  scandal  who  meet  at  Lady  Sneer- 
well's  house  to  destroy  reputations.  Sir  Peter 
and  Lady  Teazle,  Maria,  the  ward,  and  the  Sur- 
faces, Charles,  Joseph,  and  Sir  Oliver,  supply  the 
comic  situations,'  notably  the  auction  scene,  in 
which  Charles  sells  the  family  portraits,  and  the 
screen  scene,  when  Lady  Teazle  is  surprised  in 
Joseph's  apartments  by  Sir  Peter  and  Charles. 

SCHOOLMASTER.  A  term  sometimes  ap- 
plied in  the  United  States  and  England  to  persons 
engaged  in  carrying  on  elementary  and  secondary 
instruction.  In  the  great  public  schools  of  Eng- 
land from  the  beginning  schoolmasters  have  been 
chosen  usually  with  considerable  care.  Most  of 
the  charters  of  the  great  public  schools  provided 
for  the  election  of  headmasters  from  among  the 
Masters  of  Art  of  either  Oxford  or  Cambridge 
University.  In  the  private  and  charitable 
schools,  before  the  passage  of  the  Educational 
Act  of  1868,  positions  of  schoolmasters  were 
not  infrequently  filled  by  disappointed  soldiers  of 
fortune,  who  were  mostly  ignorant  of  even  the 
elementary  subjects  which  they  were  intended  to 
teach.     With  tiie  establishment  of  training  col- 


leges for  teachers,  and  the  assumption  of  the  re- 
sponsibility of  supervision  of  education  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  by  the  Eng- 
lish Government,  educational  matters  took  a  tarn 
for  the  better,  and  the  condition  of  the  school- 
master has  since  been  gradually  improving. 

In  the  United  States  the  same  marked  develop- 
ment in  the  status  of  the  schoolmaster  may  be 
noticed  as  in  England.  In  colonial  times  there 
were  no  trained  teachers.  Whoever  chose  to  set 
himself  up  as  schoolmaster  was  allowed  to  do  so 
without  regard  to  his  previous  training  or  attain- 
ments. There  was  no  inducement  for  able 
young  men  to  enter  the  teaching  profession.  Sal- 
aries were  low,  and  the  status  of  a  schoolmaster 
was  correspondingly  insignificant,  and  only  with 
the  educational  awakening  of  the  Horace  Mann 
period  begins  the  rise  of  teaching  as  a  profession. 
At  common  law  the  authority  of  the  schoolmasto* 
over  his  pupils  was  that  of  one  in  loco  parentis, 
and  where  unmodified  by  statute  this  rule  still 
persists. 

SCHOOLMASTEB,  The.  A  work  on  educa- 
tion by  Roger  Ascham  (1570),  which  gives  his 
methods  of  learning  Latin  and  of  training  chil- 
dren. 

SCHOOLMEN.    See  ScHOLASTiasM. 
SCHOOL  OP  ATHENS.    See  Raphael. 

SCHOOLS  (AS.  so&lu,  from  Lat.  scola,  schola, 
learned  discussion,  lecture,  school,  from  G^. 
<rxoM»  schole,  learning,  leisure,  school).  Places 
where  instruction  is  given. 

The  elementary  instruction  of  the  Hindu  Brah- 
man is  given  either  out  of  doors  or  in  some  rude 
building.  Instruction  is  to  a  large  extent  oral. 
The  Brahman  repeats  certain  passages  which  the 
pupils  are  expected  to  learn  to  recite  verbatim. 
Writing  is  first  practiced  in  sand.  The  more 
advanced  grades  of  Hindu  instruction  involve  ex- 
tensive reading.  In  China  each  pupil  provides 
his  writing  table  and  chair,  his  books  and  writ- 
ing materials.  The  school  hours  are  from  sunrise 
till  5  P.M.,  with  an  intermission  of  an  hour  from 
10  A.M.  to  11  A.M.  The  children  learn  to  pro- 
nounce the  characters  in  their  books  by  imitating 
their  teacher.  Reading  matter  is  committed  to 
memory  by  repeating  it  aloud.  As  the  written 
language  differs  from  the  spoken  one,  these  exer- 
cises are  like  learning  to  pronounce  and  read 
the  characters  of  a  foreign  tongue  without  under- 
standing their  significance.  Later  on  exercises 
in  translation  and  composition  appear.  Among 
the  Hebrews  the  Law  was  expounded  by  teachers 
in  the  porches  of  the  Temple.  The  synagogues 
were  used  for  a  similar  purpose,  and  in  them 
children  were  instructed  during  the  week.  The 
amount  of  instruction  grew  until,  from  being 
merely  an  oral  teaching  of  the  law,  it  involved 
letters  and  arithmetic.  Elementary  schools  be- 
came common  after  the  Christian  Era,  and  in 
A.D.  64  they  were  made  obli^tory  by  the  Hi^ 
Priest  Joshua  ben  Gamala.  The  Spartan  educa- 
tion was  chiefly  physical,  consisting  of  athletic 
exercises  and  dancing,  frequently  accompanied 
by  chanting.  It  was  conducted  in  the  open  air 
under  the  guidance  of  officers  called  waiSowQftM, 
Each  youth  was  also  under  the  special  charge  of 
an  adult,  whose  office  was  to  inspire  him  to  exert 
his  best  powers.  At  Athens  the  schools  were 
probably  all  conducted  as  private  ventures.  Some 
were  situated  in  the  open  air  or  in  the  porticoes 
of  temples.    There  were  two  classes  of  scnools  for 


SCHOOLS. 


588 


SCHOOLS. 


bojB.  One,  the  musical  or  literary  school,  was 
taught  by  a  grammatist.  Instruction  in  the  non- 
literary  phases  of  music  was  often  given  by*  a 
citharist.  The  other  school,  the  palestra  or 
gymnastic  school  for  boys,  was  under  the  pasdo- 
tribe.  In  the  literary  school  the  curriculum  in- 
cluded reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and  in  some 
cases  drawing  and  geography.  The  poets,  espe- 
cially Homer,  were  for  the  most  part  the  authors 
read.  Arithmetic  was  very  simple,  being  that 
necessary  for  ordinary  business.  The  abacus  was 
used.  In  writing,  younger  pupils  employed  the 
wax  tablet  and  the  stylus,  older  ones,  pen  and 
ink,  with  papyrus.  Maps  are  known  to  have  been 
in  use.  Older  students  attended  a  gymnasium, 
where  the  instruction  was  more  of  a  professional 
character.  Younger  boys  were  accompanied  <o 
school  by  a  pedagogue  (iraidayuyhs),  to  whom 
was  intrusted  the  general  oversight  of  the  con- 
duct and  welfare  of  his  charge.  The  pedagogue 
was  usually  a  slave.  The  hours  of  daylight  were 
all  consumed  at  school. 

At  Rome  primary  instruction  was  given  in  the 
ludus.  Reading  and  writing  were  here  taught, 
and  sometimes  arithmetic.  Frequently,  however, 
a  special  teacher  of  arithmetic  was  employed. 
Pebbles  (calculi)  were  used  in  figuring,  and  the 
stylus  and  wax  tablet  in  writing.  The  books  were 
rolls  of  manuscript  carried  in  wooden  boxes.  The 
schools  were  conducted  as  private  ventures  and 
were  sometimes  held  in  the  open  air.  Usually, 
however,  they  were  in  mean  and  sparsely  fur- 
nished apartments.  The  children  sat  on  the  floor. 
The  work  was  largely  that  of  committing  to 
memory,  and  discipline  was  severe,  flogging  being 
a  common  resort.  The  pedagogue  existed  as  in 
Greece.  At  about  12  years  of  age  the  boy  passed 
into  a  secondary  school,  that  of  the  grammaticus. 
Here  he  was  taught  grammar,  Greek,  and  a  little 
geography  and  geometry.  The  quarters  were 
usually  somewhat  better  than  those  of  the  ludus. 
Children  sat  on  benches,  while  the  master  occu- 
pied a  raised  seat  or  cathedra.  In  later  times 
some  of  these  schoolrooms  were  adorned  with 
works  of  art.  The  elementary  teacher  among 
both  Romans  and  Greeks  was  held  in  low  esteem, 
if  not  in  positive  contempt. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  elementary  schools 
existed  in  connection  with  the  monasteries,  the 
cathedrals  or  collegiate  churches,  the  hospitals, 
and  the  guilds.  As  the  Church  conceived  educa- 
tion to  £e  its  function,  wherever  an  association 
of  the  clergy  existed  some  instruction  was  com- 
monly carried  on.  Each  monastery  usually  pro- 
vided quarters  and  a  schoolroom  for  its  novices 
or  ohlati.  In  817  the  Council  of  Aix-la-Chapelle 
decreed  that  the  exierni,  or  pupils  not  preparing 
for  holy  orders,  should  he  separated  from  the 
others.  The  instruction  in  the  different  monas- 
teries was  of  widely  varying  merit.  It  began  with 
exercises  in  reading  the  Latin  psalter,  little  if 
any  attention  being  paid  to  its  meaning.  At  the 
same  time  there  was  practice  in  copying  on  wax 
tablets.  The  pupils  were  trained  to  sing  the  church 
services,  and  a  little  instruction  in  arithmetic 
and  Latin  was  given.  Secondary  instruction 
comprised  the  trivium  (q.v.)  and  the  quadrivium 
(q.v.)  constituted  the  higher  education.  The 
schoolrooms,  methods,  and  discipline  were  in 
harmony  with  the  ascetic  spirit  of  the  time. 
Shortly  after  the  beginning  of  the  'trivial'  studies, 
boys  not  destined  for  the  Church  were  usually 
withdrawn  from  the  school.  More  advanced  novices 


were  set  to  teach  lower  classes.  A  oonsiderable 
number  of  the  pupils  in  the  monastic  and  hospi- 
tal schools  were  charitably  cared  for,  and  in  many 
institutions  no  great  pains  were  taken  with  their 
instruction,  except  to  render  them  effective  in  per- 
forming the  church  services.  In  general,  however, 
instruction  was  free,  those  having  means  pro- 
viding for  their  own  maintenance.  The  guild 
schools,  taught  ordinarily  by  the  chaplain  of  the 
guild,  gave  a  little  instruction  in  Latin,  such  as 
would  be  required  in  business,  where  accounts 
and  correspondence  were  to  a  considerable  extent 
in  that  language.  More  stress  was  laid  in  these 
schools  on  arithmetic,  and  in'Germany  one  guild, 
the  Rechenmeister,  developed  this  subject  ex- 
tensively. 

The  appearance  of  printed  books  gave  a  power- 
ful impetus  to  learning,  and  the  Renaissance  in- 
troduced new  motives  into  elementary  and  espe- 
cially secondary  education.  Power  to  appreciate 
the  beauty  of  literature  and  skill  in  literary  com- 
position, such  as  poetry  and  letter-writing, 
became  objects  of  desire  on  the  part  of  the 
aristocratic  classes  in  society.  A  class  of  lay 
teachers  sprang  into  existence  to  satisfy  the 
demand.  Private  schools  became  a  source  of 
considerable  income  and  social  prestige  to  their 
roasters,  and  tutorial  education  assumed  unpre- 
cedented importance.  A  variety  of  methods  and 
subjects  were  introduced  or  proposed  for  enliven- 
ing the  school  atmosphere.  In  the  secondary 
schools  the  Jesuits  developed  to  a  marked  extent 
schemes  by  which  the  interest  of  emulation  might 
be  invoked.  History  became  a  prominent  subject, 
and  great  stress  was  laid  on  the  classics  as  litera- 
ture. Declamation,  the  acting  of  plays,  poetic 
composition,  etc.,  appear  everywhere  as  school 
exercises.  Study  of  the  vernacular  is  gradually 
introduced,  and  later  a  mastery  of  French  be- 
comes indispensable  in  the  diplomat  and  practical- 
ly so  in  the  cultivated  man.  The  educational  critics 
and  reformers  of  the  period  and  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries  urge  the  need  of  making 
the  school  more  interesting  by  mitigating  this 
severity  of  the  discipline,  especially  as  regarded 
corporal  punishment,  by  increasing  the  attrac- 
tiveness of  the  schoolrooms,  by  introducing  gym- 
nastic exercises,  study  of  the  world  of  nature  at 
first  hand,  and  illustrated  textbooks.  Rabelais, 
Montaigne,  Comenius  (q.v.),  and  Locke  represent 
the  advanced  thought  of  the  time.  A  prevalent 
custom  was  to  send  youths  traveling  accompa- 
nied by  a  tutor.  Even  before  the  Renaissance  the 
custom  of  wandering  from  monastery  to  monas- 
tery existed.  The  development  of  universities  in- 
creased the  practice  of  traveling.  Frequently 
students  without  means  begged  their  way. 

In  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries 
there  flourished  in  Germany  the  Riiieracademien, 
or  academies  for  nobles.  They  were  usually  situ- 
ated in  the  capital  city  of  a  principalily,  and  the 
students  participated  in  the  social  life  of  the 
Court.  Stress  was  laid  on  the  study  of  French, 
and  drawing  and  fencing  masters  were  employed. 
In  the  English  public  school  life  of  the  period 
athletic  exercises  came  to  take  the  prominent  part 
they  have  since  maintained. 

The  Renaissance,  by  expanding  enormously  the 
trivium  or  secondary  school  curriculum,  led  to 
elaborate  systems  of  grading  of  students.  The 
Brethren  of  the  Christian  Schools,  an  Order 
founded  by  La  Salle  in  1683,  employed  for  the 
first  time  in  elementary  instruction  the  flystem  of 


SGHOOLa 


589 


SCHOOLS. 


grading,  and  instruction  was  given  to  classes  in- 
stead of  individuals.  Before  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury manual  training  had  appeared  in  the  schools. 
The  institutions  founded  by  Francke  at  Halle  in- 
cluded Burgher  schools  and  a  Pedagogium,  in 
both  of  which  students  were  trained  in  the  man- 
ual arts.  These  schools  also  offer  examples  of 
the  study  of  natural  science  by  laboratory  meth- 
ods. 

The  complex  and  rapid  'development  of  modern 
schools  is  best  studied  under  the  titles  given  at 
the  end  of  this  article. 

Religious  Education  in  Schools.  The  histoir 
of  religious  education  has  been  bound  up  with 
that  of  the  control  of  education  by  priesthoods 
or  churches.  Inasmuch  as  the  civic  virtues  of 
the  people  are  cultivated  and  sanctioned  by  re- 
ligious observances  and  beliefs,  religious  educa- 
tion has  been  of  the  greatest  importance  in  de- 
veloping cohesive  and  powerful  nationalities.  This 
is  especially  true  while  the  religion  remains  a 
purely  national  one.  With  the  appearance  of 
cosmopolitan  religions  like  Christianity  and  Mo- 
hammedanism, the  value  of  religious  education 
for  the  cultivation  of  a  specifically  national  spirit 
became  less.  In  Europe  Church  and  State  drifted 
apart,  and  the  former,  as  dealing  with  man's 
spiritual  interests,  assumed  control  of  education. 
The  Reformation,  by  introducing  nationalism 
again  into  matters  of  religion,  led  to  the  active 
assumption  by  Protestant  rulers  of  authority 
over  education,  as  one  of  the  phases  of  religious 
responsibility.  In  the  struggles  that  followed, 
religious  education  was  felt  to  be  a  means,  not 
merely  of  furthering  man's  eternal  and  spiritual 
welfare,  but  also  of  strengthening  the  State.  The 
multiplication  of  sects,  however,  leading  in  many 
communities  to  a  separation  of  Church  from 
State,  has  tended  to  drive  out  from  the  State 
schools  such  religious  instruction  as  is  peculiar  to 
any  specific  Church,  and  to  exclude  or  minimize 
the  amount  of  ecclesiastical  control  or  inspection. 
The  Catholics  maintain  schools  of  all  grades  in 
the  United  States,  England,  and  the  Catholic 
nations  of  Europe.  In  France  up  to  the  time 
of  the  enforcement  of  the  Asociations  Law  a  con- 
siderable fraction  of  both  elementary  and  secon- 
dary education  was  carried  on  by  different  Catho- 
lic Orders.  In  these  schools  religious  instruction 
constitutes  an  important  part  of  the  curricula. 
See  France,  section  on  Education. 

In  respect  to  religious  instruction  and  the 
supervision  thereof,  the  following  classes  of 
schools  exist: 

(1)  Schools  conducted  under  denominational 
auspices  and  subsidized  by  the  State.  England, 
Holland,  and  Russia  furnish  examples  of  this 
type.  In  Russia  the  schools  of  the  Holy  Synod 
carry  on  nearly  half  of  the  elementary  instruc- 
tion given.  Their  principal  aim  is  religious  edu- 
cation, and  their  maintenance  is  entirely  from 
public  funds.  In  England  the  schools  of  the 
Church  societies  have  been  for  many  years  in 
receipt  of  Government  grants.  In  return,  how- 
ever, they  have  submitted  to  Government  inspec- 
tion and  are  not  allowed  to  require  any  specific 
faith  of  their  pupils.  Moreover,  the  'conscience 
clause'  allows  parents,  if  they  see  fit,  to  with- 
draw children  from  school  during  the  time  de- 
voted to  religious  exercises.  The  law  of  1902 
places  the  programme  of  secular  studies  in  such 
schools  in  the  hands  of  the  Government,  which  in 
return  provides  almost  entirely  for  their  main- 
?oi*.xv.-«. 


tenance.  In  Holland  denominational  schools  are 
subsidized,  provided  they  maintain  the  official 
standard. 

(2)  Schools  under  State  control,  but  offering 
religious  instruction  that  is  supervised  by  re- 
ligious authorities.  In  Spain  religious  instruc- 
tion is  given  regularly  in  the  State  schools,  and 
the  clergy  are  represented  on  the  governing 
boards  and  inspect  the  schools.  In  Austria  re- 
ligious instruction  is  given  in  the  schools.  The 
beliefs  of  the  religion  dominant  in  the  locality 
are  taught.  The  instruction  is  usually  carried 
on  by  clergymen.  In  Prussia  religious  instruc- 
tion is  compulsory  and  supervised  by  the  clergy. 
The  tenets  of  the  majority  are  taught  by  regular 
teachers.  The  State  also  provides  partially  for 
the  religious  instruction  of  the  minority.  In 
Sweden  the  clergy  inspect  the  schools  and  are 
prominent  in  their  control.  In  Norway  religious 
instruction  is  supervised  by  the  clergy.  The 
same  is  true  of  Denmark. 

(3)  In  several  countries,  while  the  school  does 
not  undertake  religious  instruction,  the  State 
permits  the  use  of  the  schoolhouse  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  sometimes  sets  aside  a  period  during 
which  such  instruction  may  be  given  by  the  clergy 
of  different  denominations.  Such  a  plan  exists  in 
Holland  and  in  some  of  the  cantons  of  Switzer- 
land. In  France  place  is  made  on  the  school 
programme  for  the  attendance  of  children  on 
religious  instruction,  but  it  is  given  outside  the 
school  building.  In  Italy  religious  instruction 
may  be  given  outside  the  schoolhouse  if  there 
is  a  local  demand  therefor. 

(4)  Many  coimtries  exclude  denominational 
religious  instruction  entirely  from  the  curriculum. 
France  his  taken  this  stand,  but  the  French 
school  programme  contains  a  great  deal  of  in- 
struction of  an  ethical  and  religious  but  non- 
denominational  character.  The  Swiss  Constitu- 
tion forbids  compulsory  religious  instruction  and 
some  cantons  give  none  whatever.  The  religious 
instruction  of  the  English  non-denominational 
public  schools  is  of  a  very  ^neral  character,  and 
the  conscience  clause  permits  the  withdrawal  of 
pupils  from  it.  In  the  United  States  no  denomi- 
national instruction  is  given  in  the  schools  of 
any  State.  In  New  England  Bible  reading  and 
prayer  are  a  common  part  of  the  programme  of 
school  work.  Massachusetts  requires  them,  but 
children  may  be  withdrawn  while  religious  ex- 
ercises are  being  conducted,  if  the  parents  so 
desire.  In  many  of  the  States  the  constitu- 
tions forbid  the  use  of  public  funds  for  the 
aid  of  sectarian  schools.  Many  also  forbid 
sectarian  instruction  in  the  schools.  This, 
however,  is  not  taken  to  mean  that  the  Bible 
should  not  be  read  or  prayer  offered,  for  in  1895 
the  Bureau  of  Education  found  that  out  of  808 
cities  of  4000  population  or  over,  which  were 
scattered  over  the  Union,  651  had  religious  exer- 
cises in  their  schools,  and  these  were  prohibited 
in  only  77  cities.  In  Wisconsin  the  prohibition 
of  religious  exercises  is  general. 

The  earlier  colonial  schools  of  the  United 
States  were  usually  under  sectarian  control  and 
gave  much  attention  to  religious  instruction. 
After  the  Revolution  the  spirit  of  freedom  in  re- 
ligious matters  became  dominant.  The  First 
Amendment  to  the  Constitution  declares  that 
"Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  estab- 
lishment of  religion  or  prbhibiting  the  free  exer- 
cise thereof."  The  States  also  have  followed  the 


SCHOOLS. 


640 


8CHOPB2rHAT7E&. 


spirit  of  this  provision.  The  lack  of  specific  relig- 
ious instruction  in  the  public  schools  has,  how- 
ever, been  felt  by  many  to  be  a  serious  defect.  The 
Catholics,  while  agreeing  and  even  insisting  that 
the  public  school  should  be  non-sectarian,  have 
urged  that  their  own  parochial  schools  should  be 
subsidized  out  of  the  public  funds  to  which  they 
have  contributed.  In  New  Mexico  and  Georgia 
they  have  succeeded  in  getting  such  appropria- 
tions. There  has  also  been  a  general  feeling  that 
the  knowledge  of  the  Bible  even  as  a  work  of  lit- 
erature was  fast  disappearing.  The  Sunday 
school,  to  which  the  churches  have  resorted  for 
the  religious  instruction  of  the  young,  is  felt  to 
be  inadeauate  and  to  fail  in  reaching  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  population. 

The  relation  between  the  schools  and  the  State 
is  discussed  under  the  headings  Education  and 
National  Education,  Systems  of.  The  devel- 
opment of  the  school  system  in  the  United  States 
is  abo  treated  under  Pubuc  Schools.  The  local 
and  general  administration  of  schools  and  their 
relation  to  the  Government  in  respect  to  State 
support  and  State  control  is  taken  up  in  still 
greater  detail  in  the  articles  on  the  various 
countries  of  the  world,  under  the  heading  Educa- 
tion. See  also:  Common  Schools;  Evening 
Schools;  Grammab  Schools;  High  Schools; 
Public  Schools;  Secondabt  Schools;  Summeb 
Schools;  Tbuant  Schools;  with  bibliography 
under  these  headings. 

SCHOOLS,  Bbothebs  of  the  Chbistian.  A 
religious  congregation  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  established  for  the  education  of  the 
poor  by  Jean  Baptiste  de  la  Salle  (q.v.)  in  1684, 
and  confirmed  by  the  Pope  in  1724.  Their  system 
of  education  has  received  the  highest  testimonies, 
and  they  still  form  one  of  the  most  flourishing 
of  the  lay  Orders  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
Besides  this  Order,  several  other  institutes  have 
been  formed  for  the  same  purpose  under  similar 
names.  An  Irish  institute  of  Christian  Brothers 
was  formed  at  Waterford  in  1802,  by  a  layman, 
Edmund  Ignatius  Rice  (1762-1844),  and  con- 
firmed by  Pius  VII.  in  1820.  In  1896  they  re- 
ported 97  houses  in  Ireland,  with  300  schools, 
and  30,000  pupils,  as  well  as  branches  in  New- 
foundland, Gibraltar,  Calcutta,  and  Allahabad. 

SCHOOL  SAVZNGS  BANKS.  A  system  of 
banks  by  which  school  children  may  be  encour- 
aged in  habits  of  thrift.  In  nearly  all  European 
countries  school  children  are  encouraged  to  ac- 
quire the  habit  of  saving  through  the  device  of 
savings  banks  maintained  in  connection  with  the 
schools.  Commonly  these  institutions  are  asso- 
ciated in  management  and  in  the  official  reports 
with  the  postal  savings  banks.  They  have  not 
been  extensively  introduced  into  the  United 
States,  partly,  no  doubt,  because  of  the  willing- 
ness of  the  ordinary  savings  banks  (q.v.)  to  re- 
ceive small  deposits,  and  partly  because  in  recent 
years  the  penny  provident  banks  (q.v.)  have 
fully  met  the  demand  for  such  a  means  of  en- 
couraging saving  by  children. 

SCHOOL-SHIP,  Nautical.  See  Navai. 
Schools  of  Instbuction. 

SCHOOLS  OF  LIBBABY  ECONOMY.  A 
term  applied  to  institutions  for  the  study  of  li- 
brary administration.  The  movement  to  establish 
schools  for  the  professional  training  of  librarians 
began  at  (]k)lumbia  University  in  1883.  In  1887  a 
three  months'  course  was  organized,  and  in  1889 


the  school  was  transferred  to  the  New  York  State 
Libraxy  at  Albany.  The  remarkable  succeae  of 
this  school  encouraged  the  establishment  of  simi- 
lar institutions  elcewhere,  and  in  1890  the  Pratt 
Institute  in  Brooklyn,  the  Drexel  Institute  in 
Philadelphia,  and  the  Armour,  in  Chicago,  organ- 
ized regular  schools  for  this  branch  of  study.  In 
many  universities  courses  in  library  economics 
are  offered  under  the  direction  of  their  librarians. 
See  TiTBBARiFS,  section  on  Library  Schools  and 
Training;  also  Pbofbssional  Education. 

SCHOONEB  (from  8C0<m,  scun,  to  skim,  skip, 
from  Norweg.  akunna,  Icel.  akunda,  skynda,  AS. 
scyndan,  to  hasten,  OHG.  acuntan,  to  urge  on). 
A  sailing  vessel  having  two  or  more  masts  and 
wholly  or  chiefly  fore-and-aft  rigged.  It  is  said 
to  have  been  flrst  designed  by  Captain  Andrew 
Robinson,  of  Gloucester,  Mass.,  in  1713.  A  few 
schooners  have  a  topsail  and  a  topgallantsail  on 
the  foremast,  and  are  called  'topsail  schooners.' 
Some  schooners  carry  a  single  yard  on  the  fore- 
mast on  which  to  set  a  square  sail  when  desirable. 
But  by  far  the  greater  number  are  wholly  fore- 
and-aft  rigged.  The  lower  sails  are  bent  to  gaffs, 
booms,  and  hoops  on  the  mast.  There  are  usually 
two  masts,  but  sometimes  as  many  as  seven.  The 
schooner  rig  is  distinctively  American;  its  use 
abroad,  until  recently,  was  confined  to  quite  small 
craft.  See  Sail;  Yacht,  and  accompanying 
Plate. 

SCHOPENHAUEBy  shypen-hou'Sr,  Abtkub 
(1788-1860).  A  German  philosopher,  bom  at 
Danzig,  February  22,  1788.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
rich  banker  and  merchant,  who  determined  to 
educate  him  to  be  a  man  of  affairs,  and  put  him 
to  school  in  France,  and  afterwards  took  him  on 
travels  through  Belgium,  England,  France,  and 
Switzerland.  In  1805  he  was  placed  in  a  business 
house  in  Hamburg,  but  soon  afterwards,  on  his 
father's  sudden  death,  he  was  taken  by  his  mother 
to  Weimar,  where  he  entered  upon  the  study  of 
classics,  natural  science,  and  philosophy.  In  1809 
he  entered  the  University  of  Gdttingen,  and  de- 
voted himself  at  first  to  medicine,  but  was 
soon  attracted  to  philosophy,  and  in  1811  he 
went  to  Berlin  to  hear  Fichte.  In  1813  he  took 
his  degree  at  Jena  on  the  since  celebrated  thesis : 
Ueher  die  vierfache  Wurzel  des  Sateea  vom  zu- 
reichenden  Orunde,  In  this  treatise  he  distin- 
guished between  the  principles  of  being,  of  be- 
coming, of  knowing,  and  of  acting,  lliese  are 
respectively  space  and  time,  causality,  logical 
ground,  and  motive.  Schopenhauer  spent  the 
winter  of  1813  at  Weimar,  where  he  enjoyed  the 
society  of  Goethe,  and  devoted  himself  to  studies 
in  Oriental  philosophy  and  in  the  theory  of  color. 
From  1814  to  1818  he  lived  at  Dresden,  occupied 
in  writing  a  treatise  on  optics:  Ueher  daa  Sehen 
tind  die  Farben  (1816),  and  his  magnum  opus 
Die  Welt  als  Wille  und  Voreiellung  (1819).  He 
then  traveled  in  Italy,  and  returned  to  lecture  in 
Berlin  as  privat-docent  in  1820.  Hegel  was  at 
that  time  the  rage,  and  Schopenhauer  found  no 
success  in  lecturing  against  such  a  popular  rival. 
After  two  years  he  returned  to  Italy,  to  stay 
three  years  more.  But  a  renewal  of  philosophic 
interest  recalled  him  in  the  south  and  he  again 
attempted  to  establish  himself  as  a  lecturer  in 
Berlin.  In  a  spirit  of  bravado  he  chose  for  his 
own  lectures  the  hours  when  Hegel  was  drawing 
his  crowds,  but  failed  to  furnish  a  sufficient 
counter-attraction.     In  1831  he  left  Berlin  for 


8CE0PBNHAUEB. 


641 


SCHOBIiEMMBA. 


good  and  settled  in  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  where 
He  spent  many  years  in  morose  seclusion.  He 
still  worked  in  elaboration  of  his  system,  and 
published  Uher  den  Willen  in  der  Natur  (1836), 
Die  beiden  Chrundprohleme  der  Eihik  (1841), 
and  Parerga  und  Paralipomena  ( 1861 ) . 

The  last  few  years  of  his  life  were  made 
happy  for  him  by  the  homage  of  his  admirers, 
and  by  the  calm  which  had  come  to  his  passion- 
ate nature  with  advancing  years.  He  died  in 
1860,  and  the  fame  he  had  vainly  longed  for  in 
life  soon  gathered  around  his  memory.  By  tem- 
perament moody  and  despondent,  irritable  in 
temper,  and  violent  in  passions,  he  was  well  en- 
dowed to  seize  just  those  aspects  of  life  which 
are  the  elements  of  a  pessimistic  philosophy.  But 
the  value  of  Schopenhauer's  philosophy  cannot  be 
measured  by  any  such  method  of  personal  criti- 
cism. His  system,  set  forth  in  a  literaxy  form 
that,  in  the  field  of  philosophy,  has  never  been 
surpassed  unless  b^  Plato  at  his  best,  and  based 
on  marvellous  insight  into  the  realities  of  life, 
falling  in  also  with  the  disappointed  mood  of  the 
age,  has  gained  an  acceptance  that  is,  perhaps, 
greater  than  its  real  value  warrants.  Yet  it  has 
an  abiding  worth  as  emphasizing  elements  which 
a  too  optimistic  philosophy  did  not  sufficiently 
consider.  The  profound  tragedy  of  life,  the  very 
real  evil  of  the  world,  which  is  so  fundamental 
a  part  of  all  great  philosophies  and  religions,  is 
ever  present  in.  his  thought,  though  without 
sufficient  balance.  In  this  his  thought  is  akin 
to  that  of  the  ancient  Hindu  philosophies,  with 
which  he  felt  himself  in  close  harmony,  believing 
that  he  had  accomplished  a  synthesis  of  their  in- 
sight with  Kantian  thought.  With  him  the 
tragedy  of  lifes  arises  from  the  very  nature  of  the 
underlying  source  of  all  existence,  which  is  will, 
not  intelligence — will,  not  in  the  ordinary  sense 
of  choice,  but  in  the  sense  of  activity,  energy, 
impulse.  This  is  not  rational,  since  impulse  is 
prior  to  reason.  In  its  caprice  (essentially  in- 
capable of  reasoned  action),  it  makes  reason  to 
be.  Thus  it  is  not  reason  that  goes  out  into  reali- 
zation of  itself  in  the  world  of  persons  and 
things,  but  impulse,  which  happens  to  realize 
itself  in  intelligence.  Reason,  thus,  can  never 
understand  its  own  profounder  source,  since  it  is 
more  and  other  than  reason — is  essentially  ir- 
rational. It  may  modify  impulse,  may  by  resig- 
nation deny  the  will-to-live.  The  supreme  wis- 
dom of  life  is,  therefore,  what  it  has  been  (with 
differences)  to  such  mystics  as  Thomas  H  Kempis 
and  Gautama — resignation.  This  conception  of 
the  source  of  all  life  in  will  came  to  SSchopen- 
hauer  through  clear  insight  into  the  very  nature 
of  consciousness  as  essentially  impulsive.  His 
metaphysics  is  thus  empirical,  based  on  experience, 
arrived  at  by  induction.  As  such,  it  furnishes 
a  ground  of  reconciliation  for  elements  realistic 
and  idealistic  which  were  before  separated,  even 
for  science  and  metaphysics.  A  clearer  and  still 
deeper  insight  into  consciousness,  based  on  a 
healthier  temperament,  a  less  violent  nature,  a 
more  regular  life,  using  Schopenhauer's  method, 
may  (as  it  has  never  been  done  before)  compre- 
hend reason  and  impulse  as  equally  fundamental 
elements  in  consciousness,  or  as  equal  aspects 
of  the  one  underlying  source  of  all  things.  Only 
a  brief  word  can  be  given  to  Schopenhauer's  great 
influence  on  art.  The  restlessness  of  desire — 
longing,  hoping,  toiling — comes  upon  peace  of  a 
oertEiin  sort  in  artistic  contemplation.     This  is 


the  controlling  thought  in  Wagner's  music;  and 
music  more  than  aught  else  reveals  will  to 
us,  man's  inmost  nature.  Restless  movement, 
flow  of  changing  passions,  and  unaccountable 
yearnings  can  be  uttered  adequately  by  music 
alone  of  the  arts;  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that 
music  has  been  called  the  supreme  art. 

His  complete  works  were  edited  by  Frauen- 
stadt  (Leipzig,  1873-74;  3d  ed.  1891) ;  by  Grise- 
bach  (ib.,  1891),  and  also  by  Warschauer  (Ber- 
lin, 1891).  Grisebach  also  published  Schopen- 
hauer's Handschriftlicher  NachUiss  (Leipzig, 
1891-93).  Many  of  his  works  have  been  trans- 
lated into  English.  Of  these  may  be  mentioned 
The  Art  of  Literature  (New  York,  1891)  ;  Re- 
ligion, a  Dialogue,  and  Other  Essays  (London, 
1889);  Selected  Essays  (ib.,  1891);  Studies  in 
Pessimism  (ib.,  1891) ;  Ttoo  Essays:  On  the  Four- 
fold Root  of  the  Principle  of  Sufficient  Reason; 
On  the  Will  in  Nature  (ib.,  1889)  ;  The  Wisdom 
of  Life  (New  York,  1891)  ;  Counsels  and  Maxims, 
trans,  by  Saunders  (ib.,  1891);  The  World  as 
Will  and  Idea  (London,  1883).  For  his  life,  con- 
sult Wallace  (London,  1890),  Zimmern  (ib., 
1876),  Gwinner  (Leipzig,  1878),  Kuno  Fischer 
(Heidelberg,  1897),  Grisebach  (Berlin,  1897), 
and  Volkeir  ( Stuttgart,  1900) .  For  exposition  and 
criticism  of  the  various  aspects  of  his  philosophy, 
Caldwell,  Schopenhauer's  System  in  Its  Phil- 
osophical Significance  (New  York,  1896) ;  CJol- 
vin,  Schopenhauer's  Doctrine  of  the  Thina-in4t- 
self  (Providence,  1897)  ;  Damm,  Schopenhauer's 
Ethik  (Annaberg,  1898) ;  Lehmann,  Schopen- 
hauer (Berlin,  1894)  ;  Lorenz,  Zur  Entwicke- 
lungsgeschichte  der  Metaphysik  Schopenhauers 
(Leipzig,  1897) ;  Mayer,  Schopenhauers  Aesthetik 
(Halle,  1897).    See  Pessimism;  Philosophy. 

SCHOPENHAXTEB,  Johanna  (1766-1838). 
A  German  author  and  mother  of  the  philosopher 
Arthur  Schopenhauer.  She  was  bom  at  Danzig. 
At  the  age  of  twenty-seven  she  married  the 
banker  Heinrich  Schopenhauer,  and  during  the 
lifetime  of  her  husband  she  spent  much  time  in 
travel.  After  his  death  she  lived  for  a  time  in 
Weimar,  where  she  gathered  about  her  a  bril- 
liant circle  of  remarkable  persons,  among  whom 
were  Wieland  and  Goethe.  Afterwards  she  lived 
in  Bonn  and  then  in  Jena.  She  wrote  novels 
and  descriptions  of  travel.  Oahriele  (1819)  is 
considered  her  best  book.  Her  complete  works 
were  published  at  Leipzig  in  1830-31  in  twenty- 
four  volumes. 

SCHOBLEMMEB,  shdr^Sm-mSr,  Cabl  (1834- 
92).  A  German-English  chemist,  bom  at  Darm- 
stadt. He  was  educated  at  Darmstadt  and  at  the 
University  of  Giessen.  In  1859  he  went  to  Owens 
College,  Manchester,  and  there  he  was  made  as- 
sistant in  chemistry  in  186x,  and  professor  of 
organic  chemistry  in  1874.  His  chief  contribution 
to  chemistry  is  in  connection  with  the  simplest 
compounds  of  organic  chemistry,  viz.  the  com- 
pounds containing  only  carbon  and  hydrogen. 
Schorlemmer  was  the  first  to  demonstrate  by 
experiment  that  no  compounds  which  would  have 
contradicted  the  structural  theory  are  really 
capable  of  existence;  and  thus  he  cleared  the 
way  for  the  introduction  of  one  of  the  most 
useful  theories  of  modem  science.  His  publica- 
tions include:  A  Manual  of  the  Chemistry  of 
Carbon  Compounds,  or  Organic  Chemistry  (Ger- 
man and  English,  1874) ;  a  voluminous  System- 
atic Treatise  on  Chemistry  (written  jointly  with 


SCHORLEMHXS. 


64d 


SCH&ADEa 


Sir  Henry  Roscoe ;  the  first  part  of  this  work  was 
published  in  1877,  but  the  work  is  still  incom- 
plete) ;  The  Rise  and  Development  of  Organic 
Chemistry  (1879),  an  historical  work  of  consider- 
able value.  Consult  Roscoe's  sketch  of  Schor- 
lemmer  in  the  Proceeding^  of  the  Royal  Society 
(1829-93,  52  vii). 

SCHOBN^  shorn,  Earl  (1803-50).  A  Ger- 
man historical  painter,  bom  at  Diisseldorf.  He 
studied  under  Wach  of  Berlin  and  (Corne- 
lius of  Munich,  and  first  came  into  notice  through 
the  firm  and  brilliant  color  of  his  pictures  "Mary 
Stuart  and  Rizzio,"  "Charles  V.  at  San  Yuste," 
and  "Cromwell  Before  the  Battle  of  Dunbar" 
(Konigsberg  Museum).  He  took  part  in  fresco- 
ing the  arcades  of  the  Hofgarten  in  Munich,  and 
designed  cartoons  for  the  side  windows  of  the 
Regensburg  Cathedral.  His  chief  work  was  or- 
dered by  Frederick  William  IV.  of  Prussia, 
"The  Anabaptist  Prisoners  Before  Bishop  Franz 
of  Mfinster  in  1636."  In  the  National  Gallery  at 
Berlin  are  "Capuchin  Friars  and  Wallenstein 
Soldiers  at  Cards"  (1837),  and  "Pope  Paul  III. 
Before  the  Portrait  of  Luther"  (1839)  ;  in  the 
New  Pinakothek,  at  Munich,  "Knox  Disputing 
with  Soldiers,"  and  the  colossal  "Deluge"  ( 1845- 
60,  finished  by  Piloty) .  Schom  was  a  professor 
in  the  Munich  Academy  after  1847. 

SCHOTT^  Charles  Anthony  (1826-1901). 
An  American  civil  engineer,  bom  in  Mannheim, 
Baden.  He  was  educated  at  the  Polytechnic 
School  at  Karlsruhe,  came  to  the  United  States 
in  1848  and  became  permanently  attached  to  the 
computing  division  of  the  United  States  Coast 
and  Geodetic  Survey.  In  1855  he  was  appointed 
to  supervise  the  magnetic  work  of  the  survey, 
and  became  at  the  same  time  chief  of  the  com- 
puting division,  an  office  which  he  held  until 
1899.  In  1899  he  received  the  Wilde  Prize  and 
4,000  francs  from  the  Academy  of  France  in 
recognition  of  his  scientific  writings,  published 
in  the  documents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
and  the  reports  of  the  Coast  and  Geodetic  Sur- 
vey, which  were  considered  the  most  important 
in  the  history  of  terrestrial  magnetism.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences 
and  a  founder  of  the  Washington  Academy  of 
Sciences. 

SCHOTT,  8h6t,  Walter  ( 1861  — ) .  A  German 
sculptor,  bom  at  Ilsenburg,  in  the  Harz  Moun- 
tains. First  instructed  by  Dopmeyer  at  Hanover, 
he  frequented  the  Berlin  Academy  in  1880-83  and 
developed  especially  under  the  influence  of  Rein- 
hold  Begas.  Of  several  graceful  mythological 
and  genre  figures,  a  group  of  "Charity"  and  a 
"Girl  Bowling**  are  especially  noteworthy.  His 
statues  include  those  of  "Frederick  William  I.," 
in  the  White  Room  of  the  Royal  Palace,  Berlin, 
of  "Albert  the  Bear,**  in  the  Sieges-All^,  Berlin, 
and  the  equestrian  statue  of  "Emperor  William 
I.**  at  the  Kaiserhaus  in  Golsar.  A  series  of  can- 
delabra with  groups  of  animated  figures,  in  the 
garden  of  the  New  Palace  at  Potsdam,  well  ex- 
emplify his  sterling  decorative  work.  His  nu- 
merous busts  are  of  singularly  spirited  concep- 
tion. He  was  awarded  gold  medals  in  Berlin, 
Dresden,  Munich,  Antwerp,  Chicago,  and  Vienna. 

SCHOTT,  WiLHELM  (1807-89).  A  German 
Orientalist.  He  was  born  in  Mainz,  studied  at 
Giessen,  Halle,  and  Berlin,  and  in  1838  be- 
came instructor  of  Eastern  Asiatic  languages  in 


the  University  of  Berlin.  He  wrote  many  val- 
uable works  on  the  languages  and  literature  of 
Asia  and  Finland;  chief  among  them  are 
Vocabularium  Sinicum  (1844),  Buddhismus  in 
Hochasien  und  in  China  (1844),  Indochinesische 
Sprache  (1856),  Chinesische  Verskunst  (1857), 
Finnische  und  esthnische  Heldensagen  {ISQ%), 
and  Zur  Uigurenfrage  (1874-75). 

SCHOTTISCHE  (Ger.  Scottish).  A  elow 
modern  dance  in  |  time.  Probably  it  was  in- 
vented by  Markowski,  a  well-known  London 
teacher  of  dancing,  and  first  danced  in  1848.  It  is 
a  round  dance  somewhat  resembling  the  polka 
(q.v.). 

SCHOXTLEB,  Bk?S^§r,  James  (1839—).  An 
American  historian,  bom  at  Arlington,  Masa.  He 
was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1859,  practiced  law 
in  Boston,  joined  the  Union  Army  ( 1862-63),  and 
resumed  the  practice  of  law,  on  which  he  lectured 
in  Boston  University  (1884),  and  at  the  National 
Law  School,  Washington.  He  lectured  also  on 
American  history  in  Johns  Hopkins  University 
after  1889.  He  wrote  legal  treatises  on  The  Law 
of  Domestic  Relations  (1870),  The  Law  of  Bail- 
ments (1880),  The  Law  of  Personal  Property 
(1873-76),  The  Law  of  Husband  and  Wife  (1882), 
The  Law  of  Executors  and  Administrators  ( 1883 ) , 
and  The  Law  of  Wills  (1887).  To  history  he 
contributed  a  Life  of  Thomas  Jefferson  (1893), 
Historical  Briefs  (1896),  Constitutional  Studies 
( 1896) ,  and  a  History  of  the  United  States  Under 
the  Constitution  (1880-98).  The  last  is  his  most 
important  work,  and  is  in  many  respects  the  best 
history  of  the  United  States  as  a  nation — that  is, 
not  including  the  colonial  period.  It  is  the  fullest 
narrative  stretching  from  1783  to  1865,  and, 
while  emphasizing  politics,'  does  not  neglect  social 
matters.  It  is  pro-Northern  in  tone,  but  thor- 
ough and  judicious,  its  chief  defects  being  those 
of  manner  rather  than  matter. 

SCHOUTEN,  sKou^ten,  Willem  Cosnelis 
(c.  1567- 1625).  A  Dutch  navigator,  bom  at 
Hoom  and  long  in  the  employ  of  the  Dutch  East 
India  Company.  Engaged  in  1615  by  the  mer- 
chant Isaac  Le  Maire  to  find  a  western  route  to 
the  East  Indies,  he  set  sail  with  his  patron  from 
Tekel,  discovered  the  strait  known  by  the  name 
of  the  latter,  separating  Staten  Island  from  the 
main  island  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  and  was  the  first 
to  round  Cape  Horn,  which  he  named  after  his 
birthplace.  Since  that  time  the  outer  route 
around  the  extremity  of  the  continent  has  been 
used  by  sailing  vessels  in  preference  to  the  inner 
passage  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  Arriv- 
ing in  India,  Schouten  reentered  the  service  of 
the  East  India  Company.  He  died  in  Madagas- 
car. 

SCHOXTWEK,  sKou^v&n.  One  of  the  islands 
forming  the  Dutch  Province  of  Zealand  (q.v.). 

•  SCHBABEB,  shra^d§r,  Ebeehard  (1836—). 
A  German  Orientalist,  especially  famed  in  As- 
syriology.  He  was  bom  in  Brunswick,  studied 
at  Gottingen  under  Ewald,  and  was  successively 
appointed  professor  of  theology  at  Zurich  (1863), 
at  Giessen  (1870),  and  at  Jena  (1873),  and  in 
1875  was  called  to  the  chair  of  Oriental  languages 
in  Berlin.  He  wrote:  Siudien  zur  Kritik  und 
Erklarung  der  hihlischen  Urgeschichte  (1863); 
Die  assyrisch'hahylonischen  Keilinschriften 
(1872)  ;  Die  Keilinschriften  und  das  Alte  Testa- 
ment (1872;  2d  ed.  1883) ;  Die  Hollenfahri  der 


SCHBADES. 


548 


SGHBEYES. 


Istar,  text,  version,  and  commentary  (1874) ;  and 
Zur  Frage  nach  dem  Uraprung  der  altbahyloiv- 
ischen  KuUur  (1884). 

SCHBAPEBy  Julius  (1815-1900).  A  dis- 
tinguislied  German  historical  painter,  bom  in 
Berlin.  He  entered  the  academy  of  that  city  at 
the  age  of  fourteen,  and  in  1837  he  went  to 
DOsseldorf  to  study  under  Schadow,  whose  pupil 
he  remained  until  1845.  At  Rome  he  painted  his 
first  picture  of  significance,  "The  Capitulation  of 
Calais  in  1347"  (1847,  National  Gallery,  Berlin). 
Then  followed  "Frederick  the  Great  After  the 
Battle  of  Kolin"  (1849,  Leipzig  Museum), 
"Wallenstein  and  Seni"  (1850),  and  "The  Death 
of  Leonardo  da  Vinci"  (1851).  By  the  last  his 
reputation  was  assured  and  he  was  offered  a 
professorship  in  the  Academy  at  Berlin,  of  which 
he  afterwards  became  associate  and  senator. 
Other  well-known  pictures  are:  "Consecration  of 
the  Church  of  Saint  Sophia  in  Constantinople" 
(1853),  fresco.  New  Museum,  Berlin;  "Parting 
of  Charles  L  from  His  Family"  (1855),  "Esther 
Before  Ahasuerus"  (1856),  "Homage  of  Berlin 
and  Cologne  in  1415"  (1874),  all  in  National 
Gallery,  Berlin.  Schrader  also  executed  mural 
paintings  in  the  Chapel  Royal,  Berlin,  as  well  as 
several  portraits.  His  work  is  distinguished  by 
its  fine  color,  its  masterly  treatment  of  the  nude, 
and  its  historic  accuracy. 

SCHBADEB,  Otto  (1855—).  A  German 
comparative  philologist,  bom  at  Weimar,  and 
educated  at  Jena  and  Leipzig.  First  a  teacher  in 
the  gymnasium  at  Jena,  he  afterwards  became 
professor  in  the  university  there.  An  authori- 
tative writer  on  linguistic  archaeology,  he  is 
known  by  Linguistisch-hiatorische  Forachungen 
zur  Handel^geachichte  und  Warenkunde  (1886), 
8prachvergleichung  und  Urgeachichte  (1883;  2d 
ed.  1890;  Eng.  trans.,  Prehiatoric  Antiguitiea  of 
the  Aryan  Peoplea),  and  his  Reallexikon  der 
indogermaniacken  Alteriumakunde  (1901). 

SCEBADIEGX,  shril^d^k,  Henbt  (1846—). 
A  German  violinist,  bom  at  Hamburg.  He 
studied  with  Leonard  at  Brussels,  and  with 
David  at  Leipzig.  He  taught  at  the  Moscow 
Conservatory  (1864-68)  and  later  was  concert- 
meister  at  Hamburg  and  at  Leipzig.  From  1883 
to  1889  professor  at  the  Cincinnati  Conservatory, 
he  went  back  to  Germany  to  conduct  the  Ham- 
burg Philharmonic  Society.  In  1894  he  returned 
to  America  as  professor  at  the  National  Conser- 
vatory and  later  occupied  a  similar  position  in 
Philadelphia.  Among  his  works  are  25  groaze 
Siudien  fur  Oeige  allein,  Scale  Studiea,  Technical 
'  Studies,  and  Guide  to  the  Study  of  Chorda, 

SGHBAXJDOLPH,  shrou'dAlf,  Johann  von 
(1808-79).  A  distinguished  German  religious 
painter,  bom  at  Oberstdorf.  In  1825  he  went 
to  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  Munich,  where 
he  studied  under  Schlotthauer.  There  he  was 
employed  by  Cornelius  in  frescoing  the  Glypto- 
thek  and  by  Hess  in  the  decoration  of  the 
All-Saints  C]!hapel  in  the  Basilica  of  Saint  Boni- 
face. He  designed  windows  for  the  Church  of 
Saint  Martin's  at  Landshut  and  for  the  Cathedral 
of  Regensburg.  In  1844  he  received  from  King 
Ludwig  I.  of  Bavaria  the  important  commission 
of  decorating  the  entire  Cathedral  of  Speyer.  The 
work  occupied  him  nine  years.  Many  altar 
pieces  and  easel  pictures  are  also  from  his 
Drush,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  a  large 
^Ascension  of  Christ,"  "Esther  Before  Ahasue- 


rus," and  "Fishing  in  the  Sea  of  Tiberias,"  all  in 
the  New  Pinakothek,  Munich.  His  work  shows  a 
depth  and  sincerity  of  sentiment  reminiscent  of 
the  Pre-Raphaelites^  although  purely  modem  in 
treatment. 

SCHSAXTP,  shrouf,  Albbecht  (1837-97).  An 
Austrian  mineralogist,  bom  and  educated  in  Vi- 
enna. He  was  assistant  curator  (1861-67),  and 
until  1874  curator  of  the  Royal  Museum  of  Min- 
erals, and  then  after  eleven  years  as  docent  in  the 
university  became  professor  of  mineralogy.  He 
published  Atlaa  der  Kryatallformen  (1864-78), 
Lehrhuch  der  phyaikaliachen  Mineralogie  (1866- 
68),  Phyaikaliache  Studien  (1867),  Handhuch 
der  Edelateinkunde  (1869),  and  Mineralogiache 
Beohachtungen  ( 187 1-76 ) . 

SCHBEIBEB,  shn'bgr,  Heinbich  (c.l476). 
A  German  mathematician,  supposed  to  have  been 
bom  at  Erfurt,  but  the  place  and  date  of  his 
death  are  unknown.  He  wrote  under  the  Greek 
name  Grammateus,  and  by  this  he  is  generally 
known.  He  studied  first  at  Cracow  and  wrote 
while  there  (1514)  slu  Algoriamuai  Proportionum. 
Soon  after  (1518)  he  went  to  Vienna,  where  he  * 
became  a  professor  in  the  university,  llie  lectures 
being  discontinued  ( 1521 )  on  account  of  an  epi- 
demic, Schreiber  returned  to  Nuremberg  and  Er- 
furt and  published  (1523)  a  work  on  arithmetic 
and  algebra  which  he  had  completed  (1518)  in 
Vienna.  It  is  from  this  work,  a  decided  con- 
tribution to  German  elementary  mathematics, 
that  he  is  chiefly  known.  He  used  the  symbols 
-f-  and  — ,  though  not  the  first  to  do  so,  and  was 
the  first,  so  far  as  known,  to  teach  bookkeeping 
in  the  German  language. 

SCHBEINEBy  shrX^nSr,  Olive  (1862—).  An 
English  novelist,  the  daughter  of  a  Lutheran 
clergyman  sent  as  a  missionary  from  England  to 
South  Africa.  She  was  born  in  Basutoland, 
South  Africa,  in  1862.  In  1894  she  married  Mr. 
Cronwright.  When  about  twenty  years  old  she 
visited  England,  bringing  w^ith  her  the  manu- 
script of  her  Story  of  an  African  Farm,  After 
receiving  the  approval  of  George  Meredith  it  was 
publish^  with  a  few  alterations  in  1883  under 
the  pseudonym  of  Ralph  Iron  and  won  instant 
success.  It  is  best  described  as  a  spiritual  auto- 
biography representing  the  mental  reaction  by 
which  an  imaginative  sensitive  temperament 
passes  from  extreme  Calvinism  to  hopeless  athe- 
ism. Her  other  works  include  Dreama  (1891), 
Dream  Life  and  Real  Life  (1893),  and  Trooper 
Peter  Halket  ( 1897 ) .  In  the  South  African  War 
Mrs.  Cronwright's  sympathies  were  with  the 
Boers.  She  expressed  her  opinions  in  An  Engliah 
South  African'a  View  of  the  Situation  (1899). 

SCHBEVBLIXTS,  skr6-v6^I-tis,  Cobnelis 
(C.1615-C.64).  A  Dutch  classical  scholar,  born  at 
Haarlem  and  educated  mainly  by  his  father, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  1664  as  rector  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Leyden.  Schrevelius  was  a  diligent 
and  erudite  man,  but  possessed  little  critical  dis- 
cernment. His  most  notable  work  was  a  Lexicon 
Manuale  Orceco-Latinum  et  Latino-Orofcutn 
(Leyden,  1654),  which  passed  through  many  edi- 
tions. 

SCHBBYEB,  shrl'gr,  Adolf  (1828-99).  A 
German  painter.  He  was  bom  in  Frankfort, 
where  he  received  his  artistic  training  at  the 
Stadel  Institute,  afterwards  studying  at  Dtissel- 
dorf  and  Munich.  Later  he  went  to  Paris,  where 
he  became  a  follower  of  Fromentin,  depicting 


8CHBBYBS. 


544 


SCHBOBTBS. 


chiefly  Oriental  subjects  in  a  style  characterized 
by  brilliant  color  effects  and  strcHig  dramatic 
action.  He  represents  such  subjects  as  the  "Bat- 
tle of  TemesvUr,"  "Arab  Advance  Guard,"  and 
"Cossacks  in  a  Snow-Storm/'  He  is  especially  a 
painter  of  horses,  which  he  generally  portrays  in 
fiery  action,  their  nostrils  distended  and  manes 
flying  in  the  wind.  He  at  first  resided  at  Frank- 
fort, but  after  a  voyage  to  Algeria  in  1861  he 
settled  in  Paris.  He  received  gold  medals  at 
Brussels  (1863),  and  at  Paris  in  1864,  1865,  and 
1867.  Most  of  the  principal  American  collections 
possess  examples  of  his  work. 

SCHJUVEB,  shrl^v§r,  Edmund  (1812-99).  An 
American  soldier,  born  in  York,  Pa.  He  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1833,  entered  the  Second 
Artillery,  and  served  against  the  Seminoles  in 
1839.  In  1846  he  resigned  from  the  army  and 
became  treasurer  of  the  Rensselaer  and  Sara- 
toga and  other  railroad  companies.  In  1861  he 
regntered  the  army  as  aide  to  Grovernor  Morgan. 
From  1863  to  1865  he  was  inspector  of  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac,  and  participated  in  the  Shenan- 
doah and  Northern  Virginia  campaigns,  in  the 
battles  of  Chancellorsville  and  Gettysburg,  and 
finally  in  the  Richmond  campaign.  At  the  end 
of  the  war,  during  which  he  had  risen  to  the 
grade  of  colonel  and  brevet  major-general,  he  was 
appointed  inspector  of  the  Military  Academy, 
which  position  he  held  from  1866  to  1871.  He 
retired  from  active  service  in  1881. 

8CHB5CKHy  shrSk,  Johann  Matthias 
(1733-1808).  A  German  Church  historian.  He 
was  bom  in  Vienna,  studied  at  €r5ttingen,  be- 
came professor  at  Leipzig,  1762,  and  at  Witten- 
berg, 1767.  He  is  best  known  by  his  monu- 
mental Chriatliche  Kirchengeschichte,  35  vols. 
(1768-1803),  and  Kirchengeachichie  aeii  der 
Beformation,  10  vols,  (1804-12),  the  last  two 
volumes  of  which  were  added  by  H.  G.  Tzschir- 
ner.  He  also  published  Allgemeine  Biographie, 
8  vols.  (1767-91),  and  Lebenaheschreihungen  he- 
ruhmter  Manner  ( 1789-91 ) .  Consult  his  lAfe  by 
Tzschimer  (Leipzig,  1812). 

SCHBbDEBy  shrS^dSr,  Fbiedrich  Ludwio 
(1744-1816).  A  noted  German  actor  and  drama- 
tist, bom  at  Schwerin.  He  early  became  an  actor 
and  achieved  great  fame,  especially  in  tragic 
r6les.  He  became  manager  of  the  theatre  at  Ham- 
burg in  1771.  His  management  was  distinguished 
for  the  high  artistic  standard  which  he  main- 
tained in  his  company  and  particularly  for  his 
introduction  of  several  of  Shakespeare's  trage- 
dies to  the  German  public,  perhaps  his  own  best 
rdle  being  that  of  Lear.  His  work  as  a  dramatist 
consisted  largely  of  adaptations  from  the  Eng- 
lish. Consult  his  Dramatische  Werke,  with  an  in- 
troduction by  Tieck  ( Berlin,  1831),  and  Litzmann, 
Friedrich  Ludwig  Schroder  (Hamburg,  1890-94). 

SCHBiJDEBy  Kabl  (1838-87).  A  German 
gynecologist,  bom  in  Neustrelitz  and  educated 
at  Wiirzburg  and  Rostock.  In  Bonn  he  was  as- 
sistant to  Veit  (1864-66)  and  docent,  and  in 
Erlangen  he  was  from  1868  to  1876  professor  and 
director  of  the  lying-in  hospital.  From  1876  till 
his  death  he  was  professor  in  Berlin.  He 
was  a  skillful  and  original  operator,  and 
the  first  to  practice  ovariotomy  successfully  in 
Germany.  He  wrote  Lehrhuch  der  Oehurt- 
shilfe  (1870;  revised  by  Olshausen  and  Veit) 
and  Krankheiten  der  weihlichen  Oeaohlechtsor- 
gone  (1874;  revised  by  Hotmeier). 


SCHBttDEB,  Kabl  (1848—).  A  German  ^ 
'cellist  and  composer,  bom  at  Quedlinburg.  He 
studied  with  Drechsler  at  Dessau  and  with  Kiel 
at  Berlin.  In  1871  he  organized  with  his  three 
brothers  the'  Schrdder  Quartet,  but  in  1873  he 
was  appointed  fiist  'cello  in  the  Brunswick  Court 
Orchestra,  in  1874  solo  'cellist  in  the  Gewand- 
haus  Orchestra  at  Leipzig,  and  in  1881  became 
Court  kapellmeister  at  Sondershausen.  After 
1866  he  conducted  successively  the  Opera  at 
Amsterdam,  Berlin,  and  Hamburg.  He  wrote 
a  three-act  opera,  Aspaaia  (1892),  a  one-act 
opera,  Der  Aaket  (1893),  a  method  and  etudes 
for  the  'cello. — ^Alwin  (1865^),  his  brother 
was  bom  at  Neuhaldensleben.  He  received  the 
appointment  of  first  'cello  in  Liebig's  concert 
orchestra  in  1875,  occupied  similar  positions 
under  Fliege  and  Laube  at  Hamburg,  and  in 
1880  went  to  Leipzig  as  assistant  to  his 
brother  Karl,  succeeding  him  in  the  Ge- 
wandhaus.  In  1886  he  went  to  Boston,  where 
he  became  a  member  of  the  Kneisel  Quartet  and 
first  'cellist  in  the  Boston  Symphony  Orchestra. 

SCHBtfDEB^  Sophie  (1781-1868).  A  German 
actress.  She  was  bom  at  Paderbom,  the 
daughter  of  an  actor  named  BUrger.  She  ap- 
peared on  the  stage  when  only  twelve  years  old, 
at  Saint  Petersburg,  where  her  mother  was 
acting.  In  1795  she  married  Stollmers,  the 
director  of  a  company  at  Reval,  but  was 
separated  from  him  soon  afterwards.  Her 
second  husband,  to  whom  she  was  married  in 
1804,  was  the  singer  Friedrich  Schroder.  He 
died  in  1818,  and  she  afterwards  married  the 
actor  Kunst.  She  acted  in  all  the  principal  the- 
atres in  Germany,  and  acquired  a  great  reputa- 
tion by  her  impersonations  of  Phedra,  Medea, 
Lady  Macbeth,  and  other  tragic  characters.  She 
retired  from  the  stage  in  1840  and  resided  then  in 
Augsburg.  Consult  Schmidt,  Sophie  Schroder 
(Vienna,  1870). 

SCHBtfDEB-DEVBIENT,  dtf-vryftN^  Wil- 
HELMINE    (1804-60).     A   German  dramatic   so- 

Srano,  bom  in  Hamburg.  She  studied  with 
[azatti  of  Vienna^  and  in  1821  at  Vienna  sang 
the  rOle  of  Pamina  in  The  Magic  Flute,  in 
which  her  success  was  so  great  as  to  secure  for 
her  the  part  of  Fidelio  in  1822,  in  which  rdle 
she  won  wide  reputation.  Although  possessed  of 
a  magnificent  voice,  she  was  deficient  in  tech- 
nique, a  fault  which  was  usually  lost  sight  of 
in  the  intensity  of  her  acting. 

SCHB5dTEB,  shr^tUr,  Adolf  (1805-76).  A 
German  genre  painter,  engraver,  and  illustrator, 
born  at  Schwedt,  Brandenburg.  He  studied 
line  engraving  under  Buckhom,  and  painting 
under  Schadow,  principally  at  Dfisseldorf,  where 
he  became  the  satirist  of  the  school,  ridiculing 
its  sentimentality  in  humorous  paintings^  en- 
gravings, and  lithographs.  He  designed  series  of 
such  subjects  as  Don  Quixote,  MUnehhausen,  Till 
Eulenspiegel,  M%u}h  Ado  About  Nothing,  and  il- 
lustrated a  number  of  works,  the  best  known  of 
which  is  perhaps  Detmold's  Leben  und  Thaten 
dea  Abgeordneten  Piepmeier  (1848).  Among  his 
best  known  paintings  are  the  "Wine  Tasters" 
(1832),  a  "Rhenish  Tavern  Scene"  (1833),  "Don 
Quixote  Studying  Amadis"  (1834),  and  "Fluel- 
len  with  Ensign  Pistol"  (1839),  all  in  the 
National  Gallery,  Berlin,  and  "Faust  in  Auer- 
bach's  Cellar"  (1848).  He  excelled  In  frieae- 
like  compositions,  of  which  a  well-known  example 


SCHBOBTES. 


545 


SCHX7BEBT. 


18  The  Four  Seasons,"  executed  in  water-colors 
(EarlflTuhe  Galleiy).  He  was  also  an  excellent 
etcher. 

SCHBOSDESy  shrS^der,  Leopold  ton 
(1851 — ).  A  German  Sanskrit  Scholar,  bom  in 
Dorpat,  and  educated  there  and  under  Roth  in 
TQhingen.  After  having  been  docent  at  Dorpat 
he  became  professor  of  Sanskrit  at  Innsbruck  in 
1894,  and  at  Vienna  in  1899.  His  most  impor- 
tant work  is  the  valuable  and  very  condensed 
Indiena  lAtteratur  und  Kultur  (1887).  Besides, 
he  edited  the  MMrilyani  Samkita  (1881-86),  and 
the  Kafhakam,  die  Sarhhita  der  K^fha-qakhd 
(1900),  and  published  Die  formelle  Vnteracheid- 
ung  der  Redeteilc  im  Chriechischen  und  Lateiiv- 
i8chen  ( 1874) ,  Pythagoras  und  die  Inder  ( 1884) , 
(jhriechiache  Goiter  und  Heroen  ( 1887) ,  Hockzeits- 
hrauche  der  Esthen  ( 1888) ,  and  Worte  der  Wahr- 
keit,  a  version  of  Buddhist  proverbs  (1892)  ;  the 
tragedy  Kdnig  Sundara  (1887),  and  poetical  ver- 
siona  of  Sanskrit  songs  and  proverbs.  Mango- 
bluten  (1892),  and  of  Indian  dramas  for  the 
G^man  stage,  Prinaiesein  Zofe  and  Sakuntala 
(1893). 

SGHUBABT,  BhSS^tkri,  Christian  Fbied- 
KICH  Daniel  (1739-91).  A  German  poet  and 
musician,  bom  at  Obersontheim,  in  Swabia.  In 
1768  he  became  a  preceptor  in  (^eisslingen,  and 
six  years  afterwards  he  was  made  director  of 
music  and  organist  in  Ludwigsburg,  but  on  ac- 
count of  quarrels  and  a  parody  he  wrote  upon  the 
litany  he  was  forced  to  leave.  He  led  a  restless 
and  dissipated  life  at  Heidelberg,  Mannheim, 
Munich,  Augsburg,  and  Ulm.  At  Augsburg  he 
started  in  1774  the  Deutsche  Chronik,  a  periodi- 
cal, which  met  with  universal  favor  in  Germany. 
For  ten  years,  from  1777  to  1787,  he  was  arbi- 
trarily imprisoned  in  the  fortress  of  Hohen- 
asperg  by  Duke  Charles  of  Wttrttemberg.  After 
his  release  he  put  himself  under  the  protection 
of  the  Kinff  of  Prussia,  and  was  made  director 
of  music  of  the  Court  and  theatre  at  Stuttgart. 
Though  not  belonging  to  the  school  of  Sturm 
und  Drang,  Schubart  possessed  much  of  its  spirit. 
While  in  prison  he  published  an  edition  of  his 
Bamtliche  Oedichte.  Among  his  finest  single 
poems  are  "Die  Fttrstengruft"  and  **Hymnus  auf 
Friedrich  der  Grossen."  His  complete  works 
were  published  in  eight  volumes  at  Stuttgart  in 
1839-40. 

SGH17BEBT,  sh?RBl>€rt,  Fsanz  (1797-1828). 
A  famous  Austrian  composer.  He  was  bom 
January  31,  1797,  in  Vienna.  His  violin  lessons 
began  at  the  age  of  eight.  A  few  lessons  from  an 
ei&T  brother,  Ignaz,  sufficed  to  start  him  on  the 
pianoforte,  and  he  continued  to  study  by  him- 
self. In  1808  he  passed  his  examination  for  the 
Court  choir.  The  manuscript  of  a  piano  duet, 
Leichenfantasie,  after  Schiller,  bears  date  April 
8-May  1,  1810.  He  was  then  fourteen;  the  next 
year  was  important  in  his  development  as  a  com- 
poser, for  from  it  date  his  first  songs,  "Hagar's 
Klage"  and  "Der  VatermSrder."  Salieri,  who 
was  one  of  the  instructors  at  the  "Stadtconvict," 
where  Schubert  received  a  general  schooling,  was 
so  struck  with  ''Hagar's  Klage"  that  he  made 
arrangements  for  Ruczizka  to  give  the  boy  lessons 
in  harmony.  At  this  time  Franz  already  had 
composed  chamber  music,  which  he  took  home 
with  him  on  holidays  and  tried  over  in  the  family 
dxde.     His    brothers,    Ferdinand    and    Ignaz, 


played  first  and  second  violin,  Franz  himself 
viola,  and  his  father  'cello. 

In  1813  he  began  work  on  an  opera,  Des  Teufels 
Lustsohloss,  and  composed  a  symphony.  During 
tliis  year  his  voice  broke,  and  he  was  obliged  to 
leave  the  choir.  Some  of  his  most  important 
compositions  were  written  during  this  period — 
between  his  seventeenth  and  twentieth  years.  At 
this  time,  too,  he  formed  a  close  attachment  for 
Mayrhofer,  whose  melancholy  disposition  was  the 
very  opposite  of  Schubert's  joviality.  Of  Des 
Teufels  Lustsohloss,  finished  in  1814,  only  the 
first  and  third  acts  remain.  The  composer  gave 
the  score  to  Josef  Hiittenbrenner  for  a  small  debt, 
and  in  1848  a  servant  lit  the  fire  with  the  sec- 
ond act.  Several  of  Schubert's  other  scores  also 
met  with  a  similar  fate.  Gne  of  his  best  masses, 
that  in  F,  dates  from  this  year. 

In  18 16;  when  he  was  only  nineteen  years  old,  he 
wrote  his  most  famous  song,  "The  Erlking,"  and 
another  almost  as  famous,  "The  Wanderer."  Josef 
Spaun,  who  had  provided  him  with  music  paper 
at  the  choir  school,  chancing  to  call  upon  him  one 
afternoon  found  him  working  excitedly  over 
Goethe's  poem.  The  very  same  evening  the  com- 
poser appeared  at  the  school  with  the  finished 
song.  It  seems  incredible  at  this  day  that  five 
years  should  have  elapsed  before  this  immortal 
song  was  heard  in  public,  yet  such  was  the  case. 
Previously,  however,  it  had  been  sung  frequently 
in  private.  To  the  "Erlking"  year  belongs,  be- 
sides many  other  compositions,  the  Tragic  Sym- 
phony, Although  his  application  for  the  post  of 
musical  instructor  in  Laibach  was  unsuccessful, 
he  was  able  to  obtain  freedom  from  the  drudgery 
of  teaching  through  the  generosity  of  one  of  his 
admirers,  Franz  von  Schober.  He  was  a  student 
at  the  University  of  Vienna,  who,  having  heard 
some  of  Schubert's  songs,  recognized  the  genius, 
of  their  composer,  and  invited  Schubert  to  live 
with  him.  It  was  through  this  friend  that  Schu- 
bert was  introduced  to  the  famous  barytone 
Johann  Michael  Vogl,  who  made  many  of  his 
songs  known. 

In  1818  Count  Johann  Eszterh&zy  offered 
Schubert  the  post  of  music  teacher  in  his  family, 
with  a  residence  in  winter  in  Vienna  and  in  sum- 
mer at  Zel^sz,  in  Hungary.  This  arrangement, 
however,  did  not  last  long,  for  early  in  1819 
Schubert  again  was  sharing  Mayrhofer's  quarters 
in  Vienna. 

The  first  public  performance  of  a  song  by 
Schubert  appears  to  have  been  at  a  concert  in 
1819,  when  the  "Sch&fer's  Klagelied,"  sung  by 
Franz  Jftger,  a  tenor,  was  received  with  applause. 
About  the  same  time  he  sent  some  of  his  settings 
of  Goethe's  poems,  among  them  "The  Erlking," 
to  the  poet.  The  latter,  however,  never  acknowl- 
edged them ;  nor  did  he  appreciate  "The  Erlking" 
until  late  in  life,  when  he  heard  it  sung  by 
Schrdder-Devrient.  Vogl  induced  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Kftrnthnerthor  Theatre  to  commis- 
sion Schubert  to  set  to  music  the  farcical  Die 
ZuHlUngshruder.  It  was  produced  in  June,  and 
had  six  repetitions,  without,  however,  making  a 
decided  impression. 

Despite  the  large  number  of  Schubert's  com- 
positions, and  the  fact  that  they  were  being 
more  and  more  performed  and  admired  in  private 
circles,  not  one  of  them  had  yet  been  published. 
In  1821  Leopold  von  Sonnleithner,  to  put  an  end 
to  the  disgraceful  neglect  to  which  the  composer 
was  subject  in  his  native  city,  took  "The  Erlking" 


8GHTTBEBT. 


546 


SGHT7CKINO. 


to  the  publishing  houses  of  Diabelli  and  Has- 
linger.  Both  absolutely  declined  it,  giving  as  rea- 
sons that  the  composer  was  unknown  and  that 
the  accompaniment  was  too  difficult.  Sonnleithner 
then  persuaded  three  others  to  share  the  ex- 
pense with  him,  and  had  the  song  printed  by 
Diabelli  on  commission.  Other  songs  of  his  now 
were  published  and  sold  well,  and  he  would  have 
found  himself  in  fairly  comfortable  circumstances 
had  he  not  been  absolutely  without  business  in- 
stinct. 

In  December,  1823,  he  finished  the  opera  Al- 
fonso und  Eatrella^  on  which,  off  and  on,  he  had 
been  engaged  for  some  time.  The  libretto  is  by 
Schober,  and  it  is  said  that  Schubert  set  Scho- 
ber's  lines  to  music  as  rapidly  as  the  librettist 
wrote  them.  The  opera  was  not  brought  out  un- 
til 1854,  when  Liszt  produced  it  at  Weimar,  but 
unsuccessfully,  largely  owing  to  the 'wretched 
libretto.  One  of  Schubert's  finest  works,  the 
Unfinished  Symphony,  dates  from  this,  period. 
This  fragment  consists  of  the  first  and  second 
movements,  which  are  familiar  to  concert  goers, 
and  nine  bars  of  the  scherzo.  These  are  fully 
scored,  but  with  them  the  manuscript  comes  to 
a  complete  stop,  not  even  the  the  most  meagre 
sketch  of  the  remainder  having  been  discovered. 
This  exquisite  fragment  was  presented  in  its  un- 
finished state  by  Schubert  to  the  Musikverein  at 
Gratz,  in  recognition  of  his  election  to  member- 
ship, but  was  not  heard  until  1865,  when  it  was 
performed  in  Vienna.  Some  incidental  music 
written  for  Rosamunde,  Princess  of  Cyprus, 
pleased  greatly;  but  Schubert's  genius  seems  to 
have  been  too  lyric  for  opera,  and  of  his  few  stage 
works  which  have  been  heard,  only  the  little 
opera  Der  hausliche  Krieg,  which  remained  un- 
known until  1861,  when  it  was  brought  out  in 
Vienna,  has  had  any  success.  The  year  1823 
is  noteworthy  for  the  composition  of  his  charm- 
ing song  cycle  Die  schdne  MUllerin. 

During  the  few  remaining  years  of  his  brief 
life  he  composed  several  of  his  finest  works, 
most  notable  among  them  his  great  symphony  in 
C.  He  presented  the  score  to  the  Gesellschaft 
der  Musikfreunde,  of  Vienna,  in  return  for  a 
purse  of  100  florins,  which  they  had  voted  him. 
They  placed  the  symphony  in  rehearsal,  but 
abandoned  it  as  too  difficult.  The  score  was  dis- 
covered in  1838  in  Ferdinand  Schubert's  posses- 
sion by  Schumann,  and  by  him  sent  to  Mendels- 
sohn, who  produced  it  at  a  Gewandhaus  concert, 
Leipzig,  March,  1839.  On  November  4,  1828, 
Schubert  called  on  the  Court  organist,  Sechter,  to 
arrange  for  lessons  in  coimterpoint.  Soon  after- 
wards he  took  to  the  bed  from  which  he  never 
rose.  "Die  Taubenpost,"  the  last  of  the  Schwan- 
engesang,  composed  in  October,  1828,  is  generally 
regarded  as  his  last  composition.  In  the  early 
stages  of  his  final  illness  (typhoid)  he  gave  some 
time  to  correcting  the  proof-sheets  of  his  song 
cycle  Die  Winterreise.  He  died  November  19th, 
and  was  buried  near  Beethoven's  grave. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  as  an  orchestral  composer 
Schubert  had  but  just  'found  himself  in  the  G 
symphony,  now  ranked  among  the  finest  com- 
positions of  its  class.  It  is  not  unlikely  that, 
having  established  so  high  a  standard  for  him- 
self, he  would  have  followed  this  symphony  with 
others,  but,  allowing  for  the  possibility  of  a  de- 
cline in  his  powers,  the  world  may  well  be  satis- 
fied with  what  he  left.  No  composer,  except  Bach, 
has  gained  so  much  in  fame  since  his  death. 


With  the  pure  melodic  line  he  combined  in  his 
Lieder  wonderful  powers  of  vocal  expression,  as 
well  as  vividness  of  description  in  the  accom- 
paniments. Notable  examples  are  The  Erlking, 
Die  junge  Nonne,  in  which  the  accompaniment 
gives  the  tolling  of  a  bell  above  a  raging  storm, 
and  Auf  dent  Wasser  zu  singen,  in  which  the 
water  fairly  ripples  and  sparkles  around  the 
vocal  melody.  The  known  list  of  his  songs  is 
over  600.  Perhaps  it  was  because  Schul^rt's 
fame  as  a  song  composer  overshadowed  his  other 
achievements  that  the  latter  were  so  tardily 
recognized  at  their  full  worth.  His  fascinating 
waltzes  (the  Soirees  de  Vienne  in  Liszt's  ar- 
rangement) and  his  highly  characteristic  Im- 
promptus and  Moments  Musicaux  are  fre- 
quently heard.  In  chamber  music  it  is  only  nec- 
essary to  mention  his  superb  string  quintet  with 
the  two  'cellos,  the  pianoforte  trios,  and  the 
D  minor  string  quartet  to  fix  his  rank.  At  least 
two  of  his  masses  and  several  of  his  smaller 
choral  works  are  highly  valued. 

Consult:  Kreissle  von  Hellborn,  Franz-Schu- 
hert,  eine  hiographische  Skizze  (Vienna,  1861; 
enlarged  ed.  1865;  English  trans,  by  Coleridge, 
London,  1869),  the  most  scholarly  work;  Frost, 
SchuherH  (London,  1888),  a  good  popular  biog- 
raphy; and  the  biographies  by  Reissmann  (Ber- 
lin, 1873),  Niggli  (Leipzig,  1880),  Friedlftnder 
(ib.,  1883),  and  Heuberger  (Berlin,  1902). 

SOU  U  BIN,  Bh75f/b\n,  OssiF.  The  pseudonym 
of  the  German  novelist  Lola  Kirschner  (q.v.). 

SCHXTCH,  shSJate,  Webneb  (1843—).  A  Ger- 
man painter,  born  at  Hildesheim.  He  studied 
architecture  at  the  Polytechnic  Institute  of 
Hanover,  after  which  he  practiced  his  profession 
as  architect  and  engineer  until  1870,  when  he 
became  professor  at  the  Institute.  He  then  took 
up  the  study  of  painting,  continued  it  ( 1876)  at 
Dtisseldorf,  and  after  his  return  to  Hanover,  in 
1878,  painted  his  first  historical  picture,  **The 
Transportation  of  the  Body  of  Gustavus  Adolphus 
to  Wolgast"  (City  Hall,  Nuremberg).  Having 
lived  in  Munich  (1882-86),  Berlin  (until  1893), 
and  Dresden  (1895-99),  he  finally  settled  in  Ber- 
lin. His  other  works  include  "From  the  Time 
of  Dire  Need"  (1877),  "General  Zieten  at  Hen- 
nersdorf"  ( 1886) ,  "General  Seydlitz  at  Rossbach" 
(1886),  "Battle  of  Mockern"  (1895),  all  in  the 
National  Gallery  at  Berlin;  "In  Winter  Quar- 
ters" (1884,  Mtinster  Gallery)  ;  "General  Seydlitz 
Reconnoitring"  (1885,  Breslau  Museum); 
"Apotheosis  of  Frederick  III."  (1893,  Danzie 
Museum)  ;  and  the  mural  painting  "The  Allied 
Monarchs  at  Leipzig"  (1888,  Feldherrenhalle, 
Arsenal,  Berlin).  Schuch  is  also  known  as  a 
portrait  painter  and  illustrator. 

SCHTTCHABBT,  shlRJo'Hrt,  Hugo  (1842-). 
A  German  Romance  philologist,  born  at  Grotha. 
He  was  educated  in  the  universities  of  Jena  and 
Bonn.  In  1873  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
Romance  philology  at  Halle,  whence  he  was 
called  in  1876  to  Gratz.  His  publications  in- 
clude: Vokalismus  des  Vulgarlateins  (3  vols., 
1866-68)  ;  Ritomell  und  Terzine  (1874) ;  Slawo- 
Deutsches  und  Slatoo-Italienisches  (1884);  Ro- 
manisches  und  Keltischest  (1886);  Auf  Anlass 
des  Volapuks  ( 1888)  ;  Baskisehe  Studien  { 1893) ; 
and  Weltsprache  und  Weltsprachen  (1894). 

SCHttCKING,  shyk^ng,  I^VIN  (1814-83).  A 
German  novelist,  bom  near  Mfinster.  He  studied 
law  at  Munich,  Heidelberg,  and  Gdttingen,  but, 


8GHT7CXING. 


547 


SGHXTLZ. 


after  returning  to  Munich,  gave  up  the  law  for 
letters.  His  first  efforts,  published  in  1842,  were 
descriptive:  D<ts  malerische  und  romantische 
Wesifalen,  and  Der  Dom  sm  Kdln  und  seine  VoU 
lendung.  In  1843  he  went  to  Augsburg  as  one  of 
the  editors  of  the  Allgemeine  Zeitung,  and  thence 
he  removed  to  Cologne  to  take  charge  of  the 
Kolniscke  Zeitung,  His  numerous  novels  include : 
Ein  8chlo88  am  Meer  (1843);  Verachlungene 
Wege  (1867);  Die  Heiligen  und  die  Hitter 
(1872)  ;  Die  Herberge  der  Oerechtigkeit  (1878) ; 
Das  Reckt  des  Lebenden  (1880) .  After  his  death 
appeared  Lehenserinnerungen  (1886).  Although 
not  profoimd,  these  works  are  wholesome  and 
agreeable. 

His  wife,  Louise  von  Gall  (1815-56),  was 
bom  in  Darmstadt.  She  published  her  first 
volume,  Frauennovellen,  in  1844,  and  this  was 
followed  by  the  novels  Gegen  den  Strom  (1851) 
and  Der  neue  Kreuzritter  (1853).  She  was  also 
the  author  of  a  successful  comedy,  Ein  schlechtes 
Chufissen  (1842). 

SGHULTE,  shooKte,  Johann  Fbiedrich  von 
( 1827 — ) .  A  German  jurist,  bom  at  Winterberg, 
Westphalia.  In  1864  he  became  professor  of 
canon  law  at  Prague.  His  opposition  to  the  doc- 
trine of  Papal  infallibility,  as  consistorial 
councilor,  attracted  much  attention  and  criti- 
cism. In  1873  he  became  professor  at  Bonn. 
From  1874  to  1879  Schulte  was  a  member  of  the 
German  Reichstag,  where  he  voted  with  the 
National  Liberals.  He  is  considered  an  authority 
on  canon  law.  His  publications  include:  Sys- 
tem des  katholischen  Kirchenreckts  (1855) ;  Die 
Lehre  von  den  Quellen  des  katholischen  Kirchen- 
rechts  (1860);  Die  Rechtsfrage  des  Einfiusses 
der  Regierung  hei  den  Bischofgwahlen  (1869). 

SCHULTENS,  sK^Kt^ns,  Albert  (1686-1760). 
A  Dutch  Semitic  scholar.  He  was  born  in  Gro- 
ningen,  studied  there,  at  Utrecht,  and  at  Leyden, 
and  after  two  years  as  pastor  at  Wassenaar, 
near  Leyden,  in  1713  became  professor  of 
Oriental  languages  at  Franeker,  whence  in 
1729  he  removed  to  Leyden.  There  he  be- 
came professor  of  Arabic — ^the  study  of  which 
he  insisted  was  a  necessary  adjunct  to 
Hebrew — and  of  Hebrew  antiquities.  He  was 
the  first  comparative  philologist  in  Semitics,  and 
wrote  Institutiones  ad  Fundamenta  Linguce 
EebraiccB  (1737),  Origines  Eehraas  (1724-38), 
the  unfinished  Institutiones  Aramww  (1745-49), 
and  versions,  with  commentaries,  of  Job  (1737) 
and  of  the  Book  of  Proverbs  (1748). 

SCBJTLTZy  shvlts,  Alwin  (1838^).  A  Ger- 
man art  critic  and  historian,  born  at  Muskau, 
Lusatia.  After  studying  archaeology  and  Germanic 
philology  at  Breslau,  he  established  himself  there 
as  decent  for  art-history  in  1866,  was  appointed 
professor  in  1872,  and  called  to  the  University 
of  Prague  in  1882.  His  most  important  publica- 
tions include:  Schlesiens  Kunstlehen  im  13.  his 
18.  Jahrhundert  (1870-72);  Die  Legende  vom 
Leben  der  Jungfrau  Maria  und  ihre  Darstellung 
in  der  hildenden  Kunst  des  Mittelalters  (1878)  ; 
Das  hofische  Leben  zur  Zeit  der  Minnesinger 
(2d  ed.  1889)  ;  Kunst  und  Kunstgeschichte  (2d 
ed«  1901)  ;  Deutsches  Leben  im  IJ^.  und  15. 
Jahrhundert  (1892)  ;  and  Allgemeine  Oeschichte 
der  bildenden  Kunste  (1894  et  seq.). 

SCHTTIiTZ,  Sir  John  Christian  (1840-96). 
A  Canadian  administrator,  bom  in  Amherstburg, 
Ontario,   and  educated   at   Victoria   University 


(M.D.,  1861).  In  Kiel's  Rebellion  (1870)  Schults 
was  imprisoned  and  condemned  to  death  by  Riel 
for  loyalty  to  the  British  flag  and  the  Canadian 
party.  From  1871  to  1882  he  was  a  member  of 
the  Dominion  House  of  Ck>mmons  and  from  1888 
to  1896  Lieutenant-Grovemor  of  Manitoba.  Schults 
was  a  member  of  the  Executive  Ck)uncil  of  the 
Northwest  Territories,  and  president  of  the  Mani- 
toba Southwestern  Railway.  He  died  suddenly 
in  Monterey,  Mexico,  about  a  year  after  he  be- 
came K.  C.  M.  G. 

SCHULTZE,  shvKtse,  Fbitz  (1846—).  A 
Grcrman  philosopher,  bom  at  Celle  and  educated 
at  Jena,  Gottingen,  and  Munich.  He  was  pro- 
fessor extraordinary  of  philosophy  at  Jena  in 
1875-76  and  became  in  the  latter  year  professor 
of  philosophy  and  pedagogy  in  the  Royal  Poly- 
technic Institute  of  Dresden.  Among  his  works 
may  be  named:  Der  Fetischismus :  Ein  Beitrag 
zur  Anthropologic  und  ReligUmsgeschichte 
(1871)  ;  Oeschichte  der  Philosophie  der  Renais- 
sance (1st  vol.  1874);  Philosophie  der  Natur- 
wissenschaft  (1881-82)  ;  Stammbaum  der  Philos- 
ophic (1890);  Der  Zeitgeist  in  Deutsch- 
land,  seine  Wandlung  im  19.  und  seine  muth- 
massliche  Oestaltung  im  20,  Jahrhundert  (1894). 

SCHXJLTZE,  Max  Sigismund  (1825-94).  An 
eminent  German  anatomist  and  cytologist.  He 
was  bom  at  Freiburg  in  Breisgau.  After  1845 
he  studied  at  Greifswald  and  Berlin.  In  1854  he 
was  appointed  adjunct  professor  in  Halle,  and  in 
1859  was  called  to  the  chair  of  anatomy  in  the 
University  of  Bonn.  His  chief  works  are  on 
turbellarian  worms  (1851)  ;  on  the  Foraminifera 
of  the  Adriatic  Sea  (1854)  ;  on  the  embryology 
of  various  worms  and  of  the  lamprey;  on  the 
mode  of  termination  of  the  finer  nerves  in  the  or- 
gans of  sense;  and  on  the  electric  organs  of  fishes; 
but  his  most  notable  contribution  to  general 
biology  was  his  "work  on  the  nature  of  proto- 
plasm and  of  cells  (q.v.).  He  was  the  first,  after 
Dujardin,  to  establish  the  nature  of  protoplasm 
of  rhizopods  and  to  show  that  it  was  the  funda- 
mental substance  of  both  animals  and  plants. 
His  results  are  embodied  in  his  tract  Das  Proto- 
plasma  der  Rhizopoden  und  der  Pflanzenzellen. 
Ein  Beitrag  zur  Theorie  der  Zelle  (Leipzig, 
1863).  He  adopted  Mohl's  term  'protoplasm,^  ap- 
plied by  that  botanist  to  plants  alone,  and 
extended  it  to  include  that  of  animals.  Schultze 
was  also  the  founder  and  editor  of  the  Archiv 
fUr  mikroskopische  Anatomic. 

SCHTJLZ,  shvlts,  Albert  (1802-93).  A  Ger- 
man writer  on  mediseval  literature,  especially 
the  Arthurian  legends.  He  was  bom  at  Schwedt, 
studied  law,  and  entered  the  judicial  service  at 
Magdeburg.  His  valuable  studies  in  his  special 
field,  published  under  the  pseudonym  San  Marte, 
include  a  version  of  the  "Parzival"  in  Leben  und 
Dichten  Wolframs  von  Eschenbach  (1836-41), 
Die  Arthursage  (1842),  Nennius  und  Oildas 
(1844),  Beitrage  zur  bretonischen  und  keltisch- 
germanischen  Heldensage  (1847),  and  RUek- 
blicke  auf  Dichtungen  und  Sagen  des  deutschen 
Mittelalters  (1872). 

SCHULZ,  Johann  Abraham  Peter  (1747- 
1800).  A  Grcrman  composer,  bom  at  Lfineburg. 
He  studied  with  Kiraberger  at  Berlin,  taught 
there,  and  became  musical  director  at  the  French 
theatre  in  1776,  holding  the  appointment  for  two 
years.  In  1780  he  became  Kapellmeister  to 
Prince  Heinrich  at  Rheinsberg  and  afterwards 


8CHnii2&. 


548 


SGHT7MACHES. 


was  conductor  at  Copenhagen.  He  published: 
Oesinge  am  Clavier  (1779)  and  Lieder  im 
Volkaton  (1782),  which  were  printed  together, 
with  augmentations,  as  Lieder  im  Volkaton  in 
1785;  Chansons  Italiennes  (1782) ;  operettas  and 
operas ;  the  oratorio  Johannes  und  Marie;  and  the 
passion  cantata  Christi  Tod,  He  was  a  song 
composer  of  great  originality. 

SCHXTLZ,  MoRiTZ  (1825—).  A  German 
sculptor,  bom  at  Leobschiitz,  Upper  Silesia.  He 
studied  at  the  Industrial  School  in  Posen,  at 
the  Berlin  Academy,  and  as  a  pupil  of  Friedrich 
Drake.  From  1854  to  1870  he  lived  in  Rome, 
studying  the  old  masters  and  executing 
numerous  works.  Upon  his  return  he  prepared 
for  the  Monument  of  Victory  in  the  KOnigsplatz 
of  Berlin  a  bronze  relief  of  the  battle  of  K5- 
niggrfttz.  A  series  of  decorations  by  him  repre- 
senting elementary  instruction  in  the  arts  of 
painting  and  sculpture  occupies  a  place  in  the 
entrance  to  the  National  Gallery,  together  with 
a  frieze,  22  meters  in  length,  depicting  "The  Tri- 
umph of  the  Artists,"  or  the  history  of  German 
art  as  displayed  in  its  chief  representatives.  His 
further  works  include  a  statue  of  Frederick  the 
Great  for  Thorn,  and  numerous  subjects  derived 
from  allegory  or  classical  mythology. 

SCHTTLZE,  shvKtse,  Ernst  (1789-1817).  A 
German  poet,  bom  at  Celle.  He  studied  theology 
at  CrOttingen,  but  afterwards  devoted  himself  to 
philology.  The  death  of  C&cilie  Tychsen.  in 
whose  memory  his  epic  Cacilie  (1818)  was  writ- 
ten, clouded  all  his  later  life.  His  writings 
are  romantic  in  style  and  mainly  in  allegorical 
form.  The  epic  Die  bezauherte  Rose  (1818),  his 
last  work,  is  a  poem  of  classic  beauty  of  style. 
Samtliche  poeiische  Werke  were  edited  by  Bout- 
erwek  (3d  ed.,  iwith  biography  by  Marggraff, 
Leipzig,  1855). 

SCHULZE,  Fbakz  Eilhabd  ( 1840 — ) .  A  Ger- 
man zoologist,  bom  in  Eldena  and  educated  at 
Rostock  and  Bonn.  He  was  professor  at  Rostock 
1865-73,  at  Gratz,  until  1884,  and  then  at  Berlin, 
where  he  became  director  of  the  Zoolog- 
ical Institute.  Schulze  sailed  in  the  Pomer- 
ania  expedition,  while  he  was  at  Rostock;  spe- 
cialized on  sponges,  and  wrote  Amerikanische 
Hewactinelliden.  His  most  important  single  dis- 
covery was  that  of  the  sponge  Halisarca,  a  mere 
germinal  cell  (1877). 

SCHULZEy  Fbiedbich  August  (1770-1849). 
A  German  novelist,  bom  in  Dresden.  His  first 
novel,  Der  Mann  auf  Freiersfussen  (1801),  was 
favorably  received,  but  his  work  as  a  whole  is 
without  particular  value.  Under  the  pseudonym 
Friedrich  Laun  he  wrote  many  volumes,  and 
with  Apel  edited  a  Gespensterhuch  (1810-14). 

SCHXTLZE,  Fbiedbich  Gottlob  (1795-1860). 
A  German  economist,  born  at  Obergftvernitz,  near 
Meissen,  and  hence  called  Schulze-Giivemitz.  He 
was  educated  at  Leipzig  and  Jena;  became  pro- 
fessor in  the  latter  university  in  1821,  and,  after 
founding  there  an  agricultural  institute,  the  first 
connected  with  a  German  university,  in  1832  went 
to  Greifswald,  where  he  established  a  similar 
training  school.  These  institutions  exercised 
great  influence  throughout  Germany.  In  1839  he 
returned  to  Jena.  Schulze  wrote  Deutsche 
Blatter  fUr  Landtoirtschaft  und  Nationalokono- 
mie  (1843-59),  Nationalokonomie  oder  Volks- 
mrtschafislehre    (1856),    and    the    posthumous 


Lehrhuch  der  allgemeinen  Landwiri^okaft 
(1863).  A  memorial  to  him  was  erected  at 
Jena  in  1867.  Consult:  Bimbaum,  Schulze  als 
Reformator  der  Landwirtschaftslehre  (Frank- 
fort, 1860),  and  the  biography  by  his  son,  Her- 
mann (Heidelberg,  1888). 

QCHTTLXE,  Johannes  (1786-1869).  A  Ger- 
man educator  and  administrator.  He  was  bom 
at  Brtthl,  in  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  studied  at 
Halle,  and  taught  at  Weimar  and  Hanau.  In 
1813  he  became  chief  counselor  on  education  in 
Frankfort,  in  1815  a  member  of  the  Goblens  con- 
sistory, and  in  1818  referendaiy  to  the  Prussian 
Ministry  of  Education  in  Berlin,  a  post  he  kept 
until  1840,  and  one  in  which  his  great  work  of 
reforming  the  educational  methods  in  the  higher 
schools  of  Prussia  was  performed.  In  1849  he 
was  appointed  director  of  the  Department  of 
Education,  an  ofiice  he  resigned  ten  years  after- 
wards. He  was  an  ardent  Hegelian  and  edited 
Hegel's  Phanomenologie  des  Oeiates  (2d  ed. 
1841),  and  some  of  Winckelmann's  works.  Con- 
sult Varrentrapp,  Johannes  Schulze  und  das 
hohere  preussische  Unterrichtsfioesen  (Leipzig, 
1889). 

SCHTTIiZE-DELITZSCHy  dfi^Ich,  HsBiCitinr 
( 1808-83) .  A  German  economist  and  sociologist^ 
the  founder  of  the  German  coSperative  move- 
ment. He  was  bom  at  Delitzsch,  studied  juris- 
prudence at  the  universities  of  Leipzig  and  Halle, 
and  subsequently  held  judicial  positions  at 
Naumburg  and  Berlin,  playing  a  prominent  part 
in  the  liberal  movement  of  1848-49  in  Prussia. 
Schulze-Delitzsch  advocated  co5peration  and  de- 
voted himself  to  the  establishment  of  ooSperative 
associations  which  should  secure  to  the  laborers 
the  benefits  of  the  wholesale  market.  Go5perative 
banks  were  also  established,  which  lent  money 
on  moderate  terms.  He  endeavored  to  accustom 
the  people  to  rely  upon  their  own  initiative  to 
improve  their  condition.  He  declared  that  the 
function  of  the  State  should  be  limited  to  assur- 
ing industrial  and  personal  liberty.  Schuboe- 
Delitzsch's  writings  are  chiefly  in  the  form  of 
pamphlets.  His  most  important  doctrines  are 
embodied  in:  Information  on  Professional  and 
Labor  Associations  ( 1850)  ;  Manual  of  Associa- 
tion for  Artisans  and  German  Workmen  ( 1853 ) ; 
Suppression  of  Social  Reform  by  Lasalle  { 1866) ; 
Social  Rights  and  Duties  (1867);  Development 
of  Cooperative  Associations  in  Germany  (1870). 
Consult  Bernstein,  Schulze-Delitzsch,  Sein  Leben 
und  Wirken  (Berlin,  1879). 

SCHULZE-aiLVEBNITZ,  g&^v&nlts,  Gm- 
HART  VON  ( 1864— ) .  A  German  economist,  bom 
in  Breslau.  He  became  professor  at  Freiburg  in 
1893,  and  at  Heidelberg  in  1896,  and  then  re- 
turned to  Freiburg.  He  wrote  Zum  sozialen 
Frieden  (1890),  Groasbetrieb  (1892),  Thomas 
Carlyles  Welt-  und  Lebensanschauung  (1893), 
Volkswittschaftliche  Studien  aus  Russland 
(1899),  and  other  historical  and  critical  studies. 

SCHXTMACHEBy  sh^S^mfto-er,  Hbinrich 
Christian  (1780-1850).  A  Danish  astronomer, 
bom  at  Bramstedt,  Holstein.  He  studied  at  Kiel, 
Jena,  Copenhagen,  and  Gottingen.  In  1810  he 
became  adjunct  professor  of  astronomy  in  Copen- 
hagen. In  1813  he  was  appointed  director  of 
the  Mannheim  observatory,  and  in  1815  professor 
of  astronomy  and  director  of  the  Copenhagen 
observatory.  In  1822  he  published  tables  of  the 
distances  of  Jupiter^  Saturn,  Mars,  and  Veniu 


SCHUMAGHBS. 


549 


8GHTJ1CANK. 


from  the  moon.  In  1822  he  began  the  publica- 
tion of  his  Asironomiache  Nachrichten,  which  is 
still  continued  in  an  unbroken  series,  and  is  re- 
garded as  perhaps  the  most  important  of  as- 
tronomical periodicals.  He  also  published,  in 
cooperation  with  other  eminent  astronomers, 
Aatronomischea  Jahrhuch  (1836-44). 

SGHUMACHEBy  Pedeb.  A  Danish  states- 
man. Count  Griffenfeld  (q.v.). 

SGHTHCANlTy  sh?R^m&n,  Klaba  (1819-96). 
Wife  of  Robert  Schumann,  and  under  her  maiden 
name,  Klara  Wieck,  one  of  the  best  known  con- 
cert pianists  of  her  generation.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  Frederick  Wieck  (q.v.)»  from  whom 
she  received  her  musical  education.  At  thir- 
teen years  of  age  she  began  the  concert  tours 
which  made  her  famous  and  which  led  to  her 
acquaintance  with  Schumann.  After  the  death 
of  her  husband  she  lived  for  several  years  in 
Berlin,  and  during  this  period  wrote  some  of  her 
most  charming  songs.  From  1878  to  1892  she 
served  on  the  faculty  of  the  Hoch  Conservatorium 
at  Frankfort.  Her  compositions  are  largely  in 
the  style  of  her  husband,  and  are  marked  by 
much  sincerity  and  some  originality.  They  in- 
clude: Op.  12,  12  poems  by  Rtickert,  set  to 
music  by  Robert  and  Klara  Schumann  (Nos.  2,  4, 
and  11  by  the  latter) ;  a  pianaforte  concerto  (op. 
7);  a  trio  (op.  17);  the  violin  romances  (op. 
22) ;  and  several  preludes,  fugues,  variations,  and 
exercises. 

SGHXnffANN,  Max  (1827-89).  A  Prussian 
military  engineer,  famous  for  his  efforts  to  util- 
ize armor-plate  in  warfare.  He  was  born  in 
Magdeburg.  At  the  time  of  the  American  Civil 
War  he  became  interested  in  the  subject  of  ar- 
mored fortifications,  which  he  proceeded  to  study 
in  England  (1863-65).  During  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War  he  was  on  fortification  duty,  and 
in  1872  he  retired,  immediately  entering  the 
Gnison  works.  There  he  devised  an  armored 
gun-carriage,  an  armored  mortar-platform,  a  dis- 
appearing carriage,  and  a  steel  wire  net  for  de- 
fense. A  rotary  iron-clad  tower  planned  by  him 
was  adjudged  at  Bucharest  (1885-86)  superior 
to  that  of  Mougin.  Schumann  described  the 
salient  features  of  his  innovations  in  Die  Bedeut- 
ung  drehharer  Oeschsitzpanzer  fur  dne  durch- 
greifende  Reform  der  permanenten  Befestigung 
(2d  ed.  1886),  and  "Die  Panzerlafetten  und  ihre 
femere  Entwickelung,**  in  the  Internationale 
Revue  (1886).  Consult  Schr5der,  Schumann 
und  die  Pamerfortifikation  (Berlin,  1890). 

SGHXTMAirN',  Robert  (1810-56).  A  famous 
German  composer.  He  was  born  at  Zwickau, 
Saxony,  where  his  father  was  a  bookseller  and 
publisher.  At  Zwickau  he  received  little  musical 
instruction  beyond  piano  lessons  from  an  old- 
fashioned,  pedantic  teacher,  Kuntzsch.  Until  he 
was  twenty-one  years  old  he  had  no  instruction 
in  composition.  He  then  placed  himself  under 
Heinrich  Dom  at  Leipzig.  He  had  begun  to 
compose,  however,  according  to  his  own  state- 
ment, when  he  was  eleven  years  old,  setting 
tile  150th  Psalm  to  music.  His  father  died  in 
1826,  and  his  mother  being  violently  opposed  to 
Ms  choosing  a  musical  career,  Robert  in  1828 
matriculated  at  the  University  of  Leipzig  as  a 
law  student. 

Most  important  at  Leipzig  was  his  acquaint- 
ance with  Friedrich  Wieck,  a  gifted  musician, 
and  his  daughter  Klara,  then  in  her  ninth  year, 


and  a  surprisingly  skillful  pianist.  Schumann 
placed  himself  under  Wieck's  instruction,  con- 
tinuing until  1829,  when  he  entered  the  Uni- 
versity of  Heidelberg.  As  a  result  of  his 
assiduous  devotion  to  music,  he  soon  became 
known  throughout  Heidelberg  as  a  skillful  pian- 
ist, and  even  received  invitations  to  play  at  Mann- 
heim and  Mainz.  His  compositions  .in  1829 
include  several  short  pieces,  which  after- 
wards appeared  among  the  Papillons,  and  in  1830 
he  composed  his  Variations  on  the  Name  of 
Ahegg,  which  owed  their  origin  to  the  lively  im- 
pression made  upon  him  by  Meta  Abegg.  In  the 
spring  of  1830  Schumann  went  to  Frankfort  to 
hear  Paganini.  The  deep  impression  the  great 
violinist's  playing  made  upon  him  is  shown  by 
hid  adaptation  and  elaboration  of  several  of  the 
famous  capriccios  for  the  piano. 

Schimiann  now  determined  to  abandon  law  and 
devote  himself  to  music.  In  notifying  his  mother 
he  referred  her  to  Wieck  for  an  opinion  as  to 
his  abilities,  and  on  his  mother's  writing  to 
Wieck,  the  latter's  decision  was  in  favor  of 
Schumann.  He  was  at  last  b^inning  to  realize 
the  disadvantage  of  having  neglected  theoretical 
studies.  Yet  even  now  he  did  not  take  up  these 
at  once.  On  his  return  to  Leipzig  he  resumed 
his  piano  lessons  with  Friedrich  Wieck  and  liVed 
at  his  house.  An  accident  for  which  he  himself 
was  responsible  forced  him  to  give  up  piano  play- 
ing and  devote  himself  wholly  to  composition.  Dis- 
satisfied with  the  progress  he  was  making  as  a 
pianist,  he  devised  a  system  of  digital  gymnas- 
tics, with  the  result  that  he  injured  the  sinews 
of  the  third  finger  of  his  right  hand  so  severely 
that  he  never  fully  regained  its  use.  It  was  this 
forced  abandonment  of  a  pianist's  career  which 
led  him  to  seek  instruction  in  composition  from 
Heinrich  Dom,  who  took  him  as  a  pupil. 

The  year  1831  is  important  because  during  it 
Schumann  first  came  before  the  public  as  a 
musical  critic,  contributing  to  the  Allgemeino 
Musik-Zeitung  an  enthusiastic  critique  of 
Chopin's  Don  Juan  Fantasia,  In  November, 
1832,  he  was  in  Zwickau,  where  at  a.  concert 
given  by  Klara  Wieck,  then  thirteen  years  old, 
a  symphony  by  him  in  G  minor,  now  wholly  un- 
known, was  performed.  On  his  return  to  Leip- 
zig he  removed  from  the  Wiecks*  house,  but  con- 
tinued on  an  intimate  footing  with  the  family. 
In  1833  he  completed  the  Paganini  transcriptions, 
and  wrote  his  piano  impromptus  on  a  theme  by 
Klara  Wieck,  a  composition  which  has  romantic 
inieiest,  as  the  young  pianist,  with  whom  his  re- 
lations at  that  time  were  wholly  artistic,  later 
became  his  wife  and  did  much  to  make  his  music 
famous. 

In  1834  Schumann  and  several  other  enthusi- 
astic musicians  and  critics  banded  themselves 
under  the  name  "Davidsbttndler"  to  wage  war 
against  philistinism  in  music,  as  David  had 
against  the  Philistines.  They  established  the 
'Seue  Zeitschrift  fUr  Musik,  Schumann's  con- 
tributions, when  not  over  his  own  name,  were 
signed  Floreatan,  Eusebius,  Meister  Raro,  "2" 
and  "12."  They  were  of  the  highest  importance, 
for  he  possessed  the  gift  of  recognizing  incipient 
genius.  One  of  his  later  critiques  in  which,  under 
the  title  "Neue  Bahnen,"  he  hailed  Brahms,  who 
\tas  almost  unknown,  as  a  musical  Messiah,  is  a 
most  notable  example  of  musical  prescience. 
Through  the  columns  of  his  paper  he  accelerated 
the  growing  fame  of  Schubert  and  Mendelssohn, 


SCHTTMAKH. 


550 


SCHTJBMAJr. 


aided  Franz  and  Gade,  and  practically  introduced 
Berlioz  to  the  musical  world  by  his  review  of  the 
Symphonie  phantastique.  In  all  matters  re- 
lating to  the  achievements  of  other  musicians  he 
was  most  liberally  appreciative,  save  in  the  case 
of  Wagner,  whom,  at  first  inclined  to  regard 
fayorably,  he  afterwards  opposed. 

Schumann's  important  musical  work  of  1834 
was  the  Etudes  aymphoniquea.  The  following 
year  saw  the  production  of  two  sonatas,  the  first, 
in  F  sharp  minor,  significantly  dedicated  "to 
Klara."  Subsequently  he  went  to  Vienna  in  hopes 
of  there  placing  the  Neue  Zeitachrift  on  a  more 
remunerative  basis,  but  was  unsuccessful.  It  was 
during  his  Vienna  sojourn,  however,  that  he  visit- 
ed Schubert's  brother  Ferdinand  and  discovered 
Schubert's  great  C  major  Symphony,  Friedrich 
Wieck  had  long  opposed  the  marriage  of  his 
daughter  to  Schumann,  but  in  September,  1840, 
they  were  at  last  united.  The  years  of  Schumann's 
uncertainty  regarding  the  result  of  his  ardent 
passion  had  been  productive  of  some  of  his  finest 
music.  "Truly,"  he  wrote  to  Dorn,  "the  contest 
for  Klara  has  yielded  much  music."  Several  of  the 
beautiful  "FantasiestUcke,"  "Noveletten,"  "Nacht- 
stflcke,"  and  the  "Faschingsschwank  aus  Wien" 
for  piano ;  his  first  symphony ;  and  above  all  the 
Bongs,  138  in  number,  written  in  1840,  and  in- 
cluding the  famous  "Liederkreis"  and  "Dichter- 
liebe"  of  Heine  and  "Frauenliebe  und  Leben"  of 
Chamisso,  are  among  the  productions  inspired  by 
his  love  for  Klara. 

When  Mendelssohn  founded  the  conservatory 
at  Leipzig,  Schumann,  who  was  on  terms 
of  intimacy  with  him,  became  one  of  the  in- 
structors, but  made  little  impression  as  a 
teacher.  Among  the  important  works  composed 
before  his  removal  to  Dresden  are  the  choral 
work  D(w  Parodies  und  die  Peri  and  the  cele- 
brated piano  quintet.  The  Schumanns  resided 
in  Dresden  from  1844  to  1860,  when  they  settled 
in  Dttsseldorf.  The  principal  works  of  the  Dres- 
den period  are  the  piano  concerto  (op.  54),  the 
C  major  Symphony,  the  opera  Qenoveva  (un- 
successfully produced  in  Leipzig,  1850),  the  Man- 
fred music,  and  the  scenes  from  Goethe's  Faust, 
Schumann's  conductorship  of  the  Chorgesang- 
Verein  also  was  productive  of  much  choral  music. 

Even  while  in  Dresden  he  had  suffered  from 
attacks  of  melancholia,  and  these  became  frequent 
after  he  moved  to  Dlisseldorf,  whither  he  had 
been  called  as  musical  director.  Here,  never- 
theless, he  composed  the  Rhenish  Symphony  (in- 
spired by  the  festivities  incidental  to  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne  to  the  rank  of 
cardinal)  and  the  D  minor  Symphony.  On  Febru- 
ary 27,  1854,  during  a  fit  of  melancholy,  he  at- 
tempted suicide  by  jumping  into  the  Rhine.  He 
was  rescued  and  taken  to  a  private  asylum  at 
Endenich,  near  Bonn,  where  he  died,  July  29, 
1866. 

Schumann's  compositions  are  essentially  ex- 
pressions of  moods.  He  was  one  of  the  most  sub- 
jective, most  "intimate"  of  composers,  and  for 
this  reason  most  successful  in  the  more  compact 
forms  such  as  the  Lied,  and  in  one-movement 
pieces  like  his  "Noveletten"  and  "Fantasie- 
stUcke," or  in  works  consisting  of  a  series  of 
smaller  divisions  like  his  "Kinderscenen"  and 
"Faschingsschwank."  While  this  is  true  in  a 
general  way,  the  piano  concerto,  piano  quintet, 
sonata  in  G  minor,  and  his  first  and  sooond  sym- 
phonies rank  among  the  best    of    their    kind, 


though,  as  regards  the  symphonies,  his  orchestra- 
tion is  far  from  brilliant.  In  his  compositions  he 
was  one  of  the  founders,  and  in  his  writings 
the  chief  advocate  of  the  Neo-Romantic  School, 
and  perhaps  nowhere  have  the  tendencies  of  this 
school  found  more  compact  and  eloquent  expres- 
sion than  in  his  songs.  They  differ  from  those 
of  his  immediate  forerunner,  Schubert,  in  a  closer 
interknitting  of  voice  and  accompaniment,  in 
which  respect  Brahms  is,  par  excellence,  Schu- 
mann's successor.  Consult  the  biographies  by 
Wasielewski  (Eng.  trans.,  Boston,  1871),  Reiss- 
mann  (Berlin,  1879),  Spitta  (Leipzig,  1883), 
Fuller-Maitland,  in  the  "Great  Musicians"  series 
(New  York,  1884),  Erler  (Berlin,  1887),  Rei- 
mann  (Leipzig,  1887),  and  Batka  (ib.,  1892). 
Also  Jansen,  Die  Davidsbiindler  (Leipzig,  1893)  ; 
Wasielewski,  Schumamana  (Bonn,  1884)  ;  and 
Vogel,  Schumanns  Klaviertonpoesie  (Leipzig, 
1887). 

SCHTJlff ANN-HEINKy  hink,  Ernestine,  n6e 
RoESSLER  (1861—).  A  German  dramatic  con- 
tralto, born  at  Lieben,  near  Prague.  She  studied 
with  Marietta  vou  Leclair  at  Gratz,  and  made  her 
d^but  at  Dresden  in  1878,  as  Azucena  in  II  Trava- 
tore.  For  four  years  she  sang  in  Dresden,  and 
from  1883  in  the  Hamburg  Stadttheater.  In  1896, 
at  Bayreuth,  she  took  the  rOles  of  Erda,  W^al- 
traute,  and  the  first  Norn,  in  Der  Ring  des 
Nihelungen,  She  was  married  to  Heink  in  1883, 
and  to  Paul  Schumann  in  1893.  She  made  her 
American  d^but  in  1898,  and  sang  with  uniform 
success  in  Chicago,  New  York,  and  other  cities. 

SCHttBEB,  shv'rer,  Emil  (1844-).  A  Ger- 
man Lutheran  theologian.  He  was  bom  in  Augs- 
burg, studied  theology  at  Erlangen,  Berlin,  and 
Heidelberg,  became  professor  of  theology  succes- 
sively at  Leipzig,  1873,  Giessen,  1878,  Kiel,  1890, 
and  Gottingen,  1895.  He  has  published  Die  Oe- 
meindeverfassung  der  Juden  in  Rome  ( 1879) ,  Die 
altestcn  Christengemeinden  im  romischen  Reich 
( 1894) ,  and,  the  work  by  which  he  is  best  known, 
Geschichte  des  jUdischen  Volkes  im  Zeitalter 
Jesu  Christi  (1886-90;  Eng.  trans.,  1886-90). 
After  1876,  with  Adolf  Harnack,  he  edited  the 
Theologische  Litteraturzeitung, 

SCHTJBHAir,  shyr^mAn,  Jacob  Gould  (1854 
— ).  An  American  educator,  bom  at  Freetown, 
Prince  Edward  Island.  He  began  his  academic 
education  at  Acadia  College,  Nova  Scotia,  and  in 
1875  won  the  Gilchrist  Canadian  Scholarship  at 
the  University  of  London,  where  he  received  his 
degree  in  1877.  Afterwards  he  studied  at  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  and  at  Heidelberg,  Ber- 
lin, and  Gottingen.  From  1880  to  1882  he  was 
professor  of  psychology,  political  economy,  and 
English  literature  at  Acadia  College;  from  1882 
to  1886  was  professor  of  English  literature  and 
philosophy  at  Dalhousie  College,  and  in  the  latter 
year  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Cornell 
IJniversity.  In  1891  he  was  appointed  dean  of 
the  Sage  School  of  Philosophy  at  Cornell,  and  in 
1892  succeeded  Charles  Kendall  Adams  (q.v.)^  as 
president  of  the  university.  He  became  editor 
of  the  Philosophical  Review  in  1892.  In  Jan- 
uary, 1899,  he  was  appointed  by  President  Mc- 
Kinley  chairman  of  the  first  Philippine  Commis- 
sion, and  spent  the  greater  part  of  the  succeeding 
year  in  the  Philippine  Islands.  His  publications 
include:  Kantian  Ethics  and  the  Ethics  of  Evo- 
lution (1881)  ;  The  Ethical  Import  of  Darwinism 
(1888) ;  Belief  in  Qod  (1890) ;  Agnosticism  OM/i 


8CHTT&MAK. 


551 


scfixnrusE. 


Religion     (1896);    and    Philippine   Affaira:    A 
Retrospect  and  an  Outlook  (1902). 

SCHTJBZ,  shyrts,  Carl  ( 1829— ) .  A  German 
American  soldier  and  political  leader,  born  at 
Liblar,  Prussia.  He  was  educated  at  the  gym- 
nasium of  Cologne  and  the  University  of  Bonn, 
at  -which  latter  place  he  became  the  associate 
of  Gottfried  Kinkel  (q.v.),  then  professor  at 
Bonn,  in  the  publication  of  a  liberal  newspaper, 
and  was  engaged  in  the  revolutionary  movement 
of  1848-49,  as  a  result  of  which  he  was  forced 
to  retire  to  Switzerland.  In  1850  Schurz  re- 
turned secretly  to  Germany,  and  with  great  skill 
succeeded  in  bringing  about  the  memorable  escape 
of  Kinkel  from  tne  fortress  of  Spandau.  After 
a  residence  in  Paris  as  correspondent  for 
German  papers,  and  in  London,  where  he  was 
a  teacher,  he  emigrated  to  the  United  States  in 
1852,  settling  first  in  Philadelphia  and  after- 
wards in  Wisconsin,  where  he  made  Kepublican 
campaign  speeches  in  German  in  1856,  and  the 
next  year  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  Lieu- 
tenant-Governor. In  1859  he  began  to  practice 
law  in  Milwaukee.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the 
National  Republican  Convention  in  1860,  and  de- 
livered both  English  and  German  speeches,  of  re- 
markable eloquence,  during  the  canvass  of  that 
year.  In  1861  he  was  appointed  Minister  to 
Spain  by  President  Lincoln,  but  resigned  5n  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  and  joined  the  army. 
He  was  made  brigadier-general  in  1862; 
commanded  a  division  at  the  second  battle 
of  Bull  Run,  was  commissioned  major-general  in 
1863,  led  the  Eleventh  Corps  at  Chancellorsville, 
participated  in  the  battles  of  Gettysburg  and 
Chattanooga,  and  at  the  close  of  the  war  made 
a  tour  of  inspection  through  the  Southern  States 
as  a  special  commissioner  appointed  by  President 
Johnson  to  inquire  into  the  condition  of  affairs 
in  the  seceded  States,  his  report  having  con- 
siderable influence.  He  was  Washington  corre- 
spondent of  the  New  York  Tribune  in  1865-66, 
founded  the  Detroit  Post  in  1866,  and  the  next 
year  became  editor  of  the  Saint  Louis  Westliche 
Post. 

From  1869  to  1875  he  served  as  United  States 
Senator  from  Missouri.  He  opposed  many  of  the 
measures  of  the  Grant  administration,  took  a 
leading  part  in  the  organization  of  the  Liberal 
Republican  movement,  and  in  1872  presided  over 
the  Cincinnati  convention  which  nominated 
Greeley  for  President.  He  supported  Hayes  in 
1876,  and  afterwards  served  in  his  Cabinet  as 
Secretary  of  the  Interior  (1877-81).  In  1881- 
84  he  was  editor  of  the  New  York  Evening  Post, 
In  the  Presidential  campaign  of  1884  he  was  one 
of  the  earliest  amon^  the  Independent  Repub- 
licans to  repudiate  tne  nomination  of  Blaine, 
and  in  New.  York,  New  Jersey,  Connecticut,  and 
several  Western  States,  he  made  vigorous 
speeches,  favoring  the  election  of  Cleveland.  Dur- 
ing his  term  of  oflSce  as  Secretary  of  the  In- 
terior and  after  his  retirement  from  public  life, 
he  was  an  enthusiastic  advocate  of  civil-service 
reform,  in  support  of  which  he  wrote  many  arti- 
cles and  reports  and  delivered  many  speeches. 
His  publications  include  biographies  of  Henry 
Clay  (1887)  and  of  Abraham  Lincoln  (1891). 

SCHVTT,  sh^^t.  Two  islands  in  the  Danube, 
situated  in  the  Hungarian  plain  between  Press- 
burg  and  Komom,  and  mostly  in  these  two  coun- 
ties.   Gbeat  ScHtJTT  Island  is  bordered  by  the 


Danube  proper  on  the  south  and  west,  and  by  the 
Little  Danube  and  the  Schwarzwasser  (Oereg* 
duna)  (Map:  Hungaiy,  £  3).  It  is  58  miles  long, 
from  10  to  20  miles  wide,  and  is  subject  to  the 
floods  of  the  rivers,  being  low  and  even.  Owing  to 
its  rich  soil,  it  is  called  the  Golden  Garden  of 
Hungary.  Grain,  fruits,  and  vegetables  are  raised. 
There  are  sugar  factories.  It  has  several 
towns,  including  Komom,  which  is  situated  in 
the  southeast  comer  of  the  island.  The  total 
population  is  about  23,600. — Little  ScHiJTT 
Island,  bordered  by  the  Danube  proper  on  the 
north  and  east,  and  by  the  Wieselburger  Danube, 
and  lying  to  the  southwest  of  Great  SchUtt 
Island,  is  28  miles  long.  It  belongs  to  the  coun- 
ties of  Raab  and  Wieselburg. 

SCHtiTZy  shyts,  Heinrioh,  known  by  the 
Latinized  form  of  his  name  as  SAGnTASius 
(1585-1672).  The  most  important  German  com- 
poser of  the  seventeenth  century,  bom  at  K5- 
stritz,  near  Gera,  Saxony.  At  the  age  of  four- 
teen he  became  a  chorister  of  the  Court  Chapel 
at  Cassel,  in  which  city  he  also  attended  the 
gymnasium.  In  1607  he  went  to  Marburg  Uni- 
versity, to  study  jurispmdence.  He  abandoned 
the  law,  however,  and  went  to  Italy,  where  he 
studied  under  Giovanni  Gabrieli  until  the  death 
of  that  master  in  1612.  In  1617  he  was  appointed 
Kapellmeister  to  the  Elector  of  Saxony  in  Dres- 
den, with  whose  orchestra  he  had  been  connected 
for  two  years.  He  was  a  prolific  composer  and 
writer  and  has  been  well  described  as  ''standing 
at  the  parting  of  the  ways  between  Palestrina 
and  Bach."  In  his  writing  he  combined  the  im- 
pressive Italian  choral  style  with  the  new  dra- 
matic monodic  style  of  Monteverde.  He  was  the 
composer  of  the  first  German  opera,  Dafne 
(1627). 

SCHTTSXEB,  skl^gr,  Eugene  (1840-90).  An 
American  diplomat  and  historian.  He  was  bom 
in  Ilhaca,  N.  Y.  After  graduation,  at  Yale  (1859), 
he  practiced  law  in  New  York,  entered  the  dip- 
lomatic service  (1866),  was  made  consul  at  Mos- 
cow (1867-69),  at  Reval  (1869-70),  and  secre- 
tary of  legation  at  Saint  Petersburg  (1870-76). 
In  1873  he  traveled  for  eight  months  through 
Russian  Turkestan,  Khokan,  and  Bokhara,  and 
wrote  Turkestan  (1876).  In  1876  he  was  made 
secretary  of  legation  and  Consul-General  at  Con- 
stantinople, and  prepared  a  report  on  Bulgarian 
atrocities  that  had  international  consequences. 
He  was  subsequently  consul  at  Birmingham 
(1878)  and  Rome  (1870),  charge  d'affaires  and 
Consul-General  at  Bucharest  (1880),  and  (1882- 
1884)  Minister  Resident  and  Consul-General  to 
Greece,  Servia,  and  Rumania;  then,  returning  to 
America,  he  devoted  himself  to  literary  work.  He 
was  Consul-General  at  Cairo  till  his  death.  His 
chief  books  are  Peter  the  Oreat,  Emperor  of 
Russia  (1884)  and  Americctn  Diplomacy  and  the 
Furtherance  of  Commerce  (1886).  His  chief  es- 
says were  posthumously  collected  in  Italian  In- 
fluences, with  an  accompanying  volume  Selected 
Essays,  icith  a  Memoir  by  Evelyn  Schuyler 
Schaeffcr  (1901).  Schuyler  was  also  translator 
of  Turgenieff's  Fathers  and  Sons  (1867)  and 
Tolstoy's  The  Cossacks  (1878). 

SCHUYLEB,  MoNTOOMEBY  (1843—).  An 
American  journalist,  bom  in  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  He 
studied  at  Hobart  College,  but  did  not  graduate, 
and  in  1865  joined  the  staff  of  the  New  York 


SCHXmiER. 


562 


SCHWAIiBACH. 


World,  remaining  with  that  paper  in  variouB 
capacities  until  1883,  after  which  he  was  an 
editorial  writer  on  the  New  York  Times,  He 
made  a  special  study  of  architecture,  upon  which 
subject  he  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  maga- 
zines. He  published  The  Brooklyn  Bridge 
(1883),  with  William  C.  Conant,  and  Studies  in 
American  Architecture  (1892). 

SCHXrSXEB,  Philip  (1733-1804).  An  emi- 
nent American  soldier  and  statesman,  bom  No- 
vember 20,  1733,  at  Albany,  N.  Y.  Entering  the 
English  army  on  the  outbreak  of  the  French  and 
Indian  War,  he  served  as  captain  in  1755,  and  as 
captain  and  commissary  in  1756.  In  1757  he  re- 
signed, but  reentered  the  army,  as  major,  in 
1758,  and  served  as  such  imtil  the  close  of  the 
war.  He  was  elected  to  the  Colonial  Assembly  in 
1768,  and  in  May,  1775,  was  a  delegate  to  the 
Continental  Congress,  by  which  he  was  made  a 
major-general  on  June  19.  Being  assigned  by 
Washington  to  the  command  of  the  Northern 
Department,  he  organized  the  expedition  against 
Canada,  which  was  to  proceed  by  way  of  Lake 
Champlain,  but  he  was  forced  by  illness  to  de- 
pute the  active  leadership  of  the  invading  troops 
to  General  Richard  Montoomery  (q-v.).  Return- 
ing to  Albany,  he  directed  operations  against  the 
Indians  and  Tories,  and,  as  Indian  Commissioner, 
carried  on  important  negotiations  with  the  Six 
Nations.  Meanwhile  General  Horatio  Gates 
(q.v.)  and  many  of  the  New  England  delegates, 
who  had  been  offended  by  Schuyler's  attitude  in 
the  New  York-Massachusetts  boundary  disputes, 
began  scheming  for  his  removal;  and  in  Septem- 
ber, 1776,  disgusted  at  these  intrigues,  he  sent  in 
his  resignation,  which,  however,  was  not  accepted 
by  Congress.  In  April,  1777,  a  Congressional 
court  of  inquiry  strongly  commended  him  for  his 
conduct  hitnerto,  but  the  attacks  continued,  be- 
ing especially  bitter  after  St.  Clair's  evacuation 
of  Ticonderoga,  and  on  August  19  General  Gates 
was  appointed  to  supersede  him  in  command  of 
the  Northern  Depaiiment.  Schuyler,  however, 
remained  with  the  army  and  assisted  very  ma- 
terially in  the  operations  against  Burgoyne.  A 
oourt-martial,  convened  in  October,  1778,  acquit- 
ted him  with  the  highest  honor  of  all  charges, 
and  his  resignation  having  been  accepted  April 
19,  1779,  he  became  one  of  New  York's  repre- 
sentatives in  Congress,  serving  until  1781.  After 
the  war  he  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Fed- 
eralist Party,  and  held  many  important  State 
offices,  besides  representing  New  York  in  the 
United  States  Senate  in  1789-91  and  again  in 
1797-98.  While  serving  in  the  State  Senate  he 
helped  codify  the  New  York  laws,  and  ardently 
advocated  the  building  of  State  canals.  Through- 
out his  public  career  he  was  conspicuous  for  his 
great  abilities,  his  stanch  patriotism,  and  his 
unselfish  devotion  to  duty.  His  daughter  Eliza- 
beth married  Alexander  Hamilton.  Consult 
his  Life  by  Lossing  (New  York,  1872)  and  Tuck- 
erman  (ib.,  1903). 

SCHTTSXKILL,  skTOl^Il.  A  river  of  Penn- 
sylvania, rising  in  the  highlands  of  Schuylkill 
County  and  flowing  southeast  125  miles  to  the 
Delaware,  which  it  joins  at  Philadelphia  (Map: 
Pennsylvania,  F  3).  It  has  been  improved  for 
slack-water  navigation  nearly  to  its  source;  it 
furnishes  the  greater  part  of  Philadelphia's 
water  supply,  and  affords  extensive  wharfage  in 
its  course  through  the  city. 


SCHWAB,  shvftb,  GuSTAV  (1792-1860).  A 
German  poet,  scholar,  and  pastor,  bom  at  Stutt- 
gart. He  studied  at  Tttbingen,  taught  at  Stutt- 
gart, became  pastor  at  Gomaringen  ( 1837)  and  in 
Stuttgart  (1841).  In  poetry  he  regarded  him- 
self as  "the  eldest  pupil  of  Uhland,"  but  he 
lacked  his  classic  simplicity  and  sense  of  form. 
Several  of  his  ballads  are  deservedly  popular  for 
their  purity  and  warmth  of  feeling.  His  Oe- 
dichte  (1828-29)  were  revised  and  pruned 
as  Neue  Auswahl  (1838)  and  are  still  reprinted. 
Schwab  wrote  in  prose  a  Ldfe  of  Schiller  (1840), 
Die  schansten  Sagen  des  klcusischen  Altertums 
(1838-40;  often  regdited),  Deutsche  Volks- 
hUcher  (1843;  often  reprinted),  and  a  Wegweiser 
durch  die  Litteratur  der  Deutschen  ( 1846) .  Con- 
sult Klllpfel,  Oustav  Schwab  als  Dichter  und 
Schriftsteller  (Stuttgart,  1884). 

SCHWAB,  shwab,  John  Chbistopheb  (1865 
— ) .  An  American  economist  and  historian,  bom 
in  New  York  City.  He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1886, 
and  after  postgraduate  study  there,  at  Berlin, 
and  at  GOttingen,  became  professor  of  economics 
at  Yale  in  1898.  He  wrote  History  of  the  New 
York  Property  Taw  in  the  publications  of  the 
American  Economic  Association  (vol.  v.,  1890; 
and  in  German  in  the  Jenaer  staatswissenschaft- 
liche  Studien,  vol.  iii.,  pt.  3,  1890) ;  a  monograph 
on  the  history  of  the  curriculum  of  Yale  Col- 
lege; and  the  important  The  Confederate  States 
of  America  (1901). 

SCHWABACH,  shvfta)fto.  A  town  of  the 
Province  of  Middle  Franconia,  Bavaria,  9  miles 
south  of  Nuremberg.  The  Gothic  Church  of  Saint 
John,  dating  from  1469,  contains  a  magnificent 
altar-piece  by  Veit  Stoss,  and  fine  old  paintings. 
The  Gothic  ciborium  nearly  fifty  feet  high,  is 
the  work  of  A.  Krafft.  The  market  place  con- 
tains a  beautiful  fountain  built  in  1617.  Gold 
and  silver  wire  is  manufactured.  The  famous 
Schwabach  needles  are  made  here.  The  Schwa- 
bach  Articles  ( 1529)  were  the  basis  for  the  Augs- 
burg Confession  (1530).  Population,  in  1900, 
9385. 

SCHWABE^  shva'be,  Ludwiq  von  (1836—). 
A  German  classical  philologist,  bom  at  Giesaen. 
He  became  professor  in  the  University  of  Tttbin- 
gen. His  important  publications  are :  Quttstiones 
CatullianoB  (1862);  Catullus  (1866,  1886);  De 
Muscso  Nonni  Imitatore  (1876).  He  was  also 
editor  of  the  fifth  edition  of  Teuffel's  Oeschiehts 
der  kdmischen  Litteratur  ( 1890) . 

SCHWABENSPIEGEL,  shv!ia>€n  -  shp^el 
(Swabian  Mirror).  A  mediaeval  German  law- 
book, compiled  probably  by  an  ecclesiastic  of  the 
cathedral  chapter  at  Hamburg,  about  1259. 
Its  main  source  was  the  Sachsenspiegel  (q.v.), 
and  it  attained  legal  authority  chiefly  in  Swabia, 
Alsace,  Franconia,  Switzerland,  and  Austria.  It 
was  written  in  Upper-German  and  printed  at  an 
early  period,  probably  at  Augsburg;  the  first 
dated  edition  is  of  1480.  A  thorough  critical 
edition,  by  Rockinger,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Vienna  Academy  of  Sciences,  is  in  preparation. 

SCHWlBISCH  HAIX,  8hv&a>ish  h&L  A 
town  of  Germany.    See  Hall. 

SCHWALBACH,  shvftl^K  (officially  called 
Langen-Schwalbach  ) .  A  mineral  spa,  13  miles 
by  rail  northwest  of  Wiesbaden,  in  Hesse-Nassan, 
Germany.  It  was  a  fashionable  watering  place  in 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  but  ia 


8CHWALBAGH. 


55d 


8CHWABZ. 


now  annually  yisited  by  only  7000  persons.  The 
waters  contain  iron  and  carbonic  acid.  Popula- 
tion, in  1900,  2677. 

SCHWALBEy  ahyftl^,  Benedikt.  A  Ger- 
man Benedictine  monk.    See  Chelidonius. 

SCHWANN,  shvan,  Theodob  (1810-82).  A 
German  physiologist  and  histologist,  bom  at  Neuss 
and  educated  in  Bonn,  Wfirzburg,  and  Berlin.  In 
the  Anatomical  Musem  of  Berlin,  he  assisted 
Johannes  Milller  from  1834  to  1838,  and  discovered 
pepsin,  made  valuable  studies  on  artificial  di- 
gestion, fermentation,  and  putrefaction,  the  or- 
ganic nature  of  yeast,  the  mechanism  of  muscular 
and  arterial  contraction,  the  double  direction  of 
nerves,  and  the  envelop  of  nerve  fibres.  In  1838- 
48  he  was  professor  at  Louvain,  and  then  held 
a  chair  at  Li^e  for  another  decade.  Schwann 
made  many  physiological  discoveries,  but  his  most 
important  achievement  was  his  foundation  of  the 
modem  cellular  theory  in  Microscopical  Inveaii- 
gations  on  the  Accordance  in  the  Structure  and 
Orotcth  of  Plants  and  AnimcUs  ( 1839 ;  Eng.  ver- 
sion, 1847).  He  wrote  "Anatomic  du  corps  hu- 
main"  for  the  Brussels  Encylop^die  Populaire 
(1855). 

SCHWANTHAIiEB,  shv&n^t&'lgr,  Ludwig 
TON  (1802-48).  A  German  sculptor,  bom  at 
Munich.  He  studied  under  his  father,  Franz 
Schwanthaler  (1762-1820),  a  sculptor,  and  in 
the  Munich  Academy.  His  first  royal  commission 
was  received  in  1824  from  King  Maximilian  I., 
an  order  for  a  silver  4pergne  with  reliefs  from  the 
myth  of  Prometheus.  Thereafter  he  enjoyed  a 
greater  share  of  the  patronage  bestowed  upon  the 
art  by  the  House  of  Wittelsbach.  In  1826  King 
Louis  I.  sent  him  to  Rome.  Upon  his  return 
to  Munich  the  next  year,  he  was  commissioned 
to  execute  reliefs  and  decorative  features  for  the 
New  Glyptothek.  To  this  period,  also,  belong  the 
statue  of  Shakespeare  in  the  vestibule  of  the 
Royal  Theatre  and  the  Bacchus  frieze  (205  feet 
long)  in  Duke  Max's  banqueting  hall.  In  1832 
he  went  again  to  Rome,  where  he  executed  sev- 
eral groups  for  the  southern  pediment  of  the 
Walhalla  at  Regensburg,  and  models  for  his  24 
statues  of  painters  in  the  New  Pinakothek.  In 
1835  he  was  appointed  professor  at  the  Munich 
Academy.  About  him  gathered  many  of  the  most 
promising  young  sculptors  in  Germany,  who  were 
of  great  assistance  in  his  numerous  commissions. 
For  Louis  I.  he  executed  Homeric  reliefs  in  the 
Konigsbau,  and  twelve  colossal  statues  of  Wit- 
telsbach princes;  also  the  pediments  of  the  Wal- 
halla at  Regensburg  and  of  the  Propyleeum  at 
Munich,  and  the  colossal  bronze  statue  of  Bavaria 
(1844-50),  nearly  63  feet  high,  in  front  of  the 
Rnhmeshalle  at  Munich.  Mention  must  be  made 
as  well  of  his  monuments  to  Jean  Paul  (1841), 
at  Bayreuth;  to  Mozart  (1842),  at  Salzburg; 
and  to  Goethe  (1843),  at  Frankfort;  of  his  stat- 
ues of  the  Grand  Duke  Charles  Frederick  of 
Baden  (1840;  Karlsruhe),  the  Grand  Duke  Louis 
of  Hesse  (Darmstadt),  the  Margrave  Frederick 
Alexander  of  Brandenburg  (1843;  Erlangen), 
and  the  Emperor  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg  (1843; 
Bpeyer  cathedral) ;  and  of  the  charming  relief  of 
two  dancers,  besides  other  figures  in  the  palace  at 
Wiesbaden.  Consult  Trautmann,  Schwanthalers 
Religuien  (Munich,  1858). 

BCHWABTZy  shv&rts,  Masie  Esp^rance  von 
(known  also  as  Elpis  Melena)  (ir21-99).  A 
German  author,  daughter  of  the  Hamburg  banker 


Brandt,  bom  at  Southgate,  England.  After  a 
first  early  marriage  she  became  the  wife  of  the 
banker  Von  Schwartz,  of  Hamburg,  from  whom 
she  eventually  was  separated.  She  then  settled 
in  Rome  and  devoted  herself  to  literary  work. 
A  friendship  with  Garibaldi  was  one  of  the  in- 
teresting features  of  her  residence  in  Italy. 
Among  her  numerous  works  may  be  named: 
Blatter  aus  dem  afrikanischen  Reiaetagehuche 
einer  Dame  (1849);  Oarihaldis  Denkwurdig- 
keiten  (1861)  ;  Die  Insel  Kreta  unter  der  otto- 
manischen  Verwaltung  (1867) ;  Kreta-Biene,  oder 
kretische  Volkslieder,  Sagen,  Liehea-,  Denk-,  und 
Bittenspriiche  (1874);  Oaribaldi  (1884). 

SCHWABTZ,  Mabie  Sofia  (1819-84).  A 
Swedish  novelist,  bom  at  Borfts.  As  an 
author  she  was  very  popular,  not  only  in  Sweden, 
but  also  in  Germany,  where  most  of  her  writ- 
ings were  published.  Her  novels  were  frequently 
collected  in  German  versions.  The  chief  are: 
Mannen  of  Bordoch  Quinnan  of  Falket  (1858)  ; 
Arbetet  Adlar  Mannen  (1859);  and  Arheteta 
ham,  which  has  been  reprinted  in  America 
(1894). 

SCHWABTZ,  WiLHELM  (1821-99).  A  Ger- 
man mythologist.  He  was  bom  in  Berlin,  studied 
there  and  in  Leipzig,  taught  for  twenty  years 
in  the  Werder  gymnasium  in  Berlin,  and  was 
director,  successively,  of  the  gymnasiums  at  Neu- 
ruppin  (1864-72),  then,  until  1882,  of  the  Fried- 
rich-Wilhelm  Gymnasium  at  Posen,  and  from 
1882  until  1894  of  the  Luisen  Gymnasium  at  Ber- 
lin. He  wrote:  Markiache  Sagen  und  Mdrchen 
(1843)  and  Norddeutache  Sagen  (1849),  both 
results  of  early  studies  and  travels  with  Adal- 
bert Kuhn;  Ursprung  der  Mythologie  (1860); 
Die  poetiachen  Naturanachauungen  der  Oriechen, 
Romer  und  Deutschen  in  ihrer  Beziehung  eur 
Mythologie  (1864-79)  ;  Prahiatoriach-anthropolo- 
giache  Studien  (1884)  ;  and  Nachkldnge  prahia- 
toriachen  Volkaglauhena  im  Homer  (1894). 

SCHWABTZE,  shv&r^tse,  Hermann  (1837 
— ) .  A  German  aurist,  born  at  Neuhof,  in  Pome- 
rania,  and  educated  in  Berlin  and  Wllrzburg. 
He  became  docent  in  1863,  professor  in  1868,  and 
director  of  the  aural  clinic  in  1884  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Halle.  One  of  the  founders  of  modem 
otology,  Schwartze  made  a  particular  study  of 
the  anatomy  of  the  ear  and  improved  the  methods 
of  paracentesis  on  the  tympanic  membrane,  and 
of  the  opening  of  inflamed  apophyses  of  the  mid- 
dle ear.  He  wrote  Praktiache  Beitriige  zur 
Ohrenheilkunde  (1864),  Pathologiache  Anatomie 
dea  Ohra  (1878),  and  Lehrhuch  der  cMrurgiachen 
Krankheiten  dea  Ohra  ( 1885)  ;  was  coSditor  with 
Berthold  of  the  Handbuch  der  Ohrenheilkunde 
(1892-93);  and  in  1872  became  editor  of  the 
Archiv  fur  Ohrenheilkunde. 

SCHWABZ,  shvarts,  Berthold.  A  Franciscan 
monk  of  the  fourteenth  century,  whose  name  is 
thought  to  have  been  Konstantin  Ancklitzen.  He 
is  said  to  have  discovered  gunpowder  while  in 
prison  for  sorcery,  about  1330.  It  is,  however, 
probable  that  gunpowder  had  been  known  before, 
and  that  Schwarz  only  utilized  it  for  military 
purposes.  There  is  a  monument  to  him  at  Frei- 
burg, which  is  assumed  to  be  his  birthplace. 

SCHWABZy  Hermann  Amandub  (1843—). 
A  German  mathematician,  bom  at  Hermsdorf,  in 
Silesia,  and  educated  in  Berlin.  He  became  pro- 
fessor at  Halle  in  1867,  at  the  Zurich  Polytechnic 


flCfiWABZ. 


664 


8CHWABSSBVBEBO. 


in  1869,  at  the  Uniyersity  of  GSttingen  in  1875, 
and  at  Berlin  in  1892.  tichwarz  was  a  follower 
of  Weierstrass,  some  of  whose  lectures  he  edited 
under  the  title  Formeln  und  Lehraatze  eum  Oe- 
brauche  der  elliptischen  Funktionen  (1883-85;  2d 
ed.  1893).  His  own  works  on  minimal  surfaces 
and  the  theory  of  functions  include  Bestimmung 
einer  speziellen  Minimalflache,  which  was  crowned 
by  the  Berlin  Academy  in  1867  and  printed  in 
1871;  and  Oeaammelte  mathematische  Abhand- 
lungen  (1890). 

SCHWABZBUBO-BUDOLSTADT,  shyftrts'- 
bS^rK  ro^dM-st&t.  A  principality  and  constituent 
State  of  the  German  Empire,  situated  in  Thu- 
ringia,  and  consisting  of  seyeral  detached  por- 
tions. The  capital,  Rudolstadt,  is  18  miles  south 
of  Weimar.  Total  area,  363  square  miles.  The 
western  and  larger  part  belongs  to  the  region 
of  the  Thuringian  Forest,  and  reaches  an  eleva- 
tion of  2900  feet.  The  eastern  part  is  lower.  The 
chief  river  is  the  Saale.  Agriculture  is  the  prin- 
cipal occupation.  There  are  extensive  forests  in 
the  western  part,  and  good  pasture  land.  The 
chief  mineral  deposits  are  iron,  lignite,  gypsum, 
and  slate.  In  the  western  district  are  numerous 
glass  and  porcelain  factories.  Other  manufac- 
tures are  paper,  toys,  textiles,  musical  instru- 
ments, and  flour.  The  Diet  of  the  principality 
consists  of  16  members,  of  whom  four  are  elected 
by  the  highest  taxed  citizens  and  the  rest  by  the 
general  population  for  three  years.  The  princi- 
pality has  one  vote  in  the  Bundesrat,  and  re- 
turns one  member  to  the  Reichstag.  Population, 
in  1900,  93,059,  chiefly  Protestants.  In  this 
principality  is  the  Castle  of  Schwarzburg,  ro- 
mantically situated  on  the  Schwarza,  the  summer 
residence  of  the  Prince. 

The  ruling  family  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the 
Thuringian  princely  houses.  The  mediseval  count- 
ship  of  Schwarzburg  was  divided  at  the  close  of 
the  sixteenth  century  into  the  two  countships  of^ 
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt  and  Schwarzburg-Am-" 
stadt,  the  later  Schwarzburg- Sondershausen. 
About  a  century  later  the  ruling  houses  were 
elevated  to  the  princely  dignity. 

SCHWABZBUBO    -    S0KDEB8HATTSEN, 

zAn'dSrs-hou'zen.  A  principality  and  constituent 
State  of  the  German  Empire,  situated  in  Thurin- 
gia,  and  consisting  of  several  detached  districts, 
the  main  portion  being  inclosed  within  the  Prus- 
sian Province  of  Saxony.  Total  area,  333  square 
miles.  The  Thuringian  Forest  covers  part  of 
the  principality.  The  soil  is  mostly  fertile, 
and  agriculture  is  the  principal  industry.  The 
forests  are  also  important.  There  are  nu- 
merous small  porcelain  factories,  glass  works, 
machine  works,  paint  factories,  tanneries,  shoe 
factories,  and  sugar  mills.  The  Constitution  of 
the  principality,  dating  from  1857,  provides  for 
a  Diet  of  15  members,  of  whom  five  are  appointed 
by  the  Prince,  five  are  elected  by  the  highest 
taxed  citizens,  and  five  by  the  inhabitants  in  gen- 
eral, for  a  term  of  four  years.  The  principality 
•has  one  vote  in  the  Bundesrat  and  returns  one 
Deputy  to  the  Reichstag.  Population,  in  1890, 
75,510;  in  1900,  80,898,  principally  Protestants. 
The  capital  is  Sondershausen  (q.v.)  ;  the  largest 
to^vn  is  Amstadt.     For  history,  see  Schwabz- 

BUBO-RUDOLSTADT. 

SCHWABZENBEBO,     shvftrts^en-bgrx.       A 

Erincely    family,   originally    of    Franconia,    but 
iter  of  Austria.     About   1420:  Ebkingeb  yon 


Seinsheim  purchased  the  lordship  of  Schwarsen- 
berg  in  Franconia,  and  in  1429  he  was  made 
a  baron  of  the  Empire  by  the  Emperor  SigiB> 
mund.  Several  of  this  family  have  been  promi- 
nent in  European  affairs.  The  most  notable 
are:  (1)  Adam,  Count  of  Schwarzenberg,  was 
bom  in  1584,  and  became  a  privy  councilor  of 
George  William,  Elector  of  Brandenburg.  He 
was  largely  responsible  for  the  vacillating  policy 
of  Brandenburg  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 
a  course  most  unfortunate  in  its  results,  and  for 
this  he  was  punished  after  the  accession  of  the 
Great  Elector,  in  1640,  by  imprisonment  in  the 
fortress  of  Spandau,  where  he  died  March  14, 
1641.  (2)  Kabl  Phiijpp,  Prince  of  Schwarzen- 
berg. He  was  bom  at  Vienna,  April  15,  1771, 
served  against  the  Turks,  and  rose  to  the  grade  of 
lieutenant  fleld-marshal  in  1799.  He  commanded 
a  division  under  Mack  in  the  campaign  of  1805, 
and  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Austerlitz.  He  was 
appointed  Ambassador  at  the  Russian  Court  in 
1808,  by  the  express  wish  of  the  Emperor  Alexan- 
der; fought  at  Wagram  in  1809;  and  after  the 
Treaty  of  Schdnbrunn  conducted  the  negotiations 
preliminary  to  the  marriage  of  the  Archduchess 
Marie  Louisa  to  Napoleon.  Both  in  this  capacity 
and  as  Ambassador  at  Paris  he  gained  the  esteem 
of  Napoleon,  and  the  latter  expressly  demanded 
for  him  the  post  of  General-in-Chief  of  the 
Austrian  contingent  of  30,000  men  which  had 
been  sent  to  aid  France  against  Russia  in  1812. 
Schwarzenberg  with  his  little  army  entered  Rus- 
sia from  Galicia,  crossed  the  Bug,  and  achieved 
some  slight  successes,  but  was  afterward  driven 
into  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Warsaw,  and  took  up  a 
position  at  Paltusk,  where  he  concluded  with  the 
Russians  an  armistice  which  secured  the  French 
retreat.  Schwarzenberg  was  much  blamed  for  his 
dilatory  conduct  at  the  time ;  but  Napoleon  con- 
cealed any  dissatisfaction  he  might  have  felt, 
and  demanded  for  him  from  the  Austrian  Gov- 
ernment the  baton  of  field-marshal.  After  a 
brief  sojourn  at  Paris,  in  April,  1813,  Schwarz- 
enberg was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
Austrian  army  of  observation  in  Bohemia;  and 
when  Austria  joined  the  allied  powers,  he  became 
generalissimo  of  the  armies  of  the  coalition,  was 
defeated  by  Napoleon  at  Dresden,  but  the  united 
army  under  him  gained  the  great  victory  of 
Leipzig.  His  dilatory  tactics  during  the  pursuit 
of  the  French  across  Germany  and  after  the 
crossing  of  the  Rhine  was  regarded  with  ex- 
treme dissatisfaction  by  men  of  the  type  of  Blfl- 
cher  and  Gneisenau,  who  were  anxious  to  strike 
a  decisive  blow  at  the  heart  of  the  enemy.  On 
the  return  of  Napoleon  from  Elba,  he  obtained 
the  command  of  the  allied  army  on  the  Upper 
Rhine,  and  a  second  time  entered  France.  On  his 
return  to  Vienna  he  was  made  president  of  the 
Imperial  Council  for  War.  He  died  of  apoplexy 
at  Leipzig,  October  15,  1820.  Consult  Prokesch- 
Osten,  Denkivurdigkeiten  au8  dem  Lehen  des 
Feldmarschalls  Fursten  Schwarzenberg  (Vienna, 
1822).  (3)  His  nephew,  Felix,  an  Austrian 
statesman,  was  bom  October  2,  1800,  at  Kru- 
mau,  Bohemia.  He  entered  the  army,  became 
military  attache  of  the  Austrian  embassy  at  Saint 
Petersburg  in  1824,  and  afterwards  held  several 
diplomatic  appointments.  He  was  envoy  to  Na- 
ples when  the  revolution  of  1848  broke  out.  He 
took  the  field  in  Upper  Italy  as  a  brigade  com- 
mander, and  soon  after  was  '  made  a  lien- 
tenant  field-marshal.    He  was  called  to  the  head 


8CHWABZENBEBG. 


655 


of  the  GoTemment  in  Vienna  in  November,  1848, 
opposed  the  German  nationalist  plans  advocated 
at  Frankfort,  obtained  the  aid  of  Russia  to  sup- 
press the  Hungarian  rising,  and  followed  the 
policy  of  Mettemich  in  opposing  Prussia.  He 
died  in  Vienna  April  6,  1862.  Consult  Berger, 
Lehen  des  Furaien  Felix  eu  Bchwarzenherg  (Leip- 
zig, 1853;  Vienna,  1881). 

SCHWABZWAIiD,  shv&rts'vftlt.  The  Ger- 
man name  of  the  Black  Forest   (q.v.)* 

SCHWATKA,  shwdtndk,  Fbederick  (1849- 
92).  An  American  explorer,  bom  at  Galena, 
IlL  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1871,  was 
commissioned  second  lieutenant,  and  served  on 
garrison  and  frontier  duty  until  1877.  During 
his  army  life  he  studied  both  law  and  medicine, 
was  admitted  to  the  Nebraska  bar  in  1875,  and 
received  his  medical  degree  in  New  York  in  1876. 
In  1878  he  obtained  leave  of  absence  from  the 
War  Department,  and  conducted,  with  W.  H. 
Gilder,  the  final  land  search  for  traces  of  the 
Franklin  expedition.  Wintering  (1878-79) 
among  the  Eskimos  near  Chesterfield  Inlet,  Hud- 
son Bay,  he  set  out  in  April,  1879,  with  four 
whites,  fourteen  Eskimos,  and  abundant  ammu- 
nition, for  the  northern  edge  of  the  continent. 
He  explored  minutely  the  continental  coast  line 
to  Point  Seaforth,  crossed  Simpson  Strait  to 
King  William  Land,  and  thoroughly  searched  the 
region  traversed  by  Franklin's  retreating  party. 
During  three  months  on  King  William  Land 
Schwatka  found  four  despoiled  graves,  six  un- 
buried  skeletons,  and  many  relics  of  the  ill-fated 
expedition.  The  journey  was  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  in  the  history  of  Arctic  sledging  and 
made  Schwatka  famous.  In  the  355  days  dur- 
ing which  he  was  absent  from  his  base  of  sup- 
plies he  traveled  2819  geographical  miles,  de- 
pending for  food  upon  the  game  he  killed.  In 
1883  he  explored  the  course  of  the  Yukon  River, 
Alaska.  He  resigned  his  commission  in  the  army 
in  1885,  and  in  the  following  year  made  an  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  to  ascend  Mount  Saint  Elias.  In 
1889  he  engaged  in  exploring  work  in  Mexico. 
He  received  the  Roquette  Arctic  Medal  from  the 
Geographical  Society  of  Paris,  and  the  medal  of 
the  Imperial  Geographical  Society  of  Russia. 
His  great  Arctic  journey  was  described  by  Colonel 
Gilder  in  Schtcatka's  Search  (New.  York,  1881) ; 
also  in  The  Franklin  Search,  Under  Lieutenant 
Schwatka  (1881).  His  own  writings  were  Along 
Alaska's  Oreat  River  (1885);  Nimrod  in  the 
North  (1885)  ;  Children  of  the  Cold  (1886)  ;  and 
many  articles  contributed  to  geographical  and 
other  publications. 

SCHWEGLEB,  shvaK^Sr,  Albert  (1819-57). 
A  German  theologian  and  writer  on  the  history 
of  philosophy.  He  was  bom  at  Michelbach,  in 
Wttrttemberg,  studied  theology  at  the  University 
of  Tfibingen,  and  was  appointed  professor  there 
of  classical  philology  in  1848.  In  theology  and 
criticism  he  was  of  the  Tubingen  school.'  In 
1844  he  started  the  JahrhUcher  der  Oegenwart, 
He  published  an  annotated  edition  and  transla- 
tion of  Aristotle's  Metaphysics  (1844-48);  Der 
Montanismus  und  die  christliche  Kirche  des 
zweiten  Jahrhunderts  ( 1841 )  ;  Das  nach  apos- 
tolische  Zeitalter  (1846)  ;  Oeschichte  der  Philo- 
Sophie  (1848;  Eng.  trans,  by  J.  H.  Seelye,  New 
York,  1856,  and  by  J.  H.  Stirling,  London,  2d 
ed.,  1868) ;  Romische  Qeschiohte  (1853-58;  2d  ed. 
Toil,  xv.-ae. 


1867-73).    His  Oeschichte  der  griechischen  Philo- 
Sophie  was  published  after  his  death  (1859). 

SCHWEIDNITZy  shvid'nits.  A  town  in  the 
Province  of  Silesia,  Prussia,  on  the  Weistritz, 
31  miles  southwest  of  Breslau  (Map:  Prussia, 
G  3).  Its  ancient  fortifications  have  been  re- 
placed by  promenades.  The  manufactures  in-' 
elude  woolens,  leather,  machinery,  furniture, 
gloves,  cigars,  and  organs.  There  are  important 
cattle  and  grain  markets.  Schweidnitz  was 
founded  in  the  eleventh  century,  and  received 
municipal  privileges  in  1250.  It  was  formerly  the 
capital  of  the  Principality  of  Schweidnitz.  Popu- 
lation, in  1900,  28,432. 

SCHWEIGEB  -  LEBCHEKI1SIJ),  l^Ken- 
ffilt,  AifAND,  Baron  von  (1846 — ).  An  Austrian 
traveler  and  writer,  bom  in  Vienna.  He  served 
in  the  army  from  1865  to  1871,  then  set  out  on 
extensive  travels,  which  he  described  in  numerous 
popular  works,  and  made  Vienna  his  usual  resi- 
dence. A  partial  list  of  his  writings  includes: 
Unter  dem  Halhmond  (1876)  ;  Basnien  (2d  ed. 
1879)  ;  Serail  und  Hohe  Pforte  (anon.,  1879)  ; 
Das  Frauenlehen  der  Erde  (1891)  ;  Der  Orient 
(1882)  ;  Oriechenland  in  Wort  und  BiJd  (1882)  ; 
Das  eiseme  Jahrhundert  (1883)  ;  Von  Ozean  zu 
Ozean  ( 1884)  ;  Die  Araber  der  Oegenwart 
(1886);  Das  Mittelmeer  (1888);  Die  Erde  in 
Karten  und  Bildem  (1889)  ;  Unterwegs,  travel- 
ing pictures  (1891-95)  ;  Die  Donau  (1895)  ;  Im 
Lande  der  Cyclopen  (1899) ;  Das  neue  Buch  von 
der  Weltpost  (1901). 

SCHWEIOGE&,  shvI^gSr,  Johann  Salomo 
Christoph  (1779-1867).  A  German  physicist, 
born  and  educated  in  Erlangen.  There  he  be- 
came docent  in  1800,  and,  after  teaching  at  Bay- 
reuth  (1803-11)  and  at  the  Nuremberg  Poly- 
technic, returned  to  Erlangen  as  professor  of 
Ehysics  and  chemistry  in  1817.  Two  years  later 
e  went  to  Halle.  Schweigger  devised  an  electro- 
meter in  1808,  and  in  1820  invented  the  glavano- 
meter  (q.v.),  in  which  he  made  use  of  Oersted's 
discovery  of  the  effect  of  a  current  in  a  magnetic 
needle  by  surrounding  the  latter  with  a  number 
of  turns  of  the  wire  carrying  the  current.  He 
founded  the  Journal  fiir  Chemie  und  Physik. 


SCHWEIOGEB^  Earl  (1830-).  A  German 
ophthalmologist,  son  of  the  preceding.  He  was 
bom  in  Halle,  studied  there,  at  Erlangen,  and 
Wttrzburg,  and  went  to  Berlin  as  assistant  to 
Gr^fe  (1868-65).  From  1868  to  1871  he  was 
professor  in  G5ttingen,  and  then  succeeded 
Gr&fe  in  Berlin.  He  edited  the  Archiv  fiir 
Augenheilkunde  (1881  et  seq.),  published  a 
chart  of  optical  tests  (1876;  3d  ed.  1895),  and 
wrote  a  Handhuch  der  speziellen  Augenheilkunde 
(1871),  which  passed  through  several  editions. 

SCHWEINFCTBT^  shvIn'fSSrt.  A  town  in 
Lower  Franconia,  Bavaria,  on  the  Main,  28  miles 
by  rail,  northeast  of  Wttrzburg  (Map:  Ger- 
many, D  3).  The  sixteenth-centuiy  town 
hall  contains  a  library  and  a  museum  of  his- 
tory and  art.  Schweinfurt  is  noted  for  its 
manufactures  of  dyes,  including  the  well-known 
Schweinfurt  green.  Machinery,  ball-bearings, 
engines,  shoes,  sugar,  and  tobacco  are  among 
its  numerous  products.  There  are  important 
cattle,  sheep,  and  swine  markets.  Schweinfurt, 
first  mentioned  in  791,  became  a  free  Imperial 
city  in  the  twelfth  century.  It  passed  to  Ba- 
varia in  1803.    Population,  in  1900,  15,295. 


SCHWEnrVXTBTH. 


556 


SCHWBHINGBBb 


SOHWBIKFCJBTHy  8hvln'f55rt,  Geobo  (1836 
— ).  A  Qerman  explorer,  bom  at  Riga.  He 
studied  natural  'history,  particularly  botany, 
at  the  universities  of  Heidelberg,  Munich,  and 
Berlin,  and  in  1864  went  to  Egypt,  where  he 
spent  two  years.  In  1869  he  set  out  from 
Khartum  to  explore  the  countries  along  the 
White  Nile.  In  1872,  on  a  commission  from  the 
Khedive,  he  founded  the  Institut  Egyptien 
at  Cairo,  and  in  1874  he  visited  the  principal 
oases  in  the  Libyan  desert.  During  the  fol- 
lowing years  he  several  times  visited  the  oases 
of  Arabia,  of  whose  flora  he  made  a  thor- 
ough study,  and  explored  the  coast  of  Barka 
and  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  In  1888  he  returned 
to  Europe  and  took  up  his  residence  in  Berlin. 
In  1901-02  he  visited  Egypt  again,  returning  with 
rich  archffiolbgical  and  botanical  collections. 
Among  his  publications  are  The  Heart  of  Africa 
(1874)  and  Artea  AfricawE  (1876).  In  collab- 
oration with  Ratzel  he  also  published  Emin 
Pascha,  Reisehriefe  und  Beriohte  (1888). 

SCHWEINFCTBTHEBS.  See  Church  Tbi- 
VMPHANT,  The. 

SCuwjfilKlTZy  shvl'nits,  Edmund  Auex- 
Ain>EB  DE  ( 1825-87 ) .  An  American  bishop  of  the 
Moravian  Church.  He  was  bom  at  Bethlehem, 
Pa.,  and  studied  theology  at  the  Moravian  Semi- 
nary there  and  at  Berlin.  He  entered  the  ministry 
in  1850,  and  in  the  course  of  his  pastoral  life  was 
stationed  at  Canal  Dover,  O.;  Lebanon,  Pa.; 
Philadelphia,  Lititz,  and  Bethlehem,  in  Penn- 
sylvania. In  1870  he  was  consecrated  bishop 
of  the  Moravian  Church.  The  latter  years  of 
his  life  were  spent  at  Bethlehem,  where  he  held 
the  presidency  of  the  seminary,  and  also  the  pres- 
idency of  the  governing  board  of  the  American 
Province  of  the  Unitas  Fratrum.  He  foimded 
The  Moravian,  the  weekly  journal  of  his  Church, 
in  1856,  and  for  ten  years  was  its  editor.  He  was 
the  author  of  The  Moravian  Manual  ( 1859)  ;  The 
Moravian  Episcopate  ( 1865) ;  The  Life  and  Times 
of  David  Zeisherger  (1870)  ;  Some  of  the  Fathers 
of  the  Moravian  Church  (1881)  ;  and  The  His- 
tory of  thfi  Church  Known  as  the  Unitas  Fra- 
trum; or,  The  Unity  of  the  Brethren,  founded  by 
the  followers  of  John  Huss  (1885).  Consult  his 
Memoir  (Bethlehem,  1888). 

SOUWEINITZ,  Emil  Alexander  de  (1866 
— ).  An  American  bacteriologist,  born  at  Salem, 
N.  C.  He  graduated  at  the  University  of  North 
Carolina  in  1882  and  at  G5ttingen  in  1886,  be- 
came connected  with  the  chemical  division  of 
the  Agricultural  Department,  Washington,  D.  C, 
and  in  1890  was  appointed  director  of  the 
biochemic  laboratory  of  the  Bureau  of  Aiumal  In- 
dustry of  that  department.  He  was  also  ap- 
pointed to  the  chair  of  chemistry  and  toxicology 
in  the  Columbian  University.  He  made  an  es- 
pecial study  of  hygiene  and  of  bacterial  products, 
and  published  The  Poisons  Produced  by  the 
Hog  Cholera  Oerm  (1890),  The  Production  of 
Immunity  to  Sidne  Plague  by  Use  of  the  Pro- 
ducts of  the  Oerm  (1891).  A  Hygienic  study  of 
Oleomargarine  (1896),  The  War  with  the  Mi- 
crobes (1897),  and  other  scientific  treatises. 

SCHWEIKITZ,  George  Edmund  de  (1858 
— ).  An  American  ophthalmologist,  son  of  the 
Moravian  bishop,  bom  in  Philadelphia,  and  edu- 
cated at  Bethlehem  Moravian  College  and  in  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  (class  of  1881).  He 
was  prosector    (1883-88)    and  lecturer  on  oph- 


thalmology (1891-92)  in  the  university,  and 
professor  in  the  Philadelphia  Polyclinic  and  in 
Jefferson  Medical  College  (1891-92).  He  wrote 
Diseases  of  the  Eye  (1892),  and  contributed  to 
the  American  System  of  Obstetrics  ( 1889) ,  to  the 
Cyclopcedia  of  Diseases  of  Children  (1890),  and 
to  the  System  of  Therapeutics  (1892). 

SCHWEINITZ^  Louis  David  von  (1780- 
1834).  An  American  botanist,  bom  at  Bethle- 
hem, Pa.  He  studied  in  (jermany,  entered  the 
ministry  of  the  Moravian  Church,  and  held  ecde- 
siastical  office  at  Salem,  N.  C,  and  BethlebeoL 
By  his  botanical  researdies  he  added  to  the  list 
of  American  flora  niore  than  1400  species,  of 
which  more  than  1200  were  fungi.  He  be- 
queathed to  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of 
Philadelphia  his  herbarium,  at  the  time  of  his 
death  the  largest  private  collection  in  the  United 
States.  His  works  include  a  Conspectus  Fun- 
gorum  LusatuB  ( 1805) ,  Specimen  Florae  Ameriem 
Septentrionalis  Cryptogamiecs  (1821),  and  a 
Synopsis  Fungorum  in  America  Boreali  Media 
Degentium  (1832).  See  the  Memoir,  published 
at  Philadelphia  in  1835. 

SCHWEIKITZ,  Rudolf  (1839-96).  A  Ger- 
man sculptor,  bom  at  Charlottenburg.  He  studied 
at  the  Berlin  Academy  under  Schievelbein,  and  • 
after  further  training  in  Paris,  Copenhagen,  and 
Rome  became  his  master's  assistant.  He  worked 
on  the  exterior  decoration  of  the  National  Gallery 
in  Berlin,  for  which  he  designed  the  three  arte 
for  the  three  comers  of  the  gables.  He  made  the 
three  colossal  groups  "Rhine,"  "Oder,"  and  "Bat- 
tle," for  the  King's  Bridge  in  Berlin;  eight  re- 
liefs on  the  City  Hall,  Berlin,  and  the  reliefs  on 
the  Weichsel  Bridge  in  Thorn,  "Founding  of  the 
City  of  Thom;"  also  ten  statues  in  Blftser's 
monument  to  Frederick  William  III.  in  Cologne. 
His  "Cupid  in  Danger"  (1881)  is  in  the  National 
Gallery,  Berlin. 

SCHWEIilC,  shvelm.  A  town  of  Prussia,  23 
miles  east  of  DQsseldorf.  There  are  iron,  wire, 
enamel,  and  nickel  works,  with  manufactures  of 
wood  screws,  machinery,  locks  and  keys,  linens, 
and  silks.    Population,  in  1900,  16,890. 

SCHWEKDENE&y  shvgnMe-nSr,  Socoir 
(1829 — ).  A  German  botanist,  bom  at  Bucha, 
Switzerland,  and  educated  at  Geneva  and  Zurich. 
He  became  professor  and  director  of  the  botanical 
gardens  at  Basel  in  1867,  and  professor  of  physio- 
logical botany  at  Berlin  in  1878.  He  maintained 
that  lichens  were  composed  of  algal  cells,  white 
cellular  tissue,  and  spongy  fungus,  and  explained 
the  formation  and  development  of  plants  by  laws 
of  mechanics.  He  wrote  Ueber  den  Bau  und  das 
Wachstum  des  Flechtenthallus  (1860),  Die  Al- 
gentypen  der  Flechiengonidien  (1869),  Das  me- 
chanische  Prinzip  im  anatomischen  Bau  der  Mo- 
nokotylen  (1874),  Die  mechanische  Theorie  der 
Blattstellungen  (1878),  Ueber  das  Winden  der 
Pflanzen  ( 1881 ) ,  Zur  Theorie  der  BlattsteUungen 
(1883),  and  Oesammelte  botanische  Mitteilun- 
gen  (1898). 

SCHWENIHGEB,  shvfl'ning-er,  Ernst 
(1850--).  A  German  physician,  bom  in  Frei- 
stadt.  He  studied  medicine  at  Munich  (1866- 
70) ,  was  Buhl's  assistant  until  1875,  when  he  be- 
came docent  of  pathological  anatomy,  and  in 
1879  went  into  private  practice.  His  appoint- 
ment to  a  chair  in  Berlin,  in  1884,  was  largely 
due  to  his  successful  troatment  of  Bismarck  for 
obesity.      His  modified  Banting  method  is  de- 


SCuwJsNINGER. 


567 


SCHWINI). 


scribed  by  Maas,  Die  8chweninger-Kur  (2l8t  ed., 
1889).  Among  his  writings  are  Dem  Andenken 
Bi^mareks  (1899)  and  Oesammelte  Arbeiten 
(1886). 

SCHWBNKPELI),  shvenk'felt,  Kaspar  von 
(c.  1490- 1561).  A  German  religious  reformer. 
He  was  bom  at  Ossig,  in  Silesia,  was  educated 
at  Li^^tz  and  Cologne,  and  became  a  coun- 
cilor at  the  Court  of  the  Duke  of  Liegnitz.  He 
was  an  enthusiastic  advocate  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, and  it  was  mainly  through  his  influence 
that  it  gained  a  footing  in  Silesia.  His  views  dif- 
fered materially  from  those  of  Luther,  however, 
and  he  became  separated  from  the  other  re- 
formers and  was  regarded  by  them  with  suspicion 
and  dislike.  When  the  Lutheran  principles  be- 
came dominant  in  Silesia,  Schwenkfeld  volun- 
tarily left  the  country  in  1529  and  thenceforth 
was  driven  from  town  to  town,  and  finally  died 
at  Ulm.  Schwenkfeld  laid  special  stress  upon 
the  primary  importance  of  a  renewal  of  the 
inner  life,  to  which  all  questions  of  outer  con- 
cern should  be  subsidiaiy,  and  held  that  the 
Scriptures  are  dead  without  the  indwelling  word 
and  that  the  organization  of  the  Reformed  Church 
should  grow  spontaneously  out  of  the  renewed 
inner  life.  The  humanity  of  Christ  he  believed 
to  be  progressive  through  its  union  with  the 
divine  nature,  so  that  it  partakes  more  and  more 
of  that  nature  without  losing  its  identity.  The 
Lord's  Supper  he  taught  was  a  sacrament  of 
spiritual  nourishment  without  change  in  the 
elements.  Although  never  ordained,  he  preached 
often  and  with  great  effect,  and  had  many 
sympathizers.  His  writings  were  numerous,  and, 
when  the  printing  press  was  forbidden,  were 
circulated  in  manuscript.  His  Orosse  Confession 
(1540-47)  contains  the  best  presentation  of  his 
doctrine.  Consult:  Kadelbach,  Ausfiihrliche  Oe- 
8chichte  Kaspar  von  Schwenkfelda  und  der 
Schvcenkfelder  in  Schlesien,  der  Oher-Lausitz  und 
Amerika  (Lauban,  1860) ;  Hoffmann,  Kaspar 
Schtoenkfelds  Lehen  und  Lehren  (Berlin,  1897). 

See  SCHWENKFELDIANS. 

SCHWEKKPELDIANSy     or     SCHWENX- 

7EIJ>EB&  The  followers  of  Kaspar  von 
Schwenkfeld  (q.v.).  Although,  consistently  with 
his  principles,  Schwenkfeld  founded  no  Church, 
and  after  his  death  an  ecclesiastical  organization 
was  out  of  the  question  for  his  sympathizers, 
owing  to  the  conditions  of  the  times,  nevertheless 
th^  held  meetings  and  congregations  came  into 
existence  in  different  parts  of  Germany,  par- 
ticularly in  Silesia,  as  well  as  in  Switzerland 
and  Italy.  They  suffered  much  persecution  and 
many  left  their  homes  in  consequence.  In  1734 
thir^-four  families  emigrated  from  Silesia  to 
Pennsylvania  and  settled  in  Montgomery  and 
Berks  counties,  and  others  followed  two  years 
later.  A  school  system  was  established  in 
1764,  and  a  denominational  organization  was  es- 
tablished in  1782.  In  1901  they  had  three  dis- 
tricts, seven  church  buildings,*  five  ministers, 
and  about  six  hundred  members.  Their  num- 
bers have  been  diminished  by  migration  to  the 
West,  where  they  became  members  of  other  de- 
nominations. Their  Church  government  is  con- 
gregational, the  services  are  non-liturgical,  and 
they  have  a  rich  hymnody.  A  common  benevo- 
lent fund  is  maintained.  In  addition  to  the  more 
important  festivals  of  the  Christian  year,  they 
observe  the  anniversary  of  the  landing  of  the  first 


company  at  Philadelphia  (September  24th),  as 
the  Oeddchtnisstag,  They  have  published  a  num- 
ber of  doctrinal  and  institutional  books.  In 
Europe  the  Schwenkfeldians  have  become  ex- 
tinct. Consult  the  works  mentioned  in  the  notice 
of  the  founder. 

SOMwEBINy  shvft-r§n^  The  capital  of  the 
Grand  Duchy  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  Germany, 
beautifully  situated  on  Lake  Schwerin,  and  sev- 
eral smaller  lakes,  about  38  miles  southeast  of 
LUbeck  (Map:  Prussia,  D  2).  The  town  is  well 
built,  and  has  handsome  churches.  The  four- 
teenth-century Gothic  cathedral  is  an  interesting 
brick  edifice  restored  in  1867-69.  It  contains 
the  tombs  of  the  grand  ducal  family.  Near  the 
cathedral  is  the  Grand  Ducal  Library  of  160,000 
volumes.  On  an  island  in  Lake  Schwerin  is  the 
beautiful  grand  ducal  palace,  an  early  Renais- 
sance edifice,  completed  in  1857.  llie  grand 
ducal  museum  contains  a  picture  gallery,  with 
noteworthy  works  by  German,  Flemish,  Dutch, 
and  Italian  masters.  Other  interesting  features 
are  the  Government  offices,  the  arsenal,  the  Court 
theatre  and  the  gymnasium.  The  principal  man- 
ufactures are  musical  instruments  (especially 
pianos),  wagons,  machinery,  dyes,  furniture, 
cabinets,  and  bricks.  Schwerin,  of  Slavic  origin, 
and  the  oldest  town  in  Mecklenburg,  is  first  men- 
tioned in  1018,  and  received  municipal  privileges 
in  1161.  Population,  in  1890,  33,643;  in  1900, 
38,667. 

SCHWBBIN,  Kurt  Chbistoph,  Count  (1684- 
1767).  A  Swedish  soldier,  bom  at  Lttwitz, 
Pomerania.  He  entered  the  Dutch  army  as  ensign 
in  1700,  fought  in  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succes- 
sion, and  in  1706  became  first  lieutenant  in  the 
service  of  the  Duke  of  Mecklenburg.  He  then 
entered  the  Prussian  service,  and  Frederick  Wil- 
liam I.  sent  him  on  several  diplomatic  missions. 
Frederick  II.  made  him  a  count  and  field-marshal. 
In  the  first  Silesian  war  he  commanded  a  part 
of  the  Prussian  army  and  won  the  battle  of 
Mollwitz  in  1741.  He  stormed  Prague  in  the 
second  Silesian  war  and  was  killed  during  the 
battle  of  Prague  in  the  Seven  Years*  War.  Con- 
sult Vamhagen  von  Ense,  Biographische  Denk- 
male  (Leipzig,  1873). 

SCHWEBTE,  shvfir'te.  A  town  of  the  Prov- 
ince of  Westphalia,  Prussia,  53  miles  by  rail 
northeast  of  Cologne.  There  is  a  Romanesque 
church  with  a  carved  altar  and  some  good  four- 
teenth-century stained  glass.  The  iron  works 
and  machine  shops  are  extensive.  Population,  in 
1900,  12,261. 

SCHWICKEB,  shylk^Sr,  Johann  Heinbigh 
(1839-1902).  An  Austrian  historian,  bom  in 
New  Beschenowa  and  educated  to  be  a  teacher. 
His  works  deal  especially  with  the  history,  litera- 
ture, and  ethnology  of  Hungary,  the  more  impor- 
tant titles  being  Die  Deutschen  in  Ungam  und 
SiebenbUrgen  (1881),  Die  Zigeuner  in  Ungam 
und  SiebenbUrgen  (1883),  Dae  K6nigreich  Un- 
gam ( 1886) ,  a  biography  of  Pazman  ( 1888) ,  and 
the  valuable  Oeschichte  der  ungarischen  Littera- 
iur  (1889). 

SCHWIKB^  shvint,  Moritz  von  (1804-71). 
A  German  historical  painter  and  draughtsman, 
bom  in  Vienna.  He  studied  at  the  Vienna  Acad- 
emy, and  under  Ludwig  Schnorr.  At  the  Academy 
of  Munich,  to  which  he  went  in  1828,  Cornelius 
exercised   a   powerful   influence   upon   him.     In 


8CHWIND. 


558 


8CHYHSE. 


Munich  he  decorated  in  encaustic  a  room  in  the 
pahice  (1832-34)  and  painted  sixty  water-color 
designs,  from  the  life  of  Charlemagne,  for  Hohen- 
schwangau  Castle.  After  several  years  in  Rome 
he  was  called  to  Karlsruhe  to  decorate  the  new 
Kunsthalle,  and  there  also  executed  allegorical 
compositions  for  the  session-room  of  the  Upper 
Chamber,  and  in  oil  "Knight  Kurt's  Bridal  Pro- 
cession" (1838,  Karlsruhe  Gallery).  In  1844  he 
removed  to  Frankfort,  where  he  painted  for  the 
SUldel  Institute  'The  Singers'  Contest  at  the 
Wartburg"  (1846),  and  thence  went  to  Munich 
in  1847,  as  professor  at  the  Academy.  In  the 
Wartburg  he  painted  in  1853-56  frescoes  illus- 
trative of  the  life  of  Saint  Elizabeth,  of  the  his- 
tory of  the  first  landgraves,  and  of  the  Singers' 
Contest.  In  1859  he  designed  thirty-four  cartoons 
for  windows  in  Glasgow  Cathedral,  and  in  1804 
ten  for  a  window  in  Saint  Michael's,  London.' 

Schwind's  works  show  great  idyllic  and  poetic 
feeling,  and  it  has  often  been  remarked  that  his 
three  great  aquarelle  cycles,  "Cinderella"  (1864), 
"The  Seven  Ravens"  (1858,  Weimar  Museum), 
and  "The  Beautiful  Melusina"  (1870,  Vienna 
Museum),  glorify  the  virtues  and  heroism  of 
women.  Technicallv  he  was  essentially  'old  Ger- 
man,' and  he  ranks  as  a  great  Roxflanticist. 
Besides  those  already  mentioned,  his  works 
in  oil  include  "The  W^edding  Journey,"  "Count 
Gleichen  Returning  from  the  Crusades,"  and  six- 
teen others  ( Schack  Gallery,  Munich )  ;  "Father 
Rhine"  (Raczynski  Gallery,  Berlin)  ;  "The  Rose" 
(1847,  National  Gallery,  Berlin)  ;  and  "A  Sym- 
phony" after  Beethoven  ( 1849,  New  Pinakothek, 
Munich).  In  1866-68  he  executed  a  cycle  in 
fresco  from  the  "Magic  Flute,"  in  the  jLoggia, 
and  sixteen  operatic  scenes  in  tempera,  in  the 
foyer  of  the  Opera  House  at  Vienna.  Besides 
some  clever  etchings  there  are  unnumbered  in- 
genious and  humorous  designs  of  all  kinds  to  his 
credit.  For  his  biography,  consult  Lukas  von 
Fflhrich  (Leipzig,  1871),  Holland  (Stuttgart, 
1873),  and  Haack  (Bielefeld,  1898). 

SCHWOB,  shwdb,  Mateb  Andr£  Mabgel 
(1867 — ).  A  French  author,  born  at  Chaville. 
He  studied  at  Nantes  and  passed  his  licence  is 
lettrea  in  1888.  Between  1891  and  1900  he  wrote 
some  rather  unusual  stories  and  novels,  such  as 
Coeur  double,  Le  Roi  au  mosque  d*or,  Le  livre  de 
Monelle,  Mimes,  La  porte  des  rives.  In  1894  he 
published  a  translation  of  Defoe's  Moll  Flanders, 
and  in  1898,  with  Eugtoe  Morand,  translated 
Hamlet  for  Mme.  Sarah  Bernhardt.  The  inten- 
tion was  to  translate  both  the  lines  and  atmos- 
phere of  the  play,  but  the  attempt  was  not  suc- 
cessful. He  made  exhaustive  studies  in  the  life 
and  times  of  Villon,  gaining  recognition  as  one 
of  the  first  authorities  on  the  subject,  and  in 
1902  collaborated  with  F.  Marion  Crawford  in  a 
play,  Francesco  de  Rimini, 

SCHWYZ,  shvlts.  One  of  the  forest  cantons 
of  Switzerland,  separated  by  the  Lake  of  Zurich 
on  the  north  from  the  cantons  of  Zurich  and 
Saint  Gall,  and  bounded  by  the  Canton  of  Glarus 
on  the  east,  Uri  and  Lake  Lucerne  on  the  south, 
and  Lucerne  and  Zug  on  the  west  ( Map :  Switzer- 
land, CI).  Area,  351  square  miles.  Schwyz  be- 
longs wholly  to  the  region  of  the  Lower  Alps.  A 
central  ridge  having  a  maximum  altitude  of  7594 
feet  forms  a  divide  between  the  watersheds  of 
Lakes  Lucerne  and  Zurich.  On  either  side  there 
are    numerous    branching    spurs    inclosing    the 


valley  of  the  Sihl  on  the  north  and  that  of  the 
Muota  on  the  south.  From  the  latter  rise  the 
outliers  of  the  Urner  and  Glamer  Alps. 

Schwyz  is  essentially  a  pastoral  region;  stock- 
raising  is  the  principal  occupation.  The  supply 
of  cereals  is  far  below  the  domestic  demand,  and 
viticulture  is  on  a  limited  scale.  The  forests 
cover  nearly  one-fourth  of  the  area.  Marble  and 
^psum  are  found.  The  principal  manufactvring 
maustry  is  cotton-spinning.  Silk-weaving  is  de- 
veloped to  some  extent  as  a  house  industry.  The 
economic  life  of  the  canton  is  aided  by  the  heavy 
annual  pilgrimage  to  Einsledeln  (q.v.). 

The  legislative  assembly  (Grosser  Rat)  is  elect- 
ed for  four  years  at  the  rate  of  one  member  to 
every  600  inhabitants.  The  executive  council 
consists  of  7  members  elected  by  the  people  for 
four  years.  Proportional  representation  for  elec- 
tion to  the  legislature  prevails  in  all  communities 
entitled  to  3  or  more  members.  The  obligatory 
referendum  and  the  initiative  are  in  force.  Popu- 
lation, in  1900,  55,385,  almost  entirely  Roman 
Catholic.    German  is  mostly  spoken. 

Schwyz,  which  gives  its  name  to  Switzerland* 
was  in  early  medieval  times  a  free  community 
tenacious  of  its  rights,  and  frequently  embroiled 
over  pastoral  privileges  with  the  powerful  Abbey 
of  Einsledeln,  which  eventually  came  under  its 
protection.  With  Uri  and  Unterwalden  it  formed 
in  1291  the  celebrated  league  of  resistance  a^inst 
Austria,  and  defeated  the  Austrian  forces  at 
Morgarten  Pass  in  1315  and  at  Sempach  in  1386. 
The  second  victory  insured  the  independence  of 
the  Schwyzers  and  they  subsequently  extended 
the  authority  of  the  "Landsgemeinde"  over  a  con- 
siderable territory.  They  strenuously  opposed  the 
Reformation  as  members  of  the  league  formed  to 
inaugurate  the  Counter-Reformation.  In  1798 
they  spiritedly  resisted  the  French,  but  suffered 
severely  during  the  French  campaign  against  the 
Russians  in  Switzerland  in  1799.  Schwyz  re- 
mained stanchly  conservative  against  constitu- 
tional changes  and  became  a  member  of  the  Son- 
derbund,  sharing  in  the  defeat  of  the  Catholic 
cantons  in  the  war  of  1847,  which  was  followed 
by  a  revision  of  the  Constitution. 

SCHWYZ.  The  capital  of  the  Canton  of 
Schwyz,  in  Switzerland,  situated  in  a  deep  basin 
formed  by  the  Myten,  the  Rigi,  and  the  Fron- 
alpstock,  about  10  miles  southwest  of  Einsiedeln 
(Map:  Switzerland,  CI).  Its  town  hall,  em- 
bellished with  frescoes  and  portraits,  and  the 
parish  church  possess  interest.  Population,  in 
1900,  7398. 

SCHYNSE,  shln'se,  August  (1857-91).  A 
German  Catholic  missionary  and  African  explor- 
er, bom  at  Wallhausen  and  educated  at  Bonn.  He 
attended  the  seminary  at  Speyer,  became  a  priest 
in  1880,  and  in  1882  entered  the  service  of  the 
African  Mission  and  was  active  in  the  work  in 
Algeria.  After  his  return  to  Europe  he  taught 
at  the  mission  houses  of  Lille  and  Brussels.  He 
was  one  of  a  mission  expedition  to  the  Congo 
in  1855.  This  trip  he  described  in  lus 
diary,  Ztoei  Jahre  am  Kongo  (1889).  In 
1888  he  made  a  trip  to  East  Africa  and  from 
there  accompanied  Stanley  and  Emin  Pasha  to 
the  coast.  With  Emin  he  went  to  the  Victoria 
Nyanza  and  then  spent  almost  a  year  in  ex- 
plorations between  that  lake  and  Uganda.  He 
wrote  Mit  Stanley  und  Emin  Pascha  durck 
Deutsch  Ost'Afrika   (1890).     Consult:  Heapen^ 


scthynse. 


559 


SCIENCEa 


Paier  Schynses  leizte  Reisen  {Cologne,  1802), and 
Pater  August  Schynse  und  seine  Missionsreisen 
in  Afrika  (Strassburg,  1894). 

8CIACCA,  8h&k^k&.  A  seaport  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Girgenti,  Sicily,  45  miles  south-southwest 
of  Palermo  (Map:  Italy,  H  10).  It  has  an 
eleventh-century  cathedral,  ruins  of  castles,  a 
technical  school,  and  a  library.  There  are  pot- 
teries, anchovy  fishing,  and  a  trade  in  grain  and 
oil.  Sciacca  was  an  important  city  in  the  Mid- 
dle Ages.  Population  (commune),  in  1881,  22,- 
196;  in  1901,20,090. 

SGIiENIDJB,  sl-Sn^-de  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi., 
from  Ldit.  sckena,  from  Gk.  ffKiaipa,  skiaina,  sort 
of  sea-fish,  maigre,  from  ffxid,  skia,  Skt.  chdy^ 
shadow).  A  large  and  important  family  of 
spiny-rayed  fishes,  the  grunters,  with  consider- 
able resemblance  to  the  perches,  having  a  com- 
pressed body.  The  scales  are  ctenoid  and  ar- 
ranged in  oblique  rows.  The  family  includes  the 
weakfish,  drums,  croakers,  etc.  There  are  30 
genera  and  about  150  species,  found  in  all  warm 
seas,  but  never  in  deep  water.  A  few  species  are 
restricted  to  fresh  waters.  Many  grow  to  a  large 
size.  Most  of  them  are  valued  as  food  fishes  and 
some  are  interesting  game  fishes. 

SCTAXOIA,  sh^A-lo'yA,  Antonio  (1817-77). 
An  Italian  economist  and  patriot,  born  at  San 
Giovanni  del  Teduccio,  in  (3ampania.  Educated 
for  the  law,  he  published  in  1840  /  principi  dell* 
eeonomia  sociale,  a  book  which  at  once  put  the 
young  writer  into  the  notice  of  European  econ- 
omists. As  a  consequence  he  was  professor  of 
political  economy  at  the  University  of  Turin.  He 
became  actively  interested  in  the  movements 
which  resulted  in  the  unification  of  Italy.  He  was 
called  into  the  Treasury  by  Cavour,  entered  the 
Lower  House  of  Parliament,  and  later  became 
Senator.  He  held  the  portfolio  of  Finance  from 
1865  to  1867,  at  the  most  trying  epoch  of  Italian 
affairs.  Among  his  economic  and  legal  works  may 
be  mentioned,  in  addition  to  the  Principi  already 
named,  Sulla  propriety  dei  prodotii  d*ingegno 
(1843),  Indusiria  e  protezione  (1843),  /  hilanci 
di  'Sapoli  e  degli  stati  sardi,  and  Caresiia  e 
govemo  (published  in  Turin  from  1854  to  1860). 

SCIATICA  (ML.,  from  sciaticus,  from  Lat. 
isehiadicus,  from  Gk.  l^x^^^y  ischiadikos,  sub- 
ject to  pains  in  the  loins,  from  l<rxMif,  ischias, 
pain  in  the  loins,  from  trxfoVi  ischion,  socket 
of  the  thigh  joint).  A  neuralgia  of  the  great 
sciatic  nerve.  (See  Nebvous  System  and 
Brain.)  It  occurs  in  persons  of  a  gouty  or  rheu- 
matic tendency  and  is  brought  on  by  exposure, 
muscular  strain  from  hard  labor,  pressure  from 
hard  seats,  and  constipation.  As  a  symptomatic 
affection  it  may  he  caused  by  the  pressure  of 
pelvic  tumors,  injury  to  the  nerves,  inflamma- 
tions, and  spinal  disease.  It  also  occurs  occa- 
sionally in  phthisis  and  diabetes.  Sciatica  is 
characterized  by  irregular  pains  about  the  hip, 
especially  between  the  great  trochanter  of  the 
thigh  bone  and  the  bony  process  on  which  the 
body  rests  when  sitting  (tuberosity  of  the  ischi- 
um), spreading  into  the  neighboring  parts  and 
running  down  the  back  of  the  thigh  into  the  leg 
and  foot.  The  pain  is  almost  continuous,  with 
paroxysms  of  great  severity  in  which  the  pain 
IS  sharp,  burning,  and  stabbing  in  character.  The 
disease  is  very  obstinate  and  tends  to  become 
chronic.  In  treatment  a  most  important  indica- 
tion is  rest,  which  is  sometimes  made  more  com- 


plete by  the  application  of  a  splint  to  the  limb. 
The  medicinal  treatmenC  depends  upon  the  under- 
lying constitutional  condition,  with  morphine, 
antipyrine,  and  like  drugs  to  relieve  pain.  When 
the  disease  becomes  chronic  the  galvanic  electric 
current  is  indicated.  Wet  cupping  is  often  useful. 

SPICLI,  sh^kl6.  A  town  in  the  Province  of 
Syracuse,  Sicily,  38  miles  southwest  of  Syracuse 
(Map:  Italy,  J  11).  Population  (commune),  in 
1901,  16,277. 

SCIIKMOBE,  EuzA  RuHAMAH  (1856—).  An 
American  traveler  and  author.  She  was  bom  at 
Madison,  Wis.,  received  an  academic  education, 
became  widely  known  as  a  traveler  and  as  a 
writer  of  books  of  travel,  and  was  made  corre- 
sponding secretary  of  the  National  Geographic 
^iety.  Her  published  works  include:  Alaska, 
the  Southern  Coast  and  the  Sitkan  Archipelago 
(1885) ;  Jinrikisha  Days  in  Japan  (1890)  ;  West- 
ward to  the  Far  East  (1890)  ;  Java,  the  Garden 
of  the  East  (1897)  ;  and  China,  the  Long-Lived 
Empire  (1900). 

SCIENCE,  Social.    See  Socioloot. 

SCIENCES  (Lat.  scientia,  knowledge,  from 
scirCi  to  know),  CJlassification  of.  From 
early  times  attempts  have  been  made  to  arrange 
all  the  sciences  in  a  systematic  order  which  shall 
clearly  show  their  relations  to  each  other.  The 
result  of  such  an  attempt  depends,  of  course, 
partly  upon  the  material  to  be  classified,  and 
partly  upon  the  principle  used  in  classification, 
I.e.  the  fundamentum  divisionis  (see  Division)  ; 
it  is  also  apt  to  be  influenced  by  the  partiality  of 
the  classifier  in  favor  of  some  disciplme  which  he 
wishes  to  place  above  all  others. 

In  ancient  Greece  there  were  relatively  few 
sciences,  and  the  classification  of  such  as  existed 
was  a  comparatively  easy  matter.  And  yet  even 
then  there  was  disagreement  among  classifiers, 
due  in  great  measure  to  differences  in  philo- 
sophical conceptions.  The  Platonists  divided  the 
sciences  into  dialectics,  physics,  and  ethics.  Aris- 
totle divided  them  into  the  theoretical,  the  prac- 
tical, and  the  poetical  (creative  or  technical). 
Interpreters  are  not  agreed  upon  what  he  accept- 
ed definitively  as  the  sub-classes  of  the  theoreti- 
cal sciences.  Some  maintain  that  these  sub- 
classes are  analytics  (logic),  metaphysics,  and 
physics.  Others  say  that  he  regarded  logic  merely 
as  propedeutic  to  the  sciences,  and  that  the 
theoretical  sciences  were  divided  into  mathe- 
matics, physics,  and  the  'first  philosophy'  (meta- 
physics). The  practical  sciences  included  ethics 
and  politics,  although  Aristotle  seemed  at  times 
to  regard  ethics  merely  as  a  branch  of  politics. 
The  technical  sciences  were  of  two  kinds,  the 
useful  and  the  imitative. 

In  modern  times  Bacon  (1605)  uses  as  princi- 
ple of  division  the  so-called  faculties  of  the  mind, 
some  one  of  which  was  by  him  supposed  to  be 
predominantly  active  in  each  of  the  several 
sciences.  These  faculties  were  memory,  imagina- 
tion, and  reason,  and  they  gave  rise  respectively 
to  history,  poesy,  and  philosophy.  "History  is 
natural,  civil,  ecclesiastical,  and  literary;  where- 
of the  first  three  I  allow  as  extant,  the  fourth  I 
note  as  deficient."  These  are  again  subdivided. 
Poesy  is  divided  into  "poesy  narrative,  repre- 
sentative, and  allusive."  "In  philosophy,  the 
contemplations  of  man  do  either  penetrate  unto 
God,  or  are  circumferred  to  Nature,  or  are  re- 
fiected  or  reverted  upon  himself.    Out  of  which 


SCIENCES 


560 


SCIEKCE& 


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SCIEKCBa  562  SCIENCEa 

seyeral  inquiries,  there  do  arise  several  knowl- 
edges, divine  philosophy,  natural  philosophy,  and 
human  philosophy  or  humanity.*'  "Natural 
science  or  theory  is  divided  into  physic  and  meta- 
physic."  Physic  should  contemplate  that  which 
is  inherent  in  matter,  and  therefore  transitory, 
and  metaphysic  that  which  is  abstracted  and 
fixed.  "Metaphysic  includes  the  inquiry  into  for- 
mal and  final  causes  and  mathematics.  Mathe- 
matics is  divided  into  pure  and  mixed,  the  for- 
mer including  geometry  and  arithmetic,  the  lat- 
ter including  perspective,  music,  astronomy, 
cosmography,  architecture,  enginery,  and  divers 
others."  "Physics  hath  three  parts.  The  first 
doctrine  is  touching  the  contexture  or  configura- 
tion of  things.  .  .  .  The  second  is  the  doc- 
trine concerning  the  principles  or  originals  of 
things.  The  third  is  the  doctrine  concerning  all 
variety  and  particularity  of  things,  whether  it 
be  of  the  differing  substances,  or  their  differing 
qualities  and  natures." 

Hobbes  gives  a  most  ingenious  classification, 
which,  both  on  account  of  its  curious  interest  and 
of  the  light  it  throws  upon  his  general  concep- 
tion of  science,  is  given  in  the  accompanying 
table,  transcribed  from  his  Leviathan  (1651). 

Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  three  am- 
bitious classifications  were  proposed,  one  by  Ben- 
tham  (1816),  one. by  Comte  (1830),  and  one  by 
A.  M.  Ampere  (1834).  Bentham's  and  Ampere's 
agree  in  being  dichotomous  and  characterified  by 
highly  artificial  terminologies,  which  form  one 
of  the  curiosities  in  the  history  of  science.  Both 
also  agree  in  dividing  the  sciences  into  those 
dealing  with  body  and  those  dealing  with 
mind.  The  former  Bentham  calls  somatol- 
ogy, and  the  latter  pneumatology.  Soma- 
tology is  divided  into  posology  (mathematics)  or 
the  science  of  pure  quantity,  and  poiology  or 
the  science  which  deals  with  qualities.  Posology 
is  divided  into  morphoscopic  (geometrical)  and 
alegomorphic  (arithmetrical)  posology.  The 
latter  is  further  subdivided  into  gnosto-symbolic 
and  agnosto-symbolic.  The  former  term  is  his 
designation  for  common  arithmetic,  and  the  lat- 
ter for  algebraical  arithmetic.  Poiology  is  di- 
vided into  physiurgy  (natural  historv)  and  an- 
thropourgv  (natural  philosophy).  Physiurgy  is 
divided  into  uranoscopy  (astronomy)  and  epigeos- 
copy  (terrestrial  natural  history).  Epigeoscopy 
is  divided  into  abioscopy  (mineralogy)  and  em- 
bioscopy  (physiology).  All  these  are  again  sub- 
divided and  sub-subdivided  till  one  has  a  fairly 
complete  Greek  dictionary  at  last.  The  divisions 
of  anthropourgy  the  inquisitive  will  find  given 
in  infinite  detail  in  the  Chrestomatkia. 

Perhaps  the  best  known  and  the  most  thor- 
oughly discussed  classification  ever  made  is 
Comte's.  The  division  is  not  by  genus  and  spe- 
cies, but  by  hierarchical  order.  "The  classifica- 
tion," he  says,  "must  proceed  from  the  study  of 
the  things  to  be  classified,  and  must  by  no  means 
be  determined  by  d  priori  considerations.  The 
real  affinities  and  natural  connections  presented 
by  objects  being  allowed  to  determine  their  or- 
der, the  classification  itself  becomes  the  expres- 
sion of  the  most  general  fact.     ...     It  fol- 

— — , '  lows  that  the  mutual  dependence  of  the  sciences 

n  .  — ^a  dependence  resulting  from  thfit  of  the  corre- 

.gg  sponding   phenomena — must    determine   the    ar- 

S  S  H  rangement  of  the  system  of  human  knowledge.** 

*^  o^  Applying  this  method,  0)mte  concludes  that  there 

^  are  six  sciences.     "We  cannot  make  them  leas; 


8CIEKCE& 


568 


SCIENCB& 


Si 


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a      So     ^«     |q      li     *|      =^ 

■^   5  s    ^  a   *  •  • 


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'  Is  1"»  ^1 

»=    f.3   ?« 

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SCIENGEa  564  8CIBVCB& 

and  most  Bcientific  men  would  reckon  them  aa 
more.  Six  objects  admit  of  720  different  disposi- 
tions. .  .  .  Our  problem  is,  then,  to  find  the 
rational  order,  among  a  host  of  possible  sys- 
tems." "The  true  order  is  determined  by  the  de- 
gree of  simplicity,  or,  what  comes  to  the  same 
thing,  of  generality,"  of  the  phenomena  which  are 
the  objects  of  scientific  investigation.  This  or- 
der turns  out  to  be  mathematics,  astronomy, 
physics,  chemistry,  physiology,  and  social  phys- 
ics, for  the  last  of  which  Comte  invented  the  now 
current  name,  'sociology.'  The  correctness  of 
this  order,,  he  argues,  is  confirmed  in  various 
ways.  For  instance,  in  education,  this  is  the  or- 
der in  which  the  sciences  must  be  studied.  An 
astronomer  must  have  learned  his  mathematics. 
'Thysical  philosophers  cannot  understand  phys- 
ics without  at  least  a  general  knowledge  of  as- 
tronomy; nor  chemists  without  physics  and  as- 
tronomy; nor  physiologists  without  chemistry, 
physics,  and  astronomy;  nor,  above  all,  the  stu- 
dents of  social  philosophy,  without  a  general 
knowledge  of  all  the  anterior  sciences.  As  such 
conditions  are,  as  yet,  rarely  fulfilled,  and  as 
no  organizations  exist  for  their  fulfillment,  there 
is  among  us,  in  fact,  no  rational  scientific  edu- 
cation." 

Herbert  Spencer  in  1854  suggested  a  classi- 
fication of  the  sciences  which  he  worked  out  in 
detail  ten  years  later,  and  which  has  become  Yi- 
mous. He  begins  by  criticising  Comte's  scheme 
on  account  of  the  identification  the  latter  made 
of  the  abstract  and  the  general.  "Abstractnesa," 
he  insists,  "means  detachment  from  the  inci- 
dents of  particular  cases.  Generality  means 
manifestation  in  numerous  cases."  Not  degree 
of  generality — as  by  Comte — but  of  abstraci- 
ness  is  by  Spencer  regarded  as  the  proper  basis 
for  division  of  the  sciences.  Applying  this  prin- 
ciple of  division,  he  obtains  three  classes  of 
sciences,  the  abstract,  the  abstract-concrete,  and 
the  concrete  sciences.  The  various  subdivisions  of 
these  classes  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  table. 
One  of  the  most  carefully  worked  out  classi- 
fications ever  published  is  Wundt's  (1889).  He 
objects  to  most  previous  classifications  because 
they  attempt  to  force  some  arbitrary  schema- 
tism upon  the  facts.  One  mu^t  find  the  scheme 
in  the  facts  themselves,  he  argues,  and  these 
facts  are  not  the  object-matter  of  the  sciences, 
but  the  points  of  view  which  the  various  sciences 
take  of  their  object-matter.  The  point  of  view 
of  a  science  is  a  conceptional  point  of  view.  It 
is  taken  in  order  that  from  this  vantage  ground 
we  may  survey  the  facts  and  bring  them  into 
i  ^  intelligible  relations.     This  point  of  view  deter- 

3  -a  mines  the  method  pursued  by  any  science.     As 

g  1  sciences  are  distinguished  by  their  conceptioruil 

fl  V  points  of  view,  Wundt  classifies  them  according 

Jf  S  to  these  points  of  view.     The  first  division,  ac- 

f'  5^  cording   to   this   principle,   is   into   the   special 

S  5  sciences  and   philosophy.     The  special   sciences 


M  J  deal  with  facts  from  some  single  point  of  view; 


^  I  „  .  . 

^  philosophy  takes  a  more  comprehensive  survey 

of  our  knowledge  of  these  same  facts.  ''While 
the  special  sciences  divide  knowledge  *  into  a 
great  number  of  objects  of  knowledge,  the  eye 
of  philosophy  is  from  the  start  directed  toward 
the  organic  unity  {Zuaammenhang)  of  all  these 
objects  of  knowledge."  The  various  subdivisions 
of  the  special  sciences  and  of  philosophy,  as 
worked  out  by  Wundt^  are  to  be  found  in  thQ 
accompanying  table. 


SCIBVGE& 


565 


SCIOPPIIT& 


In  surveying  all  these  classifications,  the  ques- 
tion arises  whether  any  one  classification  is  pos- 
sible which  can  claim  validity  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  others.  As  was  observed  at  the  outset,  a 
classification  depends,  among  other  things,  upon 
the  principle  employed.  Is  only  one  principle 
applicable  in  the  classification  of  the  sciences? 
To  answer  this  question  affirmatively  seems  to 
be  dogmatic.  The  various  sciences  are  related  in 
various  ways,  and  why  any  single  one  of  these 
ways  should  be  chosen  as  the  sole  possible  basis 
of  valid  classification,  it  is  difficult  to  see.  The 
dogmatism  of  such  an  assumption  can  be  illus- 
trated by  referring  to  the  classification  of  books 
in  a  library.  A  library  may  be  arranged  alpha- 
betically, or  chronologically,  or  topically,  etc. 
No  one  of  these  arrangements  is  the  only  proper 
one.  Which  shall  be  chosen  depends  upon  the 
U9e  to  which  the  classification  is  to  be  put. 

Consult  Ueberweg-Heinze,  Grundriss  der  Oe- 
achichte  der  Philosophie,  for  ancient  classifica- 
tions; for  several  modem  classifications,  consult: 
Bacon,  Advancement  of  Learning  (1605)  ;  Hobbes, 
Leviathan  (1651);  Locke,  Essay  Concerning 
Human  Understanding  (1690)  ;  d'Alembert, 
Milanges  (1767);  Bentham,  Chrestomathia 
(1816);  Comte,  Cours  de  philosophie  positive 
(1830);  Ampere,  Essai  sur  la  philosophic  des 
sciences  (1834) ;  Spencer,  The  Genesis  of  Science 
(1854)  and  The  Classification  of  the  Sciences 
(1864),  both  republished  in  vol.  ii.  of  his  Essays 
(American  ed.  1891)  ;  Erdmann,  "Die  Gliederung 
der  Wissenschaften,"  in  Vierteljahrschrift  fUr 
wissenschaftliche  Philosophie,  vol.  ii.;  Wundt, 
•*Ueber  die  Eintheilung  der  Wissenschaften,"  in 
Philosophische  Studien,  vol.  v.;  also  his  Logik 
(2d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1893-95) ;  La  Grasserie,  De  la 
classification  (Paris,  1893) ;  Gdblot,  Essai  sur  la 
classification  des  sciences  (ib.,  1898)  ;  Naville, 
'Nouvelle  classification  des  sciences    (ib.,   1901). 

SCIENTTFIG  AliUANCE  OF  NEW 
YOBKy  The.  An  association  of  scientific  bodies 
with  headquarters  at  the  New  York  Botanical 
Gardens  and  including  the  resident  active  mem- 
bers of  the  New  York  Academy  of  Sciences,  the 
Torrey  Botanical  Club,  the  New  York  Microscopi- 
cal Society,  the  Linnean  Society  of  New  York,  the 
New  York  Mineralogi<^l  Club,  and  the  New 
York  Entomological  £)ciety.  The  Council  of  the 
Scientific  Alliance  is  composed  of  the  president 
and  two  members  from  each  of  the  allied  so- 
cieties. In  1902  the  Alliance  had  a  total  mem- 
bership of  691.  See  Entomological  Societt, 
New  Yobk;  Miceoscopical  Societt,  New  York; 
New  York  AcABEiiT  of  Science;  Toeret 
Botanical  Club. 

SCHiIiA.    See  Squill. 

SCHiIiY  (sll^l)  ISLANDS.  A  group  of 
islands  forming  the  southwestemmost  part  of 
Great  Britain,  27  miles  west-southwest  of  Land's 
End,  Cornwall  (Map:  France,  A  2).  The  group 
consists  of  about  140  islandis  and  rocks,  com- 
prising a  circuit  of  30  miles,  and  the  islands  are 
the  high  points  of  the  submerged  and  traditional 
land  of  Lyonesse  which  extended  to  the  mainland. 
Navigation  around  the  islands  is  dangerous.  Gnly 
five  of  them  are  inhabited.  Saint  Mary's, 
the  largest,  has  1528  acres;  Tresco,  697;  Saint 
Martin's,  515;  Saint  Agnes,  313;  Sampson  and 
Bryher,  269.  The  climate  is  mild.  The  soil  is 
in  general  sandy,  but  in  Tresco  and  Saint  Agnes 
it  is  remarkably  fertile.    The  cliffs  abound  with 


sea-fowl,  and  are  covered  with  samphire.  The 
inhabitants  are  chiefly  engaged  in  agriculture, 
floriculture,  and  fishing.  Large  quantities  of 
potatoes  are  produced;  narcissi  and  other  flow- 
ers are  sent  to  London  and  Bristol. 

Hugh  Town  is  the  capital,  and  contains  an 
odd  mixture  of  old-fashioned  and  neat  modern 
houses. 

By  the  ancients,  these  islands  were  named  Cas- 
siterides,  Hesperides,  and  Silurs  Insulte.  The 
term  Cassiterides,  or  *Tin  Islands,'  by  which 
they  were  known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  was 
once  applied  to  the  peninsula  of  Cornwall. 

There  are  numerous  remains  of  prehistoric 
monoliths,  stone  circles,  kistvaens,  rock-basins, 
and  cromlechs.  The  Scilly  Islands  were  in  936 
granted  by  Athelstane  to  some  monks  who  set- 
tled at  Tresco.  They  were  afterwards  granted  to 
the  Abbey  of  Tavistock  by  Henry  I.,  and  were 
conferred  by  Queen  Elizabeth  on  the  Godolphin 
family.  They  are  now  Crown  property.  Popu- 
lation, in  1901,  2100. 

SCINDEy  sind.  A  region  of  British  India. 
See  SiNDH. 

SGINBLAy  or  SIBHIA,  sin'dl-A.  The  name 
of  a  Mahratta  dynasty,  rulers  of  Gwalior,  in 
Centlral  India.     See  Sindia. 

SCINTILLATION  (Lat.  sdntillatiOy  from 
scintillare,  to  sparkle,  from  scintilla,  spark). 
The  apparent  twinkling  or  flickering  of  a  star, 
including  the  changes  of  color  that  are  seen 
when  the  stars  are  near  the  horizon.  A  perfectly 
satisfactory  explanation  of  this  phenomenon  has 
been  given  by  Exner  of  Vienna,  who  shows  that 
it  is  due  entirely  to  the  irregular  refraction  of 
rays  of  light  passing  through  the  heterogeneous 
mixture  of  warm  and  cold  air  that  ordinarily 
exists  in  the  atmosphere.  The  minute  streams  of 
warm  and  cold  air,  oftentimes  of  a  smaller  di- 
ameter than  that  of  the  pupil  of  the  eye,  cause 
points  on  a  large  object  to  dance  about  while  the 
object  as  a  whole  remains  stationary.  There- 
fore the  edges  of  the  sun  or  moon  or  planets  ap- 
pear to  scintillate,  while  these  objects  as  a 
whole  are  quite  steady  owing  to  their  large  ap- 
parent angular  diameter.  The  frequency  and 
extent  of  the  oscillations  and  changes  of  color 
may  be  observed  by  means  of  the  scintillometer, 
by  which  the  image  of  a  star  is  drawn  out  into  a 
circle,  and  the  rapid  changes  of  the  light  are 
seen  distributed  along  the  circumference.  Regu- 
lar observations  have  shown  that  scintillation 
is  more  decided  before  the  approach  of  a  storm, 
and  in  various  ways  this  phenomenon  is  so  con- 
nected with  atmospheric  changes  as  to  form  a 
regular  subject  of  observation  by  some  meteorol- 
ogists. 

SGIO.  An  island  of  the  ^gean  Sea.  See 
Chios. 

SCIOP^IUS  (Latinized  form  of  Schoppe), 
Kaspab  (1576-1649).  A  classical  scholar  and 
controversialist,  born  at  Neumarkt,  in  the  Palat- 
inate. He  studied  at  Heidelberg,  Altdorf,  and  In- 
golstadt.  In  1598  he  became  a  Roman  Catholic. 
Henceforth  his  career  is  a  series  of  attacks  both 
on  Protestantism  and  on  his  personal  enemies.  He 
assailed  first  Joseph  Justus  Scaliger  (q.v.), 
against  whom,  in  1607,  lie  wrote  his  Scaliger 
Bypoholimceus.  In  1611  he  attacked  King  James  of 
England  in  libelous  pamphlets.  Some  three  years 
after,  when  staying  at  Madrid,  he  was  in  retalia- 
tion beaten  by  the  servants  of  Lord  Digby,  the 


SCIOPPIUS. 


566 


SCIPIO. 


English  Ambassador.  Scioppius  fled  from  Spain 
to  Ingolstadt,  where  he  issued  his  Legatus  Latro 
against  the  Ambassador.  Among  his  numerous 
works  the  most  important  are:  Poemata 
Varia  (1693);  De  Arte  Critica  (1597); 
Smyhola  Critica  in  Apuleii  Opera  (1605)  ;  De 
Rhetoricarum  Exercitationum  Oenerihus  (1628)  ; 
Orammatica  Philoaophica,  aive  Inatitutiones 
Chnrnmaticw  Latincp  (1628);  Rudimenta  Gram- 
maticcB  Philoaophicce  (1629)  ;  De  Siudiorum  Ra- 
tione  (1636)  ;  and  editions  of  Varro's  De  Lingua 
Latina  (1605)  and  the  Epistles  of  Symmachus 
(1608). 

SGIOTOy  sl-6t'6.  A  river  of  Ohio.  It  rises 
in  Auglaize  County,  flows  south  through  a  fertile 
and  populous  valley  in  the  centre  of  the  State 
past  the  city  of  Columbus,  and  joins  the  Ohio 
River  at  Portsmouth  after  a  course  of  200  miles 
(Map:  Ohio,  E  7).  It  is  navigable  130  miles  at 
high  water,  and  its  course  is  followed  for  00 
miles  by  the  Ohio  and  Erie  Canal. 

SCIPIOy  sIi/^-5.  The  name  of  a  distinguished 
Roman  patrician  family  of  the  Cornelia  gens. 
PuBLiUB  CoBNEUUS  SciPio,  sumamed  Afbicanus 
Majob,  one  of  the  most  accomplished  warriors  of 
ancient  Rome,  was  bom  e.g.  237,  not  in  234*,  as 
Livy  says.  He  is  first  mentioned  as  taking  part  in 
the  battle  of  the  Ticinus  (a.c.  218),  where  he 
saved  his  father's  life.  Two  years  later  he  fought 
at  Cannse  as  a  militaiy  tribune,  but  was  one  of  the 
few  Roman  officers  who  escaped  from  that  disas- 
trous field.  In  B.C.  212  he  was  elected  aedile, 
though  not  legally  qualified  by  age,  and,  in  the 
following  year  proconsul,  with  command  of  the 
Roman  forces  in  Spain.  His  appearance  there 
restored  fortune  to  the  Roman  arms.  By  a  bold 
and  sudden  march  he  captured  Nova  Carthago, 
the  stronghold  of  the  Carthaginians,  and  ob- 
tained an  immense  booty.  At  Bsecula,  in  the 
valley  of  the  Guadalquivir,  he  defeated  Hasdrubal 
with  heavy  loss,  but  could  not  prevent  him  from 
crossing  the  Pyrenees  and  marching  to  the 
assistance  of  Hannibal.  In  B.c.  207  he  won  a 
more  decisive  victory  over  the  other  Hasdrubal, 
son  of  Gisco,  and  Mago,  at  an  unknown  place 
called  Silpa,  or  Elinga,  in  Andalusia — the  eiTect 
of  which  was  to  place  the  whole  of  Spain  in  the 
hands  of  the  Romans.  Soon  after  he  returned  to 
Rome,  where  he  was  elected  consul  (b.c.  205), 
though  he  had  not  yet  filled  the  office  of  praetor; 
and  in  the  following  year  he  sailed  from  Lily- 
bseum,  in  Sicily,  at  the  head  of  a  large  army,  for 
the  invasion  of  Africa.  His  successes  compelled 
the  Carthaginian  Senate  to  recall  Hannibal  from 
Italy.  This  was  the  very  thing  that  Scipio  de- 
sired and  had  labored  to  achieve.  The  great 
struggle  between  Rome  and  Carthage  was  ter- 
minated by  the  battle  fought  at  Naragra,  on 
the  Bagradas,  near  Zama,  October  19,  B.c.  202,  in 
which  the  Carthaginian  troops  were  routed  with 
immense  slaughter.  Hannibal  advised  his  coun- 
trymen to  abandon  what  had  now  become  a 
hopeless  and  ruinous  contest,  and  peace  was  con- 
cluded in  the  following  year,  when  Scipio  re- 
turned to  Rome  and  enjoyed  a  triumph.  The 
surname  of  Africanus  was  conferred  on  him,  and 
so  extravagant  was  the  popular  gratitude  that 
it  was  proposed  to  make  him  consul  and  dictator 
for  life,  honors  which  Scipio  was  either  wise 
enough  or  magnanimous  enough  to  refuse.  When 
his  brother  Lucius,  in  190,  obtained  command  of 
the  army  destined  to  invade  the  territories  of 


Antiochus,  King  of  Syria,  Scipio  served  under 
him  as  legate.  Lucius  was  victorious  in  the 
war,  and  on  his  return  to  Rome  (b.c.  189)  as- 
sumed (in  imitation  of  his  brother)  the  surname 
of  Asiaticus.  But  the  clouds  were  now  gathering 
heavily  round  the  Scipios.  In  b.c.  187  Cato 
Major  and  others  induced  two  tribunes  to  prose- 
cute Lucius  for  allowing  himself  to  be  bribed  by 
Antiochus  in  the  late  war.  He  was  declared 
guilty  by  the  Senate,  his  property  was  confiscated, 
and  he  himself  would  have  been  thrown  into 
prison  had  not  his  brother  forcibly  rescued  him 
from  the  hands  of  the  oflScers  of  justice.  In  b.c. 
185  Scipio  himself  was  accused  by  the  tribune, 
M.  Nsevius;  but  instead  of  refuting  the  charges 
brought  against  him  (which  were  probably 
groundless),  he  delivered,  on  the  first  day  of  his 
trial,  a  eulogy  on  his  own  achievements,  and 
opened  the  second  day  by  reminding  the  citizens 
that  it  was  the  anniversary  of  the  battle  of  Zama, 
and  therefore  not  a  time  for  angry  squabbling,  but 
for  religious  services.  He  then  summoned  the  peo- 
ple to  follow  him  to  the  Capitol  to  give  thanks  to 
the  immortal  gods  and  to  pray  that  Rome  might 
never  want  citizens  like  himself.  His  audience 
w^ere  electrified,  and  the  thing  was  done  before 
opposition  became  possible.  To  resume  the  trial 
was  out '  of  the  question ;  but  Scipio  felt  that 
popular  enthusiasm  was  not  to  be  depended  on 
and  that  his  day  was  over.  He  retired  to  his 
country-seat  at  Litemum,  in  Campania,  where 
he  died,  b.c.  183  or  185.  Scipio  is  commonly  re- 
garded as  the  greatest  Roman  general  before 
Julius  Csesar. 

PUBUUS    COBNELfUS    SCIPIO    MUTLAKVB,    SUT- 

named  Afbicanus  Minob,  born  about  b.c. 
185,  was  a  younger  son  of  Lucius  iEmiliua 
Paulus,  who  conquered  Macedon,  but  was  adopted 
by  his  kinsman,  Publius  Scipio,  son  of  Scipio 
Africanus  Major,  who  had  married  the  daughter 
of  that  Lucius  ^Emilius  Paulus  who  fell  at  Canme. 
Scipio  accompanied  his  father  on  his  expedition 
against  Macedon,  and  fought  at  the  decisive  battle 
of  Pydna,  B.C.  168.  In  b.c.  151  he  went  to  Spain 
as  military  tribune,  in  the  train  of  the  Consul 
Lucius  Lucullus,  and  distinguished  himself 
alike  by  his  valor  and  his  virtue.  Two  years 
later  began  the  Third  Punic  War,  which  mainly 
consisted  in  the  siege  of  Carthage.  Scipio  still 
held  the  subordinate  position  of  military  tribune ; 
but  the  incapacity  of  the  consuls,  Manius  Mani- 
lius  and  Lucius  Calpumius  Piso,  and  the  bril- 
liant manner  in  which  he  rectified  their  blunders, 
fixed  all  eyes  upon  him.  The  favorite  both  of  the 
Roman  army  and  the  Roman  people,  Scipio  was 
at  length,  in  B.C.  147,  when  only  a  candidate  for 
the  ffidileship,  elected  consul  by  an  extraordinaiy 
decree  of  the  Comitia,  and  invested  with  supreme 
command.  After  a  protracted  defense  Carthage 
was  finally  taken  by  storm  in  the  spring  of  B.C. 
146;  and  by  the  orders  of  the  Senate  it  was 
leveled  to  the  ground.  Scipio,  though  probably 
the  most  accomplished  Roman  gentleman  of  his 
age,  was  rigorous  in  his  observance  of  the  antique 
Roman  virtues;  and  when  holding  the  ofiice  of 
censor  in  b.c.  142  he  strove  to  follow  in  the  foot- 
steps of  Cato.  But  his  efforts  to  repress  the  in- 
creasing luxury  and  immorality  of  the  capital 
were  frustrated  by  the  opposition  of  his  col- 
league, Lucius  Mummius,  the  rough  conqueror  of 
Corinth.  In  B.C.  139  Scipio  was  accus^  of  the 
crimen  majestatis  by  the  tribune  Tiberius  Claudi- 
us Asellus,  but  was  acquitted,  and  soon  after  was 


8CIPI0. 


567 


8CLATEA. 


sent  to  Egypt  and  Asia  on  a  special  embassy. 
Meanwhile,  however,  affairs  had  gone  badly  in 
Spain.  Viriathus,  the  Lusitanian  patriot,  had 
again  and  again  inflicted  the  most  disgraceful 
defeats  on  the  Roman  armies,  and  his  example 
had  roused  the  hopes  of  the  Celtiberian  tribes, 
who  also  rushed  to  war  against  the  common  foe. 
The  contest  continued  with  varying  success;  but 
the  interest  centred  in  the  city  of  Numantia, 
whose  inhabitants  displayed  amazing  courage  in 
the  struggle  with  Rome.  For  long  it  seemed  as 
if  the  Numantines  were  invincible,  one  consul 
after  another  finding  their  subjugation  too  hard  a 
task;  but  at  length,  in  B.C.  1^,  Scipio,  reelected 
consul,  was  sent  over  to  Spain,  and  after  a  siege 
of  eight  months  forced  the  citizens,  who  were 
dying  of  hunger,  to  surrender,  and  utterly  de- 
stroyed their  homes.  He  then  returned  to  Rome, 
whera  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  political  af- 
fairs, appearing  as  the  leader  of  the  aristocratic 
party,  in  consequence  of  which  his  popularity 
with  the  democratic  party  greatly  declined.  Al- 
though a  brother-in-law  of  Tiberius  Gracchus, 
whose  sister,  Sempronia,  he  had  married,  he  dis- 
claimed any  sympathy  with  his  political  aims, 
and  when  he  heard  of  the  murder  of  his  kinsman, 

Suoted  his  favorite  Homer:  "So  perish  all  who 
o  the  like  again."  His  -attempts  (b.c.  129)  to 
rescind  that  portion  of  the  agrarian  law  of  Tibe- 
rius Gracchus  relating  to  the  lands  of  the  allies 
excited  furious  indignation.  When  he  went 
home  from  the  Senate  he  had  to  be  accompanied 
by  a  guard.  Next  morning  he  was  found  dead 
in  his  bed,  the  prevailing  suspicion  being  that 
he  was  murdered  either  by  or  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  Papirius  Carbo,  his  most  rancorous  polit- 
ical enemy.  Scipio  was  neither  a  rigid  aristocrat 
nor  a  flatterer  of  the  people.  Inferior  in  splendor 
of  genius  to  his  adoptive  grandfather,  he  sur- 
passed him  in  purity  of  character,  in  simplicity 
of  patriotism,  and  in  liberality  of  culture. 

QuiNTUB  C^ciLius  Meteixus  Pius,  a  son 
of  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  Nasica,  but  adopted  by 
Quintus  Gecilius  Metellus  Pius ;  sometimes  called 
Publius  Scipio  Nasica  and  sometimes  Quintus 
Metellus  Scipio.  He  is  first  mentioned  in  history 
in  B.C.  63,  when  he  divulged  to  Cicero  the  conspir- 
acy of  Catiline.  He  was  elected  tribune  in  60, 
when  he  was  accused  of  bribery  by  the  disappoint- 
ed candidate,  and  defended  by  Cicero.  In  53  he  of- 
fered himself  for  the  consulship,  but  the  rivalry 
between  the  candidates  and  their  factions  led 
to  such  violence  and  bloodshed  that  no  election 
was  held.  Then  followed  the  murder  of  Clodius 
(q.v.),  and  during  the  ensuing  anarchy  Pompeius 
was  made  consul  without  a  colleague.  Soon  after 
he  married  Scipio's  daughter,  Cornelia,  and  made 
Scipio  his  fellow-consul.  Thenceforth  all  of 
Scipio's  efforts  were  directed  toward  the  ag- 
grandizement of  Pompeius  and  the  overthrow  of 
Caesar's  power.  At  the  expiration  of  his  term  of 
office  he  went  as  proconsul  to  Syria,  where  his 
rule  was  complained  of  as  oppressive.  He  served 
with  Pompeius  in  Greece,  and  after  the  battle  of 
Pharsalia  fled  to  Africa,  where  the  remnants  of 
the  Pompeian  forces  had  the  support  of  King 
Juba  (q.v.).  Scipio  held  the  chief  command,  but 
was  defeated  by  Cesar  in  the  battle  of  Thapsus 
(b.c.  46)  and  committed  suicide. 

SCIFIOSy  Tomb  of  the.  The  famous  tomb 
on  the  Appian  Way  in  Rome,  which  once  con- 
tained the  sarcophagus  of  Scipio  Barbatus  (con- 


sul B.C.  298),  now  in  the  Vatican,  and  those  of 
later  Scipios.  It  was  discovered  in  1780,  when 
it  was  rifled  and  defaced. 

SCIBE  FACIAS^  si'rd  fa^shl-as  (Lat..  that 
you  make  known).  A  writ  commanding  the  de- 
fendant to  appear  in  court  and  show  cause,  if  pos- 
sible why  some  matter  of  record  should  not  be 
enforced,  vacated,  or  modified.  The  hearing  or 
trial  under  this  writ  is  usually  called  a  scire  fadaa 
proceeding.  Scire  facias  is  employed  for  many  pur- 
poses, and  in  general  is  merely  supplemental  to  or 
a  continuation  of  former  proceedings,  as  to  revive 
or  continue  the  lien  of  a  judgment;  but  in  some 
cases  it  is  practically  an  original  action.  A  writ  - 
of  scire  facias  must  be  founded  upon  some  public 
record,  either  judicial  or  otherwise.  The  de- 
fendant may  demur,  plead,  or  answer,  or  make 
a  motion  to  quash  the  writ.  Substantially  the 
same  defenses  are  allowed  as  in  an  ordinary 
action  (q.v.),  except  that  where  the  scire  facias 
proceedings  are  merely  a  continuation  of  a 
former  action  the  defendant  cannot  introduce 
any  defense  which  would  have  been  available  in 
the  latter.  A  judgment  may  be  entered  upon  the 
determination  of  the  proceeding,  and  from  this 
an  appeal  will  lie.  Scire  facias  proceedings  were 
practically  rendered  unnecessary  and  obsolete  in 
England  by  the  Judicature  Acts  (q.v.),  although 
not  expressly  abolished.  In  many  of  the  United 
States  other  actions  or  proceedings  have  been 
substituted  by  practice  acts  and  codes,  and  pro- 
ceedings by  the  writ  of  scire  facias  abolished. 
Consult  Foster's  Scire  Fadas  (Philadelphia, 
1851)  and  the  authorities  referred  to  under 
Wbit. 

SCIBPUS  (Lat.,  rush,  bulrush).  A  genus  of 
about  200  species  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Cyperaceae,  sometimes  called  club-rush,  some  of 
them  very  small  in  comparison  with  the  bulrush 
{Scirpus  lacustris).  Deer's'' hair  {Scirpus  ccss- 
pitosus)  is  only  2  or  3  inches  high.  The  root- 
stocks  or  tubers  of  certain  species  are  eaten  by 
the  natives  of  Southern  India.  Several  of  the 
larger  growing  species  are  used  for  making  mats, 
others  check  the  drifting  of  sand  upon  beaches. 
See  BuLBUSH. 

SCIKRBTJB.    See  Tumob. 

SCISSOBBILL.    A  bird,  the  skimmer  (q.Y.)- 

SGISSOBS  and  SHEABS.    See  Cutlebt. 

SCISSOB-TAILEB  FI<YGATCHEB.  A 
beautiful  flycatcher  {Milvulus  forficatus)  of  the 
Southwestern  United  States,  remarkable  for  its 
long  outer  dark-tipped  tail  feathers,  which  in 
flight  open  and  shut  like  a  pair  of  scissors.  The 
body  is  about  3%  inches  lon^;  the  tail  about  9% 
inches.  The  general  color  is  light  bluish  gray, 
the  back  and  wing- linings  reddish,  the  lower  parts 
white,  washed  along  the  flanks  with  salmon-pink. 
Females  are  paler  than  males.  The  nest  is  com- 
posed of  sticks,  lined  with  feathers  and  soft  ma- 
terials; and  the  eggs  are  salmon-brown  with 
darker,  curiously  scratched  markings.  A  trop- 
ical relative  of  this  exquisite  and  active  bird  is 
the  fork-tailed  flycatcher  {Milvulus  tyrannus), 
whose  tail-feathers  are  black.  See  Plates  of 
Flycatcuebs  and  Egos  op  Song  Bibds. 

SCLA^EB,  Phu-ip  Lutley  (1829—).  An 
English  zoologist.  He  studied  at  Corpus  Christi 
College,  Oxford,  was  admitted  a  barrister  of  Lin- 
coln's Inn,  and  in  1859  became  secretary  of  the 
Zoological  Society  of  London,  and  in  1860  editor 


SCLATEB. 


568 


8C0PA& 


of  The  rb%8,  a  quarterly  journal  of  ornithology. 
His  writings  include  about  twelve  hundred  me- 
moirs on  zoological  topics,  and  several  extended 
works,  such  as  the  Monograph  of  the  Jacmars 
and  Puff 'Birds  (1882). 

SCLEBO'SIS  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  ^KX^pwrts, 
sklerdais,  induration,  from  vkXtip^,  akUros, 
hard).  A  hardening,  resulting  from  degenerative 
changes  in  which  normal  tissues  are  replaced  by 
connective  tissue,  as  in  a  scar;  an  induration. 
The  hardening  of  the  middle  coat  of  an  artery  is 
termed  arterio-sclerosis  (q.v.).  Replacing  of  the 
normal  tissue  of  the  liver  by  contractile  con- 
nective tissue  is  termed  cirrhosis  of  the  liver 
(q.v.).  Degeneration  and  destruction  of  the 
tissue  of  the  spinal  cord,  or  of  the  brain,  is 
termed  sclerosis,  which  in  these  cases  is  a  fibroid 
and  neuroglia  induration. 

SCLEBOS^OMA  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  <rlcX1^ 
p6f,  skleros,  hard  -\-  '  crhi*a^  stoma,  mouth). 
A  well-known  genus  of  roundworms.  One  species 
(Sclerostoma  ayngamus)  is  of  special  interest,  as 
being  the  cause  of  the  disease  in  poultry  known 
as  the  gapes  (q.v.).  Another  important  species 
is  8clero8toma  duodenale.  This  worm,  which 
usually  measures  about  one-third  of  an  inch  in 
length,  is  especially  characterized  by  an  asym- 
metrical disposition  of  four  homy,  conical,  oval 
papillae,  of  unequal  size,  forming  the  so-called 
teeth.  This  worm  is  tolerably  common  through- 
out Northern  Italy.  It  also  occurs  in  India,  Brazil, 
the  Antilles,  Switzerland,  and  Belgium,  and  is 
the  cause  of  the  disease  called  miner's  anaemia. 
It  is  remarkably  abundant  in  Egypt,  where,  it  is 
said,  about  one-fourth  of  the  population  are  con- 
stantly suffering  from  a  severe  ansemic  chlorosis, 
occasioned  solely  by  the  presence  of  this  parasite. 

SGLEBOTICA.     See  Eye. 

SCLOPIS  BI  SALEBANO,  skl<ypls  d6  siia&- 
rft'nd,  Fedebiqo,  Count  (1798-1878).  An  Italian 
jurist  and  statesman.  He  was  born  in  Turin 
and  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Turin. 
He  entered  the  service  of  the  Sardinian  Gov- 
ernment in  the  Department  of  the  Interior,  rose 
to  be  a  member  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  in 
March,  1848,  became  Minister  of  Justice  in  the 
Balbo  Cabinet,  going  out  of  office,  however,,  in 
July.  In  1849  he  became  a  member  of  the  Sen- 
ate, over  which  he  presided  from  1861  to  1864. 
In  the  latter  year  he  was  admitted  to  the  Acad- 
emy of  Turin.  He  was  nominated  by  the  King 
of  Italy  to  the  Greneva  tribunal  for  the  arbitra- 
tion of  the  Alabama  Claims  ( q.v. )  and  was  presi- 
dent of  the  court.  He  was  the  author  of  Storia 
dell*  antica  legislazione  del  Piemonte  (1833); 
Storia  della  legislazione  italiana  ( 1840-57)  ;  Bull* 
autoritd  giudiziaria  (1842)  ;  Le  relazione  poll- 
tiche  tra  la  dinastia  di  Savoia  ed  il  govemo 
britannioo  daX  WfO  al  1815  (1853). 

SCCrGAN',  Henry  (c.1361-1407).  The  re- 
puted author  of  a  collection  of  jests  compiled  in 
the  sixteenth  century.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
a  fool  at  the  Court  o{  Henry  IV.  Though  the  col- 
lection was  made  as  early  as  1565,  the  earliest 
extant  edition  bears  the  date  1626.  The  title  runs 
The  First  Kind  Best  Parts  of  Scoggins  Jests.  Full 
of  Witty  Mirth  and  Pleasant  fihiftSf  done  by  him 
in  France  and  other  places :  being  a  Preserv>ative 
against  Melancholy.  Gathered  by  Andrew  Boord, 
Doctor  of  Physicke.  Andrew  Boord  (a.v.),  the 
reputed  collector,  was  a  famous  sixteentn-century 


wit,  who  satirized  the  fantastic  dress  of  the  time 
by  a  woodcut  of  a  naked  Englishman  standing 
with  a  pair  of  shears  in  one  hand  and  a  piece  of 
cloth  over  the  other  arm,  uncertain  what  style 
to  wear.  He  probably  had  nothing  to  do  with 
the  compilation  of  the  so-called  Scogan  jests, 
which  was  made  by  some  unknown  hand  from 
various  sources  for  the  bookseller.  Similar  col- 
lections bear  the  name  of  John  Skelton  (q.v.) 
and  of  Joseph  Miller  (q.v.).  Consult  Old  English 
Jest  Books,  ed.  by  Hazlitt  (vol.  ii.,  London, 
1864) ;  and  see  Jest. 

SCOLECIDA  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Gk. 
ffK(b\7j^f  sk^Ux,  worm ) .  A  name,  now  obsolete,  of 
a  group  of  Annuloida  or  Vermes,  comprising  the 
Entozoa  of  Cuvier  and  also  the  free  Turbellaria. 

SCOI/LABD,  CuNTOir  (I860—).  An  Ameri- 
can poet  and  educator.  He  was  bom  at  Qinton, 
Oneida  County,  New  York.  He  graduated  from 
Hamilton  College  in  1881,  and  pursued  gpraduate 
study  at  Harvard  University  and  in  Cambridge, 
England.  He  was  assistant  professor  of  rhetoric 
at  Hamilton  College  from  1888  to  1893,  and  from 
then  till  1896  of  English  literature.  He  pub- 
lished several  volumes  of  poems,  both  light  and 
serious.  They  are:  Pictures  in  Song  (1884)  ;  With 
Reed  and  Lyre  (1886);  Old  and  New  World 
Lyrics  (1888);  Giovio  and  Giulia,  a  Metrical 
Romance  (1892);  Songs  of  Sunrise  Lands 
(1892)  ;  The  Hills  of  Song  (1895)  ;  Skenandoa 
( 1896) ;  A  Boy's  Book  of  Rhyme  ( 1896) .  He  has 
also  produced  two  volumes  of  prose :  Under  Sum- 
mer Skies  (1892)  and  On  Sunny  Shores  (1893). 

SGOMBBn>.ffi  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Lat. 
scomber,  from  Gk.  <rK6fjtfipot,  skombros,  mackerel ) . 
A  IsiT^e  and  important  family  of  spiny-rayed 
fishes,  including  mackerels,  tunnies,  ana  bonitoes. 
Some  species  grow  to  a  very  large  size — 1,500 
pounds.  They  are  migratory,  traveling  in  schools, 
often  in  great  numbers.  The  family  contains 
about  60  species,  most  of  which  are  excellent 
food- fishes,  and  some  have  a  great  economic  value. 
See  Mackerel;  Fisheries. 

SGONEy  sk?S9n.  A  parish  in  Perthshire, 
Scotland,  on  the  Tay,  2  miles  from  Perth  (Map: 
Scotland,  E  3).  Population,  in  1901,  2,362.  it 
is  first  mentioned  in  the  beginning  of  the  tenth 
century  as  the  royal  city,  when  a  council  was 
held  there  in  the  reign  of  King  Constantine  II. 
A  monastery  was  built  at  Scone  about  the  same 
period,  and  there  was  located  the  famous  stone 
on  which  the  kings  of  the  Scots  were  inaugurat- 
ed, and  which  was  carried  by  Edward  I.  of  Eng- 
land to  Westminster  Abbey.  An  abbey  was 
founded  by  Alexander  I.  in  1115,  in  which  the 
sovereigns  continued  to  be  inaugurated  and 
crowned.  The  last  coronation  celebrated  at  Scone 
was  that  of  Charles  II.  on  January  1,  1651.  The 
viscounts  of  Stormont  had  a  residence  here 
known  as  the  Palace  of  Scone.  The  present 
palace,  belonging  to  the  Earl  of  Mansfield,  was 
erected  on  the  same  site  after  1800. 

SCO^AS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  2ic6rat,  Skopas). 
A  famous  Greek  sculptor,  born  at  Paros  and  ac- 
tive during  the  first  half  of  the  fourth  century 
B.C.  He  is  called  the  architect  of  the  new  Temple 
of  Athena  Alea  at  Tegea,  which  replaced  a  temple 
burned  in  B.C.  395-94,  and  he  was  one  of  the 
sculptore  of  the  Mausoleum  (q.v.)  completed 
about  B.C.  350.  Until  recently  the  worlra  of 
Scopas  were  known  only  through  literary  ref- 


z 

z 


z 
o 


I 

3 


8COPA8. 


569 


8C0BE. 


ersnces.  The  diacoveiy  in  1879  of  the  fragments 
of  the  pediment  Bculpturea  at  Tegea  has  af- 
forded a  basis  for  the  analysis  of  the  style  of 
SeopaSy  and  rendered  it  possible  to  recognize 
copies  of  his  work  in  such  figures  as  the  Meleager 
of  the  Vatican  (much  better  represented  in  a 
statue  in  the  Fogg  Art  Museum  at  Harvard  Uni- 
versity and  a  head  in  the  Villa  Medici),  and  the 
seated  Mars  formerly  in  the  Villa  Ludovisi.  To 
him  also  seems  to  belong  a  type  of  Hercules,  of 
which  perhaps  the  best  example  is  the  bust  from 
Gensano  in  the  British  Museum.  To  these  may 
be  added  a  fine  female  head  from  the  south  slope 
of  the  Acropolis,  and  a  torso  of  ^feculapius  from 
the  Piraeus,  both  in  the  National  Museum  at 
Athens.  All  these  works  are  characterized  by 
the  broad  and  rather  short  face,  in  marked  con- 
trast to  the  long  oval  of  the  Hermes  of  Prax- 
iteles, the  deep-set  eye,  and  especially  by  the  in- 
tensity of  expression.  To  produce  this  effect  the 
work  is  concentrated  on  certain  features  such  as 
eyes  and  mouth,  while  in  the  works  of  Praxiteles 
the  whole  surface  is  carefully  finished.  Consult 
especially  Graef  in  Romische  Mittheilungeny 
iv.  (Rome,  1889)  ;  also  Urlichs,  Skopas*  Lehen 
und  Werke  (Greifswald,  1863) ;  Weil,  in  Bau- 
meister's  Denkmdler  dea  klassischen  Altertums 
(Munich,  1889)  ;  Treu,  Athenische  Mittheilungen, 
vi.  (Athens,  1881);  Furtwftngler,  Masterpieces 
of  Oreek  Sculpture,  trans,  by  E.  Sellers  (London, 
1895). 

8COBE  (AS.  SCOT,  score,  twenty,  from  AS., 
OHG.  sceran,  Ger.  scheren,  Eng.  shear;  connected 
with  Gk.  KelpetWf  keirein,  to  cut,  Lat.  curtu^, 
short).  In  music,  the  arrangement  of  the  vari- 
ous voices  or  instruments,  employed  in  a  com- 
position, in  such  a  manner  that  all  tones  which 
are  to  be  sounded  together  are  written  vertically. 
Before  the  seventeenth  century  compositions  were 
not  generally  printed  in  scores,  but  in  part-books, 
each  book  containing  only  one  part  or  voice  of  a 
composition.  (See  Part-Book.)  In  the  case  of 
organ  music,  however,  an  imperative  need  was 
felt  at  an  early  time  to  write  all  those  tones 
which  were  to  be  struck  together  one  above  the 
other;  hence  the  organ-tablature.  (See  Tabla.- 
TURE.)  Hucbald  (q.v.),  who  lived  in  the  tenth 
century,  wrote  his  works  in  scores.  There  seems 
to  be  little  doubt  that  from  the  earliest  times 
composers  wrote  their  works  originally  in  score. 
There  are  two  noteworthy  examples  of  early 
scores:  one  a  printed  score  of  madrigals  com- 
posed by  Cipriano  de  Rore,  and  printed  in  1577 
by  Gardano  in  Venice;  the  other  an  original 
manuscript  where  all  four  voices  are  written  on 
one  staff,  the  notes  of  the  different  voices  being 
distinguished  by  different  colors  and  forms. 

As  to  orchestral  scores,  it  is  probable  that  all 
music  written  for  a  combination  of  orchestral 
instruments  was  published  only  in  score  form. 
Some  of  the  earliest  specimens  of  such  scores  are 
those  of  de  Beaujoyeaulx's  Ballet  comique  de  la 
Royne  (Paris,  1582),  Peri's  Eurydice  (Florence, 
1600),  Cavaliere's  Anima  e  corpo  (Rome,  1600), 
and  Monteverde*s  Orfeo  (Venice,  1609).  (See 
Orchestra.)  The  guiding  principle  at  first  was 
to  place  the  highest  instruments  at  the  top  and 
the  lowest  at  the  bottom  of  the  page.  But  as  the 
wood  and  brass  instruments  were  gradually  per- 
fected and  became  parts  of  the  orchestra,  this 
principle  could  no  longer  be  strictly  followed. 
Hence,  a  new  plan  was  adopted.    Instruments  of 


the  same  group  or  family  were  kept  together.  If 
voices  were  employed  with  the  orchestra,  they 
were  kept  together,  but  for  some  time  great  con- 
fusion prevailed  as  to  their  position  relative  to 
the  instruments.  Bach  generally  wrote  the  in- 
strumental parts  above  the  voices  and  the  organ 
parts  below  the  voices.  Handel  followed  the 
same  principle  very  closely,  but  placed  the  'celli 
and  basses  below  the  voices.  Both  masters  wrote 
the  brass  instruments  above  the  wood-wind. 

The  score-reader  must  keep  in  his  mind  a  differ- 
ent grouping  of  instruments  for  every  score ;  but 
even  without  this,  score-reading  presents  enough 
difficulties.  Beethoven,  therefore,  established  a 
certain  fixed  order  in  which  he  arranged  his 
scores,  so  that  the  same  instruments  are  always 
written  in  the  same  place.  He  adopted  what  was 
then  known  as  the  German  system,  i.e.,  the  wood-' 
wind  highest,  next  the  brass,  then  instruments  of 
percussion,  and  the  strings  lowest.  The  Italian 
system  differed  by  placing  violins  and  violas 
highest,  then  the  wood  and  brass,  the  'celli  and 
basses  lowest,  a  system  not  to  be  commended, 
because  it  separates  the  strings,  which  constitute 
the  foundation  of  the  orchestra.  Although  later 
masters,  especially  Berlioz,  Liszt,  and  Wagner, 
have  introduced  a  great  number  of  new  instru- 
ments, they  adhere  in  general  to  Beethoven's 
grouping. 

As  the  military  band  has  no  strings,  the  scores 
written  for  such  a  combination  of  instruments 
naturally  differ  from  full  orchestral  scores.  But 
the  principle  of  grouping  remains  the  same. 

For  the  convenience  of  musicians,  and  also 
to  enable  amateurs  to  study  the  great  or- 
chestral compositions  by  playing  them  in  a  re- 
duced form  upon  the  piano,  all  the  full  scores  are 
arranged  for  this  instrument.  Such  a  reduced 
score  of  a  purely  instrumental  composition  is 
called  pianoforte  score,  of  a  vocal  work  with 
orchestra  a  vocal  score.  In  the  latter  the  voices 
appear  as  in  the  full  score,  but  the  orchestra  is 
reduced  to  the  two  staves  of  the  piano.  Such  ar- 
rangements require  much  skill  and  experience. 

There  is  also  the  compressed  score,  used  for 
vocal  composition,  in  which  the  four  voices  are 
compressed  into  two  staves  (soprano  and  alto  on 
the  treble,  tenor  and  bass  on  the  bass  staff).  A 
supplementary  score  is  used  when  the  number  of 
voices  or  instruments  is  so  large  that  there  is 
not  room  enough  for  all  staves  on  one  page. 
Then  some  group  is  printed  separately  and  added 
at  the  end  of  the  full  score. 

Score-Reading  and  Plating  from  Score. 
One  of  the  principal  requirements  of  a  g^d 
orchestral  conductor  is  the  ability  to  read  an 
orchestral  score  and  to  reproduce  it  at  sight 
upon  the  piano.  (See  Conductor.)  This  ability 
can  be  obtained  only  through  constant  practice. 
The  first  requirement  toward  this  result  is  thor- 
ough familiarity  with  the  C  clefs.  (See  Clep.) 
The  beginning  should  be  made  with  a  capella 
choruses  for  four  mixed  voices,  where  the  tenor 
part  (written  in  the  treble  clef)  is  to  be  trans- 
posed an  octave  lower.  Then  easy  string  quar- 
tets should  be  played  (requiring  the  use  of  the 
alto  clef  in  the  violas).  The  next  step  would  be 
to  works  of  chamber-music  written  for  one  trans- 
posing instrument,  like  the  clarinet  or  horn. 
After  a  certain  degree  of  skill  has  been  attained 
in  playing  such  scores  the  student  is  ready  for 
works  scored  for  a  small  orchestra.    It  is  com- 


SCOBS. 


670 


8C0BFI0V. 


IMiratiTely  easy  to  proceed  from  this  point  to  the 
reading  of  complicated  scores.  No  one  should  at- 
tempt playinff  from  score  who  has  not  a  thor- 
ough Imowleoge  of  harmony  as  well  as  a  fair 
knowledge  of  counterpoint.  In  reading  a  large 
score  it  is  impossible  to  look  at  every  individual 
note.  A  glance  at  the  double-basses,  violins,  and 
horns,  as  a  rule,  will  suffice  to  establish  the  par- 
ticular chord.  The  fundamental  bass  part  and 
the  melodic  outline  must  be  strictly  preserved, 
but  the  intermediate  harmonies  must  be  recog- 
nized at  a  glance  and  distributed  on  the  spur  of 
the  moment.  On  account  of  the  transposing  in- 
struments, skill  in  transposition  is  essential. 

SCOBEL,  sk(/rel,  Jan  van  (also  Sohobeel 
and  ScHOOBiJE)  (1495-1562).  A  Dutch  land- 
scape, historical,  and  portrait  painter,  the  first 
to  bring  the  influence  of  the  Italian  Renaissance 
into  Holland.  He  was  bom  at  Schoorl,  near  Alk- 
maar,  studied  under  the  brothers  Jacob  and 
Willem  Gomelisz  at  Haarlem  and  Amsterdam, 
and  finally  became  a  pupil  of  Albert  Diirer  in 
Nuremberg.  Subsequently  he  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  was  made  overseer  of  the  Vatican  Gal- 
leiy  by  his  countryman.  Pope  Adrian  VI.  His 
pictures  are  now  rather  scarce,  as  many  of  them 
were  destroyed  by  the  Dutch  iconoclasts.  There 
are  a  '^Magdalen,"  a  "Queen  of  Sheba,"  a 
"Bathsheba,"  and  an  "Adonis,"  in  the  museum  at 
Amsterdam;  a  Madonna  and  portraits  of  a  man 
and  of  a  boy,  in  Rotterdam ;  'The  Fall  of  Man," 
"The  Baptism  of  Christ,"  "Saint  Cecilia,"  and  a 
portrait  group  of  Knights  Templars  at  Haarlem. 

SG0BE8BY,  sk5rz^I,  Williaii  (1789-1857). 
An  English  Arctic  explorer  and  physicist.  He 
was  bom  near  Whitby,  Yorkshire.  When  only 
eleven  years  of  age  the  boy  accompanied  his 
father,  a  whaler,  to  Greenland  and  after- 
wards he  was  his  constant  companion  on  his  voy- 
ages. During  the  winter  months  he  studied 
in  Edinburgh  University,  navigation,  mathe- 
matics, natural  history,  chemistry,  and  some 
other  branches.  After  1806  he  began  the  study 
of  the  meteorology  and  natural  history  of  the 
Arctic  regions,  and  attracted  the  attention  of 
scientific  men  by  his  careful  and  accurate  papers 
on  these  topics.  In  1806,  while  chief  officer  on 
his  father's  ship  Resolution,  he  reached  latitude 
81  "*  30^  N.  in  longitude  19''  E.,  the  most  north- 
em  point  authentically  known  to  have  been  at- 
tained up  to  that  time.  His  father  and  he  saw 
the  unknown  coasts  of  East  Greenland  in  their 
voyages  of  1817  and  1821.  It  was  in  1822,  how- 
ever, that  Scoresby  made  his  most  important  voy-- 
age.  Early  in  June  he  was  near  enough  to-  Green- 
land to  chart  the  coast  from  Cape  Hold  with 
Hope  (discovered  and  named  by  Hudson  in  1607 
on  the  north  side  of  the  entrance  of  Franz  Josef 
Fiord  in  73°  30'  N.)  to  Gale  Hamke  Bay,  75*^  N., 
named  after  its  Dutch  discoverer  in  1654.  Dur- 
ing the  next  three  months  he  surveyed  and  chart- 
ed with  great  care  and  accuracy  800  miles  of 
winding  coasts,  completely  changing  the  supposed 
geographic  features  of  East  Greenland. 

I^resby  afterwards  entered  the  Church  and 
was  appointed  curate  of  Bassingby  in  1825.  His 
scientific  labors,  however,  ended  only  with  his  life. 
He  contributed  largely  to  the  knowledge  of  ter- 
restrial magnetism,  made  a  voyage  to  Australia 
in  1856  to  obtain  new  data  on  this  subject,  wrote 
many  papers  for  the  Royal  and  other  societies 
on  this  and  other  branches  of  science^  and  made 


valuable  observations  on  the  height  of  AtUntifi 
waves  during  two  visits  to  America.  He  was 
also  much  interested  in  social  problems  and  es- 
pecially in  improving  the  condition  of  factory 
operatives.  His  Arctic  books  are  History  and 
Description  of  the  Arctic  Regions  (1820),  and 
Journal  of  a  Voyage  to  the  Northern  Whale 
Fishery,  Including  Researches  and  Discoveries  on 
the  Eastern  Coast  of  Greenland  (1823).  His 
Journal  of  a  Voyage  to  Australia  for  Magnetical 
Research  was  published  in  1859,  after  his  death. 
His  nephew.  Dr.  R.  E.  Scoresby-Jackson,  pub- 
lished Life  of  William  Scoresby  (London,  1861). 

SCOBP.SNID.ffi,  sk0r-p^nl-d6  (Neo-Lat.  nom. 
pi.,  from  Lat.  scorpcsna,  from  Gk.  aKSfirauu, 
skorpaina^  sort  of  fish,  from  ^KOfnrtAt,  skorpios, 
scorpion).  A  very  large  and  important  family 
of  spiny-rayed  fishes,  the  rockfishes  (q.v.).  The 
body  is  elongate,  compressed,  and  bears  ctenoid 
scales.  The  head  is  large  and  armed  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent  with  ridges  or  spines.  The  mouth 
is  usually  large,  the  teeth  villiform.  The  dorsal 
fin  is  long,  the  anterior  portion  spinous;  the 
anal  short,  with  three  spines,  and  5  to  10  soft 
rays.  Many  of  the  species  are  viviparous,  the 
young  being  when  bom  about  one-fourth  inch 
long.  They  are  n'on-migratoiy  fishes,  inhabiting 
the  rocky  margins  of  all  seas,  especially  the  tem- 
perate Pacific.  The  family  includes  about  30 
genera  and  250  species,  many  of  them  of  large 
size  and  all  good  as  food-fishes.  Many  of  the 
species  are  reddish  and  are  hence  called  'rose- 
fishes'  (q.v.). 

SCOBPION  (Lat.  scorpio,  from  Gk.  ^-juprCof, 
skorpios,  scorpion).  One  of  the  tailed  arachnids 
of  the  order  Scorpionida,  natives  of  warm  coun- 
tries in  both  the  Eastern  and  Western  Hemi- 
spheres. Th(^  body  is  divided  into  a  short,  com- 
pact, leg-bearing  cephalothorax  and  a  long  seg- 
mented abdomen.  The  last  five  segments  of  the 
abdomen  form  a  slender,  tail- 
like portion.  The  terminal 
segment  is  modified  into  a 
curved  sharp  sting  provided 
with  two  pores  from  which 
the  poison  fiows.  The  poison 
is  supplied  by  two  poison 
glands  at  the  base  of  the  seg- 
ment. To  the  cephalothorax 
are  attached  six  pairs  of  ap- 
pendages. The  first  pair 
(mandibles)  is  short,  the 
second  pair  (palpi)  long, 
and  both  pairs  bear  pincers. 
Those  of  the  palpi  are  very 
large  and  resemble  lobster 
claws.  The  four  succeeding 
pairs  of  appendages  are  true  ^^:^^;Z^S^^, 
legs.  The  abdomen  is  with-  i,^  lateral  ocelli ;  c,  oen- 
out  appendages  save  the  sec-  tral  large  ocelli;  </,max- 
ond  segment,  which  bears  "i|JXt£Sf'=  '•  ♦^- 
two  comb- like  organs,  the 
pectines,  the  function  of  which  is  not  known. 
There  are  four  spiracles  or  breathing  pores  on 
each  side  of  the  abdomen.  There  are  from  three  to 
six  pairs  of  eyes.  The  sexes  differ  in  the  broader 
pincers  and  longer  abdomen  of  the  male.  They 
are  viviparous  and  the  mother  carries  her  young 
about  with  her  for  some  time  after  they  are  bom. 
They  cling  to  all  parts  of  her  body  by  means  of 
their   pincers.     Scorpions  feed  on   spiders   and 


'  ~v 


2 

aooBFioir. 
1,  Full  fl|?ure  of  Seor- 


8C0BPI0V. 


671 


SCOTCH  LAW. 


large  insects^  which  they  seize  with  their  daws 
and  kill  by  their  poisonous  sting.  They  hide  by 
day  in  crevices,  under  stones  or  in  dark  holes, 
and  are  largely  nocturnal  in  their  habits.  They 
run  with  great  swiftness  and  with  the  tail  curved 
over  the  back.  Some  species  may  enter  houses 
and  hide  in  boots,  shoes,  or  garments,  and,  when 
disturbed,  sting  human  beings.  The  sting  is  very 
painful,  but  rarely,  if  ever,  fatal.  The  poison 
should  be  pressed  or  sucked  out  of  the  wound 
and  ammonia  should  be  applied  externally  and 
taken  internally.  No  scorpions  occur  in  the 
United  States  north  of  Nebraska,  but  in  the 
South  about  20  species  are  known. 

Scorpions  are  the  most  primitive  of  living 
arachnids,  show  very  close  resemblance  to  the 
king  crab  (q.v.),  and  occur  as  fossils  in  the 
Silurian  rocks,  but  the  early  forms  differ  little 
from  modem  types.  The  word  'scorpion'  is  used 
in  combination  in  the  common  names  of  other 
closely  related  orders  such  as  the  false  scorpions 
and  whip-scorpions.  (See  Abachnida.)  The 
false  scorpions  (order  Pseudoscorpiones)  are 
small  Arachnida  which  resemble  the  true  scor- 
pions, but  lack  the  long  jointed  tail.  The  abdo- 
men is  ovate  and  broader  than  the  cephalothorax, 
and  there  is  no  poison  sting.  The  jaws  are  fitted 
for  sucking,  but  the  palpi  bear  large  pincers  as 
in  the  true  scorpions.  There  are  two  pairs  of 
spiracles  and  two  or  four  eyes,  although  some 
forms  are  blind.  The  female  lays  eggs  which 
she  carries  attached  to  the  first  segment  of  the 
abdomen.  The  false  scorpions  are  swift  runners, 
moving  sidewise  and  backward  with  equal 
facility.  They  feed  on  mites,  psocids,  and  other 
minute  insects  and  are  found  in  moss,  under  the 
bark  of  trees,  or  between  the  leaves  of  dusty 
books.  Chelifer  cancroidea  is  common  in  store- 
rooms in  old  houses.  They  are  often  found  at- 
tached to  other  insects,  especially  to  flies.  The 
whip-scorpions,  or  *whiptails'  (order  Pedipalpi) 
are  arachnids  with  a  long  body,  segmented 
thorax,  and  a  long  whip-like  appendage  at  the 
tip  of  the  abdomen.  The  fore  legs  have  many 
tarsal  joints  and  are  elongated  and  whip-like. 
The  mandibles  are  furnished  with  claws  and  the 
palpi  are  very  large  and  are  armed  with  strong 
spines.  The  whip-scorpions  are  tropical  in  their 
distribution.  One  sp^ies  {Thelyphonus  gigan- 
teus)  is  foimd  in  the  Southern  United  States, 
where  it  is  known  as  the  'mule-killer,'  'vinaigrier,' 
or  'vinegarone,'  the  latter  names  derived  from 
an  acid  secretion  which  has  the  odor  of  vinegar, 
and  which  is  ejected  by  the  creature  when  dis- 
turbed or  alarmed.  Although  very  dangerous 
in  appearance,  it  is  perfectly  harmless  to  man. 
It  feeds  upon  insects  during  its  whole  life,  the 
adults  destroying  large  grasshoppers  and  beetles. 

Consult:  Kingsley,  Standard  Natural  History 
(Boston,  1884)  ;  Comstock,  Manual  for  the  Study 
of  Insects  (Ithaca,  1895) ;  Lankester,  "Limulus 
an  Arachnid,"  in  Quarterly  Journal  Microscopical 
Science  (London,  1881)  ;  Laurie  (ib.,  1890). 

SCOBPIOm'-FISH,  or  Sgobpene.  A  fish  of 
the  genus  Scorpsna,  typical  of  the  Scorpsenidse 
(q.v.)  ;  specifically,  the  common  market-fish  of 
southern  California  {Scorpcena  guttata) ,  which 
is  about  a  foot  long,  and  brown,  mottled,  rosy, 
olive,  and  other  tints. 

SCOBPIOIU'-PLT.     Any  one  of  the  curious 
insects  belonging  to  the  order  Mecoptera,  which 
You.  XY.-87. 


contains  the  single  family  Panorpidse.  Strictly 
speaking,  the  term  'scorpion-fly'  should  be  re- 
stricted to  the  members  of  the  typical  genus 
Panorpa,  which  have  the  terminal  segments  of 
the  abdomen  elongate  and  very  mobile,  while 
the  genital  organs  are  curiously  enlarged  and 
modified.  This  tail-like  structure  is  carried  in 
a  curved  position  over  the  back,  somewhat  after 
the  manner  of  the  true  scorpions.  The  scorpion- 
flies  have  four  wings,  with  many  veins,  and  the 
head  is  prolonged  to  form  a  deflexed  beak  which 
is  provided  with  palpi  near  the  apex.  The  meta- 
morphoses are  complete.  The  larvae  are  provided 
with  legs  and  usually  with  numerous  prolegs  like 
the  sawflies.  The  larvse  are  carnivorous  and  live 
near  the  surface  of  the  ground.  They  feed  usually 
upon  dead  animals,  including  such  soft-bodied 
insects  as  caterpillars  and  grubs.  The  represen- 
tatives of  the  family  in  the  United  States  are  all 
contained  in  the  genera  Panorpa,  Bittacus,  and 
Boreus.  The  panorpas  are  very  common  insects 
in  the  midsummer  in  most  parts  of  the  United 
States.  Some  of  them  have  spotted  wings  and 
are  seen  flying  in  the  bright  sunlight  in  places 
where  tall  herbage  abounds.  The  genus  Boreus 
is  composed  of  wingless  forms  which  look  some- 
thing like  minute  grasshoppers,  and  occur  in 
the  winter  upon  snow  in  the  Northern  States. 

SCOB'ZOKE^BA  (It.,  black  bark).  A  rather 
lar^  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Com- 
posite, natives  mostly  of  Europe  and  Asia.  The 
common  scorzonera  or  black  salsify  {Scorzonera 
Hispaniea),  a  native  of  Southern  Europe,  has 
long  been  cultivated  for  its  tapering  black  escu- 
lent roots  about  the  thickness  of  a  man's  finger. 
The  leaves  are  sometimes  used  to  feed  silkworms. 

SCOTCH  FANCY  CAKABY.    See  Canabt. 

SCOTCH  LAW.  The  most  ancient  records 
of  this  body  of  law  indicate  that  its  fundamental 
principles  and  institutions  are  very  similar  to 
those  of  Anglo-Saxon  England.  At  a  very  early 
period,  however,  the  jurisprudence  of  Scotland 
began  to  diverge  from  that  of  its  southern  neigh- 
.bor.  In  England  a  system  of  national  courts  was 
established  as  early  as  the  thirteenth  century, 
whose  decisions  were  reported  and  formed  prece- 
dents for  future  cases.  Not  until  the  middle  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  however,  did  Scotland  se- 
cure anything  in  the  nature  of  a  complete 
judicial  system.  A  century  earlier,  it  is  true,  a 
Court  of  Session  had  been  established,  consisting 
of  certain  persons  named  by  the  King  out  of  the 
three  estates  of  Parliament,  and  receiving  its 
name  from  the  fact  that  it  was  to  hold  a  certain 
number  of  sessions  annually  at  places  to  be 
named  by  the  King.  It  was  a  court  of  first  in- 
stance, in  the  main,  and  no  appeal  lay  from  its 
decisions.  Its  judges  were  so  negligent  in  the 
performance  of  their  duties,  however,  that  it  was 
abolished  in  1532,  and  a  new  Court  of  Session 
and  College  of  Justice  instituted.  Until  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  therefore,  there 
was  no  opportunity  for  the  development  of  a 
national  system  of  Scotch  law.  Nearly  all  liti- 
gation was  conducted  in  local  tribunals,  of  which 
the  most  important  was  the  Sheriff's  (Dourt 
(q.v.).  In  these,  local  usages  and  customs  were 
enforced,  but  a  common  law  of  the  realm  was  Hot 
and  could  not  be  evolved.  "A  private  trtinserfpt 
of  Glanvil's  Treatise  on  the  Laws  of  England, 
altered  so  as  to  adapt  it  to  the  notorious  piac- 


SCOTCH  LAW. 


672 


SCOTCH  MTJ8IC. 


tice  in  Scotland,  and  feigned  to  have  been  com- 
p\led  by  order  of  David  I./'  appears  to  have  been 
received  by  the  Scotch  Parliament  and  judges 
as  a  correct  statement  of  their  written  law  down 
to  the  opening  of  the  sixteenth  century.  After 
the  establishment  of  the  College  of  Justice,  the 
unwritten  law  of  Scotland  developed  rapidly, 
although  along  lines  quite  different  from  those 
followed  in  England.  The  tribunal  itself  had 
been  modeled  not  after  any  English  court,  but 
after  the  constitution  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris. 
Its  judges  consisted  of  seven  churchmen,  seven 
laymen,  and  a  president.  After  the  Reformation 
clergymen  were  received  as  judges^  until  1640; 
but  since  then  only  duly  qualified  advocates  are 
appointed  to  this  court,  and  their  selection  is  a 
prerogative  of  the  sovereign.  The  system  of 
legal  rules  administered  by  this  tribunal  was  not 
BO  much  that  of  England  as  that  of  Rome.  Scotch 
lawyers  were  educated  in  France  or  Italy  or  Hol- 
land, where  the  Roman  civil  law  prevailed. 
Scotch  judges  had  no  such  antipathy  to  that  law, 
either  m  its  original  form  or  in  the  modified 
form  in  the  canon  law,  as  characterized  the 
judges  of  England.  As  a  result,  modem  Scotch 
law  has  a  very  large  infusion  of  the  principles  of 
the  Roman  law.  Even  at  present  admission  to 
the  Faculty  of  Advocates  is  conditioned  upon  a 
successful  examination  in  the  Roman  law,  and 
no  one  not  an  advocate  is  qualified  for  a  judge- 
ship in  the  Court  of  Session  unless  he  has 
passed  such  an  examination. 

Since  the  union  of  Scotland  and  England  the 
tendency  of  legislation  has  been  toward  the  as- 
similation of  the  legal  systems  of  the  two  coun- 
tries. Lord  Cockbum  declared  in  1846  that  "the 
improvements  introduced  or  recommended  in 
England  by  law  reformers  amount,  in  a  really 
surprising  number  of  instances,  to  little  else 
than  an  approximation  to  the  law  of  Scotland." 
While  this  is  true,  it  is  also  to  be  said  that  the 
most  recent  legislation  has  modified  many  of  the 
Scotch  rules  and  brought  them  into  accord  with 
those  of  English  common  law.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  process  of  assimilation  which  has  been 
gomg  on  for  two  centuries,  nevertheless  the  two 
legal  systems  present  many  striking  differences 
still.  Some  of  the  most  important  are  the  fol- 
lowing: 

The  nomenclature  is  so  different  that  a  learned 
\mter  upon  the  topic  has  declared  that  an  in- 
terpreter is  generally  required  in  case  of  consulta- 
tions between  English  and  Scotch  lawyers. 

In  matter  of  substance,  the  two  legal  systems 
are  quite  as  much  at  variance  as  in  terminology. 
English  law  divides  property  into  real  estate  and 
personalty.  Scotch  law  classifies  it  as  heritable 
or  movable.  Heritable  property  includes  not  only 
lands  and  all  rights  of  or  affecting  lands,  but 
various  forms  of  personal  property  such  as  cer- 
tain bonds;  also  chattels  which  the  owner  directs 
shall  vest  in  his  heirs.  Movables  are  all  kinds 
of  property  which  go  not  to  the  heir,  but  to  the 
executor.  Again,  English  law  requires  that  every 
contract  not  under  seal  must  have  a  considera- 
tion, while  "in  Scotland  it  is  not  essential  to 
the  validity  of  an  obligation  that  it  should  be 
granted  for  a  valuable  consideration,  or,  indeed, 
for  any  consideration,  an  obligation  undertaken 
deliberately,  though  gratuitously,  being  bind- 
ing." In  English  law,  obligations  are  divided  into 
those  of  contract  (q.v.)  and  those  in  tort  (q.v.). 


Scotch  law  classifies  them  as  contracts  (subdivid- 
ing these  in  accordance  with  the  Roman  law  into 
real  and  consensual),  quasi-contracts,  delict^,  and 
quasi-delicts.  Under  the  head  of  quasi-contracts 
it  places  certain  obligations  not  so  classed  by  the 
Roman  law.  Delict  includes  those  torts  of  the 
English  law  which  are  also  criminal  offenses; 
while  quasi-delict  includes  torts  of  negligence  or 
imprudence.  Consult:  Paterson,  A  Compendium 
of  English  and  Scotch  baxo  (Edinburgh,  1865) ; 
Lorimer,  A  Handbook  of  the  Law  of  Scotland 
(Edinburgh,  1894)  ;  Erskine,  Principles  of  the 
Law  of  Scotland  (Edinburgh,  1896) ;  MacKenzie, 
Studies  of  Roman  Late,  with  Comparative  Views 
of  the  Laws  of  France^  England,  and  Scotland 
(Edinbuigh  and  London,  1898). 

SCOTCH  MUSIC.  The  music  of  Scotland  is 
of  the  same  general  character  as  that  of  Ireland 
and  Wales.  (See  Celtic  Music.)  The  national 
melodies  are  generally  considered  to  be  of  great 
antiquity.  No  musical  manuscript  of  Scotch  airs 
is  now  known  to  exist  of  an  older  date  than  1627 ; 
and  we  have  no  knowledge  when  and  by  whom  the 
early  Scotch  melodies  were  composed.  Their  dis- 
appearance seems  to  have  been  due  first  to  the 
strong  measures  resorted  to,  about  1530,  by  both 
civil  and  ecclesiastical  authorities,  to  put  down 
all  ballads  reflecting  on  the  Roman  Catholic 
hierarchy,  and  afterwards  to  the  ill-will  shown 
by  the  dominant  Presbyterians  toward  worldly 
amusements.  The  most  valuable  existing  early 
collection  of  Scotch  melodies  is  the  Skene  manu- 
script, in  the  Advocates'  Library,  noted  down  by 
Sir  John  Skene  of  Hallyards  about  the  year  1630. 
It  contains  a  number  of  native  airs,  mixed  with 
some  foreign  dance-tunes — upward  of  a  hun- 
dred in  all.  Many  of  the  Scotch  melodies  exhibit 
beauties  which  the  changes  these  airs  have  under- 
gone have  only  tended  to  destroy. 

Among  the  peculiarities  which  give  character 
to  the  music  of  Scotland,  the  most  prominent  is 
the  prevalent  omission  of  the  fourth  and  seventh 
of  the  scale,  and  consequent  absence  of  semitones. 
Another  characteristic  is  the  substitution  of  the 
descending  for  the  ascending  sixth  and  seventh 
in  the  minor  scale,  as  at  the  beginning  of  the 
air  called  Adew,  Dundee,  in  the  Skene  manu- 
script. A  very  prevalent  course  of  modulation  is 
an  alternation  between  the  major  key  and  its  rela- 
tive minor,  the  melody  thus  ever  keeping  true  to 
the  diatonic  scale  of  the  principal  key,  without 
the  introduction  of  accidentals.  The  closing  note 
is  by  no  means  necessarily  the  key-note,  a  pe- 
culiarity especially  remarkable  in  the  Highland 
airs,  which,  if  in  a  major  key,  most  frequently 
terminate  in  the  second;  if  in  a  minor,  on  the 
seventh.  Closes  are  also  to  be  found  on  the  third, 
fifth,  and  sixth.  Among  the  printed  collections 
of  Scotch  melodies  with  words,  the  most  impor- 
tant is  George  Thomson's  collection,  with  sym- 
phonies and  accompaniments  by  Pleyel,  Kozeluch, 
Haydn,  Beethoven,  Bishop,  Hummel,  and  Weber 
(vols,  i.-iv.,  1793-1805;  vol.  v.,  1826;  and  vol. 
vi.,  1841),  one  distinguishing  feature  of  which 
was  the  appearance  of  Bums's  words  conjoined 
with  the  old  melodies  of  the  country.  Consult: 
Ballantine,  "Historical  Epitome  of  Scottish 
Songs,"  in  Fulcher's  Lays  and  Lyrics  of  Scotland 
(Glasgow,  1870)  ;  Stenhouse,  Illustrations  of  the 
Lyric  Poetry  and  Music  of  Scotland  (Edinburgh, 
1853).    See  Bagpipe;  Pibboch;  Reel. 


SCOTCH  SCHOOL  OF  PHILOSOPHY.       578 


SCOTLAND. 


BILL  OF  ▲  8COTBB. 


SCOTCH  SCHOOL  OF  PHILOSOPHT.     A 

term  used  to  designate  the  philosophic  tendency 
represented  by  Thomas  Held,  Sir  William  Hamil- 
ton, James  Beattie,  James  Oswald,  Dugald  Stew- 
art, James  McCosh,  and  others.  The  leading 
tenet  at  the  school  is  that  we  have  an  immediate 
and  intuitive  knowledge  of  the  external  world 
and  of  first  principles.  See  the  articles  on  the 
above-named  thinkers;    also   Philosopht,   Hib- 

TOET  OF. 

SCOTCH  TEBSIEB.  See  Tebbieb;  and  Plate 
of  Dogs. 

SCOTCH  VEBDICT.  The  verdict  of  *not 
proven'  which  the  juiy  in  a  criminal  trial  in 
Scotland  are  permitted  to  find  in  certain  cases. 
The  defendant  cannot  be  again  tried  on  the  same 
charge.    See  Guilty;  Veedict. 

SCOTEB  (from  Icel.  akoii,  shooter,  from 
skjota,  OHG.  aciozan,  Ger.  achiessen,  AS.  septan, 
Eng.  shoot;  ultimately  connected  with  Skt. 
akandy    to    leap).      A    sea-duck    of    the    genus 

Oidemia,  of  which 
there  are  several  spe- 
cies, with  tumid  or 
gibbous  bill  and  no 
frontal  processes; 
the  tail  has  14  or  16 
feathers.  The  male 
is  black,  sometimes 
with  white  on  head 
and  wings;  the  fe- 
male sooty-brown. 
The  largest  American  species  is  the  white-winged 
scoter  (Otdemta  Deglandi),  which  is  22  inches 
long  and  is  very  similar  to  the  Old  World  scoter 
{Oidemia  fuaca).  The  surf -scoter  (Oidemia  per- 
spicillaia)  is  a  trifle  smaller,  and  has  no  white  on 
the  wings.  The  American  black  scoter  {Oidemia 
Americana)  is  still  smaller  (19  inches)  and  has 
no  white  on  either  head  or  wings.  It  is  very  simi- 
lar to  the  European  Oidemia  nigra.  These  three 
American  scoters  are  abundant  in  winter  off  the 
coast  of  New  England  and  the  Middle  States. 
They  feed  on  mussels  and  other  mollusks,  and  are 
considered  poor  eating.  All  breed  in  high  north- 
em  latitudes  and  lay  from  5  to  10  eggs  in  nests 
on  the  ground. 

SCOTLA.,  sko^shA.  The  hollow  or  concave 
molding  between  the  fillets  of  the  tori  of  the  base 
of  Ionic,  Corinthian,  and  derivative  orders.  ( See 
Base.)  It  is  also  called  trochillus,  but  diflfers 
aomewhat  from  the  cavetto  (q.v.)  of  the  Romans. 

SCOTIST.  A  follower  of  Duns  Scotus  (q.v.) 
in  philosophy  or  theology.    See  Scholasticism. 

SCOTLAND.  A  constituent  member  of  the 
United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 
It  occupies  the  northern  portion  of  the  island  of 
Great  Britain,  together  with  three  outlying 
groups  of  islands,  the  Hebrides  to  the  west  and 
the  Orkney  and  Shetland  islands  to  the  north- 
east. Scotland  is  bounded  by  the  Irish  Sea, 
North  Channel,  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  the  North 
Sea  on  all  sides  except  a  comparatively  short 
stretch  on  the  southeast  where  it  is  contiguous 
to  England.  The  whole  is  included  between 
latitudes  64*  38'  and  60*  51'  N.,  the  mainland 
terminating  in  latitude  58*  41'  N.  The  greatest 
extent  of  the  mainland  from  Dunnet  Head  in  the 
northeast  to  the  Mull  of  Galloway  in  the  south- 
west is  288  miles,  and  its  breadth  varies  between 


25  and  146  miles.  The  total  area  of  Scotland^ 
including  the  islands,  is  29,785  square  miles.  A 
general  discussion  of  the  topographical,  climatic, 
biological,  and  geological  features  of  Scotland, 
together  with  those  of  England  and  Wales,  is 
given  under  the  title  Great  Britain,  reference  to 
which  is  made  also  for  each  of  the  headings  be- 
low. 

Perhaps  the  most  striking  general  feature  of 
Scotland  is  its  irregularity  in  outline.  Though 
much  smaller  than  England  in  area,  it  has  a 
longer  coastline,  about  2300  miles,  which  gives  a 
proportion  of  1  mile  to  every  13  square  miles  of 
area.  Few  places  lie  40  miles  from  the  sea. 
The  east  coast  is  indented  by  two  large  arms  of 
the  sea,  which  almost  cut  the  country  into  three 
sections,  while  the  west  coast  is  dissected  by 
numerous  fiords,  or  firths,  which  have  converted 
many  headlands  into  islands.  Prominent  among 
the  firths  are  the  Firth  of  Forth  on  the  east, 
Moray  Firth  on  the  northeast,  the  Firth  of  Lome 
and  the  Firth  of  Clyde  on  the  west,  and  Solway 
Firth  on  the  southwest  border.  Scotland  differs 
from  England  topographically  in  that  the  greater 
part  of  its  surface  is  mountainous,  only  the 
comparatively  small  south  central  portion  being 
lowland.  The  lowlands  of  the  south  are  divided 
from  the  highlands  of  the  north  by  the  broad 
short  valleys  of  the  Clyde  and  Forth.  The 
former  district  resembles  fertile  England;  the 
latter,  a  much  more  extensive  region,  is  in  the 
main  bare  and  rugged  and  capable  of  supporting 
but  a  sparse  population.  The  extreme  southern 
part  of  Scotland  is  a  region  of  mountains  and 
hills,  embracing  fertile  valleys.  The  best  known 
range  here  is  that  of  the  Cheviot  Hills,  on  the 
English  border.  Middle  Scotland,  extending  from 
the  Clyde  and  Forth  valleys  north  to  the  Cale- 
donian Canal,  which  connects  Moray  Firth  with 
the  Firth  of  Lome,  is  almost  exclusively  moun- 
tainous,  characterized  by  the  Grampian^  Hills^ 
and  containing  Ben  Nevis,  at  the  head  of  the 
Firth  of  Lome,  the  highest  mountain  in  Great 
Britain  (4406  feet).  The  plain  of  Strathmore, 
however,  the  most  extensive  cultivated  section  in 
Scotland,  lies  in  this  division  of  the  country, 
northeast  of  Stirling.  Southeast  and  east  of  this 
plain  are  the  Ochil  and  Sidlaw  Hills.  North 
Scotland — the  northwestern  Highlands — the  poor- 
est part  of  the  country,  is  an  upland  of  swamp, 
moors,  and  bald,  barren  features.  The  highest 
peak  in  this  region  is  Ben  Dearg,  3550  feet.  The 
scenery  here  is  highly  picturesque  and  inspiring, 
being  varied  by  castled  elevations,  lakes,  valleys, 
glens,  rivers,  cascades,  and  rocky  coasts.  The 
highest  peaks  in  South  Scotland  have  an  elevation 
of  about  2700  feet.  The  rivers  and  lakes  of  Scot- 
land are  described  under  Great  Britain.  Geologi- 
cally Scotland  is  more  thoroughly  of  ancient 
formation  than  England.  In  both  the  north- 
em  and  southern  highland  regions  little 
but  Archaean  gneisses  and  Lower  Paleozoic  meta- 
morphic  rocks  remain,  but  in  the  central  de- 
pression a  large  Carboniferous  area  containing 
rich  coal  fields  still  survives  the  long  ages  of  de- 
nudation. Igneous  rocks  of  all  ages  are  also 
more  common  in  all  parts  of  the  country  than  in 
England. 

Mining.  The  annual  production  of  coal  ia 
rapidly  increasing.  Considerably  over  half  of  it 
is  mined  in  the  County  of  Lanark.  Other  min- 
erals are  mined  in  much  smaller  quantities.  Shale 
oil  is  procured  in  the  lowlands,  the  value  of  the 


SCOTLAND. 


674 


SCOTLAND. 


output  for  1000  having  been  £626,966;  and  iron 
ore  is  exploited,  Ayrshire  County  producing  the 
Urgest  quantity.  The  total  value  of  the  iron  ore 
mined  in  1900  was  £408,113.  The  value  of  the 
granite  <^uarried  in  the  same  year  was  £381,244. 
Other  mineral  productions  of  some  importance 
are  fire  clay,  limestone,  slate,  and  lead  ore. 

Fisheries.  The  value  of  fish  taken  in  1901, 
£2,237,952,  was  a  decided  increase  as  compared 
with  the  value  of  the  catch  a  decade  earlier,  but 
the  catch  was  about  the  same.  While  there  has 
been  some  decrease  in  net  and  line  fishing,  there 
was  a  fourfold  increase  in  the  amount  of  the 
catch  by  trawling.  In  1900,  40,192  men  were 
engaged  on  11,275  fishing  vessels.  Considerably 
over  one-half  of  the  total  catch  is  herring,  the 
next  most  important  varieties  being  haddock 
and  cod.  The  fishing  interest  of  the  east  coast 
is  largely  concentrated  in  Aberdeen.  The  large 
whaling  fleet  which  formerly  had  its  headquarters 
at  Peterhead  has  dwindled  into  insignificance. 

AOBICULTUBE   AIVD    STOCK-RAISING.      Owiug   to 

the  extensive  mountainous  area,  the  development 
of  agriculture  is  subject  to  very  serious  limita- 
tions. The  cultivation  of  the  soil  is  largely  con- 
fined to  the  lowlands.  The  area  under  crops  and 
in  pasture  increased  from  an  average  of  4,560,825 
acres  for  the  period  1871-75  to  4,900,131  in 
1091,  the  increase  being  almost  wholly  in  the 
permanent  pasture  land,  which  in  that  year 
amounted  to  1,428,224  acres.  Over  three-fourths 
of  the  area  devoted  to  cereals  is  in  oats,  the 
acreage  of  that  crop  in  1901  being  956,389. 
Barley  is  the  only  other  important  cereal 
crop.  Much  less  attention  is  given  to  wheat 
than  formerly.  Green  crops  are  exten- 
sively grown,  but  the  total  acreage  pf  these  has 
decreased  in  recent  years,  being  617,486  in  1901. 
Considerably  over  two-thirds  was  in  turnips  and 
swedes,  which  hold  there  a  place  as  stock  foods 
somewhat  similar  to  that  held  by  com  in  the 
UnitecT  States.  Potatoes  are  also  an  important 
crop.  The  area  in  clover,  sainfoin,  and  grasses 
under  rotation  in  1901  was  1,593,461  acres.  A 
highly  intensive  system  of  cultivation  is  followed 
and  an  exceptional  yield  of  all  crops  is  secured. 
The  size  of  farm  holdings  and  the  system  of  ten- 
ure are  much  the  same  as  for  England.  (See 
Great  Britain,  paragraph  Agriculture,)  Stock- 
raising  is  relatively  very  important.  Extensive 
areas  in  the  mountain  regions  are  utilized  for 
grazing.  The  country  has  long  been  noted  for  its 
sheep.  Some  of  the  best  known  breeds,  such  as 
the  Cheviots,  are  natives  of  Scotland.  The  total 
number  of  sheep  in  1901  was  7,401,409.  In  the 
same  year  the  cattle  numbered  1,229,281.  Among 
the  well-known  native  breeds  of  cattle  are  the 
Ayrshire,  Galloway,  Polled  Angus,  and  Jersey. 
The  Clydesdale  horse  is  one  of  the  best-known 
breeds  of  draught  horses,  while  the  Shetland 
ponies  enjoy  an  equal  distinction  among  ponies. 
In  1901  the  horses  numbered  194,893.  But  little 
attention  is  given  to  swine,  which  numbered  only 
124,821. 

Manufactures.  In  but  few  countries  is 
there  so  large  a  per  cent,  of  the  population  en- 
gaged in  manufactures  as  in  Scotland,  in  1891 
25.65  per  cent,  of  the  population  being  thus  en- 
gaged. The  history  of  the  development  of  the 
industry  has  been  in  its  main  lines  quite  similar 
to  its  course  in  England.  Scotland  shares  with 
that  country  the  advantages  of  climate,  of  com- 
merce,  and   of   mineral    wealth,   and   has   con- 


tributed a  goodly  portion  of  the  inventive  genius, 
thrift,  and  business  enterprise  that  have  given 
Great  Britain  its  high  industrial  rank.     There 
are  three  groups  or  branches  of  manufacturing 
that  have  attained  special  prominence,  namely, 
textiles,  liquors,  and  iron  and  steel.    Among  the 
textiles,  woolens,  linens,  and  cottons  are  aU  im- 
portant.    Although    Scotch   woolens   have   been 
manufactured  for  centuries,  they  did  not  become 
prominent  until  the  period  of  the  revolution  in 
the   industry   brought   about  by   improved   ma- 
chinery in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury.   The  woolens  manufactured  in  the  district 
of  the  Tweed  are  famous  and  their  production  has 
become  important  in  a  large  number  of  towns. 
Other  varieties  that  have  become  well  know^n  are 
tartans,  plaids,  and  shawls.     From  188  woolen 
and  worsted  factories  with  233,533  spindles  and 
10,210  persons  employed  in  1850,  there  was  an 
increase  to  246  factories  with  621,034  spindles 
and  22,667  persons  employed  in  1878,  and  to  282 
factories  with  639,724  spindles  and  31,077  per- 
sons  employed   in    1890.     No   later   figures   on 
manufactures  are  available.    The  manufacture  of 
linen  had  acquired  large  proportions  as  early  as 
the  seventeenth  century,  notwithstanding  the  at- 
tempts of  the  English  to  hinder  its  development. 
The  industry  profited  much  from  the  union  with 
England  and  grew  rapidly  during  the  eighteenth 
century.     In  1798  the  value  of  the  linen  manu- 
factures was  estimated  at  £850,405.    The  great- 
est development  in  the  industry  was  attained 
about  1867,  when  77,195  persons  were  employed 
in   197   factories,  in  which  there  were  487,679 
spindles.     Following   this,    foreign    competition 
has  been  more  severe  and  the  industry  has  not 
been  in  so  prosperous  a  condition.    In  1890  there 
were  34,222  persons  employed  in  136  factories  in 
which  there  were  208,354  spindles  and   18,599 
power  looms.    The  linen  industry  is  widely  dis- 
tributed.    The  manufacture  of  cotton  goods  de- 
veloped very  rapidly  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century  and  the  early  part  of   the 
nineteenth.     In   1861   there  were    163   factories 
employing  31,237  persons,  the  spindles  number- 
ing 1,915,398,  and  the  power  looms  30,110.     Lit- 
tle progress  has  been  made  since  that  period,  the 
factories  in  1890  numbering  124,  employing  34,- 
878  persons,  and  using  1,204,113  spindles  and 
28,093  power  looms.    Most  of  the  cotton  factories 
are  located  in  Glasgow  or  its  vicinity.    In  late 
years  the  weaving  of  lace  and  the  manufacture 
of   silks   have   grown   into   industries   of    some 
importance. 

Distilling  is  probably  the  most  thriving  of 
the  Scotch  industries.  Scotland  is  unrivaled 
in  the  reputation  of  its  whisky.  The  produc- 
tion of  this  article  increased  from  5,108,373  gal- 
lons in  1824  to  20,164,962  gallons  in  1884  and 
to  31,798,465  gallons  in  1900,  the  output  for  the 
last  year  being  considerably  more  than  half  the 
product  for  the  United  Kingdom.  Scotland 
manufactures  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  beer 
made  in  the  United  Kingdom,  the  output  in  1900 
being  2,137,030  barrels.  The  mining  of  iron  and 
coal  in  the  low  country  has  given  rise  to  the 
development  in  that  section  of  a  large  iron  and 
steel  industry.  It  began  in  1760  and  by 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  it  em- 
ployed 13,296  persons.  In  1900  1,166,885  tons  of 
pig  iron  were  produced,  which  was  about  one- 
seventh  of  the  total  for  the  United  Kingdom. 
The  production  of  steel  ingots  in  West  Scotland 


SCOTLAND. 


676 


SCOTLAND. 


for  the  same  year  was  1,149,200  tons.  Scotland 
has  hecome  widely  known  for  its  ship-building, 
the  Clyde  being  the  largest  ship-building  centre 
in  the  world.  The  yessels  of  the  Cimard  Line 
are  built  in  the  Clyde  shipyards.  There  are  also 
a  number  of  other  ^ip-building  centres,  but  of 
much  less  importance.  The  industry,  though  sub- 
ject to  occasional  checks,  is  growing.  In  1901 
376  vessels  were  built,  having  an  aggregate  ton- 
nage of  554,406  tons.  There  is  a  large  variety  of 
less  important  industries  such  as  the  manufac- 
ture of  chemicals,  pottery,  confectionery,  and 
preserves,  etc. 

Tbaivspobtation  and  Commerce.  The  rail- 
road mileage  increased  from  2999  in  1884  to 
3485  in  1900.  The  Caledonian  Canal,  connecting 
Moray  Firth  with  Loch  Linnhe  and  completed  in 
1847,  served  for  a  time  as  a  ship  canal,  but  as 
vessels  became  larger  their  transit  through  the 
canal  became  impossible,  and  it  is  now  used  main- 
ly for  purposes  of  local  traffic.  Some  of  the  canals 
of  the  Lowland  district  have  been  superseded  by 
railroads.  The  course  of  the  Clyde  River  has  been 
greatly  improved,  until  ocean  vessels  can  reach 
the  city  of  Glasgow.  This  city  is  the  principal 
port  of  Scotland.  The  total  tonnage  entered  and 
cleared  at  its  port  in  1901,  excluding  the  coast- 
wise trade,  was  3,825,890.  Leith,  the  next  most 
important  port,  was  credited  with  a  tonnage  of 
1,945,754  for  the  same  year.  These  are  followed 
at  a  distance  by  Dundee,  Grangemouth,  Green- 
ock, and  Aberdeen.  In  1900  the  total  ton- 
nage entering  Scottish  ports  in  the  coastwise 
trade  was  7,213,574,  and  in  the  colonial  and 
foreign  trade  5,657,200.  The  value  of  imports 
into  Scotland  in  the  foreign  and  colonial  trade 
increased  from  £8,921,108  in  1851  to  £31,012,750 
in  1874,  and  to  £38,691,245  in  1900.  The  value  of 
the  exports  leaving  Scottish  ports  increased  from 
£5,016,116  in  1851  to  £17,912,932  in  1874,  and  to 
£32,166,561  in  1900,  Scotland  having  a  large  per- 
centage of  this  trade.  A  considerable  export 
trade  not  represented  in  these  figures  passes 
through  the  English  ports.  See  the  paragraph 
Commerce  in  the  article  Great  Bbitain. 

FnTANCE.  Scotland  is  subject  to  the  same 
fiscal  system  as  are  the  other  members  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  a  discussion  of  which  will  be 
found  in  the  article  Great  Britain,  imragraph 
Finance.  For  the  fiscal  year  ending  if  arch  31, 
1902,  the  amount  contributed  by  Scotland  to  the 
revenue  collected  by  Imperial  officers  was  £16,- 
055,000,  of  which  £13,115,000  was  collected  from 
taxes.  The  largest  item  was  the  excise  tax, 
productive  of  £4,326,000,  followed  by  the  income 
tax,  £3,645,000;  customs,  £2,981,000;  estate,  etc., 
duties,  £1,411,000;  stamps,  £604,000;  land  tax 
and  house  duty,  £148,000.  The  non-tax  revenue, 
chiefly  from  postal  and  telegraph  services, 
amounted  to  £1,858,000,  and  the  revenue  derived 
from  local  taxation  amounted  to  £1,082,000.  The 
expenditure  for  Scottish  services  during  the  same 
year  amounted  to  £5,059,000.  The  aggregate 
amount  raised  by  local  authorities  for  local  pur- 
poses increased  from  £8,097,456  in  1890-91  to 
£13,804,788  in  1898-99. 

For  Banks,  Oovemment,  and  Charitable  and 
Penal  Institutions,  see  under  Great  Britain. 

PoPUi*ATiON.  The  population  of  Scotland  at 
the  time  of  the  Union  in  1707  was  estimated  at 
1,000,000.  The  first  official  census  taken  of  the 
population  in  1801  showed  the  inhabitants  to 
number  1,008,420.    By  the  middle  of  the  century 


(1851)  it  had  further  increased  to  2,888,742^  in 
1891  to  4,025,647,  and  in  1901  to  4,472,103.  In 
the  last  of  these  vears  Scotland  contained  10.8  per 
cent,  of  the  total  population  of  the  United  King- 
dom, which  was  but  slightly  greater  than  the 
corresponding  per  cent,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  The  density  per  square  mile 
in  1901  was  149,  as  against  606  for  England. 
The  population,  however,  is  very  unevenly  dis- 
tributed, bein^  quite  sparse  over  the  larse  High- 
land area,  while  the  Lowlands,  namely  the  Glas- 
gow-Edinburgh region,  is  one  of  the  most  densely 
populated  districts  in  Great  Britain.  Between 
1891  and  1901  the  town  districts — places  having 
2000  inhabitants  and  over — increased  in  aggre- 
giate  population  from  2,925,080  to  3,367,280, 
while  during  the  same  period  the  mainland  rural 
districts  made  only  the  slight  gain  of  from  974,- 
841  to  983,274,  and  the  insular  rural  districts 
decreased  in  population  from  125,726  to  121,446. 
The  following  table  shows  the  growth  of  the 
larger  cities: 


1861 

1891 

1901 

CHangow...., t.T..,.,,- 

8M.864 
168131 
•0,417 
78.806 

618.06a 
364.796 
166.676 
128.S27 

736,906 

Edinbnrsfa        

816.479 

Dundee 

160.871 

Aberdeen 

148.733 

The  following  table  gives  the  list  of  the  ad- 
ministrative divisions  of  Scotland,  their  areas 
and  populations. 


DIVmONB  AND  OITIL 
COVNTIXB 


Shetland 

Orkney 

Calthnees. 

Satherland 

Nairn.. 

Elgin 

Banff 

Aberdeen 

Kincardine 

Boas  and  Gromartj. 

Inyemees - 

Forfar 

Perth 

Fife 

Kinross 

Clackmannan 

Stlrilng 

Dumbarton 

ArayU 

Bute 

Benfrew 

Ayr. 

Lanark 

Linlithgow 

Edinburgh 

Haddington 

Berwick 

Peebles 

Selkirk 

Boxburgh •.. 

Dumfries 

Kirkcudbright 

Wigtown 

Total 


Area  In 
sq.  miles 


661 
876 
686 

2,016 
162 
477 
680 

1.973 
881 

8.069 

4.211 
874 

2,494 

604 

82 

66 

461 

246 

8,110 
218 
240 

1,132 
879 
120 
866 
267 
467 
348 
267 

1,072 
899 

487 


29.785 


Population 


1891 


28.711 

80.463 

87.177 

21,896 

9.166 

48.471 

61,684 

284.096 

86.492 

78,727 

90,121 

277.736 

122,186 

190.366 

6.673 

38.140 

118.021 

98.014 

74.086 

18.404 

280.812 

226.886 

1,106.899 

62.808 

434,276 

37.877 

82,290 

14,760 

27.712 

68.600 

74.246 

89.986 

86.062 


4.025.668 


1901 


28.166 

28.699 

83.870 

21.440 

9,291 

44,800 

61,488 

804,499 

40.928 

76.460 

90.104 

284.082 

128.283 

218.840 

6,961' 

82.029 

142.291 

113.865 

78.642 

18,787 

268.960 

264.468 

1.839,827 

66,708 

488,796 

88.665 

80.824 

16.066 

23.356 

48.804 

72.571 

89.888 


4.472,103 


The  population  of  Scotland  contains  but  a 
small  number  of  non-Scots,  amounting  in  1900  to 
only  8.37  per  cent,  of  the  total.  Considerably 
over  half  of  these  were  Irish  and  the  majority  of 
the  remainder  were  English.  The  foreign  element 
amounted  to  only  .21  per  cent,  of  the  total  popu- 
lation. In  the  decade  1801  to  1900,  186,012  of 
the  Scotch  element  left  the  United  Kingdom  for 


SCOTLAND. 


576 


SCOTLAIVD. 


g laces  out  of  Europe.  Considerably  over  one- 
aif  of  the  Scotch  emigrants  in  the  last  half  of 
the  nineteenth  century  went  to  the  United  States. 
Many  of  the  Irish  and  the  other  non- Scotch  ele- 
ments residing  in  the  country  also  have  left  for 
other  lands.  In  1901  the  males  numbered  2,173,- 
151  and  the  females  2,294,849.  In  the  same  year 
the  births  numbered  132,178,  the  deaths  80,103. 
The  numbers  engaged  in  occupations  according  to 
the  returns  of  1891  were  classified  as  follows: 
Professional,  111,319;  domestic,  203,153;  com- 
mercial, 180,952;  agricultural  and  fishing,  249,- 
124 ;  industrial,  1,032,404 ;  and  the  remainder  or 
unproductive  class,  2,248,655. 

Reliqion.  Scotland  is  the  stronghold  of 
Presbyterianism,  and  the  mass  of  the  population 
belong  to  that  faith.  The  established  branch  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church  includes  about  one-half 
of  the  Protestant  Church  population.  In  1399 
the  congregations  of  this  Church  numbered  1447 
and  the  membership  648,476.  In  1900  the  two 
branches — the  Free  Church  of  Scotland  and  the 
United  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland — were 
united  under  the  name  of  the  United  Free  Church 
of  Scotland.  _  Before  the  union  the  Free 
Church  had  1109  congregations  with  404,828 
members  and  an  additional  61,000  adherents, 
and  the  United  Presbyterian  had  689  congrega- 
tions with  177,517  members.  There  are  a  num- 
ber of  other  non-conforming  bodies,  but  all  of 
them  small.  The  Episcopalian  Church  in  1899  had 
356  congregations  and  over  114,000  communicants 
and  other  members.  The  Catholic  population  was ' 
estimated  in  1898  at  413,000;  it  consists  mainly 
of  the  Irish  element. 

Education.  The  supremacy  of  Scotland  over 
the  other  parts  of  the  British  Isles  in  elementaiT' 
and  secondary  education  is  generally  admitted. 
In  remarkable  contrast  with  England,  the  coim- 
try  is  distinguished  for  having  early  made  public 
provision  for  instruction,  and  the  religious  con- 
troversies did  not  prevent  the  development  of  a 
homogeneous  system.  An  act  passed  in  1696 
obligated  the  landowners  to  the  support  of 
schools,  and  they  with  the  ministers  of  the  par- 
ishes had  charge  of  the  administration  of  the 
system.  An  educational  committee  reported  in 
1829  that  their  schools  were  open  freely  to 
Roman  Catholics  and  that  the  teachers  were 
directed  not  to  press  on  them  any  instruction 
to  which  their  parents  or  priests  might  object. 
Small  Parliamentary  grants  to  education  began 
between  1830  and  1840.  After  1861  it  was 
only  required  of  the  teachers  that  they 
should  not  teach  opinions  opposed  to  the 
divine  authority  of  the  Scriptures  or  to  the 
doctrine  of  the  Shorter  Catechism.  By  the  Par- 
liamentary Educational  Act  of  1872  the  board 
system  was  established,  in  accordance  with  which 
a  school  board  elected  in  every  parish  and  burgh 
every  three  years  has  charge  of  both  elementary 
and  secondary  education.  School  boards  have 
the  power  of  prescribing  religious  instruction, 
but  the  time  of  giving  it  must  be  such  that  chil- 
dren absenting  themselves  will  not  miss  any  of 
the  secular  instruction.  Since  1891  instruction 
has  been  free  for  children  from  three  to  fifteen 
years  of  age  and  compulsory  between  the  ages  of 
five  and  fourteen,  with  conditional  exemption 
after  twelve.  The  instruction  given  in  the 
parish  schools  has  been  mainly  elementary,  and 
secondary  instruction  was  provided  by  the  burgh 
schools   and   the    academies.     Unlike   England, 


private  boarding  schools  have  never  been  widely 
patronized  in  Gotland.  Burgh  schools  were  es- 
tablished prior  to  the  Reformation;  they  were 
regulated  by  the  burgh  authorities  and  open  to 
the  general  community,  but  there  was  never  any 
provision  by  national  enactment  for  their  or- 
ganization or  financial  support.  The  desire  for 
more  modern  or  practical  courses  of  instruction 
resulted  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury in  the  establishment  of  academies.  How- 
ever, the  opportunities  to  receive  a  university 
preparation  were  always,  and  still  remain,  in  a 
measure  inadequate,  necessitating  the  assump- 
tion of  that  work  by  the  imiversities  themselves. 
A  Parliamentary  act  was  passed  in  1887  making 
technical  education  possible. 

In  proportion  to  population  Scotland  has  a 
larger  number  of  universities  and  a  much  larger 
attendance  than  has  England.  The  universities 
are  Saint  Andrews,  founded  in  1411;  Glasgow, 
1450;  Aberdeen,  1494;  and  Edinburgh,  1582. 
The  Scotch  universities  contrast  strikingly  with 
the  older  English  universities  in  that  the  expense 
incurred  in  taking  the  course  is  much  smaller 
in  the  former,  (^vernmental  financial  support 
has  never  been  very  liberally  extended,  but  has 
increased  in  recent  years,  which,  together  with 
the  Carnegie  gifts,  has  placed  them  upon  a  much 
better  financial  footing  than  ever  before.  Women 
are  admitted  to  the  universities  under  the  same 
conditions  as  are  men. 

Ethnology.  The  people  of  Scotland,  called 
Scots  or  Scotch  after  a  Celtic  tribe  originally 
from  Ireland,  are  derived  from  widely  different 
stocks.  The  most  primitive  race  were  long- 
headed and  they  have  been  classed  with  Sergi'a 
Mediterraneans.  These  were  followed  by  a 
brachycephalic  people  like  Ripley's  Alpine  race, 
but  in  Scotland  they  were  tall,  with  massive 
jaws  and  broad  faces.  The  third  ingredient  is  a 
long-headed  race,  Teutonic,  and  of  lofty  stature. 
From  the  Stone  Age  until  the  eleventh  century  of 
our  era  there  is  evidence  of  a  continuous  Scandi- 
navian invasion  penetrating  into  the  north  coun- 
try and  entering  largely  into  the  composition  of 
the  Scotch  Highlanders.  They  belong  to  the  tall- 
est people  in  the  world,  having  an  average 
height  of  1.746  meters,  in  Ayrshire  1.782  meters, 
and  in  Galloway  1.792  meters;  the  cephalic  index 
is  76.2-77.9.  There  are  two  centres  of  speech  in 
Scotland.  In  the  north  Gaelic  is  spoken,  belong- 
ing, with  Irish  and  Manx,  to  the  G«edhelic  divi- 
sion of  the  Celtic  mother  tongue.  In  the  south 
it  is  Lowland  Scotch,  an  interesting  local  mix- 
ture of  Scandinavian  and  English. 

HI8TOST. 

At  the  end  of  the  fifth  century  the  Scot**, 
an  Irish  people,  settled  in  modem  Argyll,  and 
soon  spread  along  the  western  coast  from  the 
Clyde  to  modem  Ross.  Their  kingdom  was 
called  Dalriada.  To  the  east  of  them,  occupying 
the  whole  country  north  of  the  Forth,  was  the 
Pictish  kingdom  (see  Piers),  and  to  their  south 
lay  the  British  Kingdom  of  Cumbria,  which  ex- 
tended along  the  western  coast  from  the  Clyde  to 
the  border  of  Wales.  The  English  Kingfdom  of 
Bernicia,  a  part  of  Northumbria,  occupied  the 
remainder  of  modem  Scotland  south  of  the 
Forth. 

The  early  history  of  the  Dalriad  Soots  is  a 
narrative  of  warfare  with  the  other  kingdoms. 
Their  first  King  of  whom  we  have  record,  Fergus 


SCOTLAND. 


577 


SCOTLAND. 


MacErc,  is  said  to  have  come  from  Ireland  in 
502,  with  the  blessing  of  Saint  Patrick  himself. 
The  Dalriads  were  Christians,  and  their  King, 
Conal,  gave  the  isle  of  lona  to  Saint  Golumba, 
the  apostle  of  the  northern  Picts.  Aidan,  an- 
other of  their  kings,  repeatedly  invaded  Bernicia, 
but  was  beaten  by  the  heathen  Ethelfried  at 
Degastan  in  603.  There  followed  a  short  period 
of  English  supremacy  over  both  Scots  and  Picts, 
but  in  the  decisive  battle  of  Nechtansmere  (685) 
the  latter  destroyed  an  English  army,  and  both 
peoples  became  independent.  About  730  the 
Pictish  King,  Angus  MacFergus,  subdued  both  the 
Scots  and  the  Britons.  But  internal  dissensions 
and  the  attacks  of  the  Northmen  broke  the 
atren^h  of  the  Pictish  kingdom,  and  in  843  Ken- 
neth MacAlpin,  King  of  the  Scots,  was  acknowl- 
edged King  of  Pictland.  All  the  country  north 
of  the  Forth  and  the  Clyde  was  thus  united  into 
one  kingdom.  It  was  at  first  called  Alban,  but 
in  the  tenth  century  the  name  Scotland  b^ame 
common.  Kenneth  I.  (843-860)  transferred  his 
Beat  to  Forteviot  in  Stratheme,  the  Pictish  capi- 
tal. By  the  marriage  of  his  daughter  to  the 
King  of  Cumbria  he  secured  an  alliance  of  all 
the  Celts  of  Scotland  against  the  Teutonic  in- 
Taders.  He  often  raided  Lothian,  and  repulsed 
the  Northmen  from  Dalriada,  but  neither  he  nor 
his  successors  could  prevent  them  from  occupy- 
ing the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands,  and  from  obtain- 
ing a  foothold  in  the  extreme  north  of  Scotland. 

The  centre  of  the  Scotch  kingdom  was  the 
country  between  the  Forth  and  the  Spey,  and  its 
kings  were  constantly  engaged  in  struggles  with 
the  rebellious  chiefs  of  Moray.  The  seven  orig- 
inal provinces  of  Pictland  were  ruled  by  under- 
kings,  but  with  the  growth  of  the  royal  power 
these  kinglets  were  replaced  by  mormaera,  or 
great  stewards,  who  were  royal  officers.  The 
tribal  chieftains  under  them  were  called  toiaechs. 
They,  as  well  as  the  mormaers,  were  chosen 
in  the  assembly  of  the  free  tribesmen  from  the 
ruling  family.  Constantme  II.  (904-943)  fixed 
the  royal  residence  at  Scone.  In  a  national  coun- 
cil held  at  Scone  (906)  he  and  his  bishop,  Cel- 
lach,  regulated  the  affairs  of  the  Scottish  Church. 
He  repeatedly  repulsed  the  Northmen,  but  later 
in  his  reini  formed  an  alliance  with  them  and 
with  Cumbria  against  the  growing  power  of 
Athelstan  of  England.  The  allies  were  defeated 
in  the  great  battle  of  Brunanburh  (937). 
Constantine  also  succeeded  in  placing  his  brother 
Donald  upon  the  throne  of  Cumbria.  His 
successor,  Malcolm  I.  (943-954),  acquired  the 
southern  part  of  Cumbria  (modem  Cumber- 
land and  Westmoreland)  from  Edmund,  King  of 
England,  who  had  conquered  it.  But  the  per- 
manent southern  borders  of  Scotland  date  from 
the  reign  of  Malcolm  II.-  (1005-34).  The  royal 
line  of  Strathclyde  (northern  Cumbria)  having 
expired,  that  country  had  become  a  part  of  Scot- 
land by  inheritance.  Even  more  important  was 
the  acquisition  of  Lothian,  which  Malcolm 
wrested  from  the  English  by  his  victory  of 
Carham  in  1018.  Malcolm's  attempt  to  set  aside 
the  Scottish  law  of  the  succession  by  the  murder 
of  the  legitimate  heir  (i.e.  his  brother's  son)  led 
to  the  murder  of  his  grandson,  Duncan,  by  Mac- 
beth, Mormaer  of  Ross  and  Moray.  Shakespeare's 
wonderful  tragedy  has  treated  this  event,  but  his 
sources  were  at  variance  with  historic  truth. 
Duncan  was  in  reality  an  immature  youth,  and 
Macbeth,  who  had  married  the  mother  of  the 


true  heir  and  was  his  guardian,  represented  the 
legitimate  succession.  Far  from  being  a  cruel 
tyrant,  he  was  an  able  monarch,  whose  reign  of 
eighteen  years  was  one  of  comparative  peace  and 
prosperity. 

Feudal  Age  (1054-1286).  The  accession  of 
Malcolm  III.  (1054),  better  known  as  Malcoln| 
Canmore,  marks  the  beginning  of  a  new  epoch  in 
Scottish  history.  It  was  the  age  of  the  Anglo- 
Norman  influence,  of  the  introduction  of  the 
feudal  system  in  Church  and  State,  and  of  the 
foundation  and  growth  of  towns.  Scotland  left 
her  Celtic  isolation  and  entered  the  community 
of  European  nations.  The  long  residence  of  Mal- 
colm III.  in  England,  and  especially  his  mar- 
riage with  the  sister  of  Edgar  the  Atheling,*ren- 
dered  his  sympathies  English,  and  involv^  him 
in  English  affairs.  He  espoused  th^ir  cause 
against  the  Norman  conquerors,  and  received 
many  of  the  victims  of  William's  devastation  of 
Northumberland  as  settlers  in  Scotland.  His 
Queen,  who  was  afterwards  canonized  as  Saint 
Margaret  of  Scotland,  used  her  great  influence 
to  bring  the  Celtic  Church  into  the  communion 
of  Western  Christendom  by  the  assimilation  of 
its  usages  to  those  of  the  Roman  Church.  On 
^he  death  of  Malcolm  (1093)  a  Celtic  reaction 
occurred.  Donald  Bane,  the  King's  brother,  waa 
chosen  to  succeed  him,  and  the  English  courtiers 
were  driven  out  of  Scotland.  But  English  aid 
soon  placed  Malcolm's  son  Edgar  on  the  throne, 
and  during  his  reign  (1097-1107),  as  well  as 
during  the  reigns  of  his  brothers  Alexander  I. 
and  David  I.,  the  Anglo-Norman  influence  tri- 
umphed. Edgar's  reign  was  marked  by  the  per- 
manent removal  of  the  royal  residence  to  Edin- 
burgh, and  by  the  loss  of  the  Hebrides  and  part 
of  the  western  mainland  to  the  Northmen. 

During  the  reigns  of  Alexander  I.  (1107-24) 
and  David  I.  (1124-53)  the  feudal  system  was 
greatly  strengthened  in  Scotland,  both  in  Church 
and  State.  Nine  bishoprics  were  created  in  place 
of  the  single  bishopric  of  the  Scots,  although 
Saint  Andrews  continued  to  hold  the  primacy. 
Parishes  were  established  and  endowed  through- 
out the  country.  Foreign  ecclesiastics  took  the 
place  of  the  Scotch  monks,  and  stately  new  ab- 
beys were  founded,  especially  by  David,  who 
began  the  construction  of  Holyrood,  Melrose,  and 
the  other  principal  abbeys  of  the  Lowlands.  Char- 
ters were  introduced  to  take  the  place  of  ancient 
Celtic  customs,  the  mormaera  became  earls,  and 
the  toisecha  thanes — both  royal  officers  holding 
their  land  from  the  King,  who  thus  became  the 
universal  landowner,  in  place  of  the  tribes.  Alex- 
ander was  still  surrounded  by  Celtic  lords,  but 
David  portioned  out  the  Lowlands  among  Norman 
lords  in  direct  feudal  relation  to  the  Crown. 
Nevertheless,  the  relation  of  the  tenantry  to  the 
new  lords  was  the  same  as  it  had  been  to  the  old, 
and  there  was  no  oppression  of  the  lower  classes, 
such  as  took  place  in  the  Norman  conquest  of 
England.  The  vianet  was  introduced  to  take  the 
place  of  the  old  practice  of  compurgation.  By 
this  legal  process,  which  was  also  called  the 
judgment  of  the  peace,  every  freeman  obtained 
the  right  to  be  tried  by  his  peers.  The  more 
serious  crimes  were  withdrawn  from  the  lesser 
courts  and  made  pleas  of  the  Crown.  The  peace 
thus  became  the  King's  peace,  and  was  main- 
tained by  the  sovereign  in  annual  judicial  cir- 
cuits until  the  flrst  half  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, when  four  justices  were  appointed  to  at- 


SCOTLAND. 


678 


SCOTLAND. 


tend  to  the  pleas  of  the  Crown.  These  refonns 
were  begun  by  Alexander,  but  carried  out,  for  the 
most  part,  by  David.  The  latter  granted  many 
new  charters  and  privileges  to  the  burghs,  which 
grew  and  prospered  during  his  reign.  He  prized 
peace,  but  his  English  possessions  and  relation- 
ships brought  on  war.  As  husband  of  the  heiress 
of  Northumberland,  and  brother  of  the  Empress 
Matilda,  he  took  part  in  the  civil  war  between 
her  and  Stephen.  Although  defeated  in  the  Bat- 
tle of  the  Standard,  near  Northallerton  (1138), 
he  nevertheless  attained  the  object  of  his  ambition 
when  he  acquired  the  Earldom  of  Northumber- 
land for  his  son  Henry.  His  son  William  the 
Lioy,  who  became  King  in  1165  on  the  death  of 
his  brother  Malcolm,  was  taken  prisoner  in  an 
invasion  of  England,  and  compelled  by  the  Treaty 
of  Falaiae  (1175)  to  swear  fealtv  to  Henry  II. 
Scotland  remained  a  feudal  dependency  for 
fourteen  years,  but  Richard  I.  of  England  re- 
nounced the  treaty  for  10,000  marks  of  silver. 
William's  son,  Alexander  II.,  succeeded  him 
and  followed  his  father's  policy  of  siding  with 
the  barons  of  England  in  their  struggle  against 
John.  In  1237,  however,  he  renounced  his  claims 
to  Westmoreland,  Cumberland,  and  Northum^ 
berland  for  a  yearly  payment  of  £200.  His  su^ 
oessor,  Alexander  III.,  recovered  the  western 
islands  from  the  Northmen  by  a  formal  treaty  in 
1266,  though  the  question  had  really  been  de- 
cided in  the  battle  of  Largs  three  years  earlier. 
He  then  married  his  daughter  to  the  young  King 
of  Norway,  and  her  only  child,  the  Maid  of  Nor- 
way, was  declared  heiress  to  the  Scotch  throne. 
The  death  of  Alexander  III.,  in  1286,  ended  this 
long  and  prosperous  epoch. 

Wab  of  Independence  (1286-1328).  The 
feudal  relations  of  Scotland  and  England 
have  given  rise  to  much  controversy  between 
the  historians  of  the  two  countries.  The  facts  of 
the  case  seem  to  be  that  while  the  English  kings 
usually  claimed  an  overlordship,  they  had  never 
succeeded  in  enforcing  it  except  in  the  case  of 
William  the  Lion  noted  above.  The  Scottish 
kings  did  homage  for  their  English  possessions 
and  for  them  only.  In  1290,  however,  Edward 
I.  obtained  a  favorable  opportunity  to  press  the 
English  claims.  The  Maid  of  Norway,  grand- 
daughter of  Alexander  III.,  died  on  the  voyage  to 
Scotland.  Thirteen  claimants  to  the  throne  ap- 
peared. Edward  I.  took  the  matter  into  his  own 
hands,  claiming  this  right  as  suzerain  of  Scotland. 
He  demanded  an  acknowledgment  of  his  suzer- 
ainty, which  was  acceded  to  by  the  Norman  lords 
and  bishops.  The  Scotch  commonalty,  however, 
that  is  to  say,  the  burghs  and  the  gentry,  protest- 
ed, but  without  avail.  At  Norham,  in  1293,  Ed- 
ward decided  in  favor  of  John  Baliol  (q.v.),  a 
descendant  of  the  royal  house  by  an  elder  female 
line.  Baliol  was  a  submissive  man,  but  by  his 
high-handed  enforcement  of  feudal  claims  Edward 
drove  Scotland  to  revolt,  and  to  a  league  with 
France — the  *auld  alliance'  with  France  which 
lasted  over  two  centuries  and  a  half  and  was 
only  ruptured  by  the  Reformation.  Edward, 
therefore,  invaded  Scotland  in  1296  and  in  the 
battle  of  Dunbar  defeated  the  Scotch  forces. 
Baliol  was  deposed  and  the  Norman  nobility  of 
Scotland  readily  swore  fealty  to  Edward  as  their 
King. 

But  the  Scotch  people  were  unsubdued,  and 
they  soon  found  a  leader  in  William  W^allace 
(q.v.).     After   a   series   of   remarkable   adven- 


tures he  succeeded  in  arousing  the  conntxy 
against  the  English,  and  in  the  battle  of  Stirling 
(1297)  he  destroyed  a  superior  English  army. 
But  in  1298  Edward  returned  with  an  overwhelm- 
ing army,  and  by  a  new  and  skillful  use  of  his 
archers  defeated  the  Scotch  at  Falkirk*  Never- 
theless, although  Edward  repeatedly  invaded 
Scotland,  and  although  in  1305  Wallace  was 
captured  and  cruelly  put  to  death,  the  country 
was  not  subdued.  After  the  death  of  Wallace 
the  cause  of  liberty  was  taken  up  by  Robert 
Bruce  (q.v.),  the  grandson  of  Robert  Bruce, 
Baliol's  rival  for  the  throne  of  Scotland.  The 
nobility  supported  him  as  it  had  never  support- 
ed Wallace,  and  he  was  crowned  King  at  Soone. 
He  gained  a  series  of  minor  victories  over  the 
English,  and  at  length  completely  routed  their 
superior  army  at  Bannockbum  in  1314.  From 
that  time  until  1328,  when  the  independence  of 
Scotland  was  formally  acknowledged,  there  were 
constant  invasions  of  Northern  England. 

During  the  War  of  Independence  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Scotland  first  took  its  definite  form. 
Its  origin  is  to  be  found  in  the  feudal  council  of 
tenants-in-chief  summoned  by  David  I.  which 
superseded  the  council  of  the  seven  mormaers. 
To  the  feudal  council  belonged  the  lords  spiritual 
(bishops,  abbots,  priors),  and  the  lords  temporal, 
including  the  lesser,  as  well  as  the  greater, 
barons.  With  the  towns  the  kings  negotiated 
directly  in  two  ffroups — ^the  four  burghs  of  the 
south,  of  which  Edinburgh  was  the  leader,  and 
the  Hanse  burghs  of  the  north,  grouped  about 
Aberdeen.  The  burghs  first  appear  as  an  estate 
in  the  Parliament  of  Cambuskenneth,  which 
Bruce  called,  in  1326,  to  aid  him  in  the  struggle 
against  England.  From  this  date  only  can  we 
speak  of  a  Scottish  Parliament.  The  three 
estates  sat  in  the  same  house,  under  the  presi- 
dency of  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer.  The 
Scotch  Parliament,  however,  never  attained  the 
constitutional  importance  of  the  English,  becauise 
the  Scotch  kings  lived  within  their  means,  and 
seldom  made  demands  for  money. 

Supremacy  of  the  Nobilitt  (1329-1546). 
In  Scotland  the  nobility  was  far  more  power- 
ful than  in  England.  There  were  many  more 
exemptions  from  royal  judicature,  and  the 
royal  ofiice  of  sheriff  had  become  hereditary 
among  the  nobility.  The  prevalence  of  the  tribal 
system  in  the  Highlands,  and  to  some  extent  in 
the  Lowlands,  strengthened  the  nobility,  because 
of  the  intimate  personal  relation  which  existed 
between  tribesmen  and  chief.  Moreover,  Scot- 
land was  unfortunate  during  the  period  follow- 
ing the  struggle  for  independence  in  having 
most  of  her  kings  succeed  as  minors.  During 
the  minorities  disorders  and  feuds  prevailed, 
and  peace  existed  in  the  royal  burghs  only. 
To  disorder  at  home  was  added  almost  per- 
petual warfare  on  the  English  border — a  dreary 
chronicle  of  raids  and  petty  victories  on  either 
side.  Under  David  II.,  the  son  of  Robert  Bruce 
(1329-71),  Parliament  attained  its  greatest 
power,  practically  conducting  the  affairs  of 
State,  and  determining  the  succession  to  the 
throne  contrary  to  the  King's  desire.  In  1371 
Robert  II.,  a  grandson  of  Robert  Bruce,  in- 
augurated the  Stuart  dynasty.  During  the  lat- 
ter part  of  his  reign,  which  ended  in  1396,  the 
Duke  of  Albany  was  virtual  ruler  of  Scotland, 
a  position  which  he  held  under  Robert  IIL 
(1396-1406)   and  during  the  minority  of  James 


SCOTLAND. 


579 


SCOTLAND. 


1.  (1406-37).  It  was  not  until  some  years  after 
his  death  that  James  I.,  who  had  been  pris- 
oner in  England  since  1405,  was  permitted  to  re- 
turn. James  was  a  prince  of  great  ability.  With  a 
Btrong  hand  he  curbed  the  nobility,  not  hesi- 
tating to  attain  his  ends  by  putting  to  death 
his  opponents.  In  his  attempt  to  bring  order 
into 'Scotland  he  was  aided  by  the  towns.  He  also 
sought  to  make  Parliament  an  instrument  to 
crush  the  nobility.  Finding  it  impossible  to  in- 
duce the  lesser  nobility  to  attend  Parliament, 
he  ordained  in  1427  that  two  representative 
knights  should  be  sent  from  each  sherifTdom  in 
the  kingdom,  on  the  model  of  the  English  system. 
This  act  was  unsuccessful,  but  it  became  of 
constitutional  importance,  because  it  was  re- 
enacted  by  the  Reformation  Parliament  in  1560, 
and  in  1585  was  finally  established  as  a  law. 

During  the  following  reigns  there  was  more 
lawlessness  than  ever.  Some  of  the  nobility  were 
always  engaged  in  treasonable  negotiations  with 
England.  Chief  among  the  King's  opponents 
had  always  been  the  Lords  of  the  Isles,  who  ruled 
over  what  was  practically  an  independent  prin- 
cipality in  the  west.  The  great  House  of  Doug- 
lasy  famous  in  border  raids,  was  also  very 
troublesome.  Under  James  II.  (1437-60)  there 
was  some  wise  legislation  improving  the  con- 
dition of  the  lesser  tenantry  and  encouraging 
tillage.  The  marriage  of  James  III.  (1460-88) 
with  the  daughter  of  the  King  of  Norway 
brought  the  Orkneys  into  the  possession  of  Scot- 
land in  1469.  James  IV.  (1485-1513)  married 
Margaret  Tudor,  the  daughter  of  Henry  VII.,  thus 
opening  the  way  to  peace  with  England.  But 
family  quarrels  with  Henry  VIII.  and  the  re- 
newal of  the  French  alliance  led  to  a  Scottish  in- 
vasion of  England,  which  resulted  in  the  defeat 
and  death  of  James  on  Flodden  Field  in  1513.  Un- 
der James  V.  (1513-42)  the  College  of  Justice, 
the  Scottish  supreme  court,  was  established  on 
the  model  of  the  Parlement  of  Paris  in  1532. 
James's  chief  minister  was  Cardinal  Beaton,  the 
Archbishop  of  Saint  Andrews,  who  played  in 
Scotland  the  r6le  of  Cardinal  Wolsey  in  England, 
but  with  greater  success.  After  the  death  of 
James  V.  he  directed  the  destinies  of  Scotland. 
Henry  VIII.'s  barbarous  invasion,  in  which  towns 
were  burned,  the  country  was  laid  waste,  and  all 
the  inhabitants  that  resisted  were  slain,  thwarted 
that  monarch's  design  for  a  marriage  between  the 
infant  Queen  of  Scotland  and  the  heir  to  the 
English  throne.  For  a  time  the  same  policy  was 
continued  by  the  Protector  Somerset,  and  this  so 
incensed  the  Scotch  that  Mary  was  sent  to  France 
to  marrj'  the  Dauphin.  With  the  assassination  of 
Cardinal  Beaton  in  1546  the  power  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  Scotland  was  over. 

The  Refobmation  and  Its  Consequences 
(1543-1688).  James  V.,  although  he  compelled 
the  clergy  to  reform  abuses,  resisted  the  efforts  of 
Henry  VIII.  to  make  him  join  the  Reformation, 
but  after  his  death  Mary  of  Guise,  the  Queen 
mother,  in  vain  attempted  to  compromise.  In 
1659  John  Knox  (q.v.)  returned  to  Scotland  and 
became  the  greatest  power  in  effecting  the  Refor- 
mation. Urged  by  his  fiery  eloquence,  many  of 
the  nobility  organized  against  the  bishops  under 
the  name  of  the  Lords  of  the  Congregation.  They 
went  through  the  land  suppressing  the  mass,  de- 
stroying images,  and  plundering  the  monasteries, 
llie  R^ent  secured  French  aid,  but  with  the  as- 


sistance of  Elizabeth  the  rebellious  nobles  more 
than  held  their  own.  Peace  came  in  1560  with  the 
Treaty  of  Edinburgh,  which  provided  for  the 
withdrawal  of  both  French  and  English  forces, 
leaving  Scotland  to  settle  her  own  Church  af- 
fairs. In  that  year  the  Reformation  Parliament 
assembled  and  adopted  a  thoroughly  Calvinistic 
Confession  of  Faith  drawn  up  by  John  Knox,  and 
established  the  Church  on  a  democratic  and  Pres- 
byterian basis.  See  Pbesbttebianism,  section  on 
The  Presbyterian  Churches  in  Scotland. 

The  subsequent  history  of  Scotland  until  the 
Union  is  the  story  of  its  Church,  the  democratic 
government  of  which,  like  the  Parliament  in 
England,  trained  the  people  for  political  liberty. 
During  the  Civil  War  the  Scots  united  with  the 
Parliamentarians  and  by  creating  a  diversion  in 
the  north  divided  the  King's  forces.  The  resto- 
ration of  Charles  II.  was  followed  by  the  resto- 
ration of  episcopacy  and  the  bloody  persecution 
of  the  Covenanters,  who  adhered  to  the  Presby- 
terian faith.  But  the  nation  remained  Presby- 
terian, and  in  1689  the  Scottish  Parliament 
passed  a  bill  of  rights  more  radical  than  the 
English,  and  invited  William  to  ascend  the 
throne.  In  1690  episcopacy  was  definitely  abol- 
ished and  Presbyterianism  was  restored  to  the 
position  of  a  State  religion.  The  frequent 
changes  in  religion  were  brought  about  by 
acts  of  Parliament,  which  was  entirely 
under  the  King's  control.  A  chief  source 
of  Parliamentary  weakness  lay  in  the  growth 
of  the  committee  system.  As  early  as 
the  fourteenth  century  business  had  been  re- 
ferred to  two  committees  called  the  Lords  of 
the  Articles,  chosevi  from  the  three  estates. 
Consolidated  by  James  V.  into  a  single  body, 
this  committee  obtained  such  power  that  by 
the  sixteenth  century  Parliament  met  merely 
to  confirm  its  decisions.  In  1621  a  change  in  the 
method  of  its  appointment  enabled  the  King  to 
fill  it  with  his  partisans,  and  thus  control  Parlia- 
ment. But  in  1690  the  committee  of  the  Articles 
was  abolished,  and  from  that  time  until  the 
Union  Scotland  had  parliamentary  rule. 

The  Union  with  England.  In  consequence 
of  the  massacre  of  Glencoe  in  1692,  and  of  the 
hostile  attitude  of  the  English  Parliament  toward 
the  Scottish  colony  at  Darien,  the  Scottish 
Parliament  echoed  the  popular  feeling  of  hos- 
tility toward  England.  It  met  the  English  desire 
for  union  with  the  demand  for  free  trade  and 
equal  rights  in  the  colonies,  and  on  being  refused 
this  it  passed  the  Act  of  Security  (1703),  prac- 
tically excluding  the  successor  of  Queen  Anne 
from  the  Scottish  throne,  and  providing  for 
compulsory  military  training  of  every  Scotsman. 
In  retaliation  the  English  Parliament  passed 
several  laws  greatly  restricting  the  trading  privi- 
leges of  the  Scotch.  For  a  year  or  two  there  was 
imminent  danger  that  the  Scots  would  proceed 
to  extreme  measures,  but  in  1707  the  Parliament 
agreed  to  the  Act  of  Union.  Charges  of  bribery 
were  made  and  the  whole  proceeding  was  exe- 
crated by  the  people  of  Scotland.  As  finally 
passed  the  act  gave  Scotland  a  representation 
of  forty-five  in  the  British  House  of  Commons 
and  sixteen  in  the  House  of  Lords,  the  whole 
Scotch  peerage  electing  the  latter  for  the  Parlia- 
mentary term  of  the  British  Parliament.  Scot- 
land received  free  trade  and  retained  her  own 
Church  and  laws.  The  debts  of  the  two  countries 
were  consolidated. 


SCOTLAND. 


580 


SCOTT. 


The  history  of  Scotland  since  the  Union  can- 
not be  separated  from  that  of  Great  Britain 
(q.Y.).  Tne  most  important  change  that  has 
oome  over  the  country  is  its  transformation  from 
an  agricultural  to  an  industrial  community.  A 
disastrous  change  in  the  land  tenure  and  popula- 
tion of  the  Highlands  occurred  as  a  result  of  the 
gallant  participation  of  the  clans  in  the  Jacobite 
rebellion  of  1746-46.  The  Highland  language  and 
customs  were  suppressed  by  law,  and  the  tribal 
ownership  of  land  was  abolished.  As  a  result 
the  lords  conveited  the  common  lands  into  sheep 
walks  and  deer  parks,  compelling  the  tribesmen 
to  migrate,  unless  they  wished  to  remain  as  ten- 
ants at  will,  under  wretched  conditions.  These 
evils  were  only  in  part  remedied  by  the  Crofters 
Act  of  1880. 

BiBUOORAPHT.  Geikie,  Geological  Survey  of 
Scotland  (London,  1861-66)  ;  Leslie,  The  Early 
Races  of  Scotland  (Edinburgh,  1866)  ;  id.,  The 
Gaelic  Topography  of  Scotland  (ib.,  1869)  ; 
Johnston,  Historical  Geography  of  the  Clans  of 
Scotland  (London,  1872)  ;  Lauder,  Scottish  Riv- 
ers (ib.,  1874)  ;  Mackintosh,  History  of  Civiliza- 
tion in  Scotland  (ib.,  1878-83)  ;  Anderson,  Scot- 
land in  Early  Christian  Times  (Edinburgh, 
1881) ;  id.,  Scotland  in  Pagan  Times  (ib.,  1883- 
86) ;  Rogers,  Social  Life  in  Scotland  (London, 
1884-86) ;  Geikie,  Scenery  of  Scotland  Vietoed  in 
Connection  with  Its  Physical  Geography  (2d  ed., 
ib.,  1887)  ;  Argyll,  Scotland  as  It  Was  and  as  It 
Is  (Edinburgh,  1889) ;  Kerr,  Scottish  Banking 
(London,  1897)  ;  Munro,  Prehistoric  Scotland  and 
Its  Place  in  European  Civilization  (Edinburgh, 
1899)  ;  Rhys,  Celtic  Britain  (London,  1884)  ; 
Lansdale,  Scotland  Historic  and  Romantic  (Phil- 
adelphia, 1902) ;  Graham,  Social  Life  in  Scotland 
in  the  Eighteenth  Century  (2d  ed.,  London, 
1900).  SoUBCES:  Chronicles  of  the  Picts  and 
Scots,  ed.  Skene  (Edinburgh,  1867);  Documents 
Illustrative  of  the  History  of  Scotland,  1286 
to  1306,  ed.  Stephenson  (Edinburgh,  1870); 
Documents  and  Records  Illustrating  the  History 
of  Scotland,  ed.  Palgrave  (Record  Commis- 
sion, 1837);  Rotuli  Scotio,  12911615  (Rec- 
ord Commission,  1814-19) ;  Calendar  of  Docu- 
ments Relating  to  Scotland,  Preserved  in 
the  Public  Record  Office,  1108-1509,  ed.  Bayne 
(Edinburgh,  1881-88)  ;  Publications  of  the 
Scottish  Historical  Society  (12  vols.,  Edin- 
burgh, 1887-99)  ;  Publications  of  the  Banatyne 
Club  (23  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1829-67);  Publica- 
tions of  the  Maitland  Club  (21  vols.,  Edinburgh, 
1830-64).  For  the  ancient  laws  and  customs  of 
the  burghs,  consult  the  Publications  of  the  Scot- 
tish Burgs  Record  Society  (12  vols.,  Edinburgh, 
1868-81).  For  parliamentary  development,  Acts 
of  the  Parliaments  of  Scotland,  1/2^-/707 (Record 
Commission,  Edinburgh,  1814-24).  For  the  early 
period,  consult:  Skene,  Celtic  Scotland  (Edin- 
burgh, 1876-80)  ;  Robertson,  Scotland  Under  Her 
Early  Kings  (ib.,  1862)  ;  Inness,  Sketches  of 
Early  Scottish  History  (ib.,  1861).  For  the 
later  period,  Tytler,  History  of  Scotland  from 
Alexander  III.  to  the  Union  (ib.,  1866)  ;  and  the 
general  works,  among  the  best  of  which  is  Bur- 
ton, History  of  Scotland  (new  ed.,  ib.,  1899).  The 
best  popular  history  embodying  the  results  of 
modern  research  is  that  of  Lang  (New  York, 
1900).  Consult  also  that  of  Brown  (Cambridge, 
1899). 


SCOTLAlflD,  Chubch  of.    See  Pbbsbttebian- 

ISM. 

SCOTLAND  YARD.  A  building  at  the 
southeastern  comer  of  Charing  Cross,  London, 
England,  long  famous  as  the  headquarters  of 
the  Metropolitan  Police  Force.  It  derives  ita 
name  from  a  palace  assigned  from  the  time  of 
Edgar  to  Henry  11.  as  the  residence  of  the  Scot- 
tish kings  whenever  they  should  desire  to  visit 
London.  New  Scotland  Yard,  the  police  head- 
quarters since  1890,  is  on  the  Thames  Embank- 
ment. 

SCOTS  OBEYS.  The  oldest  dragoon  regi- 
ment in  the  British  Army.  It  was  raised  in 
Scotland  in  1683  and  is  mounted  entirely  on 
gray  chargers.  Throughout  its  history  it  has 
been  one  of  the  most  distinguished  regiments  in 
the  British  service.  The  uniform  differs  from  the 
other  British  dragoon  regiments,  in  that  bear- 
skin busbies  (q.v.)  are  worn  instead  -of  the 
dragoon  helmet.  Its  present  title  is  the  Second 
Dragoons,  Royal  Scots  Greys  regiment  of  cavalry. 

SCOTT,  Austin  (1849—).  An  American 
educator,  bom  in  Maumee,  Ohio.  He  graduated 
at  Yale  in  1869,  spent  a  year  in  graduate  study 
at  the  University  of  Michigan,  and  in  1871-73 
studied  history  at  Berlin  and  Leipzig.  From 
1873  to  1875  he  was  instructor  in  Crerman  at  the 
University  of  Michigan;  became  in  1876  an  asso- 
ciate in  history  in  the  newly  established  Johns 
Hopkins  University,  where  he  organized  and  di- 
rected the  seminary  of  American  history.  Dur- 
ing this  ^riod  he  also  assisted  George  Bancroft 
in  collecting  and  arranging  the  material  for  his 
History  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 
In  1883  he  became  professor  of  history  and 
economics  at  Rutgers  College,  New  Brunswick, 
N.  J.,  and  in  1890  succeeded  Merrill  E.  Gates  in 
the  presidency  of  the  institution. 

SCOTT,  Chables  (1733-1813).  An  American 
soldier,  born  in  Cumberland  County,  Va.  He 
served  as  a  non-commissioned  officer  under  Brad- 
dock  in  1755,  was  captain  of  the  first  company  in 
the  Revolutionary  War  raised  south  of  the  James, 
became  a  colonel  in  August,  1776,  distingmshed 
himself  at  Trenton,  and  in  April,  1777,  was  made 
a  brigadier-general.  In  1780  he  was  taken  pris- 
oner at  Charleston,  and  was  not  exchanged  until 
the  close  of  the  war.  Removing  to  Kentucky  in 
1785,  he  served  as  brigadier-^neral  under  Gen- 
eral Saint  Clair  in  1791,  and  m  1794  was  one  of 
Wayne's  officers  at  the  battle  of  Fallen  Timbers. 
He  was  Governor  of  Kentucky  from  1808  to  1812! 

SCOTT,  Clement  (1841—).  An  English 
journalist  and  author,  born  in  London,  October  6, 
1841,  and  educated  at  Marlborough  School.  He 
entered  the  War  Office  as  clerk  in  1860,  and 
retired  on  a  pension  in  1877.  He  then  joined 
the  editorial  staff  of  the  Daily  Telegraph,  to 
which  paper  he  had  contributed  dramatic  criti- 
cisms since  1872.  He  subsequently  became  editor 
of  a  critical  weekly  called  The  Free  Lance.  He 
is  the  author  of  Lays  of  a  Londoner  ( 1882)  ;  Lays 
and  Lyrics  (1888);  Round  About  the  Islands 
(1886)  ;  Poppif  Land  Papers  (1886)  ;  Pictures  of 
the  World  (1894)  ;  Among  the  Apple  Orchards 
(1895)  ;  and  Sisters  by  the  Sea  (1897),  all  de- 
lightful sketches.  He  is  author,  or  part  author, 
of  the  following  plays:  Diplomacy;  The  Vicarage; 
Off  the  Line;  The  Cape  Mail;  Peril;  The  Crimson 
Cross;   Odette;   Tears,  Idle  Tears;  and   Bister 


BOOTT. 


581 


SCOTT. 


Mary,  His  work  in  fiction  is  represented  by  8i<h 
ries  of  Valour  and  Adventure  (1893),  and  Ma- 
donna Mia,  and  Other  Stories  (1898).  His  dra- 
matic criticisms  include  From  "The  Bella"  to 
"King  Arthur"  (1896)  ;  The  Drama  of  Yesterday 
and  To-Day  (1899) ;  Ellen  Terry  (1900). 

SCOTT,  David  (1806-49).  An  English  his- 
torical and  portrait  painter,  etcher,  engraver, 
and  author,  born  at  Edinburgh.  He  exhibited 
his  first  picture,  the  "Hopes  of  Early  Genius 
Dispelled  by  Death,"  at  the  Scottish  Academy  in 
1828.  In  1832  he  visited  Italy,  making  a  short 
stay  in  Paris,  where  he  was  much  impressed  by 
the  works  of  David,  and  from  there  going  to 
Rome,  he  returned  to  Edinburgh  in  1834.  Al- 
though an  artist  of  undoubted  merit,  he  failed  to 
win  the  appreciation  of  the  public.  His  feverish 
and  eaffer  haste  to  portray  his  ideas  hampered 
him  in  his  use  of  color,  ana  one  must  look  to  his 
work  as  a  draughtsman  to  find  the  true  interpre- 
tation of  his  genius.  Amonj  his  designs  are  his 
Monograms  of  Man  (1831),  a  set  of  six  remark- 
able etchings  somewhat  resembling  those  of  Max 
Klinger,  and  drawn  in  delicate  outline  on  cop- 
per, and  his  designs  for  Coleridge's  Ancient 
Mariner,  begun  in  the  same  year,  published  in 
London  (1837),  a  series  characterized  by  vivid 
imagination  and  great  power.  Most  of  his  paint- 
ings are  in  private  collections  in  Scotland.  The 
National  Gallery  of  Edinburgh  possesses  the 
•Vintager"  and  "Ariel  and  Caliban."  Other 
paintings  include:  "Achilles  Addressing  the 
Manes  of  Patrocius,"  Sunderland  Art  Gallery; 
"Vasco  da  Gama,"  Trinity  House,  Leith;  the 
"Descent  from  the  Cross,"  Smith  Institute,  Stir- 
ling; and  portraits  of  Dr.  John  Brown  and  of 
Emerson  (Public  Library,  Concord,  Mass.). 
Scott's  last  works  were  the  40  illustrations  to 
Pilgrim's  Progress,  and  a  series  of  18  beautiful 
designs  to  Nichol's  Architecture  of  the  Heavens, 
both  issued  after  his  death.  Consult  W.  B. 
Scott,  Memoir  of  David  Scott  (Edinburgh,  1850) . 

SCOTT,  DuwcAw  Campbeli^  (1862—).  A 
Canadian  poet,  bom  in  Ottawa,  Ontario.  He 
was  educated  at  Stanstead*.  Wesleyan  College. 
Having  entered  the  Canadian  civil  service  as  a 
third-class  clerk  in  1879,  he  rose  rapidly  to  the 
position  of  chief  cleilc  and  accountant  (1893). 
His  published  verse  comprises  The  Magic  House 
(1893)  and  Labor  and  the  Angel  (1898).  The 
Village  of  Viger  (1896)  is  a  collection  of  ten 
short  stories  of  Canadian  country  life.  See 
Canadian  Literatube. 

SCOTT,  Edward  John  Long  (1840—).  An 
English  scholar  and  author,  bom  in  Bridge- 
water,  Somerset.  He  graduated  at  Lincoln  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  in  1862,  in  1863  entered  the  manu- 
script department  of  the  British  Museum,  and  in 
1888  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  manuscripts 
and  Egerton  librarian.  His  publications  include : 
Introduction  to  Reprint  Eikon  Basilike  (1880) ; 
a  translation  in  verse  of  the  Eclogues  of  Vergil 
(1884) ;  Private  Diary  of  Shakespeare's  Cousin, 
Thomas  Greene,  Toum-Clerk  of  Stratford-on^ 
Avon  (1883);  William  Harvey's  Original  Lec- 
tures on  the  Circulation  of  the  Blood  (1886). 

SCOTT,  Sir  Geoboe  Gilbert  (1811-78).  An 
English  architect.  He  was  born  at  Gawcott, 
Buckinghamshire,  and  in  1827  was  articled  to 
a  London  architect.  Converted  by  the  writings 
of  Pugin,  he  became  a  leading  spirit  of  the 
Gothic  revival,  and  was  employed  in  restoring 


many  of  the  old  English  cathedrals,  including 
Westminster  Abbey  and  Ely  Cathedral,  and  in 
building  churches.  Prominent  among  his  secular 
edifices  are  the  Albert  Memorial,  and  the  min- 
isterial buildings  of  the  War,  Foreign,  Home,  and 
Colonial  offices.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
Koyal  Academy  in  1861,  and  was  made  professor 
of  architecture,  his  collection  of  lectures  being 
published  under  the  title  Mediasval  Architecture 
(2  vols.,  London,  1879).  He  won  the  gold  medal 
of  the  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects  in 
1859,  was  president  of  that  body  (1873-76),  and 
was  knighted  in  1872.  He  died  in  South  Ken- 
sington, March  27,  1878,  and  was  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey.  Consult  his  Recollections  (Lon- 
don, 1879). 

SCdTT,  Hugh  Lenox  (1853 — ).  An  Ameri- 
can soldier,  bom  at  Danville,  Ky.  He  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1876,  and  entered  the  cavalry. 
He  saw  service  in  Indian  campaigns  and  was  as- 
signed to  Western  posts.  In  1892  he  enlisted  an 
Indian  troop  in  the  Seventh  Cavalry,  and  com- 
manded it  until  all  Indian  troops  were  mustered 
out  of  service  in  1897.  In  the  war  with  Spain  he 
was  an  adjutant-general  in  the  First  Army  Corps, 
holding  that  office  until  February,  1899.  He  then 
served  for  fourteen  months  as  adjutant  general 
of  the  Department  of  Havana,  after  which  he  be- 
came successively  assistant  adjutantrgeneral,  and 
adjutant-general  of  the  Department  of  Cuba.  Be- 
sides reports  on  the  Plains  Indians,  he  wrote  a 
monograph  on  the  sign  language  of  the  Plains  In- 
dians, published  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Folk 
Lore  Congress  of  the  World's  Fair  at  Chicago  in 
1893. 

SCOTT,  Hugh  Stowell  (  M903).  An  English 
author,  better  known  by  his  pseudonym,  Henry  Se- 
ton  Merriman.  He  published  Phantom  Future 
(1899);  Suspense  (1890);  Prisoners  and  Cap- 
tives (1891) ;  Slave  of  the  Lamp  (1892) ;  With 
Edged  TooU  (1894);  Grey  Lady  (1895);  The 
Sowers  (1896) ;  In  Kedar's  Tents  (1897)  ;  Flot- 
sam (1898) ;  Roden's  Comer  (1898) ;  Isle  of  Un- 
rest (1900) ;  Velvet  Glove  (1901) ;  The  Vultures 
(1902). 

SCOTT,  Ibvino  Mubray  (1837-1903).  An 
American  shipbuilder  and  iron-master,  bom  in 
Hebron  Mills,  Baltimore  County,  Md.  He  en- 
tered the  employ  of  the  Union  Iron  Works  of  San 
Francisco  as  draughtsman  in  1858.  He  designed 
much  mining  machinery,  notably  that  for  the  Com- 
stockmine.  On  his  suggestion  as  general  manager 
the  Union  Iron  Works  added  in  1884  shipbuilding 
to  the  construction  of  mining  machinery,  and 
built  for  the  United  States  Government  the 
Charleston,  Oregon,  San  Francisco,  Olympia, 
Wisconsin,  and  Ohio,  He  was  a  trustee  of  Le- 
land  Stanford,  Jr.,  University,  and  a  prominent 
figure  in  the  Republican  Party  of  the  Pacific 
Coast,  his  name  being  urged  for  the  Vice-Presi- 
dential nomination  in  1900. 

SCOTT,  John  Morin  (1730-84).  An  Ameri- 
can patriot,  soldier,  and  legislator,  bom  in  New 
York.  He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1746,  became 
prominent  as  a  la"wyer  in  New  York,  and  was 
conspicuous  as  an  early  opponent  of  the  British 
Ministry,  being  one  of  the  organizers  of  the  Sons 
of  Liberty.  In  1775  he  became  a  member  of  the 
New  York  General  0)mmittee,  served  in  the 
Provincial  Congress  in  1776-76,  and,  as  brigadier- 
general,  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Long  Island. 
In  1777  he  resigned  his  commission,  and  subse- 


SCOTT. 


582 


SCOTT. 


served  as  Secretary  of  State  of  New 
^ork  in  1777-79,  and  as  a  member  of  the  Conti- 
nental Congress  in  1780-83. 

SCOTT,  Julian  (1846-1901).  An  American 
battle  and  figure  painter,  bom  in  Johnson,  Vt. 
He  served  in  the  Federal  Army  from  1861  until 
1863^  and  afterwards  studied  art  in  the  National 
Academy  of  Design,  and  under  Leutze.  He  was 
elected  an  associate  of  the  Academy  in  1871.  His 
works,  mainly  taken  from  Civil  War  subjects, 
include:  "Rear  Guard  at  White  Oak  Swamp" 
(Union  League  Club,  New  York  City) ;  "Capture 
of  Andr6"  (1876);  and  "In  the  Cornfield  at 
Antietam**  (1879). 

SCOTT,  or  SCOT,  Michael  (c.1175-c.1234). 
A  famous  mediaeval  scholar,  who  probably  be- 
longed to  a  family  on  the  Scottish  border.  He 
received  his  education  at  the  universities  of  Ox- 
ford, Paris,  Bologna,  and  Palermo,  and  spent 
most  of  his  later  life  at  the  Court  of  the  Em- 
peror Frederick  II.  in  Sicily,  where  he  was.  one 
of  the  most  famous  of  the  group  of  scholars  col- 
lected around  that  enlightened  monarch.  He  was 
in  high  favor  with  both  Honorius  III.  and  Greg- 
ory IX.,  who  gave  him  various  benefices,  prob- 
ably in  Italy.  In  1230  he  visited  Oxford,  taking 
with  him  works  of  Aristotle  and  various  com- 
mentaries. There  are  very  few  other  facts  about 
his  life  which  can  be  regarded  as  authentic.  Of 
his  printed  works,  the  best  known  are  Lther 
PhyaiognomicB  Magisiri  Michaelis  Scoii  and 
Mensa  Philosophica,  translated  into  English  and 
frequently  printed  under  the  title  of  The  Phi- 
lo8oph€r*8  Banquet.  In  addition  he  made  vari- 
ous translations  of  Aristotle's  works  and  the 
Arabic  commentaries.  He  also  wrote  works  on 
astronomy  and  alchemy.  As  was  so  often  the  case 
in  the  Middle  Ages  with  famous  scholars,  Michael 
Scott  became  known  soon  after  his  death  as  a 
magician,  and  as  such  he  has  figured  extensively 
in  literature.  Sir  Walter  Scott  has  caused  the 
action  of  his  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel  to  centre 
about  the  traditional  grave  of  Michael  at  Melrose 
Abbey.  Consult  Brown,  Life  and  Legend  of 
Michael  Scot  (Edinburgh,  1897). 

SCOTT  or  SCOT,  Reginald  (c.1538-99).  A 
writer  against  witchcraft,  son  of  Richard  Scot 
of  Scots  Hall  at  Smeeth,  in  Kent.  In  1656 
he  entered  Hart  Hall,  Oxford,  but  left  without 
a  degree.  He  passed  his  life  in  Kent  as  a 
country  gentleman.  His  famous  work,  The  Dis- 
coverie  of  Witchcraft  (1684),  was  designed  to 
demonstrate  the  absurdity  of  the  prevalent  belief 
in  witchcraft.  Besides  being  full  of  learning, 
it  is  marked  by  passages  of  sound  sense  and 
humane  feeling,  qualities  that  naturally  excited 
the  antipathy  of  King  James,  who  replied  in  his 
Dcemonology  (1697).  On  coming  to  the  English 
throne,  James  ordered  Scott's  book  to  be  burned. 
Scott  also  published  a  valuable  book  entitled  A 
Perfect  Platform  of  a  Hop  Garden  (1574).  The 
Discoverie  was  edited  by  Brinsley  Nicholson 
(London,  1886). 

SCOTT,  Richard  William  (1826—).  A 
Canadian  statesman,  bom  in  Prescott,  Ontario. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1848,  and  from 
1857  to  1863  sat  in  the  Canadian  Assembly.  In 
1867-73  he  was  a  member  of  the  Ontario  Assem- 
bly, of  which  he  was  elected  Speaker  in  1871. 
Prom  1872  to  1873  he  was  Commissioner  of 
Crown  Lands,  and  from  1873  to  1878  Secretary  of 
State.     He  was  acting  Minister  respectively  of 


Finance  in  1874,  of  Inland  Revenue  in  1875-76, 
and  of  Justice  in  1876.  He  carried  through  the 
separate  Catholic  school  law  of  Ontario  Province, 
and  the  Canada  local  option  temperance  act, 
generally  styled  the  'Scott  act.'  In  1874  he  was 
elected  to  the  Dominion  Senate,  and  in  1896  be- 
came Secretary  of  State. 

SCOTT,  Robert  (1811-87).  An  English 
clergyman  and  scholar.  He  was  bom  at  Bond- 
leigh  in  Devonshire,  and  educated  at  Shrews- 
bury School  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
where  he  won  the  Craven  and  Ireland  scholar- 
ships. He  took  his  d^^ee  in  1833  and  won  a  fel- 
lowship at  Balliol  two  years  later.  Meantime,  in 
1834,  he  had  taken  holy  orders,  and  held  vari- 
ous ecclesiastical  preferments  until  1854,  when 
he  was  elected  master  of  Balliol  in  opposition  to 
Jowett,  who  was  to  be  his  successor.  In  1870  he 
accepted  the  deanery  of  Rochester  and  held  it 
until  his  death.  Scott's  name  is  most  widely 
known  by  his  joint  authorship,  with  H.  G.  Lid- 
dell,  of  the  great  Greek-English  lexicon,  whose 
appearance  in  1843  was  epoch-making  for  Eng- 
lish scholarship.  For  the  next  forty  years  Lid- 
dell  and  Scott  worked  diligently  at  revision  and 
addition,  until  the  seventh  edition  (1883)  was 
practically  an  original  work,  though  the  first  had 
been  based  on  the  German  lexicon  of  Passow. 

SOOTT^  RoBEBT  Henbt  (1833—).  A  British 
meteorologist,  horn  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  and  edu- 
cated there  at  Trinity  College,  and  in  Berlin  and 
Munich.  He  was  keeper  of  tiie  mineralogical  mu- 
seum of  the  Royal  Dublin  Society  from  1862  to 
1867,  when  he  became  director  of  the  British 
Meteorological  Office,  a  post  which  he  held  until 
1900.  He  wrote:  Volumetric  Analysis  (1862); 
Weather  Charts  and  Storm  Warnings  (1876;  2d 
ed.  1887) ;  and  Elementary  Meteorology  (1883). 

SCOTT,  RoBEBT  Kingston  (1826-1900).  An 
American  soldier  and  politician,  bom  in  Arm- 
strong County,  Pa.  In  1861  he  was  chosen  lieu- 
tenant-colonel of  the  Sixty-eighth  Ohio  Regiment, 
and  next  year  was  promoted  colonel.  He  fought 
at  Fort  I>onelson>  Shiloh,  and  Corinth,  was 
in  the  campaign  against  Vicksburg,  was  taken 
prisoner  near  Atlanta  in  1864,  but  was  shortly 
afterwards  exchanged,  and  served  during  the  re- 
mainder of  the  war  with  General  Sherman. 
From  1865  until  1868  he  was  assistant  commis- 
sioner in  South  Carolina  of  the  Freedman's  Bu- 
reau. In  the  latter  year  he  was  elected  Governor 
of  the  reconstructed  State,  and  in  1870  was  re- 
elected for  the  ensuing  term  of  two  years.  His 
administrations  were  very  corrupt,  and  during 
them  the  State  debt  increased  about  $13,000,000, 
although  few  public  improvements  were  made. 
In  his  second  administration  Ku  Klux  disorders 
became  so  numerous  in  some  parts  of  the  State 
that  President  Grant,  under  the  authority  con- 
ferred by  the  Enforcement  Act  of  April  20,  1871, 
suspended  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  in  some  of 
the  counties,  and  many  of  the  offenders  were 
tried  by  the  Federal  courts.  In  1877  Scott  set- 
tled in  Napoleon,  Ohio.  In  1881  he  was  tried 
for  shooting  and  killing  W.  G.  Drury,  but  was 
acquitted  on  the  plea  that  the  shooting  was  acci- 
dental. For  accounts  of  his  administrations  in 
South  Carolina,  consult:  Pike,  The  Prostrate 
State  (New  York,  1874) ;  and  Why  the  Solid 
South?  by  Hilary  A.  Heibert  and  others  (Balti- 
more, 1890). 


SCOTT. 


688 


SCOTT. 


SCOTT,  Thomas  (1705-76).  An  English 
hTmn-writer,  son  of  an  Independent  minister  of 
Hitchin,  in  Hertfordshire.  He  began  preaching 
when  a  young  man  and  afterwards  held  various 
appointments  in  Norfolk  and  Suffolk.  Best 
known  of  his  hymns  are  ''Happy  the  Meek"  and 
''Hasten,  Sinner,  to  be  Wise.*'  Consult  his 
Lyric  Poems,  Devotional  and  Moral  (1773).  He 
also  turned  into  English  verse  The  Table  of  Cehea 
( 1764 )  and  The  Book  of  Job  ( 1771 ) .  His  sister, 
Elizabeth  Soott  (1708T-76),  likewise  wrote 
many  hymns,  several  of  which  are  still  used.  To 
her  belongs  "All  hail.  Incarnate  Qod." 

SCOTT,  Thomas  (1747-1821).  An  English 
Bible  commentator.  He  was  bom  at  Braytoft, 
Lincolnshire,  and  spent  the  early  years  of  his 
life  as  a  grazier.  In  1773  he  was  ordained  priest 
and  became  curate  in  Buckinghamshire;  he  suc- 
ceeded John  Newton,  curate  of  Olney,  in  1781; 
was  chaplain  to  the  Lock  hospital  in  1786;  and 
rector  of  Aston  Sandford  in  1803.  Among  his  pub- 
lications are:  The  Force  of  Truth  (1779) ;  The 
Articles  of  the  Synod  of  Dort,  translated  ( 1818) ; 
and  his  commentary  on  the  Bible  (1788-92), 
which  had  immense  circulation  and  influence  in 
its  day.  His  collected  works  appeared  in  10  vol- 
umes (1823-26),  and  his  Letters  and  Papers 
(1824) ,  edited  by  his  son,  who  also  wrote  his  Life 
( 1822 ) ,  including  in  it  a  valuable  autobiographi- 
cal fragment. 

SCOTT,  Thohab  Albxandeb  (1824-81).  An 
American  railroad  manager,  bom  at  Loudon, 
Pa.  Entering  the  service  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad  in  1861,  he  was  rapidly  promoted,  and 
in  1869  became  vice-president.  In  1861  he  was 
appointed  by  President  Lincoln  Assistant  Secre- 
tary of  War,  in  which  capacity  he  rendered  in- 
valuable services  by  reorganizing  the  entire  sys- 
tem of  transportation.  Returning  to  the  service 
of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  he  inaugurated  the 
policy  of  securing  control  of  Western  railway 
lines  for  operation  in  connection  with  the  Penn- 
sylvania system.  He  was  president  at  different 
times  of  various  railroad  lines,  and  from  1874 
until  a  short  time  before  his  death  was  president 
of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad. 

SCOTT,  Sir  Walteb  (177M832).  A  famous 
British  novelist  and  poet.  He  was  bom  in  Edin- 
burgh, August  16,  1771,  of  an  old  border  family, 
the  Scotts  of  Harden,  an  offshoot  from  the  House 
of  Buccleuch.  Although  he  grew  to  be  healthy, 
as  a  child  Scott  was  sickly ;  but  he  grew  to  be  very 
tall,  with  bright  eyes,  a  sturdy  chest,  and  power- 
ful arms,  and  he  was  thought  good-looking.  His 
childhood  was  passed  for  the  most  part  at  Sandy 
Knowe,  the  farm  of  his  grandfather,  in  Rox- 
burghshire. His  early  familiarity  with  the  bal- 
lads and  legends  then  floating  over  all  that  part 
of  the  country  probably  did  more  than  any  other 
influence  to  determine  the  sphere  of  his  future 
Uteraiy  activity.  Between  1778  and  1783  he  at- 
tended the  high  school  of  Edinburgh,  where,  de- 
spite occasional  flashes  of  talent,  ne  shone  con- 
siderably more  as  a  bold,  high-spirited  boy,  with 
an  odd  turn  for  story-telling,  than  as  a  student. 
In  1783  he  began  attending  the  University  of 
Edinbur^,  where  he  continued  about  two  years, 
it  would  seem,  not  greatly  to  his  advantage. 
Afterwards,  at  the  height  of  his  fame,  he  was 
wont  to  speak  with  deep  regret  of  his  neglect  of 
early  opportimities.  But,  though  leaving  colle^ 
scantily  furnished  with  the  knowledge  formally 


taught  there,  he  had  been  hiving  up,  in  his  own 
way,  stores  of  valuable  though 'unassorted  infor- 
mation. From  his  earliest  childhood  onward  he 
was  an  insatiable  reader;  and  of  what  he  either 
read  or  observed  he  seems  to  have  forgotten  al- 
most nothing.  He  was  a  fairly  good  Latinist ;  of 
Greek  he  knew  nothing,  but  he  acquired  a  ser- 
viceable knowledge  of  French,  Italian,  Spanish, 
and  Qerman. 

In  music  he  showed  no  talent.  In  1786  he  was 
articled  apprentice  to  his  father;  in  1788  he  be- 
gan to  study  for  the  bar,  to  which  he  was  called 
in  1792.  In  his  profession  he  had  fair  success, 
and  in  1797  he  married  Charlotte  Margaret 
Carpenter,  the  daughter  of  a  French  refugee, 
named  Jean  Charpentier.  Toward  the  end  of 
1799,  through  the  interest  of  his  friends  Lord 
Melville  and  the  Duke  of  Buccleuch,  he  was  made 
sheriff  depute  of  Selkirkshire,  an  appointment 
which  brought  him  £300  a  year,  with  not  very 
much  to  do  for  it.  Meantime,  in  a  tentative  and 
intermittent  way,  his  leisure  had  been  occupied 
with  literature,  which  more  and  more  distinct- 
ly announced  itself  as  the  main  business  of  his 
life.  Excepting  a  disputation  on  being  called  to 
the  bar,  his  first  publication,  a  translation  of 
Burger's  ballads  Lenore  and  The  Wild  Hunts- 
man, was  issued  in  1796.  In  1799  appeared  his 
translation  of  Goethe's  drama  of  Gotz  von  Ber- 
lichingen;  and  at  this  time  he  was  writing  for 
Monk  Lewis  the  fine  ballads,  Olenfinlas,  the  Eve 
of  Saint  John,  and  the  Orey  Brother.  In  1802 
Scott  published  the  first  two  volumes  of  his 
Border  Minstrelsy,  which  were  followed  in  1803 
by  a  third  and  final  one.  This  work,  the  fruit  of 
those  'raids' — ^as  he  called  them — over  the  border 
counties,  in  which  he  had  been  wont  to  spend  his 
vacations,  won  for  him  at  once  prominence  among 
the  literary  men  of  the  time.  In  1804  he  issued 
an  edition  of  the  old  poem  Sir  Tristram,  ad- 
mirably edited  and  elucidated  by  valuable  disser- 
tations. Meantime,  The  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel 
had  been  in  progress,  and  on  its  publication  in 
1806  Scott  found  himself  the  most  popular  poet 
of  the  day.  During  the  next  ten  years,  besides 
a  mass  of  miscellaneous  work,  the  most  impor- 
tant items  of  which  were  elaborate  editions  of 
Dryden  (1808)  and  of  Swift  (1814),  including 
in  each  case  a  memoir,  he  gave  to  the  world  the 
poems  Marmion  (1808) ;  The  Lady  of  the  Lake 
(1810);  The  Vision  of  Don  Roderick  (1811); 
Rokeby  (1813) ;  The  Bridal  of  Triermain (1813) ; 
and  The  Lord  of  the  Isles  (1816).  The  enthu- 
siasm with  which  the  earlier  of  these  works  were 
received  somewhat  abated  as  the  series  pro- 
ceeded. The  charm  of  novelty  was  no  longer  felt, 
and  the  poetry  had  deteriorated.  Moreover,  in 
the  bold  outburst  of  Byron,  with  his  deeper  vein 
of  sentiment  and  concentrated  energy  of  passion, 
a  formidable  rival  had  appeared.  AH  this  Scott 
distinctly  noted,  and  after  what  he  felt  as  the 
comparative  failure  of  The  Lord  of  the  Isles  in 
1816,  he  published,  with  the  trivial  exception  of 
the  anonymous  Harold  the  Dauntless  (1817),  no 
more  poetry.  But  already  in  Waverley,  or  'Tis 
Sixty  Tears  Since,  which  appeared  without  his 
name  in  1814,  he  had  achieved  the  first  of  a  new 
series  of  triumphs.  Guy  Mannering  (1816), 
The  Antiquary  (1816),  Old  Mortality,  The  Black 
Dwarf  (1817,  really  1816),  Rob  Roy  (1818), 
and  The  Heart  of  Midlothian  (1818)  rapidly  fol- 
lowed. The  remainder  of  the  famous  group 
known  as  the  Waverley  novels  form  the  most 


SCOTT. 


584 


SCOTT. 


splendid  series  of«historical  portraits  in  any  lan- 
guage. The  Bride  of  Lammermoor  (1819)  ;  The 
Legend  of  Montrose  (1819);  Ivanhoe  (1820); 
The  Monastery  (1820);  Kenilicorth  (1821); 
Queniin  Durward  (1823);  The  Talisman  (1825) 
— ^these  are  among  the  most  enduring  of  those 
great  stories  which  enchanted  Europe  and  had 
an  immense  influence  on  the  development  of  fic- 
tion. 

Scott  was  now  at  the  height  of  his  fame  and 
prosperity.  He  was  living  at  Abbotsford,  the 
'romance  in  stone'  he  had  built  for  himself  in 
the  border  country  which  he  loved.  There  he 
entertained  with  princely  hospitality  admirers 
of  many  types.  In  1820  he  was  created  a  baronet. 
But  his  fortunes,  secure  as  they  seemed,  were 
built  upon  insecure  foundations.  In  1805  Scott's 
income,  as  calculated  by  his  biographer,  was 
about  £1000  a  year,  irrespective  of  what  litera- 
ture might  bring  him,  a  competency  shortly  in- 
creased, on  his  appointment  to  a  clerkship  of 
the  Court  of  Session,  by  £1300.  But  what  was 
ample  for  all  prosaic  needs  seemed  poor  to 
Scott's  imagination.  In  1805,  lured  by  tne  hope 
of  immense  profits,  he  secretly  joined  James 
Ballantyne,  an  old  schoolfellow,  in  a  large 
printing  business  in  Edinburgh.  To  this,  a  few 
years  afterwards,  a  publishing  business  was 
added,  under  the  nominal  conduct  of  John  Bal- 
lantyne, a  brother  of  James;  Scott,  in  the  new 
adventure,  becoming,  as  before,  a  partner.  Grad- 
ually the  affairs  of  the  two  firms  became  com- 
plicated with  those  of  the  great  house  of  Con- 
stable &  Co.,  in  the  sudden  collapse  of  which  in 
1826  the  Ballantynes  were  involved  to  the  ex- 
tent of  £120,000.  Compromise  with  their  credi- 
tors would  have  been  easy.  But  Scott  regarded 
the  debt  as  personal.  "If  I  live  and  retain  my 
health,"  said  Scott,  "no  man  shall  lose  a  penny 
by  me."  And,  somewhat  declined  as  he  now  was 
from  the  first  vigor  and  elasticity  of  his  strength, 
he  set  himself  to  liquidate  by  his  pen  this  large 
sum.  The  stream  of  novels  now  flowed  swiftly. 
A  History  of  Napoleon,  in  eight  volumes,  was  un- 
dertaken and  completed,  with  much  other  miscel- 
laneous work;  and  within  a  space  of  two  years 
Scott  had  realized  for  his  creditors  nearly  £40,- 
000.  A  new  and  annotated  edition  of  the  novels 
(begun  in  1829)  was  issued  with  immense  suc- 
cess ;  and  there  seemed  every  prospect  that,  with- 
in a  reasonable  period,  Scott  might  again  face 
the  world,  as  he  had  pledged  himself  to  do,  owing 
no  man  a  penny.  In  this  severe  labor  he  broke 
down.  In  1830  he  was  smitten  with  paralysis, 
from  which  he  never  thoroughly  rallied.  It 
was  hoped  that  the  climate  of  Italy  might  benefit 
him.  The  Admiralty  placed  at  nis  disposal  a 
man-of-war  on  which  he  took  a  Mediterranean 
voyage,  touching  at  Malta  and  Naples.  But  in 
Italy  he  pined  for  the  home  to  which  he  returned 
only  to  die.  At  Abbotsford,  on  September  21, 
1832,  he  passed  away,  with  his  children  round 
him.  On  the  26th  he  was  buried  beside  his  wife 
(d.  1826)  in  the  beautiful  ruins  of  Dryburgh 
Abbey.  By  the  sale  of  copyrights,  all  Scott's 
debts  were  liquidated  in  1847. 

In  regard  to  Scott's  poetry  there  is  now  little 
difference  of  opinion.  Its  genuine  merits  con- 
tinue to  secure  for  it  some  part  of  the  popular 
favor  with  which  it  was  at  first  received.  De- 
ficient though  it  be  in  certain  of  the  higher  and 
deeper  qualities,  and  in  finish,  it  is  admirable  in 
its  frank  abandon,  in  its  boldness  and  breadth  of 


effect,  its  succession  of  clear  pictures,  and  its 
rapid  and  fiery  movement.  Scattered  here  and 
there  are  little  snatches  of  ballad  and  song 
scarcely  surpassed  in  our  language.  As  a  novel- 
ist Scott  had  some  shortcomings.  With  the 
artistic  instinct  granted  him  in  largest  measure, 
he  had  little  of  the  artistic  conscience.  Writing 
offhand,  he  would  not  watch  his  work  as  it  pro- 
ceeded. Hence  he  is  an  exceedingly  irregular 
writer;  many  of  his  works  are  in  structure  most 
lax  and  careless,  and  some  of  the  very  greatest 
of  them  are  marred  by  occasional  infusions  of 
obviously  inferior  matter.  Yet  it  may  be  doubted 
whether  in  mass  and  stature  Scott  is  quite 
reached  by  any  other  English  novelist.  Of  Scott's 
novels,  those  dealing  most  intimately  ¥rith  Scotch 
life  are  the  best.  As  a  force,  Scott's  influence  has 
been  immense.  He  discovered  the  historical  novel 
and  from  him  proceed  the  countless  tales  of  na- 
tional life  since  written  in  Great  Britain, 
throughout  Europe,  and  in  the  United  States. 
Scott,  too,  gave  to  fiction  that  encyclopaedic 
character  since  exemplified  in  Balzac,  Dickens, 
and  Thackeray.  He  did  more  than  all  other  men 
of  his  time  to  enlarge  our  vision,  by  extending  it 
over  wide  stretches  of  history.  He  also  revolution- 
ized the  current  conceptions  of  history  as  a  body 
of  dry  facts.  His  logical  successor  was  Macaulay. 
Scott's  miscellaneous  prose  works,  comprising 
essays  on  the  novelists,  etc.,  were  collected  in 
1827,  in  1834-36,  and  in  1841.  His  poems  and 
novels  exist  in  many  editions.  The  following  list 
includes  such  works  as  have  not  already  been 
mentioned:  Apology  for  Tales  of  Terror  (12 
copies  privately  printed,  1799) ;  "Ballads,"  in 
Lewis's  Tales  of  Wonder  (1801);  Ballads  and 
Lyrical  Pieces^  from  Border  Minstrelsy  and 
Tales  of  Wonder  (1806)  ;  Abstract  of  Eyrbiggia 
Saga,  in  Jameson's  Northern  Antiquities  (1814)  ; 
Chivalry  and  Drama,  in  Supplement  to  Encyclo- 
pcBdia  Britannica  (1814);  Introduction  to  Bor- 
der Antiquities  (1814-17)  ;  The  Field  of  Water- 
loo  (1815);  PauVs  Letters  to  His  Kinsfolk 
(1815);  The  Search  After  Happiness,  or  the 
Quest  of  Sultan  Solimaun,  and  Kemble's  Address 
on  the  Sale  Room  (1817)  ;  Description  of  the 
Regalia  of  Scotland  (1819);  The  Visionary  by 
Somnambulus,  a  political  satire,  republished 
from  the  Edinburgh  Weekly  Journal  (1819)  ; 
The  Abbot  (1820)  ;  biographies  in  Ballantyne's 
Novelists  (1821)  ;  Account  of  George  III.'s  Cor- 
onation (1821)  ;  The  Pirate {IS22) ;  Halidon  Hill 
(1822);  Macduff's  Cross,  in  Joanna  Baillie's 
Poetical  Miscellanies  (1822);  The  Fortunes  of 
Nigel  (1822);  Peveril  of  the  Peak  (1822-23); 
Saint  Ronan's  Well  (1824)  ;  Redgauntlet  (1824)  ; 
Tales  of  the  Crusaders;  The  Betrothed  (1825)  ; 
Thoughts  on  the  Proposed  Change  of  Currency 
(1826);  Woodstock,  or  the  Cavalier:  a  Tale 
of  1651  (1827);  Chronicles  of  the  Canongate; 
The  Two  Drovers;  The  Highland  Widow;  The 
Surgeon's  Daughter  (1827)  ;  Tales  of  a  Cfrand- 
father  (4  series,  1828,  1829,  1830,  1830) ;  Chron- 
icles of  the  Canongate,  second  series;  8amt 
Valentine's  Day,  or  the  Fair  Maid  of  Perth 
(1828);  "My  Aunt  Margaret's  Mirror,**  'TTie 
Tapestried  Chamber,"  and  "The  Laird's  Jock," 
in  the  Keepsake  for  1828;  Religious  Discourses, 
by  a  Layman  (1828);  Anne  of  Oeierstein 
(1829)  ;  History  of  Scotland,  in  Lardner's  Cabi- 
net Encyclopcedia  (1830);  "Letters  on  Demo- 
nology  and  Witchcraft,"  in  Murray's  Family  Li- 
brary (1830) ;  House  of  Aspen,  in  the  Keepsake 


SCOTT. 


685 


SCOTT. 


(1830) ;  Doom  of  Devorgoil:  Auchindrane,  or 
the  Ayrshire  Tragedy  (1830) ;  Essays  on  Ballad 
Poetry  (1830);  Tales  of  My  Landlord  (4th  se- 
ries) ;  Count  Robert  of  Paris;  Castle  Dangerous 
(1832). 

For  the  facts  of  his  life,  consult:  Lockhart's 
Life  (London,  1838;  often  reprinted;  best  edi- 
tion by  Pollard,  1900) ;  Scott's  Journal  (Edin- 
burgh, 1890)  and  Familiar  Lessons  (ib.,  1893) ; 
and  R.  H.  Button,  in  "English  Men  of  Letters" 
(New  York,  1879).  For  Scott's  influence  on  the 
Continent,  consult  Louis  Maigron,  Le  roman  his- 
torique  (Paris,  1898) ;  &nd  GotachsAl, Die deutsche 
I^ationallitteratur  des  19ten  Jahrhunderts,  vol. 
iv.  (Breslau,  1881).  For  estimates,  consult: 
Carlyle's  "Essay,"  in  Critical  and  Miscellaneous 
Essays  (JAindon,  1840)  ;  Bagehot,  in  Literary  Stud- 
ies (London,  1895) ;  and  Stevenson's  "Gossip  on 
Romance,"  in  Memories  and  Portraits  (London, 
1891);  also  Crockett,  The  Scott  Country  (New 
York,   1902).     See  also  Novel;  Romaivticism ; 

ENGLISH  LnXRATUBE. 

SCOTT,  WnxiAM  Amasa  (1862—).  An 
American  economist,  bom  in  Clarkson,  Monroe 
County,  N.  Y.,  and  educated  at  the  University 
of  RcMchester,  with  a  post-graduate  course  in 
Johns  Hopkins  University  (1890-92).  He  had 
taught  political  economy  in  the  University  of 
South  Dakota  from  1887  to  1890,  and,  on  leav- 
ing Johns  Hopkins,  where  he  had  acted  as  in- 
structor in  histoiy,  became  assistant  professor  of 
economics  in  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  was 
titular  professor  from  1897  to  1900,  and  then 
director  of  the  School  of  Commerce  and  professor 
of  economic  history  and  theory.'  His  publications 
include  Repudiation  of  State  Debts  (1893)  and 
Reports  of  State  Committees  of  Wisconsin. 

SCOTT,  William  Bell  (1811-90).  A  Scotch 
poet  and  painter,  bom  at  Saint  Leonard's,  Edin- 
burgh. He  was  a  son  of  Robert  Scott,  the  en- 
graver, and  a  yoimger  brother  of  David  Scott 
(q.v.),  the  distinguished  painter.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Edinburgh  High  School,  studied 
art  at  the  Government  academy  and  in  the  Brit- 
ish Museum,  and  worked  with  his  father  at 
engraving.  In  1837  he  went  to  London  and  be- 
gan his  career  as  etcher  and  painter.  In  1844 
he  was  appointed  master  of  the  Grovernment 
schools  of  design  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  a  post 
which  he  occupied  with  distinction  till  1864.  In 
the  meantime  he  had  executed  a  series  of  large 
pictures  for  Sir  Walter  Trevelyan  at  Wallington 
Hall,  taking  his  subjects  from  border  history 
and  legend ;  and  a  few  years  later  he  also  painted 
a  series  of  designs  from  the  King's  Quhair  for 
the  stairway  at  Penkill  Castle  in  Perthshire.  His 
last  years  were  passed  at  Chelsea,  near  his  inti- 
mate friend  D.  G.  Rossetti  (<}.v.),  and  at  Pen- 
kill  Castle  with  another  friend.  Miss  Boyd. 
Among  Scott's  published  designs  is  William 
Blake:  Etchings  from  His  Works  (1878).  On 
art  or  artists  he  wrote  a  Memxnr  of  David  Scott 
(1850);  Albert  Durer:  His  Life  and  Works 
(1869) ;  The  British  School  of  Sculpture 
(1872)  ;  Our  British  Landscape  Painters  (1872)  ; 
Murillo  and  the  Spanish  School  (1873);  and 
works  on  the  modem  schools  in  France,  Belgium, 
and  Grermany.  His  own  illustrations  added  to  the 
charm  of  these  books.  Scott  began  writing  verse 
while  living  in  Edinburgh.  He  was  strongly 
under  the  mfluence  of  Blake  and  Shelley  and 
later  he  came  under  the  spell  of  Rossetti.    His 


finest  poems  are  contained  in  Ballads,  Studies 
from  Nature,  Sonnets,  etc.  (1875),  and  in  A 
PoeVs  Harvest  Home  (1882).  A  love  for 
mysticism  is  most  marked  in  The  Year  of  the 
World  (1846).  After  his  death  there  appeared, 
under  the  editorship  of  W.  Minto,  Autobiographic 
cal  Notes  (London,  1892),  interesting  reminis- 
cences of  fifty  years,  particularly  of  Rossetti  and 
the  Pre-Raphaeliles  (q.v.). 

SCOTT,  WnxLiM  Bebbtmann  (1858—).  An 
American  geologist,  born  in  Cincinnati,  and  edu- 
cated at  Princeton  (class  of  1877)  and  at  the 
University  of  Heidelberg.  Upon  his  return  to 
America  he  was  appointed  professor  of  geology 
and  paleontology  at  Princeton.  The  Princeton 
geological  expeditions  in  the  West  and  in  Pata- 
gonia were  under  his  lead  and  he  made  valu- 
able additions  to  the  geological  and  ornitholo- 
gical collections  of  the  university.  Besides  many 
valuable  monographs,  he  wrote  An  Introduction 
to  Geology  (1897). 

SCOTT,  WiNFiELD  (1786-1866).  A  distin- 
guished Ainerican  soldier.  He  was  bom  near  Pe- 
tersburg, Va.,  of  Scottish  ancestry,  June  13, 1786; 
attended  William  and  Mary  College  for  a  time; 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1806.  In  1808, 
however,  he  abandoned  the  legal  profession  and 
accepted  an  appointment  as  captain  of  light  artil- 
lery. While  stationed  at  Natchez,  in  1810,  he 
was  court-martialed  for  accusing  his  superior 
officer,  General  Wilkinson,  of  complicity  in  the 
conspiracy  of  Aaron  Burr,  and  was  temporarily 
suspended  from  the  army.  Upon  the  outbreak 
of  the  War  of  1812,  he  was  appointed  lieutenant- 
colonel  and  sent  to  the  Canadian  frontier.  He 
crossed  with  his  regiment  to  Queenstown,  where 
the  American  troops  were  at  first  successful,  but 
the  British  troops  being  reinforced,  the  Ameri- 
cans were  repulsed  with  heavy  loss  and  Scott 
was  taken  prisoner.  In  the  following  year  he 
was  exchangBd  and  was  then  appointed  adjutant- 
general  with .  the  rank  of  colonel.  During  the 
same  year  he  was  wounded  by  an  explosion  of  a 
powder  magazine  after  the  attack  on  Fort 
George.  In  1814  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  brigadier-general.  Gn  July  6th  he  fought 
and  won  the  battle  of  Chippewa,  and  on  the 
25th  fought  the  battle  of  Lundy's  Lane  (q.v.), 
in  which  he  was  twice  woundea,  the  last  time 
severely.  He  declined  the  appointment  of  Secre- 
tary of  War  at  the  close  of  hostilities,  and  was 
raised  by  Congress  to  the  rank  of  major-general. 
He  then  prepared  a  set  of  extensive  general  regu- 
lations for  the  army,  which  was  the  first  complete 
manual  of  military  tactics  prepared  in  the 
United  States. 

In  1841  he  was  appointed  commander  of  the 
United  States  Army  to  succeed  General  Macomb. 
In  1847  he  was  given  the  chief  command  of  the 
United  States  Army  in  Mexico,  and  on  March 
9th  landed  a  force  of  12,000  men  at  Vera  Cruz, 
at  once  investing  and  bombarding  the  city,  which 
surrendered  on  the  26th.  Gn  April  18th  he  car- 
ried the  heights  of  Cerro  Gordo,  and  on  May  15th 
entered  Puebla,  where  he  waited  for  reinforce- 
ments. On  August  19-20th  he  won  the  brilliant 
victories  of  Contreras  and  Churubusco.  These 
were  soon  followed  by  the  sharp  and  sanguinary 
battles  of  Molino  del  Rey  and  Chapultepec  on 
the  8th  and  13th  of  September  respectively.  On 
September  14th,  with  less  than  8000  soldiers,  he 
entered  the   City  of  Mexico  and  occupied  the 


SCOTT. 


586 


SCOTTISH  LAKGTTAGE. 


national  palace.  (See  Mexican  Wab.)  Gen- 
eral Scott  returned  from  the  war  with  great 
fame  as  a  soldier,  and  in  1862  was  nominated 
as  the  Whig  candidate  for  the  Presidency,  but 
carried  only  four  States.  In  1855  the  office  of 
lieutenant-general  was  revived  by  Congress  in 
order  that  it  might  be  conferred  by  brevet  on 
General  Scott.  Increasing  age  and  infirmity 
prevented  him  from  taking  active  command  of 
the  army  during  the  Civil  War,  and  in  October, 
1861,  he  retir^  from  active  service.  Subse- 
quently he  visited  Europe  and  afterwards  set- 
tled at  West  Point,  where  he  died  May  29,  1866. 
His  autobiography  was  published  in  two  volumes 
at  New  York  in  1864. 

Consult  the  biography  by  Mansfield  (New 
York,  1862),  and  that  by  Headley  and  Victor 
(ib.,  1861).  The  latest  and  best  is  that  by 
Wright  (ib.,  1894)  in  the  ''Great  Commanders 
Series." 

SCOTT^AIiE.  A  borough  in  Westmoreland 
0)unty,  Pa.,  36  miles  southeast  of  Pittsburg,  on 
branches  of  the  Pennsylvania  and  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  railroads  (Map:  Pennsylvania,  B  3). 
It  has  large  coal-mining  and  coke  interests,  and 
iron-working  establishments.  It  manufactures 
also  fiour  and  lumber  products.  Population,  in 
1890,  2693;  in  1900,  4261. 

SCOTTISH  ACADEXT,  Rotal.  An  institu- 
tion devoted  to  painting,  sculpture,  and  the  en- 
couragement of  the  fine  arts,  formed  at  Edin- 
burgh, Scotland,  in  1826,  and  incorporated  by 
royal  charter  in  1838.  It  was  modeled  after  the 
Royal  Academy  of  London,  and  in  the  early  years 
of  its  existence  occupied  a  ran^  of  galleries  in 
the  building  of  the  Royal  Institution,  in  which 
its  annual  exhibitions  were  then  held.  In  1854 
the  National  Gallery,  a  building  to  be  devoted 
to  the  fine  arts  was  completed  and  provision 
was  made  for  the  exhibitions  of  painting  and 
sculpture  of  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy,  which 
are  annually  held  there.  Accommodation  is  also 
afforded  in  the  building  for  the  schools  of  the 
Academy. 

SCOTTISH  GAELIC  LITEBATTJBE. 
Throughout  the  Old  Irish  period  and  most  of  the 
Middle  Irish,  the  Gaelic  countries  may  be  said 
to  have  had  a  common  literary  tradition.  Inter- 
course was  easy  between  the  two  halves  of  the 
Gaelic  world  and  the  bards  passed  freely  back 
and  forth.  The  scenes  of  ancient  sagas  like  the 
Longea  Mao  tirUanig  were  laid  on  both  sides 
of  the  Irish  Sea,  and  the  hero-tales  of  Cuchulainn 
and  of  the  Fenians  were  current  in  the  Scottish 
Highlands.  Unfortunately,  the  early  monuments 
of  Scottish  Gaelic  are  very  scanty.  The  Book  of 
Deir,  a  Latin  Gospel-book  of  the  ninth  century, 
contains  a  Gaelic  passage  which  corresponds 
strictly  to  Old  Irish;  and  certain  later  entries 
in  the  same  manuscript  show  that  the  language 
of  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  still  stood 
very  near  to  the  Irish  of  Ireland.  A  consider- 
able number  of  Middle  Irish  manuscripts  are 
preserved  in  the  libraries  of  Scotland. 

Not  imtil  the  sixteenth  century — ^the  time, 
roughly  speaking,  of  the  Protestant  Reformation 
— did  the  language  and  literature  of  Scotland 
have  an  independent  development.  The  begin- 
ning is  marked  by  The  Book  of  the  Dean  of 
Lismore,  a  manuscript  collection  of  poems  made 
in  1512  and  containing  much  valuable  Ossianic 
material.    Even  in  the  Dean's  Book  some  poems 


are  rather  Irish  than  Scottish.  The  first  printed 
work  was  Bishop  Carsewell's  translation  of  John 
Knox's  liturgy  (1667),  and  a  great  part  of  the 
Highland  literature  ever  since,  like  that  of 
modern  Wales,  has  been  theological  in  character. 
There  have  not  been  lacking  secular  poets,  how- 
ever, the  successors  of  the  ancient  Irish  bard;) 
whose  name  they  still  preserved.  In  the  seven- 
teenth century  the  most  famous  were  Mary  Mac- 
Leod and  John  Macdonald;  in  the  eighteenth 
Alexander  Macdonald,  Robert  Mackay  (Rob 
Donn),  Dugald  Buchanan,  Duncan  Ban  Mcln- 
tyre,  and  William  Ross;  and  in  the  early  nine- 
teenth Allan  MacDougall  and  Ewen  MacLauch- 
lan  were  of  special  note. 

The  portion  of  Gaelic  literature  that  has  been 
most  widely  known  and  discussed — and  at  the 
same  time  most  generally  misunderstood — is  the 
Ossianic  poetry.  (See  Macpuebson,  James.) 
The  works  of  Macpherson  and  his  followers  are 
utterly  unlike  the  real  Ossianic  literature  of 
both  Scotland  and  Ireland.  But  these  writers 
rendered  a  real  service  to  the  Gaelic  literature 
which  they  represented.  They  made  it  known 
to  the  literary  world  abroad,  and  they  gave 
the  impulse  to  the  collection  of  popular  poetiy 
at  home.  During  the  last  himdred  years  or 
more  a  large  mass  of  both  ballads  and  folk- 
tales has  b^n  printed,  and  the  work  of  collec- 
tion is  still  going  on.  Among  those  who  have 
labored  thus  to  preserve  the  national  literature 
the  first  place  belongs  undoubtedly  to  J.  F. 
Campbell  of  Islay. 

BiBUOGRAPHT.  For  the  BooA;  of  Deir,  see  Dr. 
Stuart's  edition  (Edinburgh,  1862).  Compare 
further  Whitley  Stokes,  OoideZtca  (London,  1872), 
and  J.  Strachan  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Oaelio 
Society  of  Inverness  (vol.  xix.).  The  Book  of 
the  Dean  of  Lismore  was  edited  by  Thomas 
McLachlan  (Edinburgh,  1862)  and  again  more 
correctly  by  Alexander  Cameron,  Reliquia  Cel- 
tics (ib.,  1892).  The  best  poems  of  the  mod- 
em bards  have  been  printed  in  the  anthology  of 
John  Mackenzie,  8ar-0hair  nam  Bard  Oaelach 
(Glasgow,  1866).  On  the  Ossianic  controversy 
see  the  admirable  articles  of  L.  Christian  Stem 
in  the  Zeitschrift  fur  Vergleichende  Litteratur- 
geachichte  (vol.  viii.).  Campbell's  great  collec- 
tions are  entitled  The  Popular  Tales  of  the 
West  Highlands  (1860-62)  and  the  Leabhar  na 
Feinne  (1872).  The  series  entitled  Waifs  and 
Strays  of  Celtic  Tradition  contains  many  of  the 
most  valuable  contributions  of  later  collectors. 
Alexander  Carmichael's  Carmina  Oadelica 
(1900)  is  the  most  important  work  in  this  field 
since  Campbell.  Much  of  the  best  Gaelic  prose 
and  verse  of  the  nineteenth  century  was  con- 
tributed to  such  periodicals  as  An  Oaodhal,  the 
Cuairtear  nan  Gleann,  and  the  Teachdaire  Gaod- 
halach.  The  Gaelic  works  of  Norman  Macleod 
have  been  collected  under  the  title  Caraid  nan 
Oaidheal  (new  ed.,  Edinburgh,  1899-1901).  On 
the  literary  history  two  general  treatises  may 
be  cited:  Blackie,  The  Language  and  Literature 
of  the  Scottish  Highlands  (Edinburgh,  1870), 
and  MacNeill,  The  Literature  of  the  HigJUanders. 
See  Scottish  Language  and  Litebatube  ;  Celtic 
Language;  Ibish  Gaelic  JLiItebatube. 

SCOTTISH  LANGUAGE  AND  LITEBA- 
TTJBE.  By  the  Scottish  language  is  meant  the 
English  dialect  once  cultivated  in  Scotland  and 
now  spoken  in  remote  districts.    When,  in  the 


800TTISH  LAKGUAOB. 


587 


SCOTTISH  LAKGUAOB. 


fourteenth  oentury,  English  becomes  again  a 
cultivated  language  after  the  linguistic  disturb- 
ances following  the  Norman  Conquest,  it  falls 
into  three  clearly  marked  dialects:  The  southern 
(south  of  the  Thames),  the  midland  (the  central 
counties  of  England),  and  the  northern,  spoken 
and  written  from  the  Humber  to  the  north  as 
far  as  the  Teutons  had  settled  in  Scotland.  For 
England  the  midland  dialect,  the  language  of 
the  Court,  soon  became  the  standard.  But  Scot- 
land in  the  meantime  had  won  her  independence 
at  Bannockbum  (1314),  and  had  established  her 
own  government,  which  she  maintained  till  the 
union  of  the  crowns  by  the  accession  of  James  to 
the  English  throne  (1603).  More  precisely,  then^ 
the  Scottish  language  is  the  cultivated  language 
of  Scotland  from  about  1310  to  1603.  From  the 
standard  English  of  England  it  differed  origi- 
nally in  sounds,  in  spelling,  and  in  syntax.  And 
these  differences  subsequently  increased,  owing 
to  the  hostility  between  the  two  countries.  The 
Scottish  dialect  also  came  under  the  influence  of 
the  Gaelic  and  the  Kymric,  from  which  many 
words  were  taken.  It  was  in  the  north,  too, 
that  the  Norsemen,  settling  in  the  ninth  and 
tenth  centuries,  influenced  in  vocabulary  and 
perhaps  in  syntax  the  speech  of  the  people  by 
whom  they  were  absorb^.  Moreover,  Scotland 
was  for  a  long  period  in  close  alliance  with 
France.  Scotchmen  went  to  France  rather  than 
to  England  to  complete  their  education,  and  they 
entered  the  French  service  in  large  numbers. 
As  a  result  there  was  introduced  into  the  Scotch 
dialect  a  body  of  French  words  not  found  in  the 
literature  south  of  the  Tweed.  To  the  vernacular 
of  Scotland  as  a  cultivated  language  the  Ref- 
ormation proved  a  death  blow;  for  it  put  an 
end  to  the  friendship  with  Catholic  France,  and 
eventually  brought  to  the  cottage  of  the  Scotch 
peasant  the  Bible  written  in  the  standard  Eng- 
lish of  the  south. 

Except  for  some  fragments  of  minstrelsy  and 
the  romances  which  in  origin  may  go  back  to  the 
mysterious  Thomas  the  Rhymer,  Scottish  ver- 
nacular literature  begins  with  John  Barbour, 
Archdeacon  of  Aberdeen,  whose  Bruce  (1375) 
appeared  while  Chaucer,  then  in  his  prime,  wcm 
showing  the  artistic  possibilities  of  the  new  Eng- 
lish as  spoken  in  London.  Barbour's  poem,  nar- 
rating the  exploits  of  Robert  Bruce  from  his 
wanderings  as  an  outlaw  in  the  mountains  to  his 
victory  at  Bannockbum  and  then  on  to  Irish  and 
other  wars,  gave  stirring  expression  to  the  Scotch 
feeling  of  independent  nationality.  Andrew  Wyn- 
toun,  prior  of  Saint  Serf's  Inch,  in  Loch  Leven, 
followed  Barbour  with  a  metrical  history  called 
the  Orygynalle  Chronykil  of  Scotland  (about 
1424).  Iliough  less  exultant  in  its  patriotism 
than  the  Bruce,  this  poem  is  nevertheless  very 
significant  as  a  plain  narrative  of  events  in  Scot- 
land founded  on  the  best  traditions  and  authori- 
ties at  the  command  of  the  author.  Literature 
had  thus  discovered  the  hero  and  the  history  of 
Scotland.  Patriotic  themes  were  continued  by 
others,  especially  by  Henry  the  Minstrel  or  Blind 
Harry  (toward  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century), 
who  matched  Barbour's  poem  with  William  Wal- 
lace, pervaded  with  the  spirit  of  freedom.  Oddly 
enon^,  Scotch  verse  had  already  come  under  the 
influence  of  Chaucer.  Patriotism  proved  weaker 
than  the  sense  for  form  and  beauty.  The  first 
and  best  of  the  Chaucerians  was  James  the  First, 
who  ruled  Scotland  from  1420  to  1437.  For 
Tou  XV.-88. 


nineteen  years  he  had  been  held  in  captivity  by 
the  English,  and  while  in  the  Tower  of  London 
he  is  said  to  have  composed  The  Kingis  Quair 
(i.e.  The  King's  Book),  an  allegorical  poem  in 
the  manner  of  the  romance  poems  of  Chaucer. 
In  previous  Scotch  poetry  the  octosyllabic  rhym- 
ing  couplet  had  usually  been  employed.  James 
adopted  the  seven-line  stanza  of  Chaucer.  His 
language,  too,  with  its  infusion  of  English  words, 
was  not  strictly  Scotch.  Chaucer's  influence  in 
the  north  reached  its  height  in  The  Teeiament  of 
Creaseid  by  Robert  Henryson  of  Dunfermline  (d. 
about  1506),  long  attributed  to  Chaucer  himself. 
It  is  a  continuation  of  Troilua  and  Creeaida, 
Henryson  was  also  the  author  of  Bobene  and 
Makyne,  the  earliest  pastoral  in  any  English 
dialect,  and  of  several  delightful  fables  in  verse. 
The  greatest  name  of  this  period  is  William  Dun- 
bar (d.  about  1513),  who  was  connected  with 
the  Court  of  James  IV.  He  was  likewise  affili- 
ated with  the  school  of  Chaucer  by  The  Ooldyn 
Targe  and  The  Thriaaill  and  the  Rota,  His  mas- 
terpiece is  the  grim  Dance  of  the  Sevin  Deidly 
Synnea,  Gavin  Duglas,  who  also  handled  alle- 
gorical themes  in  The  Palice  of  Honour,  trans- 
lated Vergil's  ^neid,  to  the  various  books  of 
which  he  prefixed  remarkable  verse  descriptions 
of  the  months  and  seasons.  A  poet  more  widely 
read  was  Sir  David  Lindsay  (d.  1556),  who  pos- 
sessed rare  power  of.  observation  and  a  vigorous 
style.  His  richly  imaginative  Dreme  was  fol- 
lowed by  several  trenchant  satires  on  abuses  in 
Church  and  State,  such  as  The  Teatament  and 
Complaynt  of  our  Soverane  Lordia  Papyngo,  and 
an  interlude  entitled  Ane  Pleaaant  Satyre  of  the 
Thrie  Eataitia,  interesting  as  a  link  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  English  drama  and  as  a  vivid  picture 
of  contemporary  manners.  Lindsay  was  the  last 
of  the  great  poets  distinctly  Scottish.  After  him 
Scotch  verse  lost  itself  in  the  bitter  theological 
debates  of  the  Reformation.  In  the  period  we 
have  covered  there  had  appeared  many  poets  of 
less  fame  and  a  large  body  of  anonsrmous  verse. 
Particular  attention  should  be  called  to  the  pop- 
ular ballads,  which,  like  the  Scotch  Chevy  Chace, 
far  surpass  in  imaginative  detail  similar  work 
in  England. 

If  the  Reformation,  as  has  been  said,  proved 
uncongenial  to  Scotch  verse,  it  gave  an  impetus 
to  Scotch  prose.  Much  of  this  prose,  however, 
hardly  rises  to  the  plane  of  literature.  The  earli- 
est prose  work  of  interest  was  John  Bellenden's 
translation  (completed  1533)  of  Hector  Boece's 
Hiatoria  Scotorum.  Of  greater  importance  was 
The  Complaynt  of  Scotlande  (printed  1549), 
whose  authorship  is  still  uncertain.  It  is  a 
curious  and  brilliant  satire  on  Scotland.  Scotch 
prose  attained  its  most  effective  power  in  The 
Hiator^  of  the  Reformation  (completed  1664) 
and  the  various  tractates  of  John  Knox.  Other 
prose  writers  of  the  period  were  Robert  Lindsay 
of  Pitscottie  (d.  1565?),  author  of  a  continua- 
tion of  Boece's  chronicle  history ;  George  Buchan- 
an, who  wrote  both  in  Latin  and  in  the  vernacu- 
lar; and  Bishop  John  Leslie  (d.  1596),  the  lead- 
ing Roman  Catholic  historian  of  Scotland.  Scotch 
prose  may  be  said  to  end  with  James  VI., 
author  of  Demonologie  (1587)  and  other  treat- 
ises. After  ascending  the  English  throne  as 
James  I.  in  1603  he  adopted  in  his  books  the 
language  of  the  south. 

The  Scotch  poets  of  the  time,  like  Sir  William 
Alexander  and  William  Drummond  of  Hawthorn* 


SCOTTISH  LANGUAGE. 


588 


8CKANT0K. 


den,  commonly  followed  the  example  of  King 
James.  But  there  were  some  exceptions.  Several 
balladists  among  the  aristocracy,  as  Robert  Sem- 
pill  (d.  about  1665)  and  Lady  Wardlaw  (d. 
1727),  continued  the  traditions  of  the  early 
poets.  The  language  of  the  peasantry  still  re- 
mained Scotch,  and  several  writers  of  the  eight- 
eenth century  attempted  to  restore  the  native 
speech  to  literature.  Allan  Ramsay  (d.  1758) 
gained  immense  popularity  by  his  songs  com- 
posed in  a  mixture  of  Scotch  and  standard  Eng- 
lish. After  Ramsay  came  a  group  of  imitators, 
and  then  the  fine  vernacular  verse  of  Robert 
Fergusson  (d.  1774),  who  is  rightly  regarded  as 
the  forerunner  of  Robert  Bums.  A  peasant  by 
birth  and  thus  at  home  in  the  vernacular.  Bums 
added  to  his  knowledge  by  reading  Fergusson, 
Ramsay,  and  the  poets  of  the  old  peri^.  In 
Bums  the  humor  and  pathos  of  native  Scotch 
song  reached  its  highest  point.  The  tradition  of 
Scotch  song  was  kept  up  with  varied  success  by 
John  Mayne  (d.  1836),  Hector  MacNeill  (d. 
1818),  Joanna  Baillie  (d.  1851),  Lady  Naime 
(d.  1845),  James  Hogg  (d.  1835),  Robert  Tan- 
nahill  (d.  1810),  and  Allan  Cunningham  (d. 
1842).  Others  still  continue  to  write  occasional 
good  songs.  But  Scotch  verse  since  Burns  has 
run  into  a  sort  of  Scotch-English,  which  an- 
nounces its  end.  It  should  be  observed  that  the 
revival  of  the  Scotch  dialect  has  had  an  import- 
ant influence  on  the  novel.  Sir  Walter  Scott's 
characters  taken  from  the  peasantry  speak  this 
native  speech.  And  more  recently  Barrie  and 
Watson  nave  written  admirable  stories  in  the 
dialect  of  remote  parishes. 

BiBLiooRAPHT.  For  language,  consult  J.  A.  H. 
Murray,  "The  Dialect  of  the  Southern  Counties  of 
Scotland,"  in  Transactions  of  the  Philological  So- 
ciety for  1870-72  (London,  1873),  and  the  his- 
tories of  the  English  language  by  Lounsbury 
(rev.  ed..  New  York,  1894),  and  by  Emerson  (ib., 
1804).  For  literature,  Henderson,  Scottish  Ver- 
nacular Literature  (London,  1898)  ;  Millar,  Liter- 
ary History  of  Scotland  (ib.,  1903).  See  English 

LiTEBATUBEy  SCOTTISH  GaEUC  LITERATUBE.' 

SOOTT78,  Duns.    A  mediseval  schoolman.    See 

I>nN8  SOOTUS. 

scorns^  Johannes.  A  philosopher  of  the 
ninth  century.    See  Eriqena. 

SCOUBOE  OF  OODy  The.  A  name  given  to 
Attila,  King  of  the  Huns,  who  was  the  terror  of 
Europe  in  the  fifth  century. 

SCBAG  WHALE  (so  called  because  the  back 
is  scragged  instead  of  finned).  The  name  of  two 
difiTerent  whales.  That  in  the  North  Atlantic  is 
a  rorqual  {Agelaphus  gibhosus),  which  reaches 
about  50  feet  in  length,  has  no  dorsal  iin,  and 
has  whitish  baleen.  The  scrag  of  New  Zealand 
waters  is  the  'pigmy  right  whale*  {Neohalcena 
tnarginata),  which  does  not  exceed  about  15  feet 
in  length,  but  yields  the  most  elastic  and  tough- 
est whalebone  sent  to  market. 

SCBANTON.  The  fourth  city  in  population 
of  Pennsylvania  and  the  county-seat  of  Lacka- 
wanna County;  situated  on  the  Lackawanna 
River,  160  miles  by  rail  north  of  Philadelphia 
and  145  miles  northwest  of  New  York  (Map: 
Pennsylvania,  F  2).  Five  railroads  enter  the 
city:  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna  and  Western, 
main  line  and  Bloomsberg  division;  the  Dela- 
ware and  Hudson,  main  line;   the  New  York, 


Ontario  and  Western;  the  Erie  (Wyoming  divi- 
sion )  ;  and  the  Central  Railroad  of  New  Jersey. 
There  is  one  electric  line — the  Wyoming  Valley 
Rapid  Transit  Company.  The  street  railway 
system  comprises  40  miles  of  well-constructed 
road.  Scranton  has  a  picturesque  location  in  the 
Lackawanna  Valley,  on  the  plateau  at  the  con- 
fluence of  Roaring  Brook  and  the  river.  The  city, 
which  has  an  area  of  19i^  square  miles,  is  situa- 
ted at  elevations  ranging  from  800  feet  to  nearly 
1800  feet  above  the  sea.  There  are  149  miles  of 
streets  and  avenues  in  addition  to  traveled 
courts  and  places. 

Among  tne  notable  public  edifices  are  the 
United  States  Government  Building,  Court-House, 
City  Hall,  Albright  Memorial  Library,  Moses 
Taylor  Hospital,  the  Oral  School  for  the  Deaf 
and  Dumb,  and  the  High  School.  Other  promi- 
nent structures  are  the  International  Correspond- 
ence School,  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  the  Home  of  the 
Friendless,  the  Board  of  Trade,  the  Jermyn 
Hotel,  the  Masonic  Temple,  and  the  spacious 
0)nnell  Building.  The  city  has  two  free  and 
several  other  libraries.  The  largest  is  the  Al- 
bright Memorial,  having  45,000  volumes,  with 
an  annual  circulation  of  125,000  volumes.  There 
are  40  school  buildings,  surpassed  by  none  in  the 
State  in  architecture  and  modem  improvements, 
besides  several  colleges  and  academies,  an  Histori- 
cal Society,  and  a  Society  of  Natural  Science. 
The  two  public  parks  contain  100  acres.  The 
valuation  of  real  property  (1903)  is  $54,157,813. 

Scranton  is  the  centre  of  the  great  anthracite 
coal  region,  and  is  one  of  the  principal  distribut- 
ing points  for  coal.  It  is  also  an  important 
centre  for  general  trade,  having  a  number  of 
wholesale  blocks.  There  is  invested  in  incor- 
porated manufacturing  establishments  $25,000.- 
000.  The  leading  plants  include  a  nut  and  bolt 
manufactory,  a  lace  curtain  mill,  a  knitting  mill, 
iron  foundries,  locomotive  and  stationary  engine 
works,  and  several  silk  mills.  The  government  is 
vested  in  a  mayor,  elected  every  three  years; 
select  and  common  councils;  and  administrative 
departments  as  follows:  public  safety,  public 
works,  assessors,  city  treasurer,  city  comptroller, 
city  attorney,  city  clerk,  and  sinking  fund  com- 
mission. The  city  spends  annually,  in  mainte- 
nance and  operation,  nearly  $500,000.  The  public 
schools  are  under  the  direction  of  a  board  of 
control,  on  which  each  ward  has  a  representative. 
The  total  expenditures  for  school  purposes,  in- 
cluding repairs,  salaries,  and  erection  of  build- 
ings, for  1902,  were  $430,489. 

In  1788  Philip  Abbott  of  Connecticut,  hia 
brother  James,  and  others  formed  the  first  set- 
tlement, now  included  in  the  city,  on  the  'Roar- 
ing Brook.'  In  1799  came  the  Slocums,  who 
named  their  settlement  *Slocum  Hollow.'  The 
city  w^as  founded,  however,  by  Joseph  H.  and 
George  W.  Scranton  in  1840.  It  was  incorporated 
as  a  borough  in  1854,  and  was  chartercNd  as  a 
third-class  city  in  1866,  becoming  a  second-class 
city  in  1901.  The  population,  in  1860,  was 
20,000;  in  1870,  35,092;  in  1880,  43,850;  in  1890, 
75,275;  in  1900,  102,026. 

8CBANT0N,  George  Whitefield  (1811-61). 
An  American  manufacturer,  bom  in  Madison, 
Conn.  In  1839,  with  his  brother,  Joseph  H. 
Scranton,  he  established  an  iron  manufactory  on 
the  site  of  the  present  city  of  Scranton,  which  is 
named  for  them.    He  was  one  of  the  organizeri  of 


SC&ANTON. 


589 


SCBEW. 


the  Delaware,  Lackawanna  and  Western  Railway, 
and  served  for  many  years  as  its  president,  being 
also  president  of  other  railroads  and  transporta- 
tion companies. 

SCKFiAlTRIl.  Any  of  three  curious  South 
Anoerican  birds,  the  relationship  of  which  has 
been  a  matter  of  considerable  discussion.  They 
are  now  regarded  as  most  nearly  related  to  the 
anseriform  birds  and  forming  a  family  (Palame- 
deidse ) .  The  bill  is  rather  short,  conical,  curved 
at  the  extremity;  there  is  a  bare  space  around 
the  eyes;  the  toes  are  long;  each  wing  is  fur- 
nished with  two  strong  spurs,  one  at  the  bend 
of  the  wing  and  a  smaller  one  nearer  the  tip. 
The  homed  screamer,  or  'anhima,'  *chaha,'  or 
'kamichi*  (Palamedea  comuta),  inhabits  swamps 
in  Brazil,  Guiana,  and  Argentina,  and  feeds  on 
the  leaves  and  seeds  of  aquatic  plants.  It  is 
of  a  blackish-brown  color,  is  nearly  as  large 
as  a  turkey,  and  has  somewhat  the  appearance  of 


(ChauDa  etiat»ta). 


a  gallinaceous  bird.  It  receives  its  name  from 
its  loud  and  harsh  cry.  From  the  head,  a  little 
behind  the  bill,  there  rises  a  long,  slender,  mov- 
able horn,  the  use  of  which  is  not  clear.  The 
spurs  of  the  wings  are  supposed  to  be  useful  in 
defense  against  snakes  and  other  enemies. 

Closely  allied  to  this  is  the  genus  Chaima, 
to  which  belongs  the  chauna,  or  crested  screamer 
{Chauna  cri8tata),'a.  native  of  Brazil,  Para- 
guay, and  Argentina,  the  head  of  which  has  no 
horn,  but  is  adorned  with  erectile  feathers.  The 
plumage  is  mostly  lead-colored  and  blackish.  The 
wings  are  armed  with  spurs.  It  is  capable  of 
domestication,  and  is  sometimes  reared  with 
flocks  of  geese  and  turkeys,  to  defend  them  from 
vultures,  being  a  bold  and  powerful  bird.  Con- 
sult: Evans,  Birds  (London,  1900) ;  Sclater  and 
Hudson,  Argentine  Ornithology  (London,  1888). 

80BEECH  OWL.    See  Owl. 

BCREEN  (OP.  eacren,  escrein,  escran,  Fr. 
4oran,  screen,  probably  from  OHG.  acranna,  Ger. 
Bchranne,  bench,  shambles,  railing,  grate,  court). 
In  architecture,  an  inclosure  or  partition  of  wood, 
stone,  or  metal  work.  It  is  of  frequent  use  in 
churdies,  where  it  shuts  off  chapels  from  the 
nave,  separates  the  nave  from  the  choir,  and 
frequently  incloses  the  choir  all  round.  The 
rood-screen    is    that   on    which    most    labor    is 


usually  bestowed.  In  England  many  beautifully 
carved  screens  in  stone,  enriched  with  pinnacles, 
niches,  statues,  etc.,  remain,  such  as  those  of 
York,  Lincoln,  and  Durham;  and  specimens  in 
wood,  carved  and  painted,  are  common  in  parish 
churches.  The  term  'screen  of  columns'  is  also 
applied  to  an  open  detached  colonnade. 

SCBEW  (OF.  escroue,  eacroe,  eacro,  Fr.  4crou, 
screw,  perhaps  from  Lat.  acroba,  ditch,  trench,  or 
more  probably  from  Lat.  acrofa,  sow).  An  in- 
clined plane  wrapped  around  a  cylinder  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  height  of  the  plane  is  parallel 
to  the  axis  of  the  cylinder.  If  the  screw  is 
formed  upon  the  inner  surface  of  a  hollow  cylin- 
der it  is  usually  called  a  nut.  Defined  less  tech- 
nically a  screw  is  a  solid  cylinder  having  a  heli- 
coidal  rib,  ridge,  or  thread  projecting  from  its 
surface.  Historically  the  invention  of  the  screw 
is  ascribed  to  Archimedes  (B.C.  250).  It  was  used 
by  the  Komans  of  the  Empire  in  their  wine  and 
oil  presses  and  was  probably  familiar  to  most 
of  the  Mediterranean  peoples  at  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  Era. 

It  is  one  of  the  most  extensively  used  of  the 
elementary  mechanisms  and  is  employed  in  the 
manufacture  and  operation  of  nearly  all  struc- 
tures, machines,  and  mechanisms.  The  force  for 
operating  the  screw  is  imiversally  applied  at  the 
end  of  a  lever  arm  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of 
the  screw.  When  used  for  transmitting  energy 
the  screw  is  generally  operated  in  connection  with 
a  nut;  either  the  screw  or  the  nut  may  be  fixed, 
the  other  being  movable. 

Until  the  nineteenth  century  the  manufacture 
of  screws  was  a  rather  crude  process  of  forging 
and  cutting  with  hand  tools.  At  present  large 
screws  for  transmitting  energy  are  made  on 
screw-cutting  lathes,  the  cylinder  of  metal  being 
rotated  by  the  lathe  in  front  of  a  tool,  which 
advances  at  a  uniform  speed  parallel  to  the 
axis  of  the  work  and  thus  cuts  a  helicoidal 
groove.  Generally  such  screws  are  made  with 
rectangular  threads.  The  most  common  forms 
of  screws  are  wood  screws  for  cabinet  and  car- 
penter work  and  machine  screws  for  metal  work. 
Machine  screws  are  made  with  care  to  secure 
precision  in  the  forms  and  dimensions  of  the 
thread,  but  wood  screws  are  more  roughly  made. 
These  small  screws  were  little  known  or  used 
before  1836,  being  rudely  made  by  hand  with 
imperfect  tools.  The  head  was  forged  or  swaged 
by  a  blacksmith;  the  thread  and  nick  were 
formed  by  the  use  of  hand  dies  and  hack  saws. 
In  1836,  as  a  result  of  an  American  invention,  the 
old  hand  tools  were  transformed  into  machines 
having  the  capacity  of  imparting  to  each  tool  its 
proper  motion.  The  swaging  hammer  became  the 
heading  machine,  receiving  the  end  of  a  coil  of 
wire  and  regularly  cutting  the  required  length 
for  a  blank,  which  then  received  such  a  blow  as 
to  'set  up'  one  end  of  the  wire  to  form  the  head — 
the  operation  continuing  automatically  until  the 
whole  coil  was  made  into  blanks.  These  blanks 
were  then  handled  individually  and  presented  to 
organized  machines,  first  for  shaving  the  head, 
then  for  nicking,  and  lastly  for  cutting  the 
thread.  The  above  constitutes  the  second  era  in 
this  manufacture;  and  such  machinery,  partly 
automatic,  was  all  that  was  in  use  before  1846. 
Then  a  third  era  ensued,  and  an  entire  revolution 
was  effected  by  constituting  the  machines  en- 
tirely automatic.  The  blanks  are  by  this  system 
supplied  in  mass  by  the  operator,  the  machine 


SCBEW. 


590 


SCBEW  PBOFELLEB. 


separatixig  and  handling  each  blank  respectively 
as  the  nature  of  the  operation  demands,  and  pro- 
ducing finished  screws  with  wonderful  rapidity, 
regularity,  and  perfection. 


Wh*i1>vor+h  Thread. 


T^v^ll^    Thr«cKi. 


BTAKDABO  8CBKW  THBIAD0. 

Formerly  all  wood  screws  were  cut  screws,  that 
is,  the  metal  of  the  body  of  the  blank  was  cut 
away  in  grooves,  leaving  the  thread  projecting.  In 
recent  years,  however,  a  process  of  rolling  and 
press  working  has  been  employed  by  which  the 
threads  are  raised  without  loss  of  the  metal  be- 
tween them.  In  nearly  all  cases  the  threads  of 
wood  screws  and  machine  screws  are  triangular 
in  shape.  The  extensive  use  of  screws  has  led 
to  standard  shapes  and  dimensions  being 
adopted  for  screw  threads.  In  England  this 
standard  is  the  Whitworth  thready  designed  by 
Sir  Joseph  Whitworth;  in  the  United  States  it 
is  the  United  States  standard  or  Sellers  thread, 
devised  by  William  Sellers  of  Philadelphia.  These 
standards  relate  particularly  to  the  threads  of 
machine  screws,  bolts,  and  nuts,  etc.  For  tables 
of  dimensions  of  screw  threads  and  various  other 
data  regarding  the  use  and  efficiency  of  screws, 
see  Kent's  Mechanical  Engineers'  Pocket-Book 
(New  York,  1900)  ;  also  Rowland,  on  "Screws," 
in  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica, 

SCBEW  DOCK.    See  Caisson. 

SCBEW-PINE  iPandanua),  A  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Pandanaceae,  natives 
of  tropical  Asia  and  of  the  South  Sea  Islands. 
Many  of  them  are  remarkable  for  their  prop  roots. 
Their  spiny-edged,  sword-shaped  leaves,  3  to  4 
feet  long,  are  spirally  arranged  in  three  rows. 
In  general  appearance,  when  unbranched  they 
resemble  gigantic  pineapple  plants,  whence  their 
popular  name.  Pandanua  odoratiaaimus  is  a 
widely  distributed  spreading  and  branching  tree, 
25  feet  high,  much  used  in  India  for  hedges.  It 
grows  readily  in  a  poor  soil  and  is  one  of  the 
first  plants  to  appear  on  newly  formed  islands  in 
the  Pacific.  The  unexpanded  fiowers  are  fre- 
quently boiled  with  meat.  Oil  impregnated  with 
tne  odor  of  the  flowers  and  the  distilled  water 
of  them  are  highly  esteemed  East  Indian  per- 
fumes. The  terminal  buds,  the  soft,  white  bases 
of  the  leaves,  and  the  fleshy  part  of  the  drupes. 


which  grow  together  in  large  heads,  are  eaten 
in  time  of  scarcity.  The  spongy  and  juicy 
branches  are  used  as  cattle  food.  The  leaves  are 
used  in  thatching,  and  in  making  a  kind  of  um- 
brella conunon  in  India,  and  their  tough  longi- 


■CBBW-PIHS  (PADdADUB  tttiliB). 

tudinal  fibres  for  making  hats  and  cordage.  Their 
spindle-shaped  fibrous  roots  are  split  for  basket- 
making.  More  valuable  as  a  fibre  plant  is  an 
allied  species,  Pandanua  utilis,  the  vacoa  of  Mau- 
ritius, which  grows  to  a  height  of  about  30  feet, 
but  from  continual  cropping  of  its  leaves  usu- 
ally grows  to  6  or  10  feet.  The  fibres  of  its 
leaves  are  used  for  making  bags,  which  rival  in 
cheapness  and  usefulness  the  gunny  bags  of 
India.  In  temperate  and  northern  climates  these 
plants  are  commonly  cultivated  in  greenhouses 
for  ornament. 

SCBEW  PBOPELLEB.  A  contrivance  for 
propelling  vessels  which  acts  in  the  water  like  a 
screw  bolt  in  a  nut.  It  consists  of  a  hub  of 
cylindrical  or  spherical  shape  to  which  are  at- 
tached the  blades  that  form  the  screw.  Screw 
propellers  are  cast  in  one  piece  or  built  up,  the 
blades  being  attached  to  the  hub  with  bolts. 
The  latter  plan  is  now  common,  though  small 
screws  are  usually  cast  in  one  piece.  Propellers 
are  made  of  cast  iron,  cast  steel,  or  bronze.  The 
best  are  made  of  bronze  of  fine  quality,  because, 
though  not  equal  to  steel  in  strength,  it  cor- 
rodes very  slowly — a  very  important  point,  as  the 
corrosion  not  only  diminishes  the  strength,  but 
makes  the  blades  rough  and  ragged  at  the  edges, 
thereby  reducing  their  efficiency. 

The  blades  of  a  screw  propeller  may  be  con- 
sidered as  parts  of  separate  threads  winding 
around  the  hub  and  shaft,  cut  oflT  by  planes 
perpendicular  to  the  shaft  and  at  a  distance 
apart  about  equal  to  the  length  of  the  hub.  A 
simple  true  screw  would  be  made  of  such  form, 
but  experiment  has  shown  that  some  variations 
from  the  simple  form  are  desirable.  In  the  first 
place,  the  edges  of  the  blades  must  be  sharp  and 
the  thickness  near  the  hub  sufficient  to  stand 
the  strain  of  propulsion.  The  outer  ends  are 
pointed  or  have  the  comers  cut  off  to  reduce 
the  vibration,  and  in  many  screws  the  driving  or 
leading  edge  is  thrown  to .  the  rear  from  the 
normal  radial  line  for  the  same  reason.  The 
number  of  blades  varies  from  two  to  four.  Two- 
bladed  screws  are  at  least  as  economical  in 
smooth  water  as  screws  with  more  blades,  but  in 


SCBBW  PSOPELLEB. 


591 


8CBEW  PSOFELLES. 


rough  water  the  Vibration  may  become  exces- 
sive. Four-bladed  screws  of  large  diameter  are 
generally  used  in  the  merchant  service  for  slow- 
moving  engines.  For  fast  vessels,  merchant  or 
navaly  three-bladed  screws  are  the  rule. 

The  pitch  of  a  propeller  is  its  linear  advance 
in  one  revolution,  supposing  the  water  to  be  im- 
movable and  the  screw  to  turn  in  it  as  a  bolt 
turns  in  a  nut.  If  we  imagine  the  thread  to  ex- 
tend sufficiently  along  the  shaft  to  make  one 
complete  revolution,  the  pitch  is  equal  to  the 
length  of  shaft  required  for  this.  In  the  true 
screw  the  pitch  is  constant  at  all  points,  but  in 
propellers  there  are  usually  some  variations  in 
this  respect,  particularly  near  the  hub  in  those 
which  are  cast  and  have  small  hubs.  Many  pro- 
pellers are  designed  to  have  slightly  varying 
pitch  at  different  parts  of  the  blade,  but  the  ad- 
vantages of  this  have  never  been  conclusively  de- 
termined. The  hub,  or  boss,  is  now  very  com- 
monly spherical  with  a  conical  tailpiece.  Since 
the  part  of  the  blade  near  a  relatively  small  hub 
is  of  little  use,  hubs  are  now  made  quite  large, 
one- fifth  to  one-fourth  the  diameter  of  the  screw. 
The  diameter  of  the  screw  depends  upon  many 
things  and  no  absolute  rule  can  be  laid  down, 
though  approximate  rules  are  given  in  some  text 
books.  It  is  now  general  practice  to  record  ex- 
perimental data  and  design  the  screws  in  accord- 
ance with  the  results  of  actual  practice,  with 
such  variations  as  the  particular  characteristics 
of  the  ship  and  machinery  seem  to  require. 

As  it  works  in  a  yielding  fluid,  the  propeller 
in  ships  of  ordinary  form  has  a  greater  speed 
than  would  be  required  if  it  turned  in  a  solid 
nut.  The  difference  in  the  distance  traversed  in 
the  two  cases  is  called  the  'apparent  slip.'  In 
all  cases,  however,  the  propeller  acts  upon  water 
already  in  motion,  so  that  the  real  slip,  which 
represents  the  backward  velocity  of  the  water 
acted  upon  by  the  screw,  may  differ  considerablv 
from  the  apparent  slip.  The  speed  of  this  fol- 
lowing water  is  difficult  to  ascertain,  so  that 
the  slip  ordinarily  referred  to  is  the  apparent 
slip.  If  V  represents  the  speed  of  the  vessel,  a 
the  speed  of  the  screw,  and  to  the  forward  speed 
of  the  water,  then 


real  slip  = 


S  —  {V  —  w)         8+  V  — V 


Since  a  ship  can  only  move  by  driving  water 
astern,  it  is  plain  that  negative  real  slip  is  im- 
possible; but  from  the  formula  given  it  is  evi- 
dent that  if  to  is  large,  real  slip  might  exist  even 
if  V  exceeded  8,  In  rare  cases,  with  vessels  of  ex- 
ceptional form,  negative  slip  has  been  observed; 
it  always  indicate  a  wasteful  expenditure  of 
power,  for  the  force  which  gives  forward  motion 
to  the  water  is  derived  from  the  ship  in  some 
way  (bad  shape  of  hull,  frictional  resistance, 
etc.).  It  must  be  noted  that  real  slip---and 
therefore  usually  apparent  slip— is  a  necessity  of 
screw  propulsion  and  does  not  of  itself  indicate 
loss  of  power.  It  is  a  necessary  sequence  of  the 
action  of  a  screw  in  a  yielding  fluid.  The  slip 
may  be  too  great  or  too  small,  however;  in  the 
former  case  the  pitch  is  probably  (i.e.  suppos- 
ing no  other  cause  operative)  too  great;  if  it  is 
too  small  the  pitch  is  probably  too  little.  The 
efficiency  of  different  forms  of  propellers  differs 
but  little  provided  their  pitch,  blade  area,  etc., 
are  suitable  to  the  conditions  of  their  use;  but 
several  changes  have  to  be  made  in  some  in- 


stances before  these  details  are  correctly  deter- 
mined. The  most  important  point  to  be  consid- 
ered in  propulsive  efficiency  is  the  shape  of  the 
vessel's  hull..  The  shape  of  the  bow  (i.e.  the 
entrance)  is  not  so  important,  however,  as  that 
of  the  stem  (i.e.  the  run) ;  tjie  former  may  be 
quite  full  and  bluff  without  greatly  reducing  the 
speed  except  at  very  high  velocities,  but  the 
latter  must  be  very  hollow  or  lean  or  the  water 
will  not  flow  in  solid  to  the  propeller  or  pro- 
pellers except  at  low  speeds. 

The  screw  is  secured  to  the  end  of  an  iron  or 
steel  shaft  called  the  propeller-shaft  or  tail-shaft, 
which  connects  to  the  line  shafting,  which  in  turn 
joins  the  crank-shaft  at  the  engines.  The  push 
or  thrust  of  the  screw  is  received  on  the  thrust 
bearing,  which  has  a  series  of  raised  lugs  or 
collars  and  grooves  fitting  over  or  into  similar 
ones  in  the  shaft.  Slow  vessels  and  small  ves- 
sels usually  have  a  single  screw.  Large,  fast 
ships  are  now  generally  fitted  with  twin  screws, 
and  a  few  are  fitted  with  three.  Some  vessels 
having  turbine  engines  have  as  many  as  nine 
screws,  three  on  each  shaft,  and  a  Kussian  circu- 
lar armored  ship  has  six  screws,  each  on  a  sepa- 
rate shaft.  *The  advantages  of  multiple  screws 
are  that  the  very  lar^  power  needed  in  modem 
fast  vessels  may  be  divided  instead  of  being  sup- 
plied by  one  ponderous  engine,  and  the  difficul- 
ties and  dangers  of  breakdowns  much  reduced. 

One  of  the  first  definite  proposals — if  not  the 
first— of  using  the  screw  for  propulsion  came 
from  the  great  French  mathematician  Bernoulli, 
who,  in  1752,  received  a  prize  from  the  French 
Academy  of  Sciences  for  an  essay  on  the  manner 
of  propelling  boats  without  wind,  in  which  he 
proposed  the  use  of  a  screw.  During  the  Revolu- 
tion David  Bushnell,  an  ingenious  and  patriotic 
American,  made  a  practical  submarine  boat  pro- 
pelled by  a  screw  turned  by  hand  power  and 
actually  used  the  boat  in  an  attempt  to  blow  up 
a  British  man-of-war.    See  Tobfedo  Boat,  Sub- 

ICABINB. 

Two  Americans,  Oliver  Evans  and  John  Fitch, 
experimented  with  screw  propellers  between  1780 
and  1700.  In  1801  or  1802  another  American, 
John  Stevens,  built  a  screw-propelled  steamboat 
which  he  successfully  used.  But  it  remained  for 
Ericsson  to  develop  the  screw.  His  first  successes 
were  achieved  in  England  in  1837-38,  but,  getting 
little  encouragement  there,  he  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1839,  where  his  plans  were  eagerly 
taken  up  by  Commodore  Stockton  and  other 
officers  of  the  navy.  Through  their  efforts  the 
United  States  steamship  Princeton,  of  1000  tons, 
was  built  under  Ericsson's  superintendence.  She 
was  the  first  screw  man-of-war  built  in  any 
country  and  the  first  to  have  her  machinery 
wholly  below  the  water  line.  Her  almost  un- 
qualified success  settled  the  question  of  the  avail- 
ability of  the  screw  for  propulsion,  particularly 
for  war  vessels.  The  use  of  paddle  wheels  in 
the  merchant  service  continued  for  many  years, 
but  by  1870  the  screw  had  everywhere  triumphed 
except  in  the  navigation  of  shoal  or  interior 
waters.  For  further  information,  consult :  Bama- 
by.  Marine  Propellers  (London  and  New  York, 
1891)  ;  Transactions  of  the  Institution  of  Naval 
Architects  (London,  annual;  different  numbers 
contain  many  important  papers  on  screw  pro- 
pulsion) ;  Navy  Professional  Papers  (United 
States  Navy  Department),  "Screw  Propulsion;'* 
Information  from  Abroad  (an  annual;  different 


8CBEW  PSOPELLEB. 


592 


8CSIBE. 


numbers  contain  papers  on  screw  propulsion  and 
its  development),  issued  by  the  office  of  Naval 
Intelligence,  United  States  Navy;  Bennett,  The 
Monitor  and  the  Navy  Under  Steam  (Boston, 
1900)  ;  Seaton,  Manual  of  Marine  Engineering 
(London  and  New  York,  1896) ;  Sennitt  and 
Oram,  Marine  8ttam  Engine  (ib.,  1898).  See 
also  the  articles  on  Shipbuilding  and  on  Steam 
Navigation.  . 

SCREW- WOBIC  The  larva  of  a  dipterous 
insect  {Compsomyia  macellaria),  parasitic  upon 
mammals  and  occasionally  attacking  human 
beings.  The  adult  fly  belongs  to  the  family  Sar- 
cophagidiB  and  is  less  than  a  half  an  inch  in 
length,  bluish  green  with  metallic  reflections 
and  three  black  stripes  upon  the  thorax.  It  ap- 
pears in  the  summer  time  and  lays  a  mass  of 
eggs  either  upon  some  decaying  matter  or  in 
an  open  wound  on  some  animal.  Many  cases  are 
on  record  where  ^gs  have  been  deposited  in  the 
nostrils  of  catarrhal  persons  sleeping  in  the  open 
air.  The  eggs  hatch  in  a  very  short  time,  even 
in  a  single  hour.  The  larva  or  maggot  is  a  whit- 
ish footless  grub,  rather  slender  and  quite  active, 
and  burrows  into  the  tissues  of  the  affected  ani- 
mal or  decaying  matter  that  furnishes  it  food. 
It  grows  rapidly  and  matures  in  the  course  of  a 
week  or  less,  then  leaves  the  wound  and  enters 
the  ground  to  transform  to  pupa.  The  puparia 
are  brown  in  color,  cylindrical,  rounded  at  the 
end,  and  about  two-fifths  of  an  inch  long.  The 
pupal  stage  lasts  from  9  to  12  days,  and  there 
may  be  many  generations  in  the  course  of  a 
summer.  The  screw-worm  fly  inhabits  all  of 
tropical  and  much  of  temperate  America,  extend- 
ing from  Canada  to  Patagonia.  As  a  direct 
application  for  the  sores  infested  with  worms  a 
carbolic  wash  is  advised,  1  part  of  carbolic  acid 
to  30  parts  of  water.  A  little  glycerin  may  be 
added,  and  a  flnal  dressing  with  pine  tar  is  rec- 
ommended. Where  the  nasal  passages  of  human 
beings  are  inhabited  by  the  maggots  they  should 
promptly  be  syringed  out  with  a  mixture  of 
1  part  of  carbolic  acid  to  200  parts  of  water. 
Several  fatal  cases  have  been  reported.  See 
Myiasis.  Consult  Osbom,  Bulletin  No,  5  {new 
aeries),  Division  of  Entomology ,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  (Washington,  1896). 

8CBIBE  (Lat.  scriha,  from  scriherCy  to  write, 
scratch;  connected  with  scrobs,  ditch).  A  name 
given  to  one  of  a  class  of  men  in  the  Jewish 
(5hurch  who  were  learned  in  the  law.  The  He- 
brew word  {s6ph^)  is  related  to  the  word  mean- 
ing *book'  {8€pher)y  and  hence  occurs  originally 
for  a  'secretary,'  as  of  Baruch  (Jer.  xxxvi.  26), 
or  of  a  writer  in  general  (Ps.  xlv.  1)  ;  it  is  also 
used  of  a  certain  governmental  ofiicial,  perhaps 
a  muster-officer  (e.g.  II.  Ram.  viii.  17).  But 
upon  the  canonization  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures, 
which  were  'the  Books'  par  excellencey  the  name 
became  confined  to  those  who  expounded  these 
sacred  volumes.  In  this  confined  sense  the  word 
first  appears  applied  to  Ezra,  'the  priest,  the 
scribe'  (Ezra  vii.  11);  this  application  is  sig- 
nificant because  Ezra  (q.v.)  was  the  leading 
actor  in  the  process  of  that  canonization.  In 
him  the  priest  and  the  theologian  are  combined, 
naturally  enough,  for  his  work  dealt  with  the 
priestly  law.  But  it  was  the  purpose  of  this 
canonization,  which  took  place  by  a  popular 
ratification  (Neh.  viii.),  to  make  the  few  the 
code  for  the  whole  life  of  the  nation,  so  that  it 
soon  became  an  object  of  even  greater  interest  to 


the  laity.  Hence  after  the  first  steps  in  this 
process  these  scribes  eame  to  be  drafted  more 
and  more  from  the  people,  and  toward  the  end 
of  the  Jewish  Commonwealth  only  a  minority 
were  of  the  priestly  or  Sadducee  interest,  the 
great  number  belonging  to  the  Pharisees.  (Setf 
Pharisees;  Sadducees.)  The  New  Testament 
gives  the  earliest  full  data  for  this  learned  caste. 
The  Greek  word  (7pafv«are^, 'man  of  letters')  is 
a  translation  of  the  Hebrew.  Other  terms  used 
are  more  exact  in  definition  of  the  office;  they 
are  'Called  'lawvers'  and  'teachers  of  the  law.' 
Josephus  well  describes  them  as  'interpreters  of 
the  ancestral  laws.'  The  New  Testament  care- 
fully avoids  confusing  them  with  the  Pharisees 
(e.g.  Matt,  xxiii.  2),  for  while  the  great  ma- 
jority of  them  belonced  to  this  partv,  the  scribes 
were  the  learned  leaders  of  the  party,  those  who 
had  approved  themselves  by  education  and  public 
acknowledgment  as  fit  teachers.  They  were  the 
theologians,  and  inasmuch  as  Jewish  theology 
was  eminently  practical,  they  were  the  jurists 
who  interpreted  the  law  for  the  courts,  and  the 
casuists  who  settled  individual  questions.  Their 
functions  have  been  defined  as  (1)  the  theo- 
retical development  of  the  law;  (2)  the  teaching 
of  the  law;  (3)  the  giving  of  legal  opinion  in 
court.  They  enjoyed  the  unbounded  reverence 
and  obedience  of  the  people  (even  the  Sadducees 
could  not  withstand  their  power)  and  established 
what  is,  perhaps,  the  most  remarkable  system  of 
intellectual  authority  apart  from  caste  and 
priesthood  that  the  world  has  ever  seen.  With 
the  fall  of  the  Jewish  State  the  scribes  became 
the  sole  authority  in  the  Church,  and  the  results 
of  their  labors  are  preserved  in  the  Talmud 
(o.y.),  which  fives  the  minutest  details  of  their 
life  and  thought.  Jewish  terminology,  however, 
confines  the  word  SdphMm  to  the  pre-Talmudic 
teachers.  Consult  Schfirer,  History  of  the  Jetoish 
People  in  the  Time  of  Jesus  Christ  (Eng.  trans., 
Edinburgh,  1890).  For  examples  of  the  methods 
and  thought  of  the  scribes,  consult  Tavlor,  Say- 
ings of  the  Jewish  Fathers  (i.e.  the  Pirke  Ahoth; 
Cambridge,  1877). 

8CBIBE,  skr^b,  Auoustin  Eugene  (1791- 
1861).  A  French  dramatist.  Bom  in  Paris, 
and  educated  for  the  law,  he  turned,  at  twenty,  to 
the  stage  {Les  dervis,  1811),  but  he  won  his  first 
great  successes  with  Une  nuit  de  la  garde  nation- 
ale  and  Flore  et  Z4phire  (1816),  after  which, 
alone  or  in  collaboration,  he  poured  out  an  almost 
imbroken  succession  of  some  400  plays  collected 
in  76  volumes,  noteworthy  for  their  interesting 
plots  and  light,  sparkling  dialogues,  but  most  of 
all  for  their  mastery  of  the  technique  of  the  stage. 
He  essayed  every  kind  of  dramatic  writing,  trage- 
dies, comedies,  vaudevilles,  opera  libretti,  collab- 
orating with  others  and  often  being  little  more 
than  editor  of  others'  ideas.  He  was  elected  to 
the  Academy  in  1834.  The  best  of  his  plays  are, 
chronologically,  VaUrie  (1822),  Le  mariage 
d'argent  (1827),  Bertrand  et  Raton  (1833),  La 
camaraderie  (1833),  Le  verre  d'eau  (1840), 
Une  chatne  (ISil) ,  Adrienne  Lecouvreur  (1849), 
Les  contes  de  la  reine  de  Navarre  (1850), 
Bataille  de  dames  (1851),  and  Les  doigts  de  fie 
(1858).  On  the  last  three  he  worked  with 
Legouv^.  The  more  noted  of  his  libretti  are 
Fra  Diavolo  (1830),  Robert  le  Diable  (1831),  La 
Juive  (1835),  Les  Huguenots  (1836),  La  Favo- 
rita  (1840),  Le  Proph^te  (1849),  UAfrioaine 
(1865).     Scribe  wrote  also  some  insignificant 


SCBIBE. 


598 


SCBIVENEB. 


Dovels.  His  supremacy  lay  in  the  gift  of  dis- 
covering instinctively  new  and  striking  theatri- 
cal combination^.  Scribe^s  local  color  is  careless, 
his  drawing  of  character  weak,  but  from  him 
Dumas  the  younger,  Augier,  and  above  all  Sardou, 
learned  that  mastery  of  stagecraft,  and  of  the 
routine  of  theatrical  presentation,  which  has 
given  France  for  half  a  century  unquestioned 
leadership  in  the  drama. 

BiBUOGRAPHT.  Scribe's  (Euvtes  dramatiquea 
are  in  76  vols.  (Paris,  1874-85).  There  is  a 
Life  by  Legouv6  (ib.,  1874).  Consult:  Matthews, 
French  Dramaiiata  (New  York,  1881);  Sainte- 
Beuve,  Portraits  contemporaina  (Paris,  1881-82) ; 
Weiss,  Le  th^dtre  et  lea  mcdura  (ib.,  1889)  ; 
Bruneti^re,  Epoquea  du  th6dtre  frangaia  (ib., 
1892). 

SCBIBIiE^TTS,  MABTimJs,  Memoibs  of.  A 
satirical  history,  ridiculing  affectation  in  leam- 
i°&  by  John  Arbuthnot,  first  published  among 
Pope's  works  (1741).  The  hero  had  read  every- 
thing, but  lacked  taste  and  judgment. 

SCBIBIiEBUS  CLUB.  A  literary  club  in 
London  formed  in  1714  by  Swift,  to  which  be- 
longed Arbuthnot,  Pope,  Gay,  Bolingbroke,  and 
others.  Its  object  was  to  satirize  the  prevalent 
false  taste  in  literature;  though  it  was  short- 
lived, we  owe  to  it  Arbuthnot's  Martinua  Scrih- 
lerua,  Oulliver'a  Travela,  and  indirectly  Pope's 
Dunciad. 

SCRXBOTEB,  Chables  (1821-71).  An  Ameri- 
can publisher.  He  was  bom  in  New  York  City 
and  educated  at  the  University  of  New  York  and 
at  Princeton  CJollege,  where  he  graduated  in 
1840.  He  studied  for  the  bar,  but  on  account  of 
feeble  health  did  not  practice,  and  in  1846 
formed  a  partnership  in  New  York  with  Isaac  D. 
Baker  in  the  book-selling  and  publishing  busi- 
ness. The  firm,  or  rather  Mr.  Scribner,  for  his 
partner  soon  died,  acquired  the  works  of  such 
authors  as  Headley,  Willis,  Donald  Mitchell  (''Ik 
Marvel"),  Dr.  Holland,  Dr.  McCk)sh,  Dr.  Bush- 
nell,  etc.  In  1857  Mr.  Charles  Welford  became 
a  partner,  and  a  specialty  was  made  of  the  im- 
portation of  books  from  England.  The  partners 
also  entered  extensively  into  the  publication  of 
educational  books,  and  in  1865  established  Houra 
at  Home,  which  in  1870  became  Sorihner'a  Maga- 
zine. This  monthly,  under  the  editorship  of  Dr. 
J.  G.  Holland,  achieved  great  popularity,  and 
was  sold  in  1881  and  rechristened  The  Century 
Magazine.  On  the  death  of  Mr.  Scribner,  the 
firm  was  reorganized  under  the  name  Scribner, 
Armstrong  ft  Co.;  the  name  of  Charles  Scrib- 
ner*s  Sons  was  assumed  in  1879,  and  eight  years 
later  the  new  Scrihner'a  Magazine  was  estab- 
lished. 

SGBIBNEB,  Frank  Lamson  (1851—).  An 
American  botanist,  born  in  Cambridgeport,  Mass., 
and  educated  at  the  Maine  State  College  of  Agri- 
culture. He  was  connected  with  Girard  College 
from  1876  to  1884,  and  in  1886  entered  the  Agri- 
cultural Bureau  of  the  United  States.  From 
1888  to  1894  he  was  professor  of  botany  in  the 
University  of  Tennessee.  In  1894  he  was  ap- 
pointed chief  of  the  Division  of  Agrostology  in  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  He 
wrote  many  valuable  papers  on  the  grasses,  a 
subject  on  which  he  ranks  as  a  foremost  Ameri- 
can authority. 


SCBIP  (corrupted  from  acript,  Lat.  aeriptum, 
written  paper,  book,  law,  mark,  neu.  sg.  of  aerip- 
tus,  p.  p.  of  acribere,  to  write;  influenced  by 
popular  etymology  with  acrip,  wallet,  pouch).  A 
certificate  of  a  right  to  a  share  or  shares  in  a 
corporation,  or  to  receive  payment  of  money  at  a 
future  date.  Where  a  corporation  is  being  or- 
ganized, and  the  regular  stock  certificates  have 
not  been  issued,  it  is  customary  to  give  sub- 
scribers scrip  or  'scrip  certificates,'  as  they  are 
often  called,  for  payments  on  account  of  their 
subscription  to  the  capital  stock,  and  this  scrip 
may  be  exchanged  later  for  certificates  of  stock. 
Scrip  for  paid-up  subscriptions  may  be  trans- 
ferred in  the  same  manner  as  certificates  of 
stock,  and  the  same  principles  of  law  a^ply  as 
to  the  rights  of  the  parties.  Similar  'scrip'  cer- 
tificates are  sometimes  issued  for  sums  less  than 
the  full  value  of  a  bond  in  a  corporation,  as  in 
rebonding  a  corporation,  which  entitle  the  holder 
of  a  sufficient  number  to  aggregate  the  face  of  a 
bond  to  exchange  them  for  it.  Corporations  some- 
times issue  scrip  dividends,  where  they  desire  to 
retain  surplus  earnings  as  working  capital  and 
increase  their  capital  stock. 

The  term  scrip  was  also  commonly  applied  to 
the  certificates  issued  by  State  banks  which 
were  designed  to  pass  as  currency.  This  scrip 
was  merely  a  promise  to  pay  the  bearer  the 
amount  named  on  the  face  of  the  certificate,  and 
was  similar  to  United  States  Government  'green- 
backs.' 

Certificates  or  orders  on  stores  issued  by  em- 
ployers to  employees  are  often  called  scrip,  es- 
pecially where  they  are  issued  in  a  series  of 
values  to  correspond  with  United  States  currency. 
Such  'scrip'  is,  of  course,  not  legal  tender.  Con- 
sult: Morse,  Banka  and  Banking  (3d  ed.,  1888) ; 
Morawetz,  Private  Corporations  (2d  ed.,  1886)  ; 
also  see  Corporation;  Dividend;  Monet;  Stock. 

SCBIPTTTBE,  Edward  Wheeler  (1864—). 
An  American  psychologist,  bom  at  Mason,  N.  H. 
He  graduated  at  the  College  of  the  City  of  New 
York  in  1884,  and  studied  at  Berlin,  Zurich,  and 
Leipzig.  He  was  fellow  at  Clark  University  in 
1891,  and  in  the  following  year  became  instructor 
in  experimental  psychology  at  Yale  and  director 
of  the  psychological  laboratory  there  in  1898. 
In  addition  to  various  psychological  apparatus, 
he  devised  a  method  of  producing  anesthesia  by 
electricity,  and  of  measuring  hallucinations  and 
imaginations.  He  wrote :  Thinking,  Feeling,  Do- 
ing (1895);  The  New  Paychology  (1897);  Ele- 
menta  of  Experimental  Phonetica  (1902). 

SCBIVOSNEB,  Frederick  Henrt  Ambrosb 
(1813-91).  A  distinguished  English  biblical 
scholar,  bom  in  London.  He  took  his  degree  at 
Cambridge  in  1835  and  after  a  number  of  years' 
experience  as  a  teacher  he  became  in  1861  rector 
of  Saint  (Jerrans,  Cornwall,  then  vicar  of  Hen- 
don,  and  prebendary  of  Exeter  in  1876.  Dr. 
Scrivener  was  much  interested  in  the  textual 
criticism  of  the  New  Testament  and  his  labors 
in  this  field  have  proved  eminently  useful.  His 
most  important  service  was  his  PUUn  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Criticism  of  the  New  Teatament 
( 1861 ;  4th  ed.,  posthumous,  edited  by  E.  Miller, 
1894).  Other  valuable  publications  were  his 
edition  of  the  famous  Cambridge  Codem  Bezoa, 
edited  with  a  critical  introduction,  annotations, 
and  facsimiles  (1864),  and  The  New  Teatament 
in  the  Original  Greek,  according  to  the  text  fol- 


8CBIVENES. 


5M 


8CS0PHULABIACKS. 


lowed  in  the  Authorized  Version,  together  with 
the  changes  adopted  in  the  Revi^  Version 
( 1881 ) .  Scrivener's  critical  principles  were  those 
of  the  old  school,  marked  by  reverence  for  the 
Textus  Keceptus. 

SCBIVEKEB'S  PALSY,  or  Wbiteb's  Cb^mp. 
See  Neubobis. 

8CB0FUXA  (Lat.,  diminutive  of  acrofa,  sow), 
or  Stbuma.  a  tuberculous  affection  manifested 
by  enlargement  of  the  lymph  glands  and  de- 
fective nutrition  of  the  tissues  generally.  The 
term  has  had  a  varied  significance  at  different 
periods  and  among  different  writers  on  medical 
subjects,  but  at  the  present  time  scrofula  is  be- 
lieved to  be  merely  a  manifestation  of  tubercu- 
losis and  to  be  due  entirely  to  infection  and  sub- 
sequent irritation  set  up  by  the  specific  bacillus 
of  that  disease.  By  many  authorities  scrofula  is 
looked  upon  as  the  'pre-tuberculous'  stage  of  con- 
sumption. It  is  certain  that  individuals  with 
tubercular  adenitis  are  prone  to  develop  pul- 
monary tuberculosis,  and  the  presence  of  these 
foci  are  a  constant  menace.  On  the  other  hand, 
many  persons  of  exceptional  bodily  vigor  are 
met  with  who  in  childhood  had  enlarged  glands. 
Many  manifestations  of  disordered  blood  condi- 
tions formerly  grouped  as  scrofulous  are  now 
known  to  be  either  tuberculous  or  due  to  other 
and  definite  causes.  For  example,  chronic  in- 
flammation of  the  joints,  carious  ulceration  of 
the  bones,  ulcers  of  the  cornea,  eczema,  and  ca- 
tarrhal states  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
nose,  were  formerly  classed  as  strumous. 

Individuals  of  the  lymphatic  type  are  most 
liable  to  develop  marked  scrofulous  symptoms. 
Heredity  plays  some  part  in  the  development  of 
the  disease,  but  it  is  more  likely  to  arise  from 
poor  food  and  bad  hygienic  surroundings.  The 
glandular  enlargements  are  most  frequently  seen 
in  the  neck,  but  all  the  lymphatic  glands  of  the 
body  may  be  affected  with  little  or  no  involve- 
ment of  other  portions  of  the  organism.  There 
is  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  these  glands  to 
suppurate  and  form  very  chronic  abscesses. 
Scrofulous  children  are  liable  to  suffer  from 
chronic  bronchitis,  diarrhoea,  and  catarrhal  dis- 
orders of  the  nose  and  throat,  and  any  inter- 
current disease  such  as  measles  is  apt  to  take  a 
severe  form  with  them. 

The  treatment  of  scrofula  is  chiefly  hygienic 
and  comprises  fresh  air,  in  abundance,  warm 
clothing,  and  nutritious  food.  Cod-liver  oil  and 
the  syrup  of  the  iodide  of  iron  are  the  most  gen- 
erally beneficial  medicines,  although  iron,  strych- 
nine, and  arsenic  are  excellent  tonics.  JjxaI 
applications  of  iodine  will  help  to  reduce  the 
enlarged  glands.  When  these  break  down, 
however,  or  threaten  to  suppurate,  thorough 
excision  is  the  only  efficient  remedy,  and  the 
unsightly  scars  that  result  from  long  continued 
suppuration  may  thus  be  avoided. 

The  old  English  name  for  scrofula,  *the  king's 
evil/  was  derived  from  the  belief  that  the  disease 
could  be  cured  by  the  royal  touch.  The  faith 
in  its  efficacy  was  widespread,  surviving  several 
centuries.  Both  the  English  and  French  kings 
practiced  this  rite,  originated,  it  is  said,  by 
Edward  the  Confessor. 

8CB00OS,  Sir  William  (c.1623-83).  An 
English  jurist,  bom  at  Deddington,  Oxford.  He 
attended  Oriel  and  Pembroke  Colleges,  Oxford, 
took  his   B.A.   in   1640,   and   was  admitted  to 


Gray's  Inn  in  1641.  During  the  Civil  War  he 
fought  on  the  Royalist  side  and  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1663.  In  1668  he  was  assigned  as  counsel 
for  Sir  William  Penn  in  his  proposed  impeach- 
ment trial,  and  in  1676  was  Imighted  and  made 
a  justice  of  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas.  He  was 
always  subservient  to  the  King  and  made  political 
speeches  from  the  bench.  He  was  appointed  Lord 
Chief  Justice  in  1678  and  was  called  to  the  as- 
sistance of  the  Commons  in  the  investigation  of 
the  Popish  Plot  (q.v.).  In  1679  he  presided  over 
the  trials  of  the  accused  and  intimidated  all  wit- 
nesses for  the  defense,  but  at  the  trial  of  Sir 
George  Wakeman,  the  Queen's  phvsieian,  changed 
tactics  and  disparaged  the  evidence  of  Bedloe 
and  Titus  Gates.  By  this  action  he  lost  fi&vor 
with  the  populace  and  was  accused  before  the 
Privy  Council,  but  was  acquitted.  By  adjourn- 
ing the  Grand  Jury  on  Jime  20  he  prevented  the 
indictment  of  the  Duke  of  York  as  a  Papist 
recusant.  He  was  impeached  by  the  House  of  Com- 
mons on  the  eight  counts,  but  Parliament  was 
abruptly  dissolved  and  he  was  never  tried.  The 
next  year  he  was  removed  from  office,  but  was 
granted  a  pension  of  £1600  a  year.  Though  a 
man  of  much  ability,  he  was  not  a  great  lawyer, 
and  no  other  judge  except  Jeffreys  has  so  dis- 
graced the  bench. 

SGBOOOEy  Ebenezeb.  A  harsh,  avaricious, 
utterly  loveless  old  man  in  Dickens's  Christmas 
Carol,  who  by  a  vision  of  the  ghosts  of  Christ- 
mas, Past,  Present,  and  to  Come,  is  changed  into 
a  benevolent,  cheerful  person. 

SCBOPZ;  Gboboe  Julius  Poulett  (1797- 
1876).  An  English  geologist,  bom  in  London 
and  educated  at  Harrow  and  at  Saint  John's 
College,  Cambridge.  He  visited  Italy  in  1819  to 
study  volcanoes,  and  after  his  marriage  in  1821, 
when  he  took  his  wife's  family  name  instead  of 
his  own,  Thomson,  traveled  in  Central  France  and 
again  in  Italy  and  was  an  eyewitness  of  the 
eruption  of  Vesuvius  in  October,  1822.  With  his 
intimate  friend,  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  he  attacked 
the  prevailing  W^emerian  theory  of  volcanic  ac- 
tion and  advanced  the  uniformitarian  doctrine, 
insisting  at  the  same  time  on  adherence  to 
the  method  of  actual  observation  of  natural 
phenomena.  But  his  great  fame  is  as  a  geologist, 
and  he  must  rank  as  one  of  the  most  logical  and 
clear  thinkers  among  the  natural  scientists  of  his 
day.  He  wrote  Considerations  on  Volcanoes 
(1828;  2d  ed.  1862)  and  Geology  of  the  Extinct 
Volcanoes  of  Central  France  (1827;  2d  ed. 
1872). 

SGBOPH'TTLA'BIA'OEA  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi., 
from  Scrophularia,  from  Lat.  scrofuUe,  scrofula; 
so  called  either  because  believed  to  be  a  remedy 
for  scrofula,  or  because  the  knots  on  the  roots 
were  supposed  to  resemble  scrofula).  The  Fig- 
WOBT  Family.  A  large  and  widely  distributed 
natural  order  of  dicotyledonous  plants  embracing 
about  180  genera  and  2000  species,  chiefly  herbs 
and  sub-shrubs,  and  also  a  few  trees  (Pau- 
lownia).  They  are  adapted  to  many  different 
habitats  and  some  show  marked  modifications 
due  to  their  surroundings.  Some  species  are 
semi-parasitic  upon  the  roots  of  other  plants, 
although  they  retain  their  green  coloration. 
Some  New  Zealand  species  resemble  certain  coni- 
fers. Many  species  are  grown  as  ornamentals,  as 
calceolaria^     snapdragon,     speedwell,     mimnlusi 


SGBOPHXJLABIAGKaL 


695 


SCITDEBT. 


pentstemon,  etc.  Some  have  been  used  medi- 
cinally. 

SCBTJFIiE.  A  character  in  John  Wilson's 
comedy  The  Cheats  (performed  1663).  He  is  a 
Nonconformist  minister^  touched  with  a  satiric 
hand,  as  when  h^  calls  the  strong  liquor  which 
he  drinks  "too  good  for  the  wicked;  it  may 
strengthen  them  in  their  enormities." 

SCBXrriN  DE  USTE,  skrv'tiN'  de  l^t  (Fr., 
voting  by  list) .  A  method  of  electing  members  of 
the  French  Chamber  of  Deputies.  According  to 
this  method  of  acrutin  de  liste  all  the  Deputies 
of  a  given  department  are  elected  on  a  general 
ticket,  each  elector  voting  for  the  whole  list — the 
method  by  which  Presidential  electors  in  the 
United  States  are  chosen.  This  method  was  in- 
troduced in  1885  with  the  view  of  swamping  the 
minority  party  and  removing  the  Deputies  from 
the  strong  pressure  of  local  petty  interests.  It 
did  not,  however,  prove  satisfactory  to  the  ma- 
jority, and  the  arrondissement  or  single-district 
method  was  reestablished  in  1889. 

SCXJiyDEB,  Henbt  Mabtyn  (1822-95).  An 
American  missionary  and  minister.  He  was  bom 
at  Panditeripo,  Ceylon,  the  son  of  the  Rev.  John 
Scudder,  a  missionary  of  the  (Dutch)  Reformed 
Church.  He  was  graduated  at  the  University  of 
the  City  of  New  York  in  1840  and  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary  in  1843.  The  following  year 
he  went  as  missionarjr  to  Madura,  India.  Here 
he  established  a  hospital  and  dispensary,  having 
received  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  1853.  In  1864  he 
returned  to  the  United  States  and  filled  pastor- 
ates in  San  Francisco  (1865),  Brooklyn  (1872), 
and  Chicago  (1882).  From  1887  to  1889  he  was 
again  in  the  mission  field  in  Japan.  He  pub- 
lished a  number  of  books  in  the  Sanskrit,  Tamil, 
and  Telugu  languages. 

SCUBDEB^  HobacbEusha  (1838-1902).  An 
American  author  and  editor,  bom  in  Boston, 
Mass.  He  graduated  from  Williams  College  in 
1858  and  then  taught  school  in  New  York  City. 
Subsequently,  removing  to  Boston,  he  devoted 
himself  to  literary  work.  In  1867  he  was  made 
editor  of  the  Riverside  Magazine  for  Young  Peo- 
ple. In  1890  he  succeeded  Thomas  Bailey  Aid- 
rich  as  editor  of  the  Atlantic  Monthly.  Although 
a  critic  and  biographer  of  recognized  ability  and 
an  influential  man  of  letters  by  virtue  of  his  po- 
sition as  editor  and  literary  adviser,  he  was  prob- 
ably most  widely  known  as  a  writer  of  juvenile 
books,  such  as  Seven  Little  People  and  Their 
Friends  (1862)  and  the  Bodley  Books,  in  eight 
volumes  (1875-85).  Other  titles  of  his  works 
are:  Life  and  Letters  of  David  Coit  Scudder 
(1864),  Btories  from  My  Attic  (1869),  Stories 
and  Romances  (1880),  ^Toafc  Webster  (''American 
Men  of  Letters,"  1882),  A  History  of  the  United 
States  (1884),  Men  and  Letters  (1887),  George 
Washington  (1889),  and  Childhood  in  Literature 
and  Art  (1894).  Doubtless  his  most  important 
single  work  is  his  biography  of  James  Russell 
Lowell  (1901),  which  presents  with  fullness,  ac- 
curacy, and  sympathy  the  chief  phases  of  lit- 
erary life  in  New  England,  with  which  the  biog- 
rapher himself  was  throughout  his  life  in  touch. 
Scudder  also  prepared,  with  Mrs.  Taylor,  the 
Life  and  Letters  of  Bayard  Taylor  (1884),  and 
was  editor  of  the  ''American  Commonwealths 
Series.** 

SCTTDDEB,  Samttel  Hubbard  ( 1837— ) .  An 
American  entomologist,  bom  in  Boston.    He  was 


graduated  at  Williams  College  and  at  Harvard 
University.  From  1864  to  1870  he  was  custodian 
of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  and 
its  president  from  1880  to  1887.  He  was  an 
assistant  librarian  at  Harvard  from  1879  to 
1882;  was  attached  to  the  United  States  Geo- 
logical Survey  from  1886  to  1892;  became  a 
member  of  the  National  Academy  of  Science  in 
1887,  and  has  been  an  honorary  or  corresponding 
member  of  several  foreign  societies.  An  author- 
ity on  North  American  butterflies  and  orthoptera, 
he  has  also  a  world-wide  reputation  as  an  inves- 
tigator of  fossil  insects,  myriapods,  and  arach- 
nida.  He  has  discussed  the  subjects  of  an- 
tigeny  and  digoneutism,  proposing  these  terms, 
and  has  made  elaborate  studies  on  the  larval 
histories  and  on  the  ecology  of  butterflies.  His 
publications  are  very  numerous,  comprising: 
Butterflies  of  the  E€istem  United  States  and 
Canada  (New  York,  1887-89);  The  Fossil 
Insects  of  North  America  (ib.,  1890) ;  Indea 
to  the  Knoum  Fossil  Insects  of  the  World 
(Washington,  1891);  Tertiary  Rhynchophorous 
Coleoptera  of  the  United  States  (ib.,  1893) ; 
Revision  of  the  Orthopteran  Oroup  MelanopH 
(ib.,  1897) ;  Catalogue  of  the  Described  Orthop- 
tera  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  (1900) ; 
Adephagous  and  Clavicom  Coleoptera  from  the 
Tertiary  Deposits  at  Florissant,  Colorado  (Wash- 
ington, 1900) ;  Indew  to  North  American  Orthop- 
tera (Boston,  1901). 

8CDDDEB,  ViDA  Dutten  (1861—).  An 
American  educator  and  writer,  born  in  India. 
She  graduated  at  Smith  Colle^  in  1884,  and 
after  studying  at  Oxford  and  m  Paris  became 
associate  professor  of  English  literature  at 
Wellesley  College.  Her  publications  include: 
The  Life  of  the  Spirit  in  the  Modem  English 
Poets  (1895);  The  Witness  of  Denial  (1896); 
Social  Ideals  in  English  Letters  (1898) ;  and  an 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  English  Literature 
(1901). 

SCTTD^BT,  skv'dA'r^,  Georges  de  (1601-67). 
A  French  poet  and  playwright,  bom  at  Havre. 
He  was  popular  in  his  time,  but  is  now  remem- 
bered chiefly  through  Boileau's  satire,  and  as 
being  the  brother  of  the  celebrated  Madeleine  de 
Scud^ry,  who  published  many  of  her  works  under 
his  name.  He  served  in  the  artillery  until  1630, 
when  his  literary  interests  drew  him  to  Paris. 
By  means  of  assiduous  flattery  and  an  adroit 
TOlemic  against  (Ik>meille,  Scud^ry  received  from 
Kichelieu  in  1643  an  appointment  as  Governor 
of  N6tre  Dame  de  la  Garde,  near  Marseilles, 
which  he  retained  imtil  1658.  In  1650  he  was 
elected  to  the  Academy.  Scud4ry's  numerous 
works  include:  La  com4die  des  comMiens  (1634) ; 
La  mort  de  CSsar  (1636)  ;  Arminius  (1643) ;  and 
a  pretentious  epic  Alario  (1654),  which  was 
honored  by  Boileau's  most  cutting  satire. 

SCTTD^BY,  Madeleine  de  (1607-1701).  A 
French  novelist,  bom  at  Havre.  She  ira^  1^^ 
an  orphan  at  six,  was  well  educated  by  an  uncle, 
and,  with  her  scap^ace  brother  Georges,  went 
to  Paris  in  1630,  where  her  wit  and  good  sense 
soon  won  her  high  rank  in  the  brilliant  society  of 
the  Hotel  de  Rambouillet.  Her  early  writing  was 
done  under  the  name  of  her  brother  Georges,  who 
seems  to  have  collaborated  with  her  in  battle 
scenes,  general  plan,  prefaces,  and  dedications, 
and  is  said  in  days  of  need  to  have  kept  his 
sister  under  lock  to  secure  steady  production. 


SCUDEBY. 


596 


SCUIiPTUBE. 


She  soon  became  prominent  in  society  and  her 
salon  was  much  frequented.  Her  novels  are: 
Ibrahim  (4  vols.,  1641)  ;  Artamene  ou  le  grand 
Cyrus  (10  vols.,  1649-53) ;  CUlie  (10  vols.,  1654- 
60);  Almahide  (1660);  and  Mathilde  (1667). 
For  a  generation  after  its  publication  the  Orand 
Cyrus,  which  in  classic  guise  depicted  French 
society,  was  known  and  studied  in  all  circles 
that  aspired  to  literary  refinement.  The  longest 
novel  of  the  world  was  also  the  most  profitable 
of  the  period.  The  Grand  Cyrus  is  not  a  story, 
but  a  framework  for  conversation,  reflection, 
analytic  portraiture.  She  painted  French  aris- 
tocracy in  the  Orand  Cyrus  and  the  bourgeoisie  of 
the  new  culture  in  CUlie.  The  characters  of  her 
stories  were  easily  recognized  as  portraits  of 
prominent  persons  of  the  day.  Her  later  novels, 
Spanish  and  Italian  in  scene,  are  insignificant, 
though  regarded  as  novels  they  are  her  best.  She 
tactfully  yielded  to  the  literary  ideals  of  the 
school  of  1660,  voiced  in  Boileau's  Dialogue  des 
hSroSj  and  passed  the  last  forty  years  of  an 
honored  life  with  the  common  esteem  of  people  as 
different  in  temper  and  ideals  as  Racine  and  La 
Fontaine,  Cond4  and  Madame  de  S6vign4.  Her 
Correspondance  is  of  inuch  literary  interest.  Con- 
sult: Cousin,  La  soci^td  frangaise  au  XVIIime^ 
sidcle  (Paris,  1858)  ;  Sainte-Beuve,  Causeries, 
vol.  iv.  (ib.,  1857-62)  ;  Le  Breton,  Le  roman  au^ 
XVII^me  siMe  (ib.,  1890)  ;  and  Mason,  The 
Women  of  the  French  Salons  (New  York,  1891). 
Summaries  of  the  stories  and  keys  to  the  charac- 
ters may  be  found  in  Korting,  Oeschichte  des 
franzosischen  Romans  im  liters  Jahrhundert 
(Oppeln,  1891). 

SCULPIK  (of  unknown  etymology),  or  Sea 
Robin.  One  of  the  small,  strange,  spiny  marine 
fishes  of  the  family  Cottidse  (q.v.),  about  250 
species  of  which  inhabit  rocky  shores  in  north- 
em  regions  and  are  known  as  'miller's  thumbs,' 
'dragonets,'  'father-lashers,'  'Irish  lords'  (qq.v.) ; 
while  the  name  is  given  in  California  to  certaia 
fishes  of  the  related  family  Scorpsenidse.  Some, 
like  the  *sea-raven'  (q.v.),  are  large  and  brilliant, 
but  most  of  them  are  mottled  in  browns,  yellows. 


▲  BCULPiK  (Hemftrtpterns  Amerieanns). 

and  blacks.  They  are  grotesque  in  shape  and  re- 
semble 'bullhead'  catfish  with  a  warted  body, 
many  fleshy  appendages,  and  the  fins  grotesouely 
elongated  and  fluttering  with  *rags.'  These  nshes 
lurk  about  rocky  and  weedy  places,  seeking  small 
animals  for  food,  and  are  a  source  of  annoyance 
to  fishermen,  whose  bait  they  steal.  They  render 
service  as  scavengers  about  fish-curing  stations 
and  furnish  an  abundance  of  food  for  larger 
fishes. 

SCT7LPTTTBE  (Lat.  sculptura,  from  sculpere, 
to  carve,  cut  out  of  stone).  A  term  including  all 
methods  of  producing  a  purely  artistic  result  in 
solid  form,  as  distinguished  from  architecture,  in 


which  utilitarian  work  is  beautified,  and  the 
representation  of  solid  form  on  a  flat  surfaoey 
for  which  see  Drawing;  Painting. 

Pbocesses  and  Materials.  The  prooeaaes 
used  in  sculpture^  each  of  which  involves  the 
practice  of  a  separate  art,  are  of  radically  dif- 
ferent character.  There  is,  first,  carving  with 
the  sharp  tool  in  a  substance  sufficiently  solid 
and  hard  to  resist  the  tool,  such  as  stone  of  dif- 
ferent kinds,  ivory  in  all  ages  or  wherever  a 
little  luxury  was  possible  (and,  as  a  substitute 
for  ivory,  bone),  and  wood.  These  are  the  more 
common  materials;  but  there  is  nothing  hard 
which  has  not  been  used  for  sculpture.  There 
are  statuettes  in  rock  crystal;  Chinese  carvings 
in  jade  are  famous;  cameos  in  antiquity  and  in 
modem  times  are  wrought  in  onyx,  and  intaglios 
or  incised  sculptures  are  cut  in  chalcedony,  sard, 
and  amethyst.  Artists  working  for  Roman  nobles 
under  the  Empire  and  modem  artists  in  France, 
imitating  and  surpassing  them,  have  worked  in 
several  hard  materials  in  a  single  composition 
so  as  to  produce  a  polychromatic  effect. 

Artistic  form  is  also  produced  by  meana  of 
modeling  in  soft  material ;  wax  is  peculiarly  sus- 
ceptible of  free  handling  and  will  retain  per- 
fectly the  form  given  to  it ;  it  has  been  employed, 
therefore,  in  statuettes,  busts,  and  medallions  at 
many  epochs  in  the  history  of  art.  Moreover, 
as  it  will  receive  and  retain  coloring  very  per- 
fectly, it  has  been  a  common  medium  for  poly- 
chromatic sculpture.  Clay,  the  material  of  ce- 
ramic art,  is  equally  susceptible  of  artistic  treat- 
ment when  no  intention  exists  of  fixing  its  form 
by  heat.  It  is  used  in  this  way  by  the  artist 
for  the  original  small  study  as  well  as  for  model- 
ing the  whole  figure  or  group  to  be  produced 
If  the  clay  be  of  a  kind  good  for  the  purposes  of 
the  potter,  the  piece  as  originally  modeled  may 
be  fired  and  produce  a  terra-cotta  bust  or  statu- 
ette. Such  sculpture  in  terra-cotta  is  identified 
with  some  splendid  periods  of  art.     See  Terra- 

COTTA. 

The  metals  are  used  in  two  ways:  First,  they 
are  cast,  and  for  the  purposes  of  the  artist  in 
cast  metal  the  plastic  materials  mentioned  in 
the  last  paragraph  above  are  eminently  fitted. 
The  mold  for  a  casting  in  bronze  or  silver  can 
be  made  directly  or  at  one  remove,  from  the 
clay  model;  and  this  mold  may  suffice  for  one 
or  for  many  castings,  according  to  the  system 
adopted.  These  castings  may  be  finished  by 
hand;  the  file,  the  chasing  tool,  even  the  cutting 
edge  of  what  is  really  a  chisel  may  all  be  called 
into  use  to  perfect  the  forms  at  the  sculptor's 
will.  In  very  recent  times  some  of  the  great 
European  iron  foundries  have  tried  to  do  artistic 
work  in  the  hard  material  we  call  cast  iron ;  but 
this  they  could  only  do  by  singular  perfection  of 
molding  and  casting — in  short,  by  mechanical 
skill  and  foresight;  as  the  material  nardly  allows 
of  finishing  by  hand.  Bronze  is  by  far  the  most 
common  material  for  this  purpose  and  has  lent 
itself  for  thousands  of  years  to  the  work  of  the 
sculptor  on  a  very  large  scale,  and  also  in 
minute  pieces  of  omamentetion.  Silver  and  ipnld. 
and  in  modem  times  tin,  either  pure  or  slightly 
hardened  by  the  admixture  of  another  metal,  are 
materials  constantly  in  use.  The  artistic  gold- 
smith work  for  ecclesiastic  and  civil  display  has 
always  been  a  fruitful  field  for  the  sculptor.  Sec 
Metal- Work;  Founding. 

Metal  may  also  be  used  in  a  quasi-plastic  way^ 


SCTTLPTTJBE. 


597 


SCUIiPTUBE. 


far  the  great  tenacity  of  copper  and  the  some- 
what lees  but  still  available  toughness  and  ex- 
pansibility of  bronze,  together  with  the  perfect 
ease  with  which  the  precious  metals  can  be 
manipulated  in  this  way,  have  always  induced 
the  artist  to  work  in  thin  plates,  embossing  them 
by  hammering  from  the  'wrong*  side  and  then 
chasing  and  perhaps  engraving  the  face  so  as 
to  modify  tba  original  embossing.  (See  Rs- 
pou8s£e.)  This  is  done  on  a  very  large  scale  in 
the  case  of  colossal  bronze  statues,  which  are 
commonly  made  of  plates  of  bronze  hammered 
into  reliefs  and  depressions  and  afterwards  bolted 
tc^ther,  and  also  in  producing  small  decorative 
vessels. 

FoBMS  OF  ScuLPTUBE.  As  to  its  form  and 
character  sculpture  is  divisible  into  that  which 
is  in  relief  (see  Relief  Sculptube),  in  which 
the  masses  project  slishtly  from  a  solid  surface, 
and  that  'in  the  round,'  to  use  a  phrase  common 
among  artists  and  which  denotes  statues,  busts, 
free  groups,  and  the  like.  It  is,  of  course,  difficult 
to  draw  this  line  of  demarcation  very  sharply ;  thus 
there  are  terra-cotta  statuettes  of  the  Asiatic 
Greek  epoch  and  modem  carvings,  both  Oriental 
and  Western,  in  which  a  flat  plate  of  material  is 
cut  through  (pierced,  or  k  jour)  and  is  carved  or 
molded  on  one  side  only  into  its  characteristic 
and  expressive  forms.  This  is  in  fact  a  relief 
without  a  background.  A  similar  doubt  arises  in 
the  case  of  figures  in  very  high  relief.  In  composi- 
tions of  this  character  it  often  happens  that  a 
head,  a  limb,  or  even  a  whole  figure,  except  for 
a  small  point  of  attachment,  is  free  from  the 
background,  as  in  the  statues  filling  the  pedi- 
ments of  Greek  temples,  and  the  carving  of  the 
(lOthic  churches  of  the  fourteenth  century  in 
France  and  elsewhere. 

There  is  one  form  of  sculpture  in  which  the 
background  has  not  been  smoothed  off  by  the 
removal  of  the  solid  material  down  to  the  level 
of  the  ground  of  the  relief.  This  is  seen  on  a 
large  scale  in  the  wall-sculptures  of  Egyptian 
pylons  and  propylons,  and  in  the  eighteenth-cen- 
tury ivory  work  of  the  Japanese,  and  is  what  is 
known  as  c<Blanaglyphic  sculpture,  or,  more 
simply,  concavo-convex  sculpture.  It  is  really  a 
process  of  detaching  a  certain  part  of  a  larger 
surface  by  means  of  an  outline  formed  by  an  in- 
cision, and  the  further  process  of  manipulating 
everything  within  that  incision  until  tne  head 
80  bounded  becomes  much  more  than  a  mere 
delineation  and  is  wrought  into  modulations  of 
surface  until  a  semblance  of  solid  form  is  se- 
cured. 

The  ScuifTOB  at  Wobk.  A  model  of  clay 
is  commonly  used  in  all  works  of  sculpture. 
In  works  of  cast  metal  (see  Fouitding)  the 
sculptor's  activity,  except  the  final  chiseling  of 
the  metal,  ends  with  the  model  from  which  the 
statue  ifl  made.  In  marbles  the  Greeks,  indeed, 
are  reputed  to  have  worked  sometimes  without 
one,  and  Michelangelo  seems  to  have  used  oiily  a 
small  wax  model  or  a  sketch.  The  usual  modem 
process  is  to  make  a  preliminary  sketch  of  wax 
or  clay  on  a  small  scale.  An  iron  skeleton  of 
about  the  proportions  of  the  intended  statue  is 
then  set  upon  a  stand  with  a  movable  top,  en- 
abling the  sculptor  to  work  conveniently  on  all 
sides.  Upon  this  skeleton  modeling  clay,  moist- 
ened by  water  or  steafin  and  glycerin,  is  laid, 
and  the  sculptor  models  the  figure  with  bone  and 
wooden  tools.    When  the  model  is  finished  piece- 


molds  of  plaster  are  applied  from  which  the 
statue  is  cast  in  plaster. 

The  conversion  of  this  model  into  stone  is  a 
more  complicated  process.  The  model  and  the 
block  to  be  carved  are  placed  upon  similar  pedes- 
tals near  each  other,  and  by  aid  of  a  mechanical 
device,  called  the  pointing  machine,  holes  are 
drilled  into  the  marble  of  the  same  depth  as  the 
depressions  upon  the  surface  of  the  model.  The 
correspondence  between  the  model  and  the  block 
was  formerly  indicated  by  a  series  of  marks 
made  upon  each^  which  enabled  the  assistant  to 
locate  the  holes  to  be  drilled.  But  now  a  more 
exact  device  is  used,  consisting  of  a  T-shaped 
instrument  by  means  of  which  the  three  most 
prominent  points  of  the  model  are  fixed  upon  the 
stone,  and  from  these  points  others  are  gained 
by  an  elaborate  similar  process  of  trianguhition. 
From  the  holes  thus  drilled  a  trained  stone-cutter 
(acarpellino)  rough-hews  the  stone,  leaving  only 
the  completion  for  the  sculptor. 

History.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this  article  to 
treat  the  development  of  modem  as  distin- 
guished from  ancient  sculpture.  That  of  the 
Oriental  peoples,  whose  art  is  principally  deco- 
rative, has  been  treated  under  such  heads  as 
Chinese  Abt;  Japanese  Abt;  Indian  Aht;  that 
of  the  ancient  peoples  whose  art  is  not  connected 
with  the  general  development  under  Egyptian, 
Babylonian,  and  Assyrian  Abt.  Classic  sculp- 
ture, which  under  the  Greeks  attained  its  most 
perfect  development,  is  treated  under  Greek 
Art;  Roman  Art.  That  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
which  is  entirely  dependent  upon  architecture,  is 
best  treated  under  the  chief  medieval  epochs. 
(See  Christian,  Komanesque,  and  Gothio 
Art.)  With  the  Italian  Renaissance  modem 
sculpture  begins. '  With  its  emancipation  from 
architecture  the  individual  artist  becomes  of  im- 
portance. It  will  be  found  convenient  to  treat 
this  part  of  the  subject  under  the  two  headings, 
*the  Renaissance'  and  'Modem  Sculpture.'  The 
first  includes  the  great  revival  of  the  fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  centuries,  to  which  may  be  ap- 
pended the  mannered  art  of  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries  as  emanating  from  the  same 
source.  With  the  nineteenth  century  begins  mod- 
em art  par  ewcellenoe,  achieving  results  most 
radically  different  from  the  ancient  period, 

THE  renaissance. 

First  Revival  in  Italy.  The  chief  revival  of 
the  art  of  sculpture,  marking,  indeed,  the  origin 
of  Italian  and  through  it  of  modem  sculpture, 
occurred  in  Italy  during  the  thirteenth  century. 
There  was  a  general  revival  in  the  peninsula, 
following  classic  models,  with  Southem  Italy, 
Rome,  and  Pisa  as  the  chief  centres,  of  which 
only  the  latter  was  destined  to  prevail.  (See 
Gothio  Abt.)  Here  the  father  of  the  art  was 
Niccola  Pisano  (c.l206-c.l280).  In  form  and  in 
subject  his  art  is  a  continuation  of  Tuscan  Ro- 
manesque, but  differing  from  it  in  that  its  in- 
spiration was  antique  art.  His  models  were  late 
Roman  reliefs  and  sarcophagi,  which  he  imitated 
not  only  in  figures  and  in  style,  but  even  in 
technique,  as  for  example  in  the  conspicuous  use 
of  the  drill.  The  expression  of  the  faces  is  se- 
rious and  noble,  and  the  treatment  of  the  nude 
is  surprisingly  good,  but  the  draperies  are  heavy 
and  the  composition  is  overcrowded.  Of  his 
pupils  Amolfo  di  Cambio,  chiefiy  celebrated  as  an 
architect,  and  Guglielmo  d'Agnolo  followed  his 
classical  tendencies,  but  his  son  Giovanni  Pisano 


SCTJIiFTXTBS. 


598 


SOTTLFTXTBE. 


(died  1320)  gradually  evolved  a  style,  the 
chief  characteristics  of  which  were  naturalism 
and  dramatic,  even  extravagant  action.  It  was, 
indeed,  an  independent  version  of  the  Qothic 
style,  with  its  strong  religious  and  allegorical 
elements,  that  he  introduced  into  Italy.  His  in- 
fluence was  decisive  upon  Italian  art.  Inde- 
pendent schools  of  sculpture  arose  at  Florence 
and  Siena,  and  branches  of  the  Pisan  school  were 
established  at  Milan  and  Naples  during  the  four- 
teenth century. 

At  Florence  Andrea  Pisano's  (d.  c.1349)  reliefs 
on  Giotto's  Campanile  and  other  works  show  a 
higher  development  of  symbolism,  more  perfect 
technique,  simpler  composition,  and  more  re- 
strained action  than  Giovanni's.  He  perfected 
the  hitherto  crude  art  of  casting  bronze  in  relief 
to  the  highest  extent  attained  t^fore  the  Kenais- 
sance.  Andrea's  sons  found  employment  at  Pisa, 
but  his  successor  at  Florence  was  Andrea 
Orcagna  (d.  1368).  Although  more  extensively 
occupied  With  painting  and  architecture  than 
with  sculpture,  his  work  is  in  some  respects  an 
advance  upon  that  of  Andrea  Pisano.  The  beau- 
tiful tabernacle  of  Orsanmichele  shows  him  more 
picturesque  and  dramatic  in  style,  richer  in  com- 
position, and  grander  in  form,  but  a  trifle  in- 
ferior in  detail  and  with  less  sense  for  the  sig- 
nificant. The  Sienese  school  was  inferior  to  the 
Florentine  during  this  epoch,  being  rather  pic- 
turesque and  narrative  in  character,  without  a 
true  understanding  of  form.  Its  chief  works  are 
the  sculptures  on  the  facades  of  the  cathedrals 
at  Siena  and  Orvieto,  the  latter  probably  de- 
signed by  Maitani,  and  the  most  important  work 
of  its  kind  in  Italy. 

Eablt  Renaissance.  As  in  painting  and  in 
architecture,  the  Kenaissance  (q*v.)  opened  a  new 
world  in  sculpture.  The  sources  of  inspiration 
were  the  same  as  in  painting,  viz.  the  study  of 
nature  and  of  the  antiqjue,  with  this  difference, 
that  in  sculpture  the  influence  of  the  antique 
was  stronger,  owing  to  the  survival  of  antique 
statuary.  But  although  the  antique  from  the 
beginning  made  itself  stronglv  felt  m  decoration, 
and  furnished  motives,  sometimes  even  figures,  to 
the  sculptor,  it  did  not  materially  influence  the 
general  treatment,  line  or  modeling,  the  prevail- 
ing characteristic  of  which,  during  the  Early 
Kenaissance,  was  a  healthy  naturalism.  In  re- 
lief, as  in  statuary,  the  highest  development  was 
attained;  in  the  former,  indeed,  some  of  the 
qualities  of  painting,  such  as  the  use  of  color 
and  perspective,  were  adopted.  Marble  back- 
grounds, when  not  sculptured,  were  painted  blue ; 
other  parts,  like  hair  and  angels'  wings,  were 
gilded,  as  were  usually  bronzes,  while  terra- 
cottas were  colored  to  rival  painting  itself.  The 
art  of  sculpture,  which  in  the  preceding  cen- 
turies had  been  mainly  a  Tuscan  product,  now 
became  essentially  Florentine. 

In  Florence  the  beginnings  of  the  new  move- 
ment appeared  toward  the  end  of  the  fourteenth 
century  in  the  works  of  such  sculptors  as  Piero 
di  Giovanni  Tedesco,  which,  though  still  Gothic, 
display  a  new  naturalism,  and  somewhat  later  in 
those  of  Nanni  di  Banco  (d.  1420),  showing  both 
naturalism  and  a  remarkable  resemblance  to 
Roman  portrait  statues.  The  Renaissance 
achieved  a  complete  victory  in  the  works  of 
Ghiberti,  Donatello,  and  Luca  del  la  Robbia — ^the 
principal  figures  in  the  first  half  of  the  fifteenth 
century.     I^renzo  Ghiberti  (1378-1455)  was  es- 


sentially a  goldsmith,  achieving  his  highest 
triumphs  in  this  art  and  in  bronze  relief,  in 
which  he  attained  the  highest  perfection.  His 
first  doors  of  the  Florentine  Baptistery,  com- 
pared with  Andrea  Pisano's,  show  the  advance 
of  the  new  art  in  naturalistic  treatment,  beaut? 
of  form  and  grace  of  draperies,  richer  composi- 
tion and  skill  in  relief;  nis  famous  "Paradise 
Portals"  show  besides  a  masterly  treatment  of 
sculptural  perspective,  in  which  he  surpassed  all 
contemporaries.    See  Plate  under  Ghibebti. 

The  greatest  sculptor  of  the  Early  Renais- 
sance, and,  indeed,  one  of  the  greatest  of  all  times, 
was  Donatello  (c.  1386- 1466).  Although  leavened 
by  the  antique,  his  art  was  realism  of  the  highest 
type;  he  sought  the  characteristic,  even  at  the 
sacrifice  of  beauty.  He  understood  perfectly  the 
handling  of  the  materials,  achieving  the  highest 
effects,  whether  in  marble  or  in  bronze,  and  he 
was  equally  good  in  statuary  or  relief.  His  art 
dominated  Italian  sculpture  till  the  advent  of 
Michelangelo.  Michelozzo  (1391-1472),  his  asso- 
ciate, excelled  as  a  bronze-founder,  but  shows  in 
his  own  designs  a  talent  sufficiently  mediocre. 
The  art  of  Luca  della  Robbia  (1309-1482)  was 
midway  between  that  of  Donatello  and  Ghiberti, 
uniting  charm  of  color  with  beauty  of  form. 
His  best  known  achievements  are  in  the  cele- 
brated terra-cotta  ware  which  he  invented,  but 
in  his  ''Singing  Galleries"  and  other  works  he 
showed  equal  mastery  over  marble,  especially  in 
composition,  and  he  also  worked  with  some  suc- 
cess in  bronze.  His  nephew  Andrea  della  Robbia 
(1437-1528)  introduced  terra-cottas  into  the 
smaller  towns  of  Italv,  and,  though  more  senti- 
mental and  less  dignified  than  Luca,  he  produced 
very  graceful  works.  Other  members  of  the 
family  carried  on  the  art  for  a  century  and  a 
half. 

During  the  second  half  of  the  fifteenth  century 
the  demand  for  sculpture  continued  in  the  main 
ecclesiastical,  and  gave  occasion  for  numbers  of 
tombs,  pulpits,  tabernacles,  and  friezes.  Dona- 
tello's  principal  pupil  was  Andrea  del  Verrocchio 
(1435-88),  originally  a  goldsmith,  who  worked 
chiefiy  in  bronze.  Though  more  angular  than  his 
master's,  his  art  is  powerful  and  shows  a  high 
sense  of  beauty.  In  the  statue  of  Bartolommeo 
CoUeonl  at  Venice  he  produced  the  finest  eques- 
trian statue  of  the  Kenaissance,  if  not  of  all 
times.  Another  bronze  worker  of  importance  was 
Antonio  Pollajuolo  (1429-98),  whose  art,  like 
Verrocchio's,  was  angular  and  realistic,  but  was 
without  his  sense  of  beauty.  The  marble  work- 
ers of  the  later  fifteenth  century  sought  to  com- 
bine beauty  of  form  and  charm  of  presentation 
with  Donatello's  naturalism.  Desiderio  da  Set- 
tignano  (1428-64)  added  elegance  and  harmony 
to  Donatello's  realism,  and  did  decorative  work 
of  the  highest  order.  Bernardo  Rossellino 
(1409-64),  though  lacking  in  originality,  excelled 
in  architectural  arrangement  and  in  his  tomb 
of  Leonardo  Bruni  (Santa  Croce)  created  a 
model  for  the  Early  Renaissance.  Antonio  Ros- 
sellino (1427-78),  his  younger  brother,  shows 
rather  the  influence  of  Desiderio  in  the  delicacy 
and  charm  of  his  work.  Benedetto  da  Majano 
(1442-97),  the  celebrated  architect,  continned 
the  same  tendencies  as  a  sculptor,  and  in  the 
pulpit  at  Santa  Croce,  the  most  beautiful  of  the 
Renaissance,  he  solved*  the  problem  of  perBpee- 
tive  in  marble-carving.  Mino  da  Fiesole  i^^' 
84)  is  widely  known  because  of  the  large  number 


SCXJLPTUBB. 


699 


SCUIiPTTTBE. 


of  his  works^  which  possess  a  certain  naivete  and 
decorative  quality,  but  are  often  mannered. 

At  Siena  there  was  an  independent  school,  the 
chief  characteristics  of  which  were  sentimental 
tendencies  and  elaborate  architectural  decora- 
tion. A  typical  Sienese  artist  was  Lorenzo 
Vecchietta  (d.  1480).  The  greatest  master  of 
the  school,  Jacopo  della  Querela  (137M438), 
represents  the  transition  from  the  Gothic. 
Neglecting  form  and  detail,  he  seeks  to  give  his 
figures  life,  exhibited  in  motion.  Under  Quercia's 
influence  stood  Niccolo  dell  Area  (1414-94),  at 
Bologna,  and  he  in  turn  gave  impulse  to  Guido 
Mazasoni  (1450-1618)  of  Modena,  the  principal 
sculptor,  during  this  period,  of  painted  terra- 
cotta groups,  generally  placed  in  a  niche  or 
chapel.  He  represented,  with  great  realism,  the 
Italian  peasant  as  participant  in  sacred  story — 
a  species  of  work  most  popular  with  the  people. 
At  Padua  the  influence  of  Donatello  was  para- 
mount. In  Lombardy,  too,  the  influence  came 
from  Florence,  with  the  activity  of  Michelozzo  at 
Milan,  though  this  school  was  somewhat  influ- 
enced by  neighboring  German  art.  Its  chief 
characteristics  were  luxurious  decorations  and 
the  multiplication  of  details,  executed,  however, 
in  a  crisp  and  vigorous  style.  Its  chief  monu- 
ments are  the  sculptures  of  the  cathedral  at 
Milan,  of  the  Certosa  at  Pavia,  and  of  the  Col- 
leoni  Chapel  at  Bergamo,  and  the  principal  mas- 
ters are  Omodeo  (d.  1522),  Cristoforo  Solari, 
Caradossa  (d.  1527),  and  Busti  (d.  1548).  The 
influence  of  Milan  prevailed  throughout  the 
northern  part  of  Italy  as  far  east  as  Verona. 

In  Venice  sculpture  was  closely  united  with 
architecture.  It  was  richly  decorative  in  char- 
acter and  luxuriant  in  form,  being  softer  and 
more  sensuous  than  the  Milanese  or  Florentine. 
Gothic  forms  lingered  lonser  here  than  elsewhere, 
as  is  shown  in  tne  beautiful  Porto  della  Carta 
(1438-43)  of  the  Ducal  Palace,  by  Bartolommeo 
Bnon,  representing  the  transition  to  the  Renais- 
sance forms.  The  later  work  of  Antonio  Rizzio, 
however,  belongs  to  the  best  that  the  Early 
Renaissance  has  produced.  Pietro  Lombardo 
(d.  1515)  is  thoroi»hly  Renaissance  in  style,  and 
characteristically  A^netian  in  ornamentation,  as 
may  be  specially  seen  in  the  decorations  of  Santa 
Maria  dei  Miracoli.  His  sons  Tullio  and  Pietro, 
together  with  Alessandro  Leopardi  (d.  1522), 
present  the  remarkable  spectacle  of  artists  seek- 
ing inspiration  in  Greek  monuments  instead  of 
the  customary  Roman,  exactly  as  Canova  did  at 
Venice  three  centuries  later,  and  achieving  fine 
decorative  results. 

HiQH  Renaissance  (sixteenth  century). 
Sculpture  now  became  freer  than  at  any  previous 
period,  being  no  longer  dependent  upon  archi- 
tecture as  in  the  Gothic  epocn,  or  even  upon  deco- 
ration, as  in  the  fifteenth  century.  It  was  al- 
lotted a  more  important  place  by  architecture 
than  previously;  indeed,  architecture  itself  be- 
came sculpturesque — a  framing  for  statues  or 
monuments.  Half  colossal  or  even  colossal  fig- 
ures were  used  in  place  of  the  former  life-size 
figures,  and  new  types  of  biblical  subjects  were 
invented.  At  first  there  was  a  deeper  study  of 
the  antiaue,  which  gave  a  monumental  style  and 
universal  type;  but  this  soon  degenerated  into  a 
mannered  imitation  of  the  great  masters  who 
acguired  it. 

Florence  again  furnished  the  greatest  geniusesi 
Among  the  first  to  enter  the  new   path  was 


Andrea  Sansovino  (1460-1529),  a  follower  of 
Verrocchio,  called  the  Raphael  of  sculpture. 
With  all  beauty  of  form,  however,  his  work 
shows  a  lack  of  originality,  and  his  later 
statues  are  mannered.  More  original  in  fancy, 
but  not  his  equal  in  technique,  was  Bene- 
detto da  Rovezzano  (1476-1556),  who  ex- 
celled as  a  decorator.  Torrigiano  (1472-1522) 
introduced  the  Italian  Renaissance  into  England 
and  into  Spain,  while  Tribolo  (1485-1550),  a 
Florentine  chiefly  active  in  Bologna,  was  pre- 
vented by  misfortunes  from  attaining  the  higher 
rank  that  his  early  work  promised. 

The  greatest  of  the  Florentines,  and,' indeed,  the 
greatest  sculptor  in  modem  art,  was  Michelangelo, 
'the  man  of  destiny,'  in  whose  hands  were  placed 
the  life  and  death  of  sculpture.  To  a  perfect 
knowledge  of  anatomy  and  perfect  skill  in  line,  he 
added  an  equal  technical  ability  in  the  treatment 
of  the  marble.  Using  the  action  of  the  hiunan 
figure  as  expressive  of  emotion,  he  developed  a 
style  which  was  the  culmination  of  that  of  Dona- 
tello, Querela,  and  Signorelli.  Its  chief  character- 
istics were  gigantic,  highly  developed  forms  com- 
bined with  intense  dramatic  action,  and  these 
qualities,  which  the  Italians  call  terrihilitd,  domi- 
nated the  sculpture  of  the  remaining  sixteenth 
century,  and,  indeed,  of  the  seventeenth  and  eight- 
eenth. Not  possessing  his  genius,  and  impelled  by 
the  demand  for  rapid  production,  his  followers 
produced  works  without  real  feeling  and  man- 
nered in  character.  His  pupils  and  followers  show 
no  particular  individuality.  Bandinelli  (1488- 
1560)  was,  in  spite  of  himself,  a  mere  imitator 
of  Michelangelo,  and  his  pupil  Ammanati  (1511- 
92)  was  even  worse.  Brilliant  exceptions  to  the 
general  mediocrity  were  the  Florentine  bronze 
sculptors  Benvenuto  Cellini  (1500-71)  and  Jean 
Boulogne  (1524-1608),  by  birth  a  Fleming. 

In  Venice  the  chief  master  was  the  Florentine 
Jacopo  Sansovino  (1477-1570),  a  pupil  of  An- 
drea Sansovino,  who  modified  his  style  to  suit  the 
rich  decorative  effects  demanded  there.  His 
pupils,  like  Girolamo  Campagna,  produced  good 
work  after  the  rest  of  Italy  had  sunk  into  man- 
nerism. But  during  the  two  following  centuries 
came  the  same  decline. 

Sculpture  of  the  seventeenth  century  in  Italy 
was  dominated  by  Giovanni  Lorenzo  Bernini 
(1598-1680),  active  chiefly  at  Rome.  He  was  a 
most  skillful  technician,  but  in  his  exaggerated 
works  failed  to  recognize  the  limitations  of  sculp- 
ture. His  followers,  like  Algardi  and  Maderna, 
lost  even  the  capacity  for  great  ideas,  and  were 
hopelessly  mannered  and  extravagant. 

The  French  Renaissance.  During  the  fif- 
teenth and  still  more  during  the  sixt^nth  cen- 
tury the  Italian  infiuence  spread  throughout 
Europe,  at  first  propagated  oy  Italian  sculp- 
tors who  were  summoned  abroad.  The  Renais- 
sance of  sculpture  appeared  much  sooner  in 
Northern  Europe  than  did  the  Italian  influence. 
Before  this  event  the  observation  of  nature  had 
partially  transformed  mediseval  sculpture  and 
painting,  and  the  ensuing  amalgamation  produced 
an  art  which  remained  essentially  national  in 
character. 

During  the  fifteenth  century  a  style  of  sculp- 
ture prevailed  in  France  analogous  to  that  of  the 
Netherlands,  the  chief  characteristic  of  which 
was  a  pictorial  naturalism.  The  works  of  Claux 
Sluter  at  Dijon  exercised  a  wide  influence,  and 
the  greatest  French  sculptor  of  the  period,  Michel 


SCULPTUBE. 


600 


SCITIiFrnBE. 


Colombe^  is  said  to  have  been  his  pupil.  Italian 
influence  was  greatly  strengthened  by  the  ex- 
pedition of  Charles  VIII.  to  Italy,  especially 
through  Perr^al,  the  King's  director  of  art.  The 
principal  school  of  the  period  was  at  Tours,  and 
its  greatest  master  was  Michel  Colombe  (1432- 
C.1515),  whose  work  is  worthy  of  comparison 
with  the  best  of  the  early  Italian  Kenaissance. 
He  at  first  worked  in  the  native  style,  but  he 
gradually  combined  Italian  grace  and  beauty  of 
form  with  a  rare  naturalism.  Antoine  Juste 
(d.  1519)  and  his  brother  Jean  Juste  (d.  1534) 
were  Florentines  by  birth,  but  even  they  ulti- 
mately adopted  the  French  style  of  figures. 

In  the  early  sixteenth  century  the  patronage 
of  Francis  I.  greatly  promoted  the  Italian  influ- 
ence, which  was  stronger  in  the  south  than  in  the 
north.  During  the  first  half  of  the  century  deco- 
rations like  those  in  the  cloisters  of  Saint  Martin 
at  Tours  and  the  choir^  screen  at  Chartres  rival 
the  most  delicate  Florentine  decoration,  and  dur- 
ing the  latter  half  of  the  sixteenth  century  figure 
sculpture  attained  its  highest  development  in  the 
persons  of  Bontemps,  Goujon,  and  Pilon.  Pierre 
Bontemps,  who  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the 
century,  represents  the  native  influence  in  its 
powerful  naturalism,  while  Jean  Goujon  (c.l520- 
C.72),  perhaps  the  greatest  French  sculptor  of 
the  Renaissance,  shows  the  native  style  trans- 
formed by  Italian  grace  and  beauty.  He  was 
without  a  rival  in  his  wonderful  manner  of  fil- 
ing in  architectural  space,  and  portrayed  the 
female  figure  in  beautiful  rhythmic  lines.  Ger- 
main Pilon  (d.  1590?)  possessed  a  more  vigorous 
talent,  being  a  fine  anatomist  and  a  man  of 
science.  He  was  only  gradually  influenced  by  the 
Italian  style,  which,  however,  he  finally  adopted 
to  the  extent  of  occasional  mannerism.  His  best 
pupil  was  Prieur  (d.  1611).  All  of  these  men 
worked  under  royal  patronage  and  in  close  asso- 
ciation with  the  King's  architects,  whence  the 
excellent  decorative  character  of  their  work.  Out- 
Bide  of  Paris  local  schools  at  Toulouse,  Troyes, 
and  elsewhere  show  the  same  tendencies.  In 
Lorraine  Kichier  (1500-57),  the  French  B^garelli, 
was  mediaeval  in  spirit,  though  finally  adopting 
Renaissance  forms. 

In  the  early  seventeenth  century  the  Italian 
infiuence  increased  with  the  stay  in  Italy  of 
men  like  Guillain  and  Sarrazin.  This  influence, 
however,  had  changed  to  the  mannered  forms  of 
the  Baroque,  although  the  Frenchmen  tempered 
it  by  a  certain  grace,  which  was  national  in  char- 
acter. Under  Louis  XIV.  sculpture  became  pom- 
pous and  exaggerated,  retaining  good  decorative 
qualities.  The  greatest  genius  of  the  century 
was  Pierre  Puget  (1622-94),  a  native  of  Mar- 
seilles, whose  Italian  training  shows  the  influ- 
ence of  Bernini  and  Algardi.  Though  often  ex- 
aggerated in  form,  his  work  is  of  wonderful 
technical  ability  and  full  of  Provencal  fire.  At 
Court  the  pompous  Girardon  (1630-1715)  was 
representative  sculptor  and  the  head  of  a  large 
school.  Coysevox  (1640-1720)  was  more  origi- 
nal and  measured,  and  his  pupils,  the  brothers 
Coustou,  in  the  graceful  character  of  their  work, 
foreshadow  the  eighteenth  century. 

During  the  eighteenth  century  exaggerated 
form  gave  place  to  a  sort  of  courtly  grace  and 
delicate  sentiment,  and  sculptors  occupied  them- 
selves with  the  rendition  of  individuality  and 
the  technical  treatment  of  marble.  A  healthy 
realism^     manifesting     itself     chiefly     in     por- 


traiture, gradually  developed.  Lemonyne  de- 
signed pompous  monuments,  and  better  busts; 
Bouchardon  (d.  1762)  is  more  measured  in  his 
characteristic  busts  and  hia  charming  antiques; 
and  Pigalle  (d.  1785)  united  great  technical  abil- 
ity wiUi  a  brilliant  temperament.  Jacques  Oaf- 
fi6ri  and  Augustin  Pajou  (d.  1809)  are  chiefly 
known  for  their  fine  and  graceful  busts;  Claude 
Michel  (1738-1814),  called  'Clodion,'  executed 
minor  works  of  household  art,  of  a  light  and 
charming  character^  chiefly  in  terra-cotta.  All 
that  was  best  in  French  sculpture  of  the  eight- 
eenth century  culminated  in  Jean  Antoine  Hou- 
don  ( 1741-1828),  a  pupil  of  Lemoyne  and  Pigalle, 
who,  though  capable  of  creating  beautiful  and 
ideal  works,  was  chiefly  active  as  a  portraitist^  in 
an  art  essentially  realistic  and  modem. 

German  Renaissance.  In  Germany  the 
emancipation  of  sculpture  from  the  Gothic  was 
very  slow;  throughout  the  fifteenth  century  we 
find  the  influence  of  the  Crothic  forms.  Its 
course  of  development  followed  that  of  paintin^y 
and  so  we  find  German  sculpture  pictorial  in 
character,  richly  colored  and  gilded,  and  in 
elaborate  Gothic  framing.  Its  chief  activity 
was  in  lft£ge  carved  altar  pieces  and  religious 
figures.  The  chief  difference  between  German 
sculpture  and  Italian  consists  in  German  lack  of 
the  sense  of  beauty  and  form.  Draperies  were  not 
treated  to  show  the  outline  of  the  figure,  but 
rather  to  conceal  it.  But  German  sculpture  was 
all  the  more  naturalistic  because  of  the  absence 
of  classic  influence,  and  its  most  pleasing  mani- 
festation was  the  expression  and  delineation  of 
character  in  the  human  face.  Even .  when,  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  the  Italian  influence  en- 
tered Germany,  it  was  less  important  than  in 
other  countries.  The  (jrerman  schools  are  di- 
vided Into  two  groups :  the  South  German,  which 
is  more  monumental  in  character,  reflecting  the 
Italian  influence,  and  the  North  German,  which 
was  shaped  by  the  Netherlands. 

The  most  important  school  was  the  Franco- 
nian,  and  its  chief  centre  was  at  Nuremberg. 
The  first  sculptor  of  prominence  there  wslb  the 
well-known  painter  Michael  Wohlgemuth  (1434- 
1619),  who  designed  a  targe  number  of  wxxiden 
altar  pieces,  the  style  of  which,  characterized  by 
earnest  expiession  and  minute  naturalism,  re- 
sembles that  of  his  paintings.  Veit  Stoss  ( 1440- 
1533),  the  principal  wood-carver  of  the  school, 
executed  altar  pieces  more  plastic  in  character 
and  dramatic  in  action.  His  figures  were  varied 
and  highly  individual,  but  the  composition  was 
restless  and  overcrowded,  with  too  much  striving 
after  effect.  Contemporary  with  these  masters 
lived  a  number  of  anonymous  artists,  whose  work, 
like  "Our  Lady  of  Sorrows"  in  the  (Germanic  Mu- 
seum, shows  great  ability.  The  foremost  stone- 
cutter of  the  Nuremberg  school  was  Adam  Kraft 
(c.1440-1507),  whose  style  is  simpler  and  more 
dignified  than  that  of  Stoss,  deeper  in  feeling, 
more  realistic  and  careful  in  execution.  The 
chief  bronze-founder  of  the  German  Renaissance 
was  Peter  Vischer  (c.1455-1529).  In  his  worlds, 
like  the  shrine  of  Saint  Sebaldus  and  the 
statues  of  the  monument  of  Maximilian,  at  Inns- 
bruck, the  Italian  Renaissance  first  appears  in 
German  sculpture.  The  same  influence  appears 
more  prominently  in  the  work  of  his  sons,  Her- 
mann and  Peter,  who  assisted  him. 
*  In  Nether  Franoonia  there  were  a  number  of 
important   sculptors,   like   the   master   of   the 


SCUIiPTTTBE. 


601 


SCULPTXTBE. 


Cr^lingen  altar  (1487),  whose  measured  and 
serious  work  shows  some  Italian  influence,  as 
does  to  a  greater  extent  that  of  Tilman  Riemen- 
Schneider  (1460-1531),  the  chief  master  of  the 
WQrzburg  school.  The  work  of  the  Swabian 
school  is  characterized  by  a  greater  grace  and 
charm,  as  may  be  especially  seen  in  the  choir 
stalls  of  the  Minster  at  Ulm,  carved  by  Jdrg 
Syrlin.  This  is  even  more  the  case  in  Bavaria 
and  Tyrol,  where  the  chief  master,  Michael 
Pacher  (d.  1498),  displays  a  German  naturalism 
modified  by  a  highly  developed  sense  of  the  beau- 
tiful, much  Uke  Italian  work. 

In  Middle  and  Northern  Germany  the  pre- 
vailing influence  radiated  from  the  Netherlands, 
producing  an  art  which  was  j^ictorial  in  execu- 
tion and  crowded  in  composition.  The  stone 
monuments  of  the  middle  Rhine  have  perished, 
but  along  the  lower  Rhine  and  in  Northern  Ger- 
manv  wood-carving  was  very  generally  prac- 
ticed., the  finest  surviving  monument  being  the 
beautiful  carved  altar  of  Schleswig  (1515-21), 
by  Hans  BrUggemann.  Its  powerful  naturalism 
and  high  dramatic  action  show  distinct  Dutch  in- 
fluence. Fine  stone-carving  was  also  done  in  the 
mining  district  of  Saxony,  near  the  Bohemian 
boundary,  as  mav  be  seen  in  the  b^iutiful  portal 
of  the  Church  of  Annaberg. 

After  about  1530  foreign  artists  were  most- 
ly employed,  Italians  in  the  south,  Netherland- 
ers  in  the  north.  The  Thirty  Years'  War  put  an 
end  to  all  artistic  activity.  The  greatest  German 
artist  of  the  Baroaue  period,  during  which  for- 
eign artists  were  chiefly  employed,  was  Andreas 
Schmter  (1664-1714),  active  chiefly  at  Berlin. 
Though  the  monumental  character  of  his  work 
shows  the  influence  of  Bernini,  his  conception  of 
form  and  general  treatment  were  derived  from 
the  Netherlands.  Raphael  Donner  (1692-1741) 
held  a  similar  position  in  Austria,  but  his  re- 
action against  the  Rococo  was  based  on  the  study 
of  nature  and  the  antique. 

Otheb  Countbies.  The  sculptures  of  the 
Netherlands  were  largely  destroyed  during  the 
Reformation.  Here  the  northern  Renaissance 
b^an  earlier  than  anywhere  else — at  the  end  of 
the  fourteenth  century,  even  preceding  the  revival 
of  painting.  The  centre  from  which  this  revival 
proceeded  was  Dijon,  in  Burgundy,  where  under 
the  patronage  of  the  dukes  a  number  of  im- 
portant masters  were  active,  the  chief  among 
whom  was  the  Dutchman  Claux  Sluter.  While 
still  Gothic  in  the  draperies,  his  flgures  display 
a  powerful  naturalism,  combined  with  a 
high  plastic  sense.  This  naturalistic  art  domi- 
nated the  Netherlands  during  the  flfteenth  cen- 
tury, and  it  was  not  until  the  sixteenth  that  the 
Italian  influence  appeared.  It  manifested  itself 
chiefly  in  the  charming  decorations,  but,  although 
good  work  was  produced,  no  individual  artists 
of  prominence  are  recorded,  except  Jean  Bou- 
logne, whose  art  was  practically  Italian.  In  the 
seventeenth  century  the  school  of  Antwerp  came 
into  prominence.  Francois  Duquesnoy  (1594- 
1644),  the  chief  master,  has  been  compared  to 
Rubens,  and  in  spite  of  his  training  in  the  Ital- 
ian Baroque  he  maintained  some  dignity  of  style. 
His  pupil,  Artus  Quellinus  (1609-B8),  active 
chiefly  m  Amsterdam,  had  a  wide  influence  in 
Germany.  In  the  eighteenth  century  sculpture 
m  the  Netherlands  declined,  the  Flemish  school 
showing  increasing  mannerism,  while  the  Dutch 
was  more  naturalistic. 


To  the  early  Netherlandish  influence,  prevail- 
ing in  Spain,  succeeded,  in  the  fifteenth  century, 
a  transitional,  semi-Italian  style.  Italian  artists 
continued  to  be  summoned  to  Spain,  and  in  the 
sixteenth  century  a  more  monumental  style,  the 
chief  characteristic  of  which  is  richness  of  deco- 
ration, arose.  Sculpture  found  wide  employment 
in  rich  altars,  rotables  and  reredoses.  The  best 
known  representative  of  this  high  Renaissance  is 
Berruguete  (d.  1661),  whose  fantastic  style 
was  modeled  upon  Michelangelo.  Similarly  man- 
nered were  the  brothers  Leoni,  chief  sculptors  to 
Philip  II.  In  the  seventeenth  century  a  realistic 
reaction,  corresponding  to  that  in  paintinff,  origi- 
nated in  Andalusia  (Seville),  the  chief  repre- 
sentative of  which  was  Martinez  Montafies,  who 
sought  above  all  to  express  energy  and  character. 
His  pupil  Alonzo  Gano  (1601-67)  continued 
this  style  in  works  of  an  ascetic  religious  char- 
acter. In  the  eighteenth  century  mannerism 
reigned  supreme. 

England  depended  almost  entirely  upon  impor- 
tation during  this  period,  of  Netherlanders  dur- 
ing the  fifteenth  century,  and  of  Italians  during 
the  sixteenth.  It  remained  barren  soil  during  the 
two  following  centuries  as  well,  the  only  names 
of  note  being  Nicholas  Stone,  who  was  associated 
with  the  architect  Inigo  Jones,  and  Grinling 
Gibbons  (d.  1721),  a  Dutchman  associated  with 
Christopher  Wren.  Flaxman  belongs  to  the  fol- 
lowing epoch. 

MODERN  SCULPTUBE. 

The  reaction  upon  the  extravagancies  in  form 
and  feeling  of  Baroque  sculpture  took  the  form 
of  a  return  to  classical  simplicity.  The  antique 
was  followed  more  closely  than  ever  before,  as 
well  in  subject  as  in  form.  Sculpture  lost  its 
religious  character  and  became  private  and  aris- 
tocratic. With  the  increasing  prominence  of  na- 
tional and  democratic  movements,  a  demand  for 
a  more  natural  art  arose.  Finally,  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  sculpture  b^^ui 
to  occupy  itself  with  the  actualities  of  life. 
Xhe  earliest  leader  of  the  classical  reaction 
was  Antonio  Canova  (1757-1822),  whose  life 
work  was  done  at  Rome,  where  he  came  under  the 
influence  of  the  movement  originated  by  Winckel- 
mann.  His  earliest  works  were  in  the  Baroque, 
the  spirit  of  which  is  still  evident  in  his 
statuary  of  a  classical  character,  and  his 
art  represents  the  transition  from  the  Baroque 
to  the  more  purely  classical  spirit  of  Bertel 
Thorwaldsen  ( 1770-1844) .  A  Dane  by  birth,  but  a 
Roman  by  adoption,  the  latter  became  the  greatest 
representative  of  the  classic  in  modem  art.  As 
Canova^  had  excelled  in  statuary,  so  he  in  re- 
lief, using  the  purest  Greek  work  as  his  models, 
and  producing  the  highest  class  of  work  possible 
to  one  expressing  himself  in  the  dead  forms  of  a 
past  epoch.  From  Rome  the  influence  of  these 
men  radiated  throughout  Europe,  transforming 
sculpture. 

France.  The  chief  representatives  of  the  clas- 
sical school  in  France  were  Antoine  Denis  Chau- 
det  (d.  1810),  whose  best  works  were  of  an  ideal 
character,  and  Francois  Joseph  Bosio  (d.  1845) 
and  James  Pradier  (1792-1852),  who  attained  a 
higher  technical  perfection  by  a  tendency  toward 
sensuous  treatment.  Some  of  Pradier's  many 
pupils  manifested  within  their  classical  forms 
a  tendency  toward  naturalism. 

Corresponding  with  the  Romantic  reaction  in 
painting  there  came  a  similar  tendency  in  sculp- 


SOUIiPTUBE. 


602 


SOTJIiPTXTBE. 


ture,  which  found  its  inspiration  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  from  which  its  subjects  were  largely 
drawn.  Its  chief  representative  was  Pr6ault 
(1809-79),  but  neither  he  nor  his  followers  made 
technical  improvements  on  the  classicists.  A 
more  important  form  of  the  reaction  was  natural- 
ism, which  found  its  chief  early  representative 
in  David  d'Angers  (1780-1856),  whose  works  are 
a  transition  from  classicism  to  modem  realism. 
His  portrait  statues  and  busts  are  often  not 
only  characteristic,  but  absolutely  realistic.  The 
most  prominent  figure  during  the  first  half  of- 
the  nineteenth  century  was  Francois  Rude  ( 1784- 
1855),  who  also  began  as  a  classicist,  but  soon 
yielded  to  an  innate  naturalism.  His  "Departure 
of  the  Volunteers  in  1796"  on  the  Arch  of 
Triumph  in  Paris  was  epoch-making  in  modem 
sculpture.  The  same  naturalism  was  applied  to 
the  representation  of  wild  animals,  the  savage 
strength  and  character  of  which  was  presented 
with  great  force  by  Antoine  Louis  Barye  (1796- 
1875),  and  by  his  pupil  Auguste  Nicolas  Cain 
(1822-94),  who  portrayed,  though  with  less 
ability,  the  greater  pachyderms. 

Classical  and  naturalistic  tendencies  run  paral- 
lel in  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century 
with  an  increasing  influence  of  naturalism.  Among 
the  more  strictly  classical  are  men  like  Henri 
Chapu  (1833-91),  who  worked  freely  in  the 
Qreek  spirit,  Dumont,  Jouffroy,  and  Perraud. 
In  academic  circles  the  romantic  and  natural- 
istic tendencies  have  gained  great  ground,  so 
much  so  that  the  Renaissance  rather  than  an- 
tiquity may  be  considered  the  source  of  inspira- 
tion in  the  well-balanced  and  technically  faultless 
compositions  of  men  like  Paul  Dubois  (1829 — ). 
Other  important  representatives  are  the  clever 
and  versatile  Falgui^re  (1831-1900)  ;  Antonin 
Merci^  (1846^),  whose  art  is  graceful  and  re- 
fined; the  fantastic  but  more  highly  individual 
Saint  Marceaux  (1846~) ;  Bartholdi  (1834—), 
sculptor  of  the  Liberty  Statue  in  New  York  Har- 
bor; and  Louis  Ernest  Barrias  (1841 — ),  whose 
work  is  characterized  by  largeness  of  treat-^ 
ment. 

Jean  Baptiste  (I!arpeaux  (1827-76),  a  pupil  of 
Rude,  carried  his  master's  naturalism  to  its 
logical  conclusion  in  work  characterized  by 
great  abandon  and  dramatic  power  and  by  a 
sensuality  reminding  of  Rubens.  Emmanuel  Fr^ 
miet  (1824)  combined  the  art  of  his  uncle  Rude 
with  that  of  Barye,  being  equally  successful  as 
an  animal  and  figure  sculptor.  His  works  are 
mostly  fine  equestrian  monuments  and  genre 
subjects.  Perhaps  the  greatest  works  of  all 
have  been  produced  by  the  later  naturalists,  who 
since  the  misfortunes  of  1870,  which  seem  to  have 
had  a  disciplinary  effect  upon  French  art  and 
life,  have  executed  works  of  the  highest  order. 
The  two  chief  leaders  were  Jules  Dalou  (1838 
— )  and  Auguste  Rodin  (1840 — ),  who  headed 
the  sculptors  in  the  secession  of  1890,  when, 
joining  with  the  painters,  they  formed  the  salon 
of  Champs  de  Mars.  The  former  is  a  realist  on  the 
order  of  Carpeaux,  refined  by  academic  train- 
ing, who  endeavors  to  maintain  an  historical  con- 
tinuity with  French  art  of  the  time  of  Louis 
XIV.  Rodin  is  probably  the  greatest  sculptor 
of  the  century.  Scorning  all  traditions  and  fol- 
lowing nature  alone,  without  regard  to  elegance 
of  form,  he  has  produced  dignified  though 
melancholy  statues,  which  will  bear  comparison 
with  the  best  work  of  all  times.    A  very  remark- 


able individuality  is  Bartholom^  (1848 — ),  a 
painter  without  training  in  sculpture,  who  has 
recently  produced  masterpieces  of  the  first  order, 
especially  in  funerary  sculpture.  There  are  many 
other  important  talents  in  France  whom  it  is 
impossible  even  to  mention  by  name.  In  sculp- 
ture, even  more  than  in  painting,  Paris  has  be- 
come^ the  school  of  Europe.  The  minor  arts 
of  sculpture  have  also  been  most  highly  de- 
veloped. Chaplain  and  Roty  have  brought  the 
art  of  engraving  medals  to  high  perfection,  and 
great  success  in  medals  as  in  statuettes  has  been 
achieved  by  Thfodore  Riviere. 

Sculpture  in  Belgium  has  not  essentially  dif- 
fered from  that  in  France.  The  realistic  move- 
ment began  in  1830,  producing  such  men  as 
Fraikin  (1819-93),  Constantin  Meunier  (1831—), 
who  with  fine  realism  has  represented  the  dignity 
of  labor  in  a  manner  reminding  of  Millet,  and 
Lambeaux  (1852 — ),  who  delights  in  fantastic 
Rubens-like  figures.  The  naturalism  of  Jules 
Lagae  (1862 — )  is  even  more  pronounced,  and 
Charles  van  der  Stappen  (1843 — )  may  be  said 
to  hold  the  balance  between  the  two. 

England.  The  first  representative  of  the  clas- 
sical reaction  in  England  was  John  Flaxman 
(1755-1826),  who,  with  remarkable  purity  and 
fine  idealism,  excelled  in  designs  and  relief,  his 
larger  sculptural  work  being  often  deficient  in 
technique.  He  was  followed  by  a  long  series  of 
men  much  inferior  to  him,  like  Westmacott, 
Chantrey,  Bailey,  and  especially  John  Gibson 
(d.  1866),  the  most  important  of  the  group. 
Their  work  was  cold  and  elegant,  and  often  de- 
ficient in  technique.  A  new  spirit,  the  reaction 
against  cold  classicism,  came  with  Alfred  Stevens 
(1817-75),  a  pupil  of  Thorwaldsen,  who  was, 
however,  more  influenced  by  Michelangelo  than 
by  the  antique,  and  brought  life  and  personal 
feeling  into  English  sculpture.  John  Henry 
Foley  (1818-74),  at  first  classical,  in  later  years 
became  more  naturalistic;  other  representatives 
of  the  transition  were  J.  Edgar  Boehm  ( 1834-90) 
and  Thomas  Woolner  (1825-92),  who  in  his  later 
work  displayed  a  higher  degree  of  naturalism. 

The  greatest  change,  however,  has  come  over 
British  sculpture  since  1870.  Among  the  first 
to  show  the  new  tendency  were  some  of  the  great 
painters,  especially  George  F.  Watts  (1817 — ), 
who  ranks  equally  high  as  a  sculptor.  His  work 
is  grand  and  original  in  conception,  full  and  rich 
in  modeling,  and  broad  in  treatment.  Frederick 
Leighton  (1830-96)  is  more  advanced  in  his 
few  sculptural  efforts  than  in  his  painting.  The 
change,  however,  is  mainly  due  to  French  influ- 
ence, especially  to  Jules  Dalou,  who  was  for  some 
years  professor  in  the  South  Kensington  schools. 
Among  those  influenced  by  the  French  school  are 
Henry  Hugh  Armstead  (1828 — ),  George  Si- 
monds  (1844 — ),  and  Thomas  Brock  (1847 — ), 
whose  work  is  well  balanced  and  excels  in  line. 
Hamo  Thornycroft's  (1850 — )  work,  though  mod- 
em, represents  the  reaction  of  the  Greeks  against 
the  'Fleshy  School'  of  Carpeaux.  Edward  Cmslow 
Ford  ( 1852-1901 )  did  work  refined  and  graceful 
in  form  and  charming  in  sentiment.  The  great- 
est infiuence  of  the  present  day  in  English 
sculpture  is  Alfred  Gilbert  (1854 — ),  a  very 
versatile  artist,  treating  with  high  poetic  imagi- 
nation subjects  both  dignified  and  light.  He  has 
made  much  use  of  goldsmith's  work  in  his  art,  and 
his  example  has  been  followed  by  many  of  the 
younger  artists.    Other  important  sculptors  of  re- 


SCUIiPTtTBB. 


608 


SCULPTTTBB. 


eent  years  are  Harry  Bates  (1850-99),  Qeorge 
Franklin  (18fl0 — ),  a  decorative  sculptor,  the 
animal  sculptors  Hobert  Stark  and  John  Swan, 
and  Frederick  Pomeroy,  who  has  made  fine 
statuettes. 

GEBMAirr.  The  first  German  classicist  of  Im- 
portanoe  was  Johann  Heinrich  Dannecker  (1758- 
1841),  who  established  the  Stuttgart  school.  In 
Berlin,  Johann  Gottfried  Schadow  (1764-1850), 
although  a  classicist,  and  superior  where  the 
ideal  element  was  inrolved,  began  the  introduc- 
tion of  historical  sculpture.  His  principal  fol- 
lowers were  his  son  Rudolf  Schadow  (d.  1822), 
Christian  Friedrich  Tieck  (1776-1851),  and 
Christian  Rauch  (1777-1857),  the  greatest  sculp- 
tor of  the  German  historical  school.  Though  his 
sense  of  form  was  refined  by  the  antique,  Ranch's 
art  was  in  the  main  naturalistic,  and  faithful  to 
historical  detail.  In  a  series  of  fine  monumental 
sculptures  he  succeeded  in  the  rendition  of  mode 
em  costume.  Among  his  followers  were  Drake, 
Blftser,  Schievelbein,  Kiss,  famous  for  his  animals 
in  bronze,  Siemering,  Encke,  and  Schweinitz. 
The  tendency  of  the  Berlin  school  was  toward 
historical  and  naturalistic  sculpture.  At  Dres- 
den, Ernst  Rietschd  (1804-61),  the  best  of 
Ranch's  pupils,  continued  his  master's  style,  with 
a  slight  tinge  of  Romanticism.  Ernst  Hfthnel 
(1811-91)  represents  rather  the  transition  from 
classical  to  romantic  style,  while  Johannes  Schil- 
ling (1828 — )  ,  Rietsdiel's  most  distinguished 
pupil,  shows  a  tendency  toward  the  Rococo  in 
such  works  as  the  National  Monument  in  the 
Niederwald. 

At  Munich  the  tendency  was  toward  Romanti- 
cism, modified  by  the  classic  style.  Konrad  Eber- 
hard  (1768-1859)  executed  a  large  number  of 
medieval  subjects.  Ludwig  Schwanthaler  (1802- 
48),  notwithstanding  his  training  under  Thor- 
waldsen,  was  best  in  the  treatment  of  national 
subjects  of  a  romantic  character.  Not  until  the 
end  of  the  nineteenth  century  did  the  naturalistic 
tendency  definitely  triumph,  especially  at  Berlin 
in  the  work  of  Reinhold  Begas  (1831 — ),  whose 
masterpiece  is  the  memorial  to  William  I.  (un- 
veiled 1897 ) ,  and  in  that  of  Karl  Begas,  Eberlein, 
Greiger,  Schott,  and  others.  Much  more  pro- 
nounced is  the  naturalism,  in  their  sculptural 
efforts,  of  the  painters  Franz  Stuck,  in  Munich, 
and  Max  Klinger,  at  Leipzig,  where  also  Karl 
Seffner  is  conspicuous  as  a  realistic  portrayer. 
In  Vienna  the  modem  period  was  ushered  in  by 
Fernkora  (1813-78),  of  Schwanthaler's  school, 
and  counts  among  its  chief  representatives  Zum- 
busch  (1830—),  Kundmann  (1838—),  Weyr 
( 1847 — ) ,  and,  pronouncedly  naturalistic,  Viktor 
Tilgner  (1844-96).  Arthur  Strasser  (1854^—)  is 
especially  noted  for  his  polychrome  statuary. 
Among  the  German  sculptors  who  settled  in 
foreign  parts,  the  most  distinguished  are  Emil 
Wolff  i  1802-79)  in  Rome,  and  Adolf  Hildebrand 
(1847—)   in  Florence. 

Other  Eubofean  Couwtries.  In  Italy  the 
classical  tendency  has  been  stronger  than  else- 
where in  Europe,  and  the  ultimate  triumph  of 
realism  has  therefore  been  more  retarded.  The 
chief  pupil  of  Canova  was  Pietro  Tenerani  ( 1789- 
1858),  afterwards  an  ardent  follower  of  Thor- 
waldsen;  Pompeo  Marches!  (1789-1858)  is  known 
for  his  colossal  statues.  The  Italian  romanticists 
tried  to  unite  naturalistic  with  classical  tenden- 
cies, as  may  be  seen  in  the  works  of  Bartolini  (d. 
l850),Pampaloni  (d.  1847),  and  Pio  Fedi  (1815- 
VoL.  xv.-». 


92).  Far  more  naturalistic,  though  still  clas- 
sical, compared  with  other  contemporary  Euro- 
pean sculptors,  were  Giovanni  Dupr4  (1817-82), 
Vicenzo  Vela  (1822-91),  and  Giulio  Monteverde 
(1837 — ).  The  most  important  sculptor  of  the 
present  day  is  Ettore  Ximenes,  who  has  executed 
a  large  number  of  monumental  works  of  im- 
portance. 

The  Scandinavian  countries  followed  the  gen- 
eral European  development,  the  Renaissance  find- 
ing entrance  later  than  elseWhere  in  Europe.  The 
influences  were  at  first  Netherlandish,  but  dur- 
ing the  eighteenth  century  French  masters  were 
mostly  employed.  In  Sergei  (1740-1814),  Sweden 
possessed  a  classicist  whose  works  are  said  to 
bear  favorable  comparison  with  those  of  Thor- 
waldsen.  Bystr5m  (1783-1848)  and  Fogelberg 
(1786-1854)  followed  in  his  wake.  Sergei's  pupils 
and  those  of  Thorwaldsen  in  Denmark  early 
tended  toward  romantic  subjects  from  Norse 
mythology.  Most  akin  to  Thorwaldsen's  art  was 
that  of  Bissen  (1798-1868).  At  present  the  gen- 
eral tendency  in  these  countries  is  naturalistic, 
after  French  models,  and  its  most  prominent 
exponent  is  the  Norwegian  Stephan  Sinding 
(1846 — ),  A  strong  naturalism,  combined  with 
sharp  characterization,  is  also  the  principal  trait 
of  Russian  sculpture,  which  is  of  very  recent 
growth.  The  best  known  artists  are  Lanceray, 
whose  bronzes  are  full  of  spirited  action  com- 
bined with  detailed  execution,  and  Lieberich 
(1828 — ),  a  sculptor  of  animals. 

United  States.  Neither  distinguished  for- 
eigners like  the  Italian  Cerachi  and  the  French- 
man Houdon,  who  came  to  America  during  the 
eighteenth  century,  nor  self-taught  Americans 
like  William  Rush  (1757-1853),  of  Philadelphia, 
and  John  Frazee  (1790-1852),  had  any  influence 
on  the  development  of  American  sculpture.  The 
first  artists  of  prominence  belong  to  the  school 
of  Canova  and  Thorwaldsen.  The  first  to  go  to 
Rome  was  Horatio  Greenough  (1805-52),  who 
executed  portrait  statues,  like  Washington  as 
the  Olympian  Zeus,  in  classical  garb,  and  a  num- 
ber of  refined  busts.  Hiram  Powers  (1805-73), 
whose  ''Greek  Slave"  is  well  known,  was  a  con- 
scientious artist.  Thomas  Crawford  (1813-57) 
was  more  original,  mingling  the  classical  spirit 
with  American  sentiment.  Erastus  Dow  Palmer 
(1817—),  William  Wetmore  Story  (1819-96), 
and  Randolph  Rogers  (1825-92)  were  less  im- 
portant representatives  of  the  same  group.  John 
Rogers  ( 1829 — )  appealed  to  sentiment  and  every- 
day incident  by  statuette  groups  of  military  and 
domestic  subjects.  The  most  able  of  the  later 
American  classicists  were  William  Henry  Rine- 
hart  (1825-74),  who  did  both  ideal  works  and 
public  monuments  in  a  pure  dignified  style,  and 
Harriet  Hosmer  (1830 — ),  the  favorite  pupil  of 
the  English  sculptor  Gibson.  Only  two  promi- 
nent sculptors  of  the  early  period  were  distinctly 
national  in  spirit.  Henry  Kirke  Brown  (1814- 
86)  executed  public  monuments  with  a  vigorous 
style,  and  his  pupil  J.  Q.  A.  Ward  (1830—)  is 
widely  known  for  his  statues  and  statuettes  of 
Indians  and  negroes.  Ward's  remarkable  gifts 
of  composition  and  form  have  raised  him  to  the 
highest  rank  among  American  artists. 

Since  about  the  time  of  the  Centennial  Expo- 
sition (1876)  classicism  has  ceased  to  influence 
American  art.  A  number  of  sculptors  like 
Ephraim  Keyser  (1850 — ),  of  Baltimore,  have 
had  German  training,  while  others  have  remained 


SCULPTXTBE. 


604 


SCXJBVY. 


in  Italy,  but  by  far  the  most  important  influ- 
ence has  come  from  Paris.  Howard  Roberts 
(1845 — )  was  the  first  to  show  French  influence; 
Olin  Levi  Warner  (1844-90),  a  pupil  of  the  Ecole 
des  Beaux- Arts,  had  executed  strong  character- 
istic busts  and  portrait  statues,  as  well  as 
work  in  higher  relief,  when  his  life  was  termi- 
nated by  an  accident.  Augustus  Saint  Gaudens 
(1848 — )  has  gained  remarkable  fame  from  the 
decorative  and  illustrative  character  of  his 
work.  Daniel  Chester  French  (1850 — ),  whose 
training  is  chiefly  American,  is  a  master  of  senti- 
ment treated  in  sculpture  with  infallible  good 
taste  and  in  remarkably  pure  forms.  More 
thoroughly  Parisian  is  Frederick  MacMonnies 
(1863 — ),  a  pupil  of  Saint  Gaudens,  who  in  a 
nervous,  highly  modern  style  has  executed  a 
number  of  statues  of  good  taste  and  powerful 
realism.  Herbert  Adams,  although  modem  and 
realistic,  has  found  inspiration  in  the  Florentine 
Renaissance,  with  the  best  products  of  which  his 
works  bear  favorable  comparison. 

Besides  these  artists  mention  should  be  made 
of  William  Ordway  Partridge;  Paul  Bartlett, 
the  author  of  the  Lafayette  statue  in  Paris; 
Karl  Bitter,  who  has  designed  much  architectural 
sculpture  for  great  buildings;  Charles  H.  Nie- 
haus,  a  master  of  modeling;  J.  Massey  Rhind, 
who  had  done  good  decorative  work;  A.  P.  Proc- 
tor, the  sculptor  of  Indian  life;  Edward  Kemys, 
who  has  portrayed  in  an  admirable  manner  Amer- 
ican native  animals.  Among  younger  sculptors 
George  Gray  Barnard  has  recently  attracted  at- 
tention by  his  diflicult  and  ambitious  projects. 

Bibliography.  For  the  history  of  sculpture  in 
general,  consult:  Ltibke,  Geachichte  der  Plastik 
(3d  ed.,  1880;  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1872)  ;  Viar- 
dot,  Lea  mervcilles  de  la  sculpture  (Paris,  1869)  ; 
and  Marquand  and  Frothingham's  excellent  and 
reliable  Text-hook  of  the  History  of  Sculpture 
(New  York,  1901).  For  Greek  and  Greco-Roman 
sculpture,  Brunn,  Geschichte  der  griechischen 
Kunstler  (Stuttgart,  1891),  and  Overbeck,  Ge- 
schichte der  griechischen  Plastik  (Leipzig,  1894). 
There  is  no  general  dictionary  of  sculptors  and 
sculpture,  as  there  are  of  painting  and  architec- 
ture. The  earliest  work  on  Italian  sculpture  is 
that  of  Cicognara  (Venice,  1813-18)  ;  the  most  re- 
fined and  appreciative  commentary  is  still  Burck- 
hardt's  Cicerone  (10th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1900).  See 
also  Reymond,  La  sculpture  florentine  (Florence, 
1898-1900)  ;  Bode,  Italicnische  lUldhauer  der 
Renaissance  (Berlin,  1887).  In  English  the  most 
comprehensive  treatment  is  Perkins,  Tuscan 
Sculptors  (Tendon,  1864),  and  Italian  Sculptors 
(ib.,  1868)  ;  see  also  his  Historical  Handbook  of 
Italian  Sculpture  (New  York,  1883)  ;  and  the 
latest  works:  Freeman,  Italian  Sculpture  of  the 
Renaissance  (London,  1901),  and  Hurl,  Tuscan 
Sculpture  (New  York,  1902),  the  latter  popular 
in  character.  For  France  the  most  extensive 
work  is  Gonse,  La  sculpture  franQaise  (Paris, 
1895)  ;  see  also  La^^ii,  Dictionnaire  des  sculpteurs 
d  V^cole  frangaise  (ib.,  1898)  ;  Brownell,  French 
Art  (New  York,  1901)  ;  Franzosische  Skulpiuren 
der  Neuzcit  (139  heliogravures,  Berlin,  1896-97)  ; 
Lady  Dilke,  French  Architects  and  Sculptors  of 
the  Eighteenth  Century  (London,  1900)  ;  and  the 
general  works  on  the  French  Renaissance.  (See 
Renaissance.)  For  the  nineteenth  century,  con- 
sult especially  the  monographs  in  the  Gazette 
des  Beaux-Arts.  German  sculpture  .tip  to  the 
nineteenth   century   is   best   discussed  •- in:   Bode, 


Geschichte  der  deutschen  Plastik  ( Berlin,  1885)  ; 
for  the  modem  period,  see  Heilmeyer  (Munidi, 
1901) ;  and  for  illustrations,  Arthur  Schulz  (Ber- 
lin, 1900).  Consult  also  Spielmann,  British 
Sculpture  of  To-day  (London,  1901);  Gaffin, 
Masters  of  American  Sculpture  (New  York, 
1903). 

SCXILPTXTBE  SOCIETY,  National.  A  so- 
ciety formed  in  New  York  in  1893  to  foster  the 
taste  for,  and  encourage  the  production  of,  ideal 
sculpture  for  the  household  and  museum;  to 
promote  the  decoration  of  public  buildings, 
squares,  and  parks  with  sculpture  of  a  high 
class;  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  sculptor's 
art  as  applied  to  industries ;  and  to  provide  from 
time  to  time  for  exhibitions  of  sculpture  and 
objects  of  industrial  art  in  which  sculpture  en- 
ters. There  are  two  classes  of  members — sculp- 
tors and  non-sculptors.  The  number  of  members 
in  1903  was  about  80  of  the  former  class,  and 
about  250  of  the  second. 

scrip  (contracted  from  North  American  In- 
dian mishcup,  from  mishe-kuppe,  large-scaled, 
thick-scaled),  Scuppauq,  or  Porgy.  A  fish 
(Stenotomus  chrysops)  of  the  family  Sparids 
(q.v.)  resembling  the  sheepshead  (q.v.), 
very  abundant  off  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
United  States  south  of  Cape  Cod,  and  highly 
valued  as  a  toothsome  food-fish.     It  is  brown. 


with  bright  reflections,  and  about  a  foot  in 
length.  It  approaches  the  coast  to  spawn  among 
the  eel  grass  in  early  summer,  and  teeds  mainly 
upon  mollusks,  sand-worms,  and  other  animal 
matter.  This  habit  makes  it  exceedingly  useful 
as  a  scavenger,  and  it  congregates  near  fertilizer 
factories  and  similar  places  where  offal  is  thrown 
into  the  sea.  It  is  especially  liked  in  Southern 
markets,  where  it  is  called  porgy,  as  also  is 
a  Southern  congener  {Stenotomus  aculeatus). 
Compare  Porgy.  Consult  Goode,  Fishery  Indus- 
tries, sec.  i.     (Washington,  1884). 

SCXJBVY  (variant  of  scurfy,  from  scurf,  AS. 
scurf,  sceorf,  OUG.  scorf,  Ger.  Schurf,  scurf,  from 
AS.  sceorfan,  OHG.  scurfan,  Get.  schUrfen,  to 
gnaw,  scratch),  or  Scorbutus.  A  constitutional 
disease,  characterized  by  profound  alterations  in 
the  blood  resulting  in  hemorrhages  beneath 
the  skin,  mucous  membranes,  and  in  other  parts 
of  the  body,  and  by  a  spongy  condition  of  the 
gums,  anaemia,  and  great  weakness.  It  is  induced 
chiefly  by  the  deprivation  of  fresh  vegetable  food, 
and  is  not  contagious.  From  the  earliest  times 
until  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century 
scurvy  had  been  the  scourge  of  sailors.  The  cause 
was  the  exclusive  diet  then  prevalent  aboard  ship 
of  salt  meat  and  hard  bread,  with  a  deficient  and 
impure  supply  of  drinking  water,  upon  which 


SCXJBVY. 


605 


SCYLLA  AND  CHABYBDI8. 


sailors  were  compelled  to  subfiist  on  long  voy- 
ages. Since  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury sea  scurvy  has  become  comparatively  rare. 
The  shorter  voyagies  of  modem  times,  owing  to 
the  introduction  of  steam,  and  the  compulsory 
carrying  of  fresh  meat,  vegetables,  and  lemon  or 
lime  juice,  have  made  the  disease  almost  un- 
known at  sea^  although  it  is  still  found  on  land 
among  garrisons  and  in  prisons,  in  starving,  iso- 
lated communities,  and  among  improperly  fed 
infants. 

Scurvy  generally  comes  on  slowly,  with  loss  of 
color,  weakness  and  apathy,  and  pains  in  the 
back  and  limbs.  In  a  week  or  more  small 
hemorrhages  (petechia)  occur  under  the  skin  in 
various  parts  of  the  body.  The  spots  are  small, 
red  or  reddish  brown^  some  of  them  resembling 
bruises.  Later  there  may  be  seen  large  ex- 
travasations of  blood  into  the  eyelids,  and  tense 
brawny  swellings  will  be  found  at  the  bend  of  the 
elbows  or  knees,  in  front  of  the  tibia,  and  under 
the  angle  of  the  jaw,  due  to  the  effusion  of  blood 
or  serum  into  or  between  the  soft  tissues  and  the 
bones.  The  gums  become  swollen,  spongy,  ul- 
cerated, and  bleed  at  the  slightest  touch.  The 
teeth  may  loosen  or  even  fall  out.  It  is  a  curious 
fact  that  in  toothless  infants  and  elderly  persons 
the  gums  are  but  little  affected.  When  tne  dis- 
ease has  lasted  for  some  time .  the  patient  has 
a  sallow,  bloated  look,  is  short  of  breath,  subject 
to  fainting  spells,  and  quite  unable  to  exert  him- 
self mentally  or  physically.  Nose-bleed  and 
swelling  of  the  feet  often  occur.  An  affection  of 
the  vision  known  as  hemeralopia  may  be  an  early 
symptom.  This  consists  of  entire  blindness  in 
the  dusk  or  darkness,  without  interference  with 
the  sight  during  the  day.  Death  takes  place 
after  several  weeks  from  exhaustion  or  hemor- 
rhage unless  suitable  treatment  is  instituted. 

Children  from  six  months  to  two  years  old  are 
sometimes  attacked  with  scorbutus  {infantile 
scurvy  or  Barlow's  disease),  the  essential  lesion 
of  which  is  a  subperiosteal  hemorrhage,  which 
causes  thickening  and  tenderness  along  the  shafts 
of  the  bones.  It  occurs  as  a  result  of  exclusive 
feeding  with  condensed  milk,  the  various  pre- 
pared infant's  foods,  or  sterilized  milk.  The 
disease  is  often  associated  with  rickets,  and  is 
characterized  by  an  earthy  pallor,  spongy  and 
bleeding  gums,  after  dentition,  and  the  swelling 
of  the  limbs  referred  to  above. 

Treatment  depends  on  the  use  of  an  abundance 
of  fresh  vegetable  food,  such  as  onions,  mashed 
potatoes,  cabbage,  lettuce,  and  spinach,  with 
fresh  meat,  and  the  administration  of  lime, 
lemon,  or  orange  juice  in  doses  of  three  or  four 
ounces  daily.  In  infants  the  orange  juice  and 
the  restoration  of  a  diet  suitable  to  the  age  will 
be  sufficient.  When  the  mouth  is  sore  and  masti- 
cation is  impossible,  milk,  beef  tea,  broth,  and 
eggs  may  be  given.  For  the  prevention  of  scurvy 
in  time  of  war,  or  on  shipboard  or  in  places 
where  fresh  food  is  scarce,  canned  vegetables  will 
take  the  place  of  fresh  to  a  great  extent.  In 
addition  to  these,  an  oimce  of  lemon  juice  daily, 
or  the  addition  of  the  malates,  citrates,  tartrates, 
and  lactates  of  potassium  to  the  food  or  drink 
will  be  found  efficient  preventives.  The  law 
requires  merchant  ships  to  serve  lime  juice  to 
each  man  daily  after  ten  days  at  sea.  This  is 
mixed  with  a  small  percentage  of  brandy,  whisky, 
or  other  liquor. 


SGXJBVY-OBASS  {€oohlearia).  A  genus  of 
small  annual,  biennial,  or  rarely  perennial  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Cruciferse  with  an  acrid  bit- 
ing taste,  due  to  the  pungent  volatile  oil  char- 
acteristic of  horse-radish.  Common  scurvy- 
grass  (Coohlearia  officinalis),  which  is  sometimes 
a  foot  high,  is  a  very  variable,  widely  distributed 
plant  in  rocky  and  muddy  places,  on  high 
mountains,  in  Arctic  regions,  and  on  seashores 
throughout  the  world".  It  was  formerly  valued 
by  sailors  as  a  preventive  of  or  remedy  for 
scurvy. 

SCXJTAOE,  or  ESGXJAGE  (Lat.  scutum, 
shield) .  A  pecuniary  tax  sometimes  levied  by  the 
Crown,  in  feudal  times,  as  a  substitute  for  the 
personal  service  of  the  vassal. 

SCUTABI,  sk?5o'tA-r^  (Turk.  IshJcodra),  A 
town  of  Albania,  the  capital  of  the  Turkish  Vila- 
yet of  Scutari,  situated  at  the  southern  end  of 
the  Lake  of  Scutari,  12  miles  from  the  Adriatic 
(Map:  Balkan  Peninsula,  B  3).  It  is  a  forti- 
fied town  dominated  by  a  citadel.  It  has  some 
manufactories,  a  bazaar,  and  yards  for  build- 
ing coasting  vessels.  There  is  an  export  trade  in 
skins,  woolens,  sumach,  and  grain.  Scutari,  the 
ancient  Scodra,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans 
in  B.  0.  168.  At  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages  it 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  Venetians.  In  1477  it 
withstood  an  eight  months'  siege  by  the  Sultan 
Mohammed  II.,  but  two  years  later  was  ceded 
to  the  Porte.    Population,  about  36,000. 

SCXJTABI  (Turk.  UskUdar) .  A  town  of  Asia 
Minor,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Bosporus,  op- 
posite Constantinople,  of  which  it  is  a  suburb 
(Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  C  2).  It  contains  sev- 
eral mosques,  bazaars,  baths,  colleges,  and 
schools.  There  are  manufactures  of  silks,  cotton 
fabrics,  and  leather.  Scutari  is  the  rendezvous 
and  starting  point  of  caravans  trading  with 
the  interior  of  Asia.  It  has  long  been  famed  for 
its  extensive  cemeteries,  adorned  with  magnificent 
cypresses,  the  chosen  resting-place  of  many  of 
the  Turks  of  Constantinople.  The  town  acquired 
notoriety  during  the  Russian  War  (1853-56), 
when  the  enormous  barracks  built  by  Sultan 
Mahmud  were  occupied  by  the  English  troops, 
and  formed  the  scene  of  Lady  Nightingale's  la- 
bors. Scutari  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Chrysopolis.  About  two  miles  to  the  south  lies 
the  village  of  Kadik(5i,  the  ancient  Chalcedon. 
Population,  estimated  at  80,000. 

SCYIiAX,  silaks  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  SirtJXa|, 
Skylax).  A  Greek  geographer  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury B.C.  Herodotus  (4,  44)  says  that  he  was 
sent  by  Darius  Hystaspis,  probably  about  B.C. 
508,  to  explore  the  lower  course  of  the  Indus,  and 
then  sailcKi  west  through  the  Indian  Ocean  and 
the  Red  Sea,  completing  the  voyage  in  thirty 
months.  The  Periplus  now  extant  and  beariiig 
the  name  of  Scylax  (edited  by  Fabricius,  1883) 
is  almost  certainly  of  the  fourth  century  B.c. 

SCYLLA ( SIK1& ) AND  CH ABYBDIS,  k&rfb^- 
dTs  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Zxi^XXa,  Skylla,  and  X(ipv/33if, 
Charyhdis).  Two  sea  monsters  described  in  the 
Odyssey  (xii.  73  flF.),  personifications  of  the  dan- 
gers of  navigation  near  rocks  and  eddies.  Scylla 
is  described  as  dwelling  in  a  cave  in  a  precipitous 
cliff,  a  monster  with  twelve  feet,  and  six  long 
necks,  each  bearing  a  head  with  three  rows  of 
teeth.  With  these  she  devours  any  prey  that 
comes  within  reach,  and  snatches  six  men  from 


SCYLLA  AND  GHABYBDia 


606 


SEA-AJIEXOHE. 


the  ship  of  Odysseus.  Opposite  her,  a  bowshot's 
distance,  is  a  low  rock,  where  under  a  wild  fig- 
tree  Charybdis  sucks  in  and  belches  forth  the 
water  three  times  daily,  and  nothing  that  comes 
near  can  escape.  This  dangerous  passage,  where 
it  was  impossible  to  avoid  both  dangers,  was 
early  localized  by  Greek  travelers  at  the  Straits 
of  Messina.  In  Homer  Scylla's  mother  is 
called  Cratais,  but  later  legend  told  many  sto- 
ries about  her,  which  in  general  relate  that  she 
was  a  beautiful  maiden,  oeloved  by  a  god  (as 
Glaucus  or  Poseidon)  and  tran^ormed  by  a 
jealous  rival,  Circe  or  Amphitrite.  The  Greeks 
of  the  Saronic  Gulf  told  how  Scylla,  daughter 
of  Nidus,  King  of  Megara,  won  by  her  love  or  a 
bribe,  betrayed  her  father  to  Minos  of  Crete. 
Minos,  however,  disgusted  by  her  unnatural 
treachery,  dragged  her  at  his  rudder  until  she 
was  transformed  into  the  monster  or  the  sea-bird 
Ciris,  which  is  always  pursued  by  the  sea-eagle 
into  which  Nisus  had  been  changed. 

SCYLLIS,  sinis  (Lat.,  from  Gk.2jd;xXif,  BkyU 
lis).  An  early  Greek  sculptor  whose  name  is 
associated  with  that  of  Dipcenus.    See  Dipocmrs 

AND  SCTLUS. 

SGYPHOZOA^  srf6-z(/&    (Keo-Lat.  nom.  pi., 
.  from  Gk.  d-wJ^of,  akyphoa,  cup  +  tiop,  zoon,  ani- 
mal).   A  class  of  Ckelenterata  (q.v.)  character- 
ized   by    the    scyphistoma    or    polyp-like    early 
stage.    See  Medusa. 

SCYBOSy  si^rds.  An  island  in  the  ^gean  Sea, 
the  largest  of  the  northern  Sporades,  25  miles 
northeast  of  Cape  Kurai,  Euboea  (Map:  Greece, 
F  3).  Length,  19  miles;  area,  77  square  miles. 
Skyros  is  mountainous  and  uncultivated  in  the 
south,  but  the  northern  part  has  fertile  plains 
which  produce  excellent  wheat.  The  principal  in- 
dustries are  vine  growing  and  the  raising  of  sheep 
and  goats.  The  only  town  on  the  island  is  Skyros, 
built  on  a  high  peak  on  the  eastern  coast,  the 
broad  summit  of  which  is  occupied  by  the  ruins 
of  a  castle,  and  was  the  site  of  *the  lofty  Scyros' 
of  Homer.  The  island  is  connected  with  the 
Homeric  legends  of  Theseus  and  Achilles.  Popu- 
lation, in  1896,  3512. 

SCYTHIA,  sIth^-&  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Italia, 
Skythia).  According  to  the  ancient  Greeks,  a 
vast,  undefined  region,  lying  north  and  east  of 
the  Black  and  Caspian  seas,  and  inhabited  by  a 
large  number  of  barbarous  nomadic  tribes; 
though  in  a  more  restricted  sense  the  Scythians 
are  identified  with  the  Scoloti,  who  inhabited  the 
plains  of  Southeastern  Europe.  These  tribes 
nave  been  thought  to  be  of  Mongolian  origin, 
but  the  prevalent  modern  opinion  is  that  they 
belonged  to  the  Indo-European  family.  They  are 
frequently  mentioned  by  Herodotus  (see  espe- 
cially book  iv.)  and  other  Greek  writers,  and 
are  described  as  herdsmen  without  settled  abodes, 
living  like  Gypsies  in  tent-covered  wagons,  cruel 
in  war  and  filthy  in  their  habits.  In  the  seventh 
century  B.C.  they  invaded  Media  and  were  driven 
off  by'Cyaxares  only  after  a  ten  years'  struggle. 
Darius  invaded  their  country  about  B.C.  608,  but 
retreated  after  heavy  losses  from  attacks  and 
from  the  hardships  of  the  trackless  country.  The 
Scythians  of  Europe  were  finally  overcome  and 
exterminated  or  assimilated  by  the  Sarmatians, 
who  afterwards  occupied  their  country.  In  the 
farther  East,  however,  the  Scythian  tribes  main- 
tained themselves,  and  invaded  Parthia  and  In- 


dia, where  their  leaders  adopted  Buddhism  and 
established  dynasties  that  lasted  for  centuries. 
To  the  Romans,  Scythia  meant  the  little  known 
wastes  of  Northern  Asia,  from  the  river  Volga 
to  India  and  China.  Consult:  Keunuuin,  Die 
Hellenen  im  Skythenlande  (Berlin,  1855)  ;  Bei- 
chardt,  Landeakunde  von  Skythien  (Halle, 
1889);  Krause,  Tuiako-Land  (Glogau,  1891); 
Latyshtchev,  Scythioa  et  Cauoaaiea  { Saint  Petera- 
burg,  1893). 

SCYTHOF^OLIS    (Lat.,  from  6k.  2xv«ft>reXtt, 

Skythopolia) .  The  classical  name  of  a  town  of 
Palestine,  the  biblical  Beth-shean  6r  Beth-sban, 
the  modem  BeLsan,  about  15  miles  south  of 
the  Sea  of  Galilee  and  3  miles  west  of  the 
Jordan.  Although  assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Manas- 
seh  (Josh.  zvii.  11,  16),  the  original  Canaanites 
kept  possession  of  it  (Jud.  i.  27),  and  it  is  not 
until  the  days  of  Solomon  that  we  find  it  in  the 
hands  of  the  Hebrews  (I.  Kings  iv.  12).  When 
Saul  and  his  sons  fell  in  the  battle  of  Gilboa, 
the  Philistines  fastened  their  bodies  to  the  wall 
of  Beth-shean,  whence  the  men  of  Jabesh-Gilead 
afterwards  removed  them  (I.  Sam.  zxxL  10-13; 
II.  Sam.  zxi.  12).  Beth-shean  was  called 
Scythopolis  in  the  third  century  it.G.,  at  wfaidi 
time  it  was  tributary  to  the  Ptolemies.  It  be- 
longed to  the  Decapolis.  It  was  the  seat  of  a 
Christian  bishopric  in  the  fourth  oentuiy.  There 
are  extensive  ruins  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
modem  town. 
SEA.    See  Ocean. 

SEA,  Laws  of  the.  See  Mabffime  Law; 
Navigation  Laws. 

SEA-ADDEB.  The  fifteen-spined  sticldehaek 
(q.v.). 

SEA-AKEMONE.  The  name  applied  to 
polyps  or  zodphytes  (Actinozoa)  which  do  not 
secrete  a  coral-stock,  and  resemble  flowers,  espe- 
cially those  of  the  mesembryanthemum.  They  are 
also  called  actlnians.  They  are  practically  station- 
ary, though  they  can  slowly  move  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  rock  to  which  they  are  attached.  They 
are  in  general  as  broad  as  high,  and  more  or 
.less  vase-like,  the  mouth  being  surrounded  by 
one  or  more  circles  of  tentacles.  They  may  at- 
tain a  diameter  of  several  inches,  though  few  are 
ever  more  than  three  inches  across.  The  com- 
mon actinian  of  our  coast  {Actinohoia  mar^ 
ginata)  is  to  be  found  between  tide-marks  on 
rocks  under  seaweed,  in  tidal  pools,  but  grow 
most  luxuriantly  on  the  piles  of  wharves  and 
bridges.  In  the  tentacles  are  lodged  the  lasso- 
cells,  or  nematocysts  (q.v.),  by  which  they  ob- 
tain their  prey.  When  a  passing  shrimp  or  small 
fish  comes  in  contact  witn  certain  tentacles,  the 
barbed  thread  is  thrown  out  from  the  lasso-cell; 
these  paralyze  the  victim,  and  the  other  tentacles 
assist  in  dragging  it  into  the  distensible  month, 
where  it  is  partly  digested,  the  process  being  com- 
pleted in  the  second  or  lower  division  of  the 
digestive  canal.  At  the  base  of  certain  tentacles 
are  the  eye-specks.  The  process  of  taking  food 
is  almost  purely  reflex. 

Nearly  all  actlnians  multiply  by  budding,  as 
well  as  by  eggs.  The  new  individuals  arise  at 
the  base  of  the  body,  sometimes  as  many  as 
twenty  young  ones  growing  out  from  the  base, 
and  finally  becoming  free.  Adult  sea-anemones 
in  rare  cases  subdivide  longitudinally.  (See 
Schizogony.)     The  young  grow  up  without  any 


SEA  ANEMONES 


IBO^IT  30flD  Ht'D  A  £t^•4PA^^ 


1  MELIACTI3    BELLIS    (THOMPSON) 

2  MCSACM/CA     STELLATA   (ANDRES) 

3  AIPTASIA  COUCMII  (GOSSE) 
•4  CYtlSTA  IMPATIENS  (DANA) 
5  BUNOOES    THALLIA    (GOSSE) 


6  METRIDIUM     PR/tTEXTUM   (COUTHOUY) 

7  MELIACTIS   TROGLODYTES    (THOMPSON) 
6    ANTHEA    CEREUS    (OOSSE) 

9  AIPTASIA   UNDATA  (MARTENS! 

10  AIPTASIA    DIAPHANA    (ANDRES) 

ALL    ABOUT    >7    NATURAL   SIZE 


11  BUNOOES    MONILIFERA   (DANA) 

12  CORYNACTIS    VI  Rl  DIS  I  ALLM  AN  ) 

13  METRIDIUM   CONCINNATUM  (DANA) 

14  SAGARTIA  CMRYSOSPLENIUM  (GOSSE) 

15  ACTINOLOBA   DIANTHUS  (BLAINVILLE) 


SEA-ANEMOHE. 


607 


SEA-COW. 


metamorphosis.  In  most  actinians  the  digestive 
sac  forms  a  blind  pouch,  but  in  Geriantbus,  which 
lives  in  deep  water,  buried  in  the  mud  or  fine 
sandy  where  it  secretes  a  leathery  tube,  the 
stomach  or  intestine  opens  out  at  the  end  of  the 
body.  The  young  of  the  European  Gerianthus,  as 
also  of  Edwardsia,  unlike  those  of  other  actin- 
ians, lives  at  the  surface,  being  free-swimming. 
Ck»nsult:  Gosse,  The  Aquarium  (London,  1854) ; 
British  Bea-Anemones  and  Corals  (ib.,  1858) ; 
E.  G.  and  A.  Agassiz,  Seaside  Studies  in 
Natural  History  (Boston,  1871);  Arnold,  The 
Sea  Beach  at  Low  Tide  (New  York,  1900). 

SEA-BASS.     A  large  family  (Serranids)  of 
marine,  perch-like  fishes,  abounding  in  all  warm 
seas  and  in  some  fresh  waters.    They  remain  as 
a  rule  in  comparatively  deep  water,  except  when 
they  approach  the  shore  for  spawning  in  the  early 
summer;  are  carnivorous,  feeding  near  the  bot- 
tom; are  powerful  swimmers  and  leapers;  are 
often  very  handsomely  colored  and  marked;  and 
are  excellent  food.     Some  have  commercial  im- 
portance (see  FiSHEBiES),  while  others  are  prom- 
inent among  game  fishes.    About  60  genera  and 
400  species  are  recognized  in  the  family  as  now 
delineated.     (For  classification,  see  Jordan  and 
Eigenmann,  Bulletin  viii..   United   States  Fish 
Gommission,  Washington,  1888;  and  Boulenser, 
Catalogue  of  Teleostean  Fishes  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum, vol.  i.,  London^  1895).    A  typical  species 
and  the  one  best  known  under  this  name  in  the 
United  States  is  the  black  sea-bass  {Centropristes 
striatus),   illustrated   in   the   (])olored   Plate  of 
FooD-FiSHBS,  with  the  article  Fish  as  Food. 
It  is  about  18  inches  long  and  three  pounds  in 
weight,  and  is  dusky  brown  or  black,  more  or  less 
mottled,  and  with  pale  longitudinal  streaks.    It 
is  numerous  along  the  Atlantic  coast  from  Gape 
Ann  to  Florida,  and  is  one  of  the  most  highly 
esteemed  fishes  for  the  table.    Local  names  for  it 
are  'blackfish,'   "black  Harry,'   "hannahill,'   and 
'tallywag.'    This  species  is  of  special  interest  to 
fish-culturiste  as  the  one  with  which  Mather,  in 
1874,    first    succeeded    in    producing    artificial 
fertilization,  and  demonstrated  the  practicability 
of  modem  methods. 

Other  prominent  marine  Serranidie  in  America 
are  the  jew-fishes,  nigger-fishes,  groupers,  hinds, 
gnasas,  scamps,  squirrel-fishes,  and  yellowtails. 
The  typical  genus  Serranus  is  represented  in 
Europe  and  In  Eastern  waters  by  familiar  and 
useful  species  frequently  called  sea-perches,  of 
which  a  very  handsome  Eastern  one  {Serranus 
marginalis)  is  well  known  on  Japanese  and  Phil- 
ippine coaste.  See  Colored  Plate  of  Fishes  op 
THE  Philippines.  Gonsult  general  works  on 
ichthyology  (see  Fish)  ;  and  for  American  forms 
especially  the  writings  of  Goode,  Bean,  and 
Jordan. 

SEA-BBEAM.  A  British  name  for  several 
fishes  of  the  family  SparidsD  (q.v.),  especially 
8  common  and  useful  species  (Pagellus  centro- 
dontes)  of  the  European  coast.  The  name  is 
sometimes  given  to  the  American  'sailor's  choice' 
( Lagadon  rhomhoides ) .    See  Bbeam. 

BBA^BIOHT.  A  borough  in  Monmouth 
Oonnty,  N.  J.,  27  miles  south  of  New  York  Gity; 
on  the  Central  Railroad  of  New  Jersey  (Map: 
New  Jersey,  E  3).  It  is  chiefly  impoitant  as  a 
residential  place  and  as  a  summer  resort.  It 
dates  from  1860.    Population,  in  1000,  1,108. 


SEA'BUBY,  Samuel  (1720-06).  The  first 
bishop  of  the  Episcopal  Ghurch  in  America.  He 
was  bom  at  Groton,  Gonn.,  graduated  at  Yale  in 
1748,  and  later  studied  medicine  and  theology  at 
Edinburgh.  He  was  ordained  deacon  and  priest 
at  the  end  of  1753,  and  returned  to  America  five 
months  later,  engaging  in  pastoral  work  first  at 
New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  then  at  Jamaica,  L.  I. 
(1757-66),  and  at  Westchester,  N.  Y.  (1766- 
75).  He  was  obliged  to  resign  his  parish  owing 
to  his  loyalist  or  Tory  sentiments,  which  he  ad- 
vocated in  able  pamphlets,  suffering  imprison- 
ment and  practical  exile  for  his  convictions.  In 
March,  1783,  he  was  elected  bishop  by  the  four- 
teen Episcopal  clergymen  then  resident  in  Gon- 
necticut,  and  went  to  London  to  seek  consecra- 
tion from  the  English  prelates.  But  various 
difficulties,  chiefly  political,  stood  in  the  way  of 
their  action;  and,  after  waiting  more  than  a 
year,  he  made  the  same  request  of  the  bishops 
of  the  Episcopal  Ghurch  in  Scotland.  They,  un- 
hampered by  any  connection  with  the  State,  were 
willing  to  act,  and  Seabury  was  accordingly  con- 
secrated on  November  14,  1784,  by  the  Bishops 
of  Aberdeen  and  Moray  and  Ross,  and  the  Goad- 
jutor  Bishop  of  Aberdeen.  He  returned  to  Amer- 
ica the  following  summer,  and  was  more  or  less 
formally  recognized  as  in  charge  not  only  of 
Gonnecticut,  but  of  all  New  England.  The 
validity  of  his  consecration  was,  however,  denied 
by  some  in  the  Middle  and  Southern  States ;  and 
the  question  was  not  finally  set  at  rest  until  the 
General  Gonvention  of  1780  formally  declared 
in  favor  of  it  by  a  unanimous  vote.  He  died  at 
New  London,  Gonn.  Gonsult  Beardsley,  Life  and 
Correspondence  of  Samuel  Seahury  (Boston, 
1881),  and  the  authorities  referred  to  imder 
Episcopal  Ghubch. 

SBABUBY,  Samuel  (1801-72).  A  Protestant 
Episcopal  clergyman,  grandson  of  Bishop  Samuel 
Seabury.  He  was  bom  at  New  London,  Gonn.; 
was  ordained  priest  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Ghurch  in  1828;  was  editor  of  The  Churchman, 
1831-40;  rector  in  New  York  Gity,  1838-68;  and 
professor  of  biblical  learning  in  the  General  The- 
ological Seminary,  1862-72.  He  published:  The 
Continuity  of  the  Church  of  England  in  the  Six- 
teenth Century  (1853) ;  Supremacy  and  Obliga- 
tion of  Conscience  (1860);  American  Slavery 
Justified  ( 1861 ) ;  The  Theory  and  Use  of  the 
Church  Calendar  (1872)  ;  Discourses  on  the  Holy 
Spirit  (edited  by  his  son,  with  memoir)    (1874). 

SEA-BXJTTEBFLY.  A  pteropod  mollusk 
{Clione  papilionacea) ,  a  beautiful  and  rather 
large  fiesh-pink  form,  common  in  the  Arctic 
seas,  where  it  forms  the  food  of  the  baleen  whale, 
and  is  called  by  the  whalers  'brit.'  It  has  been 
observed  on  the  Labrador  coast  rising  and  sink- 
ing in  the  water  among  the  cakes  of  floe-ice,  and 
is  said  to  have  been  detected  as  far  south  as 
New  York.  It  is  an  inch  long,  the  body  fleshy, 
not  protected  by  a  shell,  the  'wings'  being  rather 
small. 

SEA-CIAM.  A  large  bivalve  of  the  north- 
eastern Atlantic  coast  {Mactra  solidissima) ;  it 
inhabits  rather  deep  water,  but  is  often  cast 
ashore  in  large  quantities,  and  is  useful  as  bait. 

SEAGOAST  ABTILLEBY.  See  Goast  Ar- 
tillery; Ordnance. 

SEA-COW.  A  huge,  herbivorous,  aquatic 
mammal  of  the  order  Sirenia  (q.v.).    The  name 


SEA-COW. 


e08 


yiCAT. 


appliea  specifically  to  the  extinct  rytina  or  Arctic 
sea-cow  (Rhytina  Stelleri),  which  once  fre- 
quented Bering  Straits^  but  was  exterminated 
about  1767  hy  seal-hunters  and  sailors  who 
found  its  beef-like  flesh  excellent  eating.  When 
discovered  hj  Bering's  expedition  in  1741,  it 
lived  only  on  Bering  and  Copper  Islands.  G.  W. 
Steller,  the  naturalist  of  the  expedition,  made 
sketches  and  wrote  an  account  of  the  animal, 
which  he  describes  as  24  to  30  feet  long,  with  a 
girth  of  19  or  20  feet  and  weighing  about  8000 
pounds.  The  head  was  small,  and  the  jaws  had, 
instead  of  teeth,  homy  pads  similar  to  those 
in  the  mouth  of  the  dugong.  The  skin  was  very 
thick,  dark-colored,  and  rough.  The  rytina  was 
gregarious,  and  dwelt  in  herds  about  the  mouths 
of  streams,  where  it  lived  on  seaweeds.  It  was 
unable  to  dive,  and  hence  was  restricted  to  shal- 
low water,  where  its  feeding  was  often  prevented 
by  ice,  so  that  in  winter  many  starved.  It  was 
stupid,  sluggish,  and  comparatively  helpless. 
Stepneger's  writings  in  the  Proceedings  of  the 
United  States  National  Museum,  vol.  vii.  ( 1884), 
and  in  The  American  Naturalist,  vol.  xxi.  ( 1887 ) , 
contain  most  of  what  is  known  of  this  extinct 
race.  Consult  also  NordenskjSld,  Voyage  of  the 
Vega  (New  York,  1881). 

SEA-CXJGXJMBEB.  A  holothurian  (q.v.). 
The  name,  which  refers  to  the  shape,  is  appro- 
priate only  for  certain  of  the  pedate  species,  most 
of  the  footless  forms  being  more  or  less  elongated 
and  worm-like.    Compare  Tbepang. 

SEA-DEVIL.  A  devil-fish;  especially  the 
great  ray  {Manta  hirostris*). 

SEA-EAOLE.    See  Eagle. 

SEA-ELEPHANT.  See  Elephant-Seal; 
and  Colored  Plate  of  Seals. 

SEA-FAN.  An  alcyonarian  (q.v.). coral,  in 
which  the  form  of  the  colony  is  not  unlike  that 
of  a  fan,  being  very  greatly  flattened,  so  that  it 
becomes  wide  and  high  but  very  thin.  Moreover, 
it  is  not  solid,  but  consists  of  an  open  network, 
with  the  meshes  of  comparatively  small  size. 
The  forms  to  which  the  name  is  most  popularly 
given  are  species  of  Gorgonia,  and  especially  the 
common  West  Indian  species,  Oorgonia  flahellum. 
Fine  specimens  are  sometimes  four  feet  high  and 
nearly  as  far  across.  The  color  is  very  variable, 
but  is  usually  yellow  or  dull  reddish  purple.  Sea- 
fans  are  sparingly  represented  in  a  fossil  state; 
only  a  few  forms  are  known  from  Cretaceous  and 
Tertiary  rocks.    See  Gobgoniacea. 

SEAHAM  (se^am)  HABBOB.  A  seaport  in 
the  County  of  Durham,  England,  5  miles  south 
of  Sunderland  (Map:  England,  E  2).  It  has  a 
finely  equipped  harbor,  a  seaman's  infirmary,  and 
the  Londonderry  Literary  Institute.  Bottle 
works,  blast  furnaces,  an  iron  foundry,  and 
chemical  works  are  its  principal  industrial  es- 
tablishments. The  chief  article  of  export  is 
coal.  Seaham  was  founded  in  1828  by  the  Mar- 
quis of  Londonderry.  Population,  in  1901,  10,200. 

SEA-HOLLY.     See  Ertngo. 

SEA-HOBSE.  One  of  the  small  strange 
syngnathous  fishes  of  the  pipefish  family,  which 
constitute  the  genus  Hippocampus  and  its  near 
allies,  and  take  their  name  from  the  rude  re- 
semblance of  the  head  to  that  of  a  horse.  The 
body  is  compressed,  with  an  elongated  tail,  and 
the  integument  is  a  series  of  large,  rectangular 


A  SKA-HOBSB. 


bony  plates,  with  a  series  of  spines  and  projec- 
tions along  the  lines  of  juncture.  These  spines, 
together  with  the  divided,  streamer-like  fins  of 
some  species,  give  them  a  strong  resemblance  to 
the  seaweeds  amoujBf  which  they  live.  There  are 
about  20  species  m 
various  warm  and 
temperate  seas.  All 
keep  near  shore, 
often  developing  in 
brackish  water;  and 
as  their  powers  of 
swimming  are  feeble, 
they  have  become 
able,  by  the  develop- 
ment of  prehensility 
in  the  tail,  to  cling 
firmly  to  weeds  and 
other  supports  and 
BO  resist  being  swept 
away.  Like  the  pipe- 
fishes (q.v.),  the 
males  take  charge  of 
the  eggs,  which  are 
placed  in  an  abdom- 
inal pouch,  and  re- 
main there  until 
they  hatch;  and  for 
some  time  afterwards  the  fry  will,  when  alarmed, 
return  to  the  shelter  of  the  pouch.  Consult  Gun- 
ther.  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Fishes  (Lon- 
don, 1880). 

SEA  ISLANDS.  A  group  of  low  sandy  or 
marshy  islands  on  the  coast  of  South  Carolina 
between  Charleston  and  Savannah.  They  are 
separated  from  the  mainland  by  a  series  of 
lagoons,  sounds,  and  narrow,  tortuous  channels. 
Their  soil  is  especially  well  adapted  for  rice  and 
cotton,  the  latter,  for  which  the  islands  are  cele- 
brated, being  a  fine,  long-stapled  variety. 

SEA-KALE,  or  Cbambb  {Oramhe  tnaritima). 
A  perennial  plant  of  the  natural  order  Cnicifere 
native  to  European  seacoasts.  Its  blanched 
sprouts  are  eaten  like  asparagus.  Sea-kale  is 
especially  popular  in  England,  but  is  grown  to  a 
limited  extent  elsewhere.  Sea-kale  is  generally 
propagated  by  offsets  or  cuttings  of  the  roots, 
and  sometimes  by  seed.  A  plantation  remains 
productive  for  several  years. 

SEAL  (OF.  seel,  seel,  Fr.  sceau,  from  Lat 
sigillum,  seal,  mark,  diminutive  of  signum,  sign, 
mark,  token).  By  ancient  common  law  a  seal 
must  consist  of  a  piece  of  wax,  lead,  or  other 
tenacious  metal  or  substance,  stamped  with 
words  or  a  device,  according  to  the  fancy  of  the 
person  adopting  it.  At  present  two  of  the  most 
common  devices  are:  a  circular  bit  of  paper 
stamped  in  some  manner  and  attached  to  the  in- 
strument by  mucilage;  the  impress  of  a  design 
or  words  in  the  paper  of  the  instrument  itself  by 
means  of  a  die. 

Introduced  at  a  time  when  practically  only 
the  clergy  could  write,  and  used  for  a  long  time 
instead  of  signatures  on  private  writings,  etc., 
as  well  as  legal  instruments,  seals  did  not  orig- 
inally invest  an  instrument  with  any  dietinctive 
solemnity,  but  after  the  art  of  writing  became  a 
common  accomplishment  and  most  private  writ- 
ings, not  of  a  legal  nature,  were  signed  instead  of 
sealed,  the  courts  began  to  attach  a  peculiar  and 


SEAIi. 


(U)9 


SEAL. 


arbitrary  efficacy  to  a  sealed  legal  instrument  as 
distinguished  from  one  bearing  merely  a  signa- 
ture. After  feoffment  as  a  means  of  transfer  of 
land  was  abolished,  all  conveyances  were  re- 
quired to  be  under  seal.  The  most  important 
effect  ascribed  to  the  use  of  a  seal  was  that  it 
conclusively  imported  consideration  for  a  promise 
or  obligation  contained  in  a  sealed  instrument. 

However,  to-day  in  the  United  States  the  mat- 
ters of  the  necessity  for  a  seal  on  various  instru- 
ments and  the  kind  of  a  seal  required  when 
necessary  are  almost  wholly  regulated  by 
statutes.  In  New  York  and  Connecticut  the 
word  'sear  or  the  Latin  abbreviation  *L.S.,'  writ- 
ten on  the  instrument,  are  recognized  as  suffi- 
cient substitutes  for  seals ;  and  in  Arkansas,  Cali- 
fornia, Florida,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Maryland, 
Michigan,  Missouri,  New  Mexico,  North  Caro- 
lina, Oregon,  Pennsylvania,  South  Carolina,  Vir- 
ginia, and  West  Virginia,  a  scroll  executed  with 
a  pen  will  be  sufficient.  In  New  Jersey,  Min- 
nesota, Wisconsin,  and  Wyoming  any  device  or 
flourish  with  the  pen  will  be  recognized  as  a  seal 
if  intended  as  such. 

In  the  following  States  the  common-law  dis- 
tinction between  sealed  and  unsealed  instruments 
has  been  abolished  by  statutes:  Arkansas,  Cali- 
fornia, North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Mississippi, 
Indiana,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee. 

It  is  not  necessary  for  individuals  to  use  seals 
in  Arizona,  Colorado,  Idaho,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Ne- 
braska, Nevada,  Ohio,  Utah,  and  Washington. 
Most  States,  however,  require  a  seal  on  instru- 
ments executed  by  corporations.  Public  officers 
are  usually  required  to  have  official  seals  and  all 
important  public  documents  must  be  impressed 
with  the  proper  seal. 

The  courts  will  usually  recognize  without 
proof  the  seals  of  nations  and  of  the  various 
States  of  the  United  States,  the  seals  of  superior 
courts  and  of  public  officers  within  their  own 
State,  including  notarial  seals.  See  Contract; 
Consideration;  Notary,  and  consult  *1Iistory 
and  Use  of  Seals  in  England,"  in  vol.  xviii.  of 
Arehaologia  (London) ;  Blackstone,  Commen- 
tariea;  Parsons,  On  Contracts, 

BEAIi  (AS.  seol,  siol,  OHG.  aelah,  selach, 
seal).  A  carnivorous  aquatic  mammal  of  the 
suborder  Pinnipedia,  witnout  tusk-like  canines 
in  the  upper  jaw ;  any  pinniped  except  the  wal- 
rus. Seals  are  specially  modified  for  their 
aquatic  life,  particularly  in  the  structure  of  the 
limbs.  The  upper  arm  and  forearm  of  the  front 
limb,  and  the  two  corresponding  parts  of  the  hind 
limb,  are  very  short  and  more  or  less  imbedded 
in  the  tissues  of  the  body,  while  the  hands  and 
feet,  especially  the  latter,  are  greatly  enlarged 
and  fully  webbed.  Five  well-developed  digits  are 
present  in  all  cases,  but  in  the  hind  limbs  the 
outer  and  inner  digits  are  stouter  and  often 
longer  than  the  other  three.  There  are  no  clavi- 
cles in  the  shoulder  girdle,  and  the  limbs  are 
poorly  adapted  for  use  on  land.  The  tail  is  al- 
ways very  short,  but  the  hind  limbs  often  serve 
the  purpose  of  a  rudder.  The  body  is  sleek  and 
graceful,  tapering  posteriorly  as  in  cetaceans 
(q.v.),  but  the  head  is  always  distinct  and  well 
formed.  The  whole  surface  of  the  animal  devel- 
ops a  hairy  covering,  even  the  palms  of  the  hands 
and  soles  of  the  feet  being  thus  protected  in  the 
troe  seals.  There  are  always  fewer  than  twelve 
inciBor  teeth,  and  usually  four  premolars  and  only 


one  molar  are  present  on  each  side  of  the  head, 
in  each  jaw.  The  brain  is  large  and  much  con- 
voluted, and  seals  exhibit  much  intelligence.  The 
eyes  are  large  and  exposed,  with  flat  corneas, 
and  external  ears,  though  small,  are  often  pres- 
ent. 

Although  so  specially  adapted  to  their  aquatic 
life>  seals  come  to  shore  or  upon  ice-floes  to  mate 
and  to  bring  forth  their  young.  One  or  two 
young  are  produced  at  a  time,  not  oftener  than 
once  a  year.  Seals  are  polygamous  and  the 
males  fight  savagely  for  the  possession  of  the 
females.  As  the  pairing  occurs  soon  after  the 
birth  of  the  young,  the  latter,  known  as  *pups,' 
are  often  neglected  and  many  die.  During  the 
breeding  season  the  males  do  not  eat,  and  it  is 
said  they  sometimes  endure  three  months  of 
abstinence.  The  food  consists  of  various  marine 
animals,  chiefly  flsh,  squids,  and  crustaceans; 
possibly  veg^etable  food  is  also  used  at  times. 
It  is  a  curious  fact  that  seals  often  swallow 
pebbles  and  even  large  stones,  which  are  fre- 
quently found  in  their  stomachs,  but  the  purpose 
is  not  clearly  understood.  They  are  regurgitated, 
as  are  also  the  indigestible  parts  of  the  food, 
such  as  fish-bones  and  squids'  beaks.  Seals  are 
large  eaters,  the  remains  of  more  than  200  squids 
having  been  found  in  a  single  fur-seal  at  one 
time,  although  digestion  is  very  rapid.  The  food 
is  masticated  little  or  not  at  all,  fishes  being 
usually  bolted  head  first.  In  the  capture  of 
their  food,  as  in  all  their  movements  in  the 
water,  seals  are  quick  and  graceful.  On  land, 
however,  their  movements  are  awkward  and  pro- 
gression is  chiefly  effected  by  a  succession  of 
jerks  caused  by  the  upward  bending  and  sudden 
straightening  of  the  spine,  which  is  remarkably 
flexible,  the  limbs  being  little  used  by  the  true 
seals;  the  eared  seals  move  mainlv  by  the  aid 
of  the  limbs.  Food  is  not  normally  taken  on 
land,  and  in  pursuit  of  it  seals  are  capable  of 
remaining  under  water  for  long  periods  of  time, 
respiration  being  very  slow. 

As  regards  the  intelligence  of  seals  there  seems 
to  be  considerable  difl'erence  of  opinion,  accord- 
ing to  the  opportunities  and  point  of  view  of  the 
observer.  In  captivity  some  species  of  seal  have 
shown  consideraole  readiness  to  learn  tricks  of 
more  or  less  difficulty,  and  trained  seals  have 
often  been  exhibited.  On  the  other  hand,  ob- 
servations made  on  the  fur-seal  in  its  native 
haunts  seem  to  show  that  while  the  instincts  are 
strong,  there  is  little  real  intelligence,  and  or- 
dinarily stupidity  is  a  marked  characteristic. 
The  homing  instinct  is  very  strong  in  most  seals, 
and  they  will  return  year  after  year  to  their 
breeding  grounds,  even  though  they  are  sure  to 
meet  with  slaughter.  Most  species  are  also  very 
gregarious,  and  in  their  herds  they  constantly 
tend  to  imitate  each  other,  so  that  they  follow 
their  leaders  in  a  perfectly  unreasoning  way. 

Seals  are  widely  distributed  in  all  parts  of  the 
oceanic  world,  but  especially  in  the  colder  re- 
gions. A  few  species  occur  in  the  tropics  and 
teraj  erate  regions,  but  it  is  in  the  Arctic  and 
Antarctic  parts  of  the  ocean  that  seals  really 
abound.  There  they  swarm  on  rocky  coasts  ana 
on  ice-floes  during  the  breeding  season,  and  in 
the  water  during  the  rest  of  the  year.  Although 
seals  are  normally  marine,  two  species  inhabit 
the  Caspian  Sea  and  Lake  Baikal. 

The  classiflcation  of  the  seals  and  the  limits  of 
the  species  are  still  much  debated  subjects  and 


gTBAT. 


610 


8EAI1. 


are  very  perplezing.  Two  principal  groupe  are 
reoagnized— true  seals  (Phocids)  and  otaries 
(Otariidie),  the  former  without  external  ears, 
which  the  latter  posaeas;  there  are  also  differ- 
ences in  dentition.  The  PhocidiB  are  all  'hair'- 
seals;  that  is,  they  have  no  thick  coating  of  fur 
under  the  outer  hairy  coat.  Some  of  the  otaries 
are  also  hair-seals^  but  all  fur-seals  are  otaries. 
There  are  three  subfamilies  of  Phocidie — ^Pho- 
cinie,  Monachinfie,  and  CystophoriniB,  the  first 
having  ten  incisors,  the  second  eight,  and  the 
third  only  six.  The  Phocime  include  many  of 
the  best-lmown  species,  such  as  the  common  seal 
{Phaca  vitulina),  the  harp-seal  {Phoca  Orcen- 
landioa),  the  floe-rat  or  ringed  seal  {Phoca 
hispida),  and  the  freshwater  seals  {Phooa 
Caspica  and  SiUrica),  already  referred  to. 

The  common  'harbor'  seal  is  circumpolar  in  its 
distribution,  and  extends  in  range  downward  into 
both  the  North  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans.  It 
is  locally  common  along  the  eastern  coast  of 
America,  and  on  the  wilder  and  less  frequented 
parts  of  the  British  coast.  The  pelage  is  yellow- 
ish, variously  spotted  and  marked,  with  brown 
above,  while  underneath  it  is  generally  yellowish- 
white)  but  there  is  considerable  variability  in 
the  coloration.  In  size  the  common  seal  is  one 
of  the  smaller  species,  the  entire  length  being 
from  three  to  five  feet.  Although  gregarious, 
this  species  is  not  found  in  large  'rookeries,'  but 
small  herds  are  occasionally  seen.  The  skin, 
which  is  used  for  leather  and  other  purposes, 
and  the  oil,  which  is  colorless,  nearly  odorless, 
and  in  many  ways  superior  to  whale  oil,  are  of 
sufficient  commercial  importance  to  subject  these 
animals  to  continual  slaughter,  and  their  num- 
bers are  probably  steadilv  diminishing.  The  fe- 
males show  some  attachment  to  their  young, 
though  their  devotion  has  probably  been  exas- 
gerated.  In  captivity  the  common  seal  is  docile 
and  is  said  to  become  attached  to  its  keeper.  It 
is  endowed  with  much  curiosity,  and  there  may 
be  some  basis  for  the  belief  that  it  is  strongly 
attracted  by  musical  sounds.  The  sense  of  smell 
is  very  acute  and  the  vocal  power  ranges  from  a 
plaintive  bleat  to  a  harsh  bark  or  grunt.  The 
popular  name  'sea-calf,'  and  the  specific  name 
vitulina,  have  reference  to  a  supposed  resem- 
blance between  its  voice  and  that  of  a  calf. 

The  harp-seal  is  a  much  larger  and  more 
northern  species,  reaching  a  length  of  eight  or 
nine  feet  and  rarely  coming  south  of  New- 
foundland. It  is  extremely  gregarious  and  al- 
most wholly  pelagic,  resortinc  to  the  ice-floes 
only  to  breed.  It  is  much  sought  after  by  sealing 
vessels,  several  hundred  thousand  being  annually 
slaughtered  on  the  breeding  grounds.  The  floe- 
rat  is  one  of  the  smallest  seals,  although  about  as 
long  as  the  common  species.  It  is  an  Arctic 
form,  and  is  of  great  importance  to  the  Eskimos 
as  a  source  of  food  and  clothing.  This  is  the 
species  which  forms  a  domed  cavity  in  the  ice, 
called  by  the  Eskimos  an  'igloo,'  after  the  name 
of  their  own  winter  houses;  and  it  also  keeps 
open  breathing  holes  through  the  ice.  The  seals 
of  the  Caspian  Sea  and  Cake  Baikal  are  near 
relatives  to  the  floe-rat,  which  they  resemble  in 
size,  though  differing  in  some  other  details. 
Their  fresh-water  habitat  is  not  so  remarkable 
when  one  considers  that  the  common  seal  often 
ascends  rivers  for  long  distances  and  has  even 
been  taken  in  Lake  Cham  plain. 

The  Monachinie  are  a  small  group  of  half  a 


dozen  species,  all  Antarctic,  except  the  two  spe- 
cies of  monk-seal  which  are  tropical.  The 
Eurojpean  monk-seal  {Monachus  albtventri»)  oc- 
curs m  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  adjacent  parta 
of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  while  a  closely  allied  spe- 
cies, the  West  Indian  seal  {Monaehua  iropicalis), 
of  which  little  seems  to  be  known,  is  confined  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  where  it  is  nearly  extirpated. 
(See  Extinct  Animals,)  These  seals  have  the 
first  and  fiftii  toes  of  the  hind  feet  greatly  longer 
than  the  others,  and  the  nails  of  both  fore  and 
hind  feet  are  venr  small  and  rudimentary.  The 
other  seals  of  this  subfamily  are  rare  and  little 
known  except  the  sea-leopard  (q.v.)  of  the  south 
temperate  and  Antarctic  seas. 

The  CystophorinsB  are  a  small  group  containing 
only  two  or  three  species,  but  both  of  the  genera 
are  of  considerable  interest.  The  hooded  seal 
(q.v.)  is  a  large  Polar  species,  remarkable  for 
the  hood-like  distensible  sac  covering  the  head 
of  the  male  and  connected  with  the  nostrils.  The 
second  genus,  Macrorhinus,  includes  the  largest 
of  all  seals,  the  elephant-seals  (q.v.),  or  sea- 
elephants  so  called  in  reference^  to  the  proboscis 
of  the  male  as  well  as  the  great  size. 

Turning  to  the  otaries,  or  'eared  seals,'  it  is 
convenient  to  recognize  two  principal  groupe,  the 
'sea-lions'  or  hair-otaries,  and  the  'sea-bears'  or 
fur-otaries.  The  former  group  includes  the  leLTg- 
est  species,  some  of  them  attaining  a  length  of 
fourt^n  feet.  The  southern  sea-lion  {Otaria 
jubata)  occurs  commonly  on  the  west  coast  of 
South  America,  while  the  northern  sea-lion 
{Eumetopias  Stelleri)  is  found  throughout  the 
North  Pacific  from  California  to  Japan.  The 
common  sea-lion  of  California  is,  however,  a 
mudi  smaller  species,  called  the  black  sea-lion 
{Zalophua  Calif omianua) ,  and  is  often  seen  in 
menageries  and  zoological  gardens.  It  is  famous 
as  the  attraction  at  the  S^l  Rocks,  close  by  the 
Cliff  House,  near  San  Francisco.  The  sea-lions 
are  all  very  timid  animals,  easily  terrified,  and 
may  be  driven  in  herds,  even  far  inland,  by 
means  of  fiags  or  umbrellas.  See  Colored  Plate 
of  Seals. 

The  Fub-Sbaus.  The  last  group  of  seals  to  be 
considered  are  the  fur-seals,  by  far  the  most 
important  commercially  of  all  marine  mammals. 
The  fur-seals  of  the  Southern  Hemisphere  are 
now  usually  placed  in  a  separate  genus,  Arctoce- 
phalus,  which  ranges  as  far  north  in  the  Pacific 
as  Quadaloupe  Island  (29**  N.),  although  mainly 
confined  to  the  south-temperate  and  antarctic 
zones.  The  skin  is  of  considerable  value,  and 
these  seals  have  therefore  been  eagerly  sought 
wherever  they  resorted  for  breeding.  They  have 
therefore  been  practically,  if  not  totally,  exter- 
minated, except  in  some  small  rookeries  in  New 
Zealand  and  on  the  west  coast  of  Cape  Colony, 
which  are  under  rigid  governmental  control,  and 
yield  about  7000  skins  per  annum ;  and  especially 
on  Lobos  Island,  off  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Plata, 
which  is  leased  by  the  Government  of  Uruguay 
to  a  private  company,  which  so  controls  the 
slaughter  that  about  13,000  skins  are  furnished 
annually. 

The  northern  fur-seals  (genus  Callorbinus) 
are  confined  to  the  North  Pacific  Ocean.  At  the 
present  day  they  breed  mainly  on  the  Pribilof, 
Commander,  Robben,  Bering,  and  Kurile  isl- 
ands, the  first  being  the  most  famous  resort 
The  northern  fur-seal  varies  considerably  in 
size,  color,  and  proportions,  and  specialists  recog- 


en 

-I 

< 

UJ 
0) 


SEAL. 


611 


SEALIKa 


nise  at  least  two  and  perhaps  three  species.  In 
size  the  male  is  very  much  larger  than  the  fe- 
male, the  difference  being  especially  noticeable 
in  weight.  A  full-grown  male  is  about  80  inches 
in  length  and  weighs  rather  less  than  400  pounds, 
while  the  female  is  only  about  48  inches  long 
and  weighs  less  than  80  pounds.  The  color  is 
considerably  affected  by  age,  the  length  of  tune 
the  seal  has  been  out  of  water,  and  the  amount 
of  dirt  on  the  fur,  but  in  general  the  adults  are 
dark  gray,  with  a  more  or  less  chestnut  or  seal- 
brown  cast.  The  young  are  black  above  and 
brownish-gray  beneath,  but  when  three  months 
old  have  assumed  the  steel-gray  pelage  of  year- 
lings. At  this  stage  they  are  nearly  white  be- 
neath and  the  sexes  are  alike.  Witn  increased 
age  the  white  lower  parts  become  grayish;  the 
female  assumes  the  adult  aspect  a  little  more 
slowly..  The  pelage  in  all  the  fur-otaries  con- 
sists of  the  ordinary  outer  coat  of  'water-hair,' 
and  a  dense,  soft  under  fur.  To  prepare  a  pelt 
for  use  as  'fur'  the  water-hair  is  removed  and 
the  under  fur  is  cleaned.  On  account  of  their  ex- 
ceptional warmth,  softness,  and  beauty,  sealskins 
have  long  been  in  great  demand,  and  the  wanton 
destruction  of  brewing  females,  literally  by  the 
millions,  in  the  nineteenth  century,  so  depleted 
the  seal  herds  that  the  supply  is  always  less 
than  the  demand.  The  high  prices  thus  con* 
stantly  obtainable  have  led  to  the  continued  ex- 
istence of  a  considerable  fleet  of  vessels  which 
hunt  and  slaughter  seals,  wherever  they  can 
find  them,  r^ardless  of  age  or  sex.  Ever  since 
the  discovery  of  the  Pribilof  Islands  in  1786,  the 
competition  for  the  skins  of  the  seals  breeding 
there  and  elsewhere  in  the  North  Pacific  has  been 
so  keen  that  the  animals  have  been  in  imminent 
danger  of  extermination.  The  organization  of 
the  Russian- American  Company  in  1799,  how- 
ever, improved  conditions  somewhat,  as  the  kill- 
ing of  the  seals  was  legally  restricted  to  the 
employees  of  a  single  corporation,  which  had  the 
greatest  interest  in  the  maintenance  of  the  herd. 
At  first  the  slaughter  was  indiscriminate  as  to 
age  or  sex,  but  regulations  protecting  the  fe- 
males and  young  were  soon  made,  so  that  when 
the  Pribilof  fur-seal  herd  came  under  the  control 
of  the  United  States  in  1867,  it  was  in  a  pros- 
perous condition.  Since  then  it  has  been  sadly 
depleted.  For  a  discussion  of  the  Alaskan  seal 
question,  see  Seaung. 

The  great  evil  of  pelagic  sealing  lies  in  the 
fact  that  the  nursing  mothers  wander  far  in 
search  of  food,  while  the  males  do  not  take  food 
during  the  breeding  season,  but  remain  on  the 
islands.  Consequently  practically  all  the  seals 
taken  by  pelagic  sealers  are  nursing  females,  the 
death  of  which  ordinarily  results  in  the  starva- 
tion of  the  pups.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
pelagic  sealing  is  suicidal,  the  catch  showing  an 
annual  decrease  since  1894,  while  it  is  probable 
that  the  profits  to  each  vessel  engaged  in  it  are 
extremely  small.  Recent  calculations  based  on 
the  most  trustworthy  figures  indicate  that  the 
Pribilof  herd  of  breeding  seals  did  not  in  1903 
exceed  60,000  females,  and  unless  remedial  meas- 
ures be  devised  and  enforced  the  early  extinction 
of  the  herd  is  probable. 

The  terms  used  in  reference  to  the  fur-otaries 
present  a  curious  anomaly.  The  animal  so  gen- 
erally called  'fur-seal'  is  properly  a  sea-bear,  and 
very  probably  more  nearly  related  to  the  bears 
than  to  the  true  seals.     The  male  is  called  a 


'bull'  and  the  female  a  'cow,'  but  the  young  one 
is  a  'pup,'  which  if  a  male  becomes  a  'bachelor.' 
The  'cows,'  moreover,  are  gathered  in  'harems' 
on  a  'rookery*  and,  to  cap  the  climax,  the  cap- 
ture of  these  mammals  is  commonly  designated 
as  a  'fishery'! 

For  full  particulars,  in  every  detail,  regarding 
the  fur-seal  and  the  sealing  industry,  consult 
the  remarkable  four  volumes  issued  by  the  United 
States  Treasury  Department  in  1899,  designated 
Report  of  Fur  Seal  Inveatigationa. 

SEA-LEOPABD.  A  seal  {Ogmorhinu8  lep- 
tonyx)  of  the  monk-seal  group,  widely  distrib- 
uted in  the  southern  oceans.  It  grows  to  be  ten 
feet  long  and  is  the  largest  of  the  southern  hair- 
seals,  excepting  the  elephant-seal  (q.v.).  It 
takes  its  name  from  its  spotted  gray  and  white 
coat. 

SEALING.  An  important  industry,  chiefiy  of 
Alaska,  notable  for  the  international  complica- 
tions to  which  it  has  given  rise.  The  Alaskan 
seal  fishery  is  the  most  valuable  of  its  kind  in 
the  world,  and  was  one  of  the  chief  considera- 
tions that  induced  the  United  States  to  purchase 
Alaska  from  Russia  in  1867.  It  has  afforded 
considerable  revenue  to  the  United  States  by  the 
lease  of  the  privilege  of  taking  seals,  in  fact  an 
amount  in  excess  of  the  price  paid  for  Alaska, 
and  gives  employment  to  large  numbers  of  na- 
tives. From  1870  to  1890  the  seal  fisheries,  'care- 
fully guarded  and  preserved,*  yielded  100,000 
skins  a  year.  The  company  to  which  the  admin- 
istration of  the  fisheries  was  intrusted  by  a  lease 
from  the  Government  paid  a  rental  of  $50,000 
per  annum  and  in  addition  thereto  $2.62  V^  per 
skin  for  the  total  number  taken.  The  skins  were 
transported  to  London  to  be  dressed  and  pre- 
pared for  the  markets  of  the  world,  and  the  busi- 
ness had  grown  so  large  that  the  earnings  of 
English  laborers  since  the  acquisition  of  Alaska 
by  the  United  States  had  amounted  by  1890  to 
$12,000,000.  Then  came  the  depredations  of 
Canadian  vessels  with  their  indiscriminate 
slaughter  of  the  seals,  so  that  the  Government 
was  compelled  to  reduce  by  40  per  cent,  the  num- 
ber that  could  be  taken,  while  the  actual  number 
taken  came  to  be  far  short  of  the  number  al- 
lowed. 

During  the  breeding  season  the  colony  of  seals 
have  a  habit  of  crossing  from  their  fixed  habita- 
tion on  the  Alaskan  shore  to  the  Pribilof  Islands, 
also  the  property  of  the  United  States,  for  the 
purpose  of  producing  and  rearing  their  young.  In 
making  this  passage  they  cross  a  portion  of  the 
Bering  Sea,  which  is  considerably  more  than 
three  miles  outside  of  either  shore,  and  therefore 
beyond  the  usual  limit  of  jurisdiction  recognized 
as  belonging  to  any  particular  nation.  Begin- 
ning in  about  1886,  it  became  the  practice  of  cer- 
tain Canadian  vessels  to  intercept  the  passing 
seals  while  beyond  the  three-mile  limit  and  shoot 
them  in  the  water,  often  killing  both  male  and 
female.  As  a  result  of  this  ruthless  course  it 
became  evident  that  the  fisheries  were  in  a  fair 
way  to  be  wantonly  destroyed  together  with  the 
resulting  industries  so  valuable  both  to  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain.  As  soon  as  these 
depredations  became  known  to  the  Government 
of  the  United  States,  during  the  first  admin- 
istration of  President  Cleveland,  a  proposal  was 
made  to  the  Government  of  Great  Britain  that 
a  convention  be  entered  into  between  the  two 


SBALIKa. 


612 


SEALKOTE. 


J 


nations,  in  which  Russia  should  be  inviied  to 
join,  for  the  purpose  of  restricting  the  season 
during  which  seals  could  be  taken  and  prescribe 
ing  a  period  which  covered  the  breeding  time 
during  which  they  could  not  be  molested.  Great 
Britain  and  Russia  promised  their  concurrence, 
but  an  unexpected  obstacle  occurred  in  the  op-, 
position  of  the  Canadian  Government,  whose  sub- 
jects were  profiting  by  the  depredation.  The 
Canadian  objections  could  not  be  overcome,  and 
the  scheme  had  to  be  abandoned.  The  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  was  therefore  com- 
pelled to  assert  its  authority  over  the  business  of 
sealing  or  suffer  the  destruction  of  the  seal  herd. 
In  August,  1886,  three  British  vessels  were  seized 
in  the  Bering  Sea  by  a  United  States  cruiser 
for  taking  seals  in  a  part  of  the  sea  from  45  to 
115  miles  from  land.  The  British  Government 
protested  and  the  captures  were  restored.  A  pro- 
longed diplomatic  controversy  with  Great  Britain 
now  ensued,  in  the  course  of  which  the  United 
States  took  the  ground  that  the  waters  in  which 
the  seizures  were  made  did  not  constitute  a  part 
of  the  open  sea,  but  were  within  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  United  States.  An  attempt  was  made  to 
show  that  Russia  had  treated  the  Bering  Sea 
as  mare  clauaum  first  to  the  fiftv-fifth  desree  of 
north  latitude  and  later  to  the  fifty-first  degree, 
and  that  whatever  rights  she  possessed  in  this 
respect  passed  to  the  United  States  by  the  ces- 
sion of  Alaska  and  the  Aleutian  Island^  in  1867. 
The  question  was  at  once  raised  whether  the 
cession  included  all  the  waters  east  of  the  merid- 
ian mentioned  as  the  boundary  between  the 
United  States  and  Russia,  or  whether  it  referred 
only  to  the  lands  and  islands  within  those  limits 
together  with  the  ordinary  territorial  waters. 
Secretary  Boutwell,  in  1872,  took  the  view  that 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States  did  not  ex- 
tend beyond  the  ordinary  three-mile  limit.  In 
1886  this  opinion  was  reversed  by  Secretary 
Manning,  who  announced  that  jurisdiction  would 
be  asserted  over  the  entire  Bering  Sea  east  of 
the  meridian  mentioned.  In  1889  Mr.  Blaine 
became  Secretary  of  State,  and  entered  upon 
a  long  diplomatic  controversy  with  the  British 
Ambassador,  Sir  Julian  Pauncefote,  in  regard 
to  the  matter.  Other  grounds  than  mare  clauaum 
were  now  put  forth  in  defense  of  the  position  of 
the  United  States.  The  stand  was  taken  that 
the  Canadian  practice  was  contra  honoa  mores, 
a  practice  which  involved  a  serious  and  perma- 
nent injury  to  the  rights  of  the  Government  and 
people  of  the  United  States.  It  was  further  as- 
serted that  the  United  States  had  a  right  of 
property  in  the  seals  by  reason  of  its  ownership 
of  the  coast  on  which  they  live  and  of  the  islands 
to  which  they  regularly  resort  for  the  purpose  of 
producing  and  rearing  their  young;  that  this 
property  interest  was  claimed  and  exercised  by 
Russia  until  ceded  to  the  United  States,  and  that 
Great  Britain  had  impliedly  recognized  it  by 
abstaining  from  all  interference  therein  until 
about  the  year  1886.  In  view  of  this  right  the 
United  States  asserted  the  claim  to  protect  on 
the  high  seas  such  property  from  wanton  destruc- 
tion by  individuals,  and  that  it  was,  in  a  sense, 
the  trustee  thereof  for  the  benefit  of  mankind. 

In  view  of  the  pending  negotiations  for  the 
settlement  of  the  dispute  by  arbitration,  a  modus 
Vivendi  was  agreed  to  on  June  16,  1891.  By 
this  the  depredations  were  ordered  to  be  discon- 
tinued for  a  period  of  one  year.     Finally  an 


arbitration  treaty  was  concluded  F^niary  29, 

1892,  providing  for  a  reference  of  the  questions 
in  dispute  to  a  commission  of  seven  persons,  two 
appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States, 
two  appointed  by  the  Queen  of  England,  one  by 
the  King  of  Sw»len,  one  by  the  President  of  the 
French  Republic,  and  one  by  the  King  of  Italy. 
The  arbitrators  met  in  Paris  in  the  spring  of 

1893.  The  United  States  was  represented  by  able 
counsel,  including  Hon.  £.  J.  Phelps,  Hon.  James 
C.  Carter,  and  ]^G.  Frederick  R.  Coudert.  When 
the  evidence  was  before  the  tribunal  it  was  plain 
that  the  United  States  had  a  very  weak  case 
with  regard  to  the  claim  of  exclusive  jurisdiction 
in  the  Bering  Sea,  and  it  was  not  strongly 
pressed  by  the  counsel  of  the  United  States.  The 
real  question,  therefore,  and  the  one  upon  which 
the  chief  argument  was  directed,  was  the  claim 
of  the  United  States  to  the  right  of  property  in 
the  seals  and  the  right  of  prot^ing  thetai  beyond 
the  three-mile  limit.  The  tribunal  decided  that 
Russia  never  asserted  or  exercised  any  exclusive 
jurisdiction  over  the  Bering  Sea  beyond  the 
three-mile  limit;  that  Great  Britain  did  not 
recognize  any  such  claim;  and  that  the  United 
States  had  no  right  to  the  protection  of  or  prop- 
erty in  the  seals  frequenting  the  islands  of  the 
United  States  in  the  Bering  Sea  when  found 
outside  the  three-mile  limit.  On  the  latter  point, 
the  American  commissioners,  Justice  Harlan 
and  Senator  Morgan,  dissented.  The  tribunal, 
however,  prescribed  a  series  of  regulations  for 
preserving  the  seal  herds  which  were  to  be 
binding  upon  and  enforced  by  both  nations.  They 
limit  pelagic  sealing  as  to  time,  place,  and  man- 
ner by  fixing  a  zone  of  sixty  miles  around  the 
Pribilof  Islands  within  which  the  seals  are  not 
to  be  molested  at  any  time,  and  from  May  1st  to 
July  31st  each  year  they  are  not  to  be  pursued 
anywhere  in  Bering  Sea.  Only  licensed  sail- 
ing vessels  are  permitted  to  engage  in  fur-sealing, 
and  the  use  of  firearms  or  explosives  is  inter- 
dicted. The  regulations  are  to  remain  in  force 
until  abolished  by  mutual  agreement,  but  are  to 
be  examined  «very  five  years  with  a  view  to 
modification.  Consult:  Snow,  Topics  in  American 
Diplomacy  (Boston,  1894)  ;  Phelps,  in  Harper's 
Monthly  Magazine,  April,  1891. 

SEALINO-WAZ.  A  composition  of  hard 
resinous  materials  used  for  receiving  and  re- 
taining the  impressions  of  seals.  Since  the  in- 
troduction of  gummed  envelopes  its  manufacture 
has  been  of  much  less  importance  than  formerly. 
Common  beeswax  was  first  used  as  a  sealing- 
wax,  being  mixed  with  earthy  materials  to  give 
it  consistency.  Nevertheless,  it  was  difficult  to 
preserve  it,  as  a  very  small  amount  of  heat  soft- 
ened it.  The  Venetians,  however,  brought  the 
Indian  sealing-wax  to  Europe,  and  the  Spaniards  . 
received  it  from  the  Venetians,  and  made  it  a 
very  important  branch  of  their  commerce.  The 
great  value  of  the  Indian  wax  consisted  in  the 
fact  that  it  was  made  only  of  shellac,  colored 
with  vermilion  or  some  other  pigment,  and  this 
has  been  found  superior  to  all  other  materials. 
In  addition  to  the  shellac  and  coloring  material, 
there  is  added  to  the  wax  a  portion  of  Venice 
turpentine.    See  Lac. 

SEAL  ISLAKBS.    A  group  of  islands  off  the 
coast  of  Peru.    See  LoBos  Islands. 

SEAI/KOTE.     A  city  of  the  Punjab,  India. 
See  SiALKOT. 


SEAL  OF  SOLOMON. 


618 


SEAMEN. 


SEAL  OF  SOLOMON,  Obdeb  of  the.  An 
Abyssinian  order  with  two  classes,  founded  by 
King  John  in  1874.  The  decoration  is  a  six- 
pointed  star,  formed  by  two  engaged  triangles, 
bearing  a  jeweled  cross  and  surmounted  by  the 
crown  of  Ethiopia. 

SEALS^FIELD,  Chables.  The  name  assumed 
by  EukRL  PosTL  ( 1793-1864) ,  an  Austrian  novelist 
and  traveler  in  the  United  States,  Mexico,  and 
Central  America,  in  early  life  secretary  of  a  re- 
ligious Order  in  Pragpie,  and  ordained  priest.  He 
fled  in  1822  to  the  United  States,  where  he  trav- 
eled extensively,  mainly  in  the  Southwest.  For 
a  sliort  time  (1829-30)  he  was  editorially  con- 
nected with  the  Courrier  des  Etata-Unia.  He 
afterwards  resided  mainly  in  Switzerland.  In 
1828  he  published  Tokeah,  or  The  Wild  Rose,  and 
later  some  remarkable  descriptive  novels:  Der 
Legitime  und  die  Repuhlikaner  (1833,  a  rewrit- 
ing of  Tokeah) ;  Der  Virey  und  die  Ariatokraten 
(1834,  rewritten  as  Morton,  1846);  Daa  Kaju- 
tenbuch  (1840);  and  the  social  studies  Lehen- 
hilder  aua  heiden  Hemiapharen  (1835-37), 
Deutach  -  amerikaniache  Wahlvencandtachaften 
(1835-37),  and  Suden  und  Norden  (1842-43). 

SEAICAN.  In  law,  any  man  serving  on  board 
a  seagoing  ship  below  the  rank  of  officer. 

SEAIIANSUIP.  The  science  and  art  of 
rigging,  equipping,  manoeuvring,  and  handling  a 
ship  or  boat  under  all  conditions.  The  advent 
of  steam  as  the  motive  power  has  changed  the 
character  of  seamanship  to  a  large  extent,  but  it 
has  not  lessened  its  importance.  A  moderate  but 
accurate  knowledge  of  steam  engineering  is  neces- 
sary for  officers  as  well  as  thorough  information 
in  regard  to  modem  marine  meteorology  and 
navigation.  Consult :  Knight,  Modem  Seamanahip 
(New  York,  1902);  Luce,  Seamanahip  (revised 
edition.  New  York,  1898)  ;  Todd  and  Whall, 
Practical  Seamanahip  for  Uae  in  the  Merchant 
Service  (London,  1896).  See  Navigation;  Sail- 
ings ;  Steam  Navigation,  etc. 

SEAMEN,  Laws  Relating  to.  In  its  broad- 
est sense  a  'seaman'  is  a  person  engaged  in  navi- 
gation; but  with  respect  to  the  laws  affecting 
seamen  the  term  is  generally  used  in  the  sense 
which  it  is  given  in  the  construction  of  the 
British  statutes  regulating  merchant  shipping, 
as  ''any  person  (except  masters,  pilots,  and  ap- 
prentices, duly  indentured  and  registered)  em- 
ployed or  engaged  in  any  capacity  on  board  any 
ship." 

Laws  for  the  protection  of  seamen  and  sail- 
ors have  been  passed  in  all  maritime  countries, 
and  the  subject  is  very  fully  covered  in  the  stat- 
utes of  modem  civilized  nations.  Details  of  the 
regulations  of  the  English  and  American  stat- 
utes differ  from  each  other  and  from  those  of 
the  non-English  nations,  but  the  general  scope 
and  purpose  of  such  laws  is  the  same  in  all 
European  and  American  nations.  In  Great 
Britain  most  of  the  acts  governing  the  sub- 
ject of  merchant  seamen  were  consolidated 
into  the  Merchant  Shipping  Act  of  1854  (17 
and  18  Vict.,  ch.  104),  and  most  of  the  previous 
acts,  beginning  with  that  of  Elizabeth,  ch.  13, 
were  repealed  in  the  same  year.  This  act,  with 
numerous  amendatory  statutes,  governed  the 
subject  until  1894,  in  which  year  the  acts  af- 
fecting the  subject  were  again  consolidated  in 
the  Merchant  Shipping  Act  of  1894.     This  last 


act  did  not  materially  modify  the  laws  existing 
under  the  previous  act,  but  was  chiefly  important 
for  bringing  the  laws  together  in  convenient 
form,  and  for  its  greater  stringency  affecting  the 
provisions  insuring  the  crew  against  overload- 
ing, undermanning,  the  carrying  of  dangerous 
cargoes,  the  inadequacy  of  life-saving  appliances, 
and,  in  general,  any  deficiency  or  defect  which 
might  make  the  ship  unseaworthy.  There  are 
various  acts  in  the  British  colonies  upon  the 
same  subject,  some  of  which  follow  the  Imperial 
statute,  but  most  of  them  differ  in  various  de- 
tails. In  Great  Britain  the  Merchant  Shipping 
Act  of  1894  vests  the  eeneral  control  of  ship- 
ping interests  in  the  hands  of  the  Board  of 
Trade,  and  provides  for  the  appointment  of 
officers,  called  superintendents  and  deputy  super- 
intendents, whose  general  business  is  to  afford 
facilities  for  engaging  seamen  by  keeping  regis- 
tries of  their  names  and  character,  to  superin- 
tend and  facilitate  their  engaging  and  discharg- 
ing, to  provide  means  of  securing  the  presence 
on  board  at  the  proper  times  of  men  who  are 
so  engaged,  and  in  general  to  carry  out  the  regu- 
lations of  the  statutes  concerning  the  dealings 
of  the  seamen  with  their  employers.  The  Board 
of  Trade  has  power  to  detain  any  vessel  regarded 
as  unseaworthy,  subject  to  an  appeal  to  a  court 
of  survey,  and  is  authorized  to  prescribe  a  load 
water-line  (usually  called  'PlimsolPs  mark'), 
and  to  provide  for  the  proper  indication  by 
marks  upon  the  side  of  the  ship  of  the  levels 
of  the  various  decks,  etc. 

In  the  United  States  the  subject  is  governed 
by  the  provisions  of  Revised  Statutes,  sections 
4554  to  4591,  and  the  various  amendments  and 
additions  made  subsequent  to  them. 

The  terms  master,  seaman,  and  owner,  in  the 
United  States  statutes,  are  defined,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  the  acts,  as  follows:  "Every  person 
having  command  of  any  vessel  belonging  to  any 
citizen  of  the  United  States  shall  be  deemed 
to  be  the  master  thereof;  and  every  person  (ap- 
prentices excepted)  who  shall  be  employed  or 
engaged  to  serve  in  any  capacity  on  board  the 
same  shall  be  deemed  and  taken  to  be  a  'seaman,' 
and  the  term  vessel  shall  be  understood  to  com- 
prehend every  description  of  vessel  navigating 
any  sea  or  channel  or  lake  or  river  to  which  the 
provision  of  this  title  may  be  applicable;  and 
the  term  'owner*  shall  be  taken  and  under- 
stood to  comprehend  all  the  several  persons,  if 
more  than  one,  to  whom  the  vessel  shall  belong.*' 

When  in  foreign  countries  the  seamen  may 
generally  look  to  the  consul  of  the  country  under 
whose  flag  they  sail  to  enforce  their  rights 
against  the  master  or  owner  of  the  vessel  on 
which  they  are  employed;  and  the  rights  of  the 
master  and  owners  are  likewise  enforced. 

No  detailed  statement  of  the  rights  and  duties 
of  seamen  can  be  given  here,  llie  laws  of  the 
United  States,  which  may  be  taken  as  showing 
the  spirit  of  the  British  laws,  in  general  pro- 
vide that  the  seaman  must  be  under  written 
contract  duly  executed;  must  present  himself 
on  board  under  severe  penalties,  and  for  un- 
authorized absence  from  the  vessel  forfeits  three 
days'  wages  for  an  absence  of  less  than  forty- 
eight  hours,  and  all  back  wages  and  property 
on  the  vessel  when  longer  than  forty-eight  hours. 
He  may  be  imprisoned  for  desertion,  but  he  may 
not  be  flogged,  as  formerly,  nor  can  forfeiture  of 


8BA1CEN. 


614 


8BABGH. 


wages  be  added  to  any  other  form  of  corporal 
punishment.  A  seaman  is  entitled  to  medical 
attendance  and  aid  without  deduction  from  his 
wages,  and  if  he  dies  on  a  voyage  his  heirs  re- 
ceive his  full  wages  for  the  entire  voyage. 

The  rights  of  seamen  are  within  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  admiralty  courts  when  they  are  en- 
gaged in  trade  or  commerce  on  tide  water  or  on 
the  high  seas;  but  for  the  purpose  of  this  juris- 
diction persons  who  do  not  contribute  to  the  aid 
of  the  navigation  of  the  vessel,  or  to  its  preserva- 
tion in  the  course  of  their  occupation,  are  not 
to  be  considered  seamen;  and,  on  the  contrary, 
any  person  whose  regular  occupation  would  not 
impose  these  duties  upon  him  may  get  the 
rights  of  a  seaman  by  temporarily  assuming  the 
duties  of  one.  See  Admiralty  Law;  Mabitime 
L.AW;  and  consult  the  authorities  there  referred 
to,  and  the  statutes  of  the  various  nations. 

SEA-MOXJSE.  A  sea-worm  (see  ANifixiDA) 
of  the  genus  Aphrodite.  It  is  broad,  short,  some- 
what flattened,  and  so  densely  covered  with  long 
fine  setae,  or  bristles,  as  to  resemble  a  mouse.  It 
grows  to  the  length  of  about  two  inches,  and  is 
not  uncommon  in  the  North  Atlantic  at  a  depth 
of  from  five  to  twenty  fathoms. 

.  SEA-OTTEB.  A  marine  otter  {Enhydria  or 
Latax  Marina)  of  the  North  Pacific  shores  and 
islands.  It  yields  the  most  valuable  of  furs.  It 
is  about  three  feet  long  from  nose  to  root  of 
tail,  and  the  tail  is  about  10  inches  long.  Its 
form  is  robust,  the  head  massive,  the  color  dark 
liver  brown,  paler  on  the  head,  and  the  tail  is 
terete  and  obtuse.  The  hind  feet  are  very  broad, 
forming  swimming  organs  like  a  seal's  flippers, 
but  with  furry  soles;  the  fore  paws  are  small  and 
cat-like,  and  their  palms  are  naked.  The  den- 
tition resembles  that  of  the  otters  (Lutra),  but 
a  pair  of  incisors  in  each  jaw  is  lacking,  and  the 
molars  have  lost  the  sharp  points  seen  in  other 
Mustelidfe,  in  accordance  with  its  peculiar  diet. 
When  Alaska  was  first  visited  by  Russian  traders 
they  found  this  animal  numerous  on  all  the 
coasts  of  Alaska  and  of  the  Aleutian  chain  and 
other  islands  of  Bering  Sea,  and  as  far  south  as 
Puget  Sound,  and  secured  thousands  of  their 
valuable  pelts ;  but  the  onslaught  made  upon  the 
race  by  Russian  and  Hudson  Bay  fur  traders 
and  the  Indians  reduced  it  so  rapidly  that  the 
otter  soon  became  rare  except  upon  the  roost  re- 
mote and  difficult  islands,  where  it  would  long 
ago  have  become  extinct  had  not  rude  measures 
been  taken  for  its  preservation.  In  spite  of  all 
attempts  at  protection,  however,  fewer  skins  are 
obtained  annually,  and  the  price  of  the  fur  has 
correspondingly  increased,  until  now  a  fine  skin 
is  worth  in  Liverpool  $500,  and  even  $1500  has 
been  paid  for  special  examples.  One  reason  for 
the  modem  scarcity  of  the  fur  is  the  fact  that 
the  animal  has  changed  its  habits  somewhat 
under  the  influence  of  man's  persecution,  and 
now  spends  much  more  of  its  time  in  the  sea, 
and  seeks  its  food  more  constantly  in  deep  water 
than  formerly.  Its  food  consists  mainly  of  crabs 
and  sea-urchins  with  some  fish.  It  has  been 
most  extensively  studied  and  described  by  H.  W. 
Elliott,  whose  many  observations  and  statistics 
are  summarized  by  Coues  in  his  monograph  Fur« 
Bearing  Animals  (Washington),  where  refer- 
ences to  many  other  authorities  will  be  found. 
See  Plate  of  Fub-beabino  Animals. 


SEA-PEV.  An  alcyonarian  (q.v.)  coral  of 
the  family  Pennatulids,  in  which  the  colony  iM 
bare  of  polyps  at  its  base,  while  the  lateral 
branches  nearer  the  tip  bear  them  in  large  num- 
bers. These  branches  are  arranged  in  series  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  central  shaft  so  that  the 
entire  colony  looks  something  like  a  rather  stiff 
feather  or  quill  pen.  Sea-pens  occur  in  water  of 
moderate  depth,  on  sandy  or  muddy  bottoms, 
where  they  are  only  lightly  attached  by  the  bare 
end  of  the  shaft.  They  ordinarily  reach  a  length 
of  several  inches,  but  an  Arctic  species  of  deep 
water  {Umbellularia  Gramlandica)  may  be  four 
feet  long.  Some  of  them  are  richly  colored^  and 
some  are  highly  phosphorescent. 

SEA-PEBGH.    See  Bass;  Sea-Bass. 

SEA-BAVEN,  or  Deep-Wateb  Sculpin.  A 
large,  reddish-brown,  much  variegated  sculpin 
{Hemitripterua  Americanus)  of  the  coast  of  New 
England  and  Canada,  which  has  a  great  number 
of  spiny  cirri,  and  dangling  fleshy  appendages, 
a  spinous  dorsal  fin  of  great  length,  and  generally 
extraordinary  aspect.  See  illustration  under 
Sculpin. 

SEABCfH  (from  OF.  cercher,  cerchier,  Fr. 
chercher,  to  search,  from  Lat.  ciroare,  to  go 
around,  traverse,  from  circus,  ring,  circus,  Gk. 
KtpKot,  kirkoa,  Kplicos,  kriko8,  circle).  Right  or. 
As  a  part  of  the  law  of  nations,  the  right  of  a 
belligerent  to  stop  neutral  merchant  vessels  on 
the  high  seas  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining 
their  nationality  and  destination,  and  the  char- 
acter and  ownership  of  their  cargoes,  with  a  view 
to  determining  their  liability  to  capture.  This 
right  follows  as  a  necessary  incident  of  the 
belligerent  right  of  capturing  an  enemy's  prop- 
erty at  sea,  of  seizing  contraband  of  war,  and 
of  blockading  an  enemy's  coast,  since  liability 
to  capture  cannot  be  determined  until  a  search 
has  been  made.  But  the  right  of  search  in 
such  cases  is  restricted  to  merchant  vessels  only, 
and  has  no  application  to  the  public  arm^ 
vessel  of  a  neutral  or  the  merchant  vessel  of  a 
belligerent.  This  somewhat  extraordinary  usage 
is  strictly  a  belligerent  right,  comes  into  exist- 
ence at  the  outbreak  of  war  and  ends  with  the 
conclusion  of  hostilities.  All  neutral  vessels  of 
whatever  character  are  liable  to  search  by  a 
properly  documented  armed  vessel  of  either 
belligerent  and  are  subject  to  seizure  and  con- 
demnation upon  refusal  to  submit,  although  they 
may  have  been  engaged  in  innocent  traffic.  But 
the  belligerent  whose  vessel  makes  the  search 
may  be  held  responsible  to  the  neutral  con- 
cerned if  the  search  is  not  conducted  in  a  man- 
ner warranted  by  the  law  of  nations.  Thus  any 
injury  done  to  the  cargo  or  any  oppressive  or  in- 
sulting conduct  during  the  search  would  be  suf-- 
ficient  ground  for  complaint.  Unless  regulated  by 
treaty  the  manner  in  which  the  search  is  to  be 
conducted  is  determined  by  the  usage  of  nations. 
This  matter  is  now  frequently  the  subject  of 
treaty  regulation,  and  where  so  regulated  the  dis- 
tance at  which  the  searching  vessel  shall  re- 
main from  the  vessel  to  be  visited,  the  number  of 
persons  permitted  to  take  part  in  the  search,  and 
the  amount  of  evidence  necessary  to  satisfy  the 
belligerent  of  the  innocent  character  of  the  yessel 
are  all  specified.  The  notification  of  intent  to 
visit  a  neutral  vessel  is  usually  given  by  firing 
an  unshotted  gun,  which  should  be  followed  by 


8BABCH. 


615 


SEABCH  WABBANT. 


the  hoisimff  of  the  neutral  flag  and  a  heaving  to, 
otherwue  the  belligerent  cruiser  is  justified  in  re- 
sorting to  force  to  compel  obedience.  The  dis- 
tance at  which  the  searching  vessel  shall  remain 
while  the  search  party  is  on  board  is  usually 
stated  to  be  "not  within  the  range  of  a  cannon 
shot."  The  search  party  is  limit^  to  an  officer, 
a  boat's  crew,  and  one  or  two  persons  to  assist  in 
the  work  of  conducting  the  search.  If  the  ves- 
sePs  documents  indicate  neutral  origin  and  desti- 
nation it  is  allowed  to  proceed;  if  they  are 
fraudulent  or  indicate  hostile  destination  search 
is  made  for  contraband  articles,  and  if  any  be 
found  the  ship  is  declared  a  good  prize  and  sent 
into  port  for  condemnation. 

To  prevent  the  annoyances  incident  to  the  right 
of  search,  governments  have  sometimes  arranged 
with  one  another  that  the  presence  of  a  public 
armed  vessel  with  a  fleet  of  neutral  merchant 
vessels  shall  be  regarded  as  sufficient  evidence 
that  they  are  enga^d  in  a  lawful  trade.  Many 
neutrals,  among  them  the  United  States,  have 
even  claimed  this  as  a  right  of  international  law 
without  the  necessity  of  sanction  by  treaty,  but 
others,  like  England,  deny  the  right.  In  addition 
to  the  belligerent  right  of  search,  a  similar  usage 
with  respect  to  foreign  vessels  is  permissible  in 
the  following  cases:  to  search  vessels  within  the 
territorial  waters  of  a  State  as  a  means  of  exe- 
cuting revenue  laws;  to  search  vessels  on  the 
high  seas  on  suspicion  of  piracy;  to  search  mer- 
chant vesefels  on  the  high  seas  for  the  purpose 
of  ascertaining  their  nationality.  In  general, 
European  nations  have  conceded  the  reciprocal 
right  of  detention  and  visitation  of  their  vessels 
suspected  of  being  engaged  in  the  slave  trade. 

Prior  to  the  War  of  1812  the  British  Govern- 
ment took  advantage  of  the  right  of  search  to 
exercise  what  it  regarded  as  its  right  of  impress- 
ment (q.v«).    For  many  years  in  connection  with 
the  suppression  of  the  slave  trade  Great  Britain 
endeavored  to  obtain  the  consent  of  the  other 
maritime  powers  to  a  qualified  right  of  search  in 
time  of  peace.    Before  the  year  1820  the  British 
Government  had  succeeded  in  making  treaties  to 
this  effect  with  Denmark,  Spain,  Portugal,  and 
the  Netherlands.    Similar  concessions  concerning 
the  right  of  search  in  time  of  peace  were  obtained 
by  Great  Britain  from  France  in  1831-33,  from 
Denmark  and  Sardinia  in  1834,  from  the  Hanse 
Towns  and  Tuscany  in  1837,  from  Naples  in  1838, 
and  from  Haiti  in  1839.    In  1841  a  treaty  con- 
ceding mutually  a  qualified  right  of  search  for 
the  purpose  of  suppressing  the  slave  trade  was 
negotiated  between  Great  Britain,  Austria,  Rus- 
sia, Prussia,  and  France,  but  France,  largely  in- 
fluenced by  Lewis  Cass,  then  United  States  Min- 
ister at  Paris,  refused  to  ratify  this  quintuple 
treaty.    Throughout  this  period  the  British  Gov- 
ernment made  repeated  but  uniformly  unsuccess- 
ful efforts  to  obtain  a  recognition  of  the  right 
of  search  from  the  United  States  Government, 
and  in  the  progress  of  the  negotiations  endeavored 
to  distinguish  between  the  right  of  search  and 
the  right  of  visit,  though  the  United  States  never 
assented  to  the  distinction.     On  April  7,  1862, 
during  the  Civil  War,  Secretary  of  State  Seward, 
evidently  desiring  to  conciliate  the  British  Gov- 
ernment, signed  a  treaty  for  the  suppression  of  the 
slave  trade,  which  provided,  amonsr  other  things, 
that  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  should 
have  a  mutual  right  of  search.    The  right,  how- 


ever, was  seldom  exercised,  since  at  this  time  the 
slave  trade  had  become  virtually  extinct.  A 
good  account  of  the  negotiations  may  be  found 
in  Schuyler,  American  Diplomacy  (New  York, 
1886). 

SSABCH  LIGHT.  The  electric  search  light 
consists  of  an  electric  arc  mounted  in  the  focus 
of  a  parabolic  mirror.  The  mirror  receives  the 
rays  which  diverge  from  the  lamp  and  by  virtue 
of  the  properties  of  a  parabola  reflects  them  in  a 
direction  parallel  to  the  axis.  The  search-light 
casing  consists  of  a  thin  metal  cylinder,  black- 
exled  inside  to  prevent  interference  of  light  by 
reflection,  from  18  to  72  inches  in  diameter  and 
of  slightly  greater  length.  It  is  supported  on 
trunnions  or  pivots  to  give  it  motion  in  the 
vertical  plane,  and  the  arms  carrying  the  pivots 
are  secured  to  a  pivoted  horizontal  plate  which 
permits  lateral  movement.  The  feeding  in  the 
lamp  is  generally  automatic,  though  hand  feed 
is  also  provided.  The  light  may  be  trained 
by  hand  or  by  a  search  light  controller 
located  at  a  distance  from  the  light.  If  reliable 
in  its  operation  the  controller  is  to  be  preferred, 
as  it  is  difficult  for  the  operator  to  see  objects 
illuminated  by  the  rays  when  he  is  too  near  the 
light.  The  earliest  practicable  search  lights  were 
designed  by  a  Frenchman,  M.  Mangin.  In  the 
earliest  models  the  carbons  of  the  lamps  were 
nearly  vertical,  but  in  more  recent  types  they  are 
horizontal,  as  this  arrangement  permits  the 
crater  formed  in  the  carbon  to  give  its  full  bril- 
liance to  reflection  and  prevents  irregular  feed- 
ing from  displacing  the  incandescent  arc  from  the 
optical  axis  of  the  mirror.    See  Coast  Defense. 

SEABCH  OF  TITLE.  In  law,  a  search  in 
the  various  public  offices  where  instruments 
which  may  affect  the  title  to  real  estate  are  re- 
corded, in  order  to  determine  whether  a  person 
has  a  good  record  title  to  real  property.  If 
there  have  been  any  proceedings  involving  the 
transfer  or  division  of  the  property,  such  as  a 
partition,  the  searcher  must  look  up  the  records 
of  the  proceedings  and  determine  whether  they 
were  regular,  and  whether  they  included  all  neces- 
sary partfes,  etc.  The  memorandum  of  the  re- 
sults of  the  search  is  called  an  'abstract  of 
title.'  A  search  for  conveyances  and  mortgages 
is  always  made  for  twenty  years  back,  as  that  is 
the  period  required  to  gain  title  by  adverse  pos- 
session, and  many  persons  require  a  complete 
chain  of  title  from  the  original  grant  by  the 
Government  to  the  date  of  the  conveyance.  An 
attorney  who  searches  a  title  for  a  client  is  re- 
sponsible to  the  client  for  any  damages  which 
may  result  from  a  defective  title,  if  the  defect 
was  a  matter  of  record  and  the*attomey  failed  to 
find  and  report  it. 

See  Abstract  of  Title;  Recording  of  Deeds; 
Records,  Public,  etc.;  and  consult  the  authori- 
ties referred  to  under  Abstract  of  Title  and 
Real  Property. 

SEABCH  W  ABB  ANT.  A  warrant  or  man- 
date of  a  court  of  competent  jurisdiction,  usually 
a  magistrate's  court,  addressed  usually  to  the 
sheriff  or  a  constable,  requiring  him  to  search 
a  house  or  place  named  in  the  warrant  for  prop- 
erty alleged  to  have  been  stolen.  The  warrant  re- 
quires the  officer  serving  it  to  seize  the  property 
if  found  and  the  person  named  in  the  warrant 
and  to  bring  both  before  the  court  issuing  the 


8BABCH  WASBANT. 


616 


gm  A  atr<yi.TB 


writ.  By  a  gradual  relaxation  of  practice,  the 
use  of  the  search  warrant  was  early  adopted  by 
the  common-law  courts,  and  by  modern  statutes 
its  use  has  been  extended  to  the  search  for  and 
seizure  of  intoxicating  liquors,  gambling  imple- 
ments, counterfeiters'  tools,  burglars'  tools,  smug- 
gled goods,  obscene  literature,  and  generally  all 
articles  the  bare  possession  of  which  is  made  a 
crime.  The  use  of  the  search  warrant  was  before 
the  nineteenth  century  subject  to  many  grave 
abuses,  not  only  because  of  its  use  as  a  means  of 
securing  evidence  of  political  offense,  but  as  a 
means  of  securing  evidence  of  crimes  chiefly  ipi- 
portant  because  of  their  semi-political  character, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  use  of  writs  of  assistance 
(which  were  really  forms  of  search  warrants)  in 
the  American  colonies  before  the  outbreak  of  the 
Revolution.  The  final  overthrow  of  these  abuses 
was  brought  about  in  the  reign  of  George  III., 
and  it  is  now  established  that  by  the  common  law 
a  search  warrant  can  be  issued  only  on  oath  or 
affirmation  showing  probable  cause.  It  is  re- 
quired to  specify  definitely  the  place  in  which  the 
search  is  to  be  made  and  the  property  to  be 
seized.  If  the  officer  executing^  the  warrant  does 
not  comply  with  its  terms,  he  is  civilly  liable  for 
all  his  acts  not  authorized  by  it  and  may  be  com- 
pelled to  respond  in  damages  for  trespass  or  as- 
sault or  both,  but  if  strictly  obeying  the  warrant 
the  officer  may  break  outer  or  inner  doors  after 
demand  is  made  for  admittance,  and  his  act  is 
justified  by  his  writ  whether  he  succeeds  or  not 
m  finding  that  for  which  he  makes  search.  The 
United  States  CJonstitution  (Fourth  Amend- 
ment) contains  a  provision  prohibiting  the  op- 
pressive use  of  the  search  warrant ;  and  this  pro- 
vision has  been  enacted  in  substantially  the  same 
form  in  all  of  the  State  constitutions.  This 
amendment  does  not  operate  as  a  prohibition 
upon  the  governments  of  the  several  States,  but 
the  corresponding  provision  of  State  constitu- 
tions have  receive  a  similar  interpretation.  See 
Procedure;  Constitutional  Law;  Criminal 
Law;  and  consult  the  authorities  there  re- 
ferred to. 

SEA-BOBIN.  A  fish  of  the  genus  Prionotus, 
of  the  gurnard  family  {TriglidcB),  remarkable 
for  their  big-headed,  ugly  form,  and  scaleless, 
mottled  body,  with  a  great  number  of  appendages, 
and  many  'rags*  about  the  fins.  These  ugly  shore 
fishes  represent  in  a  dozen  species  on  the  Ameri- 
can coasts  the  gurnards  of  the  Old  World,  and 
have  similar  habits.  They  are  scavengers,  and 
greatly  detested  by  the  fishermen,  whose  hooks 
they  rob  of  bait,  and  to  whom  they  are  worthless. 

SEABS,  Barnas  (1802-80).  An  American 
educator  and  tl^eologian,  bom  at  Sandisfield, 
Mass.  He  graduated  at  Brown  University  in 
1825,  studied  at  the  Newton  Theological  Semi- 
nary, and  in  1831  became  a  professor  at  Madison 
University.  In  1833  he  went  to  Germany,  and 
after  pursuing  studies  at  Halle,  Leipzig,  and 
Berlin,  accept^  the  professorship  of  theology  at 
the  Newton  Seminary,  of  which  he  became  presi- 
dent. In  1848  he  was  made  secretary  and  execu- 
tive agent  of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Educa- 
tion. From  1855  to  1867  he  was  president  of 
Brown  University.  Afterwards  he  acted  as  gen- 
eral agent  of  the  Peabody  Education  Fund  for 
the  Southern  States.  He  edited  The  Christian 
Review,   contributed   to   the  Bibliotheca   Sacra, 


wrote  a  Life  of  Luther  (1850),  and  many  peda- 
gogical and  educational  treatises. 

SEABSy  Isaac  (1729-86).  An  American 
patriot,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Sons  of  Liberty 
(q.v.)  in  New^  York.  He  was  bom  in  Harwich, 
Mass.,  but  removed  to  New  York  City.  He  com- 
manded a  privateer,  and  in  1758-61  cmised 
against  the  French,  but  lost  his  vessel  by  ship- 
wreck. He  then  engaged  in  the  European  and 
West  Indian  trade.  In  the  early  disputes  be- 
tween the  colonists  and  the  British  Government 
he  allied  himself  with  the  more  radical  element 
of  the  Patriot  Party  in  New  York,  and  during 
the  opposition  to  the  Stamp  Act  (q.v.),  as  well 
as  afterwards,  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Sons 
of  Liberty.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Committee 
of  Fifty-One  in  New  York  in  1774,  and  of  the 
Committee  of  One  Hundred  in  1775;  led  a  com- 
pany of  Connecticut  light  horse  into  New  York 
City  later  in  1775,  and  destroyed  the  press  of 
Rivington's  Loyalist  Neto  York  Gazetteer  (see 
RiviNGTON,  Jahes)  ;  was  appointed  deputy  ad- 
jutant-general with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel 
bv  Gen.  Charles  Lee  in  1776,  and  was  a  member 
of  the  State  Assembly  in  1783.  He  was  commonly 
known  as  'King  Sears.' 

SEABS^  LoBENZO  (1838—).  An  American 
educator,  bom  at  Searsville,  Mass.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  in  1861,  and  at  the  General  The- 
ological Seminary,  New  York,  in  1804.  He  was 
rector  of  various  parishes  in  New  England  until 
1885,  when  he  became  professor  of  rhetoric  and 
English  literature  at  the  University  of  Vermont 
In  1890  he  accepted  a  similar  position  at  Brown 
University.  His  writings  include:  The  History 
of  Oratory  (1896);  Principles  and  Methods  of 
Literary  Criticism  (1898);  A  Historical  Intro- 
duction to  the  Library  of  Modem  Eloquence 
(1901) ;  and  American  Literature  in  Its  Colonial 
and  National  Periods  (1902). 

SBA-SEBPEKT.  An  imaginary  marine 
creature  supposed-  to  be  of  snake-like  form  and 
nature,  and  of  huge  size  and  pelagic  habits. 
Many  so-called  'sea-serpents'  have  been  shown  to 
be  floating  gigantic  seaweeds,  or  strings  of  por- 
poises following  one  another  in  Indian  file.  The 
ribbon-fish  (Regalecus)  is  perhaps  responsible 
for  some;  giant  squids  or  chains  of  ascidians 
may  explain  others.  The  suppasition  that  some 
of  the  marine  saurians  of  past  ages  may  survive 
in  the  depths  of  the  sea,  and  occasionally  appear 
at  the  surface,  is  not  scientifically  credible.  A 
discussion  of  this  subject  in  its  various  bearings, 
with  illustrations  of  things  seen  by  mariners,  may 
be  found  in  Wilson,  Leisure-Time  Studies  (Lon- 
don, 1878)  ;  and  in  Oudeman,  The  Great  Sea  Ser- 
pent: An  Historical  and  Critical  Treatise  (Lon- 
don, 1892). 

SEASHOBE.  The  space  of  land  adjoining 
the  sea  and  covered  at  high  tide  and  bare  at  low 
tide.  By  the  English  common  law  the  seashore 
belongs  to  the  Grown,  subject  to  the  public  rights 
of  fishing  on  it,  and  sailing  over  it.  In  the 
United  States  the  seashore  belongs  to  the 
States  in  whose  dominion  it  lies,  and  a  State 
may  make  such  reasonable  regulations  as  to  its 
use  by  the  public  as  are  not  inconsistent  with 
Federal  laws.  However,  the  public  have  the  right 
of  fishing  on  the  seashore,  and  gathering  varioos 
forms  of  shell  fish  thereon,  and  this  right  cannot 
be  interfered  with  by  private  ow^ners.  CJonsult: 
Angell,  Treatise  of  the  Right  of  Property  in  Tide 


SEASHOBE. 


617 


SEA-SNAKE. 


Waters  and  in  the  Soil  and  Shores  Thereof  (2d 
ed.,  Boston,  1847). 

SEA-SICKNESS.  A  reflex  nervous  affection 
characterized  by  nausea,  vomiting,  and  extreme 
prostration,  produced  in  susceptible  individuals 
by  the  motion  of  a  ship  at  sea.  Premonitory 
symptoms  of  vertigo,  headache,  and  distress  and 
sinking  at  the  pit  of  the  stomach  appear  almost 
Immediately  after  a  susceptible  person  is  exposed 
to  the  motion  of  rolling  water  in  a  vessel.  Vomit- 
ing of  a  convulsive  character  soon  comes  on,  with 
such  an  overwhelming  prostration  as  to  render 
the  patient  utterly  regardless  of  what  is  going  on 
about  him,  and  almost  indifferent  to  life.  A 
deadly  pallor,  a  profuse  cold  sweat,  and  diarrhoea 
are  commonly  present.  Susceptibility  to  sea- 
sickness varies  greatly  in  different  persons,  and 
the  same  individual  may  exhibit  varying  degrees 
of  susceptibility  at  different  times.  Children  and 
aged  persons  possess  comparative  immunity  from 
sea-sickness,  and  women  as  a  rule  suffer  more 
than  men.  It  is  believed  that  persons  with  a 
strong  heart  and  a  slow  pulse  are  less  liable  to 
the  affection  than  irritable  individuals,  having  a 
rapid  pulse  and  a  tendency  to  palpitation. 

The  primary  cause  of  sea-sickness  is  the  mo- 
tion of  the  vessel,  and  the  pitching,  or  alternate 
rising  of  the  bow  and  stem,  is  specially  apt  to 
induce  it.  In  some  persons  other  regular 
oscillatory  movements  bring  on  a  very  similar 
condition;  the  motion  of  a  swinff,  a  railway 
train,  or  even  a  carriage  is  enough  to  provoke 
nausea  and  vomiting  in  these  individuals.  The 
exact  manner  in  which  such  causes  produce  sea- 
sickness is  not  definitely  settled.  It  is  now  gen- 
erally believed  to  be  by  a  reflex  disturbance  of 
the  nervous  system  due  to  the  violent  and  un- 
usual stimulation  of  the  organs  of  special  sensa- 
tion concerned  in  maintaining  the  equilibrium  of 
the  body,  particularly  the  semicircular  canals 
of  the  ear,  the  eyes,  and  also  of  the  abdominal 
riscera,  especially  the  stomach.  Very  probably 
no  one  cause  is  operative  in  any  case.  Some  cases 
seem  to  be  primarily  of  gastric  origin,  while 
others  are  purely  psychical  or  nervous.  It  has 
been  suggested  that  the  attack  is  due  to  a  con- 
gestion or  hyperemia  of  the  nervous  centres  in 
the  spinal  cord,  which  are  related  to  the  stomach, 
and  the  muscles  concerned  in  vomiting. 

The  remedies  which  have  been  suggested  and 
used  for  sea-sickness  are  innumerable.  Most  per- 
sons are  beneflted  by  a  preliminary  course  of 
calomel  and  a  light  diet  for  several  days  before 
sailing.  Small  doses  of  strychnine  may  be  taken 
for  a  few  hours  before  embarking.  A  laxative 
pill  at  night  for  the  flrst  two  or  three  days  of 
the  voyage  is  also  beneficial,  together  with  a 
simple  diet  and  avoidance  of  fluids.  If  in  spite 
of.  precautions  the  attack  comes  on,  the  patient 
should  at  once  go  to  bed,  and  stay  there  for  a 
day  or  two  or  until  the  attack  subsides.  A 
belladonna  plaster  over  the  nape  of  the  neck, 
and  one  of  mustard,  spice,  or  capsicum  over  the 
epigastrium,  will  sometimes  keep  all  symptoms 
in  abeyance.  The  surface  temperature  may  be 
kept  up  with  hot- water  bottles  if  necessary. 
Vomiting  may  be  combated  by  taking  pieces  of 
ice,  iced  champagne,  ginger  ale,  or  a  few  drops  of 
brandy;  these  are  better  than  the  hot  broths  or 
beef  tea  usually  given.  Cocaine  in  small  doses  by 
the  mouth  Is  a  valuable  agent  to  control  severe 
vomiting.  Headache  and  nausea  are  often  amen- 
able to  bromo-caffein   or  similar   preparations. 


Chloral,  the  bromides,  antipyrine,  nitroglycerin, 
and  amyl  nitrite  are  also  useful  in  certain  cases. 
If  the  onset  of  the  sickness  is  not  sudden  and 
severe,  a  determined  effort  to  breathe  regularly 
and  not  in  rhythm  with  the  motion  of  the  ship 
will  often  overcome  the  spasmodic  muscular  con- 
tractions and  the  tendency  to  vomit.  Compres- 
sion of  the  abdomen  by  a  broad  tight  belt  will 
sometimes  give  relief .  Lastly,  the  patient  should 
not  remain  too  long  below  deck.  All  unpleasant 
symptoms  will  sometimes  quickly  vanish  on  a 
return  to  the  fresh  air  and  sunshine.  See  Vomit- 
ing. 

SEASIDE  GBAPE  {Coccoloha  uvifera).  A 
small  West  Indian  tree  of  the  natural  order 
Polygonacese,  which  grows  on  the  seacoasts.  It 
attains  a  height  of  20  feet  or  more ;  has  leathery, 
shining  entire  leaves,  and  a  pleasant,  subacid, 
edible  fruit,  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  some- 
what resembling  a  currant,  formed  of  the  pulpy 
calyx  investing  a  bony  nut.  The  wood  is  heavy, 
hard,  durable,  and  beautifully  veined,  and  when 
boiled  yields  an  astringent  red  coloring  matter, 
sometimes  called  Jamaica  kino. 

SEASIDE  SPABBOW.  One  of  several  small 
conspicuously  streaked  marsh-sparrows  constitut- 
ing the  genus  Ammodramus,  and  found  numer- 
ously in  four  species  in  the  Eastern  United 
States,  specifically  Ammodramus  maritimus. 
The  sharp-tailed  and  HensloVs  sparrows  are 
others. 

SEA-SLUG.  A  shell-less  creeping  mollusk  of 
the  nudibranchiate  group.  ( See  Nudibranchiata 
and  accompanying  Colored  Plate.)  The  term  is 
also  sometimes  applied  to  holothurians  (q*v.). 

SEA-SNAIL.  A  fish  of  the  family  Lipari- 
didse,  consisting  of  small  sluggish,  goby-like  fishes 
of  Arctic  and  Antarctic  seas,  which  creep  about 
the  rocks  at  various  depths,  adhering  to  them  by 


a  ventral  sucking  disk  (see  illustration),  formed 
of  the  modified  ventral  fina.  They  feed  upon  both 
vegetable  and  animal  substances. 

SEA-SNAKE.  One  of  the  poisonous  marine 
snakes  of  the  elapine  subfamily  Hydrophinie. 
They  are  from  two  to  four  feet  long,  and  have 
the  tail,  and  sometimes  the  entire  body,  com- 
pressed vertically  in  adaptation  to  their  swim- 
ming life.  They  are  absolutely  aquatic,  and  die 
when  kept  long  out  of  the  water,  though  they 
go  ashore  to  bear  their  young,  which  are  bom 
alive,  and  are  guarded  by  the  mother  for  a  pe- 
riod. They  cast  their  skins  piecemeal.  These 
serpents  are  found  in  about  60  species  of  sev- 
eral genera,  from  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the  Philip- 
pines (casually  to  Japan),  and  also  on  the  coast 
of  Central  America.    They  aboimd,  sometimes  in 


SEA-SNAKE. 


618 


SEATTLE. 


schools,  in  the  estuaries  and  tidal  waters,  and 
are  often  met  with  far  from  land;  while  one 
species  {Diatira  Semperi)  is  confined  to  the  land- 
locked Lake  Taal,  in  Luzon.  One  of  the  well- 
known  species  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal  is  the  'ker- 
ril'  {Diaiira  Jerdoni).  These  serpents  feed  upon 
fish,  and  are  extremely  poisonous,  and  very  dan- 
gerous to  fishermen,  pearl-divers,  and  bathers  in 
certain  regions.  Most  of  them  are  dull  brownish 
or  greenish  in  color,  but  others  are  brilliantly 
colored,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Indian  species 
(Hydrophia  nigridncta)  figured  on  the  Colored 
Plate  of  FoBEiGN  Venomous  Serpents.  Consult : 
Fayrer,  Thanatophidia  of  India  (London,  1874)  ; 
Boulenger,  in  'Natural  Bcience,  vol.  i.  (ib.,  1892). 
SEASONS  (OF.  aeaon,  aeiaon,  aaiaon,  Fr.  aai- 
aon,  from  Lat.  aatio,  a  sowing,  from  aerere,  to 
sow;  connected  with  OChurch  Slav,  aiti,  Lith. 
aegir,  Goth,  aaian,  OHG.  a&en,  aaen,  AS.  a&wan, 
Eng.  aow).  Divisions  of  the  year  based  upon 
climatic  conditions.  The  changes  of  the  seasons 
are  due  to  two  causes :  ( 1 )  the  inclination  of  the 
earth's  rotative  axis  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic 
(q.v.);  (2)  the  varying  length  of  the  day  as 
compared  with  the  night,  resulting  from  the  in- 
clination of  the  axis.  As  a  result  of  the  first  of 
these  causes,  the  sun's  rays  fall  more  obliquely  on 
the  earth  in  the  winter  than  in  the  summer.  The 
number  of  rays  striking  a  surface  varies  as  the 
sine  of  the  angle  of  inclination.  Thus  the  greater 
the  obliquity  the  less  the  number  of  rays.  In 
the  summer  the  sun  rises  to  a  greater  elevation 
each  day  than  at  other  seasons,  and  therefore  the 
number  of  rays  falling  on  the  earth's  surface  in 
that  season  will  be  greater  than  in  the  winter. 
The  second  cause  is  obvious.  Since  the  heat  of 
the  earth  is  due  primarily  to  solarization,  it  fol- 
lows that  the  hot  season  should  occur  when  the 
days  are  longest.  Within  the  tropics  the  dif- 
ference in  the  obliquity  of  the  sun's  rays  is  never 
so  great  as  to  make  one  part  of  the  year  very 
sensibly  colder  than  another.  There  are,  there- 
fore, either  no  marked  seasons,  or  they  have 
other  causes  altogether,  and  are  distinguished 
as  the  wet  and  dry  seasons.  (See  Rain.)  But 
in  the  temperate  zones  the  year  is  naturally 
divided  into  four  seasons:  apring,  aummerf 
autumn,  and  tointer.  In  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic 
regions  spring  and  autumn  are  very  brief,  and 
the  natural  division  of  the  year  is  simply 
into  summer  and  winter,  and  this  is  very  much 
the  case  also  in  regions  of  the  temperate  zones 
lying  near  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  circles.  In 
subtropical  regions  the  distinction  of  four  seasons 
is  in  like  manner  very  imperfectly  marked.  This 
distinction  is  everywhere  somewhat  arbitrary  as 
to  the  periods  of  the  year  included  in  each  season, 
which  really  vary  according  to  latitude,  and  part- 
ly according  to  the  other  causes  which  infiuence 
climate  (q.v.),  the  seasons  passing  one  into  an- 
other more  or  less  gradually,  and  their  commence- 
ment and  close  not  being  determined  by  precise 
astronomical  or  other  phenomena.  The  greatest 
heat  of  summer  is  never  reached  till  a  consider- 
able time  after  the  summer  solstice  (q.v.),  when 
the  sun's  rays  are  most  nearly  vertical,  and  the 
day  is  longest;  the  greatest  cold  of  winter  is  in 
like  manner  aifter  the  winter  solstice,  when  the 
day  is  shortest,  and  the  sun's  rays  are  most 
oblique.  The  reason  in  the  former  case  is  that  as 
summer  advances  the  earth  itself  becomes  more 
heated  by  the  continued  action  of  the  sun's  rays, 
and  in  the  latter,  that  it  retains  a  portion  of  the 


heat  which  it  has  imbibed  during  summer,  just 
as  the  warmest  part  of  the  day  is  somewhat  after 
midday,  and  the  coldest  part  of  the  night  is  to- 
ward morning. 

SEASONS,  The.  A  descriptive  poem  in  blank 
verse  by  James  Thomson.  Winter  appeared  in 
1726,  Summer  1727,  Spring  1728,  and  Autumn 
1730,  and  a  revised  and  enlarged  edition  in  1744. 
It  marks  a  reaction  against  the  artificial  poetry 
of  that  day,  and  led  up  to  the  nobler  nature- 
poetry  of  the  succeeding  period. 

SEA-SQUIBT.  Any  of  several  marine  ani- 
mals which  have  the  power  of  ejecting  water 
when  removed  from  their  native  element.  In 
the  West  Indies  the  large  holothurians  (q.v.) 
which  eject  water  from  the  respiratory  trees 
through  the  anal  opening  are  often  so  called. 
The  name  is  more  commonly  and  rather  more 
properlv  applied  to  the  larger  ascidiana  (q.T.)» 
which  force  the  water  out  of  the  atrial  cavity 
through  the  atrial  pore  by  the  contraction  ot 
the  tunic,  often  with  considerable  velocity,  and 
for  many  inches. 

SEA-SWALLOW.  A  small  gull  or  tern 
(qq.v.). 

SEA^TON,  William  WmsTON  (1785-1866). 
An  American  Journalist,  bom  in  King  William 
County,  Va.  From  1812  until  1860  he  was,  with 
his  brother-in-law,  Joseph  Gales,  proprietor  of 
the  National  Intelligencer  at  Washington,  I>.  C. 
From  1812  until  1820  the  two  were  the  only  re- 
porters of  Congressional  proceedings.  Their  An- 
nala  of  Congreaa,  Dehatea  and  Proceedings  in  the 
Congreaa  of  the  United  States  from  S  MofxS^t 
1708,  till  27  May,  1824  (42  vols.,  1834-56),  and 
their  Regiater  of  Dehatea  in  Congreaa  from  18!2Jk 
till  1837  (29  vols.,  1827-37)  are  sources  of  the 
utmost  importance  on  the  history  of  the  times. 

SEA-TBOTTT.  One  of  various  fishes,  as  (1) 
the  weakfish  (q.v.),  and  (2)  in  Great  Britain 
the  trout  {Salmo  trutta). 

SEATTLE,  8*-ftt't1.  The  largest  city  of 
Washington  and  the  county-seat  of  King  County, 
situated  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Puget  Sound,  864 
miles  by  water  north  of  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  and 
185  miles  by  rail  north  of  Portland,  Oregon 
(Map:  Washington,  C  2) .  It  is  a  terminal  point 
of  the  Canadian  Pacific,  the  Northern  Pacific,  and 
the  Great  Northern  railroads,  the  first  named 
using  the  tracks  of  the  Northern  Pacific  for  ita 
entry  into  the  city.  Transportation  facilitieB  by 
water,  too,  are  excellent.  Besides  several  coast- 
wise steamship-  lines  to  San  Francisco,  the  prin- 
cipal ports  of  Alaska,  etc.,  there  are  regular  lines 
to  Japan,  China,  Siberia,  the  Philippines,  and 
Honolulu.  Communication  is  maintained  also, 
but  more  irregularly,  with  ports  of  South  Amer- 
ica, Europe,  Africa,  and  Australia. 

Seattle  is  magnificently  situated  midway  be- 
tween the  Cascade  and  Coast  ranges,  with  Puget 
Sound  in  front  and  Lake  Washington  at  its 
rear.  Green  and  Union  lakes  are  within  the 
municipal  limits,  and  the  Duwamish  River  flows 
through  the  city.  The  business  quarter  occupies 
the  lower  level,  near  the  river  and  sea.  Planks, 
gravel,  macadam,  asphalt,  wooden  blocks,  and 
vitrified  brick  constitute  the  paving  materials 
of  the  more  important  thoroughfares. 

Denny  and  Kinnear,  Lincoln,  Volunteer,  Wood- 
land, and  Washington  are  the  chief  parks,  to- 
gether with  the  beautiful  and  extensive  grounds 


SEATTLE. 


619 


SEAWEED. 


of  the  State  University  and  of  Fort  Lawton.  The 
annual  appropriation  for  the  maintenance  of 
parks  is  about  $60,000.  Edifices  of  importance 
are  the  city  hall,  county  court-house,  the  high 
school.  Providence  Hospital,  and  the  seven  huild- 
ingB  of  the  University  of  Washington  (q.v.).  The 
Federal  Government  has  purchased  for  $160,000 
land  on  which  to  erect  a  $750,000  building  for  its 
various  departments.  A  public  library  building 
($200,000),  the  gift  of  Andrew  Carnegie,  is  in 
course  of  construction  (1903),  the  site  having 
been  acquired  by  the  city  at  a  cost  of  $100,000. 
The  Public  Library  contains  some  40,000  volumes. 
Commercially  and  industrially,  Seattle  is  one 
of  the  foremost  cities  of  the  Pacific  Coast.  It 
has  valuable  fisheries  and  a  tributary  region 
rich  in  timber  and  in  mineral  and  agricultural 
resources.  The  opening  of  the  Alaskan  sold 
fields,  for   wbich  the  city  is  a  popular  sailing 

SDint,  and  the  development  of  trade  with  the 
rient,  especially  with  the  Philippines  since  the 
Spanish- American  War,  have  contributed  to  the 
remarkable  growth  of  the  city  in  recent  years. 
The  waterway  connecting  Paget  Sound  with 
Lakes  Union  and  Washington,  which  is  now  un- 
der construction  by  the  Federal  Government,  will 
add  much  to  its  shipping  advantages.  The  pro- 
ject contemplates  the  creation  of  a  canal,  nearly 
eight  miles  long  and  of  sufficient  depth  for  the 
largest  merchant  and  war  vessels,  leading  to  the 
fine  fresh-water  harbor  afforded  by  Lake  Wash- 
ingtcm.  The  value  of  Seattle's  trade  by  sea  in 
1901  was  $45,696,067,  including  goods  to  the 
amount  of  $6,958,613  carried  to  Japan  by  a 
single  line.  In  that  year  shipments  by  water  in- 
cluded some  26,000,000  feet  of  lumber,  470,000 
tons  of  coal,  88,000  bales  of  cotton,  1,214,000 
bushels  of  wheat,  and  476,000  barrels  of  fiour. 
Large  quantities  of  beer,  meats,  fruit,  hay,  oats, 
and  manufactured  goods  are  also  exported. 
Seattle  is  one  of  the  chief  ports  of  the  country 
for  the  receipt  and  shipment  of  gold  and  silver. 
The  Federal  Qovemmeitt  in  1898  established  an 
assay  office  here.  Lumber  and  shingles  consti- 
tute the  principal  shipments  by  rail  to  Eastern 
markets. 

Manufacturing  interests,  too,  are  of  impor- 
tance. In  the  census  year  1900,  $10,132,000  capi- 
tal was  invested  in  the  various  industries,  which 
had  a  production  valued  at  $26,373,000.  The 
manufacture  of  lumber,  slaughtering  and  meat- 
packin^y  flour-milling,  fish  canning  and  preserv- 
mg,  the  manufacture  of  foundry  and  machine 
shop  products  and  bridge  work,  ship  and  boat 
building,  the  roasting  and  grindinff  of  coffee  and 
spieesy  Dottling,  and  the  manufacture  of  confec- 
tionery, dairy  products,  furniture,  and  carriages, 
are  the  leading  industries.  Electric  power,  used 
in  Seattle  for  manufacturing  and  other  purposes, 
is  derived  from  Snoqualmie  Falls,  on  the  river  of 
the  same  name,  24  miles  from  the  city.  The  falls 
are  270  feet  high,  with  water  power  at  high  water 
estimated  at  100,000  horse  power,  and  at  low 
water  30,000  horse  power.  The  Puget  Sound 
Naval  Station  is  at  Port  Orchard,  14  miles  from 
Seattle.  Here  is  a  dock  650  feet  long,  constructed 
at  a  cost  of  more  than  $600,000. 

The  government  is  vested  in  a  mayor,  elected 
biennially,  and  a  conunon  council,  consisting  of 
a  single  chamber.  The  administrative  ofiScers  in- 
clude a  treasurer,  comptroller,  corporation  coun- 
sel, boards  of  public  works,  health,  parks,  li- 
braiy,  etc.  The  public  school  affairs  are  con- 
TOL.  XV.-4D. 


trolled  hj  a  board  of  education,  separate  from 
the  municipality.  The  water-works,  which  cost 
$2,500,000,  are  owned  by  the  city.  The  daily 
supply  is  23,000,000  gallons.  The  reservoirs  in 
the  city  have  a  storage  capacity  of  50,000,000  gal- 
lons. The  municipal  water  revenues  in  1901 
were  $227,000.  The  city  is  engaged  ( 1903)  in  the 
installation  of  an  electric  plant  to  cost  $550,000. 
First  settled  in  1852,  Seattle  was  Uid  out  in 
1853  and  named  after  a  noted  Indian  chief.  In 
1856  it  was  unsuccessfully  attacked  by  the  In- 
dians. The  business  portion  was  almost  entirely 
destroyed  by  fire  in  1889,  the  loss  aggregating 
about  $10,000,000.  The  population  in  1870  was 
1107,  and  in  1880,  3533;  in  1890,  42,837:  in  1900, 
80,671. 

SSA-XTBGHIN.  The  name  applied  to  species 
of  the  echinoderm  class  Echinoidea.  The  sea- 
urchin  of  the  coast  north  of  Cape  Cod  { Echinus 
or  Strongylocentrotus  Drobachienais)  is  common 
among  rocks,  ranging  from  low-water  mark  to 
fifty  or  more  fathoms.  It  eats  seaweeds,  and  is 
also  a  scavenger,  feeding  on  dead  fish  and  the 
like.  Certain  kinds  are  iSiown  to  bore  for  a  little 
way  into  limestone  rocks  or  coral  reefs,  where 
they  are  protected  from  the  waves.  Sea-urchins 
have  scattered  over  the  surface,  among  the  spines, 
microscopic  button-like  bodies  called  sphwridia^ 
which  are  thought  to  be  organs  probably  of 
taste  or  smell.  They  evidently  react  to  odors. 
The  eggs  are  numerous  and  small.  After  hatch- 
ing the  young  sea-urchin  enters  the  free-swim- 
ming larval  or  pluteus  stage,  passing  through  a 
complicated  metamorphosis.  On  the  other  hand, 
certain  forms  {Anochanus  SineMta)  have  a  direct 
development,  the  larval  stage  being  suppressed. 
A  Chilean  form  and  also  a  South  Pacific  species 
of  Hemiaster  carry  their  young  in  brood-pouches, 
and  they  also  directly  develop,  for  no  pluteus 
sea-urchin  larvie  were  captured  by  the  Challenger 
expedition  in  the  Southern  Ooean.  The  large 
sea-urchin  of  the  Jilediterranean  is  an  article  of 
food,  and  the  Indians  of  the  northwest  coast  eat 
the     large    local    species.      See    Eohutoidea; 

ECHINODEBMATA. 

SEAWEED  or  SEAWABB.  In  a  wide  sense, 
any  plant  of  the  class  Algn ;  in  a  more  restricted 
sense,  only  plants  of  this  class  which  live  in  the 
sea.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  any  plant  grow- 
ing in  the  sea.  Several  species  are  edible,  the 
most  important  of  these  bemg  Irish  or  carrageen 
moss,  used  as  a  cattle  food  and  also  in  the 
preparation  of  jellies  (blanc  mange  and  similar 
dishes).  Dulse,  or  dillesk,  and  kelp,  or  tangle, 
are  also  used  to  a  limited  extent  as  human  food. 

Eel  grass  has  been  used  in  filling  mattresses, 
cushions,  etc.,  and  in  sheathing  houses.  Sea^ 
weed  ashes  formerly  supplied  much  of  the  alkali 
used  in  soap  and  glass  making  and  for  the  prepa- 
ration of  iodine.  (See  Kelp.)  As  a  rule,  how- 
ever, cheaper  sources  of  most  of  the  materials 
furnished  by  seaweed  have  been  discovered.  The 
principal  use  of  seaweed  is  as  a  manure,  for 
which  purpose  it  is  extensively  employed  on 
many  coasts,  some  of  the  best  farms  of  New 
England  being  maintained  largely  by  the  use  of 
seaweed.  Exact  data  as  to  the  quantity  used  are 
not  available.  The  use  of  seaweed  as  a  manure 
is  confined  to  a  narrow  strip  of  coast  because  the 
material  is  very  bulky  (contains  from  70  to  90 
per  cent,  of  water),  and  consequently  cannot  be 
profitably  transported  far.     It  has  been  carried 


SEAWEED. 


620 


SEBASTIAN. 


inland,  however,  to  a  distance  of  from  8  to  10 
miles.  It  is  undoubtedly  an  economical  practice 
to  allow  the  seaweed  to  dry  partially  on  the 
beach  before  carting  it,  but  it  is  not  advisable  to 
allow  it  to  dry  out  so  thoroughly  that  it  will  not 
readily  decompose  in  the  soil.  It  should  not  be 
subjected  to  any  considerable  amount  of  fer- 
mentation or  leaching,  since  a  large  proportion 
of  its  valuable  constituents — nitrogen  and  potash 
—would  thus  be  lost.  On  account  of  its  bulk 
and  wateriness,  seaweed  must  be  applied  in  very 
large  amounts  (20  to  30  tons  per  acre)  in-order 
to  supply  sufficient  amounts  of  nitrogen,  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  potash  for  the  needs  of  crops. 
The  potash  of  deaweed,  which  is  probably  its 
most  important  fertilizing  constituent,  is  subject 
to  wide  variation.  Fresh  seaweed  often  contains 
1  per  cent,  and  more  of  this  constituent,  but  it  is 
soluble  and  is  rapidly  lost  if  the  weed  is  sub- 
jected to  washing.  The  lime  is  also  very  vari- 
able, owing  to  the  adherence  of  shells,  etc.,  but 
normally  it  is  probably  less  than  1  per  cent. 

Seaweed  belongs  to  the  same  class  of  manures 
as  barnyard  manure  and  green  manures,  and,  like 
them,  proves  valuable  on  porous,  sandy  soils.  It 
differs  from  average  barnyard  manure  in  its 
higher  percentage  of  potash  and  lower  percental 
of  phosphoric  acid.  While,  like  barnyard  ma- 
nure, it  is  a  general  fertilizer,  it  is  not  so  well 
balanced,  and  since  its  continued  use  alone  is 
likely  to  result  in  a  one-sided  exhaustion  of  the 
soil,  bone  or  other  phosphatic  fertilizer  should 
be  applied  with  it.  An  advantage  which  seaweed 
has  over  barnyard  manure  is  its  freedom  from 
weed  seeds,  insects,  etc.  Since  it  contains  solu- 
ble potash,  it  is  considered  a  potassic  manure 
especially  valiuible  for  crops  like  potatoes,  clover, 
etc.,  which  are  'potash  feeders.' 

The  nitrogen  of  seaweed  is  in  organic  form,  and 
is  therefore  not  available  to  plants  until  decom- 
position and  nitrification  have  taken  place,  proc- 
esses which  usually  occur  rapidly  in  the  soil. 
It  may  be  applied  fresh  as  a  top-dressing  (on 
grass)  or  may  be  plowed  in.  On  account  of  the 
rapid  decomposition,  especially  of  the  more  suc- 
culent and  mucilaginous  kinds,  seaweed  fur- 
nishes a  valuable  means  of  starting  fermentation 
in  manure,  compost  heaps,  peat,  etc.  Eel  grass 
is  about  as  rich  in  fertilizing  constituents  as 
the  other  kinds  analyzed,  but  is  of  less  actual 
fertilizing  value  because  it  decomposes  slowly 
in  the  soil,  for  which  reason  it  has  been  con- 
demned as  a  worthless  manure,  although  valuable 
as  a  mulch.  Its  value  as  a  fertilizer  could  no 
doubt  be  greatly  increased  by  composting.  The 
objections  to  the  use  of  seaweed  ashes  as  a  fer- 
tilizer are  the  difficulty  and  expense  of  burning 
and  the  loss  of  nitrogen.  Seaweed,  when  applied  in 
the  spring,  has  been  found  to  injure  the  quality 
of  potatoes*  probably  on  account  of  the  chlorine  it 
contains.  It  also  apparently  delays  maturity  as 
compared  with  barnyard  manure.  It  seems,  how- 
ever, to  reduce  scab  when  applied  at  planting. 
Undoubtedly  the  safest  practice  with  potatoes 
and  other  plants  injured  by  chlorine  is  to  apply 
the  seaweed  the  previous  summer  or  fall.  Con- 
sult Rhode  Island  Experiment  Station  Bulletin 
21;  Transactions  Highland  and  Agricultural  So- 
ciety,  1898,  p.  118;  Agricultural  Students*  Ga- 
zette, new  series  9  ( 1808) ,  p.  41 ;  Rtorer,  Agricul- 
ture in  some  of  Its  Relations  with  Chemistry 
(New  York,  1897). 


SEA^WELL,  MoLLT  Elliot  (I860—).  An 
American  author.  She  was  bom  in  Gloucester 
County,  Va.,  October  23,  1860,  and  began  to 
write  at  an.  early  age.  She  published  her  first 
novel  in  1889,  but  attracted  wider  public  atten- 
tion in  the  following  year  by  Little  Jarvis,  a 
story  for  boys.  Perhaps  the  most  noteworthy  of 
her  novels  is  The  Sprightly  Romance  of  Marsae 
(1896),  a  lively  tale  constructed  on  a  French 
model.  Others  are  Throckmorton,  Maid  Marian^ 
Children  of  Destiny,  The  Loves  of  the  Lady  Ara- 
hella.  The  House  of  Egremont  (1899),  and  The 
Fortunes  of  Fifi  (1903).  Some  of  her  juvenile 
stories  have  been  very  popular;  the  beat  of  them 
is  perhaps  Oavin  Hamilton. 

SEB,  or  Keb.  An  Egyptian  deity,  identified 
by  the  Greeks  with  Cronos.  (See  Satubn.)  He 
was  the  husband  of  Nut  (q.v.),  and  is  sometimes 
called  the  father  or  leader  of  the  gods,  since  he 
was  the  father  of  Isis,  Osiris,  Typhon,  and 
Nephthys.  Seb  plays  but  little  part  in  Egyptian 
mythology,  excepting  in  the  legend  of  the  de- 
struction of  mankind  by  Re. 

SEBAI/DUS  (?-801).  A  saint  in  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Chui^ch,  and  one  of  the  patron 
saints  of  Nuremberg.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
the  son  of  a  Danish  king.  He  studied  in  Paris 
and,  according  to  the  tradition,  married  a  daugh- 
ter of  King  Dagobert  III.,  but  on  the  day  follow- 
ing their  marriage  the  vows  were  dissolved,  and 
for  the  ensuing  years  Sebaldus  was  a  stem 
ascetic,  and  lived  as  a  hermit  in  a  forest  near 
Nuremberg.  He  was  buried  in  Saint  Peter's 
Church  at  Nuremberg.  He  was  canonized  by  Pope 
Martin  V.  in  1425.  The  day  of  his  death,  August 
19th,  is  still  commemorated  in  Nuremberg. 

SEBASTE^  See  Samaria. 

SEBASTIAN,  Don  (1554-78).  Eing  of 
Portugal  from  1557  to  1578.  He  was  the  post- 
humous son  of  the  Infante  John  and  succeeded 
his  grandfather  John  III.  on  the  throne,  under 
the  guardianship  of  his  grand-uncle  the  Cardinal 
Henry.  Ambitious  of  a  conqueror's  fame  and  de- 
siring also  to  further  the  spread  of  Christianity 
in  Northern  Africa,  Sebastian  took  advantage  of 
the  internal  disputes  raging  in  Morocco  to  in- 
vade that  country  in  the  summer  of  1578^  but  on 
August  4th  the  Portuguese  army  was  almost 
annihilated  at  Kasr-el-Kebir  (Atcazar  Quivir) 
by  the  forces  of  the  Sherif  Muley-Malek.  Sebas- 
tian Was  among  the  slain,  but  his  body  was  never 
found,  or  at  least  never  satisfactorily  identified, 
and  this  gave  occasion  for  the  appearance  of 
several  pretenders,  claiming  to  be  the  missing 
King,  the  most  prominent  of  whom  made  himself 
known  at  Venice  in  1698,  and  after  a  career  of 
two  years  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards, 
who  probably  put  him  to  death.  In  popular 
Portuguese  legend,  Sebastian  is  not  dead,  but 
will  reappear  to  restore  the  people  to  their  an- 
cient glory.  Consult:  Machado,  Memorias  para 
a  historia  de  Portugal  que  comprehendem  a 
governo  del  rey  Dom  Behastiao  (Lisbon,  1736- 
51);  d'Autas,  Les  faum  Don  S^bastien  (Paris, 
1866). 

SEBASTIAN  (Lat.  Sehastianus) ,  Saint.  A 
celebrated  martyr  of  the  early  Church.  His  his- 
tory is  containeid  in  the  Acta  Sancti  Sehastiani, 
which  probably  dates  from  the  close  of  the  fourth 
century,  and  is  believed  to  embodjr  in  the  main 
a   trustworthy  tradition.     Sebastian,  according 


SEBASTIAN. 


621 


SEBASTOPOL. 


to  this  narrative,  was  born  at  Narbonne,  in  Gaul, 
and  educated  at  Milan.  Although  a  Christian, 
he  entered  the  Roman  Army,  without  revealing 
his  religion,  and  with  the  view  of  assisting  and 
protecting  the  Christians  in  persecution.  Ue 
rose  to  high  favor  under  Diocletian,  and  became 
commander  of  the  first  cohort  at  Milan.  When 
his  religion  was  discovered  he  was  condemned 
to  death  in  Rome  by  a  troop  of  Mauritanian 
archers,  who  transfixed  him  with  numberless 
arrows,  and  left  him  as  dead.  But  a  Christian 
lady,  Irene,  finding  that  life  was  not  extinct, 
had  the  body  removed  to  her  house,  where  life 
was  restored;  and  although  the  Christian  com-' 
munity  desired  to  conceal  his  recovery,  Sebas- 
tian again  appeared  in  public  before  the  Em- 
peror, to  profess  his  faith  in  Christianity.  Dio- 
cletian condemned  him  to  be  beaten  to  death 
with  clubs  in  the  amphitheatre;  and  his  body 
was  flung  into  one  of  the  sewers  of  the  city, 
in  which  it  was  discovered,  according  to  the  Acta, 
by  means  of  an  apparition,  and  carried  by  a 
Christian  lady,  Lucina,  to  the  catacomb  which 
is  still  called  by  his  name.  The  date  of  his  mar- 
tyrdom was  January  20,  288,  and  this  is  his 
feast  day  with  the  Latins.  By  the  Greeks  the 
feast  is  held  on  the  18th  of  December.  The  festi- 
val was  celebrated  with  great  solemnity  in  Milan 
as  early  as  the  time  of  Saint  Ambrose,  and  it 
was  observed  in  the  African  Church  in  the  fourth 
century.  Sebastian  is  patron  saint  against 
the  plague.  It  is  related  that  in  680  a  great 
pestilence  in  Rome  ceased  when  an  altar  was 
dedicated  to  him  in  the  Church  of  Saint  Eudocia. 
The  martyrdom  of  Saint  Sebastian  is  one  of  the 
most  familiar  subjects  of  Christian  art.  He  is 
usually  represented  as  young  and  beautiful, 
bound  to  a  tree,  and  pierced  by  many  arrows. 
There  is  another  saint  of  the  same  name  who  is 
said  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  in  Armenia. 

SEBASTIANI,  sS'b&s-t^a'nft,  Francois 
Horace  de  La  Porta  (1772-1851).  A  marshal 
of  France.  He  was  bom  November  10,  1772,  near 
Bastia,  in  Corsica.  He  entered  the  army  as  a 
Bub-lieutenant  of  infantry  in  1792,  and  was  one 
of  Napoleon's  most  devoted  partisans.  He  fought 
at  Marengo  (1800),  and  became  brigadier-general 
in  1803  and  was  wounded  at  Austerlitz  (1805). 
In  May,  1806,  he  was  sent  as  diplomatic  repre- 
sentative to  Turkey,  where  he  succeeded  in  alien- 
ating the  Porte  from  Russia  and  England.  He 
fought  in  Spain  in  1807  and  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  Russian  campaign  of  1812,  and  at 
Leipzig  in  1813,  and  fought  with  extreme  bravery 
in  the  campaign  of  1814.  On  the  exile  of  Na- 
poleon to  Elba  he  gave  his  adherence  to  the 
Bourbon  Government,  but  joined  his  old  master 
on  his  return.  He  was  Minister  of  Marine  for  a 
short  time  in  1830  and  Minister  of  Foreign  Af- 
fairs, with  a  slight  interruption,  from  1830  to 
1834.  He  then  went  as  Ambassador  to  Naples, 
and,  1835-40,  to  London.  He  was  made  a  mar- 
shal of  France  in  1840. 

SEBASTIANO  DEL  PIOKBO,  sS'bfts-t^  ^nd 
dfil  p^Am'b^  (c.1485-1647).  An  Italian  painter 
of  the  High  Renaissance.  His  surname  was 
Luciani,  and  he  derived  his  name  from  his  office 
of  the  Papal  seal  (ptombo).  He  was  bom  in 
Venice,  was  a  pupil  of  Bellini  and  of  Giorgione, 
and  Morelli  sees  in  his  earliest  works  the  influ- 
ence of  Cima  da  Conegliano.  To  his  Venetian 
period  belong  a  "Pieta,"  in  possession  of  Lady 


Layard  (Venice),  and  the  altar-piece  of  San 
Giovanni  Crisostomo  at  Venice,  in  the  manner 
of  Giorgione.  In  1500  he  was  invited  to  Rome 
by  Agostino  Chigi,  for  whom  he  painted  in  the 
Villa  Farnesina  eight  lunettes  in  the  garden 
lodge,  and  in  the  grand  hall  a  "Polyphymus,"  as 
pendant  to  Raphael's  "Galatea."  Having  gained 
but  little  success  in  this  rivalry,  he  formed  in 
1512  his  association  with  Michelangelo,  endeavor- 
ing to  unite  Venetian  coloring  with  the  latter's 
drawing,  and  thus  to  surpass  Raphael.  Michel- 
angelo himself  designed  the  "Pietil"  in  the  Hermi- 
tage (Saint  Petersburg),  and  another  in  San 
Francesco  at  Viterbo,  and  parts  of  the  "Resurrec- 
tion of  Lazarus"  (1519,  National  Gallery,  Lon- 
don), which  is  Sebastiano's  principal  historical 
production.  Other  works  showing  his  influence 
are  the  "Martyrdom  of  Saint  Agatha"  (1520, 
Pitti  Palace);  "Visitation"  (1521,  Louvre);  a 
"Transfiguration"  in  fresco,  and  a  "Flagellation" 
in  oil,  in  San  Pietro  in  Montorio  (Rome). 

Under  Michelangelo's  influence  Sebastiano  lost 
the  Venetian  breadth  of  handling;  his  paintings 
became  smooth  in  character  and  heavy  in  chia- 
roscuro. He  devoted  much  time  to  adapting  oil 
Sainting  to  fresco,  and  endeavored  in  vain  to  in- 
uce  Michelangelo  to  adopt  his  experiments  in 
the  Sistine  Chapel.  His  paintings  on  slate,  like 
the  "Holy  Family"  at  Naples,  and  on  stone,  like 
the  two  "Ecce  Homo"  at  Madrid  and  Saint 
Petersburg,  are  very  interesting.  In  1531  he  was 
appointed  keeper  of  the  Papal  seals,  and  from 
this  time  he  practically  ceased  painting,  residing 
.at  Rome  until  his  death  there,  on  June  21, 
1547. 

In  portraiture  Sebastiano's  art  was  more  inde- 
pendent, and  he  achieved  the  highest  results, 
both  as  to  characterization  and  perfection  of 
technique.  In  his  portraits  the  influence  of 
Raphael  is  apparent,  so  much  so  that  some  of 
the  most  beautiful  portraits  formerly  attributed 
to  the  latter  are  now  recognized  as  Sebastiano's 
— as,  for  example,  the  matchless  "Fomarina" 
(1512),  in  the  Uffizi,  long  supposed  to  be  the 
mistress  of  Raphael,  and  the  portrait  of  an  un- 
known young  man  in  the  gallery  of  Budapest. 
Morelli  also  ascribes  to  his  early  period  the  beau- 
tiful  **Violin  Player,"  in  the  Sciarra  Palace, 
Rome.  He  painted  the  portraits  of  a  series  of 
popes,  the  best  known  of  which  is  that  of  Clement 
VII.,  in  the  Naples  Museum.  Other  celebrated 
examples  are  those  of  Andrea  Doria,  in  the  Doria 
Palace,  Rome,  and  of  Cardinal  Pole  in  the 
Hermitage  (Saint  Petersburg).  Consult:  Vasari, 
Vite  (Florence,  1878)  ;  Richter,  in  Dohme,  Kunst 
und  Kiinstler  Italiens  (Leipzig,  1878)  ;  Mila- 
nesi,  Les  correspondants  de  Michel  Ange,  vol.  i. 

(Paris,  1890)  ;  and  the  dissertation  by  Propping 

(Leipzig,  1892). 

SEBASTOPOL,  or  SEVASTOPOL,  Rus. 
pron.  sy&-v&s-ta'p61-y'.  A  seaport  of  Russia,  in 
the  Government  of  Taurida,  on  the  southern  shore 
of  a  deep  inlet  of  the  Black  Sea,  in  the  south- 
western part  of  the  Crimea,  about  48  miles  south- 
west of  Simferopol  (Map:  Russia,  D  6).  The 
inlet  is  about  4  miles  long  and  three-quarters 
of  a  mile  wide,  and  is  one  of  the  best  road- 
steads of  Russia.  The  main  inlet  forms  four  bays, 
between  two  of  which  the  city  proper  stands 
on  elevated  ground.  The  entrance  to  the  road- 
stead is  strongly  fortified,  and  there  is  a  chain 
of  forts  south  and  north  of  the  city.    There  are 


SEBASTOPOIi. 


622 


8EGBSSI0N. 


extensive  docks  along  the  shore.  The  climate 
is  very  healthful  and  pleasant.  The  city  has 
fully  recovered  from  the  effects  of  the  Crimean 
War,  but  its  commerce  has  been  deflected  almost 
entirely  to  Feodosia^  and  the  harbor  is  used 
mostly  as  a  naval  station.  There  are  monuments 
to  the  heroes  of  the  Crimean  War  and  two  mu- 
seums. The  principal  industries  are  shipbuild- 
ing and  wine-making.  Sebastopol  forms  with  the 
surrounding  country  a  separate  administrative 
district.  The  population  of  the  city  proper,  in 
1897,  was  44,016.  'The  Greek  colony  of  Cher- 
sonesus,  situated  near  the  present  site  of  Sebas- 
topol, was  well  known  to  the  Russians  under  the 
name  of  Korsun  at  the  period  of  the  introduc- 
tion of  Christianity  into  Russia.  In  the  six- 
teenth century  the  Tatar  settlement  of  Akhtiar 
was  founded  here.  In  1784  the  town  of  Sebasto- 
pol was  founded  by  Catharine  II.,  and  in  1804 
it  became  the  chief  naval  station  of  Russia  on 
the  Black  Sea.  It  was  strongly  fortified  under 
Nicholas  I.    Sec  Crimean  War. 

SEBENICO,  8&-ba''n^k6  (Slav.  Sihenik).  A 
town  in  the  Crownland  of  Dalmatia,  Austria, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Kerka  in  the  Adriatic,  170 
miles  southeast  of  Triest  (Map:  Austria,  E  5). 
It  is  built  on  a  steep  slope,  and  was  formerly 
defended  by  walls  and  towers.  The  town  has  an 
excellent  harbor,  connected  with  the  sea  by  a 
canal.  There  is  considerable  shipping  trade. 
Population  (commune),  in  1900,  24,751. 

S^BILLOT,  sft^^'yy,  Paul  (1843-).  A 
French  painter  and  folk-lore  writer,  bom  at 
Matignon,  C6tes-du-Nord,  and  educated  at 
Rennes.  He  went  as  a  young  man  to  Paris  to 
become  a  notary,  but  turned  instead  to  paint- 
ing. Between  1870  and  1883  he  exhibited  more 
than  twenty  pictures  in  the  Salon.  His  sketches 
of  out-of-the-way  corners  in  Brittanv  introduced 
him  to  the  subject  to  which  he  afterwards  de- 
voted himself,  that  of  folk-lore  study.  In  1885 
he  founded  and  edited  the  Revue  dea  Traditions 
Populairea.  His  works  on  folk-lore  include: 
Conies  populaires  de  la  Haute  Bretagne  (3  se- 
ries, 1880-82)  ;  Traditions  et  superstitions  de  la 
Haute  Bretagne  (1882);  Oargantua  dans  les 
traditions  populaires  (1883);  Contes  des  pro- 
vinces de  France  ( 1884)  ;  and  L^gendes,  croyances 
et  superstitions  de  la  mer  (1886-87). 

SEBOBBHCEA  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Lat.  sebum, 
tallow  -h  Gk.  ^la,  rhoia,  flow,  from  ^ip,  rhein, 
to  flow).  A  disease  of  the  sebaceous  glands 
characterized  by  an  increased  flow  of  their  secre- 
tion. Seborrhoea  may  invade  the  hairy  parts, 
appearing  in  one  of  four  varieties :  ( 1 )  Dry  se- 
borrhoea; (2)  concrete  seborrhoea;  (3)  oily  se- 
borrhoea; (4)  circinate  seborrhoeic  eczema;  or 
it  may  invade  the  smooth  .  parts,  appearing  as 
(1)  seborrhoea  sicca;  (2)  seborrhoea  concreta; 
( 3 ) seborrhoea  oleosa;  or  (4)  seborrhoea  corporis. 

All  these  varieties  are  characterized  by  the 
formation  of  collections  of  sebum  with  dust, 
scales  of  the  epidermis,  and  crusts,  more  or  less 
oily,  more  or  less  gray  or  dark.  It  is  probably 
parasitic;  but  while  many  parasites  have  been 
discovered  in  eczema  -^eborrhoeicum,  their  precise 
r6le  is  yet  undetermined.  Seborrhoea  is  the  most 
frequent  cause  of  baldness,  and  needs  treatment 
by  a  physician.  Presides  internal  tissue-builders, 
tonics,  and  special  food,  local  applications  of 
belladonna,    benzoin,    sulphur,    chloral,    salicylic 


acid,  ichthyol,  and  green  sotfp  are  Qaefal  in  Be* 
lected  cases. 

SECANT.    See  Tangent;  Tbioonomeist. 

SECCHI,  Bfk%  PiffTBO  Angelo  (1818-78). 
An  Italian  astronomer,  bom  at  Reggio.  He 
joined  the  Jesuit  Order  in  1833,  and  after  study- 
ing in  Italy,  England,  and  at  Georgetown  Col- 
lege in  Washington,  D.  C,  he  served  for  a  time 
as  professor  of  mathematics  and  physics  at  the 
latter  institution.  He  became  director  of  the  ob- 
servatory of  the  Roman  Ck)llege  in  1849,  and  was 
permitted  to  remain  in  that  position  after  the 
expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  1870-73.  His  dlBcov- 
eries  in  solar  physics  and  spectroscopy  were 
numerous  and  important,  and  he  also  made  mag- 
netic and  meteorological  observations.  Among 
his  works  are:  Catalogo  delle  stelle  (1867) ;  Novi 
ricerchi  sulle  protuherame  solari  (1869) ;  Fisaca 
solare  (1869);  Researches  on  Electrical  Bkeo- 
metry  (Smithsonian  Contributions,  voL  viii., 
1852)  ;  he  soleil  (1870) ;  and  Le  steUe,  saggi  di 
astronomia  siderale  {Die  Sterne,  vol.  xzxiv.  of 
the  International  Scientific  Library,  Leipzig, 
1878).  Ck>nsult  Pohle,  Angela  Secchi  (Cologne, 
1883). 

SECESSION  (Lat.  seoessio,  separation, 
schism,  from  secedere,  to  go  apart,  from  se-, 
apart  4-  oedere,  to  yield,  depart,  go).  In  United 
States  history,  the  term  applied  to  the  withdrawal 
of  a  State  from  the  Union.  The  word  'secession' 
seems  to  have  been  first  used  in  the  debates  in 
the  Philadelphia  Convention  on  July  5,  1787,  by 
Elbridge  (3erry,  who  remarked  that  unless  some 
compromise  should  be  made  "a  secession  would 
take  place."  The  idea  of  secession  appeared  in 
New  England  about  fifteen  years  after  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Union  in  connection  with  the  acquisi- 
tion of  Louisiana.  This  addition  of  territory  was 
strongly  opposed  by  the  New  England  Federal- 
ists Sirough  fear  that  ultimately  it  would  re- 
sult in  the  destruction  of  New  England's  pre- 
dominance in  the  Union.  Annexation  of  Louis- 
iana was  vigorously  resisted  as  unconstitutional 
without  the  consent  of  all  the  States,  inasmuch 
as  the  Constitution  was  alleged  to  have  been 
made  only  for  the  original  thirteen  States. 

Jefferson's  Embargo  Act  and  the  War  of  1812 
led  to  considerable  disaffection  in  New  England, 
which  culminated  in  the  Hartford  Convention 
(q.v.).  The  members  of  that  body,  however, 
afterwards  denied  that  the  subject  of  secession  was 
broached  in  any  form  and  its  journal  does  not 
indicate  any  trace  of  such  a  discussion.  In  1832 
the  nullification  movement  in  South  Carolina, 
provoked  by  dissatisfaction  with  the  newly  estab- 
lished protective  tariff,  seemed  to  threaten  the 
stability  of  the  Union.  After  this  the  history 
of  secession  is  inextricably  bound  up  with  the 
question  of  slavery.  During  the  next  thirty  years 
isolated  threats  of  secession  were  frequently  made 
in  the  South  whenever  Northern  hostility  ap- 
peared to  imperil  the  interests  of  slavery.  Nor 
did  the  idea  entirely  die  out  in  New  England, 
where  at  the  time  of  the  agitation  over  the 
annexation  of  Texas  a  number  of  anti-slavery 
Whig  members  of  Congress,  headed  by  John 
Quincy  Adams,  issued  an  address  to  their  con- 
stituents declaring  that  annexation  would  fully 
justify  a  dissolution  of  the  Union. 

The  question  which  brought  the  secession 
movement  to  a  head  related  to  the  exclusion  of 


SECESSION. 


628 


SECOND  ADVENT  OF  CHBIST. 


slaveiy  from  the  Territories.  (See  TsHimoBiss.) 
In  1847,  when  the  question  began  to  assume  an 
acute  stage,  Calhoun  undertook  to  secure  the  co- 
operation of  the  slave  States  in  a  movement 
looking  toward  secession^  but  the  plan  failed. 
The  enactment  of  the  so-called  Compromise 
Measures  of  1850  (q.v.)  again  raised  the  ques- 
tion,  but  in  one  or  two  Southern  States,  where  it 
was  made  an  issue,  the  secessionists  were  de- 
feated. Then  came  the  passage  in  some  of  the 
Northern  States  of  so-called  personal  liberty 
laws  in  contravention  of  the  Fugitive  Slave 
Law,  the  John  Brown  raid,  and  the  election  of 
President  Lincoln,  all  of  which  intensified  the 
feeling  in  the  South  in  favor  of  withdrawal  from 
the  Union.  In  the  South  the  right  of  secession 
was  regarded  as  one  of  the  reserved  powers  of 
the  States,  there  being  do  prohibition  in  this  re- 
spect in  the  Constitution  nor  any  power  conferred 
upon  the  Federal  Government  to  compel  a  State 
to  remain  in  the  Union  airainst  its  wishes.  It  is 
worthy  of  note  that  as  late  as  1860  many  persons 
of  prominence  in  the  North,  among  them  Horace 
Greeley,  acknowledged  the  right  of  secession, 
only  insisting  that  the  step  should  be  taken 
''with  the  deliberation  and  gravity  befitting  so 
momentous  an  issue."  The  regular  machinery 
by  which  the  work  of  secession  was  accomplished 
was  a  State  convention  called  by  the  Legislature 
or  self -assembled,  as  in  Texas.    See  Civil  Wab; 

CONFEDEXATB   STATES   OF  AMERICA;    and   UNITED 

States,  and  authorities  cited  under  those  titles. 
SECESSION,  Wab  of.     See  Civil  Wab  in 

AME3UCA. 

SECESSIONISTS.  In  modem  German  art, 
more  especially  in  painting,  the  adherents  of 
that  tendency  which,  in  subject,  form,  and  color- 
ing, deviated  from  traditional  conceptions  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  result  in  the  secession  of 
the  younger  generation  of  artists  from  the  older 
art  unions,  and  in  the  arrangement  of  separate 
exhibitions  by  the  Munich  and  Berlin  ^Seces- 
sions' respectively. 

SECHTEB,  B^K't^T,  Simon  (1788-1867).  An 
Austrian  music  teacher  and  contrapuntist,  bom 
at  Friedberg,  Bohemia.  In  1851  he  became  Court 
organist  and  professor  of  harmony  and  composi- 
tion at  the  Vienna  Conservatory.  He  wrote  much 
church  music,  numerous  fugues,  pianoforte  pieces, 
preludes,  the  burlesque  opera  All  Hitach-aatsoh 
(1844),  a  Oeneralhass-Schule,  and  songs.  His 
greateist  work  is  Die  Orundsatze  der  muaikal- 
iaehen  Komposition  (1853-64),  a  most  valuable 
musical  treatise. 

SECXENDOBFF,  zfik^en-d^^rf,  Fbiedrich 
Heinbich,  Count  (1673-1763).  A  German  field- 
marshal  and  diplomat.  He  was  bom  at  Konigs- 
berg,  Franconia.  He  served  successively,  from 
1693,  in  the  English-Dutch  and  Imperial 
armies,  rose  to  the  rank  of  colonel,  and  fought 
with  conspicuous  bravery  during  the  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession.  From  1709  in  the  service  of 
Augustus  II.  of  Poland  and  Saxony,  he  operated 
in  Flanders  (1710-11)  and  attended  the  peace 
negotiations  at  The  Hague.  Made  lieutenant- 
f;eneral  after  suppressing  an  uprising  of  the  Poles 
in  1713,  he  took  part  in  the  siege  of  Stralsund  by 
the  Pmssians  (1715).  Appointed  lieutenant- 
field-marshal  by  Emperor  Charles  VI.,  in  1717, 
he  foueht  at  Belgrade,  and  in  1718  in  Sicily,  and 
vaa  raised  to  the  dignity  of  count  of  the  Empire. 


In  1721  he  became  Govemor  of  Leipzig,  but  also 
remained  in  the  Imperial  service,  was  made  Feld- 
zeugmeister  in  1723,  and  sent  as  Ambassador  to 
Berlin  in  1726.  Obtaining  leave  to  join  the 
army  on  the  Rhine^  in  1734,  he  again  rendered 
important  services,  and,  although  greatly  ham- 
pered by  the  inactivity  of  Prince  Lipoid  of  An- 
halt-Dessau,  signally  defeated  the  French  at 
Klausen,  October  20,  1735.  He  was  sent  to  Hun- 
gary in  1737  as  field-marshal  to  command  the 
Imperial  forces  against  the  Turks.  Victorious  at 
first,  he  was  blamed  for  the  unsuccessful  progress 
of  the  campaign,  was  recalled  to  Vienna,  tried, 
and  was  kept  in  durance  at  Gratz  tmtil  Novem- 
ber, 1740,  when  the  investigation  was  suspended. 
In  1741  he  resigned  his  offices  and,  transferring 
his  allegiance  to  Bavaria,  rendered  valuable  ser- 
vices to  Emperor  Charles  VII.  during  the  War  of 
the  Austrian  Succession.  On  the  election  of  Em- 
peror Francis  I.  SeckendorfiT  obtained  from 
Maria  Theresa  his  reinstatement  into  all  his 
former  offices.  In  December,  1758,  Frederick  II., 
who  bore  him  a  grudge  for  the  advice  given  to 
Austria,  had  him  kidnapped  by  a  detail  of  thirty 
hussars,  while  he  was  at  church,  and  kept  him 
in  custody  at  Magdeburg  until  May,  1759.  Seck- 
endorff  died  at  Meuselwitz,  November  23,  1763. 

SBCKENDOBFFy  Gustav  Anix)n,  Baron 
(1775-1823).  A  German  writer,  bom  at  Meusel- 
witz. After  studying  at  Leipzig,  Freiberg,  and 
Wittenberg,  he  traveled  for  two  years  in  the 
United  States  (1796-98).  He  chiefly  devoted 
himself,  however,  to  recitations  and  lectures  on 
sesthetics,  which  he  delivered  imder  the  pseudo- 
nym of  Patrick  Peale,  and  to  literature.  In  1814 
he  was  appointed  professor  at  the  Carolinum  in 
Brunswick,  but  in  1821  went  again  to  America 
and  died  in  poverty  at  Alexandria,  Louisiana. 
His  works  include  the  tragedies  Otto  III.  (1805) 
and  OrMna  (1816),  a  sequel  to  Lessing's  Emilia 
Oalotti;  Kritik  der  Kunst  (1812)  ;  and  Beitrdge 
eur  Philosophie  dea  Herzena  (1814) . 

SECKENDOBFF,  Vest  Ludwio  von  (1626- 
92).  A  German  statesman  and  historian,  bom 
at  Herzogenaurach,  near  Erlangen.  Upon  leav- 
ing the  University  of  Strassburg  he  entered  the 
service  of  his  patron,  Ernst  the  Pious,  Duke  of 
Gotha,  rose  to  the  post  of  privy  coimcilor  and 
chancellor,  and  brought  about  important  reforms 
in  the  ducal  territories.  In  1664  he  became 
chancellor  to  Duke  Moritz  of  Saxony-Zeitz,  after 
whose  death  in  1681  SeokendorfiT  retired  to  his 
estate  at  Meuselwitz.  Called  to  Berlin,  in  1691, 
by  the  Elector  Frederick  III.  of  Brandenburg,  to 
adjust  certain  sectarian  difficulties,  he  was  re- 
warded with  the  appointment  as  chancellor  of  the 
newly  established  university  at  Halle.  A  distin- 
guished student  of  political  science  and  the  fore- 
most Protestant  Church  historian  of  his  time,  he 
published  Der  deutsche  FUrstenstaat  ( 1655) ,  for  a 
long  time  the  standard  work  of  its  kind  at  the  Ger- 
man universities;  Der  Christenataat  (1685)  ;  and. 
most  important  of  all,  the  Commentarius  His- 
ioricus  ei  Apdlogeticua  de  Lutheranismo  (1688), 
a  documentary  refutation  of  Maimbourg's  Hia- 
toire  du  Luthiraniame. 

SECOND.  For  musical  usage,  see  Interval; 
for  mathematical,  see  Circle.     ,, 

SECOND  ADVENT  OP  CHBIST.     The  re 

turn  of  Jesus  Christ  in  visible  form  to  enrth.  On 
the  basis  of  certain  sayings  of  Jesus,  the  early 


BBCOND  ADVENT  OF  GEBIST. 


634 


SECOND  SIGHT. 


Church  expected  that  within  a  comparatively 
short  period  after  His  ascension  He  would  again 
come  and  usher  in  the  full  glory  of  the  Messianic 
Age.  The  passages  in  the  Gospels  containing 
these  sayings  are:  (1)  Mark  vi.  1-11=  Matt, 
ix.  36-x.  16  =  Luke  ix.  1-5;  (2)  Mark  ix.  1  = 
Matt.  xvi.  28  =  Luke  ix.  27;  (3)  Mark  xiii.  = 
Matt.  xxiv.  =  Luke  xxi.;  (4)  Mark  xiv.  62  = 
Luke  xxii.  60  =  Matt.  xxvi.  64;  (5)  Luke  xvii. 
20-xyiii.  18.  A  critical  examination  of  these 
passages  reveals  the  fact  that  sayings  of  Jesus 
which  in  one  Gospel  are  of  a  broad,  general  char- 
acter are  reported  in  another  Gospel  in  a  much 
more  precise  and  specific  form:  e.g.  Mark  ix. 
1,  "Who  shall  not  taste  of  death  until  they  see 
the  Kingdom  of  Ood  come/'  becomes  in  Matt.  xvi. 
28,  "Who  shall  not  taste  of  death  until  they  see 
the  Son  of  Man  coming  in  His  Kingdom."  This 
tendency  manifested  itself  almost  immediately 
after  His  departure,  though  He  had  wamea 
against  speculation  on  such  points  (cf.  Acts  i. 
6-7).  It  appears  in  the  first  formulation  of 
Christian  doctrine  by  Peter  in  the  Pentecost  ser- 
mon in  the  use  of  Old  Testament  expressions 
(Acts  li.  20,  35)  and  more  plainly  in  the  words 
reported  in  Acts  iii.  20-21.  The  highly  figurative 
language  of  the  Old  Testament  already  employed 
by  Jesus  in  His  eschatological  discourses,  taken 
in  a  literal  sense,  was  of  great  influence  in  this 
respect.  As  the  years  passed,  the  more  enlight- 
ened leaders  of  the  Church  came  to  feel  that  the 
true  meaning  of  Jesus'  words  and  realization  of 
His  promises  was  to  be  found  in  the  eternal, 
spiritual  heavenly  life  (compare  I.  Peter  with 
the  sermon  of  Peter  in  Acts;  cf.  Paul  in  I.  Cor. 
XV.;  also  the  Gospel  of  John)  rather  than  in  a 
material,  earthly  kingdom.  But  the  doctrine  of 
the  Parouaia,  or  second  coming  of  Jesus  in  a 
comparatively  short  time,  was  by  no  means  given 
up.  It  continued  to  wield  great  influence  on 
Christian  thought  and  retained  its  place  in  the 
general  eschatological  conceptions,  as  the  great 
event  which  was  to  usher  in  a  new  era — the  full 
manifestation  of  the  Messianic  Age.  The  prac- 
tical consequences  of  such  conceptions  were  some- 
times serious  and  necessitated  wise  and  cautious 
treatment  (cf.  IL  Thess.;  II.  Peter  iii.  1-13). 

In  later  times  the  doctrine  has  been  held  in 
two  forms:  the  Second  Advent  of  Christ  will  be 
either  (1)  premillennial,  i.e.,  before  the  age  of 
the  great  prosperity  and  triumph  of  the  Church ; 
or  (2)  postmillennial,  after  this  age  and  imme- 
diately before  the  general  judgment.  The  for- 
mer view  is  advocated  upon  the  ground  of  cer- 
tain interpretations  of  Rev.  xx.  4-7,  supported  by 
other  passages  of  Scripture,  and  more  particu- 
larly by  the  general  conception,  thought  to  be 
derived  from  the  Scriptures,  that  the  present 
dispensation  does  not  contain  in  it,  under  the 
plan  of  God,  the  means  necessary  to  bring  the 
world  to  Christ.  Hence  it  will  be  necessary  that 
Christ,  the  King,  shall  Himself  come  to  take  the 
government  upon  His  shoulder  and  introduce  the 
universal  sway  of  His  power.  TKis  view  is  held 
by  an  active  school  of  evangelists,  by  many  in- 
dividual Christians  in  all  communions,  and  by 
many  who  have  united  into  separate  denomina- 
tions, such  as  ^the  "Seventh  Day  Adventists." 
The  other  view  regards  the  exegesis  of  the  pre- 
millennialists  as  unsound,  and  their  views  of  the 
present  condition  and  tendencies  of  things  as 
pessimistic;  bases  its  conception  of  the  gradual 


spread  and  final  triumph  of  the  Goapel  upon  the 
definite  promises  of  the  word  and  the  aJialogies 
of  God's  methods  everywhere  else  in  Providence; 
and  urges  for  its  connection  of  the  Second  Advent 
with  the  Judgment,  the  unmistakable  meaning 
of  every  plain  passage  of  Scripture.    See  AovEirr- 

ISTS;  £BCHAT0L0GT;  JuD0M£1«T,  FUfAL;  MILLEN- 
NIUM. 

SEGONDABY  QXTAIiITIES.  All  the  attri 
butes  of  an  object  of  perception  which  were  sup- 
posed to  be  due  to  any  peculiarity  of  the  sense- 
constitution  of  the  percipient;  over  against 
secondary  qualities  were  placed  primary  quali- 
ties (q.v),  which  were  supposed  to  be  appre- 
hended by  the  percipient  as  they  are  in  them- 
selves. Thus,  color  was  called  a  secondary  qual- 
ity, while  extension  was  called  primary,  because 
it  was  supposed  that  the  human  eye  gave  the 
characteristic  of  color  to  the  object,  while  the 
spatial  character  of  the  object  was  regarded  as 
original.  This  distinction  has  played  a  great 
part  in  the  philosophy  of  the  last  three  centuries, 
but  cannot  be  considered  ultimate.  See  Knowl- 
edge, Theobt  of. 

SEGONDABY  SGHOOLS.  A  term  applied 
to  high  schools,  academies,  and  other  schools 
which  prepare  pupils  for  college  courses,  or  give 
instruction  of  the  same  general  grade  as  that  re- 
quired for  college  preparation.  The  public  school 
in  England,  the  Lyo^  in  France,  and  the  Gym- 
nasium and  Realschule  in  (rermany,  give  in- 
struction corresponding  to  that  of  the  secondaxy 
schools  in  the  United  States.  In  the  latter  part 
of  the  nineteenth  century  American  secondary 
schools,  especially  the  free  high  schools,  became 
less  distinctively  schools  for  college  prepara- 
tion, and  more  and  more  'finishing  schools' — i.e. 
schools  giving  a  general  preparation  for  business 
life  or  for  professional  education,  without  con- 
sideration of  college  training.  In  this  connec- 
tion manual  training,  modem  languages,  and 
elementary  science  were  introduced,  and  the  old 
classical  disciplines  cut  short  or  rendered  op- 
tional. The  broadening  of  college  courses,  how- 
ever, and  especially  the  spread  of  the  elective 
and  accrediting  systems,  rendered  the  transition 
from  secondary  schools  to  colleges  easy  even 
under  the  new.  conditions;  accordingly  these 
schools  are  still  the  chief  institutions  for  col- 
lege preparation,  as  they  are  the  chief  sources  for 
training  supplementary  to  that  given  in  ele- 
mentary schools.  See  Academy;  High  School; 
National  Education,  Syshems  of;  Pitblic 
Schools. 

SEGOKD  SIGHT.  A  supposed  faculty  of 
internal'  sight,  whereby  persons  see  distant  oc- 
currences or  foresee  future  events ;  it  is  so  called 
because,  for  the  time,  it  takes  the  place  of  nor- 
mal sight.  Recently  this  power  has  been  claimed 
by  those  who  profess  clairvoyance  (q.v.).  His- 
torically, second  sight  is  of  interest  because  of 
the  deeply  rooted  fi»lief  in  its  reality  prevalent 
in  Northern  Europe  among  the  Celtic  population 
generally,  and  especially  in  the  Hebrides  and 
Scottish  Highlands.  Some  of  the  Scottish  seers 
asserted  their  power  to  impart  the  gift  by  teach- 
ing; others  declared  it  to  be  hereditary.  It  was 
often  believed  that  children,  horses,  and  cows,  as 
well  as  men,  were  affected  with  the  visions.  The 
most  commonplace  and  trifling  matters  were  re- 
vealed and  predicted,  coming  events  being  for6- 


SECOND  SIGHT. 


626 


SECBET  A8S0GIATI0ir& 


told  by  the  appearance  of  characteristic  omens. 
Consult:  Boswell,  Life  of  Johnsoriy  ed.  by  Bir- 
beck  Hill  (Oxford,  1887)  ;  Martin,  "Western  Isl- 
ands of  Scotland,"  and  Pennant,  "A  Tour  in  Scot- 
land," in  Pinkerton,  Voyages  and  Travels  (Lon- 
don, 1809) ;  Crowe,  The  Night  Side  of  Nature 
(2ded.,  ib.,  1864)  ;  Tylor,  Primitive  Culture  (ib., 
1871);  Dyer,  The  Ohoat  World  (Philadelphia, 
1893) ;  IjBLJig,  Cock  Lane  and  Common  Sense 
(London,  1894). 

SECBET  (OF.,  Fr.  secret,  from  Lat.  secretus, 
secret,  separated,  p.  p.  of  secemere,  to  separate, 
from  «6-,  apart  -j-  cemere,  to  separate ) .  One  of 
the  prayers  of  the  mass  of  the  same  general  form 
as  the  collect,  but  recited  by  the  priest  in  so 
low  a  voice  as  not  to  be  heard  by  the  people, 
whence  the  name  secreta  is  derived.  It  follows 
immediately  after  the  oblation  of  the  eucharistic 
bread  and  wine,  and  was  in  the  earlier  ages  the 
only  prayer  of  oblation  provided  in  the  missal; 
the  Sacramentary  of  Saint  Gregory  calls  it  the 
Oraiio  super  ohlata. 

SEGB^TAN^  se-krA'tftN^  Charles  (1815-95). 
A  Swiss  metaphysician,  bom  at  Lausanne.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Vinet  at  Bftle  in  1835,  and  of 
Schelling  in  1837.  In  the  latter  year  he  founded 
the  Revue  Suisse,  and  in  1838  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  at  the  University  of  Lau- 
sanne. The  work  of  Secretan,  at  once  a  philos- 
opher and  a  theologian,  was  one  of  the  most 
interesting  attempts  that  have  been  made  to 
reconcile  the  docmas  of  Christianity  with  the 
principles  of  philosophy.  The  system  of  Secr4- 
tan,  evolved  from  that  of  Descartes,  is  best  set 
forth  in  his  principal  book.  La  Philosophic  de 
la  liberty  (2  vols.,  1848-49).  Other  works  are 
La  philosophie  de  Leibnitz  (1840),  La  taison  et 
le  christiatiisme  (1863),  and  La  civilisation  et 
la  croyance  (1887.) 

SECBETABY.  In  the  Federal  Government 
of  the  United  States,  the  head  of  an  executive 
department  and  a  member  of  the  President's 
Cabinet.  See  the  articles  on  the  various  depart- 
ments, as  State,  Department  of,  etc. 

SEGBETABY  BIBD,  or  Sebpent-Eaole.  A 
remarkable  raptorial  bird  {Serpentarius  secre- 
tarius)  of  South  Africa,  the  sole  representative 
of  a  separate  family  (Serpentariidse),  classified 
between  the  turkey-buzzards  and  the  true  vul- 
tures. It  is  about  four  feet  long,  and  has  very 
long,  unfeathered  legs;  the  plumage  is  bluish 
gray,  and  there  is  an  erectile  crest  of  single 
feathers,  suggesting  quill  pens  carried  above  the 
ears.  It  feeds  on  reptiles  of  all  kinds,  which  it 
devours  in  great  numbers,  and  is  so  highly  valued, 
on  account  of  the  constant  war  which  it  wages 
against  serpents,  that  a  fine  is  inflicted  in  Cape 
CJolony  for  shooting  it.  It  fearlessly  attacks  the 
most  venomous  serpents,  stunning  them  with 
blows  of  its  knobbed  wings  or  feet,  or  seizing  and 
carrying  them  into  the  air  so  high  that  they 
are  killed  when  let  fall.  Small  serpents  are 
swallowed  entire;  the  larger  ones  are  torn  to 
pieces.  The  secretary  is  most  frequently  seen  in 
pairs,  or  solitary.  It  is  tamed  as  a  protector  of 
poultiy-yards,  but  if  not  sufficiently  fed  is  apt 
to  help  itself  to  a  chicken  or  duckling.  It  con- 
structs a  huge  nest  in  trees,  and  occupies  it  year 
after  year.  Consult  Evans,  Birds  (London,  1900)  ; 
Newton,  Dictionary  of  Birds  (London,  1893-96). 


SEGBETABY  OF  STATE.  An  ancient  office 
of  importance  in  the  Government  of  the  United 
Kingdom.  The  first  authentic  record  of  its  ex- 
istence is  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  when  John 
Maunsell  is  described  as  "secretarius  noster." 
Two  secretaries  were  first  appointed  toward  the 
close  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  At  the  union 
of  1707  Anne  added  a  third  secretary  of  State 
for  Scotland,  but  this  office  was  soon  abolished. 
In  the  reign  of  George  III.  there  were  at  first 
two  secretaries;  and  for  a  time,  until  1782,  a 
third  for  America.  The  two  secretaries  directed 
home  affairs;  to  one  the  foreign  affairs  of  the 
northern  department  were  committed;  to  the 
other  those  of  the  southern  department.  Irish 
affairs  belonged  to  the  province  of  the  elder  sec- 
retary. There  are  now  in  the  United  Kingdom 
•  five  principal  secretaries  of  State,  who  are  re- 
spectively appointed  for  home  affairs,  foreign 
affairs,  war,  the  colonies,  and  India.  They  are 
always  members  of  the  Privy  Council  and  of  the 
Cabinet.  For  the  American  Secretary  of  State, 
sec  State,  Depabtment  of. 

SECBET  ASSOCIATIONS.  Societies  which 
admit  members  by  an  initiation  and  subscription 
to  an  oath,  and  often  possess  an  elaborate  ritual 
leading  to  higher  decrees,  with  the  use  of  symbols, 
pass-words,  and  grips  as  a  means  of  recognition 
among  members. 

Many  secret  societies  are  found  on  the  west 
coast  of  Africa.  Among  the  Polynesians  societies 
which  unite  large  numbers  of  freemen  in  a  free- 
masonry of  common  interest  virtually  control  the 
economic  and  the  political  life.  (See  Duk-Duk.) 
The  associations  of  priests  that  conducted  the 
mysteries  of  the  ancient  religions  are  counted  as 
the  forerunners  of  later  societies.  The  secrecy 
was  due  to  one  or  both  of  two  causes:  (1)  The 
tendency  to  hide  all  knowledge  of  life  in  mystical 
forms,  away  from  the  contamination  of  the  vul- 
gar, and  to  keep  the  multitude  under  the  sway  of 
superstition;  or  (2)  the  danger  of  maintaining 
such  advanced  ideas  in  the  face  of  ignorance  and 
prejudice.  The  political  element  entered  at  a 
very  early  date.  The  Pythagoreans  combined  phi- 
losophy and  politics.  The  East  was  a  fertile  ter- 
ritory for  secret  societies.  The  Ismaili  and  after- 
wards the  Assassins  (q.v.)  were  organized  in 
behalf  of  the  claims  of  Ali*s  successor  to  the 
throne  of  the  caliphate.  It  is  customary 
among  many  Protestants  to  consider  the 
Jesuits  as  a  secret  society  in  spite  of  their  re- 
lation to  the  Church,  but  the  notion  is  based 
upon  a  misapprehension.  Secrecy  and  strange 
ceremonials  often  accompanied  gatherings  of  the 
Middle  Ages  that  first  speculated  on  religion  and 
science.  The  Secret  Tribunals  of  Westphalia 
(the  Vemgerichte)  and  the  Beati  Paoli  of  Sicily 
were  constituted  to  administer  justice  in  an  age 
of  anarchy.  On  the  other  hand,  there  were  cer- 
tain criminal  associations  of  brigands  who  levied 
tribute  upon  the  people,  best  known  of  which  is 
the  Mafia  (q.v.).  With  the  awakening  of  mod- 
em thought  secret  societies  were  formed  with 
speculative  tendencies.  The  Rosicrucians  (q.v.) 
mingled  mysticism  and  occultism.  The  Illuminati 
sought  social  amelioration  and  were  a  source  of 
republican  propagandism.  In  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury secret  political  societies  have  taken  part  in 
nearly  every  revolution.  (See  Carbonari;  He- 
t.*:ria  Philike ;  Fenian  Society;  Nihilism.) 
China  is  honeycombed  with  secret  societies,  many 


8ECBET  A880CIATI0V8. 


626 


8ECBET  SEBVICE. 


of  which  have  existed  from  very  ancient  times. 
(For  the  r6le  played  by  the  Boxers  in  the  up- 
rising of  1900,  see  Chinese  Empibb.)  Many  so- 
cieties are  ostensibly  philanthropic,  and  some  are 
purely  benevolent,  providing  for  marriage,  burial, 
and  business  loans.  In  the  United  States  there 
are  manv  secret  societies,  in  which,  however,  the 
fraternal  element  largely  predominates.  See  So- 
cieties. 

Consult:  Heckthome,  Secret  Societiee  of  All 
Ages  (London,  1890),  which  contains  a  bibliog- 
raphy. 

SEGBBTION  (Lat.  secretio,  separation,  from 
secretus,  secret,  separate).  A  physiological  proc- 
ess by  which  certain  materials  are  separated  from 
the  blood  to  form  new  substances  called  secre- 
tions, through  the  agency  of  certain  highly  spe- 
cialised cells.  These  materials  are  of  two  kinds: 
true  secretions^  which  have  some  definite  function 
to  perform  in  the  animal  economy,  and  excre- 
iionSf  which  are  discharged  from  the  body  as  use- 
less or  injurious.  Secretions  are  further  distin- 
guished by  the  fact  that  they  do  not  exist  already 
formed  in  the  blood,  but  require  for  their  produc- 
tion special  cells  and  a  process  of  elaboration; 
while  excretions  are  merely  abstracted  from  the 
blood  in  the  same  form  in  which  they  already  oc- 
cur in  that  fluid.  Both  secretion  and  excre- 
tion contribute  to  health  and  nutrition,  the  one  by 
performing  some  positive  function,  as  aidins  di- 
gestion, the  other  negatively  by  freeing  the  body 
of  the  products  of  destructive  metabolism,  which 
if  retained  would  cause  disease. 

Secretion  is  performed  by  the  following  or- 
gans: The  serous  and  synovial  membranes;  the 
mucous  membranes,  with  their  special  glands, 
buccal,  gastric,  and  intestinal;  the  salivary 
glands  and  pancreas;  the  mammary  glands;  the 
liver;  the  lachrymal  glands;  the  kidneys  and 
skin;  and  the  testes.  Secretion  takes  place  by 
two  different  processes,  tha  one  physical  and  the 
other  chemical.  The  physical  processes  are  those 
of  filtration  and  dialysis;  the  chemical  process 
is  one  of  true  secretion.  Both  processes  are  em- 
ployed in  the  secretion  of  the  urine;  the  former 
within  the  Malpightan  bodies  and  the  latter  in  the 
tuhuli  uriniferi.  (See  Kidneys.)  The  simplest 
form  of  secretion  is  that  of  the  serous  and 
synovial  membranes,  the  pleure,  the  pericar- 
dium, peritoneum,  and  the  lining  of  the  joints. 
These  are  lubricated  by  a  fluid  transuded  di- 
rectly through  the  flat  endothelial  cells  lining 
these  membranes  from  the  blood  vessels  beneath 
them.  A  somewhat  more  elaborate  process  is  that 
of  the  mucous  membranes  lining  toe  respiratory 
and  gastro- intestinal  tracts.  Thousands  of  cy- 
lindrical recesses,  known  as  tubules,  paved  with 
secreting  cells,  empty  their  peculiar  secretions 
upon  every  square  inch  of  these  surfaces.  An 
isolated  group  of  such  tubules  emptying  by  a 
single  duct  is  called  a  simple  gland;  .several  of 
such  groups  having  a  common  single  duct  con- 
stitute a  compound  gland ;  and  the  larger  glands 
are  simply  multiplications  of  these  groups,  and 
serve  to  increase  the  amount  of  secreting  surface 
within  a  given  space.  For  a  description  of  the 
manner  in  which  cells  are  arranged  in  the  vari- 
ous glandular  structures,  see  Glands;  Kidney; 
LrvEB;  Mucous  Membranes;  etc.  The  charac- 
ters of  the  various  secretions,  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  saliva,  gastric  juice,  pancreatic 
juice,  bile,  ordinary  mucus,  sweat,  tears,  urine, 


the  products  of  the  serous  and  synovial  mem- 
branes and  the  sebaceous  glands,  are  described 
under  their  own  names  or  those  of  the  organs 
which  produce  them. 

SEGBBTION.  The  process  in  plants  bjr 
which  a  substance  is  fomied  and  expelled  from  a 
cell,  or  the  substance  which  is  so  formed.  The 
term  is  usually  restricted  to  the  formation  of 
the  many  and  diverse  special  materials,  such  as 
enzymes,  resins,  volatile  oils,  and  sugars,  which 
are  of  service  to  the  plant.  Secretions  are  either 
poured  out  upon  the  surface  or  into  internal  re- 
ceptacles.  See  Gland. 

The  formation  of  the  secretion  may  be  either 
direct  or  through  the  production  of  an  interme- 
diate substance.  The  details  of  the  elaboration, 
however,  are  still  obscure.  For  example,  sugar 
is  supposed  to  be  formed  directly,  whereas 
enzymes  are  usually  preceded  by  the  production 
of  minute  granules  of  zymogen  in  the  proto- 
plasm. This  distinction  may  mean  only  that  in 
some  cases  visible  products  precede  the  final  one, 
while  in  others  tney  do  not.  There  are  two 
modes  of  separation  of  the  secretion  from  the 
protoplasm.  In  the  first  the  cell  wall  remains  in- 
tact and  the  secretion  is  either  expelled  through 
the  permeable  parts  of  the  wall,  and  appears  first 
in  its  proper  nature  beneath  the  impermeable 
cuticle,  which  it  lifts  into  a  blister,  or  through 
these  permeable  parts  into  an  intercellular  recep- 
tacle. No  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  process 
has  been  found.  Such  glands  may  secrete  once 
only,  or  repeatedly,  or  continuously.  In  the  second 
method  the  secretion  results  from  the  disorgan- 
ization of  the  protoplasm  which  it  eventually  re- 
places. In  multicellular  glands  the  cell  walls 
disappear  and  after  one  secretion  the  glands 
perish.  Jf  the  secretion  be  soluble  in  water,  e.g. 
sugar,  as  in  many  nectaries,  and  by  exposure  to 
the  air  the  solution  becomes  concentrated,  its 
osmotic  pressure  (see  Osmosis)  may  be  so  in- 
creased that  it  withdraws  water  from  the  cell. 
Nectar  is  thus  kept  fiuid  and  ready  for  the  in- 
sects which  it  attracts. 

SBCBBT  SBBVICB  The  name  given  to  that 
department  of  a  government  whose  business  it  is 
to  detect  crime  and  fraud,  obtain  information  of 
various  kinds,  and  render  various  services  of  a 
secret  nature.  Its  duties  are  generally  not  de- 
fined, and  vary  with  the  necessities  of  the  occa- 
sion which  may  create  them.  In  the  United 
States  the  service  is  not  centralized  as  it  is  under 
most  foreign  governments,  and  each  executive  de- 
partment employs  men  to  detect  specific  classes 
of  offenders  against  the  laws.  The  name  has 
come  to  be  generally  applied  to  the  Secret  Service 
Division  of  the  Treasury  Department,  organized 
in  1864  and  charged  chiefly  with  the  detection 
and  arrest  of  counterfeiters,  the  whole  oountiy 
bein^  divided  into  27  secret  service  districts.  Op- 
eratives from  the  division,  however,  are  fre- 
ouently  detailed  to  work  in  connection  with  other 
departments  than  the  Treasury  Department. 
Thus  during  the  Spanish-American  War  secret 
service  operatives  rendered  effective  services  in 
breaking  up  the  Spanish  secret  service  organiza- 
tion in  the  United  States.  The  Treasury  De- 
partment also  employs  men  to  detect  infractions 
of  revenue  laws  and  bring  offenders  to  justice. 
The  War  Department  employs  men  to  obtain  in- 
formation of  various  kinds,  and  within  the  Post 
Office  Department  there  is  an  efficient  diviaion  of 


SEGBET  SEBVIGE. 


627 


SECT7BIT7. 


Post  Office  Inspectors  and  Mail  Depredations,  or- 
ganized in  1872. 

SECTION  (Lat.  aectio,  from  aecare,  to  cut). 
In  architecture,  the  delineation  of  buildings  on 
a  vertical  plane  through  any  part  of  them — ^as  a 
plan  is  the  horizontal  projection. 

SEGTOB  (Lat.  aectoTy  cutter,  from  secare,  to 
cut).  An  instrument  used  in  mathematical 
drawing  and  calculations,  which  consists  of  two 
strips  of  wood,  ivory,  or  metal  jointed  together 
like  a  carpenter's  foot  rule.  The  centre  of  the 
joint  must  always  be  the  vertex  of  the  angle 
whose  sides  are  formed  by  the  inner  edges  and 
any  of  the  corresponding  pairs  of  lines  drawn 
from  the  joint  obliquely  along  the  rule.  These 
oblique  lines  are  graduated  in  different  ways,  so 
as  to  give,  on  each  limb,  a  line  of  equal  parts,  a 
scale  of  chords,  scales  of  sines,  tangents,  and 
secants,  a  line  of  polygons,  etc.  (all  of  which  are 
graduated  from  the  centre  of  the  hinge,  which  is 
their  zero  point),  besides  a  number  of  common 
scales  on  the  blank  portions  of  the  sector.  The 
special  use  of  this  instrument  is  in  the  finding  of 
a  fourth  proportional  to  three  given  quantities. 
This  instrument  becomes  more  inaccurate  as  the 
angle  formed  by  the  limbs  increases.  The  sector 
is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Guido  Ubaldi 
about  1568,  though  Gasper  Mordente  of  Antwerp 
describes  it  in  1584,  and  attributes  its  invention 
to  his  brother  Fabricus  in  1654.  It  was  described 
by  several  German  and  English  \iTiter3  in  the 
same  century,  and  again  by  Galileo,  who  claimed 
to  have  invented  it  in  1604. 

SEGTOB.  In  geometry,  a  portion  of  a  circle 
(q.v.)  included  between  two  radii  and  the  in- 
tercepted arc  of  the  circumference.  Its  area  is 
expressed  by  one-half  of  the  product  of  the  length 
of  the  arc  and  the  radius  of  the  circle. 

SEGTTIiAB  aAMES  (Lat.  ludi  aaiculares). 
Roman  games  deriving  their  name  from  the 
theory  that  their  performance  marked  the  close 
of  a  acBculum,  or  period  of  extreme  duration  of 
human  life.  This  was  reckoned  as  100  years,  or, 
after  the  time  of  Augustus,  110.  These  celebra- 
tions were  usually  instituted  as  purifications  or 
to  check  some  evil,  the  belief  being  that  with  the 
declaration  of  a  new  age  a  limit  was  set  which 
the  evil  could  not  pass.  The  earliest  celebration 
of  which  we  hear  occurred  during  the  great 
plague  of  B.C.  463,  and  at  this  time  the  ceremony 
consisted  in  driving  a  nail  in  the  wall  of  the 
Temple  of  Jupiter  on  the  Capitol,  apparently  to 
symbolize  the  securing  and '  destruction  of  the 
plague.  This  was  repeated  in  the  years  363  and 
263.  Soon  after  this  the  distress  of  the  First 
Punic  War  led  to  the  consultation  of  the  Sibylline 
Books,  and  in  B.C.  249  a  new  sceculum  began  with 
the  performance  of  ludi  Tarentini  at  a  spot  in 
the  Campus  Martins  called  Tarentum.  The  cele- 
bration occupied  three  nights  and  on  each  a  black 
bull  and  a  black  cow  were  offered  at  a  subterranean 
altar,  uncovered  for  the  occasion,  to  Dis  Pater  and 
Proserpina,  the  Greek  gods  of  the  Lower  World, 
whose  worship  was  thus  introduced  to  Rome.  It 
obviously  is  essentially  a  funeral  ceremony  for  the 
age  that  is  past.  The  rite  was  repeated  in  B.C. 
146,  but  the  civil  wars  seem  to  have  prevented 
the  next  repetition,  and  in  b.c.  17  Augustus  cele- 
brated new  and  splendid  ludi  steculares,  which 
marked  the  opening  of  a  new  era,  and  which  are 
knowD  to  us  from  the  official  record  discovered  in 
1891.    Thg  0I4  ffppturnal  offerings  were  continued 


at  the  old  altar,  but  the  deities  honored  were  now 
the  Fates,  Eileithyia,  helper  in  childbirth,  and 
the  Earth.  Three  days  were  also  ^ven  up  to 
splendid  processions  and  offerings  m  honor  of 
Jupiter  Optimus  Maximus,  Juno  Regina,  and 
Apollo  and  Artemis  of  the  Palatine.  On  the  third 
day  the  procession  moved  from  the  Palatine  to 
the  Capitol  and  back,  led  by  a  chorus  of  27 
youths  and  as  many  maidens,  who  sang  the 
Carmen  Vasculare  of  Horace.  These  games  were 
repeated  in  a.d.  88  by  Domitian,  and  in  a.d.  204 
by  Septimius  Severus.  Another  series  in  celebra- 
tion of  the  foundation  of  the  city  was  begun  a.d. 
47  (800  A.U.C.),  and  repeated  in  147  and  248. 
Consult:  Wissowa,  "Religion  und  Kultus  der 
R5mer,"  in  Miiller's  Eandhuch  der  klaaaischen 
Altertum8U)is8en8chaft  (Munich,  1902)  ;  and  Die 
Bncularfeier  des  Auguatua  (Marburg,  1894). 

SECtTLABISM  (from  aecular,  from  Lat.  seen- 
lariay  acBCularia,  relating  to  an  age  or  period, 
worldly,  from  aeculum,  sceculum,  age,  period, 
world).  The  terra  applied  to  a  system  of  ethical 
and  social  principles  first  advocated  about  1846 
by  G.  J.  Holyoake.  As  it  names  implies,  it  con- 
centrates its  attention  upon  the  present  life, 
neither  denying  nor  affirming  the  existence  of 
another.  It  inculcates  an  ethics  not  dependent 
in  any  way  on  religion,  although  it  does  not 
formally  deny  the  truth  of  any  religion.  It  is, 
in  fact,  utilitarianism  cut  loose  from  all  connec- 
tion with  theology.  A  society  was  formed  in 
London,  of  which  Holyoake  was  president,  but 
in  1858  Charles  Bradlaugh  (q.v.)  succeeded  him 
and  imder  his  administration  the  society  carried 
on  a  political  propaganda,  advocating  disestab- 
lishment and  disendowment  of  the  Church  of 
England,  abolition  of  the  House  of  Lords,  and 
many  economic  changes,  (llonsult  Holyoake, 
Principlea  of  Secularism  (London,  1866). 

SECTTLAB  VABIATION.  See  Magnetism, 
Tebbestkial. 

SECUNDEBABAB,  8«-ktkn'der-&-bad^  A 
suburb  and  military  cantonment  of  Hyderabad 
(q.v.),  Nizam's  Dominions,  India. 

SECTJNOJUS,  Joannes  (1511-36).  A  Dutch 
poet,  Jan  Nicolai  Everaerts  by  name.  He  was 
born  at  The  Hague  and  was  educated  for  the 
law  in  Bourges,  but  devoted  himself  to  poetry, 
painting,  and  sculpture.  In  1633  he  went  to 
Toledo  as  secretary  to  the  Cardinal  Archbishop 
Tavera.  After  his  death  was  published  Baaia,  a 
collection  of  Latin  love  poems  distinguished  by 
their  classic  beauty.  His  elegies,  odes,  epistles, 
and  epigrams  were  collected  in  1641  under  the 
title  of  Opera  Poetica. 

SEGITBITY  (Lat.  aecuritaa,  freedom  from 
care,  from  aecurua^  free  from  care,  from  «e-, 
apart  -}-  cura,  care,  anxiety).  Instruments  or 
property  which,  in  contemplation  of  law,  render 
the  enjoyment  or  enforcement  of  a  right  more 
secure.  A  personal  aecurity  is  a  promise  or  ob- 
ligation, such  as  a  negotiable  instrument  or  a 
bond  given  by  a  debtor  or  by  a  third  person,  in 
addition  to  the  original  liability  intended  to  be 
secured.  Even  when  a  debtor  gives  his  own 
promissory  note  or  check  or  bill  of  exchange 
for  the  debt,  this  new  engagement  is  properly 
spoken  of  as  a  security,  because  his  liability 
thereon  is  more  easily  proved  than  on  the 
original  debt.  A  security  on  property  exists 
when  the  property  is  mortgaged  or  pledged  to 


SEOTTBITY. 


628 


SEDAN. 


secure  a  debt  or  liability,  or  when  by  a  rule  of 
law  the  creditor  is  entitled  to  hold  tne  property 
until  a  particular  liability  to  him  is  discharged. 

Securities  are  ordinarily  specific;  but  at  times 
they  are  shifting  or  floating.  An  example  of 
the  latter  class  is  afforded  by  a  chattel  mortgage 
on  property  thereafter  to  be  acquired  by  the 
mortgagor,  or  by  corporation  debentures  which 
are  made  a  charge  on  the  stock  in  trade  and 
book  debts  of  the  corporation.  As  soon  as  the 
mortgagee  or  debenture  holder  takes  possession 
of  the  property  or  institutes  proper  proceedings 
for  the  enforcement  of  his  rights  the  security  be- 
comes specific.  Securities  may  originate  either 
in  the  agreement  of  parties,  which  is  the  more 
common  case,  or  in  a  rule  of  law.  The  seller's 
lien  is  of  the  latter  class.  This  has  its  origin  in 
the  law  merchant  (q.v.),  which  accords  to  the 
unpaid  seller  of  goods  the  right,  in  certain  cases, 
eyen  after  title  has  passed  to  the  buyer,  to  retain 
possession  until  the  price  is  paid. 

Under  State  laws  exempting  'public  securities' 
from  taxation  it  has  been  held  that  this  term 
does  not  include  the  bonds  of  railroads  and  simi- 
lar corporations,  but  is  limited  to  securities  is- 
sued under  legislatiye  sanction  for  the  further- 
ance of  public  works. 

Securities  in  judicial  proceedings  are  of  yarious 
kinds,  but  their  purposes  and  form  are  generally 
regulated  by  statutes  which  should  be  examined 
in  each  jurisdiction.  Consult:  Jones,  A  Treatise 
on  the  Law  of  Corporate  Bonds  and  Mortgages 
(Bonton,  1890)  ;  Poor,  Handbook  of  Investment 
Securities  (New  York,  1892)  ;  Hainer,  The  Mod- 
em Law  of  Municipal  Securities  (Indianapolis, 
1898)  ;  Butterworth,  Bankers*  Advances  on  Mer- 
cantile Securities  (London,  1902). 

SECTJBITY  OF  PEBSON.  One  of  the  funda- 
mental  rights  of  persons  recognized  and  enforced 
by  the  common  law  and  now  guaranteed  by  the 
United  States  Constitution  and  by  the  constitu- 
tions of  most  of  the  States.  It  comprises  those 
personal  rights  and  priyileges  and  immunities 
which  go  to  make  up  the  Bill  of  Rights  under  the 
English  Constitution  and  which  became  funda- 
mental in  the  American  colonies.  Many  of  these 
are  traceable  to  Magna  Charta,  and  they  were 
confirmed  and  their  number  added  to  by  the  Peti- 
tion of  Right  (Charles  I.),  and  by  the  Bill  of 
Rights  of  the  Reyolution  of  1688. 

The  following  is  an  enumeration  of  the  more 
important  rights  of  personal  security:  That  no 
one  shall  be  required  to  answer  for  an  infamous 
crime  unless  he  shall  haye  been  charged  with  the 
commission  of  the  crime  by  a  presentment  or  in- 
dictment of  the  grand  jury ;  that  no  person  shall 
be  liable  for  the  same  o£fense  to  be  twice  placed 
in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb;  that  one  charged 
with  the  commission  of  a  crime  shall  not  be 
compelled  to  be  a  witness  against  himself;  that 
he  snail  be  entitled  to  trial  by  jury  and  at  the 
trial  that  he  shall  be  confronted  with  the  witness 
against  him;  that  he  shall  be  entitled  to  haye 
compulsory  process  to  compel  the  attendance  at 
the  trial  and  the  testimony  of  witnesses  in  his 
fayor;  that  excessiye  bail  shall  not  be  required  of 
him,  and  that  cruel  and  unusual  punishments 
shall  not  be  imposed;  that  no  bill  of  attainder 
or  ew  post'facto  law  shall  be  passed ;  and  that  no 
person  shall  be  depriyed  of  life,  liberty,  or  prop- 
erty without  due  process  of  law. 

For  a  fuller  discussion  of  the  subject,  see 
Constitutional     Law;      Privilege;     Magna 


Chabta;  Petition  of  Right;  Bell  of  Rights; 
Jeopabot;  Bail;  Attainder;  etc. 

SEDAIKEy  W'dknf,  Michel  Jean  (1719-97). 
A  French  dramatist,  born  in  Paris,  the  son  of  an 
architect.  Sedaine  was  early -orphaned.  He  be- 
came a  mason  and  builder,  and  in  1753  published 
poems  of  merit.  Then  he  turned  to  the  stage, 
attracted  the  notice  of  Diderot,  and  won  genend 
applause  by  the  now  classic  Le  philosopKe 
sans  le  savoir  (1765),  and  La  gageure  imprSime 
(1768),  natural  and  original  bourgeois  comedies 
which  alone  suryiye  of  his  work.  He  became  an 
Academician,  and  secretary  for  architecture  in 
the  diyision  of  fine  arts,  and  died  in  Paris,  pros- 
perous, popular,  and  respected.  His  (Euwes 
choisies  were  published  in  three  yolumes  in  1813. 

SEDALIA,  s«-dani-&.  The  county-seat  of 
Pettis  County,  Mo.,  188  miles  west  of  Saiat 
Louis,  on  the  Missouri  Pacific,  the  Missouri, 
Kansas  and  Texas,  and  the  Sedalia,  Warsaw  and 
Southwestern  railroads  (Map:  Missouri,  C  3). 
It  has  an  eleyated  site  in  a  rolling  prairie  re- 
gion, and  is  regularly  laid  out  with  beautifully 
shaded  streets.  Leading  features  are  the  George 
R.  Smith  College  (colored),  the  Convent  School 
of  the  Sisters  of  Saint  Joseph,  the  Cam^ie  Pub- 
lic Library,  the  hospital  of  the  Missouri,  Kansas 
and  Texas  Railroad,  and  Liberty  and  Forest 
parks.  The  State  fair  is  held  in  Sedalia.  The 
city  has  important  railroading  and  manufactur- 
ing interests.  Shops  of  the  Missouri  Pacific  and 
the  Missouri,  Kansas  and  Texas  railroads  are 
here;  and  there  are  also  iron  works,  foundries, 
beef  and  pork  packing  establishments,  breweries, 
fiour  and  woolen  mills,  and  manufactories  of 
shoes,  carriages,  oyeralls,  and  hosiery.  The  goy- 
emment,  under  the  revised  charter  of  1893,  is 
yested  in  a  mayor,  elected  biennially,  and  a  uni- 
cameral eouncil.  Founded  by  Gen.  G.  R  Smith 
in  1861,  Sedalia  was  used  as  a  United  States 
military  station  during  the  Ciyil  War.  It  was 
captured  and  held  for  several  days  by  a  Confed- 
erate force  in  1864.  Sedalia  was  incorporated  in 
1864  and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1889.  Popu- 
lation, in  1890,  14,068;  in  1900,  15,231. 

SEDAN^  se-d^N^  The  capital  of  an  airon- 
dissement  in  the  Department  of  Ardennes, 
France,  164  miles  northeast  of  Paris,  on  the 
Meuse  River  (Map:  France,  M  2).  It  was  for- 
merly an  important  fortified  town,  and  the  scene, 
in  1870,  of  the  disastrous  defeat  and  capitulation 
of  the  French  army  of  MacMahon.  (See  Sedan, 
Battle  of.)  The  fortifications  have  been  de- 
molished and  Sedan  at  present  is  mainly  a  resi- 
dential and  industrial  town.  The  chief  buildings 
are  the  parish  church,  the  college,  and  the  mu- 
seum, and  there  are  interesting  remains  of  the 
fifteenth-century  castle.  The  town  is  noted  for 
its  manufactures  of  cloth,  introduced  by  Colbert 
in  1646,  and  there  are  also  considerable  coal  and 
iron  mining  interests  in  the  vicinity.  Sedan 
chairs  are  said  to  have  been  first  made  here. 
Population,  in  1901,  19,349. 

SEDAN,  Battle  of.  In  the  latter  part  of 
August,  1870,  Marshal  MacMahon  set  out  from 
Chalons  for  the  purpose  of  effecting  the  relief  of 
Metz,  where  Bazaine  (q.v.)  had  been  locked  up 
by  the  German  forces,  after  the  series  of  engage- 
ments terminating  with  the  battle  of  Gravelotte 
(q.v.).  The  third  and  fourth  German  armies,  by 
forced  marches,  succeeded  in  barring  to  MacMa- 


SEDAN. 


629^ 


SEDGWICK 


hon  the  way  to  Met2,  and  pressed  the  French 
northward  toward  the  Belgian  frontier,  which  it 
was  a  part  of  the  German  plan  to  compel  them 
to  cross.  MacMahon,  however,  after  several  days' 
fighting  chose  the  alternative  of  throwing  himself 
into  the  fortress  of  Sedan,  and  occupied  the 
heights  which  surrounded  the  fortress  on  the 
easty  north,  and  west.  The  Germans  now  pro- 
ceeded to  encircle  the  French  forces,  whom  they 
outnumbered  two  to  one.  The  battle  began  early 
on  the  morning  of  the  first  of  September.  While 
the  Wttrttemberg  troops  were  assigned  to  hold 
the  line  of  French  retreat  to  M6:g^res,  the  Bava- 
rians, Prussians,  and  Saxons,  with  the  Guard, 
delivered  an  attack  along  the  entire  French  line. 
MacMahon  was  wounded  in  the  first  hours  of 
fighting,  and  to  the  conflict  of  authority  between 
Generals  Ducrot  and  Wimpffen  was  due  no  little 
of  the  confusion  which  followed.  The  most  des- 
perate fighting  occurred  at  the  village  of  Baze- 
illes,  to  the  east  of  Sedan.  In  the  late  afternoon 
the  French  had  been  driven  from  their  positions, 
and  the  Germans  had  planted  on  the  heights 
around  Sedan  a  circle  of  500  cannon,  under  whose 
fire  the  enemy  was  helpless.  The  French  were 
driven  back  on  Sedan,  and  at  four  o'clock  the 
bombardment  of  the  town  began.  The  futility  of 
resistance  was  apparent,  and  by  order  of  the  Em- 
peror Napoleon  III.,  who  was  present  in  Sedan, 
a  flag  of  truce  was  raised.  On  September  2d  Gen- 
eral Wimpffen  arranged  with  Bismarck  and 
Moltke  the  terms  of  capitulation.  Nearly  2,900 
officers  and  83,000  men  laid  down  their  arms  and 
were  made  prisoners,  with  the  Emperor.  The 
French  loss  in  battle  was  17,000  dead  and 
wounded  and  21,000  prisoners.  Three  thousand 
men  succeeded  in  escaping  into  Belgium.  The 
German  loss  comprised  470  officers  and  8500 
men  killed  and  wounded.  In  Paris  the  news  of  the 
capitulation  of  Sedan  led  to  the  overthrow  of  the 
Second  Empire. 

SEDATIVES  (OF.  sedatif,  Fr.  sSdatif,  from 
Lat.  aedare,  to  calm,  causative  of  sedere,  to  sit) . 
Agents  which  exert  a  quieting  influence  upon 
the  system  or  any  part  of  it  either  by  diminish- 
ing pain  or  excitability  or  by  lessening  functional 
activity.  Sedatives  may  have  a  general  or  local 
action.  General  sedatives  include  chloroform, 
ether,  and  the  hypnotics  (q.v.),  such  as  chloral. 
Local  sedatives  are  cold,  heat,  cocaine,  opium, 
aconite,  etc.  Typical  respiratory  sedatives  are 
dilute  hydrocyanic  acid,  squills,  ipecac,  and  vera- 
trine.  Digitalis,  aconite,  and  tobacco  are  circula- 
tory sedatives.  Among  the  drugs  which  have  a 
soothing  effect  upon  the  nerves  and  spinal  centres 
are  potassium  and  sodium  bromides,  gelsemium, 
and  physosiigmine.  Stomachic  sedatives  comprise 
sodium  bicarbonate,  bismuth,  and  nitrate  of  sil- 
ver. Certain  drugs  are  sedative  to  one  organ  or 
system  and  irritant  to  another,  or  they  may  be 
sedative  in  minute  doses  and  irritant  in  large; 
any  classification,  therefore,  is  apt  to  be  mis- 
leading. See  also  Nabcotics;  Hypnotics;  An- 
esthetics. 

SEIVDOKy  James  Alexander  (1815-80).  An 
American  jurist  and  politician,  bom  at  Fal- 
mouth, Stafford  County,  Va.  He  studied  law  at 
the  University  of  Virginia,  and  began  practice 
in  Richmond.  In  February,  1861,  he  was  a  dele- 
gate to  the  Peace  Convention  held  in  Washing- 
ton, and  presented  a  minority  report  recommend- 
ing the  adoption  of  amendments  to  the  Consti- 


tution suggested  by  J.  J.  Crittenden,  which 
tolerated  slavery  in  the  Territories,  and  specific- 
ally recognized  the  right  of  peaceable  secession. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  First  Confederate  Con- 
gress, and  on  November  21,  1862,  was  appointed 
Secretary  of  War  by  President  Davis.  On  the 
expression  by  the  Virginia  Congressmen  of  a 
want  of  confidence  in  the  Cabinet,  he  resigned  in 
February,  1865.  He  then  retired  to  his  planta- 
tion in  Goochland  County,  and  lived  quietly  imtil 
his  death. 

SEDGEOMCOOB.  A  barren  tract  of  land  in 
Somersetshire,  England,  between  King's  Weston 
and  Bridgewater,  5  miles  southeast  of  the  latter 
place.  It  is  noted  as  the  battlefield  where  tlie 
Duke  of  Monmouth  (q.v.)  was  defeated  by  the 
troops  of  James  II.,  commanded  by  the  Earl  of 
Faversham,  in  1685. 

SEDOLEY,  sej^I.  A  manufacturing  town  in 
Staffordshire,  England,  suburban  to  Wolver- 
hampton.   Population,  in  1901,  15,951. 

SEDGKWICK,  Adah  (1785-1873).  An  Eng- 
lish geologist,  bom  in  Yorkshire.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  in  1818 
became  Woodwardian  professor  of  geology  in 
that  imiversity.  In  studying  the  rock  formations 
of  North  Wales  he  developed  a  new  stratigraphi- 
cal  group  to  which  he  gave  the  name  Cambrian, 
and  which  is  still  recognized  in  geological  nomen- 
clature. With  Murchison  (q.v.)  he  established 
also  the  Devonian  system  and  showed  its  exten-> 
sive  development  in  Europe.  Besides  numerous 
papers  to  scientific  journals,  he  wrote:  Discourse 
of  the  Btudies  of  the  University,  of  Cambridge 
(1850)  ;  and  A  Synopsis  of  the  Classification  of 
the  Paleozoic  Rocks  (1855).  For  an  estimate 
of  Sedgwick's  scientific  work,  consult  Geikie, 
The  Founders  of  Geology  (London,  1897). 

8EDOWIGK,  Catherine  Maria  (1789-1867). 
An  American  author,  born  in  Stockbridge,  Mass., 
and  daughter  of  Judge  Theodore  Sedgwick.  She 
opened  a  school  for  young  ladies  (1813),  and 
continued  it  for  fifty  years.  In  1822,  with  the 
encouragement  of  her  brother,  Theodore  Sedg- 
wick, she  published  A  New  England  Tale,  which 
was  popular,  and  followed  it  in  1824  with 
Redwood,  Then  came  a  succession  of  novels,  in- 
cluding the  good  colonial  romance  Hope  Leslie 
(1827)  and  culminating  in  The  Limooods  (1835), 
her  last  and  best  novel.  The  series  of  novels  was 
succeeded  by  one  of  popular  stories,  illustrating 
morals  and  domestic  economy.  Her  later  work 
included  Letters  from  Abroad  to  Kindred  at 
Home  (1841),  the  result  of  a  European  trip, 
and  other  moral  books.  Although  now  little  read, 
she  was  an  important  force  in  early  American 
culture.  Consult  Life  and  Letters,  by  Mary  E. 
Dewey  (1871). 

SEDaWIGK,  Daniel  (1814-79);  An  English 
hymnologist.  He  was  bom  in  London,  and  was 
first  a  shoemaker,  then  a  second-hand  bookseller, 
and  came  to  have  many  customers  among  col- 
lectors of  theological  literature.  In  1859  he 
began  to  reprint  rare  hymns  in  his  Library  of 
Spiritual  Song,  and,  Cbntinuing  to  study  the 
subject,  he  became  a  recogniz^  authority  in 
hymnology.  His  knowledge  was  wide  and  mi- 
nute, but  he  was  hampered  in  making  use  of  it 
by  lack  of  education.  He  was  much  consulted 
by  compilers  of  hymn  books,  and  Julian's  Dic- 
tionary of  Hymnology  owes  much  to  his  manu- 
scripts. 


SEDGWICK. 


680 


SEDIiEY. 


SEDOWICK^  John  (1813-64).  An  American 
soldier,  bom  at  Cornwall,  Conn.  He  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1837^  saw  active  service  in 
the  second  Seminole  War,  served  with  distinction 
in  the  Mexican  War,  and  received  the  brevets  of 
captain  and  major.  On  August  25,  1861,  soon 
after  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  he  was  pro- 
moted from  lieutenant-colonel  to  colonel,  and  six 
days  later  received  the  command  of  a  brigade. 
He  served  with  great  efficiency,  as  a  division  com- 
mander, in  the  Peninsular  campaign,  and  at  An- 
tietam  was  twice  wounded,  but  remained  upon 
the  field,  in  order  to  inspire  his  troops,  for  two 
hours  after  receiving  the  second  wound.  In 
December,  1862,  he  was  appointed  a  major- 
general,  and  in  February,  1863,  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  Sixth  Army  Corps.  In  Hooker's 
Chancel lorsvi He  campaign  he  captured  Marye's 
Heights,  near  Fredericksburg,  and  after  Hooker's 
defeat  displayed  great  skill  in  withdrawing  across 
the  Rappahannock.  When  Lee  invaded  Pennsyl- 
vania, Sedgwick,  by  a  remarkable  forced  march, 
succeeded  in  getting  to  the  field  of  Gettysburg  in 
time  to  take  an  important  part  in  the  last  two 
days  of  the  battle.  In  the  following  November  he 
succeeded  by  a  skillful  manceuvre  in  capturing 
at  the  Rapidan  1500  men  of  General  Early's  di- 
vison,  with  several  cannon  and  battle  flags.  He 
took  part  under  General  Grant  in  the  battles  of 
the  Wilderness,  but  was  killed  on  May  0,  1864, 
while  superintending  the  planting  of  some  guns 
in  an  advanced  position  at  Spottsylvania.  A 
monument  made  from  the  metal  of  cannon  cap- 
tured by  his  corps  was  erected  in  his  honor  at 
West  Point  in  1868. 

SEDGWICE;  Robert  (c.1590-1656).  An 
American  colonist,  bom  in  Wobum,  Bedfordshire, 
England.  He  settled  at  Charlestown,  Mass.,  in 
1635,  where  he  became  a  successful  merchant, 
and  for  many  years  represented  that  town  in  the 
General  Court.  He  was  active  in  organizing  the 
Ancient  and  Honorable  Artillery  Company,  of 
which  he  became  captain  in  1640..  In  1652  he 
was  appointed  commander  of  all  the  Massachu- 
setts militia.  With  John  Winthrop,  Jr.,  and  other 
colonists  he  established  in  1643-44  the  first  iron 
works  in  the  United  States.  Under  authority 
from  Cromwell,  he  drove  the  French  from  the 
Penobscot  region  in  1654,  and  in  1655  accom- 
panied the  expedition  which  captured  Jamaica. 
Just  before  his  death  there  Cromwell  promoted 
him  major-general  and  gave  him  sole  command. 

SEDaWICK,  Theodore  (1747-1818).  An 
American  jurist,  bom  in  Hartford,  Conn.  He 
attended  Yale  College,  but  left  in  1765  without 
graduating.  In  the  following  year  he  was  ad-, 
mitted  to  the  bar,  and  practiced  in  Great  Bar-* 
rington  in  Massachusetts,  and  then  in  Sheffield. 
One  of  his  most  famous  cases  was  that  of 
Elizabeth  Freeman,  an  escaped  slave.  The  trial 
took  place  about  the  year  1781,  and  the  court 
gave  the  woman  her  freedom  on  the  ground  that 
slavery  was  incompatible  with  the  Massachusetts 
Bill  of  Rights.  In  1776-77  Sedgwick  served 
in  the  expedition  against  Canada  as  an  aide 
to  Gen.  John  Thomas;  was  later  several  times 
a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Legislature,  and 
in  1785-86  was  a  member  of  the  Continental 
Congress.  In  the  following  year  he  assisted 
in  putting  down  Shays's  Rebellion;  in  1788 
was  Speaker  of  the  Massachusetts  House,  and 
in  the  same  year  was  a  member  of  the  Convention 


that  ratified  the  Federal  •  Constitution.  From 
1789  until  1801  he  was  a  member  of  Congress, 
and  for  brief  periods  was  Speaker  of  the  House 
and  president  of  the  Senate.  From  1802  until  his 
death  he  was  judge  of  the  Massachusetts  Supreme 
Court. 

SEDGWICK,  Theodore  (1811-59).  An  Ameri- 
can law  vnriter,  bom  in  Albany,  N.  Y.  After 
graduating  at  Columbia  College  (1829)  he  was 
attached  to  the  United  States  legation  at  Paris 
in  1833-34.  In  1858  he  became  United  States 
District  Attorney.  His  writings  include  a  Treat- 
ise on  the  Measure  of  Damages  (1847;  8th  ed. 
1891),  a  work  of  much  importance,  and  his  edi- 
tion of  the  political  writings  of  William  Leggett 
(2  vols.,  1840). 

SEDaWICK,  WiLiJAM  TH01IP80K  (1865—). 
An  American  biologist,  bom  in  West  Hartford, 
Conn.,  and  educated  at  Sheffield  Scientific  School, 
Yale  (1877),  and  at  Johns  Hopkins  University, 
where  from  1880  to  1883  he  taught  biology. 
In  1883  he  became  professor  of  biology  in  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology.  Sedg- 
wick was  biologist  to  the  State  Board  of  Health 
of  Massachusetts  from  1888  to  1896.  He  col- 
laborated on  a  General  Biology  (1886)  and  pub- 
lished Principles  of  Sanitary  Science  (1902). 

SEDILLOT,  se-dft'yy,  Louis  Piebbe  EuGfeNE 
AMfiuE  (1808-75).  A  French  Orientalist,  bora 
in  Paris.  He  was  successively  professor  at  va- 
rious colleges,  and  in  1832  became  secretary  of 
the  College  de  France,  but  was  chiefly  occu- 
pied in  the  study  of  science  among  the  Orientals. 
His  numerous  monographs  include:  Lettres  sur 
quelques  points  de  Vastronomie  orientate  ( 1834) ; 
Manuel  de  chronologie  universelle  (1834;  2d  ed. 
1850)  ;  M^moires  sur  les  systimes  g^ographiques 
des  Orecs  et  des  Arahes  (1842) ;  MatSriauw  pour 
servir  d  Vhistoire  compar4e  des  sciences  mathi- 
matiques  chez  les  Orecs  et  les  Orientauw  (1845- 
49) ;  and  Histoire  des  Arahes  (1854). 

SEDIMEHTABY  BOCKS  (from  sediment, 
Lat.  sedimentum,  subsidence,  settling,  from 
sedere,  to  sit).  One  of  the  main  petrographic 
divisons,  comprising  all  those  rocks  that  are  of 
secondary  origin  and  have  accumulated  by  the 
action  of  water  or  of  the  wind.  See  Aqueous 
Rocks;  -Eolian  Accumulations. 

SEDITION  (Lat.  seditio,  from  se-,  sed-, 
apart  -f  ire,  to  go).  Conduct  against  the  State 
or  its  authority  tending  toward  treason,  but 
lacking  the  overt  act,  which  is  regarded  as  essen- 
tial part  of  the  greater  ofi'ense ;  the  writing,  pub- 
lishing, or  uttering  words  which  tend  to  excite 
subjects  or  citizens  to  insurrection  or  otherwise 
to  disturb  the  tranquillity  of  the  State,  but  which 
do  not  amount  to  treason.    See  Treason. 

SEDITION  LAW&  See  Alien  and  Sedition 
Acts. 

REDXEY,  Amelia.  A  gentle  sentimental 
girl  in  Thackeray's  Vanity  Fair,  She  married 
Captain  George  Osborne,  and  after  his  death  at 
Waterloo  Colonel  Dobbin. 

SEDLEY^  Sir  Chables  (1630-1701).  An 
English  dramatic  poet.  He  was  bom  at  Ayles- 
ford,  Kent,  and  was  the  posthumous  son  of  Sir 
John  Sedley,  from  whom  he  inherited  his  title. 
He  was  educated  at  Wadham  College,  Oxford, 
became  a  member  of  Parliament  after  the  Resto- 
ration, and  stood  high  in  the  favor  of  Charles 
II.    As  a  young  man  he  was  of  dissolute  habits. 


SEDLET. 


681 


SEE. 


and  twice  came  under  the  ban  of  the  law  for 
riotous  and  indecent  behavior.  He  supported 
the  Revolution  and  opposed  James  II.  on  account 
of  the  tatter's  intrigue  with  his  daughter,  whom 
the  King  had  made  Countess  of  Dorchester.  He 
was  esteemed  by  his  contemporaries  for  his  wit, 
satire,  and  dramatic  works,  the  chief  of  which 
are:  The  Mulberry  Garden,  a  comedy  (1668); 
Antony  and  Cleopatra,  a  tragedy  (1677) ;  Bella- 
mira,  or  The  Mistress,  a  comedy  (1687) ;  Beauty 
the  Conqueror,  or  The  Death  of  Mark  Antony,  a 
tragedy  (1702);  The  Grumbler,  a  comedy 
(1702)  ;  and  The  Tyrant  King  of  Crete,  a  trage- 
dy (1702).  Consult  the  Memoir,  prefixed  to  his 
Works  (London,  1778). 

SSBTJCnON  (Lat.  seductio,  a  leading  astray, 
from  seduoere,  to  lead  astray,  *from  se-,  apart  + 
ducere,  to  lead).  In  law,  in  its  broadest  sense, 
the  decoying  or  enticement  of  a  servant  away 
from  his  employment  to  his  master's  damage. 
By  modem  usage  the  term  is  generally,  although 
not  exclusively,  applied  to  the  persuasion  of  the 
servant  to  unlawful  sexual  intercourse  with  the 
seducer.  Seduction  by  the  common  law  was  one 
of  the  numerous  forms  of  tort  for  which  the 
person  injured  might  recover  damage.  The  use 
of  this  form  of  action  to  recover  for  the  loss  of 
service  of  a  servant,  however,  is  now  of  infre- 
quent occurrence.  The  action,  however,  is  now 
important  as  affording  a  parent  a  means  of 
recovery  of  damage  from  the  seducer  for  unlaw- 
ful intercourse  with  his  daughter.  For  all  prac- 
tical purposes  the  effect  of  his  action  is  to  enable 
him  to  recover  damage  for  the  wrong  done  him 
as  a  parent,  and  the  amount  of  his  recovery  is 
not  limited  to  the  actual  financial  loss.  Histor- 
ically and  in  legal  contemplation,  however,  the 
parent's  right  to  recover  is  based  upon  the  loss 
of  service  of  his  daughter  as  a  servant,  and  it 
seems  not  unlikely  that  originally  the  right  to 
recover  for  seduction  of  a  child  did  not  differ 
in  any  particular  from  the  right  to  recover  for 
the  enticement  of  a  servant.  To  entitle  the 
parent,  therefore,  to  recover  for  the  seduction  of 
his  daughter  it  was  necessary  for  him  to  estab- 
lish loss  of  the  daughter's  services  as  a  conse- 
quence of  the  seduction.  This  is  still  the  rule 
ih  England,  but  generally  in  the  United  States, 
by  a  relaxation  of  the  rule,  the  parent  may  main- 
tain the  action  if  he  has  a  legal  right  to  the 
daughter's  services  during  her  minority,  whether 
he  is  actually  availing  himself  of  them  or  not. 
This  fact  being  established,  however,  he  may  re- 
cover not  alone  for  loss  of  the  daughter's  services, 
but  for  the  injury  to  his  feelings  and  an  addi- 
tional amount  as  punitive  damages. 

In  establishitag  loss  of  service  or  invasion  of 
the  parent's  legal  right  to  the  daughter's  services 
slight  acts  of  service  or  a  bare  legal  right  to 
services  will  suffice.  And  whenever  loss  of  such 
service  or  interference  with  the  right  follow  as  a 
direct  result  of  the  seduction,  the  seducer  must 
respond  in  damages.  At  common  law  the  person 
seduced  had  no  right  of  action  against  the  se- 
ducer, as  the  seduction  was  accomplished  with 
the  consent  of  the  person  seduced,  and  this  was 
the  rule  even  when  the  seduction  was  accom- 
plished by  fraud.  In  some  States  by  statute  the 
person  seduced  may  maintain  an  action  in  her 
own  right,  although  usually  this  may  not  be  done 
unless  a  child  is  bom  as  a  consequence  of  the  se- 
duction, thus  making  the  action  analogous  to  a 
bastardy  proceeding.    Seduction  was  not  a  crime 


by  the  common  law.  Most  of  the  States  of  the 
United  States  now  have  statutes  making  seduc- 
tion of  a  woman  of  previous  chaste  character  a 
crime.  Generally  they  are  applicable  only  to  the 
seduction  of  unmarried  women  under  promise  of 
marriage,  and  subsequent  marriage  is  not  infre- 
quently made  a  bar  to  prosecution  for  this  of- 
fense. Consult  authorities  referred  to  under 
CsiMiNAi.  Law. 

SEDTTIiIUS,  Cjslius.  A  Christian  poet  of 
the  fifth  century.  He  wrote  Carmen  Paschale, 
an  extant  hexameter  poem,  in  five  books,  on  the 
history  of  the  Old  Testament;  Opus  Paschale, 
a  prose  version  of  the  work,  which  is  also  ex- 
tant; Abecedarius,  an  alphabetical  hymn  to 
Christ  in  23  quatrains  of  iambic  dimeters,  re- 
markable for  the  partial  employment  of  rhyme 
as  a  musical  element ;  and  Veteris  et  Novi  Testa- 
menti  Collatio,  a  comparison  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments  in  55  couplets  of  elegiacs.  The  best 
editions  are  by  Arevalus  (1794)  and  Hulmer 
(1885).  Consult:  Hulmer,  De  Sedulii  Poetcs 
Vita  et  8criptis  (Vienna,  1878),  and  Leimbach, 
Ueber  den  christlichen  Dichter  Sedulius  (Croslar, 
1879). 

BEE,  Horace  (1835—).  An  American  con- 
sulting engineer  and  naval  architect,  bom  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  where  he  was  educated  and 
after,  learning  the  machinist's  trade  became  a 
mechanical  engineer.  In  1871  he  entered  the 
employ  of  William  Cramp  and  Sons  and  in  1879 
became  their  superintending  engineer.  He  de- 
signed and  in  some  cases  supervised  during 
manufacture  and  trial  engines  for  the  cruisers 
Yorktoum,  Concord,  Bennington,  Philadelphia, 
Neu>ark,  and  Vesuvius,  the  steamship  Monmouth, 
and  other  steamships  and  priyate  yachts.  In 
1889  he  removed  to  New  York  City  and  opened 
an  office  as  a  consulting  engineer  and  iairchitect. 
More  than  any  other  one  man,  perhaps,  he  ad- 
vanced the  use  of  the  double-compound,  triple, 
and  quadruple  expansion  engines.  His  device  for 
the  manufacture  of  perfect  bearings  and  crank 
shafts  did  away  with  heating  these  parts  before 
using  the  engine,  and  his  hydro-pneumatic  ash- 
ejecter  discharging  the  ashes  direct  from  the 
fireroom  outside  the  vessel  above  the  water  line 
did  away  with  dirt  and  noise  and  relieved  the 
firemen  of  considerable  work.  He  also  introduced 
many  improvements  in  the  hull,  as  well  as  ma- 
chinery, of  steam  vessels. 

SEE,  John  (1845—).  A  Premier  of  New 
South  Wales.  He  was  bom  in  Huntingdonshire 
and  went  as  a  boy  to  Australia.  In  1880  he 
entered  Parliament  as  a  member  from  Grafton 
and  afterwards  occupied  successively  the  offices 
of  Postmaster-General  for  the  Colony,  Colonial 
.Treasurer  (1891-94),  Minister  of  Defense  (1899- 
1901),  and  C!olonial  Secretary  and  Premier, 
which  post  he  assumed  in  1902. 

SEE^  Thomas  Jefferson  Jackson  (1866—). 
An  American  astronomer,  bom  near  Montgomery 
City,  Mo.  He  was  educated  at  the  universities 
of  Missouri  and  Berlin,  receiving  his  doctor's  de- 
gree at  the  latter  institution  (1892)  and  pre- 
senting as  inaugural  dissertation  a  research  of 
striking  merit  into  the  origin  of  binary  stars. 
In  1893-96  he  assisted  in  the  organization  of 
the  Yerkes  Observatory.  In  1896  he  became  as- 
tronomer at  the  Lowell  Observatory,  and  in  1899 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  United  States 
Navy.    While  at  the  Lowell  Observatory,  he  ex- 


SEE. 


M2 


SEED« 


amised  about  200,000  fixed  stars  between  IS""  and 
65*"  south  declination,  leading  to  the  discovery  of 
about  600  new  double  stars  and  remeasurement 
of  about  1400.  He  has  also  made  observations 
on  the  motions  of  satellites  and  diameters  of  the 
planets,  measured  parallax,  and  computed  orbits 
of  double  stars.  See  is  a  fellow  of  the  Royal 
Astronomical  Society  and  member  of  several 
learned  scientific  societies.  He  wrote  Die  Ent- 
icickelung  der  DoppeUiern  Byaieme  (1893),  and 
Researches  on  the  Evolution  of  the  Stellar  Sys- 
tems (1896)  ;  he  has  also  published  double-star 
catalogues  and  contributed  to  various  scientific 
journals. 

SEEBACH,  zan>flo,  Mabie  (1834-97).  A  Ger- 
man actress.  She  was  born  at  Riga,  the  daugh- 
ter of  an  actor,  and  studied  at  Cologne  for  the 
opera.  Having  come  to  Hamburg  in  1852,  she 
made  a  great  success  as  Gretchen  in  Goethe's 
Faustf  and  in  other  rOles,  till  in  1854  she  went 
to  Vienna.  In  1856-65  she  was  engaged  at  the 
Court  Theatre  in  Hanover  and  in  1866  removed 
to  Berlin  with  her  husband,  Albert  Niemann^ 
whom  she  had  married  in  1859,  but  from  whom 
she  separated  in  1868.  Henceforth  she  confined 
herself  to  starring  tours  \util  1887,  when  she 
accepted  an  engagement  at  the  Royal  Theatre  in 
Berlin.  Her  principal  r(Vles  besides  Gretchen 
were  Kl&rchen  in  Egmont  Louise  in  Kdbale  und 
Liehe,  Julia,  Ophelia,  Desdemona,  and  Jane  Eyre, 
and  later  Maria  Stuart^  the  nurse  in  Romeo  and 
Juliet,  and  Lady  Macbeth.  In  1871  she  visited 
the  United  States.  In  1893  she  endowed  a  home 
for  needy  actors,  which  was  established  at  Wei- 
mar as  Marie- Seebach-Stiftung  in  1895. 

SEEBOHH,  8§n>dm,  Fbedebic  (1833—).  A 
British  economic  historian,  bom  at  Bradford. 
He  was  educated  for  the  law,  becoming  a  barris- 
ter. Middle  Temple,  in  1856.  His  English  Village 
Community,  published  in  1883,  at  once  placed 
him  in  the  foremost  rank  of  economic  historians. 
Before  the  publication  of  that  work  the  prevail- 
ing view  was  that  primitive  Anglo-Saxon  society 
consisted  of  communal  groups  of  free  men  hold- 
ing land  in  common  (the  mark) ,  and  that  by  the 
continual  aggression  of  native  and  foreign  lead- 
ers the  village  community  had  degenerated  into 
the  manor,  in  which  the  tenants,  originally  free, 
became  serfs.  Seebohm  attempted  to  show  that 
there  is  no  satisfactory  ground  for  believing  that 
the  free  community  ever  existed  in  England.  The 
similarity  of  the  Roman  villa  and  the  manor  is 
emphasized,  the  implication  being  that  the  me- 
diaeval manor  is  to  be  explained  as  an  amalga- 
mation of  the  Roman  villa  with  the  Germanic 
tribal  system.  Seebohm  published  two  works 
dealing  with  early  tribal  relations,  Tribal  Cus- 
tom in  Anglo-Saxon  Law  (1902)  and  The  Tribal 
System  in  Wales  (1895).  His  other  works  are: 
Oxford  Reformers,  John  Colet,  Erasmus,  and 
Thomas  More  (1867;  3d  revised  ed.  1887);  On 
International  Reform  (1871) ;  Era  of  the  Prot- 
estant Revolution  (1874). 

SEED  (AS.  s(Bd,  OHG.  sdt,  Ger.  Saat,  seed, 
Goth.  manasSps,  mankind,  from  AS.  sdu?an,  Goth. 
saian,  OHG.  sdjan,  sdwen,  sden,  Ger.  saen,  to 
sow;  connected  with  Lat.  serere,  OChurch  Slav. 
s€ti,  Lith.  setij  Lett,  s^f,  to  sow) .  A  reproductive 
structure  characteristic  of  the  highest  group  of 

Slants    (seed-plants).    All  flowering  plants  pro- 
uce  seeds,  but  not  all  that  produce  seeds  have 
flowers. 


A  seed  is  an  ovule  (q.v.)  transformed  by  the 
changes  following  fertilization.  The  integuments 
of  the  ovule  give  rise  to  the  hard,  impervious 
covering  (tes&),  which  often  furnishes  char- 
acters by  which  species  and  genera  may  be  recog- 
nized. In  many  cases  it  also  gives  rise  to  appen- 
dages, such  as  wings  (trumpet  creeper),  and 
silky  hair  (milkweeds),  which  evidently  aid  in 
wind  distribution.  In  others  long  threads  (spir- 
icles)  are  discharged  from  short  hairs  when  the 
seeds  are  wetted.  While  the  testa  usually  devel- 
ops as  a  hard,  dry  coat,  it  is  sometimes  beny- 
like  (peony),  or  even  like  a  stony  fruit  (mag- 
nolia). There  may  also  be  appendages  or  out- 
growths, as  in  the  fumitory  family,  which  have 
been  called  strophioles  (at  the  base  of  the  seed) 
and  caruncles  (at  the  apex).  Sometimes  an 
extra  more  or  less  incomplete  seed-covering 
(aril)  is  developed^  which  is  sometimes  a  mem- 
branous sac  loosely  inclosing  the  seed  and  open  at 
the  top  (water  lilies) ;  but  it  is  usually  fleshy 
(yew,  may-apple,  bitter-sweet,  etc.).  One  of  the 
most  peculiar  arils  is  the  so-called  mace  of  the 
nutmeg. 

Within  the  testa  of  a  typical  seed  is  a  region 
(the  nucellus)  often  still  more  extensively  modi- 
fied. In  its  centre  a  large  cavity  (embryo-sac) 
occurs  within  which  the  embryo  is  found,  im- 
bedded in  nutritive  tissue  (endosperm).  The 
tissue  of  the  nucellus  between  the  embryo-sac 
and  the  testa  is  called  the  perisperm,  and  supple- 
ments the  nutritive  supply  of  the  endosperm. 
Examples  of  modification:  The  embryo-sac  may 
enlarge  and  occupy  the  whole  nucellar  region,  the 
perisperm  being  absent  and  the  embryo*sac  abut- 
ting against  the  testa.  Again,  the  embryo  may 
absorb  the  endosperm  and  store  its  own  body 
with  nutritive  material.  In  the  mature  bean 
seed  both  these  phenomena  occur,  the  testa  con- 
taining only  a  large  embryo  gorged  with  food. 

In  an  ordinary  dicotyledonous  embryo  the  seed 
contains  three  regions:  (1)  the  hypoeotyl,  or 
small  stem-like  structure,  which  should  not  be 
confused  with  the  later  stem  of  the  plant;  (2) 
two  cotyledons,  or  the  seed-lea ves»  usually  very 
different  in  form  from  the  later  leaves;  and  (3) 
between  the  cotyledons,  the  plumule,  a  bud  often 
very  minute,  which  develops  into  stem  and  leaves. 
See  Embryo. 

Seeds  contain  various  carbohydrate  and  pro- 
teid  reserve  foods,  perhaps  the  most  conspicuouB 
among  which  in  most  seeds  are  starch  (in  ce- 
reals), oils  (in  castor  bean),  reserve  cellulose 
(in  the  date).  Proteid  foods  are  also  abundant; 
in  some  cereals  they  form  a  layer  outside  of  the 
starch. 

Many  seeds,  such  as  nuts,  have  no  striking 
methods  of  dispersal,  yet  nut-bearing  trees  (e.g. 
oaks)  are  about  as  widely  distributed  as  other 
trees.  Many  seeds,  the  so-called  sling  fruits,  are 
scattered  by  mechanical  expulsion,  as  touch-me- 
not  (Impatiens).  The  commonest  mechanical 
device  for  seed  dispersal  depends  upon  the  desic- 
cation and  consequent  rupture  of  the  seed  pod 
or  capsule;  in  the  Leguminosa  the  pods  twist 
and  scatter  the  seeds.  Many  seeds  are  scattered 
by  animals,  either  as  so-called  burrs,  which  be- 
come attached  to  animals,  or  as  fleshy  fruits 
which  are  eaten.  Many  seeds  are  distributed  by 
wind.  Some  (elm,  maple)  have  winged  seeds; 
others  have  cottony  or  feathery  appendages 
(dandelion,  milkweed).  Various  tumble  weeds 
(q.v.)   may  also  be  included  in  this  group.     In 


688 


SEEIilGES. 


many  cases  water  may  cany  seeds  for  great  dis- 
tances.    See  Sfebmatofhttes. 

SE£I>EATEB.  A  very  small,  variegated, 
and  sometimes  brightly  colored  finch  or  'grass- 
quit'  of  the  genus  Sporophila,  several  species  of 
which  are  found  in  tropical  America,  feeding 
mainly  upon  grass-seeds  and  the  like,  and  are 
often  familiar  about  gardens.  One  species,  the 
black-faced  {Sporophila  Moreletii)  extends  north 
into  Texas  and  is  distinguished  by  having  the 
head  and  fore  parts  mainly  black.  It  nests 
near  the  ground  and  lays  eggs  of  the  colors  shown 
in  the  Plate  of  £ggs  of  Song  Bibds. 

SBED-PIiANTS.  The  common  name  of  the 
highest  of  the  four  great  divisions  of  plants. 
See  Spebmatophytes. 

SEED  TESTING.    The  practice  of  determin- 
ing the  purity  of  seeds  by  visual  examination 
and   the    viability   by   sprouting   samples.     The 
active  crusade  in  seed  testing  may  be  said  to 
have   begun  with   Professor   Nobbe,   who  estab- 
lished the   first  laboratory  for  testing  seeds  at 
Tharand,  Saxony,  in  1869,  since  when  other  lab- 
oratories have  been  established  in  most  of  the 
countries  of  Europe,  and  in  some  countries  the 
quality  of  seed  is  a  subject  of  governmental  con- 
trol.    In    the    United    States     the     seed-testine 
laboratories  are  in  connection  with  the  National 
Department    of   Agriculture   and   many   of   the 
State  experiment  stations.    Legislation   looking 
to  seed  control  has  been  enacted  by  some  of  the 
States.     The  need  for  seed  testing  prior  to  sale 
is  well  shown  by  the  repeated  report  of  seed  of 
low  vitality^  and  often  with  admixtures  of  dead 
seed,  sand^  and  weed  seed.     Many  of  the  most 
troublesome  weeds  have  been  introduced  in  seeds 
purchased  in  good  faith.    Grass  and  clover  seed 
are  commonly  mixed  with  similar  seeds  of  less 
value.    In  countries  where  seed-control  regula- 
tions exist  samples  of  definite  weight  are  sent 
to  a  testing  laboratory  where  their  value  is  de- 
termined and  a  certificate  issued.     Based  upon 
this  report,  the  dealer  guarantees  the  quality  of 
his  seed.     As  the  laboratory  tests  are  generally 
made  under  the  most  favorable  conditions,  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  latitude  is  allowed,  and  certain 
penalties  are  exacted  when  the  samples  are  in- 
ferior to  the  standard.    This  system  appears  to 
have  given  satisfaction  where  adopted,  and  the 
quality  of  seed  in  the  market  is  much  better  than 
formerly.     In  testing  for  purity  a  definite  por- 
tion is  weighed  out  from  an  average  sample  and 
the  whole  carefully  examined  under  a  magnify- 
ing glass  and  all  chaff,  earth,  etc.,  rejected.    The 
wei^t  of  the  remainder  expressed  in  per  cent, 
shows  the  purity.     Of  the  pure  seed  a  definite 
number — 1(N)  or  200 — are  germinated  in  special- 
ly devised  apparatus.     The  sprouted  seeds  are 
counted  every  day  and  removed.     This  is  con- 
tinued from  10  to  30  days,  dependent  upon  the 
kind  of  seed,  some  sprouting  much  faster  than 
others.    At  the  end  of  the  period,  which  is  fixed 
for  every  kind  of  seed,  the  number  of  sprouted 
seeds  expressed  decimally  represents  the  percent- 
age of  viable  seed.  The  per  cent,  of  purity  multi- 
plied by  the  per  cent,  of  germinations,  divided  by 
100,  will  show  the  intrinsic  value  of  the  seed. 
This  is  the  fairest  method  of  estimating  the  qual- 
ity of  seed,  since  the  grower  is  interested  in  the 
number  of  plants  he  can  obtain  from  a  given 
miantity  of  seed.     If  a  certain  sample  of  seed 
should  give  90  per  cent,  purity  and  90  per  cent. 


germination,  its  value,  according  to  this  method, 
would  be  81  per  cent.  In  the  foreign  seed  labora- 
tories fees  are  charged  for  testing  and  certifying 
to  the  quality  of  seeds.  These  are  paid  by  the 
dealer  and  usually  include  a  reexamination  free 
of  charge  to  the  planter  if  he  is  not  satisfied  with 
the  seed  when  purchased.  To  protect  the  dealer, 
a  certain  quantity  of  seed  must  be  purchased, 
and  other  requirements  are  made  to  insure 
against  substitution  on  the  part  of  the  consumer. 
In  the  United  States,  where  little  seed  is  sold 
under  guaranty,  the  few  laboratories  do  not 
make  charges  for  inspection.  Naturally  seed 
that  has  been  examined  and  certified  to  brings 
a  higher  price  in  the  market,  but  unfortunately 
the  overwhelming  sentiment  in  America  seems 
still  in  favor  9f  cheap  seed  regardless  of  the 
quality. 

For  full  descriptions  of  methods,  etc.,  see 
United  States  Department  Agriculture  Yearbook, 
1894,  and  subsequent  volumes. 

SEE^AND.  One  of  the  Danish  islands.  See 
Zealand. 

SEELEY,  s&ll,  Habbt  Govieb  (1839—).  An 
English  geologist  and  paleontologist,  bom  in 
London  and  educated  at  the  Royal  School  of 
Mines  and  then  at  Sidney,  Sussex  College,  Gam- 
bridfi;e.  He  arranged  the  fossils  in  the  Wood- 
wardian  Museum  and  became  professor  and  lec- 
turer in  King's  College  and  Queen's  College, 
London,  in  1876,  and  dean  of  the  latter  in  1881. 
His  paleontologies  1  researches  include  the  dis- 
covery of  skeletons  of  the  Pareiasaurus  and  of 
the  Cynognathus.  His  works  include:  Omitho- 
sauria  (1870)  ;  Physical  Geology  and  Palaeontol- 
ogy (1884)  ;  The  Fresh-water  Fishes  of  Europe 
(1886)  ;  Factors  in  Life  (1887) ;  and  Dragons  of 
the  Air  (1901). 

SEELEY,  John  Robebt  (1834-95).  An  Eng- 
lish essajdst  and  historian,  bom  in  London,  edu- 
cated at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge.  In  1863 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  Latin  in  University 
College,  London,  and  in  1869  professor  of  modern 
history  at  Cambridge,  a  position  which  he  re- 
tained till  his  death.  His  Ecce  Homo  (published 
anonymously  in  1865),  a  plain  account  of  Christ 
the  man,  excited  ^eat  interest  and  called  forth 
much  discussion  and  many  replies.  It  was  sup- 
plemented by  Natural  Religion  (1882).  His  val- 
uable contributions  to  history  comprise  The  Life 
and  Times  of  Stein  ( 1878 ) ;  and  The  Expansion  of 
England  (1883).  The  importance  of  this  wprk 
lies  in  its  clear  setting  forth  of  the  reasons  of 
the  long  struggle  (1688-1815)  between  France 
and  England.  He  published  The  Growth  of 
British  Policy  in  1895.  Consult  the  memoir  by 
Prothero  prefaced  to  that  work. 

SEELIGEB,  zflnigSr,  Hugo  (1849—).  A 
German  astronomer,  bom  at  Biala,  in  Austrian 
Silesia,  and  educated  in  Heidelberg  and  at  Leip- 
zig, where  he  became  assistant  in  the  observatory 
in  1871.  In  1881  he  was  appointed  director  of 
the  Observatory  of  Gotha  and  in  1882  he  received 
a  like  position  and  a  chair  in  the  university  at 
Munich.  He  wrote:  Untersuchungen  Hher  die 
Bewegungsverhdltnisse  in  dem  dreifachen  Stem- 
systeme  f  Cancri  (1881;  2d  series,  1888;  3d 
series,  1894),  Zur  Theorie  der  Beleuchtung  der 
grossen  Planeten,  inshesondere  des  Satums 
(1887) ;  and  Allgemeine  Probleme  der  Meohanik 
des  Himmels  (1892). 


SEEIiTE. 


634 


SEGESVAS. 


SEELYl^  s^ni,  Julius  Hawlet  (1824-95). 
An  American  author  and  educator,  bom  in  Beth- 
el,  Conn.  He  graduated  at  Amherst  College  in 
1849  and  studied  theology  at  Auburn  Theological 
Seminary  and  at  the  University  of  Halle,  Ger- 
many, after  which  he  returned  to  America  and 
was  pastor  of  the  First  Keformed  Church  at 
Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  from  1863  to  1858,  when  Jie 
was  elected  professor  of  mental  and  moral  phi- 
losophy at  Amherst  College.  In  1874  he  was 
elected  as  a  result  of  a  non-partisan  movement 
a  member  of  Congress,  where,  despite  the  fact 
that  he  was  a  Republican,  he  opposed  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Electoral  Commission.  From 
1879  until  1890  he  was  president  of  Amherst 
College.  His  publications  include:  A  translation 
of  Schwegler's  History  of  Philosophy  ( 1856) ; 
The  Way,  the  Truth,  the  Life  (1873;  translated 
into  Hindustani,  Japanese,  and  German)  ;  Chris- 
tian Missions  (1875)  ;  and  a  version  ef  Hickock's 
Moral  Science  (18.80). 

SEELTEy  Laubenus  Clabk  (1837—).  An 
American  clergyman  and  educator,  bom  at  Beth- 
el, Conn.  He  was  educated  at  Union  College, 
at  the  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  and  at  the 
universities  of  Berlin  and  Heidelberg.  In  1863 
he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  North  Congrega- 
tional Church  of  Springfield,  Mass.  In  1873  he 
was  elected  the  first  president  of  Smith  College 
(q.v.),  which  he  organized  and  developed,  and 
whose  policy  and  curriculum  he  largely  deter- 
mined. 

SEEMANN^  za'miln,  Berthold  (1825-71).  A 
German  explorer  and  naturalist,  bom  in  Han- 
over. He  was  a  member  of  the  British  expedition 
which  sailed  in  the  Herald,  and  visited  the  West 
Indies,  Central  and  South  America,  the  Arctic, 
the  Hawaiian  Islands,  and  South  Africa  (1847- 
51).  In  1852  he  published  Narrative  of  the  Voy- 
age of  the  Herald  (German,  2d  ed.  1858).  In 
1860  he  visited  the  Fiji  Islands,  and  from  1864  to 
1866  explored  Venezuela  and  Central  America. 
Among  his  numerous  publications  both  in  English 
and  in  German  are:  Viti,  Account  of  a  Qovem- 
ment  Mission  to  the  Vitian  or  Figan  Islands 
(1862);  Die  in  Europa  eingefUhrtem  Akazien 
(1852);  Die  Volksnamen  der  amerikanischen 
Pflanzen  (1851)  ;  Popular  History  of  the  Palms 
(1855;  German,  2d  ed.  1863)  ;  and  a  History  of 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama  (2d  ed.  1867).  In  1853 
he  founded  the  botanical  periodical  Bonplandia, 
which  from  1864  to  1871  he  continued  in  Eng- 
land as  the  Journal  of  British  and  Foreign 
Botany, 

SEFFNEB,  zef'n§r,  Karl  (1861  —  ).  A  Ger- 
man sculptor,  bora  at  Leipzig,  where  he  studied 
at  the  academy  in  1877-84,  especially  under 
Melchior  zur  Strassen  (1832-96).  After  a  short 
apprenticeship  in  Berlin  he  worked  in  Italy 
(1885-88)  and  settled  at  Leipzig,  where  he  won  a 
great  reputation  by  his  portrait  busts  and 
statues,  full  of  animation  and  keenly  characteris- 
tic. Besides  the  busts  of  Anton  Springer,  Karl 
Thiersch  and  other  scholars  (1889-93,  Leipzig 
University),  there  should  be  mentioned  those  of 
"King  Albert  and  Queen  Carola  of  Saxony" 
(Leipzig  Museum),  the  bust  of  Wilhelm  Scherer 
(Berlin  University),  and  the  monument  to  Karl 
von  Hase  (Jena).  Of  especial  interest  and  merit 
are  the  monuments  to  Bach  and  Goethe  (rep- 
resented in  his  student  years),  at  Leipzig. 


SEGANTDfl,  sfi'gftn-t^n^,  GnrsEPPE  (1858- 
99).  An  Italian  figure  and  landscape  painter, 
born  at  Arco,  South  Tyrol.  His  parents  died 
when  he  was  young  and  he  became  a  herdsman. 
Later  he  entered  the  Brera  Academy  at  Milan, 
where  he  won  prizes,  at  the  same  time  gaining 
his  livelihood  by  painting  signs  and  adver- 
tisements. His  "Ave  Maria"  won  the  gold 
medal  of  the  Amsterdam  Exhibition  of  1883, 
but  he  failed  to  win  the  approbation  of  the 
Milanese  public  until  the  exhibition  of  his 
large  canvas  "The  Alpine  Pasture"  (1895). 
Transcripts  from  the  hard  life  of  the  peasant 
are  "At  the  Close  of  Day"  (1888),  "The  Water- 
ing Trough"  (1889),  "Plowing"  (1896),  and 
similar  scenes  showing  a  monotonous,  trivial  life 
overwhelmed  by  the  cold,  hard  majesty  of  nature. 
Segantini  towers  above  other  Italian  painters  of 
the  nineteenth  century  by  reason  of  his  original- 
ity and  power.  An  intense  realist,  he  saw  the 
hard  facts  of  existence  through  no  softening  me- 
dium. The  atmosphere  of  his  pictures  is  keen 
and  crystalline;  the  objects  stand  out  in  sharp 
relief.  A  picture,  "Sorrow  Finding  Comfort  in 
Faith"  (1896),  marks  the  later  development  of 
his  art  when  he  sought  for  the  expression  of 
moral  and  mystical  ideas.  Of  this  type  are  "Pun- 
ishment of  Luxury"  (Walker  Gallery,  Liver- 
pool); "The  Retribution  of  Unnatural  Moth- 
ers," a  subject  taken  from  Hindu  poetry;  and 
a  treatment  of  the  virgin  and  the  infant  Jesus 
called  "The  Inspiration  of  an  Alpine  Flower." 
Consult  the  monograph  by  Ritter  (Vienna, 
1897). 

SEGES^A  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  'SYwro,  Egesta, 
ktytrra,  Aigesta) .  An  ancient  city  in  North- 
western Sicily,  about  six  miles  from  its  seaport, 
near  the  modem  Castellamare.  The  town  be- 
longed to  the  Elymi,  a  tribe  whom  the  Greek 
colonists  found  in  the  extreme  west  of  the  island, 
and  whose  ethnology  is  uncertain.  Later  tradi- 
tion attributed  the  foundation  to  a  band  of  fugi- 
tives from  Troy,  and  in  Roman  times  this  was 
connected  with  the  wanderings  of  Maesa.  The 
coins  seem  to  indicate  some  truth  in  the  tradi- 
tion of  a  Phociean  (less  probably  Phocian)  ele- 
ment in  the  population.  The  place  was  reckoned 
among  the  non-Hellenic  cities,  and  was  engaged 
in  frequent  strife  with  its  Dorian  neighbor,  Se- 
linus  (q.v.).  In  the  fifth  century  B.c.  it  sought 
Athenian  support,  and  in  B.C.  415  brought  about 
the  disastrous  attack  on  Syracuse.  In  B.C. 
409  it  turned  to  Carthaoe  for  help,  and  thus  led 
to  the  destruction  of  Selinus  and  the  renewal  of 
the  long  war  between  the  Carthaginians  and 
Greeks.  It  was  besieged  unsuccessfully  by  the 
elder  Dionysius,  but  later  must  have  left  the 
Carthaginians,  for  it  is  called  an  ally  of  Agatho- 
cles  in  b.c.  906.  On  his  return  from  Africa  that 
tyrant  demanded  a  huge  contribution,  and  when 
refused  charged  the  city  with  conspiracy  and 
massacred  with  tortures  a  great  part  of  the  in- 
habitants. From  that  time  the  town  seems  to 
have  lost  its  importance,  though  it  was  especially 
favored  by  the  Romans.  During  the  Saracenic 
wars  the  site  was  abandoned  and  is  now  only 
marked  by  a  picturesque  and  well-preserved 
though  unfinished  Doric  temple  and  a  fine  rock- 
cut  theatre.  Excavations  have  also  brought  to 
light  a  few  remains  of  private  houses. 

SEGESVAb,  shfi^g^sh-vftr.  An  Hungarian 
city.'    See  Schassbubo. 


BEOHEB&L 


6d5 


SEOTTIir. 


8EOHEBS,  8&^gen,  or  ZEGEBS,  Daniel 
(1590-1661).  A  renowned  Flemish  flower  paint- 
er, bom  at  Antwerp,  where  he  studied  under  Jan 
Brueghel,  entered  the  guild  in  1611,  embraced 
Catholicism  and  in  1614  joined  the  Order  of  the 
Jesuits.  After  his  return  from  a  sojourn  in  Rome 
he  rapidly  acquired  great  reputation  and  his  pic- 
tures were  in  such  demand  that  he  could  scarcely 
fulfill  his  numerous  commissions,  and  royalties 
granted  privileges  to  the  Jesuits  in  order  to  secure 
works  from  his  brush.  He  seldom  painted  flower 
pieces  exclusively,  but  usually  in  collaboration 
with  historical  painters,  surrounding  their  sacred 
subjects,  most  generally  the  Madonna,  with  a 
garland.  In  this  way  he  co5perated  with  Rubens, 
Schut,  Diepenbeeck,  and  Quellinus.  His  flowers, 
sometimes  highly  finished,  then  again  treated 
more  deooratively,  show  admirable  drawing,  great 
truth  to  nature,  and  tasteful  arrangement.  The 
color  of  his  red  roses  has  remain^  unchanged 
to  this  day,  while  those  of  every  other  fiower 
painter  have  turned  or  faded  away  altogether. 
Specimens  of  his  art  may  be  seen  in  nearly  all 
the  public  galleries  of  Europe. 

His  brother  Gerabd  (1591-1651),  who  signed 
his  name  mostly  Ze^rs,  was  an  historical  painter 
of  considerable  merit,  born  at  Antwerp,  where  he 
studied  under  Van  Balen  and  Abraham  Janssens. 
In  1610  he  went  to  Italy,  partook  of  the  manner 
of  Caravaggio  in  Rome,  and  thence  proceeded  to 
Madrid,  where  he  painted  historical  subjects 
and  musical  conversations  for  Philip  III.  After 
his  return  to  Antwerp  in  1620,  allied  in  friend- 
ship with  Rubens  and  Van  Dyck,  he  worked 
much  under  their  influence.  The  "Adoration  of 
the  Magi"  (1630),  in  Notre  Dame  at  Bruges,  is 
considered  his  masterpiece. 

SEQMENT  (Lat.  aegmentum,  piece  cut  off, 
from  secare,  to  cut;  connected  with  OHQ.  aaga, 
sega,  Ger.  SAge,  AS.  saga,  Eng.  sate).  In  geom- 
etry, a  portion  of  a  circle  or  of  a  sphere  cut  oflf 
by  a  secant  line  or  plane.  The  former  is  called  a 
circular  segment  and  the  latter  a  spherical  seg- 
ment. If  the  secant  is  a  diameter  of  the  circle 
or  a  diametral  plane  of  the  sphere,  the  segments 
are  equal  and  are  semicircles  or  hemispheres 
respectively;  otherwise  they  are  unequal  and  the 
lesser  one  is  called  the  minor  and  the  greater  the 
major  segment.  The  area  of  a  circular  segment 
in  a  circle  of  radius  r,  whose  chord  subtends  a 

central  angle  6,  is  — ^ — ^ .  $  bemg  measured 

in  radians.    For  the  volume  of  a  spherical  seg^ 
ment,  see  Menbubatidn. 

SEaNEBI,  s&n-ya/r^  Paolo  (1624-94).  An 
Italian  Jesuit  mission  preacher.  He  was  bom 
at  Nettuno,  educated  by  the  Jesuits  in  Rome,  and 
joined  the  Society  in  1637.  He  attained  high 
rank  as  a  preacher  and  appealed  to  the  emotional 
southern  temperament  of  his  hearers  by  a  highly 
dramatic  manner.  But  his  many  sermons  which 
have  been  preserved  have  intellectual  qualities 
and  justify  his  selection  by  Pope  Innocent  XII. 
as  a  preacher  at  the  Papal  Court.  There  is  an 
edition  of  his  sermons  and  other  works  in  Italian 
(Milan,  1845-47),  and  his  famous  Lenten  Ser- 
mons, Panegyrics,  Manna  of  the  Boul,  and  Prac- 
tice of  Interior  Recollection  with  Ood  have  all 
been  translated  into  English  and  published  in 
London  (1872-81).  Consult  his  Life  (London, 
1851). 

TokXY.-tt. 


SE^OO.  A  fortified  post  of  French  West 
Africa.    See  Segu-Sikobo. 

SEGOVIA,  sA-gyvfi-ft,  or  Wanks.  A  river 
forming  in  the  lower  half  of  its  course  the  boun- 
dary l^tween  Honduras  and  Nicaragua  (Map: 
Central  America,  £  3).  It  rises  in  the  moun- 
tains near  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca  and  flows  north- 
east in  a  course  of  400  miles,  emptying  into  the 
Caribbean  Sea  at  Cape  Gracias  &  Dios.  It  is 
navigable  for  small  river  craft  170  miles  from 
its  delta,  being  then  obstructed  by  rapids.  The 
channels  of  the  delta,  however,  are  very  shallow 
and  the  coast  lagoon  into  which  they  discharge 
is  silting  up. 

SEGOVIA.  The  capital  of  the  Province  of 
Segovia,  in  Old  Castile,  Spain.  It  is  situated  on 
the  north  slope  of  the  Sierra  de  Guadarrama,  40 
miles  northwest  of  Madrid  (Map:  Spain,  C  2). 
The  old  part  of  the  town  is  built  on  an  oblong, 
rocky  hill  with  nearly  precipitous  sides,  330  feet 
high.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  with  86  tow- 
ers, running  along  the  brink  of  the  hill,  and, 
though  dating  from  the  eleventh  and  the  twelfth 
centuries,  in  a  good  state  of  preservation.  The 
northwestern  corner  of  the  hill  is  a  narrow,  pre- 
cipitous promontory  between  the  River  Eresma 
and  a  small  tributary,  and  on  this  is  perched  the 
famous  AlcAzar,  an  imposing  castle  built  in  the 
fourteenth  century,  where  Isabella  of  Castile 
was  crowned.  It  has  two  large  towers  crowned 
with  bartizans,  and  formed  an  important  part  of 
the  fortifications.  Noteworthy  are  the  numerous 
churches.  Including  the  old  deserted  monaster- 
ies, there  are  no  less  than  73  ecclesiastical  build- 
ings in  this  little  town,  and  some  of  them,  such 
as  the  cathedral,  rank  among  the  finest  in  Spain. 
The  cathedral  is  a  large  Gothic  basilica,  begun 
in  1625,  with  two  rows  of  chapels,  fiying  but-? 
tresses,  and  a  square  tower,  345  feet  high^ 
crowned  by  a  cupola.  The  San  Est^ban  has  i^ 
high  Byzantine  tower.  The  Roman  aqueduct  is 
the  largest  Roman  monument  extant  in  Spain. 
It  crosses  the  valley  between  the  mountains  and 
the  town  in  119  arches,  having  for  some  distance 
another  tier  of  arches  above  them.  Some  of  the 
arches  are  04  feet  high.  There  are  paper  and 
flour  mills,  iron  and  lead  foundries,  and  dyeing 
establishments.     Population,  in  1900,  14,658. 

SEGiriDIIiLA,  Bk'g^d^ljk  (Sp.,  little  se- 
quence, diminutive  of  seguida,  succession,  from 
seguir,  from  Lat.  sequi,  to  follow).  A  national 
Spanish  dance  in  }  time.  Its  characteristic  is  the 
rhythmic  figure 


rdrrdtrrr 


which  is  placed  on  castanets  for  four  bars  as 
an  introduction.  After  every  movement  it  is 
repeated  f^r  four  bars.  The  music  is  usually 
played  on  a  guitar  with  castanet  accompaniment^ 
and  during  the  dance  the  musicians  also  sing. 
The  seguidilla  is  danced  by  several  couples,  who 
arrange  themselves  in  two  parallel  line§.  After 
nine  bars  of  music  the  dancers  slowly  change 
places,  dance  again,  and  return  to  their  original 
positions.  The  third  part  of  the  seguidilla  is 
suddenly  interrupted  on  the  ninth  bar  and  the 
dancers  remain  motionless  for  a  second  in  the 
exact  postures  held  by  them  at  the  time. 

SEGTJIK,  sA'gaN','EDOUARD  Onesimus  (1812- 
80).  A  noted  French -American  physician,- bo*n 
at  Clamecy,  Nifevre,  France,  and  educated  'ia 
Paris    at   the    colleges    of   Auxerre    and    Saint 


SEoxnv. 


686 


SEIBL. 


Louis.  From  1837  he  devoted  his  life  to  the 
treatment  of  idiots.  In  1884  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  Paris  declared  that  to  Seguin  was  due 
the  credit  of  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  the 
care  and  education  of  idiots.  After  the  revolu- 
tion of  1848  Seguin  came  to  the  United  States, 
and  after  a  short  sojourn  at  Cleveland,  Ohio,  he 
attached  himself  to  the  school  for  idiot  children 
in  South  Boston  and  to  the  institution  for  feeble- 
minded youth  in  Barre,  Mass.  He  assisted  in  the 
organization  of  an  experimental  school  in  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  which  later  developed  into  the  New  York 
State  Idiot  Asylum  at  Syracuse.  Seguin  settled 
in  Portsmouth,  Ohio,  in  1851,  in  the  practice  of 
medicine;  but  he  frequently  taught  at  institu- 
tions for  idiots  in  Connecticut,  Ohio,  and  New 
York,  and  at  one  time  he  was  at  the  head  of  a 
Pennsylvania  institution.  After  a  sojourn  of 
four  years  in  Mount  Vernon,  N.  Y.,  he  removed 
to  New  York  City  in  1863,  where  in  1879  he  es- 
tablished the  Seguin  Physiological  School  for 
Feeble-Minded  Children.  Among  his  works  are: 
Traitemeni  moral,  hygiene  et  education  dea  idiots 
et  dea  autres  enfanta  arrives  (1846);  Images 
graduiea  d  Vuaage  dea  enfant  a  arrierea  et  idioia 
(1846);  Hiaiorical  Notice  of  the  Origin  and 
Progreaa  of  the  Treatment  of  Idiota  (trans,  by 
Newberry,  New  York,  1862) ;  Idiocy  and  Ita 
Treatment  hy  the  Phyaiological  Method  (1886) ; 
Wunderlich'a  Medical  Thermometry,  with  addi- 
tions (New  York,  1871).  See  Idiocy;  Seguin, 
Edwabd  Constant. 

SEGTXIN,  8^-gwIn^  Edward  Constant  (1843- 
98).  An  eminent  American  neurologist,  bom  in 
Paris,  France,  and  the  son  of  Edouard  O.  Se- 
guin (q.v.).  Coming  to  the  United  States  with 
his  father,  he  settled  in  Cleveland,  Ohio.  He  was 
educated  at  Mount  Vernon,  N.  Y.,  at  the  College 
of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  New  York  City,  and 
under  Brown-S6quard,  Charcot,  Comil,  and  Ban- 
vier  in  Paris,  1869-70.  He  was  lecturer  and  later 
professor  in  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons, New  York  City,  1871-86.  He  founded  the 
clinic  for  nervous  diseases  in  this  college  in  1873. 
Seguin  was  a  founder  of  the  New  York  Neurolog- 
ical Society  and  of  the  American  Neurological 
Association.  In  advance  of  the  appearance  of 
Nothnagel  he  delivered  masterly  lectures  on  cor- 
tical localization,  and  in  advance  of  Erb  and  of 
Charcot  he  described  spastic  spinal  paralysis 
under  the  very  unfortunate  name  'tetanoid  para- 
plegia.' He  added  much  to  the  knowledge  of 
medication  in  nerve  diseases.  His  greatest 
achievement  in  therapeusis  is  probably  his  ad- 
vocacy and  introduction  of  very  large  doses  of 
the  iodides,  called  the  'American  method.'  To 
him  we  owe  most  of  our  knowledge  of  the  use  of 
aconitia,  and  of  a  large  increase  in  the  under- 
standing of  hyoscyamus,  as  well  as  o#  arsenic  in 
its  application  in  chorea.  He  was  the  editor  of 
The  American  Series  of  Clinical  Lecturea.  His 
articles  on  quinine  used  subcutaneously,  the  path- 
ological anatomy  of  the  nervous  system,  myelitis 
of  the  anterior  horns,  cortical  localizations,  the 
use  of  the  bromides,  paraplegia,  neuralgia,  elec- 
tricity, potassium  iodide,  etc.,  were  collected  and 
published  under  the  title  Opera  Minora  (1884). 
See  his  biography  and  a  sketch  of  his  literary  lijfe 
in  Medical  News,  Ixxii.,  312  and  682  (New  York, 
1898). 

SISGXJB^  Bk'g})T^,  A  noble  French  family  of 
Guienne.     Philippe  Henri,  Marquis  de  S^gur- 


Ponchat  ( 1724-1801 ) ,  served  in  the  wars  of  Louis 
XV.,  and  under  I^uis  XVI.  was  Minister  of  War. 
— Louis  Puiuppe,  Count  S^gur  d'Aguesseau 
(1763-1830),  was  bom  in  Paris.  He  was  one  of 
the  French  officers  under  Rochambeau  in  the 
American  Revolution.  In  1783  he  was  sent  as 
French  Ambassador  to  Russia  and  became  a  great 
favorite  of  Catharine  11.  His  public  career  dur- 
ing the  Empire  was  respectable,  but  not  brilliant. 
He  died  in  Paris.  He  left  many  works,  among 
which  are:  La  politique  de  toua  lea  cabinets 
de  VEurope  (1793);  Tableau  hiatorique  et  po- 
litique de  VEurope  de  1786-1796  (1800);  Bis- 
toire  univeraelle  (1817);  Mimoirea  (1825-26).— 
His  son,  Phiuppe  Paul,  Count  de  Segur 
(1780-1873),  was  a  general  of  the  First  Em- 
pire. He  participated  in  various  campaigns 
of  Napoleon,  and  during  the  Russian  campaign 
of  1812  was  general  of  brigade.  At  the  first 
Restoration  he  was  given  command  of  the  cav- 
alry, but  after  the  second  Restoration  withdrew 
into  private  life  until  after  the  July  Revolution. 
In  1831  he  was  made  lieutenant-general  and 
raised  to  the  peerage.  He  wrote  the  valuable 
Hiatoire  de  Napoleon  et  la  grande  arm6e  pendant 
Vannie  1812  (1824).  Other  works  of  his  are: 
Lettre  aur  la  campagne  du  g^^al  MacdonaU 
dana  lea  Qriaona  ( 1802) ;  Hiatoire  de  Ruaaie  et  de 
Pierre  le  Qrand  (1829);  Hiatoire  de  Charles 
VI I r,  roi  de  France  (1834). 

S]^GTJB,  Joseph  Alexandbe,  Vicomte  de 
(1756-1806).  A  French  writer  of  comedy  and 
libretto.  He  was  bom  in  Paris,  was  brought 
up  for  the  army,  and  was  Deputy  of  the  no- 
bility in  the  States  General  of  1789,  but  was 
ruined  by  the  Revolution  and  was  compelled  to 
make  a  living  by  literary  work.  Several  political 
brochures  were  followed  by  the  Correapondanoe 
accrete  de  Ninon  de  L'Encloa  (1790),  which 
brought  the  author  immediate  popularity.  La 
femme  jalouae  and  Le  retour  du  mart  appeared 
soon  after.  S^gur  wrote  the  French  words  for 
Haydn's  Creation,  produced  at  the  Op^ra.  He 
published  in  1795  an  interesting  account  of  his 
imprisonment  during  the  Revolution:  Ma  riaon 
depuia  le  23  Vend^miaire  juaqu*an  10  Thermidor. 
His  last  work,  published  in  1803  and  very  popu- 
lar at  the  time,  was  entitled:  Lea  femmes,  leurs 
ceurs,  leurs  passions,  leur  influence,  et  leur  con- 
dition dans  Vordre  moral.  His  CEuvres  diveraea 
were  published  in  1819. 

SEGITRA,  sft-g?5o'r&.  A  river  of  Southeastern 
Spain.  It  rises  in  the  Sierra  de  Segura,  in  the 
Province  of  Jaen,  and  after  an  east-southeasterly 
course  of  about  150  miles  enters  the  Mediter- 
ranean 19  miles  southwest  of  Alicante  (Map: 
Spain,  D  3).  The  Segura  supplies  water  to  sev- 
eral canals  in  the  Province  of  Alicante,  so  that, 
although  it  drains  an  extensive  area,  it  is  naviga- 
ble only  for  small  boats  even  at  its  mouth. 

SE'Gtr-SIK'OBO,  or  Seoo.  A  fortified  post 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Niger  in  the  interior  of 
French  West  Africa,  about  670  miles  east-south- 
east of  Saint  Louis  (Map:  Africa,  D  3).  It  con- 
sists practically  of  a  group  of  villages  stretching 
along  the  Niger  and  containing  a  population  of 
about  36,000. 

SEHABXrNPOOBy  s^hfir'tin-i^59r'.  A  town 
of  India.    See  Saharanpub. 

SEIDL,  ziM'l,  Anton  (1850-98).  A  musical 
conductor,  bom  in  Pesth.     He  was  educated  at 


8BIDL. 


6d7 


SBiaNIO&Y. 


th«  Leipzig  Conservatory  and  upon  graduation  be- 
came cnonismaster  at  the  Vienna  Opera.  Hans 
Richter  introduced  him  to  Wagner,  who  engaged 
him  to  assist  in  preparing  the  Nibelung  Trilogy, 
upon  which  work  he  was  engaged  until  1879. 
Upon  Wagner's  recommendation  Angelo  Neu- 
mann engaged  him  as  conductor  for  the  itiner- 
ant series  of  Wagner  operas  (1879-83).  In 
1885  Seidl  accepted  an  engagement  in  New 
York  as  conductor  of  the  German  opera. 
There  he  soon  developed  the  concert  orches- 
tra popularly  known  as  the  Seidl  Orchestra. 
In  1892  the  German  opera  was  temporarily 
discontinued,  but  he  again  served  as  con- 
ductor during  the  New  York  seasons  of  1895- 
96  and  in  1897.  In  addition  he  was  the  con- 
ductor of  the  Philharmonic  Society  and  of  the 
Sunday  night  concerts.  In  1897  he  was  engaged 
as  one  of  the  conductors  at  Covent  Garden,  I^n- 
don.  By  this  time  his  reputation  was  such  that 
his  services  were  in  demand  in  several  of  the 
leading  musical  centres  of  the  world.  In  1886 
and  1897  he  was  one  of  the  conductors  at  the 
Bayreuth  Festival.    He  died  in  New  York. 

SEIDIj,  Gabriel  (1848—).  A  German  archi- 
tect, bom  in  Munich,  where  he  studied  at  the 
Academy  under  Neureuther,  and  after  1876  be- 
came favorably  known  through  the  erection  of 
several  buildings  in  the  style  of  the  German 
Renaissance,  marked  by  refined  elaboration  of 
interior  details.  Besides  the  private  residences 
of  Lenbach  and  F.  A.  Kaulbach,  he  built  Saint 
Ann's  Church,  the  Kttnstlerhaus  and  the  new 
part  of  the  National  Museum. 

SETDIjy  JoHANN  Gabriel  (1804-75).  An 
Austrian  poet,  bom  in  Vienna.  He  studied  law 
and  was  called  in  1840  to  Vienna  as  custodian  of 
the  cabinet  of  coins  and  antiques  in  the  Museum. 
He  devoted  his  leisure  to  literature  and  became 
especially  well  known  for  his  lyric  and  dialect 
poetry.  His  publications  in  this  department  in- 
clude Dichtungen  (1826-28),  Oedichte  in  nieder- 
dsterreiohisoher  Mundart  (1844,  4  eds.),  Bifolien 
(1865,  5  eds.),  and  Natur  und  Herz  (1859,  3 
eds.).  Seidl  is  the  author  of  the  Austrian  na- 
tional hymn  (1854)  set  to  Haydn's  music. 

SEIBLITZ  (sM^Its)  POWDEBS  -(named 
from  the  town  of  Seidlitz  or  BedlitZf  in  Bohemian 
Austria).  Powders  composed  of  120  grains  uf 
tartrate  of  soda  and  potash  and  40  grains  of  bi- 
carbonate of  soda  reduced  to  powder,  mixed,  and 
inclosed  in  a  blue  paper,  and  35  grains  of  pow- 
dered tartaric  acid  in  a  white  paper.  The  con- 
tents of  the  blue  paper  are  dissolved  in  half  a 
tumbler  of  water,  and  those  of  the  white  in  a 
half  tumbler  of  water,  and  the  two  are  poured 
together.  The  mixture  should  be  taken  while 
the  effervescence  from  the  liberation  of  the  car- 
bonic acid  is  still  going  on.  These  powders  act 
as  an  agreeable  and  mild  cooling  aperient. 

SEIGNIOBAGE  (ML.  aenioraticum,  lordship, 
dominion,  from  Lat.  senior,  elder,  lord,  comp.  of 
9enex,  old;  connected  with  Gk.  ^vot,  henos,  Skt. 
«aiia,  Lith.  aenas,  Olr.  sen,  Goth.  aineigSf  old). 
The  excess  of  the  nominal  value  of  a  coin  over 
its  bullion  value  at  the  moment  of  coining.  Such 
excess  may  represent  only  the  cost  of  coinage, 
for  which  the  term  brassage,  used  by  French 
writers,  has  been  proposed,  but  not  generally 
adopted,  or  it  may  represent  a  profit  to  the 
State.  Where  free  coinage  exists  any  mint 
charge  or  seigniorage  will  act  as  a  check  upon 


the  readiness  with  which  private  persons  bring 
bullion  to  the  mint  for  coinage.  On  the  other 
hand,  such  a  seigniorage  oilers  an  inducement 
to  the  State  to  coin  money  freely.  If  it  yields 
to  the  temptation  it  may  gain  an  immediate 
advantage,  but  not  without  jeoparding  the  se- 
curity of  its  currency  and  running  the  risk  of 
depreciating  the  value  of  its  issues.  Monetary 
legislation  authorizing  underweight  coins  usu- 
ally limits  the  amount  of  such  issues. 

SEIGinOBY  (ML.  aenioria,  from  Lat.  senior, 
elder,  lord).  The  domain  of  a  seignior  or  feudal 
lord,  and,  in  the  strict  sense,  the  ultimate  imit  in 
the  feudal  system.  It  was  a  local  fragment  of 
sovereignty  annexed  to  property  in  land.  The 
beginnings  of  the  sei^iory  are  to  be  found  in  the 
late  Roman  Empire  in  the  authority  {patrooini- 
urn)  which  the  great  provincial  magnates  {po- 
tent es)  exercised  over  the  common  people,  es- 
pecially the  tillers  of  the  soil.  Among  the  Ger- 
man tribes  which  overthrew  the  West  Roman 
Empire  the  germs  of  similar  relations  existed. 
The  Carman  noble  had  rights  of  protection 
(which  implied  control)  over  free  followers, 
servants,  and  tenants  who  voluntarily  'commend- 
ed' themselves  to  him  and  became  his  'men.'  In 
the  Frankish  Empire  these  Roman  and  German 
institiltions  were  fused  into  the  'seniorate,'  and 
the  powers  of  the  'senior*  were  enlarged  and 
consolidated  by  the  development  of  the  'immimi- 
ty.*  Immunity,  another  institution  which  dates 
from  the  late  Roman  Empire,  and  which  origi- 
nally meant  exemption  from  taxes  and  the  baser 
services,  was  ultimately  granted  in  the  Carolin- 
gian  period  to  all  who  held  royal  land  as  a 
'benefice'  or  fief,  and  it  came  to  include  much  of 
the  power  of  local  government.  The  grant  of 
immunity  excluded  the  regular  officers  of  vfie 
Empire  (the  counts)  from  entry  {introitiia)  into 
the  immune  district;  it  devolved  upon  the  sei- 
gnior the  right  and  duty  of  raising  and  leading  the 
armed  forces  of  the  district,  of  preserving  the 
peace,  and  collecting  fines  from  those  who  broke 
it;  and  it  gave  him  jurisdiction  in  all  'minor 
cases'  {cauaw  minorea)  over  his  followers,  serv- 
ants, and  tenants.  In  criminal  cases  and  in  cases 
involving  status  the  county  court  was  still  ex. 
clusively  competent;  but  when  one  of  the  sei- 
gnior's men  was  charged  with  a  criminal  offense  it 
was  customary  to  appeal  first  of  all  to  the 
seignior,  and  if  the  complainant  was  satisfied 
by  the  seignior  the  case  went  no  further.  Thus, 
there  was  developed  in  the  seigniory  a  seigniorial 
or  manorial  court,  in  which  the  seignior's  advo- 
catus  (vogt)  or  bailiff  presided  and  in  which 
(usually)  judgments  were  approved  by  the  ten- 
ants. After  the  overthrow  of  the  Frankish  Em- 
pire the  seigniors  became  petty  monarchs  of  their 
seigniories,  exercising  nearly  all  the  powers  of 
the  State.  In  the  open  country  the  free  and 
previously  independent  inhabitants  of  the  sei- 
gniory were  forced  into  subjection,  and  for  the 
most  part  reduced  to  serfdom.  In  the  towns, 
on  the  contrary,  the  authority  of  the  seigniors 
was  gradually  extinguished  and  all  the  towns- 
men became  free. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  increase  of  royal  power,  the  au- 
thority of  the  seigniors  was  gradually  restricted. 
The  military  and  taxing  powers  of  the  Crown 
were  exercised  directly  within  the  seigniories. 
The  rights  which  the  seigniors  retained  were  eco- 


SEiaVIOBY. 


6d8 


8BI8IH. 


nomic  rather  than  political:  the  political  powers 
which  they  held  longest  were  those  of  local  police. 
These  remnants  of  seigniorial  authority  were 
swept  away  by  revolution  or  extinguished  by  leg- 
islation in  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  cen- 
turies.   For  literature,  see  under  Feudalism. 

SEINE^  Bftn.  One  of  the  principal  rivers  of 
France.  It  rises  on  the  Plateau  of  Langres  in 
the  Department  of  C0te-d*Or,  and  flows  in  a  gen- 
eral northwest  course  of  472  miles,  passing 
through  the  city  of  Paris  and  emptying  into  the 
English  Channel  through  a  wide  estuary  at 
Havre  (Map:  France,  F  2).  It  falls  very  rap- 
idly in  its  upper  course,  but  below  Paris  its  cur- 
rent becomes  slow  and  its  course  marked  by 
many  windings.  Its  principal  tributaries  are 
the  Mame  and  the  Oise,  both  joining  it  from 
the  north  near  Paris.  The  Seine  is  the  most  im- 
portant commercial  waterway  of  France,  and 
considerable  engineering  works  have  been  under- 
taken to  facilitate  its  navigation,  including  a 
number  of  locks  between  Paris  and  Rouen.  The 
river  is  navigable  337  miles  to  M^ry,  but  from 
Marcilly,  a  little  below  M6ry,  a  lateral  canal 
follows  its  course  to  Troyes.  Along  the  north 
shore  of  the  estuary  a  ship  canal  14  miles  long 
leads  from  Tancarville  into  the  harbor  of  Havre, 
while  other  canals  connect  the  river  through  its 
tributaries  with  the  Loire,  the  Rhone,  the  Rhine, 
the  Meuse,  and  the  Scheldt.  The  traffic  passing 
through  the  river  amounted  in  1000  to  7,494,037 
tons  at  Paris.  Consult:  Lavoinne,  La  Seine  maH" 
time  et  son  eatuaire  (Paris,  1885) ;  Barron,  La 
Seine  (ib.,  1889.). 

SEINE.  The  metropolitan  department  of 
France  surrounded  by  the  Department  of  Seine- 
et-Oise,  and  comprising  the  arrondissements  of 
Paris,  Saint-Denis,  and  Sceaux  (Map:  France, 
J  3).  It  is  at  once  the  smallest  and  the  most 
populous  department  in  the  Republic.  Its  area 
IS  185  square  miles.  Population,  in  1896, 
3,340,514;  in  1901,  3,669,930. 

SEOfE-ET-MABNEy  ft  m&m.  A  northern 
inland  department  of  France  (q.v.),  bounded  on 
the  west  by  the  Department  of  Seine-et-Oise 
(Map:  France,  J  3).  Area,  2275  square  miles. 
Population,  in  1896,  359,044;  in  1901,  358,325. 
The  department  derives  its  name  from  the  two 
chief  streams  that  water  it,  the  Seine  flowing 
through  the  southern  and  the  Mame  through 
the  northern  part.  There  are  no  mountains. 
Timber  is  grown  in  every  part,  and  among  the 
forests  is  that  of  Fontainebleau.  The  soil  is  gen- 
erally fertile.  Wheat  is  the  principal  cereal. 
Paving  stone  is  quarried  at  Fontainebleau,  and 
there  are  manufactures  of  flour  and  sugar.  Cap- 
ital, Melun. 

SEIKE-ET-OISE,  ft  vr^z.  A  northern  depart- 
ment of  France,  surrounding  the  metropolitan 
Department  of  Seine  (q.v.)  (Map:  France,  H  3). 
Area,  2184  square  miles.  Population,  in  1896, 
669,098;  in  1901,  707,326.  The  chief  rivers  are 
the  Seine  and  Oise,  which  have  numerous  afflu- 
ents. Oats  is  the  principal  cereal,  and  wheat, 
sugar  beets,  forage  roots,  cider  apples,  and  vege- 
tables are  important.  The  industries  include 
silk,  wool,  and  flax  spinning,  hosiery  making, 
flour  milling,  sugar  reflning,  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  iron  and  copper  articles.  There  are  sev- 
eral flne  varieties  of  stone  and  clays.  Porcelain 
is  largely  made  at  the  famous  Sevres  (q.v.)  fac- 
tories.   Capital,  Versailles. 


SEINE-INF]£siEimE,  ftif'fft'r^Sr^.  A  north- 
em  maritime  department  of  France,  bounded  on 
the  northwest  by  the  English  Channel,  and  on  the 
south  by  the  Department  of  Eure  (Map:  France, 
G  2).  Area,  2448  square  miles.  Population,  in 
1896,  837,824;  in  1901,  853,883.  The  Seine  flows 
through  the  southern  districts,  and  a  number  of 
important  though  small  streams  flow  northwest 
across  the  department.  Wheat,  oats,  sugar  beets, 
colza,  and  cider  apples  are  cultivated,  and  some 
cheese  is  made.  There  are  cotton,  wool,  and  flax 
manufactures;  iron,  copper,  locomotive,  and  ma- 
chinery works  are  among  the  industrial  establish- 
ments.    Capital,  Rouen. 

BWTBL  (Heb.  iSf^Mr).  A  synonym  for  the  land 
of  Edom  (e.g.  Gen.  xxzii.  3),  and  especially  the 
name  of  the  Edomite  mountain  land.  Mount  Seir 
(e.g.  Deut.  ii.  1).  It  is  disputed  whether  the 
name  is  applied  only  to  the  mountains  or  also 
to  the  region  west.  In  the  patriarchal  tradi- 
tion, Esau,  ancestor  of  the  Edomites,  is  etymolo- 
gically  connected  with  Seir,  he  being  described 
as  a  man  'of  hair'  {e^ar.  Gen.  xxv.  25;  xxviL 
11).  But  in  Gen.  zxxvi.  20  sqq.  Seir  is  the  ancestor 
of  the  Horites  (q.v.),  the  aboriginal  inhabitants. 
In  a  papyrus  of  Ramses  III.  (b.c.  1300)  the 
Seirites  are  mentioned  as  a  Bedouin  tribe.  The 
name  is  therefore  ancient  and  its  etymology  un- 
certain, whether  it  is  to  be  derived  from  the 
people  or  from  the  land.  In  the  latter  case,  just 
as  Edom,  'red,'  describes  the  prevailing  color  of 
these  mountains,  so  Seir,  'hairy,'  'shaggy,'  or  per- 
haps 'awful,'  may  express  the  roughness  of  the 
country.  This  great  mountain  ridge,  composed 
of  argillaceous  rock,  porphyrv,  and  sandstone, 
eztencb  from  the  Dead  Sea  to  the  Gulf  of  Akabah 
on  the  Red  Sea.  It  presents  a  precipitous  front 
to  the  west  and  is  broken  by  deep  valleys,  but 
the  vegetation  is  rich  and  allows  cultivation.  Its 
most  famous  peak  is  Mount  Hor,  reputed  scene 
of  the  death  of  Aaron,  and  its  chief  city  the  fa- 
mous Petra  (q.v.),  in  the  neighborhood  of  which 
are  to  be  seen  some  of  the  most  remarkable  and 
beautiful  rock-formations  in  the  world.  The 
mountains  were  the  home  of  a  hardy  race,  which 
enriched  itself  through  its  command  of  the  trade 
routes  from  Arabia  to  the  Mediterranean,  and 
which  later  spread  north  into  Palestine.  Con- 
sult: Robinson,  Biblical  Researches  (vol.  ii.,  Bos- 
ton, 1841)  ;  Palmer,  Desert  of  the  Exodus  (Cam- 
bridge, 1871);  Trumbull,  Kadesh-Bamea  (New 
York,  1884).    See  Edom. 

SEISIN  (OF.  seisine,  saizine,  saisine,  Fr.  sai- 
sine,  from  OF.  seizir,  saizir,  Fr.  saisir,  to  seize, 
take  possession  of,  probably  from  OHG.  saezan, 
sezzan,  Ger.  setzen,  Eng  set,  to  put,  place).  Ac- 
tual possession  of  land  by  a  person  entitled  to  it, 
or  claiming  to  have  a  freehold  interest  therein. 
This  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  seisin  in  deed,  ss 
distinguished  from  seisin  in  lato^  which  is  a  mere 
right  of  present  possession.  By  the  old  common 
law,  seisin  denoted  the  completion  of  feudal  in- 
vestiture of  a  tenant,  accompanied  by  the  rites 
of  homage  and  fealty,  after  which  he  had  the 
elements  of  a  feudal  title — possession  and  right 
of  possession.  This  was  done  by  a  formal  cere- 
mony on  the  land,  known  as  the  livery  of  seisin' 
(q.v.).  In  most  of  the  United  States,  delivery 
of  a  deed  is  equivalent  to  livery  of  seisin,  and  no 
formal  entry  on  the  land  is  necessary.  How- 
ever, the  term  seisin  is  still  retained  in  our  law, 
but  there  is  some  confusion  aa  to  its  technical 


SEISIN. 


689 


SEISTAN. 


meaning,  the  courts  in  some  States  using  it  as 
synonymous  with  actual  possession,  and  others 
in  the  sense  of  ownership.  Consult:  Blackstone, 
Commentaries;  also  12  Law  Quarterly  Review, 
246  (London,  1896). 

SEISMOGRAPH  (from  Gk.  vewiiM,  aeiamoa, 
earthquake  +  yp^^i^t  graphein,  to  write), 
Seismometeb,  or  Seismosoope.  Names  given 
to  instruments  designed  to  indicate  and  record 
an  earthquake  shock.  By  the  term  seismoscope 
is  generally  implied  an  object  that  is  moved 
by  the  earthquake  and  leaves  a  record  of  its 
motion.  The  seismometer  or  seismograph,  on  the 
other  hand,  records  the  period,  extent,  and  di- 
rection of  the  disturbance.  A  trough  of  mer- 
cury with  notches  makes  a  useful  seismoscope, 
as  the  direction  of  the  movement  is  indicated 
by  notins  the  point  where  the  mercury  overflows. 
Pendulums  are  also  used  as  seismoscopes,  and 
this  form  of  apparatus  has  been  rendered  self- 
recording  and  forms  seismometers  or  seismographs 
now  in  use.  These  penduliuns  consist  of  heavy 
masses  delicately  suspended  so  that  they  remain 
stationary  during  any  vibration  of  the  earth,  and 
consequently  can  trace  a  record  of  the  move- 
ment of  the  earth  with  respect  to  the  pendulum. 
Two  types  of  pendulum  seismograph  are  used: 
those  which  employ  a  vertical  pendulum,  such  as 
the  Italian  observers  have  used  for  many  years, 
and  those  provided  with  a  horizontal  pendulum, 
a  form  preferred  by  the  Japanese,  English,  and 
Eurppean  scientists.  The  horizontal  pendulum 
was  invented  by  Hengler  in  1832  and  was  subse- 
quently improved  and  adapted  to  scientific  use 
by  Professor  Zollner  of  Leipzig.  In  connection 
with  the  horizontal  pendulum  a  recording  device 
is  used  which  in  the  instniments  constructed 
during  the  last  few  years  is  photographic  and 
employs  a  moving  strip  of  bromide  or  other  paper 
on  which  a  beam  of  light  is  reflected  by  mirrors 
connected  with  the  apparatus.  In  former  instru- 
ments a  blackened  surface  on  which  a  point 
traced  a  line  and  other  registering  devices  were 
used.  In  the  bracket  arrangement  of  the  hori- 
zontal pendulum  a  heav^  weieht  is  supported 
at  the  extremity  of  a  horizontal  bracket  free  to 
turn  about  a  vertical  axis  at  the  opposite  end. 
Any  movement  of  the  earth  affects  the  stand 
and  surrounding  objects,  but  is  not  communi- 
cated to  the  suspended  mass.  This  instrument 
has  been  used  in  Japan  in  connection  with  a 
photographic  register  as  described  above,  with 
considerable  success.  The  horizontal  pendulum 
of  Professor  Ernst  von  Rebeur  Paschnitz  of 
Merseburg  is  the  form  most  used  in  Europe  and 
has  also  been  tested  in  Japan.  In  this  apparatus 
there  are  one  or  two  horizontal  pendulums  so 
that  a  vibration  in  any  direction  is  recorded. 

A  simple  horizontal  pendulum  seismograph 
which  is  now  extensively  used  was  devised  by 
Professor  John  Milne  of  England.  This  iiistru- 
ment  consists  of  a  horizontal  pendulum  which 
carries  a  boom  at  whose  extremity  there  is  an 
aluminum  plate  in  which  there  is  a  transverse 
slit.  This  slit  is  placed  above  and  at  right 
angles  to  a  second  slit  beneath  which  there  is  a 
moving  band  of  bromide  paper.  Light  from  a 
lamp  is  reflected  through  the  intersection  of 
these  two  slits  in  the  form  of  a  point  when  the 
two  slits  are  in  their  position  of  rest,  and  makes 
a  straight  line  on  the  moving  paper.  If  there 
is  any  movement  of  the  earth  there  is  a  move- 
ment of  one  slit  with  respect  to  the  other,  caus- 


ing a  wavy  line  to  be  produced  which  indicates 
the  tremors  observed  at  the  particular  station. 
A  clockwork  arrangement  opens  and  closes  a 
shutter  at  regular  intervals  so  that  the  light 
from  the  lamp  makes  a  record  of  the  time  on  the 
moving  strip.  Professor  Milne  in  his  observa- 
tory on  the  Isle  of  Wight  using  such  an  instru- 
ment is  able  to  detect  disturbances  in  Japan, 
Borneo,  South  America,  or  elsewhere,  and  the 
seismograms  thus  obtained,  taken  in  connection 
with  telegraphic  information  and  interchange  of 
observations  at  other  stations,  enable  the  velocity, 
wave  movement,  source,  and  other  features  of  an 
earthquake  to  be  studiecL 


OlfOBI  SBISlfOORAPH  OF  U.  B.   WSATHBB  BUBBAU. 

For  further  information  on  seismometers, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  Milne,  Earthquakes 
and  Other  Earth  Movements  (London  and 
New  York,  1886) ;  miscellaneous  papers  on 
seismology  in  Nature  (London),  by  the  same 
author;  Reports  of  the  Committee  on  Seismo- 
logical  Investigations  of  the  British  Associations 
(to  be  found  in  the  annual  reports  of  the  meet- 
ings of  the  association) ;  and  The  Seismological 
Journal  of  Japan,     See  Eabthquake. 

SEISMOLOGY.    See  Eabthquake. 

SEISS,  ses,  Joseph  Augustus  (1823 — ).  An 
American  Lutheran  clergyman.  He  was  bom 
at  Graceham,  Md.,  and  studied  for  two  years  at 
Pennsylvania  College,  Gettysburg.  After  a  course 
of  private  instruction  in  theology,  he  became  a 
pastor  at  Martinsburg  and  Shepherdstown,  Va., 
in  1843,  moved  to  Cumberland,  then  to  Balti- 
more, Md.,  and  in  1858  became  pastor  of  Saint 
John's,  Philadelphia.  In  1874  he  built  and  in- 
augurated the  (5hurch  of  the  Holy  Communion 
in  that  city.  For  twelve  years  he  was  editor 
of  The  Lutheran  and  for  a  time  an  editor  of  The 
Prophetic  Times;  also  a  founder  of  the  General 
Council  of  the  Church.  Some  of  his  books  are: 
Baptist  System  Examined  (1854;  3d  ed.  1882)  ; 
Last  Times  (1856;  7th  ed.  1880);  Ecclesia  Lu- 
therana  (1867)  ;  Lectures  on  the  Oospels  (1876)  ; 
Luther  and  the  Reformation   (1883). 

SEISTAN,  s&s-t&n^  or  SISTAN.  A  region  in 
Eastern  Persia  and  Southwestern  Afghanistan,  be- 
tween latitudes  30**  and  31**  35'  N.,  and  longi- 
tudes 60**  and  62**  40'  E.  (Map:  Persia,  H  6). 
The   Persian-Afghan  boundary  was   determined 


SEI8TAN. 


640 


SELD'OB. 


in  1870-72  by  an  English  boundary  com- 
mission,  which  gave  Sistan  proper  (mostly  west 
of  the  Helmund)  to  Persia,  and  outer  Sistan 
(to  the  east  and  southeast  of  Sistan  proper)  to 
Afghanistan.  The  Persian  district  is  mostly 
sandy,  but  well  watered  and  productive.  Outer 
Sistan  is  only  sparsely  inhabited.  The  inhabi- 
tants are  Persians  and  Baluchis.  The  region 
abounds  in  relics  of  antiquity,  and  before  the 
ravages  of  Tamerlane,  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
was  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  Persian 
provinces. 

SEITZ,  zits,  Anton  (1829-1000).  A  German 
genre  painter,  born  at  Roth-am-Sand,  near 
Nuremberg.  He  was  especially  successful,  with 
interior  scenes  on  miniature  scale,  remarkable 
for  delicate  elaboration  of  the  figures,  fine  chia- 
roscuroj  and  subtle  humor,  which  earned  him 
the  name  of  the  Munich  Meissonier.  A  partial 
list  of  his  principal  works  includes:  'The  Miser" 
(1860);  "Dice-Players  in  a  Tavern"  (1862); 
"Rural  Letter- Writer"  (Germanic  Museum, 
Nuremberg) ;  "Vagabonds"  (New  Pinakothek, 
Munich);  "Champion  Shot"  (1874,  D.  W. 
Powers,  Rochester,  N.  Y.) ;  "Capuchin  Monk  in 
Peasant's  Cottage"  ( 1883,  Leipzig  Museum )  ;  and 
"Political  Declaration"  (1891). 

SE^JANT  (OF.  seant,  from  Lat.  aedena,  pres. 
part,  of  sedere,  to  sit),  or  Assis  (Fr.).  In 
heraldry  (q.v.),  a  term  of  blazon  applied  to  a 
beast  represented  as  preparing  for  action. 

SEJAON'TTSy  iELTUS  (  ?-a.d.  31).  A  favorite 
and  minister  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius  (q.v.). 
Sejanus  was  bom  at  Vulsinii.  His  father  was 
Sejus  Strabo,  commander  of  the  prsetorian  guard 
under  Augustus.  When  Sejus  Strabo  became 
governor  of  Egypt  (a.d.  14)  ^lius  was  set  over 
the  praetorian  cohorts,  whom  he  united  (a.d.  23) 
and  with  whose  support  he  for  a  while  held  Rome 
in  his  sway.  In  order  to  make  himself  eventually 
Emperor,  he  persuaded  Tiberius  to  withdraw  to 
Capri.  W^ith  Livia,  wife  of  Tiberius,  whom  he 
had  debauched,  he  plotted  and  brought  about  in 
A.D.  23  the  death  of  Drusus  Caesar  (q.v.)  and  got 
rid  of  Agrippina  (q.v.),  wife  of  Germanicus,  and 
her  sons  Nero  and  Drusus.  Tiberius  named 
Sejanus  to  be  consul  along  with  himself  for  the 
year  31  and  then  to  be  pontifex,  but  he  became 
suspicious  of  Sejanus  and  had  him  killed  with 
many  of  his  suspected  followers  and  his  whole 
family.  Our  rather  uncertain  authority  is  Ta- 
citus. Consult  JUlg,  Vita  Lucii  ^lii  Sejani 
(Innsbruck,  1882). 

SELAGHH,  s«-la^M  (NeoLat.  nom.  pi., 
from  Gk.  0'Aaxot,  aelachoa,  shark).  A  group  of 
fishes  including  the  sharks  and  rays.  See  Car- 
tilaginous Fishes.  For  fossil  forms,  see  Shabk. 

SE^LAH.  A  rubrical  note  found  in  Hebrew 
psalms  and  prayers.  It  occurs  as  follows:  In 
39  Psalms,  71  times;  in  Habakkuk  iii.  (properly 
a  psalm),  3  times;  in  the  Eighteen  Benedictions, 
one  of  the  most  ancient  portions  of  the  Jewish 
liturgy,  twice;  also  with  more  or  less  author- 
ity in  other  prayers  of  the  Jewish  ritual.  In  the 
Septuagint  it  is  represented  by  the  term  diap- 
aalma;  the  Hebrew  text  is  generally  followed,  but 
the  term  is  sometimes  omitted,  sometimes  sup- 
plied, where  not  found  in  the  Hebrew.  The  Selah 
is  also  found  twice  in  the  Greek  Psalms  of  Flolo- 
mon  (first  century  B.C.,  translated  from  a  Hebrew 
original).  In  two-thirds  of  the  cases  in  the 
Bibje,  it  is  found  at  the  end  of  evident  strophes, 


four  times  at  the  end  of  the  psalm;  in  moat  of 
the  remainaing  cases,  in  connection  with  a  quo- 
tation. In  general,  therefore,  it  indicates  some 
natural  break  in  the  hymn.  The  most  probable 
explanation  is  that  advanced  by  Dr.  C.  A.  Briggs, 
that  the  term  is  connected  with  a  verb  meaning 
'to  lift  up,'  in  the  sense  of  'raising*  a  hallelujah, 
and  that  it  was  the  rubrical  direction  for  a  choric 
doxology,  such  as  are  found  at  the  end  of  the 
first  four  Books  of  the  Psalms  (xli.  13;  IxxiL 
18-19;  Ixxxix.  62;  cvi.  48),  and  which  were 
used  at  the  end  of  each  psalm  in  the  services. 
This  view  is  supported  by  some  of  the  Greek  and 
Syriac  renderings  of  the  term,  and  by  Jacob  of 
Kdessa  and  Jerome.  Consult:  Jacob  in  Zeit- 
schrift  fUr  alttestamentliche  Wissenschaft,  voL 
xvi.  (1896) ;  C.  A.  Briggs  in  Journal  of  Biblical 
Literature,  vol.  xviii.  (1899);  E.  C.  Briggs  in 
American  Journal  of  Semitic  Languages,  voL 
xvi.  (1899). 

BEI/BOBJSl'E,  LoBD.    See  Palmes,  Sir  Rouk- 

DELL. 

SEI/BY.  A  river  port  in  the  West  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  England,  on  the  Ouse,  20  miles  east  of 
Leeds  (Map:  England,  E  3).  An  ancient  Gothic 
cross  adorns  the  market-place.  The  famous 
parish  church,  306  feet  long  by  60  feet  wide,  was 
part  of  a  Benedictine  abbey  founded  by  William 
the  Conqueror  in  1068.  Population,  in  1901, 7800. 
Consult  Morrell,  History  of  Selby  (Selby,  1867). 

SEI/BEK^  John  (1584-1654).  An  English 
jurist  and  Orientalist.  He  was  bom  near  Worth- 
ing, in  Sussex,  studied  at  Hart  Hall,  Oxford, 
and  studied  law  at  the  Inner  Temple.  In  1610 
appeared  his  Janus  Anglorum,  Fades  Altera 
(English  translation^  1683),  which  dealt  with 
the  progress  of  English  law  down  to  Henry  H.; 
and  in  1614  was  published  his  Titles  of  Honour, 
In  1623  he  was  elected  member  for  Lancaster, 
and  from  this  period  till  his  death  he  took  a 
considerable  part  in  public  afi'airs.  In  1626  he 
took  part  in  the  impeachment  of  Buckingham; 
in  1627  he  was  counsel  for  Sir  Edward  Hamp- 
den in  the  celebrated  Five  Knights  Case;  m 
1628  he  played  an  impK)rtant  rOle  in  drawing 
up  and  passing  the  Petition  of  Right,  and  for  his 
participation  in  the  tumultuous  closing  scene  of 
the  Parliament  of  1629  was  committed  to  the 
Tower  for  two  years.  In  1640  he  was  chosen 
member  for  the  University  of  Oxford.  After  the 
execution  of  Charles  I.  (of  which  it  is  certain  he 
strongly  disapproved),  he  took  little  share  in 
public  matters.  The  principal  writings  of  Selden 
deal  with  ancient  Hebrew-  law  and  include:  De 
Successionihus  in  Bona  Defuncti  Secundum  Leges 
Hehrworum  (1634) ;  De  Successione  in  Pontifica- 
turn  HehrcBorum  lAhri  Duo  (Leyden,  1638)  ;  De 
June  Naturali  et  Oentium  Juxta  Disciplinam 
Hehrasorum  (1640).  His  Mare  Clausum  (pub- 
lished in  1635,  though  written  sixteen  or  seven- 
teen years  before)  was  a  reply  to  Grotius's  Mare 
Liherum.  He  left  besides  a  great  variety 
of  posthumous  works,  of  which  the  most  famous, 
and  also  the  most  valuable,  is  his  Table- 
Talk,  recorded  and  published  by  his  amanuensis, 
Richard  Mil  ward,  in  1689,  and  recently  reprinted 
(London,  1868).  Consult  Johnson,  Memoirs  of 
John  Selden  (10  vols.,  London  and  New  York, 
1883-84). 

SEL  D'OB  (Fr.,  salt  of  gold).  A  name  given 
to  sodium  aurothiosulphate,  which  is  used  in 
photography.    It  was  originally  employed  to  aid 


8EL  jyOB^ 


641 


SELEUGIA. 


in  fixing  the  image  on  a  daguerreotype  plate.  At 
present  it  is  used  in  toning  positive  prints.  It 
is  formed  by  gradually  adding  a  neutral  2  per 
cent,  solution  of  gold  chloride  to  a  solution  con- 
taining three  times  as  much  sodiuin  thiosulphate. 
After  each  addition  it  is  necessary  to  wait  until 
the  red  liquid  which  is  formed  loses  its  color, 
after  which  the  salt  is  precipitated  with  strong 
alcohol,  and  then  allowed  to  crystallize. 

SELENE,  s«-le^nS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  ZeXi^i^, 
connected  with  c-Aaf,  selas,  brightness,  Skt.  svar, 
Ay.  hva^,  sun).  The  Greek  name  of  the  moon 
and  its  goddess,  called  also  Mi^my,  Mene,  and  in 
Latin  Luna.  Her  myth  is  differently  told,  but  tho 
most  common  account  makes  her  a  daughter  of 
Hyperion  and  Tlieia,  and  sister  of  Helios  (the  sun) 
and  Eos  (the  dawn).  She  was  represented  as 
riding  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  a  span  of  horses, 
winged,  and  shedding  soft  light  from  her  golden 
crown,  or  else  riding  on  a  horse  or  mule.  Degend 
aaid  that  by  Zeus  she  became  mother  of  Pandia, 
*the  all-shining/  and  that  Pan  had  also  won 
her  love.  Most  famous  was  her  passion  for 
Endymion,  who,  according  to  the  Carian  legend, 
lay  sunk  in  eternal  sleep  in  a  cave  on  Mount 
Latmos,  where  he  was  nightly  visited  by  Selene. 
In  Elis,  however,  the  story  told  how  she  bore  to 
Endymion,  son  of  the  King,  fifty  daughters.  The 
sharply  transparent  character  of  the  name  seems 
to  have  kept  Selene  from  developing  into  so  dis- 
tinct a  personality  as  other  early  moon-goddesses. 
When  Apollo  became  so  strongly  identified  with 
the  sun,  it  was  natural  that  Artemis  should  be 
restored  to  her  position  as  a  moon-goddess,  and 
in  later  literature  and  art  we  find  the  crescent  an 
attribute  of  Artemis  or  Diana.  Consult  Roscher, 
Veher  Selene  und  Verwandtes  (Leipzig,  1890), 
and  Nachtrage  (Leipzig,  1895). 

SEIiEN^GA.  A  river  of  Northern  Asia,  rising 
in  the  Khangai  Mountains  of  Mongolia.  It 
flows  for  a  considerable  part  of  its  course  in  a 
northeastern  direction,  and  after  turning  to  the 
north,  passes  into  the  Siberian  territory  of  Trans- 
baikalia, and  enters  Lake  Baikal  through  a  wide 
delta  (Map:  China,  B  2).  Its  total  length  is 
over  7CK)  miles,  and,  although  its  swift  current  in- 
terferes to  some  extent  with  navigation,  it  is  an 
important  factor  in  the  commercial  intercourse 
between  Mongolia  and  Siberia,  fiowing  through 
the  most  settled  part  of  Transbaikalia  and  touch- 
ing the  Trans-Siberian  Railway.  Its  fisheries, 
which  are  exploited  on  a  considerable  scale,  also 
add  to  the  economic  importance. 

SELEKITE  (Lat.  8€lenite»,  aelenitia,  from 
Gk.  <reXi)Wri|s,  relating  to  the  moon,  from  aeXifjini, 
8el&n^,  moon).  The  variety  of  calcium  sulphate, 
or  gypsum,  that  is  crystallized  in  the  mono- 
clinic  system.  It  is  usually  white  or  tinged  with 
light  shades  of  green,  gray,  or  yellow.  Fine  speci- 
mens are  found  at  Bex,  Switzerland;  in  Sicily; 
in  England;  also  in  Nova  Scotia,  and  in  the 
United  States  at  various  localities,  in  New  York, 
Maryland,  Ohio,  and  Kentucky.  It  sometimes 
occurs  in  broad  transparent  sheets  as  much 
as  one  yard  across.  In  this  condition  the  mineral 
is  capable  of  being  split  into  extremely  thin 
plates  that  are  flexible  and  were  used  by  the 
ancients  in  place  of  glass. 

SEIiENITJM  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  <r«XiJi^, 
ael^ni,  moon ) .  A  chemical  element  discovered 
in  1817  by  Berielius,  who  obtained  it  from  crys- 
tals formed  in  the  lead  chambers  of  sulphuric 


acid  works.  The  element  is  somewhat  widely 
distributed,  though  in  small  quantities.  It  occurs 
chiefly  in  combination  with  copper,  lead,  and  sil- 
ver, as  in  clausthalite  (lead  sulphide),  lehrbach- 
ite  (lead  and  mercury  sulphide),  onofrite  (mer- 
cury selenide  and  sulphide),  crookesite  (copper, 
thallium,  and  silver  selenide) ;  also  in  smaller 
quantities  in  other  minerals,  especially  in  certain 
pyrites  and  chalcopyrites.  It  is  obtained  chiefly 
from  the  flue  dust  formed  in  roasting  sulphides 
containing  selenium,  or  from  the  deposits  in  the 
lead  chambers  of  sulphuric  acid  works.  These 
deposits  are  mixed  with  equal  parts  of  sulphuric 
acid  and  water  to  a  thin  paste,  and  then  boiled, 
with  the  addition,  from  time  to  time,  of  a  little 
nitric  acid,  or  potassium  chlorate,  until  the  red 
color  disappears  and  the  solution  of  selenic  acid 
thus  obtained  is  heated  with  fuming  hydrochloric 
acid,  yielding  selenious  acid,  the  cold  solution  of 
which,  when  saturated  with  sulphur  dioxide,  fur- 
nishes a  red  pulverulent  precipitate  of  selenium. 

Selenium  (symbol  Se;  atomic  weight,  79.17) 
exists  in  several  allotropic  forms,  of  which  the 
red  or  amorphous  variety,  which  is  soluble  in 
carbon  disulphide,  has  a  specific  gravity  of  4.3, 
and  has  no  definite  melting-point,  but  softens 
gradually  on  heating.  When  the  soluble  sele- 
nium is  slowly  heated  from  100**  C.  to  217**  C, 
it  passes  into  a  black,  flossy,  metallic  crystalline 
mass,  which  has  a  specific  gravity  of  4.8,  is  in- 
soluble in  carbon  disulphide,  and  melts  at  217°  C. 
Selenium  is  both  odorless  and  tasteless,  but  it 
bums  with  a  reddish-blue  flame  that  has  a  pecu- 
liar odor  resembling  horseradish.  The  crystal- 
line variety  of  the  element  conducts  electricity, 
its  resistance  increasing  when  heated,  but  dimin- 
ishing considerably  on  exposure  to  light,  especial- 
ly red  rays.  The  change  of  conductivity  is  in- 
stantaneous, and  is  almost  doubled  in  sunlight, 
though  even  the  light  from  a  small  lamp  has  a 
perceptible  influence.  It  was  upon  this  property 
that  the  construction  of  the  photophone  (q.v.) 
was  based.  With  oxygen  selenium  forms  a  di- 
oxide, which  combines  with  water  to  form  sele- 
nious acid.  A  selenic  acid  is  produced  by  the  ac- 
tion of  chlorine  on  aqueous  selenious  acid.  Sele- 
nious and  selenic  acids  form  salts,  termed,  respec- 
tively, selenites  and  selenates. 

SELENKA,  zft-l&n^&,  Emil  (1842-1902).  A 
German  zoologist,  born  in  Brunswick,  and  edu- 
cated there  at  the  Collegium  Carolinum  and  at 
the  University  of  Gottingen,  under  Keferstein. 
In  1868  he  was  made  professor  of  zoGlogy  and 
comparative  anatomy  at  Leyden,  and  in  1884  he 
accepted  a  chair  in  Erlangen.*  His  works  dealt 
chiefly  with  comparative  anatomy  and  embryology 
of  the  vertebrates,  Zoologische  Studien  (1878- 
81),  Entvnickelungsgeschichte  der  Tiere  (1883- 
92) ,  Zoologisches  Taschenhuch  {Sd  ed.,  1885),  and 
Menachenaffen  (1898-1902)  being  the  chief  titles. 

SELEUCIA^  s6-lu'shI-&  (Lat.,  from  Gk. 
1€\€6k€Mj  Seleukeia ) .  The  name  of  a  number  of 
ancient  cities  of  Asia,  situated  in  Syria,  Pisidia, 
Pamphylia,  Cilicia,  Caria,  and  Mesopotamia, 
founded  during  the  earlier  existence  of  the  dy- 
nasty of  the  Seleucidae  (q.v.).  The  most  noted  of 
these  were:  (1)  Seleucia  Pierta  (near  the  mod- 
ern Suadeiah),  founded  by  Seleucus  Nicator  at 
the  foot  of  Mount  Pieria,  on  the  seashore,  about  4 
miles  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Cronies,  and 
strongly  fortified.  It  was  the  seaport  of  Antioch, 
and  became  of  great  importance  during  the  wars 
between  the  Seleucidae  and  the  Ptolemies  for  the 


SELEUCZA* 


643 


SELETTCIDiB. 


poBflession  of  Syria.  Its  once  magnificent  port 
is  still  in  a  good  state  of  preservation,  while  the 
tunnel,  1088  yards  in  length,  excavated  out  of 
solid  rock,  and  forming  the  only  communication 
between  the  city  and  the  sea,  together  with  the 
remains  of  its  triple  line  of  walU,  its  citadel, 
temples,  amphitheatre,  and  necropolis,  attest  the 
former  importance  and  splendor  of  the  city. 
Seleucus  himself  was  buried  there.  In  b.c.  246 
the  city  was  taken  by  Ptolemy  Euergetes,  but 
Antiochus  the  Great  recaptured  it  in  219.  In 
108  it  gained  independence,  which  Pompey  con- 
firmed in  70.  By  the  fifth  century  a.d.  it  had 
entirely  decayed.  (2)  Seleucia  ad  Tigrim  was 
also  built  by  Seleucus  Nicator  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Tigris,  about  40  miles  northeast  of  Baby- 
lon, which  was  despoiled  to  supply  materials  for 
the  construction  of  the  new  city.  Situated  in  a 
district  of  great  fertility,  and  controlling  the 
navigation  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  as  well 
as  the  commerce  of  Mesopotamia,  it  rapidlv  rose 
to  wealth  and  splendor,  supplanting  Babylon  as 
the  capital  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Seleucid 
monarchy,  and  containing  in  the  acme  of  its 
greatness  a  population  of  more  than  600,- 
000,  During  the  decline  of  the  Seleucid 
monarchy  it  became  independent,  and  attracted, 
because  of  its  wealth  and  splendor,  the  robber 
tribes  of  Southern  Armenia  and  Media,  who  par- 
tially plundered  it  on  more  than  one  occasion. 
It  was  burned  by  Trajan  (a.d.  116),  and  subse- 
quently by  Lucius  Verus,  and  when  visited  by 
SeptimiuB  Sevepis  was  desolate.  (3)  Seleucia 
Tbacheotis  (on  the  site  of  the  modem  Selef- 
keh)  was  also  built  by  Seleucus  on  the  west- 
em  bank  of  the  Galycadnus  in  Cilicia  Aspera.  It 
was  a  rival  of  Tarsus,  and  was  the  birthplace 
of  several  famous  men,  among  them  the  philoso- 
pher Xenarchus.  Its  site  is  still  covered  with 
its  ruins.  (4)  Seleucia  was  likewise  the 
name  of  a  city  in  the  Persian  district  of 
Margiana,  originally  built  by  Alexander  the 
Great,  and  called  Alexandria.  Antiochus  I., 
who  rebuilt  it  after  it  had  been  destroyed  by 
the  barbarians,  renamed  it  in  honor  of  his  father, 
Seleucus  Nicator.  The  Roman  prisoners  taken 
by  the  Parthians  at  the  defeat  of  Crassus  (q.v,) 
were  colonized  here.  (5)  Seleucia  in  Mesopo- 
tamia (modem  Bir)  was  a  fortress  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Euphrates,  opposite  the  ford  of 
Zeugma.  There  were  several  other  cities  of 
this  name,  as  that  on  the  River  Belus,  in  Syria; 
on  the  plain  of  Isparta,  in  Pisidia ;  in  Pamphylia, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Eurymedon,  and  elsewhere; 
while  the  city  of  JTralles  (q.v.)  was  at  one  time 
called  Seleucia. 

SELEir^CIDJB  or  SELEIT^CIDS.  The  dynas- 
ty which  ruled  over  that  portion  of  Alexander  the 
Great's  monarchy  which  included  Syria,  a  large 
portion  of  Asia  Minor,  and  the  whole  of  the  east- 
ern provinces  of  Bactria,  Sogdiana,  Persia,  and 
Babylonia. 

Seleucus  I.  Nicator  (b.c.  312-C.280),  the  first 
of  the  line,  was  the  son  of  Antiochus,  a  dis- 
tinguished oflBcer  in  the  service  of  Philip  of 
Macedon.  He  had  been  one  of  the  conspira- 
tors against  Perdiccas,  and  in  the  second  par- 
tition of  the  provinces  constituting  Alexander's 
realm,  Babylonia  fell  to  his  lot.  To  this,  with 
the  aid  of  Antigonus,  he  added  Susiana,  but  a 
misunderstanding  arose  between  the  two  generals, 
and  Seleucus  took  refuge  in  Egypt  (b.c.  316). 
Four  years  later  Seleucus  returned  to  his  sat- 


rapy, amid  the  congratulations  of  his  subjects. 
The  date  of  Seleucus's  return  to  Babylon  was  the 
beginninff  of  the  era  of  the  Seleucidse,  which  was 
employed  by  the  Syrians  and  Asiatic  Greeks  until 
the  fifteenth  century.  Recovering  Susiana,  Seleu- 
cus subjugated  Media,  and  extended  his  power  to 
the  OxuB  and  Indus.  Of  his  campaign  against  the 
Indian  King  Sandrocottus  (q.v.)  tiiere  are  but 
few  facts  known.  In  b.c.  306  he  assumed  the 
title  of  King,  and  four  years  later  he  joined  the 
confederacy  of  Ptolemy,  Lysimachus,  and  Cassan- 
der  against  Antigonus,  and  by  his  cavalry  and 
elephants  decided  the  issue  of  the  battle  of  Ipsus 
in  B.c.  301  or  300  against  his  quondam  ally,  who 
was  killed  in  the  fight.  Being  now  the  most  pow- 
erful of  Alexander's  successors,  he  obtained  the 
largest  share  in  the  conquered  kingdom,  a  great 
part  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  whole  of  Syria  falling 
to  him.  In  293  he  gave  the  provinces  beyond  the 
Euphrates  to  his  son,  Antiochus,  who  afterwards 
succeeded  him.  He  afterwards  waged  successful 
wars  against  Demetrius,  King  of  Macedon,  and 
Lysimachus,  Kingof  Thrace.  He  was  assassinated 
about  B.C.  28  by  Ptolemy  Geraunus.  His  son  and 
successor  was  Antiochus  I.  Soter  (c.280-61). 
followed  by  his  son  Antiochus  II.  Theos  (261-46), 
who  was  assassinated  by  Seleucus  II.  Callinicua 
(246-26).  Seleucus  II.  was  driven  from  his  king- 
dom by  Ptolemy  Euergetes  (q.v.).  He  recovered 
his  throne  on  Ptolemy's  withdrawal,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  maintaining  his  hold  on  Syria  and 
most  of  Asia  Minor  against  both  the  Egyptians 
and  his  younger  brother,  Antiochus,  who  at- 
tempted to  exercise  independent  authority  over 
part  of  Asia  Minor.  Seleucus  undertook  an  ex- 
pedition aeainst  the  revolted  provinces  of  Parthia 
and  Bactria,  but  was  routed  by  Arsaces  the  Great, 
the  deliverer  of  Parthia,  while  in  the  west  several 
provinces  were  wrested  from  him  by  Attains,  the 
King  of  Pergamum.  His  sons,  Seleucus  III.  Ge- 
raunus (226-23)  and  Antiocus  III.  the  Great 
(223-187),  were  his  successors.  The  latter  was 
vanquished  by  the  Romans  at  Magnesia  in  b.c. 
190  and  forced  to  relinquish  a  great  part  of  Asia 
Minor.  Seleucus  IV.  Philopator  (187-75)  was 
eager  to  dispossess  Attains  of  the  provinces 
which  he  had  taken,  but  fear  of  the  Romans 
prevented  him  from  carrying  out  his  design.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Antiochus  IV.  Epiphanes  ( 175- 
164) ,  in  whose  reign  the  Jews  rose  under  the  Mac- 
cabees. The  succeeding  princes  of  the  dynasty 
were  Antiochus  V.  Eupator  (164-62) ;  Demetrius 
I.  Soter  (162-50),  who  was  defeated  and  slain  by 
the  impostor  Alexander  Balas  (150-46);  Deme- 
trius II.  Nicator  (146-38,  128-26),  who  overthrew 
the  impostor,  and  was  himself  a  prisoner  among 
the  Parthians  for  ten  years,  Syria  having  been 
seized  by  Diodotus,  sumamed  Trypho,  who  set  up 
the  puppet  Antiochus  IV.  Theos  (c.  144-42),  and 
afterwards  ascended  the  throne  himself  (142-37) : 
Antiochus  VII.  Sidetes  (137-28),  who  restored 
the  royal  line  of  the  Seleucidse,  after  whom 
Demetrius  again  reigned  until  his  defeat  by  the 
pretender  Alexander  Sebina,  his  rule  marking 
the  loss  of  the  original  centre  of  Seleucian  power 
to  the  Parthians;  Antiochus  Vm.  Grynus  (125- 
96),  who  was  compelled  to  share  his  dominions 
with  his  half-brother,  Antiochus  IV.  Cyzicems 
from  B.c.  Ill;  Seleucus  V.  or  VT.  Epiphanes 
(96-94),  and  Antiochus  X.  Eusebes  (95-83),  who 
continued  the  division  until  about  b.c.  94,  when 
the    latter    was    victorious    in    a    pitched   bat- 


SELBTXCIDiB. 


648 


SEIi7-DEFBNSB. 


tie,  and  seized  the  whole  kingdom,  for  which. 
however^  he  was  forced  to  fight  with  Philip,  ana 
Antiochus  XI.  Epiphanes  (q.v.)»  the  younger 
brother  of  Seleucus,  and  Demetrius  III.  Eucserus 
(94-88),  a  third  brother  of  Seleucus,  who,  with 
Philip,  next  claimed  the  sovereignty,  which  was 
taken  from  them  by  Tigranes  (83-69),  King  of 
Armenia,  at  the  solicitation  of  the  Syrians; 
Antiochus  XII.  Dionysus  (q.v.)»  &  fourth  brother 
of  Selencus,  and  Antiochus  XIII.  Asiaticus  (CO- 
GS), who  came  into  conflict  with  the  Romans,  and 
was  deprived  of  his  possessions,  which  were  convert- 
ed into  a  Roman  province  by  Pompey  in  B.c.  64. 

SEIiETT'CTTS.     See  Seleucidje. 

SSIiP  (AS.  self,  aeolf,  Goth,  ailha,  OHG.,  Ger. 
aelby  self;  perhaps  connected  with  Ir.  aelb,  pos- 
session). In  psychology,  a  term  synonymous 
with  the  'conscious  individual;'  i.e.  a  self  is  a 
mind  plus  a  body.  It  covers  the  whole  range  of 
consciousness,  and  is  completed  only  in  the  course 
of  the  individual's  existence.  It  is  conceivable 
that  a  self  should  exist  without  self-conscious- 
ness or  a  consciousness  of  self.  The  self  is  the 
organism — mind  and  body — considered  structur- 
ally; consciousness  of  self  is  a  function  per- 
formed by  those  conscious  processes  which  refer 
to  or  ideate  the  self.  Self -consciousness,  then,  is 
set  over  against  consciousness  of  external  reality, 
of  things  which  lie  outside  the  individual.  The 
two  consciousnesses  are  composed  of  similar  pro- 
cesses, but  have  entirely  different  references. 
Self  may  also  mean  the  mental  ego  alone.  Even 
in  the  narrower  sense,  a  'self  or  a  ^ind'  im- 
plies more  than  a  collection  of  mental  pro- 
cesses taken  at  haphazard.  It  implies  the  inter- 
relations which  always  subsist  among  the  pro- 
cesses of  a  given  individual.  It  is  often  said  that 
'no  two  people  are  alike,'  and  this  is  undoubtedly 
true,  quite  apart  from  bodily  differences.  The 
dissimilarities  which  inhere  in  selves  or  minds 
are  to  be  referred  to  unlikenesses  of  mental  con- 
stitution (q.v.),  i.e.  to  differences  in  memory- 
type,  in  habitual  modes  of  association,  in  tem- 
perament, in  liability  to  emotional  excitement,  in 
differences  in  the  unitariness  of  one's  experi- 
ences, in  rash  impulsiveness  or  balanced  sanity, 
in  tendency  to  criminal  action  or  to  religious 
fervor,  and  so  on.  All  these  things  are  in- 
dicative of  ultimate  variations  in  mental  ten- 
dency. They  form  the  basis  for  the  heterogene- 
ity of  society. 

When  an  individual's  act  exhibits  his  pecu- 
liar mental  constitution  we  say  that  the  act  is 
'characteristic,'  that  *it  is  just  like  him,'  mean- 
ing that  in  the  action  the  individual  has  ex- 
pressed his  'self-hood,'  that  the  act  was  not  deter- 
mined by  a  chance  impulse,  but  that  it  repre- 
sented a  long  line  of  'tendency'  (q.v.).  Consult 
authorities  \uder  Self-Consciousness. 

SEXiF-CONSCIOTTSNESS.  Self-conscious- 
ness or  'consciousness  of  self  may  be  either  a 
perception  or  idea  or  it  may  be  a  concept.  When 
one  thinks  of  one's  existence  as  an  individual  (a 
certain  mind  and  a  certain  body)  one  has  an 
'idea  of  self.'  If  self  is  considered  in  the  ab- 
stract, without  any  personal  reference — not  'my- 
self,* or  'himself,'  or  'herself,*  simply  a  'self — it 
becomes  a  concept;  psychology  is  interested  in 
such  a  concept  only  in  so  far  as  it  is  interested 
in  concepts  in  general,  i.e.  in  seeking  to  deter- 
mine the  mental  processes  that  underlie  their 
formation.    (See  Concept.)    It  has  more  to  in- 


vestigate in  the  peroeption  or  idea  of  self.  Psy- 
chology has  to  ask  (1)  what  processes  enter  in- 
to the  formation  of  the  perception  or  idea,  and 
(2)  how  the  self  comes  to  be  perceived  or  ide- 
ated. These  questions  are  most  easily  answered 
by  saying  that  the  self  is  a  simple,  unitary,  ac- 
tive 'principle'  or  'thing'  which  dwells  within  the 
body  and  directs  it.  But  since  no  such  'princi- 
ple' or  'thing*  can  be  found  when  the  mind  is 
looked  at  critically  we  must  infer  that  this  no- 
tion of  self  is  got  by  putting  a  concrete  though 
fantastic  filling  into  the  abstract  conceptual  self. 
If  we  scrutinize  the  self-idea  for  its  real  'em- 
pirical' filling,  we  find  that  its  contents  vary 
from  day  to  day,  from  minute  to  minute.  Now 
it  is  'myself  as  performing  my  part  in  a  given 
situation,  social,  professional,  domestic,  reli- 
gious; now  it  is  'myself  carrying  certain  respon- 
sibilities, owing  certain  obligations,  sustaining 
certain  relations  with  others,  possessing  proper- 
ty, family,  friends.  But  in  all  this  shifting  of 
the  self -idea  there  are  certain  constant  elements 
which  support  the  whole.  The  most  prominent 
of  these  are  one's  name,  the  words  'I'  and 
'my;'  visual  and  tactual  perceptions  of  the 
body;  numerous  sensations  of  internal  move- 
ments; a  feeling  of  'self-complacency;'  'self- 
satisfaction;*  and  a  mass  of  relatively  stable  or- 
ganic sensations  which  are  not  ordinarily  ana- 
lyzed and  referred  to  their  various  points  of 
origin,  but  come  to  consciousness  'in  the  lump.' 
The  constancy  and  stability  of  all  these  things 
depend  upon  bodily  and  mental  constitution  (see 
Mental  Constitution  and  Self),  which  means 
in  every  individual  a  tendency  to  appear,  to  feel, 
and  to  act  in  a  definite  and  permanent  manner. 

The  origin  of  the  idea  of  self  is  partly  social 
and  partly  individual.  Every  person  is  an  o&- 
jeci  to  other  persons.  He  is  treated  as  a  perma- 
nent being,  as  a  centre  of  activity  and  as  a  unit 
in  the  community.  In  addition  to  this,  his  own 
experience  is  more  or  less  coherent,  more  or  less 
of  a  whole,  and  his  conscious  actions  lead  him  to 
consider  himself  as  an  originator  in  the  external 
world  of  things.    See  Will  and  Appebception. 

Consult:  Wundt,  Physioloffische  Psyohologie 
(Leipzig,  1893) ;  Ribot,  Diseases  of  Memory 
(Eng.  trans..  New  York,  1882) ;  James,  Prind- 
pies  of  Psychology  (ib.,  1890)  ;  Kuelpe,  Outlines 
of  Psychology,  trans. (ib.,  1895)  ;  Titchener,  Out- 
line of  Psychology  (ib.,  1899) ;  Stout,  Manual  of 
Psychology  (ib.,  1899) ;  Royce,  Psychology  (ib., 
1903). 

SELF-DEFENSE.  In  law,  the  defense  of 
one's  person  or  property  from  threatened  vio- 
lence or  injury  by  the  exercise  of  force.  Self- 
defense  is  one  of  the  forms  of  remedy  hj  self- 
help  (q.v.).  In  general  one  may  defend  himself 
from  assault  or  unlawful  attack  by  the  use  of 
force  provided  he  use  no  more  force  than  is  nec- 
essary to  accomplish  that  result,  and  his  act  will 
give  rise  to  no  civil  or  criminal  liability.  If  he 
use  more  force  than  is  necessary  to  repel  the  at- 
tack, he  will  be  liable  both  civilly  and  criminally 
for  assault.  Under  these  conditions  both  the  as- 
sailant and  the  person  assailed  may  be  guilty  of 
assault.  The  rule  that,  in  the  exercise  of  his 
right  of  self-defense,  one  may  meet  force  with 
force  is  subject  to  one  other  important  qualifica- 
tion. He  may  not  carry  his  forcible  resist- 
ance to  the  point  of  taking  life  when  he  may 
safely  retreat  from  his  assailant.       Whenever 


SELF-DEFENSE. 


644 


SELIIL 


the  circumstances  will  not  permit  him  to 
retreat  from  his  assailant  with  apparently  rea- 
sonable safety,  he  may  kill  his  assailant  if 
such  action  be  necessary  to  protect  his  own 
life  or  to  protect  his  person  from  severe 
bodily  injury,  and  his  act  will  be  deemed  jus- 
tifiable homicide  (q.v.).  Under  any  other  cir- 
cumstances the  killing  of  an  assailant  under 
guise  of  self-defense  is  manslaughter  (q.v.),  and 
may  be  murder  (q.v.)  if  the  killing  is  premedi- 
tated. Upon  the  principle  of  seli-defense  one 
may  forcibly  resist  an  illegal  arrest.  The  resist- 
ance, however,  must  fall  short  of  taking  life  un- 
less the  consequence  of  the  arrest  would  be  to 
take  the  prisoner  to  an  uncivilized  country, 
where  he  would  be  beyond  the  reach  of  legal  pro- 
cess. In  that  case  he  may  kill  if  necessary  to 
prevent  the  arrest.  One  may  also  forcibly  resist 
an  unlawful  attack  upon  another,  particularly  if 
that  other  is  one  who  has  a  natural  claim  to  his 
protection,  as  a  wife,  child,  or  even  a  servant 
who  is  a  member  of  his  family.  The  law  of  de- 
fense of  property  is  precisely  like  that  relating 
to  the  defense  of  the  person,  except  that  under 
no  circumstance  is  the  taking  of  life  as  a  means 
of  protecting  property  justifiable.  One  who  kills 
to  protect  property  is  guilty  of  manslaughter, 
and  if  the  killing  is  premeditated  or  done  under 
circumstances  of  aggravation,  it  may  be  murder. 

The  law  also  recognizes  a  distinct  right  to  pro- 
tect the  dwelling  house,  as  it  is  called,  which 
combines  the  characteristics  of  both  defense  of 
the  person  and  defense  of  the  property.  At  com- 
mon law,  one^s  dwelling  house  was  said  to  be  his 
castle.  The  true  meaning  of  the  phrase  is  that 
one  has  the  right  to  make  his  dwelling  a  means 
of  defense.  Once  inside  his  dwelling,  or  'at  the 
threshold'  as  it  was  said,  he  might  forcibly  re- 
sist attacks  upon  himself  and  the  other  inmates 
of  the  dwelling  and,  without  retreating,  kill  his 
assailant  if  necessary  to  repel  the  attiack.  See 
Remedy;   Mubdeb;   Manslauohteb ;   Homicide. 

SELF-DENYING  OBDINANCE.  A  meas- 
ure carried  through  the  English  Parliament  in 
1645  by  the  influence  of  Cromwell  and  the  Inde- 
pendents, with  the  view  of  removing  inefficient 
or  lukewarm  commanders  from  the  army.  The 
ordinance  proposed  that  no  member  of  either 
House  should,  during  the  war,  enjoy  or  execute 
any  office  or  command,  civil  or  military,  and  that 
those  holding  such  offices  should  vacate  them  in 
forty  days.  It  was  intended  to  take  the  execu- 
tive power  out  of  the  hands  of  the  more  moder- 
ate politicians,  and  form  an  army  independent 
of  Parliament;  and  was  the  subject  of  violent 
and  protracted  debate,  but  eventually  passed  in 
both  Houses,  and  became  law.  Essex,  Warwick, 
Manchester,  and  others  resigned,  and  the  conduct 
of  the  war  was  intrusted  to  Fairfax.  Cromwell, 
to  whom,  as  a  member  of  the  Lower  House,  the 
Self -Denying  Ordinance  extended  as  much  as  to 
Essex  and  the  rest,  had  the  duration  of  his  com- 
mission prolonged  by  the  Commons  on  account 
of  his  invaluable  services  as  a  leader  of  cavalry, 
and  by  his  brilliant  achievements  soon  surpassed 
his  commander  in  reputation. 

SELF-HELP.  A  legal  phrase  signifying  that 
form  of  .remedy  by  which  one  may  prevent  or 
redress  a  wrong  without  resorting  to  a  legal  pro- 
ceeding, as,  for  example,  the  right  of  self-de- 
fense; the  right  to  abate  a  nuisance;  the  right 
of  the  owner  to  retake  property  of  which  he  has 


been  wrongfully  deprived.    See  Remedy;    Sxu*- 
Defense;  Distress;  Nuisance,  etc. 

SELF-INDTJCTION.  See  Electricity,  para- 
graph Induced  Electric  Currents, 

SELF^BIDGE^  Thomas  Ouver,  Jr.  ( 1836— ) . 
An  American  naval  officer,  bom  in  Boston,  Mas&, 
and  educated  at  Annapolis.  In  the  Civil  War 
he  commanded  the  Osage  in  the  Red  River 
expedition,  during  which  he  inflicted  a  heavy  loss 
on  the  Confederates  at  Blair's  plantation,  and 
later  led  a  division  of  the  landing  sailors  who 
bombarded  Fort  Fisher.  After  the  war  he  di- 
rected the  surveys  for  the  canal  across  the  Isth- 
mus of  Panama,  in  1869-73 ;  was  a  member  of  the 
International  Congress  held  at  Paris  to  consider 
the  question  of  that  canal  in  1876;  and,  while 
in  charge  of  the  Newport  torpedo  station  (1881- 
85),  invented  a  means  of  protecting  ships  from 
torpedoes.  In  1896  he  became  rear-admiral,  and 
he  retired  in  1898. 

SELIGHAN,  Edwin  Rorert  Ain>ERSoiT 
(1861—).  A  political  economist,  bom  in  New- 
York  City.  He  graduated  at  Columbia  College, 
1879,  and  received  the  degrees  of  Doctor  of  Philos- 
ophy and  Bachelor  of  Laws  from  the  same  insti- 
tution in  1884,  after  having  studied  at  Berlin, 
Heidelberg,  Geneva,  and  Paris.  In  1885  he  be- 
came prize  lecturer,  in  1888  adjunct  professor,  in 
1891  professor  of  political  economy  and  finance  at 
Columbia  University.  In  1901  he  became  presi- 
dent of  the  American  Economic  Association.  His 
principal  works  are:  Railway  Tariffs  and  the  In- 
terstate Commerce  Law  (1887);  Turo  Chapters 
on  the  MedioBval  Guilds  of  England  (1887)  :  The 
Shifting  and  Incidence  of  Taxation  (1892;  2d  ed., 
enlarged,  1899);  Essays  in  Taxation  (1895;  3d 
ed.  1900)  ;  The  Economic  Interpretation  of  Hts- 
tory  (1902). 

BWUXy  Turk.  pron.  sH-lSm^  The  name  of 
three  sultans  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  Seum 
I.,  son  of  Bajazet  IL,  was  bom  about  1467.  He 
became  Sultan  in«1512,  after  dethroning  his  fa- 
ther with  the  aid  of  the  Janizaries.  To  secure 
himself,  he  caused  his  father,  brothers,  and  neph- 
ews to  be  put  to  death,  thus  beginning  a  policy 
which  won  for  him  the  surname  of  the  Inflexi- 
ble. In  1514  he  invaded  Persia  and  massacred 
40,000  Shiites.  He  defeated  the  army  of  Shah 
Ismail  near  Khoi,  in.  Azerbaijan,  conquered  Mes- 
opotamia and  Kurdistan,  overran  Armenia,  and, 
leaving  his  lieutenants  to  complete  this  conquest, 
marched  against  Kansuh  El-Ghuri,  Mameluke 
Sultan  of  Egypt,  whom  he  had  previously  endeav- 
ored to  detach  from  alliance  with  the  Persian 
monarch.  The  Mameluke  army  was  totally  de- 
feated (1516)  at  Marj  Dabik,  and  Syria  became 
the  prize  of  Selim.  Kansuh's  successor,  Tuman 
Bey,  succumbed  to  the  Turkish  arms  and  Egypt 
was  incorporated  with  the  Ottoman  Empire 
(1617).  The  last  lineal  descendant  of  the  Ab- 
bassid  caliphs,  who  was  then  resident  in  Egynt, 
transmitted  to  Selim  the  title  of  Imam  and  the 
standard  of  the  Prophet.  The  Ottoman  Sultan 
thus  became  chief  of  Islam,  as  the  representative 
of  Mohammed,  and  the  sacred  cities  of  Mecca 
and  Medina  acknowledged  his  supremacy.  Selim 
laid  the  foundation  of  a  regular  navy,  constructed 
the  arsenal  of  Pera,  disciplined  the  Janizarie<9, 
and  improved  the  organization  of  his  empire.  He 
died  on  September  22,  1520.  Selim  was  an  able 
statesman  and  a  lover  of  literature  and  poetry. 


SEtiUC. 


645 


BEXjKLKBi 


He  waa  succeeded  by  hie  son,  Solyman  the  Mag- 
nificent. 

Seum  II.  (1624-74),  known  as  the  Drunkard, 
was  the  son  of  Solyman  the  Magnificent.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  1566.  The  Turkish  domin- 
ions were  extended  by  the  subjugation  of  Yemen 
( 1570)  and  the  conquest  of  Cyprus  from  the  Vene- 
tians (1571),  but  the  naval  power  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire  suffered  a  blow  in  the  defeat  at  Lepanto 
(q.y.),  in  1571,  from  which  it  never  recovered. 

Selik  III.  (1761-1808)  was  the  only  son  of 
Mustapha  III.,  and  ascended  the  throne  on  the 
death  of  his  uncle,  Abd-ul-Hamid  I.,  in  1789. 
He  inaugurated  a  radical  progressive  policy  to 
counteract  the  dangers  that  threatened  his  em- 
pire. He  inherited  a  war  with  Russia  and  Aus- 
tria, which  he  closed  by  the  Treaty  of  Sistova 
with  Austria  (1791)  and  that  of  Jassy  (1792) 
with  Russia,  whose  frontiers  were  advanced  to 
Dniester.  The  invasion  of  Egypt  by  Napoleon 
(1798)  led  to  war  with  France,  which  was  con- 
cluded by  a  treaty  signed  in  1802,  the  Sultan  re- 
maining thereafter  friendly  to  the  French.  In  at- 
tempting to  reorganize  the  army  on  a  European 
model  and  to  introduce  innovations  in  industry 
Selim  III.  aroused  all  the  bigotry  of  his  subjects. 
In  May,  1807,  a  formidable  rebellion  broke  out  nt 
Constantinople,  headed  by  the  Janizaries,  and 
the  Sultan  was  compelled  to  issue  a  decree  abro- 
gating his  reforms,  but  this  failed  to  sat- 
isfy the  leaders  of  the  insurrection,  and  Selim 
saw  himself  forced  to  resign  the  throne  to  his 
cousin,  Mustapha  IV.  In  the  1808  uprising  Musta- 
pba-Bairaktar,  the  Pasha  of  Rustchuk,  one  of  the 
Sultan's  chief  advisers,  marched  upon  Constanti- 
nople, in  order  to  reinstate  Selim  on  the  throne, 
but  the  unfortunate  monarch  was  strangled  by 
order  of  Mustapha  IV. 

BELVNTTB  (Lat,  from  Gk.  SeXiPoCf,  Selinous), 
An  ancient  Greek  colony  in  Southwest  Sicily,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Selinus  river.  It  was  founded 
about  B.C.  629  by  colonists  from  Megara  Hybla. 
Its  constant  wars  with  the  neighboring  Elymi  of 
Segesta  led  to  the  Athenian  expedition,  B.c.  415, 
and  later  to  Carthaginian  intervention,  which  re- 
sulted in  the  destruction  of  the  city,  B.C.  409. 
Though  reestablished,  the  city  never  regained  its 
fonner  prosperity,  and  during  the  First  Punic 
War  (about  B.c.  250)  the  Carthagenians  re- 
moved the  inhabitants  to  Lilybseum.  The  ruins 
include  the  walls  of  the  ancient  Acropolis  on  a 
hill  above  the  sea,  the  NecropNolis,  and  especially 
the  temples,  seven  in  niunber  in  two  groups,  four 
on  the  Acropolis  and  three  on  a  hill  to  the  east, 
one  of  which  is  among  the  largest  Greek  temples 
known.  It  has  an  ertreme  length  of  about  371 
feet  and  breadth  of  177  feet,  while  the  eel  la 
alone  is  228X59  feet.  Consult  Benndorf,  Die 
Metopen  von  Selinunt  (Berlin,  1873). 

SELJUKS^  seKj56ks.  A  Turkish  dynasty 
winch  ruled  over  a  great  part  of  Western  Asia 
itt  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries.  A  few 
years  after  the  death  of  Mahmud  of  Ghazni 
(q.v.)  in  1030,  the  Ghuz  Turks,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  two  brothers,  Tchakyr  Beg  and  Tughrul 
(Togml)  Beg,  grandsons  of  a  chieftain  named 
Seljuk,  overran  Persia  and  made  themselves  mas- 
ters of  it  Tughrul  Beg  established  his  authority 
in  the  dominions  of  the  Caliph  of  Bagdad,  by 
whom  he  was  proclaimed  'King  of  the  East  and 
of  the  West.'  In  1063  Tughrul  died  and  was 
succeeded  by  Alp  Arslan  (q.v.),  whose  dominions 


extended  northeastward  far  into  Turkestan,  and 
who  carried  his  arms  into  Armenia  and  Georgia 
and  against  the  Greeks.  In  1071  he  took  the 
Byzantine  Emperor  Romanus  Diogenes  prisoner 
in  a  battle  fought  in  Armenia.  Alp  Arslan  was 
succeeded  by  Malek  Shah  (1072-92),  in  whose 
reign  the  Seljukian  Turks  established  their  do- 
minion in  Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  where  indepen- 
dent Seljuk  sovereignties  were  founded.  In 
Asia  Minor  arose  the  Sultanate  of  Iconium 
(Konieh)  or  of  Rum  (that  is,  the  land 
of  the  Greeks,  or  Byzantines,  whose  country 
was  known  to  the  Mohammedans  under  the 
name  of  Rum,  Rome ) .  Toward  the  end  of 
Malek  Shah's  reign  arose  the  sect  of  the  Assassins 
(q.v.),  under  the  notorious  Hassan  ibn  as-Sab- 
bah.  Malek  Shah  was  followed  by  his  sons,  Nasir 
ad-Din  (1092-94)  and  Barkiyarok  (1094-1104), 
both  rulers  of  little  initiative.  Another  son, 
Mohammed  (1104-18),  who  had  absorbed  much 
of  the  kingdom  before  his  accession,  proved  more 
energetic.  He  made  an  active  campaign  against 
the  Assassins,  and  was  on  the  point  of  reducing 
them  by  famine  when  he  died.  He  was  followed 
by  his  last  surviving  brother,  San  jar  (1118-57). 
This  monarch  paid  little  attention  to  the  prov- 
inces west  of  Khorasan,  which  were  broken  up 
into  little  principalities,  but  retained  firm  con- 
trol of  the  eastern  districts  as  far  as  Transoxa- 
nia.  Within  less  than  half  a  century  after  his 
death  the  remnants  of  Seljuk  dominion  in  Iran 
were  swept  away  by  the  Khwaresmians.  In  1096 
the  Seljuks  came  into  collision  with  Western 
Christendom,  whose  armies  in  the  First  Crusade 
took  Jerusalem  in  1096.  The  armies  of  the  Sec- 
ond Crusade  (1147-48)  fought  unsuccessfully 
against  Nureddin,  who  made  himself  master  of 
Syria,  and  whose  dominions  after  his  death 
(1174)  became  the  prey  of  Saladin,  Sultan  of 
Egypt.  The  Sultanate  of  Rum  outlived  the  other 
Seljuk  realms,  surviving  till  the  close  of  the 
thirteenth  centuiy,  when  it  was  broken  up  into 
fragments  on  whose  ruins  the  Ottoman  Turks 
laid  the  foundations  of  their  empire. 

The  Seljuk  period  is  noteworthy  in  the  history 
of  Persian  literature  as  being  its  second  golden 
age.  At  the  Court  such  poets  as  Omar  Khay- 
yam, Farid  ud-Din  Attar,  Jalal  ud-Din  Rumi 
Sadi,  and  Anvari  were  honored,  while  art  and 
science  flourished  as  they  have  never  since  flour- 
ished in  Persia. 

Consult:  Houtsma,  Recueil  de  textea  relatifs  d 
Vhiatoire  des  Seldjoucides  (Leyden,  1886-91); 
Horn,  "Geschichte  Irans  in  islamitischer  Zeit,"  in 
Geiger  and  Kuhn,  Orundriaa  der  iranischen  Phi' 
loloffie,  ii.   (Strassburg,  1900). 

SEIiKIBKy     or     SELCBAIO,     Alexa^ndeb 

(1676-1723).  An  English  mariner,  supposed 
prototjrpe  of  Robinson  Crusoe.  He  was  bom  at 
Largo,  Fifeshire,  and  early  joined  privateering 
expeditions  to  the  South  Seas.  In  1704,  when 
sailing-master  of  the  Cinque  PorU^  he  quarreled 
with  the  captain,  and  was  at  his  own  request  put 
ashore  upon  the  island  of  Juan  Fernandes.  Af- 
ter a  residence  there  of  four  years  and  four 
months,  he  was  rescued  by  Capt.  Woodes  Rogers, 
who  subsequently  gave  him  command  of  the  In- 
crease .prize-ship.  He  again  went  to  sea,  and 
rose  to  be  lieutenant  of  H.  M.  S.  Weymouth,  on 
board  of  which  he  died.  In  1712  there  appeared 
Capt.  Rogers's  Cruising  Voyage  Round  the  World 
and  Capt.  Edward  Cooke's  Voyage  to  the  South 


SELXISK. 


646 


BETiTMTA. 


Sea,  from  which  Defoe  is  thought  to  have  ob- 
tained most  of  the  information  he  possessed  re- 
specting Selkirk.  Selkirk  is  also  the  subject  of 
Cowper*8  Lines  on  Solitude.  Consult  Howell's 
Life  and  Adventures  of  Alexander  Selkirk  (Edin- 
burgh, 1829).     See  Juan  Febnandez. 

SELKIBKy  Thomas  Douglas,  fifth  Earl  of 
(1771-1820).  A  colonizer  and  man  of  letters, 
born  in  Kirkcudbrightshire,  Scotland,  and  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  His  life 
was  devoted  mainly  to  directing  emigration  from 
the  Scottish  Highlands  to  British  North  America. 
In  1803  he  made  a  settlement  at  Prince  Edward's 
Island,  which  from  the  first  was  prosperous; 
and  after  heroic  efforts  and  a  bloody  conflict 
with  the  Northwest  Fur  Company  he  finally 
established,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company,  a  colony  in  the  Red  River  Valley, 
now  the  flourishing  Province  of  Manitoba  (1817). 
In  1818  he  left  America,  and,  completely  broken 
in  health,  went  to  Pau,  in  Southern  France,  where 
he  died.  An  account  of  his  troubles  in  settling 
the  Red  River  territory  is  given  in  his  Sketch  of 
the  British  Fur  Trade  in  North  America  (1816). 
Consult  Bryce,  Manitoba  (London,  1882) ;  and 
see  Canadian  Litebatubb. 

SELKIBK  HOXTHTAINS.  A  mountain 
range  in  the  southeastern  part  of  British  Colum- 
bia, lying  west  of  and  nearly  parallel  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  from  which  it  differs  in  geolog- 
ical formation,  and  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  the  long,  narrow,  and  straight  valley  of  the 
Upper  Columbia  River  (Map:  British  Columbia, 
F  4).  The  latter,  with  its  tributary,  the  Koo- 
tenay,  and  Kootenay  Lake,  almost  completely  en- 
circles the  range,  which  is  about  200  miles  long 
and  80  miles  wide.  Although  lower  than  the 
neighboring  Rockies,  the  Selkirk  Range  is  much 
more  Alpine  in  character,  and  consists  of  rugged 
peaks,  snow  flelds,  glaciers,  and  precipices,  be- 
low which  the  slopes  are  densely  timbered  to  a 
height  of  6000  feet.  The  highest  peak  is  Mount 
Sir  Donald,  with  an  altitude  of  10,645  feet.  The 
Canadian  Paciflc  Railroad  crosses  the  range  at 
an  altitude  of  4300  feet  through  Roger's  Pass, 
which,  with  the  surrounding  magnificent  region, 
is  a  national  park  reserve.  Consult  Green, 
Among  the  Selkirk  Glaciers  (London,  1890). 

SEI/KIIIKSHIBE  (anciently  called  Ettrick 
Forest).  A  southeastern  county  of  Scotland, 
bounded  by  the  counties  of  Midlothian,  Rox- 
burgh, Dumfries,  and  Peebles,  on  the  north,  east, 
south,  and  west  respectively  (Map:  Scotland,  E 
4).  Area,  267  square  miles;  population,  in  1801, 
6390;  in  1851,  9800;  in  1901,  23,340.  It  consists 
mainly  of  the  two  parallel  valleys  through  which 
flow  the  rivers  Ettrick  and  Yarrow.  It  is  largely 
a  pastoral  county.  The  mountains,  the  highest 
of  which  is  Dun  Rig  (2433  feet),  are  rounded  at 
the  top  instead  of  peaked,  and  are  covered  gen- 
erally with  grass,  affording  excellent  pasturage. 
The  former  extensive  woods  have  disappeared. 
Capital,  Selkirk.  Consult:  Craig-Brown,  History 
of  Selkirkshire  (Edinburgh,  1886)  ;  Douglas,  "A 
History  of  the  Border  Counties,"  in  County  His- 
tories of  Scotland  (Edinburgh,  1899). 

SEL^A,  QuiNTiNO  (1826-84).  An  Italian 
scientist  and  statesman,  born  at  Mosso,  near  Bi- 
ella.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Turin, 
and  at  the  School  of  Mines,  Paris,  and  was  for  a 
time  professor  in  the  Turin  Mining  Academy,  at- 
taining a  wide  reputation  as  engineer  and  miner- 


alogist. In  1860  he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies.  In  1861  he  became  general  secre- 
tary in  the  Department  of  Public  Instruction. 
He  held  ttke  position  of  Minister  of  Finance  three 
times:  In  1862,  under  Rattazzi;  in  1864-65,  un- 
der La  Marmora;  and  from  1869  to  1873,  under 
Lanza.  He  showed  himself  a  good  financier  and 
an  excellent  parliamentarian.  He  was  president 
of  the  Accademia  dei  Lincei  (q.v.). 

SEI/LAB,  WnxiAM  Youno  (1825-90).  A 
Latinist,  bom  in  Sutherlandshire,  Scotland,  and 
educated  at  Glasgow  University  and  Balliol  Col- 
lege, Oxford.  In  1851  he  was  appointed  assist- 
ant to  the  professor  of  Latin  in  Glasgow,  and  in 
1853  he  went  to  Saint  Andrews  as  assistant  to  the 
professor  of  Greek,  whom  he  succeeded  six  years 
later.  In  1863  he  was  made  professor  of  Latin 
in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  a  position  which 
he  held  till  his  death.  Professor  SeHar  wrote 
Roman  Poets  of  the  Republic  (1863;  2d  ed. 
1881 ) ,  Roman  Poets  of  the  Auffustan  Age  { 1877 ) , 
and  Horace  and  the  Elegiac  Poets,  ed.  by  W.  P. 
Ker  (1892).  The  three  books  are  learned  and 
brilliant. 

SEI/LEBS,  Ck>LEiCAN  (1827—).  An  Ameri- 
can engineer  and  inventor,  bom  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.  He  was  associated  with  the  Globe  Rolling 
Mills,  at  Cincinnati,  Ohio;  the  Niles  Company 
locomotive  works ;  and  afterwards  became  a  part- 
ner in  the  firm  of  William  Sellers  &  Co.,  manu- 
facturers of  tools.  His  inventions  include  a 
coupling  device  for  connecting  shafting,  an  ar- 
rangement for  feed  disks  for  lathes,  and  a  kine- 
matoscope.  In  1881  he  became  professor  of 
mechanics  in  Franklin  Institute,  and  in  1886 
non-resident  professor  of  engineering  practice  in 
the  Stevens  Institute  of  Technology.  It  was 
through  his  advice  as  consulting  engineer  that 
the  work  of  developing  the  water  power  of  Ni- 
agara was  undertaken,  and  he  became  head  en- 
gineer in  that  enterprise. 

SELLEBS,  Colonel  Mulbebbt.  A  Western 
speculator,  in  whose  eyes  every  scheme  had  ''mil- 
lions in  it,"  in  The  (Hided  Age,  a  novel  by  Mark 
Twain  and  C.  D.  Wamer. 

SELLEBSy  William  (1824—).  An  Ameri- 
can manufacturer  and  mechanical  engineer,  born 
in  Delaware  0)unty,  Pa.,  and  educated  at  pri- 
vate schools.  In  1868  Sellers  became  president 
of  the  Edge  Moore  Iron  Company,  and  from  1873 
to  1887  was  head  of  the  Midvale  Steel  Company, 
of  Nicetown,  Pa.  The  Edge  Moore  Iron  Com- 
pany made  the  ironwork  for  the  buildings  of 
the  Philadelphia  Centennial  Exposition  and  for 
the  Brooklyn  (N.  Y.)  Bridge.  In  1864  he  pub- 
lished the  first  formula  for  screw  threads  and 
nuts,  now  standard  in  the  United  States  and  reg- 
ularly used  in  Europe. 

8EI/XA.  The  county-seat  of  Dallas  County, 
Ala.,  50  miles  west  of  Montgomery;  on  the  Ala- 
bama River,  which  is  navigable  to  this  point  all 
the  year,  and  on  the  Southern,  the  Western  of 
Alabama,  the  Louisville  and  Nashville,  and  the 
Birmingham,  Selma  and  New  Orleans  railroads 
(Map:  Alabama,  B  3).  It  has  Dallas  Academy, 
a  public  library,  and  the  Alabama  Baptist  Col- 
ored University,  opened  in  1878.  Noteworthy 
are  the  court  house.  Young  Men's  Christian  As- 
sociation building,,  and  the  Alabama  River 
bridge.  Selma  is  the  centre  of  a  section  engaged 
in  cotton-growing,  fanning,  and  cattle-raising. 


asucA. 


647 


SBICASIOLOGY. 


and  has  considerable  industrial  importance.  Be- 
pair  shops  of  the  Southern  Railway,  cotton  mills 
and  cotton  gins,  a  large  grist  mill,  and  manu- 
factories of  cottonseed  oil,  engines  and  boilers, 
machinery,  wagons,  bricks,  and  boxes  are  among 
the  leading  establishments.  The  government, 
under  the  revised  charter  of  1000,  is  vested  in  a 
mayor  and  a  unicameral  council.  Selma  was 
settled  in  1823.  During  the  Civil  War  it  was 
an  important  militaiy  depot  for  the  Confederate 
army.  On  April  2,  1865,  after  a  sharp  engage- 
ment, the  garrison  under  General  Forrest  surren- 
dered to  a  Federal  army  under  General  J.  H. 
Wilson.    Population,  1890,  7622;    1900,  8713. 

SELOUSy  selTpy,  Fbbdebick  Coubtenet  ( 1851 
').  An  English  hunter  and  explorer  in  South 
Africa.  In  1871  he  went  to  South  Africa,  where, 
for  nineteen  years,  he  was  almost  continuously 
in  the  field,  hunting  chiefly  elephants  and  earn- 
ing his  living  by  selling  ivory  and  natural  his- 
tory collections.  In  1890  he  piloted  the  pioneer 
expedition  of  the  British  South  Africa  Company 
through  Mashonaland  and  he  was  prominent  in 
the  events  that  brought  about  the  occupancy  of 
all  the  large  territory  north  of  the  South  Afri- 
can Republic.  In  1893  he  participated  in  the 
first  Matabele  war.  After  that  time  he  lived  in 
Surrey,  England.  His  publications  are:  A  Hunt- 
er's Wanderings  in  Africa  (1881);  Travel  and 
Adventure  in  Southeast  Africa  (1893);  £fun^ 
shine  and  Storm  in  Rhodesia  (1896) ;  Sport  and 
Travel,  East  and  West  (1900) ;  and  various  con- 
tributions to  geographical  periodicals. 

SELTEBS  WATEB.  A  mineral  water  ob- 
tained at  Selters,  near  Limburg,  in  Nassau,  Ger- 
many. The  spring  has  long  been  known,  and  has 
a  hi^  reputation  for  its  medicinal  qualities, 
being  recommended  as  a  beverage  in  chronic  dis- 
orders of  the  digestive  and  respiratory  organs. 
It  is  a  sparkling  alkaline  water  containing  sodi- 
um carbonate  and  common  salt.  A  mineral 
water  of  similar  composition  to  the  original  is 
now  extensively  manufactured  in  Europe  and  in 
the  United  States. 

SELXIKaS^.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Mergui 
Archipelago  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Ba^  of 
Bengal,  off  the  coast  of  Tenasserim;  a  primi- 
tive, seafaring  people  of  doubtful  ethnological  re- 
lations. They  are  probably  a  branch  of  the 
Indonesian'  race.  Consult  Anderson,  The  Se- 
lungs  (London,  1890). 

SELWxM,  s^FwIn,  Alfred  Richabd  Cecol 
(1824 — ).  An  English  geologist.  He  was  bom 
at  Kilmington,  Eng.,  was  educated  chiefly  by  pri- 
vate tutors  in  England  and  Switzerland,  and  in 
1845  was  appointed  assistant  geologist  on  the 
(geological  Survey  of  Great  Britain.  From  1852 
to  1869  he  was  director  of  the  Geological  Survey 
of  Victoria,  Australia.  He  also  made  a  special 
study  of  the  coal  and  gold  fields  of  Tasmania  and 
South  Australia,  and  in  1856  was  a  Victorian 
commissioner  of  mines.  He  was  director  of  the 
Canada  Geological  Survey  from  1869  to  1895, 
when  he  was  retired  and  pensioned.  In  1896  he 
was  president  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Canada. 
He  published  large  contributions  to  the  Oeolog- 
kal  and  Ifatural  History  Survey  of  Canada  ( 19 
-  vols.,  1869-94),  of  which  work  he  was  the  editor. 
SELWYJN',  Geoboe  Augustus  (1719-91).  An 
English  wit.  From  his  mother,  a  woman  of  the 
bedchamber  to  ()ueen  Caroline,  described  as  "of 
much  vivacity  and  pretty,"  he  seems  to  have  de- 


rived his  wit  He  studied  at  Eton  with  Gray 
and  Walpole,  and  thence  proceeded  to  Hart  Hall, 
Oxford,  from  which,  after  very  irregular  attend- 
ance, he  withdrew  without  a  degree,  to  escape 
expulsion  for  drinking  from  a  chalice  at  a  wine 
party  (1745).  In  1747  he  entered  Parliament, 
where  he  sat,  a  silent  member  usually  asleep, 
till  1780.  In  the  meantime  he  had  succeeded 
to  the  family  estates  (1751),  and  had  obtained 
several  sinecures,  as  registrar  of  the  Court  of 
Chancery  in  Barbadoes  and  surveyor-general  of 
the  works.  He  became  a  member  of  the  leading 
London  clubs,  where  he  was  known  as  *'Bosky." 
Many  witticisms  have  been  fathered  upon 
Selwyn,  some  of  which  are  probably  not  authen- 
tic. Selwyn's  jokes  have  long  since  lost  their 
piquancy.  The  man  and  the  manner  made  them. 
One  may  be  cited.  When  Lord  Forley  crossed 
over  the  Channel  to  escape  his  creditors,  Selwyn 
remarked  that  it  was  ''a  passover  not  much 
relished  by  the  Jews."  A  peculiar  trait  of  the 
humorist  was  a  passion  for  witnessing  executions 
of  famous  criminals.  He  died  in  London.  Con- 
sult :  J.  H.  Jesse,  Selwyn  and  His  Contemporaries 
(London,  1843;  new  ed.  1882)  ;  and  Roscoe  and 
Clergue,  Selwyn,  His  Letters  and  His  Life  (ib., 
1899). 

SELWYN,  Geobge  Augustus  (1809-78).  A 
missionary  and  bishop  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, born  at  Church  Row,  Hampstead.  lie 
took  his  degree  at  Saint  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, in  1831,  was  ordained  deacon  in  1833, 
and  became  curate  at  Windsor.  In  1841  he  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  New  Zealand,  and  labored 
there  till  1867,  when  he  became  Bishop  of  Lich- 
field. He  displayed  great  ability  as  an  organizer, 
both  in  the  mission  field  and  at  home.  Selwyn 
College,  Cambridge,  was  erected  in  his  memory 
in  1882  by  popular  subscription.  His  works  in- 
clude: Are  Cathedral  Institutions  Useless? 
(1838) ;  Letters  to  the  Society  for  the  Propaga- 
tion of  the  Gospel,  etc.  (1884) ;  Verlal  Analy- 
sis of  the  Holy  Bible  (1855).  For  his  life  con- 
sult Tucker  (London,  1879). 

SEIrWYN*  COLLEGE.    See  Cambbidge,  Uni- 

VEBSITT  OF. 

8EXANGK,  or  Mendi.  One  of  the  aboriginal 
peoples  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  inhabiting 
Northern  Perak,  Kedah,  Rahman,  Ranga,  and 
Kelantan.  They  are  short-statured  and  darker 
than  the  Sakai  (q.v.),  from  whom  they  are  also 
distinguished  by  their  curly  hair.  The  advance 
of  the  Malays  and  the  intrusions  of  Siamese 
and  Europeans,  with  the  ever-present  Chinese, 
are  driving  these  aborigines  farther  into  the  in- 
terior. 

SEICANTICS.  That  portion  of  linguistic 
science  which  treats  of  the  development  of  sig- 
nification of  words.     See  Philology;    Sehasi- 

OLOGY. 

SEM^AFHOBE.  A  town  of  the  County  of 
Adelaide,  South  Australia,  10  miles  by  rail  north- 
west of  Adelaide.  It  is  a  well-known  bathing 
resort.     Population,  in  1901,  about  8000. 

SEUAPHOBE..  See  Signaling  and  Teleo- 
BAPHY,  Military;  Signals,  Marine;  Block 
Signals;  Storm  and  Weather  Signals. 

SEHASIOLOOY  (from  Gk.  ffuftaala,  s&nasia, 
signification  4-  -Xo7fa,  logia,  account,  from  \iyeip, 
legein,  to  say),  or  Semantics.  The  study  which 
treats  of  the  meanings  of  words  and  the  devel- 


SEHASIOLOOT. 


648 


OKMrnAJ^ 


opment  of  their  signification.  Thns^  the  Latin 
altu8  signifies  both  'high'  and  'deep/  according 
to  the  position  of  view,  whether  the  observer 
regards  the  situation  from  above  or  from  below. 
Again,  the  force  of  the  verb  hleas,  which  is  em- 
ployed euphemistically  in  several  languages  to 
denote  also  to  curse  (like  hleas  in  colloquial  Eng- 
lish), receives  a  semasiological  explanation  on 
the  basis  of  euphemism.  Somewhat  similar  in 
euphemistic  character  is  the  divergence  in  sense 
between  German  Lust,  'pleasure'  (in  general), 
and  modem  English  lust,  'pleasure'  (in  a  physi- 
cal sense).  The  atmosphere  of  a  word  is  con- 
stantly subject  to  change,  owing  to  such  ex- 
ternal circumstances,  and  it  is  familiarly  rec- 
ognized that  analogous  conditions  will  call  forth 
parallel  developments  in  the  meaning.  Thus, 
English  heathen  from  Anglo-Saxon  hwpen,  orig- 
inally denoted  'belonging  to  the  heatJi/  or  in- 
habitant of  the  district  remote  from  civiliza- 
tion and  Christianity,  hence  'unbeliever.'  In 
like  manner  pagan,  from  Latin  paganus,  orig- 
inally signified  a  dweller  in  an  outlying  dis- 
trict ipagus),  and  thus  acquired  the  force  of 
'ungodly.'  The  word  deer,  like  its  Greek  co^ate, 
$^p,  was  originally  employed  to  designate  animals 
in  general,  but  it  has  been  gradually  specialized 
to  its  present  meaning,  just  as  the  older  Sanskrit 
mrga,  'animal,'  has  been  narrowed  in  classic  Sans- 
krit to  designate  a  gazelle,  whereas  Avestan 
morgyoy  which  is  etymologically  akin  to  it,  has 
come  to  signify  'bird.'  Simile  and  metaphor,  al- 
ternation between  the  abstract  and  concrete,  anal- 
ogy and  differentiation,  tendencies  to  generaliza- 
tion and  particularization,  to  expansion  and  re- 
striction, elevation  and  degradation  in  meaning, 
are  among  the  many  forces  which  come  into  play 
in  determining  the  significance  of  a  word  in  its 
changes  in  connotation.  Consult:  Darmesteter, 
La  vie  des  mots  (4th  ed.,  Paris,  1893) ;  Svedelius, 
La  simantigue  ( Upsala,  1891 )  ;  Simon,  Die 
CfrUnde  des  Bedeutungswandels  (Berlin,  1894)  ; 
Paul,  Prinzipien  der  Sprachgesohichte  (3d  ed., 
Halle,  1898)  ;  Br^al,  Essai  de  s^mantique  (2d  ed., 
Paris.  1899),  tr.  by  Mrs.  Heniy  Cust,  Semantics: 
Studies  in  the  Science  of  Meaning  (London, 
1900)  ;  Oertel,  Lectures  on  the  Study  of  Language 
(New  York,  1901)  ;  Welby,  Science  of  Meaning 
(New  York,  1903). 

SEHBBICH,  s^mOirlK,  Mabcella  (1858—). 
A  Polish  operatic  soprano,  bom  at  Wisniowczyk, 
Galicia.  Her  real  name  was  Praxede  Marcelline 
Kochanska,  and  she  received  her  musical  educa- 
tion under  Wilhelra  Stengel  (who  subsequently 
became  her  husband )  and  Epstein  and  Rokitansky 
at  Vienna.  Her  d^but  ( 1877)  occurred  at  Athens 
in  /  Puritani,  and  she  subsequently  studied  Ger- 
man opera  under  Richter  and  Lewy  at  Berlin. 
After  an  eighteen  months'  engagement  at  the 
Dresden  Court  Theatre  she  went  to  London, 
where  from  1880  to  1885  she  was  one  of  the 
prima  donnas  of  the  London  opera,  in  the  in- 
tervals making  many  successful  tours  in  both 
Europe  and  America.  In  1889  she  returned  to 
Dresden,  in  which  city  she  made  her  permanent 
home.  She  became  widely  known  for  her  remark- 
ably pure  soprano  and  her  brilliant  coloratura. 
Her  greatest  popularity  was  achieved  in  the 
United  States. 


repeated  an  indefinite  number  of  timea.  It  is 
then  said  to  be  sem6  ofj  or  with  that  chaige,  as 
sem6  of  fleur-de-lys. 

SEKELI^  sem'6-le  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  2c;iAi}). 
The  daughter  of  Cadmus  and  mother  of  Bacchus 
(q.v.). 

SEXEN^SIA.  A  Servian  fortress  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Danube,  30  miles  southeast  of 
Belgrade  (Map:  Balkan  Peninsula,  0  2).  An 
ancient  triangular  fortification,  said  to  have  been 
built  in  1430,  it  is  a  noteworthy  feature  of  the 
town.  The  inhabitants  are  employed  principally 
in  wine  culture.  Population,  in  1895,  about 
7000.  Semendria  was  at  one  time  the  seat  of 
the  Servian  kings.  In  1411  the  Turks  gained 
here  a  splendid  victory  over  the  Hungarians. 

SEHEKOFPy  sdm-yft'nM,  Peteb  Petbovitch 
(1827—).  A  Russian  geographer  and  traveler, 
bom  in  Saint  Petersburg  and  educated  there  and 
in  Berlin.  He  traveled  extensively  in  Western 
Europe,  and  in  1857  made  a  ^at  expedition 
through  Central  Asia  to  the  Tian  Shan  Moun- 
tains where  Mount  Semenoff  and  the  Semenoff 
Glacier  bear  his  name.  He  explored  the  upper 
course  of  the  Syrdarya ;  and  also  made  important 
discoveries  in  Transcaspia.  Semenoff's  travels 
were  described  in  Petermanns  Mitteilungen 
(1858)  and  in  the  Zeitschrift  of  the  Berlin  Geo- 
graphical Society  ( 1869) .  In  the  emancipation  of 
the  serfs  he  was  officially  prominent,  and  in  1864 
he  became  director  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics. 

SEMENOVXA^  s^'my^ndf^^.  A  town  in 
the  Government  of  Tchernigov,  Russia,  about 
70  miles  northeast  of  Tchernigov.  It  produces 
hides,  skins,  boots,  and  oil,  and  trades  in  bristles. 
Population,  1897,  15,125. 

SEHES^EB  (Ger.  Semester,  from  Lat 
semestris,  semi-annual,  from  sex,  six  -f  mensis^ 
month ) .  A  name  given  in  Germany  to  each  of  the 
two  terms  into  which  the  university  year  is  divid- 
ed :  the  summer  semester  and  the  winter  semester. 

SEHIBBEVE  (It.,  semihreve,  half -short, 
from  semi;  Lat.  semi-,  half  -h  hreve,  Lat.  hrevis, 
short).  In  music,  a  note  of  half  the  duration  of 
the  breve  (q.v.)  of  old  ecclesiastical  music,  but 
the  longest  note  in  use  in  modem  music.  It  is 
popularly  known  as  a  whole  note,  and  is  repre- 
sented by  a  character  circular  or  elliptical  in 


form 


f  and  is  adopted  as  the  integer  or 


3,  se-mft^  (Fr.,  sown).  In  heraldry  (q.v.) 
a  term  used  to  describe  a  shield  bearing  a  charge 


measure-note,  the  other  notes — ^minim,  crotchet, 
quaver,  etc. — ^being  proportional  parts  of  it.  In 
mensurable  music  (q.v.)  it  was  the  fourth  in 
value,  one  quarter  of  a  large. 

SEMUfAB  (Ger.  Seminar,  from  Lat  semi- 
narium,  seed-plot,  sg.  of  seminarius,  relating  to 
seed,  from  semen,  seed,  from  serere,  to  sow;  ulti- 
mately connected  with  Eng.  seed).  A  name  ap- 
plied to  certain  courses  given  in  German  and 
American  universities.  They  consist  of  researdi 
work,  carried  on  by  the  students  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  professor.  Seminars  are  offered 
in  scientific  ana  scholastic  fields  affording  mate- 
rial for  the  investigator.  The  members  of  the 
seminar  meet  at  various  times  to  listen  to  the 
account  of  some  special  research  carried  on  by 
one  of  their  number  and  to  discuss  it  The 
seminar  originated  in  the  universities  of  Halle 
and  Gottingen.  The  first  were  in  philology,  and 
aimed    to    prepare    teachers    for    the   classical 


SBMnriJL 


649 


SEMIPAI^TINSS. 


schools.  Johns  Hopkins  University  and  other 
American  universities  generally  have  now  intro- 
duced seminars.  The  character  of  the  work  done 
in  the  American  seminars  varies  greatly  in  the 
several  universities,  ranging  from  mere  reports 
to  original  contributions.  Consult  Perry,  "The 
American  University,"  in  Butler,  Education  in 
the  United  States  (Albany,  1900). 

SEM^INOIiE  (properly  Simanoli,  separatist, 
runaway).  A  tribe  of  Muskhogean  stock  (q.v.), 
formerly  residing  in  Florida,  and  celebrated  for 
the  determined  resistance  which  they  maintained 
for  seven  years  against  the  efforts  of  the  United 
States  Government  to  remove  them  from  their 
homes.  They  were  originally  a  part  of  the 
Creeks  (q.v.),  chiefly  of  the  Hichitee  or  south- 
eastern division,  and,  as  the  name  implies,  sepa- 
rated from  the  main  confederacy  and  overran 
the  peninsula  after  it  had  been  depopulated  by 
the  destruction  or  deportation  of  the  Apalachee 
and  Timucua  (q.v.)  by  the  English  in  1702-3. 
They  also  received  accessions  from  the  kindred 
Tamassee,  who  had  been  driven  out  of  Carolina 
by  the  English  in  1715,  and  had  also  a  con- 
siderable negro  element  from  runaway  slaves.  In 
the  early  period  they  were  frequently  classed  with 
the  Lower  Creeks,  but  they  became  recognized 
as  a  distinct  tribe  about  the  beginning  of  the 
Revolution.  About  the  beginning  of  the  last  cen- 
tury they  had  about  twenty  towns,  the  most  im- 
portant being  Mikasuki  and  Tallahassee.  The 
people  of  Mikasuld  were  known  as  the  'Red  Stick- 
Indians,  from  their  custom  of  setting  up  a  pole 
painted  red  as  a  war  emblem,  and  were  consid- 
ered the  leaders  in  every  warlike  enterprise.  In 
1817-18  (Florida  being  then  Spanish  territory) 
they  came  into  conflict  with  the  Americans  and 
their  country  was  invaded  by  General  Jackson, 
who  destroyed  their  principal  towns,  hung  the 
two  English  traders  (Arbuthnot  and  Ambrister) 
who  had  instigated  the  trouble,  and  ultimately 
brought  about  the  cession  of  Florida  to  the 
United  States  in  1819.  In  1822  they  were  re- 
ported to  number  3100,  besides  800  negroes 
living  with  them.  By  the  Treaty  of  Payne's 
Landing  in  1832  they  were  pledged  to  remove 
to  the  west  of  the  Mississippi,  but  the  treaty 
was  repudiated  by  a  considerable  part  of  the 
tribe  under  the  leadership  of  the  young  chief, 
Osceola  (q.v.),  the  result  being  the  most 
desperate  and  costly  Indian  war  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Government.  It  began  with  the 
surprise  and  massacre  of  Major  Dade's  entire 
command  of  one  himdred  men  on  December  28, 
1835,  and  continued  until  1842,  resulting  in  the 
loss  of  thousands  of  lives  and  the  expenditure 
of  ten  million  dollars.  In  the  end  the  Indians 
were  conquered  and  removed  to  the  Indian  Terri- 
tory, with  the  exception  of  a  few  hundred  who 
remained  in  Florida. 

Those  removed  to  the  Indian  Territory  and 
their  descendants  constitute  the  'Seminole  Na- 
tion,' with  a  government  organized  upon  the  gen- 
eral plan  existing  among  the  others  of  the  'Five 
Civilized  Tribes,*  viz.  Cherokee,  Creek,  Choctaw, 
and  Chickasaw.  With  these  also  they  came  under 
agreement  for  individual  allotment  of  their  tribal 
lands  and  absorption  into  American  citizenship 
in  1906.  The  number  of  'citizens'  of  the  Seminole 
nation  officially  reported  in  1901  was  2757,  but 
this  includes  also  adopted  negroes,  whites,  and 
Indians  of  other  tribes.    A  special  report  of  the 


census  of  1890  gives  them  2739  'citizens,'  classi- 
fied as:  Seminole,  pure  and  mixed  with  white, 
1621;  negro  and  mixed  negro-Seminole,  800; 
white,  172;  Indians  of  other  tribes,  140.  The 
report  also  states  that  the  Seminole  intermarry 
with  negroes,  and  that  probably  all  those  given 
as  of  negro  descent  would  be  classed  by  the  Semi- 
nole themselves  as  Seminole.  Those  in  Florida 
are  in  the  Everglade  region  in  the  southern  por- 
tion of  the  peninsula  and  were  reported  at  360, 
a « considerable  increase  over  earlier  estimates. 
They  refuse  to  mingle  with  the  whites  and  re- 
tain most  of  their  primitive  customs  derived 
from  their  Creek  ancestors,  including  the  cere- 
monies of  the  black  drink  and  the  green  com 
dance.  They  are  strict  monogamists.  As  they 
have  no  title  to  their  lands,  the  Government  has 
taken  steps  to  secure  for  them  a  small  reserva- 
tion to  include  their  main  settlements.  See 
Creek. 

BEMflONO^TUB,  A  genus  of  ganoid  fishes,  the 
fossil  remains  of  which  are  found  in  the  Triassic 
rocks  of  Europe.  Lepidotus  is  an  allied  genus, 
also  occurring  in  the  Trias. 

SEMIFALATINSK,  s&^m^p&l&ty^nsk^  A 
territory  of  Russian  Central  Asia  forming  an 
administrative  division  of  the  Grovernor-General- 
ship  of  the  Steppes.  It  is  boimded  by  Tobolsk 
and  Tomsk  on  the  north,  Sungaria  on  the  south- 
east, Semiryetchensk  on  the  south,  and  Akmo- 
linsk  on  the  west  (Map:  Asia,  G  4).  Its  area 
is  estimated  at  from  188,000  to  over  194,000 
square  miles.  In  the  north  the  surface  has  the 
appearance  of  a  steppe.  The  southeastern  part 
belongs  to  the  region  of  the  Altai  Mountains,  and 
other  chains  cover  the  southwestern  part.  There 
are  extensive  valleys  between  the  chains.  The 
principal  river  is  the  Irtysh,  which  is  navigable 
through  its  entire  course  in  the  territory.  The 
largest  lake  is  Saisan,  about  80  miles  long  and 
from  10  to  20  miles  wide.  There  are  also  nu- 
merous lakes  along  the  Irtysh  and  in  the  moun- 
tains, and  Lake  Balkhash  touches  the  territory 
on  the  southwest.  Gold,  silver,  lead,  copper, 
graphite,  and  coal  are  the  principal  minerals. 
The  climate  is  very  severe.  The  winters  are 
characterized  by  extreme  cold  and  fearful  snow 
storms,  while  the  summers  are  very  hot,  the 
mean  temperature  ranging  from  72°  for  July  to 
5°  for  January.  The  precipitation  is  scanty,  and 
only  in  a  small  part  of  the  territory  can  agri- 
culture be  carried  on  without  irrigation.  Agri- 
culture is  the  principal  occupation  of  the  set- 
tled and  of  a  part  of  the  nomadic  population, 
and  is  gradually  increasing  in  importance.  The 
principal  agricultural  products  are  wheat  and 
oats.  The  nomadic  Kirghizes,  who  form  the  bulk 
of  the  population,  are  engaged  chiefly  in  stock- 
raising,  and  their  herds  numbered,  in  1896,  over 
3,400,000  head,  including  nearly  72,000  camels 
and  over  740,000  horses.  Fishing  is  also  of  some 
importance.  Some  of  the  lakes  yield  considerable 
quantities  of  salt.  The  manufacturing  indus- 
tries are  naturally  insignificant,  the  principal 
products  being  leather,  tellow,  soap,  flour,  and 
spirits.  In  1897  the  population  was  685,197. 
The  Mohammedans  nimiber  over  550,000. 

SEHTPALATINSK.  The  capital  of  the 
Territory  of  Semipalatinsk,  in  Central  Asia,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Irtysh,  2290  miles  east- 
southeast  of  Moscow  (Map:  Asia,  H    3.  It  has  a 


BsmpALATnrex* 


650 


flmimiAyTfl 


library,  a  muBeuin,  and  a  number  of  mosques. 
In  the  vicinity  are  Tungus  ruins  with  religious 
inscriptions.  The  principal  products  are  tallow 
and  leather.    Population,  in  1897,  26,350. 

SEMI-PELAOIANISK.  A  late  designation 
of  a  Western  heresy  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  cen- 
turies, akin  to  Pelagianism  (q.v.).  Al- 
though Pelagianism  itself  had  been  condemned, 
not  a  few  Christians  endeavored  to  hold 
an  intermediate  position  between  the  doctrine 
of  Augustine  (q.v),  with  its  accompaniments  of 
original  sin,  natural  depravity,  and  efficacious 
grace,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  rather  superficial 
moral-ability  theory  of  Pelagius,  on  the  other. 
It  has  been  justly  observed  that  these  mediators 
might,  with  almost  equal  propriety,  have  been 
called  Semi-Augustinians.  They  taught  that,  al- 
though divine  grace  cooperates  with  human  ef- 
fort in  the  process  of  redemption,  and  may  be 
kept  or  lost,  according  to  the  choice  of  each  indi- 
vidual, the  first  inclination  to  the  good  and  final 
perseverance  may  originate  with  man  himself, 
for  Adam's  sin  did  not  destroy  all  ability  to  seek 
the  good,  although  it  ereatlv  weakened  it.  Every 
one  may  be  saved,  if  ne  will.  Predestination  is 
not  unconditional,  but  depends  upon  God's  fore- 
knowledge. These  views  first  appear  in  Africa, 
among  the  monks,  but  their  great  centre  was  Mas- 
silia  (Marseilles),  in  Southern  Gaul,  whence 
their  advocates  were  called  Massilians.  Chief 
among  them  were  John  Cassian  (diedc.435),  Vin- 
cent of  Lerins  (died  c.450),  and  somewhat  later 
Faustus  of  Riez  (died  492),  all  of  whom  held 
positions  of  honor  and  influence  in  the  Church. 
They  are  typical  of  the  many  who  highly  es- 
teemed Saint  Augustine,  but  could  not  bring 
themselves  to  accept  the  logical  consequences  of 
his  theology. 

The  beginnings  of  Semi-Pelagianism  were  ob- 
served as  early  as  428-429,  by  Prosper  of  Aqui- 
tania,  and  by  him  reported  to  Augustine,  with 
the  request  that  he  would  lift  his  voice  and  pen 
in  opposition.  This  he  did  willingly  enough 
in  his  two  works  On  the  Predeatinaiton  of  the 
Saints  and  On  Perseverance,  Prosper  also  ap- 
pealed for  aid  to  Celestine,  Bishop  of  Rome,  and 
the  latter  promptly  issued  a  letter  to  the  clergy 
of  Gaul,  rebuking  their  dangerous  speculations. 
Among  later  opponents  of  Semi-Pelagianism 
were  Avitus  of  Vienne  (died  c.525),  Fulgentius 
of  Ruspe  (died  533),  and  Ciesarius  of  Aries 
(died  543).  The  controversy  is  usually  re- 
garded as  terminated  by  the  adverse  decisions  of 
the  Synod  of  Orange  (629),  over  which  Ciesarius 
presided.  Its  decrees  were  soon  afterwards  con- 
firmed by  Pope  Boniface  II. 

Subsequent  doctrinal  history  exhibits  a  waver- 
ing of  opinion  as  to  the  relative  value  of  the  two 
opposing  systems  associated  with  the  names  of 
Augustine  and  Pelagius.  In  the  ninth  centuiy 
Rabanus  Maurus  and  Hincmar  of  Rheims  main- 
tained the  Semi-Pelagian  view  against  the  thor- 
ough-going predestinarianism  of  Gottschalk,  and 
secured  his  condemnation  by  synods  at  Quierzy 
(849)  and  Valence  (855).  The  schoolmen  and 
the  mendicant  Orders  carried  on  the  debate  with 
great  warmth.  In  the  seventeenth  century  the 
Jansenists  (q.v.)  were  vigorously  opposed  by  the 
Jesuits  for  reviving  so-called  Augustinianism, 
which  by  that  time  liad  become  almost  obsolete. 
Among  Protestants  Melanchthon  showed  Semi- 
Pelagian  leanings,  whence  developed  the  bitter 


Synergistic  controversy  (see  Stnebgism),  while 
the  Dutch  Arminians  illustrate  a  similar  conflict 
of  opinion  among  Calvinists.  See  Abkhi'Ian- 
I8M.  Consult:  Rainy,  The  Ancient  Catholie 
Church,  vol.  i.  (New  York,  1902) ;  Bright,  The 
Age  of  the  Fathers,  vol.  ii.  (London,  1903); 
Hamack,  History  of  Dogma,  vol.  v.  (Eng.  trans., 
London,  1898).  Consult  also  the  literature  cited 
under  Pelagius,  and  see  the  notices  of  the  advo- 
cates and  opponents  of  Semi-Pelagianism  men- 
tioned in  this  article. 

SEHIQUAVEB.    A  musical  note,  represented 


thus. 


jE      or  in  groups  thus. 


equivalent  in  value  to  1-16  of  a  semibreve,  or 
whole  note.  The  Practica  Musiccg  of  Gafurius 
(Milan,  1496)  contains  the  earliest  mention  of 
the  semiquaver. 

8EMI-QXJIETI8H.  A  form  of  mystical 
asceticism  which,  although  it  adopts  the  theoreti- 
cal principle  that  the  most  perfect  state  of  the 
soul  is  that  of  passive  contemplation,  and  denies, 
in  certain  conditions  of  the  soul,  the  necessity 
of  prayer  or  other  active  manifestations  of  vir- 
tue, yet  maintains  the  incompatibility  of  this 
passive  contemplation  with  any  external  sinful 
or  sensual  action.  The  Semi-Quietists  thus  dif- 
fered from  the  grosser  sectaries  referred  to  under 
Quietism. 

SEMIB^AMIS.  A  legendary  queen  of  As- 
syria. According  to  Ctesias  (in  Diodorus 
Siculua,  II.,  i.),  she  was  daughter  of  the  Syrian 
goddess  Derceto  (of  Ascalon),  was  exposed  as 
an  infant,  but  was  miraculously  saved  by  doves, 
and  became  the  wife  of  one  of  the  chief  officials 
and  generals  of  Ninus,  King  of  Assyria  and 
founder  of  Ninevah.  She  accompanied  her  hus- 
band on  a  campaign  against  Bactra  and,  by  her 
ingenuity  and  daring,  captured  the  city.  This 
exploit  won  the  notice  of  the  king,  and,  captivated 
by  her  charms,  he  demanded  her  from  her  hus- 
band. The  latter  committed  suicide.  Semiramis 
married  Ninus,  bore  him  a  son,  Ninyas,  and  ruled 
as  regent  after  the  king's  death.  She  founded 
Babylon  and  built  the  city  in  its  full  splendor 
and  magnificence  with  all  its  walls,  gates,  pal- 
aces, and  temples.  She  built  many  oUier  cities, 
constructed  roads  and  canals,  and  other  great 
works.  She  conquered  Persia,  Egypt,  Libya,  and 
Ethiopia,  and  invaded  India,  but  there  her  army 
was  defeated  and  she  was  wounded  in  personal 
combat  with  the  King  Stabrobates.  Wherever 
she  went  she  constructed  great  works,  levelling 
mountains  and  raising  elevations  in  plains.  In 
time  every  great  work  was  ascribed  to  her,  so 
that  the  land  was  full  of  'the  works  of  Semir- 
amis/ Ultimately  her  son  grew  restive  under 
her  rule  and  plotted  against  her,  when  she  disap- 
peared, in  the  sixty-second  year  of  her  age  and 
forty-second  of  her  reign.  Some  say  she  was 
changed  into  a  dove  and  became  a  deity.  She  is 
represented  as  of  sensuous  character.  The  stoiy 
is  evidently  an  epitome  of  Assyrian  history  hung 
upon  the  names  of  Ninus  and  Semiramis,  and 
the  Queen  herself  is  in  all  probability  a  distor- 
tion of  Ishtar,  the  Assyrian  goddess  of  war  and 
love.  (See  Ishtab.)  According  to  Herodotus 
(I.,  184),  there  was  a  Semiramis  queen  of 
Babylonia  in  the  first  hali  of  the  eighth  centuiy, 

B.O. 


SEMUytYETCHEKSS. 


651 


SEMITES. 


SEXIBYETCHEHSB:,  sft•m«-r7e-cheIlBk^  A 
territory  of  Russia  in  Central  Asia,  belonging 
administratiyely  to  the  Qovemor-Generalship  of 
Russian  Turkestan.  Area^  over  155,000  square 
miles  (Map:  Asia,  G  4).  It  is  divided  accord- 
ing to  the  formation  of  its  surface  into  two 
parts,  of  which  the  southeastern  is  mountainous, 
being  traversed  by  offshoots  of  the  Tian-Shan 
Mountains  (q.v.),  and  the  northwestern  belongs 
to  the  region  of  the  steppes,  with  sandy  stretches 
along  Lake  Balkhash.  The  rivers  rise  mostly  in 
the  Tian-Shan  Mountains  and  flow  into  Lake 
Balkhash.  The  chief  of  them  is  the  Hi,  which  is 
also  the  principal  navigable  waterway  of  the 
territory.  The  principal  lakes  are  Balkhash 
(q.v.)  and  Issik-kul  (q.v.).  The  climate  is  con- 
tinental. The  winter  is  extremely  cold  and  the 
summer,  which  follows  a  brief  spring,  is  hot  and 
dry.  In  the  mountainous  portions  are  found 
gold,  salt,  and  alabaster.  Much  of  the  lower  part 
of  the  territory  is  fertile  agricultural  land  which 
becomes  very  productive  when  irrigated.  The 
crops  in  the  northwest  consist  mainly  of  wheat, 
oats,  and  oleaginous  plants.  Agriculture,  how- 
ever, is  as  yet  of  secondary  importance,  as  the 
nomadic  Kirghizes,  the  predominating  element 
of  the  population,  are  engaged  almost  exclusively 
in  stock-raising.  Population,  in  1897,  990,107, 
of  whom  the  Kirghizes  constitute  three-fourths. 
Capital,  Vyemy  (q.v.). 

SEMITES.  A  name  used  to  designate  a  cer- 
tain group  of  peoples  whose  close  kinship  is  re- 
vealed by  many  physical  and  mental  character- 
isties,  but  especially  by  language  and  religion. 
The  term  is  derived  from  the  table  of  nations  in 
Glenesis  x.,  in  which  the  eponym  heroes  of  some 
Mediterranean  peoples  known  to  the  authors  are 
represented  as  descendants  of  the  three  sons  of 
Noah,  Shem,  Ham,  and  Japhet  (qq.v.).  But,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  all  the  nations  here  grouped 
under  Shem  are  not  akin ;  some  of  the  peoples  ar- 
ranged under  Ham  are  evidently  kinsmen  of  the 
leading  nations  reckoned  as  descendants  of  Shem, 
and  some  peoples  are  mentioned  under  both 
Shem  and  Ham.  Historical  and  geographical 
reasons  seem  to  some  extent  to  have  prevailed 
in  the  arrangement.  But  in  spite  of  the  inexact 
classification  in  Genesis  x.,  the  term  'Semites' 
has  been  retained  for  the  sake  of  convenience 
in  preference  to  other  designations  which  have 
been  proposed,  such  as  'Syro- Arabians'  or  simply 
'Arabs.'  As  it  is  now  used,  it  indicates  Baby- 
lonians, Assyrians,  and  Chaldeans;  Phoenicians, 
Carthaginians,  and  other  Canaanites;  Israelites, 
Edomites,  Moabites,  and  Ammonites;  Ara- 
means;  Arabians  and  Ethiopians. 

As  to  the  original  home  of  these  Semitic  peo- 
ples there  is  a  preponderance  of  opinion  in  favor 
of  Arabia  or  Africa.  On  the  other  hand,  re- 
cent discoveries  have  tended  to  revive  the  idea 
of  a  Babylonian  origin.  Certain'  customs,  pos- 
sessions, and  achievements  of  the  early  Egyp- 
tians exhibit  a  marked  similarity  to  those  of 
their  contemporaries  in  Babylonia.  Some  schol- 
ars find  it  most  natural  to  explain  the  intro- 
duction of  metals,  domestic  animals,  a  peculiar 
mode  of  burial,  and  the  use  of  brick  in  a  land 
where  stone  is  found  in  plenty,  by  the  immigra- 
tion into  the  Nile  Valley  of  a  Semitic  race  that 
once  lived  in  Babylonia.  Closer  examination, 
however,  has  shown  the  identity  of  the  Neolithic 
race  in  Egypt  with  the  dynastic  Egyptians.  The 
You  XY.-^. 


close  affinity  ethnologically  between  the  Egyp- 
tians and  the  other  so-called  Hamitic  peoples, 
such  as  the  Libyans,  the  Berbers,  the  Cushites, 
the  Crallas,  the  Danakils,  and  the  Somali,  renders 
it  improbable  that  the  Egyptians  were  immi- 
grants from  Asia.  Nevertheless,  the  kinship  of 
the  North  African  languages  with  the  Semitic 
speech  is  immistakably  shown  in  numerals  and 
prepositions,  noun  formation  and  verb  inflection, 
syntax,  and  morphology.  (See  Semitic  Lan- 
guages. )  Some  scholars  have  therefore  drawn 
the  conclusion  that  the  Semites  are  likely  to 
have  lived  originally  in  Africa,  though  not  as 
differentiated  Semites,  and  to  hisive  crossed  into 
Arabia  by  Bab  el-Mandeb  or  Suez,  where  in  new 
surroundings  and  seclusion  their  characteristic 
peculiarities  may  have  developed.  From  Arabia 
succeeding  waves  of  emigration  sent  Semitic 
nomads  into  Babylonia,  Mesopotamia,  and  Syria. 
The  invasion  of  Babylonia  must  have  occurred 
very  early,  since  already  in  the  fifth  millennium 
B.G.  the  influence  of  the  Semitic  speech  is  seen 
in  the  Sumerian  language  (q.v.)  and  the  re- 
ligious conceptions  of  Babylonia  in  the  fourth 
millennium  reflect  conditions  of  society  no  longer 
prevalent  in  the  time  of  the  Minsean  Empire. 
(See  MiNiEANs.)  It  is  impossible  to  date  with 
certainty  the  invasion  of  Syria,  but  there  is  a 
tradition  that  brings  the  foundation  of  some 
Phoenician  cities  back  to  the  first  half  of  the 
third  millennium  b.c.  (see  Ph(Enicia),  and 
there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  Palestine  at- 
tracted the  Semitic  nomads  even  at  an  earlier 
time.  How  soon  the  tribes  subsequently  devel- 
oping into  the  nations  of  Israel,  Edom,  Moab,  and 
Ammon  drifted  into  Syria  cannot  be  determined. 
Some  passages  in  the  Amama  letters  written 
about  B.C.  1400  mentioning  the  Edbirx,  possibly  a 
cuneiform  equivalent  of  '/6m,  Hebrews,  seem  to 
refer  to  them.  Arameans  had  settled  in  Meso- 
potamia and  Babylonia  at  least  as  early  as  the 
thirteenth  century  B.C.,  and  Chaldeans  are  found 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Persian  Gulf  not  much 
later.  Semites  speaking  a  decidedly  Sabean 
dialect  seem  to  have  lived  in  Abyssinia  in  the 
seventh  century  b.c.  and  probably  long  before 
that  time.    See  Ethiopia. 

The  Semites  belong  to  the  white  Caucasian 
race.  Physically,  the  Semitic  type  has  probably 
maintained  itself  most  pure  in  Arabia.  In  Baby- 
lonia it  is  likely  to  have  been  modified  by  the 
Sumerians,  in  Assyria  by  the  Gutiana,  in  Meso- 
potamia by  the  Mitanians  and  Hittites,  in  Syria 
by  the  non-Semitic  aborigines,  in  Abyssinia  by 
Hamitic  tribes,  in  Carthage  by  the  Berbers.  Dur- 
ing the*  period  of  the  caliphs  the  Arabs  in  the 
conquered  lands  intermarried  with  the  nations 
and  the  mixture  of  blood  was  increased  by  the 
harem  life.  Nevertheless,  there  are  certain  un- 
mistakable physical  characteristics  of  the  Semitic 
race,  such  as  a  tendency  to  prognathism,  fullness 
of  lip,  an  aquiline  nose,  and  wayv  or  curljr  hair. 

It  is  widely  held  that  the  Semitic  mind  is 
analytical  rather  than  synthetical,  practical 
rather  than  speculative,  inclined  to  occupy  itself 
with  details  rather  than  with  generalizations; 
the  race  excels  in  commerce  and  industry  rather 
than  in  warfare  and  statecraft,  in  morals  and 
religion  rather  than  in  science  and  art.  In 
the  main  this  estimate  is  probably  fair.  There 
are  not  wanting  scholars,  however,  who  look 
upon  it  as  a  one-sided  characterization.  In  order 
to  reach  a  comprehensive  and  well-balanced  judg- 


8EHITES. 


652 


SEMITES. 


ment  their  arguments  must  be  given  due  atten- 
tion. The  fad;  that  Semitic  speech  avoids  the 
formation  of  compounds  is  no  doubt  a  most 
significant  indication  of  an  analytical  rather 
than  synthetical  tendency;  and  the  marked 
capacity  for  keen  analysis  coupled  with  a  strik- 
ing inability  to  systematize  knowled^,  seen  in 
the  Arabic  philosophers  not  less  than  in  the  Tal- 
mud, is  in  harmony  with  this.  Nevertheless, 
there  is  force  in  the  argument  that  three  mono- 
theistic religions  created  by  this  race  indicate 
a  deep  sense  of  unity  and  a  remarkable  power  of 
synthesis.  It  should  be  observed,  however,  that 
monotheism  with  the  Semites  is  not  so  much  a 
result  of  processes  of  ratiocination  as  of  the 
concentration  of  worship  upon  one  god.  The 
correctness  of  ascribing  to  them  a  certain  sober, 
matter-of-fact  way  of  reasoning  may  not  be  seri- 
ously questioned  on  the  ground  of  allegorizing 
common  among  Hellenistic  Jews,  the  curious 
flights  of  Cabalists  from  the  solid  ground  of 
reality,  or  the  speculations  of  some  Arabic  and 
Jewish  philosophers  of  the  Middle  Ages,  since 
in  these  instances  it  is  necessary  to  reckon  large- 
ly with  infusions  of  foreign  blood  and  foreign 
thought.  To  what  extent  the  mythical  lore  of 
Babylonia  was  the  creation  of  Semites  and  not 
of  their  predecessors,  the  Sumerians  (see  Sume- 
BiAX  Language),  is  difficult  to  determine.  Our 
most  prolific  sources  do  not  reveal  the  wealth  of 
myths  once  no  doubt  flourishing  in  Syria  and 
Arabia;  they  are  late  and  are  written  either 
from  the  standpoint  of  monotheism  interested  in 
the  suppression  or  transformation  of  the  myth.s, 
or  from  the  standpoint  of  rationalism  interested 
in  translating  them  into  history.  Much  weight 
must  be  attached  to  the  peculiar  idealism  that  so 
often  manifests  itself  among  the  Semites  in 
prophetic  enthusiasm  and  devotion  to  lofty  aims 
promising  no  immediate  returns.  It  is  indeed 
to  be  observed  that  the  prophetic  outlook  is  most 
sober  where  it  is  least  affected  by  foreign  move- 
ments of  thought;  and  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
the  cases  of  love  of  the  ideal  for  its  own  sake 
become  more  striking  by  contrast  with  the  pre- 
vailing devotion  to  a  certain  cause  because  of 
the  tangible  reward  it  will  bring. 

To  the  growth  of  political  life  the  contribu- 
tions of  the  Semite  do  not  appear  to  have  been 
very  great.  His  attitude  is  that  of  the  Orient 
as  distinct  from  the  Occident,  and  there  is  less 
difference  between  him  and  the  Persian  than  be- 
tween the  Persians  and  their  kinsmen,  the 
Greeks.^  The  superiority  of  the  Semite  as  a 
trader  is  not  wholly  due  either  to  a  survival  of 
nomadic  habits  or  to  the  social  conditions  of 
an  exile  from  home  not  permitted  to  engage  in 
agriculture.  Cuneiform  inscriptions  reveal  an 
extraordinary  development  of  commercial  rela- 
tions, including  banking,  contracts,  deeds,  book-  * 
keeping  and  the  like,  in  ancient  Babylonia 
among  a  settled  people,  whose  land  was  carefully 
cultivated.  Such  peoples  as  the  Arameans  set- 
tled in  Mesopotamia ;  the  Yemenites,  the  Edomites, 
and  the  Phcenicians  were  great  traders.  From 
Carthage,  Rome  secured  her  text-books  on  agri- 
culture; yet  Carthage  was  even  more  famous  for 
her  commerce.  No  doubt  the  heaviest  debt 
that  science  owes  to  the  Semites  k  for  faithful 
transmission  of  knowledge  originally  won  by 
others.  Babylonians,  Arameans,  Arabs,  and 
Jews  have  done  yeoman  service  as  intellectual 
brokers.     It  should  not  be  questioned,  however, 


that  they  have  added  not  a  little  to  the  precious 
burdens  they  have  carried  down  the  ages,  espe- 
cially in  astronomy,  mathematics,  chemistry, 
anatomy,  and  philology.  At  least  one  Arabic 
historian,  Ibn  Khaldun,  deserves  to  be  ranked 
with  the  greatest  interpreters  of  history  in  any 
age. 

To  what  extent  religious  protests  against 
images  prevented  a  normal  development  of  native 
capacities  for  the  plastic  arts  cannot  be  known. 
The  statues  found  at  Telloh  can  probably  not  be 
claimed  for  the  Semites.  They  give  the  impres- 
sion of  being  the  ripe  fruits  of  a  long  growth 
among  the  Sumerians.  It  can  scarcely  be  an  ac- 
cident that  such  works  of  art  are  not  found  in 
later  periods  of  undoubted  Semitic  dominance. 
The  Assyrians  certainly  excelled  in  the  repre- 
sentation of  animals,  but  do  not  seem  to  hsTe 
developed  otherwise  a  high  artistic  taste.  The 
representations  of  the  human  figure  on  South 
Arabian  monuments  are  exceedingly  crude.  It  is 
chiefly  in  the  arabesque,  based  upon  mathe- 
matical motives,  that  the  Semitic  art  achieved  a 
distinct  triumph.  There  is  reason  to  suppose 
that  music  may  have  reached  a  comparatively 
high  degree  of  development  among  the  ancient 
Semites.  Unfortunately,  it  is  not  possible  to  de- 
termine its  exact  character.  The  Semitic  race 
has  never  produced  a  great  drama  or  epic  poem. 
But  the  Semite  excels  in  lyric  poetry.  The  fin- 
est examples  are  the  Book  of  Job  (q.v.)  and  the 
poems  of  Heine  (q.v.),  though  the  Psalms,  Can- 
ticles, and  the  Muallakat  furnish  some  passages 
of  genuine  inspiration.  This  tendency  also 
created  an  elevated  prose  or  semi-poetry  found 
in  oracles,  as  in  the  prophetic  w^ritings  and  the 
Koran,  often  with  a  definite  metre  and  a  simple 
rhyme.  There  have  been  great  philosophers 
among  the  Semites  such  as  Philo,  Ibn  Gabirol, 
Maimonides,  Spinoza,  Avicenna,  and  Averroes, 
but  their  contributions  are  indicative  of  the  in- 
fluence of  foreign  speculation  rather  than  repre- 
sentative of  native  tendencies  of  thought,  find- 
ing expression  through  these  men  of  genius. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  questioned 
whether  the  sense  for  conduct  and  the  genius  for 
religion  accredited  to  the  Semites  have  not  to 
some  extent  been  exaggerated.  It  is  true  that 
so  early  a  production  as  the  Code  of  Hammurabi 
(q.v.)  exhibits  surprisingly  advanced  ethical 
conceptions.  The  legislative  codes  of  Israel,  espe- 
cially Deuteronomy  (q.v.),  show  much  concern 
for  the  poor,  the  weak,  and  the  slaves,  and  aeek 
to  safeguard  the  sanctity  of  the  family,  and  the 
commentaries  on  the  Law  in  the  Mishna  and  the 
two  Talmuds  reveal  a  sturdy  moral  sense  en- 
deavoring to  apply  the  Law  to  the  various  con- 
ditions of  life  without  making  the  burdens  too 
heavy.  The  great  prophets  put  the  emphasis 
very  strongly  on  the  moral  requirements,  equity, 
justice,  and  mercy.  In  their  spirit  Jesus  gave 
paramount  importance  to  the  inner  disposition 
and  made  love  the  fulfillment  of  the  law.  South 
Arabian  inscriptions  show  a  deeper  conscious- 
ness of  sin  as  well  as  a  keener  religious  sense 
in  general  than  the  secular  songs  of  a  late  syn- 
cretistic  period  had  led  men  to  expect.  And  the 
moral  earnestness  of  Mohammed  himself  and 
many  followers  of  this  prophet  must  be  recog- 
nized. But  no  Semitic  people  ever  conceived  of 
such  a  marvelous  adjustment  of  character  and 
destiny  as  the  Indian  doctrine  of  metempsychosis 
presents.    The  emphasis  upon  truthfulness  seems 


SEKITES. 


658 


SEHITIC  LANOUAOE& 


stronger  among  the  Persians.  The  uncompromis- 
ing  rectitude  of  spirit  that  led  the  Teuton  to  in- 
volve Odin  himself  in  the  twilight  of  the  gods 
because  of  his  moral  delinouencies  is  only  ap- 
proached in  the  Book  of  Job.  Yahweh  may  re- 
pent of  what  he  has  done,  but  he  is  not  punished 
for  his  errors.  Without  the  impact  of  ideas  es- 
sentially foreign  to  his  native  modes  of  thought, 
and  recognized  as  such  by  his  kindred,  no  Semite 
has  ever  risen  to  the  conception  of  moral  auton- 
omy. The  question  why  one  course  of  action 
should  be  preferred  to  another  has  been  uni- 
versally answered  by  the  Semite  by  reference  to 
a  law  imposed  from  without.  This  dependence 
upon  an  external  authority  for  a  standard  of 
right  has  no  doubt  strengthened  the  religious 
feeling.  Another  cause  of  religious  fervor  has 
been  sought  in  the  institution  of  polyandry 
which  apparently  prevailed  among  the  early  Sem- 
ites to  a  greater  extent  than  among  any  equally 
gifted  race,  and  continued,  long  after  another 
type  of  marriage  had  taken  its  place,  to  exercise 
its  influence  in  the  worship  of  a  mother-goddess 
who  freely  gives  herself  even  to  human  lovers. 
A  religious  mysticism  ultimately  based  upon 
such  a  conception  of  sexual  relationship  poured 
a  wealth  of  tenderness  and  devotion  into  the 
worship  of  the  supreme  tribal  god  and  remained 
an  important  factor  long  after  the  mother-god- 
dess cult  had  ceased.  That  the  Semite  possesses 
a  capacity  for  intense  religious  faith  is  mani- 
fest; the  name  of  Jesus  would  alone  prove  this. 
He  was  preceded  and  followed  by  many  prophets 
in  Israel;  but  Mohammed  is  the  only  important 
witness  to  the  power  of  the  religious  feeling  in 
the  home  of  all  the  Semites.  The  fact  that 
monotheism  was  reached  by  Jews  and  Arabs, 
not  by  reasoning,  but  by  faith  in  and  devotion 
to  the  tribal  god,  is  itself  a  testimony  to  the 
hold  religion  had  on  these  people.  Nevertheless, 
it  is  impossible  to  escape  the  impression  that 
neither  the  consciousness  of  the  unity  of  the 
divine  life,  nor  the  sense  of  mystic  union  with 
the  divine,  nor  the  devotion  to  a  divinely  or- 
dained mode  of  life,  was  ever  so  universal  or  so 
intense  among  the  Semites  as  it  has  been  in 
India.  If  the  Semites  are  to  us  the  people  of 
religion  par  excellence  it  is  because  through  the 
prophets  of  Israel,  and  preeminently  through  the 
founder  of  Christianity,  a  form  of  religion  has 
found  its  way  into  the  world  which,  independent 
of  cultic  performances  and  changing  intellectual 
apperceptions,  presents  high  ethical  motives  and 
ideals  touched  with  a  sense  of  the  infinite  mys- 
tery and  sacredness  of  life. 

BiBUOGBAPHT.  Schrader,  in  Zeitschrift  der 
deutschenmorgeniandischen  Qeaellschafty  vol. 
xxvii.  (Leipzig,  1873)  ;  Chwolson,  Die  semitischen 
VoUcer  (Berlin,  1872) ;  Kremer,  in  Das  Ausland, 
vol.  xlviii.  (Stuttgart,  1875);  Guidi,  "Delia 
sede  primitiva  dei  popoli  semitici,"  in  Accademia 
dei  Lincei  (Milan,  1879)  ;  Sprenger,  Die  alte  Oeo- 
graphie  Arahiena  (Bonn,  1875)  ;  Hommel,  Die 
semiHachen  Volker  und  Sprachen  (Leipzig, 
1883) ;  De  Goeje,  Het  vaderland  der  aemietische 
voUcen  (Leyden,  1882)  ;  Brinton,  Cradle  of  the 
Bemitea  (Philadelphia,  1890) ;  Robertson  Smith, 
Religion  of  the  Semites  (2d  ed.,  London,  1894)  ; 
id.,  Kinship  and  Marriage  in  Early  Arabia 
(Cambridge,  1885) ;  Barton,  A  Sketch  of  Semitic 
Origins  (New  York,  1902).  Consult  also  the 
works  mentioned  in  the  article  Semitio  Lan- 

GUXQBS. 


SEMITIC  LANOXJAGES.  The  current 
designation  of  a  group  of  languages  sharply 
marked  off  from  other  groups  by  certain  charac- 
teristic features  pertaining  both  to  morphology 
and  to  lexicography.  The  name  Semitic  is  an 
unfortunate  one,  derived  from  the  classification 
of  nations  in  the  tenth  chapter  of  Genesis.  (See 
Semites.)  In  retaining  it  we  must  not  only 
bear  in  mind  that  it  is  a  purely  conventional 
designation  for  a  certain  group  of  languages,  but 
also  distinguish  between  its  ethnic  and  linguistic 
applications.  It  does  not  follow  that  nations 
speaking  the  same  languages  belong  necessarily 
to  the  same  stock. 

Confining  ourselves  to  the  linguistic  applica- 
tion, we  may  distinguish  two  chief  branches  of 
Semitic  speech — a  northern  and  a  southern.  To 
the  northern  branch  belong  (1)  the  Babylono- 
Assyrian;  (2)  the  Aramaic,  subdivided  into  a 
western  and  an  eastern  branch  (see  Abamaic)  ; 
(3)  Hebneo-Phoenician.  T)  the  southern  branch 
belong  (1)  the  Arabic,  which  again  is  divided 
into  north  and  south  Arabic,  and  (2)   Ethiopic. 

In  comparison  with  the  territory  throughout 
which  the  Indo-Germanic  languages  are  spoken 
the  area  of  Semitic  speech  is  exceedingly  limited. 
Excluding  the  modem  Hebrew  and  modem  Ara- 
bic, which  have  been  carried  by  Jews  and  Arabs 
to  distant  parts,  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
Euphrates,  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  Taurus 
range  represent  the  western,  eastern,  southern, 
and  northern  boundaries  for  the  groups  of  Semit- 
ic languages.  As  a  direct  consequence  of  these 
narrow  confines,  the  relationship  of  the  various 
Semitic  languages  to  one  another  is  much  closer 
than  is  the  case  with  the  various  Aryan  groups 
(e.g.  Persian  and  Teutonic) ;  it  is  almost  jus- 
tifiable to  call  them  dialects  rather  than  sepa- 
rate languages. 

The  chief  traits  characterizing  the  Semitic 
languages  are :  ( 1 )  Within  the  historical  period 
of  the  languages,  the  triliteral  character  of  most 
of  the  stems  underlying  both  nouns  and  verbs; 
(2)  in  the  morphology,  the  constant  character  of 
the  consonants  forming  the  stems,  the  vowels 
being  used  to  indicate  the  variations  on  the  main 
theme;  (3)  substantial  agreement  in  the  noim 
and  verb  formation;  (4)  the  arrested  develop- 
ment in  the  expression  of  time  relation  in  the 
case  of  the  verb,  w^hich  does  not  pass  beyond 
the  differentiation  between  a  completed  and  an 
incompleted  act;  (5)  the  use  of  certain  conso- 
nants in  all  the  languages  (particularly  h,  n, 
sh,  t)  for  pronominal  prefixes  and  sufiixes  and 
for  indication  of  plural  and  feminine,  as  well  as 
variations  of  the  verbal  stem  corresponding  in 
a  measure  to  modes  in  Indo-Germanic  languages. 
Other  traits  might  be  mentioned,  such  as  the 
paucity  of  auxiliary  particles,  more  particularly 
conjunctions;  and  it  should  be  noted  that  while 
the  Semitic  languages  agree  closely  in  having  the 
same  words  for  common^  terms  (such  as  father, 
mother,  brother,  water,  food,  deity,  heaven,  etc. ) , 
there  are,  however,  notable  exceptions  (e.g. 
man)  ;  and  in  the  case  of  verbs  there  is  con- 
siderable individuality  manifested  in  the  specific 
meanings  developed  by  each  language  from  the 
very  general  one  which  is  usually  attached  to  a 
particular  stem. 

In  the  form  of  writing  employed  there  is  even 
more  variation,  no  less  than  three  distinct  spe- 
cies being  employed  in  the  groups  comprising 
the  Semitic  languages:   (a)  the  cuneiform  char- 


SEMITIC  IiANGUAGE& 


654 


SEinnC  LANOnAOE& 


acters  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  which,  orig- 
inating in  a  pictorial  script,  became  linear  or 
wedge-shaped  (see  Cuneifobm  Inscbiptiozts)  ; 
(b)  the  Phoenician  and  its  derivatives,  Hebrew, 
the  various  Aramaic  alphabets,  and  further  de- 
rivatives from  the  latter;  the  Syriac  and  Arabic 
alphabets;  the  Phoenician  itself  may  revert  to 
the  characters  found  in  the  south-Arabic  in- 
scriptions; (c)  the  Ethiopic,  which  may  like- 
wise be  a  derivative  of  the  ancient  south-Arabic 
(Sabean  and  Himyaritic)  alphabet,  though  other 
factors  have  entered  into  the  production  of  some 
of  the  peculiarities  presented  by  the  Ethiopic 
alphabet.    See  Alphabet;  Inscbiftions. 

Of  the  various  groups  of  the  Semitic  languages, 
the  Babylono-Assyrian  merits  the  first  place  by 
virtue  of  the  antiquity  of  its  literature.  The  ex- 
cavations in  Babylonia  and  Assyria  (q.v.)  have 
brought  to  light  inscriptions  that  date  back  to 
about  B.C.  4500  and  as  early  as  B.C.  2500  there  ap- 
pears to  have  existed  quite  an  extensive  litera- 
ture, chiefly  historical,  legal,  and  religious. 
Later  we  find  other  branches  like  medicine  and 
astronomy  represented.  Assyria  adopted  the 
script  together,  with  the  general  culture  of 
Babylonia,  and  while  it  made  few  contributions 
to  the  literature  outside  of  annals,  prayers,  and 
incantations,  great  care  was  taken  by  some  of 
the  kings  to  copy  and  preserve  the  literature  pro- 
duced in  the  south.  The  cuneiform  characters 
in  various  modifications  continued  in  use  in 
Mesopotamia  until  a  few  decades  prior  to  the 
present  era. 

The  Aramaic  branch  is  distinguished  by  the 
large  number  of  its  subdivisions  and  dialects  and 
by  the  large  territory  over  which  these  sub- 
divisions and  dialects  are  spread  at  a  compara- 
tively early  period.  The  extensive  sway  of 
Aramaic  is  almost  coequal  with  the  range  of 
Semitic  speech,  and  some  of  the  Aramaic  dia- 
lects developed  sufficiently  distinct  traits  to  fall 
within  the  category  of  separate  languages.  By 
far  the  most  important  representative  of  the 
group  is  the  Syrian  or  the  Aramaic  dialect 
spoken  in  Edessa,  Harran,  Nisibis,  and  other 
places  in  Mesopotamia.  The  Babylonian  dialect 
of  the  Aramaic  was  adopted  by  the  Jews  of  the 
Exile;  its  form  in  the  period  a.d.  250-450  may  be 
seen  in  the  Babylonian  Talmud.  A  similar  dia- 
lect, though  less  exposed  to  foreign  influence, 
was  the  Mandaic.  The  Aramaic  dialect  spoken 
in  Judea  has  been  preserved  in  the  Bible  (por- 
tions of  Ezra  and  Daniel )  and  in  the  earlier  Tar- 
gums.  Another  Aramaic  offshoot  is  the  Samari- 
tan, being  the  dialect  spoken  in  the  district  of 
Shechem,  and  of  importance  as  the  tongue  of  the 
Samaritan  community.  The  Galilean  dialect,  as 
it  was  spoken  in  the  third  century  a.d.  and  later, 
has  been  preserved  in  many  Targums  and  in  the 
Babylonian  Talmud.  For  further  detail  con- 
cerning these  languages  and  their  literatures, 
see  the  articles  Abamaig;  Sybiao;  Maztdjsans; 
Samabitans. 

In  the  Hebrseo-Phoenician  group,  the  Hebrew 
merits  the  first  place  by  virtue  of  the  fact  that 
the  bulk  of  the  Old  Testament  is  written  in  this 
language.  (See  article  Jews,  sections  Hebrew 
History  and  Language  and  Literature;  also 
Hexateuch;  Pentateuch.)  Hebrew  literature 
is  also  represented  by  the  older  division  of  the 
Talmud  known  as  the  Mishna  (q.v.),  containing 
the  codification  of  the  Rabbinical  laws.  This 
section  of  Hebrew  literature  was  edited  about 


A.D.  200.  A  number  of  Midrashim  are  likewise 
written  in  this  Neo-Hebraic  speech.  By  this  time 
Hebrew  had  long  ceased  to  be  the  current  speech 
of  Jews,  who  in  Palestine  had  adopted  Aramaic, 
and  outside  of  Palestine  the  language  of  the 
countries  in  which  they  were  settled,  but  He- 
brew still  maintained  its  sway  as  the  tongue  of 
sacred  writ  and  as  the  official  language  of  the 
synagogue.  In  view  of  this  it  continued  to  be 
cultivated  not  only  by  the  learned,  but  by  the 
masses  as  well,  so  that  from  time  to  time  He- 
brew witnessed  literary  revivals.  Such  a  revival 
took  place  in  Spain  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
centuries,  and  again  in  Russia  and  Eastern 
Europe  in  the  nineteenth  century,  so  that  nu- 
merous works  in  Hebrew  continue  to  be  published 
up  to  the  present  time.  The  Hebrew  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  and  the  Neo-Hebrew  are  modeled  en- 
tirely upon  the  biblical  style;  and,  since  it  is 
artificially  cultivated  and  nowhere  used  as  the 
sole  language  of  interchange,  it  can  hardly  be 
designated  as  one  of  the  living  Semitic  lan- 
guages. Hebrew  being  merely  the  Canaanitish 
speech  adopted  by  the  Israelites  upon  takijig 
possession  of  Canaan,  it  follows  that  it  is  prac- 
tically identical  in  its  earliest  form  with  Phoeni- 
cian, since  the  Phoenicians  are  merely  Canaanites 
who  settled  on  the  shore  instead  of  in  the  interior 
of  Palestine.  The  Phoenicians  do  not  appear  to 
have  developed  any  literature,  and  the  language 
is  known  to  us  only  from  the  vast  numl^r  of 
mortuary  and  votive  and  commemorative  inscrip- 
tions found  in  Phoenicia  itself,  and  in  even 
larger  quantities  in  the  colonies  of  the  Phoeni- 
cians, notably  in  Cyprus,  Northern  Africa,  Sar- 
dinia, Malta,  Southern  Spain,  and  Southern 
France.  These  inscriptions  cover  the  long  period 
from  about  the  eighth  century  b.c.  up  to  the  end 
of  the  second  century  of  our  era.  Their  interest 
is  chiefly  (1)  epigraphical  in  enabling  us  to 
trace  the  development  and  modifications  of  the 
Phoenician  script,  and  (2)  linguistic  as  furnishing 
the  means  to  the  study  of  a  Semitic  tongue  that 
was  the  first  to  spread  outside  of  Semitic  terri- 
tory. (See  Ph<enicia.)  Presenting  only  slight 
variations  from  the  Hebrew  and  Phoenician  is 
the  Moabitic,  represented  by  a  single  inscription 
of  the  Moabitic  King  Mesha  (see  Moabite 
Stone),  and  which  is  of  special  interest  as  rep- 
resenting the  oldest  alphabetical  inscription  in 
ancient  Phoenician  or  Canaanitish  script. 
•  Of  the  southern  branch  the  chief  representative 
is  the  Arabic,  the  Semitic  language  which  has 
far  exceeded  all  others  in  the  wide  character 
of  its  influence.  It  was  the  rise  and  spread  of 
Islam  that  gave  to  Arabic  as  the  language  of  the 
Koran  its  supreme  importance.  Previous  to  that 
time  Arabic  was  confined  to  the  peninsula  of 
Arabia;  several  dialects  prevailed,  and  the  one 
that  became  the  classical  speech  was  the  form 
spoken  in  Mecca,  the  birthplace  of  the  Prophet 
Mohammed.  Leaving  southern  Arabic  out  of 
account  for  the  present,  Arabic  literature  pre- 
vious to  Mohammed  was  confined  to  poetical  com- 
positions which  were  preserved  orally.  Islam 
marks  not  only  a  religious  innovation,  but  was 
also  an  intellectual  movement  that  gave  rise 
to  written  literature  among  the  Arabs,  and  as  the 
Arabs  came  into  contact  through  the  spread  of 
Islam  with  the  existing  Oriental  and  Occidental 
cultures,  the  various  branches  of  science,  medi- 
cine, philosophy,  theology,  mathematics,  geog- 
raphy, histoiy,  besides  poetry,  were  cultivated 


SEMITIC  IiANGUAOE& 


665 


8EMMEBIKG. 


and  an  exceedingly  extensive  and  important 
literature  was  produced  in  Arabic  during  the  fiye 
centuries  following  the  appearance  of  Moham- 
med. After  that  period  a  decline  set  in,  though 
the  literary  activity  of  the  Arabs  never  came 
to  a  standstill,  and  within  the  past  fifty  years, 
through  contact  with  modem  European  culture,  a 
new  era  of  intellectual  activity  has  been  inau- 
gurated among  the  Mohanmiedans  in  Turkey, 
Egypt,  and  India,  which  appears  to  be  spreading 
to  other  centres  of  Islam.  (See  Ababic  Lan- 
guage AND  LiTERATUBE.)  The  culture  of  South- 
ern Arabia  is  far  older  than  that  which  arose  in 
Central  and  Northern  Arabia.  As  early  at  least 
as  B.C.  1500  a  powerful  kingdom  existed  in 
Yemen,  and  although  no  literary  remains  have 
been  preserved,  inscriptions  in  large  numbers 
have  been  foimd,  revealing  a  distinctive  variety 
of  Semitic  script  as  well  as  a  distinctive  species 
of  Arabic  which  is  commonly  termed  Sabsean 
or  Himyaritic.  The  relationship  of  the  south- 
Arabic  script  to  the  Phoenician  is  a  problem  that 
has  not  yet  been  cleared  up.  Much  speaks  in 
favor  of  regarding  the  former  as  the  prototype 
of  the  latter,  though  the  links  leading  from  the 
one  to  the  other  are  missing.  The  south-Arabic 
inscriptions  covering  a  peri<3  of  about  700  years* 
(so  far  as  they  can  be  dated  at  all)  are  chiefly 
of  a  votive  or  commemorative  character,  and 
throw  light  upon  the  histoiy  and  religion  of  the 
old  south-Arabic  kingdoms  that  at  one  time 
played    no    inconsiderable    rftle.      See    Inscbif- 

TIONS;    MlN.£AN8;    SaB.£ANS. 

The  Ethiopic  literature  in  the  proper  sense, 
or  the  Geez  (to  use  the  native  name),  dates  from 
the  introduction  of  Christianity  into  Abyssinia. 
That  literature  is  almost  exclusively  religious 
and  consists  mainly  of  homilies,  religious  poetry, 
and  lives  of  saints,  besides  some  chronicles.  The 
language  survives  in  several  dialects  (Tigre, 
Tigrifla,  Amharic)  spoken  in  Abyssinia.  The 
alphabet,  derived  from  the  south-Arabian  script, 
presents  the  peculiarity  that  the  vowel  soimds  are 
indicated  by  modifications  of  the  consonants 
which  they  accompany.  See  Ethiopia;  Ethiopio 
Whiting;  Amhabig  Language. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made,  sometimes 
in  a  very  superficial  fashion  and  sometimes  by 
the  use  of  scientific  methods,  to  establish  a  re- 
lationship between  the  Semitic  languages  and 
the  Indo-Germanic.  But  all  these  endeavors 
have  failed.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Semitic  lan- 
guages bear  so  striking  a  resemblance  in  some 
respects  to  certain  languages  of  Northern  Africa, 
that  the  existence  of  some  relationship  between 
the  two  groups  may  be  assumed.  These  lan- 
guages belong  to  the  family  sometimes  called 
•Hamitic,'  and  composed  of  the  Egyptian,  Berber, 
Beja  (Bishari,  etc.),  and  a  number  of  tongues 
spoken  in  Abyssinia  and  the  neighboring  coun- 
tries (Agau,  Galla,  Dankali,  etc).  Some  of  the 
indispensable  words  in  the  Semitic  vocabulary 
(as,  for  instance,  'water,*  'mouth,'  and  certain 
numerals)  are  found  in  Hamitic  also,  and  these 
words  are  such  as  cannot  well  be  derived  from 
triliteral  Semitic  roots,  and  are  more  or  less 
independent  of  the  ordinary  grammatical  rules. 
Important  resemblances  in  grammar  are  also 
noted — ^for  example,  the  formation  of  the  femi- 
nine by  means  of  t  prefixed  'or  suffixed,  that  of 
the  causative  by  means  of  8,  similarity  in  the 
suflSxes  and  prefixes  of  the  verbal  tenses,  and, 
generally,  similari^  in  the  personal  pronouns. 


etc.  There  is  also  much  disagreement;  for  in« 
stance,  the  widest  divergence  is  found  in  the 
mass  of  the  vocabulary.  The  question  is  in- 
volved in  great  difficulties.  Isolated  resem- 
blances may  have  been  produced  by  the  borrow- 
ing of  words.  But  the  great  resemblances  in 
Grammatical  formation  are  harder  to  explain  as 
ue  to  borrowing  on  the  part  of  the  Hamites, 
more  especially  as  these  points  of  agreement  are 
also  found  in  the  language  of  the  Berbers,  who 
are  scattered  over .  an  enormous  territory,  and 
whose  speech  must  have  acquired  its  character 
long  before  they  came  into  contact  with  the 
Semites. 

Biblioobapht.  ZimmeTn,*Verffleichende  Qram- 
matik  der  semitischen,  Sprachen  (Berlin,  1898, 
with  bibliography) ;  Renan,  Histoire  g4nirale  et 
syst^me  compari  dea  langues  simitiques  (5th 
ed.,  Paris,  1878) ;  Wright,  Lectures  on  the 
Comparative  Orammar  of  the  Semitic  Languages 
(Cambridge,  1890) ;  Noldeke,  Die  semitischen 
Sprachen  (2d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1899) ;  Friedrich 
Mttller,  Die  semitischen  Sprachen,  Orundriss  der 
Sprachwissenschaft,  ill.  2,  pp.  315-419  (Vienna, 
1887);  Reckendorf,  "Zur  Karakteristik  der 
semitischen  Sprachen,"  Xdme  Congris  des  Orien- 
talistes,  sect,  ii.,  pp.  1-9  (Leyden,  1896)  ;  Hom- 
mel.  Die  semitischen  Volker  und  Sprachen  (Leip- 
zig, 1883)  ;  Lindberg,  Vergleichende  Orammatik 
d^  semitischen  Sprachen  (Goteborg,  1897). 

SEKITONE  (Lat.  semitoniumy  half  tone, 
from  semi;  half  -|-  tonus, .tone) .  In  music,  the 
smallest  interval  in  the  diatonic  scale,  as  E  F 
or  B  C,  in  which  the  ratio  is  as  15  to  16.  In  the 
pianoforte,  the  interval  between  any  two  notes 
between  which  no  other  note  is  interposed,  as 
C  to  C$,  or  Bb  to  B,  is  a  semitone. 

SEMLEB^  zdm^l^r,  Johann  Salomo  (1725- 
91 ) .  One  of  the  most  infiuential  German  theolo- 
gians of  the  eighteenth  century.  He  was  born  at 
Saalfeld,  where  his  father  was  archdeacon.  He  was 
educated  at  Halle,  and  in  1752  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  theology  there.  Semler,  in  the  early  part 
of  his  career,  was  infiuenced  by  Pietism,  but  later 
he  adopted  a  moderate  rationalism,  of  which  he 
was  the  first  systematic  exponent.  His  principal 
works  are:  Apparatus  ad  Liheralem  Veteris 
Testamenti  Interpretationem  (1773)  ;  De  Dcemo- 
niacis  (1760);  UmstAndliohe  Untersuohung  der 
ddmonischen  Leute  (1762)  ;  Versuch  einer  hih- 
lischen  DAmonologie  (1776)  ;  Commentationes 
Historiccp  de  Antiquo  Christianorum  Statu;  0&- 
servationes  Novcs  quihtis  Historia  Christianorum 
usque  ad  Constantium  Magnum  Illustratur 
(1784).  Consult  his  autobiography  (Halle, 
1781-82) ;  Schmid,  Die  Theologie  Semlers  (NOrd- 
lingen,  1858). 

-  SEMLIN,  zSm-l§n'  (Hung.  Zimony).  A  city 
in  Croatia -Slavonia,  Hungary,  situated  at  the 
junction  of  the  Save  and  Danube,  opposite  Bel- 
grade, Servia  (Map:  Austria,  G  4).  Note- 
worthy edifices  are  the  German  theatre,  and  the 
ruined  castle  of  Hunyady,  the  Hungarian  hero, 
who  died  here  in  1456.  Semlin  is  the  centre  of 
the  Turco- Austrian  transit  trade.  Population,  in 
1900,  14,416. 

SEMMEBINO,  zSm^@r-ing.  A  pass  in  the 
Semmering  Alps,  Austria,  crossed  by  the  rail- 
road from  Gloggnitz  in  Lower  Austria  (47  miles 
by  rail  southwest  of  Vienna)  to  Mfirzzuschlag  in 
Styria,   a  distance  by  rail   of  33   miles.    The 


SEIUEEBIKG. 


656 


elevation  of  the  pass  is  about  3300  feet. 
There  was  a  bridle  path  over  it  as  early  as 
the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
The  beauty  of  the  scenery  and  the  desirable- 
ness of  the  climate  make  this  one  of  the  most 
frequented  of  the  health  resorts  in  the  Austrian 
Alps.  The  railway,  the  first  of  the  great  Con- 
tinental mountain  railways,  and  still  considered 
a  remarkable  engineering,  feat,  was  completed  in 

1854.  It  has  15  tunnels  and  16  viaducts. 

SEHMES,  semz,  Raphael  (1809-77).  An 
American  naval  officer,  bom  in  Charles  County, 
Md.  In  1832  he  entered  the  United  States  naval 
service  as  a  midshipman.  He  studied  law,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1834^  but  remained 
in  the  navy.  During  the  Mexican  War  he  was 
the  flag  lieutenant  imder  Commodore  Connor  of 
the  Gulf  Squadron,  and  commanded  a  shore  bat- 
tery at  Vera  Cruz.  After  the  war  he  was  made 
inspector  of  lighthouses,  became  commander  in 

1855,  and  in  1858  was  secretary  of  the  Light- 
house Board.  He  resigned  from  the  navy  on  Feb- 
ruary 15,  1861,  and  soon  afterwards  was  com- 
missioned by  President  Davis  of  the  Confederate 
States  to  secure  skilled  mechanics  and  military 
supplies  in  the  North.  On  April  18,  1861,  he 
was  commissioned  commander  in  the  Confederate 
Navy,  and  soon  went  to  New  Orleans  to  fit  out 
the  Sumter,  which  escaped  from  the  port  and 
captured  seventeen  prizes  before  she  was  block- 
aded in  Tangier  by  two  American  ships  in  Janu- 
ary, 1862.  Semmes  then  sold  the  Sumter,  and 
in  August,  1862,  at  the  Azores,  took  command  of 
the  Alabama,  which  became  the  most  noted  of  the 
Confederate  'commerce-destroyers.*  (See  Ala- 
bama Claims.)  On  June  19,  1864,  the  Alabama 
engaged  the  United  States  ship  Kearaarge  off  the 
coast  of  Cherbourg,  France,  and  was  sunk.  Cap- 
tain Semmes  was  picked  up  by  the  English  yacht 
Deerhound,  was  taken  to  England,  and  soon  after- 
wards returned  to  the  Confederate  States.  He 
was  appointed  rear-admiral  and  was  placed  in 
charge  of  the  James  River  Squadron.  When 
Richmond  was  evacuated,  the  ships  were  blown 
up,  and  Admiral  Semmes  was  commissioned 
brigadier-general  and  put  in  charge  of  the  de- 
fenses of  Danville,  Va.  Upon  General  Lee's 
surrender,  he  joined  Gen.  Joseph  E.  Johnston, 
with  whom  he  surrendered.  While  practicing  law 
at  Mobile,  Semmes  was  arrested  December  15, 
1865,  by  order  of  Secretary  Welles,  on  charges  of 
treason,  but  was  released  by  the  third  amnesty 
proclamation  of  President  Johnson.  He  pub- 
lished Service  Afloat  and  Ashore  During  the  Mew^ 
ican  War  (1851);  Campaigns  of  General  Scott 
in  the  Valley  of  Mexico  (1852);  Cruise  of  the 
Alabama  and  Sumter  (1864);  and  Memoirs  of 
Service  Afloat  During  the  War  Between  the 
States  (1869). 

SEMOLINA  (It.  semolino,  grits,  soup  paste, 
small  seed,  diminutive  of  semola,  bran,  from  Lat. 
simila,  fine  wheat  fiour),  Semola,  or  Semoule. 
A  by-product  in  wheat-flour  making,  especially 
from  hard  wheats,  being  the  particles  retained  in 
the  bolting  machine  and  used  for  thickening 
soups,  for  puddings,  etc.  It  is  widely  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  macaroni,  etc.  It  is  also 
manufactured  in  considerable  quantity,  as  it  is  a 
favorite  food  in  Italy  and  France.  Its  average 
percentage  composition  is:  water,  13.1;  protein, 
9.4 ;  fat,  0.9 ;  nitrogen-free  extract  ( chiefly  starch) , 


76.2 ;  and  ash,  0.4.  See  "Manufacture  of  Semolina 
and  Macaroni/'  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  BuUetin 
20  (Washington,  1902). 

SElCFACHy  zSm^pflG.  A  small  town  of  Swit- 
zerland, situated  on  the  east  shore  of  the  Lake  of 
Sempach,  northwest  of  Lucerne.  Population,  in 
1900,  1,026.  At  Sempach  took  place  the  second 
great  conflict  between  the  confederated  Swiss 
cantons  and  the  House  of  Hapsburg.  The  re- 
newal of  the  strife  was  due  chiefly  to  the  en- 
croachments of  the  Swiss  upon  Hapsburs  terri- 
tory. The  Hapsburg  army,  led  by  Duke  Leopold 
in  person,  consisted  of  4000  horse  and  1400  foot, 
while  the  Swiss  are  said  to  have  numbered  only 
1,300  men.  The  latter  won  a  complete  victory,  as 
is  claimed,  through  the  heroic  self-sacrifice  of 
Arnold  von  Winkelried  (q.v.).  Duke  Leopold 
and  1400  nobles  were  slain.  A  chapel  and  a  mon- 
ument mark  the  battlefield. 

8EHPEB,  zem'p€r,  GoimiiED  (1803-79).  A 
German  architect.  He  was  born  at  Hamburg,  No- 
vember 29,  1803,  and  after  devoting  himself  to  the 
study  of  law  at  GOttingen,  took  up  architecture, 
principally  under  Gau  at  Paris.  His  travels  in 
Italy,  Sicily,  and  Greece  led  to  his  writings  on  the 
practice  of  polychromy  by  the  Greeks,  which 
aroused  much  discussion.  In  1834,  upon  the 
recommendation  of  Schinkel,  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  architecture  in  the  Academy  of 
Dresden.  There  he  built  the  Royal  Theatre,  the 
new  Synagogue,  besides  several  private  residences, 
and  had  just  begun  the  New  Museum,  when  his 
participation  in  the  Revolution  of  1849  compelled 
him  to  leave  the  city.  He  first  went  to  Paris,  and 
in  1851  to  London,  where  his  advice  was  of  great 
weight  in  the  reform  of  industrial  art  instruction, 
and  in  the  organization  of  South  Kensington  Mu- 
seum. In  1855  he  accepted  a  call  to  the  profes- 
sorship of  arehitecture  in  the  newly  organized 
Polytechnicum  at  Zurich,  for  which  he  designed 
the  building.  It  is  one  of  his  masterpieces, 
simple  and  stately  in  style,*  and  beautifully  dec- 
orated, after  his  design.  W^hile  at  Zurich  he  also 
designed  the  railroad  station,  the  Kurhaus  at 
Baden,  and  the  town  hall  at  Winterthur.  The 
theatre  at  Dresden,  which  had  in  the  meanwhile 
been  burned,  was  rebuilt  after  his  plans  in  1871- 
78,  with  increased  splendor,  under  supervision 
of  his  son  Manfred.  In  1871  he  was  called  to 
take  part  in  the  architectural  reconstruction  of 
Vienna,  the  Imperial  Palace,  the  new  theatre,  and 
the  two  museums  being  allotted  him.  He  died  at 
Rome,  May  15,  1879. 

No  architect  of  modem  times  was  more  thor- 
oughly versed  in  the  forms  of  the  Italian  Renais- 
sance, and  understood  how  to  adapt  them  so  well 
to  present-day  needs.  His  buildings  are  as  har- 
monious in  design  as  they  are  careful  and  excel- 
lent in  detail.  He  was  also  a  distinguished  writer 
upon  architectural  subjects.  Among  his  chief 
works  are:  Ueber  Polychromie  und  ihren  Vr- 
sprung  (Braunschweig,  1851);  Wissenschaft^  In- 
dustrie und  Kunst  (ib.,  1852)  ;  and  his  master- 
piece, Der  Stil  in  den  technischen  und  tektonisch- 
en  KUnsten  (Stuggart,  1878).  His  plans  and 
sketches  were  published  after  his  death  (Leipzig, 
1881).  Ck)nsult  hi^  biography  by  Lipsius  (Ber- 
lin, 1880),  and  Hans  Semper  (Dresden,  1880). 

8EMPEB,  Eabl  (1832-93).  A  German 
zoologist,  bom  at  Altona.   He  studied  at  Wfirz- 


SEMPES. 


657 


SENATOBIAL  COUBTESY. 


burg,  and  in  1858  he  went  to  the  Philip- 
pines, where  he  traveled  until  1864.  Returning 
to  Germany,  he  taught  at  Wlirzburg,  and  in  1872 
became  director  of  the  zoological  museum  and 
laboratory.  In  1877  he  gave  a  course  of  lectures 
at  Boston  which  were  afterwards  published  under 
the  title  of  "Animal  Life  as  Affected  by  the 
Natural  Conditions  of  Existence"  (New  York, 
1881).  Semper's  work  as  a  systematic  zoologist  is 
embodied  in  his  series  of  volumes  on  the  zoology 
of  the  Philippines ;  as  an  embryologist  he  will  be 
remembered  for  his  work  on  the  development  of 
a  fresh- water  mollusk  (AmpuUaria)  ;  as  a 
morphologist  he  actively  advocated  the  theory 
of  the  derivation  of  the  vertebrates  from  the 
annelid  worms,  a  view  now  generally  held.  Still 
more  important  are  his  broad  and  original  views 
on  evolution  as  stated  in  his  AnvmaX  Life,  He 
also  criticised  Darwin's  theory  of  circular  coral 
reefs  (atolls),  his  views  having  been  confirmed 
by  other  later  observers. 

Semper's  chief  works,  besides  theAntmaZ  Life, 
are:  Die  Philippinen  und  ihre  Beuoohner  (Wtirz- 
burg,  1869);  Die  Palauinseln  (Leipzig,  1873); 
Retsen  im  Archipel  der  Philippinen  ("Wis- 
senschaftliche  Resultate,"  part  i.,  1868;  ii.-vi., 
1870-96)  ;  "Beitrftge  sur  Biologic  der  Oligochae- 
ten,"  in  Arheiten  au8  dem  Zoologisch-Zootomis- 
ehen  Institut  in  Wiirzhurg  (1877);  "Das  Uro- 
genital-system  der  Plagiostomen,"  etc.,  in  Arhei- 
ten, etc.,  vol.  ii.  (1875).  Semper  was  also  the 
founder  of  the  zoological  peridical  Arbeiten 
aus  dem  Zoologiech-Zootomischtn  Institut  in 
WUrzhurg    (1871-96). 

BEXfTTLL,  Robert  (c.  1530-95).  A  Scottish 
ballad  writer,  who  wrote  many  broadsides  in  sup- 
port of  the  Reformation  in  Scotland.  For  them 
consult:  The  Sempill  Ballates,  ed.  by  Stevenson 
(Edinburgh,  1872) ;  and  Satirical  Poems  of  the 
Time  of  the  Reformation,  ed.  by  Cranstoun  ( Scot- 
tish Text  Society,  2  vols.,  ib.,  1889-93). 

SEK,  Keshub  Chunder  (1838-84).  A  Hindu 
reformer  and  theist.  He  was  bom  at  Garifa, 
Bengal,  and  received  a  mixed  native  and  English 
education.  He  came  into  prominence  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Theistic  Church  of  India  or  the 
Brahmo-Somaj  (q.v.),  which  he  joined  in  1857. 
In  1865  a  division  resulted^  and  the  majority 
became  known  as  the  'progressive  Somaj'  with 
Sen  as  the  acknowledged  leader.  Altliough  ac- 
knowledging the  moral  precepts  of  Christ,  they 
demanded  for  India  a  Christ  presented  in  Oriental 
form  for  the  Hindu  mind.  In  1870  he  visited 
England,  where  he  was  cordially  received  by 
scholars  and  ecclesiastics.  When,  in  1878,  how- 
ever, Sen,  who  had  been  one  of  the  prime  movers 
in  the  passage  of  the  law  against  child  marriage, 
permitted  his  daughter,  thirteen  years  old,  to  wed 
the  Rajah  of  Cutch  Behar,  he  was  deposed  by 
some  of  his  congregation  and  thenceforth  his 
personal  prestige  declined.  The  dissenters  formed 
the  Sadhara  or  Cothetic  Brahmo-Somaj.  In 
1881  he  celebrated  what  he  called  the  birth  of  the 
New  Dispensation,  promulgating  the  teachings 
which  he  had  imbibed  from  Ramakrishna  (q.v.). 
He  was  the  author  of  Yoga,  Objective  and  Sub- 
jective (1884).  Consult:  'Ma^a  MilWer,  Biograph- 
ical Essays  (London,  1884) ;  Mozoomdar,  Life  and 
Teachings  of  Keshub  ChunderSen  ( Calcutta,  1887 ) . 

SBNANCOTJBy  se-nfiN'kdSr^,  IStienne  Pivebt 
m  (1770-1846).  A  French  philosopher  and  litter- 


ateur, remembered  almost  solely  as  the  author  of 
Obermann.  He  was  bom  in  Paris  of  a  noble 
family  ruined  by  the  Revolution.  He  was  sickly 
from  childhood.  Though  destined  to  the  Church, 
he  escaped  from  the  Seminary  of  Saint-Sulpice  to 
Switzerland,  with  his  mother's  help,  and  married 
there.  He  returned  to  Paris  after  his  wife's 
death,  about  1800,  and  remained  there  in  poverty, 
relieved  at  the  last  by  a  modest  pension,  till  his 
death  at  Saint  Cloud.  His  more  noteworthy 
works  besides  Obermann  (1804)  are  Reveries  sur 
la  nature  primitive  de  Vhomme  (1799),  De 
Vamour  selon  les  lois  primordiales  (1805),  Ob- 
servations sur  le  g&nie  du  christianisme  (1816), 
and  a  feeble  romance,  Isabelle  ( 1833) .  Obermann 
alone  'lias  qualities  which  make  it  permanently 
valuable  to  kindred  minds"  (Matthew  Arnold). 
In  form  a  novel,  it  is  in  fact  a  series  of  melan- 
choly reflections  on  nature  and  society,  with  the 
morbid  sentiment  of  the  romantic  generation  of 
1830.  Senancour  found  self-forgetfulness  only 
in  nature,  his  descriptions  of  which  are  often 
beautiful.  Obermann  is  translated  with  a  bio- 
graphical and  critical  introduction  by  A.  E. 
Waite  (New  York,  1903). 

SENABT^  se-nar',  !^mile  Charles  Maris 
(1847 — ).  A  French  Orientalist,  born  at  Rheims. 
He  studied  Sanskrit  in  Munich  and  G5ttingen, 
and  except  for  a  short  period  of  political  activity 
devoted  himself  entirely  to  the  languages  and  lit- 
erature of  India.  His  most  famous  work,  Essai 
sur  la  Ugende  du  Bouddha  (1875-82),  advanced 
the  theory  that  the  tradition  in  regard  to  Bud- 
dha represents  an  old  sun  myth.  Quart's  other 
works  include  Kaccayana  et  la  litt&rature 
grammaticale  du  PAle  (1871),  Les  castes  dans 
V  Inde  (1896),  and  an  edition  of  the  Uahavastu 
(1892-98). 

SENATE.  The  name  commonly  applied  to 
the  upper  chamber  of  a  legislative  body.  See 
government  sections  under  United  States; 
France;  Italy;  Spain.  See  also  Conobess; 
Committees. 

8ENAT0B,  z&-n&'t6r,  Hermann  (1834—).  A 
German  physician,  bom  in  Gnesen  and  educated 
in  Berlin.  He  became  professor  of  clinical  med- 
icine at  Berlin  and  principal  physician  of  the 
Augusta  Hospital  in  1875^  and  six  years  after- 
wards directing  physician  in  the  Charity  Hospi- 
tal. His  works  are:  TJntersuchungen  uber  den 
fieberhaften  Prozess  und  seine  Behandlung 
(1873)  ;  Die  Albuminuric  im  gesunden  und  kran- 
ken  Zustande  (1881  and  1890),  Die  Krankheiten 
des  Bewegungsapparates  und  Diabetes  mellitus 
und  insipidus  (1879) ;  and  Die  Erkrankungen  der 
Nieren  (1895). 

SENATOBIAL  COUBTEST.  The  term  ap- 
plied to  a  custom  in  the  United  States  Senate 
by  which  the  procedure  of  that  body  is  based 
chiefly  on  the  honor  of  Senators  rather  than  upon 
strict  rules  such  as  exist  in  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives. Thus  it  is  a  part  of  Senatorial  cour- 
tesy that  a  member  shall  not  be  interrupted  in 
the  course  of  a  speech  on  the  ground  that  his 
time  has  expired,  but  may  speak  without  limit. 
It  is  a  part  of  the  same  custom  that  personal  re- 
quests of  Senators,  as  for  the  immediate  con- 
sideration of  a  favorite  measure,  shall  be  granted. 
It  has  also  come  to  be  a  part  of  Senatorial  cour- 
tesy that  the  Senate  will  refuse  to  confirm  the 
nomination  of  an  appointment  to  office  in  a  State 


SENATOBIAL  COTTBTESY. 


658 


SENECA. 


whoee  Senators  object  to  the  person  nominated. 
The  result  of  this  unwritten  rule  often  makes  it 
necessary  for  the  President  to  consult  before- 
hand with  the  Senators  from  a  State  in  which  he 
is  called  upon  to  make  an  appointment. 

SENCI,  8&n^86.  A  warlike  tribe  of  Panoan 
stock  (q.y.)}  occupying  the  hill  country  east  of 
the  Ucayali  River,  about  Sarayacu,  Northeastern 
Peru.  They  are  described  as  amone  the  greatest 
warriors  of  the  Ucayali  region,  and  Dold  and  gen- 
erous in  disposition.  Their  weapons  are  the  bow, 
lance,  club,  and  kowas,  a  sort  of  combined  club 
and  stabbing  instrument.  They  are  agricultural 
and  very  industrious. 

SENDAIy  sen'di^  The  capital  of  the  Prefec- 
ture of  Miyagi,  Japan,  situated  near  the  east- 
em  coast  of  Hondo,  217  miles  by  rail  north  of 
Tokio  (Map:  Japan,  G  4).  It  is  noted  as  the 
former  seat  of  the  Daimyo  Date  Masamune 
(1567-1636),  who  sent  an  embassy  to  the  Pope 
and  the  King  of  Spain  in  1614.  His  castle,  some- 
what damaged  during  the  revolution  of  1868,  is 
now  used  by  the  garrison.  The  principal  products 
are  ornamental  articles  of  fossil  wood,  found  in 
the  vicinity,  and  cloth.  Population,  in  1898, 
83,325. 

SENECA.  One  of  the  leading  tribes  of  the 
Iroquois  (q.v.)  confederacy.  The  popular  name 
is  foreign  to  the  tribe  and  of  uncertain  origin. 
They  call  themselves  Tshoti-nondawaga,  abbre- 
viated Nondotoaga,  'people  of  the  hill,'  and  were 
formerly  known  to  the  French  as  Taonnonthouan. 
In  the  Iroquois  councils  they  were  officially  desig- 
nated as  the  'doorkeepers,'  in  allusion  to  their 
guarding  the  western  'door*  or  frontier  of  the 
confederacy.  The  Seneca  were  the  ruling  spirits 
of  the  Iroquois  league  in  the  west,  as  the  Monawk 
were  in  the  east,  and  the  wars  waged  with  the 
Huron,  Neutral  Nation,  Erie,  and  Illinois,  as  well 
as  with  the  southern  tribes,  were  carried  on 
chiefly  by  them.  When  first  known  they  occupied 
that  part  of  western  New  York  between  Seneca 
Lake  and  the  Genesee  River,  having  their  coun- 
cil fire  at  Nundatoao,  near  the  present  Naples. 
After  the  destruction  of  the  Erie  and  Neutral 
Nation  about  1650-60,  the  remnants  of  these 
tribes  were  chiefly  incorporated  with  the  Seneca, 
who  soon  spread  over  the  conquered  territory 
westward  to  Lake  Erie  and  southward  along  the 
Allegheny.  By  these  accessions  they  became  the 
largest  and  most  important  tribe  of  the  confed- 
eracy. They  sided  with  the  English  in  the  Revo- 
lution, for  which  their  villages  and  fields  were 
wasted  by  Sullivan  in  1779,  but  did  not  abandon 
their  country,  and  are  still  residing  mainly 
within  their  original  territory  in  New  York  State. 
The  estimate  of  3250  in  1778  remains  practically 
the  same  to-day,  viz.  2710  upon  Cattaraugus, 
Allegheny,  and  Tonawanda  reservations,  New 
York;  345  (mixed  with  Cayuga,  etc.)  attached 
to  Quapaw  agency,  Indian  Territory;  and  an 
estimated  200  with  the  other  Iroquois  on  Grand 
River  reservation,  Ontario.    See  Ibo<)uois. 

SENECA,  Ann^us.  A  Roman  rhetorician, 
bom  at  (Dorduba  (Cordova),  in  Spain.  The 
time  of  his  birth  is  doubtful,  probably  not  later 
than  B.C.  54.  He  seems  to  have  been  in  Rome 
during  the  early  period  of  the  power  of  Augustus. 
He  was  rich,  belonged  to  the  equestrian  order, 
and  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  many  distinguished 
Romans.    The  time  of  his  death  is  uncertain;  but 


he  lived  perhaps  until  a.d.  39.  His  extant  works 
are  Controveraiarum  Libri  X.,  a  collection  of 
imaginary  law  cases  for  practice  in  discussion, 
and  Suasoriarum  Liber,  a  collection  of  themes,' 
neither  of  which  is  complete.  The  best  editions 
are  those  of  Kiessling  (Leipzig,  1872)  and 
Mtlller  (Prague,  1887). 

SENECA,  Lucius  Annaus  (c.4  b.c.-aj).  65). 
A  celebrated  Roman  Stoic  philosopher,  the  son  of 
Annseus  Seneca,  bom  at  Corduba  about  b.c.  4. 
When  a  child  he  was  brought  by  his  father  to 
Rome,  where  he  began  the  study  of  eloquence.  He 
cared  more,  however,  for  philosophy,  in  which 
his  first  teacher  was  the  Pythagorean  Sotion, 
whom  he  afterwards  left  to  follow  Attains  the 
Stoic  He  traveled  in  Greece  and  Egypt,  and 
pleaded  in  courts  of  law;  but,  notwithstanding 
his  forensic  triumphs,  he  left  the  bar  from  fear 
of  Caligula's  jealousy.  He  filled  the  office  of 
qusBstor,  and  had  already  risen  high  in  the  favor 
of  the  Emperor  Claudius,  when  he  was  accused 
of  an  intrigue  with  Julia,  the  daughter  of  Ger- 
manicus,  and  wife  of  Vinicius.  He  was  exiled  to 
Corsica,  where  he  remained  for  eight  years,  de- 
riving from  philosophy  what  consolation  he  could, 
while  incessantly  appealing  to  the  Emperor  for 
pardon.  When  Claudius  married  Agrippina,  Sen- 
eca was  recalled  by  her  influence,  raised  to  the 
prastorship,  and  appointed  instructor  of  her  son 
Nero.  On  the  death  of  his  govemor  and  military 
tutor,  Burrus,  Nero  gave  way  to  his  depraved 
passions  with  a  force  which  Seneca  could  not 
control.  All  his  influence  over  his  pupil  was 
lost,  but  he  proflted  by  his  extravagant  bounty 
to  such  a  degree  that  his  accumulated  wealth 
amounted  to  300,000  sestertia,  or  about  twelve 
million  dollars  of  our  money.  Seneca,  to  avert 
dangerous  consequences,  offered  to  refund  to  the 
Emperor  his  gifts,  and  begged  leave  to  retire  on 
a  small  allowance.  This  Nero  declined;  and 
Seneca,  under  pretense  of  illness,  shut  himself 
up,  and  refused  to  appear  in  public.  Nero  then 
attempted  to  have  him  poisoned,  but  failed.  A 
short  time  afterwards  Antonius  Natalis,  when 
on  his  trial  for  participation  in  the  conspiracy  of 
Piso,  implicated  Seneca  as  one  of  the  con- 
spirators. He  was  sentenced  to  put  himself  to 
death.  His  wife,  Paulina,  declared  her  resolu- 
tion to  die  with  him,  and,  in  spite  of  his  remon- 
strances, accompanied  him  into  the  bath  in  which, 
according  to  his  own  choice,  he  was  to  be  bled 
to  death.  The  Emperor,  however,  would  not  allow 
Paulina  to  die,  but  removed  her  from  her  bus- 
band,  who  gradually  expired. 

Seneca's  extant  writings  are  mainly  on  moral 
subjects,  and  consist  of  epistles,  and  of  treatises 
on  Anger,  Consolation,  Providence,  Tranquillity 
of  Mind,  Philosophical  Constancy,  Clemency,  The 
Shortness  of  Life,  A  Happy  Life,  Philosophical 
Retirement,  and  Benefits.  He  also  wrote  seven 
books  entitled  Qweationea  Naturales.  Ten  trage- 
dies, ascribed  to  him  by  Quintilian,  and  generally 
included  in  editions  of  his  works,  have  also  cone 
down  to  us.  They  were  not  intended,  and  are  cer- 
tainly not  adapted,  for  the  stage.  They  are  over- 
charged with  declamation,  and  wanting  in  dra- 
matic life.  They  are  of  importance  in  dramatic 
history  on  account  of  the  great  influence  they 
exerted  on  Renaissance  and  French  classical 
drama.  Of  his  genuine  prose  writings  modem 
opinion  takes  a  divided  view,  some  critics  prais- 
ing his  practical  sagacity,  others  finding  him 


8BNB0A. 


659 


SENEGAL. 


wanting  in  speculative  reach.  The  Apoeolooyn- 
toais  Divi  Claudi,  usually  ascribed  to  him,  is  an 
amusing  satire  on  the  deceased  Emperor  Clau- 
dius; tne  word' apocolocyntosia,  *pumpkinifica- 
tion,'  is  coined  humorously  for  apotheosis,  'deifi- 
cation.' It  is  published  in  BUcheler's  Petronius 
(Berlin,  1882),  and  edited  by  Ball  (New  York, 
1903).  The  larger  works  are  edited  by  Haase 
(Leipzig,  1893-95),  and  by  Hosius  (ib.,  1899). 
The  tragedies  were  edited  by  Holtze  in  the  Tauch- 
nitz  series  (ib.,  1872). 

SENEGA  FALLS.  A  village  in  Seneca 
County,  N.  Y.,  42  miles  west  of  Syracuse;  on 
the  Seneca  River  and  the  Seneca  and  Cayuga 
Canal,  and  on  the  New  York  Central  and  Hud- 
son River  and  the  Lehigh  Valley  railroads  (Map: 
New  York,  D  3).  It  has  the  Mynderese  Acad- 
emy, a  public  library,  and  the  Johnson  Home  for 
Indigent  Females.  Cayuga  Lake  Park,  three 
miles  distant,  is  a  summer  resort  of  some  prom- 
inence. Seneca  Falls  is  situated  in  a  rich  farm- 
ing region,  and  manufactures  pumps,  hydraulic 
and  foot  power  machinery,  fire  engines,  hook  and 
ladder  trucks,  woolen  doth,  and  advertising  nov- 
elties. Seneca  Falls  was  settled  in  1791,  and  was 
incorporated  in  1831.  PopuUtion,  in  1890,  Ollfi; 
in  1900,  6519. 

SENEGA  LAKE.  The  largest  and  deepest 
of  the  group  of  elongated  lakes  in  west-central 
New  York  (Map:  New  York,  D  3).  It  is  37 
miles  long  and  from  1  to  4  miles  wide,  and  its 
greatest  depth  is  about  630  feet.  Its  shores  are 
bold,  and  the  surrounding  country  picturesque. 
It  receives  the  waters  of  Keuka  Lake,  and  dis- 
charges into  Lake  Ontario  through  the  Seneca 
and  Oswego  Rivers.  It  is  navigated  by  steamers, 
and  connected  by  canals  with  the  Erie  Canal 
and  Chemung  River. 

SENEGIOy  s^nS^shl-d.  A  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Composite.  The  species,  of 
which  nearly  one  thousand  have  been  described, 
are  mostly  herbs  individually  restricted  in  range, 
but  generically  of  almost  world-wide  distribution, 
and  especially  abundant  in  temperate  climates. 
Some  species  are  used  for  fuel;  others  were 
formerly  reputed  useful  for  wounds ;  several  spe- 
cies, especially  Senecio  Cineraria  (dusty  miller), 
Benecio  mikanioides  (Cape  ivy),  and  Senecio  Ar- 
genieus  (silvery  senecio),  are  widely  popular  or- 
namental plants. 

SENECtJ,  s&'n&-k?S5^.  A  village  in  Chihua- 
hua, Mexico,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Rio 
Grande,  about  7  miles  below  El  Paso,  occupied 
by  a  remnant  of  the  Piro  Indians  (q.v.),  a  for- 
mer Pueblo  tribe  of  New  Mexico.  Although  the 
population  is  entirely  Catholic  and  Spanish  is  the 
ordinary  language,  the  old  tribal  organization  is 
still  kept  up,  with  a  cacique,  governor,  war  chief, 
and  other  officers.  The  Senectl  retain  also  some 
degenerate  Pueblo  dances,  with  the  Indian  drum 
and  rattle,  together  with  the  pottery  art,  the  foot 
races,  and  rabbit  hunts  of  their  Pueblo  kin- 
dred. One  or  two  old  persons  yet  remember  some- 
thing of  the  language.  Population,  in  1903,  about 
60. 

SENEFELDEB,  zenVfSl'dSr,  Alots  (1771- 
1834).  The  investor  of  lithography.  He  was 
bom  at  Prague,  Bohemia,  but  was  early  taken  to 
Munich,  where  he  became  an  actor.  He  then 
turned  his  attention  to  printing,  and  invented 
the  process  of  printing  from   stone  known  as 


lithography  (q.v.).  After  unsuccessful  attempts 
to  found  establishments  in  Munich,  Offenbach, 
and  Vienna,  he  returned  to  Munich  and  ac- 
cepted the  position  of  inspector  of  maps  at  the 
royal  printing  office,  continuing  his  private  es- 
tablishment as  well.  In  1826  he  invented  the 
process  of  lithographing  in  colors,  and  in  1833 
perfected  it  so  that  he  could  print  the  colors  on 
linen,  thus  imitating  oil  painting.  He  wrote  a 
Lehrbuoh  der  lAthographie  (1818),  which  was 
translated  into  French  (1819) ;  and  Behandlung 
des  Veherdrucks  auf  der  kleinen  lithographischen 
Handpresse  (1824).  Consult:  Nagler,  Aloys 
Senef elder  und  Simon  Schmidt  ala  Rivalen  (Mu- 
nich, 1862) ;  Pfeilschmidt,  Aloys  Senef  elder 
(Dresden,  1877) ;  Scamoni,  Aloys  Senef  elder  und 
sein  Werk  (Saint  Petersburg,  1896). 

SENEFEEy  se-nef^  A  small  village  in  the 
Province  of  Hainault,  Belgium,  22  miles  south- 
west of  Brussels.  The  district  has  extensive 
manufactures  of  pottery  and  glass.  Near  by  is 
the  battlefield  on  which  William  of  Orange, 
at  the  head  of  the  force  of  the  coalition  against 
France,  was  defeated,  after  a  bloody  contest,  by 
Cond^,  August  11,  1674. 

SENEGAL,  sen'^gftK  (Fr.  S6n4gal).  A  river 
of  the  French  colony  of  Senegal,  on  the  south- 
western border  of  the  Sahara  (Map  Africa, 
C  3).  Its  principal  headstream,  the  Bafing  or 
Black  River,  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Futa 
Jallon,  near  the  sources  of  the  Niger,  and  flows 
north  till  it  is  joined  by  the  Bakhoi  or  White 
River,  at  Bafulabe.  The  combined  stream  then 
flows  generally  northwestward  and  empties  into 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,  at  Saint  Louis,  110  miles 
north  of  Cape  Verde.  It  is  the  flrst  per- 
ennial stream  for  a  distance  of  1300  miles 
south  of  Morocco^  and  marks  the  northern  limit 
of  the  rain  zone.  Its  length  is  about  1000  miles. 
The  upper  course  forms  during  the  wet  season  a 
series  of  rapids  as  it  descends  over  rocky  ledges 
which  in  the  dry  season  are  converted  into  dams 
separating  the  river  into  a  series  of  reservoirs. 
Below  the  confluence  of  the  headstreams  the 
river  descends  from  the  plateau  in  the  Falls  of 
Guine  and  Felu,  each  about  50  feet  high.  In  its 
lower  course  it  flows  through  a  narrow  but  low 
and  level  and  veiy  fertile  alluvial  plain,  in  which 
it  frequently  divides  to  form  large  elongated  isl- 
ands which  are  flooded  during  high  water.  Near 
its  mouth  the  river  forms  a  large  delta  with  nu- 
merous branches,  which,  however,  do  not  enter 
the  ocean  directly,  but  flow  into  a  long,  narrow 
coast  lagoon  cut  off  from  the  sea  by  a  bar  of  sand. 
Through  the  latter  there  is  a  shifting  opening 
which  is  veiy  difficult  and  dangerous  to  enter. 
The  Senegal  is  navigable  to  the  Felu  Falls,  and 
there  is  a  regular  service  in  the  rainy  season  to 
Kays,  460  miles,  whence  a  railroad  has  been 
built  to  Bafulabe  and  is  being  extended  to  Bam- 
maku  on  the  Niger.  The  Faleme,  the  principal 
tributary,  is  also  wide  and  deep,  and  navigable 
over  100  miles.  Consult  Ancelle,  Les  explorations 
au  SSn^gal  (Paris,  1887). 

SENEGAL.  A  French  colony  in  West  Africa, 
extending  along  the  coast  from  Cape  Blanco  to 
the  northern  boundary  of  Portuguese  Guinea,  ex- 
cluding the  British  colony  of  Gambia  (Map: 
Africa,  C  3).  In  1902  the  part  east  of  Kays, 
comprising  the  protected  States  along  the  upper 
Senegal  and  the  Middle  Niger,  was  detached  from 
Senegal  and  was  constituted  a  separate  division 


SEITEGAL. 


660 


SENESCENCE. 


of  French  West  Africa  under  the  name  of  the  Sen- 
egambia  and  Niger  Territory.  Since,  however, 
this  region  is  still  for  the  most  part  only  nomi- 
nally under  the  French  rule,  and  as  its  economic 
development  is  so  closelj^  connected  with  Senegal 
proper,  it  is  deemed  advisable  to  apply  the  name 
of  Senegal  in  this  article  to  the  entire  territory 
between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Military  Territories 
of  French  Sudan.  The  area  of  Senegal  proper  is 
estimated  at  80,000  square  miles.  There  are  no 
reliable  figures  for  the  rest  of  the  coimtry. 

The  region,  as  far  as  it  is  known,  is  without  any 
prominent  elevations.  The  coast  district  is  most- 
ly flat  and  sandy  and  most  fertile  ip  the  valley 
of  the  Senegal.  The  northern  part  belongs  to 
the  region  of  the  Sahara,  while  the  portion 
south  of  the  Senegal  is  densely  wooded  and  better 
watered.  In  the  interior  elevations  of  nearly 
2000  feet  are  occasionally  met  with.  The  western 
part  is  drained  by  the  Senegal,  whose  main  head- 
stream  is  the  Baflng,  and  which  receives  the  Fa- 
leme  from  the  south  and  the  Kulu  from  the  north. 
The  Faleme  is  navigable.  The  portion  south  of 
Gambia  is  watered  by  the  Salum  and  the  Casa- 
mance. 

The  climate  of  Senegal  is  on  the  whole  un- 
healthful.  The  year  is  divided  into  two  seasons. 
The  rainy  season  begins  at  the  end  of  May  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Casamance,  and  in  the  middle  of 
July  at  Saint-Louis.  During  the  dry  season  the 
temperature  at  Saint-Louis  occasionallv  falls  as 
low  as  46**,  but  during  April  and  May  the  north- 
eastern wind  from  the  Sahara  not  infrequently 
raises  it  to  over  110**  in  the  shade.  Yellow  fever 
often  comes  with  the  rainy  season.  The  flora  of 
the  northern  part  is  on  the  whole  scanty,  but 
abounds  in  gummiferous  acacia.  In  the  valley  of 
the  Senegal  the  vegetation  is  luxuriant  and  the 
region  south  of  the  river  is  especially  rich  in 
palms. 

In  the  centre  of  the  colony  are  vast  steppes, 
suitable  for  grazing.  Earthnuts,  which  form  at 
present  the  principal  export  of  Senegal,  are  grown 
along  the  coast,  and  kola  nuts  are  found  along 
the  rivers  in  the  south.  The  natives  also  raise 
millet  for  local  consumption.  Senegal  is  devel- 
oping very  rapidly  and  promises  to  be  a  success- 
ful colony.  A  large  increase  is  shown  in  the 
exports.  The  natives  produce  some  textiles,  and 
metal  ware,  characterized  by  more  or  less  skill. 

The  imports  have  grown  from  $5,456,000  in 
1895  to  $12,366,274  in  1901,  and  the  exports  from 
$2,400,126  to  $7,373,635.  Over  one-fourth  of  the 
imports  consists  of  cotton  goods.  Earthnuts 
form  over  one-half  of  the  exports,  and  gum  and 
rubber  over  one-tenth.  The  chief  waterway  of 
the  colony,  the  Senegal,  is  navigable  during  the 
rainy  season  as  far  as  Kays,  460  miles  from  its 
mouth.  Saint-Louis,  the  capital,  is  connected  by 
a  railway  line  (163  miles  long)  with  Dakar,  the 
chief  seaport  of  the  colony.  Another  line  from 
Kays,  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Senegal,  to 
Bammaku  on  the  Niger  is  in  course  of  construc- 
tion. 

The  local  budget  of  the  colony  for  1903  bal- 
anced at  over  $1,000,000.  The  Governor-General 
of  French  West  Africa,  of  which  Senegal  is 
one  of  the  colonies,  is  assisted  by  a  privy  council 
of  officeholders  and  a  general  council  of  20 
elected  members.  The  colony  is  represented  by 
a  Deputy  in  the  French  Chamber  of  Deputies. 
The  internal  administration  differs  in  various 
parts  in  accordance  with  the  degree  of  subjuga- 


tion of  tribes.  The  communes  of  Saint-Louis, 
Gor^,  Dakar,  and  Rufisque — on  the  coast— are 
organized  like  the  French  communes,  but  else- 
where the  rule  of  the  natives,  especially  in  the 
northern  part,  is  little  interfered  with.  Esti- 
mates place  the  population  at  over  2,000,000,  in- 
cluding the  population  of  the  Senegambia  and 
Niger  Territory.  The  inhabitants  are  com- 
posed of  two  races,  the  Moors  and  the  negroes. 
The  Moors  inhabit  principally  the  northern  part 
of  Senegal  and  are  divided  into  the  three  tribes 
of  Trarza,  Brakna,  and  Duaish,  and  have  adopted 
many  traits  of  their  negro  subjects,  with  whom 
they  have  largely  intermixed.  They  are  engaged 
principally  in  the  gathering  of  rubber  and  trans- 
portation and  are  believed  to  number  about  80,- 
000.  The  most  numerous  of  the  negro  tribes  are 
the  Yolofs,  who  inhabit  the  coast  region.  Their 
number  is  put  at' 400,000.  They  are  characterized 
by  a  fine  physique  and  a  peaceful  disposition, 
and  their  religion  is  a  corrupt  Mohammedanism. 
The  Serers,  an  inferior  negro  race,  are  found 
principally  in  the  region  of  Baol,  near  the  coast. 
The  Bambaras  are  a  mixed  race,  inhabiting  the 
region  of  Kaarta,  north  of  the  Senegal.  The 
Fulahs  are  found  all  over  the  r^ion.  The  Tou- 
couleurs  are  a  warlike  tribe  of  mixed  origin  in- 
habiting the  left  bank  of  the  Senegal.  They  are 
zealous  Mohammedans  and  number  over  200,000. 
There  are  also  the  Diolas  and  the  Balantes,  the 
latter  being  found  principally  along  the  Casa- 
mance River.  The  principal  settlements  are  Saint- 
Louis  (q.v.)  ;  the  capital,  Dakar  (q.v.)  ;  Bakel,  a 
fortified  post  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Senegal, 
about  350  miles  southeast  of  Saint-Louis;  Bam- 
maku, a  fortified  post  and  commercial  centre  on 
the  Niger,  and  the  proposed  terminus  of  the  rail- 
way line  from  Kays;  Kays,  with  a  population 
of  about  9000;  Rufisque  '(8000  inhabitants),  a 
railway  station  near  Dakar;  and  Medina  (8000 
inhabitants),  a  railway  station  near  Kays. 

The  Senegal  was  discovered  by  navigators  from 
Dieppe  in  the  fourteenth  century.  In  1582  a 
French  company  established  a  factory  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Senegal,  which  became  the  town  of 
Saint-Louis  in  1626.  The  Dutch  settlements 
along  the  coasts  were  acquired  by  the  French 
through  the  Treaty  of  Nimeguen  in  1678.  In 
1758  the  French  possessions  of  Senegal  were 
taken  by  the  British  and  restored  in  1783,  but 
seized  again  in  1800  and  1809  and  finally  restored 
to  the  French  in  1817.  The  Moorish  tribes  of  the 
north,  who  showed  the  greatest  resistance  to  the 
French  rule,  were  pacified  by  General  Faidherbe 
in  1860. 

BiBUOGBAPHT.  B^rcnger  Feraud,  Les  peu- 
pladea  de  la  8^4garnhie  (Paris,  1879) ;  Barret, 
S&nSgambie  et  Ou%n6e  (Paris,  1887)  ;  Bayol, 
Voyage  en  8^4gamhie  (ib.,  1888)  ;  Frey,  S^^gol 
et  Soudan  (ib.,  1888)  ;  Gaffarel,  S^nSgal  et  Sou- 
dan frangais  (ib.,  1890)  ;  Haurigot,  Le  S^gal 
(ib.,  1892)  ;  Lagrillifere-Beauclerc,  Mission  au 
84n6gal  et  au  Soudan  (ib.,  1898). 


SEN'EGAM'BIA. 

Africa.    See  Senegal. 


A    region    in    Western 


SENESCENCE  (from  Lat.  8eneaeere,  to  grow 
old,  from  senere,  to  be  old,  from  aeneXf  old). 
The  state  of  transition  tp  old  age.  Old 
age,  rapid  decay,  and  a  sudden  collapse  with 
death  occur  in  many  insects  immediately  after 
egg-laying.  On  the  other  hand,  lobsters  and 
crabs,  oysters,  and  Qtb^r  IQOlluska  lay  ^ggs  year 


SENE8CEKCE. 


6ei 


SENILITY. 


after  year  for  some  twenty  years.  Certain  ani- 
mals keep  growing  for  a  century.  (See  LoNOEV- 
ITT.)  We  see  in  domestic  animals  that  as  old 
age  creeps  on  they  become  affected  as  in  man. 
They  lose  their  acuteness  of  hearing,  become  stiff 
in  their  limbs,  and  enter  into  a  senile  state. 

In  many  forms  of  animal  life  senile  character- 
istics become  inherited  in  middle  life.  Hyatt  has 
shown  that  in  ammonites  and  other  mollusks  the 
species  and  type  may  arise  as  larval  or  imma- 
ture forms,  become  mature,  more  or  less  special- 
ized and  ornamented,  and  then  die  out  in  a  series 
of  senile  forms  which  recall  those  of  the  child- 
hood of  the  type.  See  Gbowth. 

Consult:  Minot,  ''Senescence  and  Rejuvenes- 
cence," in  Journal  of  Physiology,  vol.  xii.  ( 1891 ) ; 
Hyatt,  "Genesis  of  the  Arietidie,"  in  Smithsonian 
Contributions  (Washington,  1889) ;  "Phylogeny 
of  an  Acquired  Characteristic,"  in  Proceedings 
of  the  American  Philosophical  Society  (Phila- 
delphia, 1894). 

SENESCHAIi,  staVshal  (OF.  seneschal,  set^ 
escal,  Fr.  s^n4chal,  from  ML.  senescalcus,  sinis- 
calcus,  from  Goth,  sineigs,  old;  connected  with 
Ir.,  Gael,  sean,  Lith.  senas,  Lat.  senex,  Gk.  f  mi?, 
henos,  Skt.  sana,  old  -{-  skalks,  servant;  connected 
with  OHG.  scale,  Ger.  SchaUc,  AS.  scealc,  obsolete 
Eng.  shaUc,  servant).  Originally  probably  an 
attendant  of  the  servile  class  who  had  the  su- 
perintendence of  the  household  of  the  Frankish 
kings.  In  the  course  of  time,  however,  the 
eeneschalship  rose  to  be  a  position  of  dignity, 
held  no  longer  by  persons  of  servile  race,  but 
by  military  commanders,  who  were  also  invested 
with  judicial  authority.  The  dignity  of  grand 
seneschal  of  France  was  the  her^tary  right  of 
the  dukes  of  Anjou.  This  office  gave  the  right 
to  command  the  armies  in  the  absence  of  the 
King,  control  over  the  affairs  of  the  King's 
household,  and  the  exercise  of  supreme  Judicial 
authority.  Philip  Augustus,  however,  in  1191, 
suspended  the  judicial  functions.  The  lieuten- 
ants of  the  chief  feudatories  of  France  often 
took  the  title  of  seneschal,  and,  as  in  the  course 
of  time  the  great  fiefs  were  absorbed  by  the 
Oown,  they  were  as  a  rule  divided  for  judicial 
purposes  into  districts  under  the  authority  of 
royal  officers,  who  retained  the  old  name,  while 
the  districts  were  known  as  s£n6chau8s6es.  A 
similar  office  in  England  and  Scotland  was 
designated  steward,  but  is  rendered  into  Latin  as 
senesoalcus. 

b£VQ-  (or  StteO-)  XO-LIH-SIN,  s&ig^^- 
l^'s^^.  A  famous  Mongol  general,  a  prince  of 
the  Kortchin  tribe,  who  distinguished  himself 
in  connection  with  the  advance  in  1853  of  the 
Tkiping  rebels,  whom  he  defeated  twice  in  battle. 
In  1860  he  was  chosen  to  oppose  the  advance  of 
the  Anglo-French  punitive  expedition  to  Peking, 
and  is  noted  particularly  in  connection  therewith 
for  the  great  circular  mud  rampart  with  which 
he  surrounded  Tien-tsin  at  a  distance  of  two 
miles,  and  still  known  to  foreigners  as  'Seng-ko- 
lin-sin's  folly/  (See  Tien-tsin.)  In  operating 
against  the  Nien-fei  rebeb  in  Central  China  in 
1864  his  army  was  overwhelmed  by  superior 
numbers  and  he  was  killed. 

SENG<yBA.  A  seaport  on  the  eastern  coast 
of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  about  475  miles  south 
of  Bangkok  (Map:  Siam,  D  6).  Its  harbor  is 
spacious  and  well  sheltered,  and  there  is  a  con- 
siderable trade  in  fish,  fruit,  and  tin.    The  popu- 


lation is  estimated  at  about  10,000.  The  Chinese 
founded  a  settlement  here  early  in  the  nineteenth 
century. 

SENIGALLIA,  sa'n«-gal1^&,  or  SINIGA-  . 
OLIA,  s6'n6-g&^y&.  A  city  in  the  Province  of 
Ancona,  Italy,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Misa,  16  miles 
by  rail  west-northwest  of  Ancona  (Map:  Italy, 
H  4).  It  is  modem  in  appearance,  having 
broad  streets  and  well-built  houses.  It  has  a 
seminary,  a  technical  school,  and  a  library.  The 
industries  are  silk-spinning,  sugar-refining,  and 
fishing.  The  famous  annual  fairs  are  still 
well  attended.  Senigallia  was  founded  by  the 
Senonian  Gauls  (whence  the  ancient  name,  Sena 
Gallica),  and  colonized  by  the  Romans  in  B.c. 
285.  During  the  Middle  Ages  the  Guelph  and 
Ghibelline  wars  left  the  city  in  a  ruined  condi- 
tion. At  Senigallia  on  December  31,  1502,  Cesare 
Borgia  treacherously  put  to  death  a  number  of 
nobles  of  the  Papal  States  whom  he  had  enticed 
there  under  a  pretext  of  concluding  peace.  In 
1621  the  town  t«came  a  Papal  possession.  Popu- 
lation (commune),  in  1901,  23,156. 

SENILITY  (from  Lat.  senilis,  belonging  to 
old  age,  from  senew,  old).  The  period  of  old 
age.  In  man  the  decline  of  life  and  the  ap- 
proach of  old  age  is  marked  by  special  phys- 
iological conditions  and  pathological  changes. 
There  is  no  death  from  old  age.  In  all  cases  some 
lesion  is  found  which  points  the  way  to  the  cause 
of  death.  (See  Pathology.)  That  is,  some 
pathological  change  is  always  present  which  in- 
terferes with  proper  functionating.  There  are 
probably  no  cases  of  old  age  in  which  arterio- 
sclerosis (q.v.)  is  not  present.  The  senile  kidney 
is  a  source  of  great  danger.  The  respiratory 
apparatus  of  the  aged  is  always  enfeebled. 
Bronchitis  is  very  common,  with  resulting  em- 
physema (q.v.),  and  chronic  disseminated 
pneumonia  frequently  is  in  evidence  at  autop- 
sies upon  the  aged.  Fevers  easily  supervene 
upon  infections  from  the  digestive  or  urinary 
tracts.  Especially  during  fevers  do  the  respir- 
atory phenomena  of  the  aged  become  pa- 
tent. In  the  field  of  cardiac  disorder  there  is 
always  a  tendency  to  asystole,  or  failure  of  com- 
plete contraction  of  the  walls  of  the  heart — a 
condition  which  occurs  with  considerable  fre- 
quency at  death.  The  nerve  functions  are  all 
diminished.  Sensibility,  both  general  and  special, 
is  decreased,  as  are  also  the  nerve  reactions.  The 
aged  person  is  especially  liable  to  traumatisms, 
because  of  lessened  muscular  tone  as  well  as  de- 
cided fragility  of  the  bones.  Fractures  of  bones 
are  frequent,  and  frequently  aged  broken  bones 
fail  to  knit.  The  aged  patient,  also,  bears  very 
badly  the  immobilization  necessary  after  fracture 
of  the  thigh.  Atrophy  and  digestive  disorders 
result  very  promptly,  and  the  function  of  the 
kidneys  is  much  altered  by  enforced  rest.  The 
lungs  are  easily  invaded  by  hypostatic  congestion. 
Of  special  diseases,  gout  and  rheumatism  are 
very  frequent  in  the  aged.  They  are  also  more 
liable  to  the  infection  of  erysipelas.  Epidemic, 
influenza,  or  grippe,  is  accompanied  by  greater 
prostration,  is  frequently  marked  by  general 
adynamia  and  often  by  cardiac  atony.  The  pul- 
monary features  of  the  disease  are  less  evanescent 
than  in  the  adult,  though  perhaps  less  acute. 
Typhoid  fever  is  frequent  in  the  aged,  and  begins 
very  insidiously.  Their  most  frequent  gastric 
affection  is  cancer.    Apoplexy  is  a  very  common 


SENILITY. 


M3 


cause  of  death  in  old  age,  and  cerebral  softening 
is  not  uncommonly  produced  by  the  lesions  of 
chronic  endarteritis. 

The  precautions  to  be  taken  against  the  rapid 
advance  of  age  include  avoidance  of  alcohol  dur- 
ing one's  whole  life;  moderate  eating,  especially 
after  the  age  of  forty;  moderate  exercise  after  the 
age  of  sixty  is  reached,  or  after  senescence  has 
begun  to  manifest  itself;  avoidance  of  strain, 
physical  or  mental;  avoidance  of  worry,  anger, 
and  grief;  proper  clothing  for  all  seasons  and 
conditions,  and  other  avoidance  of  exposure;  to- 
gether with  out-of-door  air. 

Senility  is  a  race  character.  The  lower  or 
backward  races  mature  at  the  age  of  eighteen  to 
twenty-two,  while  the  white  race  does  not  stop 
growing  imtil  the  age  of  thirty.  Some  of  the 
races  which  have  rapidly  faded  away  in  contact 
with  civilization  had  probably  already  entered 
into  a  senescent  state.  Woman  outlives  man. 
At  the  age  of  eighty,  three  women  are  living  to 
one  man,  although  they  mature  earlier  than  men. 
See  Longevity. 

SE^IOB,  Nassau  Wiujam  (1790-1864).  An 
English  economist,  bom  in  Berkshire.  He  was 
educated  at  Eton  and  Magdalen  College,  Oxford, 
where  he  graduated  in  1811,  taking  a  distin- 
guished first-class  in  classics.  In  1819  he  was 
called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn.  In  1826  he 
was  elected  to  the  Drummond  professorship  of 
political  economy  at  Oxford.  He  held  it  for  the 
statutory  term  of  five  years.  In  1832  the  enor- 
mous evils  of  the  poor-law  administration  in 
England  led  to  the  appointment  of  a  commission 
of  inquiry.  Senior  was  one  of  the  commission- 
ers, and  the  portion  of  the  report  in  which  the 
abuses  of  the  existing  system  were  detailed  was 
drawn  up  by  him.  This  report  encouraged  the 
Whig  Government  to  bring  in  the  Poor-Law 
Amendment  Act  of  1834.  In  1836  he  received  the 
appointment  of  master  in  chancery,  and 
in  1847  was  reelected  to  his  former  professor- 
ship for  another  term  of  five  years.  He  served 
on  numerous  important  commissions  in  his  later 
years.  His  "Outline  of  Political  Economy"  was 
originally  published  in  the  Encyclopcsdia  Metro- 
politana  (1850).  In  this  work  and  in  various 
essays  he  developed  the  economic  doctrines  laid 
down  by  Ricardo  and  the  free-trade  school  with 
much  felicity  of  expression,  which  entitles*  him 
to  rank  as  the*  foremost  economist  between  Ri- 
cardo and  Mill.  Senior  was  the  first  writer  to 
demonstrate  clearly  the  subjective  ground  of  in- 
terest payment  ('abstinence*  in  Senior's  lan- 
guage). His  analysis  of  monopoly  is  the  most 
important  contribution  of  the  classical  school 
to  the  theory  of  that  subject. 

SENKOVSKI,  8en-k5f'sk6,  Ossip  IvANOvrrcH 
(1800-58).  A  Russian  Orientalist  and  historian, 
bom  near  Vilna,  and  educated  in  that  city.  He 
was  professor  of  Oriental  languages  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Saint  Petersburg  from  1822  to  1847, 
founded  in  1834  a  periodical  called  The  Readet^a 
Library,  and  in  it,  and  in  the  Son  of  the  Father- 
land,  published  several  novels  under  the  pseudo- 
nym Baron  Brambffius.  He  translated  Morier's 
Hajji  Baha  (2d  ed.  1845),  and  wrote  Collectanea, 
a  series  of  selections  from  Turkish  authors  on 
the  history  of  Poland  (1824-25),  and  SuppU* 
ment  d  Vhistoire  dea  Huna,  dea  Turca  et  dea 
Mongols   (1824). 

SENLAG,  Battle  of.    See  Hastii7qb. 


SBHLIBy  8ilN'lte^  The  capital  of  an  arran- 
dissement  in  the  Department  of  Oiae,  France, 
33  miles  north  by  east  of  Paris,  on  the  Nonette 
River  ^Map:  France,  J  2).  Its  walls,  erected  in 
the  Oallo-Roman  period,  are  still  in  good  condi- 
tion, and  there  are  also  in  the  vicinity  the  mina 
of  an  old  Roman  amphitheatre.  The  Gothic 
Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  dates  from  the  twelfth 
century.  The  twelfth-century  Church  of  Saint 
Frambourg,  the  sixteenth-century  Church  of 
Saint  Pierre,  and  the  College  of  Saint  Vincent, 
with  its  twelfth-century  abbey  church,  the  town 
hall,  and  the  archsological  museum  are  also  note- 
worthy. A  treaty  was  concluded  here  in  1493 
between  Maximilian  and  Charles  VIII.  of  France, 
by  which  the  former  recovered  Artois  and 
Franche-Comt6.    Population,  in  1901,  7115. 

SENH,  Nicholas  (1844—).  An  American 
surgeon,  professor  of  the  practice  of  surgery  and 
of  clinical  surgery  in  Rush  Medical  Coll^;e,  Chi- 
cago, 111.  He  was  bom  in  Buchs,  Switzerland, 
and  came  to  the  United  States  in  1853,  settling 
in  Aehford,  Wis.  After  a  high  school  education  and 
some  experience  in  teaching  he  began  to  study  med- 
icine, and  graduated  from  the  Chicago  Medical 
College  in  1868.  He  also  graduated  in  medicine 
at  Munich  in  1878.  He  served  as  house  physician 
in  the  Cook  County  (III.)  Hospital,  in  1868-69; 

?racticed  medicine  in  Fond-du-Lac,  Wis.,  in  1869- 
4;  in  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  in  1874-93;  and  was 
professor  of  the  principles  and  practice  of  sur- 
gery at  Chicago  College  of  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons in  1884-87,  and  since  1888  he  has  been  pro- 
fessor of  the  same  branch  of  surgery  in  Rush 
Medical  College,  and  since  1893  has  practiced  in 
Chicago.  He  served  as  surgeon-general  of  Wis- 
consin, and  as  surgeon-general  of  the  National 
Guard  of  Illinois,  as  attending  surgeon  to  the 
Presbyterian  and  Saint  Joseph's  Hospitals  in  Chi- 
cago. At  the  outbreak  of  the  Spanish-American 
War  Dr.  Senn  was  appointed  chief  surgeon  of  the 
Sixth  Army  Corps  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  volunteers,  and  chief  of  the  operating 
staff  in  the  field.  He  served  till  September,  1898. 
Dr.  Senn  is  a  member  of  many  medical  asso- 
ciations in  the  United  States  as  well  as  in  foreign 
countries.  Among  his  contributions  to  litera- 
ture are:  Varicocele  (1878) ;  Experimental  Sur- 
gery (1889);  Inteatinal  Surgery  (1889);  Sur- 
gical Bacteriology  ( 1889) ;  Principlea  of  Surgery 
(3d  ed.  1901);  Syllabua  of  Surgery  (1892); 
The  Pathology  and  Treatment  of  Tumora  ( 1895) ; 
Medico-Surgical  Aapecta  of  the  Spaniah-American 
War  (1900) ;  Practical  Surgery  for  the  General 
Practitioner  (1901). 

SEKHA  (OF.  aenne,  aene,  Fr.  a^4,  from  Ar. 
aana,  aenna,  from  aanaya,  to  make  easy  to  open). 
The  leaflets  of  Cassia  acutifolia  from  Nubia  and 
Upper  Egypt,  and  of  Cassia  an^ustifolia  from 
Southern  Arabia;  a  brisk  cathartic.  Caasia 
acutifolia  is  a  half-shrubby  plant,  about  two  feet 
high,  with  racemes  of  yellow  flowers,  lanceolate 
acute  leaves,  and  flat  elliptical  pods,  somewhat 
swollen  by  the  seeds.  It  grows  in  the  deserts 
near  Assuan,  and  the  leaves  are  collected  by  the 
Arabs  and  carried  by  merchants  to  Cairo  for 
sale.  The  active  principle  of  senna  is  a  glucoside, 
cathartic  acid.  It  acts  effectively  in  about  four 
hours,  causing  watery  movements  which  contain 
some  bile.  It  increases  both  the  intestinal  secre- 
tions and  peristalsis,  and  may  cause  some  grip- 
ing.   Excreted  with  the  milk  and  other  secretions 


SENNA. 


668 


SENSATION. 


it  pargM  the  nursing  child.  Its  best  known 
preparation  is  compound  licorice  powder.  See 
Cassia;  and  Plate  of  Gabnations,  etc. 

SENNACHEBEB,  s&i-nlik'e-rlb  (Bab.  Sin- 
ahe-erha.  Sin  has  increased^the  brothers).  King 
of  Assyria,  b.c.  705-681.  He  succeeded  his 
father,  Sargon,  and  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign 
had  to  deal  with  a  revolt  of  the  Babylonians, 
headed  by  Merodach-Baladan.  The  latter  at- 
tempted to  involve  Hezekiah,  King  of  Judah,  in 
the  revolt  (II.  Kings  xx.  12-19).  After  defeating 
the  Babylonians  Sennacherib  first  prooeedea 
against  the  Kassi  and  Ellipi,  and  then  turned 
his  attention  to  the  west.  He  captured  Sidon  and 
the  cities  dependent  upon  it,  Ashkelon,  Ekron, 
and  neiffhbormg  cities,  and  defeated  the  Egyp- 
tians, who  undertook  to  check  his  progress.  The 
cities  of  Judah  fell  into  his  hands,  one  after  the 
other,  and  Hezekiah  was  shut  up  in  Jerusalem, 
but  refused  to  surrender  at  the  demand  of  the 
representative  of  the  Assyrian  King.  At  this 
juncture  Sennacherib  was  obliged  to  return  to 
Assyria,  probably  because  of  the  conditions  in 
Babylonia ;  but  Hezekiah  seems  to  have  submitted 
to  his  general,  as  he  forwarded  to  Nineveh  a 
heavy  tribute.  There  is  some  reason  to  think 
that  there  may  have  been  a  campaign  against 
Syria  and  Egypt  (II.  Kings  xix.  9-37)  toward 
the  end  of  Sennacherib's  reign  when  a  serious 
disaster  befell  the  Assyrian  army.  Later  Senna- 
cherib undertook  an  expedition  against  Cilicia 
and  Cappadocia.  The  trouble  in  Babylonia  con- 
tinued and  Sennacherib  finally  destroyed  the  city 
entirely  and  exiled  the  inhabitants.  In  B.C.  681 
he  was  assassinated  by  two  of  his  sons  and  was 
succeeded  by  another  son,  Esar-haddon.  Ck)nsult : 
Tiele,  Bahylonisch-aMyriscJie  Cfeschiohte  (Qotha, 
1885);  Rogers,  History  of  Babylonia  and  .As- 
«^rto  (New  York,  1900) ;  the  "Annals  of  Senna- 
cherib," and  the  "Babylonian  Chronicle,"  in 
Keilinschriftliche  Bihlioihek,  vol.  ii.  (Berlin, 
1890) ;  Records  of  the  Poet,  new  series,  vol.  vi. 
(London,  1892). 

SENNAB,  8$n-n&r^.  A  province  of  Egyptian 
Sudan  (q.v.),  situated  between  the  White  and 
Blue  Nile,  and  extending  from  Khartum  south  to 
Fasokl,  and  known  in  a  wider  sense  as  Dar  Sennar. 
The  Province  of  Kordofan  is  on  the  west.  The  area 
of  Sennar  is  unknown.  It  is  essentially  a  plain 
with  isolated  mountains  dotting  its  surface.  In 
the  southeast  it  becomes  rougher,  forming  the 
approach  to  the  Abyssinian  highlands.  The  soil 
is  alluvial  and  carries  gold.  Sennar  is  in  the 
moist  zone.  The  Khartum  section  of  the  coun- 
try has  little  in  the  way  of  vegetation  but  grass- 
es. In  the  South  are  forests.  Among  the  usual 
trees  found  are  the  acacia  and  the  tamarind. 
Lions,  elephants,  hippopotamuses,  etc.,  abound. 
The  bog  ores-  yield  a  good  grade  of  iron.  No 
figures  are  given  for  the  population,  of  which 
the  negro  race  Funj  (q.v.)  forms  a  noteworthy 
part.  This  race  came  hither  about  the  year  150O 
from  Central  Africa,  and  founded  the  Sennar 
kingdom,  which  ceased  to  exist  in  1821.  The 
old  capital,  Sennar,  on  the  Blue  Nile,  has  about 
10,000  inhabitants.  It  has  suffered  in  the  rise 
of  Khartum.  Wod  Medina  and  Mesalamia,  both 
on  the  Blue  Nile,  are  important  towns. 

SENS,  bSLvb.  An  archiepiscopal  city  and  the 
capital  of  an  arrondissement  in  the  Department 
of  Yonne,  France,  70  miles  southeast  of  Paris,  on 
the  Yonne  River  (Map:  France,  K  3).    The  most 


prominent  edifice  of  the  city  is  the  Cathedral  of 
Saint  Etienne.  It  dates  from  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, but  has  imdergone  frequent  restorations. 
It  is  of  the  Romanesque  and  Gothic  styles 
of  architecture,  the  latter  being  more  gen- 
erally used.  The  town  hall,  also  a  fine 
structure,  has  a  museum  of  precious  stones,  an 
art  gallery,  and  a  library.  Manufacturing  is  the 
leading  industry,  the  chief  products  being  fer- 
tilizers and  farm  implements.  Population,  in 
1901,  14,962.  Sens,  the  ancient  Agentioum,  at 
the  time  of  Julius  Cesar  was  one  of  the  largest 
cities  of  Gaul  and  still  has  interesting  Roman 
remains.  It  was  made  the  seat  of  an  archbishop 
in  the  eighth  century.  The  see  was  changed  to  a 
bishopric  in  1791,  was  suppressed  in  1801,  and 
was  finally  restored  as  an  archbishopric  in  1807. 
The  Council  of  Sens  which  condemned  Abelard 
and  his  teachings  was  held  here  in  1141. 

SENSATION  (OF.  aensacion,  Fr.  sensation, 
from  Lat.  sensatus,  possessing  sense,  from  sen- 
sus,  sense,  feeling,  from  sentire,  to  perceive;  con- 
nected with  Ir.  8(6t,  Goth,  sinps,  AS,  sif^  jour- 
ney, way,  OHG.  sinnan,  to  journey,  Grer.  sinnen, 
to  perceive,  think).  A  term  in  psychology  connot- 
ing two  distinct  usages,  an  epistemologicaJL  and 
a  psychological.  The  psychological  usage  may 
itself  be  twofold,  functional  or  structural,  each 
usage  bringing  with  it  a  peculiar  set  of  prob- 
lems. Logically,  sensation  is  the  first  step 
in  knowing;  chronologically,  it  is  the  first 
manifestation  of  intellectual  function.  Ob- 
vious as  this  view  appears,  it  will  not  bear  the  test 
either  of  a  rigid  epistemology  or  of  accurate  psy- 
chological analysis.  Knowledge  does  not  proceed 
from  bare  sensations  to  complex  perceptions,  in 
its  advance  from  acquaintance-with  to  knowledge- 
about.  If  it  is  knowledge  at  all,  it  is  judgment 
(q.v.) ;  and  the  difference  between  simple  and 
complex  judgments  is  not  the  difference  between 

'  sensation  and  perception.  Neither  are  the  intel- 
lectual functions  built  up,  in  the  time  order,  from 
the  juxtaposition  or  amalgamation  of  sensations 
into  perceptions ;  where  there  is  intellectual  func- 

.tioning,  there  is,  from  the  first,  the  function  of 
perceiving.  Sensation  has  in  reality  no  place, 
despite  tradition  and  historical  systems,  save  in 
a  structural  psychology. 

Psychologically  regarded,  sensation  is  an  ele- 
mentary or  simple  mental  process;  it  neither 
knows  nor  gives  knowledge,  it  is.  It  is  the  product 
of  analysis  and  abstraction ;  it  never  occurs  alone, 
and  never  has  occurred  alone.  Since,  however, 
there  is,  according  to  certain  psychologists,  a 
second  ultimate  structural  process,  the  affection 
(q.v.),  we  must  define  sensation  more  nearly. 
This  may  be  done  by  enumerating  its  introspec- 
tive differences  from  the  affection,  but  is  done 
most  simply  by  aid  of  a  psychophysical  reference ; 
a  sensation,  we  may  say,  is  an  elementary  mental 
process  connected  with  (or  conditioned  upon)  a 
bodily  process  within  a  special  (specially  differ- 
entiated) bodily  organ.  While  such  a  definition 
is  not  as  satisfactory,  from  the  purely  psycholog- 
ical standpoint,  as  a  definition  which  should 
leave  psychophysics  out  of  account,  it  is  a  per- 
fectly unobjectionable  working  formula,  and  has 
the  special  advantage  of  enabling  us  to  bring 
our  classification  of  sensations  (distinction  of 
senses)  into  relation  with  the  definition  of  sen- 
sation. 

Sensations  cannot  be  classified  otherwise  than 
psychophysically.    A  statement  of  the  introspec- 


SENSATION. 


664 


SENSITIVITY. 


tive  differences  between  a  blue  and  a  tone,  e.  e., 
must  necessarily  be  cumbrous  and  analogical; 
whereas  the  mention  of  eye  and  ear  is  short  and 
adequate.  Psychology  therefore  follows  the  time- 
honored  custom  of  referring  sensation-systems, 
modalities  or  senses  to  the  organs  of  sense. 

Sensation  in  physiology  is  the  perception  by 
the  mind  of  change  wrought  in  the  body.  It  is 
by  means  of  sensation  that  the  mind  obtains  a 
knowledge  of  the  existence  both  of  the  different 
parts  of  the  body  and  of  the  external  world. 
The  brain  is  the  true  organ  of  sensation,  but 
besides  this  there  must  be  perceptive  organs  for 
receiving  and  conducting  tissues  (nerves)  for 
conveying  impressions  to  the  sensorium.  Sensa- 
tions are  usually  classed  as  common  and  special. 
Under  the  former  head  are  included  all  sensa- 
tions that  cannot  be  localized  in  any  particular 
part  of  the  body,  such  as  fatigue,  discomfort, 
faintness,  satiety,  hunger,  and  thirst.  In  this 
class  are  also  included  irritations  of  the  mucous 
membranes,  of  the  respiratory  tract  that  excite 
cough;  the  desire  to  defecate  or  urinate,  and,  in 
females,  the  sensations  that  precede  parturition; 
and  itching,  tingling,  burning,  and  aching.  The 
muscular  sense,  by  which  muscular  efforts  are 
perceived  and  regulated,  must  also  be  considered 
as  a  common  sensation.  Special  aenaationa  are 
five  in  number:  touch,  taste,  smell,  hearing,  and 
sight.  An  important  distinction  between  com- 
mon and  special  sensations  is  that  by  the  former 
certain  changes  in  various  portions  of  the  body 
are  perceived,  while  from  the  latter  knowledge 
of  the  external  world  is  gained  in  addition.  It 
is  to  be  remembered  that  the  seat  of  sensation 
lies  in  the  brain  and  not  in  the  special  organs, 
although  it  is  commonly  said  that  we  hear  with 
the  ear,  see  with  the  eye,  etc.,  whereas  in  reality 
these  organs  merely  receive  impressions. 

Ohfective  sensations  are  those  excited  by  some 
object  in  the  outside  world;  subjective  sensations' 
originate  within  the  brain  itself.  Through  habit 
the  mind  is  accustomed  to  connect  all  sensations 
with  external  causes,  and  this  difficulty  of  sepa- 
rating objective  and  subjective  sensations  oftei\ 
gives  rise  to  illusions.  These  may  be  aural,  opti- 
cal, or  tactile,  and  are  strikingly  exemplified  in 
the  various  forms  of  delirium. 

Certain  disorders  of  sensation  affect  the  nerves 
both  of  common  and  special  sensation.  These 
may  be  roughly  classified  as  hypereesthesia, 
anaesthesia,  and  pareesthesia.  Hypersesthesia  is 
an  increased  sensibility  to  painful  impressions. 
It  is  seen  in  its  most  severe  form  in  gunshot 
wounds  of  the  nerves,  and  is  a  constant  accom- 
paniment of  neuritis.  Anaesthesia  is  a  loss  of 
sensibility  complete  or  partial,  and  is  produced 
by  contact  with  various  drugs  (see  Anaesthet- 
ics), exposure  to  cold,  and  certain  disorders 
of  the  nervous  system.  Parsesthesia  is  a  manifes- 
tation of  disturbed  sensation  characterized  by  a 
number  of  subjective  sensations  such  as  numb- 
ness, prickling,  tingling,  and  burning.  It  may 
affect  any  part  of  the  body  surface,  and  occurs 
in  a  wide  variety  of  nervous  diseases.  See  Neb- 
vors  System  and  Brain. 

Consult:  James,  Principles  of  Psychology 
(New  York,  1890)  ;  Wundt,  Physiologische  Psy- 
chologic (Leipzig,  1893)  ;  Ladd,  Psychology,  De- 
scriptive and  Explanatory  (New  York,  1894)  ; 
Kueipe,  Outlines  of  Psychology,  trans.  (London, 
1895) ;   Titchener,  Outline  of  Psychology    (New 


York,  1899)  ;  id.,  Ewperimenial  Psychology  (ib., 
1901). 

SENSATIONALISIC  (sometimes  called 
Sensuausm).  a  term  used  to  designate  the 
theory  that  the  total  content  of  consciousness  is 
of  sense  origin ;  that  all  the  higher  activitieB  of 
mind,  such  as  judgment  and  reasoning,  are  the 
results  left  by  the  impressions  originally  made 
upon  the  tabula  rasa  of  the  mind  by  external  ob- 
jects. These  impressions,  at  first  unconnected, 
are  supposed  to  have  entered  into  mutual  relation 
by  virtue  of  the  laws  of  association  (q.v.). 
Among  sensationalists  are  to  be  mentioned  the 
Sophists  (q.v.)  of  antiquity,  and  Hume  (q.y.) 
and  Condillac  (q.v.)  and  their  followers  in  mod- 
ern times.  Locke  is  a  sensationalist  with  large 
infusion  of  rationalism  (q.v.)  in  his  doctrine. 
The  classic  expression  of  the  principle  of  sensa- 
tionalism is  given  in  the  Latin  sentence,  yihU  ett 
in  intellectUf  quod  non  fuerit  in  senau.  See 
Knowledge,  Theobt  of. 

SENSE  AND  SENSIBUJTY.  A  novel  by 
Jane  Austen  (1811).  Two  sisters,  Elinor  and 
Marianne  Dashwood,  illustrate  these  two  quali- 
ties, the  course  of  the  story  showing  the  effects 
of  suffering  on  the  impulsive,  uncontrolled  nature 
of  one  and  on  the  sedate,  unselfish  disposition  of 
the  other.  The  too  evident  purpose  hampers 
the  story,  which  contains  some  excellent  char- 
acterizations, as  Mrs.  Dashwood,  her  selfish  son, 
the  commonplace  Middletons,  and  vulgar  but 
kind  Mrs.  Jennings. 

SENSE  O&GANS.  See  Nesvous  Ststbx, 
Evolution  op  the. 

SENSES,  Sensibilitt.    See  Sensation. 

SENSITIVE  BEIEB.    See  Sensitive  Plant. 

SENSITIVE  PLANT.  A  common  name  of 
certain  species  of  Mimosa,  so  called  on  account 
of  the  irritability  (q.v.)  of  their  leaves.  Those 
species  which  are  most  irritable  are  herbaceous 
or  half-shrubby  plants  with  beautifully  divided 
pinnate  leaves.  The  leafiets  close  upward  in  pairs 
when  touched,  and  on  repeated  or  rough  touching 
the  leaflets  of  the  neighboring  pinnse  also  dose 
together,  become  depr^sed,  and  lastly  the  whole 
leaf  hangs  as  if  withered.  If  the  stem  is  shaken, 
all  the  leaves  exhibit  the  same  phenomena.  After 
a  short  time  the  leafstalk  rises,  and  the  leaflets 
expand  again.  On  account  of  this  curious  and 
interesting  property,  some  of  the  sensitive  plants 
are  frequently  cultivated  in  hothouses.  The  same 
faculty  is  possessed  by  the  sensitive  brier 
(Schrankia),  two  or  three  species  of  which  are 
indigenous  to  the  Southern  United  States,  and 
also  by  the  stamens  and  styles  of  many  plants, 
especially  of  certain  cftcti.  By  extension,  all 
plants  which  respond  to  contact  stimuli  are  said 
to  be  sensitive,  and  in  the  widest  sense  all  plants 
may  be  included.  Some  plants  exceed  in  sensi- 
tiveness the  sense  organs  of  the  human  body. 

SENSITIVITY  (from  sensitive,  from  OF., 
Fr.  sensitif,  from  Lat.  sentire,  to  perceive).  ^ 
term  used  in  psychophjrsics,  meaning  the  bare 
capacity  of  receiving  and  communicating  ^^' 
tions.'  It  is  subdivided  into  modal  sensitivity 
(having  reference  to  a  whole  sense  departro«"^^ 
and  sensibility  (having  reference  to  indi^i^"** 
sensations).  Modal  sensitivity  is  measu^'cd,  "^ 
the  number  of  sensations  possible  to  a  P^'J" 
sense,  e.g.  the  ear's  modal  sensitivity  is  gi"ven  by 
11,000,  the  number  of  distinguishable  tone   q^"* 


SENSITIVITY. 


665 


SSKTEKCE. 


ties.  (See  Audition.)  ^ince  sensations  may  be 
investigated  with  regard  to  their  different  as- 
pects or  attributes  (quality,  intensity,  extent, 
and  duration),  we  can  further  speak  of  a 
qualitative,  intensive,  extensive,  and  temporal 
sensibility.  See  Limen.  Consult:  Fecnner, 
Element e  der  Paychophysik  (Leipzig,  1880) ; 
Kuelpe,  Outlines  of  Psychology,  translated  (Lon- 
don, 1895). 

SENSOBTDH  (Lat.,  sense  or  organ  of  sensa- 
tion). The  collective  organ  of  sensation  or 
perception.  The  cortex  or  gray  matter  of  the 
brain,  with  the  important  ganglia  at  its  base,  is 
usually  meant  by  this  term  in  modern  psychology. 

It  was  long  attempted  to  determine  some  one 
point  in  the  brain  where  the  soul  is  especially  lo- 
cated or  centralized,  and  to  this  point  the  name  of 
sensorium  was  applied  in  the  older  psychological 
speculations.  The  fancy  of  Descartes  made  it  a 
small  body  near  the  base  of  the  brain,  called  the 
pineal  gland.  The  recent  views  of  the  nervous 
system  repudiate  the  idea  of  a  central  point  of 
this  nature;  in  consciousness  the  brain  generally 
is  active,  although  under  different  impressions 
and  ideas  the  currents  may  be  presumed  to  follow 
different  nerve  tracks.  Consequently  no  meaning 
is  now  attached  to  a  sensorium  in  psychology,  as 
distinct  from  the  cerebrum  at  large.  See  Neb- 
tods  System  and  Bbain. 

SEHTliNCE  (Lat.  sententia,  opinion,  from 
sentire,  to  perceive) .  In  grammar,  an  expression 
of  articulate  speech,  either  oral  or  written,  which 
is,  in  the  judgment  both  of  the  speaker  and  hearer, 
an  organic  whole.  The  sentence  is  divided  into 
two  parts,  the  subject  and  the  predicate.  The 
subject  is  that  of  which  something  is  predicated; 
the  predicate  is  that  which  is  stated  or  asked  con- 
cenung  the  subject.  It  is,  however,  possible  to 
have  a  sentence  in  which  the  predicate,  or,  more 
rarely,  the  subject  is  suppressed,  if -it  may  be 
readily  supplied  by  the  hearer,  or  is  present  in 
the  mind  of  the  speaker.  This  usage  is  character- 
istic of  the  interrogative,  imperative,  and  ex- 
clamatory types,  and  some  scholars  deny  that 
such  sentences  which  contain  no  expressed  sub- 
ject or  predicate  are  real  sentences.  On  this 
view  the  most  primitive  form  of  sentence  is  prob- 
ably the  assertive  or  predicative,  as  He  cornea. 
From  this  type  was  developed  the  dubitative  or 
potential  sentence.  Perhaps  he  comes,  and  the  in- 
terrogative type,  Does  he  comef  Here  may  be 
seen  the  subjectless  sentence  in  such  an  expres- 
sion as  Comef  with  the  answer,  Not  he,  or  {Is) 
he  (coming)  ?  with  the  answer,  No,  she.  The  ques- 
tion of  the  origin  of  the  imperative  type  of  sen- 
tence, as  Stop!  John!  is  a  difficult  one.  It  seems 
on  the  whole  most  probable  that  this  was  the 
most  primitive  of  all  forms  of  the  sentence,  for 
it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  imperative 
mood  and  the  vocative  case  were  originally  mere 
interjections,  the  most  primitive  of  all  forms  of 
speech.  (See  Interjections;  Language.)  Evi- 
dence seems  to  show  that  there  is  in  the  so-called 
singlemembered  sentence,  even  in  its  earliest 
form  and  occurrence,  an  ellipsis  of  one  of  the  two 
members.  The  cry  of  an  animal  is  in  a  sense  a 
predicate  to  which  the  subject  is  supplied  by 
the  hearer. 

The  relation  of  the  subject  matter  of  a  sen- 
tence to  its  verbal  form  is  studied  most  explicitly 
in  logic,  where  propositions  are  classified  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  or  degree  of  their  predications. 


The  proposition,  in  best  usage,  is  the  verbal  ex- 
pression of  the  judgment  which  is  a  mental  act. 
The  main  differentiations  of  propositions  in  tra- 
ditional logic  are  into  affirmative  and  negative — 
He  comes,  He  does  not  come; — and  into  categori- 
cal, hypothetical,  and  disjunctive — He  comes.  If 
he  comes  tee  shall  see  him,  He  may  or  he  may  not 
come.  The  logical  elements  of  a  predication,  the 
subject,  copula,  and  predicate,  correspond  very 
closely  to  the  grammatical  elements  of  the  sen- 
tence, and  seem  to  furnish  a  basis  in  the  nature 
of  reasoning  for  the  analysis  of  grammatical 
forms.  In  certain  modern  logical  developments^ 
however,  theories  of  judgment  consider  all  prop- 
ositions as  predicates  whose  subject  is  reality  or 
the  orderly  system  of  human  knowledge.  Ac- 
cording to  this  view,  there  is  a  tacit  pr^ication 
in  every  complete  expression,  in  the  interjection 
as  well  as  in  the  categorical  affirmation.  Proposi- 
tions, or  rather  judgments,  are  then  graded  upon 
a  psychological  scale  of  belief  and  certainty — ^the 
interjection  represents  the  inevitable  and  unques- 
tioned; the  categorical  affirmative  (or  negative) 
represents  a  conclusion  of  certainty  after  doubt; 
the  hypothetical  proposition  represents  a  gen- 
eralized case,  which  is  certain,  provided  the  hypo- 
thetical element  be  granted  or  occur ;  and  the  dis- 
junction is  a  predication  of  imcertainty  within 
the  limits  covered  by  the  subject  matter  of  the 
proposition.  All  grammatical  forms  of  the  sen- 
tence are  thus  more  or  less  elaborate  analyses  of 
complex  mental  states  in  which  each  verbal  unit 
represents  an  abstract  of  some  quality,  or  predi- 
cate of  the  subject  matter  of  thought.  The 
simplest  states  are  reflected  in  the  single-mem- 
bered  sentence,  while  the  more  advanced  and  in- 
volved states  necessitate  various  types  of  verbal 
complication. 

Sentences  are  furthermore  classed  as  simple, 
compound,  and  complex.  The  simple  sentence 
consists  of  a  single  subject  and  a  single  predicate, 
as.  He  comes.  The  compoimd  sentence  is  com- 
posed of  two  or  more  subjects  and  predicates, 
either  of  which  sets  forms  in  itself  a  simple  sen- 
tence, and  whose  parts  are  normally  connected  by 
a  conjunction  (q.v.),  as  He  comes  here  and  he 
goes  home.  The  complex  sentence,  is  either  a 
simple  or  compound  independent  sentence,  part 
of  which  is  modified  by  a  dependent  sentence, 
normally  introduced  by  a  pronoun  (q.v.),  but 
not  forming  by  itself  a  simple  independent  sen- 
tence, as  He  who  icishes  comes,  and  he  who  is 
eager  that  more  may  come  goes  that  he  may  call 
them.  The  compound  or  paratactic  type  of  sen- 
tence is  almost  certainly  more  primitive  than  the 
complex  or  hypotactic  sentence.  Consult:  Del- 
brtick,  Vergleichende  Syntax  der  indogerma- 
nischen  Sprachen,  vol  iii.  (Strassburg,  1900)  ;  id., 
Grundfragen  der  Sprachjforschung  (ib.,  1901)  ; 
Wundt,  'VdllerpsychoJogie,  i.,  **IMe  Sprache," 
( Leipzig,  1 900 )  ;  id.,  Sprachgeschhhte  imd  Sprach- 
psychologic  (ib.,  1901;  Gabelentz,  Sprachtcia- 
senschaft  (2d  ed.,  ib.,  1901)  ;  Paul,  Prinzipien 
der  Sprachgeachichte  (3d  ed.,  Halle,  1898)  ; 
Jacobi,  Compoaitum  und  Nehenaatz  (Bonn, 
1897)  ;  Hermann,  Oah  es  im  Indogermanischen 
Nehenaatzef  (Ofltersloh,  1894)  ;  Miklosich, 
Suhjektlose  Satse  (Vienna,  1883)  ;  Sigwart,  7m- 
peraonalien  (Freiburg,  1888)  ;  Kimball,  Struc- 
fure  of  the  Engliah  Sentence  (New  York,  1900). 
For  the  legal  aspect,  consult  Bosanquet,  Logic 
(London,  1888). 


SENTENCE 


666 


SEHTT8SL 


SENTENCE  (in  law).  In  its  broadest  legal 
sense,  a  judgment  or  decree  of  a  court  or  judge; 
specifically  and  technically,  a  decision  in  a  crimi- 
nal case,  which  is  called  final  when  it  determines 
the  entire  case,  and  interlocutory  when  it  de- 
termines only  some  point  incidental  to  the  prog- 
ress of  the  case. 

When  a  sentence  is  finally  rendered  according 
to  law  the  power  of  the  court  to  punish  the 
prisoner  is  at  an  end,  but  the  sentence  in  many 
cases  may  be  in  the  alternative,  as  where  the 
prisoner  is  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine  or  in  default 
of  that  to  be  imprisoned  for  a  certain  period. 
When  the  sentence  by  its  terms  imposes  a  greater 
penalty  than  the  law  allows  that  part  of  it  which 
IS  within  the  law  will  stand  as  a  valid  sentence; 
and  if  it  be  void  for  such  excess  or  for  other 
formal  defect  the  court  may  resentence  the  crimi- 
nal because  the  previous  judgment  was  not  a 
valid  one,  and  therefore  in  law  did  not  constitute 
a  sentence.  In  this  respect  the  sentence  is 
notably  distinct  from  the  verdict,  a  defect  in 
which  cannot  be  remedied  by  again  subjecting 
the  prisoner  to  trial.    See  Jeopardy. 

When  the  sentence  is  for  imprisonment  for  two 
or  more  successive  terms,  or  to  the  payment  of 
a  fine  and  to  imprisonment  for  conviction 
of  more  than  one  crime,  as  where  the  in- 
dictment contains  counts,  or  specifications,  charg- 
ing the  commission  of  separate  though  connected 
crimes,  and  the  sentence  is  made  up  by  adding 
together  the  legat  penalties  for  the  several 
crimes  committed,  it  is  called  an  accumulative, 
or,  more  commonly,  cumulative  sentence.  Where 
the  same  offense  involves  a  double  penalty,  as 
both  fine  and  imprisonment,  and  both  are  im- 
posed, the  sentence  is  not  therefore  cumulative. 

The  indeterminate  sent^ice  is  a  form  that  has 
arisen  from  the  endeavor  to  shape  the  law  so  as 
to  furnish  an  incentive  to  convicted  criminals  to 
reform.  It  has  been  defined  as  a  sentence  "im- 
posed by  the  court  without  fixing  a  definite  period 
of  limitation  or  term  of  imprisonment,  but  which 
simply  directs  that  the  convict  be  imprisoned  or 
placed  in  the  custody  of  the  prison  authorities 
to  be  held  for  not  less  than  the  minimum  nor 
longer  than  the  maximum  fixed  by  law  for  the  of- 
fense for  which  the  prisoner  stands  convicted." 
Provisions  have  been  made  by  statute  in  many  of 
the  States  for  the  imposition  of  such  sentences, 
and  they  have  been  found  to  work  well  in  prac- 
tice, although  the  merits  of  the  indetermmate 
sentence  are  not  fully  conceded  by  all.  Such  sen- 
tences, as  above  defined,  have  been  upheld  as  con- 
stitutional in  some  States,  as  Ohio,  Illinois,  In- 
diana, and  Massachusetts,  but  were  held  uncon- 
stitutional in  the  State  of  Michigan. 

See,  for  further  information,  such  titles  as 
Jex>pabdt;  Jury;  Verdict;  Procjedure;  Punish- 
ment; Penology;  etc.;  and  consult  the  authori- 
ties referred  to  under  Punishment,  and  the  re- 
port of  J.  Franklin  Fort  to  the  American  Bar 
Association  (1898). 

SENTIMENT  (ML.  aentimentum,  from  Lat. 
aentire,  to  perceive).  In  psychology,  a  term 
sometimes  given  as  a  sub-heading  under  emo- 
tion (q.v.),  sometimes  set  off  as  a  distinctive 
mental  complex.  There  is  a  substantial  agree- 
ment among  psychologists  that  sentiment  is 
closely  related  to  emotion,  that  it  is,  however, 
less  abrupt,  and  contains,  at  least  usually,  a 
lar^r  intellectual  element. 

The  chief  classes  or  groups  of  sentiment  are 


logical,  social,  moral,  religious,  and  aesthetic. 
(1)  Logical  sentiments  are  the  feelings  which 
come  from  intellectual  processes  as  such:  judg- 
ment, thought,  reasoning,  argument.  (2)  The  so- 
cial sentiments  are  those  that  are  aroused  di- 
rectly bv  the  interaction  of  individuals  in  a 
commimity.  They  include  the  sentiments  of 
pride,  innocence,  vanity,  trust,  security,  forgive- 
ness, compassion,  etc.  (3)  The  moral  or  ethical 
sentiments  attach  themselves  to  the  ideas  of  right 
and  duty  of  moral  approbation  and  disapproba- 
tion, and  of  conscience.  They  are  closely  allied 
to  some  of  the  social  sentiments.  (4)  The  re- 
lijgious  sentiments  are  extremely  complex,  com- 
bining in  various  ways  sentiments  from  all  the 
other  classes.  They  include  such  feelings  as  awe, 
humility,  reverence,  faith,  sinfulness,  exaltation, 
and  repentance.  (5)  Finally,  the  esthetic  senti- 
ments centre  about  judgments  of  beauty  and 
ugliness. 

Consult:  Bain,  The  Emotions  and  the  Will 
(London,  1888) ;  James,  Principles  of  Psychology 
(New  York,  1890) ;  Sully,  Human  Mind  (ib., 
1892)  ;  Wundt,  Physiologische  Psychologie  (Leip- 
sig,  1893) ;  Spencer,  Principles  of  Psychology 
(New  York,  1897) ;  Titchener,  Primer  of  Psychol- 
ogy (ib.,  1899). 

SENTIMENTAL  JOTTBNEY,  A.  A  series 
of  sketches  by  Sterne  (1768).  Owing  to  failing 
health,  he  had  spent  a  year  in  Southern  France, 
and  after  using  part  of  his  experiences  in  Tris- 
tram Shandy f  he  brought  out  the  remainder  un- 
der this  title  just  before  his  death.  The  title  in- 
dicates the  leading  characteristic  of  Sterne's 
work,  which  set  the  fashion  for  a  considerable 
literary  school — ^the  sentimentalism  which  de- 
scribes scenes  and  incidents  with  a  view  of  draw- 
ing from  them  suggestions  for  certain  moods  and 
feelings. 

SENTINEL  (OF.,  Fr.  sentinelle,  sentinel, 
watch,  little  path,  diminutive  of  OF.  sente,  path, 
from  Lat.  semita,  path,  by-path,  from  se-,  apart 
4-  meare,  to  go),  Sentbt.  A  soldier  posted  in 
some  responsible  position,  with  instructions  to 
guard  or  protect  the  place,  persons,  or  property. 
The  duty  of  a  sentinel  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant responsibilities  of  military  life.  In  time  of 
peace,  the  faithful  carrying  out  of  sentinel  duty 
IS  an  effective  aid  to  the  maintenance  of  good 
order  and  military  discipline;  while  on  ad:ive 
service,  the  safety  and  security  of  the  camp  or 
post,  and  frequently  the  lives  of  comrades,  will 
depend  on  his  vigilance.  In  the  United  States 
Army,  post  and  camp  guards  are  relieved  every 
twenty-four  hours,  and  except  in  emergencies, 
privates  are  not  detailed  for  guard  duty  more 
than  once  in  five  days.  During  their  tour  of  duty, 
each  sentinel  is  subject  to  the  orders  of  the  com- 
manding officer,  the  officer  of  the  day,  and  the  of- 
ficers and  non-commissioned  officers  of  the  guard 
only,  and  all  persons,  of  whatever  rank,  are  re- 
quired to  observe  respect  toward  him.  He  must 
not  permit  more  than  one,  of  any  party,  to  ap- 
proach him  for  the  purpose  of  giving  the  coun- 
tersign. The  punishment  for  any  dereliction  of 
duty  on  the  part  of  a  sentry  is  very  severe,  and 
in  actual  war  may  involve  the  death  penalty. 
See  GuABD. 

SENITSSI,  se-nlJ^J's*,  Mohakmed  ibn  Au  es- 
Senussi.  a  North-African  Moslem,  who,  under 
the  influence  of  Wahabism  (See  Wahabis), 
founded  at  Mecca  in  1837  a  brotherhood  for  the 


SBKTT88I. 


667 


8E]PABATISTa 


purification  and  propagation  of  Islam.  The 
founder  died  in  1859^  and  his  son  established  a 
Church-State  at  Jerabub,  in  the  Sahara,  between 
£gypt  and  Tripoli.  He  gave  himself  out  as  the 
Mahdi  (q.vO*  &°d  undertook  hy  the  collection  of 
arms  to  prepare  for  a  jihad  or  holy  war.  The 
Brotherhood  of  es-Senussi  is  a  puritanic  order  of 
the  dervish  type,  secret  in  its  organization.  It 
has  some  120  centres  in  North  Africa  and 
Arabia,  including  a  strong  one  at  Mecca,  where 
pilgrims  from  all  parts  of  the  world  are  initiated 
in  large  numbers.  The  Senussi  movement  has 
result^  in  the  rapid  spread  of  Mohammedanism 
among  the  Sudanese  tribes,  and  has  not  failed  to 
take  on  a  political  aspect.  Consult :  Dupont  and 
Cappolani,  Les  confririea  religieuaes  musulmanes 
(Algiers,  1887) ;  Hurgronje,  "Les  confr6ries  re- 
ligieuses,"  in  Revue  de  Vhistoire  dee  religiona, 
vol.  xlv. ;  also  the  works  mentioned  in  the  article 
Shiitbs. 

SEFABATE  ESTATE  (Lat.  separatue,  p.p. 
of  separare,  to  separate,  from  ee-,  apart  + 
parare,  to  prepare).  A  legal  term  commonly 
employed  to  denote  that  property  of  a  married 
woman  held  by  her  independently  of  her  hus- 
band's interference  and  control.  In  England  and 
in  most  of  the  United  States  the  common-law 
rules  (for  which  see  Husband  ai7d  Wife)  have 
been  altered  or  modified,  and  in  some  respects 
entirely  abrogated,  by  statutes.  The  tendency 
of  such  legislation  is  to  give  a  married  woman 
the  complete  control  of  all  her  property  as  if 
she  were  single.  In  probably  all  of  the  United 
States,  by  statutes,  the  real  property  of  a  mar- 
ried woman  is  now  free  from  all  claims  of  her 
husband,  except  his  inchoate  right  to  curtesy, 
and  in  most  States  the  same  rule  applies  to  per- 
sonal property.  In  most  of  the  United  States 
the  savings  of  a  wife  out  of  money  given  to 
her  bv  her  husband  for  household  expenses  and 
the  luce  do  not  become  her  separate  property, 
but  are  the  sole  property  of  her  husband.  Where, 
however,  property  is  conve^red  to,  or  settled  upon, 
a  marriea  woman  by  an  instrument  containing 
conditions  and  limitations  as  to  the  possession 
and  disposition,  the  latter  will  govern,  as  the 
statutes  are  only  intended  to  cover  cases  where 
there  is  no  express  limitation  of  ownership,  or 
where  property  is  owned  before  marriage  or  ac- 
quired by  descent.  The  statutes  of  each  State 
should  be  consulted  for  its  peculiar  laws  as  to 
married  women's  property.  See  Doweb;  Cub- 
test;  Mabbiage;  Husband  and  Wife;  and  con- 
sult the  authorities  noted  under  the  last  title. 

SEPAEATION  (Lat.  eeparatio,  from  eepa- 
rare,  to  separate).  A  technical  legal  term,  em- 
ployed to  denote  a  cessation  of  cohabitation  of 
husband  and  wife  by  mutual  agreement,  and 
without  the  intervention  of  a  court  of  law.  This 
is  commonly  done  where  husband  and  wife  be- 
lieve themselves  unable  to  agree  from  incompati- 
bility of  temper,  but  where  there  is  no  cause  for 
an  absolute  divorce,  and  often  no  cause  for  a 
judicial  separation.  The  parties  usually  sign  a 
separation  agreement,  which  generally  contains 
provisions  for  the  wife's  maintenance  by  the  hus- 
band, the  disposition  and  custody  of  the  children, 
and  so  on.  The  law  does  not  favor  the  separation 
of  husband  and  wife,  and,  therefore,  if  the  agree- 
ment is  deliberately  dra^vn  up  with  an  mtention 
to  live  apart  at  a  future  time,  it  will  be  null  and 
void.  However,  if  the  parties  are  living  apart, 
and  desire  to  take  this  means  to  avoid  disputes 
yoL.XV.-48. 


as  to  the  amount  to  be  paid  for  the  wife's  main- 
tenance and  as  to  the  custody  of  children,  the 
agreement  will  be  enforced  by  the  courts.  Such 
an  agreement  does  not  prevent  the  parties,  at  any 
time,  from  resuming  cohabitation,  upon  which  it 
becomes  void. 

While  a  husband  and  wife  are  living  apart  un- 
der a  separation  agreement,  the  wife  cannot  bind 
the  husband  for  her  necessaries,  if  he  pays  the 
amount  stipulated  in  the  agreement;  but  if  that 
amount  be  grossly  inadequate  the  courts  may 
compel  him  to  fulfill  his  marital  obligation  to 
support  her  to  the  best  of  his  ability.  As  the 
marriage  is  not  dissolved  by  such  separation, 
adultery  on  the  part  of  either  is  ground  for  di- 
vorce; and  by  the  weight  of  authority,  the  hus- 
band may  have  an  action  for  criminal  conversa- 
tion with  the  wife,  although  the  damages  may  be 
nominal.  The  statutes  of  several  States  prescribe 
the  details  to  be  observed  in  executing  articles 
of  separation.  See  Alimony  and  Divobge,  and 
consult  the  authorities  referred  to  under  the 
latter  title. 

SEPARATISTS  (Ger.  Separatisten) .  A  re- 
ligious social  organization  which  originated  in 
Wttrttemberg,  Germany,  about  the  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  Its  members,  seeking  a 
deeper  religious  life  than  prevailed  in  the  Church, 
and  freedom  from  military  service,  to  which  they 
were  conscientiously  opposed,  and  refusing  to 
send  their  children  to  the  clerical  schools,  where 
principles  contrary  to  theirs  were  taught,  were 
severely  dealt  with.  Aided  by  members  of  the 
Society  of  Friends  in  England  and  led  by  Joseph 
B&umeler  (q.v.),  they  came  to  America  in  1817, 
and  were  received  by  Friends  in  Philadelphia.  In 
the  same  year  they  bought  a  tract  of  land  in 
Tuscarawas  County,  Ohio,  and  founded  their 
settlement  of  Zoar  (q.v.).  In  their  Code  of 
Principles,  adopted  before  leaving  Germany 
(printed  in  the  nrst  volume  of  Bftumeler's  Wahre 
Separation),  they  avow  belief  in  the  ordinary 
doctrines  of  evangelical  Christianity;  all  cere- 
monies are  banished  and  declared  useless  and  in- 
jurious; honors  due  to  God,  such  as  uncovering 
the  head  or  bending  the  knee,  are  refused  to 
mortals ;  separation  is  declared  from  all  ecclesias- 
tical connections  and  constitutions;  the  necessity 
of  the  political  government  is  recognised;  and 
fidelity  to  the  constituted  authorities  is  professed. 
Although  a  rule  of  marriage  was  laid  down,  it 
was  qualified  by  the  advice  that  complete  sexual 
abstinence  was  more  commendable ;  and  marriage 
was  not  practiced,  but  was  discouraged  till  about 
1830,  after  which  time  it  became  common.  Ar- 
ticles of  agreement  establishing,  a  community  of 
goods  and  interests  were  adopted  in  1819,  when 
the  society  numbered  about  225  persons.  An  act 
of  incorporation  for  'the  Separatist  Society  of 
Zoar*  was  obtained  from  the  Legislature  of  Ohio 
in  1832.  Joseph  Bilumeler  was  chosen  the  prin- 
cipal executive  officer,  or  'general  agent,'  and 
continued  its  spiritual  as  well  as  temporal  leader 
till  his  death  in  1853.  The  members  of  the  society 
were  of.  two  classes,  novices  and  full  members. 
The  novices  or  probationers  served  for  one 
year  before  being  admitted  to  membership  of  the 
second  class.  Their  obligations  were  renewed  on 
entering  into  full  membership,  and  in  addition 
the  candidate  made  a  full  and  final  surrender  of 
all  his  possessions,  and  of  all  that  he  might 
acquire.     Religious  services  were  held  on  Sun- 


BEPABATISXa 


668 


SEPT. 


days,  with  singing,  reading  of  the  Bible,  and  at 
the  principal  meeting  a  discourse  by  Baiimeler, 
or  after  his  death,  the  reading  of  one  of  his 
printed  discourses,  but  no  audible  prayer.  Bap- 
tism and  the  Lord's  Supper  were  not  recognized. 
Marriage  was  not  permitted  outside  of  the  so- 
ciety. All  disputes  were  settled  by  arbitration. 
See  ZoAB.  Consult  Nordhoflf  Communistic  So- 
cieties (Xew  York,  1874)  ;  Randall,  History  of 
the  Zoar  Society  (Columbus,  1900),  with  a  full 
account  of  the  dissolution  of  the  society;  Hinds, 
American  Communities  (Chicago,  1902)  ;  Bau- 
meler.  Die  wahre  Separation,  etc.  (Zoar,  1856). 

SEPABATOB  {lAt,. separator,  one  who  sepa- 
rates, from  separare,  to  separate ) .  An  apparatus 
used  in  dairying  to  remove  the  cream  from  the 
milk  by  centrifugal 
force  generated  in  a 
rapidly  revolving  bowl. 
It  supplants  the  grav- 
ity process  commonly 
used.  The  earliest 
form  of  separator  con- 
sisted of  buckets  sus- 
pended from  arms  at- 
tached to  a  vertical 
shaft.  When  the  shaft 
revolved  rapidly  the 
buckets  swung  out  in 
a  nearly  horizontal 
position  and  the  milk 
in  them  was  separated 
^into  layers  of  cream 
and  skim  milk.  The 
modern  form  consists 
of  a  bowl  or  drum 
capable  of  being  re- 
volved at  a  high  rate  of  speed,  and  with  ar- 
rangements for  admitting  the  milk  and  removing 
the  cream  and  skim  milk.  The  process  of  separa- 
tion is  continuous,  a  steady  stream  of  milk  run- 


BSCnON   OF   INTRBIOR   OF 
BEYOLYINQ  DBUM. 


tlOnONAL  VIEW  OF  DB    LAVAL  HAND-POWER    CBBAlf  BBPA- 
BATOR. 

ning  into  the  bowl,  and  skim  milk  and  cream 
pouring  out  through  the  respective  tubes.  The 
rapidity  of  separation  and  the  richness  of  the 
cream   are  under   the   control    of   the   operator. 


Separators  vary  in  size  and  in  detail  of  construc- 
tion. The  small  separators  run  by  hand  separate 
from  175  to  350  pounds  of  milk  an  hour,  and  the 
larger  power  machines  up  to  3003  pounds.  When 
properly  run  the  better  makes  of  both  hand  and 
power  separators  leave  only  about  0.1  per  cent, 
of  fat  or  less  in  the  skim  milk.  The  perfection 
of  the  separator  has  been  one  of  the  greatest 
factors  in  the  development  and  improvement  of 
dairying   (q.v.). 

SEPHABa)IK.    See  Ashkenazim;  Jews. 

SEPHAB/VAIK  (Heb.  Sepharvetm) ,  Ac- 
cording to  II.  Kings  xix.  13,  Isaiah  xxxvi  19, 
xxxvii.  13,  a  city  in  Syria  captured  by  the  As- 
syrians. It  has  been  identified  with  Sibraim  of 
Ezek.  xlvii.  16,  lying  between  Damascus  and 
Hamath.  It  seems  to  be  mentioned  also  in  the 
Babylonian  Chronicle,  i.  28.  The  same  name  oc- 
curs also  in  II.  Kings  xvii.  24,  xvii.  34,  as  one 
of  the  places  from  which  colonies  were  brought 
into  Samaria.  Here  views  differ.  Some  scholars 
identify  this  locality  with  the  one  first  men- 
tioned; others  hold  that  the  reading  here  should 
be  Sippar,  the  famous  North  Babylonian  city, 
the  present  form  arising  from  confusion  of  the 
whole  text  with  xix.  13.  According  to  II.  Kings 
xvii.  31,  the  Sepharvites  introduced  the  worship 
of  Adrammelech  and  Anammelech,  obscure  dei- 
ties, whose  names  point,  however,  rather  to  the 
Syrian  than  to  the  Babylonian  city. 

SEPIA  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  erprla,  cuttlefish,  se- 
pia). A  brown  pigment  now  little  used,  but 
formerly  much  valued  as  a  water-color.  It  is 
prepared  from  the  secretion  in  the  'ink-bag*  of 
cuttle-fishes.  This  substance  is  agitated  in  water 
to  wash  it,  and  then  allowed  slowly  to  subside, 
after  which  the  water  is  poured  off,  and  the  sedi- 
ment, when  dry  enough,  is  formed  into  cakes  or 
sticks.  In  this  state  it  is  called  'India  ink.'  If, 
however,  it  is  dissolved  in  a  solution  of  caustic 
potasli,  it  becanies  brown,  and  is  then  boiled  and 
filtered,  after  which  the  alkali  is  neutralized 
with  an  acid,  and  the  brown  pigment  is  pre- 
cipitated and  dried:  this  constitutes  the  proper 
sepia.  It  is  usually  prepared  in  Italy,  great 
numbers  of  the  species  which  yields  it  most 
abundantly  {Sepia  officinalis)  being  found  in 
the  Mediterranean.  India  ink  is  prepared  in 
China,  Japan,  and  India,  w^here  it  is  used  both 
as  an  ink  and  as  a  pigment. 

SEPOY  (Hind.,  Pers.  sipahi,  soldier,  horse- 
man, from  Pers.  sip&hf  supah,  army).  A  native 
British  Indian  soldier.  They  have  been  a  part 
of  the  British  forces,  irregular  and  regular,  since 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  with 
the  exception  of  the  rebellion,  have  ever  been 
loyal  to  Great  Britain.  ( For  Sepoy  Rebellion,  see 
India.)  Tliey  consist  of  practically  every  race 
and  tribe  in  India,  and  are  officered  by  both  na- 
tives and  Europeans.  The  higher  grades  are  all 
held  by  Europeans.  See  Armies,  paragraph  de- 
voted to  India  under  British  Empire. 

SEPP,  z^p,  JoHANN  Nepomuk  (1816—).  A 
German  Catholic  Church  historian,  bom  at  Tolz, 
Bavaria.  After  studying  philosophy  and  the- 
ology' in  Munich  and  visiting  the  East  (1845-46), 
he  became  professor  of  history  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Munich,  was  deposed  in  1847,  rein- 
stated in  1850,  and,  for  personal  reasons,  re- 
tired in  1867.    He  was  elected  to  the  Frankfort 


SEPF. 


669 


SEPTIC  ff!MT  A. 


Parliament  in  1848,  to  the  German  Customs  Par- 
liament in  1868,  and  to  the  Bavarian  Chamber  in 
1849  and  1869.  He  was  an  enthusiastic  advocate 
of  a  united  Germany.  His  principal  writings  in- 
clude: Das  Lehen  Jesu  Chriati  (2d  ed.,  1853-62) ; 
Thaien  und  Lehren  Jesu  in  ihrer  toeltgeschioht' 
lichen  Beglauhiffung  (1864);  Oeschichte  der 
Aposiel  vom  Tode  Jesu  bis  zur  Zerat&rung  Je- 
rvscUems  (2d  ed.  1866)  ;  Das  Heidentum  und 
dessen  Bedeutung  fUr  das  Chrisientum  (1853); 
Jerusalem  und  das  Heilige  Land  (2d  ed.  1878)  ; 
a  biography  of  Chorres  (1896);  and  numerous 
contributions  to  the  local  history  of  Bavaria. 

SEPPHOBaS  (Heb.  Sippori  or  Sippiirin) .  A 
city  of  Galilee^  famous  in  later  Jewish  history, 
the  modem  Saflfuriye.  It  lies  on  the  slope  of  a 
high  hill  three  miles  west  of  Cana  of  Galilee,  in 
the  midst  of  a  region  once  famed  for  fertility. 
The  place  is  not  named  in  the  Old  Testament,  but 
is  identified  by  the  Talmud  with  Kitron  (Judges 
i.,  30).  It  is  first  mentioned  by  Josephus  for 
the  date  B.C.  104.  He  speaks  of  it  as  "the  great- 
est city  in  Galilee  and  built  in  a  very  strong 
place."  Gabinius  made  it  the  capital  of  Galilee 
(about  B.C.  57).  Originally  a  strong  Jewish  cen- 
tre, Varus  expelled  the  Jewish  element  (b.c.  4), 
&nd  it  became  for  a  time  predominantly  Gentile. 
Herod  Antipas  handsomely  rebuilt  it,  and  it 
alternated  with  his  other  creation  of  Tiberias  as 
the  Galilean  capital.  In  the  Jewish  revolt  it 
was  plundered  by  Josephus.  Under  Antoninus 
Pius  it  was  called  Diocsesarea  and  had  the  right 
of  coinage.  It  is  famous  in  the  history  of  the 
Talmud  as  the  residence  for  17  years  of  Rabbi 
Judah  ha-Nasi,  the  compiler  of  the  Mishna  (died 
▲.D.  217),  who  made  it  the  great  school  of 
Galilee  until  the  rise  of  that  of  Tiberias.  It 
thus  became  again  a  centre  of  Jewish  life,  and 
was  the  scene  of  a  Jewish  insurrection  in  339, 
which  caused  its  destruction  by  the  Romans.  It 
was  early  regarded  as  the  scene  of  the  annuncia- 
tion to  the  Virgin  Mary  and  the  home  of  her 
parents.  Considerable  remains  of  a  large  Cru- 
sader church  exist.  Consult  the  Survey  of  West- 
ern Palestine,  vol.  i.  (London,  1881),  and  Baedek- 
er's Palestine  and  Syria;  for  the  Greek  refer- 
ences, consult  Schflrer,  History  of  the  Jewish 
People  in  th^  Time  of  Jesus  Christ  (Eng.  trans., 
Edinburgh,  1890) ;  for  Talmudic  references, 
Neubauer,  Q4ographie  du  Talmud  (Paris,  1868). 

SEPTABIA  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Lat. 
septum,  sceptum,  inclosure,  hedge,  fence,  from 
sepire,  saspire,  to  hedge  in,  from  sepes^  scepes, 
hedge,  fence).  Ovafe  nodules  of  argillaceous  lime- 
stone or  clay  ironstone,  usually  divided  into  angu- 
lar fragments  by  reticulating  fissures  that  have 
been  filled  with  calcite  or  barytes.  The  fissures 
are  due  to  cracking  of  the  nodule  while  drying. 
Some  organic  substance,  such  as  a  plant  or  shell, 
is  frequentlv  found  in  the  interior  of  septaria 
and  evidently  formed  the  nucleus  about  which 
the  mineral  materials  were  deposited  from  solu- 
tion. 

SEPTEMBEB.     See  Calendab. 

SEFTEHBBISTS  (Fr.  Septemhriseurs) .  The 
name  given  to  the  perpetrators  of  the  'Septem- 
ber massacres'  in  the  prisons  of  Paris  from 
September  2  to  7,  1792.  See  French  Revolu- 
tion. 

SEPTENNIAL  ACT  (from  Lat.  septennium, 
space  of  seven  years,  from  septennis,  of  seven 


years,  from  septem,  seven  -f  annus,  year).  An 
act  of  the  English  Parliament  passed  in  1716 
fixing  the  Parliamentary  term  at  seven  years. 
Since  1694  the  term  had  been  three  years,  but  on 
account  of  the  inconvenience  of  general  elections 
at  such  short  intervals  and  the  desire  of  the 
Whigs  to  secure  steadiness  and  fixity  of  political 
action  by  maintaining  themselves  in  power  the 
longer  term  was  substituted.  Moreover,  the  fear 
on  account  of  the  Jacobite  revolt  rendered  it  un- 
safe for  the  Whig  Ministry  to  run  the  risk  of  a 
general  election.  The  right  of  a  Parliament  to 
perpetuate  its  own  existence  beyond  the  legal 
term  was  the  subject  of  general  opposition  and 
was  violently  contested.  The  Septennial  law  is 
still  in  force,  although  by  usage  the  length  of  a 
Parliament  seldom  exceeds  six  years. 

SEPTET  (from  Lat.  septem,  seven).  In  music, 
a  composition  for  seven  voices  or  instruments. 
Instrumental  septets  are  almost  invariably  cycli- 
cal works  in  sonta  form.  Beethoven's  famous 
septet  (op.  20)  is  written  for  violin,  viola,  horn, 
clarinet,  bassoon,  'cello,  and  double  bass;  but 
there  is  no  general  specification  as  to  what  in- 
struments shall  be  used  in  the  septet. 

SEPTICAEMIA  ( Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  <r);irr&ic6t, 
sSptikos,  putrefying  +  alfM,  haima,  blood). 
Sepsis,  or  Septic  Infecjtion.  A  diseased  con- 
dition of  the  body  due  to  absorption  of  bacteria 
and  their  circulation  in  the  blood.  It  is  com- 
monly termed  blood-poisoning,  and  was  thought 
to  be  due  to  entrance  of  decomposed  tissue  into 
the  blood.  It  is  now  definitely  known  to  be  pro- 
duced by  the  bacteria  streptococcus  and  staphy- 
lococcus. It  is  to  be  differentiated  from  toxae- 
mia on  the  one  hand  and  pyaemia  (q.v.)  on  the 
other.  Toxaemia  is  properly  used  to  designate 
a  systemic  condition  in  which  the  poisons  or  , 
toxins  alone  of  pathogenic  bacteria  present  in 
the  body  are  absorbed  and  diffused  throughput 
the  body  by  means  of  the  blood  and  lymph.  In 
septicaemia  not  only  the  poison,  but  also  some 
of  the  bacteria  themselves  are  distributed  through 
the  body  through  the  same  channels.  In  pyaemia 
not  only  are  both  toxins  and  bacteria  present 
in  the  blood,  but  the  latter  find  lodgment  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  body,  there  to  set  up  new  foci 
of  infection.  The  micro-organisms  responsible 
for  septicaemia  are  the  same  as  those  concerned 
in  the  production  of  pyaemia.  The  bacteria  may 
usually  be  found  in  the  blood.  The  changes  in 
the  internal  organs  may  be  slight  or  there  may 
be  the  usual  evidences  of  infection  in  albuminoid 
degeneration  of  the  liver,  kidneys,  and  other 
organs.  The  lymph  glands  are  usually  swollen 
and  the  spleen  congested  and  enlarged.  The 
mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach  and  intestines 
commonly  show^s  an  acute  catarrhal  condition. 
The  blood  is  apt  to  be  thin,  somewhat  tarry  in 
color,  and  its  coagulability  is  lessened.  When 
septic  infection  results  from  an  external  wound, 
the  wound  itself  may  appear  healthy,  or  may 
show  evidences  of  more  or  less  infection.  In  such 
an  infection  as  medical  students  incur  by  cutting 
themselves  while  dissecting,  the  wound  usually 
shows  marked  evidence  of  the  condition,  while 
red  streaks  running  up  the  arm  along  the  course 
of  the  veins  and  lymphatics  show  the  course 
which  the  infection  has  followed.  In  very  severe 
cases  oedema  of  the  tissue  surrounding  the 
wound  may  develop. 

Septicaemia  is  a  surgical  disease.    It  was  fre- 


SBPTICJSmA. 


670 


8EQXTBKCE. 


quent  in  surgical  wards  of  hospitals  before  the 
advent  of  listerism  and  subsequent  precautionary 
aseptic  measures.  It  always  follows  infection,  of 
an  open  wound. 

Puerperal  septiceemia,  or  'child-bed  fever,'  owes 
its  origin  to  infection  with  streptococcus  through 
the  bleeding  surfaces  of  the  newly  emptied  uter* 
us.  The  symptoms  of  septicaemia  are  a  chill  or  a 
succession  of  chills,  followed  by  a  continued  high 
fever,  with  delirium,  prostration,  and  rapid 
emaciation.  Abscesses  may  form  in  the  internal 
organs  or  in  lymphatic  glands.  In  the  treatment 
of  the  condition  tonics  and  tissue-builders  and 
local  disinfectants  are  necessary.  The  antistrep- 
tococcal  serum  has  proved  efficacious  in  many 
cases.  (See  Sebum  Thesapt.)  Sepsis  may 
occur  during  pneumonia,  tuberculosis,  Malta 
fever,  and  many  other  diseases,  in  which  uloera* 
tion  or  an  open  wound  offers  entrance  to  bacteria. 

SEPTZMTD'S  SEVE^TTS,  Abch  of.  A  well- 
preserved  triumphal  arch  on  the  Roman  Forum, 
at  the  end  of  the  Sacred  Way,  erected  in  a.d.  203 
by  the  senate  to  commemorate  the  conquest  of  the 
Parthians  and  Arabians,  and  dedicated  to  the 
Emperor  Septimius  Severus  and  his  sons  Cara- 
calla  and  Geta.  The  arch  is  75  feet  high  and  82 
feet  broad,  with  three  passageways  connected  by 
a  cross  passage.  On  each  face  of  the  arch  are 
four  composite  columns  on  pedestals  bearing 
groups  of  prisoners  taken  in  battle.  Above  the 
outer  arches  are  panels  representing  in  low  relief 
the  eastern  campaigns  of  Severus.  The  name  of 
Geta  was  removed  from  the  inscription  on  the 
arch  after  his  murder  in  212,  and  the  space  filled 
by  a  laudatory  addition  to  the  name  of  Severus 
and  Garacalla.  The  arch  during  a  part  of  the 
Middle  Ages  served  as  a  stronghold,  and  in  the 
seventeenth  century  the  side  passages  were  rented 
'  as  shops.  The  surrounding  rubbish  was  partially 
removed  in  1803  by  Pius  VII. 

SEPTZMOLE.  In  music,  the  same  as  sep- 
tuplet  (q.v.K 

SEPTUAGIVT  (from  Lat.  aeptuaginta,  sev- 
enty). The  common  designation  of  the  most 
ancient  Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testament.  The 
tradition  that  it  was  made  by  seventy-two  trans* 
lators  in  seventy-two  days  at  the  order  of  Ptolemy 
II.  Philadelphus  (B.C.  285-247)  is  worthless. 
An  examination  of  the  work  shows  that  it  is  by 
different  hands,  and  that  different  portions  date 
from  different  times.  It  was  doubtless  made  for 
the  use  of  Alexandrian  Jews  who  had  gradually 
lost  familiarity  with  the  Hebrew  language.  The 
law  was  probably  translated  first,  and  the  tra- 
dition which  ascribes  this  portion  to  the  time 
of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  is  thought  by  some 
scholars  to  be  correct.  The  concluding  por- 
tion may  be  as  late  as  the  last  century  before 
the  Christian  Era.  The  language  is  the  Hellen- 
istic Greek,  and  the  apocryphal  as  well  as 
the  canonical  books  are  included.  The  LXX. 
was  held  in  the  very  highest  repute  by  the 
Alexandrian  Jews  and  gradually  it  found  its 
way  into  Palestine.  It  is  the  version  of  the  Old 
Testament  cited  by  Philo,  Josephus,  and  the  New 
Testament  writers.  It  was  read  and  interpreted 
in  the  synagogues  of  Egypt  for  some  centuries 
after  the  Chri»tian  Era,  was  highly  esteemed 
by  the  early  Church,  and  many  of  the  versions 
for  use  in  different  Christian  communities  were 
made  from  it.  It  is  still  in  use  in  the  Greek 
Church.    Its  greatest  value  at  present  is  for  the 


textual  criticism  of  the  Old  Testament.  For 
manuscript  and  editions,  and  further  details,  see 
BiBL£,  heading  Versums. 

SEPTTXPLET  (from  Lat.  septuplum,  septuple, 
from  aeptem,  seven  -4-  -plus,  -fold).  A  group  of 
seven  equal  notes,  which  are  to  be  performed  in 
the  time  usually  given  to  four  notes  of  the  same 
kind  (in  common  time),  or  to  six  notes  (in  six- 
eighth  time).  It  is  called  for  by  the  sign  T 
pUced  above  the  group. 

SEPTTLGHSAL  KOUND  (Lat  9epuleralia, 
relating  to  a  tomb,  from  sepulcrum,  sepulchrum, 
tomb,  sepulchre,  from  aepelire,  to  bury).  A 
mound  erected  as  a  memorial  for  the  deaxL  The 
practice  of  rearing  mounds  of  earth  and  stone 
over  the  dead  may  be  traced  to  remotest  an- 
tiquity and  the  lowest  grades  of  human  culture. 
The  first  and  earliest  type  was  merely  a  heap, 
without  a  central  cavity  or  much  attention  to 
outward  form.  Here  a  single  corpse  is  covered 
with  a  pile  of  rocks  or  a  heap  of  dirt  scraped  up 
and  carried  in  baskets.  In  the  better  forms  the 
materiab  are  selected  and  the  surface  covered 
with  sods  or  trees.  The  original  mound  was 
conoid  or  the  form  of  the  body;  but  in  later 
times  geometric  structures  of  exact  outline  were 
erected.  Then  came  the  log  pen,  the  cyst  of 
rough  slabs,  the  laid  up  inclosure,  the  megalithie 
cell,  the  tomb  of  masonry,  and  the  mausoleum 
covered  with  earth.  In  these  various  inclosures 
the  dead  were  doubled  up,  laid  out,  heaped  in 
ossuaries,  or  incinerated,  the  ashes  being  min- 
gled with  the  soil  or  inurned.  The  mounds  of 
America  furnish  a  great  variety  of  these  sepul- 
chral remains  ranging  from  the  mere  heap  to  the 
squared  pyramid.  Great  tumuli  and  barrows 
(q.v.)  are  found  throughout  Northern  Europe 
from  the  British  Isles  to  Ukraine,  and  they  are 
to  be  seen  in  Northern  Africa  and  in  Asia.    See 

BUBIAL. 

SEPXTLCHEE,  The  Holt.    See  Holt  Skpul- 

CHBE. 

SEPXTLVEDA,  sft'pZRfl-vft'DA,  Juan  Gincz  de 
(c.  1490-1 674).  A  Spanish  historian,  bom  near 
Cordova.  He  studied  at  Alcalft,  and  after  living 
in  Italy  until  1536  returned  to  Spain  as 
chaplain  and  historiographer  to  Charles  V.,  and 
preceptor  to  his  son,  afterwards  Philip  II.  His 
early  polemical  writings  against  Luther,  and 
against  Las  Casas  on  slavery,  brought  him  into 
prominence.  He  wrote,  in  addition  to  a  Life  of 
Cardinal  Albomoz,  HistaruB  Caroli  V,  Impera- 
ioria  Lihri  XXX.,  and  De  Rehua  HUpanorum 
Oeetee  ad  Novum  Orhem  Mexicumque,  His  works 
were  published  in  1780  in  four  volumes  by  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Madrid. 

SEQTTAOfl.  A  tribe  of  ancient  Gaul,  de- 
scribed by  Csesar  in  the  first  book  of  his  Bellum 
Oallicum,  They  seem  to  have  been  of  Celtic 
stock,  and  to  have  inhabited  the  district  later 
known  as  Franche-Comt6  and  Burgundy.  Their 
chief  town  was  Vesontio  (the  later  Besancon). 
They  took  their  name  from  the  river  Sequana 
(now  the  Seine),  which  had  its  source  within 
their  territory.  This  district  formed  a  separate 
province,  called  Maxima  Sequanorum,  under  the 
Empire. 

SEQXTEKCE  (OF.  eequenoe,  Fr.  e^quenccy  from 
Lat.  aequentia,  sequence,  from  eequi,  to  follow; 
connected  with  Gk.  frwo'Bai,  hepeathai,  Skt.  eae, 
to  follow,  Goth,  eaihicarit  OHG.  aehan,  Ger.  eehen, 
AS.  sSon,  Eng.  see) .    In  litui^ics,  a  hymn  intro- 


SEQUOIA 
MARIPOSA  QROVE  OF   BIQ  TREES,  YOSEMITE  VALLEY 


SBQXTBKCB. 


671 


SEQUOIA. 


dneed  in  the  Middle  Ages  as  a  continuation  of 
the  Alleluia  before  the  gospel  in  the  mass,  prob- 
ably with  the  original  idea  of  supplying  words 
for  the  protracted  series  of  notes  known  as  neumes 
(q.v.)-  Thev  were  also  known,  especially  in 
England  and  France,  as  proses,  because  the 
earuer  ones  were  not  metrical.  Notker,  a  monk 
of  Saint  Gall,  was  the  earliest  great  composer  of 
them,  and  his  work  spread  very  widely  through- 
out Europe;  by  1500  his  beautiful  sequence  for 
Whitsunday,  "Veni  sancte  Spiritus,"  was  adopted 
in  at  least  150  dioceses  and  religious  Orders. 
Adam  of  Saint  Victor  is  the  principal  fi^re  in 
the  second  period.  The  sequences  were  principal- 
ly used  in  the  north  of  Europe;  they  are  rare 
in  Italian  and  Spanish  missals,  and  the  Cister- 
cians and  Carthusians  never  adopted  them.  In 
1570  the  revised  Roman  missal  limited  the  num- 
ber of  sequences  to  five,  including  the  '*Stabat 
Mater,"  "Lauda  Sion,"  and  "Dies  ir»."  As  a 
term  in  the  theory  of  music,  a  sequence  denotes 
the  frequent  repetition  of  a  musical  phrase,  each 
repetition  ascending  or  descending  by  a  certain 
intervaL  Although  the  older  masters  frequently 
made  use  of  sequences,  theorists  were  unable  to 
explain  their  exact  character.  F6tis  finally  dis- 
covered that  a  sequence  is  a  purely  melodic,  not 
a  harmonic  progression,  and  that  therefore  in 
this  particular  case  the  rules  of  strict  harmony 
must  be  suspended.  Consult:  Daniel,  Thesaurus 
Eymnologicus  (Leipzig,  1844) ;  Mone,  Latein- 
iiche  Hymnen  des  Mittelaltera  (Freiburg,  1853- 
55) ;  Gautier,  Histoire  de  la  po^aie  Uturgique 
(Paris,  1886). 

SEQTJESTBATION  (Lat.  sequestratio,  from 
aequestrare,  to  surrender,  lay  aside,  remove,  from 
sequester,  mediator,  agent,  probably  from  sequi, 
to  follow).  An  equitable  process  directing  a 
sheriff,  or  four  or  more  commissioners,  to  seize 
and  take  possession  of  the  property  of  a  de- 
fendant, or  person  in  contempt  of  court,  and  re- 
ceive the  rents  and  profits,  if  any,  until  some 
decree  or  order  of  the  court  is  satisfied,  or  until 
litigation  in  regard  to  the  property  is  determined. 
It  was  employ^  to  enforce  the  payment  of  money 
damages,  which  are  often  granted  as  incidental 
to  the  main  relief  of  a  court  of  equity,  and  to 
enforce  obedience  to  decrees  of  the  court,  where 
a  person  was  in  contempt.  In  a  few  States  this 
process  is  still  commonly  employed  for  the  above 
purposes,  but  in  most  jurisdictions  the  process 
of  execution  has  superseded  it,  although,  unless 
expressly  abolished  by  statute,  the  courts  of 
equity  may  still  resort  to  it  in  the  proper  cases. 
See  Equity;  Contempt;  and  the  authorities 
there  referred  to. 

SBQTTIH  (Ft.  sequin,  from  It.  zecchino, 
Beqnin,  from  zecca,  Sp.  zeca,  seca,  mint,  from  Ar. 
sikka,  die  for  coins).  A  gold  coin,  first  struck 
at  Venice  toward  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. It  was  about  the  size  of  a  ducat  (q.v.), 
and  equivalent  to  $2.33  American.  Coins  oi  the 
same  name,  but  varying  in  value,  were  issued  by 
other  States. 

SEQUOIA  (Neo-Lat.,  named  in  honor  of  Be- 
^tioyo,  or  George  Guess).  A  genus  of  coniferous 
trees  closely  allied  to  the  cypress.  Only  two  spe- 
cies persist,  both  in  California.  They  are  the 
big  tree  {Sequoia  gigantea)  and  the  redwood 
(q.v.)  {Sequoia  sempervirens) .  The  former  is 
the  largest  American  forest  tree  and  one  of  the 
largest  in  the  world.    The  average  height  of  the 


trees  is  said  to  be  about  275  feet,  although  speci* 
mens  exceeding  320  feet,  with  a  trunk  diameter 
of  30  to  35  feet  near  the  ground,  have  been  meas- 
ured. The  trees  are  buttressed  at  base,  so  that 
they  lose  their  diameter  rapidly  for  a  few  feet, 
after  which  they  taper  gradually  and  are  fre- 
quentljf  100  to  150  feet  without  a  branch.  The 
wood  IS  light,  soft,  coarse-grained,  and  durable, 
especially  when  in  contact  with  the  ground.  The 
heart  wood  is  red,  turning  darker  upon  exposure; 
the  sap  wood  is  thin  and  white.  The  bark  of  the 
tree  is  spongy  and  fluted,  often  two  feet  thick. 
The  tree  contains  little  resin  and  does  not  bum 
readily.  The  big  tree  is  found  only  on  the  west 
side  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas,  at  elevations  be- 
tween 5000  and  7000  feet.  It  occurs  in  scattered 
groves  along  with  other  coniferous  trees,  in  no 
place  forming  pure  forests.  These  groves,  of 
which  there  are  about  a  dozen,  occur  from  Placer 
to  Tulare  County,  a  distance  of  about  250  miles 
near  the  centre  of  the  State.  The  Calaveras  and 
Mariposa  groves  are  the  best  known.  The  for- 
mer contains  about  100  trees  of  large  size,  and  a 
considerable  number  of  smaller  ones.  The  tallest 
specimen  now  standing  is  the  'Keystone  State,' 
which  is  325  feet  tall,  and  what  is  believed  to  be 
'one  of  the  finest  specimens  standing  is  the  'Em- 
pire State,'  with  a  circumference  of  94  feet.  A 
fallen  specimen  known  as  the  'Father  of  the 
Forest'  was  broken  in 
falling,  but  it  is  esti- 
mated as  more  than  400 
feet  tall.  The  Mariposa 
grove  contains  about  500 
trees  of  all  sizes,  of4 
which  perhaps  100  are 
large  specimens.  Anum* 
her  of  fine  specimens 
are  to  be  found  in  the 
State  and  National  For- 
est Reserves,  but  the 
finest  are  upon  private 
holdings.  The  discovery 
of  the  first  of  these  big 
trees  has  been  attrib- 
uted to  a  hunter  named 
Dowd  in  1850,  but  it  is 
claimed  that  John  Bid- 
well  actually  visited  the 
same  grove,  the  Cala- 
veras, in  1841,  and  to 
him  should  be  given  the 
credit  of  their  discov- 
ery. The  proper  botani- 
cal nam^  to  be  applied 
to  this  tree  has  been  a  subject  of  controversy. 
In  England  it  is  generally  known  under  the  name 
Wellingtonia  gigantea,  but  as  the  tree  does  not 
differ  from  Sequoia  the  name  was  transferred  to 
Sequoia  gigantea.  By  some  laws  of  nomencla- 
ture the  name  should  be  Sequoia  Washingtoniana, 
but  as  the  specific  name  gigantea  is  best  known, 
it  is  here  retained.  The  tree  has  been  successfully 
grown  in  England  and  elsewhere.  Some  forest 
specimens  are  estimated  to  be  from  1000  to  2000 
years  old. 

The  genus  Sequoia  appeared  first  in  the  Cre- 
taceous beds  of  Atane,  Greenland,  and  in  the 
Potomac  group  of  North  America,  and  is  repre- 
sented by  later  species  in  the  Tertiary  of  North 
America*  and  Europe  which  are  very  similar  to 
those  remnant  species  now  living  in  the  Western 
United  States.    Still  earlier  ancestors  were  Lep- 


tBQUOIA  OIOAHTBA. 


SEQUOIA. 


672 


SEBuAMPTTB. 


iostrobns  and  Swedenborgia  of  the  Jurassic  and 
Voltzia  of  the  Triassic,  all  of  which  attained 
great  size.    See  Conifes^. 

SEQTJOYA^  s^kwoi'yft  (c.1760-1843).  A 
Cherokee  mixed  blood,  famous  as  the  inventor  of 
the  Cherokee  syllabary.  He  was  bom  about  the 
year  1760  and  lived  as  a  boy  with  his  mother 
at  the  Cherokee  town  of  Tuskegee,  close  to  old 
Fort  Loudon,  in  East  Tennessee.  As  he  grew  up  he 
became  a  hunter  and  fur  trader,  but  also  devel- 
oped a  considerable  mechanical  ingenuity,  espe- 
cially in  the  making  of  silver  ornaments.  He 
was  led  by  a  chance  conversation  in  1809  to  re- 
flect upon  the  ability  of  the  whites  to  communi- 
cate thought  by  means  of  writing,  with  the 
result  that  he  set  about  devising  a  similar  sys- 
tem for  his  own  people.  For  this  purpose  he 
made  use  of  a  number  of  characters  which  he 
found  in  an  old  spelling  book,  taking  capitals, 
lower  case,  italics,  and  ^ures,  and  placing  them 
right  side  up  or  inverted,  without  any  idea  of 
their  sound  or  significance  in  English  use.  Hav- 
ing thus  utilized  about  thirty-five  ready-made 
characters,  he  obtained  a  dozen  or  more  by  modi- 
fying some  of  these  originals,  and  then  devised 
others  from  his  own  imagination  to  make  a  com- . 
plete  syllabary  of  eighty-five  characters,  capable 
of  expressing  every  sound  in  the  Cherokee  lan- 
guage. By  means  of  this  invention  any  one 
speaking  the  language  can  learn  to  read  and 
write  it  perfectly  in  a  few  days.  Since  then  the 
same  principle  has  been  utilized  by  missionaries 
for  several  other  Indian  languages,  notably  the 
Cree  and  Chippewyan.  After  years  of  patient 
labor  in  the  face  of  ridicule,  discouragement, 
and  repeated  failure,  he  finally  perfected 
his  invention,  and  in  1821  submitted  it 
to  a  public  test  by  the  leading  men  of 
the  Cherokee  Nation.  Its  great  value  was  at 
once  recognized,  and  within  a  few  months  thou- 
sands of  hitherto  illiterate  Cherokee  were  able 
to  read  and  write  their  own  language.  In  the 
next  year  he-  visited  the  West,  to  introduce  his 
system  among  those  of  the  tribe  who  had  re- 
moved to  Arkansas.  .On  a  second  visit  in  1823  he 
decided  to  take  up  his  permanent  residence  with 
the  Western  band.  In  1839  Sequoya  was  instru- 
mental in  bringing  about  a  union  of  feeling  be- 
tween the  *01d  Settlers,'  as  the  Arkansas  band 
was  then  known,  and  the  body  of  the  nation, 
which  had  just  then  removed  from  their  original 
territory  in  the  East.  Consult:  Foster, 
Sequo-yah,  the  American  Cadmus  and  the  Mod- 
ern Moses  (Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  1885)  ;  Moon^,  Myths 
of  the  Cherokee  (Washington,  1900). 

SEBAGLIO,  sA-ralyd  (It.  serraglio,  inclosure, 
seraglio,  from  ML.  serraculum,  spigot,  Lat.  sera- 
cula,  little  bolt,  diminutive  of  sera,  bolt,  bar, 
from  serarey  to  bind  together,  from  serere,  to 
bind,  join;  connected  with  Gk.  dpeiv,  eirein,  Skt. 
fid,  to  bind;  confused  in  meaning  with  Ar.,  Turk. 
saraiy  from  Pers.  sarai,  palace,  inn,  seraglio).  The 
collection  of  buildings  with  surrounding  grounds 
which  formerly  constituted  the  Imperial  residence 
of  the  Sultan  at  Constantinople.  It  is  situated 
on  the  easternmost  of  the  seven  hills  of  the  city, 
between  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  the  Bosporus,  and 
the  Golden  Horn,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  wall 
more  than  two  miles  in  circumference.  Moham- 
med II.  began  the  erection  of  a  palace  on  this 
location  in  1468,  and  occupied  it  during  a  por- 
tion of  the  year.    Solyman  II.  (1520-66)  greatly 


enlarged  it  and  made  it  his  habitual  residenee. 
Since  1839  it  has  not  been  occupied  by  the  Sultan, 
and  buildings  and  grounds  are  falling  into  decay. 
The  Seraglio  consists  of  two  indosures,  an  outer 
and  inner;  free  access  is  allowed  to  the  former, 
which  constitutes  nine-tenths  of  the  whole. 
Amon^  the  buildings  in  the  outer  portion  are 
several  Imperial  schools,  a  hospital,  barracks, 
and  the  museum  of  Constantinople.  Among 
the  noteworthy  structures  of  the  inner  por- 
tion are  the  Hall  of  the  Divan,  the  Imperial 
Treasure  House  and  Library,  and  the  Bagdad 
Kiosk.  Certain  relics  of  the  Prophet  are  Kept 
here,  among  them  the  black  mantle  which  he  is 
said  to  have  given  to  the  poet  Kaab.  An- 
nually on  the  fifteenth  of  Ramadan  the  Sultan 
comes  in  great  state  to  render  homage  to  this 
relic — the  only  time  in  the  year  at  present  when 
he  visits  the  Seraglio  or  Stamboul.  The  Turks 
apply  the  name  seraglio  (or  more  properly  serai) 
to  any  residence  of  the  Sultan.  In  English  it  is 
often  inc<)rrectly  confused  with  harem  (q.T.). 
Consult  Grosvenor,  Constantinople  (Boston, 
1895),  and  for  a  description  of  the  Seraglio  in 
its  greatest  glory  Tavemier,  Voyage  en  Turquiej 
en  Perse,  et  aum  Indes  (Paris,  1677-79). 

SEBAING,  serkN^.  A  town  in  the  Province 
of  Liftge,  Belgium,  on  the  Meuse,  four  miles  by 
rail  southwest  of  Li^ge  (Map:  Belgium,  D  4). 
It  has  a  factory  for  the  manufacture  of  steam 
machinery,  locomotives,  etc.,  which  is  probably 
the  largest  in  the  world.  The  town  depends  on 
these  works  for  its  prosperity,  the  company  main- 
taining schools,  hospital,  orphan  asylum,  etc.  In 
the  vicinity  are  valuable  coal  mines,  and  one  of 
the  largest  glass  factories  of  Europe.  Popula- 
tion, in  1900,  39,623. 

SEBAJEVO,  s6-TV/y&Y6,  or  BosNA-SsRiL 
The  capital  of  Bosnia,  beautifully  situated  in  the 
midst  of  gardens  on  both  sides  of  the  Miljacka, 
122  miles  southwest  of  Belgrade  (Map:  Austria, 
F  5).  The  river  is  here  spanned  by  several  fine 
stone  bridges.  The  town  has  been  greatly  ad- 
vanced by  modem  improvements.  Noteworthy 
structures  are  the  Catholic  cathedral  (1889); 
the  large  sixteenth-century  Mosque  of  Husref 
Bey;  the  to^n  hall;  the  Governor's  residence; 
and  the  museum  with  a  collection  of  antiquities. 
The  picturesque  ruins  of  the  old  castle,  erected 
by  the  Hungarians  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
crown  the  height  above  the  town.  The  Serajevo 
has  a  Catholic  seminary.  The  principal  industry 
is  the  manufacture  of  metal  ware.  There  are 
also  dyeing  and  silk-weaving  establishments,  ex- 
tensive potteries,  a  large  brewery,  and  a  Giovem- 
ment  tobacco  factory.  Serajevo  is  an  important 
commercial  entrepot,  and  the  immense  bazaar  is 
the  centre  of  a  very  lively  trade.  It  is  connected 
by  rail  with  the  Austro-Hungarian  railroad 
system.  There  are  valuable  iron  mines  and 
mineral  baths.  Population,  in  1886,  26,268;  in 
1895,  41,173. 

SEBAMPXJB,  s$r'dm-p5EFr^,  or  SEBAMPOBE. 
A  town  in  the  Province  of  Bengal,  India,  13  miles 
north  of  Calcutta,  on  the  Hugli  River  (Map: 
India,  E  4).  It  extends  along  the  river  front 
and  is  very  picturesque.  The  most  prominent 
feature  is  the  Baptist  College,  occupyinpf  a  site 
overlooking  the  river.  It  has  a  library  with  valu- 
able manuscripts  and  a  fine  collection  of  por- 
traits. Other  objects  of  interest  are  the  former 
residence  of  the  Danish  (jovemor,  now  the  Gov 


SBBAKPUB. 


678 


SEBAPH. 


ernment  building,  and  the  old  Danish  church, 
with  its  memorial  tablets  to  the  early  mission- 
aries. Population,  in  1901,  44,451.  Serampur 
was  a  Danish  possession,  Imown  as  Fredericks- 
nagar,  until  1845,  when  it  was  ceded  to  the  East 
In£a  Company.  It  is  noted  as  the  centre  of  the 
Baptist  missionary  movement  of  the  early  years 
5f  the  nineteenth  century.  Ward,  Carey,  Mack, 
and  Marshman,  the  leaders  of  this  movement,  are 
buried  here. 

SEBAO,  sft-r&'d,  Matilda  (1856—).  One  of 
the  most  prominent  of  modern  Italian  novelists, 
bom  at  Patras,  Greece.  She  first  wrote  short 
sketches  for  the  Neapolitan  papers,  and  was  for 
a  time  connected  with  the  editorial  staff  of  the 
Capitan  Francassa,  Later,  with  her  husband, 
Edoardo  Scarfoglio,  she  founded  the  Corriere  di 
Rama  (afterwards  Corriere  di  Napoli),  and  in 
1891  founded  the  Mattino,  As  a  novelist  she 
shows  in  her  earlier  work  unmistakably  the  in- 
fluence of  the  French  realists,  notably  Zola,  whose 
Venire  de  Paris  she  follows  in  spirit  as  well  as 
title  in  her  Ventre  di  Napoli  (1886).  A  good 
many  of  her  books  deal  with  the  various  phases  of 
Neapolitan  life.  In  her  later  novels  she  devotes 
herself  to  psychological  problems,  which  she 
handles  with  much  subtlety  and  power.  Among 
her  best  works  are:  La  conquista  di  Roma 
(1885);  Vita  e  aventure  di  Riccardo  Joanna; 
II  paese  di  Cuccagna  (1891)  ;  Addio  amore.  In 
her  more  recent  book,  Al  Paese  di  Qeau,  she  seems 
to  have  joined  the  neo-mystic  school  of  which 
Fogazzaro  is  a  leading  representative  in  Italy. 
In  1901  Serao's  Paese  di  cuccagna  appeared  in 
English  trtfhslation  as  The  Land  of  Cockayne,  in 
the  same  year,  The  Ballet  Dancer  (La  ballerina), 
and  On  Guard,  Sentinel  {All  'erte  aentinellal), 
and  in  1902  the  La  conquista  di  Roma  under  the 
title  The  Conquest  of  Rome, 

SEB'APEOTM  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  2e^r«b^  Sera- 
peion,  lapawdoF,  Sarapeion,  from  Z^/wrtt,  Serapis, 
IdpawiSf  Sarapis).  A  name  signifying  a  temple 
of  the  god  Serapis  (q.v.).  Several  such 
temples  existed  in  Egypt,  the  most  remarkable 
being  the  Serapeum  of  Alexandria,  said  to  have 
been  one  of  the  grandest  buildings  in  the  world. 
It  was  built  by  Ptolemy  I.  in  the  suburb  of 
Racotis  on  the  site  of  an  older  temple,  and  was 
richly  adorned  with  sculptures  and  paintings. 
The  temple  was  burned  down  in  the  reign  of 
Marcus  Aurelius,  but  was  soon  rebuilt;  it  was 
finally  destroyed,  in  a.d.  391,  by  Bishop  The- 
ophilus  of  Alexandria.  The  Serapeum  of  Mem- 
phis (q.v.),  situated  near  the  site  of  the  modem 
villase  of  Saqqara  (q.v.),  was  the  funerary 
temple  of  the  sacred  bull  Apis.  It  consisted  of  an 
extensive  group  of  buildings,  with  pylons,  an 
inner  and  an  outer  court,  and  the  usual  appur- 
tenances of  Egyptian  temples,  and  was  connected 
by  an  avenue  of  sphinxes  with  a  small  serapeum 
of  the  Greek  period,  before  which  stood  eleven 
statues  of  Greek  philosophers  and  poets  arranged 
in  a  semicircle.  Within  the  chambers  of  the 
Egyptian  Serapeum  was  established  a  colony  of 
hermits  who  lived  in  cells  attached  to  the  various 
chapels  of  the  temple.  A  regularly  organized 
monastic  system  prevailed  among  them,  and  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  they  were  the  prototypes  of 
the  Christian  monks  and  ascetics  of  a  later  pe- 
riod. Below  the  great  temple  were  the  subter- 
ranean tombs  in  -miich  the  mummies  of  the  Apis 
bulls  were  deposited  from  the  time  of  Amenophis 


III.,  or  perhaps  earlier,  down  to  the  Roman  pe« 
riod.  The  earlier  tombs  are  square  chambers, 
hewn  in  the  rock,-  and  they  were  connected  by 
shafts  with  chapels  standing  above  them.  In 
the  nineteenth  year  of  Rameses  II.  a  subterranean 
gallery,  about  110  yards  long,  was  hewn  out  and 
flanked  by  some  40  chambers,  each  of  which  was 
walled  up  after  receiving  the  remains  of  a  sacred 
bull.  In  the  reign  of  Psammetichus  I.  (q.v.)  a 
new  gallery  was  excavated  upon  a  much  more 
extensive  scale,  and  additions  were  made  to  it 
from  time  to  time  by  the  Saitio  and  Ptolemaic 
monarchs.  The  Apis  tombs  were  opened  in 
1851  by  Mariette,  who  found  some  of  the 
mummies  still  intact  in  the  coffins  in  which 
they  were  buried.  Among  the  many  valu- 
able relics  found,  the  most  instructive  were 
the  Apis  steles  or  small  tablets  recording 
the  exact  dates  of  birth,  enthronement,  and  burial 
of  the  sacred  animals.  These  tablets  furnish 
chronological  data  of  the  utmost  importance; 
thev  are  dated  by  the  regnal  years  of  the  kings 
under  whose  rule  the  recorded  events  occurred, 
and  they  have  thus  served  to  determine  with 
precision  the  duration  of  the  reigns  of  many 
Pharaohs,  and  the  order  in  which  they  succeeded 
each  other.  CJonsult:  Mariette,  M^moire  sur  la 
m&re  d'Apis  (Paris,  1856)  ;  id.,  Le  Sirap^um  de 
Memphis  ( ib.  1857 ) ;  Wiedemann,  Aegyptische  Oe- 
schichte  (Gotha,  1884-88) ;  id.,  Religion  of  the 
Ancient  Egyptians,  translated  ( New  York,  1897) ; 
Budge,  A  History  of  Egypt  (ib.,  1902). 

SEBAPH  (Heb.  sdrAph,  pi.  seraphim).  An 
order  of  celestial  beings  mentioned  only  once  in 
the  Bible  (Is.  vi.  2-6).  From  the  description 
there  given  it  would  appear  that  they  were  con- 
ceived as  human  in  form,  having  hands,  faces, 
and  feet,  but  having  also  wings.  Of  these  they 
had  six,  or  three  pairs,  with  one  pair  covering 
their  faces,  with  a  second  their  feet,  and  flying 
with  the  third  pair.  They  are  ranged  opposite 
each  other  and  proclaim  the  holiness  of  Yahweh. 
They  also  carry  out  His  commands.  The  origin 
of  the  word  as  well  as  of  the  idea  is  still  a  matter 
of  conjecture.  The  word  is  rendered  by  Jewish 
commentators  the  brilliant  ones,'  but  other 
scholars  propose  'the  lofty  ones';  still  others 
would  change  the  text,  reading  shirAthlm  for 
s^dphlm,  and  translate  'ministering  ones.'  So 
radical  a  procedure,  however,  is  not  called  for, 
and  since  the  underlying  stem  adraph  signi- 
fies to  consume  with  fire,  it  seems  rea- 
sonable to  connect  with  the  seraphim  the 
notion  of  purification  by  fire  and  to  re- 
gard them  as  the  agents  who  bring  about  such 
purification — ^which  as  a  matter  of  fact  is  the 
function  assigned  to  them  in  Isaiah's  vision  (Is. 
vi.  6-8).  There  is  evidently  some  relationship 
also  between  Isaiah's  seraphim  and  the  'fiery 
serpent'  {seraph)  referred  to  in  Num.  xxi.  6 
and  Deut.  viii.  15  (cf.  Is.  xiv.  29;  xxx.  6),  which 
bites  the  Israelites  in  the  desert.  This  seraph 
appears  to  have  been  originally  a  personification 
of  the  serpent-like  lightning.  The  ponular  notion 
is  transferred  by  the  Prophet  into  the  spiritual 
realm,  and  in  this  transfer  all  traces  of  the  ser- 
pentine form  disappear.  A  factor  in  bringing 
about  this  transfer  may  have  been  the  Egyptian 
conceptions  of  winged  griffins— called  in  Demotio 
texts  serh — ^who  act  as  guardians  of  tombs  and 
temples.  It  is  to  be  not^  that  winged  men  and 
beasts  appear  also  on  the  Assyrian  monuments. 
See  Chebub. 


ftTCTtAP-HTIIff 


674 


SEBAPHIM,  Obdeb  of  the.  The  oldest  Swed- 
ish order,  also  called  the  Blue  Ribbon.  Its 
foundation  is  ascribed  to  Magnus  Ladul&s  in 
1260,  and  it  was  renewed  by  Frederick  I.  in  1748. 
The  decoration,  worn  on  a  blue  ribbon,  consists 
of  an  eight-pointed  cross  with  seraphs'  heads  and 
patriarchal  crosses,  bearing  the  letters  JHS  with 
three  Swedish  crowns. 

SEBA'PIS,  or  SABAPIS  (Lat.,  from  Gk. 
lipawit,  Idpawis).  An  Egyptian  deity  worshiped 
especially  at  Memphis  and  at  Alexandria,  xhe 
name  is  a  compound  of  Osiris  and  Apis  and  in  its 
earliest  Greek  form  occurs  as  Osirapis,  of  which 
Serapis  (Sarapis)  is  a  corruption.  The  god,  in 
fact,  was  the  sacred  bull  Apis  (q.v.),  who,  after 
his  death,  became  one  with  Osiris  and,  under  the 
name  of  Osiris- Apis  (Egyptian  Oaer-Hapi), 
was  worshiped  as  a  god  of  the  dead.  The  Sera- 
peum,  or  temple  of  Serapis,  at  Memphis  enjoyed 
the  reputation  of  special  holiness  and  was  visited 
by  pilgrims  from  all  parts  of  Egypt.  The  Greeks 
identified  Serapis  with  their  Hades,  the  King  of 
the  Underworld,  and  Ptolemy  I.  built  the  fa- 
mous Serapeum  of  Alexandria  upon  the  site  of 
an  older  temple  of  the  Egyptian  god.  This  tem- 
ple seems  to  have  contained  two  statues  of  the 
god;  one  said  to  have  come  from  Sinope,  the 
other,  representing  the  god  as  Hades  with  Cer- 
berus, brought  from  Seleucia.  The  Alexandrian 
Serapis  was  therefore  a  fusion  of  the  Greek  and 
Egyptian  divinities.  Under  the  Romans  when 
the  worship  of  Serapis  spread  beyond  its 
original  territory,  he,  rather  than  Osiris, 
was  regarded  as  the  consort  of  Isis.  Ck>n- 
suit:  Wiedemann,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyp- 
tians, translated  (New  York,  1897);  Mahaffy, 
The  Empire  of  the  Ptolemies  (New  York,  1898) ; 
id.,  A  History  of  Egypt  Under  the  Ptolemaic  Dy- 
nasty (ib.,  1899) ;  Milne,  A  History  of  Egypt 
Under  Roman  Rule  (ib.,  1898).    See  Sebapeuh. 

SEBBIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITEBA- 
TXJBE.  See  Sebvian  Lanouagb  and  Lttebatubb. 

SEBBO-CBOATIAN  (or  Sebbo-Hobvatian) 
LANGUAGE.  The  speech  of  about  8,000,000 
people  inhabiting  the  Kingdom  of  Servia,  the 
Principality  of  Aiontenegro,  the  provinces  of  Bos- 
nia and  Herzegovina,  Old  Servia  (Novibazar  Kos- 
sovo),  Croatia,  and  Slavonia,  the  southern  part 
of  Hungary  proper,  Istria,  and  Dalmatia. 

With  the  Bulgarian  and  Slovenian  it  forms 
the  so-called  southern  group  of  the  family  of 
Slavic  languages  (q.v.).  Among  the  phonetic 
peculiarities  of  Serbo-Croatian  are  the  frequent 
occurrence  of  the  broad  a  for  the  c  or  o  in  the 
other  Slavic  languages,  as  Serbo-Croatian  otats, 
'father,'  Russian  oshets;  the  vocalic  r,.as  Serbo- 
Croatian  srtse,  Tieart,'  Russian  serdtse;  the 
change  of  I  into  m,  when  in  the  middle  of  a  word, 
as  Serbo-Croatian  vuk,  'wolf,*  Russian  votk,  and 
into  o  when  final,  as  Serbo-Croatian  pisao,  *I 
wrote,'  Russian  pisal.  In  morphology,  the  loss  of 
the  dual  is  almost  complete,  and  the  locative  of 
nouns,  as  well  as  the  supine  and  present  passive 
participle  in  verbs,  has  also  disappeared.  The  ac- 
cent is  entirely  free,  the  Croatian,  or  Horvatian, 
generally  agreeing  with  the  Russian  accentuation, 
the  Servian  proper  usually  following  almost  rigid 
laws.  The  existence  of  long  and  short  vowels  along 
with  a  musical  pitch  accent,  makes  Serbo-Croa- 
tian one  of  the  most  expressive  among  the  Slavic 
languages.  The  characters  used  vary  with 
the  religion  prevailing;  in  the  Croatian  (Catholic 


lands,  the  Roman  alphabet  is  used,  while  the 
bulk  of  the  Servians,  belonging  to  the  Gredc 
Orthodox    Church,    use    the    ancient    KirilUtsa 

(q.v.),  modified  by  Karajitch  (q.v.)  in  the  early 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Consult:  Vy- 
mazal,  Serbische  Orammatik  (BriUm,  1882); 
Budmani,  Orammatica  delta  lingua  aerdo-crooia 

{illirica)  (Vienna,  1867);  Partchitch,  Qraf^• 
maire  de  la  langue  serho-croate,  trans,  by  Fen- 
vrier  (Paris,  1877) ;  Karajitch,  Serbisch-deutsdir 
lateinisches  Worterhuch  (3d  ed.,  Belgrade,  1898) ; 
id.,  Deutsch-serhisches  Worterhuch  (Vienna, 
1872) ;  Popovitch,  Worterhuch  der  serbischen 
und  deutschen  Sprache  (2d  ed.,  Panaova,  1886- 
95). 

SEBENA,  sft-ra^nyA,  La.  A  town  of  Chile. 
See  La  Sebena. 

SEBENADE  (OF.  serenade,  Ft.  »6rinade, 
from  It.  serenata,  serenade,  from  serenare,  to 
make  serene,  from  sereno,  from  Lat.  serenus, 
calm,  serene).  Originally  music  performed  on  a 
calm  night ;  hence  a  song  given  under  the  window 
of  a  lady  by  her  lover.  The  modem  sermade  (or 
serenata)  is  a  cyclical  composition  for  full 
orchestra.  It  differs  from  the  symphony  in  the 
greater  number  of  its  movements  (6,  6,  7,  or 
more)  and  in  their  freer  construction. 

SEBES,  series.  A  town  in  the  Vilayet  of 
Saloniki,  European  Turkey,  43  miles  northeast  of 
Saloniki  (Map:  Balkan  Peninsula,  D  4).  It  is 
protected  by  high  walls,  and  contains  a  dtadel, 
many  handsome  villas,  and  several  mosques  and 
churches.  It  is  the  centre  of  the  Turkish  woolen 
industry,  and  exports  skins,  cotton,  wool,  and 
tobacco.    Population,  30,000. 

SEBETH,  s^r^et.  An  important  afflnent  of 
the  Danube.  It  rises  as  the  (>reat  Sereth  in  the 
Austrian  Crownland  of  Bukowina,  fiows  south- 
ward through  almost  the  whole  length  of  Mol- 
davia, and  joins  the  Danube  five  miles  above 
Galatz  (Map:  Balkan  Peninsula,  F  1).  Its 
principal  tributaries  are  the  Little  Sereth  on  the 
right,  and  the  Suczava,  Moldava,  and  Biatriti  on 
the  left    Total  length,  291  miles. 

SEBF  (OF.,  Fr.  serf,  from  Lat.  Borvtu,  ser- 
vant, slave;  connected  with  Av.  har,  to  protect). 
In  common  usage,  an  unfree  feudal  dependent, 
who  occupies  a  place  in  the  social  scale  above  the 
slave.  The  serf  was  usually  a  peasant  bound  to 
the  land  which  he  cultivated  and  for  which  he 
owed  service  and  obedience  to  the  lord  in  whom 
the  ownership  of  the  land  was  vested.  The  serf 
was  frequently  the  product  of  the  feudal  system, 
and  under  a  feudal  organization  of  society  the 
institution  of  serfdom,  or  villeinage,  is  seen  in  its 
most  developed  form.  This  article  will  treat 
chiefiy  of  serfdom  or  villeinage  as  it  existed  in 
Western  Europe. 

The  origin  and  development  of  villeinage  in 
Western  Europe  has  been  a  subject  of  violent  dis- 
pute among  historians.  With  the  decay  of  the 
Roman  power  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries 
anarchy  became  prevalent,  and  there  were  many 
who  were  compelled  to  seek  the  protection  of 
their  more  powerful  neighbors.  In  return  they 
performed  such  services  as  a  freeman  may  per- 
form. This  institution  was  known  as  the  patro- 
cinium,  and  at  first  the  relation  terminated  with 
the  death  of  either  party.  Some  of  thoae  who 
sought  protection  were  also  owners  of  small 
parcels  of  land,  and  such  land  was  frequently 


8EBF. 


675 


SEBF. 


handed  over  to  the  more  powerful  to  be 
received  back  by  the  former  proprietor  as 
a  precarium;  that  is  to  say,  the  latter 
had  the  usufruct,  his  protector  the  ownership. 
Among  the  early  Germans  also  there  probably  ex- 
isted some  such  relation  between  men.  In  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  it  was  generally 
held  that  the  organization  of  society  described 
in  the  Germania  of  Tacitus  was  that  of  the  free 
village  community,  by  which  is  meant  that  the 
villages  were  inhabited  by  freemen,  who  held  land 
in  common,  and  who  annually  distributed  the 
land  anew.  Various  writers,  especially  Fustel  de 
Coulanges  and  Seebohm,  have  attacked  this 
theory,  and  hold  that  the  manorial  system  was 
prevalent  in  Germany  (see  Manob),  by  which  is 
implied  that  the  peasants  held  their  land  from  a 
lord,  and  in  return  for  the  use  of  the  property 
owed  service  of  some  kind  or  other  to  the  owner. 
In  the  Frankish  kingdom  the  German  and  Ro- 
man elements  met.  Again  historians  are  unable 
to  agree  whether  the  chief  elements  in  the  feu- 
dalism which  developed  among  the  Franks  were 
German  or  Roman  or  even  Celtic.  It  suffices, 
however,  to  state  that  by  the  tenth  century  there 
were  few  free  peasants  or  artisans  left  in  what  is 
now  France.  Probably  the  institutions  of  pa- 
irocinium  and  precarium  had  been"  joined  to- 
gether, and  after  some  further  development  we 
have  serfdom  as  it  existed  in  France  with  com- 
paratively slight  changes  until  abolished  by  the 
Revolution  of  1789.  (See  Feudalism.)  In  re- 
gard to  his  general  condition  the  French  serf 
may  be  taken  as  typical. 

The  relationship  which  in  France  bound  the 
serf  to  the  lord  had  at  first  been  merely  a 
contract  between  the  two  persons  in  question. 
The  general  tendency,  however,  was  toward  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  principle  of  inheritance,  and  by 
the  end  of  the  eleventh  century  son  inherited 
from  father  in  nearly  all  cases.  Still  the  laws 
and  customs  which  regulated  the  relationship 
between  the  serf  and  his  lord  varied  greatly  at 
different  periods,  and  in  the  different  provinces 
of  France,  as  well  as  in  the  rest  of  Europe.  More- 
over, the  dividing  line  between  the  serf  and  the 
slave  on  the  one  hand  and  the  serf  and  the  free- 
man on  the  other  is  not  always  very  clear.  In 
general,  a  serf  was  distinguished  from  the  slave 
in  that  he  had  a  definite  piece  of  land  for  his 
own  use,  and  was  protected  to  some  extent  even 
against  his  lord  by  fixed  customs.  He  was  dis- 
tinguished from  the  free  peasant  proprietor  in 
that  he  could  not  leave  his  lord  without  the 
latter's  consent,  and  was  subject  to  some  exac- 
tions from  which  the  freeman  was  exempt.  The 
chief  burdens  of  the  serf  were:  (1)  The  census, 
or  rent,  which,  "though  estimated  in  money,  was 
usually  paid  in  the  form  of  a  large  percentaee 
of  the  crop,  what  remained  over  being  nominally 
the  property  of  the  serf."  (2)  The  capitagium, 
or  census  capitis,  which  was  an  annual  poll-tax. 
(3)  The  taille,  or.  arbitrary  tax,  which  per- 
mitted the  owner  to  demand  money  of  the  serf 
whenever  he  chose.  Besides  these  three  taxes  the 
serf  had  to  work  on  the  lord's  domain  several 
days  in  each  week.  This  was  the  corvee.  Also, 
since  the  lord's  consent  was  necessary  for  the 
serf  to  marry,  permission  had  usually  to  be 
purchased  by  a  fee,  known  as  the  fonnariage. 
Finally,  when  the  serf  died,  his  heir  had  to  pay 
a  fixed  sum  known  as  the  mortmain,  since  accord- 
ing to  the  legal  theory  the  property  really  be- 


longed to  the  lord  and  not  to  the  serf,  and  the 
latter's  heir  paid  to  retain  the  land. 

The  question  arises.  How  could  the  serf  become 
free?  In  answering  this  question,  it  must  be 
noted  that  at  first  the  serf  had  little  desire  to 
become  a  freeman.  His  condition  was  not  much 
improved  thereby,  for  in  the  absence  of  any  cen- 
tral authority  to  whidi  the  weak  could  success- 
fully appeal,  the  strong  coidd  exact  from  him 
what  they  pleased ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
lord  had  sufficient  interest  in  his  serf  to  protect 
him  from  others.  Later,  however,  at  least  from 
the  time  of  Philip  Augustus  (1180-1223),  condi- 
tions improved  and  the  weak  no  longer  needed  the 
protection  of  the  nobles  in  all  cases.  The  lord 
could  bring  back  his  runaway  serf,  though  in 
some  places  the  theory  prevailed  that  the  serf 
might  surrender  all  his  property,  both  real  and 
movable,  to  his  lord,  renounce  his  bond,  and 
depart.  Also  some  town  charters  had  a  clause 
which  declared  that  an  unfree  person  who  came 
to  the  town  and  remained  there  unclaimed  for  a 
year  and  a  day  was  free.  These  two  methods 
of  emancipation  did  not  meet  the  demands 
of  improving  times,  and  more  regular  loeans 
developed  by  which  the  serf  might  obtain 
manumission.  The  most  common  came,  in  time, 
to  be  the  payment  of  a  fixed  sum  to  the  lord,  and 
when  the  noble  was  in  pressing  need  of  money,  as 
during  the  Crusades,  he  sometimes  compelled  his 
serfs  to  buy  their  freedom. 

In  recent  years  an  active  controversy  has  been 
waged  concerning  villeinage  in  England.  The 
battle  has  been  fought  between  the  great  German 
and  French  scholars;  between  LQbell,  Waitz,  and 
Roth  on  the  one  hand,  and  RaynOuard,  Gu^rard, 
and  Fustel  de  Coulanges  on  the  other.  In 
England  the  scholars  were  chiefly  Germanists. 
Kemble,  Karl  Maurer,  Freeman,  Stubbs,  and 
Gneist  held,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  the  same 
views  as  Waitz  and  his  school.  In  general,  they 
believed  that  the  Roman  and  Celtic  civilizations 
played  no  r^le  in  the  development  of  England; 
that  the  Anglo-Saxon  brought  with  him  his  in- 
stitutions from  Germany,  such  as  the  free  vil- 
lage community  or  mark.  In  time,  however, 
"with  the  growth  of  population,  of  inequalities, 
of  social  competition,  the  relations  of  dependency 
are  seen  constantly  gaining  on  the  field  of  free- 
dom," the  ceorl  becomes  a  serf,  manors  arise, 
and  by  the  time  of  the  Norman  Conquest  the 
transformation  has  been  completed.  In  1883 
Seebohm  in  his  English  Village  Community  de- 
clared that  there  never  was  a  mark  system  in 
England,  and  that  "the  Saxon  invasion  did  not 
destroy  what  it  found  in  the  island.  Roman 
villas  and  their  laborers  passed  from  one  lord  to 
the  other — ^that  is  all.  The  ceorls  of  Saxon 
times  ave  the  direct  descendants  of  Roman  slaves 
and  coloni,  some  of  them  personally  free,  but  all 
in  agrarian  subjection.  Indeed,  social  develop- 
ment is  a  movement  from  serfdom  to  freedom, 
and  the  village  community  of  its  early  stages  is 
connected  not  with  freedom,  but  with  serfdom." 
Since  the  appearance  of  Seebohm's  book  numer- 
ous works  have  appeared  -on  both  sides,  and  the 
question  is  far  from  settled.  The  condition 
of  the  English  serf  did  not  differ  essentially 
from  the  condition  of  the  French  serf.  But 
the  English  bondsman  received  valuable  privi- 
leges much  earlier  than  the  French  villein.  As 
early  as  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.  the  serf  had  the 
right  to  plead  in  the  royal  courts,  a  privilege 


676 


SEBOEANTY. 


which  the  French  serf  never  obtained.  More- 
over, in  England  the  last  known  act  of  enfran- 
chisement took  place  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. 

In  Germany  serfdom  was  generally  not  of  a 
very  harsh  kind,  though  it  varied  considerably 
in  different  parts  of  the  country.  In  some  por- 
tions of  Prussia,  however,  peasants  were,  until 
1773,  in  a  state  of  absolute  slavery.  Serfdom 
was  abolished  in  Prussia  by  the  decree  of  October 
9,  1807,  which  was  issued  through  the  influence 
of  Stein  and  his  associates.  This  declared  that 
from  Martinmas,  1810,  all  persons  should  be 
free  in  the  States  of  Prussia.  Subsequent  en- 
actments removed  the  social  and  property  dis- 
tinctions, which  had  separated  the  classes,  and 
gave  to  every  citizen  the  power  to  possess  in  fee 
simple  all  kinds  of  property.  This  legislation 
was  generally  imitated  in  the  other  German 
States.  The  remains  of  the  German  system  of 
serfdom  lingered  until  1836  in  Saxony,  and  until 
1848  in  Austria. 

In  Russia,  where  the  feudal  system  never  pre- 
vailed, and  the  early  condition  of  the  peasant 
was  not  a  servile  one,  the  reduction  of  the 
peasantry  to  a  state  of  serfdom  and  their  attach- 
ment to  the  soil  were  gp'adually  effected,  and  did 
not  prevail  to  a  very  great  extent  till  the  close  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  Peter  the  Great  strength- 
ened the  attachment  of  the  serf  to  the  soil  for 
fiscal  reasons,  and  under  Catharine  II.  the 
system  reached  its  highest  develooment,  the  serf 
being  reduced  to  so  low  a  level  that  he  differed 
little,  if  at  all,  from  a  slave.  Serfs  were  regarded 
by  law  as  a  part  of  the  proprietor's  working 
capital,  and  as  such  were  bought  and  sold,  some- 
times with  the  land,  and  sometimes  without  it. 
The  serf  had  no  legal  means  of  self-defense. 
Alexander  I.  introduced  various  improvements  in 
the  condition  of  the  peasantry,  particularly  those 
belonging  to  the  Crown,  and  in  his  reign  serfdom 
was  abolished  in  Courland  and  Livonia  in  order 
to  weaken  the  power  of  the  German  nobles  of 
those  districts.  The  entire  abolition,  of  villeinage 
•was  effected  by  Alexander  II.  (q.v.)  by  a  very 
sweeping  measure.  The  manifesto  of  March  3 
(February  19),  1861,  gave  personal  freedom  to 
more  than  twenty  millions  of  serfs. 

BiBUOGBAPHY.  Waitz,  Deutsche  Verfaaaunga- 
geachichte,  vol.  i.  (3d  ed.,  Berlin,  1880) ;  Brunner, 
Deutsche  Rechtsgeschichte  (Leipzig,  1887-92)  ; 
Fustel  de  Coulanges,  Histoire  des  institutions 
politiques  de  I'ancienne  France  (Paris,  1890) ; 
id..  Questions  historiques  (ib.,  1893) ;  Kemble, 
Saxons  in  England  (new  ed.,  London,  1876) ; 
Nasse,  Ueher  die  mittelalterliche  Feldgemein- 
schaft  (Bonn.,  1869)  ;  Seebohm,  The  English  Vil- 
lage Community  (4th  ed.,  London,  1890)  ;  Meit- 
zen,  Siedelung  und  Agrarwesen  (Berlin,  1895); 
Maitland,  Domesday  Book  and  Beyond  (Cam- 
bridge, 1897) ;  Vinogradoff,  Villainage  in  Eng- 
land (Oxford,  1892)  ;  Hallam,  View  of  the  State 
of  Europe  During  the  Middle  Ages  ( 1 1th  ed.,  Lon- 
don, 1855)  ;  Knapp,  Die  Bauernbefreiung  und  der 
Ursprung  der  Landarheiter  in  den  dlteren  Teilen 
Preussens  (Leipzig,  1887) ;  id.,  Die  Landarheiter 
in  Knechtschaft  und  Preiheit  (ib.,  1891)  ;  Engel- 
mann,  Die  Leibeigenschaft  in  Russland  (ib., 
1884)  ;  Leroy-Beaulieu,  Vempire  dea  Tsars  et 
les  Pusses  (Eng.  trans.,  New  York,  1893)  ;  Wal- 
lace, Russia  (2d  ed.,  ib.,  1881);  Page,  End  of 
Villainage  in  England  (ib.,  1900)  ;  S^,  Les 
claaaea  rurales  et  le  regime  iiomanial  en  France 
en  moyen  Age  (ib.,  1901). 


SEBGEANT  (OF.  sergeant,  Fr.  aergent,  Frov. 
servent,  airvent,  servant,  from  Lat.  aerviena,  pres. 
part,  of  aervire,  to  serve;  connected  with  aervua, 
slave).  An  important  non-commissioned  rank 
in  the  army;  the  next  rank  above  that  of  cor- 
poral. Modem  conditions  demand  more  intelli- 
gence and  military  training  than  ever  before,  aad 
have  consequently  greatly  increased  the  duties  of 
the  grade.  In  extended  movements,  the  seigeant 
is  frequently  compelled  to  act  on  his  own  initia- 
tive. In  both  the  United  States  and  the  British 
armies,  sergeants  are  distinguished  by  three 
chevrons ;  in  the  former  they  are  of  the  color  ap- 
propriate to  the  arm  of  the  service  and  are 
worn  on  both  sleeves  of  the  coat.  British  ser- 
geants wear  three  gold  stripes  or  chevrons  on 
the  left  arm  only,  and  wear  a  silk  sash,  similar 
to  that  worn  by  the  commissioned  officer,  except 
that  it  is  worn  over  the  right  shoulder.  See 
Chevbons;  NoN-CoifinssioNED  Offices. 

SEBGEANT-AT-ABMS.  In  the  English 
Court  of  Chancery,  an  officer  who  attends  upon 
the  Lord  Chancellor  with  a  mace,  and  executes 
various  writs  of  process  directed  to  him,  appre- 
hending, for  example,  persons  pronounced  in  con- 
tempt of  the  court.  A  similar  officer  is  attached 
to  each  House  of  Parliament  and  arrests  those 
whom  the  House  orders  to  be  arrested.  Ser- 
geants-at-arms  are  also  attached  to  the  United 
States  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives. 
They  receive  a  salary  of  $4500  a  year.  They  are 
authorized  to  preserve  order  in  both  Houses,  and 
also  have  charge  of  the  payment  of  members. 

SEBGEANT-AT-XAW.  See  Sebjeaitt-at- 
Law. 

SEBGEANT-FISH  (so  called  from  its  lateral 
stripes,  which  resemble  a  sergeant's  chevrons).  A 
large  strong  voracious  fish  {Rachycentron  cana- 
dua)f  of  the  southeastern  coast  of  the  United 
States,  related  to  the  mackerels,  but  superficially 
resembling  a  remora.  Its  habit  of  lingering  about 
lar^  fishes  has  led  to  its  being  named  'shark's 
waiting-boy;'  and  it  is  also  called  cobia  and 
crab-eater.  It  reaches  a  length  of  5  feet,  and  ia 
olive  brown,  with  obscurely  striped  sides. 

SEBGEANTY,  Grand  (OF.  aergentie,  aer- 
jantie,  from  aergeant,  sergeant,  servant).  A 
species  of  tenure  by  which  many  of  the  nobility 
ot  England  held  their  lands  of  the  King  under  the 
feudal  system.  After  the  Conquest  the  land  was 
parceled  out  among  the  followers  of  the  Con- 
queror according  to  their  rank.  At  that  time 
two  species  of  tenure  were  introduced :  tenure  by 
knight  service,  consisting  of  an  obligation  to  per- 
form military  service  in  time  of  war;  and  tenure 
by  sergeanty^  grand  and  petit,  which  involved,  in 
addition  to  military  service,  some  further  service 
to  the  King  in  time  of  peace.  A  tenant  by  grand 
sergeanty  was  bound  to  render  some  personal  ser- 
vice to  the  King,  as  to  be  his  standard-bearer,  cup- 
bearer, or  chamberlain,  and  to  attend  Court  dur- 
ing certain  seasons.  Such  tenure  was  also  said 
to  be  per  haroniam;  the  tenants  became  known 
as  barons,  and  were  higher  in  rank  than  the 
others.  Although  originally  lands  so  held  could 
not  be  divided  or  alienated,  this  was  quietly  done 
from  time  to  time,  and  the  burdens  of  the  tenure 
gradually  became  extinct,  and  were  finally  abol- 
ished with  the  military  tenures.  However,  the 
hereditary  privileges  and  honors,  as  to  be  stan- 
dard-bearer, etc.,  are  still  claimed  by  the  great 


SBBGEANTY. 


677 


gpiBT. 


nobility  on  great  occasions,  as  coronations.  Petty 
Bejeanty  was  an  inferior  service,  as  to  render  an 
arrow,  or  a  pair  of  spurs,  etc.,  to  the  King  an- 
nually, and  was,  therefore,  more  in  the  nature  of 
a  socage  tenure.    See  Tenure. 

SEBGEIi,  s^r^gel,  Johan  Tobias  (1740-1814). 
A  Swedish  sculptor,  bom  at  Stockholm.  First  a 
pupil  of  L'Archevficque,  he  studied  afterwards  in 
Paris,  and  after  1767  in  Rome,  where  during  a 
sojourn  of  twelve  years  he  acquired  great  repu- 
tation. Upon  his  return  to  Stockholm,  whither 
he  had  been  summoned  by  Gustavus  III.,  he  was 
appointed  Court  sculptor,  professor,  and  in  1810 
director  of  the  Academy.  The  fifteen  works  of 
his  preserved  in  the  National  Museum  at  Stock- 
holm include  a  "Faun;"  "Cupid  and  Psyche;" his 
masterpiece,  "Diomedes  Stealing  the  Palladium;" 
"The  Muse  of  History  Recording  the  Deeds  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus,"  a  group  of  heroic  size; 
and  a  colossal  ''Bust  of  Gustavus  III."  Besides 
these  the  "Monument  of  Gustavus  III."  (1808), 
at  the  foot  of  the  Slottsbacke  (Palace  Hill), 
the  "Resurrection,"  an  altar-piece,  and  the  "Mon- 
ument to  Descrates,"  both  in  the  Adolf-Fredriks 
Kyrka,  should  be  mentioned.  For  his  biography, 
consult  Nyblom  (Upsala,  1877). 

SEBGIy  s^r'j^,  Giuseppe  (1841— ).  An  Italian 
anthropologist,  bom  in  Messina,  Sicily.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Messina,  where 
afterwards  he  became  an  instructor.  Later  he 
taught  in  Milan.  In  1880  he  was  appointed  to 
the  chair  of  anthropology^  in  the  University  of 
Bologna;  in  1884  he  accepted  a  similar  profes- 
sorship in  the  Royal  University  of  Rome,  and  at 
the  same  time  became  director  of  the  Anthro- 
pological Institute.  He  has  devoted  particular 
attention  to  the  psychic  traits  as  well  as  to  the 
physical  characters  of  the  peoples  of  the  East- 
Mediterranean  region.  His  publications  treat  of 
archaeology,  criminal  anthropology,  and  educa- 
tion. His  best  known  works  are  Elementi  di 
paicologia  (1879),  Psychologie  phyaiologique 
(1887),  Principi  di  paicologia  (1894),  Specie  e 
wtrietd  umane  (1900),  and  The  Mediterranean 
Race  (1901),  in  Italian,  English,  and  German 
editions. 

SEBOINSK,  s^r-gensk^,  Upper  and  Lower. 
Two  industrial  settlements  in  the  Government  of 
Perm,  East  Russia,  43  miles  west-southwest  of 
Ekaterinburg.  They  were  founded  by  Demidoff 
(q.v.)  in  1742  and  still  belong  to  a  private  com- 
pany. Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  engaged  in 
the  extensive  iron  works  and  the  iron  mines  in 
the  vicinity.  The  population  of  Upper  Serginsk 
is  14,000,  and  of  Lower  Serginsk  8,000.  The 
annual  production  of  both  towns  amounts  to  over 
15,000  tcms  of  pig  iron  and  26^000  tons  of  steel. 

SEBGIFE,  s«r-zh^pe.  A  maritime  State  of 
Brazil,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Alagoas,  on  the 
west  and  south  by  Bahia,  and  on  the  east  by  the 
Atlantic  (Map:  Brazil,  K  6).  Area,  15,090 
square  miles.  It  is  the  smallest  State  of  the  Re- 
public. The  coast  region  is  flat  and  sandy;  the 
interior  is  a  sparsely  watered  plateau.  The  cli- 
mate is  hot  and  dry.  The  southwestern  part 
affords  good  grazing  land  and  is  the  seat  of  ex- 
tensive stock-raising.  In  the  eastern  portion  are 
cultivated  sugar,  cacao,  tobacco,  cotton,  and 
manioc.  The  chief  exports  are  sugar  and  rub- 
ber, and  the  centre  of  the  commerce  is  the  capital, 
Aracajtl   (q.v.).    Population,  in  1890,  310,926. 


SEB^GIXJS.  The  name  of  four  popes.  Sebgius 
I.,  Saint,  Pope  687-701.  He  was  bom  at  Pa- 
lermo of  a  Syrian  family  and  was  ordained  priest 
in  683.  On  the  death  of  Pope  Conon  there  was 
a  contested  election,  and  both  factions  finally 
united  on  Sergius.  He  refused  to  confirm  the  acts 
of  the  Trullan  Council  (see  Quinisext),  and  the 
Emperor  Justinian  II.  sent  officers  to  Rome  to 
seize  him;  but  the  soldiery  of  the  exarchate 
rallied  to  his  defence,  and  the  Imperial  emissary's 
life  was  only  saved  by  the  Pope's  intervention. 
He  consecrated  Saint  Willibrord,  the  Apostle  of 
Frisia,  and  succeeded  in  terminating  the  schism  in 
Northern  Italy  which  grew  out  of  the  pretensions 
of  the  Patriarch  of  Aquileia. — Sergius  II.,  Pope 
844-47.  He  was  of  a  Roman  family  and  became 
archipresbyter  under  Gregory  IV.,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded. Lothair  I.,  displeased  that  he  had  been 
consecrated  without  waiting  for  Imperial  sanc- 
tion, sent  his  son  Louis  with  an  army  to  Rome. 
The  Pope  and  the  Roman  nobles  refused  to  swear 
fidelity  to  Lothair  as  King  of  Italy,  but  recog- 
nized him  as  Emperor,  and  Louis  was  solemnly 
crowned  as  King  of  the  Lombards.  In  846  Rome 
was  attacked  and  devastated  by  Saracen  hordes, 
who  were  finally  driven  oflf  by  Duke  Guido  of 
Spoleto,  summoned  by  the  Pope. — Sebgius  III., 
Pope  904-11.  He  was  a  Roman  by  birth,  con- 
secrated Bishop  of  Cflere  against  his  will  by  For- 
mosus  in  892  or  893,  and  elected  Pope,  on  the 
death  of  Theodore  II.  in  897,  by  the  Tuscan  fac- 
tion, but  not  recognized  by  the  Emperor  Lam- 
bert, who  set  up  John  IX.  He  returned  to  Rome 
in  904,  overthrew  the  Antipope  Christopher,  and 
gained  possession  of  the  See.  His  pontificate  was 
troubled,  and  his  own  character  is  said  by  some 
ancient  writers  to  have  been  stained  by  the  pre- 
vailing immorality. — Sebgius  IV.,  Pope  1009-12. 
He  was  made  Bishop  of  Albano  in  1004.  On  his 
election  to  the  Papacy  he  changed  his  own  name 
of  Peter,  being  unwilling  out  of  reverence  to  call 
himself  Peter  11.  His  power  was  limited  in 
secular  matters  by  the  domination  in  Rome  of 
the  patrician  John  Crescentius  and  his  family. 

SEBI,  sa'r^.  A  wild  and  warlike  tribe  for- 
merly holding  a  considerable  territory  on  the 
west  coast  of  Sonora,  Mexico,  together  with  the 
adjacent  island  of  Tiburon,  in  the  Gulf  of  Cali- 
fornia, but  now  restricted  to  the  island.  They 
are  in  the  lowest  culture  condition,  live  in  mere 
brushwood  shelters,  and  shift  constantly  from 
place  to  place.  Their  ordinary  implements  are  of 
stone  or  shell,  their  weapons  being  bows,  clubs, 
and  stones.  The  arrows  are  sometimes  poisoned. 
They  wear  kilts  of  pelican  skin  and  paint  their 
faces  with  elaborate  designs.  They  twist  ropes 
from  hair  and  vegetable  fibre,  make  baskets  and 
rude  pottery,  and  use  rafts  or  haUas  woven  from 
reeds.  They  know  the  use  of  the  fire  drill. 
Physically  they  are  tall,  well  made,  and  of  great 
agility.  They  seem  to  be  untamably  hostile  to 
all  aliens,  and  have  no  alliance  or  friendship 
with  any  other  tribe.  On  the  strength  of  a  short 
vocabulary  obtained  by  Bartlett  in  1862  they 
were  at  first  classed  with  the  Yuman  stock  (q.v.) , 
but  later  study  of  more  adequate  material  shows 
that  they  form  a  distinct  stock,  which  probably 
also  included  the  now  extinct  Tepoca.  They 
were  formerly  a  large  tribe,  but  have  been  nearly 
exterminated  by  the  Mexicans.  In  1852  they 
were  still  estimated  at  600,  but  in  1894  had  been 


SEBL 


678 


reduced  to  less  than  300.  Consult  McGee^  The 
Berilndicms  (Washington,  1890). 

SEBICITE  (from  Lat.  aericum,  silk,  from  Gk. 
aifpuc6f,  8€rikoa,  silky,  seric,  from  D^p,  ti&r. 
Chinaman).  A  fine  scaly  variety  of  muscovite, 
characterized  by  a  silky  lustre.  It  is  found  chiefly 
near  Wiesbaden,  Crermany.    See  Muscovite. 

SEBICITE  GNEISS,  or  Sebictte  Schist.  A 
metamorphic  rock,  composed  essentially  of  the 
hydro-micaceous  mineral  sericite  (q.v.)  with 
quartz  or  quartz  and  feldspar.  In  some  cases  at 
least  sericite  gneiss  has  been  produced  by  the 
mashing  of  granite  and  rhyolite  (q.v.)  under  the 
action  of  mountain-building  forces. 

SEBICULTITBE.    See  Silkwobm  ;  Silk. 

SEBIEMA.  A  bird.  See  Cabiama  and  Plate 
of  Cranes. 

SEBIES  (Lat.  aerieSy  row,  succession,  from 
9erere,  to  bind;  connected  with  Gk.  efpecr,  etretn, 
Skt.  ad,  to  bind).  In  mathematics,  a  succession 
of  terms  formed  according  to  some  common  law; 
e.g.:  (1)  in  the  series  1,  3,  5,  7,...  each  term  is 
formed  from  the  preceding  by  adding  2;  (2)  in 
3,  9,  27,  81,...by  multiplymg  by  3.  A  series  in 
which  each  term  after  the  first  is  formed  by 
adding  a  constant  to  the  preceding  term  is  called 
an  arithmetic  series  or  progression;  e.g.  series 
( 1 )  above.  A  series  in  which  each  term  after  the 
first  is  found  by  multiplying  the  preceding  term 
by  a  constant  is  called  a  geometric  series  or  pro- 
gression; e.g.  series  (2)  above.  Any  term  <„  of 
an  arithmetic  series  is  given  by  the  formula  t 
=  a+  (n —  l)d,  in  which  a  is  the  first  term,  a 
the  common  diflference,  and  n  the  number  of 
terms.     The  sum  of  n  terms  is  given  by  the 

formula  »  =  2  (*  +  0 ,  I  being  the  last  term.  In 

geometric  series  the  corresponding  formulas  are 

,            / — a           ar^ — a 
t^  =  Qf*-«, «=      ..»   or       ^-      A  series  the 

reciprocal  of  whose  terms  form  an  arithmetic 
series  is  called  a  harmonic  series  or  progression. 
Hence  any  term  may  be  found  by  applying  the 
formulas  of  arithmetic  series  to  the  reciprocals  of 
its  terms. 

Although  the  above  are  the  chief  series  treated 
in  elementary  algebra,  there  is  an  unlimited  num- 
ber of  kinds.  E.g.  a  type  to  which  considerable 
interest  is  attached  is  the  arithmetico-geometric 
series,  in  which  the  coefficients  are  in  arithmetic 
series  and  the  variable  in  geometric  series.  E.g. 
1  -h  2aT  -f  3a?«  + ...  (n  -  1)  x»->  -f  nx^-\  If  the 
number  of  terms  in  a  series  is  unlimited,  it  is 
called  an  infinite  series.  The  general  or  nth  term 
in  such  a  series  and  the  sum  of  n  terms,  n  being 
indefinitely  great,  may  or  may  not  be  determi- 
nate. Infinite  series  in  which  the  values  of  t^ 
and  «„  (n  =  00  )  are  indeterminate  are  of  little 
value,  but  those  in  which  a  limit  for  «n  can  be 
found  are  important.    Thus  in  an  infinite  geomet- 

a 
ric  series  whose  ratio  is  less  than  1,   «=< • 

E.g.  to  find  the  sum  of  the  distances  traveled  by 
an  elastic  ball  which  falls  2  feet  and  bounds  1 
foot  and  continues  indefinitely  to  rebound  one- 
half  the  distance  fallen.  The  distance  traveled 
in  the  first  vibration  is  3  feet,  in  the  second  1^ 


feet,  in  the  third  %  feet,  and  so  on  indefinitely, 

3 
whence  for  the  whole  distance    $^  =  i__\  or  6 

feet.    Recurring  decimals  may  also  be  regarded 
to  form  an  infinite  series,  and  expressed  as  a  frae- 

a 
tion  by  means  of  the  formula   $^=^  1-^r      ^*^* 

.  666 ..  =  T^j  +  -Hhr  +  •••»  where  a=  ^  and  r=z^ 

Therefore  «^  =  iZTX  =  f  • 

An  infinite  series  in  which  t^,  as  n  in- 
creases indefinitely,  has  a  finite  limit  is  called  a 
convergent  series,  otherwise  a  divergent  series. 
A  series  in  which  the  sum  is  finite,  but  takes 
alternate  values  as  n  increases,  as  in  1  — 1  +  1 
—  1  +  .  .  .  ,  is  called  an  oaciUating  series. 

The  ability  to  determine  what  series  are  con- 
vergent and  to  determine  the  limit  of  ^^  evi- 
dently conditions  the  utility  of  any  series  for  the 
purpose  of  pure  and  applied  mathematics.    Thus 

the  trigonometric  functions  anx  =  x —  31  "t"  5] 

,..,  cosx  =  1  —  2j  H-  41    —I    the    exponential 

z*      z* 
series  ««  =  1  -f  x  -f  gj  +  3] .-  »  and  the  logarith- 

X       z*       z* 
mic  series  log(l  -\-z)  =  t  —  2  "^S  *"  *"  *'*^" 

able  for  those  values  only  of  the  variables  which 
render  the  series  convergent. 

A  knowledge  of  elementary  series  is  very  old, 
the  Pythagoreans  (b.c.  550)  having  treated  them 
quite  comprehensively.  (See  Numbeb.)  Euclid 
(c.dOO  B.C.)  used  geometric  series,  and  infinite 
convergent  series  of  the  geometric  type  appear 
frequently  in  the  works  of  Archimedes  (c280 
B.C.).  Among  the  Hindus,  Aryabhatta,  Brahma- 
gupta,  and  Bhaskara  treated  arithmetic  series, 
and  Bhaskara  discussed  geometric  series.  The 
Arabs  did  little  to  advance  the  subject  and  the 
Europeans  up  to  the  sixteenth  century  had  made 
no  further  progress.  Saint-Vincent  (1584-1667) 
and  Mercator  (c.  1620-87)  developed  the  series 
for  log(l+«),  and  Gregory  (1668)  those  for 
tan  -^m,  sinxp,  cobw,  sec«,  cacx.  The  terms 
convergent  and  divergent  appear  in  the  writings 
of  Gregory. 

The  theory  of  infinite  series  may  be  said  to 
begin  w^ith  Newton  and  Leibnitz,  and  to  have 
been  further  advanced  by  Euler.  In  1812 
Gauss  published  his  celebrated  memoir  on 
the  hypergeometric  series  (name  due  to  Pfaff). 
which  has  since  occupied  the  attentioo 
of  Jacobi,  Kummer,  Schwarz,  Cayley,  Gour- 
sat,  and  numerous  others.  Cauchy  (1821) 
may  be  considered  the  founder  of  the  theory 
of  convergence  and  divergence  of  series.  He 
advanced  the  theory  of  power  series  by  his 
expansion  of  a  complex  function  in  such  a  form. 
Abel  was  the  next  important  contributor,  and  he 
corrected  certain  of  Cauchy's  conclusions.  Gen- 
eral criteria  began  with  Kummer  (1835),  and 
have  been  studied  by  Eisenstein  (1847),  Weier 
strass  in  his  various  contributions  to  the  theory 
of  functions,  Dini  (1867),  Du  Bois-Heymond 
(1873),  and  many  others.  Pringsheim's  (from 
1889)  memoirs  present  the  most  complete  genertl 
theory. 


SEBIE8. 


679 


SEBOTTS  FLTTID. 


The  theoxy  of  uniform  convergence  was  treated 
by  Cauehv  ( 1821 ) ,  his  limitations  being  pointed 
out  by  Abel,  but  the  first  to  attack  it  success- 
fully were  Stokes  and  Seidel  (1847-48).  Semi- 
convergent  series  were  studied  by  Poisson  ( 1823) 
and  Jacobi  (1834).  Fourier's  series  were  in- 
vestigated as  the  result  of  physical  considera- 
tions, and  Fourier  (1807)  set  for  himself  the 
problem  to  expand  a  given  function  of  dp  in 
terms  of  the  sines  or  cosines  of  multiples  of  Xj  a 
problem  which  he  embodied  in  his  Th^orie  analy- 
tique  de  la  chaleur  ( 1822) .  He  did  not,  however, 
settle  the  question  of  convergence  of  his  series,  a 
matter  left  for  Cauchy  ( 1826)  to  attempt  and  for 
Dirichlet  (1829)  to  handle  in  a  thoroughly 
flcientific  manner.  Among  other  prominent  con- 
tributors to  the  theory  of  trigonometric  and 
Fourier  series  have  been  Riemann,  Heine,  Lip- 
schitz,  Schlfifli,  Du  Bois-Reymond,  Dini,  Hermite, 
Helphen,  Krause,  Byerly,  and  Appell. 

For  an  introduction  to  infinite  series  involv- 
ing tests  of  convergence,  applications  to  physics, 
and  relations  to  integration,  consult  Osgood,  In^ 
troduction  to  Infinite  Series  (Cambridge,  1807). 
An  historical  development  of  the  subject  is  given 
by  Reiff,  Oeschichte  der  nnendlichen  Reiken 
(Tubingen,  1880).  Also  by  BOcher,  chap.  ix.  of 
Byerly's  Fourier's  Series  and  Spherical  Ear- 
monies  (Boston,  1893).  For  history  and  theory, 
consult  Merriman  and  Woodward,  Higher  Mathe- 
matics (New  York,  1896) ;  Jordan,  Cours 
d'analyse  (Paris,  1893).  An  elementary  treat- 
ment is  given  in  Chrystal,  Algebra,  vol.  ii.  (Edin- 
burgh, 1880) ;  Bonnet,  "M^moire  sur  la  tjiterie 
gen^rfile  des  series,"  in  the  Mhnoires  couronn6s 
of  the  Brussels  Academy  ( 1850) ;  Martone,  In- 
troduzione  alia  teoria  delle  serie  (Catanzaro, 
1891-94). 

BSKINAaUBy  se-rS^nti-gtir'.  The  capital  of 
Kashmir.    See  Sunagab. 

SBfinfTGAPATAM,  se-rIn'g&-p&-tAm^  or 
BBIBAHGAPATAK.  A  town  in  the  native 
State  of  Mysore,  India,  9  miles  northeast  of  the 
city  of  Mysore,  on  an  island  in  the  Kavery  River 
(Map:  India,  C  6).  It  is  poorly  built  and  un- 
healthful.  A  portion  of  the  palace  of  Tipu 
Sahib,  within  the  inclosure  of  the  old  fort, 
still  remains.  Other  objects  of  interest  in- 
clude the  Darya  Daulat  Bagh,  the  handsome 
summer  residence  of  Tipu;  the  Lai  Bagh  (gar- 
den) with  the  tombs  of  Tipu  and  his  fattier,  Hy- 
der  Ali;  and  the  ancient  temple  of  Vishnu  Shri 
Ranga,  from  which  the  town  derives  its  name. 
Seringapatam  was  the  capital  of  Mysore  until 
1799.  On  May  4th  of  that  year  the  town  was 
ttormed  by  the  British,  Tipu  Sahib  being  killed. 
Population,  about  12,000. 

BEBINGKHAK.     A  town  of  Madras,  India. 

See  SSIBANGAM. 

8EBJEAKT-AT-LAW.  The  highest  rank  of 
barristers  (q.v.).  It  is  a  title  of  great  antiquity, 
but  now  nearly  extinct  in  England,  although 
Btill  eommon  in  Ireland'.  In  early  times  the  de- 
gree was  conferred  only  on  barristers  of  sixteen 
years'  standing;  but  this  qualification  was  dis- 
pensed with  later.  A  Serjeant  was  appointed  by 
a  writ  under  the  g^at  seal,  upon  the  nomination 
of  the  Chief  Justice  of  the  Common  Pleas,  in 
vhose  court  he  was  entitled,  for  centuries,  to 
exclusive  audience.  Socially  Serjeants  took 
precedence  of  King's  counsel,  while  profession- 


ally the  latter  outranked  the  former,  unless  Ser- 
jeants held  special  patents  of  precedence.  The 
decay  of  this  order  in  England  is  due  in  part 
to  the  fact  that  the  Judicature  Act  of  1873 
renders  it  unnecessary  that  a  person  should 
be  admitted  to  the  rank  of  serjeant  before  ap- 
pointment to  a  Supreme  Court  judgeship,  and 
in  part  to  the  abolition  of  the  exclusive  right 
of  audience  in  the  Common  Pleas.  Consult: 
Manning,  Antient  Privileges  of  the  Serjeants  at 
Law  (London,  1840) ;  Pulling,  The  Order  of  the 
Coif  (London,  1884). 

SEBLIOy  sar^y^  Sebastiano  (1475-1554). 
An  Italian  architect  and  writer  on  art,  born  at 
Bologna.  He  worked  as  an  architect  at  Pesaro 
from  about  1510  until  1514,  then,  after  having 
frequented  in  Rome  the  school  of  Peruzzi,  he  was 
employed  at  Bologna  and  Venice,  and  in  1540 
went  to  Paris,  where  he  became  royal  archi- 
tect in  1541  and  was  engaged  in  the  work  on  the 
Louvre  and  the  Tuileries,  and  at  Fontainebleau. 
He  is  remembered  chiefly  for  his  treatise  on 
architecture,  in  which  he  embodied  all  the  pre- 
cepts of  Vitruvius  and  which  was  published  in 
seven  books  (Lyons,  1537-51,  1575).  Consult 
QheLTY^t,  Biographies  d'architectes  (Lyons,  1869). 

SEBMONISM.    See  Nominalism. 

SEBGTINE  (from  Lat.  serotinus,  late,  from 
serus,  late).  A  large,  dark-brown  bat  {Vesperugo 
serotinus)  of  particular  interest  for  its  very 
wide  distribution,  since  it  is  known  all  over 
Europe,  south  of  the  Baltic,  in  Africa  north  of 
the  equator,  throughout  the  southern  half  of 
Asia,  and  in  most  of  North  America.  It  seems  to 
be  identical  with  our  *du3ky'  or  'Carolina*  bat. 
Several  color  varieties  are  locally  distinguished. 

SEBOTTS  FLTTID  (from  Lat.  serum,  whey, 
serum;  connected  with  Gk.  6pU,  oros,  whey,  Skt. 
sar,  to  flow).  A  thin,  watery  fluid  occurring  in 
various  parts  of  the  animal  body,  distinguished 
from  mucus  principally  by  its  limpidity  and  by 
its  being  found  in  closed  cavities  only.  It  con- 
tains a  Tittle  albumin,  a  trace  of  fibrin,  about  6 
per  cent,  of  solid  constituents,  and  94  per  cent, 
of  water.  Serous  fiuids  have  been  arranged  un- 
der three  heads :  ( 1 )  Those  which  are  contained 
in  the  serous  salt  of  the  body,  as  the  cerebro- 
spinal fluid,  the  pericardial  fluid,  the  peritoneal 
fluid,  the  pleural  fluid,  the  fluid  of  the  tunica 
vaginalis  testis,  and  the  synovial  fluid.  (2)  The 
fiuids  existing  in  the  eyeball,  the  amniotic  fiuid, 
and  transudations  into  the  tissue  of  organs.  (3) 
Morbid  or  excessive  transudations,  such  as  drop- 
sical fiuids,  the  fluids  occurring  in  hydatids,  ani 
in  blebs  and  vesicles  on  the  skin,  and  transuda- 
tions from  the  blood  in  the  intestinal  capillaries, 
as  in  cases  of  intestinal  catarrh,  cholera,  or 
dysentery. 

All  these  fluids  bear  a  close  resemblance  to 
one  another,  both  in  their  physical  and  chemical 
characters.  In  so  far  as  relates  to  their  physical 
characters  they  are  usually  clear  and  trans- 
parent,  colorless  or  slightly  yellow,  of  a  slight 
saline,  mawkish  taste,  and  exhibiting  an  alka- 
line reaction  with  test-paper.  They  possess  no 
special  formal  or  histological  elements,  but  on 
a  microscopic  examination  blood-corpuscles,  cells 
of  various  kinds,  molecular  granules,  and  epithc- 
•lium  may  occasionally  be  observed  in  them.  They 
also  contain  fats,  animal  soaps,  cholesterine,  ex- 
tractive matters,  urea  (occasionally),  the  same 
inorganic  salts  which  are  found  in  the  serum  of 


SBBOXTS  FLUID. 


680 


SEBPENTHTE. 


the  blood,  and  the  same  gases  as  occur  in  the 
blood.  As  rare  constituents,  and  only  occurring 
in  disease,  may  be  mentioned  sugar,  the  biliary 
acids,  salts  of  lactic  and  succinic  acids,  creati- 
nine, mucine,  etc. 

SEB0T7S  HEMBBANE.  There  are  seven 
serous  membranes  in  the  human  body,  three  beinff 
medium  and  single,  while  two  are  double  and 
lateral.  They  are  the  arachnoid,  the  pericar- 
dium, and  the  peritoneum,  with  the  two  pleurse 
and  tunicse  vaginales  testis.  Thus  they  are  con- 
nected, with  the  obvious  view  of  facilitating  mo- 
tion and  affording  general  protection,  with  all 
the  most  important  organs  in  the  body.  Each 
sac  or  continuous  membrane  consists  of  two  por- 
tions— a  parietal  one,  which  lines  the  walls  of 
the  cavity,  and  a  visceral,  or  reflected  one,  which 
forms  an  almost  complete  coating  or  investment 
for  the  viscera  contained  in  the  cavity.  During 
health  the  opposing  surfaces  of  these  serous  mem- 
branes are  in  contact  and  only  enough  fluid  is 
secreted  to  render  them  moist  and  capable  of 
easy  movements.  After  death  from  certain  dis- 
eases, however,  considerable  fluid  is  frequently 
found,  probably  due  to  post-mortem  exudation. 
An  accumulation  of .  fluid  may  occur  during 
life.  Of  their  structure  it  is  sufficient  to  state 
that  they  consist  essentially  of  ( 1 )  epithelium ; 
(2)  basement  membrane;  (3)  a  stratum  of  areo- 
lar or  cellular  tissue,  which  constitutes  the  chief 
thickness  of  the  membrane,  and  is  the  constitu- 
ent on  which  its  physical  properties  are  mainly 
dependent. 

SEB'OW  (East  Indian  name) .  One  of  a  group 
of  goat-antelopes  (genus  Nemorhcedus)  nearly 
allied  to  the  gorals  (q.v.),  but  more  shaggy. 
They  inhabit  Southeastern  and  Eastern  Asia, 
and  make  their  home  upon  high  and  difficult 
mountains,  where  they  go  about  in  pairs  or  fam- 
ily parties,  much  after  the  manner  of  the  wild 
sheep.  The  common  serow  (Nemorhoedus  huha- 
linus)  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  Himalayan  Moun- 
tains, and  is  a  rather  large,  ungraceful  animal 
with  coarse  blackish  and  reddish  hair,  and  with 
rough  black  horns  about  a  foot  long,  standing 
upright  upon  the  head,  with  a  backward  curve. 
Another  well-known  species  is  the  *cambing-utan' 
{NemorhoBdus  Swnatrensia)  j  which  inhabits 
hilly  districts  from  Eastern  Tibet  southward  to 
Sumatra.  Other  smaller  species  are  known  in 
Japan  and  in  Formosa.  Consult  Blanford  and 
other  writers  upon  East  Indian  zoology,  and 
Kinloch,  Large  Game  Shooting  in  Thibet  and 
Northern  India  (London,  1885).  See  Plate  of 
Goat  Antelopes. 

SEBPA  PINTO,  Bfir'pA  p6N'to,  Alexandre 
Albebto  (1846-1900).  A  Portuguese  explorer. 
He  entered  the  Royal  Military  College  in  Lisbon, 
and  in  1864  became  an  ensign.  He  went  from 
Bcnguela  to  Durban,  across  the  continent  of 
Africa,  in  1877-79.  This  expedition  he  described 
in  a  volume  translated  into  French  and  German 
(1881-82).  In  1884-86,  accompanied  by  Cardozo, 
he  led  another  expedition  to  Mozambique,  where 
the  Portuguese  power  was  extended  to  Lake 
Nyassa.  In  1889  he  went  once  more  to  Africa, 
but  was  Anally  recalled  in  1890  on  account  of 
England's  opposition  to  his  strongly  Portuguese 
policy  in  MatabeMand. 

SEBPENT.    See  Snake. 

SEBPENT  (OF.,  Fr.  serpent,  from  Lat.  ser- 
pens, creeping,  snake,  pres.  part,  of  serpere,  to 


creep;  connected  with  Gk.  ipmuv,  herpein,  Ski, 
sarp,  to  creep).  A  powerful  bass  musical  wind 
instrument,  consisting  of  a  tube  of  wood  covered 
with  leather,  furnished  with  a  mouthpiece  like 
a  trombone,  ventajges,  and  keys,  and  twisted  into 
a  serpentine  form,  whence  its  name.  Its  com- 
pass IS  from  iBb  to  bb^  When  skillfully  played 
it  exhibits  the  most  startling  inequalities  of 
tone,  in  consequence  of  there  being  three  notes, 
d,  a,  d,  much  more  powerful  than  the  others.  The 
serpent  was  invented  in  1590  by  Edmg  Guil- 
laume,  a  canon  of  Auxerre  in  France. 

SEBPENT ABIA  (Lat.,  snakeweed),  or  Vn- 
QiNiA  Snakeboot.  The  root  of  Aristolochia 
serpentaria  and  other  species  of  Aristolochia.  It 
contains  a  volatile  oil,  a  resin  (a  camphor)  and 
a  bitter  principle  {aristolochine) ,  It  has  a  pun- 
gent odor  and  a  warm  camphoraceous  taste.  In 
small  doses  it  acts  as  a  simple  bitter,  increasing 
the  appetite,  assisting  digestion,  and  mildly  re- 
laxing the  bowels.  In  large  doses  it  causes  nau- 
sea, vomiting,  and  diarrhoea.  It  is  a  heart  stimu- 
lant and  a  cerebral  excitant,  and  in  large  doses 
causes  fullness  of  the  head,  vertigo,  and  exhila- 
ration. It  is  an  aphrodisiac,  and  also  a  diuretic. 
Its  principal  use  is  in  bronchitis,  in  which  it 
increases  the  bronchial  secretion.  There  are 
three  official  preparations:  the  infusion,  the  fluid 
extract,  and  the  tincture. 

SEBPENT-CHABMING.  See  Snake-Ghaiv- 

INO. 

SEBPEHT-EAGLE.  a  crested  and  spotted 
eagle  of  the  East  Indian  and  African  genus 
Spilornis,  the  species  of  which  include  snakes  in 
their  food.  The  largest  and  best  known  by  this 
name  is  the  'cheele'  {Spilornis  undulatus)  of 
India  and  eastward,  which  is  brown  with  a  black 
and  white  head,  round  white  spots  on  the  lower 
surfaces,  and  a  broadly  banded  tail.  The  same 
name  is  given  to  the  harrier  eagles  (Batastur), 
and  especially  to  the  secretary-bird  (q.v.). 

SEBPENTINE  (OF.,  Fr.  serpentin,  from  Lat 
serpentinus,  relating  to  a  serpent,  from  serpeM, 
creeping,  snake) .  A  hydrated  magnesium  silicate 
mineral  that  crystallizes  in  the  monoclinic  sys- 
tem. It  has  a  resinous  to  greasy  and  eartiiy 
lustre,  and  in  color  ranges  through  the  different 
shades  of  green  to  brown,  and  sometimes  yellow. 
Serpentine  is  rarely  found  crystallized,  as  it 
most  commonly  occurs  in  fibrous  or  lamellar 
aggregations.  It  takes  a  high  polish,  and  is  fre- 
quently employed  as  a  material  for  ornaments. 
Serpentine  frequently  occurs  in  sufficient  masses 
to  form  rocks,  and  in  such  cases  it  is  generally 
associated  with  other  minerals,  viz.  fibrous  horn- 
blende, talc,  calcite,  magnesite,  chlorite,  4jhro- 
mite,  and  oxides  of  iron,  with  residual  portions 
also  of  augite,  olivine,  and  hornblende  crystals. 
The  color  of  the  rock,  which  is  generally  some 
variety  of  green,  and  the  streaks  of  brown  iron 
oxide,  are  responsible  for  the  name  serpentine. 
As  a  building  stone,  serpentine  has  great  tou^- 
ness  and  durability,  combined  with  beauty  of 
color,  and  being  soft,  is  easily  cut.  It  not  in- 
frequently contains,  however,  numerous  crystals 
of  a  variety  of  garnet  known  as  pyrope  (Bobe- 
main  garnet,  Cape  ruby),  which,  while  adding 
some  &auty  to  the  stone,  offer  by  their  extreme 
hardness  a  serious  obstacle  to  its  working.  The 
fibrous  variety  of  serpentine,  asbestos  (q.v.),  ia 
utilized  in  the  manufacture  of  fire-proof » mate- 
rials.    Serpentines  are  the  principal  source  of 


SEBPSNTINE. 


681 


8EBBAK0  Y  DOMINGXTBZ. 


chromite,  and  deposits  of  nickel  and  platinum 
are  sometimes  associated  with  these  rocks.  Ser- 
pentine with  calcite,  magnesite,  or  dolomite 
forms  a  beautiful  mottled  or  veined  rock  to 
which  the  name  ophiolite  or  ophicalcite,  or,  more 
commonly,  Verde  antique,  is  given.  This  ma- 
terial is  used  for  ornamental  pUlars  and  decora- 
tive purposes. 

SEBFENT  MOUND.  A  remarkable  earth- 
work near  Peebles,  Adams  Goimty,  Ohio,  71  miles 
east  of  Cincinnati.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a  huge 
serpent,  1000  feet  long,  5  feet  high,  and  30  feet 
wide  at  the  base.  The  tail  ends  in  a  triple  coil, 
and  between  the  open  jaws  lies  an  egg-shaped 
mound  100  by  30  feet.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the 
work  of  the  Mound  Builders  (q.v.).    See  Abors- 

0L06T,  AmERIC^IT. 

SEBPENT-WOBSHIP.  See  Natube-Wob- 
SHip;  Ophites. 

SEBPETTE,  sar'pet',  Gaston  (1846—).  A 
French  composer,  born  at  Nantes.  He  studied  at 
the  Paris  Conservatory  (1868-71)  under  Am- 
broise  Thomas,  and  won  the  Grand  Prix  de  Kome 
with  his  cantata  Jeanne  d'Arc,  In  1874  his  first 
opera^  La  hranche  casaie,  was  produced  in  Paris, 
and  he  subsequently  brought  out  more  than  thirty 
similar  works,  of  which  the  best  known  are 
Le  carilUm  (1896),  Cendrillonnette  (1890),  and 
Ladoi  de  Brigitte  (1895). 

SEEPXJIiA  ( Neo-Lat.,  from  aerpere,  to  creep ) . 
A  marine  annelid  worm  which  secretes  a  tubular 

calcareous  shell, 
more  or  less  coiled, 
and  often  forming 
large  detached 
masses  of  reddish 
rock.  The  large, 
solid  limestone 
tubes  of  these 
worms  materially 
assist  in  building 
up  coral  reefs,  es- 
pecially on  the 
coast  of  Brazil. 
Serpulie  have  been 
noticed  by  A.  Agas- 
siz  to  often  form 
on  coral  reefs  in- 
crusting  masses  of 
considerable  extent. 
Serpulffi  occur  at 
great  depths  in  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico, 
while  some  were 
dredged  by  the 
Challenger  Expedition  at  depths  of  nearly  3000 
fathoms.  A  mass  of  serpulse  with  all  their  crim- 
Bon  tentacles  expanded  is  a  very  beautiful  object. 

SEEBA,  s^r^rft,  Miguel  Joat.    See  Junxpebo. 

SEBBADELLA,  or  SEEEADZLLA  (Port. 
aertadiUa,  diminutive  of  aerradOy  serrate,  from 
Lat.  aerratua,  saw-shaped,  from  aerra,  saw), 
Bird's-Fgot  {Omithopua  aativua).  An  annual 
leguminous  plant  indigenous  to  Southern  Europe 
and  Northern  Africa,  cultivated  for  forage,  hay, 
and  green  manuring.  It  prefers  a  moist  climate 
and  a  sandy  soil  of  good  tilth.  When  broad- 
casted the  land  is  harrowed  and  sometimes  rolled 
to  press  the  seed  into  the  soil.  In  drilling  the 
Beed  is  planted  about  an  inch  deep.  Two  cuttings 
are  obtained  during  the  season.    If  sown  about 


A  eaOVP  OF  tKBPUIiJS. 

The  worms  {SerpidA  yermieu- 
kkriB)  are  shown  with  expanded 
tentacles,  as  if  under  water. 


April  1st  it  can  be  used  for  green  forage  in 
July  and  a  second  cutting  may  be  obtained  in 
September.  It  is  cut  for  hay  at  the  close  of  the 
blossoming  period. 

The  green  crop  (cut  when  in  bloom)  has  the 
following  average  composition:  Water,  79.9; 
protein,  2.9;  fat,  0.7;  nitrogen-free  extract,  10.0; 
crude  fibre,  3.4;  ash,  3.1  per  cent.  The  hay  con- 
tains: Water,  9.2;  protein,  15.2;  fat,  2.6;  nitro- 
gen-free extract,  44.2;  crude  fibre,  21.6;  and 
ash,  7.2  per  cent.  Like  other  leguminous  crops, 
it  has  a  fairly  high  protein  content.  In  feeding 
value  it  does  not  differ  greatly  from  red  clover. 
It  has  the  advantage  that  it  may  be  fed  up  to 
nearly  the  end  of  the  blooming  period  without 
deterioration.  When  the  hay  is  cured  care  must 
be  taken  to  prevent  loss  due  to  the  breaking 
of  fine  leaves  and  stems. 

SEBBA  DQ  MAB,  sSr^rA  d6  m&r.  The  south- 
em  division  of  the  Brazilian  Coast  Range,  running 
along  the  southeastern  coast  of  the  country 
through  the  States  of  Paran&,  Sfto  Paulo,  and 
Rio  de  Janeiro.  To  the  south,  in  Santa  Catharina 
and  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  runs  the  somewhat  dis- 
tinct range  known  as  the  Serra  Geral,  while  the 
northern  division  of  the  Coast  Range  bends  west 
toward  the  Serra  da  Mantiqueira,  whidi  nms 
parallel  with  the  Serra  do  Mar,  separated  from 
it  by  the  valley  of  the  Parahyba  River.  The 
range  is  the  outermost  escarpment  of  the  great 
Brazilian  plateau,  and  forms  the  divide  between 
the  Paranft  River  and  the  very  short  streams 
running  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Near  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  where  it  reaches  its  highest  elevation 
(from  6000  to  7000  feet),  it  is  very  rugged  with 
numerous  sharp  granite  crags,  which  from  a  dis- 
tance suggest  the  pipes  of  an  immense  organ, 
whence  this  portion  has  been  called  the  Organ 
Mountains. 

SEBBANIDiB  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Lat. 
aerra,  saw) .  The  family  of  sea-bass  (q.v.) ,  many 
species  of  which  are  called  'serranos'  by  the  fish- 
ermen of  Spanish  America. 

SEBBANO  Y  DOMINGirEZ,  sSr-r&'nd  6  d6- 
mto'g&th,  Fbajtcisco,  Duke  de  la  Torre  (1810- 
85).  A  Spanish  statesman  and  general,  bom 
near  Cadiz.  He  fought  against  the  Carlists  from 
1833  to  1839,  and  attained  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general.    Elected  to  the  Cortes  from  Malaga  in 

1839,  he  joined  with  Espartero  in  bringing  about 
the  overthrow  of  the  Queen  mother  Christina  in 

1840,  but  three  years  later  turned  against  the 
regency  of  Espartero  and  was  Minister  of  War 
for  some  time  after  the  beginning  of  the  personal 
reign  of  Isabella  II.  He  became  lieutenant-gen- 
eral in  1847,  captain-general  of  the  army  and 
military  Governor  of  New  Castile  in  1866,  Ambas- 
sador at  Paris  in  the  following  year,  and  from 
1859  to  1862  was  Captain-Genefal  of  Cuba.  His 
services  in  the  reconquest  of  Santo  Domingo 
gained  him  the  ducal  title,  and  on  his  return  to 
Spain  in  1863  he  was  made  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs.  A  faithful  follower  of  O'Donnell,  he 
succeeded  the  latter  in  1867  as  chief  of  the  Lib- 
eral Union,  and  in  spite  of  his  intimate  relations 
with  Queen  Isabella  plotted  assiduously  against 
her  Government.  With  other  leaders  of  the  Op- 
position he  was  transported  to  the  Canaiy 
Islands  in  July,  1868,  but  returned  to  Cadiz  in 
September  after  the  outbreak  of  the.  military 
revolution,  assumed  charge  of  the  movement  to* 
gether  with  Prim,  Topete,  and  Sagasta  (qq.v.). 


SBB&AKO  T  DOHIKaxn&Z. 


682 


aSBtnc  THE&APY. 


and  at  the  head  of  the  revolutionary  forces  de- 
feated the  royal  troops  at  Alcolea  (September 
28th).  Isabella  fled  to  France  and  Serrano  was 
declared  by  the  Cortes  Regent  of  the  kingdom  in 
June,  1869,  having  acted  in  the  interval  as  chief 
of  the  provisional  Government.  Under  King 
Amadeus  he  was  at  the  head  of  two  short-lived 
Ministries  (January- July,  1871;  June  1872),  and 
carried  on  an  active  campaign  against  the  Carl- 
ists  (1872).  Serrano  looked  with  disfavor  upon 
the  establishment  of  the  Republic,  following  the 
abdication  of  Amadeus,  and  upon  the  overthrow 
of  the  Crovemment  by  (General  Pavia  in  January, 
1874,  became  chief  of  the  executive,  holding  office 
till  the  accession  of  Alphonso  XII.  He  died  in 
Madrid. 

SEBBET^  Be-ry,  Joseph  Alfbed  (1819-85). 
A  French  mathematician,  bom  in  Paris,  and 
educated  in  the  Ecole  Polytechnique.  In  1861  he 
became  professor  at  the  College  de  France.  Ser- 
ret's  mathematical  text-books  are  very  valuable. 
The  following  list  comprises  his  most  important 
treatises:  Cours  d'algehre  aupMeure  (4th  ed., 
1879) ;  Traits  de  irigonom^trie  (7th  ed.,  1888) ; 
Elements  de  trigonom^trie  (1853);  Coura  de 
oalcul  diff^ential  ei  integral  (4th  ed.,  1894). 
Serret  also  edited  the  works  of  Lagrange  (7 
vols.,  1867-92)    and  Lacroix's  Calculus   (1881). 

SERTtyRLUS,  QuiNTUS.  A  Roman  com- 
mander in  the  latter  years  of  the  Republic.  He 
fought,  B.C.  105,  in  the  disastrous  battle  on  the 
Rhone,  in  which  the  Roman  proconsul,  Quintus 
Servilius  Cepio,  was  defeated  by  the  Cimbri 
and  Teutones,  and  took  part  in  the  splendid  vic- 
tory at  Aquffi  Sextiffi  (now  Aix),  B.G.  102,  where 
Marius  annihilated  the  Cimbri  and  Teutones,  and 
on  the  breaking  out  of  the  sanguinary  struggle 
between  the  party  of  the  nobles  under  Sulla 
(q.v.)  and  the  popular  party  headed  by  Marius 
(q.v.), B.C.  88, he  espoused  the  cause  of  the  latter. 
No  other  Marian  general  held  out  so  long  or 
so  successfully  as  he  against  the  victorious  oli- 
garchy. He  fought  in  conjunction  with  Cinna  the 
battle  at  the  Olline  Gate  (b.c.  87)  which  placed 
Rome  at  the  mercy  of  the  Marians,  but  he  had 
no  hand  in  the  bloody  massacres  that  followed. 
He  got  his  own  troops  together,  and  slew  4000 
of  the  ruffianly  slaves  whom  Marius  was  per- 
mitting to  plunder  and  ravish  at  will  through 
the  city.  On  the  return  of  Sulla  from  the  East 
(B.C.  83),  Sertorius  withdrew  into  Etruria,  and 
thence  he  went  to  Spain,  where  he  continued  the 
struggle  in  an  independent  fashion.  At  the  invi- 
tation of  the  Lusitanians,  he  collected  an 
army  composed  of  natives,  Libyans,  and  Romans, 
and  after  a  time  became  the  virtual  monarch  of 
the  whole  country.  In  B.C.  76  Pompeius  was 
sent  against  Sertorius,  but  the  latter  drove  him 
over  the  Iberus  (Ebro)  w^ith  heavy  loss;  nor  was 
the  campaign  of  the  following  year  (b.c.  75) 
more  favorable.  Finally  Perpema  and  other 
Roman  officers  of  the  Marian  party  who  had  fled 
to  Sertorius  in  B.C.  77  assassinated  him  in  his 
own  tent  in  B.c.  72.  Plutarch  wrote  Sertorius's 
Life  and  Comeille  made  him  the  subject  of  a 
tragedy. 

SEBUM  (Lat.,  whey,  aenun).  See  Blood; 
Serum  Thebapy. 

SEBUM  THEBAPY.  As  stated  in  the  arti- 
cle on  Immunity,  the  accepted  theory  of  im- 
munity is  the  antitoxin  theory,  in  accord»ince 
with  which  theory  it  is  believed  that  artificial 


immunity  may  be  acquired  through  the  introdne- 
tion  of  attenuated  cultures  of  microdrganisms  into 
the  animal  body.  By  this  means  the  body  is  ren- 
dered immune  to  virulent  forms  of  these  organ- 
isms, through  the  antitoxins  developed  in  the 
blood.  The  use  of  blood-serum  containing  anti- 
toxins in  the  treatment  or  prevention  of  disease 
is  called  serum  therapy. 

Dr.  Nicolas  Lambadarios,  of  the  University  of 
Athens,  has  published  a  volume  on  the  serum 
therapy,  organo-therapy,  antirabic  and  anti- 
leprous  treatment  of  the  old  Greek  physicians. 
Galen  used  the  flesh  of  the  viper's  body  as  an 
antivenine.  Mithridates  fortified  himself  by 
taking  all  the  known  antidotes,  and  experimented 
also  upon  condemned  criminals,  finally  succeed- 
ing in  rendering  himself  immune  to  snake-bite. 
For  the  latter  purpose  he  took  the  blood  of  ani- 
mals which  fed  on  venomous  snakes.  Attalus, 
King  of  Pergamos,  Andromachus,  Nero's  chief 
physician,  and  Galen  used  similar  antidotes.  The 
discovery  by  Pasteur  in  1857  of  the  bacterial 
origin  of  fermentation  led  to  the  discovery  of  dif- 
ferent antitoxins  and  the  establishment  of  serum 
therapy  in  these  latter  days. 

Blood-Sebum.  The  germicidal  action  of  blood- 
serum  has  been  tested  upon  cultures  of  staphylo- 
cocci, streptococci,  typhoid  bacilli,  and  colon 
bacilli.  Blood-serum  from  healthy  persons  shows 
practically  no  germicidal  power  over  the  staphy- 
lococcus or  streptococcus,  but  a  marked  germi- 
cidal action  on  the  typhoid  bacillus.  Blood  of 
cachectic  people  suffering  from  various  diseases 
also  exhibits  marked  germicidal  power  over  the 
typhoid  and  colon  bacilli.  Blood  removed  from 
persons  in  the  death  agony  or  a  few  hours  after 
death  is  strongly  germicidal  against  typhoid  and 
colon  bacilli,  but  not  actively  so  toward  staphy- 
lococcus or  streptococcus. 

In  preparing  serum  for  therapeutic  use  the 
same  general  methods  are  employed  in  various 
productions.  The  following  description  of  the 
preparation  of  anti-pneumococcic  serum  will 
serve  as  an  example  of  the  process: 

Anti-Pneumoooccus  Serum.  Violent  bouillon 
cultures  of  pneumococci  (the  bacteria  causative 
of  pneumonia)  are  injected  into  a  horse,  after 
the  organisms  in  the  culture  have  been  killed  by 
prolonged  heating  at  60°  C.  After  the  animal 
has  obtained  a  certain  amount  of  tolerance  to 
these  injections,  living  cultures  Sf  pneumococci 
are  injected  in  increasing  quantities  until  such 
injections  fail  to  show  constitutional  symptoms. 
Rabbits  are  infected  with  living  pneumococci 
meanwhile.  From  time  to  time  the  horse  serum 
is  injected  into  these  rabbits.  Where  the  serum 
of  the  horse  is  found  by  experiment  to  protect 
rabbits  so  that  infection  does  not  occur  after 
injection  of  living  pneumococci  it  is  withdrawn 
from  the  horse  for  use,  preserved  with  an  anti- 
septic and  bottled.  Differing  reports  have  been 
made  as  to  the  efficacy  of  this  serum.  It  was 
used  first  in  1896  by  Pane  and  De  Rend  of 
Naples.  (Conflicting  reports  have  been  received 
regarding  the  results;  but  it  is  believed  by  suc- 
cessful experimenters  in  Naples,  Munich,  and 
Berlin  that  if  not  deteriorated  by  age,  if  used 
early  and  in  large  doses,  it  will  always  ameliorate 
if  not  cure  lobar  pneumonia. 

Antivenene.  Dr.  Albert  Calmette,  of  the  Pas- 
teur Institute  at  Lille.  France,  devised  a  serum 
obtained  from  animals  inoculated  with  rattle- 
snake poison,  termed  antivenene.    This  is  not  a 


SEBXni  THEBAPY. 


688 


SEBVAL. 


true  antitoxin,  and  in  cases  of  snake-bite  it  ap- 
parently produces  temporary  cell  stimulation 
instead  of  immunity.  It  should  be  used  within 
80  or  90  minutes  after  the  reception  of  the 
poison  in  dosage  of  10  c.c.  hypodermically.  Anti- 
venene  is  to  be  issued  to  all  the  military  hospitals 
in  India,  in  which  country  the  mortality  from 
snake-bites  during  the  10  years  preceding  1900 
averaged  12,000  annually. 

Anticholera  Serum.  A  series  of  experiments 
with  this  serum  has  been  made  at  Calcutta, 
where  cholera  has  been  yer^  prevalent  and  fatal 
for  years  among  the  coolies  employed  by  the 
tea  planters,  with  a  result  of  a  reduction  of 
mortality  from  cholera  of  72  per  cent. 

Antitxtbercle  Serum.  The  best  figures  attain- 
able regarding  the  use  of  antitubercle  serum  are 
those  of  Stubbert,  formerly  of  the  Loom  is  Sani- 
tarium, Liberty,  N.  Y.,  who  reports  marked  im- 
provement in  78  per  cent,  of  the  cases  in  which 
the  serum  was  used. 

AiYTiTTFUOiD  Serum.  This  serum  has  been  used 
extensively  in  Netley  Hospital,  England,  and 
among  British  troops  in  India  and  South  Africa 
as  an  inoculation  to  prevent  contraction  of  ty- 
phoid. Less  than  1  per  cent,  of  the  inoculated 
men  fall  victims  to  the  disease,  and  of  these  less 
than  26  per  cent,  die ;  while  of  uninoculated  men 
over  2^  per  cent,  contract  the  disease,  and  of 
these  over  22  per  cent.  die. 

Diphtheria  Antitoxin.  The  best  knoinn  anti- 
toxin is  that  used  in  combating  diphtheria,  and 
obtained  from  serum  of  animals  which  have  been 
inoculated  with  cultures  of  the  Klebs-Loeffler 
bacillus.  While  there  are  a  few  men  of  ability 
and  experience  wha  deny  its  efficacy,  a  vast  num- 
ber who  have  thoroughly  tested  its  usefulness 
contribute  an  overwhelming  and  convincing  mass 
of  evidence  in  its  favor.  It  is  given  by  hypo- 
'  dermic  injection,  preferably  between  the  shoulder 
blades,  as  early  as  diagnosis  is  made,  and  is  of 
rapid  efficacy  in  children.  The  mortality  from 
diphtheria  in  cases  treated  with  antitoxin  is 
from  9  to  13  per  cent.,  against  35  to  40  per  cent. 
in  cases  treated  by  other  methods. 

Erysipelas  Serum.  For  purposes  of  immuniz- 
ing as  well  as  for  curative  endeavor  in  any  stage 
of  an  attack  Marmorek's  serum  is  used.  It  is 
composed  of  two  parts  of  human  blood  serum 
mixed  with  bouillon,  one  part,  sterilized  and 
used  in  fluid  form. 

ANTiSTBEPTOCoCfcus  Serum.  Many  diseases  be- 
come rapidly  fatal  through  the  virulence  of 
streptococcus  infection  added  to  the  original  bac- 
terial invasion.  Scarlet  fever,  diphtheria,  and 
tuberculosis  are  almost  always  complicated  by 
streptococcal  infection,  while  erysipelas,  phleg- 
mon, septicaemia  from  infected  wounds,  and  also 
most  cases  of  puerperal  septicsemia  are  directly 
caused  by  the  streptococcus  bacillus.  Mar- 
morek's  serum  very  frequently  eflfects  their  cure ; 
but  better  results  have  been  obtained  from  an 
antistreptococcal  serum,  which  has  reduced  the 
mortality  of  puerperal  septicemia  to  25  per 
cent.  Daily  injections  for  at  least  a  week  appear 
to  be  necessary. 

ANTinarANic  Serum.  It  was  not  till  1897  that 
pure  cultures  of  the  germ  of  tetanus  were  made 
by  Eitasato,  although  it  was  discovered  in  1894 
by  Nicolaier.  Formerly  the  disease  was  almost 
uniformly  fatal.  In  the  United  States  this  mor- 
tality has  been  reduced  to  less  than  35  per  cent., 
through  the  use  of  the  serum. 
YOL.  XV.-44. 


Sarcoma  Antitoxin.  A  mixture  devised  by 
Coley,  of  New  York,  from  cultures  .of  bacillus 
prodigiosus  has  been  successful  in  a  fair  propor- 
tion of  cases. 

Carcinoma  Antitoxin.  Reynier,  of  France,  has 
reported  success  with  injections  of  a  serum  in 
cases  of  carcinoma.  His  serum  is  that  obtained 
by  Wlaeff  from  the  inoculation  of  birds  with 
blastomycetes  isolated  from  human  cancers. 

Truneck's  Serum.  A  preparation  improperly 
termed  'inorganic  seriun'  has  been  used  by 
Truneck  and  others  by  hypodermic  injection  in 
cases  of  arteriosclerosis.  It  is  a  solution  con- 
taining the  sulphate  of  chloride,  phosphate,  and 
carbonate  of  sodium,  with  sulphate  of  potassium. 
It  increases  the  alkalinity  of  the  blood  and  is 
supposed  to  dissolve  phosphatic  deposits  in  the 
walls  of  the  vessels. 

Antipest  Serum  and  Haffkine's  Fluid.  Yer- 
sin's  antipest  serum  is  blood-serum  taken  from 
horses  that  have  been  inoculated  with  the  plague. 
Hypodermic  injection  of  the  serum  causes  imme- 
diate immunity,  which,  unfortunately,  lasts  only 
12  to  14  days.  A  difficulty  in  securing  acquies- 
cence in  repeated,  injections  at  once  arises,  and 
as  a  popular  treatment  it  is  under  a  disadvan- 
tage. It  is,  however,  the  only  actual  remedy  for 
the  plague  after  it  has  appeared,  for  if  given 
early  in  the  disease  it  is  curative.  Haffkine's 
fluid  is  a  liquid  in  which  the  bacillus  of  plague 
has  been  cultivated  and  rendered  virulent  by 
special  methods,  the  bacilli  after  abundant 
growth  being  killed  by  an  exposure  of  the  cul- 
ture to  a  temperature  of  70°  C.  for  several  hours. 
Inoculation  with  Haff'kine's  fluid  confers  immu- 
nity which  lasts  from  a  few  days  to  several 
months.  A  great  disadvantage  in  its  use 'lies  in 
the  facts  that  during  immunization  the  person  is 
more  susceptible  to  plague;  and  if  he  has  al- 
ready contracted  even  a  mild  form  the  inocula- 
tion might  be  fatal.  Authorities  recommend  the 
provision  of  antipest  serum  for  prompt  use  in 
order  to  avert  an  epidemic  in  the  flrst  cases  and 
the  employment  of  Haffkine's  fluid  to  inoculate 
the  people  dwelling  in  localities  threatened  with 
an  invasion  of  the  disease. 
*  Serums  for  the  Lower  Animals.  The  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  has  been  for  years  experi- 
menting with  serums  made  from  the  cauvsative 
bacilli  of  hog  cholera  and  swine  plague*,  with  a 
resulting  recovery  of  80  per  cent,  of  the  treated 
animals,  against  a  recovery  of  from  15  to  29 
per  cent,  of  animals  not  treated.  A  serum  de- 
vi.sed  by  Loeffler  and  Uhlenhuth,  of  Austria,  gives 
immunity  for  4  to  8  weeks  to  animals  exposed 
to  foot-and-mouth  disease.  See  Vaccination, 
and  each  of  the  diseases  mentioned;  Antitoxin; 
Toxin.  Consult:  Sternberg,  Immunity ,  Pro- 
tective Inoculations  in  Infectious  Diseases,  and 
Serumtherapy  (New  York,  1895)  ;  Landau,  Die 
Serumthcrapie  (Berlin  and  Vienna,  1900)  ;  Stet- 
son, Serumtherapy  in  the  Light  of  the  Most 
Recent  Investigations  (Providence,  1902). 

SEBVAL  (South  African  name).  A  large, 
long-legged  African  wildcat  {Felis  serval), 
which  may  reach  40  inches  in  length,  with  a 
tail  16  inches  long.  It  is  varying  tawny  in 
color,  with  black  spots,  tending  to  form  two 
longitudinal  bands  on  the  back,  and  rings  on 
the  tail.  Its  fur,  known  in  trade  as  *tiger-cat,* 
may  be  recognized  by  two  characteristic  hori- 
zontal black  bands  on  the  upper  inner  surface  of 


SEBVAL. 


684 


SEBVL4. 


each  fore  leg.    It  is  found  throughout  Africa^  but 
its  habits    are  little  known. 

SEBVANT.  See  Master  and  Sebvant. 

SEBVE^US,  Michael,  or,  in  his  native 
Spanish,  Miguel  Sebveto  (Sebvede)  y  Reves 
(c.  15 11-53).  A  celebrated  antitrinitarian  theo- 
logian and  physician,  born  at  Tudela  in  Navarre. 
He  began  his  studies  at  Saragossa  and  entered 
the  services  of  Quintana,  later  confessor  of 
Charles  V.,  with  whom  he  went  to  Toulouse  in 
1528,  and  there  began  the  study  of  law.  In  a 
short  time,  however,  he  gave  himself  entirely  to 
the  knotty  points  of  the  Reformation  doctrines. 
In  1530  he  went  to  Basel  to  hear  (Ecolampadius, 
and  thence  to  Strassburg,  where  Bucer  and  Ca- 
pito  taught.  His  daring  denial  of  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity  frightened  or  angered  these  divines 
to  such  a  degree  that  they  denounced  him  as  *a 
wicked  and  cursed  Spaniard.'  Servetus  appealed 
from  their  judgment  to  that  of  the  public  in  his 
De  Trinitatis  Erroribus  Lihri  VII.  (1531)  and 
his  Dialogerum  de  Trinitate  LibH  II,  (1532); 
but  the  public  thought  as  little  of  his  teaching  as 
the  theologians;  and  to  avoid  the  odium  which 
it  had  occasioned  he  changed  his  name  to  Michel 
de  Villeneuve  and  fled  to  Paris,  where  he  began 
the  study  of  medicine.  In  1534  he  went  to  Ly- 
ons, where  he  brought  out  an  edition  of  Ptolemy's 
geography  (1535;  2d  ed.  1541)  ;  in  1536  he  re- 
turned to  Paris,  resumed  his  medical  studies,  and 
received  his  degree  in  1538.  In  1537  he  attacked 
Galen  and  the  faculty  in  a  medical  work  entitled 
Syruporum  Univeraa  Ratio,  As  a  physician 
Servetus  possessed  no  small  ability  and  practiced 
with  success ;  he  is  believed  by  some  to  have  dis- 
covered the  circulation  of  the  blood.  In  1538 
he  went  to  Charlieu,  and  in  1541  found  an  asy- 
lum in  the  palace  of  Pierre  Paulmier,  Archbish- 
op of  Vienne,  supporting  himself  by  his  medical 
skill  and  literary  work.  In  Vienne  he  published 
in  1542  a  new  and  elegant  edition  of  the  Latin 
Bible  of  Pagninus  with  notes,  which  were  not  all 
original.  At  Vienne  he  also  wrote  his  famous 
Chrisiiamsmi  Restitutio  (first  published,  anon- 
ymously, in  1533).  Its  celebrity  is  due  more 
to  the  fact  that  it  sealed  the  fate  of  the  author' 
than  to  its  intrinsic  merits,  the  ideas  being  ob- 
scure and  the  style  incorrect.  Possibly  at  the 
instigation  of  Calvin,  Servetus  was  arrested  and 
brought 'to  trial  at  Vienne.  On  June  17,  1553, 
he  was  condemned  to  be  burned,  but  before  this 
he  had  made  his  escape  and  was  endeavoring  to 
reach  Italy.  On  the  way  he  was  discovered  in 
Geneva  and  was  imprisoned  by  Calvin's  order. 
After  a  trial  lasting  two  months  he  was  con- 
demned as  a  heretic  and  was  burned  at  the  stake 
on  October  27,  1553.  (For  further  details,  see 
article  Calvin.)  On  October  27,  1903,  an  *ex- 
piatory*  monument  to  his  memory  was  unveiled 
m  Geneva.  Consult:  Tollin,  Das  Lehrsystem 
Michael  Servetus  (GUtersloh,  1876-78)  ;  Willis, 
Servetus  and  Calvin  (London,  1877).  The  Resti- 
tutio has  been  twice  reprinted,  first  by  Dr.  Meade 
(incomplete,  as  it  was  suppressed  by  order  of 
the  Bishop  of  London  and  burned,  1723),  and 
again  by  Murr  (Nuremberg,  1790)  ;  it  has  been 
translated  into  German  by  Spioss  under  the  title 
Die  Wiederherstellung  des  Christenthums  (Wies- 
baden, 1892-96). 

SEB^VIA  (Serv.  Srhija),  A  kingdom  in  the 
northwestern  part  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula, 
bounded    by    the    Kingdom     of    Hungary    on 


the  north,  Rumania  and  Bulgaria  on  the  east, 
Turkey  (the  Vilayet  of  Kossova  and  the  Sanjak 
of  Novibazar)  on  the  south,  and  Bosnia  on  the 
west.  The  Danube  and  its  tributary,  the  Save, 
bound  the  country  on  the  north ;  the  Danube  sep- 
arates it  from  Rumania;  and  the  Drina,  an 
affluent  of  the  Save,  forms  most  of  the  western 
boundary.  The  Timok,  an  affluent  of  the  Dan- 
ube, flows  about  25  miles  on  the  eastern  border. 
Area,  18,621  square  miles. 

Servia  is  mountainous.  The  Morava  valley, 
with  its  numerous  tributary  valleys  from  west 
and  east,  stretches  through  the  land  from  the 
southeast  to  the  middle  of  the  northern  border, 
uniting  with  that  of  the  Danube.  The  north  cen- 
tral section  in  the  Danube  valley  and  the  north- 
west section  in  the  Save  valley  contain  the  only 
extensive  lowland  regions,  which  are  character- 
ized by  Quaternary  alluvium.  Near  the  centre 
of  the  khigdom  the  southern  and  the  western 
forks  of  the  Morava  come  together,  the  one  en- 
tering from  Kossovo,  the  other  rising  in  the  Bos- 
nian watershed.  The  mountains  of  Western  Ser- 
via belong  to  the  Dinaric  system  and  present 
Mesozoie  and  Paleozoic  strata  and  serpentine 
upfifts.  On  the  boundary  of  Novibazar  stands 
the  mountain  wall  of  Golija-Planina  (6400 
feet),  where  the  western  Morava  rises.  Adja- 
cent in  the  southeast,  across  the  narrow  moon- 
tain  valley  of  the  Ibar,  is  the  lofty  Kopaonik* 
Planina  (7100  feet) — the  highest  region  in  Ser- 
via. Generally  in  this  southwestern  part  of  the 
kingdom  crystalline  schists  are  prominent  Be- 
tween the  western  Morava  and  the  valley  south 
of  Belgrade  is  the  mountain  region  of  Sumadija, 
the  heart  of  Servia,  culmiiuiting  in  the  Rudnik, 
nearly  4000  feet.  This  is  a  heavily  forested  ter- 
ritory, oaks  and  beeches  predominating.  The 
mountains  east  of  the  Morava  belong  to  the 
Southern  Carpathians  and  to  the  Balkans.  The 
former  of  these  systems  in  Servia  is  a  continua- 
tion of  the  Banat  region,  and  the  Danube  pierces 
here  through  the  imposing  gorge  known  as  the 
Iron  Gate.  The  formations  here  are  of  creta- 
ceous limestone  and  of  various  schists  inter- 
rupted by  volcanic  stone  and  ore  strata  and 
hot  springs  are  frequent.  The  highest  eleva- 
tion in  Eastern  Servia  is  not  far  from  the  south- 
east border — the  Suva-Planina,  6600  feet. 

Servia  is  a  well-watered  country,  belonging  en- 
tirely to  the  basin  of  the  Danube.  The  wide, 
fertile  valley  of  the  Morava  represents  the  larg- 
est cultivated  territory.  The  climate  is  moder- 
ate in  the  Danube  Valley  and  somewhat  cold  in 
the  mountains.  It  is  healthful  save  in  the  low- 
lands adjacent  to  the  Danube.  The  rainfall  is 
ample,  26  inches  being  the  annual  average.  The 
vegetation,  like  the  climate,  is  more  akin  to  that 
of  mid-Europe  than  to  that  of  the  Mediterranean 
basin.  The  fauna  includes  the  bear,  lynx,  and 
wild  boar.  The  forests  cover  about  one-third  of 
the  area,  but  are  being  rapidly  cut  down.  The 
mineral  resources  are  varied  and  of  value,  but 
there  is  little  mining,  owing  to  the  lack  of  capital 
and  facilities.  Coal  alone  is  mined  to  any  im- 
portant extent,  and  that  in  the  northeast. 

The  population  is  almost  entirely  agricultural. 
About  70  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  is  productive. 
There  are  about  4,500,000  acres  under  cultivation, 
nearly  all  tilled  bv  the  owners.  There  are  few 
large'  farms.  Modern  prosesses  in  farming  are 
slow  of  introduction.  Cereals,  with  com  at  the 
head,  are  the  chief  crops.    Com  is  the  staple  food 


SB&VIA. 


685 


SEBVIA. 


of  the  people.  Plums  are  an  important  crop 
and  form,  as  prunes,  a  noteworthy  item  of  export. 
Tobacco  is  raised  in  the  south.  Silk  culture  is 
making  a  good  b^inning.  The  best  pastures  are 
in  the  southwest.  Cattle,  sheep,  and  swine  are 
raised  extensively,  oxen  being  used  freely  as 
work  animals.  In  1900  Servia  had  956,661  cat- 
tle, 3,061,759  sheep,  959,580  hogs,  and  184,849 
horses. 

The  manufactures  are  of  little  importance,  be- 
ing chiefly  native  and  household,  and  confined  in 
the  "main  to  the  production  of  war  accoutrements, 
cotton  goods,  glass,  and  carpets.  The  only  water 
communication  is  afforded  by  the  Danube  and  the 
Save  on  the  northern  border.  The  main  railroad 
line  is  the  Belgrade,  Nish  and  Vrania,  which 
forms  a  part  of  the  International  Railway,  and 
with  its  branch  lines  has  a  total  mileage  of  354. 
It  is  under  Government  control.  The  trade  of 
Servia  (exclusive  of  the  transit  trade)  in  1901 
amounted  to  $21,278,610,  including  exports  to  the 
value  of  $12,691,702,  and  imports,  $8,586,908. 
Live  stock  and  farm  products  are  the  leading  ex- 
ports. 

The  establishment  of  the  National  Bank  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Servia  in  1883  marked  the  beginning 
of  a  new  era  in  Servian  banking.  It  is  empow- 
ered to  issue  bank  notes.  In  1900  there  were 
5  smaller  banking  establishments.  In  1875 
the  French  standard  of  money,  weights,  and 
measures  was  adopted.  The  dinar,  the  unit  of  the 
monetary  system,  corresponds  to  the  franc  and 
equals  19%  cents  in  United  States  money.  The 
public  finances  of  Servia  previous  to  the  Treaty 
of  Berlin,  although  not  on  a  systematized  basis, 
were  nevertheless  in  a  fairly  good  condition. 
As  a  result,  however,  of  the  cost  of  the  wars  of 
1876-78  and  the  liabilities  fastened  upon  the 
country  by  the  Congress  of  Berlin  and  of  Servia's 
participation  in  the  construction  of  the  Inter- 
national Railway,  a  large  national  debt  was  cre- 
ated, which  in   1C03  had  risen  to  $81,500,000. 

In  1882,  four  years  after  its  complete  independ- 
ence was  acknowledged  by  the  Treaty  of  Berlin, 
the  Principality  of  Servia  became  a  constitutional 
monarchy.  A  new  Constitution  supplanting  the 
former  one  of  1869  was  promulgated  by  the  Na- 
tional Assembly  in  1889.  The  Executive  Depart- 
ment is  composed  of  the  King  and  a  Cabinet  of 
eight  Ministers,  responsible  to  the  nation.  The 
National  Assembly,  or  Skupshtina,  consists  of 
262  Deputies,  64  appointed  by  the  Kipg  and  198 
elected  members  apportioned  among  the  various 
provinces  or  departments  on  the  basis  of  one 
member  for  each  4500  tax-paying  male  citizens. 
An  additional  member  is  allowed  for  each  surplus- 
age of  3000.  All  male  Servians  21  years  of  age 
laying  a  direct  annual  tax  of  about  $3  are  en- 
titled to  suffrage.  There  is  also  a  State  Coun- 
cil composed  of  16  members,  8  appointed  by 
the  King,  and  8  chosen  by  the  Skupshtina, 
which  supervises  certain  financial  matters,  hears 
claims  against  the  Government,  and  examines 
proposed  l^slation.  The  Great  National  As- 
sembly, which  is  convened  to  act  upon  special 
matters  of  great  moment,  consists  of  double 
the  number  of  members  of  the  ordinary  Skup- 
shtina, and  is  wholly  an  elective  body.  The 
judiciary  is  vested  in  a  High  Court  of  Appeal,  a 
Court  of  Cassation,  a  Commercial  Court,  and  23 
courts  of  the  first  instance.  For  purposes  of 
local  government  Servia  is  divided  into  17  prov- 


inces or  departments.  The  capital  and  largest 
city  is  Belgrade  (q.v.).  The  second  city  in  size 
is  Nish. 

The  population  in  1901  was  2,493,770,  almost 
all  being  Serbs,  or  Servians  (of  the  Slav  family)', 
and  Greek  orthodox.  There  are  9  cities  of  over 
8000.  The  cities,  by  striking  contrast  to  the 
districts,  are  rapidly  taking  on  the  characteristics 
of  modem  European  towns.  There  is  no  caste. 
All  Christian  religious  faiths  are  tolerated.  The 
national  Church  is  governed  by  a  synod  of  bishops. 
Education  is  free  and  on  a  rather  promising  foot- 
ing, but  the  percentage  of  illiterates  is  large.  The 
attendance  is  meant  to  be  obligatory,  but  there 
is  a  lack  of  instructors.  The  State  maintains  the 
high  schools,  and  pays  part  of  the  expense  of  the 
elemental  schools,  the  municipalities  paying  the 
balance.  At  the  head  of  the  educational  system 
is  the  scientific  'Great  School'  at  Belgrade,  with 
faculties  of  technical  science,  philosophy,  and 
law.    It  is  virtually  a  university. 

History.  The  land  occupied  by  modem  Servia 
lay  chiefly  in  the  Roman  province  of  Mcesia,  and 
was  peopled  by  Thracian  or  Illyrian  tribes.  It 
was  overrun  successively  by  Huns,  Ostrogoths, 
and  Lombards,  and  in  the  seventh  century  was 
seized  by  the  Avars.  About  637  the  Serbs  or 
Servians,  a  Slavic  tribe,  entering  the  country 
at  the  invitation  of  the  Emperor  Heraclius,  to 
oppose  the  Avars,  occunied  it  from  the  Save  to 
the  Balkans  and  from  the  Morava  and  the  Adri- 
atic. They  were  converted  to  Christianity  about 
the  middle  of  the  ninth  century,  and  for  two  cen- 
turies were  engaged  in  constant  warfare  with  the 
Bulgarians,  Asiatic  invaders  on  the  north,  who 
at  that  time  terrorized  the  Greek  Empire.  In 
the  eleventh  century  the  Byzantine  Imperial  au- 
thorities, who  had  hitherto  allowed  the  Servians 
to  retain  a  practically  autonomous  patriarchal 
government  under  their  Grand  Shupans,  or  na- 
tive chiefs,  sought  to  put  more  restrictions  upon 
them.  The  Servians  threw  off  the  Imperial  au- 
thority, and  their  Grand  Shupan  Michael  (c.l050- 
80)  proclaimed  himself  King  of  Servia  and  was 
^  recognized  by  Pope  Gregory  VII.  The  hard 
struggle  for  independence  ensued,  occupying  near- 
ly three  generations.  In  1165  Stephen  Nemanya 
founded  a  dynasty  which  lasted  nearly  two  cen- 
turies. Under  the  rule  of  this  dynasty  the  ter- 
ritory of  Servia  gradually  expanded,  and  its 
gower  increased,  reaching  its  height  under 
tephen  Dushan  (1331-55),  when  the  Servian 
Empire,  as  it  proudly  called  itself,  embraced 
Bosnia,  Albania,  Macedonia,  Thessaly,  part  of 
Bulgaria,  and  all  of  the  Hellenic  peninsula  ex- 
cept Attica  and  the  Peloponnesus.  The  Byzantine 
Emperor  sought  the  alliance  of  the  Servian  mon- 
arch, who  was  a  statesman  as  well  as  a  general. 
But  Dushan  died  before  he  was  able  to  organize 
and  consolidate  his  territories,  and  the  advance 
of  the  Turks  broke  up  the  short-lived  empire  he 
had  created.  The  dynasty  of  Nemanja  closed 
with  Dushan's  son,  who  died  about  1371.  The 
tide  of  Turkish  invasion  was  now  sweeping  over 
the  Balkan  Peninsula,  and  the  battle  of  Kossovo 
in  1389  placed  Servia  at  the  mercy  of  the  Otto- 
mans. A  small  body  of  survivors  of  the  Servian 
forces  found  refuge  in  the  mountainous  region 
since  known  as  Montenegro  (Cmagora).  Servia 
passed  under  Turkish  rule,  its  subjugation  being 
completed  by  Sultan  Mohammed  in  1459.  It  was 
the  scene  of  devastating  warfare  between  Hun- 


SEBVIA. 


686 


SEBVIAH  LAHGXr AGE. 


gary  and  the  Turks.  In  1456  Belgrade,  which  had 
been  occupied  by  the  Hungarians,  was  success- 
fully defended  against  the  Turks  by  the  heroic 
John  Hunyady  and  a  crusading  force,  but  in  1521 
Sultan  Solyman  the  Magnificent  made  himself 
master  of  the  city.  In  1718  Belgrade  and  part  of 
Servia  were  ceded  to  Austria,  but  were  retro- 
ceded  in  1739.  Under  the  rule  of  the  Turks  Ser- 
via suffered  fearful  oppression.  The  native  no- 
bility became  extinct  and  the  Servians  were  re- 
duced to  a  race  of  peasants.  In  1804  the  people 
rose  under  Czemy  George  (q.v.),  or  Kara  George. 
Assisted  by  Russia,  the  Servian  leader  was  able 
to  win  for  his  people  a  partial  autonomy.  The 
Napoleonic  wars,  however,  compelled  Russia  to 
withdraw  her  assistance,  and  Servia  was  resub- 
jected  to  the  Ottoman  yoke  in  1813. 

In  1815  Milosh  Obrenovitch  (q.v.),  who  had 
served  under  Kara  George,  suddenly  headed  an- 
other revolt,  which  proved  successful,  and  in 
1817  he  was  elected  by  the  chiefs  and  the  clergy 
Prince  of  Servia.  After  the  disastrous  war  with 
Russia  in  1828-29  Turkey  granted  autonomy  to 
Servia  and  recognized  Milosh  as  hereditary 
Prince  (1830).  Turkey,  however,  retained  the 
right  of  keeping  garrisons  in  the  country.  Milosh 
abdicated  in  1839  because  Russia  and  Turkey  in- 
sisted upon  a  constitution  which  practically  put 
the  powers  of  government  into  the  hands  of  a 
Senate.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Milan, 
who  reigned  but  a  few  weeks,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  brother  Michael.  A  strong  party  opposed 
to  the  Obrenovitch  dynasty  deposed  Michael  in 
1842  and  made  Alexander,  son  of  Kara  George, 
Prince.  Alexander  Karageorgevitch  was  wholly 
under  the  influence  of  Austria  and  the  Porte, 
and  was  deposed  in  1868.  The  aged  Milosh  was 
recalled,  and  in  1860  died,  being  again  succeeded 
by  Michael,  who  developed  the  idea  of  uniting  in 
one  nation  all  the  Serbs,  who  are  the  main  ^)dy 
of  the  population  in  Bosnia,  Herzegovina,  and 
Montenegro,  as  well  as  Servia.  He  secured  the 
withdrawal  of  all  Turkish  garrisons  from  Ser- 
via in  1867,  and  was  on  the  point  of  accomplish- 
ing even  more  in  the  direction  of  nationalization 
and  independence  when  he  was  assassinated  by 
adherents  of  the  rival  house  in  1868.  As  Mi- 
chael had  no  direct  heir,  the  Skupshtina  or  Senate 
proclaimed  his  nephew.  Prince  Milan,  who  at- 
tained his  majority  in  1872.  Under  the  guidance 
of  the  Prime  Minister  Risti<f  (qv.)  Servia  was 
given  a  constitutional  organization,  with  a  Coun- 
cil of  State,  and  the  Skupshtina  was  transformed 
into  a  Chamber  of  Deputies,  elected  by  propor- 
tional representation.  In  July,  1876,  Servia  de- 
clared war  against  Turkey,  being  joined  by  Mon- 
tenegro. The  Servians,  generally  unsuccessful, 
notwithstanding  the  help  of  numerous  Russian 
volunteers,  Were  totally  defeated  at  Diunis  and 
Alexinatz  in  October.  An  armistice  followed,  and 
a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  March  1,  1877.  In 
April  Russia  declared  war  against  Turkey  (see 
Russo-TuBKiSH  War),  but  Servia  did  not  ven- 
ture to  take  the  field  until  the  fall  of  Plevna 
had  virtually  decided  the  war.  The  complete  in- 
dependence of  Servia  was  established  by  the 
Treaty  of  Berlin  (q.v.),  July  13,  1878,  which  also 
gave  the  country  an  increase  of  territory.  In 
1882  the  principality  was  proclaimed  a  kingdom. 
In  1885  war  was  declared  against  Bulgaria,  but 
the  Servian  army,  though  larger  and  better 
equipped  than  that  of  the  enemy,  was  defeated 


by  the  military  genius  of  Prince  Alexander  of 
Battenberg  (q.v.),  and  Servia  was  invaded. 
Peace  was  secured  through  the  intervention  of 
the  Great  Powers.  King  Milan,  who  had  sought 
to  strengthen  his  position  by  promulgating  a 
liberal  constitution,  January,  1880,  dissatisfied 
with  the  democratic  course  of  the  radicals,  ab- 
dicated March  6,  1889,  in  favor  of  his  son  Alex- 
ander I.  (q.v.)y  who  dispensed  with  a  regency  in 
1893. 

Alexander  began  at  once  to  act  the  auto- 
crat. In  1894  he  recalled  his  father  to  assist  kim 
against  his  radical  ministers,  and  by  proclama- 
tion restored  their  full  privileges  to  his  father 
and  mother,  Natalie.  On  May  21st  he  abolished 
the  liberal  Constitution  of  1889,  restoring  that  of 
1869.  In  1900  he  married  Draga  Mash  in,  in 
defiance  of  his  father's  wishes.  The  new  Queen 
was  many  years  his  senior,  and  had  been  dis- 
missed from  the  service  of  Queen  Natalie  because 
of  her  intrigues.  Milan  was  once  more  eXlled, 
and  Alexander  began  a  period  of  high-handed  per- 
sonal rule  which  aroused  intense  hostility  among 
the  most  influential  persons  in  the  kingdom.  The 
attempt  of  Queen  Draga  to  impose  upon  the  peo- 
ple the  belief  that  an  heir  to  the  throne  was  in 
prospect  increased  the  popular  dislike.  In  April, 
1903,  King  Alexander  abrogated  the  Constitution, 
changed  the  Ministry  and  the  laws,  and  then 
restored  the  mutilated  Constitution  to  operation. 
This  was  a  process  attended  with  some  peril  in  a 
country  where  liberalism  and  even  republican- 
ism had  been  growing.  A  conspiracy  was  formed 
by  leading  officers  of  the  army,  and  on  June  11th 
the  palace  was  entered  and  the  King,  the  Queen, 
two  of  her  brothers,  and  two  of  the  Cabinet, 
Premier  Markovitch  and  Minister  of  War  Pav- 
lovitch,  wete  assassinated.  So  far  as  any  ex- 
ternal evidence  was  given,  the  King  and  Queen 
had  hardly  a  friend  in  Servia.  The  people  re- 
ceived the  revolution  with  approval  or  stolid  in- 
difference. A  provisional  government  of  liberals 
was  formed  and  the  family  of  Karageorgevitch, 
the  rivals  of  the  House  of  Obrenovitch,  was  re- 
stored in  the  person  of  Prince  Peter,  then  living 
in  exile  in  Geneva.    See  Peisb  I.  JSJjlaqkowe- 

VITCH. 

BiBLiooBAPHT.  Taillandier,  La  Serbie  au 
XlXime  H^le  (Paris,  1872) ;  Reinach,  La  Serbie 
et  le  Mont^nSgro  (Paris,  1876) ;  Elanitz,  Serhim 
(Leipzig,  1868) ;  Borchgrave,  La  Serbie,  admin- 
i8irative,  iconomique  et  commerciale  (Brussels, 
1883)  ;  Milicevid,  The  Kingdom  of  Servia,  trans, 
from  the  Servian  (Belgrade,  1884) ;  Wiesner, 
Au8  Serbien  und  Bulgarien  (Leipzig,  1886); 
Laveleye,  The  Balkan  Peninsula  (London,  1887) ; 
Mackenzie,  Travels  in  the  Slavonic  Provinces  of 
Turkey  in  Europe  (3d  ed.,  ib.,  1887)  ;  Karic, 
La  Serbie;  Description  du  pays,  du  peuple  et  de 
VHat  (Belgrade,  1888)  ;  Millet  La  Serbie  ^co- 
nomique  et  comwerciale  (Paris,  1889) ;  Coquelle, 
Le  royaume  de  Serbie  (ib.,  1894) ;  Vivian,  Servia 
(ib.,  1897);  De  Gubematis,  La  Serbie  et  les 
serbes  (Paris,  1898) ;  Mallat,  La  Serbie  eontem- 
poraine  (ib.,  1902)  ;  Curtis,  The  Turk  and  His 
Lost  Provinces  (New  York,  1903)  ;  Ranke,  The 
History  of  Servia  (Eng.  trans.,  London.  1853) ; 
id.,  Serbien  und  die  Serben  (Berlin,  1878) ;  Kal- 
lay,  Geschichte  der  Serben  (Pesth,  1877). 

SBBVIAN  LANaXTAGK  See  Sebbo-Cboi- 
TiAN  Language. 


8BBVIAN  LITEBATITBE. 


687 


SBBVICE-BEBBY. 


8BBVIAK  LITESATUBE.  I.  Aitoient 
Period  to  the  £nd  of  the  Foubteenth  Cen- 
TUBT.  The  earliest  literature  was  in  Old  Church 
Slavic  and  consisted  of  ecclesiastical  books. 
The  earliest  extant  monuments  belong  to  the 
twelfth  century.  Besides  the  books  necessary 
for  the  liturgy  others  were  translated  or  com- 
piled from  Greek  originals.  A  greater  claim 
to  the  title  of  literary  productions  belongs 
to  the  lives  of  the  saints  of  the  Servian 
Church  and  prominent  Servian  rulers  and  per- 
sonages. Among  the  numerous  political,  dip- 
lomatic, and  judicial  monuments  of  the  period, 
the  so-called  Vinodolian  Law  and  the  Code 
of  King  Dushan  are  remarkable  for  the  purity 
of  the  language  employed  and  the  flood  of  light 
they  shed  on  many  points  connected  with  the 
history  and  civilization  of  Servia. 

II.  Middle  or  Dalmatian  Period.  (Fifteenth 
to  seventeenth  century,  inclusive.)  The  half  Sla- 
vic, half  Italian,  commonwealth  of  Ragusa  or 
Dubrovnik,  in  Dalmatia,  produced  a  number  of 
eminent  writers.  Among  them  Gundulitch  ( 1588- 
1638)  (q.v.)  with  his  heroic  epic  Osmanf  Dioko- 
vitch  (1563-1631),  and  the  dramatist  Palmotitch 
( 1606-57 ) ,  author  of  a  Chriatiad,  deserve  special 
mention.  The  lyric  poet  Katchitch-Miotchitch 
(1690-1760)  with  his  Discourse  is  the  connecting 
link  between  the  old  Dalmatian  and  the  modem 
Servian  literature. 

III.  MoDEBN  Servian  Period.  (Eighteenth  cen- 
tury.) The  contact  with  Western  Europe  at  the 
end  of  the  seventeenth  and  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century  resulted  linguistically  in  a 
mixture  of  Servian,  Old  Slavic,  and  Russian 
forms.  The  names  most  prominent  during  the 
eighteenth  century  9  re  those  of  Yovan  Rayitch 
(1726-1801),  who  wrote  a  History  of  the  Slavic 
Peoples,  especially  the  Bulgarians^  Croatians,  end 
Servians  { 1768,  last  ed.,  4  vols.,  Buda,  1823) ,  and 
Obradovitch  (1730-1811),  the  pioneer  of  modem 
Servian.  The  latter  went  back  to  the  native 
popular  tongue  in  his  writings:  Life  and  Adven- 
tures.  Counsels  of  Common  Sense,  a  course  of 
practical  ethics,  and  the  Collection  of  Various 
Moral  Trifles  (Vienna,  1793).  Though  still  laden 
with  Russian  and  other  non-Servian  expressions, 
his  style  is  quite  flexible,  often  graceful,  and  ex- 
hibits a  preponderance  of  purely  Servian  words. 

IV.  Nineteenth  Century.  The  flrst  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century  was  marked  by  the  literary 
labors  of  the  great  Karajitch  (1787-1864)  (q.v.), 
the  ''father  of  modem  Servian."  He  employed  the 
pure  Servian  of  the  common  people  (of  the  south 
Shtokavian  dialect)  with  such  art,  force,  and 
purity  that  it  was  finally  accepted  as  the  stand- 
ard. The  sentimental  novels  of  Milovan  Vidako- 
vitch  (1780-1841),  the  pseudoclassical  odes  of 
Mushitski  (1777-1837),  and  the  epics  of  Milu- 
tinovitch  (1791-1848)  gave  way  to  the  more 
national,  realistic,  and  life-like  writers  of  the 
stripe  of  Branko  Raditchevitch  (1824-53).  Of 
his  poems  the  best  are  The  PupiVs  Parting 
and  The  Path.  Another  distinguished  poet 
is  the  last  vladika  of  Montenegro,  Peter  II., 
Petrovitch  Nyegosh  (1813-51),  whose  most  im- 
portant work  is  the  Mountain  (Trotrn,  a  poem  in 
dramatic  form,  relating  the  slaughter  of  the  Mo- 
hammedanlzed  Montenegrins  by  their  Christian 
brethren,  about  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, Zmaj  Yovan  Yovaaovitch  (see  Jovano- 
VlQ),  bom  in  1813,  is  the  greatest  Servian  poet 


living,  DyuTo  Yakshitch  and  Lazar  Kostitch 
sharing  with  him  the  field  of  poetry.  Among  the 
novelists,  Milan  Militchevitch  (q.v.)  with  his 
Winter  Evenings  holds  the  foremost  place.  Prince 
Nicholas  of  Montenegro^  a  poet  of  genuine  in- 
spiration and  strength,  is  the  author  of  the  na- 
tional (Montenegrin)  hymn  Thither!  Thither t 
In  Croatia,  whose  literary  language  is  the  same 
as  that  of  Servia  (the  written  characters,  how- 
ever, being  different),  the  reforms  of  Karajitch 
found  an  enthusiastic  supporter  in  the  poet-pub- 
licist Ljudevit  Gai  (1809-72).  Of  the  other 
Croatian  writers,  by  far  the  greatest  is  Ivan 
Maluranid  (1814-90)  (q.v.),  chiefly  known  as 
an  epic  poet.  The  lyric  poet  Preradovitch(1818- 
72)  and  Bogovitch  (1816-93),  the  author  of 
dramas  and  epics,  also  deserve  mention.  The 
scientific  literature  in  Servian  is  of  considerable 
extent. 

The  oral  (popular)  literature  falls  into  two 
main  divisions,  with  regard  to  subject  matter: 
(a)  the  so  called  yunak  (brave,  hero)  songs, 
epic  in  character,  relating  the  achievements  of 
the  national  heroes;  (b)  the  feminine,  lyric  in 
nature,  dealing  with  the  softer  sides  of  the  na- 
tion's life,  chiefly,  but  not  exclusively,  with  the 
lot  of  woman.  In  the  epic  (yunak)  songs  the 
four  chief  periods  of  Servian  history  are  easily 
discernible:  those  composed  in  the  earliest  period, 
exhibiting  the  earlier  strata  of  mythology  over- 
run by  and  intermingled  with  later  Christian 
elements;  those  narrating  the  glorious  period 
of  the  Nemanya  dynasty  (from  the  twelfth  to 
the  fourteenth  century);  the  songs  depicting 
the  loss  of  Servia's  independence  at  Kossovo 
(1389)  and  subsequent  events;  the  songs  of 
modem  times  of  the  struggle  for  independence 
at  the  outset  of  the  nineteenth  century,  including 
commemorations  of  the  great  leader  Kara  or 
Black  George,  and  the  Montenegrin  uprisings, 
etc.  This  form  of  literary  production  is  still 
going  on. 

Consult:  Kapper,  Volkslieder  der  Serhen  (Leip- 
zig, 1852)  ;  Talvj,  Volkslieder  der  Serhen  (2d  ed., 
ib.,  1853)  ;  id..  Historical  View  of  the  Languages 
and  Literature  of  the  Slavic  Nations  (New  York, 
1850) ;  Miklosich,  Beitrage  zur  Kenntnis  der 
slawischen  Volkspoesie  (Vienna,  1870) ;  Krauss, 
Sagen  und  M&rchen  der  Siidslavoen  (Leipzig, 
1883-84) ;  Manoilovitch,  SerhokroaUsche  Dich' 
tungen  (3d  ed.,  Vienna,  1888) ;  Safahk,  Oe- 
schichte  der  sUdslau^schen  Litteratur  (Prague, 
1865). 

SEBVIAH   POLITICAL    PABTIE8.      See 

PouTiCAL  Pabties,  section  on  Servia. 

SEBVIAN  WALL  (Lat.  agger  Servii  Tullii). 
The  first  inclosing  wall  of  ancient  Rome,-  the 
construction  of  which  is  assigned  to  Servius 
Tullius.  The  wall  was  constructed  against  one 
of  the  cliffs  forming  the  face  of  the  Capitol ine, 
Quirinal,  Oppian,  Celian,  and  Aventine  Hills, 
crossing  the  narrowest  parts  of  the  valleys  be- 
tween, and  reinforced  at  its  weakest  points  by  an 
agcer  consisting  of  an  embankment  with  an  outer 
wall  and  ditch.  The  whole  coarse  of  the  Servian 
wall  and  the  position  of  the  gates  have  been  defi- 
nitely ascertained  by  excavations  made  since  1860. 

SEBVICE-BEBBY  (extended  form  of  serve, 
from  Lat.  sorhus,  service-tree ;  influenced  by  popu- 
lar etymology  with  service),  Pyrus  Sorhus.  A 
slow-growing  but  long-lived  tree  of  the  natural 


SEBVICE-BEBBY. 


688 


SBBV1TE& 


order  Rosacese,  native  of  Europe,  Africa,  and 
Asia.  It  grows  about  50  feet  tall  and  bears  small 
pear-shaped  fruits,  for  which  it  is  cultivated  in 
Central  and  Southern  Europe.    The  heavy,  fine- 


8BBYICB-BERRT. 


grained,  strong,  durable  timber,  which  can  be 
highly  polished,  is  valued  for  machine-making.  In 
the  United  States  the  name  is  often  applied  to 
the  shadbush  (q.v.).    See  Amelanchieb. 

SEBVICE   OF   FAPEBS   AND   FBOCESS 

(OF.  servise,  service,  Fr.  service,  from  Lat.  servi- 
Hum,  service,  servitude,  from  aervire,  to  serve; 
connected  with  servus,  servant,  slave).  It  is  a 
fundamental  principle  of  law  that  no  final 
judicial  action  shall  be  taken  against  a  person 
unless  he  is  notified  of  the  proposed  steps  to  be 
taken  against  him,  and  given  an  opportunity  to 
present  his  side  of  the  matter.  This  doctrine  ap- 
plies to  both  civil  and  criminal  proceedings.  In 
some  jurisdictions  the  summons  or  other  primary 
process  is  served  personally  on  the  defendant,  and 
the  subsequent  pleadings  and  other  papers  in  the 
action  are  filed  in  the  office  of  the  clerk  of  the 
court  within  stipulated  periods.  This  is  true 
generally  under  the  common-law  system.  Mod- 
em codes,  however,  generally  require  that  each 
successive  pleading,  notice,  or  other  paper  relat- 
ing to  the  action  shall  be  served  upon  the  attor- 
ney for  the  opposite  party  or  the  latter  himself, 
even  though  they  are  also  required  to  be  filed. 

Criminal  process  must  be  served  by  an  au- 
thorized person,  usually  a  representative  of  the 
sheriff  or  prosecuting  attorney,  or  an  officer  of 
the  court.  However,  in  most  States,  civil  process 
may  be  served  by  any  person  not  a  party  to  the 
action,  but  in  a  few  jurisdictions  a  private  indi- 
vidual must  be  specially  authorized  or  deputized 
in  order  to  make  a  valid  service.  The  process 
server  is  usually  required  to  be  of  a  certain  age, 
commonly  18  years  and  upward,  and  must  not 
have  an  interest  in  the  action. 

The  time  of  service  of  papers  in  an  action  is 
governed  by  the  practice  acts  and  rules  of  court 
in  each  State,  and,  in  general,  these  provisions 
must  be  strictly  complied  with.  Papers  or  proc- 
ess cannot  be  served  on  a  day  which  is  strictly 
a  dies  non  (q.v.).  However,  unless  the  service 
of  papers  on  holidays  is  prohibited  by  statute, 
either  expressly  or  by  implication,  it  will  be 
deemed  valid.  In  New  York  and  a  few  other 
States  service  of  papers  on  Saturday  upon  per- 
sona who  observe  that  day  as  a  holy  day  is  pro- 
hibited. In  the  computation  of  time  within 
which  papers  must  be  served  Sunday  is  included, 
unless  it  falls  on  the  last  day  of  the  time  al- 
lowed, in  which  case  the  next  succeeding  legal 
day  is  added  to  the  time. 


Service  must  be  made  within  the  territorial 
jurisdiction  of  the  court;  if  it  is  a  State  court, 
service  anywhere  within  the  State  ia  valid. 
Where  an  action  is  to  be  commenced  against  a 
non-resident,  or  where  a  resident  of  the  State 
leaves  it  to  evade  service  of  process,  or  secretes 
himself  with  like  'purpose,  most  jurisdictions 
provide  that  service  may  be  made  by  publica- 
tion. This  is  done  by  order  of  the  court;  the 
summons  or  other  process  is  published  in  desig- 
nated newspapers  in  the  county  in  which  the 
action  is  commenced,  and  also  mailed  to  the  de- 
fendant's last  known  address,  or  tacked  on  his 
door  if  he  reside  within  the  coimty.  The  plaintiff 
is  usually  allowed  the  alternative  of  making 
'substituted  service,*  that  is,  serving  the  defend- 
ant personally  without  the  State.  Service  by  pub- 
lication, or  without  the  State,  will  not  give  a 
court  such  jurisdiction  as  is  necessary  to  support 
a  personal  judgment  in  the  sense  of  obliging 
courts  in  other  States  to  give  'faith  and  credit' 
to  it.  However,  as  a  State  has  jurisdiction  over 
all  property  within  its  limits,  irrespective  of 
whether  it  is  owned  by  its  own  citizens  or  those 
of  other  States,  it  is  held  that  a  judgment  ob- 
tained after  such  service  will  be  good  as  against 
any  property  of  the  defendant  within  the  ^>tate. 
Some  States  provide  that  service  cannot  be  made 
upon  non-residents  who  come  into  the  jurisdic- 
tion for  the  purpose  of  attending  court  as  wit- 
nesses, provided  they  do  not  stay  longer  than  is 
absolutely  necessary  for  that  purpose. 

The  requisites  of  proper  service  on  individuals 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  a  court  are  also  gov- 
erned by  the  local  acts  in  each  State.  The  most 
common  requirements  are  that  the  papers  or  proc- 
ess be  handed  to  the  person  intended  to  be  served, 
and  often  that  their  nature  ^r  contents  be  stated 
to  him  at  the  time.  If  the  person  thus  served 
throws  down  the  paper  the  service  is  neverthe- 
less complete,  and  if  he  refuses  to  receive  it  when 
the  process  server  attempts  to  hand  it  to  him  it 
should  be  laid  on  his  shoulder  or  laid  down  in  his 
presence  and  its  natyre  explained  to  him,  in 
which  cases  the  service  is  deemed  valid.  Some 
practice  acts  require  that  certain  judicial  papers 
or  orders  be  read  to  the  person  served,  or  the 
judge's  signature  exhibited  to  him.  Where  there 
are  several  defendants  in  an  action  each  one  must 
be  served  individuallv^  but  where  the  action  is 
against  a  copartnership  service  on  one  member 
is  sufficient.  Service  is  made  on  a  corporation 
by  serving  one  of  its  officers  or  a  director,  or,  if 
it  is  a  foreign  corporation,  an  officer  or  managing 
agent  within  the  State. 

Some  codes  of  procedure  provide  that  service 
of  the  pleadings  and  other  papers  in  an  action 
after  the  first  process  may  be  made  by  mail  on 
the  attorneys  for  the  respective  parties.  Ig- 
norance of  the  effect  of  service  will  not  avoid  the 
consequence  of  non-compliance  with  the  contents 
of  the  papers  or  the  rules  of  court.  See  Plead- 
ing; Procedure. 

SEBVITES  (ML.  serviiw,  from  Lat.  wrww, 
servant,  slave).  A  Roman  Catholic  monastic 
Order  founded  in  Florence  in  1240  by  seven 
prominent  merchants,  who  desired  to  advance  the 
glory  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  It  is  a  contemplative 
Order,  and  for  a  time  enjoyed  great  prosperity. 
Its  rule  was  based  on  the  Augustinian  and  was 
confirmed  by  Pope  Alexander  IV.  in  1265.  In 
1288  it  had  some  ten  thousand  members.  In  the 
lifetime  of  the  founders  it  entered  France  and 


BEBVTTEB. 


689 


SEBVIUS  HABIU& 


Germany,  and  in  the  next  century  Spain;  but 
its  introduction  into  England  was  not  till  1864. 
Thence  in  1870  the  Order  came  into  the  United 
States,  where  in  1902  it  had  three  monasteries 
with  fourteen  fathers  and  eleven  lay  brothers. 
Its  membership  throughout  the  world  has  much 
decreased,  and  even  in  Italy  it  has  now  only  40 
monasteries.  Besides  the  monks  there  were  nuns 
of  this  Order.  There  are  also  tertiaries,  who  live 
in  the  world.  But  all  these  branches  are  few  in 
numbers.  For  the  lives  of  worthies  of  this  Order, 
consult  Sp<3rr,  Lehenahilder  aus  dem  Serviten- 
orden  (Innsbruck,  1892-95>. 

SEBVITUDE  (Lat.  aervitudo,  from  8ervu», 
servant,  slave).  In  the  Roman  law,  a  right  to 
use  property  which  belongs  to  another.  Servi- 
tudes are  classified  as  'prsedial'  and  'personal.' 
The  former  are  annexed  to  land:  the  right  be- 
longs to  the  owner  of  a  'dominant'  piece  of  land, 
and  is  exercised  over  a  neighboring  'servient' 
piece  of  land.  The  prsedial  servitudes  are  further 
subdivided  intQ  rustic  and  urban.  The  former 
include  rights  of  way  and  rights  of  drawing 
water  from  or  over  neighboring  land.  The  urban 
servitudes  are  annexed  to  residential  property: 
they  include  rights  of  support  from  an  adjoining 
building,  rights  of  discharging  rainwater  on  ad- 
joining premises,  and  restrictions  upon  the 
height  of  neighboring  buildings.  The  prsedial 
servitudes  are  of  unlimited  duration. 

Personal  servitudes  are  established  in  favor  of 
a  particular  person,  without  reference  to  his 
ownership  of  land,  and  they  may  be  exercised 
over  immovable  property  or  over  movables.  They 
are  rights  of  more  or  less  complete  use  and  en- 
joyment, regularly  limited  to  a  single  life.  The 
most  important  personal  servitude  is  a  usufruct. 

A  very  important  restriction  upon  servitudes  is 
found  in  the  rule  that  the  owner  of  servient 
property  cannot  be  obliged  to  do  anything.  His 
du^  is  confined  to  inaction  or  toleration.  The 
only  exception  is  found  in  the  urban  servitude 
of  support  from  an  adjoining  building.  This 
servitude  obliges  the  owner  of  the  servient  estate 
to  keep  his  building  in  repair. 

Servitudes  may  be  established  by  contract  (ac- 
cepted grant)  or  by  testament  or  by  judicial  de- 
cree in  a  partition  suit.  They  may  also  be 
established  by  prescription.  They  may  be  extin- 
guished by  contract  (accepted  release),  and  by 
confusion  or  merger,  when  the  ownership  of  the 
servient  property  and  the  special  right  conferred 
by  the  servitude  are  imited  in  the  same  person. 
Personal  servitudes  and  rustic  servitudes  may  be 
lost  by  non-user;  urban  servitudes  are  so  lost 
only  when  the  owner  of  the  servient  estates  pre- 
scribes his  liberty  (see  Prescbiftion),  which 
means  that  he  must  establish  and  maintain  for 
10  or  20  years  a  state  of  things  inconsistent  with 
the  servitude. 

In  modem  civil  law  it  is  possible  to  charge 
periodical  payments  upon  land  (so-called  rent- 
charges)  ;  but  with  this  exception  the  modem 
European  doctrine  of  servitudes  is  substantially 
the  same  as  the  Roman. 

General  restrictions  imposed  by  law  upon  the 
use  of  property,  especially  when  these  are  im- 
posed in  the  interest  of  neighbors,  are  sometimes 
called  by  mediaval  and  modem  writers  'legal 
servitudes.' 

The  term  servitude  was  also  applied  to  that 
legal  and  social  status  of  transported  or  co- 


lonial laborers  marked  by  temporary  and  lim- 
ited loss  of  political  and  personal  liberty  due 
to  service  obligations  under  real  or  implied  con- 
tract. Developed  chiefly  in  English  and  French 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  century  colonies, 
negro,  Indian,  and  white  servitude  was  anal- 
ogous to  recent  subject  labor  in  Cuba,  South 
America,  South  Africa,  and  Hawaii.  For  two 
centuries  (1619-1819)  in  America  servitude  was 
an  important  social  institution,  with  incidents 
definea  by  local  law  and  custom,  serving  the 
economic  functions  of  immigration  and  a  skilled 
labor  supply,  and  in  effect  was  an  industrial  ap- 
prenticeship. Its  longest  institutional  duration 
was  in  agricultural  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and 
Virginia,  where  it  supplied  high-grade  labor  a 
century  after  slavery  replaced  it  as  a  general 
labor  supply.  Indented  or  indentured  servitude 
(because  by  deed  indented,  indenture)  started  as 
a  free  personal  relation  based  on  voluntary  con- 
tract for  a  term  of  service  in  lieu  of  transporta- 
tion and  maintenance  or  profit-sharing  between 
poor  British  or  Continental  immigrants  and  in- 
dividuals or  corporations,  like  the  Virginia  Com- 
pany, importing  them.  It  tended  to  pass  into  a 
property  relation  (1)  in  which  was  recognized 
only  the  involuntary  and  sometimes  indefinite 
service  obligation  enjoined  by  law,  judicial  or 
statutory,  in  England  or  the  colonies,  or  procured 
by  force  through  the  organized  kidnapping  of 
persons  in  Great  Britain,  called  'spiriting;'  and 
(2)  in  which  extensive  control  was  asserted  over 
the  bodies  and  liberties  of  the  person  during 
service  as  if  he  were  a  chattel.  The  master's 
right  to  service  of  both  voluntary  and  involun- 
tary servants  was  supposed  to  be  based  upon 
contract,  written,  oral,  in  the  form  of  court  sen- 
tences, act  of  Assembly,  or  'according  to  the 
custom  of  the  country.'  The  status  servitude 
was  recognized  by  statute,  as  follows:  Vir- 
ginia, 1619;  Massachusetts,  1630-36;  Maryland, 
1637;  Connecticut,  1643;  Rhode  Island,  1647; 
North  Carolina,  1665;  Pennsylvania,  1682; 
Cieorgia,  1732.  Important  incidents  added  by 
law  were:  "Master's  alienation,  by  gift,  sale,  or 
will ;  rating  in  assets ;  seizure  for  debt ;  two  to 
seven  year  additions  to  time  of  service,  whip- 
ping, and  fetters  .  for  control ;  consent  to  mar- 
riage, property  ownership,  trade,  and  assembly; 
servant's  rights  to  freedom  dues,  certificate  of 
freedom,  suit  and  complaint  by  petition,  com- 
mutation for  punishment,  free  time,  medical  at- 
tention, and,  if  white,  non-service  to  colored  per- 
sons and  infidels.  Servants  ('kids,'  'redemption- 
ers,'  'indented')  included  younger  sons  of  no- 
bility; political  prisoners;  religious  malcon- 
tents; vagrants;  convicts;  German,  Swiss, 
French,  and  Dutch  peasants;  negroes  and  In- 
dians. Servitude  declined  as  slavery  developed; 
but  a  white-servant  trade  lasted  until  1819. 

Freed  white  servants  rapidly  rose  to  social  and 
political  equality,  and  even  prominence  as  plant- 
ers, burgesses,  or  yeomen,  though  some  became 
overseers  or  frontiersmen. 

Consult  authorities  cited  under  Civil  Law; 
also  Hoffman,  Die  Lehre  von  den  Servituten 
(1838,  1843);  Fibers,  Die  rdmische  Servituten- 
lehre  (1854,  1856)  ;  Schoneraann,  Die  Servituten 
(1866). 

SEB/VITJS  MA^nrS  (or  Maubus),  Hono- 
BATUS.    A  Roman  grammarian  of  the  fourth  een- 


SEBVIUS  1CABIU& 


690 


SESSA  ATTBUHGA. 


tury.  His  most  celebrated  work  is  his  commen- 
tary on  Vergil,  which  is  derived  largely  from  the 
works  of  earlier  scholars,  and  contains  copious 
notes  on  Greek  and  Roman  history,  religion,  and 
mythology.  It  is  now  impossible  to  determine 
just  how  much  of  the  work  was  prepared  by 
Servius  and  how  much  was  added  by  the  later 
transcribers.  The  commentary  was  edited  by 
Thilo  and  Hagen  (1881-87).  Consult:  Thomas, 
Essai  8ur  Servius  (Paris,  1880),  and  Nettleship, 
Lectures   (Oxford,  1885). 

SEBVITTS  TTJLaJTJS.  A  legendary  king  of 
Rome  (q.v.). 

SESAME,  6^^&-me.  Plants  of  the  genus 
Sesamum  (q.v.). 

SESAMOID  BONE  (from  Gk.  <ri^raMoetdi^t, 
aSsamoeidCs,  like  sesame,  from  ari<rdfMWy  aeaamon, 
ffT/<rdftrif  8€sam€,  sesame  -{-  eTdot,  eidoSf  jform).  A 
small  bone  developed  in  the  substance  of  the 
tendon  of  a  muscle  in  the  neighborhood  of  certain 
joints.  In  the  human  subject  the  patella  is  the 
best  example.  Sesamoid  bones  are  much  more 
abundant  in  the  great  majority  of  mammals  than 
they  are  in  man. 

SESAMXTM  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  <yri<rdfwp,  aSsa- 
mon).  A  genus  of  about  12  species  of  African 
or  Indian  annual  hairy  herbs,  called  sesame,  gin- 
gili,  bene,  til,  etc.,  of  the  natural  order  Bignonia- 
ee®,  or  according  to  some  botanists  Pedaliacea?. 
The  species  are  so  similar  as  to  be  sometimes  reck- 
oned mere  varieties  of  one  species,  Sesamum  in- 
dicum.  The  sweet  oleaginous  seeds  are  used  in 
Central  Africa  for  making  pudding.  In  Egypt 
they  are  eaten  strewed  on  cake.  The  bland,  long- 
keeping,  fixed  oil  obtained  from  them  by  ezpres- 


BE8AMUM  IKDICUM. 

sion  is  used  ad  an  article  of  food,  like  olive  oil, 
and  by  the  Women  of  Egypt  as  a  cosmetic.  From 
ancient  times  it  has  been  cultivated  in  India, 
China,  Japan,  and  in  many  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical countries.  It  is  one  of  the  quickest  of 
agricultural  products  to  yield  returns.  The  oil- 
cake, mixed  with  honey  and  preserved  citron,  is 
an  Oriental  luxury.  The  leaves  of  Sesamum 
abound  in  mucilaginous  substance,  which  they 
readily  impart  to  water,  making  a  rich  bland 


mucilage,  which  is  used  in  the  southern  parts  of 
the  United  States  as  a  demulcent  drink. 

liESHA,  sha'shA  (Skt.  i^a,  remainder,  ser- 
pent). In  Hindu  mythology,  the  king  of  the 
serpent  race.  Vishnu  (q.v.)  sleeps  on  him  as  he 
floats  upon  the  primeval  waters.  He  has  a  thou- 
sand heads,  which  serve  as  a  canopy  to  the  god; 
and  he  upholds  the  world,  which  rests  on  one  oif 
these  heads.  His  crest  is  ornamented  with  jeweK 
His  yawn  causes  the  earthquake,  and  by  fire 
which  comes  from  his  body  the  world  is  destroye<{ 
at  the  end  of  each  kalpa  (q.v.). 

SESI^  or  Sesi  de  lo  Alto.  The  market  name 
in  Havana  of  an  excellent  food-fish  {Neonuenia, 
or  Lutjanus,  huccanella),  one  of  the  pargos  or 
snappers,  which  in  life  is  prevailingly  crimson 
and  orange  in  color,  marked  by  a  jet-black  spot 
at  the  base  of  the  pectoral  fin,  whence  its  other 
names,  'oreille  noire'  (black  ear)  and  'black-fin 
snapper.'  It  is  known  in  Martinique  as  'bucca- 
nelle.' 

SESOS^BIS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Z4<n>Hrrpu).  The 
Greek  name  of  a  king  of  Egypt  whose  exploits 
are  related  by  Herodotus,  Diodorus,  and  other 
writers  of  antiquity.  According  to  these  au- 
thors the  father  of  Sesostris,  having  learned  by 
an  oracle  that  his  son  was  destined  to  attain 
universal  empire,  caused  him  to  be  educated  in  all 
warlike  accomplishments  along  with  1700  Egyp- 
tian boys  all  bom  on  the  same  day  with  the 
prince.  On  his  accession  to  the  throne  Sesostris 
fitted  out  a  ereat  army,  officered  by  his  1700 
comrades,  and  set  forth  to  conquer  the  world. 
After  conquering  Ethiopia  and  marching  to  the 
farthest  limits  of  India,  he  turned  westward,  sub- 
duing all  lands  in  his  progress  through  Asia, 
traversed  Asia  Minor,  invaded  Europe,  and  sub- 
jugated Scythia  and  Thrace.  On  his  return  to 
Egypt  his  brother,  who  had  been  Regent  in  his 
absence,  plotted  his  destruction,  but  Sesostris 
escaped  from  the  snare  and  punished  its  con- 
triver. Being  now  master  of  the  known  world, 
he  devoted  the  remainder  of  his  reign  to  improv- 
ing the  condition  of  his  country,  and  at  the  same 
time  sought  to  perpetuate  his  fame  by  erecting 
magnificent  buildings  upon  which  w^ere  inscribed 
his  name  and  deeds.  He  divided  Egypt  into  36 
nomes,  constructed  an  extensive  system  of  canals 
for  irrigating  the  land,  divided  the'population  into 
castes,  and  fortified  the  country  against  invasion. 
He  became  blind  in  his  old  age  and  took  his  o^n 
life.  It  has  long  been  recognized  that  Sesostris 
was  not  an  historical  personage.  His  name  is 
apparently  derived  from  the  El^ptian  name  Sen- 
usert  (i.e.  Usertesen),  and  it  is  probable  that 
one  of  the  kings  of  the  Twelfth  Dynasty  was  the 
original  hero  of  the  legend.  In  later  times,  how- 
ever, the  boastful  inscriptions  of  Rameses  II. 
(q.v.),  inscribed  upon  the  walls  of  numerous 
temples  throughout  the  land,  seem  to  have  led  to 
the  identification  of  that  monarch  with  the  popu- 
lar hero.  Consult :  Wiedemann,  Aegyptiache  Ge- 
schichte  (Gotha,  1884-88)  ;  Meyer,  Geachichte  dea 
alien  Aegyptens  (Berlin,  1887)  ;  Sethe,  Seaoatris 
(Leipzig,  1900)  ;  Budge,  A  History  of  Egypt 
(New  York,  1902). 

SESSA  AXJBXTNGA,  sds'sA  ou-W^n^kft.  A  city 
in  the  Province  of  Caserta,  Italy,  situated  on  an 
extinct  volcano,  32  miles  north-northwest  of 
Naples  (Map:  Italy,  H  6).  It  has  an  ancient 
cathedral  and  a  seminary.  There  are  ruins  of 
an  amphitheatre.     The  city  is  famous  for  its 


SBS8A  AT7BUKCA. 


691 


ttETUl'i'ES. 


wine.  Other  products  are  olive  oil,  fruits,  grain, 
and  cheese.  Many  cattle  are  reared.  The  ancient 
Suessa  Auninca  became  a  Roman  colony  in  b.0. 
313.  Population  (commune),  in  1881,  19,920;  in 
1901,  21,844. 

SESTEBTITTS,  s^-tSr^shl-fls  (Lat.,  two  and 
one-half,  from  «e»u-,  half  -f-  tertiua,  third).  A 
Roman  coin.  When  silver  coinage  was  introduced 
in  Rome  in  b.c.  268  with  the  copper  a«  as  a  unit, 
the  silver  sestertius  was  valued  at  2^  asses. 
The  standard  as  now  weighed  only  one-fourth  of 
its  original  weight;  hence  the  sestertius  was 
equivalent  to  the  original  libral  as;  and  as  ac- 
counts had  formerly  been  made  in  terms  of  the 
libra]  as,  so  now  they  were  made  in  terms  of 
sestertii.  After  the  end  of  the  First  Punic  War 
(B.C.  241),  however,  the  sestertius  ceased  to  be 
coined.  The  weight  of  the  as  was  many  times 
reduced,  and  the  denarius  was  made  equal  to  16 
asses.  With  the  reorganization  of  the  coinage 
under  Augustus  a  copper  sestertius  of  four  asses 
was  coined  under  the  control  of  the  senate,  equal 
to  about  4  cents  of  our  money.  Sums  of  money 
were  counted  in  sestertii,  and  large  sums  in  ses- 
tertia,  or  thousands  of  sestertii;  thus  10  sestertia 
epuals  10,000  sestertii. 

SEB^TtUS,  PuBUUS.  A  Roman  patrician, 
quiestor  in  B.C.  63.  In  that  year  he  assisted 
Cicero  in  the  suppression  of  Catiline's  conspiracy, 
and  in  57,  as  tribune,  helped  recall  Cicero  from 
exile.  Through  Albinovanus  he  was  accused  by 
his  oiemy  Clodius  in  56  of  using  illegal  force 
during  his  tribunate.  From  this  charge  he  was 
defended  by  Hortensius  and  Crassus,  and  by 
Cicero  (whose  speech  is  extant,  urging  the  crit- 
ical condition  of  the  Republic  as  an  excuse  for 
his  client),  and  was  acquitted  largely  through 
the  influence  of  Pompey.  Sestius  was  preetor  in 
53.  He  sided  with  Pompey  at  the  beginning  of 
the  Civil  War,  but  afterwards  joined  Caesar. 

SEBTO,  Cesare  da  (c.l480-c.l521).  A  Lom- 
bard painter,  known  also  as  Milanese.  He  was 
bom  at  Sesto  Calende  and  became  one  of  the 
best  pupils  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  Afterwards 
he  fell  under  the  influence  of  Raphael  in  Rome, 
and  his  work  became  eclectic  and  enfeebled.  His 
pictures  have  not  all  been  perfectly  authenti- 
cated on  account  of  his  imitation  of  the  two 
masters  named.  His,  however,  are  thought  to 
be  the  ''Madonna  of  the  Laurel  Tree"  (Brera), 
'The  Adoration  of  the  Magi"  (Naples),  and  "The 
Madonna  of  the  Girdle"  (1521,  Vatican). 

SESTO  FIOBENTIKO,  f*-6'r6n-t6'nd.  A 
town  in  the  Province  of  Florence,  Italy,  flve 
miles  north-northw^est  of  Florence  (Map:  Italy, 
F  4).  The  products  of  the  district  are  fruit  and 
fn^in,  and  there  are  manufactures  of  wine,  straw 
hats,  and  perfumery.  Population  (commune),  in 
1881,  14,324;  in  1901,  18,594.  Near  by  is  the  vil- 
lage of  Doccia,  with  a  large  porcelain  factory. 

SE8TBI  LEVAKTE,  s^trd  lA-viln^tA.  A 
seaport  in  the  Province  of  Genoa,  Italy,  30  miles 
by  rail  southeast  of  Genoa  (Map:  Italy,  D  3). 
It  is  a  sea-bathing  resort,  and  has  an  old  castle, 
anchovy  and  oyster  fisheries,  and  manufactures  of 
lime  and  olive  oil.  Population  (commune),  in 
1901,  12,039. 

SESTBI  POHiiMTE,  pd-n6n'tA.  A  seaport  in 
the  Province  of  Genoa,  Italy,  five  miles  by  rail 
west  pf  Genoa  (Map;  Jt^ly,  C  3).    It  has  fine 


villas,  a  technical  school,  and  a  music  school. 
It  manufactures  machinery,  matches,  and  tobac- 
co, and  carries  on  shipbuilding.  Population  (com- 
mune), in  1881,  10,872;  in  1901,  17,187. 

SET  (Gk.  1^,  Seth).  An  Egyptian  deity,  the 
son  of  Seb  and  Nut,  and  the  brother  of  ()siris, 
Isis,  and  Nephthys,  the  latter  being  his  wife. 
In  the  legend  he  endeavors  to  thwart  the  benefi- 
cent plans  of  Osiris,  and  failing  in  this,  treach- 
erously murders  him.  So  implacable  is  his  hatred 
that  he  even  persecutes  his  brother's  body,  tear- 
ing it  into  pieces  and  scattering  them  far  and 
wide.  But  Horus,  the  son  of  Osiris  and  Isis,  is 
safely  guarded  by  his  mother  from  the  evil  de- 
signs of  Set,  and  on  attaining  maturity  he  takes 
vengeance  for  his  father's  murder.  According 
to  the  popular  conception  Set  was  the  personifi- 
cation of  evil  and  of  darkness;  hence  he  was  the 
god  of  the  inhospitable  desert  and  of  foreign 
countries  hostile  to  E^pt.  His  sacred  ani- 
mals were  the  crocodile,  the  hippopotamus, 
and  the  ass,  especially  the  latter.  But  Set 
was  not  always  regarded  as  an  evil  deity.  At 
Tanis,  for  example,  he  was  held  to  be  the  solar 
deity  who  pierced  with  his  lance  the  Apep  ser- 
pent, and  he  was  called  'the  beloved  of  Re;'  and 
at  Ombos,  where  he  was  worshiped  in  very  early 
times,  he  was  revered  as  lord  of  the  South  and 
was  occasionally  identified  with  the  crocodile 
god  Sobk  (q.v.).  By  the  Greeks  Set  was 
called  Typhon  (q.v.),  and  was  identified  with  the 
giant-  of  that  name.  Consult:  Meyer,  Set-Ty- 
phon  (Leipzig,  1875) ;  Brugsch,  Religion  und 
Mythologie  der  alten  Aegypter  (Leipzig,  1888- 
00) ;  Wiedemann,  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyp- 
tians (trans.,  New  York,  1897). 

SET^BOS.  The  gocl  worshiped  by  Sycorax 
and  her  son  Caliban  in  Shakespeare's  Tempest, 
a  Patagonian  deity  described  in  the  account  of 
Magellan's  voyage  in  Eden's  History  of  Trava^le 
(1577).  Browning  analyzes  Caliban's  attitude 
toward  him  in  "Caliban  upon  Setebos." 

SETH,  Andbew.    a  Scotch  philosopher.    See 

PEmGLE-PATTISON,  ANDREW  SeTH. 

SETH,  James  (I860—).  A  Scotch  philoso- 
pher, brother. of  Andrew  Seth  Pringle-Pattison, 
born  in  Edinburgh  and  educated  there  and  at 
Leipzig,  Jena,  and  Berlin.  He  was  assistant  to 
Campbell  Eraser  in  logic  and  metaphysics  at 
Edinburgh  (1883-85),  professor  in  L&lhousie 
College,  Halifax,  N.  S.  (1886-92),  in  Brown 
University  (1892-96),  and  in  Cornell  University 
until  1898,  when  he  was  elected  professor  of 
moral  philosophy  at  Edinburgh.  He  wrote  A 
Study  of  Ethical  Principles  (1894;  6th  ed. 
1902),  and  with  Calderwood  revised  Fleming's 
Vocabulary  of  Philosophy. 

SETHITES.  The  name  given  to  an  obscure 
Gnostic  sect  of  the  second  century  allied  to  the 
Ophites  (q.v.)  ;  they  belonged  to  that  class  of 
religionists  who,  in  evolving  their  system,  ap- 
proached paganism.  Accepting  the  Christian 
mode  of  thought  and  its  terminology,  they  mis- 
understood the  great  facts  of  Scripture  history 
and  maintained  that  Seth,  the  first  son  of  Adam 
after  the  expulsion  from  Eden,  had  been  the 
ancestor  of  all  the  Old  Testament  saints  and 
their  own  progenitor;  in  the  person  of  Jesus  he 
had  again  appeared  in  the  world  in  miraculous 
manner  to  help  his  followers.  They  had  a  book 
bearing  the  name  of  Seth.    See  Gnosticism. 


SBTL 


692 


SBTON. 


BBTI^  8&^t6  (Gk.  S^^c,  SethCs,  Egypt.  8etoy). 
The  name  of  two  Egyptian  kings  of  the  Nine- 
teenth Dynasty. — Seti  L,  the  second  King  of  this 
dynasty,  was  the  son  and  successor  of  Barneses 
I.  (q.v.),  and  reigned  for  some  10  years  from 
about  B.C.  1350.  In  the  first  year  of  his  reign  he 
made  an  effort  to  recover  some  of  the  Syrian  pos- 
sessions of  Egypt  which  had  been  lost  during  the 
internal  dissensions  which  marked  the  close  of 
the  Eighteenth  Dynasty.  Clearing  the  way  by  de- 
feating the  Bedouin  tribes  of  the  Sinaitic  penin- 
sula, he  marched  through  the  country  as  far  as 
the  northern  border  of  Palestine,  ravaging  and 
plundering  as  he  went.  Here,  however,  he  came 
in  contact  with  the  Hittite  forces,  and,  though 
he  claims  a  victory,  his  progress  seems  to  have 
been  effectually  checked.  On  his  return  to  Egypt 
he  proceeded  in  triumph  up  the  Nile,  and  later 
caused  his  exploits  to  be  represented  in  sculpture 
on  the  walls  of  the  great  temple  of  Karnak.  He 
also  caused  lists  of  the  countries  and  cities 
which  he  claimed  to  have  conquered  to  be  in- 
scribed upon  his  buildings  ana  monuments  in 
Egypt  and  Nubia.  Later  in  his  reign  Seti  suc- 
cessfully defended  his  western  frontier  against 
the  Libyans.  Among  the  many  buildings  erected 
by  this  monarch  during  his  brief  reign  the  most 
important  are  the  Memnonium  (q.v.)  at  Abvdos, 
the  memorial  temple  at  Kumah  (q.v.),  and  the 
great  hypostyle  hall  at  Karnak  (q.v.),  which  ^ 
was  completed  by  his  son  Bameses  II.  Seti's 
magnificent  tomb  in  the  Valley  of  the  Kings,  near 
Thebes,  was  discovered  in  1817  by  Belzoni,  and  is 
commonly  called  'Belzoni's  tomb.'  It  is  nearly 
350  feet  long  and  consists  of  a  number  of  halls, 
corridors,  and  chambers  hewn  out  of  the  solid 
rock.  The  mummy  of  the  King  was  found  in 
1881  at  Deir-el-Bahri.— Seti  IL,  the  son  of  Me- 
neptah  (q.v.),  was  the  fourth  and  last  King  of 
the  Nineteenth  Dynasty.  He  built  a  small  temple 
at  Karnak  and  caused  his  name  to  be  inscribed 
upon  the  monuments  of  his  predecessors  in  many 
parts  of  Egypt,  but  little  is  known  of  his  reijfai. 
The  celebrated  Orbiney  Papyrus,  containing  the 
well-known  Tale  of  the  Two  Brothers  (see 
Egypt),  has  a  note  stating  that  the  manuscript 
was  a  copy  prepared  for  the  use  of  this  prince. 
His  mummy  was  found  in  1898  in  the  tomb  of 
Amenophis  II.  (Consult:  Wiedemann,  Aegyptische 
Geschichte  (Gotha,  1884-88)  ;  Budge,  A  History 
of  Egypt  (New  York,  1902)  j  Mllller,  Die  alien 
Aegypter  als  Krieger  und  Eroherer  in  Asien 
(Leipzig,  1903). 

SETO,  s&'td.  A  small  village  on  the  island  of 
Hondo,  Japan,  situated  about  15  miles  from 
Nagoya.  It  is  noted  for  its  manufactures  of 
porcelain,  which  are  among  the  finest  produced 
in  Japan,  and  are  known,  Tike  all  similar  Japa- 
nese pottery,  as  Seto  ware.  There  are  also  a 
number  of  famous  potteries  in  the  vicinity. 

SET-OFF.  A  claim  which  is  due  from  a 
plaintiff  to  a  defendant  in  an  action,  and 
which  the  latter  is  allowed  to  interpose  as 
total  or  partial  defense  to  the  plaintiff's  de- 
mands, and  which  may  result  in  a  judgment 
in  favor  of  the  defendant.  The  doctrine 
originated  in  equity  practice  and  was  not 
known  to  the  common-law  courts  until  the 
statute  of  2  Geo.  II.,  ch.  22,  which  provided  that 
a  defendant  might  reduce  or  defeat  a  plaintiff's 
demands  by  proving  a  just  claim  in  his  favor 
against  the  latter.    The  provisions  of  the  above 


statute  have  been  substantially  followed  in  nxMt 
of  the  United  States. 

The  law  authorizing  a  set-off  to  be  pleaded  is 
permissive  and  not  mandatory,  and  it  is,  there- 
fore, optional  with  a  defendant  as  to  whether 
he  will  exercise  the  right  or  reserve  his  claim 
for  a  separate  action.  A  set-off  is  only  per- 
mitted  in  actions  arising  out  of  contracts,  and 
is  limited  to  liquidated  demands,  or  those  which 
can  be  reduced  ib  a  certain  amount  merely  by 
computation.  Therefore  a  claim  in  tort,  as  for 
malicious  prosecution,  cannot  be  a  set-off  in  an 
action,  as  it  is  necessarily  unliquidated,  and  the 
amount  of  damages  must  rest  in  the  discretion 
of  the  jury.  At  common  law  a  set-off  must  be 
based  uj>on  a  distinct  claim.  In  most  jurisdic- 
tions the  claims  must  be  mutual  in  order  to  al- 
low a  set-off,  that  is,  they  must  be  confined  solely 
to  the  original  parties  to  the  action.  However, 
in  some  States  a  claim  existing  in  favor  of  de- 
fendant and  another  against  the  plaintiff  may 
be  a  set-off  against  the  latter's  claims  to  the  ex- 
tent of  defendant's  interest,  but  an  affirmative 
judgment  cannot  be  obtained. 

The  facts  constituting  defendant's  claim  to  a 
set-off  must  be  specially  pleaded  with  as  much 
clearness  as  if  they  were  the  basis  of  an  inde- 
pendent action.  The  jurisdiction  of  a  court  of 
equity  to  grant  a  set-off  is  independent  of 
statutes.  Consult:  Waterman,  Law  of  Recoup- 
ment, Set-off,  and  Counter-claim  (New  York, 
1872) ;  Barbour,  Law  of  Set-off  (Albany,  1841). 
See  Pleading. 

SE'TON,  Elizabeth  Ann  (1774-1821).  The 
founder  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity  in  the  United 
States.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Richard  Bay- 
ley,  and  was  bom  in  New  York  City.  She  mar- 
ried William  Seton  (1794),  accompanied  him  to 
Italy  in  1803,  and  on  his  death  at  Pisa  returned 
to  New  York  and  became  a  Roman  Catholic  in 
1805.  In  1809  with  three  others  she  established 
at  Emmitsburg,  Md.,  the  first  house  of  what 
afterwards  grew  to  a  widespread  community. 
(See  .Brothebs  and  Sistebs  of  Chabttt.) 
She  was  elected  the  first  superior  of  the  Order 
and  held  that  oflSce  until  her  death  at  Emmits- 
burg. Consult  her  autobiography  (Elizabeth- 
town,  N.  J.,  1817) ;  her  Life  by  C.  I.  White  (New 
York,  1853;  7  th  ed.,  Baltimore,  1872)  ;  and  her 
memoirs,  letters,  and  papers,  edited  by  Mgr.  R. 
Seton   (New  York,  1869). 

SETON,,  Ernest  Thompson  (I860—).  An 
American  author  and  illustrator,  bom  at  Shields, 
England.  He  was  educated  at  Toronto  Collegi- 
ate Institute,  and  at  the  Royal  Academy,  Lon- 
don, England,  and  in  1891  served  as  naturalist 
to  the  €k)yemment  of  Manitoba.  He  became 
widely  known  through  his  cleverly  written  mag- 
azine stories  about  animals,  based,  according  to 
his  assertions,  upon  natural  history  as  observed 
by  himself,  or  obtained  from  what  he  considered 
trustworthy  sources.  This  natural  history,  ex- 
pressed or  implied,  has  been  sharply  criticised 
by  such  veteran  naturalists  as  John  Burroughs 
(q.v.),  and  by  experienced  woodsmen,  who  say 
that  Seton  ascribes  to  animals  mental  and  moral 
characteristics  that  are  not  evinced  in  real  life, 
and  that  to  this  extent  his  stories  are  mislead- 
ing. On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  said  that  they 
have  served  to  stimulate  interest  in  natural  his- 
tory, and  to  arouse  sympathy  for,  and  a  desire 
to  protect,  the  creatures  of  the  woods  and  fields. 


SBTON. 


698 


SETTLEBS  AND  DEPENDEBa 


Most  of  Seton's  works  are  illustrated  by  him- 
self, usually  with  a  fair  degree  of  faithfulness 
to  nature.  His  publications  include:  Art 
Anatomy  of  Animah  (1896);  Wild  Animals  I 
Have  Known  (1898)  j  The  Trail  of  the  Sandhill 
Stag  (1899);  The  Biography  of  a  Grizzly 
(1900)  ;  Lobo,  Rag,  and  Viwen  (1900)  ;  Lives  of 
the  Hunted  (1900);  Pictures  of  Wild  Animals 
(1901);  Krag  and  Johnny  Bear  (1902);  and 
Two  Little  Savages  (1903). 

SETON*,  Robert  (1839--).  An  American 
Roman  Catholic  prelate.  He  was  bom  (of  Amer- 
ican parents )  at  Pisa,  Italy,  and  was  educated  at 
first  privately  in  the  United  States,  making  his 
theolc^cal  studies  at  Mount  Saint  Mary's  Col- 
lege  and  in  Rome.  He  entered  the  priesthood 
and  was  made  private  chamberlain  to  the  Pope 
in  1866  and  prothonotary  apostolic  a  year  later. 
His  most  important  pastoral  charge  was  Saint 
Joseph's  Church,  Jersey  City,  which  he  held  from 
1876  to  the  beginning  of  1902,  when  he  resigned 
it  on  account  of  advancing  age.  He  then  went 
to  Rome,  and  was  named  titular  Archbishop  of 
Heliopolis  in  June,  1903.  He  was  widely  known 
as  a  public  speakel*  and  writer.  Among  his 
works  are  a  memoir  (1869)  of  his  grandmother, 
Elizabeth  Ann  Seton  (q.v.)  ;  Essays  on  Various 
Subjects,  Chiefly  Roman  (1882). 

SETON  HALL  COLLEGE.  A  Roman  Cath- 
olic institution  founded  at  Madison,  N.  J.,  in 
1856  and  removed  to  its  present  location  in  South 
Orange  in  1860.  The  courses  are  classical  and 
scientific  and  lead  to  the  degrees  of  B.A.  and 
B.S.  The  college  had  in  1902  144  students  with 
25  instructors  and  a  library  of  40,000  volumes. 
The  college  property  embraces  about  70  acres  of 
land,  with  excellent  buildings.  The  income  in 
1902  was  $36,000. 

8ETTEHBBINI,  sCt'tgm-bre'n^,  LuiGi  (1813- 
76).  An  Italian  litterateur  and  patriot,  bom  in 
Naples.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  agitations 
of  the  Two  Sicilies  and  was  compelled  to  flee  to 
Malta  in  1847.  He  returned  to  Naples  during 
the  revolution  of  1848,  was  imprisoned  the  fol- 
lowing year  and  condemned  to  perpetual  exile, 
but  escaped  to  England.  After  the  unifica- 
tion of  Italy  he  returned  to  his  native  city  and 
became  professor  of  Italian  literature  at  its  uni- 
versity. His  principal  work  was  Lezioni  di 
letteratura  italiana  (1867;  many  subsequent  edi- 
tions). 

SETTEB.  A  dog.  See  FnxD  Dogs  and  Plate 
of  Dogs. 

SETTIONANOy  8€t't«-ny&^n6,  Desidebio  da. 
See  Desidebio  da  Settionano. 

SETTLE,  Elkanah  (1648-1724).  An  English 
playwright,  bom  at  Dunstable.  In  1666  he  en- 
tered Trinity  College,  Oxford,  which  he  left  with- 
out a  degree,  and  went  to  London  to  seek  a  living 
by  his  pen.  In  1671  or  earlier  he  made  some- 
thing of  a  hit  by  the  production  of  his  tragedy  of 
Camhyses;  and  the  Earl  of  Rochester  and  others, 
Ashing  to  annoy  Dryden,  loudly  proclaimed 
Settle  the  better  dramatist.  Through  the  influ- 
ence of  Rochester,  Settle's  next  tragedy.  The 
Empress  of  Morocco,  was  played  at  Whitehall 
by  the  lords  and  ladies  of  the  Court  (1671).  In 
this  way  a  great  run  was  secured  for  it  when  it 
came  before  the  general  public  (1673).  Dryden 
was  stung  by  the  comparison  between  himself  and 
Settle  and  a  war  of  pamphlets  followed.  Solely 
because  of  this. quarrel  is  Settle  now  remembered. 


In  his  great  satire,  Absalom  and  Achitophel 
(1682),  Dryden  scourged  him  severely  under  the 
name  of  Doeg.  Settle  at  once  replied  with  Absa- 
lom Senior  (1682).  After  writing  several  bom- 
bastic tragedies  Settle  relapsed  into  obscurity. 
Having  the  post  of  poet  laureate  for  the  city  of 
London,  he  continued  for  a  time  to  compose 
pageants  and  pieces  for  Bartholomew  fair.  His 
last  years  were  passed  as  a  poor  brother  in  the 
Charterhouse. 

SETTLED  ESTATE  (from  AS.  sahtlian,  to 
reconcile,  from  saht,  reconciliation,  settlement  of 
a  lawsuit,  from  sacan,  to  sue  at  law,  fight,  con- 
tend, Goth,  sakan,  OHG.  sahhar^,  io  contend,  re- 
buke). An  estate  which  is  less  than  absolute 
ownership,  and  which  is  one  of  several  estates 
created  in  the  same  property,  all  of  which  are 
governed  as  to  duration  and  manner  of  enjoy- 
ment by  one  will  or  deed  of  settlement.  The 
most  common  example  is  an  estate  given  to  a 
husband  or  wife  for  life  by  virtue  of  a  marriage 
settlement.    See  Estate;  Seottlement. 

SETTLEMENT.  In  the  English  law,  a  dis- 
position of  property  whereby  provisions  are  made 
for  its  successive  enjoyment  by  designated  per- 
sons for  periods  named  in  the  will  or  deed  by 
which  the  settlement  is  effected.  Such  provi- 
sions for  successive  enjoyment  distinguish  a  set- 
tlement from  other  dispositions  of  property.  The 
purpose  of  a  settlement  is  to  enable  the  settler 
or  person  disposing  of  the  property  to  govern  the 
extent  and  manner  of  its  enjoyment  and  thereby 
to  accomplish  some  purpose  of  his  own,  as  to 
provide  for  his  daughter  after  her  marriage. 
Such  ante-nuptial  marriage  settlements  are  very 
common.  'Family  settlements'  are  also  fre- 
quently made  when  an  eldest  son  attains  his  ma- 
jority, under  which  provisions  are  made  for  the 
disposition  of  the  father's  or  grandfather's  estate 
among  all  the  members  of  the  family. 

In  the  United  States  settlements  are  not  com- 
mon, owing  to  the  fact  that  in  most  States  'mar- 
ried women's  acts'  secure  to  wives  their  separate 
estates;  and  family  settlements  are  almost  un- 
known. 

The  term  settlement  is  also  applied  to  the 
residence  or  right  to  support  gained  by  a  pauper 
by  reason  of  birth  in  or  living  for  a  certain 
time  in  a  parish  or  county. 

SETTLEMENT,  Act  of.  See  Act  of  Settle- 
ment. 

SETTLEBS  AND  DEFENDERS  07 
AMEBICA.  An  hereditary  patriotic  society  in- 
corporated in  New  York  (5ity  in  1899.  It  ad- 
mits to  membership  both  men  and  women  eight- 
een years  old  or  over,  and  lineally  descended  ( 1 ) 
from  a  settler  in  one  of  the  thirteen  original  colo- 
nies during  the  first  thirty-three  years  of  its  col- 
onization; (2)  from  an  ancestor  who,  between 
May  13,  1697,  and  April  19,  1775,  inclusive,  ren- 
dered civil  or  military  service  in  such  colony;  (3) 
from  an  ancestor  who,  between  April  19, 1775,  and 
September  13,  1783,  inclusive,  rendered  actual  ser- 
vice to  the  cause  of  American  independence,  either 
as  a  military  or  naval  officer,  soldier,  seaman, 
privateer,  militia  or  minute  man,  associator, 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  mem- 
ber of  a  Continental,  Provincial,  or  Colonial  Con- 
gress, or  Colonial  or  State  Legislature,  or  as 
otherwise  a  recognized  patriot,  who  performed 
or  actually  counseled  or  abetted  acts  of  resist- 
ance to  the   authority  of  Great  Britain.     No 


SETTLEBS  AND  DEI'E]n)ES& 


6M 


SEVEN  DAYS'  BATTLEa 


claim  of  eligibility  through   (1)  or  (2)   is  valid 
which  does  not  also  meet  vie  requirements  of  (3) . 

SETUBALy  8&-t?R$^l  (formerly  called  in 
English  Saint  Uhea  and  Saint  Yves),  An  impor- 
tant seaport  of  Portugal,  in  the  District  of  Lisbon, 
on  the  north  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Setubal,  18  miles 
southeast  of  Lisbon  (Map:  Portugal,  A3).  It 
is  the  fourth  city  in  size  in  the  kingdom,  and  the 
third  in  commercial  importance.  The  harbor  ia 
second  only  to  that  of  Lisbon;  it  is  defended  by 
several  forts  and  provided  with  broad  and  hand- 
some quays.  The  shipping  in  1899  amounted  to 
247,095  tons.  The  chief  exports  are  wine,  fruit, 
salt,  and  corks.  Population,  in  1890,  17,581;  in 
1900,  21,819. 

SETTMEy  zoi'me,  Johann  Gottfried  (1763- 
1810).  A  German  author  and  poet,  bom  at  Po- 
sema,  near  Weissenfels,  Prussian  Saxony.  Aban- 
doning his  theological  studies  at  Leipzig,  he  set 
out  for  Paris,  but  was  kidnapped  by  Hessian  re- 
cruiting officers  and  sold  to  England  to  serve 
against  her  American  rebels.  On  his  return  from 
Canada  he  fell  again  into  the  hands  of  the  mili- 
tary authorities,  but  finally  obtained  his  liberty 
and  settled  at  Leipzig,  whither  he  returned  in 
1796,  having  gone  to  Warsaw  in  1792,  acted  there 
as  secretary  to  General  Tjgelstrom,  and  experi- 
enced the  terrors  of  the  Polish  insurrection  of 
1794.  Employed  in  an  editorial  capacity  by  his 
friend  G5schen,  the  publisher,  at  Grimma,  he  un- 
dertook during  that  time  two  extended  journeys. 
The  first  was  a  pedestrian  tour  of  nine  months' 
duration,  from  December,  1801,  through  Austria 
and  Italy  to  Sicily  and  back  through  Switzerland 
and  via  Paris  to  Leipzig,  which  he  described  in 
his  well-known  Spaziergang  nach  Syrakus  ( 1803 ; 
new  ed.,  1868).  In  1805  he  made  a  similar  trip 
to  Russia,  Finland,  and  Sweden,  commemorated 
in  Mein  Sommer  im  Jahre  1805  (1807),  which 
gives  a  vivid  picture  of  the  Napoleonic  era.  Im- 
paired in  health  since  then,  he  died  at  Teplitz, 
during  a  watering  cure.  His  autobiography, 
If ctn  L66ew,  was  completed  by  Clodius  (1813).  A 
recent  edition  of  his  Samtlicke  Werke  appeared 
in  Hempel's  Nationalhibliothek  (Berlin,  1879). 

SEVANGA,  sye-vftn'gA.  A  lake  of  Transcau- 
casia.   See  GoKTCHA. 

SEVASTOPOL,  s6-vAs'td-pdl.  A  seaport  of 
Russia.    See  Sebastopol. 

SEVEN  (AS.  seofon,  Goth.,  OHG.  aihun,  (3er. 
siehen,  seven;  connected  with  Lat.  aeptem,  Gk, 
iirrd,  hepta,  Olr.  secht,  OChurch  Slav,  sedmi,  Lith. 
aeptini,  Skt.  saptan^  seven).  A  mystical  and 
symbolical  number  in  the  Bible,  as  well  as  among 
the  principal  nations  of  antiquity  (the  Persians, 
Indians,  Egyptians,  Greeks,  Romans,  etc.).  The 
reason  for  the  preference  of  this  number  for 
sacred  use  has  been  found  in  its  consisting  of 
three — the  number  of  the  sides  of  a  triangle — 
and  four — ^the  sides  of  a  square,  these  being  the 
simplest  rectilineal  figures— or  in  other  equally 
vague  circumstances.  In  numerical  symbolism, 
also,  three  stands  for  the  spiritual  (e.g.  the 
Trinity)  and  four  for  the  material  (four  ele- 
ments), and  the  combination  represents  the  medi- 
al or  supernatural  sphere.  The  original  reason, 
however,  seems  to  be  astronomical,  or  rather 
astrological,  viz.  the  observation  of  the  seven 
planets  and  the  phases  of  the  moon — chan&ring 
every  seventh  day.  (See  Week.)  As  instances 
of  the  use  of  this  number  in  the  Old  Testament 


we  find  the  creation  completed  in  seven  days, 
wherefore  the  seventh  day  was  kept  sacrol; 
every  seventh  year  was  sabbatical,  and  the  seven 
times  seventh  year  ushered  in  the  jobel-year. 
The  three  regalim,  or  pilgrim  festivals  (paasah, 
festival  of  weeks,  and  tabernacles),  lasted  seven 
days;  and  between  the  first  and  second  of  these 
feasts  were  counted  seven  weeks.  The  first  day 
of  the  seventh  month  was  a  'holy  convocation.' 
The  Levitical  purifications  lasted  seven  days,, 
and  the  same  space  of  time  was  allotted  to  the 
celebration  of  weddings  and  the  mournings  for 
the  dead.  In  Proverbs  viii.  1  Wisdom  builds  her 
house  with  seven  pillars.  In  the  New  Testament 
we  have  the  churches,  candleaticka,  stars,  trum- 
pets, spirits,  all  to  the  number  of  seven;  and  the 
seven  noms,  and  seven  eyes  of  the  Lamb.  The 
same  number  appears  again  either  divided  into 
half  (3^  years,  Rev.  xiii.  5,  xi.  3,  xii.  6,  etc), 
or  multiplied  by  10 — 70  Israelites  g^  to  Egypt, 
the  exile  lasts  70  years,  there  are  70  elders,  and 
at  a  later  period  there  are  supposed  to  be  70 
languages  and  70  nations  upon  earth.  To  go 
back  to  the  earlier  documents,  we  find  in  a  similar 
way  the  dove  sent  out  the  second  time  seven  days 
after  her  first  mission.  Pharaoh's  dream  shows 
him  twice  seven  kine  and  twice  seven  ears  of 
com.  Among  the  Greeks  the  seven  was  sacred 
to  AJMllo  and  to  Dionysus,  who,  according  to 
Orphic  legends,  was  torn  into  seven  pieces;  and 
it  was  particularly  sacred  in  Eubcea,  where  the 
number  was  found  to  pervade,  as  it  were,  almost 
every  sacred,  private,  or  domestic  relation.  The 
Pythagoreans  made  much  of  this  number,  giving 
it  the  name  of  Athene,  Hermes,  Hephaestus,  Her- 
cules, the  virgin  unbegotten  and  unbegetting  (Le. 
not  to  be  obtained  by  multiplication),  Dionysus, 
Rex,  etc.  The  'seven  sacraments,'  the  'seven 
free  arts,'  the  'seven  wise  men,'  and  many  more 
instances,  prove  the  importance  attached  to  this 
number  in  the  eyes  not  only  of  ancient,  but  even 
of  our  own  times.  A  learned  article,  based  on 
Hammer-Purgstall,  Ueher  die  Zahl  Siehen,  is  con- 
tained in  the  Essays  of  James  Hadley  (1873). 

SEVEN,  AGAINST  THEBES,  The  (Lat 
Septem  contra  Thehas,  Gk.  'Enrd  hrl  B^fiof^ 
Hepta  epi  ThShas).  A  tragedy  by  ^Eschylus 
produced  in  b.g.  467  with  the  Laiua  and  (Edipiu 
Its  theme  is  the  fulfillment  of  the  curse  pro- 
noimced  by  CEdipus  on  his  sons  Eteocles  and 
Polynices.  In  the  attack  ou  the  city  the  brothers 
find  themselves  opposed  and  each  falls  by  the 
hand  of  the  other.  At  the  close  of  the  play 
Antigone  declares  her  intention  of  burying  her 
brother  Polynices  in  spite  of  the  prohibition, 
and  the  scene  paves  the  way  for  the  Antigone  of 
Sophocles. 

SEVEN  DAYS'  BATTLES.  A  series  of 
battles  fought,  June  26-July  1,  1862,  during  the 
Peninsular  campaign  of  the  Civil  War  in  Ameri- 
ca, between  the  Federal  Army  of  the  Potomsc 
under  General  McClellan  and  the  Confederate 
Army  of  Northern  Virginia  under  General  I^e. 
They  were  fought  a  short  distance  east  of  Rich- 
mond, Va.,  between  the  Chickahominy  River  and 
the  James  River,  much  of  the  fighting  occurring 
while  McClellan  was  eiTecting  his  change  of  base 
from  White  Horse  on  the  Pamunkey  to  Htrri- 
son's  Landing  on  the  James.  The  principal  en- 
gagements during  this  period  were  those  of 
Mechanicsville  (June  26th),  Gaines's  Mill  (Job® 
27th),   Savage   Station    (June  29th),  Fraxier's 


SBVBK  DAYS^  BATTLES. 


695 


SEVEK  PINES. 


Farm  (June  30th),  and  Malvern  Hill  (July  1st). 
The  strength  of  the  Federal  army  was  about  91,- 
000  effectives  engaged,  that  of  the  Confederate 
army  about  95,000.  The  Federals  lost  in  killed, 
wounded,  and  missing  about  16,000  men,  the  Con- 
federates about  20,500.  The  series  of  engagements 
virtually  closed  the  Peninsular  campaign.  See 
articles  on  the  various  battles,  and  references 
thereunder. 

afavjsir  DIALS.  A  locality  in  Saint  Giles, 
London,  midway  between  Trafalgar  Square  and 
the  British  Museum^  formerly  noted  as  the  re- 
sort of  the  criminal  and  degraded  classes  in  the 
city,  and  frequently  appearing  in  the  writings 
of  Charles  Dickens.  Seven  streets  radiated  from 
a  circular  area  on  which  stood  a  pillar  bearing 
a  dial  having  seven  faces.  The  pillar  was  re- 
moved in  1773,  and  the  locality  has  been  greatly 
improved. 

BJEVIEN  GODS  07  HAPPINESS  (Sinico- 
Jap.  Bhichi'fuku-fin) ,  A  group  of  divinities, 
forming  a  popular  appendage  to  Japanese  Buddh- 
ism of  especial  interest  to  the  student  of  art. 
They  are  Fukurokujiu,  the  god  of  longevity  or 
wisdom,  with  an  amazingly  high  forehead;  Dai- 
koku,  with  a  mallet  in  hand  and  seated  on  bags 
of  rice,  the  patron  of  worldly  prosperity;  Ebisu, 
a  fisherman,  who  provides  for  the  daily  sus- 
tenance; H6t4i,  the  ''Monk  of  the  Hempen  Bag;" 
Bishamon,  the  warrior  or  god  of  martial  prowess ; 
Benten,  the  goddess  who  governs  matrimonial 
affairs;  while  Jiurojin  lends  aid  to  the  aspirants 
after  scholastic  renown.  They  form  no  element 
of  any  serious  religion,  and  neither  by  their 
attitudes  nor  their  dress  suggest  things  ec- 
clesiastical. The  separate  elements  of  the  little 
group  are  derived  from  no  fewer  than  four  dif- 
ferent sources.  Buddhism,  Brahmanism,  Taoism, 
and  Shinto.  There  is  no  clue  to  either  the  au- 
thorship or  period  of  this  heterogeneous  associa- 
tion, which  has  no  claim  to  great  antiquity,  and 
is  the  creation  of  the  artist  rather  than  the 
priest,  with  a  lay  following  larger  than  any 
other  group  in  the  pantheon  of  Japan  can  claim. 
OonsuH  Anderson,  Descriptive  and  Historical 
Catalogite  of  Japanese  and  Chinese  Paintings  in 
the  British  Museum  (London,  1886). 

SEVEN  LAMPS  OF  ABGHITEGTUBE, 
The.  a  treatise  on  architecture  by  John  Ruskin 
(1849),  showing  the  significance  of  the  art  as  a 
record  of  national  life  and  belief.  The  seven 
lamps  or  principles  in  art- works  are  Sacrifice, 
Truth,  Power,  Beauty,  Life,  Memory,  and 
Obedience. 

SEVEN  PINES,  Battle  of,  also  known  as 
the  Battle  of  Faib  Oaks.  A  battle  fought  about 
seven  miles  east  of  Richmond^  Va.,  on  May  31 
and  June  1,  1862,  during  McClellan's  Peninsular 
campaign  against  Richmond,  between  a  part  of 
the  Federal  Army  of  the  Potomac,  numbering 
about  42,000  effective  men  (actually  engaged), 
under  General  McOlellan,  and  an  equal  Con- 
federate force  (forming  part  of  what  was  later 
known  as  the  Army  of  Northern  Virginia), under 
Generals  Joseph  E.  Johnston  and  G.  W.  Smith. 
It  takes  its  name  from  a  tavern,  known  as  Seven 
Pines,  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  from  the  Fair 
Oaks  station  on  the  Richmond  and  York  River 
Railroad.  After  the  engagement  at  Williams- 
burg   (q.v.)    Johnston   slowly  withdrew  to  the 


vicinity  of  Richmond,  and  McClellan  followed 
with  great  deliberation.  Toward  the  end  of 
May  McClellan  sent  first  the  Third  Corps 
and  then  the  Fourth  Corps  of  his  army,  under 
Keyes  and  Heintzelman,  respectively,  the  latter 
being  the  ranking  officer,  to  the  south  side 
of  the  Chickahominy  River,  retaining  on  the 
north  side,  for  the  purpose  of  cooperating, 
if  necessary,  with  General  McDowelFs  army, 
then  expected  as  a  reinforcement,  and  of  pro- 
tecting the  base  of  supplies  at  White  House 
on  the  Pamunkey,  the  Second,  Fifth,  and  Sixth 
Corps  under  the  command,  respectively,  of  Sum- 
ner, FitzJohn  Porter,  and  Franklin.  Johnston 
quickly  saw  the  weakness  of  McClellan*s  dis- 
position of  the  Federal  troops,  and  decided  to  at- 
tack in  force  the  two  corps,  themselves  widely 
separated,  on  the  south  side  of  the  river,  hoping 
to  destroy  them  before  reinforcements  could  ar- 
rive from  Sumner,  Porter,  or  Franklin.  The 
attack  was  set  for  the  morning  of  May  Slst,  and 
the  plan  provided  for  the  concentration  at  Seven 
Pine?,  by  the  Nine  Mile,  Williamsburg,  and 
Charles  City  roads  of  a  force  greatly  superior  to 
the  Federal  force  at  that  point,  and  for  the  defeat 
first  of  Keyes  and  then  oi  Heintzelman.  The  po- 
sitions of  the  opposing  forces  on  the  morning 
of  the  31st  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  map: 


8EYBM  PI17B8. 


On  the  afternoon  and  night  of  May  30th  a  rain- 
storm of  unusual  violence  occurred,  and  the 
Chickahominy  became  so  swollen  as  to  render  ex- 
tremely difficult  the  crossing  of  Federal  rein- 
forcements from  thfe  corps  north  of  the  river 
to  those  south  of  it.  Owing  to  a  misunderstand- 
ing of  Johnston's  orders  by  Longstreet,  who  was 
charged  with  opening  the  battle,  the  attack  was 
not  delivered  until  after  1  P.  M.,  but  before  dark 
Keyes,  though  reinforced  by  Kearny's  division 
of  Heintzelman's  corps,  had  been  driven  back  to 
a  point  about  one  mile  and  a  half  east  of  Seven 
Pines.  Part  of  Keyes's  troops,  however,  under 
Couch,  were  driven  to  Fair  Oaks,  whence  they  fell 


SBVBV  PINBS. 


696 


SEVSN  WEEKS'  WAS. 


back  toward  Sumner's  bridges  across  the  Ghicka- 
hominy.  At  2.30  P.  M.,  under  orders  from  Mc- 
Glellan,  Sumner  crossed  the  river  with  a  division 
under  Sedgwick  and  a  battery  under  Kirby,  at 
what  later  became  known  as  Sumner's  Upper 
Bridge,  and  at  about  6  o'clock,  after  being  de- 
layed by  the  rough  and  muddy  roads,  reached  the 
vicinity  of  the  Fair  Oaks  station,  just  in  time  to 
intercept  and  force  back  Whiting's  division  (from 
the  Confederate  left,  where  G.  W.  Smith  was  in 
command),  then  on  its  w&j  to  reinforce  Long- 
street.  In  this  part  of  the  field  some  of  the  most 
stubborn  fighting  of  the  day  occurred,  and  it  was 
here  about  7  P.  M.  that  General  Johnston  was 
severely  wounded,  whereupon  General  Smith  took 
command  of  the  Gonf ederate  army.  Early  on  the 
following  day  Loncstreet  again  attacked  the 
Federal  left,  which  na&  been  reinforced  by  way 
of  Sumner's  Lower  Bridge,  by  Richardson's 
division  of  Sumner's  corps,  but  he  was  repulsed 
and  forced  back  for  some  distance.  At  2  o'clock 
in  the  afternoon  Gen.  R.  £.  Lee,  who  had  just 
arrived  on  the  field  of  battle,  superseded  ^mith 
in  command  of  the  Confederate  army,  and  on 
the  night  of  the  2d  the  army  was  withdrawn 
to  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  Richmond. 
General  McClellan  did  not  appear  on  the  field 
of  battle  until  about  noon  on  the  Ist.  The 
loss  of  the  Federals  in  killed,  wounded,  and 
missing  was  about  5000,  that  of  the  Confederates 
about  6200.  Consult  the  Offioial  Records,  vol.  xi., 
parts  i.  and  iii.;  Johnson  and  Buel  (ed.).  Bat- 
tles and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War  (New  York, 
1887 ) ;  Ropes,  Story  of  the  Civil  War,  vol.  ii. 
(ib.,  1898);  Michie,  General  McClellan  (ib., 
1901),  in  the  ''Great  Commanders  Series;"  Webb, 
The  Peninsula  (ib.,  1881),  in  the  ''Campaigns  of 
the  Civil  War  Series;"  Johnston,  Narrative  of 
Military  Operations  (ib.,  1874)  ;  Hughes,  General 
Johnston  (ib.,  1893),  in  the  "Great  Commanders 
Series;"  McClellan,  McClellan^s  Own  Story  (ib., 
1887)  ;  and  Longstreet,  From  Manassas  to  Ap- 
pomattox (Philadelphia,  1896). 

SEVEN  SAGES,  The.  A  collective  designa- 
tion of  a  number  of  Greek  sages  who  lived  be- 
tween B.C.  620  and  650.  They  were  rulers,  law- 
givers, or  counselors,  distinguished  for  their 
practical  wisdom,  and  were  believed  to  be  the 
authors  of  brief  aphorisms  expressing  the  results 
of  their  moral  and  social  experiences.  There  was 
no  unanimity  among  the  ancients  with  regard  to 
the  names,  the  number,  or  the  sayings  of  these 
famous  sages.  The  number  seven  is  as  old  as 
Pindar,  but  the  earliest  list  of  the  seven  is  given 
in  Plato's  Protagoras  (343  p.a.).  Those  usu- 
ally included  in  the  number  are  Solon,  the  famous 
law-giver  of  Athens;  Thales  of  Miletus,  the  phi- 
losopher ;  Pittacus  of  Mitylene,  the  deliverer  and 
magistrate  of  his  native  city;  Bias  of  Priene; 
Chilon  of  Sparta;  Cleobulus,  tyrant  of  Lindus; 
and  Periander,  tyrant  of  Corinth.  The  sayings 
attributed  to  them  were  first  collected  by  Ite* 
metrius  of  Phalerum.  Various  collections  of  the 
excerpts  have  been  preserved  to  us  by  Stobseus 
{FloriL  3,  79)  and  others.  On  the  diiferent 
names  of  the  sages,  consult:  Bohren,  De  Sep- 
tern  Sapientihus  (Bonn,  1867) ;  and  Wulf,  De 
Fahellis  cum  Collegii  Septem  Sapientium  Me- 
moria  Conjunctis  Quaestiones  Criticce  (Halle, 
1896).  A  Greek  collection  of  these  aphorisms  in 
iambics  was  published  by  WcSlflBin  in  the  Proceed- 
ings of  the  Bavarian  Academy  (1886),  and  there 


are  two  Latin  collections  by  Brunco  (Bayreaih, 
1885). 

SEVEN  SLEEPEBS,  The.  The  heroes  of  a 
celebrated  legend,  which  exists  in  several  Syriac 
versions,  the  earliest  being  that  of  Jacob  of  Sarug 
(461-521).  As  given  in  the  Latin  version  by 
Gregory  of  Tours  they  were  seven  Christians 
(brothers)  of  Ephesus,  who,  during  the  per- 
secution of  Decius  in  260,  took  refuge  in  a  cave 
near  the  city.  Their  retreat  was  discovered  and 
the  entrance  walled  up.  A  miracle,  however,  was 
interposed  in  their  behalf,  and  they  fell  into  a 
preternatural  sleep.  Two  hundred  years  later, 
near  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Theodosius  II.  (408- 
460),  the  cave  was  accidentally  opened,  and  the 
sleepers  awoke.  They  supposed  they  had  slept 
for  but  a  single  nigh^  and  when  one  of 
their  number  went  to  the  city  stealthily  to  pur- 
chase provisions  he  was  amazed  to  find  his  coin 
no  longer  current,  and  the  Christian  religion  hon- 
ored and  accepted  by  rulers  and  people.  When 
the  wonderful  history  became  known  the  sleepers 
were  conducted  in  triumphant  procession  into  the 
city,  but  they  all  died  at  the  same  moment.  They 
are  honored  as  saints  by  the  Western  and  East- 
em  churches;  in  the  former  their  day  is  July 
27th,  in  the  Greek  Church  August  2d  or  4th,  and 
with  the  Maronites  March  7th.  They  are  also 
honored  by  the  Mohammedans,  their  story  being 
found  in  the  Koran  (xviii.  8-24).  Consult:  Koch, 
Die  Siehenschlaferlegende  (Leipzig,  1883);  Bar- 
ing-Gould, Curious  Myths  of  the  Middle  Ages 
(London,  1881). 

SEVENTEEN- YEAB  LOCTTST.  See  Cicada. 

SEVENTH.    See  Interval. 

SEVENTH  DAY  ADVENTISTS.     See  Ad- 

VENTISTB. 

SEVENTH  DAY  BAPTISTS.  See  Baphsts, 
Seventh  Day. 

SEVEN  WEEKS'  WAE.  The  name  given  to 
the  brief  war  in  1866  between  Prussia  and  Italy  on 
the  one  side  and  Austria  and  her  German  allies 
on  the  other.  Bavaria,  WOrttemberg,  Baden,  Sax- 
ony, Hesse,  Hesse-Cassel,  Hanover,  and  Nassau 
were  on  the  side  of  Austria.  The  war  was  the 
culmination  of  Bismarck's  plan  for  forcing  Austria 
out  of  the  German  Confederation  and  making  way 
for  a  new  Germany  under  Prussian  leadership. 
For  an  account  of  the  preliminary  events  whidi 
led  up  to  the  struggle,  see  Bishabck;  Germany; 
Prussia;  and  Schleswig-Holstein. 

Gn  April  8,  1866,  Prussia  had  concluded  a 
secret  alliance  with  Italy,  and  the  issue  of  a 
federal  execution  by  the  Diet  against  Prussia  on 
June  14th  was  followed  by  the  declaration  of  war 
against*  Austria,  Saxony,  Hanover,  and  Hease- 
Cassel.  The  invasion  of  Bohemia  was  immedi- 
ately begun.  The  central  (First)  Prussian 
army,  under  Prince'  Frederick  Charles  (q.v.), 
entered  from  Eastern  Saxony,  crossing  the 
frontier  range  of  the  Erzgebirge  toward  Keich- 
enberg;  the  western  or  Elbe  (Third)  army, 
under  (General  Herwarth  von  Bittenfeld,  started 
from  Dresden,  and  entered  Bohemia  by  Neustadt 
and  Schluckenau;  while  the  eastern  or  Silesian 
(Second)  army,  under  the  Crown  Prince,  Frede- 
rick William  (later  the  German  Emperor  Fred- 
erick III.)  (q.v.),  entered  Bohemia  from  Silesia 
by  the  Trautenau  and  Nachod  passes.  As  the 
Austrians  expected  the  attack  from  Silesia,  b;^ 
far  the  greater  portion  of  their  army  was  sta- 


8BVEK  WEEKS'  WAS. 


697 


SEVEN  WISE  MASTESa 


tioned  behind  the  Riesengebirge;  so  that  when 
Von  Bittenfeld  and  Prince  Frederick  Charles 
crossed  the  Erzgebirge  (June  24th),  they  found 
themselyes  opposed  by  only  the  outlying  brigades 
of  Clam-Gallas,  which  they  forced  to  retire  to- 
ward Tumau  and  Mtinchengr&tz,  after  defeating 
them  in  some  insignificant  combats  and  in  a  se- 
vere struggle  at  Podol.  The  First  Prussian  Army 
and  the  Elbe  Army,  now  united,  advanced  leisure- 
ly, driving  the  enemy  before  them  toward  MOn- 
chengrStz,  where  Glam-Grallas  was  attacked  on 
June  28th,  and,  after  a  brief  but  severe  contest 
forced  to  retreat  in  haste.  By  several  routes,  the 
combined  armies  continued  their  onward  march, 
routing  the  detached  corps  of  Austrians  and  Sax- 
ons which  attempted  to  bar  their  progress;  and 
after  a  severe  contest  (June  29th)  took  posses- 
sion of  Gitschin  and  established  communications 
with  the  Grown  Prince.  Clam-Gallas  retired  to 
join  the  main  body  under  Benedek. 

The  army  of  the  Crown  Prince  advanced  in  two 
divisions,  the  right  wing  by  Landshut,  toward 
Trautenau;  the  left  by  Glatz,  toward  Nachod 
and  Skalitz;  while  the  centre  entered  Bohemia  by 
Braunau,  all  crossing  the  frontier  on  June  26th 
and  27th.  The  passes  were  traversed  without  op- 
position, but  the  Austrian  forces  under  Gablenz 
opposed  a  determined  resistance  when  the  invaders 
emerged  from  them.  Both  sides  were  strongly 
reinforced,  but  victory  remained  with  the  Prus- 
sians in  the  encounters  at  Nachod,  Bkalitz,  and 
Schweinschftdel.  The  three  Prussian  columns, 
having  effected  a  firm  lodgment  in  Bohemia, 
moved  steadily  forward  in  lines  converging  to  a 
point  north  of  the  Austrian-  army,  which  was 
concentrated  'between  Josephstadt  and  K5nig- 
grfttz;  and  King  William  I.  of  Prussia,  who  had 
arrived  (July  2d)  at  the  headquarters  of  the 
First  and  Third  armies,  hearing  of  Benedek's  in- 
tention of  attacking  before  the  Crown  Prince's 
army  could  come  up,  resolved  to  anticipate  him, 
and  ordered  an  attack  on  the  Austrian  position 
at  8  A.  M.  on  July  3d,  at  the  same  time  sending 
an  urgent  appeal  to  hasten  the  arrival  of  the  Crown 
Prince.  (See  Sadowa,  Battle  op.)  The  Aus- 
trians and  their  Saxon  allies  were  utterly  routed 
and  only  saved  from  annihilation  by  their  admir- 
able cavalry.  All  hope,  however,  of  staying  the 
advance  of  the  Prussians  with  the  army  of  Bene- 
dek was  at  an  end;  a  truce  was  asked  for,  but 
refused;  and  the  victorious  Prussians  pushed 
forward  toward  Vienna,  whither  Benedek  had 
drawn  his  beaten  forces.  At  the  same  time  the 
southern  Austrian  army,  which  had  been  em- 
ployed against  the  Italians,  was  summoned  to 
the  defense  of  Vienna,  when,  through  the  agency 
of  the  Emperor  of  the  French,  a  truce  was 
agreed  to  (July  26th),  at  Nikolsburg,  which 
afterwards  led  to  a  treaty  of  peace. 

A  few  days  before  this  campaign  began,  the 
Italians,  who  had  entered  into  an  alliance  with 
Prussia  in  order  to  secure  the  liberation  of  Ve- 
netia,  assembled  an  army  of  200,000  men,  one- 
half  of  which,  under  General  La  Marmora  (q.v.) 
was  to  cross  the  Mincio  between  Peschiera  and 
Mantua,  while  the  other  half  was  stationed  round 
Bologna  to  operate  on  the  lower  Po.  To  op- 
pose this  force,  the  Archduke  Albert,  the  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Austrian  forces  in  Italy, 
had  about  90,000  men  near  Verona,  besides  the 
garrisons  of  the  Quadrilateral  and  Venice,  which 
were  not  available  for  field  service.    On  July  23d 


La  Marmora's  army  crossed  the  Mincio,  unop- 
posed by  the  Austrians.  The  Archduke,  however, 
succeeded  in  drawing  his  opponent  into  an  un- 
favorable position  and  attacked  him  (Jiu]e24th) 
at  Custozza  with  his  whole  force.  The  Austrians 
achieved  a  decisive  victory.  The  Italians  fell 
back,  in  fair  order,  toward  the  Mincio,  unpur- 
sued  by  their  exhausted  opponents. 

While  the  Italian  generals  were  deliberating 
on  the  renewal  of  the  campaign,  news  came  of 
the  great  defeat  which  the  Austrians  had  sus- 
tain^ in  the  north,  and  of  the  cession  of  Venetia, 
by  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  to  the  Emperor  Na- 
poleon. On  July  20th  the  Italian  fieet,  under 
Persano,  suffered  a  great  defeat  at  Lissa  at  the 
hands  of  Admiral  Tegetthoff,  the  Austrian  com- 
mander. 

In  spite  of  her  disasters,  Italy  was  very  loath  to 
agree  to  the  armistice  signed  by  the  two  bellig- 
erent German  Powers  at  Nikolsburg,  on  July  26th, 
and  attempted  to  insist  upon  the  surrender  by 
Austria  to  her  of  the  Trentino.  Prussia,  how- 
ever, would  not  support  this  demand,  and  Victor 
Emmanuel  gave  way  reluctantly,  and  agieed  to 
the  armistice,  August  12th.  The  Peace  of  Prague 
was  signed  August  23d. 

A  third  contest  was,  about  the  same  time,  in 
progress  between  Prussia  and  those  States  of 
Germany  which  had  engaged  in  the  struggle  on 
the  side  of  Austria.  The  Hanoverian  army  was 
compelled  to  surrender  at  Langensalza,  June  28th. 
The  operations  against  the  forces  of  the  South- 
German  States  (Bavaria,  WOrttemberg,  Baden, 
and  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Hesse)  in  the  valley  of 
the  Main  and  in  the  Lower  Franconia  (Kissen- 
gen)  were  speedily  brought  to  a  successful  issue 
by  Vogel  von  Falckenstein  and  other  Prussian 
generals.  For  results  of  the  war,  see  Germany; 
Prussia;  Italy. 

Consult:  Hozier,  The  Seven  Weeks'  War  (Lon- 
don, 1867) ;  Lecomte,  Guerre  de  la  Prusae  et  de 
Vltalie  contre  VAuatriche  et  la  confederation 
germanique  (Paris,  1868) ;  Fottane,  Der  deutache 
Krieg  von  1866  (2d  ed.,  Berlin,  1867);  Knorr, 
Der  Feldzug  dea  Jahrea  1866  in  Weat-  und  Bud- 
deutachland  (Hamburg,  1867);  also  the  oflScial 
accounts  of  the  general  staffs. 

SEVEN  WISE  MASTEBS.  A  collection  of 
stories  of  Oriental  origin  and  of  wide  currency  in 
Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Although  the  details 
vary,  the  general  framework  is  the  same  in  all 
the  recensions,  and  is  as  follows :  A  king  has  his 
son  by  a  former  marriage  reared  by  seven  sages  far 
from  the  Court.  When  the  prince  reaches  manhood, 
his  father  summons  him  home,  but  a  period  of 
danger  for  the  youth  is  foretold  by  the  stars.  To 
avert  the  peril,  he  is  bidden  by  his  teacher,  with- 
out the  King's  knowledge,  to  keep  silence  for  seven 
days.  During  this  time  his  stepmother  accuses 
him  before  the  King  in  revenge  for  his  refusal  to 
return  her  proffered  love.  The  Prince  is  sen- 
tenced to  die.  His  death  is  delayed,  however,  by 
the  seven  sages,  each  of  whom  tells  a  story  to  the 
King  of  the  craft  of  women  and  the  danger  of 
hasty  judgment,  while  the  Queen  endeavors  to 
offset  this  story  by  another,  and  urges  immediate 
execution.  This  continues  for  seven  days.  At  the 
end  of  this  time  the  Prince  breaks  his  silence,  and 
proves  his  innocence,  whereupon  the  Queen  is  put 
to  death.  The  original  of  the  collection  is  un- 
known. An  analogue  exists,  however,  in  the 
Sanskrit  6ukaaaptati  (q.v.),  and,  with  a  different 


SEVEN  WISE  3CA8TEB& 

theme,  in  the  Vetdlapancaviiniati  (q.v).  In  the 
Arabian  Nights  there  is  an  almost  exact  parallel 
in  the  collection  entitled  The  Malice  of  Women 
(nights  578-606).  The  course  of  the  story-cycle 
18  an  interesting  one.  It  was  translated  appar- 
ently from  Sanskrit  into  Pahlavi,  thence  into 
Arabic,  from  which  it  came  into  Spanish,  Hebrew, 
and  Syriac,  being  translated  from  the  latter  lan- 
guage into  Greek  by  Andreopulbs.  It  reached  the 
Occident  apparently  about  the  twelfth  century. 
In  1184  or  1185  the  monk  Johannes  de  Alta  Silva 
(the  modern  Haut-Seille,  near  Nancy)  made  a 
version  entitled  Dolopathoa,  aive  Hiatoria  de  Regc 
et  Septem  Sapientihus  (edited  by  Oesterley, 
Strassburg,  1873).  On  this  Dolopathos  Herbert 
based  his  poetic  version,  lA  Romans  de  Dolopaihos, 
in  the  thirteenth  century  (edited  by  Brunet  and 
Montaiglon,  Paris,  1856),  and  closely  related  to 
this  is  the  Old  French  Roman  dea  sept  sages  (ed- 
ited by  Keller,  Tttbingen,  1836),  based  on  a  Latin 
recension  now  lost.  A  third  Latin  version,  the 
Historia  Septem  Sapientium  (edited  from  a  man- 
uscript of  1342  by  Buchner,  Erlangen,  1889),  was 
the  best  known  of  all,  and  served  as  a  basis  for 
numerous  translations  in  German,  Dutch,  French, 
Spanish,  and  English,  passing  from  English  into 
Armenian,  Bohemian,  Polish,  and  Russian.  From 
a  fourth  Latin  text  (edited  by  Mussafia,  Vienna, 
1868)  were  derived  two  Italian  versions. 

SEVEN  WONDEBS  OF  THE  WORLD.  A 

group  of  famous  works  of  antiquity.  The  cycle 
seems  to  have  been  formed  in  Alexandrian  times 
and  is  mentioned  in  an  epigram  of  Antipater  of 
Sidon  in  the  second  century  B.c.  It  was  made 
the  subject  of  a  special  treatise  by  a  Sophist  of 
the  end  of  the  fifth  century  of  our  era,  which  has 
come  down  in  a  somewhat  mutilated  condition, 
under  the  name  of  Philo  of  Byzantium.  It  is 
certainly  not  by  the  great  en^neer  of  that  name. 
Antipater's  list  is:  the  walls  of  Babylon,  the 
statue  of  Zeus  by  Phidias  at  Olympia,  the  hang- 
ing gardens  at  Babylon,  the  Colossus  (q.v.)  of 
Rhodes,  the  Pyramids  of  Egypt,  the  Mausoleum 
(q.v.)  at  Halicamassus,  and  the  Temple  of  Ar- 
temis at  Ephesus.  (See  Diana,  Temple  of.) 
Pseudo-Philo  used  a  list  which  combined  the 
walls  and  hanging  gardens  under  one  head,  and 
added  the  Pharos  (q.v.)  of  Alexandria.  Others 
made  still  other  substitutions,  among  which  is 
found  even  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem. 

SEVEN  YEABS'  WAB  ( 1756-63) .  Primari- 
ly a  continuation  of  the  contest  between  Freder- 
ick the  Great  of  Prussia  and  Maria  Theresa  of 
Austria  for  the  possession  of  Silesia,  this  war 
became  of  world  importance,  as  in  it  France 
and  England  fought  out  their  struggle  for  pu- 
premacy  in  North  America  and  in  India. 
All  of  the  great  European  nations  were 
involved  in  it.  Frederick  William  I.  of 
Prussia  learned  before  his  death  in  1740 
how  fruitless  was  the  traditional  Hohen- 
zollem  policy  of  loyalty  to  the  House  of  Haps- 
burg.  His  son,  Frederick  the  Great,  adopted  a 
new  policy  of  self-assertion  for  Prussia.  In  the 
first  and  second  Silesian  wars,  1740-42  and 
1744-45,  which  formed  part  of  the  great  Euro- 
pean struggle  known  as  the  War  of  the  Austrian 
Succession  (see  Succession  Wars),  he  won 
Silesia,  upon  which  the  House  of  Hohenzollem 
had  an  ola  claim.  His  title  to  its  possession  was 
recognized    in    the    Treaty    of    Aix-la-Chapelle 


SEVEN  YEABS^  WABb 

(1748).  Maria  Theresa  was  bent  upon  the  re- 
covery of  Silesia,  and  France  and  sSigland  had 
not  by  any  means  settled  their  differences.  Id 
1754  the  French  and  Indian  War  (q.v.)  broke 
out  in  America,  and  in  the  spring  of  1756  Eng- 
land and  France  were  fighting  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. There  had  been  effected,  in  preparation 
for  a  struggle,  a  new  alignment  of  European  al- 
liances. Austria,  whose  foreign  policy  was  di- 
rected by  Kaunitz  (q.v.),  and  France,  whose 
King,  Louis  XV.,  was  under  the  sway  of  Madame 
de  Pompadour,  had  departed  from  the  policy  of 
antagonism  which  they  had  maintained  for  two 
centuries  and  had  concluded  a  treaty  of  alliance 
at  Versailles,  May  1,  1756.  Ten  years  before  & 
defensive  alliance  against  Frederick  had  been 
arranged  between  Austria  and  Russia.  Great 
Britain  in  case  of  a  European  war  had  common 
interest  with  Prussia  on  account  of  Hanover, 
which  would  be  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  her 
old  enemy,  France.  She,  therefore,  entered  into 
an  alliance  with  Prussia.  On  April  22,  1756, 
Russia  proposed  to  Austria  the  partition  of  the 
Prussian  territories.  Frederick,  w^ell  informed 
of  the  plans  of  his  enemies,  anticipated  their  ac- 
tions, and,  after  a  summary  demand  on  the  two 
powers  as  to  their  intentions,  on  August  29, 
1756,  invaded  Saxony,  which  he  knew  to  be 
friendly  to  Austria. 

Frederick  threw  a  column  into  Bohemia  and 
met  the  Austrian  advance  under  Browne  in  an 
indecisive  battle  at  Lobositz,  October  1st.  The 
Saxon  army,  after  a  siege  of  some  weeks  at 
Pima,  capitulated  on  October  16th,  and  there- 
after Saxony  was.  used  by  Frederick  as  a  base 
of  operations,  while  her  revenues  were  collected 
by  Prussia.  On  January  17,  1757,  the  Diet  of 
the  German  Empire  declared  war  on  Prussia, 
and  in  February  Austria,  Russia,  and  France 
completed  a  new  treaty  of  offensive  alliance. 
Sweden  also  joined  the  allies.  At  this  time  the 
English  alliance  promised  little  for  Prussia,  and 
it  was  not  until  Pitt  (q.v.)  was  well  established 
in  control  of  the  British  foreign  affairs  that  it 
gave  promise  of  real  utility  for  Frederick.  The 
coalition  against  Frederick,  whose  subjects  num- 
bered only  about  5,000,000,  was  the  most  pow- 
erful that  Europe  has  ever  witnessed.  Sur- 
rounded by  such  powerful  foes  the  Prussian 
King's  policy  was  to  concentrate  his  attacks  and 
strike  rapid  and  heavy  blows.  He  made  his  first 
attack  in  Bohemia,  defeated  the  Austrians  under 
Charles  of  Lorraine  and  Browne  before  Prague, 
May  6th,  in  a  desperate  battle,  laid  siege  to 
Prague,  but  lost  the  battle  of  Kolin  against  the 
Austrian  Marshal  Daun  (q.v.),  June  18th.  This 
compelled  the  King  to  retire  into  Saxony.  Mean- 
while the  French  had  obtained  possession  of  much 
of  North  Germany  west  of  the  Elbe,  which  was 
defended  by  an  insufficient  English  and  Han- 
overian force  under  the  incompetent  Duke  of 
Cumberland.  The  latter  retreated  before  the 
French,  was  beaten  at  Hastenbeck,  July  26tli, 
and  signed  the  disgraceful  convention  of  Kloster- 
ZeVen,  September  8th,  in  accordance  with  which 
the  Hanoverian  army  was  to  be  dispersed,  Han- 
over being  left  in  the  hands  ©f  the  French.  This 
was  a  virtual  surrender  and  the  English  (3ov- 
emment  repudiated  it.  Frederick  turned  next 
against  the  French  and  Imperialists,  under  the 
command  of  Soubise(q.v.) ,  and  at  Ro8«bach(q.v.) 
won  one  of  his  most  brilliant  victories,  November 


SEVSK  YEABS'  WAS. 


699 


8EVEBH. 


5,  1757.  A  month  later  he  inflicted  a  great  de- 
feat upon  the  Austrians  under  Daun  at  Leuthen 
(December  5th).  This  battle  was  followed  by 
the  surrender  of  Breslau  and  Liegnitz.  Mean- 
while in  East  Prussia  the  Prussians  under  Leh- 
waldt  were  defeated  at  Gross-Jagemdorf  by  the 
Russians  under  Apraxin  (August  3(Hh)  and  East 
Prussia  was  overrun.  But  Pitt  had  now  taken 
hold  of  English  affairs  with  a  firm  grasp  and 
entered  upon  the  fullest  cooperation  with  Prus- 
sia. Ferdinand  of  Bnmswick  was  placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  Hanoverian  forces  and  Frederick's 
resources  were  increased  by  a  liberal  subsidy 
from  England. 

In  1758  Frederick  opened  another  year  of  as- 
gressive  campaigning.  He  recaptured  Schweid- 
oitz  in  Silesia,  besieged  OlmUtz  unsuccessfully, 
then  turned  upon  the  Russians  who  had  invaded 
Brandenburg,  and  defeated  them  thoroughly  at 
Zomdorf,  August  25th.  He  then  moved  into 
Saxony,  where  he  was  attacked  by  Daun  at  Hoch- 
kirch,  October  14th,  and  defeated,  though  not 
badly.  He  then  passed  around  Daun's  army  and 
relieved  Upper  Silesia,  which  was  in  danger  of 
falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Austrians.  Prus- 
sia, nowever,  was  now  almost  exhausted. 
Hemmed  in  by  the  Russians  and  Auistriana  under 
Soltikoff  and  Laudon,  Frederick  met  his  worst 
defeat  at  Kunersdorf  (q.v.),  near  Frankfort-on- 
the-Oder,  on  August  12,  1769,  where  almost  his 
entire  army  was  destroyed  or  dispersed.  On  No- 
vember 2l8t  one  of  his  generals,  Finck,  was 
trapped  at  Maxen  in  Saxony  and  compelled  to 
surrender  with  about  13,000  men.  Prussia  now 
seemed  to  be  prostrate.  In  the  west,  however, 
conditions  had  changed  with  the  change  in  com- 
manders. Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  signally  de- 
feated the  French  at  Crefeld,  June  23,  1758,  and 
at  Minden,  August  1,  1759.  The  victory  of  Min- 
den,  with  the  brilliant  success  of  the  English 
against  the  French  in  Canada,  where  they  took 
(j^ebec,  the  capture  of  Guadeloupe,  and  the  naval 
victory  of  A<faniral  Hawke  over  the  French  in 
Quiberon  Bay,  November  20th,  redeemed  the  year 
1759  for  the  Anglo-Prussian  alliance. 

After  1759  Frederick  fought  on  the  defensive. 
In  1760  the  Prussians  were  defeated  at  Lands- 
hut,  June  23d,  and  lost  Glatz,  July  26th.  Fred- 
crick  himself  won  by  hard  fighting  the  battles 
of  Liegnits,  August  15th,  over  Laudon  and  Tor- 
gau,  November  3d,  over  Daun,  but  in  the  mean- 
time, in  October,  Berlin  itself  was  raided  by 
Russians  and  Austrians.  In  1760  George  III. 
succeeded  to  the  English  throne  and  in  1761 
Pitt  went  out  of  office.  With  Pitt  went  Eng- 
land's grand  designs.  The  Government  fail^ 
to  renew  the  convention  with  Prussia,  which 
thus  lost  her  one  ally.  This  desertion  Fred- 
erick never  forgave.  The  death  of  the  Em- 
press Elizabeth  of  Russia,  January  5,  1762,  and 
the  accession  of  Peter  III.,  Frederick's  ardent 
admirer,  coming  at  this  critical  juncture,  saved 
Prussia.  The  new  Czar  made  an  alliance  with 
Frederick  and  the  Russian  arms  were  turned 
a^^inst  Austria.  Frederick  was  able  to  take  the 
initiative  again  and  defeated  the  Austrians  at 
Burkersdorf,  in  Silesia,  July  21,  1762,  and  on 
August  16th  defeated  Daun  at  Reichenbach.  On 
October  29th  Prince  Henry,  brother  of  Frederick, 
and  Seydlitz  were  victorious  at  Freiberg.  Peter 
was  deposed  July  9th  by  his  wife,  Catharine  II., 
and  the  Rusaian  troops  were  ordered  home. 
▼oi..  XV.— «. 


Sweden  also  withdrew  from  the  struggle.  At 
the  close  of  1762  a  truce  was  concluded  between 
Austria  and  Prussia,  botii  sides  being  exhausted. 
France  had  drawn  Spain  into  the  struggle 
with  England  by  the  Bourbon  family  compact 
of  August  5,  1761,  which  Choiseul  luid  negoti- 
ated, and  Bute,  who  had  sought  peace  at  any 
price,  found  himself  compelled  to  follow  tardily 
the  course  marked  out  by  Pitt.  In  1762  Marti- 
nique, Havana,  and  Manila  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  English.  The  struggle  in  India  was  already 
decided  in  favor  of  England.     On  November  3, 

1762,  preliminaries  of  peace  were  signed  at  Fon- 
tainebleau  between  England,  France,  Spain,  and 
Portugal  (which  had  l^n  attacked  by  the  Bour- 
bon coalition),  and  the  definitive  Peace  of 
Paris  was  arranged  on  February  10,  1763.  (See 
Paris,  Treaties  of.)  Austria  and  Prussia  con- 
cluded the  Peace  of  Hubertsburg  on  February  15, 

1763.  As  Prussia  retained  Silesia,  the  war 
brought  no  changes  territorially  in  Europe,  but 
it  placed  Prussia  among  the  Powers  of  tne  first 
rank.  Outside  of  Europe  it  changed  the  aspect 
of  the  world,  bringing  about  the  downfall  of 
France  as  a  colonial  Power  and  preparing  the 
way  for  the  British  Empire  in  India. 

Consult :  Longman,  Frederick  the  Great  and  the 
Seven  Years'  War  (London,  1888),  a  reliable 
and  comprehensive  brief  history;  Carlyle,  HiS' 
tory  of  Frederick  the  Great  (in  several  edi- 
tions) ;  Sch&fer,  Oeschichte  des  siebenjiahrigen 
Kriegea  (Berlin,  1867-74),  the  principal  history 
of  the  war ;  Von  Ranke,  Der  Ursprung  dee  siehet^ 
jahrigen  Kriegea  (Leipzig,  1871)  ;  Vast,  "Guerre 
de  sept  ans,"  with  excellent  bibliography,  in  vol. 
vii.  of  Lavisse  and  Rambaud,  Hiatoire  g^nirale 
(Paris,  1893-1900).  See  also  authorities  referred 
to  under  Frederick  II.,  Majua  Thsrbsa,  and 
Pitt,  William. 

SBV'EBI'NUS,  Saint  (c.400-82).  A  mis- 
sionary of  Latin  birth,  bom  either  in  Northern 
Africa  or  Southern  Italy,  often  known  as  the 
Apostle  of  Noricum.  In  454,  after  the  death  of 
Attila,  he  went  among  the  Norici  to  establish 
the  only  partially  recognized  religion  of  Chris- 
tianity. By  his  courage  and  good  i^rks  he  put 
the  new  religion  on  a  firm  footing.  His  body 
was  taken  to  Italy  by  his  follower,  Luoillus,  and 
eventually  was  buried  on  a  small  island  near 
Naples. 

SEV^BK.  One  of  the  principal  rivers  of 
England.  It  rises  on  Plinlimmon,  in  Montgom- 
eryshire, North  Wales,  flows  first  east  and  north- 
east, then  crosses  Shropshire  in  an  easterly  and 
southeasterly  direction,  and  finally  fiows  south- 
ward through  Worcester  and  Gloucester,  form- 
ing a  large  estuarv,  which  widens  into  the  Bristol 
Channel  (q.v.)  (Map:  England,  D  5).  It  is  210 
miles  long,  and  navigable  for  bargee  to  Welsh- 
pool, 180  miles  from  its  mouth.  The  chief  afflu- 
ents of  the  Severn  are  the  Avon  on  the  east  and 
the  Wye  on  the  west.  A  canal,  18%  miles  long, 
navigable  for  vessels  of  350  tons,  materially 
shortens  the  navigation  from  the  upper  portion 
of  the  estuary  to  Gloucester.  Other  canals  con- 
nect the  Severn  with  the  Thames,  Trent,  Mersey, 
and  the  other  important  rivers  of  Middle  Eng- 
land. The  famous  Severn  railway  tunnel,  over 
four  miles  long,  passes  under  the  estuary  near 
Chepstow. 

SEVEBN,  Joseph  (1793-1879).  An  English 
painter,  bom  at  Hoxton,  Gloucestershire.    While 


BEVEEH. 


700 


8EVIONB. 


a  struggling  young  artist  he  became  a  friend  of 
John  Keats.  In  1817  he  won  a  gold  medal  from 
the  Royal  Academy,  for  his  historical  painting 
"Una."  Afterwards  he  worked  principally  at 
miniatures.  He  went  with  Keats  to  Rome  in 
1820,  and  remained  with  him  until  his  death. 
He  painted  several  portraits  of  Keats,  and  after 
his  return  to  London  in  1841  did  some  literary 
work  of  little  importance.  From  1860  until  1872 
he  was  consul  at  Rome,  and  he  was  buried  in 
that  city,  beside  the  poet.  Consult  Sharp,  Life 
and  Letters  of  Joseph  Severn  (London,  1802). 

8EVEB0  (s&-ya'r6)  CAFE,  Nobtheast  Cafe, 
or  Cape  Tchklyuskin.  The  northernmost  point 
of  the  Asiatic  continent  (Map:  Asia,  K  1).  It 
is  a  low,  stony,  and  desert  outrunner  of  the 
Taimur  Peninsula  and  extends  to  latitude  77  • 
34'  north.  After  its  discovery  by  the  Russian 
officer  Tchelyuskin  in  1742  it  was  not  again 
visited  until  NordenskjQld  reached  it  in  1878. 

SEVE^USy  ALEXAI7DES.  See  Alexandeb 
Sevebub. 

SEVEBUS,  Lucius  Septimius  (a.d.  146-211). 
A  Roman  emperor  from  193  to  211,  bom  near 
Leptis  Magna,  on  the  north  coast  of  Africa.  He 
was  commander  of  a  legion  in  Gaul,  and  gov- 
ernor successively  of  Gallia  Lugdunensis,  Pan- 
nonia,  and  Sicily.  After  the  murder  of  Pertinax 
he  was  proclaimed  Emperor,  a.d.  193,  at  Car- 
nuntum,  and  promptly  marched  upon  Rome, 
where  the  puppet  Julianus  had  by  purchase  ob- 
tained the  Imperial  purple.  His  arrival  before 
Rome  was  the  death  signal  for  Julianus;  and 
after  taking  vengeance  on  the  murderers  of  Per- 
tinax, and  distributing  an  extravagant  largess 
to  his  soldiers,  Severus  marched  against  Pescen- 
nius  Niger,  and  conquered  him  at  Issus,  a.d.  194. 
A  campaign  in  the  East,  and  a  three  years'  siege 
of  Byzantium,  which  was  finally  taken,  were  fol- 
lowed by  a  desperate  struggle  with  Clodius  Al- 
binus,  whom,  after  an  obstinate  conflict  at  Lyons, 
he  conquered  in  197.  Severus  returned  to  Asia, 
and  met  with  the  most  brilliant  success  in  the 
campaign  of  198  against  the  Parthians,  and  took 
and  plundered  their  capital,  Ctesiphon.  He  re- 
turned to  Rome  in  202,  and  gratified  the  popular 
taste  by  the  exhibition  of  shows  of  unparalleled 
magnificence,  also  distributing  another  extrava- 
gant largess  to  the  citizens  and  preetorians.  A 
rebellion  in  Britain  drew  him  to  that  country  in 
208,  and  at  the  head  of  an  immense  army  he 
marched,  it  is  said,  to  the  extreme  north  of  the 
island,  encountering  enormous  hardships,  to 
which  no  less  than  50,000  of  his  soldiers  suc- 
cumbed. To  safeguard  the  natives  of  Southern 
Britain  from  the  incursions  of  the  Meatie  and 
Caledonians,  Severus  began  the  wall  which  bears 
his  name.  He  died  soon  after  at  Eboracum 
(York). 

SEVEBUS,  Wall  op.    See  Roman  Wall. 

SEVIEB  (s^-vSr^)  LAKE.  A  salt  lake  lying 
among  the  Basin  Ranges  of  western  Utah,  and 
surrounded  by  the  Sevier  Desert  (Map:  Utah, 
A  2).  It  has  no  outlet,  but  is  fed  by  the  Sevier 
River.  It  is  a  remnant  of  Lake  Bonneville, 
which  in  Pleistocene  times  covered  a  vast  area 
and  made  Sevier  Lake  continuous  with  the  Great 
Salt  Lake.  Half  a  century  ago  the  lake  was 
30  miles  long,  10  miles  wide,  and  15  feet  deep, 
but,  since  the  river  is  now  largely  used  for  irri- 
gation, the  lake-bottom  is  dry  for  a  great  part 


of  the  year,  and  is  covered  with  a  vast  deposit 
of  salt 

SEVIEB^  John   (1745-1815).     An  American 

gioneer  and  political  leader,  bom  in  Rockingham 
k)unty,  Va.  Leaving  school  when  sixteen  years 
of  age,  he  married  in  the  following  year,  and 
in  1764  foimded  the  village  of  New  Market  in 
the  Shenandoah  Valley.  Here  he  became  cele- 
brated as  an  Indian  fighter,  and  in  1772  removed 
beyond  the  AUeghanies  to  the  Watauga  settle- 
ments. He  served  as  captain  in  Lord  Dumnore's 
War,  participating  in  the  battle  of  Point  Pleas- 
ant (q.v.),  was  a  delegate  for  several  jeara 
from  Watauga  to  the  North  Carolina  Legisla- 
ture, conducted  many  expeditions  against  the 
Indians,  gained  a  victory  over  them  at  Boyd's 
Creek  (1779),  and  served  with  great  gallantry 
at  Kings  Mountain  (1780).  He  took  part  in  the 
battle  of  Musgrove's  Mills,  and  in  1781  fought 
under  Marion,  and  was  made  brieadier-general. 
He  was  Governor  of  the  "State  of  Franklin"  in 
1785-88,  on  the  breaking  up  of  which  by  North 
Carolina  he  was  imprisoned,  but  soon  escaped. 
In  1790  he  was  sent  as  a  Representative  to  (con- 
gress. In  1793  he  conducted  the  E^towah  cam- 
paign against  the  Indians,  and  in  1796  became 
the  first  Governor  of  Tennessee,  serving  until 
1801.  He  was  again  Governor  from  1803  to  1809, 
and  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1811  to 
1815.  He  died  on  a  mission  U>  the  Creek  Indians. 
For  his  life,  consult  J.  R.  Gilinore  (New  York, 
1887). 

sAVTGJSri,  8ft'v6'ny&^,  Maeie  db  Rabutto- 
Chaittal,  Marquise  de  (1626-90).  A  French 
epistolary  writer.  She  waa  bom  in  Paris,  February 
6,  1626,  of  a  military  family  known  in  Burgundy 
as  early  as  the  twelfth  century.  Her  father, 
Baron  de  Chantal,  was  killed  at  the  Isle  of  Rh6 
in  1627.  Her  mother,  Marie  de  Coulanges,  died 
in  1633.  The  little  heiress  was  then  carmi  for  by 
her  mother's  parents,  both  of  whom  died  within 
three  years.  Her  uncle,  Christophe  de  Cou- 
langes,  Abb6  de  Livry,  was  now  chosen  guardian. 
He  lived  till  1686,  always  her  close  friend  and 
business  adviser,  and  was  frequently  visited  by 
her  at  his  abbey.  He  gave  his  niece  an  excellent 
education ;  among  her  tutors  were  Chapelain  and 
Manage.  Her  earliest  letters  are  in  response  to 
Menage's  professions  of  love.  Among  the  close 
friends  of  her  youth  was  the  future  Madame  de 
la  Fayette.  The  careful  management  of  her 
guardian  left  her  relatively  rich  at  eighteen, 
when  she  married  Henri,  Marquis  de  S^vigni^,  a 
Breton  gentleman,  whom  she  loved  better  ti»an 
he  seems  to  have  deserved.  The  Chevalier 
d'Albret  mortally  wounded  him  in  a  duel  over 
Madame  de  Gondran  and  he  died  in  1651,  leaving 
a  son,  Charles,  who  died  childless,  and  a  daughter, 
Francoise,  who  married,  in  1669,  Francois  Ad- 
h^mar.  Count  de  Grignan,  and  had  two  children, 
who  died  without  issue.  To  her  children  Madame 
de  S6vign6  devoted  the  rest  of  her  life,  especially 
to  the  daughter,  who  did  not  worthily  requite  her 
affection. 

Her  social  tact,  good  looks,  vivacity,  and 
charm  made  her  very  popular  and  brought  her 
the  homage  of  many  distinguished  friends,  among 
them  Turenne  and  the  Prince  de  Conti.  It  was 
not  till  her  daughter's  marriage  (1669)  that  her 
letters  became  numerous.  Count  de  Grignan  was 
practically  Governor  of  Provence,  and  Madame 
de  S6vign6  divided  her  time  between  Paris,  Les 


SEVIONB. 


701 


SEVILLE. 


Rochers,  and  visits,  not  always  welcome,  to  her 
daughter.  In  1676  she  visited  Vichy.  From  1677 
to  1678  Madame  de  Grignan  was  chiefly  in  Paris 
and  the  correspondence  lagged.  It  was  after- 
wards resumed  in  quite  its  early  volume.  Mother 
and  daughter  were  together  also  at  Paris  from 
1691  to  1694,  but  it  was  at  Grignan  that  Madame 
de  S6vign6  died,  April  17,  1696.  The  disease 
was  smallpox  and  she  was  unattended  by  her 
daughter  at  the  last.  But  Madame  de  Grignan, 
by  a  certain  poetic  justice,  died  nine  years  later 
of  the  very  malady  whose  infection  she  had  ap- 
parently sacrificed  her  filial  instinct  to  escape. 

The  letters  of  Madame  de  S6vign6  are  un- 
rivaled for  their  fresh  charm,  shrewd  wit,  and 
easy  gaiety  of  heart.  They  form  an  almost  com- 
plete and  familiar  chronicle  of  the  Court  and 
high  society  of  the  time  (1669-1695).  Their  vi- 
vacity scarcely  ever  flags,  whether  she  is  telling 
of  Court  life,  of  scenes  at  the  baths  of  Vichy,  or 
of  country  society  and  diversions.  She  writes 
spontaneously,  sketches  vivid  pictures  in  a  few 
rapid  strokes,  or  gives  in  sparkling  narrative  the 
social  happenings  of  the  day,  meanwhile  unwit- 
tingly revealing  her  own  character.  Madame  de 
S^vigne  enjoy^  some  literary  fame  during  her 
lifetime.  Her  letters,  as  edited  by  Regnier  and 
others  (Paris,  1862-68,  2d  ed.  1887  et  seq.),  fiH 
with  some  other  correspondence,  fourteen  vol- 
umes, of  which  the  first  contains  a  Life,  and  two 
others  (vols,  xiii.,  xiv.)  a  lexicon.  This  is  sup- 
plemented by  Capmas,  Lettrea  indditea  de  Ma- 
dame de  S^ign^  (Paris,  1876).  There  are  many 
other  editions  complete  and  partial,  the  first  in 
1726,  the  most  noteworthy,  by  Monmerqu§,  in  10 
vols,  (ib.,  1818-19).  Consult:  Walckenaer, 
M6moires  iouchanta  la  vie  et  lea  Merita  de 
Madame  de  8Mgn4  (ib.,  1842-52) ;  Puliga, 
Madame  de  S&oign^:  Her  Correapondenta  and 
Her  Coniemporariea  (London,  1873) ;  Miss 
Thackeray  (Mrs.  Ritchie),  Madame  de  86vign6 
in  "Foreign  Classics"  (Edinburgh,  1881);  Bois- 
sieur,  M^Uime  de  84vignS,  in  **Les  grands  ^ri- 
vains  francais"  (Paris,  1887) ;  Mason,  Women  of 
the  French  Salona  (New  York,  1891)  ;  L6on  de  la 
Briftre,  Madame  de  S&oign^  en  Bretagne  (Paris, 
1882) ;  Saporta,  La  famille  de  Madame  de  84- 
vigni  en  province  ( ib.,  1889 )  ;  Sainte-Beuve,  Por- 
traita  de  femmea  (ib.,  1856)  ;  id.,  Cauaeriea, 
vol.  i.  (ib.,  1867-62)  ;  id.,  Nouveaux  lundia,  vol. 
ii.  (ib.,  1863-72) ;  Scherer,  Etudea,  vols.  ii.  and 
iii.  (ib.,  1863-74)  ;  Heynaud,  Lea  difauta  de  la 
comteaae  de  Orignan  (ib.,  1895). 

SEVILLE,  se-vll'  (Sp.  8evilla,  sA-venyA). 
The  capital  of  the  province  and  of  the  former 
kingdom  of  Seville,  in  Andalusia,  Spain,  situ- 
ated on  the  left  bank  of  the  Guadalquivir,  58 
miles  north-northeast  of  Cadiz,  and  75  miles 
southwest  of  Cordova  (Map:  Spain,  C  4).  Al- 
though the  city  lies  60  miles  from  the  mouth  of 
the  river,  the  tide  ascends  12  miles  above  it. 
Large  portions  of  it  lie  below  the  high- water  level 
of  the  river,  with  the  result  that  the  city  has 
frequently  suffered  from  disastrous  inundations. 
The  climate  is  delightful,  though  the  summers 
are  very  warm.  The  surrounding  plain  is  ex- 
ceedingly fertile  and  well  cultivated.  The  city 
was  formerly  surrounded  by  a  high  wall,  por- 
tions of  which  still  remain.  There  is  a  wide  and 
open  strip  of  embankment  along  the  river,  and 
the  latter  is  crossed  by  three  bridges,  one  a  rail- 
road bridge,  to  the  suburb  of  Barrio  de  Triana. 


The  city  itself  is  a  labyrinth  of  narrow,  wind- 
ing streets  and  lanes;  it  still  preserves  its  old 
Moorish  aspect,  and  the  Moorish  style  of  con- 
struction is  seen  here  more  characteristically, 
perhaps,  than  in  any  other  Spanish  city.  The 
houses  are  generally  of  two  stories  and  inclose 
the  arcaded  patio  in  the  centre.  Large  sections 
of  the  city,  however,  especially  the  northern  and 
western  parts,  have  been  encroached  on  by 
straight  and  regular  streets.  The  principal 
squares  within  the  city  are  the  Alameda  de  Her- 
cules in  the  north,  adorned  with  statues  and 
several  rows  of  trees;  the  Plaza  de  San  Fer- 
nando, faced  by  the  city  hall;  and  the  Plaza  del 
Triunfo  in  the  south,  on  which  stand  three  of 
the  most  interesting  buildings  in  the  city,  the 
cathedral,  the  AlcAzar,  and  the  Casa  Lonja  or 
exchange. 

The  Cathedral  of  Seville  is  one  of  the  largest 
and  grandest  Gothic  structures  in  existence.  It 
w^as  begun  in  1402  on  the  site  of  the  old  Moorish 
mosque  which  had  formerly  served  as  cathedral, 
and  parts  of  which  still  remain  as  the  Patio  de 
los  Naranjos  or  Orange  Court.  It  measures  380 
by  250  feet;  the  nave  is  53  feet  wide  and  132 
feet  high.  It  contains  a  wealth  of  art  treasures. 
In  1882  restorations  were  begun,  as  the  vaulting 
had  been  weakened  by  earthquakes,  but  in  1888 
the  entire  dome  collapsed,  destroying  a  great 
part  of  the  interior.  Adjacent  to  the  cathedral 
and  forming  a  part  of  the  old  mosque  stands 
the  remarkable  tower  of  La  Giralda,  perhaps  the 
most  beautiful  building  in  the  city.  It  is  a 
square  tower  330  feet  high,  the  upper  100  feet 
being  a  belfiy  and  dome  added  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  The  top  is  surmounted  by  a  bronze 
statue  of  Faith,  13  feet  high,  which  moves  in  the 
wind  like  a  vane  {giralda).  The  Alc&zar  was 
the  palace  of  the  Moorish  kings  and  "later  of  the 
Spanish  sovereigns.  It  originally  included  the 
now  isolated  Torre  de  Oro,  which  stands  on  the 
river  bank,  and  contains  several  beautiful  patioa 
almost  rivaling  those  of  the  Alhambra.  Other 
interesting  buildings  in  the  city  are  the  Casa  de 
Pilatos;  the  magnificent  Moorish-rRenaissance 
palace  of  the  Duke  of  Medinaceli ;  the  Palacio  de 
Santelmo,  situated  among  the  parks  near  the 
river;  the  immense  FAbrica  de  Tabacos,  covering 
more  than  6  acres;  the  bull  ring,  which  is  the 
largest  in  Spain  next  to  that  of  Madrid  and 
capable  of  seating  12,000  spectators. 

The  educational  establishments  include  a  uni- 
versity founded  in  1502,  with  faculties  of  law, 
philosophy,  and  science,  a  medical  faculty  situ- 
ated at  Cadiz,  and  about  1400  students.  There  are 
also  a  provincial  school  of  art,  the  Seminary  of 
Saint  Francis  Xavier,  an  institute  for  secondary 
education,  a  normal  school,  numerous  minor  acad- 
emies, and  the  provincial  library  with  80,000 
volumes.  In  the  cathedral  is  installed  the  valu- 
able Columbian  Library  of  30,000  volumes,  formed 
by  Fernando  Col6n,  son  of  the  discoverer,  and 
including  manuscripts  of  Columbus.  The  Indian 
archives,  a  collection  of  documents  relating  to 
the  discoveries  of  the  Indies,  are  installed  in  the 
Casa  Ix>nja,  and  the  city  has  also  an  interesting 
collection  of  municipal  archives  and  a  museum 
of  archjeology.  The  Museum  of  Paintings  con- 
tains the  largest  and  best  collection  of  Murillo, 
who  was  born  in  Seville,  and  whose  house  is 
still  to  be  seen  there.  A  number  of  his  works 
are  also  scattered  through  the  various  churches 
of  the  city.    Among  the  cliaritable  establishments 


SEVILLE. 


702 


SEWAGE. 


the  most  notable  is  the  Hospital  Civil  or  de  las 
Cinco  Llagos,  one  of  the  largest  in  Europe. 

The  commerce  and  industries  are  of  consider- 
able importance.  The  tobacco  factory  employs 
6000  hands^  and  there  are  iron  foundries  and 
machine  shops,  and  manufactures  of  chocolate, 
soap,  perfiunes,  beverages,  corks,  silks,  and  musi- 
cal instruments,  including  pianos.  The  suburb 
of  Triana  is  noted  for  its  manufactures  of  pot- 
tery, and  the  large  Convent  of  La  Cartuja  has 
since  1839  been  used  as  a  factory  for  ceramic 
products,  employing  2000  hands  and  equipped 
with  modem  machinery.  The  imports  of  Seville 
in  1898  amounted  to  $2,364,900,  and  the  exports 
to  $7,190,510,  more  than  half  of  which  went  to 
England.  The  chief  exports  are  iron  ore  (381,- 
573  tons  in  1898),  lead,  copper,  mercury,  and 
other  minerals,  oranges,  olives  and  olive  oil,  cork, 
grain,  and  wine.  The  population,  in  1887,  was 
143,182;  in  1900,  147,271. 

The  Hiapal  of  the  Phoenicians,  the  Hiapalia 
of  the  Romans,  was  corrupted  by  the  Moors  into 
lahhilliah,  from  which  the  Spanish  name  of  the 
city  was  derived.  Seville  was  a  place  of  great 
importance  in  the  latter  period  of  Roman  domin- 
ion; became  the  capital  of  Southern  Spain  dur- 
ing the  ascendency  of  the  Vandals  and  the  Goths, 
and  was  the  scene  of  two  notable  Church  coun- 
cils (590  and  619).  It  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Arabs  in  the  eighth  century,  under  whom  it 
prospered  greatly,  its  population  reaching  400,- 
000.  In  1026  it  became  the  capital  of  the  Moor- 
ish kingdom  ruled  by  the  Abadites  (see  Abad), 
from  whom  it  passed,  in  1091,  to  the  Almora- 
vides,  whose  rule  was  supplanted  in  1 147  by  that 
of  the  Almohades.  In  1248  it  was  taken  by  Fer- 
dinand III.  of  Castile,  when  300,000  Moors  left 
for  Granada  and  Africa.  From  this  time  it  was 
the  capita)  of  Castile,  and  when  Spain  was  imit- 
ed  it  was  for  a  while  the  seat  of  the  Court  until 
Charles  V.  made  Valladolid  his  residence.  The 
city  rose  to  extraordinary  prosperity  after  the 
discovery  of  the  New  World,  when  it  became  the 
residence  of  princely  merchants,  and  the  mart  of 
the  colonies,  but  its  trade  was  afterwards  trans- 
ferred to  Cadiz.  In  1810  it  was  taken  and  rav- 
aged by  Soult.  Consult:  Wackernagel,  Sevilla 
(Basel,  1870)  ;  Parlow,  Vom  Ouadalquiver.  Wan- 
derungen  in  Sevilla  (Vienna,  1888);  K.  E. 
Schmidt,  Sevtlla  (Leipzig,  1902). 

SJSVBES,  sA'vr'.  A  town  in  the  Department 
of  Seine-et-Oise,  France,  7  miles  southwest  of 
Paris  (Map:  Paris  and  vicinitv).  It  is  cele- 
brated for  its  Government  porcelain  factory,  es- 
tablished in  1756.  The  public  museum  has  speci- 
mens of  pottery  and  porcelain  wares  representing 
every  period  and  country,  and  exhibiting  the 
various  stages  in  the  development  of  the  indus- 
try. The  town  hall  has  a  handsome  collection  of 
paintings  and  sculptures,  and  a  normal  school 
for  females  occupies  the  old  porcelain  factory 
building.  Population,  in  1901,  8216.  Consult 
Lauth,  La  manufacture  nationale  de  Sevres, 
1879-87  (Paris,  1889). 

SiiVBES,  Deux.  A  western  inland  department 
of  France,  between  the  departments  of  Vienne 
on  the  east  and  Vend^  on  the  west  (Map: 
France,  F  5),  Area,  2337  square  miles;  popu- 
lation, in  1896,  346,694;  in  1901,  342,474.  The 
department  takes  its  name  from  two  rivers,  the 
Sfevre-Niortaise,  which  flows  west  into  the  sea, 
and  the  S^vre-Nantaise,  an  aflSuent  of  the  Loire. 


It  is  traversed  from  southeast  to  northwest  by 
a  chain  of  hills,  called  in  the  southeast  the 
Monts  du  Poitou,  and  in  the  north  the  Plateau 
de  Gatine.  This  ridge  forms  the  water-^ed  be- 
tween the  Loire  on  the  north  and  the  Charente 
on  the  south.  The  climate  is  healthful,  and  the 
soil  fertile.  Cereals,  the  grape-vine,  sugar  beets, 
flax,  and  various  fruits  are  cultivated.  There 
are  numerous  coal  and  iron  mines,  and  good 
quarries  of  freestone  and  marble.  Capital, 
Niort. 

SEWAGE  (from  sew-,  the  apparent  base  of 
8eu>er)  DISPOSAL,  The  question  of  the  best 
means  for  removing  household  wastes  from  indi- 
vidual premises  was  only  beginning  to  receive 
general  attention  in  1850;  but  to-day  collection 
and  removal  may  be  considered  as  no  longer  in 
question.  The  sanitary  emancipation  of  hun- 
dreds of  small  and  scores  of  large  towns  and 
cities  followed  the  introduction  of  the  separate 
system  of  sewers  (see  Sewebaqe  and  Drain- 
age), with  its  relatively  small,  cheap,  and  self- 
cleansing  pipe  conduit  system.  But  sewers,  or 
the  water  carriage  system  of  waste  removal, 
sometimes  proved  to  be  only  a  temporary  solu- 
tion of  the  disposal  problem,  on  account  of  the 
consequent  pollution  of  public  water  supplies 
and  the  less  important,  but  much  more  palpable, 
offense  to  the  nostril  and  eye  caused  by  the  foul- 
ing of  streams  and  other  bodies  of  water.  Thus, 
in  many  instances,  the  burden  was  merely  shifted 
and  the  problem  left  unsolved. 

It  must  be  understood  that  in  the  long  run 
practically  all  these  household  wastes  must 
reach  either  the  water  or  the  soil,  and  that  ulti- 
mately the  bulk  of  the  liquid  portion  reaches 
the  water.  Disposal  of  sewage  on  land  is 
a  recognized  method  of  purification,  but  dis- 
charge into  water,  provided  the  volume  of  water 
be  large  enough,  and  not  used  for  domestic  sup- 
plies, may  be  just  as  effective  and  sanitazr. 
Nature  has  abundant  means  for  transforming  all 
organic  wastes  into  harmless  and  useful  prod- 
ucts. But  the  capacity  for  this  in  a  given  area 
of  land,  or  body  of  water,  is  limited.  Until  the 
adoption  of  the  water  carriage  system  of  sew- 
erage, household  wastes  were  deposited  on  or 
in  the  soil.  With  the  concentration  of  peoples 
in  cities  the  soil  became  overburdened  and  re- 
course was  had  to  the  nearest  water.  As  soon 
as  nuisances  arose  here,  and  particularly  when 
it  began  to  be  seen  that  public  water  supplies 
were  thus  endangered,  there  was  a  return  to 
land,  onl^  the  disposal  now  was  collective,  in- 
stead of  individual,  and  remote  from,  instead  of 
upon,  each  man's  premises.  Through  a  lack  of 
knowledge  of  the  principles  involved,  or  because 
of  either  a  scarcity  of  proper  land  or  of  money 
to  buy  and  prepare  it,  the  sewage  farms,  or 
broad  irrigation  areas,  thus  established  became 
oversaturated,  clogged,  and  offensive,  or  'sewage 
sick.* 

It  was  then  sought  to  relieve  these  areas  by 
removing  the  solids  from  the  sewage,  a  plan 
which  had  been  and  continued  to  be  carried  out 
in  the  case  of  water  disposal.  A  further  mo- 
tive, where  the  sewage  was  discharged  into 
water,  was  the  desire  to  save  the  fertilizing 
material  in  the  sewage.  Sedimentaiionf  or  when 
this  process  was  hf^tened,  chemical  precipita- 
tion, was  the  method  employed.  Some  people 
went  so  far  as  to  believe  that  chemical  precipi- 


SEVILLE 
THE  QIRALDA  TOWER   AND  THE   COURT  OF  0RANQE8 


SEWAGE. 


708 


SEWAGE. 


tation,  alone,  would  effect  all  the  purifieatioii 
necessary,  as  well  as  recover  fertilizing  mate- 
rial of  great  value.  Unfortunately,  the  process 
was  only  a  partial  one,  and  left  the  decanted 
liquid,  or  sewage  effluent,  in  a  condition  which 
was  likely  to  give  rise  to  great  offense.  At  the 
same  time  the  precipitate,  or  sludge,  as  the 
solid  matter  is  called,  proved  to  be  unavailable 
for  plant  food.  The  next  step  was  to  try  to 
coax  a  given  area  of  land  to  do  more  work  than 
before.  The  means  employed,  intermittent  fil- 
tration, was  to  apply  the  sewage  at  intervals, 
on  specially  prepared  areas,  called  filter  beds, 
with  periods  of  rest  between.  The  raising  of 
crops  was  made  quite  secondary,  or  abandoned. 
In  some  cases  the  filter  beds  were  supplementary 
to  sewage  farms,  designed  to  receive  the  sew- 
age when  it  would  flood  the  crops;  in  others, 
effluent  from  precipitation  works  was  applied 
to  the  beds. 

Where  suitable  land  is  available  intermittent 
filtration  is  all  that  could  be  desired,  in  degree 
of  purification  effected,  but  in  many  sections 
the  proper  sort  of  land  (sandy  and  easily 
drained)  cannot  be  had.  The  relatively  high 
rates  of  application,  as  compared  with  sewage 
farming,  clog  the  beds  with  the  organic  matter 
retained  on  and  in  the  filtering  material.  Re- 
course to  sedimentation,  or  to  chemical  precipi- 
tation, many  times  tried,  revives  the  old  sludge 
problem. 

In  the  early  days  of  sewage  disposal  no  one 
dreamed  that  of  the  various  systems  in  use, 
including  disposal  in  water,  all  but  one  of  the 
practicable  processes  depend  upon  bacteria  for 
their  efficiency;  and  that  this  single  exception, 
chemical  precipitation,  would  one  day  be  held  up 
as  opposed  to  nature.  Such  has  proved  to  be 
the  case.  The  theory  of  intermittent  filtration, 
when  it  was  at  last  established  on  a  scientific 
basis,  was  that  the  bacteria  involved  were  ftero- 
bic,  or  require  an  abundance  of  oxygen  for  their 
life  processes.  On  this  account,  the  sewage, 
which  passes  continuously  through  the  beds 
while  in  service,  was  shut  off  at  more  or  less 
frequent  but  regular  intervals,  depending  on 
the  character  of  the  filtering  material.  As  the 
sewage  drained  out  of  the  beds  air  was  sucked 
in  to  take  its  place,  thus  affording  a  new  air 
supply  for  the  bacteria  in  the  beds,  which,  be- 
tween dosings,  could  occupy  themselves  with 
the  stored  organic  matter.  In  the  latest  filters, 
or  so-called  bacteria  beds,  or  contact  beds,  the 
germs  are  given  a  longer  period  to  work  on  the 
sewage,  while  in  some  of  the  recent  bacterial 
processes  another  class  of  microbes  are  enlisted 
in  the  service  of  man.  In  the  bacteria  beds 
there  is  a  sequence  of  filling,  standing  full, 
emptying  and  finally  resting,  each  cycle  re- 
quiring from  8  to  24  hours,  according  to  the 
periods  of  rest,  which  vary  with  local  condi- 
tions. If  one  bed  does  not  effect  a  sufficient  de- 
gree of  purification,  a  second  and  finer  one, 
and  even  a  third,  may  be  employed.  In  case  the 
sewage  is  held  so  long  in  a  bed  that  the  oxygen 
is  exhausted,  the  aerobic  bacteria  give  place  to 
the  anaSrobic,  or  those  thriving  in  the  absence 
of  oxygen.  Anaerobic  action  may  be  secured  by 
employing  a  receptacle  containing  no  filtering 
material,  known  as  the  septic  tank,  through 
which  the  sewage  flows  slowly,  but  in  which  the 


suspended  matters  are  retained  by  sedimentation^ 
to  be  acted  upon  by  the  bacteria.. 

The  anaSroDic  action  breaks  down  or  liquefies 
the  organic  matter;  the  adrobic  action  nitrifies 
it,  or  converts  it  into  stable  mineral  compounds, 
available  for  higher  forms  of  life.  The  septic 
effluent  may  be  discharged  onto  filter  beds,  or 
into  water  not  used  for  domestic  supply,  if  the 
latter  is  ample  in  volume;  and  the  effluent  from 
bacteria  beds  may  be  used. 

DOiUTiON  is  tne  method  of  sewage  disposal 
most  commonly  employed  outside  of  England. 
As  usually  practiced  it  can  scarcely  be  said  to 
be  a  system  of  disposal,  since  the  sewage  is  dis- 
charged into  the  nearest  body  of  water  with 
little  regard  to  consequences.  In  Massachu- 
setts, New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Ohio,  all  new 
disposal  schemes  must  be  approved  by  a  cen- 
tral body,  which  is  the  State  Board  of  Health 
in  all  States  but  New  Jersey,  and  the  State 
Sewage  Commission  in  that  commonwealth.  In 
England  all  new  disposal  works  involving  loans 
must  be  approved  by  the  Local  Government  Board. 
The  stringent  legislation  against  water  pollu- 
tion renders  the  employment  of  dilution  alone 
a  less  common  practice  there  than  in  America. 
The  first  principle  in  disposal  by  dilution,  indeed, 
in  all  sewage  disposal,  is  never  to  endanger  a 
public  water  supply;  the  second  is  not  so  to  over- 
load the  stream  or  other  body  of  water  as  to 
create  a  nuisance. 

The  best  example  in  the  United  States  of 
disposal  by  dilution  was  furnished,  first  by  the 
city  of  Boston,  and  afterwards  by  Boston  and 
other  near-by  towns  united  to  form  the  Metro- 
politan Sewerage  District.  The  various  communi- 
ties in  the  district  have  their  individual  sewer- 
age systems.  These  all  discharge  into  one  or 
the  other  of  two  large  trunk  or  outlet  sewers, 
leading  to  carefully  selected  points  of  discharge. 
At  one  of  the  outlets,  located  at  Moon  Island, 
the  sewage  is  stored  in  reservoirs  and  discharged 
at  ebb-tide.  At  the  other,  or  Deer  Island  outlet, 
it  is  discharged  continuously.  Pumping  is  nec- 
essary for  each  outlet  sewer.  A  third  outlet 
sewer,  which  will  also  discharge  continuously  in 
Boston  Harbor,  was  under  way  in  1901.  The 
other  two  were  built  in  1884  and  1895,  respec- 
tively. At  Milwaukee  and  Chicago  huge  pump- 
ing works  and  timnels  were  built  several  years 
ago  to  pump  lake  water  into  rivers  badly  pol- 
luted by  sewage,  mitigating  the  nuisance  by 
dilution.  The  Chicago  fiushing  tunnel  was  put 
in  use  in  1880,  and  the  one  at  Milwaukee  in 
1888.  The  Chicago  Drainage  Canal  (q.v.)  is 
by  far  the  most  notable  work  ever  undertaken 
for  the  disposal  of  sewage  by  dilution.  The  ca- 
pacity of  the  canal  was  based  on  a  fiow  of  1 
cubic  foot  of  water  per  minute  to  each  five  in- 
habitants, some  years  hence,  or  2160  gallons  of 
diluted  sewage  per  day  for  each  future  inhabi- 
tant. 

Bboad  Irrigation,  or  Sewage  Farmino,  does 
not  differ  essentially  from  ordinary  irrigation 
(see  Irrigation),  except  for  the  fact  that  sewage 
is  used  instead  of  normal  water,  and  that  the 
sewage  is  applied  the  year  round,  or  as  nearly 
so  and  in  as  large  quantities  as  the  land  and 
crops  will  permit.  See  Sewage  Farming  for 
detailed  descriptions  of  methods  and  results. 

Sedimentation,  alone,  is  so  slow  that  very 
little  work  is  accomplished  thereby,  or  else  the 


SEWAGE. 


704 


SEWAGE. 


talks  must  be  made  so  large  that  their  expense 
is  prohibitive.  Small  settling  tanks  are  oc- 
casionally used  to  remove  some  of  the  heavier 
'and  rapidly  subsidinff  particles,  and  when  com* 
bined  with  screens  for  the  retention  of  coarse 
floating  matter  they  appreciably  lighten  the 
work  of  filter  beds,  or  diminish  water  pollution. 

Chemical  Pbegipitation  is  little  more  than  ac- 
celerated sedimentation,  although  under,  certain 
conditions  some  of  the  dissolved  organic  matter 
is  removed.  A  chemical  with  the  power  of  pre- 
cipitating, or  throwing  down,  the  suspended  mat- 
ters is  admitted  to  and  mixed  with  the  sewage 
by  simple  means,  after  which  the  sewage  passes 
to  the  settling  or  precipitating  tanks,  which  are 
generally  rectangular  and  not  very  deep.  The 
tanks  are  operated  on  either  the  continuous  or 
intermittent  plan.  If  continuous,  the  several 
tanks  are  connected  by  weirs,  so  arranged  that 
the  sewage  has  to  flow  the  length  of  each  tank 
before  it  is  admitted  to  the  next.  The  clarified 
sewage,  or  tank  effluent,  flows  out  in  a  thin  sheet 
from  the  top  of  the  last  tank.  When  the  solid 
matter,  or  sludge,  has  accumulated  in  the  bottom 
of  the  tanks  to  such  an  extent  as  to  make  its 
removal  necessary  valves  are  opened  in  the  out- 
let pipes  and  the  effluent  is  drawn  down  to  a 
point  above  the  sludge  level.  To  avoid  disturb- 
mg  the  sludge  a  hinged  pipe  is  used,  the  upper 
end  of  which  floats  at  ana  falls  with  the  surface 
level  of  the  liquid  in  the  tank.  In  the  intermit- 
tent system  each  tank  is  filled,  stands  full  the 
required  period,  then  has  its  effluent  decanted  as 
described.  The  sludge  is  either  pumped  to 
filter  presses  or  is  run  onto  dramage  beds, 
the  object  in  either  case  being  to  reduce  the 
water  contents.  Where  presses  are  used  the  re- 
sulting sludge  cakes,  as  they  are  called,  are  some 
two  inches  thick  and  thirty  inches  in  diameter, 
and  still  retain  a  large  percentage  of  moisture. 
The  final  disposal  of  the  sludge  is  often  no  easy 
task.  It  was  originally  supposed  that  it  would 
sell  readily,  but  as  a  rule  managers  of  sewage 
works  are  fortunate  if  they  can  get  farmers  to 
remove  it  as  a  gift.  Sometimes  it  is  used  to  fill 
in  land.  In  England  sludge  is  not  infrequently 
burned  in  refuse  destructors,  or  garbage  furnaces, 
with  other  town  refuse.  Another  means  of  sludge 
disposal,  available  for  seaboard  cities,  is  dump- 
ing it  at  sea.  The  London  County  Council  em- 
ploys a  fieet  of  sea-going  vessels  for  this  pur- 
pose, having  a  capacity  of  1000  long  tons,  or 
2,240,000  pounds  of  sludge  each.  Chemical  pre- 
cipitation will  remove  about  50  per  cent,  of  the 
total  organic  matter  in  sewage  and  nearly  all 
the  matter  in  suspension.  The  chemical  most 
commonly  used  is  lime,  and  next  to  it  stands 
sulphate  of  alumina.  The  two  are  frequently 
used  together. 

The  first  chemical  treatment  plant  for  town 
sewage  seems  to  have  been  put  m  use  at  Man- 
chester, England,  in  1844.  The  use  of  lime  was 
suggested  by  Dr.  Thos.  Clark,  of  Aberdeen,  who, 
during  the  same  year,  invented  the  lime  process 
for  softening  water.  (See  Water  Purifica- 
tion.) In  the  United  States  a  small  chemical 
precipitation  plant  was  installed  at  the  Brighton 
Beach  Hotel,  on  Long  Island,  N.  Y.,  in  1880,  and 
the  first  town  plant  to  treat  sewage  with  chemi- 
cals was  at  Long  Branch,  N.  J.,  where  the  works 
were  put  in  operation  in  1886.  From  1887  to 
1890  several  additional  chemical  plants  were 
built,  the  most  notable  one  being  installed   at 


Worcester,  Mass.,  in  the  latter  year.  During 
the  year  1900  the  Worcester  precipitation  plant 
treated  an  average  of  13,000,000  gallons  a  day, 
using  1230  pounds  of  lime  for  1,000,000  gallons 
of  sewage  as  a  precipitant,  or  an  average  of  8.61 
grains  per  gallon.  The  cost  of  treatment  per 
1,000,000  gallons  was  $11.70,  of  which  $6.48,  or 
more  than  half,  was  for  sludge  pressing  and 
allied  work.  The  average  purification  effected, 
as  indicated  by  the  reduction  of  albuminoid  am- 
monia, was  53.18  per  cent,  of  the  suspended  or- 
ganic matter.  In  1900  the  city  of  Providence, 
R.  I.,  opened  a  still  larger  chemical  precipitation 
plant.  It  includes  20  precipitation  tanks,  ca- 
pable of  holding  collectively  11,133,000  ^Uons; 
a  sludge  well,  sludge  ejectors  for  liftmg  the 
sludge,  five  sludge  storage  reservoirs,  and  six- 
teen filter  presses;  besides  which  there  are  a 
large  chemical  storage  building,  a  chemical  lab- 
oratory, and  various  other  accessories.  The 
tanks  are  operated  on  the  continuous  flow  plan. 
The  sludge  is  forced  from  the  sludge  reservoirs 
to  presses  by  compressed  air.  The  sewers  of 
Providence  are  on  the  combined  system  and  pro- 
vision is  made  for  wasting  some  of  the  combined 
storm  water  and  sewage  of  heavy  rains. 

Intermittent  Filtration  marks  a  new  era  in 
sewage  disposal.  The  principles  involved  in  this 
and  the  later  and  more  rapid  bacterial  processes 
have  already  been  stated.  The  amount  of 
sewage  which  can  be  treated  on  one  acre 
of  intermittent  filter  beds  ranges  from  20,000 
to  100,000  gallons  a  day,  according  to  the 
character  of  the  material.  Within  these  limits 
ordinary  sewage  may  be  brought  to  a  high  degree 
of  purity.  The  best  material  for  this  process  is 
a  fairly  coarse,  angular  sand,  but  with  proper 
dosing  either  fine  or  very  coarse  sand  may  be 
used.  Loamy  earth  is  not  suited  for  intermittent 
filtration,  on  account  of  the  low  rates  which 
must  be  employed;  clayey  soils  are  out  of  the 
Question.  Crops  may  be  grown  on  intermittent 
nitration  areas,  providing  they  are  made  second- 
ary to  the  purification  of  the  sewage. 

Bacteria  Beds  are  largely  an  English  out- 
growth, since  1891,  of  the  Massachusetts  work  on 
intermittent  filtration.  There  have  been  various 
modifications  of  these  beds,  such  as  the  use  of 
coal,  burnt  clay,  and  coke,  for  filtering  material; 
placing  the  beds  in  tiers,  or  in  terraces ;  and  aim- 
ing to  use  the  anaSrobio  and  aSrobic  bacteria  to- 
gether, or  the  latter  alone.  But  the  essential  fea- 
ture of  bacteria  beds  is  the  retention  of  the 
sewage  a  longer  time  in  the  beds  than  is  possible 
with  intermittent  filtration,  after  which  there  is 
a  resting  period,  similar  to  that  in  the  older 
process,  but  shorter.  The  bacteria  beds  were 
evolved  in  England  because  of  the  scarcity  of 
sandy  land  suitable  for  intermittent  filtration. 
It  being  necessary  to  transport  sand  or  some 
other  filtering  material,  and  make  it  up  into 
wholly  artificial  beds,  it  was  imperative  that  the 
more  expensive  beds  should  treat  the  sewage  at 
a  higher  rate.  This  was  found  to  be  possible, 
but  the  purification  not  being  sufficiently  com- 
plete for  all  conditions,  a  second,  or  even  a  third 
bed  was  added  where  necessary. 

There  are  many  claimants  for  the  introduction 
of  bacteria  beds,  but  it  appears  that  the  first  and 
most  practical  early  Work  was  that  hegan  in 
1892  at  the  Barking  chemical  precipitation  plant 
of  the  London  sewerage  system  by  W.  J.  Dibdin, 
chemist  to  the  London  County  Council,  aided  by 


SEWAGE. 


705 


SEWAGE. 


George  Thudichum,  with  a  filter  bed  consisting  of 
3  feet  in  depth  of  coke,  broken  to  small  fragments. 

In  1891  Sidney  Lowcock  constructed 'a  novel 
sewage  purification  plant  for  a  private  residence 
at  Ashstead,  England,  in  which  he  embodied,  prob- 
ably for  the  first  time,  the  principle  that  the  bac- 
terial treatment  of  sewage  involved  two  distinct 
stages:  the  breaking  down  of  the  solid  organic 
matter,  or  liquefaction,  followed  by  nitrification. 
For  the  first  stage  he  employed  a  closed  tank, 
filled  with  broken  stone.  The  sewage  rose  up- 
ward through  this  tank,  then  passed  down 
through  a  series  of  nine  perforated  trays,  each 
containing  a  thin  bed  of  coke.  The  object  of  so 
many  trays  was  to  secure  a  more  minute  sub- 
division of  bacterial  labor. 

It  is  too  early  to  say  what  rate  of  filtration 
will  prove  feasible  with  bacteria  beds,  but  it 
seems  doubtful  whether  the  500,000  to  1,000,000 
gallons  or  more  per  acre,  claimed  in  England,  can 
be  practical  for  a  series  of  years  without  either 
poor  results  or  large  outlays  for  replacing  clogged 
filtering  material. 

The  Septic  Tank  is  designed  to  provide  the 
first  stage  of  bacterial  action,  mentioned  just 
above,  without  the  intervention  of  filtering  ma- 
terial. The  sewage  first  enters  a  small  grit 
chamber,  inhere  sand  and  like  heavy  matter  is 
speedily  deposited  on  account  of  its  relatively 
great  weight.  The  sewage  then  goes  on  tr  a  nar- 
row and  rather  long  and  shallow  tank,  having  a 
trapped  inlet  and  outlet,  the  better  to  exclude  the 
air.  The  bulk  of  the  suspended  organic  mat- 
ter is  deposited  and  retained  in  this  tank.  The 
anaerobic  bacteria  seize  upon  and  break  up  the 
sludge,  which  is  transformed  into  dissolved  and 
gaseous  matter.  The  former  passes  out  with  the 
tank  effluent.  As  any  sludge  left  behind  remains 
in  the  tank  week  after  week,  there  is  no  lack  of 
opportunity  for  complete  bacterial  reduction.  The 
sludge  accumulates  by  slow  degrees.  The  tank 
effluent,  as  has  been  stated,  is  about  as  well  puri- 
fied as  that  from  chemical  precipitation  tanks, 
but  it  is  in  far  better  condition  for  further  treat- 
ment, while  the  sludge  problem  has  been  prac- 
tically eliminated.  Where  further  treatment  is 
required  to  prevent  water  pollution  the  tank 
effluent  is  generally  passed  through  bacteria  beds, 
sometimes  being  pr^seded  by  aeration  in  order  to 
establish  more  favorable  conditions  for  the 
aerobic  bacteria. 

The  septic  tank  system  was  put  in  use  at 
Exeter,  fmgland,  in  August,  1806,  by  Mr.  Don- 
ald Cameron,  town  surveyor.  Since  then  many 
other  septic  tanks  have  been  built.  The  Exeter 
tank,  like  others  built  under  Mr.  Cameron's  pat- 
ents, was  tightly  covered  to  exclude  air  and  light. 
Covering,  however,  does  not  seem  necessary. 

It  is  asserted  that  the  septic  tank  was  de- 
veloped independently  at  Urbana,  111.,  in  1894, 
by  Professor  A.  N.  Talbot.  Certainly  he  built  a 
tank  there  and  then,  which  acted  in  much  the 
same  way  as  the  septic  tank.  In  1896  he  de- 
signed a  more  pretentious  one  for  Champaign,  111., 
which  was  built  in  1897.  See  Metcalf,  "Anteced- 
ents of  the  Septic  Tank,"  Proceedings  of  the  Amer- 
icon  Society  of  Oivil  Engineers  (New  York,  1901 ) . 

Maiojfactubing  Wastes  may  generally  be  dis- 
charged into  town  sewers.  Occasionally  they  are 
of  such  a  character  as  to  demand  separate  treat- 
ment. Or  the  conditions  mav  be  such  that  proper 
treatment  will  result  in  the  recovery  of  some 
product  of  commercial  value.    Much  information 


on  the  subject  will  be  found  in  the  reports  of 
the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health. 

Houses  Not  Connected  with  Sewebs.  Al- 
though, as  now  understood,  sewage  is  limited  to 
those  household  and  industrial  wastes  which  are 
removed  by  sewers,  it  will  be  convenient  to  con- 
sider, in  addition,  the  disposal  of  excrementitious 
matters  and  fouled  water  from  such  houses  and 
other  buildings  as  are  not  connected  with  the 
sewers.  In  rural  districts  this  is  generally  a 
simple  matter.  Privy  vaults,  whether  adjoining 
or  more  or  less  remote  from  houses,  are  generallv 
little  more  than  holes  in  the  ground,  into  whieh 
the  wastes  fall  and  where  they  remain  until  re- 
moved at  frequent  intervals.  The  occasional 
addition  of  small  quantities  of  dry  earth  or 
ashes  will  do  much  to  lessen  the  almost  inevitable 
nuisances  of  these  devices.  The  comfort  and  ease 
of  the  family  demand  that  such  conveniences 
be  placed  as  near  the  living  rooms  as  possible, 
and  preferably  under  the  same  roof;  while  in 
densely  populated  districts  the  latter  is  impera- 
tive. Wherever  decency  and  a  due  regard  for 
health  prevail  this  leads  to  the  adoption  of  some 
portable  receptacle,  which  can  be  kept  in  a  sani- 
tary condition.  The  two  chief  means  employed  to 
meet  this  demand  are  the  earth-closet  and  the 
pail  system.  The  former  is  said  to  have  been 
invented  in  1868,  by  the  Rev.  Henry  Moule,  Vicar 
of  Fordington,  England.  He  utilized  the  deodor- 
izing powers  of  common  soil  and  devised  a 
mechanism  for  automatically  dumping  some  of 
it  into  the  closet  when  needed,  somewhat  on  the 
same  principle  as  the 'flushing  arrangement  for 
a  water-closet.  In  the  earth-closet  a  bucket,  or 
some  larger  receptacle,  may  be  used  for  the  re- 
ception and  removal  of  wastes.  The  pail  system 
is  not  much  different  from  the  earth-closet,  ex- 
cept that  no  earth  or  other  deodorizer  is  neces- 
sarily used.  The  pails  should  be  made  of  metal, 
or  some  other  non-absorbent  material.  Tight- 
fitting  covers  should  be  provided.  With  the  in- 
troduction of  the  water-closet,  with  its  flushing 
tank  and  its  pipe  for  the  removal  of  wastes  from 
the  houses,  a  new  problem  arose  in  the  way  of 
final  disposal.  If  no  cesspool  had  been  provided 
for  sink  and  bath  wastes,  one  was  built  some* 
where  in  the  yard.  These,  also,  are  generally 
mere  holes  in  the  ground,  walled  up  roughly  to 
prevent  the  caving  in  of  the  earth,  but  not 
made  water-tight.  In  sandy  soils  the  liquid  soaks 
away.  The  solid  matters  are  decomposed  in  the' 
manner  explained  in  the  paragraph  on  septic 
tanks.  In  clayey  or  wet  sons  cesspools  are  sure 
to  overflow.  Theoretically  all  cesspools  should  be 
water-tight,  but  practically  only  a  very  few  are. 

The  contents  of  earth-closets  may  be  utilized 
as  fertilizing  material  with  but  little  difiiculty, 
either  by.  comp9sting  or  by  direct  application  to 
the  land.  The  utilization  of  pail-system  wastes 
is  not  so  easy,  since  they  contain  a  large  per- 
centage of  moisture.  An  absorbent  may  be  used 
to  reduce  the  moisture,  or  the  pails  may  be  emp- 
tied where  their  contents  can  drain  out.  Still 
another  way  is  to  reduce  the  stuff  to  a  powder  in 
some  form  of  drier.  Occasionally  night  soil 
from  the  pail  system,  and  possibly  from  privies, 
is  burned  in  garbage  furnaces,  care  being  taken 
to  mix  it  with  the  driest  material  available.  One 
of  the  best  means  of  disposing  of  all  night  soil 
and  allied  matter  is  to  bury  it  in  trenches. 

BiBUOORAPHT.  Rafter  and  Baker,  Bewage 
Disposal  in  the  United^ tat es  (New  York,  1893), 


SEWAGE. 


706 


SEWAIiL. 


AH  exhaustive  discussion  of  both  principles  and 
methods;  Waring,  Modem  Methods  of  Setoage 
Disposal  (New  York,  1894),  a  popular  review 
of  principles  and  methods;  Kiersted,  Setoage 
Disposal  (New  York,  1894),  a  brief  discussion 
with  particular  reference  to  disposal  by  dilution ; 
Baker,  Sewerage  and  Sewage  Purification  (New 
York,  1896),  brief  and  popular;  Rideal,  Sewage 
and  the  Baoterial  Purification  of  Sewage  (New 
York,  1900),  a  pretty  thorough  and  rather 
scientific  discussion  of  the  bacterial  phases  of 
sewage  treatment,  written  by  an  Englishman 
and  almost  wholly  from  the  English  point  of 
view;  Dibdin,  Purification  of  Sewage  and  Water 
(London,  1903),  also  relates  chiefly  to  the  bac- 
terial aspects,  almost  wholly  English,  but  less 
technical  than  Rideal;  Thudicum,  The  Bacterial 
Treatment  of  Sewage  (London,  1900),  a  brief, 
popular  review  of  recent  bacterial  studies  and 
results;  Barwise,  The  Purification  of  Sewage 
(New  York,  1899),  another  English  author,  fairly 
popular  in  style  and  more  general  in  range  than 
the  three  preceding;  Crimp,  Sevxige  Disposal 
Works  (2d  ed.,  London,  1894),  the  standard 
English  engineering  treatise,  including  principles, 
methods,  and  descriptions  of  works,  but  has  noth- 
ing on  the  recent  bacterial  studies;  Corfield, 
The  Treatment  and  Utilization  of  Sewage  (3d  ed., 
London  and  New  York,  1887),  somewhat  simi- 
lar to  but  less  comprehensive  than  Crimp; 
Blater,  Sevmge  Treatment,  Purification,  and 
Utilimtion  (London,  1888),  brief,  semi-popular, 
controversial,  and  not  up-to-date,  but  valuable 
on  account  of  a  descriptive  chronological  list  of 
456  English  patents  on  methods  of  treating  sew- 
age, issued  from  1846  to  1886,  inclusive;  Bai- 
ley-Denton, Sewage  Purification  Brought  Up 
to  Date,  1896  (London  and  New  York,  1896),  by 
one  of  the  chief  exponents  of  intermittent  filtra- 
tion, written  after  the  earlier  announcements  of 
the  more  recent  bacterial  studies,  and  describing 
eight  land-filtration  systems;  Tidy,  The  Treat- 
ment  of  Sewage  (New  York,  1887),  brief,  com- 
prehensive, semi-technical;  Bums,  Utilization 
of  Town  Sewage,  Irrigation,  and  Reclamation 
of  Waste  Land,  being  vol.  v.  of  Outlines  of  Mod- 
em Farming  (6th  ed.,  London,  1889),  a  semi- 
popular  discussion  of  sewage  farming,  from  the 
tigricultural  point  of  view,  a  number  of  years 
back;  United  States  Consular  Reports  (special, 
vol.  xvii.).  Disposal  of  Sewage  and  Garbage  in 
Foreign  Countries  (Washington,  1899),  mostly 
popular,  and  generally  meagre  in  detail,  but 
containing  some  excellent  descriptive  matter.  See 
FiLTEB  Press;  Filtration;  Irrigation;  Sewer- 
age AND  Drainage;  Water  Supply. 

SEWAGE  EABTH-CLOSET.     See  Sewage. 

SEWAGE  FARMING.  The  utilization  of 
sewage  in  the  growth  of  field,  orchard,  and  gar- 
den crops.  The  most  noted  farms  are  at  Paris, 
Berlin,  Danzig,  Breslau,  and  Birmingham,  in 
Europe,  and  at  Pullman,  HI.,  Los  Angeles,  Cal., 
South  Framingham,  Mass.,  and  Plainfield,  N.  J., 
in  the  United  States.  Sewage  farming,  which  is 
largely  a  development  of  the  last  third  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  is  an  attempt  to  combine  crop- 
growing  with  sewage  purification.  Where  intelli- 
gently managed  a  high  degree  of  purification  is 
attained  without  creating  a  nuisance  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, and  the  excellent  crops  which  are  grown 
may  be  used  without  menace  to  health  in  spite  of 
popular  prejudice  to  the  contrary.    Aside  from 


the  irrigation  value  of  the  water,  sewage  is  of 
some  importance  agriculturally  on  account  of  the 
fertilizing  elements  it  contains.  Analyses  show 
that  less  than  2  parts  in  1000  of  average  sewage 
is  solid  matter,  and  that  a  ton  of  sewage  contains 
from  0.15  to  0.26  pound  of  nitrogen,  from  0.045 
to  0.065  pound  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  from  0.025 
to  0.040  pound  of  potash.  These  would  have  a 
cash  value  of  3^  to  5  cents.  Since,  however,  in 
actual  operation  much  of  the  nitrogen  is  lost,  the 
real  value  of  sewage  will  not  exceed  3  cents  per 
ton  and  one  to  two  cents  per  ton  is  more  nearly 
its  true  manurial  value.  The  recognized  greater 
agricultural  value  of  sewage  over  river  water  for 
irrigation  is  accountable  for  the  25  to  50  per  cent 
increase  in  rent  per  acre  for  land  irrigated  with 
sewage.  Unless  care  be  taken  to  prevent  the  sew- 
age from  coming  in  direct  contact  with  crops  in- 
tended for  consumption  in  the  raw  state,  the 
methods  of  applying  sewage  do  not  differ  from 
those  of  irrigation  (q.v.).  Sewage  farms  are  lo- 
cated preferably  on  open  soils  with  a  sandy  or 
gravelly  subsoil.    Clay  soils  are  less  satisfactory. 

Since  experience  indicates  that  the  best  crops 
are  secured  when  the  sewage  is  applied  only  as 
needed,  arrangements  should  be  made  for  the  dis- 
posal of  surplus  sewage  that  may  accumulate 
when  the  crops  cannot  use  it.  This  is  usually 
done  by  making  separate  filtration  areas  or  by 
growing  crops  capable  of  withstanding  large  quan- 
tities of  water,  such  as  Italian  rye  grass,  orchard 
grass,  perennial  lye  grass,  and  blue  grass.  With 
a  controllable  supp^  of  water  practically  all 
crops  suitable  for  the  climate  can  be  grown  to 
perfection.  In  Southern  California  orchards  are 
very  successfully  irrigated  with  sewage.  From 
the  standpoint  of  sewage  disposal  the  primary 
object  of  sewage  irrigation  is  to  purify  the  sew- 
age so  that  it  may  not  contaminate  the  under- 
ground water  or  streams.  Experience  on  sew- 
age farms,  both  in  Europe  and  America,  shows 
that  every  essential  requirement  of  sewage  puri- 
fication is  present  in  sewage  farming,  and  that 
when  sewage  is  rightfully  used  the  water  fiowing 
from  these  farms  is  clear  and  sparkling. 

Consult:  United  States  Geological  Survey  Wa- 
ter Supply  and  Irrigation  Papers  Nos.  3  and  22 
on  Sewage  Irrigation  (1897,  1899) ;  Rafter  and 
Baker,  Sewage  Disposal  in  the  United  States 
(New  York,  1894) ;  Waring,  Modem  Methods  of 
Seioage  Disposal  (ib.,  1894);  Kiersted,  Sewage 
Disposal  (ib.,  1894);  Birmingham  Sewage  In- 
quiry Report  f  1871. 

SEWALL,  su'al.  Mat  (Wbioht)  (1844-). 
An  American  educator,  lecturer,  and  author,  bom 
in  Milwaukee^  Wis.  She  graduated  at  North- 
western University  in  1866,  and  in  1880  married 
Theodore  L.  Sewall,  who  died  in  1895.  She  was 
for  many  years  prominently  identified  with  the 
woman's  suffrage  movement  and  with  the  educa- 
tion of  women,  was  member  and  officer  of  many 
women's  clubs  and  delegate  to  numerous  women's 
congresses,  both  in  the  United  States  and  abroad. 
She  was  one  of  the  lady  managers  of  the  Colum- 
bian Exposition  at  Chicago  in  1893,  and  in  1900 
she  was  appointed  a  commissioner  to  the  Paris 
Exposition.  For  a  long  time  she  was  principal 
of  a  girls'  classical  school  in  Indianapolis,  Ind., 
founded  by  her  husband.  She  wrote  several  works 
on  woman  suffrage  and  kindred  topics,  and  edited 
The  Historical  Risum4  of  the  World's  Oongrsss 
of  Representative  Women. 


SEWALIi. 


707 


SBWABB. 


SEWAIiLy  Samuel  (1652-1730).  A  colonial 
jurist,  bom  at  Bishopstoke,  England.  He  emi- 
grated with  his  parents  to  Maasachusetts  in  1661, 
and  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1671.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Executive  Council  of  Massa- 
chuaetts  Bay  from  1692  to  1725;  was  a  probate 
judge  from  1692  to  1718^  and  was  Chief  Justice 
of  Massachusetts  from  1718  to  1728.  He  pre- 
sided over  some  of  the  trials  at  the  time  of  the 
famous  witchcraft  delusion,  but  later  became 
convinced  of  the  worthlessness  of  the  testimony 
upon  which  the  victims  had  been  convicted,  and 
in  1697  prepared  a  confession  of  his  error,  which 
was  read,  in  his  presence,  before  the  congrega- 
tion of  the  Old  South  Church.  He  was  wide- 
ly known  as  a  philanthropist,  and  in  1700  wrote 
a  pamphlet  against  slavery,  entitled  The  Selling 
of  Joseph,  He  also  wrote  An  Answer  to  Queries 
Respecting  America  (1690),  The  Accomplish- 
ment of  Prophecies  (1713),  A  Memorial  Relat- 
ing to  the  Kennebec  Indians  (1721),  and  A  De- 
scription of  the  New  Heaven  (1727).  His  Diary 
(from  1764-1729)  and  his  letter  books,  both  pub- 
lished in  the  Collections  of  the  Massachusetts 
Historical  Society,  are  invaluable  for  the  light 
they  throw  on  the  social  history  of  early  New 
England. 

SEWANEE  (s^wA^nd)  XTNIVEBSITY.  See 
South,  University  of  the. 

SEWABD^  sa^Srd,  Albert  Charles  ( 1863— ) . 
An  English  botanist,  bom  in  Lancaster  and  edu- 
cated at  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge.  He 
studied  paleobotany  under  Williamson  at  Man- 
chester and  in  European  museums,  became  uni- 
versity lecturer  in  botany  at  Cambridge  in  1890, 
and  in  1899  was  appointed  fellow  and  tutor  of 
Emmanuel  0)llege.  He  wrote  Fossil  Plants  as 
Tests  of  Climate  (1892),  The  Wealden  Flora 
(vols.  i.  and  ii.  in  the  British  Museum  Cata- 
logues, 1894-95),  Fossil  Plants  for  Students  of 
Geology  and  Botany  ( 1898  et  seq. ) ,  and  Jurassic 
.  Flora  (in  British  Museum  Catalogue,  1900 
et  seq.). 

SEWABD,  Anna  (1747-1809).  An  English 
author,  a  daughter  of  Thomas  Seward,  who  be- 
came Canon  of  Lichfield.  She  was  the  author  of  a 
collection  of  sonnets  (1799)  and  other  verses,  and 
of  elegies  on  Major  Andr6  and  Captain  Cook,  for 
which  she  was  styled  the  "Swan  of  Lichfield." 
She  also  wrote  a  poetical  novel  called  Louisa 
(1782),  and  a  Memoir  of  Dr,  Darwin  (1804),  in 
which  she  laid  claim  to  the  exordium  of  The  Bo- 
tanic Garden.  Miss  Seward  was  a  woman  of 
great  beauty.  Her  Poetical  Works  and  Corre- 
spondence (3  vols.,  1810)  was  published  under 
tlie  supervision  of  Scott,  and  Constable  brought 
out  her  whole  literary  correspondence  (6  vols., 
1811). 

SEWABB,  Clarence  Armstrong  (1828-97). 
An  American  soldier  and  lawyer,  born  in  New 
York  City.  He  graduated  at  Hobart  College  in 
1848,  studied  law,  and  practiced  it,  after  1854, 
in  New  York  City.  From  1856  to  1860  he  was 
Judge  Advocate  General  of  New  York  State.  In 
1860  he  went  to  Virginia  to  protest  against  its 
secession  from  the  Union.  He  enlisted  in  the 
Civil  War  as  colonel  of  the  19th  New  York  Vol- 
unteers. In  1865,  after  the  assault  upon  Secre- 
tary Seward  and  his  son,  Frederick  William,  he 
was  called  to  Washington  to  act  as  Assistant 


Secretary  of  State.    At  the  time  of  his  death  he 
was  president  of  the  American  Express  Company. 

SEWABDj,  Frederick  William  (1830—). 
An  American  lawyer  and  diplomat,  the  son  of 
William  H.  Seward.  He  was  bom  in  Auburn, 
N.  Y.,  graduated  at  Union  College  in  1849,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1851,  and  in  the  same 
year  became  assistant  editor  and  part  owner  of 
the  Albany  Evening  Journal^  then  controlled  by 
ThuTlow  Weed.  From  1861  until  1869  he  was 
Assistant  Secretary  of  State  under  his  father.  On 
April  14,  1865,  he  was  severely  wounded  while 
defending  his  father  against  an  assassin.  In  1867, 
with  Admiral  David  D.  Porter,  he  was  sent  to 
the  West  Indies,  where  the  two  negotiated  a 
treaty  with  Santo  Domingo,  and  he  also  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  negotiations  for  the  pur- 
chase of  Alaska.  In  1875  he  was  a  member  of  the 
New  York  State  Legislature,  and  from  1877  to 
1881,  during  the  Presidency  of  Rutherford  B. 
Hayes,  was  again  Assistant  Secretary  of  State. 
In  addition  to  numerous  articles  in  magazines 
and  reviews,  he  published  The  Life  and  Letters  of 
William  Henry  Seward  (1891). 

SEWABDy  George  Frederick  (1840—).  An 
American  diplomat,  bom  in  Florida,  N.  Y.,  son 
of  W.  H.  Seward.  He  was  educated  at  Seward 
Institute  and  Union  College.  In  1861  he  was 
appointed  United  States  consul  at  Shang- 
hai, and  cleared  the  Yang-tse-Kiang  of  pirates 
claiming  American  citizenship.  From  1863  to 
1876  he  was  Consul-General,  introducing  many 
reforms  into  the  conduct  of  the  office  and  sug- 
gesting others  regarding  the  American  judicial 
establishment  in  China.  He  was  appointed  Min- 
ister to  China  in  1876.  As  he  opposed  the  re- 
striction of  Chinese  immigration,  he  was  re- 
called in  1880,  and  engaged  in  business  in  New 
York  City.  He  became  president  of  the  Fidelity 
and  Casualty  Company  in  1893.  He  published 
Chinese  Immigration  in  Its  Social  and  Eoonomio 
Aspect  (1881). 

SEWABB,  WnxiAK  Henrt  (1801-72).  An 
eminent  American  statesman,  born  in  Florida, 
Orange  County,  N.  Y.,  May  16,  1801.  He  attend- 
ed an  academy  at  Goshen,  N.  Y.,  graduated  at 
Union  College  in  1820,  studied  law  in  New  York 
City  and  also  at  Goshen,  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  at  Utica  in  1822,  and  in  1823  settled  in  Au- 
burn for  the  practice  of  his  profession.  A  short 
time  afterwards  he  married  the  daughter  of  his 
partner.  Judge  Elijah  Miller.  In  1830  he  was 
elected  to  the  State  Senate  by  the  Anti-Ma- 
sonic Party,  to  whose  first  national  conven- 
tion he  had  been  sent  as  a  delegate.  •  As  a  Sena- 
tor he  won  distinction  by  the  industry  and  ability 
with  which  he  advocated  internal  improvements, 
support  of  the  common  schools,  and  political  re- 
forms of  various  kinds.  As  the  agent  of  the  Hol- 
land Land  Company,  he  laid  the  foundation  of  a 
comfortable  fortune.  In  1838  he  was  elected  Gov- 
ernor of  New  York  as  a  Whig.  His  administra- 
tion was  signalized  by  notable  improvements  of 
the  common  school  system,  reform  of  prison  dis- 
cipline, judicial  reforms,  and  internal  improve- 
ments, while  he  gave  much  attention  also  to  the 
extension  of  the  franchise,  the  reform  of  the 
banking  laws,  the  geological  survey  of  the  State, 
and  the  improvement  of  the  militia.  His  terra 
was  marked  by  the  anti-rent  troubles  (see  Antt- 
Rentism)  and  the  controversy  over  the  McLeod 
affair.     (See  Caroline,  The.)   In  1840  he  was 


SEWASD. 


708 


SEWEBAGE. 


reelected.  For  several  years  after  the  expiration 
of  the  term  he  gave  his  whole  time  to  the 
practice  of  his  profession,  at  Auburn,  and  ap- 
peared as  coimsel  in  a  number  of  important 
criminal  cases.  In  1849  he  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate,  and  at  once  took  a  promi- 
nent place  among  the  leaders  of  the  Whig  Party 
and  became  the  most  intimate  Senatorial  coun- 
selor of  President  Taylor.  In  the  debate  on  the 
Compromise  Measures  of  1850  (q.v.)  he  deliv- 
ered, on  March  11th  of  that  year,  an  able  speech 
in  which  he  vigorously  denounced  slavery,  and 
startled  the  opposition  by  declaring  that  "there 
is  a  higher  law  than  the  Ck>nstitution."  He  sup- 
ported the  French  Spoliation  Bill  and  a  protec- 
tive tariff,  spoke  on  the  American  fisheries,  the 
Texas  debt,  the  Hungarian  Revolution,  and  other 
subjects,  and  vigorously  opposed  the  Kansas-Ne- 
braska Bill  (q.v.).  In  1855  he  was  reelected  to 
the  Senate,  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  Know- 
Nothings  and  Whigs  of  Southern  sympathies.  He 
was  an  influential  factor  in  the  organization  of 
the  Republican  Party,  and  for  the  first  few  years 
was  generally  regarded  throughout  the  Union  as 
preeminently  its  leader.  In  October,  1858,  he  made 
a  notable  speech  at  Rochester,  in  which  he  spoke 
of  the  antagonism  between  freedom  and  slavery 
as  an  'irrepressible  conflict,'  which  could  only 
terminate  by  the  United  States  becoming  entirely 
a  slave-holding  nation  or  entirely  free.  Prior  to 
the  National  Republican  Nominating  Conven- 
tion at  Chicago  he  was  the  most  conspicuous 
candidate  for  the  Republican  nomination  for 
President  in  1860,  and  on  the  flrst  ballot  re- 
ceived 173%  votes,  but  was  finally  defeated  by 
Abraham  Lincoln.  After  Lincoln's  election  Seward 
became  Secretary  of  State,  and  in  this  capacity 
rendered  services  of  almost  inestimable  value  to 
the  nation,  holding  the  office  during  the  Civil 
War  and  the  four  years  of  Johnson's  administra- 
tion. He  negotiated  a  large  number  of  treaties 
with  forei^  governments  and  conducted  the  for- 
eign relations  of  the  United  States  during  these 
critical  times  with  remarkable  tact  and  suc- 
cess. Notable  instances  of  this  were  the  case 
of  the  Trent  affair  (q.v.),  the  question  aris- 
ing out  of  the  French  intervention  in  Mexico, 
and  the  negotiations  concerning  Great  Britain's 
obligations  as  a  neutral  nation.  (See  Alabama 
Claims.)  He  also  negotiated  with  Russia,  in 
1867,  the  treaty  for  the  purchase  of  Alaska.  His 
State  papers  are  models  of  clear  and  vigorous 
style.  During  the  war  he  supported  President 
Lincoln  in  all  his  efforts  to  raise  and  equip  the 
armies,  and  gave  his  approval  to  the  emancipation 
proclamations.  On  the  evening  of  April  14, 
1865,  the  same  day  on  which  President  Lincoln 
was  assassinated,  an  assassin  named  Paine  en- 
tered Seward's  room  and  inflicted  dangerous 
wounds  upon  him  as  well  as  upon  his  son  Fred- 
erick. He  gradually  recovered,  however,  and 
continued  as  Secretary  of  State  in  the  Cabinet 
of  President  Johnson  until  the  end  of  his  term. 
He  entertained  moderate  views  of  reconstruction 
and  supported  the  plan  of  President  Johnson, 
thus  alienating  from  himself  the  more  radical 
wing  of  his  party.  Upon  his  retirement  from 
office  in  1869,  he  made  a  journey  to  Alaska,  and 
in  the  following  year  set  out  upon  a  tour  of  the 
world,  visiting  the  principal  countries  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Africa,  and  being  received  everywhere 
with  great  honor.  He  died  at  Auburn  oii  Octo- 
ber 10,  1872.  His  speeches  and  orations  appeared 


in  five  volumes,  and  his  official  oorrespondenoe 
was  published  by  order  of  Congress.  For  his 
life,  consult:  Baker^  (New  York,  1856);  Freder- 
ick W.  Seward  (ib.,  1877) ;  and  especially  Fred- 
erick Bancroft  (ib.,  1900) ;  also  WUliam  H.  Sevo- 
ard's  Travels  Around  the  World  (New  York, 
1873  )y  by  his  adopted  daughter,  Olive  Seward. 

SEWEL,  Bf/e\,  William  (1654-1720).  A 
Quaker  historian  and  scholar.  He  was  bom  and 
lived  all  his  life  in  Amsterdam.  His  History  of 
the  Rise,  Increase,  and  Progress  of  the  Christian 
People  Called  Quakers,  published  in  Dutch  at 
Amsterdam  in  1717,  and  in  English  translation 
(by  himself)  at  London  in  1722,  is  a  standard 
work  of  unquestionable  accuracy.  Consult  his 
Life  in  the  edition  published  at  New  York 
(1844). 

SEWEIX,  Jonathan  (1766-1839).  A  Cana- 
dian jurist,  son  of  Jonathan  Sewall  (1728-96). 
He  was  bom  in  Massachusetts,  was  educated  in 
England,  and  in  1785  went  to  New  Brunswick 
and  studied  law.  He  was  appointed  Solicitor- 
General  in  1793,  Attorney-General  in  1795,  and 
from  1808  till  1838  was  Chief  Justice  of  Lower 
Canada.  He  published  a  Plan  for  a  Oeneral 
Federal  Union  of  the  British  Provinces  in  Iforth 
America  (1815),  and  is  sometimes  credited  with 
having  been  the  first  to  propose  Canadian  federa- 
tion. 

SEWELL,  Maby  (1797-1884).  An  English 
authoress,  daughter  of  a  gentleman  farmer 
named  Wright.  In  1819  she  married  Isaac  Sew- 
ell,  a  banker.  She  wrote  verses  for  children  and 
young  people,  which  had  an  enormous  sale. 
Homely  Ballads  (1858)  reached  the  fortieth 
thousand,  Mother's  Last  Words  (1860)  passed 
beyond  a  million  copies,  and  Our  Father's  Care 
(1861)  exceeded  three-quarters  of  a  million.  Be- 
sides these  and  other  poems  she  wrote  Patience 
Hart's  Experiences  in  Service  (1862),  and  other 
popular  short  tales.  All  her  work  was  simple  in 
style  and  ethical  in  theme.  Consult  Poems  and 
Ballads,  edited  with  memoir  by  Mrs.  Bayly  (Lon- 
don, 1886). 

SEWELLEL  (Chinook  Indian  she-wallah 
robe  made  of  sewellel  hide,  the  animal  itself  being 
called  o-gwool-lal  in  Chinook,  squallal  in  Yakima, 
and  showt'l  in  Nisqually),  or  Mountain  Beaveb. 
A  curious  little  beaver-like  rodent  {Haplodon 
rufus)  of  the  mountains  from  northern  Califor- 
nia to  British  Columbia,  which  lives  in  wet  places 
overgrown  with  vegetation,  where  it  makes  exten- 
sive burrows  and  runways  often  kept  wet  by  run- 
ning water.  They  usually  live  in  colonies,  and 
hibernate,  preparing  for  the  winter  by  cutting 
and  collecting  great  quantities  of  woody  plants 
and  ferns,  which  they  carry  to  places  near  their 
burrows  and  spread  out  to  dry  thoroughly  before 
taking  them  into  their  burrows  as  stored  food. 
The  Indians  ate  them  and  made  much  use  of 
their  soft  fur.  A  second  species  {Haplodon 
major)  has  been  described  from  California.  The 
many  structural  differences  from  the  beaver  have 
led  to  placing  the  sewellels  in  a  family  (Haplo- 
dontidse)  by  themselves.  They  are  regarded  as 
most  nearly  representing  the  ancestral  type  of 
the  squirrels. 

SEWEBAGE  (OP.  seuiciere,  canal,  from  ML. 
exaquatorium,  drainage-canal,  from  Lat.  ea?,  out 
4-  aqua,  water)  and  DRAINAGE  (from  AS. 
drehman,  dreahnian,  drdnian,  to  drain,  from  AS., 


SEWEBAGE. 


709 


SEWEBAGE. 


Goth,  dragatl,  to  draw,  OHG.  tragan,  Ger.  iragen, 
to  cany).  The  remoyal  and  disposal  of  liquid 
and  vnter-hoTue  solid  household  wastes,  the  free- 
ing of  towns  and  cities  from  surface  water,  and 
the  lowering  and  removal  of  subsoil  water. 

The  two  fundamental  principles  in  the  design 
of  sewerage  systems  are  ( 1 )  the  removal  of  sew- 
age before  offensive  decomposition  sets  in,  which 
may  be  effected  by  providing  sewers  of  ample 
capacity,  uniform  and  suflScient  slope,  and  smooth 
interiors;  and  (2)  the  disposal  of  sewage  in  such 
a  manner  that  neither  water,  soil,  nor  air  will 
be  polluted  thereby.  Sewerage  systems  are  gen- 
erally divided  into  two  portions:  the  collecting 
sewers  and  appurtenances  and  the  outfall  sewer 
or  sewers.  In  addition  there  may  be  disposal 
works,  including  either  a  pumping  or  a  purifica- 
tion plant,  or  both.  The  aim  alwajrs  is  so  to 
design  the  collecting  and  outfall  sewers  that  the 
discharge  may  be  by  gravity,  thus  avoiding  the 
expense  of  a  pumping  plant. 

Sewerage  systems,  as  now  understood,  date 
chiefly  from  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. A  few  ancient  cities  had  sewers  for  the 
removal  of  fouled  liquids,  as  well  as  for  drain- 
age. The  most  notable  instance  of  this  was 
Rome.  (See  Cloaca  Maxima.)  But  the  Roman 
sewers  did  not  serve  the  whole  population,  by 
any  means.  The  drainage  of  London  was  the 
subject  of  l^islation  as  early  as  1225,  but  down 
to  1815  it  was  a  penal  offense  to  discharge  ex- 
crement or  other  offensive  matter  into  the  drains 
of  that  city.  In  1847  the  first  act  was  passed 
making  it  compulsory  to  drain  London  houses 
into  the  sewers,  and  in  1859  work  was  begun 
on  a  system  of  intercepting  sewers  and  storage 
tanks  to  cut  off  the  discharge  of  sewage  into  the 
Thames  within  the  city. 

Paris  had  drains  prior  to  1536,  but  in  1663 
their  total  length  is  said  to  have  been  only  about 
six  miles,  of  which  one  and  one-half  miles  were 
closed  and  the  remainder  open  channels.  In  1820 
Paris  made  the  use  of  cesspools  obligatory,  but 
permitted  the  liquid  overflow  to  be  discharged 
into  the  sewers.  In  1880  a  move  was  made  to 
permit  the  discharge  of  all  house  sewage  into 
the  sewers,  but  up  to  the  close  of  1893,  or  just 
before  the  full  adoption  of  the  sewerage  plan,  of 
266,044  houses  in  the  city,  only  10,934  were  di- 
rectly connected  with  the  sewerage  system. 

In  the  United  States,  Boston  had  drains  as 
early  as  1701.  After  the  adoption  of  a  city 
charter  in  1823  Boston  assumed  the  ownership 
and  control  of  all  the  drains  and  sewers  which 
had  been  built  by  private  parties.  The  date  on 
which  the  sewers  were  opened  for  the  reception  of 
water-closet  matter  generally  is  not  available; 
but  presumably  it  followed  shortly  after  the 
introduction  of  an  ample  public  water  supply,  in 
1S48. 

it  may  be  said  of  all  cities  that  a  sanitary 
sewerage  system,  as  now  conceived,  is  out  of  the 
question  until  a  copious  water  supply  has  been 
provided.  In  most  of  the  larger  cities  provisons 
for  surface  drainage  preceded  the  introduction  of 
sanitary  sewers.  Convenience  gradually  led  to 
the  use  of  these  surface  or  storm  sewers  for  the 
disposal  of  liquid,  and  then  of  solid  house  wastes, 
the  connections  for  the  latter  purpose  often  being 
surreptitious  at  first.  As  public  water  supplies 
were  introduced  and  the  per  capita  water  con- 
sumption greatly  increased,  the  disposal  of  the 
water  thus  brought  into  the  houses  often  became 


even  more  serious  a  matter  than  the  removal  of 
surface  and  ground  drainage.  This  led  to  the 
construction  of  sewers  on  the  combined  plan. 
The  expense  involved  in  building  sewers  large 
enough  to  carry  off  the  rainfall  was  almost  or 
quite  prohibitive  for  all  but  the  larger,  closely 
built  cities,  so  as  the  need  for  house  sewerage 
systems  increased  sewers  were  built  more  and 
more  frequently  for  this  purpose  alone. 

About  1850  the  separate  system  was  intro- 
duced in  several  English  towns.  In  1875-76  a 
separate  system  of  sewerage  was  built  at  Lenox, 
Mass.,  and  in  1880  a  more  extensive  one  was 
constructed  at  Memphis,  Tenn.  Both  these  were 
designed  by  the  late  Col.  Geo.  E.  Waring,  Jr. 
The  Memphis  system  attracted  great  attention, 
owing  largely  to  the  yellow  fever  epidemic  which 
preened  and  led  up  to  its  adoption.  Neverthe- 
less, the  separate  system,  often  but  not  always 
slightly  modified  to  avoid  controversy,  has  been 
widely  adopted  in  the  United  States. 

Designing  a  sewerage  system  necessitates  first 
of  all  an  accurate  and  complete  topographical 
map  of  the  city  or  town.  The  next  step  is  to  di- 
vide the  city  into  its  natural  drainage  areas,  par- 
ticularly if  storm-water  sewers  are  to  be  built. 
This  done,  the  location  of  the  main  sewer  for 
each  district  is  determined  and  the  tributary 
population  estimated.  The  grades,  or  rate  of 
fall  per  1000  feet,  should  be  so  adjusted  as  to 
give  self-cleansing  velocities.  At  the  same  time, 
economy  in  construction  will  keep  the  sewers  as 
near  the  surface  as  is  consistent  with  proper 
grades  and  serving  the  lowest  plumbing  fixtures 
in  the  houses. 

The  relative  advantages  of  the  combined  and 
separate  systems  of  sewerage  will  depend  largely 
upon  the  size  of  the  city  and  whether  either 
pumping  or  purification  is  necessary.  If  either 
of  the  latter,  and  particularly  if  both,  are  re- 
quired, it  is  highly  desirable  that  the  separate 
system  be  installed,  both  on  account  of  the  extra 
cost  involved  in  handling  the  surface  water  and 
of  the  great  disadvantages  and  difiiculties  inci- 
dent to  sudden  and  marked  changes  in  the  vol- 
ume of  sewage  to  be  treated  at  purification 
works.  Another  advantage  of  separate  sewers 
is  that  they  render  it  unnecessary  to  place  the 
storm  sewers  deep  enough  to  serve  the  bottom 
of  the  cellars,  thus  often  saving  very  heavy  deep 
trenching.  The  smaller  cities  and  towns  find  it 
highly  advantageous  to  adopt  the  separate  sys- 
tem of  sewerage,  and  to  construct  tne  sanitary 
sewers,  only,  at  the  outset. 

The  volume  of  sewage  for  which  provision  must 
be  made  is  dependent  on  water  consumption  and 
rainfall.  In  the  separate  system  of  sanitary 
sewers  rainfall  need  not  be  considered,  since  it 
is  excluded,  but  some  allowance  must  be  made 
for  the  leakage  of  ground  water  into  the  sewers. 
In  fixing  the  capacity  of  the  combined  system  of 
sewers  the  house  sewage  scarcely  needs  be  con- 
sidered except  on  the  laterals  serving  single  short 
streets,  since  the  maximum  surface  or  storm 
water  to  be  carried  is  so  far  in  excess  of  the 
house  wastes.  Ordinarily  it  is  safe  to  assume 
that  the  maximum  water  consumption  is  double 
the  average  flow,  and  that  76  per  cent,  of  the 
latter  reaches  the  sewers,  the  remainder  being 
used  for  lawn-sprinkling  and  for  houses  not 
connected  with  the  sewers.  On  this  basis,  a  city 
with  an  average  daily  water  consumption  of  100 
gallons  per  capita  would  have  a  maximum  con- 


SEWBBAOE. 


710 


SEWEBAGE. 


Bumption  of  200  gallons,  of  which  160  gallons 
would  reach  the  sewers.  Under  very  unfavor- 
able circumstances  infiltration  of  sround  water 
has  been  estimated  as  equal  to  the  now  of  sewage 
proper,  but  design  and  construction  permitting 
such  a  condition  should  never  be  tolerated.  Un- 
der normal  conditions  of  both  consumption  and 
infiltration  the  extra  volume  on  the  latter  ac- 
count may  be  taken  at  15  per  cent,  of  the  as- 
sumed sewage  flow.  In  round  numbers,  then,  the 
capacity  of  separate  sanitary  sewers  should  be 
175  gallons  per  capita  per  day. 

The  amount  of  rainfall  for  which  provision 
must  be  made  is  a  more  difficult  problem  than 
might  appear  at  first  thought.  There  must  be 
determined,  first  of  all,  the  maximum  rate  of 
rainfall  during  comparatively  brief  periods,  and 
next  the  percentage  of  the  total  which  will 
reach  the  sewers  at  the  same  moment.  As  to 
the  percentage  of  rainfall  reaching  the  sewers 
in  a  given  time  much  will  depend  upon  the  per- 
meability of  the  soil,  the  proportion  of  roofed  and 
paved  to  the  total  area  of  the  district,  and  the 
slopes  of  the  area.  The  general  practice  is  to 
base  the  calculations  on  the  rate  of  rainfall  per 
hour.  An  old  rule  for  populous  districts  was 
to  make  the  sewers  large  enough  to  carry  away 
a  rainfall  of  one  inch  per  hour.  The  more  re- 
cent short-period  observations  show  that  far 
higher  rates  may  reach  the  sewers. 

Material,  Size,  and  Slope  of  Conduits  depend 
largely  upon  whether  the  separate  or  combined 
system  is  adopted.  Vitrified  clay  or  terra-cotta 
sewer  pipes  (see  Pipes)  are  now  almost  universal- 
ly used  for  all  sewers  up  to  24  inches,  and  some- 


Coctenary. 


quently  substituted  for  brick,  particularly  in  the 
lower  part,  or  invert,  of  the  sewer,  and  on  heavy 
grades,  where  the  scour  due  to  high  velocities 
and  street  sand  and  other  dirt  is  likely  to  wear 
the  brick.  Both  wood  and  steel  have  been  used 
for  large  outfall  sewers,  especially  for  submerged 
pipe.  Crossings  beneath  streams  are  frecju^tly 
made  by  means  of  so-called   inverted   siphoiiB. 


W'WT  fiwvr 


/fer  Ptpe  StvrfK  fyr  Brick  Sewer. 

M  o  n  h  o  1  e  8. 

Terra-cotta,  iron,  and  wooden  pipe  are  generally 
round;  brick  and  concrete  are  given  various 
shapes,  depending  largely  upon  the  available 
grade.  Where  feasible,  all  large  sewers,  other 
than  iron,  are  smaller  at  the  bottom  than  the 
top,  in  order  to  concentrate  the  dry-weather 
flow  and  diminish  the  chances  for  stoppage. 

AccESSOBiES  include  manholes,  or  chambers 
giving  access  to  the  sewers  from  the  street; 
lampholes  and  hand- 
holes,  for  inspecting 
and  cleaning  separate 
sanitary  sewers ;  flush 
tanks  for  suddenly  re- 
leasing a  supplementary 
volume  of  water;  catch 
or  inlet  basins,  for  the 
admission  of  surface 
drainage  to  combined  or 
storm  sewers.  The  lat- 
ter are  generally  at  the 
curb  line.  Such  deposits 
as  cannot  be  flushed  out 


^^cA^ 


Coctcb  or 
Inlet  Gci6in« 


of  the  sewers  must  be  removed  from  time  to  time 
by  passing  a  ball,  scraper,  or  other  device  from 
manhole  to  manhole. 

Automatic   Flush   Tanks   are   provided  in 
many  sewers  of  the  separate  type.    They  are 


OUTUlfKS    or    TARIOUB    BHAPB8    OR  CBOSS-BKCTlOirB  OF 
BEWEB8  AND  DRAINS. 

times  up  to  30  inches  in  diameter,  whether  the 
system  be  separate  or  combined,  but  in  the  com- 
bined system  there  is  comparatively  little  oppor- 
tunity for  using  the  smaller  sizes  of  conduit. 
Cement  pipe  is  also  used  in  a  few  cities.  Where 
vitrified  clay  pipe  cannot  be  used,  and  iron  pipe 
is  not  required  for  its  greater  strength  or  tighter 
joints,  brick  is  the  material  most  commonly  em- 
ployed. The  size  of  pipe  sewers,  in  the  separate 
sanitary  system,  ranges  from  6  to  30  inches,  but 
8  to  24  inches  is  a  more  common  range.  The 
6  or  8  inch  pipe  is  used  for  laterals  and  for 
conduits  receiving  the  sewage  from  a  few  laterals. 
Iron  sewers  may  be  used  up  to  5  feet  or  more 
in  diameter,  but  they  rarely  go  above  3  feet,  and 
are  not  often  employed  in  any  size,  because  of 
cost.  There  is  practically  no  limit  to  the  size 
of  brick  sewers.  In  the  large  combined  sewers 
stone  masonry  is  occasionally  and  concrete  fre- 


▲VTOlf  ATIO  FLUflH  TAHK. 


chambers  for  the  storage  of  water,  with  means 
for  its  sudden  discharge  down  the  sewer.  The 
discharge  is  generally  efiTected  by  means  of  a 


SZiWEBAOE. 


711 


8EWIKG  ICACHIHE. 


siphon,  which  comes  into  action  when  the  water 
in  the  tank  reaches  a  certain  levd.  Another 
kind  of  automatic  arrangement  is  an  irregularly 
shaped  bucket,  or  tank,  so  arranged  that  when  it 
has  been  filled  by  the  supply  pipe  its  centre  of 
gravity  is  disturbed  and  the  water  discharged 
by  tilting.  Automatic  flush  tanks  should  dis- 
charge at  least  once  in  twenty-four  hours,  and 
liberate  some  200  or  250  gallons  of  water  at  each 
action.  In  the  combined  system  of  sewers  all 
these  methods  of  flushing  are  liable  to  be  in- 
adequate, except  on  the  smaller  sewers.  Cleaning 
by  hand  or  otherwise  then  becomes  necessary. 

Ventilation  of  Sewers  is  a  thing  which  has 
given  rise  to  much  discussion.  The  simplest 
means  are  generally  the  best,  and  it  is  rarely  tl  e 
case  in  sewers  that  any  improvement  can  be 
made  over  thoroughly  good  design  and  execution 
in  the  way  of  grade,  alignment,  and  smooth  inte- 
riors. In  some  English  cities  ventilating  shafts 
have  been  provided,  but  this  has  rarely  if  ever 
been  done  in  America.  Perforated  manhole  covers 
are  about  all  the  specific  provision  for  ventilation 
made  in  the  United  States.  The  omission  of 
traps  at  the  foot  of  the  house  soil  pipes  will  eon- 
tribute  no  small  amount  of  ventilation,  and  is 
sometimes  practiced.  Objection  to  this  plan  is 
offered  by  some  on  the  gpround  of  danger  to  the 
inmates  of  houses  if  the  soil  pipes  are  converted 
into  as  many  ventilating  shafts,  but  in  properly 
designed  and  constructed  sewers,  having  such 
ample  ventilation  as  is  thus  afforded,  there  is  a 
growing  belief  that  no  reason  for  apprehension 
will  follow  the  practice.  The  'sewer  gas'  of 
which  so  «nuch  was  said  some  years  ago  does  not 
exist — as  a  specific  gas.  Sewers,  and  particularly 
those  retaining  deposits  of  organic  matter  for 
considerable  periods,  may  yield  various  gases  of 
decomposition,  and  under  extreme  conditions 
these  gases  may  be  positively  and  immediately 
dangerous.  Numerous  careful  studies  have 
thown  that  the  bacterial  contents  of  the  air  in 
sewers  resemble  those  of  the  outer  air  above, 
rather  than  the  bacteria  in  the  sewage,  and  that 
they  are  comparatively  few  in  numbers.  In  fact, 
the  air  in  anything  approaching  a  model  sewer  is 
better  than  that  in  overcrowded  theatres  and 
churches.  The  menace  of  sewerage  systems  is 
the  pollution  of  public  water  supplies,  not  the 
air  of  either  streets  or  buildings.  Nevertheless, 
great  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  ac- 
cumulation of  bad  air  in  sewers  and  to  reduce  to 
a  minimum  the  access  of  any  sewer  air  to  houses 
or  other  buildings. 

Pumping  Wobks  for  sewage  do  not  necessarily 
differ  much  from  those  for  water,  except  that 
they  cenerally  lift  the  sewage  but  a  few  feet, 
and  should  be  of  a  type  not  readily  damaged 
by  foreign  matter.  Centrifugal  pumps  are  often 
used  to  lift  sewage,  as  being  economical,  with  low 
lifts,  and  having  no  valves  likely  to  get  out  of 
order.  Other  kmds  of  steam  pumps  are  used; 
also  air  displacement  pumps.  Known  as  Shone 
ejectors,  and  pumps  driven  by  the  sewage  itself, 
blown  as  sewage  lifts.  In  the  Liemur  system 
of  sewerage  the  sewage  is  drawn  or  sucked  to  a 
central  sUition  through  iron  pipes,  from  which 
the  air  is  exhausted  by  proper  pumping  ma- 
chinery. This  system  was  introduced  in  Hol- 
land about  1880,  but  gained  comparatively  little 
foothold  in  Continental  Europe  and  none  in 
England  or  America.  One  of  the  leading  features 
of  the  Liemur  system  was  keeping  the  excre- 


ment largely  free  from  water  and  manufacturing 
it  into  a  fertilizer.  The  iron  pipes  and  the 
construction  and  operation  of  the  machinery  re- 
quired for  the  system  entailed  a  large  outlay  for 
fixed  and  current  expenses. 

BiBLiOQBAPHT.  Folwcll,  Betoerage  (New  York, 
1900),  a  readily  comprehensible  discussion  of 
the  design,  construction,  and  maintenance  of 
sewers;  Ogden,  Sewer  Design  (New  York,  1899), 
discusses  rainfall,  population,  and  other  factors 
of  sewer  design;  Staley  and  Pierson,  Separate 
System  of  Sewerage  (3d  ed..  New  York,  1899)  : 
Goodell's  translation  and  adaptation  from  the 
German  of  Baumeister's  Cleaning  and  Sewerage 
of  Cities  (2d  ed.,  New  York,  1895),  a  condensed 
account  of  European  and  American  practice; 
Waring,  Sewerage  and  Land  Drainage  (3d  ed.. 
New  York,  1891),  largely  but  not  wholly  de- 
voted to  the  author's  methods  and  executed  works 
along  the  lines  of  the  strictly  separate  system  of 
sewerage;  Moore,  Sanitary  Engineering  (Lon- 
don and  New  York,  1898),  an  extensive  treatise, 
chiefly  from  the  English  standpoint,  and  devoted 
almost  wholly  to  sewerage.  See  also  list  of 
works  under  Sewage  Disfobal,  which  read  in 
this  connection. 

SEWnra  machine  (from  sew,  AS.  seow- 
ian,  Goth,  siujan,  OHG.  siuioan,  siwan,  to  sew; 
connected  with  Lat.  suere,  OChurch  Slav,  shiti, 
Lith.  siuti,  Lett,  shut,  Skt.  siv,  to  sew).  It  is 
probable  that  the  flrst  sewing  machine  was  made 
by  an  Englishnmn  named  Thomas  Saint,  and  was 
patented  July  17,  1790.  Though  made  of  wood,  it 
resembled  the  later  successful  machines  in  that 
it  had  an  overhanging  arm,  vertically  recipro- 
cating needle,  continuous  thread,  and  automatic 
feed.  This  machine  had  a  notch  instead  of  an  eye 
in  the  needle,  for  the  thread  to  pass  through,  and 
a  hole  wBfi  punched  by  an  awl  for  the  needle  to 
pass  through.  It  produced  a  single-thread  chain- 
stitch.  In  1830  Bartholemy  Thimonier  pro- 
duced a  sewing  machine  which  was  patented 
first  in  France  and  some  time  afterwards  in 
the  United  States.  This  machine  was  so  far 
successful  as  to  be  employed  to  make  clothing 
for  the  French  army,  and  it  thereupon  was  de- 
stroyed by  an  ignorant  and  furious  mob.  Thi- 
monier's  first  machine  was  also  of  wood,  but 
he  afterwards  constructed  one  of  metal,  driven 
by  a  cord  and  treadle.  It  had  the  overhanging 
arm,  fiat  cloth  plate,  vertical  post,  vertical  re- 
ciprocating necNlle,  continuous  thread,  and 
presser-foot  of  the  modem  machine.  The  needle 
was  hooked  and  had  to  be  passed  backward  and 
forward  through  the  cloth  twice  to  complete  a 
stitch.  In  1841  Newton  and  Archbold  patented 
in  England  a  machine  using  an  eye-pointed  needle 
and  producing  a  chain-stitch. 

About  the  same  time  that  the  French  machine 
was  being  perfected,  Walter  Hunt  is  said  to  have 
made  a  sewing  machine  having  the  double  thread 
and  lock-stitcn  which  was  characteristic  of  the 
Howe  machine.  Hunt,  however,  failed  to  perfect 
or  patent  his  invention  for  so  many  years  after 
it  was  first  put  upon  the  market  that  when  at 
length  he  applied  for  a  patent  it  was  denied 
him. 

In  1846  Elias  Howe  (q.v.)  patented  a  sewing 
machine  containing  most  of  the  essential  fea- 
tures of  the  modem  machine.  The  needle  was 
curved  and  moved  back  and  forth  horizontally 
instead  of  vertically.  The  machine,  crude  as  it 
was,  included  the  grooved,  eye-pointed  needle  and 


SEWING  1CA.CHIHE. 


712 


SEWING  MACHTBTE. 


the  automatic  feed  and  produced  a  lock-stitch  by 
means  of  a  shuttle  operating  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  cloth  from  the  needle.  Howe  was  for 
many  years  engaged  in  suits  for  infringement 
upon  his  patents.  In  these  he  was  successful, 
and,  unlike  most  of  the  earlier  inventors,  he 
received  a  large  fortune  from  royalties. 

In  1849  John  Bachelder  patented  a  machine 
which  was  the  first  to  combine  the  horizontal 
table  and  the  continuous  feed  device.  The  latter 
consisted  of  an  endless  band  of  leather  set  onto 
small  steel  points.  These  points  projected  up 
through  the  table  and,  penetrating  the  material, 
carri^  it  to  the  needle. 

A.  B.  Wilson  invented  in  1862  the  vibrating 
double-beak  shuttle,  and  in  1854  the  four-motion 
feed.  The  latter  invention — the  serrated  metal 
bar  covered  with  forward  pointing  saw  teeth — 
is  the  familiar  feed-plate  now  used  on  almost  all 
machines.  This  toothed  bar  ( 1 )  rises  through  a 
slot  in  the  table,  (2)  moves  horizontally  for- 
ward to  advance  the  cloth,  (3)  drops  below  the 
table,  (4)  moves  horizontally  back  again  to  its 
starting  point  below  the  table. 

In  1851  Isaac  M.  Singer  patented  a  sewing 
machine  having  a  fixed,  overhanging  arm  and  a 
vertical  needle.  He  also  introduced  the  foot 
treadle,  previous  American  machines  having  been 
operated  by  turning  a  crank  with  the  hand.  The 
most  important  invention  which  he  contributed 
was  the  presser  foot,  with  a  yielding  spring. 

There  are  two  types  of  domestic  sewing  ma- 
chines: those  making  a  lock-stitch  and  those 
producing  a  chain-stitch,  or  the  double  and  single 
thread  machine.  Some  double-thread  machines 
produce  a  chain-stitch.  Each  type  has  its  ad- 
herents among  seamstresses.  The  lock-stitch  re- 
sembles weaving  in  its  formation,  while  the 
chain-stitch  resembles  knitting,  and  is  easily 
raveled.  According  to  the  census  for  1900,  90 
per  cent,  of  the  machines  built  for  household  use 
have  the  lock-stitch. 

Among  the  sewing  machines  for  doing  special 
kinds  of  work  or  work  on  special  materials  are 
the  shoe  and  leather  sewing  machines,  the  carpet- 
sewing  machine,  and  the  button-hole  machine. 
By  far  the  most  important  of  these,  in  practical 
results  attained,  is  the  shoe-sewing  machine. 
The  McKay  machine  was  the  result  of  three 
years  of  patient  labor  and  of  an  expenditure  of 
over  $130,000  before  practical  results  were  at- 
tained. In  using  this  machine  the  inner  sole  is 
first  placed  on  the  last  and  then  the  upper  is 
lasted  and  fastened  to  the  inner  sole.  The  outer 
sole  is  then  placed  above  the  lower  sole,  to  which 
it  is  tacked,  and  the  shoe  is  placed  on  a  horn 
or  rotary  support  which  brings  the  shoe  up  to 
the  needle  of  the  machine.  A  waxed  thread 
wound  on  a  spool  is  contained  on  a  spool  within 
the  horn  and  is  carried  up  to  the  whirl  or  small 
ring  at  its  upper  end,  where  there  is  an  opening 
for  the  needle,  which  comes  down  from  above, 
piercing  the  sole.  The  waxed  thread,  which  is 
kept  soft  by  the  heat  of  a  lamp,  is  caught  by  a 
barb  or  hook  on  the  needle  as  it  descends  through 
the  hole,  and  is  pulled  back  through  the  sole  on 
its  upward  passage.  This  machine  attended  by  a 
single  operator  can  sew  900  pairs  of  shoes  in  a 
day  of  ten  hours,  while  a  usual  rate  by  an  aver- 
age workman  is  from  500  to  600  pairs  in  a  simi- 
lar time.  It  was  used  extensively  both  in  the 
United  States  and  in  Europe,  but  it  possessed 
the  disadvantage  that  the  shoes,  though  strong 


and  comfortable  when  first  made,  could  not  be 
resoled  except  by  pegging  or  nailing,  and  pos- 
sessed in  addition  soles  stiff  and  lacking  in 
fiexibility.  In  the  Goodyear  welt  machine, 
for  which  patents  were  granted  in  1871  and 
1875,  a  welt  was  sewed  to  an  upper  and  thb 
welt  in  turn  was  fastened  by  an  external 
row  of  stitches  to  the  sole.  Shoes  made  in  this 
way  were  much  more  fiexible  and  could  be  hall- 
soled  by  the  shoemaker  by  the  ordinary  proceas 
of  hand  sewing.  This  machine  at  once  found 
application  to  the  manufacture  of  fine  boots  and 
shoes,  and  on  it  at  the  present  time  are  made 
nearly  all  of  the  finer  grades  of  men's  shoes. 

The  first  machine  for  sewing  leather  and  other 
heavy  materials  was  patented  by  J.  J.  Greenougfa 
in  1842,  but  did  not  come  into  extended  use.  The 
following  year  a  similar  machine  was  patented 
by  George  H.  Corliss,  the  inventor  of  the  Corliss 
engine.  It  had  two  needles  with  eyes  near  their 
points,  which  worked  horizontally  through  holes 
previously  punctured  by  awls.  The  movements 
were  derived  from  cams  on  a  revolving  shaft  and 
the  feed  was  automatic.  Leather-sewing  ma- 
chines are  now  used  in  all  branches  of  the  leather 
industry,  including  the  sewing  of  the  uppers  of 
shoes  and  the  different  kinds  of  stitching  re- 
quired in  the  manufacture  of  gloves. 

A  button-hole  machine  was  first  patented  by 
Humphrey  in  1862,  but  the  Reece  button-hole 
machine,  patented  nearly  twenty  years  later,  first 
brought  the  art  of  making  button-holes  by  ma- 
chinery to  its  present  state  of  perfection.  There 
are  several  styles  of  these  macnines  now  on  the 
market  and  a  button-hole  attachment  is  sold 
with  ordinary  sewing  machines. 

An  invention  patented  in  1894  is  a  machine 
for  sewing  the  breadths  of  carpeting.  It  differs 
from  other  sewing  machines  in  that  it,  and  not 
the  material,  moves  along  as  the  process  of  sew- 
ing advances. 

In  the  manufacture  of  sewing  machines  Amer- 
ica leads  the  world.  Not  only  are  great  numbers 
of  machines  eicported,  but  several  of  the  leading 
manufacturers  have  branch  factories  in  Europe. 

Statistics.  The  value  of  the  export  trade  of 
the  United  States  in  sewing  machines  for  the  last 
ten  years  of  the  nineteenth  century  was  as  fol- 
lows: 1891,  $2,883,577;  1892,  $3,133,992;  1893, 
$2,476,446;  1894,  $2,347,354;  1895,  $2,260,139; 
1896,  $3,139,249;  1897,  $3,340,241;  1899,  $3,136,- 
364;  1899,  $3,264,344;  1900,  $4,541,774.  Accord- 
ing  to  the  United  States  Census  for  1900  there 
are  65  establishments  in  this  country  engaged  in 
the  manufacture  of  sewing  machines.  These  fac- 
tories have  a  combined  capital  of  ^0,072,800, 
and  the  value  of  their  annual  product  is  $21,129,- 
561.  This  product  includes  747,587  machines  for 
household  use  and  55,227  machines  for  use  in 
factories.  In  1860,  when  statistics  of  the  indus- 
try were  first  collected,  there  were  88  factories, 
or  23  more  than  in  1900 ;  but  the  total  amount  of 
capital  invested  was  only  $1,494,450,  and  the  an- 
nual product  was  $4,403,206.  The  popularity  of 
this  industry  seems  to  have  been  at  its  height  in 
1880,  when  124  factories  were  in  operation.  This 
is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  in  1877  the  dis- 
organization of  the  sewing-machine  combination, 
which  controlled  patents  covering  several  of  the 
essential  features  of  the  sewing  machine,  was 
effected,  and  thus  the  field  was  opened  to  na^ 
merous  small  manufacturers.  Consult:  Section 
on  "Sewing  Machines,"   Twelfth  Censw  of  tht 


SEWIKG  ICACHINE. 


718 


United  States,  vol.  x.,  part  iv.,  "Manufactures" 
(Washington,  1902) ;  Byrn,  Progress  of  Invention 
in  the  Nineteenth  Century  (New  York,  1900). 

SEX  (OF.  aexe,  from  Lat.  sexus,  secus,  sex, 
from  secare,  to  cut;  connected  with  OHG.  saga, 
aega,  Ger.  Sage,  AS.  saga,  Eng.  saio)  (in  ani- 
mals). The  capacity,  in  all  but  the  lowest  organ- 
isms, of  each  individual  producing  either  eggs  or 
sperm  cells  (or  both),  i.e.  germ  cells  which  are 
either  female  or  male.  In  the  lowest  or  uni- 
cellular animals,  reproduction  (q*v.)  is  by  self- 
division  or  by  germs,  which  so  far  as  we  know 
are  devoid  of  sexuality;  such  forms  are  said  to 
be  'asexual,*  The  next  step,  one  suggesting  sex- 
ual reproduction,  is  the  phenomenon  of  conjuga- 
tion. In  aU  animals  from  sponges  to  man  re- 
production is  by  male  and  female  cells. 

The  ovary  and  testis  are  sexual  elands  (go- 
nads), and  may  be  regarded  as  the  primary 
sexual  organs.  In  nearly  all  animals,  from  the 
flatworms  to  man,  there  is  a  passage  or  outlet 
for  the  expulsion  of  the  sexual  products,  and 
accessory  organs  for  the  dilution  and  expulsion 
of  the  seminal  fluid,  or  for  secreting  the  egg- 
shell ;  also  external  appendages  of  less  or  greater 
complexity  in  those  forms  which  pair;  and  egg- 
laying  organs,  as  the  ovipositors  of  insects, 
brood-pouches,  and  different  forms  of  uteri.  Judg- 
ing by  the  lowest  forms,  animals  were  probably 
at  first  hermaphroditic,  growing  out  of  a  uni- 
sexual condition.  Hermaphroditism  is  a  condi- 
tion in  which  both  male  and  female  organs  are 
developed  in  the  same  individual.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  hermaphroditism,  the  true  and  the  spu- 
rious; in  the  former  the  germ  glands  contain 
both  male  and  female  germ  cells;  in  the  latter 
the  accessory  organs  are  of  an  ambiguous  char- 
acter. Hermaphroditism  is  normal  in  some  spe- 
cies and  abnormal  in  others.  Spurious  her- 
maphroditism is  met  with  in  all  dioecious  groups. 
In  insects  it  has  been  repeatedly  noticed.  Thus 
one  wing  may  have  the  male  coloration  and  the 
one  on  the  opposite  side  female  coloration;  or 
the  anterior  and  posterior  parts  of  the  animal 
may  have  opposite  secondary  sexual  characters; 
or  the  sexual  characters  may  be  intermingled, 
or,  more  rarely,  blended. 

Among  vertebrates  abnormal  hermaphroditism 
is  rare.  Fishes  have,  however,  been  described 
with  an  ovary  on  one  side  and  a  testis  on  the 
other,  and  birds  have  been  repeatedly  described 
with  ambiguous  secondary  characters.  These 
phenomena  usually  appear  late  in  life,  but  they 
may  occur  in  young  birds,  which  are  then  usually 
sterile.  A  similar  tendency  to  gain  characters 
of  opposite  sex  is  seen  in  old  persons,  in  whom 
the  germ  glands  are  no  longer  fimctional.  Con- 
cerning the  interpretation  of  abnormal  her- 
maphroditism it  may  be  said  that  at  an  early 
sta^  of  development  all  animals  are  sexless,  but 
their  germ  glands  seem  to  possess  the  poten- 
tiality of  both  sexes;  typically,  in  dicecious  or- 
ganisms only  one  of  these  potentialities  is  real- 
ised, but  exceptionally  both  of  them  may  be  to  a 
greater  or  less  complete  degree. 

Omqin  of  Sex.  This  is  an  unsettled  problem. 
We  do  not  understand  how,  from  being  at  first 
hermaphroditic  or  asexual,  as  was  probably  the 
case,  the  male  and  female  characteristics  became 
gradually  established.  What  in  the  higher  ani- 
mals determines  sex  is  also  an  unsolved  problem. 
Hundreds  of  theories  have  been  proposed  as  to 
the  epoch  at  which  the  sex  of  the  embryo  is 


finally  determined.  Food  or  nutrition  is  as  im- 
portant a  factor  as  any  in  determining  what  the 
sex  of  the  future  animal  may  be.  Certain  ex- 
periments throw  light  on  the  subject  in  the  case 
of  animals.  Yung  divided  a  batch  of  tadpoles 
into  three  lots,  the  proportion  being  54.46, 
61.39,  and  56.44.  The  average  number  of  females 
was  thus  about  57  in  100.  In  the  first  br(k)d 
by  feeding  one  set  with  beef  he  raised  the  per- 
centage of  females  from  54  to  78;  in  the  second 
lot,  fed  with  fish,  the  percentage  rose  from  61 
to  81;  while  in  third  lot,  when  the  especially 
nutritious  food  of  frogs  was  supplied,  the  per- 
centage rose  from  56  to  92 ;  thus  in  the  last  case 
the  result  of  high  feeding  was  that  there  were  92 
females  to  8  males.  In  the  honey  bee  the  queens 
are  fed  with  richer,  more  nitrogenous  food  than 
the  workers;  hence  in  the  latter  the  ovaries  are 
undeveloped;  it  is  so  with  the  white  ants  and 
ants.  In  the  wasps  when  both  males  and  females 
arise  from  fertilized  eggs,  Siebold's  observations 
tend  to  show  that  predominance  of  females  is 
due  to  better  nutrition.  Giron  divided  a  flock  of 
300  ewes  into  equal  parts,  of  which  one-half  were 
extremely  well  fed  and  served  by  two  young  rams, 
while  those  of  the  other  half  were  served  by  two 
mature  rams  and  kept  poorly  fed.  The  propor- 
tion of  ewe  lambs  was  60  per  cent,  and  40  per 
cent.  Busing's  experiments  leave  little  doubt 
that  abundant  moisture  and  food  tend  to  produce 
females,  while  high  temperature  produces  males; 
he  found  that  the  heavier,  well-fed  ewes  produced 
ewes,  while  the  lighter,  under-fed  ewes  brought 
forth  males. 

Sexual  Dimobphism.  This  is  due  to  the  rise 
of  secondary  characters.  Such  features  are  the 
male  lion's  mane,  the  horns  of  the  buck,  the  gay 
plumage  which  distinguishes  the  cock  from  the 
hen,  and  the  plumes,  colored  combs  and  wat- 
tles, top-knots,  brilliant,  conspicuous  bands  and 
spots,  spurs,  and  those  markings  or  new  plum- 
age especially  developed  during  the  breeding  sea- 
son. Males  tend  among  vertebrates  to  be  larger, 
they  lead  the  flock,  guard  the  females  and  young; 
in  character  they  are  more  jealous  and  pugna- 
cious. This  is  the  case  not  only  with  mammals 
and  birds,  but  with  reptiles  and  frogs.  The 
vociferous  cries  in  spring  of  frogs  and  toads  are 
mainly  from  male  throats,  the  females  being 
much  less  noisy.  dJertain  fishes,  as  the  salmon, 
during  the  breeding  season  are  distinguished  by 
bright  colors  and  ornamental  appendages.  Of  the 
invertebrates  only  insects,  spiders,  and  Crustacea 
afford  examples.  Among  coleoptera  the  stag- 
beetles  (Lucanidae)  are  remarkable  for  their  size 
and  the  enormous  jaws  and  horns  of  the  males, 
and  there  are  two  sets  of  males,  those  which  in 
lack  of  armature  approach  the  females,  and  those 
which  are  much  larger  and  remarkably  aberrant. 
In  certain  spiders  the  males  are  gaily  colored  and 
their  legs  greatly  modified  in  shape.  Darwin 
has  explained  sexual  dimorphism  by  his  theory  of 
sexual  selection  (q.v.).  Sexual  dimorphism 
reaches  its  acme  in  the  males  of  certain  solitary 
barnacles;  they  are  minute,  very  much  reduced 
in  structure,  living  inside  the  mantle-cavity  of 
the  female,  where  they  are  anchored  by  their 
antennae. 

In  Plants.  The  simplest  plants  give  no  indi- 
cation of  any  sexual  process,  but  reproduce  by 
cell  division  or  by  non^sexual  spores.  The  gradual 
transition  from  the  sexless  to  the  sexual  con<1i- 
tion  is  clearly  shown  in  several  groups  of  algae.  For 


BEX. 


714 


8EXTAKT. 


example,  Ulothrix,  a  green  alga,  consists  of  a  single 
row  of  cells,  each  of  which  has  ordinary  vegetative 
powers.  In  some  cells  a  few  larse  ciliated  swim- 
ming sexless  spores  are  developed  by  cell  division. 
Other  cells  produce  numerous  smaller  similar 
bodies.  Both  sorts  when  discharged  swim  about 
and  either  directly  form  filaments,  or  they  may 
fuse  in  pairs,  thus  producing  a  new  cell,  capable 
of  developing  a  new  vigorous  individual*  Since 
this  fusing  is  the  essence  of  the  sexual  process, 
botanists  conclude  that  sexual  cells  have  been 
derived  from  sexless  swimming  spores. 

The  sexual  oells  (gametes)  are  at  first  alike, 
a  condition  distinguished  by  special  terminology 
from  that  in  which  two  sexes  are  distinct  Thus, 
the  mother  cell  within  which  the  gametes  are 
developed  is  called  a  gametangium;  the  condi- 
tion of  having  similar  pairing  gametes  b  isog- 
amy;  the  act  of  fusion  is  conjugation,  and  the 
resulting  sexually  formed  spore  is  a  zygospore  or 
zygote.  Only  the  lower  algs  and  fungi  are  isog- 
amous.  Very  early  in  the  history  of  the  evo- 
lution of  sex  in  plants  the  pairing  gametes  b^an 
to  differentiate.  In  one  series  the  gametes  be- 
came gradually  larger  and  propcMrtionately  less 
active,  until  a  relatively  large  and  absolutely  pas- 
sive cell,  the  female  gamete,  eggy  or  odsphere,  was 
formed.  In  the  other  series  activity  was  increased, 
and  size  perhaps  diminished,  resulting  in  the  for- 
mation of  the  male  gamete,  sperm,  antherozoid, 
or  spermatozoid.  This  differentiation  of  sex  con- 
tinues from  the  higher  alg»  "throughout  the  plant 
kingdom,  with  the  following  special  terminology. 
The  gametangium  which  develops  the  sperms  is 
called  an  antheridium  (q.v),  and  that  which  de- 
velops the  usually  single  egg  an  o5gonium  among 
the  algso  and  fungi  and  an  archegonium  in  the 
higher  groups.  The  condition  of  having  dis- 
similar gametes  is  heterogamy;  the  process  of 
fusion  is  fertilization;  and  the  resulting  sexual- 
ly formed  spore  is  an  oospore  or  fertilized  egg. 

Although  isogamy  and  heterogamy  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  normal  stages  in  the  evolution  of 
sex  among  plants,  there  is  a  special  form  of 
sexuality  among  the   red  algss    ( Rhodophycese, 

Sv.)  tiiat  deserves  mention.  In  this  group,  al- 
lough  a  male  cell  or  sperm  is  developed,  as  in 
cases  of  ordinary  heterogamy,  the  female  organ 
(procarp)  develops  no  distinct  egg,  but  is  dif- 
ferentiated into  two  regions,  namely  a  bulbous 
base  ( carpogonium )  with  a  hair-like  prolonga- 
tion (trichogyne)  with  which  the  male  cell  fuses, 
and  thus  fertilizes  the  carpogonium,  by  which, 
more  or  less  directly,  spores  are  developed.  In 
this  case,  therefore,  there  is  a  sexual  act  involving 
a  sperm  or  its  equivalent,  but  no  egg.  This 
sexual  union  does  not  result  in  a  distinct  spore, 
but  in  the  final  formation  of  a  fruit-like  struc- 
ture (cystocarp)  containing  spores.  This  pecu- 
liar modification  of  heterogamy  may  be  called 
carpogamy,  which  is  fertilization  of  a  carpogo- 
nium rather  than  of  an  e^. 

With  the  development  of  heterogamy,  which 
is  the  prevailing  method  in  the  plant  kingdom, 
the  development  of  sex  in  plants  is  practically 
complete.  Certain  resulting  conceptions,  how- 
ever, should  be  considered.  Among  the  bryo- 
phytes  alternation  of  generations  (q.v.)  is  estab- 
lished. The  sexual  plant  (gametophyte),  which 
is  the  ordinary  leafy  plant  of  popular  conception, 
usually  develops  both  sex  organs  upon  the  same 
individual,  and  is  said  to  be  moncecious  (bi- 
sexual or  hermaphrodite).    In  some  cases,  how- 


ever, antheridia  and  archegonia  are  borne  npon 
different  individuals  (dioecious  or  unisexual). 
Among  the  pteridophytes,  which  is  the  lowest 
group  to  exhibit  heterospory  (q.v.),  the  sexual 
plant  (prothallium),  which  may  be  either  moniB- 
cious  or  dioecious,  is  very  inconspicuous,  but  the 
leafy  sexless  plant  is  conspicuous. 

By  overlooking  the  homologies  with  pterido* 
phytes,  great  confusion  has  arisen  among  the 
spermatophytes  in  reference  to  sexuality  and  a 
sex  temunology  has  been  applied  to  certain  sex- 
less organs.  In  this  highest  group  the  sexual 
plants  are  so  inconspicuous  that  they  can  be  seen 
only  with  the  special  appliances  of  the  laboratory. 
All  the  visible  organs  of  a  flowering  plant,  in- 
cluding the  flowers,  are  sexless.  Confusion  has 
arisen  because  the  stamens  and  pistils  have  been 
regarded,  respectively,  as  male  and  female  or- 
gans, an  idea  extended  by  the  terms  ovary  for  a 
part  of  the  pistil,  and  ovule  for  the  contained 
structure  which  becomes  a  seed.  The  terms 
monoecious  and  dioecious  are  misapplied  when 
used  to  describe  plants  which  bear  sLamens  and 
pistils  respectively  upon  the  same  or  distinct 
mdividuals. 

While  the  sexual  structures  of  plants  are  very 
conspicuous,  therefore,  among  the  lower  forms, 
they  gradually  become  more  and  more  inconspicu- 
ous, imtil  in  the  highest  group  they  are  beyond 
the  reach  of  ordinary  observation,  and  everything 
seen  by  the  naked  eye  is  sexless.  There  is  thus 
a  gradual  increase  in  the  prominence  of  the 
sexless  phases,  and  a  gradual  reduction  of  the 
sexual  phase.  Consult:  Geddes  and  Thompson, 
The  Evolution  of  Sex  (New  York,  1902),  where 
will  be  found  further  references.  See  Metazoa; 
Repbodugtion;  Sexual  Seuection. 

SEX,  AS  A  Factdb  in  EvoLunoH.  As  has 
been  elsewhere  stated  (see  Sex),  the  male  is  the 
more  active,  more  variable  and  specialized  sex, 
while  the  female  is  passive,  conservative,  and  de- 
parts least  from  the  normal  standard.  It  would 
be  a  natural  result  that  the  offspring  would  tend 
to  vary.  Weismann  goes  so  far  as  to  claim  that 
the  intermingling  of  the  sexual  elements  in  fer- 
tilization is  the  only  cause  of  variation.  Before 
him  Treviranus,  Brooks,  and  (^Iton  claimed 
that  sexual  reproduction  provokes  variation.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  sexless  Foraminifera  are  ex- 
posed to  great  variation,  and  we  know  that 
variation  in  general  is  due  to  the  changed  condi- 
tions of  life,  and  the  reproductive  activities  are 
generally  adcnowledged  to  be  of  secondary  im- 
portance. 

Mutual  sterility,  by  which  physiological  bar- 
riers are  erected,  is  supnosed  by  Romanes  to 
result  in  the  origination  of  new  species.  Among 
the  higher  animals,  as  the  social  insects,  birds, 
and  mammals,  which  build  nests,  care  for  their 
young,  and  where  love,  cooperation,  self-sacrifice 
come  into  play,  sex  becomes  increasingly  impor- 
tant in  evolution,  and  becomes  a  factor  in  the 
differentiation  of  sexual  forms,  and  in  social 
evolution.    See  Evolution. 

SEXAGESIMAL  SYSTEM.  See  Scales  or 
Notation. 

SEXTANT  (from  Lat.  sextans,  sixth  part, 
from  BextuSy  sixth,  from  «ea?,  six).  An  instru- 
ment used  for  measuring  angles  between  distant 
objects.  The  sextant  finds  its  greatest  field  of 
usefulness  in  navigation,  but  it  is  also  employed 
in  marine  surveying.    It  consists  of  a  frame  is 


SEXTANT. 


715 


SEXTANT. 


the  form  of  a  sector  embracing  somewhat  more 
than  one-sixth  (usually  about  one-fourth)  of  the 
whole  circle;  two  mirrors  (one  wholly  silvered 
and  one  silvered  over  one-half  its  surface) ;  a 
movable  arm  pivoted  at  the  centre  of  the  sector 
and  carrying  the  fully  silvered  mirror  and  a 
vernier;  an  arc  along  the  circumference  of  the 
sector  graduated  into  degrees,  minutes,  and  sec- 
onds; and  an  eye-piece.  The  common  form  of 
the  instrument  is  shown  in  Fig.  1. 


Fie.  1. 

The  frame  is  of  brass.  AA  is  the  limb  in  which 
is  inlaid  a  strip  of  silver  on  which  are  the  gradu- 
ations of  circular  measure;  the  smallest  divi- 
sions are  usually  10'  to  30',  and  the  vernier  en- 
ables angles  to  be  read  to  at  least  I'  and  usually 
to  10*.  The  handle  H  by  which  the  instrument 
is  held  in  the  hand  is  of  wood.  The  mirrors  M 
and  m  are  of  plate  glass.  The  former  has  all 
its  surface,  while  the  latter  has  but  the  lower 
half  silvered.  Both  are  fitted  with  small  screws 
for  adjusting  them  in  perpendicularity  to  the 
plane  of  the  front  face  of  the  frame  and  in  paral- 
lelism to  each  other  when  the  index  arm  is  set  at 
0*.    E  is  the  eye-piece  of  the  telescope,  which  is 


Fio.3. 

held  in  poeition  by  the  adjustable  clasp  K. 
The  mirror  M  is  secured  to  the  index  arm  S, 
which  is  pivoted  beneath  the  centre  of  M  and 
carries  a  vernier  on  its  other  end.  R  is  a  small 
magnifying  glass  for  reading  the  vernier.  G  is 
the  clamp  for  holding  the  index  arm  to  the  limb. 
B  is  the  tangent  screw  for  moving  the  arm  slight- 
ly to  perfect  the  angle;  it  only  acts  when  the 
clamp  screw  G  is  set  up.  P  and  Q  are  colored 
shade  glasses  for  use  when  observing  the  sun. 
TOL.  XY.-M. 


Besides  the  ordinary  telescope  the  instrument 
is  usually  provided  with  an  inverting  telescope,  I, 
and  a  tube  without  glasses,  F;  also  colored  eye- 
pieces to  use  in  place  of  the  colored  shade  glasses, 
P  and  Q,  and  an  adjusting  wrench  or  screw- 
driver. The  theory  of  the  instrument  is  shown 
in  Fig.  2.  AOG  is  the  frame  of  the  instrument 
in  the  form  of  a  circular  sector.  VO  is  the  in- 
dex arm  carrying  the  index  glass,  I,  and  the  ver- 
nier, V,  and  is  pivoted  at  O  on  the  frame.  H  is 
the  horizon  glass,  which  is  set  in  a  clasp  securely 
attached  to  the  frame  in  a  position  parallel  to 
OG  (the  position  of  the  index  arm  when  set  at 
0°  of  the  arc),  but  is  susceptible  of  adjustment 
if  thrown  out  of  position.  LO  is  parallel  to 
MHT.  To  determine  the  angle  at  the  eye  (STM) 
between  two  distant  objects,  S  and  M,  the  pro- 
cedure is  as  follows  i  Turn  the  instrument  until 
one  object  (M)  can  be  seen  through  the  telescope 
and  the  unsilvered  half  (which  is  the  half 
farthest  away  from  the  plane  of  the  instrument) 
of  the  horizon  glass  (H).  Then  turn  the  instru- 
ment until  its  plane  coincides  with  that  passing 
through  both  M  and  S.  Now  move  the  index 
arm  until  the  refiection  of  S  appears  in  the  sil- 
vered half  of  H.  By  slightly  turning  the  instru- 
ment both  objects  will  be  brought  together— one 
just  on  and  one  just  clear  of  the  ^ge  of  the 
silvered  surface  of  H.  Perfect  the  coincidence 
of  the  two  objects  and  the  reading  of  the  vernier 
at  V  will  give  the  angle.  For  purposes  of  navi- 
gation the  angle  commonly  measured  is  that  be- 


Fio.  8. 

tween  the  sea  horizon  and  the  sun,  moon,  star, 
or  planet.  The  angle  is  called  the  altitude  of 
the  heavenly  body;  ih  the  case  of  a  star  it  can 
only  be  taken  at  twilight  or  when  the  moon  is 
up,  because  the  stars  are  not  plainly  seen  by 
daylight  and  the  horizon  is  not  clearly  visible  at 
night.  From  an  inspection  of  the  sketch  (Fig. 
3)  it  is  readily  seen  that  the  angle  throng 
which  the  index  arm  moves  is  one-half  that  of 
the  angle  measured. 

For  n  =  angle  of  incidence  and  nf  =  the  angle 
of  reflection  at  the  surface  of  the  mirror  I  and 
w  and  x'  the  same  at  the  mirror  H;  let  LI  be 
drawn  parallel  to  HT.  Then  the  angle  measured 
is  SIL  =  n-\-  a;  n'  —  a^  n  — a  =  x -i-x'  =  2x; 
n  =  a?  4-  y;  2n  =  n —  a  +  2y;  n+a  =  2y;  y  = 
tr  .'.  n4-  «  =  2  w. 

The  arc,  or  limb,  of  the  sextant  has  a  gradu- 
ated scale  cut  in  an  inlaid  silver  strip.  The  fine- 
ness of  the  graduation  varies;  in  high-grade 
instruments  the  smallest  division  of  the  scale  is 
10  minutes;   in  some  cheaper  instruments  the 


SEXTANT. 


716 


SEXUAL  SEIiECTIOH. 


smallest  division  is  one  d^ree.  To  read  the  angle 
with  great  closeness  sextants,  like  other  similar 
instruments,  are  fitted  with  verniers.    In  the  ac- 


VliiTiil,i,i,l,i,^Jll)iiliiliiliiliiliiTii( 

in  9  o 


A#sM 


Fro.  6. 


FlO.  4. 

eompanying  figures  the  smallest  division  of  the 
limb  of  the  sextant  is  10  minutes^  and  the  least 
count  of  the  vernier  is  1 
minute.  To  effect  this  10 
divisions  of  the  vernier  are 
made  equal  to  9  of  the  limb. 
If  the  0  of  the  vernier  rests 
on  the  zero  of  the  limb  then 
the  first  division  of  the  vernier  will  fall  short 
of  the  first  division  of  the  limb  by  1  min- 
ute, the  second  division  of  the  vernier  will 
fall  short  of  the  second  division  of  the  limb 
by  2  minutes,  and  so  on.  If  Fig.  4  represents 
the  position  of  the  vernier  after  measuring  a 
certain  angle  we  proceed  to  read  it  as  follows: 
First  we  note  that  the  zero  of  the  vernier  is  be- 
tween 17**  60'  and  IS**  0'.  Next  we  find  that  the 
third  divsion  of  the  vernier  is  in  coincidence  with 
a  division  of  the  limb.  Therefore,  we  add  3'  to 
17"  60'  and  find  the  angle  to  be  17**  63'. 

When  used  on  shore  and  the  sea  horizon  can-' 
not  be  seen  an  'artificial  horizon'  is  used.  This 
consists  of  a  shallow  tray  filled  with  mercury 
and  protected  by  a  gable-roofed  cover  of  thin 
plate  glass  framed  in  brass.  The  angle  measured 
is  that  between  the  sun  (or  other  heavenly  body) 
and  its  reflection  from  the  level  surface  of  the 
mercury.  As  is  readily  seen,  this  angle  is  double 
the  altitude  of  the  body.  In  place  of  the  tray  of 
mercury,  silvered  glass,  laid  horizontal  by  means 
of  a  set  of  levels  and  screws,  is  sometimes  used. 
As  stated  in  the  article  on  Navigation,  the 
sextant  is  a  development  of  the  cross-staff  and 
astrolabe.  The  former  consisted  of  a  staff  on 
which  a  cross  was  fitted  so  as  to  slide  along,  its 
axis  being  perpendicular  to  that  of  the  staff. 
The  observer  would  sight  from  one  end  of  the 
staff  at  the  distant  object  and  then  move  the 
cross  until  its  end  was  in  line  with  it  and  the 
eye.  The  angle  was  first  measured  by  laying  the 
instrument  on  paper  and  constructing  the  angle. 
Later  the  angles  w^ere  marked  on  the  staff  and 
crosses  of  various  lengths  were  used.  The  as- 
trolabe, which  was  constructed  in  several  forms, 
consisted  of  a  ring  or  disk  with  graduated  Scale 
and  was  provided  with  sights  through  which  the 
navigator  could  view  the  sun  or  other  heavenly 
bodies  he  was  observing.  The  line  of  sight  was 
usually  a  diameter  of  the  circle  and  a  pointer 
was  supplied  by  which  the  angle  could  be  read. 
In  1694  the  celebrated  navigator  John  Davie^ 
published  in  his  pamphlet.  The  Seaman'a  Secrets, 
a  description  of  his  improved  cross-staff.  In 
using  this  instrument  the  observer  stood  with  his 
back  to  the  sun  and  looked  at  the  horizon 
through  a  sight  at  the  end  of  the  staff  while  the 
shadow  of  a  movable  projection  fell  on  the  sight 
box.  In  1729  Pierre  Bouguer  devised  an  im- 
proved form  of  the  Davies  instrument,  and  this 
was  immediately  followed  by  the  appearance  of 
the  sextant.  John  Hadley  described  a  double- 
reflecting  octant  in  a  paper  dated  May  13,  1731, 
and  a  few  days  later  exhibited  the  instrument. 
About  a  year  earlier,  Thomas  Godfrey,  of  Phila- 


delphia, designed  a  sextant.  He  made  an  instm- 
ment  about  November,  1730,  and  it  was  in  actual 
use  at  sea  before  the  end  of  the  year.  Hadley's 
instrument  may  have  been  the  outcome  of  Bou- 
guer's  improved  cross-staff,  but  Godfrey's  seems 
to  have  been  quite  an  independent  invention.  It 
may  be  noted  also  that  Newton  designed  a  double- 
reflecting  instrument,  similar  to  th^  sextant^  and 
a  description  of  it  was  found  in  Newton's  own 
handwriting  among  Hadley's  papers  in  1742. 
Hooke  also  devised  a  similar  one  as  early  as 
1674.  It  does  not  apear  that  any  actual  instru- 
ments were  ever  made  on  Hooke's  or  Newton's 
plans. 

SEXTET  (from  Lat.  sewtua,  sixth).  In  music, 
a  composition  for  six  voices  or  instruments,  or 
for  six  obligato  voices  with  instrumental  accom- 
paniment. Instrumental  sextets  are  generally 
cyclical  compositions  in  sonata  form. 

SEXTX7FLET  (from  Lat.  sextus,  sixth  + 
■plus,  -fold).  In  music,  a  group  of  six  equal 
notes  to  be  performed  in  the  time  of  four.  The 
true  sextuplet  is  composed  of  three  groups,  of 
two  notes  each,  being,  in 
fact,  a  triplet  (q.v.) ,  with 
each  of  its  notes  sub- 
divided into  two: 
But  a  group  composed  of  two  sncoessive  triplets 
is  sometimes  also  called  a  sextuplet  and  written 
as    such,    though    it    is  ^^_^    ,-^ 

more  correct  to  divide  it 
into  its  component  trip- 
lets thus : 

SEXTUS  EMPIB^CUS.  A  Greek  physician 
of  the  first  half  of  the  third  century  aj).  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Herodotus  of  Tarsus,  who  was 
probably  contemporary  with  Galen.  Nothing  is 
known  concerning  his  life,  except  that  he  was  a 
physician,  and  of  the  school  of  the  Empirics, 
whence  his  cognomen;   but  in  his  writings  his 

Shiloeophical  opinions  are  sufficiently  clear.  His 
rst  work,  the  celebrated  Pyrrhonic  Sketches^  is 
a  repository  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Skeptics ;  his 
second,  in  eleven  books,  attempts  to  refute  every 
item  of  positive  knowledge  that  man  has  ever 
acquired.  Both  works  combined  furnish  the  best 
account  extant  of  ancient  skepticism  and  its 
methods  of  assailing  all  manner  of  opinions.  His 
works  are  edited  by  Fabricius  (Leipzig,  1718, 
with  a  Latin  translation),  and  by  Bekker  (Ber- 
lin, 1842).  Consult:  Brochard,  Les  sceptiques 
grecs  (Paris,  1887)  ;  Jourdain,  Eitcursions  his- 
toriques  et  philosophiques  (Paris,  1888) ;  Pat- 
rick, Sextus  Empiricus  and  the  Greek  Sceptics 
(Cambridge,  1899,  with  translation  of  book  i.  of 
the  Pyrrhonic  Sketches), 

SEXXTAIi  SELECTION  (Lat.  sexualis,  re- 
lating to  sex,  from  sexus,  secus,  sex) .  This  prin- 
ciple depends,  as  Darwin  states,  not  on  a  struf^- 
gle  for  existence,  but  on  a  struggle  between  the 
males  for  possession  of  the  females.  The  result 
is  not  death  to  the  unsuccessful  competitor,  but 
few  or  no  offspring.  In  many  cases,  however, 
victory  depends  not  on  general  vigor,  but  on  the 
possession  of  special  weapons  eonfined  to  the 
male  sex,  as  the  spurs  of  the  cock  or  the  horns  of 
the  stag. 

The  war  is  perhaps  severest  between  the  males 
of  polygamous  animals,  and  these  seem  oftenest 
provided  with  special  weapons  of  offense.  Among 
birds  the  cont^t  is  often  less  gross  and  fierce, 
the  males  rivaling  each  other  in  attracting  the 


SEXUAIi  SELECTION. 


717 


SEYFEABTH. 


females  by  their  powers  of  song  or  display  of 
plumage.  Darwin  concludes  ''that  when  the 
males  and  females  of  any  animal  have  the  same 
habits  of  life,  but  differ  in  structure,  color,  or 
ornament,  such  differences  have  been  mainly 
caused  by  sexual  selection ;  that  is,  by  individual 
males  having  had,  in  successive  generations, 
some  slight  advantage  over  other  males,  in  their 
weapons,  means  of  defense,  or  charms,  and  hav- 
ing transmitted  these  advantages  to  their  male 
offspring."  Although  Wallace  does  not  accept 
the  theory  of  sexual  selection,  claiming  that 
bright  colors  were  originally  normal  in  both 
sexes,  but  have  been  eliminated  in  the  females, 
yet  the  facts  seem  to  substantiate  the  views  of 
Darwin.  As  observed  by  Romanes,  it  is  "a  theory 
wholly  and  completely  distinct  from  the  theory 
of  natural  selection." 

BiBLiooBAFHY.  Darwlu,  Origin  of  Species 
(6th  ed.,  London,  1882) ;  The  Descent  of  Man  and 
Selection  in  Relation  to  Sew  (2d  ed.,  London, 
1874) ;  Wallace,  Danvinism  (London,  1889) ; 
G.  W.  and  E.,  G.  Peckham^  Sexual  Selection  in 
Spiders  (Milwaukee,  1890). 

SEYCHEIXES  (s&'sheP)  COGOANTJT,  or 
Double  Cocoanut  {Lodoicea  callipyge),  A  palm 
whose  fruit  somewhat  resembles  a  cocoanut,  but 
which  belongs  to  a  different  tribe,  being  allied 
to  the  Palmyra  palm.  It  is  found  only  in 
the  Seychelles  Islands,  and  was  known  for  many 
years  only  by  the  fruit,  which,  found  floating  in 
the  Indian  Ocean  or  upon  the  shores  of  the 
Maldive  Islands,  was  long  the  subject  of  many 
ridiculous  fables,  and  is  still  an  object  of  inter- 
est and  curiosity,  and  as  sitch  is  one  of  the 
minor  articles  of  commerce.  The  slender  tree 
glows  to  the  height  of  100  feet  with  a  tuft  of 
immense  leaves.  The  'cabbage'  or  terminal  bud 
is  eaten.  The  melon-shaped  fruit,  which  it  is 
said  requires  ten  years  to  ripen,  sometimes  weigh- 
ing as  much  as  forty  pounds,  is  often  a  foot  or  a 
foot  and  a  half  long.  Its  outer  husk  is  green, 
the  interior  near  the  base  divided  into  two  parts, 
at  first  filled  with  a  white  sweet  jelly,  which 
changes  into  a  white  horny  kernel.  The  shells 
are  used  for  making  vessels  of  various  kinds, 
and  are  often  beautifully  carved  and  ornamented. 

S£YGHEI<I<ES  ISLANDS.  A  group  of  small 
islands  belonging  to  Great  Britain,  and  situated 
in  the  Indian  Ocean  650  miles  northeast  of  Mada- 
gascar, between  latitudes  S"*  38'  and  5*'  45'  S., 
and  between  longitudes  52''  55'  and  53°  50'  E. 
(Map:  World,  Eastern  Hemisphere,  C  26) .  With 
the  dependent  groups,  the  Amirante,  Cos- 
moledo,  and  Aldabra  Islands  lying  to  the  south- 
west, they  number  74  named  islands,  with  a  total 
area  of  148  square  miles.  The  largest  is  Mah6, 
whose  area  is  55  square  miles.  The  Seychelles 
are  the  summits  of  a  submarine  mountain  range. 
They  are  themselves  mountainous,  Mah6  having  a 
height  of  2998  feet,  are  composed  mainly  of 
granite,  with  basaltic  intrusions,  and  are  sur- 
rounded with  coral  reefs.  The  climate,  tem- 
pered by  the  surrounding  ocean,  is  very  equable, 
the  extreme  minimum  and  maximum  tempera- 
tures for  the  year  being  74**  and  88°  respectively. 
The  rainfall  is  very  abundant,  averaging  nearly 
100  inches  per  year,  and  the  islands  are  covered 
with  luxuriant  forests.  The  flora,  though  re- 
sembling that  of  tropical  Africa,  is  largely  com- 
posed of  species  peculiar  to  the  islands :  the  fauna 
IS  related  to  that  of  Madagascar,  and  mammals, 


with  the  exception  of  bats,  are  wanting.  The 
soil  is  fertile,  and  cotton,  rice,  and  tobacco  are 
cultivated.  The  exports,  chief  of  which  are 
cocoanut  oil,  soap,  vanilla,  guano,  salt  fish,  tor- 
toise shells,  coffee,  and  cacao,  amount  to  about 
$500,000  annually  (1901,  1,417,515  rupees).  The 
islands  were  administered  from  Mauritius  until 
1888,  when  an  administrator  was  appointed, 
who  in  1897  received  the  powers  of  (Governor. 
The  capital  is  Port  Victoria  on  Mah6.  Only  four 
of  the  Seychelles  proper  are  inhabited,  and  the 
total  population  of  the  combined  groups,  in  1901, 
was  19,237,  chiefly  French  Creoles,  Indian  coolies, 
and  negroes. 

The  Seychelles  were  discovered  by  the  Portu- 
guese in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
They  were  colonized  by  the  French  in  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth ;  in  1794  they  were  taken  by  the 
English,  to  whom  they  were  formally  ceded  in 
1815.  Consult  Hartmann,  Madagascar  und  die 
Inseln  Seschellen  (Leipzig,  1886). 

SEYDLITZ,  zitllts,  Friedbich  Wilhklm  von 
(1721-73).  A  brilliant  Prussian  cavalry  officer, 
born  at  Kalcar,  near  Cleves.  For  gallantry  at 
the  battle  of  Hohenfriedberg,  he  was  made  major 
of  hussars,  and  by  1755  had  received  the  rank  of 
colonel.  As  the  result  of  his  distinguished  ser- 
vices in  the  Seven  Years*  War  he  became  known 
as  the  first  cavalry  officer  of  the  period,  and  for 
a  brilliant  charge  at  Kolin,  in  1757,  he  was  made 
a  major-general  of  cavalry  by  Frederick  II.  At 
Rossbach  he  gained  much  glory  and  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general.  He  took  part  in  the  battles 
of  Zomdorff  and  Hochkirch,  and  at  Kunersdorf 
was  severely  wounded.  After  the  last-named 
battle  he  was  for  some  time  in  disfavor  with  Fred- 
erick, and  was  not  permitted  to  take  part  in  ac- 
tive operations,  but  in  1762  he  was  once  more  in 
the  field  and  won  new  renown  at  the  battle  of 
Freiberg.  In  1767  he  was  made  a  general  of 
cavalry.  A  marble  statue  was  erected  in  his 
honor  in  the  Wilhelmsplatz  at  Berlin.  Consult: 
Vamhagen   von   Ense,   Biographische  Denkmale 

(  Berlin,  1834;  3d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1872)  ;  and  Bux- 
baum,  Friedrich  Whilhelm^  Freiherr  von  Seydlits 

(new  ed.,  Rothenow,  1890). 

SEYPFARTH,  zi'f&rt,  Gustav  (1796-1885), 
A  German- American  Egyptologist,  bom  at  Uebi- 
gau,  in  Saxony.  He  studied  at  the  University  of 
Leipzig,  where  he  became  associate  professor  of 
philosophy  in  1825,  and  professor  of  archseology 
in  1829,  From  1826  to  1829  he  visited  the  prin- 
cipal museums  of  Germany,  France,  England, 
and  Holland,  and  made  an  extensive  collection 
of  copies  of  Egyptian  inscriptions  and  Coptic 
manuscripts.  In  1856  he  came  to  America,  and 
in  the  same  year  became  professor  of  Church  his- 
tory and  archfleology  in  Concordia  College,  Saint 
Louis.  He  died  in  New  York,  where  he  had  re- 
sided since  1859.  Seyffarth  was  an  earnest  stu- 
dent of  Egyptology,  but  proceeded  upon  an  er- 
roneous theory,  holding  that  the  hieroglyphic 
characters,  with  scarcely  an  exception,  were  pure 
phonograms,  and  even  reading  the  determina- 
tives as  separate  words.  Among  his  principal 
works  are:  Rudiment  a  Hieroglyphica  (1826)  ; 
Sy sterna  Astronomies  ^gyptiacce  (1826-33)  ;  Un- 
ser  Alphabet  ein  Ahhild  des  Tierkreises  (1834)  ; 
Alphaheta  Genuina  JEgyptiorum  et  Asianorum 
(1840)  ;  Die  Grundsdtze  der  Mythologie  und  der 
alten  Religions geschichte  (1843);  Orammatica 
JFJgyptiaca  (1855). 


8E7H0US. 


718 


8EYX0US. 


SEYHOXTBy  BS'mdr.  A  city  in  Jackson 
County,  Ind.,  60  miles  south  of  Indianapolis,  on 
the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Southwestern,  the  Pitts- 
burg, Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  Saint  Louis,  and 
the  Southern  Indiana  railroads  (Map:  Indiana, 
D  4).  It  is  of  considerable  industrial  impor- 
tance, having  woolen  mills,  a  hub  and  spoke  fac- 
tory, flouring  mills,  planing  and  saw  mills,  and 
manufactories  of  furniture,  brooms,  sucker  rods, 
harness,  and  advertising  novelties.  Hepair  shops 
of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Southwestern  also  are 
here.  There  is  a  public  library.  Seymour  was 
settled  in  1852,  and  was  incorporate!  in  1866. 
Population,  in  1890,  5337;  in  1900,  6445. 

SEYM0X7B.  A  noble  English  family  of  Nor- 
man descent,  originally  settled  at  Saint-Maur 
in  Normandy.  In  1497  the  head  of  the  family. 
Sir  John  Seymour,  was  employed  in  suppressing 
the  insurrection  of  Lord  Audley  and  the  Cornish 
rebels,  and  subsequently  accompanied  King 
Henry  VIII.  on  his  wars  in  France,  and  to  the 
Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold.  One  of  his  daughters, 
Ladv  Jane,  became  the  wife  of  Henry  VIII.,  and 
mother  of  Edward  VI.  His  fourth  son,  Thomas, 
rapidly  rose  into  favor.  He  was  sent  on  impor- 
tant missions,  given  command  of  a  portion  of  the 
fleet,  made  a  Privy  Councilor,  and  after  Henry 
VIIL's  death,  according  to  the  wish  of  the  mon- 
arch, was  created  Baron  Seymour  of  Sudeley  and 
Lord  High  Admiral.  He  then  endeavored  to 
win  the  hand  of  Elizabeth,  but,  failine  in  his  at- 
tempt, he  secretly  married  Henry's  widow,  Catha- 
rine Parr. .  A  rivalry  at  once  sprang  up  between 
him  and  his  eldest  brother,  Edward,  the  Lord  Pro- 
tector Somerset,  whom  he  wished  to  supplant. 
His  machinations  at  length  gave  color  to  a  charge 
of  treason  brought  against  him  by  the  council; 
a  bill  of  attainder  was  passed  by  the  Lords  and 
Seymour  was  executed  March  20,  1549.  His 
brother,  Edward,  who  held  many  high  positions 
in  the  Court  of  Henry,  was  created  V'iscount 
Beauchamp  of  Hache  in  1536,  and  Duke  of  Som- 
erset in  1546-47.  He  secured  the  confidence  of 
the  King  so  far  that  he  was  left  by  him  one  of  his 
executors  and  one  of  the  council  of  the  young 
Prince  Edward.  He  was  subsequently  made 
Lord  High  Treasurer,  and  eventually  'Protector 
and  Crovemor  of  the  King  and  his  realms.'  ( See 
Edwabd  VI.)  His  fall,  after  a  two  years'  ten- 
ure of  power,  was  followed  by  an  attainder  of  his 
honors.  A  son  of  the  Protector  by  his  second 
marriage  was  created  by  Elizabeth  Earl  of 
Hertford.  The  grandson  of  the  latter  William, 
who  succeeded  him  in  the  Earldom  of  Hertford, 
was  also  sent  to  the  Tower  of  London  for  marry- 
ing Lady  Arabella  Stuart  (q.v.),  cousin  of 
James  I.  of  England,  but  subsequently  played  a 
conspicuous  part  in  the  royal  cause  in  the  civil 
wars  and  obtained  in  his  own  favor  a  reversal  of 
his  ancestor's  attainder.  His  ducal  title  passed 
to  a  cousin,  on  whose  death  it  was  inherited  by 
Charles  Seymour,  known  in  history  as  the  *proud 
Duke  of  Somerset,'  a  nobleman  who  filled  several 
high  posts  in  the  courts  of  Charles  II.,  William 
III.,  and  Anne. 

SEYMOUB,  Edward  Hobabt,  Sir  (1840—). 
An  English  naval  officer.  He  was  educated  at 
Radley,  and  entered  the  navy  in  1852.  He  served 
in  the  Black  Sea  during  the  Crimean  War,  in 
the  war  with  China  (1857-60),  was  wounded 
while  serving  in  West  Africa  in  1870,  and  was 
captain  of  the  Iris  in  the  Egyptian  War  of  1882. 


He  was  advanced  to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in 
1889,  and  to  that  of  vioe-admiral  in  1895.  In 
1898  he  was  put  in  command  of  the  China  sta- 
tion, and  took  an  active  part  in  the  Boxer  War  of 
1900.  In  June  of  that  year  he  led  an  expedition 
from  Tien-tsin  for  the  relief  of  the  foreigners 
besieged  in  Peking,  but  was  opposed  by  such 
overwhelming  forces  that  he  was  obliged  to  re- 
turn without  effecting  hia  purpose.  As  a  reward 
for  his  services  in  this  war  he  received  the 
K.  C*  B. 

SETHOtTB,  FsEDEBiCK  Beauchamp  Paget, 
Baron  Alcester.    See  Alcesteb. 

SEYHOXm^  Geobge  Franklin  ( 1829— ) .  An 
American  Episcopalian  bishop.  He  was  bom  in 
New  York  City;  was  educated  at  Columbia  and 
at  the  General  Theological  Seminary  in  New 
York.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  1855.  Soon 
afterwards  he  founded  Samt  Stephen's  College, 
Annandale,  and  was  its  warden  until  1861.  Be- 
sides several  parochial  charges,  he  held  the  pro- 
fessorship of  ecclesiastical  history  at  the  General 
Theological  Seminary  from  1865  to  1879.  In 
1874  he  was  elected  Bishop  of  Illinois,  but  in  the 
bitterness  of  theological  controversy  at  that  time, 
failed  of  confirmation.  In  1878,  however,  he  was 
elected  first  Bishop  of  Springfield,  a  diocese 
formed  out  of  that  of  Illinois,  and  consecrated 
without  opposition.  He  was  known  throughout 
the  United  States  as  an  accomplished  theologian 
and  an  acute  and  forcible  controversialist.  An 
example  of  his  work  in  the  latter  department  h 
What  is  Modem  Bomanismt   (1888). 

SEYMOtTBy  HoBATio  (1810-86).  An  Ameri- 
can political  leader,  the  son  of  Henry  Seymour, 
a  colleague  and  supporter  of  De  Witt  Clinton. 
He  was  bom  at  Pompey  Hill,  Onondaga  County. 
N.  Y.,  was  educated  at  Geneva  Academy  (later 
Hobart  College)  and  at  Middletown  (Conn.) 
Military  Academy,  studied  law  at  Utica,  and  in 
1832  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  In  1841,  as  chair- 
man of  the  Canal  Committee  in  the  State  Legis- 
lature, he  prepared  an  elaborate  report,  which 
served  for  many  years  as  the  basis  of  all  legis- 
lation in  connection  with  the  State  canals.  In 
1842-46  he  was  Mayor  of  Utica,  and  in  1852  he 
was  elected  Governor  of  New  York.  The  period  of 
his  Governorship  was  marked  by  bitter  factional 
strife  within  the  party",  and  by  a  powerful  tem- 
perance movement  which,  in  the  end,  resulted  in 
his  defeat  for  reflection.  The  State  Legislature 
passed  a  prohibition  law  which  he  vetoed,  and  in 
1854  he  was  defeated  for  reflection  by  Myron  H. 
Clark,  the  Whig  and  Temperance  candidate.  The 
identical  law  which  was  again  passed  was  sub- 
sequently held  to  be  unconstitutional.  When  the 
election  of  Lincoln  made  civil  war  seem  in- 
evitable he  exerted  every  effort  to  effect  a  com- 
promise, but  eventually  gave  his  support  to  the 
Lincoln  Administration.  In  1862  he  was  again 
elected  Governor  of  New  York.  He  advocated  the 
vigorous  prosecution  of  the  war,  but  protested 
against  the  extensive  use  of  the  war  powers  by 
President  Lincoln.  He  was  unremitting  in 
his  endeavors  to  keep  New  York's  full 
quota  of  troops  in  the  neld.  His  attitude  in 
regard  to  the  draft  riots  in  New  York  City  in 
early  July  of  that  year  was  the  cause 
of  much  harsh  criticism  at  the  time,  but  his 
measures  proved  efficacious,  and  within  a  year 
a  Republican  Legislature  had  passed  resolu- 
tions thanking  him  for  his  action.    In  1868  he 


SEYXOTTS. 


719 


SrOBZA. 


was  president  of  the  Democratic  National  Con- 
vention which  met  in  New  York  City  and  hj 
which  he,  himself,  was  nominated  for  the  Presi- 
dency. He  reoeived  only  80  electoral  votes  to  214 
for  General  Grant.  The  popular  vote  was:  For 
Grant,  3,012,83S;  for  Seymour,  2,703,249..  After 
this  defeat  he  took  no  further  part  in  political 
affairs.  Consult:  Hartley,  Horatio  Seymour 
(Utica,  1886)  ;  and  Croly,  Seymour  and  Blair; 
Their  Lives  and  Services  (New  York,  1868). 

SEYMOUB,  Lady  Jane  (c.1509-37).  The 
third  Queen  of  Henry  VIII.  She  was  the  eldest 
child  of  Sir  John  Seymour  and  sister  of  Edward, 
Duke  of  Somerset  and  Protector  of  England. 
She  was  lady-in-waiting  to  her  two  predecessors, 
Catharine  of  Aragon  and  Anne  Boleyn  (qq.v.), 
and  was  married  to  the  King  shortly  after  the 
execution  of  Anne  in  1536.  The  following  year 
she  gave  birth  to  a  son,  afterwards  Edward  VI., 
and  died  12  days  later.    See  Seymoub. 

SEYHOXJB,  Thomas  Day  (1848—).  An 
American  Greek  scholar,  bom  in  Hudson,  Ohio. 
In  1870  he  graduated  from  Western  Reserve  C])ol- 
lege,  and  continued  his  studies  during  the  two 
following  years  at  the  universities  of  Leipzig  and 
Berlin.  From  1872  to  1880  he  was  professor  of 
Greek  in  Western  Reserve,  College,  and  in  1880 
became  professor  of  Greek  in  Yale  University. 
He  was  made  chairman  of  the  managing  commit- 
tee of  the  American  School  of  Classical  Studies 
at  Athens  in  1887,  was  editor-in-chief  of  the  Col- 
lege Series  of  Greek  Authors,  and  one  of  the 
American  editors  of  the  Classioal  Review.  His 
publications  include  Selected  Odes  of  Pindar 
(1882),  Introduction  to  Homeric  Language  and 
Ver«e  {ISS5) , Homer's  Iliad  (i.-iii.,  1887;  iv.-vi., 
1890),  School  Iliad  (1889). 

SEYlSOTTRf  Thomas  Habt  (1808-68).  An 
American  political  leader,  Governor  of  Connecti- 
cut. He  was  bom  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  and  con- 
tinued to  live  there  until  his  death.  After  his 
admission  to  the  bar  he  was  for  a  short  time 
judge  of  probate,  and  editor  of  a  Democratic 
paper,  The  JeffersotUan,  In  1843  he  was  chosen 
a  member  of  (Dongress.  At  the  opening  of  the 
Mexican  War  he  was  commissioned  major  and 
subsequently  became  colonel.  He  acquired  dis- 
tinction at  Chapultepec  by  scaling  the  heights  at 
the  head  of  his  troops  and  capturing  the  fortress. 
Four  times  he  was  chosen  Governor  of  Connecti- 
cut, in  1850,  1851,  1852,  and  1853,  and  in  the  last- 
named  year  he  became  United  States  Minister  to 
Russia,  where  he  remained  four  years.  During 
the  Civil  War  his  sympathies  were  Southern,  and 
he  was  defeated  in  1863  as  candidate  for  Gov- 
ernor by  William  A.  Buckingham. 

SEYMOXm,  Tbuman  (1824-91).  An  Ameri- 
can soldier,  bom  at  Burlington,  Vt.  He  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1846,  entered  the  artillery, 
and  served  through  the  Mexican  War.  He  par- 
ticipated in  the  hostilities  against  the  Seminole 
Indians  in  Florida,  and  in  1861  he  was  one  of 
the  officers  at  Fort  Sumter,  where  he  earned  the 
brevet  of  major.  He  was  commissioned  briga- 
dier-general of  volunteers  and  participated  in 
the  Peninsular  campaign,  and  was  brevetted  col- 
onel for  gallantry  at  Antietam.  He  bore  a  con- 
spicuous part  in  the  operations  along  the  Atlantic 
Coast,  leading  the  second  assault  on  Battery 
Wagner  (July  18,  1863),  where  he  was  severely 
wounded,  and  commanded  the  unfortunate  expe- 
dition into  Florida  which  was  defeated  at  Olo- 


stee  on  February  20,  1864.  The  following  spring 
he  took  part  in  the  Richmond  campaign  until  the 
battle  of  the  Wilderness,  where  he  was  captured. 
After  his  exchange  he  commanded  a  division  in 
the  Shenandoah  Valley,  at  the  siege  of  Petersburg, 
and  at  the  battle  of  Sailor's  Creek.  He  was  mus- 
tered out  of  the  volunteer  service  with  the  brevet 
rank  of  major-general  in  1865,  and  the  next  year 
was  commissioned  colonel  of  the  Fifth  regular 
artillery.  He  retired  from  the  service  in  1876 
and  spent  niost  of  the  remainder  of  his  life  in 
Europe. 

SEYMOUBy  William,  first  Marquis  of  Hert- 
ford and  second  Duke  of  Somerset  (1588-1660). 
See  Setmoub. 

SEYNE-SUB-MEBy  sfin'svr'm&r'.  La.  A  sea- 
port in  the  Department  of  Var,  France,  three 
miles  south weast  of  Toulon  (Map:  France,  M  8). 
It  has  extensive  ship  yards,  manufactures  olive 
oil  and  soap,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  considerable 
trade.  Oyster  culture  also  is  a  growing  industry. 
Population,  in  1901,  21,002. 

SFAX,^  sfSlks.  A  fortified  seaport  of  Tunis, 
situated  on  the  Gulf  of  Cabes,  opposite  the  islet 
of  Kerkenna  (Map:  Africa,  F  1).  The  Moham- 
medan or  upper  town  is  surrounded  by  walls  and 
extensive  gardens  and  contains  a  fine  mosque. 
The  lower  city  along  the  water  is  devoted  to 
trade.  There  is  a  European  quarter.  The  road- 
stead is  good  and  the  town  carries  on  an  extensive 
trade  in  fruit,  sponges,  essence  of  flowers,  oil, 
woolens,  and  camels.  Sfax  was  occupied  in  1881 
by  the  French.    Population,  about  15,000. 

SFOBZAy  sf^r^tsA.  A  celebrated  Italian  fam- 
ily. The  founder  of  the  fortunes  of  the  family 
was  a  peasant  of  Cotignola,  in  the  RonuLgna,  by 
name  Giacomo  or  Muzio  (sometimes  combined 
by  historians  into  Giacomuzzo)  Attendolo.  He 
was  born  June  10,  1369,  and  followed  the  trade 
of  wood-cutting,  but  left  it  to  become  a  member  of 
a  band  of  conaottieri,  and  by  bis  intelligence  and 
courage  rose  to  a  high  position.  Joanna  II.  of 
Naples  made  him  constable  of  that  kingdom,  and 
as  such  he  fought  bravely  against  the  Aragonese. 
He  afterwards  entered  the  service  of  Pope  Mar- 
tin V.  and  became  a  Roman  count.  His  natural 
son,  Francesco  Sforza  ( 1401-66) ,  succeeded  him 
in  command  of  the  band  of  mercenaries,  devised 
an  improved  system  of  tactics,  and  won  a  wide- 
spread reputation  for  success.  His  greatest  pa- 
tron, Filippo  Maria  Visconti,  Duke  of  Milan,  con- 
ferred upon  him  the  hand  of  his  daughter  Bianca, 
with  Cremona  and  Pontremoli  as  a  dowry,  and 
the  promise  of  the  succession  to  the  duchy  itself. 
(See  Visconti.)  Sforza,  by  a  judicious  com- 
bination of  force  and  stratagem,  obtained  his 
elevation  to  Dukedom  of  Milan  (1450),  three 
years  after  the  death  of  his  father-in-law.  He 
established  his  authority  over  all  Lombardy,  and 
several  districts  to  the  south  of  the  Po,  and  even 
Genoa  came  under  his  sway.  His  son,  Galeazzo 
Maria  Sforza  (1444-76),  a  monster  of  cruelty 
and  debauchery,  was  assassinated  (December 
26,  1476)  at  the  porch  of  the  Cathedral  of 
Milan.  Galeazzo's  son,  Gianoaleazo  Sforza 
(1469-94),  succeeded  under  the  regency  of  his 
mother.  Bona  of  Savoy,  who  held  the  reins  of 
government  with  a  flrm  hand.  In  1481  her 
brother-in-law,  Lodovico,  sumamed  *the  Moor,* 
banished  the  Regent  and  assumed  power  him- 
self. Lodovico  summoned  Charles  VIII.  of 
France  to  his  aid  in  1494,  but  found  his  own  , 


SFOBZA. 


720 


SHADBXTSK. 


power  threatened  and  joined  the  league  against 
the  French.  In  1499  he  was  driven  from  his 
duchy  by  the  troops  of  Louis  XII.  The  follow- 
ing year  he  made  an  ineffectual  attempt  to  re- 
cover his  possessions,  was  made  prisoner,  and 
carried  to  France,  where  he  died  in  the  Castle 
of  Loches  in  1508.  Lodovico  was  a  patron  of 
the  arts  and  sciences.  He  gave  his  niece  Bianca 
in  marriage  to  the  Emperor  Maximilian  I. 
Lodovico's  eldest  son,  Massimiliano  8fobza, 
regained  the  Duchy  of  Milan  in  1612,  but 
after  the  battle  of  Melegnano  (1515),  in  which 
his  Swiss  auxiliaries  were  overwhelmed  by  ^Fran- 
cis I.,  he  abandoned  his  rights  to  the  French  for 
a  pension  of  30,000  ducats.  His  brother,  Fran- 
cesco ^Iabia  Sfobza  (1492-1535),  was  put  in 
possession  of  Milan  after  the  defeat  of  the 
French  at  La  Bicocca  in  1522.  His  death  marked 
the  extinction  of  the  main  line  of  the  House  of 
Sforza,  and  the  duchy  was  taken  into  the  pos- 
session of  Charles  V.  Consult:  Magenta,  01% 
Visconti  e  gli  Sforza  (Milan,  1883)  ;  Litta, 
Famiglie  celehri  d' Italia,  vol.  i.  (Milan,  1819). 

SEOBZATO,  sfdr-tsa^t6,  or  Sfobzando  (It., 
forced).  In  music,  a  term  often  abbreviated  af, 
used  to  indicate  that  the  note  or  chord  over  cr 
under  which  it  is  placed  is  to  be  played  with 
strength  and  emphasis. 

SGAMBATI,  zgAm-ba't^,  Giovantsti  (1843—). 
An  Italian  pianist  and  composer,  bom  in  Rome. 
He  studied  under  Barbieri,  Natalucci,  and  Al- 
dega;  subsequently  the  attention  of  Liszt  was 
drawn  to  him  and  he  undertook  to  superintend 
the  perfecting  of  his  musical  education.  His 
first  composition,  a  pianoforte  quartet,  was 
heard  in  1866.  His  fame  by  this  time  had 
spread  to  Germany  as  well  as  throughout  Italy, 
and  in  1877  he  was  appointed  principal  professor 
of  the  pianoforte  at  the  Academy  of  Santa  Ce- 
cilia, Rome.  In  1896  he  founded  the  Nuova  So- 
ciety Musicale  Romana.  He  was  devoted  to 
Wagner  and  his  works,  and  was  rewarded  by  the 
unqualified  admiration  of  the  latter.  His  com- 
positions are  strongly  German  in  character  and 
include  a  Requiem  Mass  (1896),  three  sym- 
phonies, overtures,  piano  concertos,  chamber 
music,  salon  music,  and  several  pieces  for  the 
organ. 

SOANABEIXE,  zgA'n&'r^l'.  A  character  fre- 
quently appearing  in  Molifere's  comedies.  In  the 
Cocu  imaginaire  he  is  the  title  character,  in- 
volved in  the  misconceptions  of  the  comedy 
through  finding  L^lie's  portrait  in  his  wife's  pos- 
session. In  the  Ecole  dea  maris  he  is  the  surly 
dupe, of  the  play,  cajoled  by  his  ward,  Isabelle. 
He  is  the  aged  hero  of  the  Mariage  forc4  (q.v.)  ; 
the  father  of  Lucinde  in  L* Amour  m^decin;  the 
valet  of  Don  Juan  in  Le  festin  de  Pierre;  and 
the  hero  of  Le  mMicin  malgr6  lui. 

SOBAFFITO,  zgrA-f^tA  (It.,  decoration  by 
scratches).  A  form  of  decoration  which  has 
existed  in  Central  Italy  at  least  since  the  fif- 
teenth century.  The  plastering  on  a  wall  is  col- 
ored black  or  dark  brown,  and  then  a  thin  coat 
of  lighter  colored  plaster  is  spread  over  this, 
and  while  the  new  coat  is  still  damp  it  is 
scored  deeply  in  scroll  patterns  and  arabesques, 
which  show  dark  on  the  light  ground.  The  term 
is  extended  to  denote  imitations  in  painting  of 
this  process;  and  in  Italy  many  house  fronts 
have  been  decorated  in  this  way  since  the  middle 


of  the  nineteenth  century.  Scratched  deooratiaii 
of  rough  and  soft  pottery  is  also  included  under 
this  head.  It  was  common  in  the  prehistoric 
ages  in  all  the  Mediterranean  lands,  as  many 
pieces  so  adorned  have  been  found  in  Syria, 
Cyprus^  and  elsewhere ;  also  in  Peru  and  Central 
America  at  an  undetermined  epoch. 

'SGBAVENHAGE,  sgrH^ven-ha'oe.  The  Dutch 
name  for  The  Hague  (q.v.). 

'SOBAVESANDEy  sgr&'ve-san'de.  SeeGsA\T- 

SAin>E. 

SHABATZ  or  SaBAC,  sh&^b&ts.  A  town  of 
the  District  of  Podrinye,  Servia,  on  the  Save,  38 
miles  west  of  Belgrade  (Map:  Balkan  Peninsula, 
B  2 ) .  The  town  has  an  old  castle  dating  from 
the  fifteenth  century,  a  college,  and  a  library. 
Its  exports  are  honey,  cereals,  prunes,  and  live 
stock.     Population,  in  1900,  12,072. 

SHAD  (AS.  aceadda,  dialectic  Ger.  Schade, 
shad;  connected  with  Ir.,  Gael,  sgadan,  Welsh 
yagadenyn,  herring).  An  important  anadromous 
fish  of  the  herring  family  (Clupeidse,  q.v.)  and 
genus  Alosa.  Shad  grow  to  a  larger  size  than 
herring  and  difl'er  from  them  in  the  absence  of 
teeth  in  the  jaws  and  in  the  form  of  the  cheek, 
this  being  deeper  than  long  in  the  shad.  Shad 
live  in  the  sea,  but  ascend  rivers  in  the  spring  to 
spawn.  They  have  their  spawning  beds,  but  the 
eggs  may  be  extruded  anywhere  promiscuously 
in  the  water.  One  female  averages  about  30,000 
eggs,  though  as  many  as  156,0(^  have  been  ob- 
tained. The  eggs  sink  to  the  bottom,  where  they 
hatch  in  from  three  to  five  days,  varying  with  the 
temperature.  During  their  stay  in  the  rivers 
shad  take  very  little  if  any  food.  In  the  sea 
they  swim  with  their  mouths  open,  straining  the 
minute  organisms  from  the  water  which  passes 
through  their  gills.  In  early  days  these  fish 
were  extremely  abundant,  but  their  popularity 
as  a  food-fish,  together  with  the  disturbance  of 
their  natural  spawning  grounds  and  the  pollu- 
tion of  the  rivers  by  factory  refuse,  have  made 
great  reductions  in  their  number.  Because  they 
are  so  prolific,  however,  and  because  of  the  arti- 
ficial incubation  of  the  eggs  by  Government  hatch- 
eries, the  supply  has  been  fairly  maintained.  The 
catch  along  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United 
States  in  1896  amounted  to  50,000,000  pounds, 
with  a  value  to  the  fishermen  of  $1,600,000.  (See 
Fisheries;  Fish  Cultube.)  The  common  shad 
of  our  Atlantic  coast  is  Aloaa  aapidiaaima.  It 
attains  a  weight  of  three  pounds  on  the  average, 
but  sometimes  weighs  from  12  to  14  pounds. 
Since  about  1886  shad  have  been  planted  in 
streams  of  California,  where  they  have  become 
abundant  and  now  extend  northward  to  southern 
Alaska.  The  common  shad  of  Europe  is  Alosa 
communis,  and  an  important  species  in  Chi- 
nese waters  is  Aloaa  Reeveaii.  See  Allice. 
Consult  Goode,  Fiahery  Induatriea  (sec.  i., 
Washington,  1884),  and  the  publications  of  the 
United  States  Commission  of  Fish  and  Fisheries. 
See  Plates  of  Hebbing  aitd  Shad;  and  of  Food 
Fishes. 

SHADBXTSH,  Junebebbt,  or  Sebvice-Bebbt 
(Amelanchier  Oanadenaia) .  A  shrub  or  small 
tree  of  the  natural  order  Rosacese,  common  to 
Canada  and  the  Northern  United  States,  which 
bears  a  sweet  red  or  purple  fruit,  varying  in  size 
from  that  of  a  currant  to  a  morello  cherry  and 
ripening  from  June  to  August.    The  larger  grow* 


SHABBXrSK. 


721 


SHAFT. 


ing  forms  are  seldom  cultivated,  although  dwarfs 
are  common.  It  is  also  cultivated  for  its  early 
appearing  flowers.  It  is  easily  propagated  from 
cuttings  or  layers  in  the  fall,  or  by  seeds  or 
grafts  in  the  spring.  The  name  shadbush  is 
said  to  be  applied  because  the  blossoms  appear 
about  the  time  shad  ascend  the  rivers  of  the 
Eastern  United  States.  See  Sebvice-Berbt,  and 
for  illustration,  Plate  of  Spib^a,  etc. 

SHABDOGK  {Oiirus  decumana).  A  tree  of 
the  natural  order  Rutacese,  native  of  the  Malayan 
and  Polynesian  islands,  and  extensively  culti- 
vated. It  is  said  to  derive  its  English  name  from 
a  Captain  Shaddock,  by  whom  it  was  introduced 
into  the  West  Indies.  It  has  large  pale  yellow 
fruit  with  thick  rind,  spongy,  bitterish,  greenish- 
white,  subacid  pulp,  valued  for  dessert  pur- 
poses. The  tree  is  rather  more  tender  than  the 
orange.  Florida,  California,  and  the  West  Indies 
supply  the  American  markets.    See  Gsafefbuit. 

SHADOW  (AS.  sceadu,  aceado,  Goth,  akadua, 
OHG.  acato,  Ger.  Schaiien,  shadow;  connected 
with  Olr.  acath,  shadow,  probably  with  Gk.  (yic<5rof, 
sibofos^  darkness).    See  Light. 

SHADOW  PLAY.     A  dramatic  representa- 
tion by  means  of  shadows  cast  by  puppets  upon 
a  screen.     It  is,  therefore,  a  modification  of  a 
puppet  show    (see  Puppet),  though   the  same 
thing  in  principle  has   sometimes  been   accom- 
plished by  shadows  of  living  persons  moving  be- 
hind   a    screen    or    by    the    shadows    of    their 
hands  upon  the  wall.    The  usual  essentials  for  a 
shadow  play  consist  of  an  opening  like  that  of  a 
doorway  to  serve  as  a  scene,  covered  with  a  thin 
white  screen  upon  which  a  light  from  behind 
casts   the    images    of   the    puppets.     These    are 
worked  by  concealed  persons,  who  also  supply 
the  dialogue.    The  earliest  evidences  of  this  kmd 
of  entertainment  are  in  China ;  it  is  known  also 
in  Japan,   in  Java,  and  especially  in  Moham- 
medan   countries,    Karakua    (Black-eye)    being 
among   the    Turks    a    well-known    conventional 
character   Sn  this  miniature  drama.     Southern 
Germany  was  one  of  the  early  homes  of  this  as 
of  other  puppet  shows.    Introduced  into  France 
in  the    eighteenth    century,    shadow    plays    be- 
came   a    recognized    amusement    of    the    royal 
children     at    Versailles,     and     later    a     little 
theatre    was    established    in    the   galleries    of 
the  Palais  Royal  in  Paris  in  which,  with  its 
successors,  down  to  the  end  of  the  Second  Empire, 
pieces  continued  to  be  given  in  this  way.     In 
more  recent  years  the  shadow  play  has  been  re- 
vived on  an  elaborate  scale  in  some  of  the  caba- 
rets of  the  Montmartre  quarter  in  Paris.    At  the 
Chat  Noir,  particularly,  under  the  direction  of 
Henri  Rivitee,  several  very  complicated  dramas 
have  been  presented,  among  them  being  VEpop6e 
of  Caran  d'Ache  and  La  marche  d   V4toile  of 
George  FrageroUe.    Consult:    Pisko,  Licht  und 
Farhe  (Munich,  1876)  ;  Champfleury,  he  mua4e 
secret  de   la  caricature    (Paris,    1888);    Jacob, 
Bchattenspiel'Bihliographie   (Erlangen,   1901). 

SHADBINSX,  sh&Mr«nsk.  A  district  town 
in  the  Government  of  Perm,  East  Russia,  situ- 
ated on  the  River  Iset,  383  miles  southeast  of 
Perm  (Map:  Russia,  K  3).  It  has  a  number  of 
distilleries  and  exports  grain,  animals  and  ani- 
mal products,  and  cloth.  Population,  in  1897, 
11,686. 


SHADWAITEB.  The  round  or  Menominee 
whitefish.    See  Whiteiish. 

SHAIXWELL^  Thomas  (c.1640-92).  An  Eng- 
lish dramatist  and  poet  laureate,  now  little  re- 
membered except  as  the  MacFlecknoe  of  Dryden's 
satire.  He  was  born  in  Norfolk  and  was  for  a 
time  a  student  at  Cambridge.  Entered  at  the 
Middle  Temple  in  London,  he  found  the  law 
little  to  his  taste  and  left  it  for  a  period  of 
foreign  travel  and  the  pursuit  of  literature.  In 
1668  he  brought  out  his  first  comedy,  The  Sullen 
Lover  a.  This  was  a  success,  and  was  followed  by 
a  series  of  similar  ones,  many  of  them  written 
either  in  avowed  imitation  of  Ben  Jonson  or  in 
more  or  less  free  adaptation  from  the  French. 
Perhaps  his  best-known  piece  is  The  Squire  of 
Alaatia,  which  was  produced  in  1688.  His  col- 
lected plays  were  brought  out  in  four  volumes 
by  his  eldest  son  in  1720.  With  Dryden  he  was 
at  first  on  friendly  terms,  but  an  unfortunate 
satiric  elTort  of  Shadwell's  brought  down  upon 
him  the  scathing  ridicule  of  MacFlecknoe^  where 
his  name  is  forever  fixed  in  the  judgment  of  old 
Flecknoe : 

"Shadwell  alone,  of  all  my  sodb,  is  he 
Who  stands  confirmed  In  full  stupidity. 
The  rent  to  some  faint  meaning  make  pretense, 
But  Shadwell  never  deylates  into  sense." 

He  is  the  Og,  too,  of  Ahaalom  and  Aohiiophel. 
Nevertheless,  when  Dryden  had  to  resign  the 
laureateship  in  1688  Shadwell  was  his  successor, 
and  his  comic  wit,  though  coarse,  was  often  vig- 
orous and  effective.  He  died  on  November  10, 
1692;  according  to  report,  from  an  overdose  of 
opium.  Consult  the  biography  prefixed  to  the 
edition  of  ShadwelPs  Worka  (already  referred 
to)  ;  also.  Ward,  Eiatory  of  Engliah  Dramatic 
Literature  (London,  1875)  ;  Austin  and  Ralph, 
The  Livea  of  the  Poeta  Laureate  (ib.,  1853). 

SHAjtiitES.     See  Mohammedan  Sects. 

SHAFT  (AS.  aceaft,  OHG.  acaft,  Ger.  Schaft, 
shaft;  probably  from  AS.  aceafan,  Goth,  akahan, 
OHG.  scaban,  Ger.  achahen,  £ng.  ahave,  and  con- 
nected with  Lat.  acapua,  stem,  stalk,  shaft,  Gk. 
ffKrfVTpo¥y  skeptron,  staff).  In  architectural  con- 
struction, the  body  of  a  column  ( q.v. )  ex- 
tending between  the  base  and  capital,  though  the 
term  is  often  popularly  used  to  include  them. 
In  Greek  architecture  the  shafts  were  built  up 
of  several  drums,  but  the  Romans  favored  mono- 
lithic shafts,  as  did  also  the  early  Christian  and 
Byzantine  architects.  Medieval  builders  returned 
to  built-up  shafts,  except  in  the  case  of  small 
columns.  The  use  of  such  small  shafts  appears 
to  have  originated  with  Byzantine  architecture 
of  the  time  of  Justinian,  the  addossed  shafts 
being  somewhat  later.  They  formed  one  of  the 
most  decorative  features  of  mediaeval  architec- 
ture. In  Grothic  architecture  the  term  is  applied 
to  the  small  columns  clustered  around  piers  or 
in  the  jambs  of  doors  and  windows.  In  the  early 
styles  the  shafts  are  frequently  of  finer  materia] 
than  the  pier,  polished  and  banded.  In  later 
examples  the  shaft  is  generally  attached,  and  of 
the  same  piece  as  the  pier. 

SHAFT.  An  opening  of  varyins:  cross-sections 
carried  down  into  the  earth,  usually  for  the  pur- 
pose of  hoisting  ore  or  other  mineral  products 
to  the  surface.  In  addition  the  shaft  may  also 
serve  the  purpose  of  ventilation,  pumping,  or 
ladder  way.  Where  the  rock  is  soft  and  treach- 
erous it  is  necessary  to  support  the  walls  of  the 


SHAFT. 


722 


SHA7TE8BXTBY. 


shaft  with  hrick,  wooden  timbers,  or  iron.  In 
some  mines  the  shaft  is  divided  into  several  sec- 
tions, one  to  hoist  the  ore,  a  second  to  convey 
the  pumping  and  compressed-air  pipes,  and  a 
third  for  the  ladders.  Shafts  are  usually  ver- 
tical or  nearly  so;  when  an  opening  is  inclined 
at  a  low  angle  from  the  horizontal  it  is  termed 
a  slope. 

SHAF^TEB,  William  Rufus  (1835—).  An 
American  soldier.  He  was  bom  in  Michigan  and 
was  at  first  a  farmer.  Soon  after  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War  he  enlisted.  He  was  made  col- 
onel of  volunteers  in  April,  1864,  and  in  March, 
1865,  was  brevetted  brigadier-general.  In  July, 
1886,  he  entered  the  regular  service.  In  1897 
he  was  promoted  to  be  brigadier-general  and 
commanded  the  Department  of  California  until 
the  b^inning  of  the  Spanish-American  War, 
when,  as  major-general  of  volunteers,  he  was 
put  in  command  of  the  first  expedition  to  Cuba. 
At  the  head  of  about  16,000  men  he  landed  at 
Daiquiri,  Cuba,  June  21,  1898,  and  advanced 
toward  Santiago.  On  July  1st  his  forces  carried 
the  heights  of  El  Caney  and  San  Juan,  but  the 
Spaniards  continued  to  offer  a  stubborn  resist- 
ance. On  July  3d  Cervera*s  fleet,  attempting  to 
escape  from  Santiago,  was  destroyed  by  the 
American  battleships,  and  this  event  was  fol- 
lowed two  weeks  later  by  the  surrender  of  San- 
tiago. After  the  war  Shafter  commanded  the 
Department  of  the  East  until  1899,  when  he 
resumed  his  old  post  as  commanding  general  of 
the  Departments  of  California  and  Columbia.  In 
1901  he  was  retired  with  the  rank  of  major-gen- 
eral in  the  Regular  Army. 

SHAFTESBUBY,  shafts'bSr-I,  commonly 
called  Shaston.  A  very  ancient  town  of  Eng- 
land, a  municipal  borough  in  Dorsetshire,  19 
miles  southwest  of  Salisbury  (Map:  England,  D 
6).  It  was  the  Caer  Palladwr  of  the  Britons, 
and  was  famous  as  the  seat  of  a  Benedictine 
abbey,  founded  by  Kinc  Alfred  in  880,  whither 
Edward  the  Martyr's  Dody  was  translated  in 
980  and  where  Canute  died  (1035).  Population, 
in  1901,  2000.  Consult  Mayo,  Municipal  Records 
of  Shaftesbury  (Sherborne,  1891). 

SHAFTESBITBT,  Eabls  of.  A  noble  English 
family.  Anthony  Ashley  Coopee,  the  first  Earl 
(1621-83),  was  born  at  Wimbome  Saint  Giles, 
Dorsetshire,  July  22,  1621.  His  father  was 
John  Cooper  and  his  mother  was  Anne  Ash- 
ley, daughter  and  sole  heiress  of  Sir  Anthony 
Ashley.  Young  Anthony  entered  Exeter  College, 
Oxford,  in  1637,  but  took  no  degree.  He  had 
a  seat  in  the  Short  Parliament,  though  he  was 
not  yet  of  age,  and  at  first  espoused  the  cause 
of  royalty;  he  then  became  one  of  the  most  emi- 
nent of  the  Parliamentary  leaders  and  not  the 
least  active  in  the  field.  When  he  saw  that  the 
Restoration  was  inevitable  he  took  so  prominent 
a  part  in  bringing  back  Charles  II.  that  he  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Ashley.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  'Cabal*  Ministry,  and  in  1672 
was  made  Earl  of  Shaftesbury  and  Lord  Chan- 
cellor. The  next  year  he  supported  the  Test  Act 
in  favor  of  Protestantism,  and  lost  his  office, 
delivering  up  the  Great  Seal  with  a  threat:  "It 
is  only  laying  down  my  gown  and  putting  on  my 
sword."  The  King  soon  tried  to  get  him  to  re- 
Bume  his  office,  but  he  politely  declined,  and  in- 
stead placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Parlia- 
mentary opposition.  In  1677  he  protested  against 


the  prorogation  of  Parliament  and  was  impris- 
oned in  the  Tower  for  a  year.  Upon  his  release 
he  took  unscrupulous  advantage  of  the  false  affi- 
davit of  Titus  Gates  and  made  use  of  the  panic 
thus  caused  to  initiate  a  persecution  against  the 
Catholics.  He  had  five  Catholic  peers  sent  to 
the  Tower  charged  with  implication  in  a  Jesuit 
conspiracy  and  had  2000  other  persons  impris- 
oned. This  was  but  the  beginning  of  a  "series  of 
judicial  murders"  (Green),  of  which  Stafford 
was  later  a  victim  (1680).  Upon  the  fall  of 
Danby,  Shaftesbuiy  became  president  of  the 
Council  and  introduced  an  exclusion  bill  in  Par- 
liament. When  it  became  known  that  he  wished 
to  give  the  succession  to  the  King's  bastard  son, 
the  Duke  of  Monmouth,  he  was  deserted  by  his 
colleagues  and  Parliament  was  prorogued.  It 
was  in  this  session  that  he  secured  the  passage 
of  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act.  Shaftesbury  was  dis- 
missed from  the  Council  (1679).  In  1681  he  was 
arrested  and  thrown  into  the  Tower  on  a  charge 
of  high  treason.  The  charge  was  thrown  out  h? 
the  grand  jury  and  he  was  released.  He  threw 
himself  further  into  the  conspiracies  until  in 
December,  1682,  he  had  to  flee  to  Holland,  where 
he  died  in  a  few  months.  Consult  his  Li/e,  by 
Christie  (London,  1871),  and  by  Traill  in  the 
series  of  "English  Worthies"  (London,  1886).^ 

ANTHomr  AsHUST  Coofeb,  third  Earl  of 
Shaftesbury,  philosopher  and  moralist,  grand- 
son of  the  first  Earl,  was  bom  in  London,  Febru- 
ary 26,  1671.  In  1683  he  was  sent  to  Winchester 
School,  and  three  years  later  he  traveled  in  Ger- 
many, France,  and  Italy.  After  an  absence  of 
three  years  he  returned  to  England  and  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  philosophy.  In  1711  he 
went  to  Naples  on  account  of  his  health  and  died 
there  February  15, 1713.  His  important  writings 
were  collected  by  himself  and  published  under  the 
title  Characteristics  of  Men,  Manners,  OptiiiofW, 
Times  (1711;  enlai^ged  ed.  1714).  The  en- 
larged edition  contains,  among  other  things: 
A  Letter  Concerning  Enthusiasm  ( 1708^  ;  Sensfu 
Communis,  an  Essay  Concerning  Wit  and  Hu- 
mour (1709);  The  Moralists;  a  Philosophical 
Rhapsody  (1709);  and  A  Soliloquy  (1710). 
Shaftesbury  is  one  of  the  most  important  of 
English  moralists.  His  significance  lies  in  the 
emphasis  he  placed  on  the  social  feelings  and 
instincts.  Against  Hobbes  he  emphasizes  the  im- 
portant part  played  by  the  'natural  affections' 
(=  social  and  benevolent  impulses)  in  securing 
happiness  for  the  individual.  Virtue  consists  in 
the  harmony  between  the  natural  and  the  seii- 
affections,  while  the  unnatural  affections  tend  to 
the  good  (=  happiness)  neither  of  the  indi- 
vidual nor  of  the  race.  Virtue  is  a  matter  of 
our  own  instincts;  it  is  independent  of  religion. 
For  his  life  and  a  popular  sketch  of  his  views, 
consult:  Fowler,  Shafteshwry  and  Eutt^esm 
(London,  1882)  ;  also  Gizycki,  Die  Philosophie 
Shafteshurys  (Leipzig,  1876);  Martineau,  Types 
of  Ethical  Theory  (8d  ed.,  Oxford,  1898); 
Stephen,  Essays  on  Freethinking  and  Plain 
Speaking  (London,  1873). 

Anthony  Ashley  Coofeb  (1801-86),  seventh 
Earl  of  Shaftesbury,  was  one  of  the  most  eminent 
philanthropists  of  the  nineteenth  century.  He 
was  bom  in  London,  was  educated  at  Harrow  and 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  entered  the  House 
of  Commons  in  1826,  remaining  a  member  of  the 
House  until  1851,  when  he  succeeded  his  father 
in  the  peerage.    In  1834  he  was  made  a  Lord  of 


8HA7TE8B17BY. 


728 


8HAE  JXEAV. 


the  Admiralty,  but  political  office  had  little  at* 
traction  for  him,  and  very  soon  after  his  elec- 
tion to  Parliament  he  entered  upon  what  was 
to  be  his  life's  work — the  reform  of  social  and 
legal  abuses.  He  first  devoted  himself  to  the 
question  of  the  insane,  whose  pitiful  condition  un- 
der the  barbarous  mode  of  treatment  then  in 
vogue  stirred  him  to  unceasing  activity  until  a 
complete  reform  of  the  Lunacy  Acts  had  been  ef- 
fected. He  next  gave  his  attention  to  the  pas- 
sage of  a  ten-hour  factory  bill.  This  was  not 
accomplished  until  after  fourteen  years  of  agita- 
tion ( 1847 ) ,  in  the  course  of  which  Shaftesbury 
eloquently  pleaded  the  cause  of  the  unhappy 
Lancashire  operatives,  of  whose  life  he  made  a 
personal  study.  The  revelation  of  the  fearful 
conditions  of  employment  prevailing  in  the  coal 
mines  led  to  the  act  of  1842,  advocated  by  Shaftes- 
bury, which  abolished  the  iniquitous  system  of 
apprenticeship  and  forbade  the  employment  of 
women  and  children  imder  thirteen  in  the  coal 
pits.  Shaftesbury  interested  himself  also  in  the 
condition  of  the  London  chimney  sweeps,  in 
whose  behalf  he  carried  the  celebrated  Climbing 
Boys  Act.  He  devoted  much  time  to  studying 
conditions  in  the  slums  of  London,  was  chiefly 
instrumental  in  the  erection  of  the  so-called 
Ragged  Schools,  and  was  for  thirty-nine  years 
chairman  himself  of  the  Ragged  School  Union. 
His  Lodging  House  Act  of  1851  was  a  great  step 
forward  in  improving  the  housing  of  the  poor. 
He  caused  the  construction  of  a  large  number  of 
model  tenements  at  Battersea,  and  erected  model 
cottages  on  his  own  estate.  With  the  masses  of 
the  people  Shaftesbury  enjoyed  immense  popu- 
krity.  He  died  October  1,  1885.  His  speeches, 
with  an  introduction  by  himself,  were  published 
in  1868.  Consult  Hodder,  Life  and  Work  of  the 
Seventh  Earl  of  Bhafteahury  (3  vols.,  London, 
1886). 

SHAFTING.  A  mechanical  device  to  trans- 
mit power  from  one  part  of  a  mill  to  another 
and  sometimes  employed  for  external  transmis- 
sion to  distances  of  a  few  hundred  feet.  Be- 
yond distances  of  300  or  400  feet  it  becomes  too 
expensive  as  compared  with  other  means  of 
power  transmission.  Shafting  consists  of  a  line 
of  round  iron  or  steel  bars  resting  in  bearings 
and  rigidly  fastened  together.  The  component 
bars  are  usually  from  12  feet  to  24  feet  long, 
and  they  are  fastened  together  by  couplings  of 
various  forms,  the  most  usual  of  which  consists 
of  two  circular  plates  connected  by  bolts.  The 
material  used  for  shafting  is  usually  steel,  which 
is  rolled  to  cylindrical  form  and  turned  smooth 
at  the  points  where  the  various  pulleys  and  gear 
wheels  are  attached. 

SHAG.  A  cormorant  (q.v.),  especially  Phala- 
crocorax  carbo.    See  Plate  of  Fishing  Bibds. 

SHAG-BABK.    See  Hickobt. 

8HAGBEEH  (Fr.  chagrin,  from  Venetian 
It.  zagrin.  It.  sftflrrtno,  from  Turk.  sAghri,  sha- 
green, back  of  a  horse).  A  variety  of  leather 
made  from  the  skin  of  the  shark  or  some  related 
selachian,  or  from  portions  of  the  skins  of 
horses,  asses,  camels,  and  oxen.  These  strips 
are  prepared  by  soaking  in  water  and  curry- 
ing; and  when  in  the  proper  condition  they 
are  laid  on  the  ground,  and  the  seeds  of 
Chenopodium  album  are  sprinkled  over  them; 
a  board  or   piece  of  felt   i9   tben   placed  on 


the  seeds,  and  by  pressure  the  hard  seeds  are 
forced  deeplv  into  the  ridn,  which  is  then  hung 
to  dry.  When  dry,  the  seeds  are  removed  by 
shaking,  and  the  skin  pared  down  with  a  proper 
knife  nearly  but  not  quite  as  low  as  the  bottom 
of  the  depressions  caused  by  the  seeds.  After 
this  the  skin  is  again  soaked,  and  the  parts  com- 
pressed by  the  seeds  now  rise  up  and  form  eleva- 
tions, which  are  increased  by  washing  in  a  solu- 
tion of  salt.  The  last  operation  is  dyeing  them 
various  colors,  green  being  the  favorite  one. 
Owing  to  the  difference  of  texture  produced  by 
the  operations  of  compressing  by  the  seeds,  par- 
ing, etc.,  the  color  is  taken  irregularly;  and  when 
dyed  green,  the  material  somewhat  resembles 
malachite  in  appearance  when  dried  and  polished. 

SHAHAP^nAN'  STOCK.  A  group  of  cog- 
nate tribes  formerly  occupying  \he  country  upon 
the  waters  of  the  Snake  River  and  the  Middle 
Columbia  in  Idaho,  Washington,  and  Oregon, 
from  the  Bitter  Root  Mountains  to  the  Cascade 
range,  and  from  about  the  45th  to  the  47th  par- 
allel. The  principal  tribes  are  the  Nez  Pero6  or 
Sahaptin,  Klikitat,  Palds,  Tenino,  Umatilla, 
Wallawalla,  Warmsprings,  and  Yakima  (q.v.). 
The  general  migration  seems  to  have  been  west- 
ward and  southward  down  the  Columbia.  In  con- 
sequence of  their  central  position  and  their  natu- 
ral enterprise,  the  Shahaptian  tribes  became  the 
recognized  trading  intermediaries  between  the 
Plains  tribes  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and 
fishing  tribes  of  the  Lower  Coliunbia  and  coast. 
Two  of  the  most  famous  Indian  leaders  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Columbia  region,  Joseph  and  Smohalla 
(q.v.),  are  of  this  lineage.  They  number  now  in 
all  about  4000  on  reservations  in  Idaho,  Wash- 
ington, and  Oregon^  the  Nez  Pero6  leading  with 
1700. 

SHAHJAHAKPUB,  sh&'jti-han^plK&r.  The 
capital  of  a  district  of  the  same  name  in  the 
United  Provinces  of  Agra  and  Oudh,  India,  102 
miles  north  by  west  of  Lucknow  on  the  Deoha 
River  (Map:  India,  C  3).  It  has  a  milrtaty 
post,  several  old  mosques,  and  mission  schools. 
The  city  is  surrounded  by  an  agricultural  dis- 
trict and  is  engaged  in  sugar  refining  and  dis- 
tilling. Population,  in  1901,  76,468.  Shahja- 
hanpiur  dates  from  1647,  and  eame  under  English 
control  in  1801. 

SHAH  JEHAir,  je-han^  (Pers.,  king  of  the 
world)  (T-C.1666).  The  fifth  of  the  Mogul  em- 
perors of  Delhi.  He  was  the  third  son  of  Jehan- 
gir,  and  before  his  accession  to  the  throne  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  victories  over  the  Rajputs, 
the  Mohammedan  States  of  the  Deccan,  and  the 
Afghans  in  the  neighborhood  of  Kandahar.  In 
1623  Shah  Jehan  rebelled  against  his  father  when 
the  latter,  after  the  sudden  death  of  his  elder 
son  Khusru  (who  was  supposed  to  have  been 
murdered  by  Shah  Jehan) ,  declared  Bulaki,  Khus- 
ru's  son,  heir  to  the  throne.  He  sacked  Agra  and 
ravaged  Bengal,  but  was  defeated  by  Jehangir 
and  forced  to  seek  refuge  in  the  Deccan  (1625). 
On  the  death  of  the  Emperor  in  1627  Shah  Jehan 
returned,  outwitted  Bulaki,  whose  fate  is  a  mys- 
tery, and  was  proclaimed  Padishah  at  Agra 
(1628),  marking  his  accession  by  the  murder  of 
all  the  princes  of  his  house  whom  he  could  seize. 
His  reign  was  a  stormy  one,  marked  by  intrigue 
and  treachery.  He  alienated  the  native  Hindu 
rajputs  from  himself,  and  destroyed  the  Portu- 
guese settlement  of  Hugli,  near  the  present  Cal- 


SHAH  JSHAN. 


724 


yyi^  A  K.  ictm- 


ctttta.  He  lost  Kandahar  and  most  of  the  Kabul 
territory,  but^  on  the  other  hand,  he  gained  the 
State  of  Ahmadnagar,  and  made  Bijapur  and  Qol- 
conda  in  the  Deccan  pay  him  tribute.  This  period 
was  the  zenith  of  the  Hindu  Mohammedan  archi- 
tecture. Shah  Jehan  built  at  Agra  the  Moti 
Mas j id  or  Pearl  Mosque,  as  well  as  the  famous 
Taj  Mahal  (q.v.),  and  founded  the  modem  city 
of  Delhi,  which  is  still  called  Shahjehanabad 
by  the  Indian  Mohammedans.  He  also  con- 
structed the  celebrated  peacock  throne  at  Delhi. 
The  closing  years  of  his  reign  were  embittered 
by  the  struggle  of  his  four  sons  for  the  throne. 
Two  of  them,  Aurungzebe  (q.v.)  and  Dara,  made 
common  cause,  marched  on  Agra,  and,  in  1658, 
imprisoned  Shah  Jehan,  who  died  about  1665. 

SHAH  NAM  AH,  nJSL^wA  (Pers.,  Book  of 
Kings).  The  title  of  several  Persian  works,  the 
most  celebrated  of  which  is  the  one  by  Firdausi 
(q.v.).  Another  work,  in  Turkish,  under  the  same 
name,  comprises  the  history  of  all  the  ancient 
kings  of  the  East^  and  was  writteft  by  Firdausi  at 
Thauil. 

SHAHBASTANI,  shrr&s-t&^nd,  Abu  al- 
Fath  Muhammad  ibn  AbdalkabIm  ash-Shabas- 
Tlirf  (1071-1153).  The  compiler  in  Arabic  of  a 
philosophic  history  of  the  religious  sects  of  the 
world.  He  was  born  at  Shahrastan,  Persia,  and, 
after  traveling,  returned  home  about  1120  and 
died  there.  His  great  work  is  scientifically  ar- 
ranged, and  is  an  impartial  and  careful  study  of 
all  the  various  sects  and  religions  known  to  him, 
including  -Judaism  and  Christianity  and  the 
Asiatic  neighbors  of  Islam.  His  account  of  the 
perplexing  Mohammedan  sects  is  especially  val- 
uable, while  his  observations  upon  alien  re- 
ligions, such  as  Christianity  and  Zoroastrianism, 
are  based  upon  exact  information.  The  text  was 
edited  by  Cureton,  Book  of  Religious  and  Philo- 
sophical Sects  (London,  1846),  and  was  trans- 
lated by  Haarbriicker   (Halle,  1850-51). 

.  SHAIBP,  shftrp,  John  Campbell  (1839-85). 
An  English  teacher  and  author,  bom  at  Hous- 
toun,  Scotland.  He  was  educated  at  Glasgow 
University  and  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  He 
was  master  of  Rugby  (1846-57),  assistant  to  the 
professor  of  Latin  at  Saint  Andrews  (1857), 
and  professor  of  Latin  (1861-68),  principal  of 
the  United  College,  Saint  Andrews  (1868-77), 
and  was  appointed  in  1877  and  again  in  1882 
professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford.  Among  his  stim- 
ulating books  are :  Studies  in  Poetry  and  Philoso- 
phy (1868),  which  discusses  C!oleridge,  Words- 
worth, and  Keble,  and  shows  Shairp  as  a  critic 
of  breadth  and  discrimination;  Culture  and  Re- 
liffion  (1870),  a  work  of  considerable  popularity, 
in  which  a  spiritual  nature  in  man  is  insisted 
upon  to  render  his  life  intelligible;  The  Poetio 
Interpretation  of  Nature  (1877),  which  deals 
with  the  varied  treatment  of  nature  in  poetry, 
and  acutely  sets  forth  the  respective  limitations 
of  poetry  and  science;  TAfe  of  Bums  (1879), 
wherein  a  sharp  distinction  is  made  between  the 
poet's  character  and  his  literary  work;  Aspects 
of  Poetri/  (1881),  treating  several  poets,  from 
Burns  to  Newman;  Sketches  in  History  and 
Poetry  (posthumous,  1887).  In  1864  he  pub- 
lished a  volume  of  poems  entitled  Kilmahoe  and 
Other  Poems.  Consult  Knight,  Professor  Shairp 
and  Bis  Friends  (London,  1888). 
SHAKE.    See  Tbill. 


8HAXEB8.  The  name  commonly  applied  to 
the  members  of  'the  Millennial  Church,'  or  *the 
United  Society  of  Believers,'  a  communistie  so- 
ciety having  branches  in  New  York,  Massachu- 
setts, New  Hampshire,  Connecticut,  Maine,  Ohio, 
Kentucky,  Georgia,  and  Florida.  The^  say  that 
they  were  originally  a  sect  of  Quakers  and  were 
derisively  called  Shaking  Quakers  because  of 
their  movements  of  the  body  in  religious  meetings. 
The  Shaking  Quakers  appeared  in  England  about 
1747,  were  organized  under  the  leadership  of 
Jane  and  James  Wardley,  and  were  joined  later 
by  Ann  Lee  (q.v.)  of  Manchester,  who  claimed 
to  be  Christ  in  His  second  reincarnation,  and 
who  came  to  America  in  1774  with  seven  of  her 
converts  and  established  a  small  church  at  Nis- 
kayuna,  near  Watervliet,  N.  Y.  Ann  Lee  died  in 
1784  and  the  society  was  placed  upon  a  com- 
munistic basis  in  1787.  A  religious  revival  in 
1779-80  brought  to  the  society  a  large  number  of 
converts,  and  it  grew  steadily  in  wealth  and  im- 
pNortance.  The  Shakers  now  have  17  communi- 
ties, the  larger  divided  into  several  'families,' 
the  members  of  which  vary  from  only  a  few  to 
100  or  more.  In  1887  they  numbered  about  4000 
members;  an  estimate  for  1902  is  1000.  From 
the  economic  standpoint  they  have  been  unusu- 
ally successful,  but  seem  less  so  in  recent  years. 

In  origin  the  society  is  a  religious  community 
and  may  be  said  to  rest  upon  'the  belief  in  the 
revelation  of  Christ's  second  appearance  in  Ann 
Lee.'  The  fundamental  principles  of  the  sect, 
that  the  root  of  human  depravity  is  found  in  the 
'disorderly'  or  natural  relation  of  the  sexes,  and 
that  in  God  exists  the  maternal  as  well  as  the 
paternal  nature,  are  believed  to  have  been  re- 
vealed to  Ann  Lee.  She  also  foretold  and  sanc- 
tioned the  communistic  order  of  living,  which 
has  now  become  of  equal  importance  with  celi- 
bacy, non-resistance,  and  the  equal  rights  of 
women  in  the  simple  creed  of  the  Shakers.  They 
neither  condemn  nor  oppose  marriage  for  the 
ordinary  or  'generative*  world,  and  they  "freely 
admit  that  the  private  family  is  necessary  and 
must  always  exist,"  but  they  assert  the  possibility 
of  attaining  a  higher  or  angelic  order  of  exist- 
ence to  which  virginity  is  a  prime  reouisite,  and 
they  further  hold  that  the  virgin  lire  is  indis- 
pensable in  organized  communism,  because  the 
family  relationship  necessarily  implies  private 
centres  of  affection  and  economic  interest  incom- 
patible with  successful  communism.  In  their 
religious  ceremonies  they  worship  neither  Christ, 
Ann  Lee,  nor  any  other  person,  but  "the  highest 
good,  wherever  it  may  be  found;  "and  they  hold 
that  the  Bible,  while  of  incalculable  value  to 
the  human  race,  contains  traditional  biographies 
and  records  which  are  purely  secular.  Their 
form  of  worship  is  thus  described  in  an  official 
pamphlet:  "We  sing  and  march  to  times  of  dif- 
ferent measure,  and  move  our  hands  in  a  gather- 
ing form,  expressive  of  one's  desire  to  obtain  the 
treasures  of  the  spiritual  realm.  Sometimes  we 
are  led  to  go  forth  in  the  dance,  which  seems  to 
quicken  body  and  soul  and  kindle  anew  the  fire 
of  truth.  We  use  some  stronger  means  to  banish 
the  elements  of  worldly  bondage  by  shaking,  as 
an  expression  of  our  hatred  to  all  evil ;  are  bold 
in  denouncing  idolatry,  pride,  deceit,  dishonesty, 
and  lust.  Unlike  the  outside  churches,  all  the 
members  are  free  to  speak  their  religious  con- 
victions, and  to  exercise  in  any  good  gift.  Our 
songs,  hymns,  and  anthems  are  original,  most 


8HAKEBS. 


725 


SHAXBSPEABE. 


of  them  written  under  the  power  of  inapiration; 
they  are  the  simple  expressions  of  an  earnest 
hope  and  a  living  faith,  and  are  well  adapted  to 
our  manner  of  devotional  exercises."  A  funda- 
mental part  of  their  religious  creed  and  practice 
is  the  confession  of  sin  in  the  presence  of  a  wit- 
ness, men  and  women  confessing  to  an  elder  of 
their  own  sex.  They  believe  in  a  'continuous 
revelation,'  and  this  makes  their  doctrine  as  well 
as  their  practice  plastic  and  adaptable  to  chang- 
ing conditions,  and  has  enabled  them  to  indorse 
and  defend  land  nationalization,  spiritualism, 
and  other  modem  radical  movements.  Except  in 
the  fundamental  doctrines  mentioned  above  they 
are  tolerant  and  broad-minded.  ''Our  only  de- 
mands/' says  the  Plain  Talks  Upon  Practical 
Christian  Religion,  "are  the  successful  prosecu- 
tion of  a  pure  life  after  the  Christ  pattern;  be- 
lieving and  realizing  that  all  other  features  of 
Christian  conununism  will  immediately  succeed." 
The  Shakers  regard  ostentation,  luxury,  and 
private  property  as  sinful  and  unchristian.  They 
live  in  groups  or  'families.'  The  government  of 
the  family  is  parental.  The  supreme  authority 
is  vested  equally  in  an  elder  and  eldress,  or  two 
of  each  sex  when  the  order  is  full.  Temporal 
affairs  are  managed  by  an  equal  number  of  dea- 
cons and  deaconesses  acting  in  counsel  with  the 
elders.  The  two  sexes  eat  in  the  same  halls,  and 
social  intercourse  is  free  and  open.  Healthful 
living  is  regarded  as  a  religious  duty,  and  much 
attention  is  given  to  hygiene ;  the  result  is  a  low 
death-rate  and  a  large  proportion  of  centenarians. 
Their  income  is  derived  from  farming,  small 
manufactures,  and  the  education  of  children. 
The  latter,  however,  is  in  many  cases  gratuitous 
and  undertaken  in  the  hope  of  replenishing  their 
membership. 

The  Shakers  were  the  first  to  establish  a  com- 
munistic settlement  in  the  United  States,  and 
their  historical  significance  rests  upon  the  fact 
that  for  more  than  a  century  these  settlements 
have  been  successfully  maintained.  The  oldest 
and  largest  community  is  situated  at  Mount  Leb- 
anon, N.  Y.,  25  miles  southeast  of  Albany,  and 
is  recognized  as  "the  central  executive  of  all  the 
Shaker  societies." 

BiBUOGBAPHT.  The  following  are  regarded  by 
the  Shakers  as  their  most  important  publica- 
tions: Christ's  First  and  Second  Appearing  and 
Millennial  Church  (Albany,  1856) ;  Dunlavy's 
Manifesto  (New  York,  1847)  ;  Green  and  Wells, 
Summary  View  of  the  Millennial  Church  (Al- 
bany, 1848)  ;  Eads,  Shaker  Theology  (ib.,  1879)  ; 
Precepts  of  Mother  Ann  and  the  First  Elders; 
Evans,  Shakers'  Compendium  (New  York, 
1869) ;  id..  Autobiography  of  a  Shaker  (Mount 
Lebanon,  18(59)  ;  Blinn,  Concise  History  of 
the  Shakers  (East  Canterbury,  N.  H.,  1894); 
McNemar,  The  Kentucky  Revival  (New  York, 
1846) ;  Hollister  and  Green,  Pearly  Gate  (Mount 
Lebanon.  1894)  ;  Robinson,  Concise  History  of 
the  Shakers  (East  Canterbury,  N.  H.,  1893). 
Most  prominent  among  periodical  publications, 
all  of  which  have  ceased  to  appear,  are  the 
Shaker  Manifesto  (1871-90)  and  the  Shaker  a/nd 
Shakeress.  Consult  also:  Noyes,  History  of 
American  Socialisms  (Philadelphia,  1870)  ;  Nord- 
hoff,  The  Communistic  Societies  of  the  United 
States  (New  York,  1875) ;  Ely,  Labor  Movement 
in  America  (New  York,  1886)  ;  Hinds,  American 
Communities  (Chicago,  1902). 


SHASESPEAB^  sh&k'spgr,  John  (1774- 
1858).  An  English  Orientalist,  born  at  Lount, 
Leicestershire.  He  was  educated  in  the  schools 
of  the  vicinity  and  then  sent  by  Lord  Rawdon 
(afterwards  Marquis  of  Hastings)  to  London  to 
study  Arabic.  In  1805  he  was  appointed  to  an 
Oriental  professorship  in  the  Royal  Military 
College,  Marlow,  and  upon  the  institution  at 
Addiscombe  of  a  training  school  for  cadets  by 
the  East  India  Company  he  was  given  the  post 
of  professor  of  Hindustani  there.  He  wrote  a 
Hindustani  Grammar  (1813;  6th  ed.  1855),  a 
Dictionary  of  Hindustan  and  English  (1817; 
4th  ed.  of  1849  enlarged  by  an  English-Hindu- 
stani dictionaiy),  Muntakhabat-i-Hindi:  Selec- 
tions in  Hindustani  (1817-18),  and  an  Introduc- 
tion to  the  HindiAstani  Language   (1845). 

SHAXESPEABEy  shftkWr,  William  (1564- 
1616).  An  English  poet  and  dramatist,  born  at 
Stratford-upon-Avon,  in  the  County  of  Warwick, 
in  April,  1564.  He  was  baptized  on  April  26 
(Old  Style)  ;  and,  as  it  was  a  common  practice 
to  christen  infants  when  three  days  old,  the^  tra- 
dition which  makes  his  birthday  the  23d  (May 
3d  as  dates  are  now  reckoned)  is  generally  ac- 
cepted. Of  a  family  of  four  sons  and  four  daugh- 
ters, William  was  the  third  child,  but  eldest  son. 
His  father,  John  Shakespeare,  who  had  been 
a  farmer  in  the  neighboring  village  of  Snit- 
ter field,  came  to  Stratford  about  1553  and 
adopted  the  trade  of  a  glover.  His  mother, 
Mary  Arden,  belonged  to  a  younger  branch  of 
a  good  old  Warwickshire  family,  and  inherited 
a  considerable  estate  from  her  father.  John 
Shakespeare  was  evidently  shrewd,  energetic, 
ambitious,  and  public-Rpirited.  He  made  money 
and  was  popular  with  his  fellow  townsmen. 
After  passing  through  the  lower  grades  of  office 
he  was  elected  alderman,  and  in  1568  became 
high  bailiff  or  mayor..  In  1556  he  bought  two 
houses  in  Stratford.  John  Shakespeare,  like  his 
fellows  in  the  town  council,  appears  to  have  been 
a  lover  of  the  drama.  When  he  was  high  bailiff 
in  1569  licenses  for  local  performances  were 
granted  to  two  companies  of  traveling  players. 
JTohn  very  likely  took  the  five-year-old  William 
to  see  them  act. 

When  William  was  seven  years  old  he  doubt- 
less entered  the  Stratford  Grammar  School. 
The  masters  of  the  school  in  Shakespeare's 
boyhood  were  university  men  of  at  least  fair 
scholarship  and  ability,  as  we  infer  from  the 
fact  that  they  rapidly  gained  promotion  in  the 
Church.  The  studies  were  mainly  Latin,  with 
writing  and  arithmetic,  and  perhaps  a  mere 
smattering  of  other  branches.  A  little  Greek 
was  sometimes  taught  in  the  grammar  schools, 
and  this  may  have  been  the  case  at  Stratford. 
Ben  Jonson  credits  Shakespeare  with  "small 
Latin  and  less  Greek,"  which  some  critics  inter- 
pret as  equivalent  to  "no  Greek;"  but  Ben  was 
not  inclined  te  overstate  Shakespeare's  classical 
attainments.  Whatever  the  boy  may  have  learned 
in  the  Stratford  school  during  the  six  or  seven 
years  he  probably  spent  there,  we  may  be  quite 
certain  that  it  was  all  the  regular  schooling 
he  ever  had;  and  we  have  no  reason  to  suppose 
that  he  kept  up  his  classical  studies  after  leaving 
school.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  prove  Shake- 
speare a  scholar,  but  a  careful  examination  of 
his  works  proves  the  contrary.  His  quotations 
from  Latin  authors  are  confined  to  those  then 


fljr  A  CTSHW.  A  H.'g 


736 


flir  A  yggp^i^  H-Ig, 


read  in  school,  and  are  such  as  a  schoolboy 
might  make.  In  one  instance  at  least  the  form 
of  the  quotation  shows  that  it  was  taken  from 
Lilly's  Latin  Grammar  (then  used  in  all  English 
schools)  and  not  from  the  original  play  of  Ter- 
ence. He  makes  frequent  mistakes  in  classical 
names,  which  a  learned  man  like  Bacon,  for 
instance,  could  never  have  been  guilty  of.  Ba- 
con, indeed,  gives  some  of  these  very  names  cor- 
rectly in  passages  that  have  been  quoted  to 
illustrate  the  resemblance  between  his  works 
and  Shakespeare's;  they  really  show  that  the 
dramatist  was  ignorant  of  what  the  philosopher 
was  familiar  with.  The  training  in  the  gram- 
mar school  was,  however,  an  insignificant  part  of 
Shakespeare's  education  in  the  broader  sense. 
The  poet  is  born,  not  made,  says  the  ancient  saw; 
but  the  development  of  his  genius  largely  de- 
pends upon  where  and  under  what  influences  he 
lives  in  his  childhood  and  in  later  years.  Shake- 
speare's life  was  almost  entirely  spent  in  Strat- 
ford and  London;  and  in  both  homes  he  was 
eminently  fortunate.  He  was  bom  and  lived  for 
twenty  years  in  the  country — in  the  heart  of 
rural  England.  His  manhood  was  passed  in  the 
city — ^in  what  was  then,  as  now,  the  greatest  of 
cities.  Stratford  was  within  the  limits  of  the 
Forest  of  Arden,  which  still  retained  enough  of 
its  primitive  character  to  render  the  youth  famil- 
iar with  woodland  scenery  and  life  and  to  culti- 
vate his  love  of  nature,  which  was  ^hat  of  a  child 
for  its  foster-mother.  It  was  here  also  that  he 
got  the  minute  knowledge  of  the  practical  side 
of  country  life  which  appears  in  his  works.  Vol- 
umes have  been  written  on  the  plant-lore  and 
garden-craft  of  the  dramatist;  and  they  prove 
his  love  of  the  country  and  his  keen  observation 
of  natural  phenomena  and  the  agricultural  prac- 
tice of  the  period.  Others  have  shown  that  he 
understood  hawking  and  hounds,  and  had  a 
very  wide  and  loving  knowledge  of  many  English 
birds  and  other  animals.  His  acqiuiintance  with 
angling  is  apparent  in  some  of  his  works. 

For  its  historical  associations  Warwickshire 
was  no  less  the  fitting  region  for  the  education 
of  a  great  national  poet.  From  the  time  of  the 
Roman  occupation  it  had  played  an  important 
part  in  the  national  history.  Several  Roman 
roads  traversed  the  district,  and  Stratford  got 
its  name  from  the  ford  where  one  of  these  streets 
(as  they  were  called)  crossed  the  Avon.  The 
sites  of  several  Roman  camps,  or  fortified  sta- 
tions, were  in  the  neighborhood,  one  of  these, 
Alcester,  being  only  five  miles  from  Stratford. 
In  Anglo-Saxon  times  Warwickshire  formed  part 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Mercia,  which  was  for  a  while 
the  dominant  power  of  the  country.  Later,  from 
its  central  position,  it  was  traversed  and  occu- 
pied by  the  rival  armies  in  the  civil  wars.  The 
decisive  battles  that  ended  the  Barons'  War  in 
the  thirteenth  century  and  the  Wars  of  the 
Roses  in  the  fifteenth  were  fought  on  the  bor- 
ders of  Warwickshire,  at  Evesham  and  Bos  worth 
Field.  The  castles  of  Kenilworth  and  Warwick, 
both  in  the  same  county  and  within  fifteen  miles 
of  Stratford,  were,  during  these  wars,  the  main 
centres  of  military  and  political  interest  in 
England.  Queen  jSlizabeth's  famous  visit  to 
Robert  Dudley  at  Kenilworth  in  1675,  and  the 
holiday  pageant  in  her  honor,  which  lasted  from 
July  9th  to  the  27th,  occurred  when  Shakespeare 
was  eleven  years  old.  His  father,  as  a  well-to-do 
citizen  and  prominent  magistrate  of  Stratford, 


probably  saw  sometbiiig  of  the  stately  show,  and 
may  have  taken  William  with  bim.  Certain 
passages  in  the  Midsummer  Night's  Dream  (ii. 
1)  appear  to  be  rerainiscenoes  of  the  KenilworUi 
festival,  of  which  the  boy  must  have  heard  much, 
even  if  he  saw  nothing  ol  it. 

The  legendary  lore  of  the  district  was  equally 
stimulating  and  inspiring  to  a  poet.  Warwick- 
shire was  eminently  a  field  of  romance  and  old 
heroic  story  and  the  scoie  of  many  an  ancient 
ballad.  Guy  of  Warwick  was  a  foremost  hero  in 
this  popular  poetry,  and  his  gigantic  spectre  still 
haunts  the  scenery  of  his  traditional  exploits. 
Shakespeare  in  his  boyhood  was  familiar  with 
the  stories  about  this  half-mythieal  personage, 
and  he  recalled  them  in  later  life  when  he  put 
allusions  to  Golbrand,  the  big  Saracen  whom 
Guy  conquered  and  slew,  into  the  mouths  of 
certain  characters  in  his  plays.  '  Warwickshire 
was  also  prcHninent  in  the  histoiy  of  the  English 
drama.  Coventry  was  renowned  for  the  religious 
plays  performed  by  the  Grey  Friars  of  its  great 
monastery,  and  kept  up,  though  with  less  pomp, 
even  after  the  dissolution  of  their  establish- 
ment. It  was  not  until  1589  that  these  pageants 
were  entirely  suppressed;  and  Shakespeare,  who 
was  then  eleven  years  old,  may  have  been  an  eye- 
witness of  the  latest  of  them.  His  allusions  to 
characters  in  these  old  plays  (as,  for  instance,  to 
Herod  in  Hamlet  and  The  Merry  Wives  of  Wind- 
sor, and  to  the  lost  souls'  in  Henry  V.)  prove 
that  he  knew  them  by  report,  even  if  he  had  not 
seen  them.  Historical  plays,  not  biblical  in  sub- 
ject, were  also  oommon  in  Coventry  before  the 
dramatist  was  bom.  The  Nine  Worthies,  which 
he  burlesques  in  Love's  Labour*s  Lost,  was  acted 
there  before  Henry  VI.  in  1455.  The  original 
text  of  the  play  has  been  preserved,  and  por- 
tions of  Shakespeare's  travesty  seem  almost  like 
a  parody  of  it.  The  play  performed  at  Strat- 
ford in  1569,  which  muat  have  been  of  this  re- 
ligious or  historical  type,  was  the  b^iming,  so 
far  as  the  town  records  show,  of  theatrical  per- 
formances in  Stratford,  but  in  succeeding  years 
they  were  frequent.  Of  course  the  young  Shake- 
speare witnessed  them ;  and  we  can  surmise  bow 
they  fired  his  imagination  and  fostered  his  in- 
born taste  for  the  drama. 

We  see,  then,  that  all  outward  conditions  in 
Stratford  and  its  neighborhood  were  peculiarly 
favorable  to  the  awakening,  stimulating,  and  de- 
veloping of  Shakespeare's  genius;  and  in  his 
second  home,  where  he  spent  more  than  twenty- 
five  years,  including  his  entire  career  as  an  actor 
and  author,  he  was  equally  fortunate.  London  was 
then,  as  now,  the  metropolis  of  the  kingdom,  the 
capital  of  arts  and  letters,  no  less  than  of  the 
National  Grovemment.  It  was  the  centre  of  the 
literary  activity  and  brilliancy  that  made  the 
spacious  times  of  great  Elizabeth'  forever  mem- 
orable. What  stimulus,  what  inspiration  must 
Shakespeare  have  found  in  its  life  and  society! 
We  see  then  that,  though  so  far  as  schooling 
properly  so  called  was  concerned  Shakespeare's 
education  was  inferior  to  what  a  boy  of  thirteen 
or  fourteen  would  get  nowadays,  it  was  in  the* 
broader  sense  far  from  inadequate  as  a  prepara- 
tion for  the  work  he  was  to  do  as  a  poet  and 
dramatist. 

For  some  time  after  leaving  school  the  boy 
may  have  helped  his  father  in  his  trade.  In  1577 
John  Shakespeare  was  beginning  to  have  bad 
luck  in  his  business,  and  William,  then  thirteen 


SHAKESPEARE 

FROM  AN  ETCHING  BY  LEOPOLD  FLAMENQ  OF  THE  CHANDOS  PORTRAIT  IN   THE  NATIONAL  PORTRAIT 

GALLERY,  LONDON 


ftfT  A  CTittpIt  A  ^^1 


727 


SEAXESPEABB. 


years  old,  may  have  been  taken  from  school  for 
work  of  some  kind.  The  tradition  that  he  was 
bound  apprentice  to  a  butcher  and  later  ran 
away  to  London  is  improbable.  Another  tradi- 
tion makes  him  an  attorney's  clerk  for  a  time, 
and  the  many  references  in  his  works  to  the 
technicalities  of  the  law  have  led  Lord  Campbell 
and  other  specialists  to  believe  that  he  must  have 
studied  law  somewhat  thoroughly.  But  Judge 
Allen,  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Massachusetts, 
in  his  'Notes  on  the  Baoon-Shakeapeare  Question 
(1900),  has  shown  that  such  legal  allusions  are 
equally  common  in  contemporary  dramatists,  and 
that  Shakespeare,  instead  of  being  uniformly 
accurate  in  these  matters,  as  Lord  Campbell  and 
others  have  assumed,  is  often  guilty  of  mistakes 
which  a  lawyer  or  student  of  law  would  never 
make.  This  may  be  regarded  as  the  final  word 
on  the  question  of  the  supposed  legal  attain- 
ments of  the  dramatist. 

The  first  indisputable  fact  in  Shakespeare's 
life  after  leaving  school  is  that  of  his  marriage^ 
which  occurred  when  he  was  between  eight^D 
and  nineteen  years  old.  The  bride,  Ann  Hatha- 
way, was  about  eight  years  older,  as  she  died 
August  6,  1623,  at  the  age  of  sixty-seven.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  a  farmer  in  Shottery,  a 
village  about  a  mile  from  Stratford.  The 
house  in  which  he  lived  was  bought  in  1892 
for  preservation  as  a  memorial  of  the 
poet.  The  house  in  Stratford  in  which  he 
was  bom  had  been  similarly  secured  as  a 
public  trust  in  1848.  The  marriage  was 
probably  solemnized  early  in  December,  1682, 
and  in  one  of  the  neighboring  parishes,  the  rec- 
ords of  which  have  been  lost.  The  date  is  ap- 
proximately fixed  by  a  bond  authorizing  the 
marriage  "with  once  asking  of  the  bans,"  which 
is  still  extant-  in  the  Episcopal  archives  of 
Worcester,  the  diocese  to  which  Stratford  and 
Shottery  belonged.  This  bond  is  dated  November 
28,  1582.  A  daughter  was  bom  to  the  young 
couple  the  next  May.  She  was  baptized  with  the 
name  Susanna  on  Sunday,  May  26,  1583;  and 
twin  children,  Hamnet  and  Judith,  followed 
early  in  1585  (baptized  February  2,  1585),  or 
about  two  months  before  their  father  was  twenty- 
one. 

Of  his  life  from  the  date  of  his  marria^  to  his 
departure  for  London  nothing  further  is  posi- 
tively known,  and  the  most  important  tradition 
of  the  period  is  that  of  his  poaching  in  Sir 
Thomas  Lucy's  park  at  (Ilharlecote,  near  Strat- 
ford. The  strongest  argument  in  its  favor  is 
based  .on  the  evidence  in  the  plays  that  Shake- 
speare had  a  grudge  against  Lucy,  and  carica- 
tured him  as  Justice  Shallow  in  2  Henry  IV,  and 
The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,  The  reference  to 
the  'dozen  white  luces'  in  the  latter  play  (i.  1, 
16-22)  is  palpably  meant  to  suggest  the  three 
luces,  or  pikes,  in  the  arms  of  the  Lucys;  and 
the  manner  in  which  the  dialogue  dwells  on  the 
device  indicates  that  some  personal  satire  was 
intended.  How  Shakespeare  managed  to  support 
his  family  at  this  time  is  doubtful.  His  father's 
fortunes  were  still  dwindling,  and  there  were 
four  younger  children  to  be  &ken  care  of:  Gil- 
bert (bora  1566),  Joan  (1569),  Richard  (1573), 
and  Edmund  (1580).  Anne,  bora  in  1571,  had 
died  in  1579.  The  waning  of  John  Shakespeare's 
fortunes  was  probably  due  to  the  general  de- 
pression in  business  that  seems  to  have  affected 
Stratford  at  that  time. 


The  date  of  Shakespeare's  leaving  Stratford 
for  London  cannot  be  definitely  fixed.  The  poach- 
ing adventure  is  supposed  to  have  occurred  in 
1585,  and  if  it  drove  him  from  Warwickshire, 
it  was  probably  in  the  autumn  of  that  year. 
The  birth  of  the  twins  in  January,  1585,  and 
the  difficulty  he  must  have  had  in  supporting 
his  increasing  family  are  also  in  favor  of  that 
date.  It  was  in  that  year,  moreover,  that  he 
came  of  age,  which  may  have  led  him  to  take 
this  serious  step  in  the  hope  of  bettering  his 
fortunes.'  It  is  generally  agreed  that  he  left 
Stratford  in  1585  or  1586.  What  friends  or  what 
employment  he  found  on  reaching  London  we  do 
not  know.  According  to  a  tradition  that  cannot 
be  traced  further  back  than  1750,  though  it  is 
said  to  have  been  originally  related  by  Sir  Wil- 
liam Davenant  a  century  earlier,  his  first  em- 
ployment in  the  metropolis  was  in  holding  horses 
at  the  door  of  the  theatre.  Whether  it  is  true  or 
not,  we  know  that  the  young  man  soon  got  into 
one  of  the  two  theatres  then  established  in  Lon- 
don— perhaps,  as  tradition  says,  in  the  humble 
capacity  of  "prompter's  attendant,  whose  emplov- 
ment  it  was  to  give  the  performers  notice  to  oe 
ready  to  enter"  on  the  stage.  Doubtless  his  abili- 
ties were  soon  recognized  and  led  to  something 
higher.  It  could  not  have  been  long  before  he 
had  begun  his  career  as  an  actor  in  small  parts 
and  had  worked  his  way  up  more  or  less  rapidly, 
but  for  seven  years  after  he  went  to  London,  or 
from  1585  to  1592,  we  have  no  information  what- 
ever about  him,  and  tradition  is  silent  except 
with  reference  to  the  very  beginning  of  the  period. 
At  last,  in  1592,  we  get  a  definite  reference  to 
him  in  the  literature  of  the  time;  and  we  are 
indebted  for  it  to  the  envy  and  spite  of  a  dis- 
appointed and  dying  playwright,  Robert  Greene, 
who,  in  the  autumn  of  that  year,  published  a  lit- 
tle book  entitled  Qreens  Oroats-worth  of  Wit, 
"bought  with  a  Million  of  Repentance,  After  re- 
ferring to  certain  dramatists  of  the  day,  Greene 
turns  to  the  actors,  and  says:  "Yes,  trust  them 
not,  for  there  is  an  upstart  crow,  beautified  with 
our  feathers,  that,  with  his  Tygers  heart  wrapt 
in  a  Players  hide,  supposes  he  is  as  well  able 
to  bombast  out  a  blanke  verse  as  the  best  of 
^ou;  and  being  an  absolute  JoAonnea  Factotum, 
18  in  his  owne  conceit  the  only  Shake-scene  in  a 
countrie."  The  epithet  of  ^Shake-scene'  obvi- 
ously refers  to  Shakespeare,  and  the  passage  im- 
plies that  he  was  both  actor  and  author,  and 
perhaps,  as  some  believe,  plagiarist  also.  The 
italicized  quotation  is  obviously  a  parody  of  *0 
tiger's  heart  wrapp'd  in  a  woman's  hide,'  iii 
5  Henry  YI,  (i.  4,  137),  an  old  play  in  which 
Greene  is  assumed  to  have  had  a  hand,  and 
which  was  revised  by  Shakespeare.  In  December, 
1592,  Henry  Chettle,  who  had  published  Greene's 
pamphlet  for  him,  brought  out  his  own  Kind 
Harts  Dreame,  in  which  he  refers  to  Shakespeare 
thus:  "Myselfe  have  scene  his  demeanor  no  less 
civill  than  he  exclent  in  the  qualitie  he  pro- 
fesses; besides,  divers  of  worship  have  reported 
his  uprightness  of  dealing,  which  argues  his  hon- 
esty, and  his  facetious  [felicitous]  grace  in  writ- 
ing, that  approves  his  art."  It  is  evident  from 
Greene's  sneer  and  Chettle's  apology  that  Shake- 
speare in  1592  was  already  an  actor  of  some  prom- 
inence ;  that  he  had  begun  his  career  as  an  author 
by  revising  old  plays  for  a  new  lease  of  life  on 
the  stage;  and  that  he  was  gaining  reputation 
and  making  friends. 


SHAXESPEABE. 


738 


f^fyATngflyB^A'n.Te 


All  three  parts  of  Henry  VL  were  plays  that 
Shakespeare  retouched  for  the  stage  at  the  very 
beginning  of  his  dramatic  career;  but  the  second 
and  third  parts  have  unquestionably  a  larger 
proportion  of  his  work  than  the  first.  Titua 
Andronicus  is  another  play  which  probably  has 
a  similar  history,  and  which  bears  some  slisht 
traces  of  his  hand.  If  he  was  the  author  of  this 
bloody  and  revolting  tragedy,  as  a  few  critics 
have  assumed,  it  must  have  been  written  be- 
fore he  had  fo\md  his  true  self.  It  is  far 
more  probable  that  when  he  first  attempted  en- 
tirely original  work  it  was  in  comedy,  and  that 
Love*8  Labour's  Lost  was  the. play.  It  was 
doubtless  written  as  early  as  1591,  if  not 
two  or  three  years  earlier.  The  first  extant 
edition  appeared  in  1598,  when  the  title  page 
informs  us  that  it  had  been  "newly  revised  and 
augmented."  The  TtDo  Gentlemen  of  Verona  and 
The  Comedy  of  Errors  appear  to  have  followed 
immediately;  and  the  first  draft  of  the  poet's 
first  tragedy,  Romeo  and  Juliet  (excluding  Titus 
Andronicus) ,  belongs  to  the  same  period,  the  play 
in  its  present  form  being  a  revised  and  enlarged 
edition.  Richard  III.,  the  first  of  the  English 
historical  plays  which  was  entirely  the  work  of 
Shakespeare,  naturally  follows  the  trilogy  of 
Henry  VI,  and  was  pr(5bably  written  in  1592  or 
1693.  Richard  II,  was  produced  soon  after  Rich- 
ard  III.,  though,  like  that  play,  it  was  not  print- 
ed until  1597.  Both  plays  appeared  without  the 
author's  name,  which  was  added  the  next  year  in 
second  editions  of  both.  A  Midsummer  Night's 
Dream  belongs  in  this  group  of  early  comedies, 
of  which  it  was  in  all  probability  the  last,  1694 
being  the  date  generally  accepted. 

The  breadth  of  Shakespeare's  literary  tastes 
and  aspirations  in  this  ^prentice  period'  of  his 
career  is  shown  by  the  fact  that,  just  when  his 
reputation  as  an  actor  and  a  dramatist  was 
becoming  established,  he  published  two  long  nar- 
rative poems,  Venus  and  Adonis  and  Lucrece, 
the  former  in  1693  and  the  latter  in  1594.  The 
popularity  of  the  Venus  and  Adonis  led  to  the 
issue  of  a  second  edition  in  1694;  and  at  least 
ten  more  editions  appeared  in  the  next  sixteen 
years.  Probably  there  were  others,  as  only  single 
copies  are  extant  of  several  of  the  known  issues. 
Nothing  was  known  of  the  fourth  edition  until  a 
copy  was  discovered  in  1867,  and  a  single  copy  of 
the  twelfth  has  come  to  light  more  recently.  Of 
the  Lucrece,  eight  editions  are  known,  but  it  is 
unlikely  that  these  complete  the  list.  Both  poems 
are  dedicated  to  the  young  Earl  of  Southampton, 
who  was  a  liberal  patron  of  men  of  letters  and 
particularly  interested  in  the  drama. 

In  the  dedication  of  Venus  and  Adonis  Shake- 
speare calls  the  poem  "the  first  heir  of  my  inven- 
tion," that  is,  the  first  product  of  his  imagina- 
tion. This  does  not  prove  that  it  was  written 
before  any  of  the  plays,  but  may  only  mean 
that  it  was  his  first  distinctively  literary  work, 

fdays  being  then  regarded  as  not  included  in 
iterature  properly  so  called.  Some  critics,  how- 
ever, take  the  expression  in  its  literal  sense, 
believing  that  the  poem  was  first  written  when 
the  author  was  a  very  young  man,  perhaps  even 
before  he  w^ent  to  London.  If  Shakespeare  did 
not  become  an  author  until  1590.  the  period  of  his 
literary  apprenticeship  covers  at  moat  five  years, 
or  until  the  end  of  1594;  and  during  this  time 
he  revised  more  or  less  thoroughly  Titus  An- 
dronicus and  the  three  parts  of  Henry  VI.,  and 


wrote  at  least  the  seven  original  plays  already 
enumerated  and  two  long  poems.  And  all  this 
time  he  was  actively  engaged  in  his  profession  as 
an  actor.  The  earliest  definite  notice  of  his 
appearance  on  the  stage  is  of  his  playing  in  two 
comedies  before  Elizabeth  at  Green¥nch  Palace, 
in  December,  1594.  During  the  next  six  years 
(1695-1600)  Shakespeare  completed  the  series  of 
English  historical  plays  (not  including  Henry 
VIII;  his  part  in  which  was  done  at  least  ten 
years  later) ,  and  wrote  most  of  his  best  comedies 
and  Juli%i8  Ccesar,  All  or  nearly  all  the  Sonnets 
are  probably  to  be  included  in  this  period.  King 
John  is  generally  assigned  to  1695,  internal  evi- 
dence indicating  that  it  immediately  followed 
(if  it  did  not  precede)  Richard  II.  The  two  parts 
of  Henry  IV,  followed  in  1696  or  1597,  and  Henry 
V,  in  1698.  The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,  which 
tradition  says  was  written  at  the  request  of 
Elizabeth,  who  desired  to  see  Falstaff  in  love, 
appears  to  have  come  between  2  Henry  IV.  and 
Henry  V.  The  Merchant  of  Venice  is  mentioned 
in  a  list  of  Shakespeare's  plays  in  Francis  Meres'.^ 
Palladis  Tamia,  published  in  September,  1598; 
it  was  written  probably  in  1596  or  1597.  The 
same  list  includes  all  the  plays  mentioned  above, 
except  the  trilogy  of  Henry  VI,  It  does  not  in- 
clude The  Taming  of  the  Shrew  (an  adaptation 
of  an  anonymous  play  called  The  Taming  of  a 
Shrew,  published  in  1594),  which  in  its  present 
form  cannot  well  have  been  later  than  1597,  and 
may  be  a  year  or  two  earlier.  Some  good  critics 
identify  it  with  the  Love's  Labour's  Won,  men- 
tioned by  Meres,  which  the  majority  believe  to 
have  been  an  early  draft  of  All's  Well  that  Ends 
Well,  In  the  closing  years  of  the  century,  be- 
tween the  summer  of  1598  and  the  end  of  1600, 
Shakespeare,  after  finishing  the  English  histor- 
ical plays  (except  Henry  VIII.,),  returned  to 
comedy,  and  wrote  his  three  most  brilliant  works 
in  that  line,  As  You  Like  It,  Much  Ado  About 
Nothing,  and  Twelfth  Night.  The  order  of  their 
composition  is  uncertain,  but  Twelfth  Night  is 
almost  unanimously  reckoned  the  last  of  the 
series.  Julius  Ccesar  is  alluded  to  in  Weever's 
Mirror  of  Martyrs  (printed  in  1601,  but  written 
two  years  before)  and  other  evidence  leaves  little 
doubt  that  the  play  was  produced  in  1699.  It 
was  very  popular,  and  many  allusions  to  it  are 
found  in  the  literature  of  the  time,  according  to 
one  of  which  it  was  far  more  successful  than 
Ben  Jonson's  Roman  plays,  Catiline  and  8e- 
janus. 

Of  Shakespeare's  personal  history  between  1592 
and  1600  few  facts  are  known.  In  1696  his  onlv 
son,  Hamnet,  died  and  was  buried  on  the  11th 
of  August  at  Stratford.  During  the  Christinas 
holidays  his  theatrical  company  performed  twice 
before  Elizabeth  at  Whitehall.  In  the  spring  of 
1597  he  made  his  first  investment  in  real  estate 
by  the  purchase  of  New  Place,  a  mansion  with 
about  an  acre  of  land  in  the  centre  of  Stratford. 
In  1596  John  Shakespeare,  doubtless  by  his  son's 
advice  and  at  his  expense,  applied  to  the  College 
of  Heralds  for  a  coat-of-arms ;  but,  though  the 
petition  was  approved  in  October  of  that  year, 
the  negotiations  w^ere  not  then  concluded.  In  1599 
John  made  a  new  application  to  the  CJollege  of 
Heralds,  in  which  he  refers  to  the  action  taken 
on  that  of  1696,  and  also  requests  that  he  and 
his  son  may  be  allowed  to  quarter  on  the  coat 
the  arms  of  the  Ardens  of  Wilmcote,  his  wife's 
family.    The  heralds  granted  the  coat,  but  sub- 


SHAXESPEABE. 


729 


8HAXESPEAEE. 


stituted  the  arms  of  the  Ardens  of  Alvanley  in 
Cheshire,  apparently  because  these  belonged  to 
a  younger  branch  of  the  family,  from  which 
Mary  Arden  was  descended.  John  Shakespeare 
died  in  1601,  two  years  afterwards,  and  there  is 
no  evidence  that  either  he  or  his  son  used  the 
Arden  arms.  William  did  use  the  Shakespeare 
arms  as  tricked  by  the  heralds,  and  he  may  have 
felt  that  they  had  become  honorable  enough  with- 
out displaying  the  connection  with  the  Ardens. 
By  1599  William  Shakespeare  had  made  a  name 
for  himself  that  needed  no  lustre  borrowed  from 
ancestral  rank.  He  went  to  London  in  1585  or 
1586  a  penniless  adventurer,  but  in  1597  he  had 
gained  reputation  and  made  money  as  actor  and 
author,  and  could  invest  his  surplus  income  in 
the  purchase  of  the  best  house  in  Stratford. 
Besides  defraying  the  expenses  in  obtaining  the 
coat-of-arms,  there  is  evidence  that  he  helped  to 
restore  the  fallen  fortunes  of  his  father.  He  re- 
paired Xew  Place,  and  added  other  lands  to  the 
estate.  In  1602  he  spent  the  large  sum  of  £320 
in  the  purchase  of  107  acres  of  land  near  Strat- 
ford, and  also  bought  a  cottage  and  garden  in 
the  town. 

The  actor's  business  was  then  lucrative  enough 
to  excite  the  envy  of  pamphleteers;  and  if  the 
actor  got  a  share  in  the  theatre  or  its  profits,  as 
Shakespeare  did  in  1699  when  the  Globe  Theatre 
was  built,  it  added  materially  to  his  income. 

Shakespeare's  receipts  as  an  actor  before  1599 
were  probably  £100  a  year,  to  which  perquisites 
from  Court  performances  might  add  £15  or  so. 
His  returns  from  his  work  as  a  dramatist  would 
be  much  smaller.  Before  1599  the  prices  paid  for 
plays  ranged  from  £6  to  £15,  the  most  that  is 
known  to  have  been  paid.  To  this  a  slight  gratu- 
ity was  added  if  the  play  was  very  successful, 
and  the  author  sometimes  had  a  share  in  the  re- 
ceipt? of  a  'benefit'  on  a  second  production. 
Shakespeare's  income  from  the  revision  and  writ- 
ing of  plays  up  to  1599  can  hardly  have  been 
more  than  £20  a  year,  which,  added  to  £110  or 
£115  from  acting,  would  make  his  entire  income 
£130  or  £135,  equal  to  from  seven  to  ten  times 
that  amount  in  modem  money.  The  quarto 
editions  of  his  plays  published  at  this  time 
and  afterwards  were  evidently  all  piratical  ven- 
tures which  yielded  him  nothing.  From  the 
successive  editions  of  his  poems — the  only  works 
printed  under  his  personal  supervision — ^he  may 
have  received  something,  but  we  have  no  means 
of  estimating  how  much.  According  to  Howe's 
biography  (1709),  Shakespeare  once  received  a 
gift  of  £1000  from  his  generous  patron,  the  Earl 
of  Southampton.  The  amount  (equal  to  at  least 
£7000  or  $35,000  now)  is  undoubtedly  exagger- 
ated; but  Southampton  would  be  likely  to  make 
Rome  substantial  acknowledgment  of  the  com- 
pliment paid  him  in  the  dedications  of  the  Venus 
and  Adonis  and  Lucreoe.  The  only  epistolary  cor- 
respondence now  extant  in  which  Shakespeare 
was  a  party  and  the  only  letter  addressed  to 
him  have  reference  to  business  matters.  In  Jan- 
nary,  1598,  Abraham  Sturley  writes  from  Strat- 
ford to  his  brother-in-law,  Richard  Quiney,  who 
was  in  London,  where  the  poet  then  was,  sug- 
gesting that  he  obtain  help  from  Shakespeare 
in  certain  business  for  the  town;  and  later 
Quiney  himself  wrote  to  Shakespeare,  asking 
the  large  loan  of  £30.  This  letter  somehow  got 
into  the   Stratford  archives.     Thomas   Quiney, 


who  married  the  poet's  daughter,  Judith,  was 
a  son  of  Richard  Quiney. 

We  do  not  know  in  which  of  the  London  play- 
houses of  1585  (the  Theatre  and  the  Curtain) 
Shakespeare  found  employment.  In  1592  the 
Rose  was  opened  on  the  Bankside,  and  that  was 
doubtless  the  scene  of  his  early  successes  as  ac- 
tor and  dramatist.  In  1594  he  was  connected 
with  another  new  theatre  at  Newington  Butts; 
and  afterwards  he  returned  to  the  Theatre  and 
the  Curtain.  The  Theatre  was  torn  down  in  1599, 
and  most  of  the  materials  were  used  in  the  erec- 
tion of  the  Globe  on  the  Bankside,  which  from 
that  time  appears  to  have  been  the  only  house 
with  which  he  was  regularly  connected.  At  the 
Blackfriars  Theatre  (established  in  1596)  Shake- 
speare played  a  leading  part  in  Jonson's  Every 
Man  in  His  Humour,  in  September,  1598,  after 
having  secured  the  acceptance  of  the  play,  which 
the  manager  was  on  the  point  of  refusing  ( Rowe ) . 
On  Twelfth  Night  and  Shrove  Sunday,  1600,  the 
Globe  company  acted  before  Elizabeth  at  Rich- 
mond Palace,  and  on  December  26th  at  W^hite- 
hall.  In  the  following  March  they  played  at 
Somerset  House  before  Lord  Hunsdon  and  some 
foreign  ambassadors.  At  Whitehall  in  the 
Christmas  holidays  of  1601-02  they  presented  four 
plays  before  the  Queen.  They  also  acted  at  Rich- 
mond on  Candlemas  Day,  February  2,  1603,  less 
than  two  months  before  the  death  of  Elizabeth 
(March  24,  1603).  James  arrived  in  London  on 
the  17th  of  May,  and  ten  days  afterwards  he 
granted  a  license  to  Shakespeare  and  his  com- 
pany to  perform  in  London  and  the  provinces. 
In  December,  1603,  when  the  King  was  visiting 
the  Earl  of  Pembroke,  one  of  Shakespeare's 
patrons,  at  W^ilton,  the  company  played  before 
the  distinguished  party  there  assembled;  in  the 
following  Christmas  holidays  they  acted  several 
times  at  FTampton,  and  on  Candlemas  Day  in  the 
same  palace  before  the  Florentine  ambassadors. 
On  the  15th  of  March,  1604,  when  James  made 
his  formal  passage  from  the  Tower  to  West- 
minister, Shakespeare  and  the  eight  other  ac- 
tors to  whom  the  royal  license  had  been  granted 
in  1603  marched  in  the  royal  train,  and  each  was 
presented  with  four  and  a  half  yards  of  scarlet 
cloth,  the  usual  dress  allowance  of  players  be- 
longing to  the  household.  They  were  now  termed 
the  King's  servants,  and  took  rank  at  Court 
among  the  grooms  of  the  chamber. 

Of  the  parts  played  by  Shakespeare  himself 
we  have  little  information.  According  to  a 
credible  tradition,  he  personated  Adam  in  As 
You  Like  It;  and  Rowe  says  that  he  acted  "the 
Ghost  in  his  own  Hamlet."  John  Davies  of  Here- 
ford says  that  he  "played  some  kingly  parts  in 
sport."  In  the  list  of  "the  principal  actors  in  all 
these  plays,"  prefixed  to  the  Folio  of  1623,  his 
name  is  placed  first,  but  perhaps  only  because 
he  was  the  author  of  the  plays.  There  is  no  rea- 
son to  suppose  that  he  was  ever  a  'star'  in  the 
histrionic  firmament  of  the  period. 

If  Shakespeare's  Sonnets  are  entirely  or  large- 
ly autobiographical,  as  the  great  majority  of  crit- 
ics and  commentators  believe,  they  belong  in  all 
probability  to  this  period  (1595-1600)  in  his  lit- 
erary and  his  personal  history;  and  of  all  the 
puzzles  concerning  the  man  and  his  works  none 
has  been  the  subject  of  more  speculation  and 
controversy.  What  we  really  know  about  the 
Sonnets  can  be  stated  in  a  few  sentenoes.    The 


780 


flTrAOT!gpTaAH.lg 


earliest  known  reference  to  them  is  in  Meres's  list 
of  the  poet's  works  already  mentioned,  in  which 
they  are  called  "his  sugred  Sonnets  among  his 
private  friends."  The  next  year  (1599)  two  of 
them  (138  and  144)  were  printed  in  The  Pas- 
sionate Pilgrim,  a  piratical  booklet  containing  a 
few  other  poems  known  to  be  Shakespeare's,  with 
some  falsely  attributed  to  him.  In  1609  the  en- 
tire collection  of  154  sonnets  was  published  by 
Thomas  Thorpe,  with  the  following  dedication: 

TO  •  THE  .  ONLDC  .  BEOETTEB  .  Or  . 

THESE  .  INBVING  .  SONNETS  . 

Mr.  W.  H.  ALL  .  HAPPINESSE  . 

AND  .  THAT  .  ETEBNITIE  . 

PROMISED  . 

BY. 

0TB  •  EYEB-LIVINO  .  POET . 

WISHETH  , 

THE .  WELL-WISHING . 

ADVENTVBEB  .  IN  . 

SETTING. 

FORTH. 

T.T. 

At  the  end  of  the  volume  A  Lover^a  Oofnplaint 
was  printed  for  the  first  time.  In  1040  the  Son- 
nets (except  18,  19,  43,  56,  75,  76,  96,  and  126), 
rearranged  under  various  heads,  were  reprinted, 
with  the  pieces  in  The  Passionate  Pilgrim  and 
other  poems.  The  first  complete  reprint  of  the 
Sonnets,  after  the  edition  of  1609,  was  in  the 
collected  edition  of  Shakespeare's  poems,  pub- 
lished bv  Lintott  in  1709.  So  much  for  facts 
about  which  there  is  no  dispute.  The  question 
whether  the  edition  of  1609  was  authorised  or 
supervised  by  Shakespeare  has  been  much  dis- 
cussed; but  it  appears  to  have  been  definitely 
settled  (by  Dr.  Rolfe)  by  one  little  peculiarity 
in  the  printing  of  the  126th  Sonnet,  if  sonnet  it 
be  called.  It  has  but  twelve  lines,  and  Thorpe 
(or  his  editor),  assuming  that  a  couplet  had 
been  lost,  completed  the  normal  fourteen  lines 
by  two  blank  ones  inclosed  in  marks  of  paren- 
thesis, thus: 

(  ) 

(  ) 

Shakespeare  could  not  have  done  this,  and  Thorpe 
would  not  have  done  it  if  he  had  been  in  com- 
munication with  Shakespeare  or  any  agent  of 
his.  The  piece  is  not  an  imperfect  sonnet  of 
Shakespeare's  pattern,  but  consists  of  six  rhymed 
couplets,  and  the  sense  is  apparently  complete. 
Another  important  question,  not  so  easily  set- 
tled, is  whether  the  Sonnets,  entirely  or  in  part, 
are  autobiographical  or  are  merely  poetical  ex- 
ercises' dealing  with  imaginary  persons  and  ex- 
periences. Editors  and  critics  generally  believe 
that  most  if  not  all  of  the  poems,  to  quote  what 
Wordsworth  says  of  them,  "express  Shake- 
speare's own  feelings  in  his  own  person;"  or,  as 
he  says  in  his  sonnet  on  the  sonnet,  "with  this 
key  Shakespeare  unlocked  his  heart."  Brown- 
ing, quoting  this,  asks:  "Did  Shakespeare?  If 
so,  the  less  Shakespeare  he;"  to  which  Swin- 
burne replies,  "No  whit  the  less  like  Shake- 
speare, but  undoubtedly  the  less  like  Browning." 
To  whom  is  the  dedication  addressed  and  what 
does  it  meant  If  Shakespeare  had  nothing  to 
do  with  Thorpe's  venture,  the  dedication  is 
Thorpe's  own,  as  it  purports  to  be.  But  in  what 
tense  was  "Mr.  W.  H.,"  whoever  he  may  have 
been,  "the  onlie  begetter"  of  the  Sonnets?    Be- 


getter may  mean,  in  the  language  of  the  time, 
either  the  person  to  whom  the  poems  owed  their 
birth  and  to  whom  they  were  originally  addressed, 
or  the  one  who  collected  and  arranged  them  for 
Thorpe.  Most  critics  take  the  word  in  the  former 
and  more  familiar  sense,  but  others  argue  plaus- 
ibly for  the  second  meaning.  If  the  latter  view 
be  correct,  the  identity  of  "Mr.  W.  H."  is  of 
slight  interest;  but  if  he  was  the  poet's  patron 
and  involved  in  the  supposed  personal  revela- 
tions, the  question  is  very  important.  The  only 
theories  concerning  him  that  are  worthy  of  seri- 
ous consideration  are  that  he  was  William  Her- 
bert, Earl  of  Pembroke,  and  that  he  was  Henry 
Wriothesley,  Earl  of  Southampton,  to  whom 
Shakespeare  dedicated  Venus  and  Adonis  and  Ln- 
orece;  and  to  Herbert  and  his  brother  Philip,  Earl 
of  Montgomery,  as  two  patrons  of  the  dramatist, 
the  Folio  of  1623  was  dedicated  by  the  player  edi- 
tors. The  weight  of  critical  authority  in  favor 
of  the  two  theories  is  now  (1903)  about  equal. 
Aocording  to  both,  the  great  majority  of  the 
Sonnets  are  personal  and  were  not  intended  for 
publication.  The  first  126  (or  such  of  these  as 
are  personal)  are  supposed  to  be  addressed  to 
one  man  ("Mr.  W.  H."),  and  the  remainder  to 
one  woman,  the  'dark  lady,'  with  whom  the  poet 
and  that  man  were  entangled.  This  woman  can- 
not be  positively  identified.  Various  attempts 
have  been  made  to  find  an  allegorical,  mystical. 
or  philososphical  meaning  in  the  Sonnets;  and 
"Mr.  W.  H."  has  been  supposed  to  represent  the 
poet's  Ideal  Self,  or  Ideal  Manhood,  or  the  Spirit 
of  Beauty,  or  the  Reason,  or  the  Divine  Lc^; 
and  the  'dark  lady*  to  be  Dramatic  Art,  or  the 
Catholic  Church,  or  the  Bride  of  the  Canticles, 
'black  but  comely.'  More  than  one  critic  has 
assumed  that  "W.  H."  stands  for  "William  Him- 
self;" and  the  entire  series  has  been  supposed  to 
be  addressed  to  Queen  Elizabeth. 

A  Lover's  Complaint,  published  with  Sonnets 
in  1609,  is  written  in  the  same  seven-lined  stanza 
as  Lucreoe,  but  internal  evidence  indicates  that 
it  was  later  than  that  poem.  The  title-page  of 
the  1709  edition  of  the  Poems  refers  to  it  as  "A 
Lover's  Complaint  of  His  Angry  Mistress;"  but 
the  lover'  is  a  girl  who  has  been  betrayed  by 
a  deceitful  youth.  The  Phasniw  and  the  Turtle 
is  the  only  other  poem  by  Shakespeare  not  al- 
ready mentioned.  It  must  have  been  written  be- 
fore 1601,  when  it  was  printed  with  Chester's 
Love's  Martyr,  together  with  poems  by  Marston, 
Chapman,  and  Ben  Jonson. 

After  the  plays  already  considered  we  come  to 
a  group  of  comedies  so  called,  that  are  comedies 
only  in  name,  or  because  they  have  not  a  traoicfll 
ending.  They  are  All's  Well  that  Ends  Well, 
Measure  for  Measure,  and  Troilus  and  Cressida— 
"one  earnest,  another  dark  and  severe,  the  last 
bitter  and  ironical"  (Dowden) .  If  All's  WeU  is  n 
later  form  of  the  Love's  Labour's  Won  in  Merea'i 
list  of  1598,  the  revision  was  probably  made  in 
1601.  Measure  for  Measure  is  supposed  to  ba^'e 
been  written  in  1603  or  early  in  1604.  Troilus 
and  Cressida,  first  published  in  1609,  may  have 
been  written  about  the  same  time,  and  revised 
between  1606  and  1609.  These  plays  appear  to 
form  a  natural  group,  and  indicate  that  Shake- 
speare's interest  was  changing  from  comedy  to 
tragedy,  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  assume  that 
they  were  written  or  revised  in  immediate  suc- 
cession and  apart  from  other  woric    Although  in 


SHAXSSPEABS. 


781 


SHAXESPEABE. 


a  aenfie  they  lead  up  to  the  period  of  the  great 
tragedies,  they  partly  belong  to  it.  Of  these 
tragedies  Hamlet  was  undoubtedly  the  first,  the 
earliest  quarto  edition  having  appeared  in  1603. 
The  next  year  a  second  quarto  was  published, 
claiming  to  be  "newly  imprinted  and  enlarged -to 
almost  as  much  again  as  it  was."  At  least  three 
other  editions  were  printed  before  the  publication 
of  the  FoUo  of  1623,  in  which  the  text  varies  con- 
siderably from  that  of  the  quartos.  The  precise 
relation  of  the  texts  to  one  another  is  a  per- 
plexing question.  Othello  was  performed  on  the 
first  of  November,  1604,  before  King  James,  and 
was  probably  then,  a  new  play.  Macbeth  is  men- 
tioned in  the  manuscript  Diary  of  Dr.  Simon 
Forman,  who  saw  it  "at  the  Glob,  1610,  the  20 
of  Aprill ;"  but  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  writ- 
ten in  1606  or  1607.  King  Lear  was  produced 
about  the  same  time,  and  may  possibly  have  pre- 
ceded MtLcheth,  Antony  and  Cleopatra  and  Co- 
riolanua  must  have  followed  at  no  long  interval, 
the  date  generally  accepted  for  both  being  1607  or 
1608. 

The  transition  from  the  tragedies  to  the  plays 
that  follow  is  most  remarkable.  From  that 
period  of  gloom  and  horror  the  poet  emerges  into 
the  genial  sunshine  of  Cymbeline,  The  Tempest, 
and  The  Winter's  Tale,  Inexorable  retribution 
for  sin  is  no  longer  the  keynote  of  his  dramas, 
but  charity,  forgiveness,  reconciliation,  benignity^ 
almost  divine.  Dowden  aptly  calls  these  last* 
plays  'Romances,'  and  other  critics  have  accept- 
ed the  designation.  "The  dramas  have  a  grave 
beauty,  a  sweet  serenity,  which  seems  to  render 
the  name  'comedies'  inappropriate;  we  may 
smile  tenderly,  but  we  never  laugh  loudly  as  we 
read  them."  Cymheline  was  probably  a  new  play 
when  Dr.  Forman,  as  we  learn  from  his  Diary, 
saw  it  in  1610  or  1611,  the  undated  entry  cer- 
tainly belonging  to  one  of  those  years.  The 
Tempest  was  believed  by  Campbell,  the  poet,  to 
be  the  last  of  Shakespeare's  plays,  and  Lowell 
also  thought  that  in  it  "the  great  enchanter" 
was  "bidding  farewell  to  the  scene  of  his  tri- 
umphs;" but  most  critics  think  that  The  Win- 
ter's Tale  followed  rather  than  preceded  it, 
though  both  must  have  been  written  in  1610  or 
1611.  The  Tempest  was  acted  before  King  James 
at  Whitehall  on  the  1st  of  November,  1611.  The 
Winter's  Tale  was  also  performed  there  four  days 
afterwards;  but  Dr.  Forman  had  seen  it  at  the 
Globe  on  "the  15  of  Maye"  the  same  year,  and 
there  is  evidence  that  the  play  was  originally  li- 
censed in  the  latter  part  of  1610. 

It  is  now  generally  agreed  that  certain  of  the 
plays  included  in  the  standard  editions  of  Shake- 
speare are  partly  the  work  of  other  dramatists. 
The  earliest  plays  of  this  class  belong  to  the 
period  of  his  dramatic  apprenticeship,  when  he 
was  employed  by  theatrical  managers  to  revise  or 
touch  up  old  plays  for  reproduction  on  the  stage. 
Titus  Andronicus  and  the  three  parts  of  Henry 
VI ,  have  been  already  considered,  as  well  as 
the  somewhat  later  Taming  of  the  Shrew,  in 
which  there  is  more  of  his  own  work.  To  these 
are  to  be  added  three  plays  of  the  latter  part  of 
his  career — Timon  of  Athens,  Pericles,  and  Henry 
Vni.,  in  all  of  which  he  had  a  considerable  share, 
though  the  critics  differ  in  their  explanations  of 
the  divided  authorship.  The  Tico  Noble  Kinsmen 
is  another  play  which  some  good  critics  believe 
to  be  partly  Shakespeare's,  and  which  is  included 
Vol.  XV.-47. 


in  several  of  the  more  recent  editions  of  his 
works.  Tlie  title-page  of  the  earliest  edition 
( 1634)  asserts  that  it  was  "Written  by  the  mem- 
orable Worthies  of  their  time ;  Mr.  John  Fletcher 
and  Mr.  William  Shakespeare."  There  can  be 
no  doubt  of  Fletcher's  share  in  it,  but  the  author- 
ship of  the  other  portions  is  imoertain.  The  crit- 
ics are  almost  unanimous  in  deciding  that  Timon 
of  Athens  is  partly  Shakespeare's,  but  they  dis- 
agree as  to  its  probable  history.  Most  of  them 
believe  that  he  laid  the  play  aside  or  left  it  un- 
finished, and  that  it  was  completed  by  an  inferior 
writer.  Others  think  that  he  revamped  an  ear- 
lier play,  parts  of  which  he  retained  with  slight 
alteration.  Internal  evidence  indicates  that  his 
share  of  the  work  was  done  between  1606  and 
1608.  Pericles,  Prince  of  Tyre,  was  first  pub- 
lished in  1609,  with  Shakespeare's  name  on  the 
title-page.  It  was  not  included  in  either  the 
first  or  the  second  (1632)  folio,  but  was  reprint- 
ed with  six  plays  wrongly  attributed  to  Shake- 
speare in  the  third  folio  (1664)  and  the  fourth 
( 1686) .  Rowe  put  it  in  his  editions  ( 1709, 1714) , 
but  it  was  rejected  by  all  other  editors  down  to 
the  time  of  Malone  (1778,  1790),  when  it  was  re- 
stored, and  it  has  kept  its  place  ever  since.  The 
general  opinion  is  that  the  first  two  acts  and  the 
prose  scenes  of  the  fourth  act  are  not  Shake- 
speare's. W^hether  he  enlarged  and  reconstructed 
an  earlier  play,  or  some  other  writer  or  writers 
filled  out  an  unfinished  work  of  his,  is  a  dis- 
puted question;  but  the  latter  seems  to  be  the 
more  reasonable  hypothesis.  The  date  of  the 
play  in  its  present  form  is  probably  1607. 

The  Globe  Theatre  was  burned  on  the  29th  of 
June,  1613,  when  "filled  with  people  to  behold  the 
play,  viz.,  of  Henry  the  Eighth,"  and  the  cause 
of  the  fire  was  a  "peale  of  chambers" — that  is, 
a  discharge  of  small  cannon.  There  can  be  little 
doubt  that  the  play  was  Shakespeare's  Henry 
VIII.,  in  which,  according  to  the  original  stage- 
direction  (iv.  1),  we  have  "chambers  discharged" 
at  the  entrance  of  the  King  to  the  "mask  at  the 
Cardinal's  house."  It  was  probably  written  or 
finished  in  1612  or  early  in  1613.  From  the  in- 
ternal evidence  of  metre  and  style  it  is  quite  clear 
that  portions  of  the  play  are  John  Fletcher's. 
The  peculiarities  of  the  metre  were  noted  by  Rod- 
erick as  early  as  1765;  and  about  1850  Spedding 
and  Hickson,  working  independently,  divided  the 
play  between  Shakespeare  and  Fletcher  in  the 
same  manner.  Several  years  earlier  Tennyson 
had  pointed  out  to  Spedding  the  resemblance  to 
Fletcher's  style  in  parts  of  the  play;  and  it  is  an 
interesting  fact  that  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson,  in 
his  lecture  on  Shakespeare  (written  several  years 
before  it  was  published  in  1850),  also  noted  the 
metrical  evidences  of  two  hands  in  Henry  VIII., 
and  assumed  that  Shakespeare  had  worked  upon 
an  earlier  play,  written  by  a  man  "with  a  vicious 
ear."  He  adds:  "See  Wolsey's  soliloquy  and  the 
following  scene  with  Cromwell,  where,  instead  of 
the  metre  of  Shakespeare,  whose*  secret  is  that  the 
thought  constructs  the  tune,  so  that  reading  for 
the  sense  will  beat  bring  out  the  rhythm,  here 
the  lines  are  constructed  on  a  given  tune,  and  the 
verse  has  even  a  trace  of  pulpit  eloquence.  But 
the  play  contains,  through  all  its  length,  unmis- 
takable traits  of  Shakespeare's  hand,  and  some 
passages  are  like  autographs."  The  passages  that 
Emerson  mentions  are  among  those  which  Sped- 
ding and  others  decide  to  be  Fletcher's.     In  ex- 


SHAKESPBABB. 


7d2 


plaining  the  double  authorship  the  critics  differ, 
as  in  other  cases  of  the  kind;  but  the  majority 
believe  that  Fletcher  completed  an  unfinished 
play  by  Shakespeare. 

Besides  the  six  spurious  plays  in  the  third  folio, 
sundry  others  were  ascribed  to  Shakespeare  dur- 
ing his  life  by  unscrupulous  publishers,  or  after- 
wards by  injudicious  critics.  With  somewhat 
better  reason  he  has  been  supposed  to  have  had  a 
hand  in  the  anonymous  Edward  HL,  and  a  few 
German  critics  think  it  is  entirely  his.  It  is 
difficult  to  ascribe  the  best  portions  of  the  play 
to  any  other  dramatist  of  the  time;  but,  as  Fur- 
nivall  says,  "there  were  doubtless  one-play  men 
in  those  days,  as  there  have  been  one-book  men 
since." 

During  the  latter  half  of  1606  the  King's  Com- 
pany were  playing  in  the  provinces;  but  in  De- 
cember they  had  returned  to  London,  and  in  the 
Christmas  holidays  performed  Lear  before  King 
James  at  Whitehall.  The  year  1607  was  an 
eventful  one  in  the  poet's  domestic  annals.  On 
the  5th  of  June  his  eldest  daughter,  Susanna, 
then  twenty-four  years  of  age  (baptized  May  26, 
1583),  was  married  at  Stratford  to  Dr.  John 
Hall,  who  attained  to  considerable  eminence  as  a 
physician.  In  his  early  days  Hall  had  traveled 
on  the  Continent,  and  had  become  proficient  in 
the  French  language.  After  he  settled  in  Strat- 
ford his  services  and  advice  were  sought  by  the 
best  people  there  and  elsewhere.  He  was  sum- 
moned several  times  to  attend  the  Earl  and 
Countess  of  Northampton,  at  Ludlow  Castle, 
more  than  forty  miles  off — ^no  trifling  journey  in 
those  days.  After  his  death,  his  medical  case- 
book, written  in  Latin,  was  translated  and  pub- 
lished in  London  (1657),  and  other  editions  ap- 
peared in  1670  and  1683.  Dr.  John  Bird,  the 
Oxford  professor,  says  of  the  book:  "The  learned 
author  lived  in  our  own  times,  and  in  the  County 
of  Warwick,  where  he  practiced  many  years  and 
in  great  fame  for  his  skill,  far  and  wide.  Those 
who  seemed  highly  to  esteem  him,  and  whom,  by 
God's  blessing,  he  wrought  those  cures  upon,  you 
shall  find  to  be,  among  others,  persons  noble,  rich, 
and  learned.  And  this  I  take  to  be  a  great  sign 
of  his  ability,  that  such  who  spare  not  for  cost 
.  .  .  nay,  such  as  hated  him  for  his  religion  [he 
was  an  earnest  Puritan]  often  made  use  of  him." 
He  died  November  25,  1635,  at  the  age  of  sixtv. 
In  December,  1607,  Shakespeare's  brother,  Ed- 
mund, died  in  London,  and  was  buried  in  the 
Church  of  St.  Saviour's,  Southwark,  "with  a  fore- 
noone  knell  of  the  great  bell."  His  burial  in  the 
church  was  a  mark  of  respect  seldom  paid  to  an 
actor,  and  the  service  in  the  morning  was  proba- 
bly arranged  in  order  that  the  members  of  the 
Globe  (Dompany  might  be  able  to  attend  it.  Ed- 
mund was  in  his  28th  year  when  he  died.  He 
had  doubtless  come  to  London  and  entered  that 
theatre  through  his  brother's  influence,  but  of  his 
record  as  an  actor  nothing  is  known.  Elizabeth, 
the  only  child  of  the  Halls,  was  baptized  on  the 
21st  of  February,  1608,  the  poet  thus  becoming  a 
grandfather  about  two  months  before  he  was  for- 
ty-four. She  appears  to  have  inherited  his  shrewd 
business  ability,  and  she  lived  to  be  his  last  lineal 
descendant.  She  was  married  in  1626  to  Thomas 
Nash,  a  citizen  of  Stratford,  who  had  been  a 
student  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  London.  He  died  in 
1647,  and  two  years  afterwards  his  widow  mar- 
ried Sir  John  Barnard,  of  Abington  Manor,  near 


Northampton.  She  had  no  children  by  either 
husband.  She  died  and  was  buried  at  Abington, 
February  17,  1669;  but  no  monument  of  any  kind 
preserves  her  ipemory.  In  September,  I6(M, 
Shakespeare-  lost  his  mother,  her  burial  being  re- 
corded on  the  9th  of  the  month  in  the  parish  ro- 
ister thus:  "Mayry  Shaxpere,  wydowe."  He  wis 
probably  in  Stratford  at  the  time  of  the  fimenl, 
and  may  not  have  returned  to  London  until  after 
the  16th  of  October,  when  he  was  the  principal 
godfather  at  the  baptism  of  the  William  Walker 
(son  of  a  local  alderman)  to  whom,  in  1616»  he 
bequeathed  "twenty  shillings  in  gold." 

In  1610  Shakespeare  bought  twenty  aeies  of 
pasture  land,  addii^r  them  to  the  107  acres  bought 
in  1602.  In  February,  1612,  the  town  council  of 
Stratford  resolved  that  plays  were  unlawful  "and 
against  the  example  of  other  well-governed  cities 
and  boroughs."  Ten  years  later  (1622)  the 
King's  Company  were  actually  bribed  by  the  coun- 
cil to  leave  the  town  without  playing;  the  town 
records  showing  that  six  shillings  were  "payd  to 
the  Kings  players  for  not  playinge  in  the  hall." 
This  was  doubtless  out  of  deference  to  the  King, 
and  not  because  it  was  Shakespeare's  old  com- 
pany. In  the  neighboring  town  of  Hcadey-in-Ar^ 
den,  in  October,  1616,  an  order  was  unanimously 
passed  that  no  other  actors  should  have  the  use 
of  the  town  hall.  In  the  Stratford  parish  regis- 
ter, under  date  of  February  3,  1612,  we  find  the 
record  of  the  burial  of  "Gilbertus  Shakespeare, 
adolescens."  It  probably  refers  to  the  peet's 
brother,  Gilbert,  though  (having  been  baptized 
October  13,  1566)  he  would  have  been  at  the  time 
more  than  forty-five  years  old.  In  1597  he  wis 
a  haberdasher  in  London ;  but  in  1602  he  was  in 
Stratford,  acting  for  his  brotiier,  William,  in  a 
conveyance  of  land,  and  in  1609  he  was  a  wit- 
ness to  a  local  deed.  There  is  no  record  of  his 
marriage  or  of  the  birth  of  a  son ;  and  no  son  of 
Gilbert  is  mentioned  in  the  poet's  wilL  It  is 
probable,  therefore,  that  the  'adolescens'  was  a 
slip  of  the  scribe  who  made  the  entry  from  the 
sexton's  notes.  In  February,  1613,  Richard,  prob- 
ably the  poet's  last  surviving  brother  (baptixed 
March  11,  1574),  also  died.  Joan  ( baptized 
April  11,  1569)  was  the  only  child  of  John  and 
Mary  Shakespeare,  except  William,  who  was  now 
left.  She  married  William  Hart,  and  surviyed 
her  famous  brother  thirty  years.  Her  husband 
died  in  April,  1616,  his  burial  taking  place  on  the 
17th,  only  eight  days  before  that  of  tiie  dramatist 
In  March,  1613,  Shakespeare  bought  a  house  in 
London,  near  the  Blackfriars  Theatre,  for  £140, 
of  which  £60  remained  on  mortgage.  He  soon 
leased  it  to  John  Robinson,  one  of  the  persons 
that  had  violently  opposed  the  establishment  of 
the  theatre. 

The  precise  date  of  Shakespeare's  return  to 
Stratford  to  take  up  his  residence  at  New  Plaee 
is  unknown;  but  it  was  probably  aa  early  as 
1611,  when  his  name  appeared  in  a  list  of  leading 
inhabitants  of  the  town  who  raised  a  fund  to 
promote  the  passage  of  a  bill  in  Parliament  "for 
the  better  repair  of  the  highways."  In  the  sfHring 
of  1614  we  find  that  a  Puritan  preacher,  who 
had  been  invited  to  the  town  by  the  corporation, 
was  hospitably  entertained  at  New  Place.  The 
town  records  read:  "For  one  quart  of  sack  and 
and  one  quart  of  claret  wine  given  to  a  preacher 
at  the  New  Place,  xx.  d."  Dr.  Hall  may  have 
been  living  with  Shakespeare  at  the  time^  and  the 


8HAKESPBABE. 


788 


8HAKB0PXAB1B. 


preftcber  may  have  been  invited  to  the  house 
through  his  influence.  On  the  9th  of  July,  1614, 
a  fire  at  Stratford  destroyed  fifty-four  houses, 
besides  bams  and  other  buildings.  Fortunately 
New  Place  and  the  Shakespeare  birthplace  in 
Henley  Stre^  escaped  the  conflagration.  In  that 
same  stunmer  John  Combe  of  Welcombe  died, 
leaving  £5  to  Shakespeaie  in  his  will.  In  the 
autumn  of  1614  the  good  people  of  Stratford 
were  greatly  excited  by  the  attempt  of  William 
Combe,  the  squire  of  Welcombe,  to  inclose  a 
large  portion  of  the  common  fields  near  the  town. 
The  design  was  resisted  by  the  corporation  as 
likely  to  injure  the  agricultural  interests  of  the 
town  and  materially  to  diminish  the  tithes.  For 
this  latter  reason,  if  for  no  other,  Shakespeare 
would  naturally  have  been  opposed  to  the 
scheme ;  but  it  seems  probable  that  he  was  finally 
induced  to  favor  it,  being  assured  by  Combe  that 
hie  personal  interests  should  suffer  no  detriment. 
It  does  not  appear,  however,  that  he  took  any 
active  pturt  in  promoting  the  inclosures,  which 
were  finally  prohibited  by  an  order  issued  by 
Chief  Justice  Coke  on  the  27th  of  March,  1615. 

On  the  lOth  of  February,  1616,  Judith,  the 
poet's  yomiser  dau^ter,  so  charmingly  idealized 
m  Mr.  Blab's  novel  bearing  her  name,  was  mar- 
ried to  Thomas  Quiney,  who  was  nearly  four 
years  her  junior,  having  been  baptized  on  the 
20th  of  February,  1589.  He  was  an  accomplished 
penman,  and  we  may  infer  that  he  was  acquainted 
with  French  from  a  motto  in  that  language  which 
he  inserted  in  an  oflkial  document.  At  the  time 
of  his  marriage  he  was  in  business  as  a  vintner, 
and  was  patronized  by  the  corporation  and  the 
leading  citizens.  In  1617  he  was  elected  a 
burgess,  and  in  1621-23  acted  as  chamberlain. 
In  1630  he  retired  from  the  council,  and,  his  busi- 
ness having  fallen  off,  he  removed  in  1652  to 
London,  where  he  died  a  few  years  later.  He 
had  three  sons,  two  of  whom  died  in  infancy  and 
the  third  when  twenty  years  old.  Judith 
Quiney  lived  to  the  age  of  76,  surviving  all  the 
members  of  her  family  except  her  aimt,  Joan 
Hart.  Judith's  marriage  took  place  without  a 
license,  an  irregularity  for  whicn  a  fine  was  im* 
posed  by  the  ecclesiastical  court  at  Worcester. 
As  no  other  cause  is  known  or  suspected,  it  is 
supposed  that  the  nuptials  were  hastened  on  ac* 
eoont  of  the  failing  health  of  her  father. 

He  had  made  his  will  in  the  latter  part  of  Jan- 
nary,  and  from  the  original  date  and  some  other 
erasures  in  the  document  it  appears  to  have  been 
a  corrected  draft  for  the  engrossed  copy  that  was 
to  be  signed  on  the  25th  of  the  month,  but  for 
some  reason  this  was  postponed.  The  draft  was 
therefore  laid  aside  imtil  Shakespeare's  condi- 
tion became  suddenly  worse,  when  his  lawyer 
was  hurriedly  summoned  from  Warwick,  and, 
without  waitmg  to  make  a  regular  transcript  of 
the  will,  it  was  signed  after  a  few  more  altera- 
tions had  been  hastily  made.  The  most  peculiar 
interlineation  in  the  document,  and  one  which 
has  been  much  discussed  as  perhaps  bearing  on 
the  question  whether  the  poet  wtis  happy  in  his 
domestic  relations,  is  that  in  which  he  leaves  his 
widow  his  "second  best  bed,  with  the  furniture." 
The  first  best  bed  was  the  one  generally  reserved 
for  visitors,  and,  being  perhaps  a  family  heir- 
loom, would  have  descended  to  his  eldest  daugh- 
ter ae  "undevisable  property.'  There  is  no  other 
reference  to  l^stress  Shakespeare  in  the  will; 
but  she  was  amply  provided  for  by  virtue  of  her 


r^^ts  of  dower,  and  such  omission  in  a  case  of 
this  kind  was  by  no  means  uncommon  in  wills 
of  the  time.  The  gift  of  the  bed,  like  many 
similar  bequests  in  those  old  wills,  was  doubtless 
prompted  by  love  and  tender  associations,  and  not 
the  insult  it  would  otherwise  have  been — an  in- 
sult which  William  Shakespeare  on  his  death-bed 
could  never  have  infiicted  on  the  mother  of  his 
children.  We  have  seen,  moreover,  that  as  soon 
as  he  began  to  be  prosperous  in  London  he 
bought  the  dilapidated  New  Place,  and,  as  last 
as  his  means  allowed,  repaired  the  house,  en- 
larged and  improved  the  estate,  and  gradually 
made  it  the  elegant  and  delightful  home  which 
must  have  been  his  ideal  from  the  first,  and 
which  he  kept  steadily  in  view  for  the  fourteen 
or  more  years  before  he  returned  to  Stratford 
to  enjoy  it.  That  during  all  that  time  he  looked 
forward  to  sharing  that  home  with  a  wife  whom 
he  did  not  love  is  inconceivable. 

Shakespeare  died  on  Tuesday,  April  23,  1616. 
According  to  a  tradition  of  which  no  mention 
occurs  until  about  fifty  years  later,  the  poet  in 
the  latter  part  of  March  was  visited  by  his 
friends  Drayton  and  Ben  Jonson;  and  at  a 
'•merry  meeting"  in  a  Stratford  tavern,  the  three 
"drank  too  hard,  for  Shakespeare  died  of  a 
feavour  there  contracted."  But  the  story  prob- 
ably had  no  other  foundation  than  the  popular 
notion  of  the  time  that  fevers  were  generally 
due  to  some  excess  in  eating  or  drinking.  It  is 
more  likely,  as  Halliwell-PhiUipps  suggests,  that 
Shakespeare's  disease  was  induced  by  the 
wretched  sanitary  conditions  of  the  immediate 
neighborhood  of  New  Place — ^an  explanation  that 
would  not  have  occurred  even  to  tiie  medical  men 
of  the  time. 

The  funeral  of  **Will.  Shakespeare,  gent.,"  ac- 
cording to  the  parish  register,  occurred  on  the 
25th  of  April.  His  remains  were  deposited  in 
the  chancel  of  the  church,  that  being  the  legal 
place  for  the  interment  of  the  owners  of  ttie 
tithes.  The  grave  is  covered  with  a  slab  bearing 
this  inscription: 

Good  frond,  for  Jesns  sake  forb«are 
To  dlgff  the  dust  encloaeed  hearo; 
Bleste  be  the  man  that  spans  ttaes  stoiiee. 
And  curst  be  be  that  moves  my  bones. 

According  to  a  tradition  that  dates  back  only 
to  1693,  the  lines  were  composed  by  the  poet 
himself  "a  little  before  his  death;**  but  neither 
Dugdale  in  1656  nor  Rowe  in  1709,  when 
referring  to  the  tomb,  ascribes  them  to  him.  If 
he  desired  that  the  verses,  or  something  to  the 
same  effect,  should  be  put  on  the  stone,  it  was 
doubtless  from  fear  that  his  bones  might  be  re- 
moved at  some  time  to  the  ancient  chamel  house 
that  adjoined  the  chancel  wall  near  his  grave. 
The  monument  to  Shakespeare  in  the  chancel 
was  erected  before  1623,  when  it  was  mentioned 
in  the  verses  by  Leonard  Digges  in  the  folio  pub- 
lished that  year.  It  consist  of  an  ornamental 
niche  in  which  is  a  life-sized  bust  supposed  to 
have  been  copied  from  a  posthumous  cast  of 
the  poet's  face.  It  has  no  merit  as  a  work  of  art, 
but  as  a  portrait  it  must  have  been  considered 
tolerable  enough  to  be  accepted  by  the  surviving 
relatives.  It  was  originally  painted,  the  eyes 
being  hazel  and  the  hair  and  beard  auburn;  but 
in  1793,  at  Malone's  instigation,  it  was  covered 
with  a  coat  of  white  paint,  which  remained  until 
1861,  when  the  former  coloring  was  restored. 
The  only  other  portrait  of  the  poet  the  authen- 


SHAXESPEABE. 


784 


8HASESPEABE. 


ticity  of  which  ia  indisputable  is  the  engraving 
by  Martin  Droeshout  in  the  Folio  of  1623;  but 
though  it  has  a  general  resemblance  to  the  bust, 
it  is  equally  poor  in  execution.  A  painted  por- 
trait in  the  Shakespeare  Memorial  Gallery  at 
Stratford  is  believed  by  some  experts  to  be  the 
orignal  of  the  Folio  engraving,  but  it  may  have 
been  copied  from  the  latter.  Shakespeare's 
widow  survived  him  for  more  than  seven  years, 
the  record  of  the  burial  being  dated  February  8, 
1623.  Tradition  says  that  she  earnestly  desired 
to  be  buried  in  the  same  grave  with  her  husband, 
and  her  tombstone  is  beside  his. 

The  Folio  of  1623,  the  first  collected  edition 
of  Shakespeare's  plays,  was  nominally  edited  by 
John  Heming  and  Henry  Condell,  two  of  his 
friends  and  fellow-actors,  and  was  brought  out 
by  a  syndicate  of  five  publishers  and  printers. 
It  contained  thirty-six  of  the  thirty-seven  plays 
commonly  ascribed  to  the  poet  ( Pericles  being 
omitted),  arranged  as  in  many  modem  editions 
under  the  head  of  "Comedies,"  "Histories,"  and 
"Tragedies."  Twenty  plays  appear  in  it  for  the 
first  time,  the  other  sixteen  having  been  previous- 
ly printed  in  quarto  form. 

The  typographical  execution  of  the  volume 
demands  particular  attention  on  account  of  the 
confused  and  contradictory  descriptions  given  by 
some  editors  and  commentators  and  the  use  that 
the  Baconian  heretics  have  made  of  it.  Accord- 
ing to  the  latter,  the  Folio  was  edited  by  Bacon, 
being  a  collection  of  his  plays  carefully  revised, 
corrected,  and  put  into  the  shape  in  which  he  de- 
sired to  hand  them  down  to  posterity.  Shake- 
spearean critics,  on  the  other  hand,  assume  that 
the  Folio  is  just  what  it  purports  to  be — a  col- 
lection of  plays  by  William  Shakespeare,  made 
seven  years  after  his  death  by  persons  who  had 
no  skill  in  editing,  and  who  did  little  except  to 
furnish  the  publisher  with  the  best  copies  of  the 
plays  they  could  get;  these  being  partly  manu- 
scripts used  in  the  theatre,  and  partly  the  earlier 
quartos  that  had  also  been  used  by  the  actors 
in  learning  their  parts.  These  critics  believe 
that  internal  evidence  shows,  beyond  a  doubt, 
that  the  Folio  could  not  have  had  editor  or  edit- 
ing in  any  proper  sense.  That  the  'copy'  came 
from  the  theatre  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  the 
names  of  actors  are  often  found  prefixed  to 
speeches  instead  of  the  proper  dramatis  personal ; 
as,  for  instance,  ''Kemp"  nine  times  and 
"Kem."  thrice  before  Dogberry's  speeches,  and 
"Cowley"  twice  and  "Couley"  once  before  those 
of  Verges,  in  Much  Ado  (iv.  2),  William  Kemp 
and  Richard  Cowley  were  actors  of  the  time  in 
London.  Some  of  the  plays  are  divided  through- 
out into  acts  and  scenes;  some  only  into  acts; 
some  partly  divided,  or  inconsistently  divided; 
some  not  divided  at  all.  Only  seven  plays  have 
lists  of  dramatis  personam — in  every  instance  at 
the  end  of  the  play.  Words  and  phrases  from 
foreign  languages  are  wretchedly  corrupted. 
Latin  is  printed  with  tolerable  accuracy,  though 
sometimes  editors  have  been  in  doubt  whether  a 
phrase  was  Latin  or  French;  but  French,  Span- 
ish, and  Italian  are  almost  invariably  misprint- 
ed, and  often  ridiculously  so.  In  the  Merry 
Wives  (i.  4),  for  instance,  "Ma  foi,  il  fait  fort 
chaud:  je  m'en  vais  a  la  cour — ^la  grande  af- 
faire" (as  corrected  by  Rowe)  appears  thus: 
"mai  fay,  il  fait  fort  chando^  Je  man  voi  a  le 
Court  la  Grand  affaires;^*  and  "un  garcon"  as 
"oon  garsoon"  Verse  is  often  printed  as  prose, 


and  prose  as  verse;  stage  directions  are  ouide 
parts  of  the  text,  and  vice  versa.  The  punctua-' 
tion  is  careless  throughout,  and  often  absurd. 
In  short,  there  is  hardly  a  possible  typographical 
blunder  or  perversion  of  which  we  do  not  find 
frequent  examples.  Heming  and  Condell  doubt- 
less did  the  work  as  well  as  they  could,  but  not 
as  Shakespeare,  if  he  had  lived,  would  have 
done  it,  or  as  Bacon,  if  the  book  had  been  his, 
would  have  done  it.  The  player-editors,  indeed, 
seem  to  think  that  their  task  has  been  performed 
very  creditably.  In  their  preface,  after  referring 
to  the  quartos  as  "diverse  stolne,  and  surrepti- 
tious copies,  maimed  and  deformed  by  the 
frauds  and  stealthes  of  injurious  impostors," 
they  add:  "even  those  are  now  offered  to  your 
view  cur'd,  and  perfect  of  their  limbes;  and  all 
the  rest,  absolute  in  their  numbers  [metre],  as 
he  conceived  them."  It  has  nevertheless  been 
shown  by  careful  examination  and  computation 
that  the  number  of  'readings'  in  the  volume  that 
are  either  clearly  wrong  or  in  the  highest  de- 
gree suspicious  is  about  twenty  thousand,  and 
the  number  of  typographical  errors  of  all  kinds 
in  those  readings  and  elsewhere  must  be  many 
times  twenty  thousand.  The  second  folio  ( 1632) 
was  a  reprint  of  the  first,  with  few  changes  for 
the  better  except  (as  Professor  C.  Alphonso 
Smith,  of  the  Louisiana  State  University,  has 
shown  in  the  Leipzig  Englische  Studien  for  De- 
cember, 1901)  in  syntactical  corrections.  The 
third  folio,  a  reprint  of  the  second,  with  few 
variations  of  any  value  or  interest,  was  first  pub- 
lished in  1663.  It  was  reissued  the  n^ct  year 
with  seven  plays  added:  Pericles;  The  London 
Prodigal;  The  History  of  Thomas  Lord  Crom- 
well; Sir  John  Oldoastle;  The  Puritan  Widow; 
A  Yorkshire  Tragedy;  and  Locrine.  The  fourth 
folio  (1685)  was  a  reprint  of  that  of  1664  (in- 
cluding the  seven  plays  just  mentioned)  with 
the  spelling  somewhat  modernized,  but  no  other 
change.  After  the  publication  of  the  fourth 
folio,  no  collected  edition  of  Shakespeare's  works 
appeared  until  1709,  when  Rowe's  (6  vols., 
octavo)  was  brought  out.  It  was  based  on  the 
text  of  the  fourth  folio.  The  poems  were  not 
included  until  the  second  edition  (9  vols.)  was 
issued  in  1714.  Rowe  made  some  corrections  in 
the  text,  and  modernized  the  spelling  and  point- 
ing, besides  inserting  lists  of  dramatis  persona. 
Among  other  complete  editions  of  the  eight- 
eenth century  and  the  early  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth that  have  any  critical  value,  the  follow- 
ing may  be  mentioned:  Pope's  (6  vols.,  1723-25; 
other  editions  appeared  in  1728,  1735,  and 
1768);  Lewis  Theobald's  (7  vols.,  1733;  other 
eds.  in  1740,  1752,  etc.) ;  Sir  Thomas  Hanmer's 
(6  vols.,  1744)  ;  Bishop  Warburton's  (8  vols., 
1747);  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson's  (8  vols.,  1765); 
Edward  Capell's  (10  vols.,  1768);  George 
Steevens's  revision  of  Johnson's  ed.  (10  vols., 
1773;  2d  ed.  1778)  ;  Isaac  Reed's  revision  of  the 
preceding  (10  vols.,  1785);  Edmund  Malone's 
(10  vols.,  1790);  Steevens's,  with  Boydell's  il- 
lustrations (9  vols.,  1802;  in  parts,  1791-1802); 
Reed's  first  ed.  with  his  name  (21  vols.,  1803; 
2d  ed.  1813)  ;  Alexander  Chalmers's  (10  vols., 
1805) ;  the  **Variorum  of  1821,"  edited  by  James 
Boswell,  from  a  corrected  proof  left  by  Malone 
(21  vols.).  Since  1821  editions  have  rapidly 
multiplied,  and  the  bulk  of  Shakespearean  liter- 
ature has  immensely  increased.  For  the  bibliog- 
raphy of  the  subject,  consult:  Lowndes,  Library 


SHASESPEABX. 


785 


ftTTAT.iy.11. 


Manual  (Bohn's  ed.) ;  Franz  Thimm,  Shake- 
ijyeareana  (1864  and  1871),  the  Encyclopcedia 
Briiannica  (9th  ed.),  and  the  British  Museum 
Catalogue,  the  Shakespeareana  of  which  were  pub- 
lished separately  in  1897.  The  Catalogue  of  the 
Barton  Collection  (Boston  Public  Library)  is 
also  Taluable  for  reference.  Consult:  Dowden, 
Shakspere:  Bis  Mind  and  Art  (1875);  Corson, 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Shakespeare  (1889) ; 
Hudson,  Life  J  Art,  and  Characters  of  Shakespeare 
(1872)  ;  Halliwell-Phillipps,  Life  of  Shakespeare 
(7th  ed.  1887);  Jjee,  Life  of  William  Shakespeare 
(1898)  ;  and  the  biographical  and  critical  intro- 
duction, by  Fumivall,  in  the  Leopold  edition, 
and  the  commentaiy  in  Fumess's  New  Variorum 
edition. 

SHAKESPEABE  SOCIETIES.  Down  to 
about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  the 
criticism  of  Shakespeare  had  been  mainly 
esthetic  and  philosophical.  For  the  purpose  of 
illustrating  Shakespeare  and  the  literature  of  his 
time,  J.  O.  Halliwell  (afterwards  Halliwell-Phil- 
lip^)  (q.v.),  John  Payne  Collier  (q.v.)>  aud 
their  friends  founded  in  1841  the  first  Shake- 
speare Society.  Before  its  dissolution  in  1853,  it 
published  forty-eight  volumes.  In  spite  of  much 
careless  editing,  these  publications  are  of  very 
great  value.  In  1874  F.  J.  Fumivall  (q.v.), 
aided  by  a  group  of  English  scolars,  set  on  foot 
the  New  Shakspere  Society,  whose  first  publica- 
tions on  verse-tests  were  epoch-making  in  the 
history  of  Shakespearean  scholarship.  On  the 
celebration  of  the  three  hundredth  anniversary  of 
Shakespeare's  birth  at  Weimar  (April  23,  1864) 
the  German  Shakespeare  Society  (the  Deutsche 
Shakespeare-Oesellschaft)  was  established.  Since 
1865  it  has  issued  a  year  book  {Jahrhuch) ,  rep- 
resentative of  the  best  German  criticism.  In 
1885  the  Shakespeare  Society  of  New  York  was 
organized,  with  J.  Appleton  Morgan  as  its  first 
president.  Besides  publishing  its  transactions,  it 
has  issued,  under  Mr.  Morgan's  supervision,  the 
Bankside  Shakespeare  (20  vols.,  1888-92).  The 
text  of  the  quartos  is  printed  by  the  side  of  the 
text  of  the  first  folio  (1623). 

SKATiK  (Ger.  Sohale,  OHG.  scala,  AS.  scealu, 
shell,  husk,  scale;  connected  with  OChurch  Slav. 
skoWca^  mussel,  Lith.  skelti,  to  split).  An  in- 
durated clay  consolidated  chiefiy  by  the  pressure 
of  overlying  sediments.  It*  often  forms  heavy 
beds  in  many  geological  formations.  In  the 
Carboniferous  formation  shale  beds  of  slaty  ap- 
pearance are  frequently  associated  with  the  coal 
and  are  erroneously  termed  slate  by  the  miners. 
Shale  varies  considerably  in  composition  and 
color,  and  this  variation  exerts  an  important  in- 
fiuenoe  on  its  uses.  When  ground  and  mixed 
with  water  many  shales  become  as  plastic  as 
ordinary  surface  clays.  Some  approach  kaolinite 
in  composition,  and  are  very  refractory,  being 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  fire-brick.  Others 
contain  an  abundance  of  impurities  such  as  iron 
oxide  and  lime  carbonate.  The  former  are  most- 
ly employed  in  the  manufacture  of  common  brick, 
unless  the  percentage  of  iron  oxide  is  high,  when 
they  lend  themselves  more  readily  to  the  manu- 
facture of  mineral  paint.  Calcareous  shales  are 
often  valuable  as  an  ingredient  of  Portland  ce- 
ment. The  gray  or  black  color  of  shale  is  usually 
caused  by  tne  presence  of  carbonaceous  matter, 
and  there  may  be  a  notable  quantity  of  bitumen. 
When  there  is  sufficient  bitumen  present  so  that 


the  mineral  crackles  and  blazes  in  the  fire,  emit- 
ting a  black  smoke  and  bituminous  odor,  it  is 
known  as  bituminous  shale.  This  variety  some- 
times passes  into  coal.  When  shale  is  metamor- 
phosed it  changes  to  slate,  or  by  more  intense 
metamorphism  into  schist.  The  slate  splits  along 
its  cleavage  planes,  and  not  along  the  planes  of 
stratification  as  in  the  case  of  the  shale.  By  an 
increase  in  sandiness  shale  may  pass  into  sand- 
stone, or  (by  an  increase  of  lime  carbonate)  into 
limestone. 

The  value  of  certain  decomposed  shales, 
through  which  iron  sulphide  is  disseminated  for 
the  manufacture  of  alum,  has  been  long  recog- 
nized. Such  shales  are  known  as  alum  shales. 
Shales  of  this  kind  are  worked  in  Great  Britain, 
France,  and  Germany. 

Bituminous  shales  have,  in  recent  years,  at- 
tracted much  notice  as  sources  of  oil  for  il- 
luminating purposes.  Such  shales,  which  com- 
monly occur  in  beds  of  Carboniferous  age,  have 
been  found  upon  trial  to  yield  from  30  to  50 
gallons  of  crude  oil  per  ton.  A  large  industry 
based  upon  the  distillation  of  shales  has  been 
established  in  Scotland.    See  PetBoleum;  Clat. 

SHAI<E  OIL.  A  mineral  oil  obtained  from 
carbonaceous  shale.  The  oil  is  similar  in  general 
character  to  petroleum  and  is  produced  by  the 
simple  process  of  distilling  in  retorts  shale  that 
is  rich  in  bituminous  matter,  whereby  the  vol- 
atile hydrocarbons  that  pass  off  are  recovered 
by  condensation.  The  crude  oil  by  refining  is 
made  to  yield  naphtha,  paraffin,  and  an  illu- 
minating product  or  kerosene,  all  of  which  are 
identical  with  the  products  obtained  from  the 
refining  of  American  or  Russian  petroleum.  In 
the  distillation  process  a  considerable  quantity 
of  ammonia  water  is  condensed,  forming  a  val- 
uable by-product.  The  shale-oil  industry  is 
limited  to  certain  districts  of  Scotland,  more 
especially  Linlithgowshire  and  Edinburghshire, 
where  large  supplies  of  oil  shale  are  found  in  the 
Carboniferous  rocks.  One  ton  of  shale  yield** 
about  forty  gallons  of  oil  distillate.  It  is  only 
by  practicing  the  utmost  economy  that  the  in- 
dustry has  heen  able  to  survive  the  competition 
of  American  petroleum.  The  present  output  of 
the  Scottish  industry  is  alout  500,000  barrels  of 
petroleum  and  400,000  barrels  of  naphtha  and 
heavy  oils. 

SHA^EB,  Nathaniel  Southoate  (1841  —  ). 
An  American  geologist,  bom  in  Newport,  Ey. 
He  graduated  in  1862  at  the  Lawrence  Scientific 
School  of  Harvard  University,  and  afterwards 
served  for  two  years  in  the  Federal  Army  as  cap- 
tain of  a  Kentucky  volunteer  battery.  In  1864 
he  was  appointed  an  assistant  in  paleontology  at 
Harvard,  and  in  the  following  year  became  an 
instructor  in  geology  in  the  Lawrence  Scientific 
School.  He  was  professor  of  paleontology  in 
Harvard  University  from  1868  until  1887,  when 
he  became  professor  of  geology.  In  1891  he  became 
dean  of  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School.  From 
1873  to  1880  he  was  director  of  the  Kentucky 
Grcological  Survey,  and  in  1884  became  geologist 
for  the  Atlantic  Coast  division  of  the  New  York 
Geological  Survey.  In  addition  to  numerous 
memoirs  and  magazine  articles,  and  official  re- 
ports, he  published:  Thoughts  on  the  Nature  of 
Intellectual  Property  and  Its  Importance  to  the 
State  (1878)  ;  Illustrations  of  the  Earth's  Sur- 
face: Glaciers  (1881),  with  Prof.  W.  M.  Davis; 


BWATiER. 


786 


8HA1CANI81L 


Fir$t  Book  in  Geology  (1885) ;  Kentucky  (1885), 
in  the  ''American  Commonwealth  Series;"  The 
Vfuted  Btatea  of  America:  A  Study  of  the  Amer- 
«oo»  ComtnomDealth  (1894);  The  Interpretation 
of  Nature  (1895);  Domeetioated  Animate 
(1895);  Nature  and  Man  in  America  (1895); 
American  Highways  (1896);  Outlines  of  the 
Earth's  History  (1898);  and  The  Individual: 
A  Study  of  Life  and  Death  (1900). 

SHALLOT  (OF.  eschalote,  esohalotte,  Fr.  ^ha- 
lots,  from  OF.  eschalone,  escalogne,  escalone,  seal- 
lion,  from  Lat.  Asoaloneus,  relating  to  Ascalon, 
from  AscaUm,  from  Ok.  'AexaX^^  AskaUhi,  Asca- 
lon,  a  dty  of  Palestine),  Allium  €LsoalofUoum.  A 
perennial  herb  of  the  natural  order  Liliaceee,  a 
native  of  the  East,  introduced  into  Europe,  it  is 
said»  from  Ascalon,  by  the  Crusaders,  and  much 
cultivated  for  its  bulbs  and  leaves,  which  are 
used  respectively  like  those  of  onion  and  chive. 
The  shallot  is  generally  propagated  by  the  cloves, 
which,  if  planted  in  spring,  produce  a  crop  by 
July  or  August.  The  flavor  resembles  but  is 
milder  than  that  of  garlic. 

SHALLOW.  An  empty-headed  country  jus- 
tice in  Shakespeare's  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor 
and  Second  Part  of  Henry  IV,,  fond  of  boasting 
of  his  youthful  pranks,  and  probably  a  satire  on 
Sir  Thomas  Lucy,  Shakespeare's  enemy. 

SHALHANESEB,  shftl'm&n«^z&  (Heb. 
ShaUmaneser,  from  Assyr.  Shulmanu-asharidUy 
Shulman  is  first).  The  name  of  several  famous 
kings  o^  Assyria.  (1)  Shalicanbseb  L  (about 
B.C.  1300)  was  the  first  Assyrian  monarch  to  at- 
tempt successfully  dominion  in  the  west.  He 
seems  to  have  crossed  the  Euphrates  and  to  have 
conquered  the  Musri,  a  people  north  of  Syria. 
He  removed  the  capital  from  Asshur  to  the  more 
central  Calah,  south  of  Nineveh,  the  modem 
Nebi-Yunus  (cf.  Gen.  x.  11;  see  Nikeveh/.  (2) 
Shalmaneseb  IL  (B.C.  800-825)  continued  the 
western  conquests  of  his  father,  Asshumazirnal 
III.,  who  had  pressed  as  far  as  Lebanon.  No 
Assyrian  kinff  excelled  him  in  the  number  of  his 
campaigns,  vmich  amounted  to  twenty-six;  twen- 
ty-five times  he  crossed  the  Euphrates,  and  five 
times  he  invaded  Syria.  In  b.c.  854  he  met  Ben- 
hadad  II.  of  Damascus,  who  was  supported  by 
most  of  the  South-Syrian  States,  including  the 
forces  of  Ahab  of  Israel,  and  also  by  contingents 
from  Cilicia  and  Arabia,  in  a  great  battle  at 
Karkar;  although  he  infiicted  defeat  upon  the 
allies  and  ravaged  the  territory  of  Damascus,  he 
was  not  able  to  crush  that  city.  In  b.o.  842  he 
defeated  Hazael  of  Damascus  near  Mount  Her- 
mon  and  received  the  tribute  of  Jehu  of  IsraeL 
He  also  had  wars  with  Urartu,  to  the  north  of 
Assyria,  and  made  a  successful  campaign  through 
Babylonia,  which  he  brought  under  his  protect- 
orate. His  western  campaigns  seem,  however, 
to  have  added  little  of  solid  result  to  his  father's 
work.  (3)  Shalmaneseb  IV.  (b.c.  727-722) 
succeeded  Tiglathpileser,  but  his  relation  to  the 
latter  is  not  known.  Most  scanty  notes  of  his 
reign  have  come  down  to  us  in  the  Assyrian 
annals,  and  the  Old  Testament  is  almost  the  M>le 
source  (II.  Kincs  xvii.-xviii.).  At  the  beginning 
of  his  reign  he  had  a  campaign  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Damascus.  In  b.c.  725  Hoshea  of  Israel 
refused  tribute,  relying  upon  Egyptian  aid,  and 
Shalmaneser  proceeded  to  destroy  the  little  State. 
He  laid  siege  to  its  capital,  Samaria,  which  held 
out  stubbornly  for  three  years  and  was  finally 


captured  by  his  sucoesaor,  Sarson  (orpoe8iblv*by 
Shialmaneser  himself  shortly  oefore  lus  death). 
Josephus  also  refers  to  a  five  years'  siege  of 
Tyre,  but  this  is  not  corroborated.  No  historieal 
inscriptions  of  Shalmaneser  L  have  been  found. 
The,  elaborate  inscriptions  of  Shalnumeaer  IL 
have  been  frequently  published,  especially  those 
portions,  such  as  the  so-called  'Black  Obeliskp' 
bearing  upon  Bible  lands.  Consult:  Winekler  and 
Peiser,  in  KeiUnschriftliche  Bihliothek,  L  (Leip- 
zig, 1889) ;  Scheil,  in  Records  of  the  Past,  new 
series,  iv.  (London,  1888). 

SHAXA,  sh&'mA  (Hind,  sham^t).  A  thrush- 
like  bird  {Copsychus  macrura)  of  India,  where  it 
is  regarded  as  the  finest  of  local  song-birds,  and  i3 
constantly  caught  and  caged.  Its  colors  are  in 
the  male  black  and  chestnut,  but  those  of  the 
female  are  paler.  One  species  inhabits  the  Phil- 
ippines. Gcmsult  English  Illustrated  Magazine, 
May,  1803. 

BHAMAJSnSK,    sh&^mem-Is'm     (Pers.     sha^ 
man,  idolater) .    The  name  applied  to  the  religion 
of  certain  Ural-Altaic  peoples,  as  Finns,  Hunga- 
rians, Turks,  Mongolians,  and  Tunguses,  but  chief- 
ly those  of  Northwestern  Asia.  At  present.  Sha- 
manism is  best  represented  by  the  practices  of  the 
Tunguses.     According  to  them  there  are  three 
spiritual  realms,  heavenly,  earthly,  and  subter- 
ranean.    The  earthly  realm  is  on  the  surface 
of  the  earth;  the  other  two  consist  of  stories 
above  and  below  the  earth's  surface.     The  good 
spirits  live  abovp  or  on  the  earth ;  the  evil,  below 
(within)   it.    The  upper  world  of  light  is  com- 
nosed  of  seventeen  such  stories  or  heavens;  the 
lower  world  of  darkness,   of  seven    (or  nine) 
hells.    Above  live  the  greatest  lords,  kans,  gods, 
good  spirits,  and  blessed  ghosts;  below,  devils, 
demons,  kobolds,  goblins,  gnomes,  swan-maidens, 
and  the  damned.    These  were  the  first  creations. 
The  world  was  created  by  Kaira  Kan,  the  highest 
god.    The  first  man  had  evil  designs  and  conse- 
quently lost  his  ethereal  nature,  but  Kaira,  oat 
of  compassion,  created  earth  for  him,  till  his 
continued  impiety  caused  him  to  be  bankhed  into 
the  darkness.    This  man  was  Erlik,  who  became 
the  lord  of  hell.    But  Kaira  made  other  men  to 
live  on  the  earth,  thus  creating  the  nine  an- 
cestors of  the  nine  races  of  men.    Erlik,  however, 
misled  them,  so  that  Kaira  resolved  to*leave  mm 
to  themselves  hereafter;  but  the  god  asain  con- 
demned Erlik  to  live  in  the  under  world,  while 
he  made  for  himself  the  upper  world  of  seventeen 
heavens.     Seeing  this,  Erlik  made  a  last  effort 
to  be  as  great  as  Kaira,  and  alao  created  a 
heaven;  but  Kaira  shattered  it  and  this  time 
thrust  Erlik  down  to  live  forever  in  the  next  to 
the  lowest  world  of  darkness,  ascending  himself 
to    his    permanent    abode    in    the    seventeenth 
heaven.     From  Kaira  came  as  emanations  the 
three  highest  gods,  Bai  Uelg&n,  who  lives  in  the 
sixteenth  heaven,  Kysagan,  in  the  ninth  heaven, 
and  Mergen,  in  the  seventh  heaven,  where  also 
lives  the  mother  sun,  while  the  father  moon 
lives  in  the  sixth  heaven.    The  demiurge  creator 
dwells  in  the  fifth  heaven,  and  Bai  UelgAn'e  two 
sons  in  the  third  heaven.     Here,  in  tiie  third 
heaven,  is  the  spring  of  all  life,   the  sea  of 
milk,'  the  mountain  of  the  gods,  and  the  para- 
dise to  which  go  the  souls  of  the  virtuous  and 
the  blessed. 

Beneath  this  realm  Is  that  of  Jersu,  earth  it^ 
self,   conceived  aa  an  animate  spiritoal  oea- 


8HAMANI8X. 


787 


SHAKBOGK. 


tkm.  There  are  seventeen  lords  of  Jersu,  each 
like  a  god.  One  is  the  lord  of  the  Seventeen 
Seas;  another,  the  highest,  is  Jo  Kan,  who  in- 
habits the  navel  of  earth  and  has  power  equal 
to  that  of  the  gods  of  heaven ;  and  a  third  is  the 
national  god  iUtai  Kan. 

All  the  gods  and  demi-gods  of  heaven  and 
earth  are  favorable  to  man  and  do  him  no  harm; 
but  only  the  Jersu  Kans  may  be  approached 
directly  by  common  men.  The  spirits  of  the  up- 
per world  and  of  the  under  world  must  be  ap- 
proadied  through  the  mediatory  spirits  of  the 
dead ;  in  the  case  of  good  gods  through  the  8omo, 
that  is,  the  nine  guardian  ancestors  of  man. 
But»  again,  only  certain  families  of  men  now 
living  can  control  the  Somo  and  other  Manes. 
The  power  to  move  the  spirits  is  inherent  in  cer- 
tain families.  This  power  manifests  itself  by 
ecstasy,  and  by  inspiration  shown  in  trembling, 
sweating  contortions,  ravings,  and  fits.  When 
thus  inspired,  one  can  act  as  mediator  between 
men  and  the  spirits,  and  he  who  does  this  is  a 
wizard  and  a  Shaman  or  Kam,  his  function 
being  called  hamlanie.  The  Shaman  seems  to 
mediate  with  the  Manes  and  the  latter  with  the 
spirits,  but  in  reality  the  Shaman  is  infused  with 
Manes  and  so  possessed  by  them  that  all  he  does 
at  a  sacrifice  or  in  prophesying  is  really  done 
by  the  ancestor  who  is  in  possession  of  the 
Shaman's  souL 

The  evil  ones  in  Erlik's  realm  occupy  various 
hells,  and  below  his  own  hell  is  that  of  the 
damned,  the  lowest  of  all,  ICasyrgan  by  name, 
in  which  .the  victims  are  boiled  in  a  pot  out  of 
which  they  can  come  according  to  their  virtue  or 
by  the  help  of  the  good  spirits.  Erlik  is  the  foe 
of  man,  but  he  is  called  Father  Erlik,  'nt>ecause 
all  men  belong  to  him  and  at  the  end  he  takes 
the  lives  of  all."  For  Erlik  is  the  cause  of  death, 
as  he  is  of  sickness,  malformation,  poverty,  and 
all  other  misfortunes.  Hence,  men  honor  Erlik 
first  of  all,  call  him  father  and  guide,  and  make 
him  rich  offerings,  for  although  the  spirits  of 
light  are  more  powerful  than  those  of  darkness, 
they  require  little  attention.  When  a  human  be- 
ing is  bom,  a  good  spirit  is  sent  down  by  Bai 
UelgSn  to  supply  it  with  life  from  the  sea  of  milk 
and  ever  after  to  keep  watch  at  its  right  hand, 
goiding  it  aright,  but  simultaneously  Erlik 
sends  a  devil  from  below  to  stand  at  the  man's 
left  hand  and  mislead  him.  After  death  the  soul 
goes  to  Erlik,  who  judges  it.  If  its  virtues  pre- 
dominate Erlik  has  no  power  over  it,  it  goes  to 
the  third  heaven;  but  if  its  evil  is  greater  than 
its  good,  it  is  damned  and  dropped  in  the  boiling 
hell  below.  Yet  human  virtue  is  not  enough  to 
save  a  soul,  for  all  spirits  are  envious  and  desire 
a  man's  goods,  and  it  is  safest  to  satisfy  both 
kinds  of  spirits  with  gifts.  To  keep  on  good 
terms  with  these  a  Shaman  is  requisite,  whose  of- 
fice is  to  sacrifice,  give  oracles,  and  purify  a 
house  from  the  spirits  of  the  dead.  Consult  Kad- 
loff.  Alts  Sibirien  (2d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1893) . 

SHA^HASH  (Babylonian  ahamahu,  sun).  The 
Sim-god  in  the  Babylonian-Assyrian  pantheon, 
this  word  of  the  Semitic  invaders  replacing  the 
Sumerian  Utu,  While  other  deities,  e.g.  Nergal 
(q.v.),  represent  particular  phases  of  the  sun, 
Shamash  is  the  solar  deity  without  limitation. 
The  theology  represents  him  as  son  of  Sin,  the 
Moon-god,  in  accordance  with  the  original  pre- 
eminence of  the  moon  over  the  sun  m  ancient 


thought,  but  Shamash  attained  a  rank  of  first- 
rate  importance.  The  chief  seats  of  his  worship 
were  Larsa  and  Sippar,  in  South  and  North 
Babylonia  respectively.  He  was  the  beneficent 
deity  of  light  and  warmth,  being  invoked  in 
healing,  and  as  the  chief  god  of  oracles,  he  be- 
came the  judge  par  excellenoe.  His  two  children 
present  this  idea  allesorically  in  their  names, 
Ketiu  (right)  and  Meshar  (equity).  He  is 
also  described  as  riding  in  his  chariot»  which 
is  guided  by  Bunene — an  idea  suggestive  of  Greek 
mythology.  The  Sun-deity  also  appears  in  a 
feminine  form  in  South  Arabia,  while  local 
names,  like  Beth-shemesh,  indicate  the  same  cult 
in  Syria.  Consult :  Jastrow,  Religion  of  BahyUmia 
and  Assyria  (Boston,  1898) ;  Zimmern  and 
Winckler,  in  Schrader's  Keilinachriften  und  das 
Alte  Testament  (3d  ed.,  Berlin,  1902). 

SHAMMAI,  sh&m^m&.  The  vice-president  of 
the  Sanhedrin  during  the  reign  of  Herod.  His 
teachings  are  marked  by  great  severity  and  in- 
sistence upon  details.  The  results  of  the  rigor 
of  the  school  appear  in  the  doctrines  of  the 
Zealots  (q.v.),  who  were  nearly  all  followers  of 
ShammaL  Shammai  is  supposed  to  be  identical 
with  Sameas,  mentioned  by  Josephus  (Ant,  ziv., 
9,  4),  who  opposed  Herod  on  his  appearance  be- 
fore the  Sanhedrin  in  B.C.  47.  Ko  details  are 
known  concerning  his  life. 

SHAMO,  shft'mo^.  A  desert  region  of  Central 
Asia.    See  Gobi. 

SHAMOEIN^  sh&-md^in.  A  borough  of  North- 
umberland  County,  Pa.,  40  miles  north  by  east 
of  Harrisburg ;  on  the  Lehigh  Valley,  the  North- 
em  Central,  and  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading 
railroads  (Map:  Pennsylvania,  E  3).  It  is  the 
centre  of  an  extensive  anthracite  coal-mining 
industry,  and  has  also  silk  and  knitting  mills, 
stocking  and  shirt  factories,  wagon  shops,  iron 
works,  and  brick  yards.  Shamokin  was  laid  out 
as  a  town  in  1835,  and  was  incorporated  as  a 
borough  in  1864.  Population,  in  1890,  14,403; 
in  1900,  18,202. 

SHAJIBOCK  (Ir.  seamrog,  diminutive  of 
seamar,  trefoil).  A  national  emblem  of  Ireland, 
said  to  have  been  first  assumed  as  the  badge 
of  Ireland  from  the  circumstance  that  Saint 
Patrick  made  use  of  it  to  illustrate  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity.  The  Trifolium  minus, 
a  hop  clover,  is  the  generally  accepted  modem 
shamrock,  but  the  wood  sorrel,  the  bird's-foot 
trefoil  or  medick,  and  the  small-leaved  clover 
[Trifolium  repens) ,  which  has  had  a  superstitious 
respect  attached  to  it  from  early  times,  have 
also  claims  to  be  associated  with  the  national 
emblem.    See  Lotus. 

SHAJIBOCS:  I.,  n.,  and  m.  Three  racing 
yachts  owned  by  Sir  Thomas  Lipton  (q.v.),  de- 
signed and  built  to  compete  for  the  American 
Cup  in  the  international  yacht  races  off  Sandy 
Hook,  N.  Y.  The  first  Shamrock  competed  in  the 
1899  cup  races  and  was  defeated  by  the  American 
yacht  Columbia  in  the  first  three  races  of  the 
series  as  follows :  First  race,  October  16,  lost  by 
10  minutes  and  8  seconds;  second  race,  October 
17th,  disabled,  Columbia  had  a  walk-over;  third 
race,  October  20th,  lost  by  6  minutes  and  34 
seconds.  Her  length  over  all  was  132  feet  2 
inches;  beam,  24  feet  6  inches,  with  a  draught  of 
20  feet.    Nickel  steel  and  manganese  bronze  were 


8HAKB0GK. 


788 


8HAHOHAI. 


employed  in  her  construction,  giving  her  a  dis- 
placement of  147  tons,  with  a  sail  area  of  14,125 
square  feet.  She  was  designed  by  William  Fife, 
Jr.,  built  on  the  Clyde,  and  sailed  by  Captain 
Hogarth.  Shamrock  11.  was  the  challenger  in 
the  1901  series,  and  although  defeated  in  the 
first  three  races,  came  nearer  to  actual  victory 
than  any  of  her  predecessors.  The  first  race 
took  place  on  September  28th,  1901,  Columbia, 
the  victor  of  the  1899  races,  being  chosen  as  the 
defender,  and  again  defeating  the  challenger  by 
1  minute  and  20  seconds.  The  second  race,  on 
October  3d,  resulted  in  another  defeat  of  the 
challenger,  by  3  minutes  and  35  seconds;  in  the 
third  and  last  race  Shamrock  II.  came  in  first, 
but  lost  on  the  time  allowance  of  43  seconds,  the 
decision  leaving  Columbia  winner  by  41  seconds. 
Shamrock  II.  was  built  by  Messrs.  Denny,  of 
Dumbarton,  and  designed  by  Watson.  Shamrock 
III,  was  designed  by  Fife.  Her  measurements 
were:  Length  over  all,  134.42;  water  line,  89.78; 
sail  area,  118.97;  sail  area  as  per  rule  14,  154.23. 
Captain  Wringe,  the  skipper  of  Shamrock  II., 
held  the  wheel.  The  first  race  was  held  on 
August  22,  1903,  and  resulted  in  a  victory  for 
the  American  boat.  Reliance  (q.v.),  by  7  min- 
utes and  3  seconds.  The  second  and  third  races 
had  a  similar  ending,  the  Shamrock  III.  losing 
on  August  26th  by  1  minute  and  19  seconds 
in  the  second  attempt,  and  on  September  3d, 
in  the  third  and  final  race,  she  got  lost  in 
the  fog  and  did  not  complete  the  race.  See 
YACHTmo. 

SHAKYL^  sha^mn  (179M871).  A  cele- 
brated leader  of  the  independent  tribes  in  the 
Caucasus.  He  was  bom  at  Aul-Himry,  in  Dag- 
hestan,  and  belonged  to  a  wealthy  Lesghian  family 
of  rank.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Kasi-MoUah,  the 
great  apostle  of  Muridism,  and  seconded  his  en- 
deavors to  do  away  with  the  feuds  of  the  Cau- 
casian tribes  and  unite  them  against  the  Rus- 
sians. He  was  in  the  rebellion  which  broke  out 
in  1824,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the  defense 
of  Himry  against  the  Russians  in  October,  1831. 
After  the  assassination  of  Hamzad-Bey,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Kasi-Mollah,  in  1835,  Shamyl  was 
elected  imaum.  He  made  numerous  changes  in 
the  religious  creed  and  political  administration 
of  the  mountaineers  of  the  Eastern  Caucasus 
for  the  purpose  of  more  fully  concentrating  in 
himself  the  whole  power.  Shamyl's  change  of 
military  tactics,  from  open  to  guerrilla  warfare, 
brought  numerous  successes  to  the  arms  of  the 
mountaineers.  In  1839  Shamyl,  after  being  twice 
defeated,  was  trapped  in  Akulgo,  which  was 
stormed,  and  his  followers  were  put  to  the 
sword,  but  the  leader  escaped.  He  waged  suc- 
cessful campaigns  in  1843  and  1844,  and  gained 
oyer  to  his  side  the  Caucasian  tribes  which  had 
hitherto  favored  Russia.  A  civil  and  a  criminal 
code  were  promulgated,  a  regular  system  of  taxa- 
tion established,  and  Dargo  was  made  the  capital 
of  the  principality  thus  created,  the  population  of 
which  exceeded  1,000,000.  For  a  number  of 
years  the  fortunes  of  war  alternated,  but  after 
the  conclusion  of  the  Eastern  War  (1853-56)  the 
Russians  resumed  their  attacks  with  great 
energy,  advancing  in  several  columns,  establish- 
ing forts,  and  forcing  the  mountain  tribes  to 
detach  themselves  from  Shamyl.  On  April  13, 
1859,   Shamyrs   chief   stronghold,   Veden,   was 


taken  after  a  seven  weeks'  si^ge,  and  he  became 
a  mere  guerrilla  chief.  He  was  finally  captured, 
with  the  remnant  of  his  followers,  at  Cunib,  Sep- 
tember 6,  1859,  was  sent  to  Saint  Petersbuig, 
and  a  few  days  afterwards  he  was  assigned  a 
residence  at  Kaluga,  with  a  pension  of  10,000 
rubles.  He  went  in  1870  to  Mecca,  remaining  a 
parole  prisoner  of  the  Russian  Government.  He 
died  at  Medina  in  March,  1871. 

SHANGHAI,  sh&ng^^  (Chin.,  above  the 
sea).  A  city  and  treaty-port  in  the  Province  of 
Kiang-su,  China,  situated  at  the  junction  of  the 
Hwang-p'u  with  the  Wu-sung-kiang  (here  known 
to  foreigners  as  Soochow  Creek),  12  miles 
above  the  entrance  of  the  united  stream  (which 
bears  the  name  of  the  smaller  constituent,  the 
Wu-sung)  into  the  estuary  of  the  Tang-tae 
(Map:  China,  F  5).  It  stands  in  latitude  SI'' 
14'  N.,  longitude  121*"  28'  E.,  on  the  eastern  edge 
of  the  great  alluvial  tract  known  as  the  'Great 
Plain  of  China.'  The  surrounding  country  is 
low-lying,  and  intersected  by  countless  creeks 
and  watercourses,  which  furnish  easy  means  of 
communication,  and  are  invaluable  for  irrigat- 
ing purposes.  Ihe  climate  is  generally  health- 
ful. The  mean  annual  temperature  is  59*"  F. 
The  native  city  is  a  hien,  or  district  city, 
and  is  surrounded  with  walls,  which  have  a  cir- 
cuit of  3^  miles  and  are  pierced  with  7  gates. 
Its  streets  are  narrow  and  filthy,  and  as  regards 
its  shops,  temples,  dwellings,  and  institutions, 
it  differs  little  from  any  other  city  of  the  same 
class.  It  was  at  one  time  noted  for  its  cotton 
industry,  but  its  chief  distinction  now  consists 
in  giving  name  to  and  sharing  the  prosperitv  of 
the  great  cosmopolitan  town,  called  the  '3£>del 
Settlement  of  the  East,'  which  has  grown  np 
outside  its  walls  on  the  north  since  1842,  when 
this  spot  was  chosen  by  the  British  Government 
as  one  of  the  five  ports  to  be  opened  to  foreign 
residence  and  trade  in  accordance  with  the 
Treaty  of  Nanking.  The  nucleus  of  this  important 
town  was  the  'British  Concession,'  then  chiefly 
a  marsh,  laid  down  by  the  British  consul  in 
1843.  It  stretches  along  the  Hwang-p'u  for 
three-fifths  of  a  mile,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Soochow  Creek,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Yang- 
king-pang,  a  narrow  creek  parallel  with  the 
northern  boundary.  At  an  early  date  this  was 
thrown  open  by  the  British  Government  to  all 
treaty  nations,  but  in  1849  the  French  ob- 
tained a  separate  'concession,'  which  lies  to 
the  south  of  the  British  settlement  and  reaches 
to  the  walls  of  the  native  city.  The  United 
States  never  obtained  by  treaty  any  exclusive 
concession,  but  the  Hong-kew  district,  to  the 
north  of  Soochow  Creek,  is  popularly  known 
as  the  'American  Concession,'  because  the 
first  United  States  consul  took  up  his  abode 
there.  In  1863  this  was  surveyed  and  incor- 
porated with  the  British  settlement  for  munici- 
pal purposes.  The  French  settlement  has  its 
own  municipal  government,  but,  as  in  the  other 
settlements,  there  is  no  restriction  as  to  the 
nationality  of  residents,  or  of  land-renters,  who 
are  the  voters.  The  settlements  now  have  a 
combined  area  of  8.35  square  miles,  and  the  har- 
bor has  been  extended  up  the  river  6  miles,  in 
order  to  provide  adequate  wharf  accommodation. 
The  chief  native  suburb  lies  between  the  east 
gate  of  the  native  city  and  the  river  (above  <be 


SHANGHAI. 


789 


SHANNON. 


French  setUeinent) ,  and  here  the  junk  trade  con- 
centrates. 

The  river  bank,  originally  a  tow-path,  was 
reserved  for  a  bund  or  esplanade.  The  streets 
parallel  with  it  are  named  after  Chinese  prov- 
inces; the  cross-streets  after  Chinese  cities. 
They  are  all  well  made,  well  kept,  watched,  and 
lighted,  and  are  lined  with  imposing  foreign 
establishmentis  —  commercial,  residential,  and 
public.  Here  are  hospitals,  schools,  colleges,  dis- 
pensaries, club-houses,  theatres,  reading-rpoms, 
libraries,  the  chambers  of  commerce,  Trinity  Ca- 
thedral, a  fine  Roman  Catholic  church,  a  Union 
church.  Masonic  Hall,  the  buildings  of  the  Mixed 
Court,  etc.  There  is  a  small  park  on  the  hund  op- 
posite the  British  consulate,  and  there  are  several 
monuments.  In  the  western  part  of  the  set- 
tlements there  is  a  very  large  native  population, 
numbering  several  hunared  thousand,  and  stead- 
ily growing.  In  1901  the  total  population  of  the 
port  was  estimated  at  620,000.  The  foreign  pop- 
ulation of  the  settlements  was  6774.  As  else- 
where in  China,  under  the  'exterritoriality* 
clauses  of  the  treaties,  all  foreigners  are  subject 
to  the  jurisdiction  of  their  own  consuls  in  civil, 
criminal,  and  political  matters.  Great  Britain 
and  Grcrmany,  however,  have  provided  special 
courts,  to  which  persons  of  other  nationalities 
sometimes  resort  by  agreement. 

In  P'u-tung,  the  district  on  the  east  bank  of 
the  river,  are  the  shipyards,  dry  docks,  found- 
ries, engineering  establishments,  machine  shops, 
etc.,  and  the  river  bank  is  lined  with  wharves 
and  great  warehouses  and  stores.  The  manu- 
facturing establishments  include  a  number  of 
extensive  cotton  mills,  silk  factories,  ginning 
factories,  packing  houses,  a  paper  mill,  match 
factories,  flour  mills,  and  many  others.  A  con- 
siderable number  of  these  establishments  are 
owned  by  native  companies. 

In  1901,  4182  vessels  (5,395,925  tons)  entered, 
and  4719  (5,385,200  tons)  cleared,  and  the  gross 
trade  of  the  port  ( as '  given  by  the  Imperial 
Maritime  Customs)  was  298,454,780  haikwan 
taels,  or  about  $220,000,000. 

The  principal  imports  are  cotton  yam  and  cot- 
ton goods,  opium,  kerosene  oil,  metals,  sugar, 
coal,  and  woolen  goods.  The  native  exports  are 
composed  chiefly  of  silk,  tea,  raw  cotton,  rice, 
wool,  beans,  cereals,  paper,  and  oils. 

Shanghai  played  a  prominent  part  during  the 
Tai-ping  rebellion.  The  native  city  was  taken 
by  the  Triad  rebels  in  1853  and  held  by  them  for 
seventeen  months.  Owing  to  the  presence  of  a 
British  squadron,  however,  the  foreign  settle- 
ments were  unharmed,  and  multitudes  of  native 
refugees  flocked  into  them  for  protection.  In 
1860  British  and  French  troops  were  landed, 
cleared  the  country  of  rebels  within  a  circle  of 
30  miles,  and  remained  in  possession  for  five 
years,  until  the  rebellion  came  to  an  end. 

The  first  railway  in  China — 6  miles  in  length 
— ^was  constructed  here  in  1876.  After  running 
successfully  for  a  time  it  was  purchased  by  the 
native  authorities,  torn  up,  and  the  plant  shipped 
to  Formosa,  and  there  allowed  to  rust. 

SHAN-HAI-KWAN^  shan'hi'kwan'  (Chin., 
mountain-sea-barrier).  A  fortified  town  of  the 
Province  of  CHiih-li,  China,  situated  at  the  eastern 
end  of  the  Great  Wall,  where  it  enters  the  Gulf 
of  Pe-chi-li  (Map:  China,  F.  4).  It  consists  of 
three  towns  separated  by  strong  walls,  the  whole 


surrounded  by  one  wall.  The  inner  town,  which 
is  the  largest  of  the  three,  is  devoted  to  business, 
the  one  on  the  east  is  occupied  by  soldiers  and 
officials,  and  that  on  the  west  by  soldiery  and 
tradespeople.  It  is  a  station  on  the  railway  lead- 
ing from  Tien-tein  to  Mukden  (q.v.),  now  com- 
pleted as  far  as  Sin-ming-t'ing,  35  miles  west  of 
Mukdei^.  There  are  large  railway  shops  here. 
Ching-wang-tao,  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
6han-hai-kwan,  with  a  pier  2000  feet  long,  was 
opened  to  foreign  trade  December  15,  1901. 

SHANNON.  The  longest  river  in  Ireland 
and  in  the  United  Kingdom.  It  rises  in  the 
Cuilcagh  Mountains,  County  of  Cavan,  and  after 
a  southwest  course  of  254  miles,  falls  into  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  between  the  headlands  of  Loop 
and  Kerr^  (Map:  Ireland,  B  4).  It  passes 
through  Loughs  Allen,  Boderg,  Ree,  and  Derg, 
and  below  Limerick  it  widens  into  an  estuary  56 
miles  long  and  2  to  10  miles  wide.  It  is  canal- 
ized between  Limerick  and  Athlone,  making  an 
accessible  waterway  of  158  miles  almost  midway 
between  the  east  and  west  coasts  of  Ireland.  It 
connects  with  Dublin  by  the  Grand  and  Rogel 
canals.  Vessels  of  1000  tons  reach  Limerick  and 
small  steamers  ply  to  Athlone,  but  the  number  of 
canal  locks  (21)  impair  the  utility  of  the  river 
for  navigation.  Consult  Harvey,  The  Bhanwm 
and  Its  Lakes  (London,  1896). 

SHANNON,  James  Jebusa  (1862—).  An 
English  portrait  painter.  He  was  bom  at  Au- 
burn, N.  Y.,  but  passed  his  boyhood  in  Canada. 
At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  entered  the  South  Ken- 
sington Art  Schools  (London),  in  which  he 
achieved  high  distinction.  His  powerful  and 
firmly  painted  likenesses  soon  made  him  one  oif 
the  most  popular  English  portrait  painters,  and 
he  was  admitted  to  the  Royal  Academy  in  1807. 
His  most  celebrated  portrait  is  the  full-length 
figure  of  Henry  Vigne,  which  took  first  class 
medals  at  Paris,  Berlin,  and  Vienna.  Well 
known  also  are  his  pictures  of  his  wife  as  "Iris*' 
and  a  ''Madonna  and  Child." 

SHANNON,  Wilson  (1802-77).  The  second 
Governor  of  Kansas  Territory.  He  was  bom  at 
Saint  Clairsville,  Ohio,  was  educated  in  the  col* 
lege  at  Athens  in  that  State  and  at  Transylvania 
University,  Kentucky,  and  later  began  the  prac- 
tice of  law  in  Saint  (Clairsville.  In  1838  he  was 
elected  Governor  of  Ohio,  as  a  Democrat.  At  the 
end  of  a  second  term  he  was  sent  as  Minister  to 
Mexico,  where  he  remained  imtil  war  b^an  with 
that  country.  In  1855  he  was  appointed  Governor 
of  Kansas  Territory  to  succeed  Andrew  H.  Reeder 
(q.v.).  During  his  administration  occurred 
the  'Wakarusa  War,'  the  arrest  of  Governor 
Charles  Robinson  (q.v.)  and  others  of  the  free- 
State  Government,  the  capture  of  Lawrence,  the 
dispersal  of  the  free-State  Legislature  at  Topeka, 
the  Pottawatomie  Massacre,  and  the  events  lead- 
ing up  to  the  Treaty  of  Lawrence.'  In  the  early 
days  of  his  administration  Governor  Shannon 
affiliated  almost  entirely  with  the  Pro-Slavery 
party,  but  he  later  gave  great  offense  by  refusing 
to  act  as  its  leaders  desired.  At  length,  after 
having  been  threatened  with  assassination,  he 
resigned  in  August,  1856,  a  little  less  than  a 
year  after  taking  office.  He  settled  in  Lecomp- 
ton,  and  later  in  Lawrence,  where  he  died.  Con- 
sult: Spring,  Kansas  (Boston,  1885),  in  the 
''American  Commonwealth  Series;"  and  Robin- 
son, The  Kansas  Conflict  (New  York,  1892). 


740 


SHAir-TXTVO. 


MBMXB,  shanz.  A  numerous  group  of  tribes 
on  the  frontiers  of  China,  Burma,  and  Siam, 
extending  considerably  to  the  south.  Physieallj 
and  Linguistically  they  belong,  tt^ther  with  the 
Laotians,  the  Thoe*Muong  tribes  of  the  Chinese- 
Tonking  frontier,  and  the  civilized  Siamese  of 
the  southwest,  to  the  Thai,  one  of  the  great 
stocks  of  Faither  India.  The  Shans  are  dis- 
tributed among  several  semi-independent  States 
subject  to  Burma,  Siam,  and  China.  Their  otm 
method  of  government  is  more  or  less  democratic, 
the  chiefs  being  not  at  all  absolute,  while  the 
women  have  practically  the  same  privileges  as 
the  men,  something  noteworthy  in  Indo-China. 
Situated  as  they  are  in  the  upland  river  valleys, 
half-way  between  the  cities  of  Southern  China 
and  the  commercial  ports  of  Burma  and  Siam, 
the  Shans  take  part  in  the  extensive  trade.  The 
culture  of  the  ^lans  varies  from  the  condition  of 
the  wild  Palungs  to  that  of  the  people  of  Zimme 
and  some  of  the  other  States  who  are  little  in- 
ferior to  the  other  civilized  and  semi-civilized 
tribes  of  Indo-China.  Many  of  the  Shans  are 
mountainous  hunter-tribes  of  great  courage  and 
honesty;  others  are  agriculturalists  of  a  rather 
hiffh  order,  and  cattle-breeders.  Tea  is  a  chief 
object  of  cultivation.  Others  are  timber-cutters 
and  wood-workers;  others  again  skillful  workers 
in  iron,  gold-beaters,  etc.  The  religion  of  many 
of  the  Shan  tribes  is  Buddhism,  but  the  more  in- 
dependent tribes  retain  their  ancient  customs  to 
a  very  large  extent.  In  the  period  from  the 
iiwPUt  to  &  sixteenth  century  the  greater  part 
of  the  peninsula  was  under  the  rule  of  the 
Empire  of  Mau,  developed  from  one  of  the  north- 
em  Shan  States.  ij[iother  remarkable  Shan 
State  was  Zimme,  famous  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, subdued  by  Siam  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  and  still  subject  to  that  em- 
pire. The  numerous  ruins  of  cities  and  towns 
existing  in  the  Shan  country  are  thought  to  indi- 
cate great  political  activity  in  the  period  noted 
above,  and  perhaps  long  before  then.  Consult: 
Anderson,  Mandala^  to  Moulmein  (London, 
1876) ;  Colquhoun,  Amongst  the  Shans  (ib., 
1885) ;  Foumereau,  Le  Biam  ancien  (Paris, 
1895). 

SHAJT-SI,  shftn'se'  (Chin.,  mountain,  or 
moimtains,  west).  An  inland  province  of  China, 
originally  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Great 
Wall,  but  now  including  that  portion  of  Southern 
Mongolia  which  lies  south  of  the  In  or  Yin  Moun- 
tains (Map:  China,  D  4).  Its  greatest  length  is 
from  north  to  south.  Area,  56,268  s(}uare  miles. 
The  province  is  mountainous,  especially  in  its 
northern  half,  with  ranges  (some  of  them  of 
great  height)  having  a  general  southwest  to 
northeast  trend,  forming  seven  great  basins,  the 
more  northerly  of  which  drain  toward  the  plain 
of  Peking,  some  to  the  east  and  southeast  to  the 
Great  Plain,  and  the  others  southwest  to  the 
Hoang-ho.  These  basins  vary  in  height  above 
sea-level  from  4500  to  5000  feet  in  the  north  to 
about  1200  toward  the  southeast. 

The  highest  mountain  peaks  are  found  in  the 
Tai-ho  range  (8000  feet)  in  the  south-central 
part  of  the  province,  and  the  sacred  Wu-tai 
Mountains  (10,000  to  12,000  feet)  farther  north, 
about  latitude  39^  and  near  the  border  of  Chih-li, 
noted  for  their  wild  grandeur,  and  for  the  360 
great  Buddhist  temples  which  crown  their  peaks 


or  nestle  in  their  recesses  and  which  are  annually 
visited  b^  tens  of  thousands  of  pilgrims. 

Shan-si  is  rich  in  minerals.  Coal,  both  bito- 
minous  and  anthracite  and  of  the  finest  quality, 
is  found  everywhere;  iron  of  the  best  quality, 
usuallv  associated  with  coal,  abounds,  and  is 
worked;  copper  has  been  found  in  over  one 
hundred  localities;  tin  near  Mount  Ki  and  dae- 
where ;  and  silver  north  of  Tai-yuen,the  capital 
Salt  lakes  and  springs  are  numerous,  and  near 
the  great  walled  village  of  Lu-tsun,  in  the  south- 
west, are  extensive  salt  works,  the  oldest  in  the 
Chinese  Empire,  dating  back  nearly  5000  yean. 

A  notable  feature  of  the  province  is  the  exceed- 
ingly fertile  loess,  or  'terrace  deposit,'  varying  in 
thickness  from  one  foot  to  a  thousand  feet,  and 
cut  up  in  many  places  by  the  rains  and  rivers 
into  an  intricate  network  of  deep  gullies  which 
render  travel  impossible  excqit  along  wdl-traced 
tracks.  The  agricultural  belt  is  comparatively 
small,  and  the  soil  does  not  produce  sufficient  for 
home  consumption.  Hence,  while  large  quanti- 
ties of  coal,  iron,  and  salt  are  exported,  ophun, 
wheat,  rice,  and  other  foodstuffs  have  to  be  im- 
ported as  well  as  cotton  and  cotton  doth.  To- 
bacco is  grown  in  the  south;  in  the  southwest 
between  Kiai-chow  and  Tung-kwan  the  country 
is  a  continuous  orchard,  producing  i^>ple8,  pears, 
plums,  persimmons,  jujubes,  etc,  and  in  the  plain 
of  Tai-yuen-fu  (the capital), besides  other  fruits, 
the  best  grapes  in  China  are  raised.  Shan-si  is 
a  wealthy  province.  The  houses  are  subetantiAlly 
built  of  brick,  frequently  two  to  three  stories 
high,  and  in  a  style  of  arehiteeini-e  different  from 
that  found  elsewhere  in  the  country.  In  the  loess 
region  the  majority  of  the  people  live  in  caves, 
sometimes  two  or  more  stories  high,  cut  into 
the  deposit  and  faced  with  brick,  with  wdl-built 
stairs  leading  to  the  upper  stories.  The  inhabit- 
ants as  a  rule  are  civil  and  friendly  to  foreigners, 
are  characterised  by  an  enterprising  commercial 
spirit,  and  the  Shan-si  men  are  well  known  as 
the  bankers  and  pawnbrokers  of  the  Empire; 
Population,  about  13,000,000. 

The  great  highway  of  the  province  runs  from 
southwest  to  northeast,  connecting  the  fortress 
of  Tung-kwan  at  the  point  where  the  provinces 
of  Shen-si,  Shan-si,  and  Ho-nan  come  together 
with  Ej&lgan  (q.v.),  a  branch  running  northeast 
from  Tai-yuen-fu  to  Ching-ting-fu,  Pao-ting,  Pe- 
king, etc.,  and  another  from  Ta-tung,  about 
latitude  40®  N.,  northwest  to  Kwei-hwa  Ch'ing 
and  west  Mongolia.  Bailway  extension  will  be 
along  these  lim. 

SHAir  (shttn)  8TATB&  A  name  applied  to 
a  number  of  semi-independent  States  in  South- 
eastern Asia,  occupying  the  region  between  Bur- 
ma, China,  Siam,  and  Tongking  (Map:  Burma, 
0  2).  They  derive  their  name  from  their  ui- 
habitants,  the  Shans  (q.v.). 

SHAir-TUNa,  shUn'tTRhig^  (Chin.,  mountain 
east).  A  maritime  province  of  China,  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  which  consists  of  a  moun- 
tainous promontory  100  miles  wide,  which  pre- 
lects eastward  from  the  mainland  into  the  Yel- 
low Sea  for  200  miles,  and  is  distant  from  the 
peninsula  of  Korea  less  than  a  day's  sail  (Map: 
China,  E,  4).  Area,  about  65,104  square  miles. 
The  central  portion  is  occupied  by  massive  lime- 
stone mountains,  culminating  in  Mount  Tai 
(4111  feet),  famous  in  history  and  considered 
sacred  by  the  people.  West,  southwest,  and  north 


SHAH-TXrVG. 


741 


of  these  momitaiiu  lie  the  Shan-tunff  portions 
of  the  mat  alluvial  plain  of  North  Cmna;  while 
east  and  southeast  of  the  mountains,  and  through- 
out the  promontory,  are  many  fertile  valleys  and 
BDUtU  plains.  As  a  rule  these  mountains  are  des- 
titute of  forests.  The  province  is  well  watered, 
thoi^  its  lakes  are  few  ana  small,  and  there  are 
no  rivers  of  importance  except  the  Hoang-ho, 
whidi  traverses  the  great  plain  in  the  west 
and  norUi.  The  Grand  Canal  runs  through  the 
whole  province  from  north  to  south.  The  fertile 
loess  deposit  is  found  in  several  places,  and  agri- 
culture flourishes.  The  crops  include  some  cot- 
ton, very  little  rice,  but  much  tobacco,  indigo, 
wheat,  barley,  maise,  millet,  pulse,  peanuts,  and 
v^etables.  The  fruits  are  of  almost  all  kinds. 
Sttk  is  an  important  product,  the  chief  seat  of 
whkh  is  Yen-chow,  on  the  great  plain;  and 
pongee,  Ite  apun-silk  fabric  derived  from  the 
ooeoons  of  the  wild  silkworm,  is  much  exported 
to  foreign  countries.  The  finest  brocaded  silk 
is  woven  near  Tsi-nan-fo,  the  capitaL  Btraw- 
pUdting  is  an  important  industry,  mad  much  in- 
sect wax  is  produced. 

The  fauna  includes  wolves,  badgers,  fom, 
several  species  of  poisonous  snakes,  scorpions, 
etc,  and  among  the  birds  pheasants,  partridges, 
wild  ducks  and  turkeys,  Manchurian  cranes,  etc. 
The  surrounding  waters  as  well  as  the  rivers 
teem  with  fish.  Shan-tung  is  especially  rich  in 
minerals.  Coal  and  iron  abound,  and  gold,  ga- 
lena, copper,  antimony,  marble,  granite,  asbestos, 
sad  sulphur  are  abundant.  There  are  four  great 
coal-fields.  The  coast  line  is  about  750  miles. 
There  are  many  good  harbors.  The  chief  are:  on 
the  north  eoart,  Yang-kia-k'ow,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Little  Tsin  River  (canalized  in  1891  and  ex- 
tended westward  to  Tsi-nan-fu) ,  a  few  miles  south 
of  the  mouth  of  the  Hoang-ho  (which  now 
oeeupies  the  channel  of  the  Great  Tsin  River) ; 
Chi-fu  (q.v.),  a  treaty  port;  Wei-hai-wei,  now 
controlled  by  Great  Britain,  and  on  the  south 
coast  8hi-tao  and  Tsing-tao  on  the  southwest  cor- 
ner of  the  lAo-shan  peninsula,  now  controlled  by 
Germany.  (See  Kiao-chau.)  The  climate  is 
bealthfal  throughout.  The  rainy  season  lasts  six 
weeks,  and  occurs  in  June  and  July.  The  snow- 
fall 18  heavy,  and  the  harbors  on  the  north  coast 
are  frequently  blocked  with  ice.  The  temperature 
ranges  from  20*  P.  below  sero  to  dO^  F.  above. 

I^ian-tung  is  noted  as  containing  the  birth- 
places of  both  Confucius  and  Mencius  (qq.v.)  and 
ASS  played  an  important  part  in  the  history  of 
the  country.    Population,  30,000,000. 

Railways  have  been  introduced  by  the  Germans 
and  extend  from  the  new  port  of  Tsing-tao  north- 
ward to  Wei-hien,  and  westward  toward  Tsi-nan- 
^,  (<!•▼•)»  and  beyond,  meeting  at  two  different 
pointo  the  projected  Anglo-German  line  from 
Tien-tsm  to  Chin-kiang-fu  (q.v.). 

BHABBHOLBEB.    See  Siogkhouxeii. 

SHABI,  sha'r*.  A  river  of  North  Central 
Africa,  the  principal  feeder  of  Lake  Chad.  Its 
nmnerous  headstreams  drain  an  extensive  but 
largely  unexplored  region  of  the  Sudan.  The 
chief  of  these  is  the  Bamingi.  Its  largest  tribu- 
ta?y  is  the  Logone,  which  enters  the  main  stream 
fwm  the  left.  In  its  lower  course  the  Shari 
forms  the  boundary  between  Kamerun  and  Ba- 
girmi,  and  is  navigable  from  Maffaling  to  Gulf ey, 
a  disUnce  of  186  miles. 


BHAKK  (probably  from  Lat.  caroharu9,  from 
Glc  KOfix^tP^f  karchariaa,  sort  of  shark,  from 
led^o^,  karcharos,  jagged;  connected  with  ko^ 
Klmts.  karkinos,  Skt.  karkafa,  crab,  karkcura, 
hard).    The  name  given  to  such  elasmobrancb 


TTPn  OF  eaABK  tbbth. 
1,  plal]i-«dged  cnB|i0 ;  a,  aerrftted  ensps. 

fishes  (q.v.)  as  have  their  giU-opemngs  lateral 
instead  of  ventral,  as  in  the  skates  (Batoidea). 
The  body  is  nearly  always  elongate,  tapering 
gradttalh^  to  the  tall  and  not  mu<£  thickened  in 
the  middle.  The  muzzle  projects  over  the  mouth ; 
the  nostrils  are  sitsatsd  cm  the  under  side  of  the 
muzzle.  The  males  have  elaspers.  There  are 
usually  two  dorsal  fins,  but  in  the  smaH  tovdsr  «f 
notidanoid  sharks  there  is  only  a  single  one. 
The  eill-openings  are  five,  excepting  in  the 
cow  sharks  wlMsre  there  are  six  or  seven.  The 
skin  has  no  scales,  but  minute  denticleflL  much 
resembling  teeth  in  their  development  and  struc- 
ture. The  teeth  are  generally  large,  sharp,  and 
formed  for  cutting,  with  the  edge  often  serrated. 
In  the  cestracionts  (q.v.)  they  are  pavement- 
like, and  in  some  genera  are  small  and  numerous. 
As  the  rows  of  teeth  on  the  ridge  of  the  jaw  are 
worn  away  they  are  continually  replaced  by  new 
series. 

The  teeth  of  sharks  are  dermal  structures 
never  ankylosed  to  the  jaw  or  to  any  other 
skeletal  part,  but  are  imbedded  in  a  tough 
fibrous  membrane  and  are  arranged  in  concen- 
tric rows.  The  row  of  denticles  that  occupies 
the  border  of  the  jaw  is  erect.  Adjacent  rows 
are  only  partially  erect,  while  those  behind  lie 
recumbent.  The  fibrous  gum  moves  up  and  out- 
ward over  the  surface  of  the  jaw  aiid  carries 
each  successive  row  of  teeth  to  a  functional  posi- 
tion on  the  jaw.  When  a  row  of  teeth  has 
passed  this  point  the  teeth  fall  out.  This  fact 
accounts  for  the  great  number  of  shark's  teeth 
which  are  preserved  in  geological  deposits,  for 
each  shark  during  its  life  casts  off  a  great  many 
teeth.  Both  in  form  and  structure  the  dermal 
spines  on  the  external  skin  of  certain  sharks 
cannot  be  distinguished  from  the  spines  that  oc- 
cur in  the  mouth  and  function  as  teeth. 

Most  sharks  are  carnivorous  and  voracious, 
some  of  them  taking  objects  as  large  as  man. 
Some  live  on  small  marine  organisms  and  a  few 
are  herbivorous.  Some  species  are  ovoviviparous ; 
others  lay  eggs.  The  eggs  are  large  in  compari- 
son with  those  of  osseous  fishes,  and  are  square 
or  oblong  in  form,  with  a  tough  homy  coat,  each 
comer  prolonged  into  a  tendril,  apparently  of 
use  for  their  entanglement  among  seaweeds  to 
prevent  being  thrown  about.  In  some  of  the  vivip- 
arous species  the  embryo  is  attached  to  the 
walls  of  the  uten^s  by  a  sort  of  placenta.  Sharks 


8HABX. 


742 


SHABS. 


are  found  in  all  seas,  but  are  most  abundant  in 
the  tropics.  They  are  nearly  all  marine,  a  few 
entering  fresh  water,  and  one  species  living  con- 
tinually in  Lake  Nicaragua. 


A  TTPICAIi  BHAKK'8  BOO. 

The  rough  skin  of  sharks  is  emnloyed  by  join- 
ers for  polishing  fine-grained  wood,  and  for  cov- 
ering the  hilts  of  swords,,  tools,  and  the  like,  to 
make  them  firmer  in  the  grasp.  (See  Sha- 
QBEEZT.)  The  flesh  is  coarse,  but  is  sometimes 
eaten.  The  fins  abound  in  gelatin,  and  are  much 
used  by  the  Chinese  for  making  a  rich  gelatinous 
soup.  The  liver  yields  a  large  quantity  of  valu- 
able oil.    See  Oil-Shabk. 

The  sharks  embrace  several  families,  among 
which  prominent  ones  are  the  Hexanchidse  (cow- 
sharks),  Cestraciontidffi  (Port  Jackson  sharks), 
Heterbdontidse  (bull-head  sharks),  Ginglymosto- 
matidse  (nurse-sharks),  Galeidee  (dog-sharks, 
topes,  tiger-sharks,  man-eaters,  requiems,  etc.), 
Sphyrinida5.  (hammer-heads),  Alopiide  (thresh- 
ers), Carchariidse  (sand-sharks),  Lamnidse  (or 
beagles),  Cetorhinidse  (the  basking-sharks),  and 
Squalidse  (dog-fishes).  For  descriptions,  see  these 
terms  and  other  names  of  species;  and  the  au- 
thorities mentioned  under  Fish.  See  Plates  of 
Great  Shabks;  Lampreys  and  Dogfish; 
Philippine  Fishes. 

Fossil  Shark.  Fossilized  remains  of  sharks 
occur  from  the  Lower  Devonian  upward,  and 
even  in  the  Upper  Silurian  detached  fin-spines, 
teeth,  and  dermal  denticles  resembling  those  of 
elasmobranchs  are  found,  being  thus  among  the 
earliesi  known  remains  of  vertebrates.  The  re- 
lationships of  these  Silurian  forms  are  doubtful, 
however,  and  some  of  them  (the  dkBlolepids,  in- 
cluding Lanarkia  and  Thelodus)  possibly  have 
closer  affinities  with  the  remarkable  group  of 
ostracoderms  than  with  elasmobranchs.  From 
the  Devonian  upward  undoubted  sharks  are  met 
with,  many  known  only  from  fragments  of  the 
dermal  structures — ^teeth,  shagreen  denticles,  and 
fin-spines.  These  spines,  when  not  definitely  as- 
signable to  any  genera,  are  termed  'ichthyodoru- 
lites.'  In  a  few  cases  the  cartilaginous  endo- 
skeleton  is  hardened  by  deposition  of  phosphate 
of  lime — calcified — so  that  jaws,  vertebrae,  fin- 
structure,  etc.,  are  readily  fossilized.  Elasmo- 
branch  paleontology,  which  may  be  said  to  have 
originated  in  the  work  of  Louis  Agassiz,  has 
demonstrated  that  the  sharks  and  rays  of  the 
present  time  represent  but  an  insignificant  rem- 
nant of  a  group  which  attained  it;8  maximum 
degree  of  differentiation  and  specialization  as 
early  as  the  Carboniferous.  The  characteristic 
forms  of  the  Paleozoic,  however,  the  primitive  as 
well  as  the  highly  specialized,  died  out  in  the 
Permian,  and  their  descendants  of  the  Mesozoic 
have  persisted  to  the  present  with  little  change. 

The  most  primitive  of  fossil  elasmobranchs 
are  included  in  the  order  Pleuropterygii  (side- 
fin)  of  which  the  most  typical  genus  is  Cladose- 
lache  from  the  Upper  Devonian  or  Lower  Carbon- 


iferous of  Ohio.  In  this  form  the  paired  fins  are 
mere  horizontal  lappet-like  folds  along  the  sides 
of  the  body,  supported  by  two  rows  of  cartila- 
ginous rods,  the  *basals,'  imbedded  within  the 
body,  and  the  'radials'  within  the  fin-lappet  and 
extending  outward  to  its  edge.  According  to  the 
commoinly  accepted  fin-fold  theory  of  paired 
limbs,  this  is  the  most  primitive  known  type  of 
paired  fin,  and  the  lappets  are  to  be  regarded  as 
persistent  portions  of  a  former  continuous  lateral 
fold,  possessed  by  some  unknown  ancestor.  Since 
these  lappet-fins,  or  'pleuropterygia,'  were  capa- 
ble of  but  veiy  slight  motion,  their  function  was 
chiefly  that  of  balancing-organs,  while  the  power- 
ful tumed-up  or  'heterocercar  tail  served  as  the 
organ  of  propulsion.  Other  primitive  characters 
of  this  fisn  are  the  terminally  placed  mouth,  the 
unconstricted  notochord,  and  simple  dennal 
skeleton.  Clodoselache,  judging  from  its  many 
primitive  characters  and  lack  of  specialization, 
probably  stands  structurally  very  near  the  an- 
cestral form  which  gave  rise  to -the  more  spe- 
cialized sharks,  to  the  bony  fishes,  and  through 
these  to  the  higher  vertebrates.  Several  cladose- 
lachids  are  known,  and  the  most  generalized  of 
these  may  be  rcigarded  as  the  most  primitive  true 
fish.  None  of  them  exceeds  six  feet  in  length. 
The  spiny  sharks  (commonly  ranked  as  an 
order  Acanthodii)  comprise  a  number  of  Paleo- 
zoic forms  which  resemble  the  cladeselachids  in 
many  respects,  but  differ  from  them  in  that  the 
blade  of  the  fins,  except  the  caudal,  is  almost  en- 
tirely dermal,  the  skeletal  fin  support  being  re- 
duced to  a  stiff  spine  at  the  anterior  bonier; 
genera  Acanthodes  and  Mesacanthus.  In  one 
family,  represented  by  Climatius,  a  series  of 
spines  along  the  side  of  the  body  suggests  the 
continuous  lateral  fin-fold.  The  acanthodians 
have  the  dermal  skeleton  highly  developed,  espe- 
cially in  the  region  of  the  skull  and  shoulder 
girdle.  Some  ichthyologists  place  the  group 
among  the  pleuropterygians.  A  widely  different 
order  of  Paleozoic  sharks  is  that  termed  Ichthyo- 
tomi  or  Pleuracanthea,  represented  by  Pleura- 
canthus  of  the  Carboniferous  and  Permian  of 
Europe.  Of  the  many  distinguishing  features  of 
this  group,  the  moat  noteworthy  is  the  possession 
of  pectoral  fins  of  the  'arc^ipterygium'  type, 
which  many  morphologists  (Ck^^baur  and  his 
school)  maintain  to  be  the  fin-form  from  which 
are  evolved  all  other  types  of  paired  fins,  and 
even  the  five-toed  limb«i  of  higner  vertebrates. 
In  the  perfect  archipterygium  the  basals  form  an 
axis  projecting  from  the  body,  while  the  radials 
are  ranged  along  this  axis  in  two  rows,  like  the 
veins  of  a  leaf  along  the  midrib.  This  type  of 
fin  is  also  common  to  the  lung-fishes  and  some  of 
the  most  primitive  bony  fishes.  There  is  strong 
reason  to  believe  that  it  is  derived  from  the  lap- 
pet-like type  of  the  Pleuropterygii.  (See  Fw.) 
The  elasmobranchs  thus  far  mentioned  did  not 
survive  beyond  the  Paleozoic,  but  it  is  these 
early  types  only  which  are  sufficiently  primitive 
to  be  of  importance  in  tracing  the  ancestry  of 
higher  vertebrates. 

The  order  Selachii,  comprising  all  the  modem 
sharks  and  rays,  appeared  in  the  Lias;  though 
one  family,  the  cestracionts,  may  be  trace- 
able to  the*  Permian.  The  basals  of  the  pectoral 
fin  are  reduc^  to  two  or  three  pieces,  and  the 
blade  of  all  the  fins  is  chiefiy  dermal.  The 
males  are  provided  with  claspers  on  the  peine 
fins.    The  vertebral  centra,  with  few  exceptions, 


GREAT  SHARKS 


1.  HAMMERHEAD  (Sphyrna  tiburo). 

2.  NURSE  SHARK  (Qlnglymostoma  cirrata). 

3.  REQUIEM  SHARK  (Carcharlnus  lamia). 


4.  QREAT  BLUE  SHARK  (Prionace  glauca). 

5.  THRESHER  (Aloplas  vulpes). 

6.  BASKINQ  SHARK  (Cetorhinus  maximus). 


SHABK 


748 


SHAJEtP. 


are  well  developed,  and  the  form  of  calcification 
of  the  vertebre,  i^.  whether  radial,  in  a  single 
ring,  or  several  concentric  rings,  has  been  made 
by  Uaase  (1879)  a  criterion  for  subdivision  of 
Selachii  into  Aateroapondyli,  Cycloapondyli,  and 
Teciospondyli,  but,  like  most  systems  based  upon 
a  sin^e  character,  it  is  not  very  satisfactory. 
A  more  practical  division  into  suborders  is  the 
foUowixig:  (1)  Protoselachiiy  sharks  with  more 
than  five  (6  or  7)  gill-arches,  and  a  number  of 
primitive  skeletal  characters— extending  from 
Upper  Jurassic  to  recent,  and  including  Hep- 
tanchus  and  Chlamydoselache ;  (2)  Squalidaf  all 
five-giUed  true  sharks;  most  families  appear  in 
the  Mesozoic,  but  the  Port  Jackson  sharks 
(cestracionts),  which  have  large  crushing  teeth, 
possibly  originate  in  the  Carboniferous;  (3) 
Rajida,  the  rays  and  skates — ^Mesozoic  to  recent. 

BiBUOGBAPHY.  Dean,  Fishea,  Living  and  Fos- 
sil (New  York,  1896);  Woodward,  Vertebrate 
PaUBontology  (London,  1898) ;  Von  Zittel,  Tewt- 
hook  of  PaUeontology  (Eng.  trans.,  Ix)ndon, 
1902). 

RKAinrnre.  Fishing  for  shark.  There  are 
many  methods  of  fishing  for  shark,  varying  ac- 
cording^ to  the  size  or  family  of  the  fish  and  the 
resources  of  the  fisherman.  In  some  American 
waters,  and  particularly  along  the  east  coast  of 
Florida,  fishing  for  tarpon  and  shark  is  com- 
mon, and  while  it  is  not  unattended  with  danger, 
it  offers  the'  most  exciting  sport.  The  white 
shark  (Carcharis  vulgaris)  is  probably  the  most 
ferocious  of  all  fish,  and  is  found  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  other  seas  of  the  warmer  parts  of  the 
world.  The  white  shark  is  caught  by  means  of 
a  great  hook,  baited  by  a  piece  of  meat  and  at- 
tached to  a  chain.  In  the  South  Sea  Islands  the 
method  is  to  set  afloat  a  log  of  wood  which  has 
a  long  rope  attached  to  it  at  the  end  of  which 
is  a  noose.  It  is  expected  that  some  curious 
shark  will  get  his  head  into  the  noose  and  finally 
be  wearied  out  by  the  log  and  thus  be  forced 
ashore.  The  blue  shark,  which  seldom  exceeds 
8  feet  in  length  and  is  common  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  tihe  warmer  parts  of  the  Atlantic^  is 
caught  with  a  hook  and  line  in  the  ordinary  man- 
ner. The  basking  shark,  which  sometimes  at- 
tains the  enormous  length  of  36  feet,  is  of  a  mild 
dispoeition  and  is  easily  approached  by  a  boat. 
It  is  caught  whale-fashion  with  a  harpoon. 

SHABK-STTCKEB.  A  common  sucking  fish 
of  the  remora  family  (Echineididse),  found  in 
all  warm  seas  attached  to  sharks  and  other  large 
fishes,  turtles,  and  the  like,  and  known  in  Span- 
ish America  as  'pega'  or  'pegador.'    It  is  named 


Bchineia  naucrMes,  and  differs  from  the  related 
remora  (q.v.)  in  its  more  slender  form,  more 
elongated  sucking-disk,  and  the  fact  that  the 
body  is  ornament^  by  a  broad,  dark,  white-edged 
stripe  on  each  side.  This  species  is  very  common 
in  the  tropics,  where  few  large  fish  escape  them. 
They  readily  take  a  hook,  and  are  good  to  eat. 

8HAB0H,  shftr^on  (Heb.  shavdn,  probably 
plain).  The  broad  and  uneven  plain  lying  be- 
tween the  hills  of  Palestine  and  the  Mediterra- 
nean and  extending  from  Cssarea  to  Joppa.    It 


was  once  the  site  of  extensive  forests,  which  ex- 
isted as  late  as  the  time  of  the  Crusades  and 
some  remains  of  which  still  survive.  The  Qreek 
version  (Isa.  Ixv.  10)  calls  it  'the  forest.'  It  was 
prized  for  its  pasturage  ( I.  Chron.  xxvii.  29,  Isa. 
Ixv.  10),  and  ranked  with  Garmel  and  Lebanon 
for  the  luxuriance  of  its  v^etation  (Isa.  xxxv. 
2).  Its  wealth  of  fiowers,  for  which  it  is  still 
noted,  is  celebrated  in  'the  rose  of  Sharon'  (Song 
of  Son^,  ii.  1),  which  is  now  understood  to  be 
a  narcissus  or  crocus.  Consult  George  Adam 
Smith,  Historical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land 
(New  York,  1901). 

SHABON.  A  borough  in  Mercer  Cpi^ty, 
Pa.,  75  miles  northwest  of  Pittsburg,  on  the 
Shenango  River,  and  on  the  Pennsylvania,  the 
Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern,  and  other 
railroads  (Map:  Pennsylvania,  A  2).  It  has  the 
Hall  Institute,  a  secondary  school  imder  Baptist 
control.  There  is  a  considerable  trade  in  coal, 
which  is  extensively  mined  in  the  vicinity,  and 
Sharon  is  also  noted  for  its  steel  and  iron  inter- 
ests. There  are  rolling  mills,  boiler  and  machine 
shops,  furnaces,  fiour  mills,  and  manufactories 
of  nails,  horse  collars,  spokes,  chains,  stoves,  and 
lumber  products.  Sharon  was  settled  in  1795 
and  was  incorporated  as  a  borough  in  1841. 
Population,  in  1890,  7459;  in  1900,  8916. 

SHABP  (AS.  scearp,  OHG.  scarf,  Ger.  soharf, 
sharp;  connected  with  AS.  screpan,  to  scrape).  A 
sign  it)  in  music,  which,  when  prefixed  to  a 
note,  elevates  it  by  a  chromatic  semitone.  If  the 
note  occurs  again  within  the  same  bar  it  is  again 
played  sharp,  unless  it  is  preceded  by  a  natural 
sign.  When  the  original  tone  is  to  be  played  in 
the  following  bar,  it  is  customary  to  mark  it 
with  a  natural  sign.  A  double  sharp  {tt)  raises 
the  pitch  of  a  note  by  two  chromatic  semitones. 

SHABP,  Abraham  (1651-1742).  An  English 
astronomer  and  mechanist,  bom  at  Little  Hor- 
ton,  near  Bradford.  He  first  became  a  business 
apprentice,  but  gave  this  up  and  moved  to  Liver- 
pool, where  he  devoted  himself  to  mathematics. 
From  1676  to  1690  he  was  employed  in  Greenwich 
Observatory,  where  he  assisted  in  mounting  in- 
struments, perfecting  hand-graduation,  and  con- 
structed a  mural  circle.  After  1690  he  taught 
mathematics  for  some  time  in  London,  but  later 
retired  to  Little  Horton,  calculating  and  making 
astronomical  instnunents  and  models,  for  which 
he  became  famous.  He  was  joint  publisher  with 
Grosthwait  of  the  British  Catalogue,  He  wrote 
Geometry  Improved  (1717). 

SHABP,  Becky.  The  principal  character  in 
Thackeray's  Vanity  Fair,  an  attractive  but  thor- 
oughly unscrupulous  adventuress,  who,  by  her 
cleverness  and  boldness,  worked  her  way  up  in  the 
world.  She  married  Rawdon  Crawley,  and,  after 
the  scandal  with  Lord  Steyne,  lived  on  the  Con- 
tinent and  became  Joseph  Sedley's  mistress. 

SHABP,  Dallas  Lore  ( 1870— ) .  An  Ameri- 
can author  and  naturalist,  bom  at  Haleyville, 
Cumberland  County,  N.  J.  He  graduated  at 
Brown  University  in  1895,  and  at  the  Boston  Uni- 
versity School  of  Theology  in  1899.  As  a  writer 
he  became  known  through  his  charming  magazine 
articles  on  native  birds  and  small  mammals,  and 
his  book.  Wild  Life  Near  Home  (1901),  which 
treats  these  subjects  with  truthfulness,  sympa- 
thetic insight,  and  literary  felicity. 

SHABP,  Granville  (1735-1813).  An  Eng- 
lish philanthropist,  author^  and  negro  emancipa- 


744 


8HABP8BXJBG. 


tor.  He  was  born  and  educated  at  Durham; 
taught  himself  Greek  and  Hebrew;  and  in  1758 
was  given  an  appointment  in  the  Ordnance 
Office.  He  came  into  special  prominence  by  his 
interest  in  the  emancipation  of  the  negro  slave. 
In  1772  Sharp  obtained  the  decision  of  the  Eng- 
lish judges  in  the  famous  case  of  the  negro  Somer- 
set, that  as  soon  as  a  slave  sets  his  foot  on  Eng- 
lish ground  he  becomes  free.  He  resigned  his  office 
in  the  Ordnance  Department  in  1777,  as  a  protest 
against  the  proeecntion  of  the  war  against  the 
American  colonies,  and  for  his  efforts  in  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  Episcopal  Church,  when  the 
States  became  independent,  received  the  honorary 
degree  of  LL.D.  from  Harvard  University  and 
other  American  colleges.  The  rest  of  his  life  was 
devoted  to  the  abolition  of  slavery  and  the  slave 
trade,  and  to  authorship.  He  was  chairman  of 
the  meeting  in  1787  which  formed  the  'Assoeia- 
tion  for  the  Abolition  of  Negro  Slavery;'  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  colony  of  Sierra  Leone; 
opposed  impressment  of  seamen,  and  advocated 
Parliamentary  reform.  He  died  at  Fnlham.  A 
medallion  portrait  to  his  memory  is  in  Westmin- 
ster Abbey.  Consult  Hoare,  Memoirs  of  Oran- 
inlle  Bharp  (London,  1820),  which  contain  a  bib- 
liography of  his  complete  works,  sixty-one  in  all. 

8HABP,.  James  (1613-70).  A  Scotch  eccle- 
siastic. He  was  bom  at  Banff,  Scotland,  and  was 
educated  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen  (M.A. 
1637).  He  became  professor  of  philosophy  in 
Saint  Leonard's  College,  Saint  Andrews  (1643), 
and  some  five  years  later  minister  of  CraU, 
an  office  which  he  held  during  the  life  of 
Cromwell.  In  1656  he  was  sent  to  London 
to  plead  the  cause  of  the  moderate  Presby- 
terians against  James  Guthrie,  the  leader  of 
the  Radical  faction.  Again,  in  1660,  when 
negotiations  were  pending  for  the  restoration 
of  Charles  II.,  Sharp  b^me  the  representa- 
tive of  his  party  in  Scotland.  His  course  during 
this  period  was  doubtless  marked  by  duplicity 
and  double-dealing.  The  Presbyterians  were 
apparently  led  by  him  to  believe  that  Charles  II. 
was  ready  to  make,  in  fact  had  made,  adequate 
guarantees  to  protect  them  in  their  rights  and 
position,  yet  Sharp  had  advised  and  accepted  con- 
ditions which  secured  Scotland  to  episcopacy.  In 
a  short  time  he  became  Archbishop  of  Saint  An- 
drews. He  was  assassinated  on  Magus  Muir  by 
a  band  of  Ovenanters.  For  an  account  of  Sharp, 
consult:  Stephen,  Life  and  Times  of  Archbishop 
Sharp  (London,  1838) ;  Keith,  Scottish  Bishops 
(Edinburgh,  1756) ;  Dodd,  Fifty  Tears'  Struggle 
of  the  Scottish  Covenant  (London,  1860). 

SHABP,  WiLUAM  (1856-).  An  English  poet 
and  essayist,  bom  at  Garthland  Place,  near  Pais- 
ley, Scotland.  From  school  he  proceeded  to  the 
University  of  Glasgow,  and  afterwards  traveled 
in  Australia.  In  1870  he  settled  in  London, 
where  he  became  acquainted  with  D.  G.  Rossetti, 
whose  biography  he  wrote  (1882).  Though  an 
ardent  admirer  of  Rossetti,  he  believed  modem 
romantic  verse  too  lijerary,  and  sought  to  bring 
it  back  to  a  direct  inspiration  from  nature. 
The  Human  Inheritance;  Transcripts  from  Na- 
ture and  Other  Poems  (1882)  was  followed  by 
Earth's  Voices,  with  the  same  explanatory  title 
(1884)  ;  Romantic  Ballads  and  Poems  of  Phan- 
tasy (1886)  ;  Sospiri  di  Roma  (1801)  ;  Flower  o* 
the  Vine  (1802) ;  Vistas,  poetic  dramas  (1804) ; 
Lyrical   Poems    (1001)  ;    and    Sospiri    d*Italia 


(1003).     He   also   wrote  his   lives  of  Shelley       ! 
(1887),  Heine  (1888),  and  Browning  (1800), be- 
sides which  there  are  various  works  of  fiction,  as        i 
a  London  Romance  (1003),  and  several  antholo- 
gies;  Joseph  Severn    (1802),  a  monograph  on 
Philip  Bourke  Marston  ( 1887) ,  and  many  essays,        i 
as   Ecee  Puella   and   Other   Prose  Imaginingt 
( 1805)  and  Studies  in  Art  ( 1001 ) .    A  part  of  his 
immense  literary  production  has  been  in  collabo- 
ration.   His  wife,  Eiizabeth  Amelia^  edited  in 
1887  Sea-Music,  an  anthology  of  poems  and  pas- 
sages descriptive  of  the  sea,  and  Women  Poets  of 
the  Victorian  Era,  in  1800. 

SHASPB,  Sakdix  (1700-1881).  An  English 
Egyptologist  and  translator  of  the  Bible,  bom 
in  London.  In  1814  he  was  taken  into  the 
London  banking  house  of  his  uncles,  Samuel  and 
Henry  Rogers,  was  made  a  partner  in  1824,  and 
retained  lus  connection  with  the  firm  until  1861. 
His  interest  in  Egyptology  was  excited  through 
the  works  of  Thomas  Young  and  ChampoUion, 
and  he  soon  became  proficient  in  hierbglyphie 
studies,  as  well  as  in  Coptic,  in  Hebrew,  and  in 
Greek.  He  also  paid  much  attention  to  biblical 
studies,  and  published  revised  translations  of 
both  the  Old  and  the  New  Testament — the  former 
in  1840,  the  latter  in  1865.  Sharpe  was  a  con- 
scientious student  and  possessed  much  acuteness, 
but  the  lack  of  systematic  philological  training 
detracts  from  the  value  of  his  work.  Of  his  ' 
numerous  works  the  following  are  the  most  im- 
portant: Early  History  of  Egypt  (1836) ;  Egyp- 
tian Inscriptions  from  the  British  Museum  aid  I 
Other  Sources  (1837-55);  Rudiments  of  a  Vo- 
cabulary of  the  Egyptian  Hieroglyphics  (1837) ; 
History  of  Egypt  Under  the  Ptolemies  (1838);  | 
History  of  Egypt  from  the  Earliest  Times  tiU 
AD.  6i0  (1846;  6th  ed.  1876) ;  Texts  from  the 
Holy  Bible  Explained  by  the  Help  of  the  An-  \ 
dent  Monuments  (1866;  3d  ed.  1880).  Consult 
Clayden,  Life  of  Samuel  Sharpe  (London,  1883). 

SHABPOiESS,  Isaac  (1848—).  An  Ameri- 
can educator,  bora  in  Chester  County,  Pa.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1873,  was  a  tutor  in 
Haverford  CoU^e  from  1875  to  1870,  professor  of 
mathematics  aiS  astronomy  from  1870  to  1885, 
and  dean  from  1885  to  1887,  when  he  was  made 
president.  He  wrote  text-books  on  geometiy  and 
astronomy,  English  Education  in  the  Elementary 
and  Secondary  Schools,  in  the  "Intematiooal 
Educational  Series"  (1892);  A  Quaker  Experi- 
ment in  Oovemment  (1898-99),  and  numerous 
essays  on  municipal  government  and  education. 

SHABP8,  CHBisnAir  (1811-74).  An  Ameri- 
can mechanic  and  inventor,  bom  in  New  Jersey. 
He  became  a  scientific  machinist,  was  the  in- 
ventor of  the  Sharps  breech-loading  rifle  for 
military  and  sporting  uses,  and  made  many  im- 
provements in  other  firearms.  After  many  fail- 
ures he  established  a  manufactory  for  his  fire- 
arms at  Hartford,  Conn.,  where  he  aoeumulated 
a  large  fortune. 

SHABFCTBtTBO.  A  borough  in  Allegheny 
County,  Pa.,  5  miles  northeast  of  Pittsburg;  on 
the  Allegheny  River,  and  on  the  Pennsylvania 
and  the  Pittsburg  and  Westem  railroads  (Map: 
Pennsylvania,  B  3) .  It  is  situated  in  a  ooal  and 
iron  mining  section,  and  has  a  rolling  mlU,  foun- 
dries, machine  shops,  and  manufactories  of  var- 
nish, brick,  glass,  lumber  products,  and  lubri- 
cating oil.    (^larpeborg  was  settled  in  1826,  and 


8HABP8BXJBG. 


745 


SHAW. 


was  incorporated  in  1841.  It  was  named  in 
honor  of  its  founder,  James  Sharp.  Population, 
in  1890,  4898;  in  1900,  6842. 

SHABFSBTTBOy  Battle  of.    See  Aktietam. 

SHABP-SHTEnrBD  HAWK.  See  Henhawk. 

SHABF8H00TBH.  A  miUtary  expert  rifle- 
shot. The  great  improvements  in  the  accuracj  of 
small  arms,  due  to  the  introduction  of  rifling 
and  elongated  conical  bullets,  led  to  the  forma- 
tion of  organisations  of  sharpshooters,  who  were 
assigned  to  sudi  positions  as  would  best  avail 
them  in  the  harassing  of  the  enemy.  They  were 
at  first  selected  from  the  best  shots  of  suck 
regiments  as  were  armed  with  the  rifle.  (See 
RiriEMEK.)  The  term  sharpshooter  is  used  in 
the  United  States  in  the  army  and  militia  to 
designate  the  grade  between  marksman  and  ex- 
pert.   See  Tarost  Practice. 

SHABFSHOOTXB.  A  name  in  the  Southern 
United  States  for  certain  heteropterous  insects 
which  puncture  the  young  bolls  and  squares  of 
cotton,  causing  them  to  wiK;  the  boll  looks  as 
thou^^  pierced  by  a  minute  bullet.    The  most 


abundant  of  these  species  is  the  glassy-winged 
sharpshooter  {Homalodiaca  ooagulata),  a  leaf- 
hopper  of  the  family  Cercopidse,  which  secretes 
an  abundant  supply  of  honeydew  which  it  ejects 
from  its  body  in  the  form  of  small  drops  or  a 
spray,  and  is  one  of  the  insects  frequently  asso- 
ciated with  the  phenomenon  called  'weeping  trees.' 

SHABSWOOD,  shftrz^wyd,  George  (1810^83). 
An  American  jurist,  bom  in  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
He  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
in  1828,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1831. 
In  1845  he  was  appointed  judge  of  the  Philadel- 
phia District  Court,  and  was  the  president  of  that 
court  from  1848  until  1867,  when  he  became 
associate  judge  of  the  State  Supreme  Court. 
From  1878  until  1882  he  was  Chief  Justice  of 
Pennsylvania.  From  1850  tUl  1867  he  was  senior 
professor  of  law  in  Pennsylvania  University.  He 
published:  Profeasianal  Ethic8  (1854);  Popular 
Lectures  on  Common  Law  (1865) ;  an  edition  of 
Blackstone's  Commentaries  (1859) ;  numerous 
editions  of  texts  by  other  English  law  writers; 
and  Lectures  Introductory  to  the  Study  of  Law 
(1870). 

BHA-8HI,  shJl^sh«^,  SHA-SI  or  8HA-SZB. 

A  river  port  in  the  Province  of  Hu-peh,  China,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Yang-tse,  110  miles  below 
1-ehang  (q.v)  (Map:  Chma,  D  5).  It  stands 
on  a  sand  bank  1  to  1%  miles  wide,  which  sepa- 
rates it  from  the  great  swampy  depression  of 
Hn-peh  (q.v.),  and  is  protected  from  the  floods 
of  the  Yang-tse  by  a  great  embankment  many 
miles  in  length,  begun  in  the  sixth  century.  Much 
cotton  is  grown  m  the  district;  spinning  and 
weaving  are  important  home  industries,  and 
Sha-shi  is  the  largest  market  in  Ontral  China 
for  native  cotton  cloth.  In  1896  it  was  opened 
by  treaty  to  foreign  residence  and  trade.  Popu- 
lation, 80,000. 


SHASTA,  Mount.  A  peak  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  in  California,  situated  40  miles  from  the 
northern  boundary  of  the  State  (Map:  Califor- 
nia, B  1).  It  is  an  extinct  volcanic  cone  rising 
to  a  height  of  14,380  feet.  About  1400  feet 
below  the  summit  is  a  crater  three-fourths  of  a 
mile  in  diameter  and  2500  feet  deep;  evidences 
of  volcanic  activity,  such  as  bot  springs,  still 
exist  in  the  neighborhood.  The  summit  is  cov- 
ered with  snow,  and  on  the  north  slope  are  several 
glaciers  of  considerable  size. 

SHAS^OH.     An  ancient  town  of  England. 

See  SHAFTEflBUXT. 

SHAVLI,  shaVlyd.  A  town  in  the  Govern- 
ment of  Kovno,  Russia,  situated  114  mOes  north- 
west of  Kovno  (Map:  Russia,  B  3).  Its  chief 
manufactures  are  spirits,  flour,  and  tobacco. 
Population,  in  1897,  15,914,  mostly  Jews. 


\  Albbbt  (1857—).  An  American 
economist  and  editor,  bom  at  Shandon,  Butler 
Coimty,  Ohio.  He  was  educated  at  Iowa  Col- 
lege and  at  Johns  Hopkins  University.  His  first 
important  work  was  his  thesis,  Icaria:  A  Chap- 
ter ffi  the  History  of  Communism  (1883).  After 
editorial  work  and  foreign  study,  he  was  made 
in  1890  professor  of  international  law  at  Cor- 
nell University,  but  resigned  bis  position  to  take 
the  editorship  ( 1891 )  of  the  American  Review  of 
Reviews,  He  published  Municipal  Qof>emment 
ffi  Qreat  Britain  (1895),  Mumdpal  Qovemmeni 
in  Continental  Europe  (1895),  and  an  account 
of  the  Spanish-American  War. 

SHAW,  Btam  (1872—).  An  Englisb  figure 
painter,  bom  in  Madras.  His  family  remov^  to 
London  in  1879,  and  young  Shaw  studied  under 
J.  A.  Vinter  and  at  the  Royal  Academy  schools, 
and  first  exhibited  in  1893.  His  subjects  are 
usually  mediaeval  and  romantic ;  his  work,  power- 
fully influenced  by  the  Pre-Raphaelite  School,  is 
imaginative  and  decorative  and  rich  in  detail, 
and  he  is  a  fine  colorist.  His  pictures  include: 
"Rose  Mary''  (1893);  "Love's  Baubles"  (1897, 
bought  by  the  Corporation  of  Liverpool) ;  "The 
Queen  of  Hearts,"  and  "The  Queen  of  Spades," 
and  portraite. 

SHAWy  Qeobge  Bernard  (1856—).  A  Brit- 
ish critic,  essayist,  and  dramatist.  He  was  bora 
in  Dublin.  In  1876  he  settled  in  London  and 
became  known  as  a  brilliant  writer.  Besides  the 
criticism  of  the  fine  arte  with  which  he  began  his 
journalistic  career,  he  soon  took  an  active  part 
in  politics,  as  a  platform  speaker  and  *  pam- 
phleteer, from  the  Socialist  point  of  view.  He 
was  an  early  member  of  tne  Fabian  Society 
(q.v.).  At  different  times  he  contributed  weekly 
articles  te  the  Btar  and  the  World,  and  on  the 
drama  to  the  Saturday  Review.  After  moderate 
success  with  four  novels — The  Irrational  Knot, 
Love  Among  the  Artists,  Cashel  Byron*s  Profes- 
sion, and  An  Unsocial  Socialist — he  began  writing 
plays  which  aroused  much  discussion.  They  are 
included  in  Plays  Pleasant  and  Unpleasant,  num- 
bering seven  (2  vols.,  1898) ;  Three  Plays  for 
Puritans  (1901)  ;  and  The  Admirable  BashvUle 
(1901).  In  1889  he  edited  PaUan  Essays,  con- 
tributing two  te  the  collection,  and  his  writings 
include  many  socialistic  pamphlete.  Among  his 
miscellaneous  essays  are  The  Quintessence  of 
Ihsenism  (1891)  and  The  Perfect  Wagnerite 
(1898).  Shaw's  invincible  love  of  paradox  has 
often  prevented  even  those  who  most  fully  reoog- 


SHAW. 


746 


SHAWANO. 


nized  the  cleverneBs  of  hiB  writings  from  taking 
him  seriously. . 

SHAW^  Henry  Wheeler  (1818-85).  An 
American  humorist,  better  known  as  Josh  Bill- 
ings, bom  at  Lanesborough,  Mass.  He  entered 
Hamilton  College,  but  soon  went  West,  where 
he  remained  for  twenty-two  years,  working  on 
steamboats  and  farms  and  finally  becoming  an 
auctioneer.  Then  he  settled  in  Poughkeepsie, 
N.  Y.,  to  pursue  his  latest  calling,  and  began  to 
write  humorous  sketches  for  the  newspapers.  He 
adopted  an  amusing  phonetic  spelling,  and  over 
the  pen  name  of  'Josh  Billings'  won  great  favor 
in  the  early  sixties.  His  Farmers*  AUmwiaw, 
published  annually  (1870-80),  sold  widely,  and 
lie  also  increased  his  reputation  by  lectures  in 
which  h^  a£fected  awkwardness.  Afterwards  he 
contributed  to  the  Century  under  the  pen  name 
'Uncle  Esek,'  and  collected  his  works  in  1877. 
Among  American  humorists  Josh  Billings  ranks 
high  in  pith  and  point,  and  is  regarded  by  many 
as  a  true  moralist. 

SHAW,  Lemuel  (178M861).  An  American 
jurist,  bom  in  Barnstable,  Mass.  He  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1800,  studied  law,  and  in  1804  was 
admitted  to  the  bar.  The  next  twenty-six  years 
he  spesit  in  private  practice  in  Boston,  rising  by 
slow  degrees  to  a  commanding  position  at  the 
Boston  bar.  He  was  actively  interested  in  public 
affairs.  He  succeeded  Chief  Justice  Isaac  Parker, 
of  the  Massachusetts  Supreme  Judicial  Court, 
in  1830.  His  service  on  the  bench,  covering  a 
period  of  thirty  years,  won  for  him  rank  as  one 
of  the  greatest  of  New  England  jurists.  His  de- 
cisions in  greatly  differing  fields  of  law  had  a  re- 
markable influence  on  the  application  of  the  Eng- 
lish common  law  to  American  conditions.  As  an 
interpreter  of  constitutional  law,  too,  he  ren- 
dered services  of  great  value.  Although  an  ar- 
dent anti-slavery  man,  his  respect  for  the  law  was 
such  as  to  cause  him,  in  the  famous  Sims  case, 
to  uphold  the  constitutionality  of  the  Fugitive 
Slave  Law,  the  passage  of  which  he  had  in  pri- 
vate vigorously  opposed. 

SHAW,  Leslie  Mortimer  (1848—).  An 
American  lawyer,  banker,  and  Cabinet  officer, 
bora  in  Morristown,  Vt.  He  removed  to  Iowa  in 
1869,  and  was  educated  at  Cornell  College  and 
at  the  law  school  of  the  University  of  Iowa.  He 
practiced  law  at  Denison,  la.,  where  he  subse- 
quently became  interested  in  banking.  In  1896 
be  became  prominent  as  a  Republican  campaign 
speaker  and  an  earnest  advocate  of  the  gold 
standard.  In  1897  and  again  in  1899  he  was 
elected  Governor  of  Iowa,  and  in  January,  1902, 
he  entered  the  Cabinet  of  President  Roosevelt  as 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to  fill  the  vacancy 
created  by  the  resignation  of  Lyman  J.  Gage. 

SHAW,  Robert  Gould  ( 1837-63) .  An  Ameri- 
can soldier.  He  was  bora  in  Boston  and  was 
educated  in  Switzerland  and  Germany  and  at 
Harvard.  Upon  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
he  obtained  a  commission  as  second  lieutenant  in 
the  Second  Massachusetts  Volunteers.  With  this 
regiment  he  participated  in  the  campaigns  of  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac,  was  an  aide  on  General  Gor- 
don's staff  at  the  battle  of  Cedar  Mountain,  and 
distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Antietam. 
He  was  promoted  captain  in  August,  1862,  and 
in  January,  1863,  was  offered  by  Governor  An- 
drew the  colonelcy  of  the  Fifty-fourth  Massa- 


chusetts Volunteers,  the  first  regiment  of  negro 
troops  to  be  organised  under  State  authority  in 
the  North.  This  commission,  although  he  doubted 
his  capacity,  and  realized  the  criticism  and  cen- 
sure he  would  have  to  face  for  taking  command 
of  a  negro  regiment,  he  felt  it  his  duty  to  aecept, 
and  at  once  returned  to  Massachusetts,  where  he 
organized  the  regiment  and  left  Boston  with  it 
for  the  South,  May  28,  1863.  The  regiment  was 
sent  on  transports  to  Hilton  Head,  and  its  first 
participation  in  the  war  was  as  part  of  an  expe- 
dition to  Florida  early  in  June,  in  the  course  of 
which  the  town  of  Darien  was  burned,  contrary 
to  the  wishes  of  Colonel  Shaw.  In  July  the  regi- 
ment was  attached  to  General  Strong's  brigade 
and  took  part  in  the  futile  and  disastrous  attack 
on  Fort  Wagner.  There  on  the  evening  of  July 
18th  the  Fifty-fourth  Regiment,  weary  and  worn 
from  all  night  marching  and  exposure,  formed 
the  centre  of  the  attacking  column.  Against  the 
well-intrenched  Confederates,  Colonel  Shaw  gal- 
lantly led  his  negro  troops  in  the  face  of  a 
withering  fire,  and  himself  fell  dead,  sword  in 
hand,  on  the  parapet.  Colonel  Shaw  was  a  man 
of  particularly  pure  and  noble  character,  and  of 
great  ability  as  a  soldier,  a^d  his  death  was  a 
severe  loss  to  the  Union.  A  splendid  monument 
to  him,  the  work  of  Augustus  Saint  Gauden^^ 
(q.v.),  was  erected  at  Boston.  Consult  Harvard 
Memorial  Biographies  (Boston,  1866). 

SHAW,  William  Napieb  ( 1854— ) .  An  Eng- 
lish physicist,  bom  in  Birmingham  and  educated 
at  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  and  at  the 
University  of  Berlin.  In  the  Cavendish  labon- 
tory  he  was  demonstrator  of  physics  in  1880-87, 
and  assistant  director  in  1898-99,  and  from  1890 
to  1899  was  senior  tutor  of  Emmanuel.  He  con- 
tributed articles  on  electrolysis  and  the  pyrome- 
ter to  the  Encyclopcedia  Britannica,  and  wrote, 
with  Glazebrook,  A  Test-Book  of  Practical  Phys- 
ic8  (1884). 

SHAWANO^  8hft'v&-nd,  or  SHAWHES 
(from  ahatDatif  south,  or  aewan,  pungent,  salty). 
One  of  the  most  important  tribes  of  the  Algon- 
quian  stock  (q.v.).  The  Shawano  were  formerly 
noted  salt-makers.  They  carried  on  an  extensive 
manufacture  at  the  salt  springs  of  southwestern 
Virginia  and  traded  the  product  to  other  tribes. 
They  have  thirteen  clans,  the  clan  of  the  indi- 
vidual being  indicated  by  his  name.  They  are 
also  organized  into  four  divisions,  which  may 
have  been  originally  distinct,  allied  tribes — ^Piqua, 
Mequachake,  Kiscopocoke,  and  Chilicothe.  To 
the  second  of  these  belonged  the  hereditary 
priesthood,  but  the  first  was  most  prominent 
and  apparently  most  numerous. 

The  Shawano  were  of  wandering  and  warlike 
habit.  They  appeared  first  in  history  about  1670 
under  the  name  of  Sacannahs,  and  lived  upon  the 
middle  ^vannah  River  in  South  Carolina,  with 
their  principal  village  nearly  opposite  the  site 
of  Augusta,  but  before  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
century  we  find  a  portion  of  them,  apparently 
the  main  body,  occupying  the  basin  of  the  Cum- 
berland River  in  Tennessee  and  Kentucky. 

The  Shawano  of  Carolina  for  some  time  kept 
on  friendly  terms  with  the  whites,  giving  them 
efficient  aid  against  the  hostile  Westo  in*  1680, 
but  finally,  wearied  by  the  encroachments  and 
oppressions  of  the  settlers,  were  forced  to  with- 
draw northward.  In  1694  almost  the  whole 
bodv  of  the  Carolina  Shawano  removed  north- 


SHAWANO. 


747 


SHAYS'S  BEBELLION. 


ward  and  settled  upon  the  Upper  Delaware 
River  in  the  neighborhood  of  their  relatives  and 
friends,  the  Delaware  and  Mohican.  About 
thirty  years  later  they  again  removed  to  the 
Susquehanna  River,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
pre:Knt  Wyoming,  Pa.,  where  they  were  joined 
in  1742  by  the  Delaware  and  Munsee,  who  had 
been  dispossessed  by  the  'Walking  Treaty.'  By 
1756  the  Shawano  had  made  another  westward 
move  and  joined  their  brethren  on  the  Upper 
Ohio,  who  had  come  up  in  the  meantime  from 
Tennessee.  Ujp  to  about  1730  they  had  still  kept 
up  their  old  village  near  Augusta,  on  the  Savan* 
nah,  from  which  they  were  finally  driven  by  the 
Cherokee. 

The  western  Shawano,  of  the  Cumberland  re- 
gion, are  first  definitely  mentioned  in  the  Jesuit 
Relations  of  1648  under  the  name  of  Ouckaoua- 
nag.  In  1670,  as  Chaouanan,  they  are  described 
as  living  some  distance  southeast  from  their 
friends,  the  Illinois.  From  that  time  their 
name  appears  frequently  in  the  records  until 
their  expulsion  and  removal  from  the  Cumber- 
land between  1705  and  1715  in  consequence  of  a 
war  with  the  Chickasaw  and  Cherokee.  They 
retired  to  the  Ohio  country,  where  they  united 
with  those  who  had  originally  come  up  from 
Carolina,  establishing  their  principal  villages 
near  the  present  Piqua  and  Chillicothe,  Ohio.  The 
Shawano  took  a  leading  part  against  the  English 
in  the  French  and  Indian  War  and  Pontiac's  War, 
and  afterwards  against  the  Americans  in  the 
Revolution,  the  Tippecanoe  campaign,  and  the 
War  of  1812.  In  1793  a  considerable  body  set- 
tled in  Missouri  on  lands  granted  by  the  Spanish 
Government.  The  death  of  Tecumseh  broke  the 
spirit  of  the  Ohio  tribes,  and  the  war  period 
closed  for  them  with  the  treaty  of  peace  in  1815. 
By  a  rapid  series  of  treaty  sales  and  removals 
the  Shawano  were  shifted  successively,  in  differ- 
ent bands,  to  Missouri,  Texas,  Kansas,  and  the 
Indian  Territory.  Those  in  Missouri  removed 
to  Kansas  in  1825  and  were  joined  there  by  the 
main  body  from  Ohio  in  1831.  Some  of  these, 
known  now  as  Absentee  Shawnee,  removed  to  the 
Indian  Territory  about  1845,  others  followed, 
and  in  1867  the  main  tribe  removed  bodily  and 
became  incorporated  with  the  Cherokee  Nation. 
The  Shawano  have  always  been  noted  for  their 
strong  conservatism,  high  courage,  and  superior 
intellectuality,  as  exemplified  in  the  life  of  the 
great  Tecumseh  and  his  brother,  the  prophet 
Tenskwatawa.  Under  the  new  conditions  of 
civilization  they  are  somewhat  behind  their  In- 
dian neighbors.  They  probably  never  numbered 
more  than  2500.  They  number  now  altogether 
about  1600  souls,  all  in  the  Indian  Territory  or 
Oklahoma,  viz. :'  In  Cherokee  Nation,  about  800 ; 
Absentee  Shawnee,  500;  Big  Jim's  Band,  180; 
Eastern  Shawnee,  Quapaw  Agency,  90,  with  a 
few  others  scattering.  See  Tecumseh;  Ten- 
skwatawa. 

SHAWL  (Pers.  shah  mantle).  An  outer  gar- 
ment, usually  in  the  shape  of  a  square  or  double 
square,  folded  in  the  middle,  worn  usually  by 
women,  but  not  infrequently  by  men. 

The  most  famous  and  beautiful  shawls  are 
those  made  from  the  inner  wool  of  the  Cashmere 
goat.  They  are  produced  on  hand  looms  and 
their  patterns,  which  have  remained  unchanged 
for  ages,  are  produced  either  by  weaving  or  em- 
broidery. Toward  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  the  manufacture  of  imitation 
Vol.  XV.-48. 


Cashmere  shawls  was  begun  in  Europe  and  par- 
ticularly ki  Paisley,  Scotland,  where  a  pure  wool 
shawl  was  made  at  a  low  price,  rivaling  in 
beauty  the  true  Cashmere  shawl.  Shawls  have 
been  made  of  nearly  all  the  textile  materials. 
The  plaid,  which  is  worn  by  the  Scottish  High- 
landers, is  a  kind  of  shawl  whose  pattern  has 
given  the  name  plaid  to  all  checkered  designs. 
A  beautiful  crepe  shawl  is  made  by  the  Chinese 
from  a  hand-spun  silk  from  which  the  gum  has 
not  been  removed.  The  Barfeges  shawl,  a  woolen 
fabric  made  at  Barnes,  France,  is  highly  valued. 
Within  recent  years,  however,  the  custom  of 
wearing  shawls  has  almost  completely  passed 
away  in  Europe  and  America,  and  their  manu- 
facture has  correspondingly  declined. 

SHAW-LE JTJS  V  JiE,  le-fe'vSr,  George  John 
(1832—).  An  English  politician.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Eton  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge ; 
studied  law  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1855. 
He  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Reading  from 
1863  until  defeated  in  1885.  In  1868  he  carried 
tlie  vote  in  the  House  of  Commons  for  arbitra- 
tion of  the  Alabama  claims.  He  was  secretary 
of  the  Board  of  Trade  under  Mr.  Bright  ( 1869- 
71)  ;  Under  Secretary  in  the  Home  Office  (1871)  ; 
Postmaster-General  (1883-84);  member  of  Par- 
liament for  Central  Bradford  (1885-95);  and 
was  chairman  of  many  important  committees  in 
the  House  of  Commons.  In  1897  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  London  County  Council.  He  is 
the  author  of  The  Game  Laws  (1874)  ;  Freedom 
of  Land  (1880)  ;  English  and  Irish  Land  Ques- 
tion (1881);  Peel  and  O'Connell  (1887);  Inci- 
dents of  Coercion  (1888);  Agrarian  Tenure 
(1893). 

SHAWM  (OF.,  dialectic  Fr.  chalemiey  pipe, 
fiute,  from  Lat.  calamelluSy  little  pipe,  diminutive 
of  calamus,  pipe,  reed,  from  Gk.  KoXkafio^,  kal- 
lamos,  reed;  connected  with  AS.  healm,  Eng. 
haulm).  An  old  wind  instrument,  the  precursor 
of  the  oboe.  It  had  a  double  reed  set  in  a  cupped 
mouthpiece.  By  leaving  off  the  cup  and  taking 
the  reeds  directly  between  the  lips  the  oboe  orig- 
inated. 

SHAWNEE,  sha-ne.  A  North  American 
Indian  tribe  of  Algonquian  stock.    See  Shawano. 

SHAYS,  Daniel  (1747-1825).  The  leader  in 
Shays's  Rebellion  ( q.v. ) .  He  was  bom  in  Hopkin- 
ton,  Mass.,  attained  the  rank  of  captain  in  the 
Revolutionary  War,  and  after  settling  in  Pel  ham 
(now  Prescott)  was  the  leader  in  the  western 
Massachusetts  agitation  against  the  State  Gov- 
ernment. (See  Shays's  Rebellion.)  After  the 
dispersion  of  the  insurgents  Shays  removed  to 
Sparta,  N.  Y.,  and  was  granted  a  pension  for  his 
Revolutionary  services. 

SHAYS'S  BEBELLION.  An  uprising  in 
Massachusetts  in  1786-87.  The  Revolutionary 
War  had  left  the  country  in  great  economic  dis- 
tress. Especially  was  this  the  case  in  western 
Massachusetts,  where  the  people  were  weighed 
do\i('n  with  private  debts  and  burdensome  taxes, 
and  suffered  greatly  from  the  inevitable  effects  of 
a  depreciated  currency.  The  courts  were  over- 
crowded with  lawsuits.  The  malcontents,  gath- 
ered in  county  and  district  conventions,  soon 
began  to  draw  up  demands  and  grievances; 
while  committees  of  correspondence  endeavored 
to  rouse  the  general  public  to  action.  It  was 
asserted  that  the  merchants  were  rapidly  drain- 


SHAYS'S  REBELLION. 


748 


SHEATHBHiL. 


ing  the  State  of  specie;  that  the  taxes  were 
uimeoessarily  high;  that  the  State  Senate  was 
grievously  aristocratic;  that  the  salaries  of 
State  officials  were  too  large;  that  lawyers'  fees 
were  exorbitant;  and  that  the  courts  were  used  as 
instruments  of  oppression.  The  complainants 
therefore  clamored  for  the  issue,  in  large  quan- 
tities, of  paper  money,  for  salary  retrenchment, 
for  the  abolition  of  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas, 
and  for  a  radical  reduction  of  taxes,  and  insisted 
that  the  General  Court  should  no  longer  sit  amid 
the  baleful  influences  of  a  merchant-and-lawyer- 
infested  Boston.  In  the  summer  of  1786  the  situ- 
ation became  critical,  and  the  malcontents, 
headed  by  Daniel  Shays  (q.v.),  everywhere 
threatened  violence.  At  Northampton,  Worces- 
ter, Great  Barrington,  and  Concord,  armed  mobs 
prevented  the  sitting  of  the  courts,  and,  in  spite 
of  General  Shepard  and  600  militia.  Shays  with 
600  followers  broke  up  a  session  of  the  Supreme 
Court  at  Springfield  (September,  1786).  Not- 
withstanding concessions  made  by  the  General 
Court,  the  disturbances  continued,  and  Governor 
Bowdoin,  now  fully  aroused,  organized  a  force 
of  4400  militia,  which  he  put  under  the  command 
of  Gen.  Benjamin  Lincoln.  On  January  26,  1787, 
Shays,  with  aliout  2000  men,  marched  into 
Springfield  to  seize  the  Federal  arsenal  there,  but 
was  confronted  by  Shepard  with  a  force  of  1200. 
At  the  first  serious  fire,  the  insurgents  lost  cour- 
age and  fled,  passing  through  Ludlow,  Amherst, 
and  Pelham  to  Petersham,  where  they  were  over- 
taken and  dispersed  by  Lincoln.  Subsequently, 
several  minor  skirmishes  occurred  in  Berkshire, 
notably  the  one  at  Sheffield,  February  26,  1787, 
but  the  insurgent^  soon  disbanded,  and,  for  the 
most  part,  took  refuge  in  adjacent  States.  On 
trial,  fourteen  of  the  leaders  were  sentenced  to 
death  for  treason,  but  were  subsequently  par- 
doned by  Governor  Hancock.  Consult:  Minot, 
History  of  the  Insurrections  in  Massachu- 
setts in  1786,  and  the  Rebellion  Consequent 
Thereon  (Boston,  1810)  ;  and  Holland,  History 
of  Western  Massachusetts  (Springfield,  1855). 

SHEA,  sha,  John  Dawson  Gilmaby  (1824- 
92).  An  American  historian.  He  was  born  in 
New  York,  educated  at  the  Columbia  Grammar 
School,  and  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  gave  him- 
self chiefly  to  historical  research,  mainly  in  con- 
nection with  French  colonization  and  Jesuit  mis- 
.sions  in  America.  He  published  prayer-books, 
school  histories,  the  Catholic  Almanac,  and  edited 
the  Historical  Magazine  (1859-65).  Among  his 
scholarly  historical  treatises  may  be  named :  The 
Discovery  and  Exploration  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley  (1853)  ;  History  of  the  Catholic  Missions 
Among  the  Indian  Tribes  of  the  United  States 
(1854)  ;  Early  Voyages  Up  and  Dovon  the  Missis- 
sippi ( 1862 )  ;  tJovum  Belgium :  An  A  ccount  of 
the  New  Netherlands  in  1643-U  (1862);  The 
Operations  of  the  French  Fleet  Under  Count  de 
Orasse  (1864).  Mention  should  also  be  made  of 
the  three  volumes  of  his  unfinished  History  of  the 
Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States^  as  well  as 
of  his  Indian  grammars,  translations  of  Charle- 
voix and  similar  writers,  and  his  editions  of 
early  American  historical  tracts. 

SHEA  (she-&)  BTJTTEB  TBEE.     See  BuT- 
TEB  Tree. 

SHEARING  HAGHIHE.    See  Metal- Wobk- 

ING  MaCHINEBT. 


ly  shSr^mAn,  Thomas  Gaskkll 
(1834-1900).  An  American  lawyer  and  political 
economist.  He  was  born  in  Birmingham,  £ng- 
land,  emigrated  with  his  parents  to  New  York 
in  1843,  settled  in  Brooklyn,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1859.  At  first  he  devoted  himself 
almost  exclusively  to  writing  books  on  law.  In 
1868  he  entered  the  law  office  of  David  Dudley 
Field  and  was  successful  in  practice.  In  1874 
he  undertook  the  defense  of  his  friend  Henry 
Ward  Beecher  in  the  celebrated  suit  broug^ht  by 
Theodore  Tilton.  In  politics  Shearman  was  a 
Republican  except  in  the  period  from  1884  to 
1896.  He  was,  however,  an  ardent  supporter  of 
free  trade  and  an  opponent  of  all  indirect  taxa- 
tion. With  Mr.  Tillinghast  he  wrote  Practice^ 
Pleading,  and  Forms  (1861-65);  and  with  Mr. 
Redfield,  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Negligence 
(1869  and  1888).  Among  his  other  books  are: 
Talks  on  Free  Trade  (1881);  Distribution  of 
Wealth  (1887);  Owners  of  the  United  States 
(1889);  The  Coming  Billionaire  (1890); 
Crooked  Taxation  ( 1891 ) ;  Taxation  of  Personal 
Property  (1895).  For  the  New  York  Code  Com- 
missioners he  prepared  the  Book  of  Form  ( 1860), 
and  most  of  the  Civil  Code  (1862-65). 

SHEABWATEB,  or  Hagden.  A  petrel  of 
the  genus  Puffinus,  differing  from  other  petrels  in 
having  the  nostrils  opening  separately  and  di- 
vided by  a  very  thick  partition.  Shearwaters 
spend  their  lives  mostly  on  the  ocean,  skimming 
the  waters  with  very  rapid  flight  and  plunging 
into  them  for  their  food.  They  rarely  visit  the 
shore  except  for  the  purpose  of  incubation.  All 
are  sooty  brown  above  and  white  below  with 
various  specific  markings.  The  greater  shear- 
water {Puffmua  major),  about  18  inches  long, 
wanders  over  the  whole  Atlantic  Ocean  and  is 
abundant  on  the  coasts  of  Newfoundland.  The 
Manx  shearwater  {Puffinus  puffinus)  is  found 
also  in  more  northern  regions,  but  is  very  rare  on 
the  coasts  of  North  America.  It  is  about  14 
inches  long,  grayish  black,  the  neck  mottled  with 
gray,  the  throat  and  all  the  under  parts  white. 
Like  all  the  others,  it  breeds  on  islets,  in  rabbit- 
burrows,  or  in  crevices  of  the  rocks,  and  lays 
one  or  two  white  eggs.  There  are  numerous 
other  species  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  one 
of  which  {Puffinus  hrevicaudus)  is  well  known 
about  Australia  as  *mutton-bird.* 

SHEATFISH  (probably  from  sheat,  variant 
of  shote,  from  AS.  scrota,  trout,  from  soSotan^  to 
shoot,  OHG.  sciozan,  Ger.  schiessen,  to  shoot; 
probably  connected  ultimately  with  Skt.  skand, 
to  jump,  Lat.  acandere,  to  climb),  or  Sheath- 
Fisn.  The  great  catfish,  'wels'  or  'silurus'  {8ilu- 
rus  glanus)  of  the  rivers  and  lakes  of  Northern 
Europe,  east  of  the  Rhine,  sometimes  12  feet 
long.  It  is  bluish  black  above,  spotted  with  olive- 
green,  and  the  under  parts  are  dull  white  with 
black  markings.  It  fecKls  on  aquatic  animals,  and 
will  pull  down  ducks  and  other  swimming  birds. 
It  is  the  largest  fresh- water  fish  in  Europe.  Com- 
pare Catfish. 

SHEATHBUjL.  a  curious  Antarctic  bird  of 
the  family  Clhionidse,  which  looks  like  a  pigeon, 
but  is  now  decided  to  be  limicoline.  The  thick, 
fowl;like  beak  is  covered  by  a  homy  sheath,  ex- 
tend'ing  up  to  the  eyes,  and  is  bare  and  caruncu- 
lated,  but  the  forehead  is  densely  feathered.  Two 
species  are  known,  Chionis  alba  of  the  Falkland 
and  other  Antarctic  islands,  with  the  sheath  of 


8HEATHBILL. 


749 


SHECHEH. 


the  bill  yellowish,  and  Chionis  minor  of  Kergue- 
len  Island,  smaller  and  with  the  sheath  black. 
Both  have  white  plumage,  and  feed  upon  mol- 
lusks,  crustaceans,  and  animal  substances  found 
along  the  beach,  and  both  are  called  'sore-eyed 
pigeons'  by  sailors. 

SHEATHING  (from  aheath,  AS.  «ccp)>,«cdK 
sc^p^OHQ,  aceida,  Ger.  Scheide,  sheath;  prob- 
ably connected  with  AS.  8c€adan,  acadan,  Goth. 
akaidan^  OHG.  aceidan^  Ger.  acheiderif  to  separate, 
Lat.  acinderCj  Gk.  c-x'^et",  achizein,  to  split,  Lith. 
akedzUy  akedu,  I  separate,  Skt.  chid,  to  split).  The 
covering  of  a  ship's  hull,  usually  of  metal.  In 
the  days  of  wooden  ships  it  was  found  that 
barnacles  and  other  marine  parasites  attached 
themselves  so  firmly  to  the  bottom  as  to  neces- 
sitate injury  to  the  wood  in  dislodging  them; 
moreover,  some  marine  animals  (e.g.  the  teredo) 
bored  into  the  wood  and  destroyed  it.  Sheathing 
with  very  hard  wood  was  first  resorted  to.  Lead 
sheathing  seems  to  have  betti  used  as  early  as 
1620  at  least,  and  was  probably  used  to  cover 
the  wood  along  the  water-line  several  centuries 
before.  A  Japanese  junk  of  about  800  tons 
sheathed  with  iron  was  seen  in  1613.  In  1761 
copper  was  first  used  as  sliea thing,  and  in  course 
of  time  copper  or  a  copper  alloy  displaced  all  the 
other  metals  except  zinc,  which  is  still,  though 
rarely,  used.  When  iron  ships  were  built  it  was 
noticed  that  their  bottoms  became  foul  very 
quickly.  The  best  remedy  found  was  paint,  and 
it  was  only  a  partial  one.  To  avoid  excessive 
fouling,  many  iron  and  steel  vessels  of  war  have 
their  bottoms  sheathed  with  wood  and  coppered 
as  in  the  days  of  wooden  ships.  Iron  merchant 
vessels  have  rarely  been  sheathed,  and  the  wis- 
dom of  sheathing  and  coppering  any  iron  or  steel 
vessel  is  doubted.  Zinc  sheathing  has  been  used 
to  some  extent  because  in  the  battery  formed  by 
zinc  and  iron  it  is  the  zinc  which  is  eaten  away. 
The  bottoms  of  ships  are  generally  cleaned  every 
year  or  oftener  (once  in  six  months  is  desirable) 
and  coated  with  two  kinds  of  paint.  The  first  is 
anti-corrosive  and  is  designed  to  protect  the 
metal  against  rusting.  The  other  is  anti-fouling. 
It  is  much  softer  than  the  other  paint,  is  poison- 
ous to  marine  growths,  and  if  any  adhere  to  it 
they  are  apt  to  be  washed  off  together  with  a 
thin  film  of  the  paint.  No  paint  yet  devised  is 
regarded  as  fully  satisfactory,  but  several  vari- 
eties give  fairly  good  results  for  five  or  six 
months.    See  Paints. 

SHEAVE.    See  Block;  and  Tackle. 

SHE^A  (Heb.  ShehOr,  Ar.  8aha,  Assyr. 
8ah*u).  Hebrew  eponym  of  the  Sabeean  people, 
represented  in  Gen.  x.  28  as  one  of  the  thirteen 
(originally  twelve)  sons  of  Joktan,  Eber's  son; 
in  Gen.  xxv.  3  as  a  son  of  Jokshan,  Abraham's 
son  by  Keturah;  in  Gen.  x.  7,  as  a  son  of 
Kaamah,  Ham's  grandson.  That  some  Sabseans 
were  made  Hamites  by  the  priestly  redactor  may 
be  due  to  the  knowledge  of  Sabaean  settlements 
along  the  caravan  route  from  Merog  to  the 
EryfiiMBan  Sea  in  the  Persian  period.  ( See  Ethio- 
pia.) The  desire  to  make  Abraham  the  father 
of  a  multitude  of  peoples  accounts  for  the  diver- 
gent genealogy  in  Gen.  xxv.  3.  Sheba  is  correctly 
associated  with  southwest  Arabian  tribes  in  the 
oldest  docim[ients.  In  I.  Kings  x.  1  et  seq.  there 
is  a  story  of  a  visit  to  Solomon  by  a  queen  of 
Sbeba  not  mentioned  by  name.  While  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  acoonnt  for  a  queen  on  the  throne  of 


Sheba  in  the  tenth  century  B.C.  (see  Sarsans),  it 
is  conceivable  that  such  a  queen,  cherishing  de- 
signs to  wrest  the  ancestral  home  in  Yemen  from 
the  Minseans  (q.v.),  should  have  sought  alliance 
with  Solomon,  who  on  the  Elamitic  Gulf  was  the 
neighbor  and  rival  of  the  Kingdom  of  Main.  In 
this  way  a  nucleus  of  historic  fact  may  be  as- 
sumed. Legendary  embellishments  naturally  be- 
gan at  an  early  date,  and  the  notion  of  the 
riddle  may  go  back  to  Hebrew  antiquity.  Accord- 
ing to  the  late  Arabic  version  of  the  story  the 
queen's  name  was  Bilkis,  and  it  was  Solomon 
who  visited  her  in  Yemen,  where  she  tried  him 
with  many  riddles.  From  the  Hebrews  or  the 
Arabians  the  Abyssinians  learned  the  story.  They 
give  the  name  of  the  queen  as  Makeda,  and  main- 
tain in  their  lists  of  kings  that  Ibn  al-Hakim 
was  the  son  of  Makeda  and  Solomon,  and  that 
consequently  the  legitimate  rulers  of  Abyssinia 
are  Solomonitic.  Frankincense  from  Sheba  is 
referred  to  in  Jer.  vi.  20  and  Job  vi.  19.  Sabsans 
appear  in  caravans;  in  Ezek.  xxv.  22  they  are 
mentioned  with  Raamah  as  traders  in  jewels, 
balms,  and  gold ;  in  Isa.  Ix.  6  they  bring  gold  and 
incense.  Consult:  Gunkel,  Oeneaia  (G5ttingen, 
1901);  Glaser,  Geachichte  und  Oeographie  Ara- 
hiena  (Berlin,  1890)  ;  Stade,  Oeachichte  dea 
Volkea  larael  (ib.,  1889) ;  Winckler,  Oeachichte 
laraela,  vol.  ii.  (Leipzig,  1900).  For  the  story  of 
Bilkis,  consult  Brflnnow,  Chreatomathy  of  Ara- 
hio  Proae  Piecea  (Berlin,  1896)  ;  for  the  story 
of  Makeda,  Praetor ius,  Fahula  de  Regina  Sahcea 
apud  ^thiopea  (Halle,  1870)  ;  on  the  occurrence 
of  the  name  Shabat  in  Egyptian  inscriptions  of 
the  Persian  and  Greek  period,  consult  W.  Max 
Mliller,  in  Mittheilungen  der  vorder-aaiatiachen 
Qeaellachaft  (Berlin,  1898).     See  Sab^ans. 

SHEBOYGAN,  sh6-boi^gan.  The  county-seat 
of  Sheboygan  County,  Wis.,  52  miles  north  of 
Milwaukee;  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sheboygan 
River,  on  Lake  Michigan,  and  on  the  Chicago  and 
Northwestern  Railroad  (Map:  Wisconsin,  F  6). 
It  has  a  public  library  and  a  handsome  Federal 
building.  Other  features  are  the  Sheboygan 
County  Chronic  Insane  Asylum,  Saint  Nicholas 
Hospital,  and  the  Sheboygan  Home  for  the 
Friendless.  The  shipping  point  for  a  farming 
and  dairying  section,  Sheboygan  also  has  im- 
portant fishing  and  industrial  interests.  There 
are  large  cheese  warehouses,  and  large  coal  and 
salt  docks.  In  the  census  year  1900  the  various 
manufactories  had  an  invested  capital  of  $7,766,- 
616,  and  an  output  valued  at  $7,469,202.  The 
principal  establishments  are  chair,  furniture,  and 
toy  factories,  foundries  and  machine  shops^  bot- 
tling works,  brick  yards,  breweries,  and  manu- 
factories of  excelsior  wrappers,  carriages,  leather, 
beehives  and  bee-keepers'  supplies,  leather  gloves 
and  mittens,  kbit  goods,  etc.  Population,  in  1890, 
16,359;  in  1900,  22,962. 

SHEGHEM,  she^em  (Heb.  Sh^kem,  the  back, 
hence,  perhaps,  applied  to  a  watershed).  An 
ancient  city  of  Palestine,  in  the  centre  of  Moimt 
Ephraim,  the  modem  Nabulus  (Map:  Palestine, 
C  3 ) .  It  lay  between  the  mountains  of  Ebal  and 
Gerizim,  in  a  fair  and  well-watered  valley,  which 
is  the  meeting-place  of  several  natural  lines  of 
roads.  Mentioned  in  an  early  Egyptian 
papyrus,  it  constantly  appears  in  the  Old 
Testament  It  is  connected  with  the  tradi- 
tions of  Abraham  (Gen.  xii.  6)  and  Jacob,  the 
tatter's  sons  taking  it  with  the  sword    (Qen. 


SHECHEK. 


760 


SHEEP. 


xxxi.) .  In  the  Hebrew  iiiTasion  the  JoBeph  tribes 
and  Joshua  move  immediately  upon  Shechem, 
which  becomes  the  first  Israelite  centre  and  is 
made  a  city  of  refuge  (Josh.  zxiv.  1;  xx.  7). 
These  traditions  mention  a  certain  holy  tree, 
doubtless  an  ancient  sanctuary,  which  was  adopt- 
ed by  the  Hebrews,  as  were  also  the  sacred  tra4i- 
,  tions  connected  with  Ebal  and  Gerizim  (q.v.).. 
Shechem  appears  in  the  story  of  Abimelech 
(Judith  iz.))  but  suffered  eclipse  through  the 
Philistine  wars  and  the  rise  of  Jerusalem.  Upon 
Jeroboam's  revolt  it  .was  the  centre  of  insurrec- 
tion, but  was  soon  deserted  as  a  capital  for  other 
g laces  strategically  fitter,  finally  yielding  to 
amaria.  It  rose  again  into  prommence  through 
the  Samaritan  schism  in  the  fifth  century  B.O., 
becoming  the  centre  of  that  sect,  which  erected 
a  temple  upon  Gerizim  as  a  rival  to  that  in  Jeru- 
salem. (See  Samabitanb.)  It  suffered  in  the 
later  Jewish  wars,  and  was  rebuilt  by  Vespasian 
as  Flavia  Neapolis;  hence  its  modem  name 
Nabulus  (q.v.).  Consult  the  Palestine  Ewplora^ 
turn  Fund  Memoirs,  vol.  ii.  (London,  1881); 
Baedeker,  Palestine  (Leipzig,  1898) ;  George 
Adam  Smith,  Historical  Oeography  of  the  Holy 
Land  (New  York,  1901). 

SHEGHIKAHy  sh^-kl'nA.    See  Shekinah. 

8HEDD,  William  Gbeenouoh  Thateb  ( 1820- 
94).  An  American  theologian,  born  at  Acton, 
Mass.  He  graduated  at  the  University  of  Ver- 
mont in  1839,  and  at  Andover  Seminary  in  1843. 
He  was  pastor  of  a  Congregational  church  at 
Brandon,  Vt.,  in  1844-45;  professor  of  English 
literature  in  the  University  of  Vermont  in  1846- 
52;  of  sacred  rhetoric  and  pastoral  theology. 
Auburn  Seminary,  in  1852-53;  and  of  ecclesias- 
tical history,  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  in 
1853-62.  He  was  pastor  of  the  Brick  Presby- 
terian Church,  New  York,  in  1862-63;  professor 
of  biblical  literature,  Union  Seminary,  New  York, 
in  1863-74;  professor  of  systematic  theology 
t^ere  in  1874-90,  when  he  became  professor 
emeritus.  His  works  include:  History  of  Chris- 
tian Doctrine  (1865;  8th  ed.  1884);  Homileiics 
and  Pastoral  Theology;  The  Doctrine  of  Endless 
Punishment  (1886);  Dogmatic  Theology  (1889- 
94);  Orthodoxy  and  Heterodoxy  (1893);  Cal- 
vinism Pure  and  Mixed  (1893). 


S^  Sir  Mabtin  Abcheb  (1769-1850).  An 
English  portrait  painter  and  author.  He  was 
bom  in  Dublin,  and  studied  art  there  under  Rob- 
ert Lucius  West,  and  in  London  under  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds.  In  1800  he  was  made  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  of  which  he  became  president  in 
1830.  He  was  a  portrait  painter  of  great  popu- 
larity, though  inferior  in  genius  to  his  rival, 
Lawrence,  and  is  especially  well  represented  in 
the  National  Portrait  Gallery.  Among  his  sitters 
were  the  members  of  the  royal  family.  He  pub- 
lished, in  1805,  Rhymes  on  Art,  His  harmless 
tragedy,  Alasco,  published  in  1824,  was  refused 
a  license  as  treasonable.  Consult  his  Life  by  his 
grandson  (London,  1860). 

SHEEP  (AS.  sceap,  seep,  OHG.  sodf,  Ger. 
Bchafj  sheep;  of  unknown  etjrmology).  A  horn- 
less or  hollow-horned  ruminant  belonging  to  the 
genus  Ovis,  and  covered  with  a  fleece  of  wool 
varying  in  color,  length,  fineness,  and  strength  of 
the  fibre.  The  male  is  designated  a  ram  (or 
wether  when  castrated),  the  female  a  ewe,  and 
the  young  a  lamb.     The  principal  products  are 


wool,  meat,  and  sheepskin.  The  entrails  are 
used  for  sausage  casings,  or,  when  dried  and 
twisted,  for  musical  instrument  strings  (cat- 
gut) ;  the  fat  yields  tallow  and  suet;  and  the 
milk  in  some  countries  is  used,  either  alone  or 
with  cows'  milk,  for  making  cheese  (^.v.).  Flocks 
of  special  milk  breeds  are  kept  primarily  for 
their  milk.  In  mountainous  parts  of  India  sheep 
are  used  as  beasts  of  burden. 

The  sheep  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  domesticated 
animals,  and  is  mentioned  in  many  of  the  most 
ancient  writings.  It  was  especially  adapted  to 
the  modes  of  life  and  the  needs  of  primitive  peo- 
ples, whose  wealth  was  measured  mainly  by  their 
flocks.  The  offspring  were  much  used  for  sacri- 
ficial purposes. 

Sheep  have  contributed  largely  to  the  wealth 
and  development  of  every  country  where  man  has 
introduced  them  as  adjuncts  of  settled  agricul- 
ture. Although  they  flourish  best  in  temperate 
climates,  they  readily  adapt  themselves  to 
changed  climatic  an(f  other  conditions,  and  breeds 
have  been  developed  which  thrive  from  the  sea 
level  to  the  mountain  heights  and  upon  a  great 
variety  of  soils  and  vegetation. 

Sheep  are  supposed  to  have  been  developed 
from  wild  forms  to  which  they  are  related,  but 
opinions  differ  widelv  as  to  whidi  ones;  nay, 
further,  controversy  has  not  settled  that  their 
progenitors  still  exist  in  the  wild  state.  They 
are  most  commonly  thought  to  have  descended 
from  the  mouflon,  the  musimon,  or  the  argali. 
No  domesticated  sheep  were  found  in  North 
America  by  the  early  explorers.  The  wild  Rocky 
Mountain  sheep  has  neither  been  successfully 
domesticated  nor  crossed  with  the  domestic 
sheep.  Under  domestication,  due  partly  to  dif- 
ferences in  altitude,  climate,  feed,  etc.,  and  partly 
to  man's  intervention,  many  breeds  and  varieties 
of  sheep  have  been  produced;  and  domesticated 
sheep  furnish  some  of  the  best  illustrations  of 
the  great  diversity  in  characters  and  adaptation 
to  the  needs  of  man  which  may  be  brought  about 
by  intelligent  breeding. 

Bbbeds  of  Sheep.  Sheep  are  commonly  classi- 
fied according  to  their  fleece  into  long-wooled, 
middle  or  medium-wooled,  and  short  or  fine- 
wooled  breeds.  (See  Wool.)  The  names  of  the 
breeds  or  varieties  within  these  general  divisions 
are  often  derived  from  the  habitat  of  the  sheep 
or  the  name  of  the  breeder  who  has  been  promi- 
nently identified  with  their  development.  The 
long-wooled  breeds,  e.g.  Leicesters,  Lincolns,  and 
Cotswolds,  are  usually  white-faced,  somewhat 
coarse  fleshed  and  lethargic,  and  are  of  English 
origin.  The  Leicester  is  of  special  historic  in- 
terest because  it  was  the  first  breed  to  be  im- 
proved by  skillful  selection  and  breeding,  and 
because  it  has  been  used  in  improving  all  the 
other   long-wooled   breeds.      This    breeia,   whose 

Srogenitors  were  the  long-wooled  sheep  of  the 
lidland  counties  of  England,  owes  its  origin  to 
Robert  Bakewell,  who  developed  it  purely  by 
selection  with  reference  to  a  definite  mental 
standard,  and  apparently  without  resorting  to 
crossing  with  otner  kinds  or  breeds.  This  Im- 
proved Leicester,  which  has  persisted  practically 
as  Bakewell  developed  it,  is  a  hornless  sheep, 
with  a  somewhat  nashy"  wool,  seven  or  eight 
inches  long,  terminating  in  a  short  twist  wluch 
gives  it  a  fine  curly  appearance.  The  animal 
is  somewhat  smaller  than  the  original  type^  but 
is  more  symmetrical,  thicker,  dewier,  of  better 


SHEEP 


1.  SHROPSHIRE  RAM. 

2.  SOUTHDOWN  RAM. 

3.  CHEVIOT  RAM. 


4.  LINCOLN  RAM. 

5.  RAMBOUILLET  RAM. 

6.  COTSWOLD  RAM. 


761 


SHEEP. 


fattening  qualities  and  earlier  maturity.  Bake- 
well  made  no  attempt  to  improve  the  wool,  and 
the  pure-bred  stock  tends  to  produce  a  very  fat 
mutton,  which  is  not  now  in  demand.  The  great 
value  of  the  breed  lies  in  its  use  for  crossing 
purposes.  The  Border  Leicesters,  regarded  as  a 
separate  breed,  differ  from  the  Leicesters  chiefly 
in  the  shape  of  the  head,  which  is  bald,  the 
Leicesters  usually  having  a  tuft  of  wool  on  the 
head.  The  Lincoln  resembles  the  Leicester  in 
general  form  and  might  almost  be  mistaken  for  it, 
although  it  is  larger,  being  the  heaviest  sheep  in 
the  British  Isles.  The  bright,  lustrous  wool, 
which  masses  in  characteristic  flakes  or  strands, 
is  extraordinarily  long,  samples  measuring  21 
inches.  The  breed  is  the  product  of  Leicester 
crosses  upon  the  old  Lincoln  stock.  As  a  mut- 
ton sheep  it  is  considered  by  many  inferior  to 
the  Down  breeds,  but  for  crossing  purposes  it  is 
in  great  demand,  especially  on  the  sheep  ranges 
of  the  Northwest  United  States.  The  Gotswold, 
one  of  the  most  ancient,  best  known,  and  p:iost 
popular  of  the  recognized  English  breeds,  orig- 
inated on  the  bleak  hills  and  uplands,  where  it 
developed  a  hardihood  and  an  ability  to  'rustle' 
less  evident  in  other  long-wooled  breeds.  The 
head  is  wedge-shaped,  without  horns,  the  face 
covered  with  white  hairs,  the  lips  black,  the 
ears  long  and  pendulous,  and  the  forehead  cov- 
ered with  a  flowing  top-knot — one  of  the  most 
characteristic  features  of  the  face.  The  fleece  is 
long  and  heavy,  although  inferior  in  both  respects 
to  that  of  the  Lincolns.  The  breed  has  been  used 
in  establishing  several  cross-breeds.  The  Black- 
faced  sheep  and  the  Herdwicks  are  mountain 
breeds,  often  homed,  having  long,  rather  coarse 
or  hairy  wool.  They  are  not,  however,  commonly 
classed  with  the  long-wooled  breeds. 

The  medium-wool^  breeds  include  the  Down 
sheep,  which  inhabit  the  chalk  hills  of  South- 
em  England,  the  Shropshires,  and  the  Dorset 
Homed.  All  except  the  last  are  hornless,  and 
the  face  in  several  breeds  is  dark  brown  to 
black.  The  Southdown,  or  Sussex,  one  of  the 
purest  of  the  English  breeds,  antedates  William 
the  Conqueror.  It  has  been  developed  by  se- 
lection and  not  by  crossing  with  other  breeds, 
and  has  been  used  to  improve  the  dark-faced  Down 
breeds.  The  horns,  which  it  originally  had,  have 
long  since  disappeared.  It  has  fine  short  wool, 
which  extends  to  the  forehead  and  face,  and  has 
long  been  renowned  for  its  mutton,  which  is  close- 
grained,  tender,  dark  and  juicy.  It  is  a  rather 
small  sheep,  but  its  size  has  been  increased  by 
selection.  On  account  of  its  beauty  and  high- 
bred appearance,  it  is  a  favorite  for  country 
estates  and  parks,  especially  in  England.  The 
Shropshire  is  a  cross-bred  sheep.  The  original 
stock  was  small,  homed,  and  had  a  black,  brown, 
or  spotted  face.  The  improvement  consisted  in 
crossing  with  the  Leicesters,  the  Cotswolds,  and 
the  Southdowns.  The  breed  to-day  is  a  striking 
illustration  of  the  stage  of  perfection  which  can 
be  attained  by  judicious  crossing  and  selection. 
The  carcass  is  large,  covered  with  a  dense  elas- 
tic fleece  of  good  length  and  medium  fineness; 
the  face  is  rich  brown,  and  the  head  covered  with 
a  dose-fitting  cap  of  wool.  The  breed  is  a  very 
popular  one,  and  readily  adapts  itself  to  various 
climates  and  scanty  pastures.  The  Improved 
Hampshire  Down  is  the  heaviest  of  all  the  Down 
breeds,  the  Oxfordshire  Downs  vying  with  it  in 
this  respect.    The  face  is  dark,  the  lips  black,  the 


ears  rather  long,  often  falling  slightly  forward; 
the  shanks  rich  dark  brown;  the  fleece  white, 
thick,  covering  the  top  of  the  head,  and  made 
up  of  fine  strong  fibres.  The  animals  mature 
early,  and  the  lambs  make  very  rapid  growth  and 
fatten  early.  They  respond  to  good  feeding  and 
stand  close  folding,  being  in  their  native  country 
very  often  hurdled  upon  pasture  crops.  The 
Oxfordshire  Down  originated  about  1833  by 
crossing  the  Gotswold  on  the  Hampshire  Down, 
and  was  known  prior  to  1859  as  the  Down-Cots- 
wold.  By  careful  breeding  it  has  become  a 
distinct  race.  These  sheep  have  dark-brown 
faces,  long,  thin  ears,  and  a  comparatively  close 
fleece,  the  wool,  which  covers  the  head,  being 
longer  and  more  flowing  than  upon  the  Shrop- 
shire, which  it  resembles  somewhat  closely.  The 
Suffolk  Downs  resemble  the  preceding,  but  have 
very  black  faces  and  lack  wool  between  the 
ears.  They  were  derived  from  the  small 
and  hardy  homed  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  sheep, 
and  have  been  greatly  improved  by  the  South- 
down. The  Dorset,  or  Dorset  Homed,  an  English 
breed,  is  a  survival  of  a  white-faced,  homed, 
short-wooled  race,  which  has  descended  unmixed 
from  a  remote  period.  It  is  rather  larger  and 
longer  in  the  legs  than  the  Southdown.  These 
sheep  are  imusually  prolific  and  produce  their 
young  so  early  that  the  lambs  may  be  sent  to 
market  before  those  of  most  other  breeds.  They 
are  hardy,  quiet,  good  feeders,  and  readily  adapt 
themselves  to  new  conditions.  The  Cheviot  is 
an  ancient,  white-faced,  hornless,  short-wooled 
sheep,  reared  in  the  Cheviot  hills  and  belonging  to 
the  mountain  breeds,  in  which  class  it  is  un- 
excelled. It  contrasts  strongly  with  the  sheep  of 
the  downs,  having  a  longer  body  and  rather  light 
fore  quarter — ^true  also  of  most  other  mountain 
breeds. 

The  foundation  ol  the  present  fine-wooled 
sheep  of  all  countries  is  the  Spanish  Merino,  a 
type  which  antedates  the  Christian  Era.  These 
sheep  were  held  in  Spain  by  the  kings,  the 
nobles,  the  clergy,  and  others,  and  since  their 
exportation  was  prohibited,  and  extreme  care 
was  bestowed  upon  the  fieece,  Spain  long  con- 
trolled the  fine-wool  trade  of  the  world.  Among 
the  families  of  the  Merinos  were  the  Escurial, 
Infantado,-  Paular,  Negretti,  Guadaloup,  and 
Aguirres,  which  for  years  contributed  largely 
to  the  support  of  the  Spanish  Government.  Un- 
til the  nineteenth  century,  it  is  said,  none  were 
exported  except  by  royal  favor  or  by  smuggling. 
In  1765  three  hundred,  introduced  into  Saxony 
by  royal  courtesy,  became  the  foundation  of  the 
Saxon  Merinos.  During  the  first  quarter  of 
the  nineteenth  oentuiy  Spanish  Merinos  were 
introduced  into  the  United  States,  and  from 
these  the  American  and  the  Delaine  Merinos  have 
been  developed.  The  moist  climate  of  Great 
Britain  is  unfavorable  to  the  growth  of  the  finest 
wools,  and  hence  the  Merino  has  never  been  suc- 
cessfully propagated  there.  It  formed  the  basis 
of  the  vast  flocks  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand. 
The  fleece  covers  the  whole  body,  down  to  the 
hoofs  and  nearly  to  the  tip  of  the  nose.  The 
rams  have  wide,  wrinkled  horns.  The  short,  full 
neck  is  covered  with  heavy  folds  of  skin  in  both 
males  and  females.  Merino  mutton  is  of  inferior 
quality.  The  Rambouillet,  or  French  Merino, 
which  originated  from  the  Spanish  stock  im- 
ported by  I^uis  XVI.  and  is  named  from  his  es- 
tate, is  regarded  as  a  distinct  breed.  It  is  a  large, 


762 


heavy-fleeced  sheep  and  has  many  admirers  in 
Europe  and  America. 

Various  other  types  of  sheep  not  included  in 
the  above  classification  are  of  local  importance. 
The  Iceland  sheep  are  remarkable  for  frequently 
having  three,  four,  or  five  horns,  as  do  also  some 
sheep  of  Northern  Russia.  The  broad-tailed  or 
fat-tailed  sheep,  found  in  many  parts  of  Asia, 
are  chiefly  characterized  by  the  enormous  accumu- 
lation of  fat  on  each  side  of  the  tail  bone.  The 
tail  is  esteemed  a  great  delicacy,  and  to  protect 
it  from  being  injured  by  dragging  on  the  ground 
it  is  sometimes  supported  by  a  board  or  small 
pair  of  wheels.  The  fat  of  the  tail  is  often  used 
in  place  of  butter.  The  fat-rumped  sheep  of 
Tartary  have  similar  accumulations  of  fat  on  the 
rumps,  falling  down  in  two  masses  behind  and 
often  concealing  the  short  tail.  The  Astrakhan 
or  Bucharian  sheep  have  very  fine  wool  twisted 
in  spiral  curls.  The  specially  beautiful  pelts  of 
very  young  or  still-born  lambs  of  this  variety  are 
known  as  Astrakhan  fur  and  are  used  for  trim- 
ming garments. 

Sheep-Raising  was  originally  and  to  a  large 
extent  has  continued  a  pastoral  industry;  and 
because  sheep  can  thrive  upon  scanty  vegetation 
and  succeed  best  when  given  free  range,  they 
are  popular  in  countries  where  land  is  cheap 
and  pastures  abundant,  and  where  the  industry 
can  be  carried  on  extensively,  as  in  South  Ameri- 
can countries  (notably  Argentina),  Australia, 
New  Zealand,  the  Western  United  States, 
portions  of  Russia,  and  South  Africa.  These 
are  now  the  leading  sheep-raising  countries  of 
the  world,  although  the  industry  is  still  promi- 
nent in  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Spain. 

In  the  United  States  sheep-raising  has  under- 
gone many  changes,  due  to  the  prices  and 
demands  for  certain  qualities  of  wool  (q.v.)  and 
mutton,  the  tariff,  and  other  conditions.  As  an 
industry  it  now  flourishes  mainly  in  the  middle 
and  far  West,  where  it  is  at  its  height  and  is 
considered  one  of  the  most  profitable  branches  of 
agriculture.  The  census  of  1900  showed  a  total 
of  nearly  sixty-two  million  sheep  in  the  United 
States,  nearly  65  per  cent,  of  which  were  on 
farms  and  ranges  in  the  western  division  of  the 
country.  Montana  headed  the  list,  with  over 
six  million  head,  followed  by  Wyoming,  New 
Mexico,  Ohio,  Utah,  Idaho,  Oregon,  etc. 

The  growing  appreciation  and  the  increased 
demand  for  lamb  and  mutton  in  the  United 
States  has  increased  the  revenue  from  flocks,  and 
has  resulted  in  changes  in  the  kind  of  sheep  kept. 
As  an  indication  of  the  increase  in  lamb  and 
mutton  consumption^  the  reports  of  the  Union 
Stock  Yards  at  Chicago  may  be  cited.  In  1885 
about  1,000,000  sheep  were  received  for  slaugh- 
ter; in  1890  a  little  over  2,000,000;  in  1900 
about  3,500,000;  and  in  1902  over  4,500,000;  val- 
ued at  over  $19,000,000.  Of  those  received  in 
1902  more  than  3,500,000  were  slaughtered  there, 
the  largest  record  for  any  year.  A  large  pro- 
portion of  these  came  originally  from  the  sheep 
ranches  of  the  West,  although  many  were  fat- 
tened farther  east.  In  1870  more  than  four-fifths 
of  the  sheep  in  the  United  States  were  either 
pure-bred  or  grade  Merinos.  During  the  closing 
decade  of  the  nineteenth  century  there  was  a 
marked  tendency  to  increase  the  mutton  breeds 
or  crosses  having  better  mutton  qualities.  In  the 
States  east  of  the  Mississippi  River  the  coarse 
or  medium  wooled  mutton  breeds  have  gradually 


gained  prominence  because,  as  population  has 
increased,  meat  has  become  more  important  than 
wool.  In  the  Southwest  the  Merinos  still  pre; 
dominate,  being  held  by  some  to  be  better 
'rustlers;'  but  in  the  Northwest  the  aim  of  the 
majority  of  sheep-raisers  is  to  breed  a  general- 
purpose  animal,  with  wool  of  medium  fineness, 
shearing  7  to  8  pounds,  and  of  good  mutton 
qualities.  This  is  usually  brought  about  by 
crossing  the  Merino  or  Rambouillet  with  the 
Cotswold  or  Lincoln,  thoroughbred  stock,  espe- 
cially bucks,  being  the  foundation  of  the  flocks 
on  the  better  ranches. 

The  management  of  sheep  under  range  condi- 
tions differs  widely  from  that  adopted  in  the 
Eastern  States  or  in  older  countries.  The  natu- 
ral conditions  and  environment  in  the  Western 
States,  the  extensive  scale  upon  which  the  sheep 
industry  is  conducted,  the  high  price  of  labor, 
and  the  comparative  inaccessibility  of  some  of 
the  larger  ranges,  have  resulted  in  a  tolerably 
uniform  system  of  management,  somewhat  modi- 
fied, however,  by  climatic  and  other  conditions. 
Formerly  the  sheep  were  kept  almost  entirely 
upon  the  public  domain,  but  with  the  increasing 
competition  for  this  open  range  and  the  set- 
tling of  the  country,  the  practice  of  owning  or 
leasing  land  has  become  very  common,  although 
there  are  still  *tramp'  bands  which  rove  from 
south  to  north  and  back  with  the  season.  In 
many  cases  immense  tracts  of  land  are  acquired 
by  lease  or  purchase,  and  this  usually  means  the 
control  of  a  much  larger  tract.  The  leased  tracts 
are  inclosed  with  fence^  and  are  supplied  with 
facilities  for  watering  the  stock.  Generally,  how- 
ever, the  sheep-raiser  does  not  own  or  lease  all 
the  land  required  for  range,  but  relies  upon  the 
open  ranges  and  the  forests  in  the  mountains  for 
summer  grazing.  The  land  which  he  eohtrols  is 
the  winter  range,  and  is  usually  located  in  prox- 
imity to  the  headquarters  of  the  ranch.  Qn  the 
range  the  bands  number  from  1800  to  3000 
sheep,  depending  upon  the  character  of  the  coun- 
try. Each  band  is  in  charge  of  a  herder,  as- 
sisted by  dogs  which  prevent  the  sheep  jfrom 
straying  away  and  guard  them  at  night.  Camp 
tenders  supply  the  herders'  wants  and  main- 
tain a  lookout  for  good  range.  In  the  fall 
the  sheep  are  brought  to  the  winter  range, 
which  is  more  protected  from  the  snow  and 
has  not  been  fed  down  during  the  summer. 
Where  no  provision  is  made  for  feeding  when 
storms  prevent  ranging  heavy  losses  are  likely 
to  occur.  The  best  sheep  men,  however,  put  up 
alfalfa  (q.v.)  or  prairie  hay  for  such  emer- 
gencies, and  some  even  plan  to  fatten  the  sheep 
somewhat  during  winter  by  this  extra  feeding, 
to  prepare  them  for  the  market.  On  some  of 
the  ranches  several  hundred  acres  of  alfalfa  are 
raised  (costing  from  75  cents  to  $1.25  a  ton), 
and  as  several  crops  are  cut  during  the  season,  a 
hay  gang  is  kept  employed  througnout  the  sum- 
mer. 

In  the  early  days  buildings  were  rarely  used, 
but  experience  has  shown  that  while  they  are 
not  absolutely  essential,  increased  profits  are 
secured  and  the  business  made  more  certain  by 
providing  protection  for  the  sheep,  especially 
during  lambing  time.  This  protection  usually 
consists  of  rough  sheds  50  or  75  feet  wide  and 
often  200  feet  long.  Corrals,  usually  without 
cover,  are  located  at  various  points  over  the 
winter  range,  and  the  sheep  are  placed  in  theee 


WILD   SHEEP   AND    MUSK   OX 


1.  HORNS  OF  PAMIR  SHEEP,  front  view.    See  No.  4. 

2.  KAMTCHATKAN  ARQALI  (Ovie  nivlcola). 

3.  ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  BIGHORN  (OvIe  Canadensis). 


4.  PAMIR  SHEEP  (Ovis  Poll). 

5.  MERINO  RAM. 

6.  MUSK  OX  (Ovibos  moschatus). 


768 


SHEEP-DOG. 


over  night.  The  more  substantial  feeding  cor- 
rals are  located  near  the  ranch  house.  They  are 
usually  connected  with  open  sheds  in  which  the 
sheep  may  seek  protection  against  snow  and  rain. 
In  the  spring  after  lambing  time  the  sheep  are 
sheared,  either  by  hand  or  with  machine,  and 
usually  dipped  as  a  precaution  against  ticks  and 
disease,  before  they  are  taken  out  upon  the  sum- 
mer range.  In  the  Western  States  shearing  is 
carried  on  by  shearers  who  begin  in  early  spring 
in  Texas  and  Arizona,  where  two  annual  shear- 
ings are  made.  As  the  season  advances  they 
travel  northward  to  Montana,  where  the  work 
ends  in  early  July.  They  become  so  expert, 
and  shear  with  such  rapidity,  that  an  average 
of  from  90  to  120  sheep  a  day  is  usual.  «The 
maximum  record  is  about  250  sheep  in  a  day. 
Since  about  1895  machine  shearing  has  pro- 
gressed rapidly,  because  more  wool,  an  evener 
fleece,  and  less  injury  to  the  sheep's  skin  are 
secured.  The  motive  power  is  usually  a  gasoline 
engine,  and  shearing  plants  are  constructed 
which  contain  from  10  to  40  clippers.  No  sort- 
ing of  the  wool  is  done  on  the  ranch,  except  that 
the  wool  of  black  sheep  is  sacked  separately, 
since  it  brings  a  higher  price. 

The  cost  of  managing  sheep  under  range  con- 
ditions necessarily  varies  within  rather  wide 
limits.  If  the  sheep-raiser  makes  use  of  the 
public  lands  without  paying  rental  and  taxes, 
and  does  not  practice  winter  feeding,  the  busi- 
ness may  be  conducted  at  a  cost  of  about  25  cents 
per  head  per  year.  On  the  other  hand,  sheep- 
raisers  who  maintain  extensive  plants,  feed  in 
winter,  and  rent  or  own  much  of  their  grazing 
land  have  found  that  the  cost  varies  from  75 
cents  to  $1.25  per  head.  The  income  under 
range  conditions  varies  according  to  the  locality 
and  the  skill  and  intelligence  of  the  sheep-owner. 
In  localities  where  the  wool  is  comparatively  free 
from  sand,  the  income  from  the  fleece  in  1903 
was  from  $1  Xo  $1.50  per  sheep.  The  lambs  may 
be  sold  in  the  fall  at  $2  to  $3  a  head,  depending 
upon  their  condition;  and  by  feeding  for  a  short 
time  additional  profit  may  be  obtained.  Some 
of  the  best  sheep  managers  make  a  profit  of  $1.50 
per  head,  but  such  high  returns  are  above  the 
average  and  cannot  be  realized  every  year. 

Although  sheep  are  well  adapted  to  scanty 
vegetation  and  are  capable  of  giving  good  re- 
turns on  the  semi-arid  lands,  they  also  respond 
to  liberal  feeding  and  can  be  made  to  return 
good  profits  under  farming  conditions.  The 
high-priced  agricultural  lands  of  Great  Britain 
maintain  an  average  of  680  sheep  per  thousand 
acres;  those  of  Scotland,  in  1893,  as  high  as  1380 
sheep  per  thousand  acres  of  agricultural  land. 
In  the  leading  agricultural  States  of  the  United 
States  the  number  does  not  exceed  25  sheep  per 
thousand  acres.  In  the  farming  States,  where 
.  mutton  is  the  primary  consideration  and  wool 
incidental,  sheep-raising  will  usually  return  a 
satisfactory  profit  independent  of  the  price  of 
wool,  as  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  the  cost 
of  producing  a  pound  of  mutton  from  good  mut- 
ton sheep  does  not  exceed  that  of  producing  a 
pound  of  beef.  Practical  feeders  nave  found 
that  surplus  grain  may  be  fed  with  profit,  and 
the  number  of  sheep  in  the  grain-producing 
States  seems  to  be  increasing.  Com  (see 
Maize)  is  one  of  the  cheapest  grain  rations 
for  lambs.  It  is  often  fed  in  a  mixture  with 
oats  or  peas,  and,  for  fattening,  a  little  oil  cake 


added.  Various  green  crops,  especially  rape 
(q.v.),  are  grown  for  sheep  pasture,  the  sheep 
being  hurdled  upon  the  fields  and  a  rotation  of 
green  crops  provided.  Koots  are  extensively 
used,  especially  in  England  and  parts  of  the 
United  States  where  corn  cannot  be  grown. 
Corn  silage  is  equal  in  feeding  value  to  roots, 
and  is  much  cheaper.     See  Silage. 

BiBLiooBAPHT.  Armatage,  The  Sheep,  Its 
Varieties  and  Management  in  Health  and  Dis- 
ease (London,  1893) ;  Coleman,  Cattle,  Sheep, 
and  Pigs  of  Great  Britain  (London,  1887)  ; 
Craig,  Sheep  Feeding,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  49 
( Washington,  1897 ) ;  Curtiss,  Raising  Sheep  for 
Mutton,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  96  (Washington, 
1899)  ;  Curtis,  Horses,  Cattle,  Sheep,  and  Stoine 
(New  York,  1893)  ;  Dodge,  Sheep  and  Wool, 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Report  66  (Wash- 
ington, 1900)  ;  Gibson,  History  and  Present  State 
of  the  Sheep-Breeding  Industry  in  the  Argentine 
Republic  (Buenos  Ayres,  1893)  ;  May,  Das  Schaf 
(Breslau,  1868)  ;  Mclvor,  History  and  Develop- 
ment of  Sheep  Farming  from  Antiquity  to  Mod- 
ern Times  (Sydney,  1893)  ;  Mentzel,  Schaf tzuchi 
(Berlin,  1892)  ;  Randall,  Sheep  Husbandry  unth 
an  Account  of  the  Different  Breeds  (New  York, 
1860)  ;  Rush  worth.  The  Sheep  (Buffalo,  1899)  ; 
Salmon,  Carman,  Heath,  and  Minto,  Special  Re- 
port on  the  History  and  Present  Condition  of  the 
Sheep  Industry  of  the  United  States  (Washing- 
ton, 1892)  ;  Sanson,  Les  moutons,  histoire  natu- 
relle  et  zooteohnie  (Paris,  1885);  Spooner,  His- 
tory, Structure,  Economy,  and  Diseases  of  the 
Sheep  (Ivondon,  1888)  ;  Stewart,  The  Domestic 
Sheep,  Its  Culture  and  General  Management 
(Chicago,  1898)  ;  Wilcox,  Sheep  Ranching  in  the 
Western  States,  in  Annual  Report  Bureau  of  Ani- 
mal Industry  (Washington,  1903)  ;  Wrightson, 
Sheep,  Breeds  and  Management  (London,  1896)  ; 
Youatt,  Sheep,  Their  Breeds,  Management,  and 
Diseases  (London,  1837). 

SHEEP-BOT.    See  Box;  Bot-Flt. 

SHEEP-DOG,  or  COIiUE.  Any  of  several 
kinds  of  dogs  used  to  guard  and  control  fiocks  of 
sheep  or  cattle.  This  kind  of  dog,  which  Buff  on 
regarded  as  the  most  ancient  breed  of  domestic 
dog,  has  existed  in  substantially  its  present 
large,  hardy,  long-haired  form,  characterized  by 
a  high  degree  of  intelligence,  since  prehistoric 
times,  and  BufTon's  claim  may  very  well  be  true. 
The  English-speaking  world  at  the  present  is 
mainly  interested  in  six  varieties  of  sheep-dogs. 

The  Scotch  Collies.  The  rough-haired  va- 
riety of  the  Scotch  collies  is  the  traditional  and 
typical  sheep-dog  of  the  world.  He  stands  from 
22  to  24  inches  high  at  the  shoulder,  has  a  skull 
quite  fiat,  with  a  fine  tapering  muzzle,  and  brains 
tnat  often  act  with  better  judgment  than  do 
those  of  his  human  roaster  on  the  matters  within 
the  dog's  range..  The  sheep  become  perfectly  ac- 
quainted with  their  dog  and  evidently  regard  it 
as  a  friend.  It  knows  the  sheep  of  the  flock  it  is 
required  to  attend,  and  even  in  a  crowded  market 
adroitly  separates  them  from  others.  Its  re- 
membrance of  places  is  obviously  very  accurate. 

The  standard  qualities  called  for  are  a  heavy 
coat,  except  on  the  head  and  legs,  the  outer  coat 
harsh  to  the  touch,  the  under  coat  soft,  furry, 
and  so  close  that  it  is  difficult  on  parting  it  to 
see  the  skin ;  mane  and  frill  round  the  neck  very 
abundant;  fore  legs  slightly  feathered;  hind  legs 
below  the  hocks  smooth,  with  a  profusion  of  hair 


SHBEP-DOG. 


754 


Ring  K  If  I  MT^'n^ 


on  the  tail,  and  long  and  bushy  on  the  hips. 
Color  ranges  from  black  and  t^n  to  tan  and 
white,  or  all  white;  and  the  dog's  weight  varies 
from  45  to  65  pounds;  females  from  40  to  50 
pounds.  The  ears  are  small  and  in  repose  are 
folded,  but  when  alert  thrown  up  and  drawn 
together  on  the  top  of  the  skull.  There  being  no 
brow  on  this  breed,  the  eyes  are  necessarily  placed 
obliquely.  The  general  expression  of  the  collie 
is  that  of  great  beauty  in  outline  and  pose, 
strength,  activity,  and  attention.  See  Plates  of 
Dogs. 

The  amooih-coated  collie  has  the  general 
character  of  his  more  popular-  brother,  with  a 
dense,  short,  flat  coat  of  good  texture,  with  an 
abundance  of  overcoat,  but  not  a  particle  of 
feathering  on  legs,  tail,  or  ears.  He  varies  in 
color,  and  in  its  distribution,  more  than  the  long- 
coated  one.  Before  the  days  of  the  railroad  he 
was  essentially  the  cattle  drover's  dog. 

The  Welsh  Bob-Tailed  Collie.  This  variety, 
long  known  in  Wales,  but  rarely  seen  elsewhere, 
is  the  largest  of  the  collies,  being  25  inches  high 
at  the  shoulder.  It  has  a  shaggy,  blue-gray 
coat,  and  a  tail  inclined  to  be  short,  and  in- 
variably cropped  in  infancy. 

The  Old  English  Sheep-Dog.  This  race  is 
akin  to  the  Welsh  collie  in  build  and  coat,  and  is 
bob-tailed.  It  is  thick-set,  has  a  shaggy  iron- 
gray,  white-marked  coat,  with  a  w^aterproof  un- 
der-fur, and  its  ears  are  carried  flat  on  the  side 
of  the  head. 

The  PoMERAioAN  Sheep  Dog.  Though  else- 
where bred  as  a  house  pet,  small  and  useless,  in 
its  own  home  on  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  this 
dog  is  the  local  sheep-tender.  He  has  a  fox-like 
face  and  very  long  hair.  In  color  he  ranges  over 
a  wide  scale,  but  black  or  white  is  most  com- 
mon, and  the  average  weight  is  about  eight 
pounds.   It  is  better  known  as  the  'Spitz  dog.' 

The  Schippebke  (schipper-kee) .  This  is  to 
all  intents  and  purposes  a  short-coated,  bob- 
tailed  Pomeranian,  commonly  kept  by  the  boat- 
men of  Holland  and  the  Rhine  as  a  guard-dog, 
and  it  is  unapproachable  in  that  capacity.  The 
English  and  American  standard  for  these  dogs 
calls  for  a  black  coat,  but  in  Holland  fawns  and 
whites  are  very  popular.  Two  sizes  are  recog- 
nized, one  from  9  to  12  pounds  in  weight,  and 
another  from  12  to  20  pounds. 

Consult  authorities  cited  under  Dog. 

SHEEP-IiAUBEL.    See  Kalmia. 

SHEEP-LOUSE,  or  Sheep-Tick,  or  (in  Scot- 
land") Kaid.  a  reddish-brown  fly  (Melophagus 
ovintts)  of  the  family  Hippoboscidap.  It  lives 
among  the  wool  of  sheep,  and  particularly  of 
lambs,  sucking  the  blood  of  the  animal,  and  is 
most  abundant  in  the  early  part  of  summer.  It 
is  wingless  and  somewhat  resembles  a  tick,  and 
where  it  fixes  its  head  in  the  skin  a  large  tumor 
is  formed.  The  female  hatches  eggs  and  nour- 
ishes the  five  to  eight  larvje  within  her  own 
body,  until  just  before  they  pass  into  the  pupa 
state,  when  they  are  deposited,  oval-shaped  and 
shining,  and  fastened  to  the  wool  of  the  sheep. 
Farmers  use  various  washes  or  'dips'  for  the 
destruction  of  this  pest,  also  pyrethrum  powder. 

SHEEPSHEAD.  An  American  food-fish 
{Archo8argu8  probatocephnlus)  of  the  porgy 
family  (Sparidce),  considered  one  of  the  finest  for 
the  table  found  along  the  Atlantic  or  Gulf  coast 


of  the  United  States.  It  grows  to  a  wei^t  of 
20  pounds,  but  the  average  is  about  seven  pounds. 
It  has  a  deep  body,  marked  by  seven  or  eight 
transverse  bands,  most  evident  in  the  young.  The 


■aSKPBHKAD. 

mouth  has  prominent  incisor  teeth  which  help 
to  give  the  head  a  fancied  resemblance  to  that  of 
a  sheep.  It  is  a  bottom-feeder  and  lives  on  shell- 
fish and  small  crustaceans,  especially  barnacles, 
and  also  on  seaweeds.  The  spawning  period  is 
from  March  to  June.  Artificial  propagation  of 
it  is  irregularly  carried  on  by  the  United  States 
Fish  Commission. 

The  same  name  is  given  in  the  West  to  the 
fresh-water  drum  {Aplodinotus  grunniens)  of 
the  Mississippi  Valley,  a  large  scisenid  fish  which 
in  Texas  and  Louisiana  is  well  liked,  but  in  the 
North  is  not  eaten.  It  reaches  a  weight  of  50 
or  60  pounds,  and  is  silvery  gray  or  dusky  with 
obscure  oblique  streaks  on  the  sides.  It  is  also 
called  'gaspergou,'  'croaker,*  'white  perch,*  and 
by  other  local  names.  Consult  Goode,  Fishery 
Industries,  sec.  i.  (Washington,  1884). 

SHEEPSWOOIi.  A  Florida  commercial 
sponge  {8pongia  goasifpina),  regarded  as  the 
best  of  that  region.    See  Sponge. 

SHEEP-TICK.  See  Sheep-Loitse  ;  Fobest- 
Fly;  Tick. 

SHEEBNESS^  A  seaport  and  naval  arsenal 
in  Kent,  England,  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the 
Isle  of  Sheppey,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Tham« 
and  Medway,  11  miles  east-northeast  of  Chatham 
(Map:  England,  G  5).  It  consists  of  four  diri- 
sions:  Blue-Town,  Mile-Town,  Marine-Town,  and 
Westminster.  The  dockyard  was  founded  by 
Charles  II.  It  covers  60  acres,  comprising  wet 
and  dry  docks,  storehouses,  official  residences, 
and  naval  barracks.  An  extensive  oyster-fishery 
is  carried  on  in  the  vicinity.  At  Garrison  Point 
is  the  residence  of  the  port  admiral.  There  are  a 
coast  guard  station  and  military  barracks.  Grain, 
seeds,  and  oysters  are  exported.  Sheemess  was 
captured  by  the  Dutch  under  De  Ruyter  in  1667, 
and  here  the  mutiny  of  the  Nore  originated  in 
1798.  Population,  in  1891,  14,500;  in  1901, 
18,300. 

SHEF^FIELD.  A  manufacturing  city  in  the 
West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  England,  picturesque- 
ly situated  on  several  hills  that  slope  toward  the 
confluence  of  the  rivers  Sheaf  and  Don,  165  miles 
north-northwest  of  London,  and  41  miles  east  of 
Manchester  (Map:  England,  E  3).  It  possesses 
many  flne  public  buildings,  such  as  the  original 
parish  church,  erected  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I.. 
240  feet  long  by  130  feet  broad;  Saint  Mary's 
Catholic  Church,  surmounted  by  a  tower  200 
feet  high;  the  town-hall  (erected  1891);  cutlers' 


fling'gwi  ■cTb'h, 


755 


SHETTj. 


h«ll;  oom  exchange;  the  market-hall,  or  Nor- 
folk market,  etc.  There  are  extensive  botanio 
gardens,  and  a  fine  cemetery  about  a  mile  from 
the  town;  numerous  educational  establish- 
ments, such  as  the  free  grammar  school,  the 
collegiate  school,  the  Wesley  College,  a  Lan- 
casterian  and  many  national  schools,  free  writ- 
ing-schools, school  of  art,  free  library,  besides 
denominational  schools,  Saint  George's  Museum, 
founded  by  Ruskin,  the  Mappie  Art  Gallery,  and  a 
mechanics'  institution,  established  in  1832.  The 
mechanics'  library  (1828)  is  now  merged  into 
the  free  library,  and  there  is  also  the  Sheffield 
Library. 

The  Albert  Hall,  erected  in  1873,  is  a  commo- 
dious building,  which  seats  3000  people.  The 
municipality  was  the  first  in  England  to  op- 
erate its  tramways;  it  also  owns  its  electno 
lighting  and  power  plant  and  markets,  pro- 
vides artisans'  dwellings,  baths,  free  libraries, 
and  recreation  grounds,  and  supports  technical 
education.  As  far  back  as  the  time  of  Chaucer, 
Sheffield  was  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  cut- 
lery; an  endless  variety  of  articles  of  every  de- 
scription is  produced.  Knives,  silver  and  plated 
articles,  white-metal  goods,  coach-springs, 
spades,  spindles,  hammers,  files,  saws,  boilers, 
stoves,  grates,  buttons,  and  bicycles  are  among 
the  leading  articles.  After  1871  the  introduction 
of  the  manufacture  of  armor-plates,  railway 
springs,  tires,  and  rails  gave  a  remarkable  im- 
petus to  the  growth  of  the  town.  Although  a 
very  ancient  town,  its  history  is  comparatively 
uneventful.  It  received  a  charter  from  Edward 
I.  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  spent  twelve  years  of 
her  captivity  in  the  castle.  During  the  Civil  War 
the  town  was  seised  by  the  Parliamentarians, 
abandoned  to  the  Earl  of  Newcastle,  recaptured, 
and  the  castle  demolished  in  1644.  In  1893  Shef- 
field was  constituted  a  city.  Five  members  are 
returned  to  Parliament.  Population,  in  1891, 
324,200;  in  1901,  380,700.  Consult  Gatty,  Shef- 
field, Past  and  Present  (London,  1873). 

SHEFFIELD^  John,  Duke  of  Buckingham 
and  Normanby   (1049-1721).     See  Buckingham 

AND  NOBMANBT. 

SHEITIELD^  Joseph  Eable  (1793-1882). 
An  American  merchant,  bom  at  Southport,  Conn. 
At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  entered  commercial  life 
at  Newbeme,  N.  C,  and  afterwards  removed  to 
Mobile,  Ala.,  where  he  amassed  great  wealth  and* 
became  one  of  the  largest  cotton  shippers  in  the 
country.  He  return^  to  Connecticut  in  1835, 
and  became  largely  interested  in  the  promotion 
and  construction  of  new  railroads.  For  many 
years  he  was  president  of  the  New  Haven  and 
Northampton  Railroad,  and  he  was  one  of  the 
organizers  of  the  New  York,  New  Haven  and 
Hartford  line.  Through  his  efforts  and  by 
•  means  of  his  munificence  the  scientific  depart- 
ment of  Yale  was  reorganized  and  established 
on  its  own  foundation  as  a  separate  school  of  the 
university  under  the  name  of  the  Sheffield  Scien-. 
tifie  School,  to  which  he  gave  more  than  $1,000,- 
000. 

SHEPFnSLD  PLATE.     See  Plate,   Shef- 

FZELO. 

SHEFTCHEN^Oy  Taras  Gbigortevitch 
(1814-61).  The  greatest  poet  of  Little  Russia. 
He  was  bom  in  serfdom  m  the  Government  of 
Kiev.    He  was,  upon  his  own  urgent  request,  ap- 


prenticed to  a  house  decorator,  whom  he  accom- 
panied to  Saint  Petersburg  in  1833.  Some  young 
writers  took  a  great  interest  in  him  and  helped 
him  in  his  struggle  for  an  education.  He  became 
the  pupil  and  comrade  of  Bryidoff  at  the  Acad- 
emy of  Design,  from  which  he  graduated  in  1843. 
In  1840  he  published  a  collection  of  poems  under 
the  title  of  Kohzdr.  Nikita  Hayday  and  Hay- 
damahi  followed  in  Russian.  In  1843-47  he 
wrote  Naymitchka  ("The  Hired  Girl"),  Nevolnik 
("Prisoner"),  Ivan  Hues,  etc.,  which  made  him 
fomous.  In  1846  he  became  instructor  in  drawing 
at  the  University  of  Kiev,  but  a  year  later  was 
arrested  for  political  reasons  and  sent  to  Oren- 
burg as  a  private  soldier.  Pardoned  after  ten 
years,  he  was  permitted  to  settle  in  the  capital  in 
1858.  He  always  used  the  vocabulary  of  his 
people,  without  the  literary  artificialities  so  com- 
mon among  his  colleagues,  and  his  poems,  even- 
more  than  those  of  Kolstoff  (q.v.),  are  an  ar- 
tistic embodiment  of  popular  songs.  His  com- 
plete works  were  published  at  Prague  in  1876,  in 
two  volumes,  with  numerous  biographical  notices, 
one  being  contributed  by  Turgenieff.  Consult: 
Obrist,  T.  O,  Bzewozenko  (Czemowitz,  1870); 
Westminster  Review,  July,  1880. 

SHE  (or  SHIH)  HWAKG-TI,  shS^w&ng'- 
te'  (B.C.  259-210).  The  name  by  which  Prince 
Ching  (or  Cheng),  the  putative  son  of  Chwang 
Siang  Wang,  ruler  of  the  feudal  State  of 
Ts'in,  is  known  in  Chinese  history.  In  B.c. 
246,  when  only  thirteen,  he  succeeded  to  the 
throne  of  Ts'in,  then  all  but  paramount,  and  re- 
mained for  several  years  under  the  tutelage  of 
a  wily  adventurer  named  Ltl  Puh-wei,  regarded 
by  Chinese  critics  and  historians  as  his  father. 
Under  his  advice  the  subjugation  of  the  feudal 
princes,  who  still  remained  faithful  to  the  House 
of  Chow,  was  continued  with  vigor,  and  suc- 
ceeded so  well  that  in  b.c.  221,  the  26th  year  of  his 
reign,  the  ruler  declared  himself  the  sole  master 
of  China,  assuming  the  title  Shih  Hwang-ti,  or 
Tirst  Emperor,'  with  whom  everything  should 
begin  and  from  whom  everything  should  date. 
The  feudal  system  was  abolished,  the  whole 
country  as  it  existed  then  was  divided  into  36 
provinces,  and  Hien-yang,  near  the  present  Si- 
ngan-fu,  in  Shensi,  became  his  capital.  He  or- 
dained, under  penalty  of  branding  and  four  years' 
service  on  the  Great  Wall,  that  all  books  except 
those  on  agriculture,  medicine,  and  divination 
should  be  delivered  up  to  be  burned.  Four 
hundred  and  sixty  scholars,  who  protested,  were 
buried  alive.  The  Emperor  constructed  roads 
and  canals,  erected  many  fine  buildings,  and,  to 
protect  the  country  from  the  inroads  of  the 
Huns  and  other  barbarians,  he  constructed  the 
(Chinese  Wall   (q.v.). 

SHEIK,  or  SHEIKH,  shflk  or  shgk  (Ar. 
shaikh,  old  man).  A  title  of  respect  among 
Mohammedans.  It  is  applied  to  the  chief  of  a 
Bedouin  tribe,  the  head  man  of  a  village  {SheikK- 
ul-halad),  or  one  of  the  higher  order  of  religious 
preachers;  also,  ii*  general,  to  men  fifty  years  of 
age  or  older.  The  Sheikh  uUIslam  is  the  Grand 
Mufti  or  head  of  the  Mohammedan  Church  in 
the  Turkish  Empire.    See  Mc'rn. 


SHEIL,  shel,  RiCHABD  Lalob  (1791-1851). 
An  Irish  orator  and  dramatist.  He  was  bom 
near  Waterford;  graduated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin ;  studied  law  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in 


8HEIL. 


756 


SHELBT7BNE. 


1814.  In  1822  was  printed  the  first  of  his 
Bkeichea  of  the  Irish  Bar,  a  keen  and  witty  pic- 
ture of  the  life  and  manners  of  the  time.  The 
next  year  he  joined  the  'Catholic  Association/ 
and  in  1825  was  sent  to  oppose  its  suppression 
as  joint  advocate  with  Daniel  O'Connell  before 
Parliament.  He  soon  became  known  as  a  politi- 
cal agitator  and  brilliant  orator;  was  elected  to 
Parliament  in  1829;  aided  O'Connell  in  the  Re- 
peal agitation^  but,  changing  his  position,  took 
office  under  the  Melbourne  Ministry,  and  in  1850 
was  sent  to  the  Tuscan  Court  as  British  Am- 
bassador. At  Florence  he  died.  He  wrote  sev- 
eral tragedies,  of  which  the  moslliBUccessful  were 
The  Apostate  (produced  at  Covent  Garden  in 
1817)  and  Evadne  (1819).  Consult  McCullagh; 
Memoirs  of  Richard  Lalor  Sheil  (London,  1855). 

SHEK^EL  (Heb.  sheqel,  from  shdqal,  Ar.  tha- 
qala,  Assyr.  ehAqal,  to  weigh).  An  ancient 
weight  and  monetary  unit.  According  to  the 
system  employed  by  the  Babylonians  60  shekels 
were  equal  to  one  mina,  and  60  minas  to  one 
talent.  The  weight  of  the  shekel  in  the  'common' 
standard  was  about  126  grains,  or,  according  to  a 
system  in  which  double  weights  were  used,  252 
grains;  and  according  to  the  'royaP  standard  130 
or  260  grains.  For  weighing  precious  metals,  a 
talent  of  3000  and  a  mina  of  50  shekels  were  em- 
ployed; for  silver,  to  adjust  the  ratio  to  gold, 
the  shekel  was  taken  as  168  or  3^6  grains.  In 
Phoenicia  a  silver  shekel  of  about  112  (or  224) 
grains  was  employed.  Among  the  Hebrews  the 
3000-shekel  talent  and  50-shekel  mina  were  used. 
(Cf.  Ex.  xxxviii.  25-26.)  The  shekel  was  subdivid- 
ed as  follows:  a  half  shekel  was  called  a  heha\  a 
twentieth  part  of  a  shekel  a  g^ah.  The  Hebrew 
gold  shekel  had  the  same  weight  as  the  'common' 
Babylonian  shekel;  the  silver  shekel  was  the 
same  as  the  Phoenician  silver  shekel.  The  intrin- 
sic value  of  the  Hebrew  (heavy)  gold  shekel  was 
somewhere  near  $10,  and  of  the  silver  shekel 
somewhat  less  than  75  cents.  The  Jews  did  not 
actually  coin  money  before  the  time  of  Simon 
the  Maccabee  (died  B.C.  135),  to  whom  Antiochus 
VII.  gave  the  power  of  so  doing  (I.  Mace.  xv.  6), 
and  it  has  been  doubted  whether  this  right 
was  actually  exercised  before  the  time  of  Simon's 
successor,  John  Hyrcanus.  Consult:  Madden, 
Coins  of  the  Jews  (London,  1881)  ;  the  Hebrew 
archaeologies  of  Nowack  and  Benzinger;  and  the 
article  "Money,"  by  Kennedy,  in  the  Hastings 
Bihle  Dictionary,  vol.  iii.  (New  York,  1900). 

SHEXINAH,  sh^kl^n&  (Late  Heb.  shekinAh, 
from  shakan,  to  reside  or  dwell).  A  term  that 
belongs  to  Jewish  theology  of  the  period  after 
the  close  of  the  Hebrew  canon  and  was  adopted 
by  early  Christian  writers,  expressing  the  pres- 
ence of  the  divine  majesty  in  heaven,  among  the 
people  of  Israel,  or  in  the  sanctuary.  The  origin 
both  of  the  term  and  of  the  idea  is  due  to  the 
tendency  of  post-exilic  Judaism  to  avoid  con- 
ceptions of  God  that  seemed  to  attribute  to  Him 
human  qualities  or  to  apply  limitations  of  any 
kind  to  His  being.  This  led  naturally  to  a  view 
w^hich  removed  the  Deity  from  any  direct  contact 
with  this  world,  and  which  kept  Him,  as  it  were, 
aloof — separated  from  mankind  by  a  wide  chasm, 
which,  however,  was  in  a  measure  bridged  over 
by  intermediary  hypostases,  such  as  the  'wisdom' 
in  the  Book  of  Wisdom  and  the  Philonian  Logos 
or  'Word  of  God,'  as  something  distinct  from  God 
Himself.  The  Shekinah  belongs  to  the  same  class  of 


ideas.  In  its  most  specific  sense,  the  Shekinah  idea 
is  derived  from  descriptions  of  Yahweh  in  the  Old 
Testament^  such  as  those  which  represent  Him  as 
manifesting  His  presence  by  the  descent  of  a 
cloud  over  the  tabernacle  (Ex.  xL  34).  Similar- 
ly, a  cloud  rests  on  Mount  Sinai  for  six  days,  and 
it  was  from  the  cloud  that  Yahweh  on  the 
seventh  day  called  to  Moses  to  ascend  (Elx.  xxiv. 
12).  The  term  used  to  describe  this  Divine 
presence  is  sh&kan,  'to  rest'  ("the  glory  of  Yah- 
weh rested  on  Mount  Sinai"),  from  which  Sheki- 
nah is  a  direct  derivative.  Hence  Shekinah  be- 
came the  term  expressive  of  the  Divine  presence, 
and  in  the  Jewish  Tar^ms  (c.  second  century 
A.D.),  where  the  term  is  first  encountered,  Sheki- 
nah is  used  as  the  equivalent  of  the  Divine  Being 
and  served  as  a  means  of  disguising  such  anthro- 
pomorphic expressions  as  Yahweh  'sitting  upon 
the  cherubim'  (I.  Sam.  iv.  4,  etc.),  or  Yahweh 
dwelling  in  a  certain  place.  In  all  such  pas- 
sages the  Targum  introduces  the  term  Shekinah. 
It  was  a  natural  process  that  led  to  the  personi- 
fication of  the  Shekinah,  as  something  distinct 
from  God  Himself^  and  this  meaning  is  implied 
in  the  Talmudical  view  which  makes  Shelunah 
the  source  of  inspiration,  a  kind  of  spirit  sent 
out  by  God  and  carrying  out  His  orders.  As  an 
active  force  the  province  of  the  Shekinah  extendi 
to  Sheol,  and  w*hen  the  wicked  ascend  out  of 
Sheol,  the  Shekinah  is  pictured  as  marching  at 
their  head.  The  Shekinah  accompanies  Israel 
to  Babylon,  and  indeed,  according  to  the  current 
view,  is  inseparable  from  God's  people,  although, 
in  contradiction  to  this  idea,  it  is  maintained 
that  the  Shekinah  was  not  visible  in  the  second 
temple,  while  others  maintain  that  after  the 
destruction  of  the  temple  by  Titus  the  Shekinah 
rested  behind  the  remaining  western  wall.  Such 
contradictions  illustrate  at  once  the  vagueness 
and  variety  of  the  conception  regarding  the 
Shekinah  itself.  In  the  New  Testament  and  the 
later  Apocryphal  literature  we  find  the  Shekinah 
idea  frequently  introduced,  the  Greek  word  em- 
ployed for  it  being  <fo;ra,  literally  'glory.'  The 
term  is  used  for  God  Himself,  while  phrases  like 
'glory  of  the  father*  (e.g.  Rom.  vi,  4)  and  the 
'spirit  of  glory'  (I.  Peter  iv.  14)  point  likewise  to 
the  familiarity  of  the  readers  with  the  tenu 
and  conception  of  the  Shekinah.  The  conception 
lent  itself  likewise  to  mystical  interpretations, 
and  hence  in  tho  Cabbala  the  Shekinah,  still  more 
completely  personified  than  in  Rabbinical  and 
early  Christian  writings,  plays  an  important 
r5le.  Consult:  Weber,  Jiidische  Theologie  (Leip- 
zig, 1897 ) ;  Langen,  Judenthum  in  Paldstina  zur 
Zeit  Christi  (Freiburg,  1866);  Gfrorer,  Ur- 
christenthum   (Stuttgart,  1838). 

SHEI/BTJBNB,  William  Petty  Firz-MAr- 
RICE,  Earl  of  (1737-1805).  An  English  states- 
man. He  was  bom  in  Dublin ;  received  his  early 
education  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford  (1753),  but 
left  without  a  degree,  intending  to  follow  a  mili- 
tary life.  He  returned  from  the  Continent,  a 
colonel,  to  enter  the  Commons,  in  1761,  but  his 
father's  death  in  the  same  year  transferred  him 
to  the  House  of  I<ords. '  He  entered  George  Gren- 
ville's  Administration  in  1763,  at  the  head  of  the 
Board  of  Trade.  Before  the  close  of  the  year  he 
became  a  member  of  the  opposition  and  a  de- 
voted follower  of  the  elder  Pitt.  In  Chatham's 
second  Ministry  ( 1766)  Shelbume  became  Secre- 
tary of  State  for  the  Southern  Departmenti  but| 


SHELBXniNE. 


767 


SHELDON. 


opposed  to  the  measures  of  the  Cabinet  in  re- 
gard to  the  American  colonies — in  1766  the 
Stamp  Act,  the  Regulating  Act  of  the  following 
year,  and  the  coercive  measures  of  1768 — hated 
by  the  Kin^,  denounced  by  his  colleagues,  he 
resigned  in  the  latter  year,  and  became  a  bitter 
opponent  of  the  King's  and  Lord  North's  policy. 
He  favored  conciliation,  was  for  withdrawing 
the  troops  from  America,  and,  as  late  as  1781, 
said  he  preferred  that  the  colonies  should  become 
free  if  the  only  way  to  restore  them  to  English 
rule  was  by  force  of  arms.  Upon  the  fall  of  Lord 
North's  Ministry  in  1782,  George  III.  sent  for 
Shelburne,  and  proposed  that  he  should  form  a 
Government.  He  declined,  not  being  the  head  of 
a  party,  and  was  sent  by  the  King  to  the  Marquis 
of  Roekingham  with  an  offer  of  the  Treasury,  him- 
self to  be  one  of  the  Secretaries  of  State.  Upon  the 
death  of  Rockingham  in  the  same  year  the  King 
sent  at  once  for  Shelburne,  and  offered  him  the 
Treasury,  which  he  accepted  without  consulting 
his  colleagues.  Fox  thereupon  resigned,  and  Shel- 
burne introduced  William  Pitt,  then  only  twenty- 
three,  into  office  as  his  Chancellor  of  the  Ex- 
chequer. Shelburne's  Ministry,  on  the  occasion 
of  the  Sling's  announcement  of  his  determination 
to  concede  the  independence  of  the  American  col- 
onies, found  itself  outvoted  by  the  coalition  be- 
tween Fox  and  Lord  North.  Shelburne  resigned, 
and  never  held  office  afterwards.  After  retiring 
from  public  life  he  indulged  his  tastes  in  the 
adornment  of  Lansdowne  House.  Here  he  collect- 
ed a  splendid  gallery  of  ancient  and  modem  pic- 
tures, together  with  a  valuable  library.  Consult 
Fitzmaurice,  Life  of  William,  Earl  of  Shelhume 
(London,  1875-76). 

SHEI/BY,  Isaac  (1750-1826).  An  American 
soldier,  the  first  Governor  of  Kentucky,  bom 
near  Hagerstown,  Md.  Before  he  was  twenty-one 
he  was  elected  deputy  sheriff  of  Frederick  Coun- 
ty, Md.,  but  m  1771  removed  with  his  father  to 
the  site  of  the  present  Bristol,  Tenn.,  and  in  1774 
served  as  a  lieutenant  at  the  battle  of  Point 
Pleasant.  In  1776,  during  the  Revolutionary 
War,  he  became  a  captain,  and  commissary-gen- 
eral of  the  Virginia  forces;  in  1780  was  appointed 
colonel  in  the  North  Carolina  militia,  and  on 
October  7th  served  with  great '  distinction  at 
the  battle  of  King's  Mountain,  which  action  he 
seems  to  have  planned.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  North  Carolina  Legislature  in  1781-82,  serv- 
ing at  the  same  time  in  the  Southern  campaign 
under  General  Greene.  Settling  within  the  pres- 
ent State  of  Kentucky  in  1783,  he  was  instru- 
mental in  effecting  a  separation  from  Virginia, 
sat  in  the  State  Constitutional  Convention  in 
1791,  and  from  1792  to  1796  was  the  first  Gov- 
ernor of  the  State,  serving  a  second  term  from 
1812  to  1816.  With  4000  Kentucky  volunteers, 
raised  by  himself,  he  joined  General  Harrison 
early  in  1812,  and  rendered  the  greatest  service 
at  the  battle  of  the  Thames  (q.v.).  He  retired 
to  private  life  after  the  war. 

SHEL'BYVILLE.  The  county  seat  of  Shelby 
County,  Ind.,  26  miles  southeast  of  Indianapolis, 
on  the  Blue  River,  and  on  the  Cleveland,  Cin- 
cinnati, Chicago  and  Saint  Louis,  and  the  Pitts- 
burg, Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  Saint  Louis  rail- 
roads (Map:  Indiana,  D  3).  The  high  school 
building,  the  court-house,  city  hall,  and  the 
Carnegie  Public  Library,  are  noteworthy.  Forest 
"in  Cemetery  and  the  bridges  across  Blue  River 


are  other  features.  Agriculture  is  the  leading 
industry  in  the  district.  The  city  has  extensive 
manufacturing  interests,  the  products  including 
furniture,  flour,  brick,  carriages,  glue,  soda 
founts,  baking  powder,  mirrors,  novelties,  and 
lumber.  The  government  is  vested  in  a  mayor 
and  a  council,  elected  every  two  years.  Popula- 
tion, in  1890,  6451;  in  1900,  7161. 

SHELBYVILLE.  The  coimty  seat  of  Shelby 
County,  Ky.,  30  miles  east  of  Louisville,  on  the 
Southern,  the  Louisville  and  Nashville,  and  the 
Chesapeake  and  Ohio  railroads  ( Map :  Kentucky, 
F  2).  It  has  Science  Hill  School  tor  girls  and 
the  Shelbyville  Female  College.  This  city  is  in 
a  fertile  agricultural  country,  and  is  the  centre 
of  a  large  tobacco  trade  and  of  important  cattle- 
raising  and  horse-breeding  interests.  There  are 
tobacco  warehouses,  grain  elevators,  and  manu- 
factories of  flour  and  lumber  products.  Popula- 
tion, in  1890,  2679;  in  1900,  3016. 

SHEI/DON,  Chables  Monboe  ( 1857— ) .  An 
American  clergyman,  bom  at  Wellsville,  N.  Y. 
He  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1883  and 
at  the  Andover  Theological  Seminary  three  years 
later.  In  1889  he  became  pastor  of  the  Central 
Congregational  Church  at  Topeka,  Kan.  In  1900 
he  conducted  a  Topeka  daily  newspaper  for  one 
week  in  accordance  with  a  policy  which  he  con- 
ceived to  be  in  keeping  with  the  Christian 
religion.  The  undertaking  gained  very  wide  pub- 
licity. Among  his  numerous  publications  are: 
Robert  Hardy's  Seven  Days  (1892)  ;  The  Cruci- 
fixion of  Philip  Strong  (1893);  His  Brother's 
Keeper  (1895)  ;  In  His  Steps  (1896),  which  at- 
tracted widespread  attention  and  aroused  much 
criticism;  The  Redemption  of  Freetown  (1898) ; 
and  Who  Killed  Joe's  Baby?  (1901). 

SHELDON,  GiLBEBT  (1598-1677).  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury.  He  was  bom  at  Ashbourne, 
Derbyshire.  He  graduated  from  Trinity  College, 
Oxford,  in  1617,  and  became  fellow  of  All  Souls', 
and  was  ordained  in  1622.  His  earliest  patron, 
the  Lord  Keeper,  Thomas,  Lord  Coventry,  whom 
he  served  as  domestic  chaplain,  secured  for  him 
the  prebendaryship  of  Gloucester  (1632),  and  in- 
troduced him  to  the  King,  for  whom  he  became 
chaplain  after  filling  a  number  of  minor  vicar- 
ages. In  1634  he  was  elected  warden  of  All  Souls' 
College,  Oxford. 

He  supported  the  Royalist  cause  throughout 
the  Commonwealth  period,  at  the  beginning  of 
which  he  was  ejected  from  his  wardenship  and 
imprisoned  with  Dr.  Henry  Hammond  (q.v.). 
He  was  released  in  a  few  months  and  spent  the 
time  of  Cromwell's  ascendency  in  retirement  in 
Staffordshire  and  Derbyshire,  whence  he  sent 
pecuniary  support  as  well  as  admonition  to- the 
exiled  Charles  II.  In  1659  he  was  reinstated  in 
his  wardenship,  and  at  the  Restoration  was 
made  dean  of  the  C!hapel  Koyal.  In  1660  he  be- 
came Bishop  of  London,  and  in  1663  succeeded 
Dr.  Juxon  as  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  In 
1667  he  was  made  chancellor  of  Oxford,  but  was 
never  installed,  nor  did  he  ever  visit  Canterbury 
for  the  ceremony  of  installation  as  Archbishop. 
He  made  many  notable  public  gifts,  among  them 
the  'Sheldonian  Theatre*  at  Oxford.  He  also 
built  the  library  at  Lambeth  Palace,  and  con- 
tributed £2000  toward  rebuilding  Saint  Paul's 
Cathedral  after  the  great  fire.  Consult  his  Life 
in  Wood's  Athence  Oxonienses,  also  Burrowes' 
Worthies  of  All  Souls*  (Oxford,  1874). 


RTTRT.'nil.  A  ing , 


758 


8HEIXEY. 


SHELDRAKE,  or  SHIEIiDBAXE  (from 
shield  -f-  drake;  so  called  in  allusion  to  the  color- 
ation of  its  plumage).  A  large  and  handsome 
goose-like  duck  (Tadoma  comuta),  known 
throughout  all  Europe  and  Asia,  representing  a 
genus  containing  many  East  Indian  and  Aus- 
tralasian species  related  to  the  tree-ducks.  It 
nests  in  rabbit-burrows,  or  holes  in  soft  soil, 
whence  in  some  places  the  sheldrake  receives  the 
name  of  burrow-duck.  The  sheldrake  is  capable 
of  being  tamed,  and  breeds  in  domestication.  Its 
note  is  a  shrill  whistle.  Its  flesh  is  coarse  and 
unpalatable,  but  the  eggs  are  usable.  Consult 
Newton,  Dictionary  of  Birds  (London,  1893-96). 
In  America  the  name  is  sometimes  given  to  the 
merganser  (q.v.). 

SHELIPF,  shenf  or  shg-lsf  (ancient  ehina- 
laph).  The  chief  river  of  Algeria  (q.v.).  It 
rises  in  the  Angad  Desert,  and  after  a  course  of 
400  miles  flows  into  the  Mediterranean  near 
Mostaganem. 

SHELL.    See  Pbojectile;  Ammunition. 

SHELOiABAB'GEB^  Samuel  (1817  96).  An 
American  Congressman,  bom  in  Clark  County, 
Ohio.  He  graduated  at  Miami  University  in 
1841,  and  was  elected  to  the  Legislature  in  1851. 
In  1861  he  became  a  member  of  the  National 
House  of  Representatives,  and  he  was  returned 
to  the  Thirty-ninth,  Fortieth,  and  Forty-second 
Congresses.  He  was  especially  active  in  the  re- 
construction debates,  and  made  a  remarkable 
reply  to  Raymond,  who  had  upheld  the  recon- 
struction policy  of  President  Johnson.  Later 
Shellabarger  introduced  that  section  of  the  Re- 
construction Act  of  March  2,  1867,  which  pro- 
vided that  the  States  recently  in  rebellion  should, 
until  restored  by  Congress  to  their  normal  re- 
lations with  the  Union,  be  governed  provisionally 
under  the  paramount  authority  of  the  United 
States,  and  that  no  person  should  be  deprived 
of  the  right  to  vote  because  of  color.  In  1871 
he  reported  to  the  House  and  managed  on  the 
floor  the  bill  which,  in  an  amended  form,  was 
finally  passed  as  the  famous  'Ku-Klux  Act.'  In 
1869  he  served  as  Minister  to  Portugal,  and  he 
was  a  member  of  the  Civil  Service  Commission 
appointed  by  President  Grant. 

SHELLAC.    See  Lac. 

BSEJ/LEU,  Alexander  Mikhailovitch 
(1838 — ).  A  Russian  author,  bom  at  Saint 
Petersburg,  and  educated  in  that  city.  Inter- 
ested in  popular  education,  he  founded  a 
school  for  the  poor  which  was  suppressed 
by  the  Government  in  1863.  He  published 
his  first  verses  in  that  year,  in  1864  the 
novel  Onilyia  Boloia  CDank  Marshes"),  and 
afterwards  many  other  works  of  fiction.  The  most 
successful  are:  Bread  and  Amusements;  When 
Wood  is  Cut  Splinters  Fly;  and  The  Sins  of 
Others,  He  also  published  an  important  History 
of  ComfnunisMf  and  in  1877  became  editor  of 
the  Zhivopisnoe  Ohozrenie. 

SHEL'LEY,  Habbt  Rowe  (1858—).  An 
American  composer,  bom  at  New  Haven,  Conn. 
He  studied  with  Oiiatav  J.  Stoeckel  at  Yaje  Col- 
lege, with  Dudley  Buck,  Vogrich,  and  Dvorftk,  in 
New  York,  and  subsequently  completed  his  musi- 
cal education  in  London  and  Pans.  He  occupied 
at  different  times  the  positions  of  organist  of  the 
First  Church  at  New  Haven,  organist  of  Dr. 
Storr's    church    in    Brooklyn,    and    organist    of 


the  Fifth  Avenue  Baptist  Church  of  New  Yotk. 
In  1890  he  took  charge  of  the  classes  in  theory 
and  composition  at  the  Metropolitan  College, 
New  York.  Among  his  works  are:  songs,  dnets, 
ballets,  mixed  and  male  choruses;  a  sacred  can- 
tota,  "The  Inheritance  Divine,"  a  "Te  Deum," 
and  other  church  music;  a  pianoforte  solo, 
'*Danoe  of  Egyptian  Maidens,"  "Evening  Prayer," 
"Romance,"  '*March  of  the  Centuries,"  and  a 
number  of  selections  for  the  organ. 

SHELLEY,  Pebct  Btsshe  (1702-1822).  An 
English  revolutionary  and  lyric  poet  of  the  high- 
est rank.  Shelley  was  of  old  English  stock.  His 
grandfather,  Bysshe,  who  was  bom  in  America 
and  on  his  removal  to  England  as  heir  to  a  small 
landed  estate  enriched  the  family  by  wealthy 
marriages,  was  made  a  baronet  in  1806.  Shelley, 
the  eldest  child  of  Timothy  and  Elizabeth  (Pil- 
ford),  was  the  hope  of  this  new  establishment 
He  was  bom  at  Field  Place,  Wamham,  near 
Horsham,  England,  on  August  4,  1792.  He  stud- 
ied first  under  the  Rev.  Thomas  Edwards,  of 
Horsham,  then  in  a  middle-class  school  known 
as  Sion  House  Academy,  near  Brantford,  also 
kept  by  a  clergyman  named  Dr.  Greenlaw.  At 
this  school  the  sensitive  boy  was  persecuted  by 
his  fellows  to  such  an  extent  that  he  developed  a 
fierce  hatred  of  oppression.  At  the  same  time  he 
began  to  love  science  ardently,  although  his 
temperament  was  romantic  rather  than  scientific 
At  the  age  of  thirteen  he  went  to  Eton,  where  he 
again  showed  his  hatred  of  tyranny.  In  October, 
1810,  he  went  to  University  Collie,  Oxford, 
where  his  father  had  been  before  him.  The  boy 
displayed  literary  precocity,  and  his  family  in- 
dulged him  in  a  taste  for  early  publication;  at 
Eton  he  had  published  Zastrozei,  a  wild  romance, 
and  at  Oxford  he  wrote  a  second  tale,  St.  Irvyne, 
and  various  ventures  in  verse.  After  a  scant  six 
months'  residence  he  was  expelled  from  the 
universi^  on  account  of  a  tract.  The  Necessity 
of  Atheism,  which  he  had  published  and  cir- 
culated. Though  he  was  only  a  youth  of  ei^- 
teen,  English  radicalism  of  the  stripe  of  God- 
win's had  declared  itself  in  him  in  many  ways; 
and  before  his  faculty  for  verse  had  ripened  or 
manifested  itself  with  any  distinctness,  his  mind 
was  given  to  materialistic  and  individualistic 
ideas,  projects  of  social  and  political  reform,  and 
to  their  advocacy  in  prose  tracts.  He  carried  his 
independence  into  his  actions.  At  this  youthful 
time  his  conduct  was  undisciplined  by  judgment, 
and  his  mind  was  unsettled  in  intellectual  prin- 
ciples. He  was  by  nature  impulsive  ana  by 
habit  uncontrollable;  his  ardency  showed  itself 
by  quick  execution  as  well  as  by  emotionalism. 
His  home  was  never  a  comfortable  abiding  place 
for  him,  and  disagreement  with  his  family, 
stolid  and  conventional  people,  was  an  increasing 
factor  until  it  brought  about  complete  alienation. 
His  expulsion  from  Oxford  was  followed  the  next 
summer  by  a  romantic  marriage,  one  rather 
of  pity  than  of  love,  with  the  sixteen-year-old 
daughter  of  a  retired  London  tavern-keeper,  Har- 
riet Westbrook.  with  whom  he  had  become  ac- 
quainted through  his  sister.  They  eloped  and 
were  married  in  Edinburgh,  and  thereafter  lived 
a  wandering  and  debt-harassed  life  in  difi'erent 
parts  of  England  and  in  Ireland,  whither  Shelley 
went  in  1812  with  a  view  to  political  agitation  of 
which  his  Address  to  the  Irish  People,  Proposals 
for  an  Association,  and  his  public  speech  at  Dobr 


SHELLEY. 


759 


SHELLEY. 


lin  on  O'ConneH'e  platform  are  memorials.  He 
became  a  subject  of  Government  surveillance  as  a 
dangerous  character.  His  position  was  improved 
by  the  financial  arrangements  made  when  he 
came  of  age  in  1813,  but  his  domestic  life  had 
become  troubled  and  coldness  had  come  to  exist 
between  husband  and  wife.  In  July,  1814,  he 
eloped  with  Mary  Godwin,  putting  in  practice 
the  principles  he  held  and  dealing  openly  with 
Haniety  for  whom  he  made  provision;  but  mis- 
fortune followed,  and  in  1816  Harriet  committed 
suicide  bv  drowning,  and  a  few  months  later  their 
two  children  were  denied  to  Shelley's  custody  by 
the  famous. decision  of  LordEldon,  on  the  ground 
that  Shelley  was  an  atheist.  Shelley  soon  after 
left  England  and  spent  the  remainder  of  his  brief 
life  in  Italy,  going  from  city  to  city,  finally  set- 
tling in  the  neighborhood  of  Pisa.  July  8,  1822, 
he  sailed  from  Leghorn  to  Spezzia,  where  he  had 
settled  for  the  summer.  A  squall  overwhelmed 
the  little  craft  in  which  Shelley  was,  and  he  was 
drowned.  The  body,  which  was  thrown  up  on  the 
shore  at  Viareggio,  was  burned  and  the  ashes,  ex- 
cept the  heart,  which  was  unconsumed,  were 
buried  in  the  Protestant  cemetery  at  Rome.  He 
had  several  children,  of  whom  one  only  survived 
him,  Percy,  .who  inherited  the  title  on  his  grand- 
father's death. 

Shelley's  works  contain  two  easily  distin- 
guished strains:  one,  the  propagandism  of  opinion 
which  is  associated  with  his  "passion  for  reform- 
ing the  world;"  the  other,  the  expression  of  his 
personality,  his  essential  being,  in  the  creation 
of  lyrical  beauty  by  spontaneous  and  half-un- 
conscious  art.  He  adopted  from  early  youth 
radical  formulas  of  Anglicized  French  thought, 
certain  'beliefs  regarding  the  perfectibility  of 
man,  the  evil  of  social  institutions  like  property 
and  marriage,  and  the  inviolability  of  the  indi- 
vidual. He  had  an  active  philosophical  mind  and 
an  active  philanthropic  spirit ;  to  these  two,  and 
to  the  necessity  for  expression  inherent  in  his 
powerful  genius,  his  first  works  were  chiefly  in- 
debted. Three  times  he  did,  in  eflfect,  utter  his 
whole  mind.  In  Queen  Mah  (c.1813),  his  first 
important  poem  and  the  one  by  which  he  was 
long  the  most  widely  known,  he  put  forth  all  he 
had  learned  and  thought.  In  it  are  amalgamated 
his  first  essays  in  verse  and  prose  to  make  a 
whole  view  of  the  world  and  of  society.  In  The 
Revolt  of  Islam  (1817-18),  a  more  imaginative 
and  elaborate  poem,  setting  forth  the  moral  revo- 
lution of  the  world  under  the  form  of  a  romantic 
epic,  he  did  the  same  thing  again.  In  Prome- 
theus Unbound  (1820),  though  in  forms  of  much 
higher  poetry,  he  achieved  the  task  still  a  third 
time.  To  say  that  in  the  social  part  of  these 
great  works  he  put  Godwin's  philosophy  into 
verse  is  a  very  imperfect  description.  The  prin- 
ciples of  Godwin  were  no  more  than  the  chrysalis 
that  released  the  butterfly ;  the  poet  transformed 
the  philosophy  of  his  teacher  and  it  came  forth 
as  poetry  with  a  diiferent  potency  and  meaning. 
Yet  the  intellectual  units  of  his  thought  were 
to  be  found  in  English  radicalism.  Shelley,  how- 
ever, never  stiffened  into  any  formula,  but  con- 
stantly and  increasingly  responded  to  fresh 
knowledge.  The  most  efficient  new  element  in  his 
earlier  development  was  Greek.  In  Queen  Mah 
and  The  Revolt  of  Islam,  this  is  not  felt;  in 
Prometheus  Unbound  it  is  the  soul  of  the  poem. 
Philosophically  the  study  of  Plato  changed  him 
from  a  materialistic  atheist,  of  a  Lucretian  type. 


to  a  pantheist,  though  the  term  as  applied  to  him 
is  a  crude  one;  and  under  ^schylus  he  became 
a  master  of  choral  myth,  and  imder  the  impulse 
of  Greek  imagination  generally,  a  symbolic  poet. 
In  becoming  less  didactic  and  more  imaginative 
in  style,  less  Latin  and  French  and  more  Greek 
and  Italian  in  inspiration,  less  definitely  dog- 
matic and  more  intuitive,  prophetic,  and  personal 
in  method,  he  changed  from  a  respectable  minor 
poet  of  intellectual  and  descriptive  power  and 
emotional  abandon  to  a  great  lyrical  master  of 
the  imagination.  Mystery  is  a  constantly  in- 
creasing element  in  his  work,  and  almost  meas- 
ures his  growth;  in  thought  it  plunges  him  into 
depths  which  he  describes  as  speechless,  and  in 
the  sensuous  world  it  fills  the  atmosphere  of  the 
verse  with  light,  color,  and  fragrance,  and  em- 
bodies forms  of  nature  and  idealities  of  char? 
acter  which  overpower  and  distract  his  readers. 
This  presence  of  mystery  is  most  obvious  in  the 
series  of  works  which  are  more  personal  and  dis- 
engaged from  any  preoccupation  with  the  present 
world.  In  Alastor  (1815)  it  is  not  sufficient 
to  cloud  the  narrative  or  the  picture,  but  is  a 
mood;  in  such  poems  as  The  Sensitive  Plant 
( 1820) ,  and  The  Witch  of  Atlas  {l%20) ,  apparent- 
ly simple  in  fable,  the  evasiveness  of  the  meaning 
is  constant,  like  a  retreating  echo  in  the  woods; 
in  Epipsychidion  (1821)  the  mystery  has  made 
the  poem  one  only  for  elect  readers.  In  the 
Adonais  (1821),  which  after  Alastor  and  Queen 
Mah  is  probably  most  easily  read  in  a  popular 
way,  the  mystery,  though  deep  and  pervasive,  goes 
naturally  with  the  theme  of  early  death,  in  which 
both  Keats  and  Shelley  are  the  answering  chords. 
So,  too,  on  the  purely  intellectual  side,  the  prose 
Defense  of  Poetry  (1821,  pub.  in  1840)  discloses 
to  a  careful  reader  the  ground  of  mystery  in  all 
Shelley's  later  thinking.  Apart  from  the  major 
works  of  the  poet  stand  the  brief  lyrics  and  the 
odes,  and  the  many  fragments,  which  are  also 
divided  between  a  predominant  social  interest, 
as  the  Ode  to  Liberty ^  and  a  personal  inspirational 
interest,  as  the  Lines  to  an  Indian  Air.  In  his 
growth  he  never  lost  touch  with  the  present 
world,  of  which  fact  Hellas  (1821)  and  The 
Masque  of  Anarchy  (1819,  pub.  in  1832)  are 
capital  examples.  In  his  dramatic  attempts, 
seeking  objective  artistic  results  by  effort,  he 
was  off  the  line  of  his  genius,  and  neither  The 
Cenci  (1819)  nor  Charles  /.,  of  which  only  a 
few  scenes  exist,  reaches  an  excellence  comparable 
to  that  of  his  other  achievements.  The  most 
obvious  quality  of  his  verse,  melody,  is  so  readily 
felt  that  he  is  placed  without  any  division  of 
opinion  among  the  great  lyrical  poets  of  England 
with  the  first.  In  other  respects,  though  his  fame 
is  now  established  for  his  century,  in  the  minds 
of  many  he  is  regarded  as  vague  in  meaning, 
hysterical  in  feeling,  loose  and  diffuse  in  style. 
He  was  the  poet  of  abstract  and  ideal  love,  and 
set  forth  under  that  conception  the  concrete 
beauty  and  order  of  the  universe  as  he  saw  it, 
and  of  man's  life  as  he  desired  it  to  be. 

His  personal  character  was  such  as  to  draw 
.about  him  many  devoted  friends,  of  whom  some,  as 
Leigh  Hunt,  Byron,  Peacock,  Trelawny,  and  Hor- 
ace Smith,  are  well  known ;  and  he  also  attracted 
women,  who  are  chiefly  known  by  the  verse  in 
which,  as  in  life,  he  idealized  them.  The  charm 
he  exercised  is  best  seen  in  their  own  words.  In 
fact,  every  one  who  knew  him  seems  to  have 
loved  him.    He  was  by  nature  generous,  and  gave 


SHELLEY. 


760 


8HEM. 


so  liberally  of  his  scanty  means  as  to  keep  him- 
self always  poor.  He  was  constant  in  friendly 
kindness  to  all  associated  with  him,  and  he  at  all 
times  went  about  doing  charity  among  the  poor. 
He  was  violent  in  indignation  against  actual 
wrong;  but  gentleness  characterized  him.  His 
latei*  years  were  full  of  sadness  from  one  or  an- 
other cause,  and  though  he  died  young  there  was 
to  him  nothing  premature  in  his  death.  His 
verse  and  prose  have  been  published  in  eight  vol- 
umes by  Forman  (London,  1876-80) ;  the  poems 
alone  by  W.  M.  Rossetti  (ib.,  1870,  1878,  1888), 
by  Dowdeiv  (ib.,  1899),  and  by  Woodberry  (Cam- 
bridge, 1892,  1903).  Consult  also:  Dowden,  Life 
(London,  1896)  ;  and  for  the  view  of  his  con- 
temporaries, Hogg,  Life  (ib.,  1868)  ;  Peacock, 
Memoirs  (ib.,  1847) ;  Leigh  Hunt,  Autobiography 
(ib.,  1860)  ;  Trelawny,  Records  (ib.,  1858). 

SHELLEY'S  CASE,  Rule  in.  A  rule  of  law 
relating  to  estates  in  real  property,  declared  by 
the  courts  in  an  English  case  decided  about  1591. 
The  principle  involved  was  known  to  the  English 
law  before  that  date.  Briefly  stated,  the  rule 
provides  that  where  an  estate  of  freehold  is  con- 
veyed to  a  person,  with  a  remainder  to  his 
heirs,  the  latter  is  a  clause  of  limitation  and  not 
of  purchase,  that  is,  the  ancestor  takes  the  estate 
included  in  the  cause,  and  the  heirs  take  noth- 
ing. The  rule  became  a  part  of  the  common  law 
and  prevailed  at  one  time  in  the  United  States, 
but  most  of  the  States  have  abolished  or  modified 
it  by  statute,  and  give  effect  to  an  express  re- 
mainder to  heirs.  Consuft:  Kent,  Commentaries; 
Preston,  Essay  on  the  Quality  and  Quantity  of 
Estates  (Philadelphia,  1843). 

SHELL  MONEY.  A  primitive  medium  of 
exchange  which  consisted  of  certain  sea-shells  in 
their  natural  condition,  or  nearly  so,  or  of  pieces 
of  sea-shells  formed  into  beads,  or  otherwise 
shaped.  In  the  former  class  fall  the  money 
cowry  (see  Cowry),  the  dentalium,  and  several 
other  shells;  and  in  the  latter  the  wampum  of 
the  Eastern  United  States  and  currencies  of  the 
Pacific  Coast.  All  money  shells  were  first  prized 
for  their  rarity  and  beauty,  and  only  later  became 
a  medium  of  exchange.  On  the  coast  of  Puget 
Sound  and  northward  the  tusk-shell  (Dentalium) 
prehistorically  served  the  purposes  of  money 
among  the  Indians  of  a  large  region,  and  main- 
tained this  value  and  function  until  very  recent 
times. 

The  shell  money  of  the  second  class  was  more 
nearly  a  true  coinage,  since  it  derived  its  value 
from  the  art  and  labor  which  had  been  expended 
upon  it  and  the  difficulty  of  counterfeiting.  As 
late  as  1882,  at  least,  the  local  trade  of  the  Solo- 
mon Islands  was  carried  on  by  means  of  flat 
beads,  made  from  certain  small  sea-shells  which 
were  ground  to  the  proper  shape  by  the  women. 
As  the  proper  grinding  of  these  was  a  slow  and 
skillful  process,  no  more  was  made  than  was 
needed,  and  the  recognized  relative  value  was 
steadily  maintained.  Very  similar  to  this  was 
the  wampum  (q.v.),  which  was  found  in  use 
among  the  tribes  of  the  eastern  half  of  North 
America  at  the  time  of  its  discovery  by  Euro- 
peans. Wampum  circulated  at  well-understood 
rates  of  exchange  throughout  the  interior  as  far 
as  the  Saskatchewan  River  and  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. Certain  coast  tribes  favorably  situated 
(notably  the  Narraganset)  made  wampum  as  a 
regular  occupation.    The  best  and  most  was  made 


between  Cape  May  and  Cape  Cod.  These  heads 
were  of  two  kinds — a  more  precious  sort  formed 
only  from  the  violet-colored  muscle-scar  in  the 
interior  of  the  quahog  ( Venus  meroenaria) ,  and  a 
white  sort,  or  'seawan*  of  inferior  value,  com- 
monly made  from  the  central  column  of  one  or 
the  other  of  the  large  spiral  winkles  or  concbs 
(q.v.).  The  inferiority  of  the  latter  kind  lay  in 
the  greater  ease  with  which  it  could  be  produced. 
The  wampum,  sometimes  carried  loose,  but  usual- 
ly strung  upon  sinew  threads  in  lengths  of  ap- 
proximately six  feet,  was  a  true  currency;  the 
merchants  and  traders,  both  Dutch  and  English, 
at  once  adopted  this  native  money,  and  for  many 
years  used  it  in  preference  to  European  coins  not 
only  in  Indian  trading,  but  in  affairs  between 
themselves.  Seeing  this  new  use,  the  Indians 
made  an  increased  quantity,  and,  worse,  the  white 
man,  using  machinery,  began  to  turn  out  cheaply 
great  quantities  of  shell  beads.  The  result  was  a 
rapid  depreciation  of  values,  so  that  frequent 
enactments  by  the  local  governments  were  re- 

Suired  to  keep  a  fathom  of  wampum  at  par  with 
esignated  numbers  of  pence  or  stivers.  It  final- 
ly disappeared  not  only  because  the  Indiana 
ceased  to  make  it,  but  because  they  hoarded  all 
they  could  obtain. 

In  California  several  forms  of  shell  money  cir- 
culated, each  piece  of  a  definite  shape  and  care- 
fully made  by  grinding  down  for  one  inferior 
kind  ('ha wok')  some  clam-shell,  as  Saxidomus, 
and  for  the  other  more  valuable  kind  (*uUo'), 
abalone-shells.  A  great  amount  of  this  shell 
money  was  in  circulation  among  the  aborigines 
of  California  and  Oregon  previous  to  1850;  and  it 
long  continued  to  be  held  at  a  high  valuation, 
measured  in  gold,  among  the  Indians,  and  is  still 
hoarded  by  the  old  men. 

Consult:  Ingersoll,  in  Country  Cousins  (New 
York,  1884),  and  the  many  historical  sources  of 
information  mentioned  by  him ;  also  several  papers 
by  K.  E.  Stearns  in  the  publications  of  the 
United  States  National  Museum.  For  the  Pacific 
Coast,  consult  Powers,  Contributions  to  North 
American  Ethnology,  vol.  iii.  (Washington, 
1877). 

SHEL^ON^  Thomas.  The  first  translator  of 
Don  Quixote  into  English.  He  is  thought  to  hkxB 
been  the  Thomas  Sheldon  who  was  entered  at 
Oriel  College,  Oxford,  in  1581.  Shelton  was  later 
connected  in  some  way  with  Jjord  Howard  of 
Walden.  In  1607  he  translated  the  first  part  of 
Cervantes's  famous  romance  from  the  Spanish 
edition  issued  in  that  year  at  Brussels.  In  1612 
the  translation  appeared  and  met  with  instant 
success.  The  anonymous  translation  of  the  sec- 
ond part  (1620)  is  also  Shel ton's  beyond  reason- 
able doubt.  Shelton  was  thus  the  first  to  intro- 
duce to  Englishmen  a  romance  which  has  really 
become  a  part  of  English  literature,  through  imi- 
tation and  absorption.  But  Shelton  was  not 
so  accurate  in  his  scholarship  as  some  recent 
translators  have  been.  Consult  the  reprint  of  his 
translation  edited  by  Kelly  (in  "Tudor  Transla- 
tions," London,  1896).  This  translation  is  valu- 
able especially  because  its  quaint  Elizabethan 
English  gives  the  same  flavor  as  the  now  archaic 
Spanish  of  Cervantes. 

SHEM  (Heb.,  name,  or  possibly  an  abbrevia- 
tion of  8hemuel,  name  of  God).  According  to 
the  Book  of  Genesis,  the  eldest  of  the  three  sons 
of  Noah,  from  whom  the  whole  world  was  re- 


761 


SHEOL. 


populated  after  the  flood.  The  genealogies  in  the 
Table  of  Nations  (Gen.  x.)  and  in  the  line  of 
Abraham  (ch.  xi.)  are  compiled  from  strata  of 
most  different  ages,  and  it  is  impossible  to  ob- 
tain a  harmonious  view  of  them,  or  to  accommo- 
date them  to  our  ethnical  and  political  points  of 
▼lew,  although  archeology  is  fast  contributing 
to  their  elucidation.  According  to  ix.  26  et  seq. 
Shem  stands  in  the  line  of  the  religion  of 
Jehovah,  and  xi.  21  makes  him  particularly  the 
ancestor  of  the  Hebrews;  hence  it  is  argued  that 
Shem  originally  represented  Israel  and  the  other 
two  sons  races  in  or  about  Palestine,  and  that  a 
later  tradition  has  amplified  these  terms  into  a 
world-wide  connotation.  Consult  the  commenta- 
ries on  Genesis,  especially  Dillman  (Eng.  trans., 
Edinburgh,  1897)  and  Gunkel  (G(5ttingen,  1902) ; 
Budde,  Vrgeschichte  (Giessen,  1883).  See 
Semites;  Semitic  Languages. 

SHEMAKHA,  she-m&-K&^  or  SHAMAKHA. 
A  town  in  the  Grovemment  of  Baku,  Russian 
Transcaucasia,  situated  at  an  altitude  of  2265 
feet,  75  miles  west  of  Baku  (Map;  Russia,  G  6). 
Its  many  ruins  testify  to  its  ancient  importance. 
Population,  in  1897,  20,000.  Shemakha  is  men- 
tioned by  Ptolemy  as  Kamachia,  and  was  the 
capital  of  the  Khanate  of  Shirvan.  Shemakha 
has  suffered  terribly  from  earthquakes,  the  most 
recent  having  been  in  1902. 

SHENANDOAH,  shen'an-dd'A.  A  borough 
in  Schuylkill  Ck)unty,  Pa.,  105  miles  northwest  of 
Philadelphia;  on  the  Pennsylvania,  the  Lehigh 
Valley,  and  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading  rail- 
roads (Map:  Pennsylvania,  E  3).  It  has  a  free 
library  in  connection  with  the  public  schools.  The 
Greek  Catholic  church  here  was  among  the  first 
of  the  denomination  in  the  United  States.  Shen- 
andoah owes  its  importance  to  its  situation 
among  the  richest  anthracite  coal  fields  in  the 
State.  The  government  is  vested  in  a  burgess, 
elected  every  three  years,  and  a  imicameral 
council,  and  in  administrative  officials,  the  ma- 
jority of  whom  are  appointed  by  the  council. 
There  are  two  systems  of  water-works,  one  owned 
and  operated  by  the  municipality.  Shenandoah 
was  laid  out  in  1862,  and  was  incorporated  in 
1866,  the  charter  then  received  being  still  in 
operation.  The  vicinity  of  the  Philadelphia  and 
Reading  Railroad  stetion  here  was  the  scene  of 
rioting  during  the  coal  strikes  of  1900  and  1902. 
Popuhition,  in  1890,  15,994;  in  1900,  20,321. 

SHENANDOAH,  The.  A  Confederate  priva- 
teer which  sailed  from  England  te  Bering  Strait, 
captured  ten  New  England  whalers,  and  set  fire 
to  eight  of  them  on  June  28,  1865.  This  act  was 
the  last  hostility  of  the  Civil  War. 

SHENANDOAH  BIVEB.  A  river  of  north- 
western Virginia,  flowing  170  miles  northeast- 
ward into  the  Potomac,  which  it  joins  at  Harper's 
Ferry  (Map:  Virginia,  G  2).  It  affords  im- 
mense water  power,  and  passes  through  a  beau- 
tiful and  populous  valley  between  the  Blue  Ridge 
and  the  central  Appalachian  ranges.  This  valley 
was  the  scene  of  numerous  military  operations 
during  the  Civil  War,  and  was  laid  waste  by 
General  Sheridan  in  the  autumn  of  1864.  See 
WmcHESTXB;  Cedab  Creek;  Eablt;  Shebidait. 

SHfiNO-KINa.    See  Shing-King. 

SHEN-SI,  shgn'se'  (Chin.,  west  of  the  defile; 
referring  probably  te  the  natural  barrier  and 
fortresses  of  Tung-kwan).    A  northern  province 


of  China,  bordering  on  Mongolia  (Map:  China, 
C  4).  Area,  67,400  square  miles.  It  is  divisible 
into  two  physically  distinct  regions  of  unequal 
area  by  the  Tsing-ling  ranges,  with  peaks  from 
5000  to  11,000  feet  above  sea-level.  The  larger 
portion  lies  to  the  north  of  these  mountains,  and 
consists  of  a  great  sloping  plateau  of  loess  of 
great  natural  fertility,  draining  eastward  to  the 
Hoang-ho  and  producing  immense  crops  of  wheat 
— the  steple  product  of  this  region — and  cotton, 
as  well  as  kao-liang,  pulse,  millet,  maize,  pea- 
nuts, rape  seed,  and  opium.  Hemp  and  tobacco 
are  also  extensively  cultivated.  Owing  to  the 
porousness  of  the  loess,  rice  cannot  be  raised. 
Agriculture  is  the  chief  industry.  The  chief  river 
of  the  region  is  the  Wei,  a  broad  but  shallow 
stream  flowing  from  west  to  east  along  the  foot 
of  the  northern  range  of  the  Tsing-ling  mountains 
into  the  Hoang-ho.  Coal  is  found  in  several 
places.  The  southern  division,  which  is  only  half 
the  size  of  the  northern,  is  mountainous  and 
well  wooded,  with  many  deep  valleys  and  small 
but  fertile,  well-sheltered  and  well-watered 
plains.  It  is  drained  chiefly  by  the  Han-kiang 
(q.v.).  It  produces  cotton,  tobacco,  silk,  and  the 
different  grains.  Iron  is  found  near  the  source 
of  the  Han,  and  the  manufacture  of  steel  of 
specially  fine  quality  is  extensively  carried  on  in 
several  places.  Population,  about  8,500,000. 
Capitel,  Si-ngan-fu,  where  the  Governor-General 
of  the  two  provinces  of  Shen-si  and  Kan-su 
resides. 

SHEN^TONE,  William  (1714-63).  An 
English  poet,  born  in  Halesowen,  Worcestershire. 
In  1732  he  was  enrolled  at  Pembroke  College, 
Oxford,  but  he  never  took  a  degree.  While 
at  the  imiversity  he  published  a  volume  of 
Poems  on  Various  Occasions,  conteining  the 
first  version  of  the  Schoolmistress,  In  1741 
appeared  anonymously  The  Judgment  of 
Hercules,  which  was  followed  the  next 
year  by  the  Schoolmistress  in  its  comolete 
form.  Other  poems  were  published  in  Dodsiey's 
Collections  of  Poems  by  Several  Hands  (1748, 
1755,  1758).  In  1745  Shenstone  came  into  pos- 
session of  the  estate  of  Leasowes,  near  Halesowen, 
where  he  amused  himself  at  landscape  gardening. 
His  grounds,  on  which  he  expended  his  income  of 
£300  a  year,  became  famed  through  England. 
The  Schoolmistress,  written  in  the  Spenserian 
stenza,  has  gained  for  Shenstone  a  secure,  if 
humble,  place  in  English  poetry.  The  Pastoral 
Ballad  is  also  very  graceful.  Dodsley  collected 
Shenstone's  works  in  verse  and  prose  (3  vols., 
1764-60) .  In  the  second  volume  is  a  description 
of  Leasowes.  Consult  also:  Dr.  Johnson,  Lives 
of  the  Poets  {liondon,  1805) ;  Graves  (in  a  series  of 
letters  to  Shenstone's  friend,  W.  Seward),  Recol- 
lections of  Shenstone  (London,  1788) ;  Poems, 
edited  by  Gilfillan  (Edinburgh,  1854)  ;  and 
Beers,  English  Romanticism  (New  York,  1899). 

SHE-OAK.    See  Casuariita. 

SHEOL,  sh§'ol  (Heb.  shS'ol) .  A  Hebrew  word 
of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  Old  Testement.  In 
the  Authorized  Version  it  is  rendered  *the  grave,' 
Tiell,*  or  'the  pit.'  In  the  Revised  Version  the 
American  committee  substitute  the  Hebrew  term 
sheol  for  this  rendering.  A  derivation  from  a 
stem  signifying  'to  hollow  out'  has  been  sug- 
gested. Another  view  connects  the  word  with  the 
verb  sha*al,  'to  ask,'  and  makes  it  signify  the 
'place  of  oracles.'    An  Assyrian  word  shualu  has 


8HB0L. 


762 


SHEPLEY. 


been  found  which  appears  to  be  the  equivalent 
of  the  Hebrew  sheol,  though  this  view  has  not 
been  accepted  by  the  scholars  (cf.  Jastrow  in  the 
American  Journal  of  Semitic  Languages,  vol.  xiv., 
Chicago,  1898).  In  poetical  language  aheol  is 
used  as  a  designation  of  the  tomb,  but  in  reality 
its  slgnifioation  is  the  general  gathering  place  of 
the  dead.  For  the  different  ideas  current  concern- 
ing it,  and  the  development,  see  the  article  Uadeb. 

SHEP'ABB,  Chables  Upham  (1804-86).  An 
American  mineralogist,  born  in  Little  Compton, 
R.  I.  He  was  graduated  at  Amherst  in  1824,  and 
later  studied  chemistry  and  mineralogy  under  the 
elder  Silliman  at  Yale.  In  1846  he  returned  to 
Amherst,  taking  the  chair  of  chemistry  and  nat- 
ural history,  which  he  held  until  1862.  For  the 
following  twenty-five  years  he  lectured  on  natural 
history,  and  in  1877  was  made  emeritus  profes- 
sor. Meanwhile  in  1864  he  was  made  professor 
of  chemistry  in  the  Medical  College  of  the  State 
of  South  Carolina,  which  chair  he  held  until 
1861.  Professor  Shepard  was  the  author  of  a 
Treatise  on  Mineralogy  (1855),  and  a  Report  on 
the  Geological  Survey  of  Connecticut  (1837). 

SHEFABD,  Edward  Morsb  (I860—).  An 
American  lawyer  and  political  leader,  bom  in 
New  York  City.  He  graduated  at  the  College  of 
the  City  of  New  York  in  1869,  and  entered  the 
law  oflSce  of  Man  &  Parsons,  with  the  latter  of 
whom  he  afterwards  formed  a  partnership.  He 
took  a  deep  interest  in  local  politics,  was  ap- 
pointed a  civil  service  commissioner,  and  was 
for  some  years  counsel  to  the  Rapid  Transit 
Commission.  In  1901  he  was  the  candidate  of 
Tammany  Hall  for  Mayor  of  Greater  New  York, 
but  was  defeated  by  Seth  LoW,  the  Fusion  candi- 
date. He  published  a  number  of  books  and 
pamphlets,  including:  Martin  Van  Buren  (1888), 
in  the  "American  Statesmen  Series;"  The  DemO' 
cratio  Party  (1892);  The  Work  of  a  Social 
Teacher  (1884) ;  and  Diehonor  in  American  Pub- 
lic Life  (1882). 

SHEPABD,.  Ellioti  Fitch  (1833-93).  An 
American  lawyer  and  journalist,  bom  at  James- 
town, N.  Y.  He  was  educated  at  the  University 
of  the  City  of  New  York  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1858.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
he  formed  the  61st  New  York  Volunteers,  known 
after  him  as  the  Shepard  Rifics.  He  himself 
served  as  aide-de-camp  to  Governor  Morgan  of 
New  York  and  commanded  the  depot  of  State 
volunteers  at  Elmira.  For  twenty  years  after 
the  war  he  was  a  conspicuous  member  of  the 
New  York  bar,  and  in  1876  founded  the  New 
York  Bar  Association.  He  founded  the  American 
Sabbath  Union  and  took  control  of  the  Fifth 
Avenue  stage  line  in  New  York  City,  in  order 
to  put  a  stop  to  its  Sunday  traffic.  In  1881  he 
was  appointed,  with  E.  B.  Shafer,  a  commissioner 
to  revise  the  ordinances  of  New  York  City.  In 
1888  he  acquired  control  and  became  editor  of 
the  New  York  Mail  and  Express,  and  under  his 
management  the  character  and  influence  of  that 
journal  were  greatly  improved. 

SHEPABD,  Thomas  (1605-49).  An  English 
Puritan  divine.  He  was  born  at  Towcester,  near 
Northampton;  graduated  M.A.  at  Emmanuel 
College,  Cambridge,  1627;  became  a  preacher; 
was  silenced  for  non-conformity,  and  emigrated 
to  Boston,  1635.  In  1636  he  became  pastor  of 
the  churdi  in   Cambridge   as  successor  of  the 


Rev.  Thomas  Hooker,  after  whom  he  was  esteemed 
the  most  learned  theologian  in  New  England.  He 
took  prominent  part  in  founding  Harvard  Col- 
lege and  was  also  interested  in  missionary  work 
among  the  Indians.  Among  his  writings,  pub- 
lished during  his  life,  are:  New  England's  La- 
mentation for  Old  England's  Errours  and  Di- 
visions (1645) ;  The  Sound  Beleever  (1645)  ;  and 
Theses  Sabbatiocs  (1649).  An  edition  of  his 
works  in  three  volumes^  with  memoir,  was  pub- 
lished in  Boston,  1853. 

SHEPABD^  William  (1737-1817).  An 
American  soldier,  bom  near  Boston,  M&ss.  En- 
tering the  army  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  he 
served  as  captain  imder  Sir  Jeffrey  Amherst 
from  1757  to  1763,  taking  part  in  the  battles  of 
Fort  William  Henry  and  Crown  Point.  During 
the  Revolutionary  War  he  participated  in  as 
many  as  22  engagements,  and  attained  the  rank 
of  colonel.  Subsequently  he  became  brigadier- 
general  of  the  Massachusetts  militia,  and  as  such 
was  conspicuous  during  Shays's  Rebellion,  de- 
fending the  •  Springfield  arsenal  against  the  in- 
surgents. He  afterwards  became  major-general 
of  militia,  was  a  member  of  the  Executive  Coun- 
cil in  1788-90,  and  served  in  Congress  from  1797 
to  1803. 

SHEPHEBD  DOG,  or  COLLIE.   See  Sheep- 

DOQ. 

SHEPHEBD  EINGS.    See  Htksos. 

SHEFHEBD'B  CALEKDAB,  The.  A  pas- 
toral poem  by  Spenser  ( 1579)  in  twelve  eclogues, 
one  for  each  month.  In  the  dialogues  of  the 
Shepherds,  among  whom  Spenser  appears  as  Colin 
Clout,  questions  of  the  day  are  discussed.  Sev- 
eral are  paraphrases  of  the  eclogues  of  Clement 
Marot,  and  all  show  the  influence  of  the  classical 
pastoral  poets. 

BHEFHEKD'S-PtTBSE  {Oapsella,  formerly 
Thlaspi).  An  annual,  very  variable,  and  trouble- 
some weed  of  the  natural  order  Crucifers,  found 
almost  throughout  the  world  upon  almost  all 
soils  and  in  all  climates.  It  attains  heights  rang- 
ing from  3  inches  to  2  feet,  with  more  or  less 
pinnatifid  root-leaves  which  spread  closely  along 
the  ground.  The  flowers  are  white  and  diminu- 
tive. The  pouch,  from  which  the  English  name 
seems  to  be'  derived,  is  laterally  compressed,  and 
somewhat  heart-shaped.  The  plant  usually  be- 
gins to  flower  and  fruit  as  soon  as  it  is  an  inch 
or  two  in  height,  continuing  throughout  the  sea- 
son. It  can  l^  eradicated  by  clean  culture.  The 
young  leaves  and  flower  clusters  are  often  used 
as  pot-herbs. 

SHEPHEBD'S  WEEK,  The.  Six  satirical 
pastorals  by  John  Gay  (1714),  meant  to  [Mirody 
the  insipid  verse  of  the  imitators  of  Veigil  and 
Spenser.  They  are,  however,  such  racy  descrip- 
tions of  actual  country  life  that  they  have  a  dis- 
tinct literary  value. 

SHEP^EY^  Geobge  Fobsteb  (1819-78).  An 
American  soldier  and  jurist,  born  at  Saoo,  Me. 
He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  in  1837,  studied  law 
at  Harvard,  and  for  a  time  practiced  in  Bangor. 
In  1844  he  settled  in  Portland,  and  from  1853 
until  1861  he  was  United  States  district  attorney 
of  Maine.  He  entered  the  Civil  War  as  colonel 
of  the  Twelfth  Maine  Volunteers,  and  in  Febru- 
ary, 1862,  was  given  command  of  the  Third  Bri- 
gade in  General  Butler's  army.    After  the  fall 


8HSHjE7* 


768 


SHEBIDAN. 


of  New  Orleans  he  was  appointed  its  military 
commandant  and  mayor,  but  resigned  this  office 
in  June  to  accept  that  of  military  Grovemor  of 
Louisiana,  which  he  held  until  the  inauguration 
of  a  civil  government  in  1864.  He  commanded 
the  Twenty-fifth  Army  Corps  during  a  brief  ab- 
sence of  General  Godfrey  Weitzel,  and  in  1865  he 
became  Military  Governor  of  Richmond,  Va. 
From  1869  until  his  death  he  was  United  States 
circuit  judge  for  the  First  Circuit  of  Maine. 

SHEPPABD,  Jack  (1702-24).  A  notorious 
English  criminal.  He  was  bom  at  Stepney  and 
was  originally  a  carpenter,  but  became  a  high- 
wayman in  1720.  His  adventurous  career,  which 
includes  two  daring  escapes  from  Newgate,  has 
been  popularized  by  a  pamting  by  Thomhill,  by 
pantomimes^  in  a  history  written  by  Defoe 
(1724),  and  by  a  novel  by  Ainsworth  (1839). 
He  was  hanged  at  Tyburn. 

SHEB^ATON,  Thomas  (176M806).  An  Eng- 
lish cabinet-maker  and  designer  of  furniture,  bom 
at  Stoclcton-on-Tees.  Almost  entirely  self-taught, 
he  became  a  well-educated  man,  an  excellent 
draughtsman  with  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
geometry,  as  proved  by  the  wonderful  drawings 
and  the  minute  directions  for  perspective  drawing 
given  in  his  book  The  Cabtnet-Maker  and  Uphoi- 
sterer'a  Drawing  Book  ( 1791 ) ,  published  in  Lon- 
don, whither  he  had  removed  about  1790.  Not 
remarkable  as  a  practical  cabinet-maker,  his 
fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  designs,  which  tended 
to  replace  the  characteristics  of  earlier  English 
cabinet  work  by  a  severer  taste  in  lines  and  orna- 
ment. Besides  the  above-named  work  he  pub- 
lished The  Cahinei  Dictionary  (1803)  ;  Designs 
for  Household  Furniture  (1804) ;  and  The  Cab- 
inet  Maker,  Upholsterer,  and  General  Artist's 
EncyolofpiBdia  (1807,  unfinished).  Consult: 
Litdi  field,  Illustrated  History  of  Furniture 
(Ixmdon,  1892) ;  Heaton,  Furniture  and  Decora- 
tion  in  England  During  the  Eighteenth  Century 
(ib.,  1890-93) ;  and  Morse,  Furniture  of  the  Olden 
Time  (New  York,  1902). 

SHEBBBOOKEy  shSr^ryk.  The  capital  of 
Sherbrooke  County,  Quebec,  Canada,  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Saint  Francis  and  Magog  rivers,  and 
on  the  Boston  and  Maine,  the  Canadian  Pacific, 
the  Quebec  (Central,  and  the  Grand  Tmnk  rail- 
roads, 101  miles  east  of  Montreal  (Map:  Quebec, 
D  5).  It  has  saw  and  grist  mills,  cotton  and 
woolen  mills,  and  manufactures  of  paper,  ma- 
diinery,  flannel,  and  worsted  goods,  etc.  Popu- 
lation, in  1891,  10,110;  in  1901,  11,765. 

SHEBBSOOKEy  Sir  John  Coape  (1764- 
1830).  An  English  general,  bom  in  Notting- 
hamshire. He  entered  the  army  as  an  ensign  in 
1780;  served  in  Nova  Scotia  and  South  Africa; 
assisted  in  the  storming  of  Seringapatam,  where 
he  was  wounded;  and  in  1805  attained  the  rank 
of  major-general.  He  was  second  in  command 
in  Wdlesley's  campaign  of  1809;  fought  at  the 
Douro,  at  Talavera,  and  elsewhere  in  Spain;  and 
in  1811  was  made  a  lieutenant-general  and  was 
appointed  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Nova  Scotia. 
In  1814  he  led  into  Maine  an  expedition  which 
captured  Castine  and  Belfast,  defeated  an  Ameri- 
can force  at  Hampden  and  forced  them  to  bum 
the  frigate  John  Adams,  took  Bangor,  and  occu- 
pied a  considerable  part  of  eastern  Maine.  In 
1816  he  was  made  Captain-General  and  Gov- 
emor-in-Chief  of  all  Canada,  but  in  1818  suffered 
Toi..xy.*4i. 


a  paralytic  stroke  and  shortly  afterwards  re- 
turned to  England,  where  he  died. 
SHEBBBOOKE,      Viscount.       See     Lowe, 

ROBEBT. 

SHEBE  (shgr)  or  8HEB  (shSr)  ALI,  &a6 
(1825-79).  Ameer  of  Afghanistan.  He  was  a 
younger  son  of  Dost  Mohammed  (q.v.),  whom  he 
succeeded  in  accordance  with  his  father's  will  as 
Ameer  in  1863.  The  neglect  to  recognize  him 
and  carelessness  in  cultivating  his  friendship  on 
the  part  of  the  viceroys  of  India  turned  him 
against  the  English.  His  throne  was  contested 
by  his  brothers  and  his  nephew,  but  he  overcame 
them  all  by  1869.  It  had  been  the  policy  of 
Lords  Lawrence  and  Mayo  to  keep  out  of  Afghan 
affairs,  but  Lord  Lytton  in  1878  adopted  a  more 
aggressive  policy  on  the  reception  of  a  Russian 
embassy  by  the  Ameer,  and  demanded  that  an 
English  resident  be  admitted  to  Kabul.  This 
brought  on  the  second  Afghan  war,  in  the  course 
of  which,  in  December,  1878,  Shere  Ali  left  his 
country  and  took  refuge  in  Turkestan,  where  he 
died  in  February,  1879.    See  Afghanistan. 

SHEBODAK,  Fhances  (1724-66).  An  Eng- 
lish novelist,  the  wife  of  Thomas  Sheridan,  the 
actor,  and  the  mother  of  Richard  Brinsley  Sheri- 
dan, the  statesman  and  dramatist.  Her  father 
was  Philip  Chamberlaine,  a  prebendary  and 
archdeacon.  She  married  in  1747.  When  only 
fifteen  years  old,  she  wrote  a  romance  entitled 
Eugenia  and  Adelaide,  which  was  dramatized 
many  years  later  by  her  daughter.  Helped  by 
Samuel  Richardson  (q.v.),  she  brought  out 
Memoirs  of  Miss  Sidney  Bidulph  (1761,  1767), 
which  was  reckoned  one  of  the  best  novels  of 
the  time.  It  was  turned  into  French  by  tiie 
Abb4  Provost,  the  translator  of  Pamela.  An 
Oriental  tale  called  The  History  of  Nourjahad 
(posthumous,  1767)  was  likewise  successful  and 
honored  by  translation.  Mrs.  Sheridan  also 
wrote  three  comedies:  The' Discovery  (1763); 
The  Dupe  (1764) ;  and  A  Journey  to  Bath,  con- 
taining Mrs.  Twyfort,  prototypical  of  the  famous 
Mrs.  Malaprop  (q.v.)  of  The  Rivals.  Consult 
Alicia  Lefanu,  Memoirs  of  Mrs.  Frances  Sheri- 
dan (London,  1824). 

SHEBIDAN,  Philip  Henby  (1831-88).  A 
distinguished  American  soldier,  bom  at  Albany, 
N.  Y.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1853. 
In  May,  1862,  he  was  appointed  colonel  of  the 
Second  Michigan  Cavalry,  and  participated,  with 
success,  in  the  operations  in  north  Mississippi. 
In  July  he  was  appointed  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers  and  given  command  of  the  Division 
and  the  Army  of  the  Ohio,  and  on  October  8th 
took  a  distinguished  part  in  the  battle  of  Perry- 
ville.  At  the  battle  of  Stone  River  (or  Murfrees- 
boro)  he  commanded  a  division  of  the  Army  of 
the  Cumberland,  and  by  his  stubborn  resistance 
was  instrumental  in  saving  the  Federal  army 
from  being  routed.  He  was  appointed  major- 
general  of  volunteers  early  in  1863,  took  part 
in  the  pursuit  of  Van  Dom,  and  aided  in 
the  capture  of  Winchester,  Tenn.,  June  27, 
1863.  In  the  battle  of  Chickamauga  he  main- 
tained his  reputation  for  daring,  and  later 
took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  battles  around 
Chattanooga,  where  he  came  under  the  personal 
observation  of  General  Grant.  In  April,  1864, 
General   Sheridan  was  transferred  by  General 


SHE&IDAir. 


764 


SHKHTDAIT. 


Grant  to  Virginia  and  placed  in  command  of  the 
cavalry  corps  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  and 
during  May,  June,  and  July,  besides  protecting 
the  flanks  of  the  army  and  reconnoitring  the 
enemy's  position,  was  engaged  in  eighteen 
different  actions,  including  the  battles  of  the 
Wilderness,  Spottsylvania  Court  House,  and 
Cold  Harbor.  His  reputation  for  dash  and 
daring  was  further  increased  by  a  raid  lasting 
from  the  0th  to  the  25th  of  May,  in  which  he 
destroyed  the  railroad  communications  of  the 
Confederates,  captured  Beaver  Dam,  and  at  the 
battle  of  Yellow  Tavern  defeated  the  Confed- 
erates under  Gen.  J.  E.  B.  Stuart  (q.v.),  who 
was  killed  in  the  action. 

In  August,  1864,  General  Sheridan  was  placed 
in  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Shenandoah, 
which  was  soon  constituted  the  Middle  Military 
Division.  With  this  command  he  defeated  Gen- 
eral Early  at  Opequan  Creek,  Fisher's  Hill,  and 
Cedar  Creek  (October  19,  1864),  and  captured 
5000  of  his  men  and  several  guns.  His  dashing 
ride  of  twenty  miles  from  Winchester  to  Cedar 
Creek  (q.v.),  to  save  his  army  from  defeat,  was 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  exploits  of  his  career. 
On  September  10th  Sheridan  was  made  briga- 
dier-general in  the  Regular  Army,  and  in  No- 
vember was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  major-gen- 
eral. An  act  for  which  Sheridan  has  been 
widely  censured  was  his  terrible  devastation  of 
the  Shenandoah  Valley  as  a  means  of  weakening 
the  resources  of  the  enemy.  During  the  re- 
mainder of  the  war  he  continued  to  serve  under 
Grant  in  Virginia,  doing  great  service  as  a 
raider  and  destroyer  of  bridges,  railroads,  etc. 
He  fought  the  battles  of  Waynesboro,  March  1, 
1865;  Dinwiddle  Court  House,  March  31st;  and 
Five  Forks,  April  1st,  which  compelled  Lee  to 
evacuate  Richmond  and  Petersburg,  in  all  of 
which  he  displayed  his  usual  military  skill  and 
courage.  He  participated  in  various  minor  ac- 
tions, and  was  present  at  the  surrender  of  Lee. 
In  July,  1865,  he  received  the  thanks  of  Congress. 
At  the  close  of  the  war  he  assumed  command 
of  the  Department  of  the  Gulf,  and  upon  the  in- 
auguration of  the  reconstruction  policy  was  ap- 
pointed commander  of  the  Fifth  Military  Dis- 
trict (Louisiana  and  Texas),  where  he  was 
known  for  his  stern  and  vigorous  enforcement  of 
the  reconstruction  acts.  With  the  election  of 
General  Grant  to  the  Presidency  and  the  pro- 
motion of  General  Sherman  to  be  commander  of 
the  Army,  Sheridan  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general.  In  1870  he  visited  Europe 
to  witness  the  Franco-Prussian  War,  and  later 
commanded  military  divisions  in  the  West  and 
Southwest.  During  the  political  disturbances 
of  1875  in  Louisiana,  he  was  sent  to  New  Or- 
leans to  maintain  peace  and  order,  in  which 
capacity  he  maintained  his  reputation  for  severity 
and  rigor  as  a  military  ruler.  Upon  the  retire- 
ment of  General  Sherman  in  1883,  he  succeeded 
to  the  chief  command  of  the  Army.  He  died 
at  Nonquitt,  Mass.,  August  5,  1888.  He  pub- 
lished Personal  Memoirs  (New  York,  1888). 

SHEBIDAN,  Richard  Bbinsley  (1751- 
1816).  An  English  dramatist  and  statesman, 
bom  in  Dublin.  He  was  the  son  of  Thomas  and 
Frances  Sheridan  (q.v.).  In  1762  he  was  sent 
to  Harrow,  where  he  remained  till  1768.  Hav- 
ing won  no  distinction  at  school,  he  continued 


his  studies  with  more  zeal  under  private  tutors. 
Sheridan  had  fallen  in  love  with  Miss  Elizabeth 
Linley,  a  professional  singer.  Disliking  the  at- 
tentions of  a  Major  Mathews,  this  young  aii<i 
lovely  person  made  up  her  mind  to  seek  refuge 
in  a  Frendi  convent.  Sheridan  took  ship  with 
her  as  a  guardian.  The  pair 'were  married  by 
a  priest  in  a  village  near  Calais.  On  returning 
to  England  Sheridan  had  a  duel  with  the  furi- 
ous Major,  whose  ill  luck  it  was  to  have  to  beg 
for  his  life  and  afterwards  to  publish  an  apology 
in  the  Bath  Chronicle,  In  a  second  duel  on  Jul? 
2,  1772,  Sheridan  was  gravely  wounded.  Both 
his  father  and  Mr.  Linley  objected  to  the  newly 
made  union,  so  Sheridan  was  sent  off  to  Waltham 
Abbey  in  Essex,  to  study  undisturbed.  For  a 
while  he  worked  hard,  being  especially  eager  to 
master  French  and  Italian,  though  he  meant  to 
be  a  barrister.  On  April  6,  1773,  he  was  entered 
at  the  Middle  Temple,  and  a  week  later  he  mar- 
ried Miss  Linley,  with  the  consent  of  her  father, 
but  the  elder  Sheridan  called  the  alliance  a  dis- 
grace. 

In  conjunction  with  a  friend  at  Harrow,  Sheri- 
dan had  already  published  a  metrical  translation 
of  the  epistles  of  Aristenetus,  had  written  fugi- 
tive verse  of  his  own,  and  a  comedy  called  Jupi- 
ter, which  was  refused  by  Crarrick.  Settling  in 
London  with  his  wife,  he  now  turned  to  litera- 
ture for  support.  The  Rivals  was  first  per- 
formed at  (Movent  Garden  Theatre  on  January 
17,  1775,  and  it  failed.  Carefully  revised,  it  was 
again  put  on  the  stage  eleven  days  later,  and  it 
succeeded.  This  fine  comedy  was  followed  at 
Covent  Garden  by  a  farce  called  Saint  Patrick's 
Day,  or  the  Beheming  Lieutenant  (May  2,  1775), 
and  the  comic  opera  called  The  Duenna  (Novem- 
ber 21,  1775),  which  ran  for  seventy-five  nights, 
a  popularity  until  them  unprecedented.  In  1776 
Sheridan,  helped  by  his  father-in-law  and  a  com- 
mon friend,  bought  out  Garrick's  share  in  Drury 
Lane  Theatre,  and  two  vears  later  the  share  of 
Willoughby  Lacy,  GarricVs  partner.  The  money 
for  these  purchases  was  raised  mainly  on  mort- 
gage. On  September  21,  1776,  Drury  Lane  was 
opened  under  Sheridan's  management.  The  next 
year  he  produced  an  adaptation  of  Vanbrugb's 
Relapse,  under  the  title  of  A  Trip  to  Scar- 
borough (February  24th),  followed  by  his  great- 
est comedy,  The  School  for  Scandal  (May  8th). 
His  later  plays  are  The  Critic  (October  29, 
1779),  and  Pizarro  (May  24,  1799),  adapted 
from  Kotzebue  (q.v.).  Though  not  wholly  ad- 
mirable in  structure,  The  Rivals  and  The  School 
for  Scandal  are  among  the  best  comedies  in  Eng- 
lish since  the  Elizabethan  age. 

Sheridan's  wit  and  attractive  personality  had 
long  made  him  conspicuous  in  London  society. 
In  1777  he  was  elected  to  the  famous  Literary 
Club  of  Johnson  and  Burke.  Through  the  influ- 
ence of  Fox  he  began  a  Parliamentary  career 
in  1780.  For  his  services  to  the  opposition  dur- 
ing the  first  two  years,  he  was  appointed  Under- 
Secretary  for  Foreign  Affairs  under  the  Rock- 
ingham Ministry  (1782),  and  Secretary  to  the 
Treasury  under  the  coalition  Ministiy  of  the 
Duke  of  Portland  (1783).  For  his  speeches 
against  the  American  war,  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States  wished  to  present  him  with  £20,- 
000.  The  gift  was  gracefully  declined.  His 
greatest  speeches  were  against   Warren  Hasir 


SHEBIDAK. 


765 


SHE&IST. 


incB.  In  the  first  (February  7,  1787)  he  brought 
before  the  House  of  (Commons  the  charges 
against  the  Governor-General  of  India;  and  in 
the  second  (June,  1788)  he  opened  the  proceed- 
ings .at  the  trial  in  Westminster  Hall.  A  third 
speech  (May  14^  1794)  did  not  reach  the  previ- 
ous high  level.  Sheridan  sided  with  Fox  against 
English  interference  in  the  French  Kevolution, 
delivering  a  remarkable  speech  in  1794  in  reply 
to  the  Earl  of  Momington  (afterwards  Marquis 
Wellesley),  but  he  opposed  that  revolution  when 
it  began  to  interfere  with  the  peace  of  England. 
He  also  met  Pitt  in  debate  against  the  union  of 
England  and  Ireland,  and  strenuously  advocated 
the  freedom  of  the  press.  Defeat  in  the  elec- 
tion of  1812  brought  his  Parliamentary  career 
to  an  end.  This  was  not  his  only  misfortune. 
The  old  Drury  Lane  Theatre,  pronounced  unsafe, 
had  been  replaced  in  1794.  The  destruction  by 
fire  of  the  new  building  in  1809  put  an  end  to 
Sheridan's  main  source  of  income,  which  for  a 
while  amounted  to  10,000  pounds  a  yed,r.  Ha- 
rassed by  creditors,  though  he  was  the  last  man 
to  avoid  the  payment  of  a  debt,  Sheridan  could 
not  pay,  for  debts  to  him  were  withheld.  A 
committee  formed  to  rebuild  the  theatre  gave 
him  shares  for  much  other  money  owed  him,  but 
by  keeping  back  12,000  pounds  in  cash,  they 
prevented  his  being  returned  from  StaiTord,  and 
caused  him  to  be  arrested  for  debt,  August,  1813. 
He  became  an  inmate  of  a  sponging  house  in 
Took's  Court,  Cursitor  street,  till  Whitbread, 
head  of  the  committee,  handed  over  the  needed 
sum. 

He  died  after  several  months'  illness,  July  7, 
1816,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey.  His 
portrait  was  more  than  once  painted  by  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds,  and  a  portrait  of  him  by  Rus- 
sell may  be  seen  in  the  National  Gallery. 

Sheridan  came  in  a  period  when  satirical 
comedy  could  easily  find  something  to  make 
merry  over  in  contemporary  society.  Moreover, 
that  society  was  highly  picturesque.  An  arch 
and  dainty  eighteenth-century  grace  permeates 
both  The  Rivals  and  The  School  for  Scandal;  they 
have  an  incessant  sparkle  of  wit  and  elegance  of 
style.  By  his  own  avowal  Sheridan  was  not  a 
happy  man.  Indeed,  he  often  thought  life  an 
unendurable  burden,  but  his  wit  is  never  sour. 
He  never  showed,  either  in  his  literary  work  or  in 
politics,  rancor  or  grudges.  Yet  he  seems  to  have 
been  slandered  from  his  childhood  till  his  death, 
though  he  refrained  from  replying  to  calumnies. 
Sheridan  by  sheer  inborn  goodness,  if  not  by 
sound  intelligence,  was  habitually  on  what 
Time's  judgment  calls  the  right  side. 

CkHisult  the  biographies  by  Rae  (London, 
1896),  Sanders  (Great  Writers  Series,  ib.,  1891), 
Mrs.  Oliphant  (English  Men  of  Letters  Series, 
New  York,  1883),  T.  Moore  (London,  1825), 
and  The  Lives  of  the  Sheridans,  by  Fitzgerald 
(ib.,  1886).  Good  editions  of  the  comedies  are  by 
B.  Matthews,  Rivals  and  School  for  Scandal  Ciiew 
York,  1884),  J.  A.  Symonds  (London,  1884),  H. 
Morley  (ib.,  1883),  and  in  Macmillan's  Library 
of  English  Classics  (London  and  New  York, 
1900).  Sheridan's  speeches  were  collected  in 
five  volumes  (London,  1816^,  and  finally  Sheri- 
dan's Plays,  "now  printed  as  he  wrote  them,"  ed- 
ited by  W.  Fraser  Rae  (London,  1902). 

SHEBIBAN^  Thomas  (1719-88).  A  British 
actor  and  author,  the  father  of  Richard  Brins- 


ley  Sheridan  (q.v.).  He  was  bom  near  Dublin, 
where  he  was  educated  at  Trinity  College.  Hav- 
ing gone  upon  the  stage  in  1743,  he  played  for  a 
time  at  Drury  Lane  Theatre,  in  London,  and  was 
considered  by  some,  including  himself,  a  rival  of 
Garrick.  His  management  of  the  Dublin  The- 
atre ended  with  a  riot  in  1754.  The  remainder 
of  his  life  was  spent  largely  in  literary  work, 
especially  on  the  subject  of  elocution^  upon 
which  he  was  a  well-known  lecturer  at  the  uni- 
versities and  elsewhere.  In  1780  first  appeared 
his  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language,  in  which 
particular  attention  was  given  to  pronunciation. 
Sheridan  also  edited  the  Works  of  Swift  (with 
Life,  1784).  Consult:  Rae,  Richard  Brinsley 
Sheridan,  a  Biography  (London,  1896) ;  Mat- 
thews and  Hutton,  Actors  and  Actresses  of  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States  (New  York,  1886). 

SHEBIDAN'S  BIDE.  A  stirring  poem  by 
T.  B.  Read^  published,  with  other  war  pieces,  in 
1865,  on  the  famous  ride  of  General  Sheridan 
from  Winchester  to  Cedar  Creek  after  Early's 
attack  during  his  absence,  October  19,  1864. 

SHEKIF,  shA-r§f'  (Ar.  sharif,  noble,  from 
sharafa,  to  surpass).  Among  Mohammedansj  a 
name  for  all  descendants  of  Mohammed.  They 
are  very  numerous  and  found  in  all  classes  and 
callings.  In  the  large  cities  there  is  a  special 
officer,  the  nakih  al-ashrag,  whose  duty  it  is  to 
keep  a  careful  accoimt  of  their  genealogy.  The 
men  among  the  sherifs  have  the  privilege  of  wear- 
ing a  green  turban,  and  the  women  a  green  veil. 
The  guardian  of  the  Kaaba  is  a  sherif  appointed 
nominally  by  the  Sultan;  he  acts  as  governor  of 
Mecca  with  the  title  of  Sherif  of  Mecca. 

SHEBIFE  (AS.  scirgerefa,  shire-reeve,  from 
scir,  district,  county,  jurisdiction,  business  + 
gerefa,  reeve).  The  chief  executive  officer  of  a 
county,  who  at  times  exercises  judicial  func- 
tions also.  Notwithstanding  his  Latin  title  of 
vice  comes,  he  was  never  a  deputy  earl.  At  the 
opening  of  English  legal  history  he  appears  as 
^'the  governor  of  the  shire,  the  captain  of  i'-A 
forces,  the  president  of  its  court;  a  distinctly 
royal  officer,  appointed  by  the  King,  dismissible 
at  a  moment's  notice,  strictly  accountable  to  the 
Exchequer."  The  office  was  not  hereditary  at 
common  law,  although  it  became  so  in  a  few 
counties.  During  the  thirteenth  century  it  was 
made  elective,  but  in  1314  Parliament  changed 
it  to  an  appointive  office,  and  the  method  of  ap- 
pointment prescribed  by  that  statute  (9  Ed.  III., 
c.  2)  has  been  continued  with  few  changes  to 
the  present  time  (See  Sheriff's  Act,  1887,  50 
and  51  Vict.,  c.  55).  His  term  of  office  is  one 
year,  and  until  his  successor  qualifies,  although 
he  is  removable  at  pleasure.  He  appoints  an 
under  sheriff  to  act  as  his  deputy,  to  whom  all 
fees  are  paid,  but  for  whose  acts  the  sheriff  is 
civilly  liable. 

Originally,  the  sheriff  in  England,  as  in  Scot- 
land, exercised  an  extensive  judicial  authority. 
He  presided  over  the  common-law  county  court. 
Twice  a  year  he  made  a  circuit  of  the  hundreds 
or  other  subdivisions  of  his  shire,  to  hold  a  view 
of  frank  pledge,  to  receive  presentment  of  grave 
criminal  offenses,  and  to  collect  fines  for  petty 
crimes.  This  was  known  as  the  sheriff's  tour. 
At  present,  however,  his  judicial  functions  are 
comparatively  small. 

The   principal  duties  of  the  modem  sheriff, 


8HBBIFF. 


766 


both  in  England  and  in  the  United  States,  re- 
late to  the  execution  (q.v.)  of  civil  and  criminal 
process.  In  the  more  populous  counties  he  has 
many  deputies,  for  whose  misconduct  he  is  civilly 
responsible,  and  who  give  bonds  to  him  for  the 
proper  performance  of  their  duties.  In  such 
counties  the  office  is  a  very  lucrative  one  with 
us.  While  a  few  of  our  States  continue  the  prac- 
tice of  appointing  sheriffs,  most  of  them  have 
made  the  office  elective,  and  many  prohibit  the 
immediate  reflection  of  the  same  person.  It  is 
thought  that  he  mijg^ht  abuse  his  authority  for 
the  purpose  of  securing  a  reflection.  The  Federal 
officer  corresponding  to  the  sheniff  is  the  United 
States  Marshal.  Consult:  Pollock  and  Maitland, 
History  of  English  Law  (2d  ed.,  London  and 
Boston,  1899) ;  Mather,  Compendium  of  Sheriff 
and  Executive  Law  (London,  1903) ;  Crocker, 
Duties  of  Sheriffs,  Coroners,  and  Constables 
(New  York,  1890) ;  Murfee,  Treatise  on  the  Law 
of  Sheriffs  and  Other  Ministerial  Officers  (Saint 
Louis,  1890). 

RTTFtRTFFanriB,  sh^rlf-mar'.  A  moor  of 
Perthshire,  Scotland,  2  miles  northeast  of  Dun- 
blane, famous  for  the  indecisive  battle  on  Novem- 
ber 13,  1716,  between  9000  Jacobites  imder  the 
Earl  of  Mar  and  3500  Hanoverian  troops  under 
the  Duke  of  Argyll.  The  action  checked  the 
march  of  the  Scottish  Jacobites  into  England. 

SHEBIPP'S  COUBT.  A  Scotch  tribunal, 
corresponding  to  the  county  court  of  England 
and  of  the  American  States.  It  takes  its  name 
from  the  title  of  the  presiding  magistrate — ^the 
sheriff  (q.v.) — ^whose  judicial  functions  in  Scot- 
land have  increased  rather  than  diminished  dur- 
ing modern  times.  Until  17*48  the  office  of 
sheriff  was  hereditary  in  that  country,  but  with 
the  suppression  of  the  Jacobite  rising  it  was 
made  appointive,  and  its  judicial  duties  are  now 
performed  by  the  sheriff  depute  and  the  sheriff 
substitute.  Both  officials  are  appointed  by  the 
Crown,  and  their  salaries  are  a  charge  upon 
the  civil  establishment.  The  former  must  be  an 
advocate  of  three  years'  standing,  the  latter  an 
advocate  or  solicitor  of  fi^e  years'  standing,  and 
both  hold  their  office  during  life  or  good  behavior. 

Most  civil  cases  of  first  instance  in  this  court 
are  heard  by  the  sheriff  substitute,  who  resides 
permanently  in  the  county  for  which  he  is 
appointed.  From  his  decisions  an  appeal  lies 
either  to  the  sheriff  depute  or  the  Court  of  Ses- 
sion. Preliminary  investigations  into  crime  and 
summary  criminal  proceedings  are  generally 
brought  before  the  sheriff  substitute;  while  all 
crimmal  causes  remitted  by  the  counsel  for  the 
Crown  to  the  Sheriff's  Court  for  trial  by  jury  are 
heard  by  the  sheriff  depute.  From  his  decision 
in  such  cases  an  appeal  lies  to  the  Court  of  Jus- 
ticiary. The  civil  jurisdiction  of  the  Sheriff's 
Court  extends  to  personal  actions  upon  obliga- 
tions without  limit  as  to  amount;  to  actions  for 
the  recovery  of  real  estate,  limited  in  the  case 
of  heritable  estates  to  the  value  of  £1000;  to 
questions  of  servitude,  nuisance,  and  various 
other  matters.  Consult  Wilson,  Practice  of  the 
Sheriffs  Courts  of  Scotland  (Edinburgh,  1890). 

SHEB^OCE,  Thomas  (1078-1761).  An  Eng^ 
lish  prelate.  He  was  bom  in  London  and  was 
educated  at  Eton  and  Saint  Catharine's  Hall, 
Cambridge,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  M.A.  in 
1701.    In  1704  he  obtained  the  mastership  of  the 


Temple;  in  1714  he  became  master  of  Us  oollc^ 
taking  the  degree  of  D.D.  in  the  same  year;  and 
in  1716  Dean  of  Chichester.  He  was  raised  to  the 
see  of  Bangor,  1728,  and  transferred  to  that  of 
Salisbury  in  1734,  and  in  1748  to  that  of  Lon- 
don. Sherlock  was  a  strenuous  Tory,  and  sup- 
ported the  Church  and  State  politics  of  his  day, 
but  displayed  a  good  deal  of  diplomatic  skiU  in 
his  different  official  positions.  His  works,  with 
Life  by  T.  S.  Hughes,  were  published  in  five  vol- 
umes in  London,  1830.  The  most  famous  is  the 
Tryal  of  the  Witnesses  of  the  Resurreetum  of 
Jesus  (1729;  15th  ed.  1794;  American  reprint 
by  Presbyterian  Board,  Philadelphia). 

SHEBICAH,  shSr^mon.  The  county-seat  of 
Grayson  County,  Texas,  64  miles  north  of  Dallas, 
on  tiie  Texas  and  Pacific,  the  Houston  and  Texas 
Central,  the  Saint  Louis  and  San  Francisco,  the 
Missouri,  Kansas  and  Texas,  and  the  Saint 
Louis  Southwestern  railroads  (Map:  Texas,  F  3). 
It  is  the  seat  of  the  Mary  Nash  Female  College, 
opened  in  1877,  the  Carr-Burdette  Christian  Col- 
lege for  women,  the  North  Texas  Female  College 
(Methodist),  opened  in  1877,  and  Austin  College 
(Presbyterian),  opened  in  1850.  Sherman  is  the 
centre  of  a  cotton-growing,  stock-raising,  and 
farming  region,  and  has  cottonseed-oil  mills,  a 
cotton  compress,  a  cotton  gin,  flouring  mills,  iron 
foundries  and  machine  shops,  brick  yards,  plan- 
ing mills,  and  a  carriage  manufactory.  The  gov- 
ernment is  vested  in  a  mayor  chosen  biennially, 
and  a  unicameral  council.  The  water-vrorks  and 
electric  li^ht  plant  are  owned  and  operated  by 
the  municipality.  Sherman  was  settled  in  1848, 
and  received  its  present  city  charter  in  1895. 
Population,  in  1890,  7335;  in  1900,  10,243. 

SHEBXAN,  Fbank  Demfsteb  (1800—).  An 
American  educator  and  well-known  writer  of 
light  verse,  born  at  Peekskill,  N.  Y.  He  took 
a  course  in  the  Columbia  School  of  Architecture 
in  New  York,  graduating  in  1884,  and  pursued 
advanced  studies  at  Harvard  Universi^.  In 
1887  he  was  made  fellow  of  Columbia  College, 
then  instructor  in  the  department  of  architecture 
until  his  appointment  as  adjunct  professor.  He 
was  author  of  Madrigals  and  Catches  (1887), 
yew  Waggings  of  Old  Tales  (1888),  with  Mr.  J. 
K.  Bangs  (q.v.),  Lyrics  for  a  Lute  (1890),  and 
Little-Folk  Lyrics  (1892). 

SHEBHAN^  John  (1823-1900).  An  Ameri- 
can statesman,  bom  at  Lancaster,  Ohio.  He 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1844,  and  settled 
at  Mansfield,  Ohio.  He  was  a  member  of 
Congress  from  1865  until  1877,  first  in 
the  House,  and  after  1861  in  the  Senate.  His 
ability  as  a  speaker  and  his  familiarity  with 
public  affairs  made  him  an  influential  member 
from  the  first.  In  1859  he  was  the  Republican 
candidate  for  Speaker  of  the  House  and  came 
within  three  votes  of  election.  After  his  defeat 
for  the  Speakership  he  was  made  chairman  of 
the  Ways  and  Means  Committee  of  the  House 
and  was  instrumental  in  improving  the  financial 
condition  of  the  Government.  In  the  Senate 
he  served  as  chairman  of  the  Finance  Com- 
mittee, and  took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the 
advocacy  of  the  issue  of  lesal-tender  currency 
during  the  Civil  War  and  of  the  bill  to  establish 
a  national  banking  system.  He  was  the  author 
of  the  Refunding  Act  of  1870,  and  carried  through 
the  resolution  announcing  the  puipose  of  the 


SHEUEAK. 


767 


SHEBMAN. 


Govemmeiit  to  resume  the  payment  of  its  obliga- 
tions in  specie  at  as  early  a  date  as  possible. 
In  1877  he  retired  from  the  Senate  to  become 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  under  President  Hayes. 
He  succeeded  in  accumulating  a  redemption  fund 
in  the  Treasury  and  made  it  possible  for  the 
Government  to  keep  its  promise  to  resume  specie 
payments  on  January  1,  1879.  In  1881  Sherman 
returned  to  the  Senate,  where  he  served  without 
interruption  until  1897.  In  1880,  1884,  and 
1888  he  was  a  prominent  candidate  for  the  Re- 
publican Presidential  nomination.  Besides  meas- 
ures already  mentioned  Senator  Sherman  was 
the  author  of  the  important  statute  of  1890 
known  as  the  Sherman  Silver  Law,  providing 
for  the  monthly  purchase  of  silver  bullion  by 
the  Grovemment,  and  of  the  notable  act  of  the 
same  year  known  as  the  Sherman  Anti-Trust 
Law,  forbidding  combinations  in  restraint  of 
trade  or  commerce  among  the  States.  In  1897 
he  resigned  from  the  Senate  to  become  Secretary 
of  State  in  the  Cabinet  of  President  McKinley. 
On  account  of  advanced  age  and  growing  infir- 
mities,  he  resigned  this  office  shortly  after  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  with  Spain  in  1898,  and 
retired  to  private  life.  He  died  on  October  22, 
1900.  Consult:  Senator  Sherman's  RenUnisoencea 
(New  York,  1895) ;  and  Bronson,  Life  and  Public 
Services  of  John  Sherman  (Columbus,  1880). 
Some  of  his  correspondence  with  General  W.  T. 
Sherman  was  edited  by  R.  S.  Thomdike  in  a 
volume  published  in  New  York  in  1896. 

8HEBHAN,  Rogeb  (1721-93).  An  American 
patriot,  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  bom  in  Newton,  Mass.  He  was 
a  shoemaker  for  a  number  of  years;  removed  to 
New  Milford,  Conn.,  in  1743;  became  county 
surveyor  of  lands  in  1745;  after  1750  engaged 
in  mercantile  pursuits;  studied  law,  and  in  1754 
was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  then  served  suc- 
cessively as  member  of  the  (Connecticut  Legisla- 
ture, justice  of  the  peace,  judge  of  the  Common 
Pleas,  and  treasurer  of  Yale  College.  In  1766 
he  was  appointed  judse  of  the  C:k)nnecticut  Su- 
perior Court,  and  in  &e  same  year  was  elected 
to  the  0)nnecticut  Senate,  continuing  in  the 
former  office  for  23  years,  and  in  the  latter  for 
19.  He  was  an  active  member  of  the  Continental 
and  Confederation  (Congresses  from  1774  to  1787, 
served  on  a  number  of  important  com- 
mittees, and,  in  particular,  was  a  member  of 
the  Committee  of  Five  appointed  to  pre- 
pare a  draft  of  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence, to  which  document,  as  finally  adopted, 
he  affixed  his  signature.  While  a  member  of 
Congress  he  served  (1777-79  and  1782)  on  the 
Connecticut  Committee  of  Safety,  and  in  1783, 
together  with  Richard  Law,  he  revised  and  codi- 
fied the  laws  of  the  State.  From  1784  until  his 
death  he  was  Mayor  of  New  Haven,  to  which 
place  he  had  removed  in  1761.  While  holding 
this  office  he  was  an  active  and  influential  mem- 
ber of  the  Constitutional  Convention  at  Phila- 
delphia in  1787.  He  took  a  conspicuous  part  in 
the  debates  before  that  body  and  presented  the 
famous  compromise  relative  to  the  systems  of 
representation  in  the  two  Houses  of  Congress. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Connecticut  convention 
called  to  take  action  on  the  Federal  Constitu- 
tion, and  was  influential  in  securing  its  ratifica- 
tion. He  was  one  of  the  first  Representatives  in 
the  Federal  Congress  from  Connecticut,  and  in 


1791  was  transferred  by  appointment  to  the 
Senate,  in  which  body  he  served  until  his  deaUi. 
Consult  Boutelle,  Life  of  Roger  Sherman  {Chi- 
cago,  1896). 

SHEBMAN,  Thomas  West  (1813-79).  An 
American  soldier,  bom  at  Newport,  R.  I.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1836,  and  as  second 
lieutenant  took  part  in  the  Seminole  War.  He 
was  promoted  to  be  captain  in  1846,  served  under 
General  Taylor  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  was 
brevetted  major  for  gallant  conduct  at  the  battle 
of  Buena  Vista.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War  he  was  promoted  to  be  lieutenant-colonel  of 
the  Fifth  Artillery,  and  soon  afterwards  was 
commissioned  brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  He 
commanded  the  land  forces  in  the  operations 
against  Port  Royal  and  the  Sea  Islands  in  the 
winter  of  1861-62;  commanded  a  division  under 
Creneral  Banks  at  Port  Hudson  in  1863,  where  he 
lost  a  leg,  and  from  that  time  until  the  close  of 
the  war  commanded  a  reserve  brigade  of  artillery 
and  Forts  Jackson  and  Saint  Philip  at  New 
Orleans.  On  June  1,  1863,  he  was  promoted  to 
be  colonel  of  the  Third  Artillery;  on  March  13, 
1865,  was  brevetted  brigadier-general  in  the  Reg- 
ular Army  for  gallantry  at  Port  Hudson,  and 
major-general  in  Doth  the  volimteer  and  the  regu- 
lar armies  for  his  services  throughout  the  war, 
and  on  being  mustered  out  of  the  volunteer 
service  on  April  30,  1866,  took  command  of  his 
regiment  at  Fort  Adams,  R.  I.  In  1870  he  was 
placed  on  the  retired  list  with  the  full  rank  of 
major-general  in  the  United  States  Army. 

SHEBHAN,.  William  Tecumseh  (1820-91). 
A  distinguished  American  soldier,  bom  at  Lan- 
caster, Ohio,  on  Feb.  8,  1820.  He  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1840,  and  afterwards  was  sta- 
tioned at  several  places  in  the  South,  during 
which  time  he  devoted  his  spare  moments  to  the 
study  of  law.  Upon  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with 
Mexico  he  was  sent  around  the  Horn  to  Cali- 
fornia, where  he  served  as  acting  assistant  ad- 
jutant-general. Returning  to  the  East  in  1850, 
he  was  appointed  captain  in  the  Commissary 
Department,  with  headquarters  first  at  Saint 
Louis  and  later  at  New  Orleans.  In  Septem- 
ber, 1853,  he  resigned  from  the  army  and  en- 
gaged in  the  banking  business  in  San  Fran- 
cisco, where  he  remained  until  1857.  He  then 
engaged  in  business  for  a  brief  period  in  New 
York;  in  1859  he  began  the  practice  of  law  in 
Kansas;  in  1860  became  superintendent  of  a 
military  academy  in  Louisiana,  and  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Civil  War  was  president  of  a  street 
railway  company  in  Saint  Louis.  In  May,  1861, 
he  reentered  the  army  as  colonel  of  the  Thir- 
teenth Infantry,  and  a  few  weeks  later  was  ap- 
pointed brigadier-general.  His  first  active  service 
was  in  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run,  where  his 
brigade  lost  heavily.  In  August,  1861,  he  was 
detached  from  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  and 
sent  to  take  command  in  Kentucky  under 
Greneral  Robert  Anderson.  Sherman  succeeded 
him  in  full  command  on  October  17th.  It  was 
at  this  time  that  he  became  the  target  for 
ridicule  on  account  of  his  declaration  that 
200,000  men  would  be  required  to  end  the 
war  in  the  West.  The  opinion  was  regarded  as 
that  of  a  crazy  man  and  he  was  relieved  of  his 
command  by  General  Buell  in  November  and 
was  ordered  to  report  to  Oeneral  Halleck,  then 
commanding  the  Department  of  Missouri.    After 


8HEBMAN. 


768 


SHEBWOOD  F0BS8T. 


brief  service  at  Saint  Louis  he  was  in  February, 
1862,  assigned  to  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee,  and 
in  April  took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  battle  of 
Shiloh,  having  three  horses  shot  under  him 
and  being  himself  severely  wounded.  He  dis- 
played such  judgment  and  skill  in  this  battle  as 
to  cause  General  Grant  to  say  of  him  officially: 
"To  his  individual  efforts  I  am  indebted  for  the 
success  of  that  battle."  He  was  commissioned 
major-general  of  volunteers  and  rendered  distin- 
guished service  in  the  operations  against  Corinth. 
In  July  he  was  sent  by  General  Grant  to  take 
command  at  Memphis,  w^hich  had  just  fallen  into 
the  hands  of  the  Federal  forces,  and  shortly 
thereafter  he  began  his  campaign  against  Vicks- 
burg.  In  trying  to  reach  Vicksburg  from  the 
rear  by  the  Yazoo  River  he  was  defeated  and 
driven  back  at  Chickasaw  Bayou,  but  later  ren- 
dered important  service  which  contributed  even- 
tually to  the  capture  of  the  city.  In  July,  1863, 
he  was  made  a  brigadier-general  in  the  Regular 
Army.  His  command  was  now  transferred  to 
Tennessee,  where  he  took  an  active  part  in  the 
operations  under  General  Grant  which  ended  in. 
the  battles  around  Chattanooga  (November),  im- 
mediately after  which  he  forced  Longstreet  to 
raise  the  siege  of  Knoxville.  In  January,  1864, 
he  returned  to  Mississippi  and  soon  thereafter 
made  his  famous  raid  across  the  State  from 
Jackson  to  Meridian  and  back  again,  destroying 
the  railroads,  Confederate  stores,  and  other  prop- 
erty, and  desolating  the  country  along  the  line  of 
march.  When  Grant  was  appointed  Commander- 
in-Chief  of  the  armies  of  the  United  States  he 
assigned  Sherman  to  the  command  of  the  Mili- 
tary Division  of  the  Mississippi,  embracing  the 
Departments  of  the  Ohio,  the  Tennessee,  the 
Cumberland,  and  the  Arkansas,  with  temporary 
headquarters  at  Nashville,  and  with  instructions 
to  undertake  the  capture  of  Atlanta. 

In  May,  1864,  his  army,  about  100,000  strong, 
set  out  from  Chattanooga  for  the  invasion  of 
Georgia.  The  Confederates  under  Johnston  were 
engaged  with  Sherman's  army  at  Dalton,  Resaca, 
Cassville,  Dallas,  and  Kenesaw  Mountain,  but 
were  compelled  to  retreat  before  his  advance. 
Finally  Atlanta  was  attacked,  and  after  a  siege 
of  forty  days,  marked  by  several  sharp  battles, 
the  city  was  evacuated  on  September  1st.  Gen. 
John  B.  Hood,  who  had  superseded  General  John- 
ston in  command,  now  moved  back  to  Tennessee, 
leaving  the  way  open  for  Sherman's  advance 
through  Georgia  to  the  sea.  In  November  Sher- 
man set  out  for  Savanna^h  with  his  army  stretched 
out  at  times  for  a  length  of  60  miles.  The  country 
along  the  line  of  march  was  almost  devastated. 
By  December  13th  he  had  reached  Savannah, 
which  surrendered  on  December  21st.  Already 
on  August  12  he  had  been  appointed  major- 
general  in  the  Regular  Army  and  now  received 
the  thanks  of  Congress  for  his  'triumphal 
march.*  In  February  he  resumed  his  march, 
turning  northward  through  South  Carolina.  On 
February  17,  1805,  his  army  entered  Columbia, 
and  on  the  same  day  the  Confederates  evacu-- 
ated  Charleston,  which  was  occupied  on  the 
following  day  by  the  Federal  forces.  He 
then  pushed  northward  into  North  Carolina, 
General  Joseph  E.  Johnston  attempting  ineffectu- 
ally to  check  his  progress.  Johnston's  spirited 
attack  at  Bentonville  on  March  19th  was  re- 
pulsed, and  a  few  days  later  Shennan  and  Scho- 


field  effected  a  junction  at  Goldsboro.    On  April 
26th  Sherman  received  the  surrender  of  General 
Johnston  at  Durham's  Station,  but  the  terms  of 
surrender  were  regarded  by  the  Government  as  too 
lenient  and  as  including  matters  other  than  mili- 
tary, and  were  accordingly  disapproved.    From 
the  close  of  the  war  until  March,  1869,  General 
Sherman  was  commander  of  the  Military  Division 
of  the  Mississippi,  with  headquarters  at  Saint 
Louis.    Upon  the  appointment  of  Grant  as  full 
general  in  July,  1866,  Sherman  was  promoted  to 
be  lieutenant-general,  and  when  Grant  became 
President  of  the  United  States,  March  4,  1869, 
Sherman  succeeded  him  as  general.     He  retired 
from  the  army  on  full  pay  in  February,  1884, 
and  died  in  New  York  on  February  14,  1891.  His 
Memoira  were  published  in  1875   (New  York,  2 
vols.).      His    correspondence   with    his   brother. 
Senator  Sherman,  appeared  in  1894  (New  York). 
A  short  biography  has  been  written  by  General 
Manning  F.  Force  (New  York,  1899).   In  1903  a 
magnificent  monument  to  the  great  commander, 
the  work  of  Saint  Gaudens,  was  unveiled  at  the 
main  entrance  to  Central  Park,  New  York  City, 
and  a  fine  equestrian  statue  was  set  up  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 

SHEBWOOD,  sh&r^wvd.  Mart  Mabtha 
(1775-1851).  An  English  author,  eldest  daughter 
of  George  Butt,  chaplain  to  George  III.,  bom  at 
Stanford,  Worcestershire.  In  her  girlhood  she 
learned  Latin  and  wrote  stories,  publishing  her 
first  book  in  1794.  In  1803  she  married  her 
cousin.  Captain  Henry  Sherwood,  with  whom  she 
went  out  to  India.  On  their  return  to  England 
they  settled  at  Wick,  near  Worcester,  and  after- 
wards moved  to  Twickenham.  Captain  Sherwood 
died  in  1849.  Throughout  her  life  Mrs.  Sher- 
wood devoted  much  time  to  charity.  Her  books, 
numbering  nearly  one  hundred,  comprise  mostly 
tracts  and  short  stories  with  a  strong  religious 
bent.  It  is  said  that  the  children  of  middle 
class  life  in  England  were  brought  up  on  The 
History  of  the  Fairchild  Family,  a  collection  of 
8toriea  calculated  to  show  the  Importance  and 
Effect  of  a  religious  Education   (part  i.,  1818; 

Eart  ii.,  1842;  part  iii.,  1847).  Extremely  popu- 
ir  were  Susan  Oray  and  Little  Henry  and  His 
Bearer,  Her  stories  were  translated  into  many 
languages.  Consult  Works  (New  York,  1855); 
Life,  by  Mrs.  S.  Kelly  (London,  1854). 

SHEBWOOD,  RosiNA  (Emmet)  (1857-). 
An  American  artist,  bom  in  New  York  City. 
She  studied  under  William  Chase  and  afterwards 
in  Paris  under  Julien.  She  first  became  known 
as  an  illustrator,  and  then  as  a  painter,  both 
in  oil  and  water  colors.  She  was  awarded  a 
medal  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1889,  in  Chicago 
in  1893,  and  exhibited  in  Paris  in  1900. 

SHEBWOOD^  William  Hall  (1854— ).  An 
American  pianist  and  teacher,  bom  in  Lyons, 
N.  Y.  His  education  was  under  the  leading 
masters,  both  of  the  United  States  and  Europe. 
For  several  years  he  was  teacher  of  the  piano  at 
the  New  England  CJonservatory,  after  which  he 
went  to  New  York  and  in  1889  made  Chicago  his 
home.  He  became  head  of  the  piano  faculty  of 
the  Chicago  Conservatory,  resigning  that  posi- 
tion in  1897  to  establish  the  Sherwood  Piano 
School.  His  compositions  are  principally  for  the 
pianoforte. 

SHEBWOOD  FOBEST.  A  stretch  of  hilly 
country  in  the  west  of  Nottinghamshire,  England, 


SHEBWOOD  irOBEST. 


769 


SHIBZUOXA. 


between  Nottingham  and  Worksop,  about  25  miles 
from  north  to  south  and  6  to  8  miles  from  east  to 
west.  It  was  formerly  a  royal  hunting  forest, 
and  the  traditional  scene  of  many  of  the  exploits 
of  Robin  Hood  and  his  followers.  It  is  now  al- 
most wholly  denuded  and  is  occupied  by  gentle- 
men's seats,  parks,  and  farms.  The  town  of 
Mansfield  and  a  number  of  villages  are  situated 
within  the  ancient  boimds.  Consult  White,  Not- 
tinghamshire  and  BKerwood  Forest  (Worksop, 
1876). 

SHE^HONE.  King  of  Egypt.    See  Shishak. 

SHE  STOOPS  TO  CONQUER.  A  comedy  by 
Oliver  Goldsmith,  among  the  three  or  four  plays 
of  the  period  which  still  hold  the  stage.  It  was 
first  performed  at  Co  vent  Qarden  in  1773,  with 
immediate  success. 

8HETa:iAND  (or  ZETLAND)  ISLANDS 
(anciently  Hialtland,  the  Latin  Ultima  Thule). 
A  group  of  about  100  Scottish  islands,  23  of 
which  are  inhabited,  lying  between  the  Atlantic 
and  the  North  Sea,  50  miles  northeast  of  Orkney, 
and  210  miles  west  of  Norway  (Map:  Scotland, 
F  1).  The  largest  is  Mainland,  which  embraces 
about  half  the  entire  area  and  population ;  others 
are  Unst,  Yell,  Fetlar,  Bressay,  Whalsay,  Papa 
Stour,  Barra.  and  Foula.  The  total  area  of  tne 
group  is  about  550  square  miles.  Population,  in 
1891,  28,711;  in  1901,  28,195.  Lerwick  (q.v.),  on 
Mainland^  is  the  chief  town.  The  surface  is  rug- 
ged and  wild ;  the  coasts  are  abrupt  and  indented 
with  deep  bays  or  voes.  The  rocks  are  mainly 
gneiss,  clay -slate,  sandstone,  and  granite.  The 
highest  hill  is  Ronas,  1500  feet.  The  climate  is 
moist  and  variable  and  snow  and  frost  are  of 
short  duration.  Fishing  for  cod,  ling,  and  herring 
is  the  chief  industry;  seals  and  bottle-nosed 
whales  are  often  caught.  Much  attention  is 
given  to 'the  rearing  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  ponies, 
the  little  Shetland  ponies  being  famous.  Almost 
all  the  small  tenants  practice  spade  cultivation. 
Oats  and  barley  are  the  only  grain  crops;  pota- 
toes and  turnips  are  grown.  The  manufactures 
are  chiefly  hosiery  and  shawls,  and  the  exports, 
besides  these,  are  cattle,  fish,  and  eggs ;  the  chief 
imports  are  oatmeal,  flour,  tea,  tobacco,  spirits, 
sugar,  cottons,  woolens,  timber  (chiefly  from 
Norway),  tar,  salt,  etc. 

Though  little  is  known  of  the  original  inhab- 
itants of  Shetland,  the  physiognomy,  character, 
and  language  point  to  a  Norse  or  Scandinavian 
origin.  In  Unst  cairns  have  been  found  over 
long  and  short  stone  coffins,  with  skeletons,  clay 
urns,  weapons,  and  stone  vessels.  Tumuli  are 
frequent  and  contain  remains  of  rude  buildings 
ana  stone  implements.  Circular  strongholds  of 
unhewn  stone,  called  burghs  or  'broughs,*  are 
very  numerous,  generally  on  a  cliflf  or  headland, 
but  also  on  artificial  islands  in  fresh-water  lochs. 
Mouse  Isle  has  the  most  perfect  trough'  known. 
Consult  Hibbert,  The  Shetland  Islands  (new  ed., 
Edinburgh,  1892)^ 

SHETLAND  PONY,  or  Sheltie.    See  Pont. 

SHEWBSEAD.  An  expression  used  in  the 
English  Bible  for  the  12  loaves  which,  according 
to  the  Pentateuchal  codes,  were  placed  on  a  table 
of  acacia  wood  in  the  Holy  of  Holies.  They  were 
made  of  fine  fiour,  unleavened,  and  sprinkled 
with  frankincense;  they  were  arranged  in  two 
rows  of  six  loaves  each,  and  the  bread  was 
changed  every  Sabbath;  when  the  chan^  was 
made,    frank&cense    was   burned    and   the    old 


bread  was  given  to  the  priests  to  be  eaten  in  the 
holy  place  (Ex,  xxv.  23-30;  Lev.  xxiv.  5-9; 
Josephus,  Ant,  iii.  10,  7).  The  term  *shew- 
bread'  was  used  by  Tyndale  in  his  translation  of 
the  New  Testament  (Heb.  ix.  5).  The  Hebrew 
name  means  'bread  of  the  presence.'  Other  ex- 
pressions are  used  as  'holy  bread'  (I.  Sam.  xxi. 
7),  'pile  bread'  (I.  Chron.  ix.  32).  The  refer- 
ence in  I.  Samuel,  where  the  shewbread  of  the 
sanctuary  at  Nob  in  the  days  of  David  is  referred 
to,  indicates  the  antiquity  of  the  rite.  Similar 
rites  are  found  among  various  nations  of  an- 
tiquity. There  is  a  Babylonian  phrase  which  is 
identical  with  the  Hebrew  (cf.  Zimmern,  Bex- 
trage  zwr  Kenntnis  der  hahylonischen  Religion, 
Leipzig,  1896-1900),  and  references  are  found 
in  Babylonian  literature  to  the  piling  up  of 
loaves  on  a  table  set  before  a  divinity,  the 
number  of  such  loaves  being  12,  24,  or  36.  The 
inclusion  of  the  rite  in  the  post-exilic  regu- 
lations of  the  Jewish  cult  is  an  instance  of 
survival,  though  naturally  an  interpretation 
was  given  in  accordance  with  more  advanced 
ideas.  Great  care  was  bestowed  upon  the  prep- 
aration of  the  shewbread.  According  to  the 
Talmud  the  flour  mjigt  be  sifted  11  times  and 
the  kneadinc  and  baking  were  intrusted  to  a 
special  priestly  family  in  whose  hands  the  priv- 
ileges generally  remained  for  several  generations. 
Consult  the  Hebrew  archseologies  of  Benzinger 
and  Nowack. 

STTTAHS,  she^&z.    See  Shiites. 

SHIBBOLETH  (Heb.,  ear  of  com,  stream). 
The  test-word  used  by  the  Gileadites  under  Jeph- 
thah  after  their  victory  over  the  Ephraimites, 
recorded  in  Judges  xii.  6.  It  appears  that  the 
latter  could  not  pronoimce  the  sh,  and,  by  saying 
dibboleth,  betrayed  themselves,  and  were  slaugh- 
tered mercilessly.  It  may  be  noticed  that  all 
those  Hebrew  names  in  the  Old  Testament  which 
begin  with  the  sh  have  now,  through  the  inability 
of  the  Septuagint  to  render  this  soimd  in  Greek, 
become  familiar  to  us,  through  the  versions  that 
flowed  from  it,  as  beginning  with  the  simple  s, 
e.g.,  Simon,  Samaria,  Solomon,  Saul,  etc.  The 
word  shibboleth  is  used  in  modem  languages  in 
the  sense  indicated,  viz.  a  test  of  speech  and 
manners  of  a  certain  party  or  class  of  society. 

SHICHI-TO,  she^che^ty  (Jap.,  Seven  Islands). 
A  group  of  small  islands  southeast  of  the  pen- 
insula of  Idzu,  Central  Hondo,  Japan  (maLp: 
Japan,  F  6).  The  most  important  member  of 
the  group  is  called  Vries  Island  by  foreigners 
and  Oshima  (large  island)  by  the  Japanese.  Its 
centre  is  an  active  volcano.  The  other  islands 
are  Rishima,  Nishima,  Shikineshima,  Kautsu- 
shima,  Miyakeshima,  and  Mikurashima.  The 
islands  were  used  as  convict  settlements  imtil 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

SHEDZirOKA,  shCzVoHcA.  The  capital  of  the 
prefecture  of  the  same  name  in  Japan,  near  the 
southern  coast  of  Hondo,  120  miles  by  rail  south- 
west of  Tokio  (Map:  Japan,  F  6).  It  is  a  well- 
built  industrial  town  with  manufactures  of 
lacquer  ware  and  basketwork.  In  the  vicinity  is 
produced  one  of  the  best  kinds  of  tea  found  in 
Japan.  The  Buddhist  temple  of  Rinzaiji,  a  short 
distance  from  the  city,  is  noted  principally  on 
account  of  its  association  with  the  Shogun 
Tveyasu  (1542-1616),  the  first  shogun  of  the 
Togugawa  dynasty,  who  resided  at  Shidzuoka  un- 


SHIBZUOXA. 


770 


SHIELDS. 


til  1590.  The  temple  of  Sengen  is  surrounded  by 
beautiful  grounds,  which  now  serve  as  a  public 
park,  and  is  especially  known  for  its  fine  speci- 
mens of  wood-carving.  The  town  is  also  associ- 
ated with  the  last  Shogun  of  Japan,  who  retired 
to  Shidzuoka  after  the  overthrow  of  the  shogun- 
ate  in  1868  and  resided  there  until  1897.  Popu- 
lation, in  1898,  42,172. 

SHTELD  (AS.  acild,  scyld,  Goth.  akildus>, 
OHG.  acilt,  Ger.  Schild,  shield;  possibly  connect- 
ed with  Lith.  skilil,  1  split) .  A  piece  of  defensive 
armor  borne  on  the  left  arm  or  in  the  hand,  to 
ward  off  the  strokes  of  the  sword  and  of  missiles. 
It  is  common  to  all  nations  and  all  ages  in  the 
Old  World.  The  large  shield  worn  by  the  Greek 
hoplites  was  circular  or  oval,  and  often  orna- 
mented with  devices.  The  shield  (Lat.  scutum) 
used  by  the  Roman  heavy-armed  infantry  was 
quadrangular  and  bent  to  encircle  the  body  in 
part.  'Die  shields  were  built  so  strongly  as  to 
afford  protection  against  heavy  missiles  from 
the  walls  of  a  besieged  city.  (See  Testudo.) 
The  Romans  also  had  a  lighter  form  of  shield 
known  as  the  clipeua.  Among  the  Germanic 
peoples  the  shield  was  the  warrior's  chief  in- 
signia of  honor,  and  to  be^ifted  on  the  shield  by 
the  warriors  of  the  tribe  was  to  be  made  leader 
in  war  or  king.  In  the  early  Middle  Ages  the 
shield  was  most  important  for  both  horsemen 
and  foot  soldiers.  Its  form  was  usually  round 
and  bent,  with  a  boss  of  metal  in  the  form  of  a 
hollow  button  or  spike  in  the  centre  of  the  convex 
surface.  Across  the  hollow  of  the  boss  was  placed 
a  handle  of  wood  covered  with  iron.  If  the  shield 
was  held  at  arm's  length  it  was  called  a  buckler; 
if  it  was  swung  over  the  arm  it  was  known  as 
a  target.  The  body  of  the  shield  was  made  of 
limewood,  though  leather  was  sometimes  used. 
The  shields  of  the  northern  peoples  were  fanci- 
fully decorated,  and  as  Christianity  spread  the 
cross  became  a  common  decoration.  The  heraldic 
device  appears  after  the  age  of  the  Bayeux 
Tapestry.  With  the  form  and  visa^  of  men 
totally  concealed  under  suits  of  armor,  the  de- 
vice on  the  shield  was  in  fact  the  only  means  of 
distinguishing  in  the  heat  of  battle  between  friend 
and  foe.  (See  Heraldbt.)  In  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury the  kite-shaped  shield  was  much  used,  and 
many  shields  of  this  form  are  found  on  the 
Bayeux  Tapestry.  By  the  middle  of  the 
twelfth  century  the  triangular  shield  was  much 
in  vogue.  It  was  customary  at  this  period  and 
later  to  make  the  shield  the  dead  knight's  bier. 
In  the  thirteenth  century  the  custom  was  intro- 
duced of  hanging  shields  in  churches.  Pear- 
shaped,  heart-shaped,  and  quadrangular  shields 
were  used  in  this  period,  and  the  shield  was 
much  smaller.  In  the  fourteenth  century  we 
have  mention  of  large  shields  carried  by  the  foot 
soldiers.  In  the  fifteenth  century  the  small  buck- 
ler was  used  by  the  foot  soldiers,  although  large 
wicker  shields  were  still  in  use.  Even  as  late  as 
the  seventeenth  century  the  target  was  used  ef- 
fectively by  the  soldiers  of  Maurice  of  Nassau. 
Consult:  Hewitt,  Ancient  Armour  (London, 
1860)  ;  (bourdon  de  Genouillac,  Orammaire  h4- 
raldique  (Paris,  1860).    See  Abmob. 

SHIELD,  William  (1748-1829).  An  English 
violinist,  bom  at  Swalwell,  Durham  (!Jounty.  He 
appeared  as  concert  and  theatre  conductor,  in 
Scarborough,  Durham,  and  Newcastle,  and  in 
1772  became  a  member  of  the  London  Italian 


Opera  orchestra  and  musical  director  at  the  Hay- 
market  Theatre.  From  1782  to  1791  he  wrote  a 
series  of  operas  for  Covent  Garden  Theatre.  In 
1791  he  resigned  his  post  and  traveled  thiougli 
France  and  Italy,  becoming  on  his  return  musi- 
cal director  at  Covent  Garden.  In  1817  he  sae- 
ceeded  Parsons  as  master  of  the  Royal  Music. 
His  first  comic  opera,  A  Flitch  of  Baoon,  was 
produced  at  the  Haymarket  in  1778.  He  wrote 
about  40  works  for  the  stage,  oonaisting  of 
operas,  pantomimes,  and  musioEil  farces;  besides 
violin  trios,  duets,  songs,  and  two  theatrical 
works:  An  Introduction  to  Harmony  (1794)  and 
Rudiments  of  Thorough  Bass,  He  is  noted  espe- 
cially as  a  song  composer  of  great  originality. 
He  died  in  London  and  was  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey. 

SHIELD  OF  HEBACLBS  (Gk.  *Ainr2f  'Hpo- 
kMwtfAspis  Herakleous),  A  Hesiodic  poem  of 
uncertain  date  and  authorship,  though  almost 
certainly  not  the  work  of  Heeiod.  It  describes, 
in  480  lines,  a  struggle  at  Pagase  between  Her- 
acles and  Cycnus,  the  son  of  Aves,  and  contains 
a  long  description  of  the  hero's  shield,  in  imi- 
tation of  the  similar  picture  of  the  shield  of 
Achilles  in  the  Iliad. 

SHIELDS,  South  and  Nobth.  Two  seaport 
towns  in  Durham  and  Northumberland,  England, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne,  on  opposite  banks  of 
the  river,  8  miles  east-northeast  of  Newcastle 
(q.v.)  (Map:  England,  E  1  and  £  2).  Steam 
ferries  connect  the  towns,  which  are  the  chief 
English  ports  for  the  building  of  iron  ships  of 
every  kind  and  for  all  supplemental  shipping 
industries.  The  towns  possess  large  alkali, 
bottle,  and  glass  works.  Coal  and  coIk  are  ex- 
ported, and  timber,  grain,  and  esparto  grass 
largely  imported.  Nobth  Shields  is  included  in 
the  borough  of  l^emouth  (a.v.).  It  has  two 
docks  covering  79  acres.  Population,  about  7000. 
South  Shields  is  a  municipal,  county,  and  Par- 
liamentary borough  with  a  progressive  adminis- 
tration. It  has  fifteen  docks,  including  the  Tyne 
dock  of  50  acres,  and  a  breakwater,  the  south 
pier,  a  mile  in  length.  There  are  a  large  public 
library,  a  marine  school,  and  a  park  of  45  acres. 
Founded  in  the  thirteenth  century  by  the  Convent 
of  Durham,  the  progress  of  the  town  was  checked 
by  Henry  III.,  who,  on  the  complaints  of  New- 
castle, ordered  that  no  'shoars'  or  quays  be  buQt, 
or  ships  loaded  or  unloaded.  It  was  incorporated 
in  1850.  Population,  in  1801,  8100;  in  1851,  29,- 
000;  in  1901,  97,300. 

SHIELDS,  Chables  Woodruff  (1825-1903). 
A  Presbyterian  clergyman  and  educator.  He 
was  bom  at  New  Albany,  Ind.,  graduated  at  the 
College  of  New  Jersey,  in  Princeton,  in  1844, 
and  at  the  Princeton  Theoloffical  Seminary  in 
1847.  He  preached  first  at  Hempstead,  L.  I., 
then  at  the  Second  d^hurch,  Philadelphia,  and  in 
1866  went  to  Princeton  to  become  the  first  in- 
cumbent of  a  chair  of  harmony  of  science  and  re- 
vealed religion  in  America.  Philosophia  Ultima 
(1861;  4th  ed.  1898)  led  to  the  establishment 
of  his  professorship.  He  published  also  The  Book 
of  Common  Prayer  as  Amended  by  the  Preshy- 
terian  Divines  of  1661  (1864;  2d  ed.  1883),  sup- 
plying a  form  for  the  use  of  ministers  or  congre- 
gations who  desire  a  liturgical  service.  In  his 
advocacy  of  the  unification  of  thought  and  of 
religious     observance     he     wrote:     The    Pmd 


SHQEIiDS. 


771 


8HIITB& 


Philosophf^,  or  ByBiem  of  Perfectible  Knowledge 
Issuing  from  the  Harmony  of  Science  and  Reli- 
gion ( 1877 ;  3d  ed.,  entitled  Fhilosophia  Ultima; 
or  The  Science  of  the  Sciences,  1888)  ;  The  Order 
of  the  Sciences  (1882) ;  The  Historic  Episcopate 
(1894) ;  and  The  United  Church  of  the  United 
States  (1895).  He  also  published  The  Reformer 
of  Geneva,  An  Historical  Drama  (1898),  and 
The  Scientifio  Evidences  of  Revealed  Religion 
{ 1900,  being  the  Paddock  lectures  for  that  year) . 

BTTTETi'DS,  James  (1810-79).  An  American 
soldier  and  political  leader,  bom  at  Dungannon, 
County  Tyrone,  Ireland.  He  emigrated  to  the 
United  States  in  1826,  and  in  1832  began  the 
practice  of  the  law  at  Kaskaskia,  111.  He  served 
in  the  Mexican  War  as  a  brigadier-general,  and 
was  brevetted  major-general  for  gallantry  at 
Cerro  Gordo.  On  his  return  to  the  United  States 
he  was  appointed  Governor  of  Oregon  Territory 
(1848),  but  resigned  the  next  year  to  accept  an 
election  from  the  Democrats  as  United  States 
Senator  from  Illinois.  In  1855,  however,  he  re- 
moved to  Minnesota,  and  three  years  later  was 
elected  Senator  from  that  State,  but  in  1859  he 
went  to  California.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War  he  was  commissioned  a  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers,  and  in  March,  1862,  succeeded  to 
the  command  of  General  Lander's  division.  He 
was  in  command  at  the  successful  engagement  at 
Winchester  (March  23d),  where  he  was  severely 
wounded,  and  at  Port  Republic  ( Jime  9th) ,  where 
he  was  defeated  by  'Stonewall'  Jackson.  In 
March,  1863,  he  resigned  from  the  army  and 
soon  afterwards  settl^  at  CarroUton,  Mo.  He 
was  appointed  United  States  Senator  from  Mis- 
souri in  1879  to  fill  an  unexpired  term. 

SHIELDTATT*.  One  of  an  Oriental  family 
(Uropeltidie)  of  small  burrowing  snakes,  some- 
times called  'earth-snakes,'  in  which  the  tail  is 
obliquely  truncated  and  covered  by  an  oval  homy 
plate. 

SHITTING  USE.  A  use  which  arises  by 
virtue  of  an  express  limitation  in  a  deed,  or 
which  may  be  created  by  a  person  named  therein 
upon  certain  conditions,  and  which  is  in  deroga- 
tion of  some  other  estate.  For  example,  if  land 
is  conveyed  in  fee  to  the  use  of  A  and  his  heirs 
until  B  marries  C,  then  to  the  use  of  B  and  his 
heirs,  a  shifting  use  is  thereby  created,  as  it  is 
in  derogation  of  A's  estate.  The  doctrine  of 
shifting  uses  affords  a  means  of  limiting  a  'fee 
upon  a  fee,'  which  was  not  possible  under  the 
early  common  law.  Shifting  uses  are  not  recog- 
nized as  such  to-day,  but  the  principles  governing 
them  have  been  adopted  into  the  modem  law  of 
trusts.  In  a  few  States  the  doctrine  of  uses  has 
been  expressly  abolished  by  statute.  Consult 
Gilbert^  Law  of  Uses  and  Trusts  (3d  ed.,  Lon- 
don, 1811).    See  Use. 

SHUTES,  sheets  (from  Ar.  shM'dh,  party, 
sect,  from  shd^a,  to  accompany,  follow,  spread 
abroad).  The  sect  in  Islam  which  insists  upon 
the  sole  legitimacy  of  Ali  and  his  descendants  as 
the  successors  of  Mohammed,  and  so  are  opposed 
to  the  Sunnites  (q.v.).  The  division  has  its  root 
in  the  different  opinions  and  struggles  concerning 
the  successor  of  the  Prophet.  ( See  Mohammedan 
Sects.)  All  seems  to  have  been  capable  of  in- 
▼okfaig  an  extraordinary  enthusiasm  in  his  fol- 
lowers, such  as  even  the  Prophet  never  gained, 
and  the  personal  element  has  since  remained  one 


of  the  sources  of  Shiite  strength.  Further,  the 
tragedies  of  his  house  have  given  a  sentimental 
motif  to  his  partv,  which  is  richer  and  more  at* 
tractive  than  anything  found  in  the  prosaic  ortho- 
doxy of  Islam.  The  memory  of  the  tragedy  is 
still  celebrated  from  year  to  year  by  the  Shiite 
world  in  a  kind  of  passion  play  on  the  tenth  day 
of  Muharram,  the  anniversary  of  Kerbela.  (See 
Hasak  and  Hosein.)  The  conservatives  ac- 
knowledged All's  caliphate  and  revered  him  as  a 
saint  and  martyr,  but  they  posse«sed  no  such 
legitimist  principles  as  his  adnerents.  A  bitter 
struggle  followed  his  selection  as  Caliph.  (See 
Ommiads;  Moawita.)  The  resulting  history  is  a 
remarkably  complicated  one,  partly  by  reason  of 
the  interfusion  of  the  Shiites  throughout  ortho- 
dox Islam,  and  partly  because  the  pai^  itself  soon 
split  upon  all  kinds  of  political  purposes,  per- 
sonal ambitions,  and  theological  tenets.  We  find 
them  in  part  founding  new  States,  in  part  es- 
tablishing mystical  fraternities  and  schools  of 
liberal  thought,  in  part  cherishing,  more  or 
less  patiently,  millennial  hopes. 

As  has  been  said,  the  root  of  the  sect  lay  in  the 
personality  of  Ali.  Politically,  this  involved  the 
sole  right  of  succession  as  inherent  in  his  de- 
scendants. Here,  however,  various  views  de- 
veloped according  to  the  claims  of  various  lines; 
some  held  that  descent  must  pass  through  Fa- 
tima,  the  daughter  of  Mohammed  and  wife  of 
Ali,  others  that  any  of  All's  descendants  were 
legitimate.  Further,  about  All's  person  arose  a 
theology  which  was  incongruous  to  original  Is- 
lam, and  which  gave  room  for  all  forms  of  the- 
osophlc  speculation.  He  came  to  be  named  in 
the  creed  along  with  God  and  Mohammed  as 
the  representative  of  God.'  Some,  even  in  his 
lifetime,  held  him  to  be  an  incarnation  of  God. 
Others,  starting  from  his  violent  death,  taught 
that  he  was  reserved  for  a  future  reappearance, 
as  the  Hidden  Imam,  or  Mahdi  (q.v.),  who 
should  establish  the  millennium ;  this  notion  was 
contributed  to  by  the  large  numbers  of  Jewish 
and  Christian  converts  that  came  into  Islam. 
Yet  another  development  of  thought  held  that 
Ali  was  reincarnated  in  the  Imams,  his  lefliti- 
mate  descendants ;  this  was  the  product  of  Ori- 
ental theosophy  coming  in  through  Persia  and 
India.  In  general,  the  doctrine  was  that  God 
never  left  Himself  without  an  authoritative  rep- 
resentative or  Imam  in  the  world,  and  that  it 
was  the  business  of  the  faithful  to  find  him.  The 
strength,  therefore,  of  the  Shiites  lay  in  the  doc- 
trine of  legitimism,  and  in  the  opportunity  it 
Save  to  those  temperaments  and  races  which 
esired  a  richer  theology  than  that  of  simple 
Moslem  unitarianism.  With  the  passing  of  Is- 
lam out  of  Arabian  hands,  the  development  of 
history  made  the  whole  doctrine  of  a  legitimacy 
of  blood  or  race  as  a  sine  qua  non  of  the  ruler 
a  pure  fiction,  and  in  its  opportunism  lay  the 
strength  of  Sunnite  orthodoxy,  which  was 
thus  able  to  assimilate  the  barbarian  races 
which  conquered  original  Islam.  As  for  the  pe- 
culiar Shiite  theologies,  they  antagonized  in  gen- 
eral the  spirit  and  letter  of  the  Koran,  to  which 
as  a  religion  of  a  book  Islam  is  necessarily 
bound.  Thus  we  find  Shiism  perpetuating  itself 
secretly  and  coming  to  the  surface  sporadically 
or  on  the  periphery  of  Islam,  but  never  able  to 
gain  any  but  a  temporary  control  over  the  great 
Moslem  body.    Its  history,  therefore,  is  a  stoiy 


8HIITE& 


772 


SHIKOXXr. 


of  opposition  to  the  principles  of  Islam,  existing 
in  underground  organizations,  taking  advantage 
of  political  and  theological  opportunities  and  of 
free-thinking  rulers,  now  and  again  creating  in- 
dependent States  through  the  personal  ability  of 
some  Alide  scion.  An  early  instance  was  the 
establishment  of  the  Idriside  dynasty  in  North 
Africa  ( about  800 ) ,  through  a  great-grandson  of 
Ali.  From  this  connection  the  present  Sherifs 
of  Morocco,  whose  dynasty  has  existed  since  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  claim  to  possess 
the  legitimate  caliphate.  Another  branch  of 
the  family,  that  of  the  Zaydites,  arose  in  North- 
em  Persia  and  in  Yemen,  in  Southern  Arabia; 
in  the  latter  land  the  sect  still  maintains  itself. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Hidden  Imam  or  the 
Mahdi  soon  produced  innumerable  divisions  in 
the  sect.  Any  Alide  might  come  to  be  regarded 
as  the  Promised  One,  and  so  gain  a  following. 
The  most  notable  split  of  this  kind  occurred  in 
765,  when  a  dispute  arose  as  between  the  two 
sons  of  the  sixth  Imam,  Jafar  al-Sadik.  Through 
one  of  these,  the  line  was  traced  down  to  the 
twelfth  in  descent,  Mohammed  ibn  al -Hasan,  who 
was  supposed  to  have  been  mysteriously  trans- 
lated to  abide  his  return.  His  followers  are 
called  the  Ithnaashariya,  i.e.  Twelvers,  and  have 
come  to  be  the  prevailing  Shiite  sect,  and  the 
only  one  now  possessing  an  important  political 
domain,  namely,  Persia,  which  came  into  their 
hands  by  conquest  in  1502.  But  Jafar's  other 
son,  Ismail,  w'ho  was  the  seventh  in  succession, 
was  accepted  by  another  faction,  the  Ismaelites 
or  Sabaiyites,  i.e.  Seveners.  His  cause  was  taken 
up  by  a  remarkable  machinator,  one  Abdallah 
ibn  Maimun  (about  850),  who  founded  the 
secret  society  which  developed  into  the  Karma- 
thians. 

A  more  abiding  political  result  was  produced 
in  Africa.  Said,  great-grandson  of  al -Maimun, 
gave  himself  out  in  the  western  regions  of  North - 
em  Africa  as  the  Mahdi,  and  gained  a  political 
following  which  enabled  him  and  his  line,  the 
Fatimite  dynasty,  to  conquer  Egypt  and  Syria, 
which  they  ruled  for  over  two  centuries.  Dur- 
ing the  same  period  (032-1055)  the  Shiite  Buwey- 
hides  were  political  masters  of  the  Sunnite  cali- 
phate at  Bagdad,  so  that  Shiinm  appeared  tri- 
umphant in  the  heart  of  Islam.  But  the  mass 
of  the  people  remained  orthodox,  and  the  Sara- 
cens finally  turned  the  scale  in  their  favor.  From 
the  Shiite  Fatimite  movement  in  Egypt  sprang 
two  developments,  which  were  for  many  cen- 
turies disturbing  factors  in  Southwestern  Asia, 
namely,  the  Druses  and  the  Assassins  (qq.v.). 
Also  the  Syrian  Nosairies  (see  Ansaries) 
adopted  the  Shiite  doctrines,  and  are  still  a  con- 
siderable sect. 

Modem  history  finds  the  Shiites,  outside  of 
scattered  sects,  in  political  importance  in  the 
following  lands:  There  is  the  Moorish  Alide  dy- 
nasty, although  the  land  is  practically  Sunnite. 
In  Southern  Arabia  Yemen  is  Shiite,  and  there 
are  othpr  traces  of  the  soot  through  the  penin- 
sula. A  large  number  of  .the  Indian  Moslems  are 
of  the  same  persuasion.  But  Persia  is  now  the 
only  Shiite  nation  of  importance.  Here,  how- 
ever, Shiisni  has  not  been  able  to  achieve  its  po- 
litical idoals.  The  Safawide  dynasty,  to  which 
the  Shahs  belong,  and  which  conquered  Persia 
in    1502,    claims    descent    from    AH,    but    the 


Church  disowns  them,  and  there  has  been  con- 
tinuous strife  between  the  political  and  eccle- 
siastical authorities.  In  any  case  the  Shiite  the- 
ology could  recognize  their  power  as  but  tem- 
porary until  the  appearance  of  the  Hidden  • 
Imam.  The  ecclesiastical  head  is  the  Imam-Ju- 
maa,  at  Ispahan,  who  is  regarded  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  Mahdi.  An  interesting  attempt 
at  reform  was  made  by  Ali  Mohammed,  'al-Bab' 
(1837),  but,  becoming  a  political  agitation,  it 
was  cruelly  repressed  by  the  Government.  See 
Babisic. 

The  following  points  of  contrast  and  agreement 
between  the  two  great  sects  of  Islam  may  be 
noted.  The  mysticism  and  extravsj^ant  theology 
of  Shiism  and  the  volatile  Persian  character 
have  sadly  corrupted  the  morality  of  the  Shiite 
Moslems,  and  a  divorce  between  religion  and 
ethics  exists  among  them  that  does  not  prevail 
in  orthodox  Islam.  The  dervish  type  of  holiness 
prevails  to  excess,  while  superstition,  especially 
in  the  matter  of  worship  of  the  saints,  runs  riot 
The  people  have  lost  all  respect  for  the  minis- 
ters of  religion^  In  law  the  two  bodies  agree 
except  in  details.  There  exists,  however,  one 
important  difference  in  principle  between  Shiite 
and  Sunnite  law.  The  latter  has  developed  its 
four  schools  of  law,  and  the  lawyers  in  each 
school  must  keep  strictly  to  the  decisions  of  their 
accepted  masters;  they  have  no  power  of  creat- 
ing new  law.  The  Shiites  have  the  theory  of  a 
living  authority  in  law,  and  their  Mujtahids 
have  the  right  to  make  new  decisions  without 
appeal  to  traditional  precedent.  The  tradition- 
al mutual  hatred  of  Shiites  and  Sunnites  is  still 
maintained,  but  the  intensity  of  this  sentiment 
is  said  to  lie  now  with  the  Sunnites.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  two  parties  acknowledge  one  an- 
other as  Moslems,  and  stand  together  as  against 
the  Unbelievers. 

For  literature,  besides  the  works  mentioned 
in  the  articles  Mahdi,  MoHAMMEDAiasM,  Mo- 
hammedan Sects,  consult:  Goldziher,  Beihnpf 
zur  Litteraturgeachichie  der  Shi'a  (Vienna, 
1874) ;  Baillie,  Imameea  Code,  vol  ii.  (London, 
1860). 

BH  111  A  RPUB,  shlk'ar-p^r^.  A  town  in 
Sindh,  British  India,  23  miles  northwest  of  Suk- 
kur  (Map  India,  A3).  It  has  a  fine  covered 
bazaar,  and  has  long  been  noted  for  its  com- 
mercial interests,  its  situation  giving  it  sole  con- 
trol of  the  trade  carried  on  through  the  Bolan 
Pass.  The  section  is  chiefly  engaged  in  fanning 
and  fruit-growing,  and  there  are  manufactures 
of  carpets,  leather,  pottery,  and  coarse  cotton 
cloth.     Population,  in  1901,  49,491. 

SHIKOKU,  sh§ac6aco<5'  (Jap.,  Four  Prov- 
inces). The  third  in  importance  of  the  principal 
islands  of  the  Japanese  Empire  (Map:  Japan, 
C  7).  It  is  separated  from  Hondo  and  Kiushiu 
by  the  Inland  Sea.  Area,  6842  square  miles.  Its 
coast  line  is  very  irregular,  with  many  long 
points  jutting  out  into  the  Pacific  and  the  In- 
land Sea.  It  has  no  really  good  harbor,  but  a 
number  of  small  ones  afford  safe  refuge  for 
junks  and  small  steamers.  Its  surface  is  moun- 
tainous, so  that  the  greater  part  is  not  culti- 
vated. There  are  no  long  rivers,  and  communica- 
tion for  the  most  part  is  by  sea.  The  valleys 
are  fertile,  bearing  the  usual  grains.  On  the 
slopes  of  the  hills  the  paper  mulberiy  and  the 


SHIXOKU. 


778 


SHLLOH. 


vegetable  wax  tree  are  cultivated.  Camphor 
and  tea  are  exported.  The  climate  is  warm  in 
the  south,  BO  that  bananas,  grapefruit,  and  ex- 
ceptionally fine  oranges  are  grown,  also  a  little 
sugar  cane.  The  island  is  divided  administra- 
tively into  four  prefectures :  Tokushima,  ELagawa, 
Ehime,  and  Kochi.  Population,  in  1898, 
3,013,817. 

SHU/DO^  AND  EAST  THICKSET.  A 
coal-mining  town  in  Durham,  England,  3  miles 
southeast  of  Bishop  Auckland.  Population,  in 
1901,  11,760. 

SHTTiKA,  sh^l'kii.  A  branch  of  the  Amur 
River    (q.v.). 

STTTT/TiABEB,  Benjamin  Penhallow  ( 1814- 
90).  An  American  humorist,  born  at  Ports- 
mouth, N.  H.  He  became  a  printer  at  Dover,  N. 
H.,  in  1830.  From  1840  to  1847  he  was  in  the 
printing  office  of  the  Boston  Post,  and  after  that 
time  was  connected  with  the  same  paper  editorial- 
ly. At  this  period  he  wrote  amusing  sketches 
and  squibs  under  the  pen  name  of  'Mrs.  Parting- 
ton,* and  gained  a  wide  reputation  as  a  hmnor- 
ist.  During  1850-52  he  printed  and  edited  the 
Pathfinder y  and  was  associated  with  Charles  G. 
Halpine  (Private  Miles  O'Reilly)  on  the  Car- 
pet-Bag,  but  was  with  the  Post  again  in  1853-56. 
From  1856  he  was  for  ten  years  one  of  the  edi- 
tors of  the  Boston  Saturday  Evening  Gazette;  he 
then  retired  to  Chelsea  and  devoted  himself  to 
private  literary  work.  Among  his  successful 
books  may  be  named:  Rhymes  with  Reason  and 
Without  (1853)  ;  Poems  (1864)  ;  Life  and  Say- 
ings of  Mrs.  Partington  (1864) ;  Knitting-Work 
(1869);  Partingtonian  Patchwork  (1873);  and 
Ike  and  His  Friend  (1879). 

SHU/LETO,  Richard  (1809-76).  An  Eng- 
lish Hellenist.  He  was  bom  at  Ulleshelf,  York- 
shire. He  studied,  at  Repton  and  Shrewsbury 
Schools,  and  at  Trinity  CJoUege,  Cambridge, 
where  almost  all  of  his  life  was  spent  as  a  coach. 
In  1867  he  was  elected  fellow  of  Peterhouse. 
Shilleto's  editions  of  Demosthenes,  De  Falsa 
Legatione  (1844;  4th  ed.  1874),  and  of  the  first 
book  of  Thucydides  ( 1872) ,  as  well  as  his  polemic 
Thucydides  or  Qiote  (1851),  showed  him  a  critic 
of  rare  ability. 

SHU/LXTE.  A  negro  people  on  the  White 
Nile,  9**  to  12**  N.,  numbering  about  a  million,  be- 
lieved to  be  of  the  same  stock  as  the  Fur  people 
of  Sennar.  They  are  tall,  well  formed,  and  near- 
ly jet  black.  Once  a  powerful  nation,  they  have 
been  reduced  by  war  and  slavery  to  an  abject 
condition. 

SHI'LOH  (Heb.  Shiloh),  A  city  of  Ephraim, 
12  miles  south  of  Shechem,  where  Joshua  di- 
vided that  part  of  the  land  of  Canaan  west  of 
the  Jordan  (Josh,  xviii.  10).  Its  historical  im- 
portance is  due  chiefly  to  its  having  been  a 
sacred  place  where  a  festival  was  held  annually 
in  honor  of  Yahweh  (Judg.  xxi.  19-21)  and  to 
vrhich  annual  pilgrimages  were  made  by  the  He- 
brews till  the  days  of  Samuel  (cf.  Sam.  i.  3). 
The  sanctuary  at  the  place  was  a  permanent 
structure  the  destruction  of  which,  probably  by 
the  Philistines,  made  so  deep  an  impression  that 
it  is  referred  to  in  the  later  literature  (Psa. 
Ixxviii.  60;  Jer.  vii.  12).  Jeremiah  distinctly 
speaks  of  it  as  having  been  once  the  dwelling 
place  of  Yahweh,  and  this  historical  significance 


of  the  place  is  illustrated  in  the  narrative  which 
makes  Shiloh  the  depository  of  the  ark  of  the 
Covenant,  and  the  abode  of  the  tabernacle  from 
the  time  of  the  conquest  until  the  capture  of  the 
ark  by  the  Philistines  (I.  Sam.  i.-iv.  11).  The 
ancient  name  is  preserved  in  the  modem  village 
of  Seilun,  which  shows  traces  of  various  ancient 
buildings.  Consult  Gu^rin,  Samarie  (Paris, 
1869). 

SHUiOH,  Battle  of,  frequently  called  the 
Battle  of  Pittsbubg  Landing.  A  battle  of  the 
Civil  War  fought  at  Pittsburg  Landing,  in  Ten- 
nessee, on  the  west  bank  of  the  Tennessee  Riverj 
about  20  miles  north  of  Corinth,  Miss.,  on  April 
6  and  7,  1862,  between  the  Federal  Army  of  the 
Tennessee,  reinforced  by  the  Federal  Army  of 
the  Ohio,  numbering  together  about  62,500  men, 
imder  General  Grant,  and  the  Confederate  Army 
of  the  Mississippi,  numbering  about  40,500  men, 
under  Generals  A.  S.  Johnston  and  Beauregard. 
It  takes  its  name  from  Shiloh  Church,  near  Pitts- 
burg Landing.  On  March  17,  1862,  General 
Grant  took  command  of  the  Federal  forces  sta- 
tioned at  Pittsburg  Landing,  and  by  April  1st  he 
had  under  his  command  an  army  of  about  45,000 
men.  On  March  15th  General  Buell,  commanding 
the  Army  of  the  Ohio,  began  his  march  from 
Nashville  for  the  purpose  of  effecting  a  junction 
with  Grant,  a  combined  offensive  movement  being 
planned  for  the  two  armies.  General  Johnston, 
commanding  a  large  Confederate  force  at  Corinth, 
determined  to  strike  Grant  before  Buell  could  ar- 


rive, and  on  April  3d  issued  orders  for  a  general 
advance.  Owing,  however,  to  rain  storms  and 
the  wretched  condition  of  the  roads,  the  Confed- 
erate army  was  not  ready  for  action  at  Pittsburg 
Landing  until  the  afternoon  of  April  5th,  and  the 
attack  was  not  delivered  until  early  on  the  fol- 
lowing morning.  Meanwhile  the  Federal  officers 
seem  not  to  have  anticipated  an  attack  in  force, 
and  consequently  to  have  made  no  provision  for 
meeting  such  an  attack,  and  do  not  seem  even 


8HIL0H. 


to  have  maintained  cavalry  scouts  between  Pitts- 
burg Landing  and  Corinth.  On  the  night  of 
April  5th  General  Grant  went  as  usual  to  his  head- 
quarters at  Savannah,  about  nine  miles  down 
tne  river,  on  the  east  side,  where  he  expected  to 
meet  General  Buell  on  the  following  morning. 
The  positions  of  the  two  armies  on  the  morning 
of  April  6th  are  shown  on  the  accompanying  map. 
Of  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee  the  only  division  at 
that  time  not  on  the  field  was  General  Lewis 
Wallace's  division,  which  was  stationed  at 
Crump's  Landing,  five  miles  below  Pittsburg 
Landing  and  on  the  same  side  of  the  river. 

At  about  7  A.M.  on  Sunday,  April  6th,  the  en- 
gagement bqgan  with  an  attack  on  the  Federal 
right  under  Sherman.  Gradually  the  whole  Fed- 
eral line  was  forced  back,  taking  successive  posi- 
tions, withstanding  the  Confederates  for  a  time 
and  then  withdrawing — ^the  various  parts  of  the 
army  acting  more  or  less  independently  of  one 
another — ^until  the  Confederates  had  secured  pos- 
session of  the  field  and  the  Federals  had  formed 
a  new  line  extending  diagonally  from  Pittsburg 
Landing  to  Snake  River.  Perhaps  the  most  stub- 
bom  fighting  of  the  day  occurred  at  what  the 
Cooifederates  called  the  'Hornet's  Nest' — a  posi- 
tion assumed  by  W.  H.  L.  Wallace,  Hurlbut,  and 
JPrentiss  about  10  a.m.  and  held  by  them  against 
repeated  assaults  for  five  or  six  hours.  It  was 
here  that  about  2:30  p.m.  General  Johnston  on 
the  Confederate  side  was  mortally  wounded,  Gen- 
eral Beauregard  then  assuming  command.  About 
4  o'clock  Hurlbut,  attacked  in  front  and  flank, 
was  forced  to  withdraw,  and  an  hour  later  the 
divisions  of  Wallace  and  Prentiss  were  attacked 
in  front  and  on  both  flanks.  General  Prentiss 
with  about  2200  men  was  flnally  forced  to  sur- 
render, and  though  Gen.  W.  H.  L.  Wallace's  di- 
vision managed  to  withdraw  without  being  sur- 
rounded. General  Wallace  himself  was  killed. 
General  Grant  arrived  on  the  battlefield  from 
Savannah  at  about  8  a.m.,  but  apparently  exer- 
cised little  control  over  the  movements  of  the 
Federal  troops  during  the  engagement  of  the 
6th.  Late  in  the  afternoon  the  Federal  army  was 
reinforced  on  its  left  by  a  division  of  General 
Buell's  army  under  General  Nelson,  which  took 
part  in  the  last  fighting  of  the  day.  Before  the 
battle  was  renewed  on  the  7th  the  Federal  right 
had  been  reinforced  by  General  Lewis  Wallace, 
with  his  division  from  Crump's  Landing,  and  its 
left  by  a  large  part  of  General  Buell's  army.  The 
Federals  attacked  with  great  vigor  early  on  the 
7th,  and  by  4  p.m.  had  driven  the  Confederates 
back  beyond  Shiloh  Church,  in  the  neighborhood 
of  which  Sherman  had  been  originally  stationed. 
No  pursuit  of  the  Confederates  was  made,  and 
Beauregard  withdrew  to  Corinth  (q.v.),  whither 
soon  afterwards  he  was  followed  by  Halleck,  who 
had  assumed  command  in  person  of  the  Federal 
army.  In  the  battle  of  Shiloh  the  Federal  loss  in 
killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners  was  about  13,000 ; 
that  of  the  Confederates  about  10,700.  Consult: 
Official  Records  (vol.  x.,  parts  i  and  ii.)  ;  Johnson 
and  Buel  (ed.),  Bat  ilea  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil 
War,  vol.  i.  (New  York,  1887)  ;  Ropes,  Story  of 
the  Civil  War,  vol.  ii.  (ib.,  1898)  ;  Nicolay  and 
Hay,  Ahraham  Lincoln:  A  History  (ib.,  1890)  ; 
Force,  From  Fort  Henry  to  Corinth  (ib.,  1881) ; 
Grant,  Personal  Memoirs  (last  ed.,  1896)  ;  and 
Swinton,  Twelve  Decisive  Battles  of  the  War  (ib., 
1867). 


774  sHnroxnro. 

SHIXABABA,  she^m&bil^rlL.  A  eity  of 
Japan,  situated  on  a  small  peninsula  in  the  west 
of  Kiushiu,  opposite  Kumamoto  (Map:  Japan, 
B  7 ) .  It  is  famous  on  account  of  tiie  rebellion  of 
the  peasants  m  1637-38.  Excited  by  mtsgov- 
emment,  they  revolted,  defeating  the  troops  of 
their  lords  and  seizing  the  ruined  castle  at  Shi- 
mabara,  which  they  fortified.  The  Shogim  sent 
an  army  to  put  aown  the  revolt.  l£anwhile 
companies  of  Christians,  who  had  been  ptfse- 
cutcMl  for  20  years  bv  the  Government  of  the 
Shogun,  joined  the  rebels.  The  siege  lasted  for 
102  dajTs,  the  castle  yielding  on  April  12,  I63S. 
AH  within  it  were  massacred.  The  assailants, 
however,  suffered  at  least  an  equal  loss.  The 
Dutch  in  Nagasaki  sent  their  guns  and  ships  to 
be  used  against  the  insurgents.  PopnlatioD, 
about  20,000. 

BHncODA,  sh^m(/dA.  A  seaport  of  Japan, 
situated  at  the  extremity  of  the  Idzu  Peninsula, 
in  Central  Hondo,  over  60  miles  south  of  Yoko- 
hama (Map:  Japan,  F  6).  Shimoda  was  the 
first  Japanese  port  opened  to  American  trade. 
It  was  visited  by  Commodore  Perry  in  1854  and 
became  in  1867  the  residence  of  the  first  Ameri- 
can Minister  to  Japan.  The  present  population 
is  over  9000.     

SHIKOirOSEXr,  8h9-m(/n(V«&%  or  more 
correctly,  AKAJfAGASBKI  ft^k&^mt^g&-s«k^, 
or  in  Sinico-Japanese  BAXAH.  A  fortified 
maritime  town  of  Japan,  in  the  old  Province  of 
Choshiu,  and  Prefecture  of  Yamaguchi;  situated 
at  the  southwestern  extremity  of  the  main  island, 
about  four  miles  from  the  western  entrance  to 
the  strait  leading  into  the  Inland  Sea,  and  sepa- 
rating Hondo  from  Kiushiu ;  latitude  33**  56'  N., 
longitude  ISO*"  56'  £.  (Map:  Japan,  B  6).  It 
lies  at  the  foot  of  a  range  of  wooded  hills  and 
stretches  for  about  two  miles  along  the  shore;  is 
the  southern  terminus  of  the  railway  system  of 
Hondo,  and  stands  directly  opposite  the  town 
of  Moji,  which  has  sprung  up  in  connection  with 
the  development  of  the  railway  system  of  Kiu- 
shiu. The  two  form  a  single  consular  district 
Population,  in  1898,  42,786. 

Here  occurred  what  is  known  as  the  'Shimo- 
noseki  affair/  in  which  in  1864  by  a  combined 
naval  force  of  17  warships— United  States,  Brit- 
ish, Dutch,  and  French — ^the  Choshiu  clan  was 
chastised  for  having  fired  in  1863  without  provo- 
cation on  foreign  vessels  flying  Uie  United  States, 
French,  and  Dutch  flags,  and  an  indemnity  of 
$3,000,000  was  exacted.  The  last  installmeiit  of 
this  sum  was  paid  in  1874.  At  a  later  date, 
however,  the  United  States  Government  refunded 
its  share,  and  the  money  was  used  by  the  Japan- 
ese for  educational  purposes.  Here  in  April, 
1895,  was  concluded  by  Li  Hung-Cbang,  aetug 
for  China,  and  Marquis  Ito,  for  Japan,  the  treaty 
of  peaoe»  which  ended  tiie  Japanese-ChineBe- 
Korean  War. 

SHOrBS.  A  name  applied  to  many  small 
fishes  of  a  silvery  lustre  belonging  mainly  to 
the  minnows.  They  are  found  in  the  streams  of 
North  America.  A  few  species  have  reoeired 
popular  names,  as  a  dace,  the  redfiba  {Uotrftfii 
eomutus),  and  the  golden  shiner  or  'bream' 
{Ahramis  ehryscle%neas) ,  For  the  blnnt-nowd 
shiner  see  Moonfibh.  See  Plate  of  Dagi  aivd 
Minnows. 


SHIKO^KIHCK,  or  more  properly,  SHSVO- 
nrO  (Map:   China,  F  3).  The  wealthiest,  and 


KINO 


8HIKOXXHG. 


776 


SHIK-SHtr. 


the  most  important,  thdiugh  the  smalleet  of  the 
three  provinces  which  compose  Manchuria  (q.v.). 
Area,  about  60^000  square  miles.  It  is  roughly 
triangular  in  shape,  the  apex  pointing  southward 
and  endins  in  the  peninsula  of  Lao-t'ieh  Shan 
and  Port  Arthur  (q.v.).  The  northeastern  part 
of  the  province  is  occupied  by  the  Shan-a-lin 
mountain  system,  whose  extensions  form  the 
Ts'ien  Shan  ranges,  a  long  spur  of  which  ex- 
tends southwest  through  the  peninsula.  West 
of  tiiese  mountains  the  country  is  level;  south 
of  them  are  alluvial  tracts  of  greater  or  less 
extent  interspersed  with  hilly  ranges  of  moderate 
height  The  western  portion  is  drained  by 
the  Liao,  and  the  eastern  by  the  Ta-yang,  which 
enters  the  Yellow  Sea  at  Ta-ku-shan  (latitude 
39*  65'  N.,  longitude  123*'  52'  K),  and  partly  by 
the  Ya-lu-ldang. 

The  soil  is  fertile,  producing  abundant  crops 
of  wheat,  barley,  millet,  m&ize,  pulse,  potatoes, 
cotton,  hemp,  indigo,  tobacco,  opium,  sesamum 
and  other  oil-produdng  plants,  etc.  Gattle-rais- 
inff  is  an  extensive  industry,  and  much  wild 
Bi&  is  produced.  Gold  is  foimd,  coal  and  iron 
occur  in  many  places  and  are  worked,  and  there 
are  large  areas  of  valuable  peat.  Two  rail- 
ways— Uke  Chinese  from  Peking  via  Shan-hai- 
kwan  and  the  Russian  from  Port  Arthur  north- 
ward to  Harbin — traverse  the  province,  but  com- 
munication is  chiefly  by  roads.  The  chief  ports 
are  Ying-tse  (commonly  spoken  of  in  connection 
with  Niu-chwang),  Port  Arthur  (q.v.),  Ta-lien- 
wan  (q.v.),  Pi-tee-we  (q.v.),  and  Ta-ku-shan,  all 
dominated  by  Russia,  according  to  the  treaty 
a(;Teement  with  China,  dated  March  27,  1898. 

The  population  is  estimated  at  12,000,000,  al- 
most exclusively  Chinese. 

For  centuries  Shing^king  was  held  by  the 
Chinese,  who  made  Shin-yang  (Mukden)  the 
eapitaL  In  1804-95  the  southern  part  from  the 
Ya-Iu  to  the  liao  was  captured  by  the  Japanese, 
bot  was  later  relinquished  imder  pressure  from 
Russia,  Germany,  and  France.  Since  1898,  when 
Russia  leased  the  southern  portion  of  the  penin- 
sula and  secured  a  neutral  cone  reaching  to  the 
middle  of  the  Ta-Yang  River  and  including  the 
village  of  Ta-ku-shan,  Russian  influence  has  pre- 
vailed to  the  practical  exclusion  of  all  other 
nations.  See  Hosie,  Manchuria,  Its  People,  Re^ 
sources,  and  Recent  History  (London,  1901). 

8HIN^-(H>N^  (Jap.,  True  Word).  A  Japanese 
sect  of  Buddhists.  It  was  founded  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  ninth  century  a.d.  by  Kobo  Daishi. 
Dissatisfied  with  Buddhism  as  taught  in  Japan, 
he  visited  China  in  802-804,  and  returning  formed 
his  sect.  Its  doctrine  bears  little  resemblance  to 
the  teachings  of  the  historic  Gautama,  and  he  is 
held  in  relatively  light  esteem.  The  worship 
centres  in  Vairocana,  a  quasi-divine  being,  who 
is  a  greater  Buddha :  he  is  truth  and  his  emblem 
is  the  sun.  He  is  represented  as  surroimded 
by  four  planets,  Gkiutama  being  •  one  of 
them,  and  these  again  by  smaller  satellites, 
and  these  again  by  others  forming  a  complete 
system.  This  represents  the  unchanging  uni- 
verse of  pure  ideas,  the  'diamond  world,'  the 
true  world,  only  intellectually  conceived. 
Around  Vairocana  is  arranged,  like  the  petals 
of  a  lotus,  also  the  phenomenal  world,  so 
that  all  things  centre  in  him.  There  are  two 
ways  of  approach,  by  the  intellect  and  by  moral- 
ity.  He  who  attains  salvation  perceives  the  com- 


plete unity  of  both  systems  and  becomes  himself 
identical  with  Vairocana.  The  sect  was  eclipsed 
in  popularity  by  the  rise  of  the  Shin-shu  (q.v.) 
and  the  Nichiren  sects,  and  at  present  has  com- 
paratively little  influence.  Consult:  Nanjio, 
Short  History  of  the  Ttoelve  Japanese  Buddhist 
Sects  (Tokio,  1887);  GrifBs,  The  Religions  of 
Japan  (New  York,  1895). 

SHDrorECOGX.  A  remnant  tribe  of  Algon- 
quian  stock  (q.v.)  residing  about  the  bay  of  the 
same  name  near  the  southeast  end  of  Long  Isl- 
and, N.  Y.  At  the  beginning  of  this  century  they 
numbered  only  about  150  persons,  all  more  or  less 
of  negro  admixture,  and  had  entirely  lost 
their  language  and  all  other  primitive  char- 
acteristics. They  are  daring  seamen  and 
furnish  efficient  recruits  to  the  United  States 
Life  Saving  Service,  in  which  several  of 
their  most  promising  young  men  lost  their  lives 
by  a  cftorm  in  1877.  They  have  no  relations  with 
the  general  Government,  but  the  State  of  New 
York  supports  a  school  at  East  Moriches  for  the 
benefit  of  them  and  the  two  other  Long  Island 
remnants,  the  Poospatuck  or  Unquachog  and  the 
Montauk,  numbering  only  a  few  families  each. 

SHINHECOCK  BAY.  A  bay  in  Suffolk 
County,  Long  Island,  N.  Y.,  near  the  town  of 
Shinnecock  Hills  (q.v.).  Its  kngth  is  10  miles, 
its  width  from  3  to  4  miles. 

SHnnrECOCK  hills,  a  town  in  Suffolk 
County,  Long  Island,  N.  Y.,  85^  miles  bv  rail 
east  of  Brooklyn.  It  is  named  after  the  Shinne- 
cock (q.v.)  Indians,  a  few  of  whom  occupy  a 
reservation  in  the  vicinity. 

SHIK-NTTNGy  shgn'nTRftig'  (Chin.,  Divine 
Husbandman),  or  SHfiir-NuNO.  The  second  of 
the  legendary  rulers  of  China  known  as  the  Wu 
Ti  or  Tive  Emperors.'  He  succeeded  Fuh-hi 
(q.v.)  in  B.C.  2737,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the 
offspring  of  a  certain  princess  who  conceived 
under  the  influence  of  a  dragon.  He  is  credited 
with  having  introduced  plows,  discovered  the 
'Five  Grains,'  and  the  medicinal  properties 
of  plants,  and  to  have  instituted  markets  tor  the 
excnange  of  commodities.  The  Temple  of  Agri- 
culture at  Peking  (q.v.)  is  dedicated  to  him.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Hwang-ti  (q.v.)  B.C.  2697. 

BHIN^BAir  SHCyNIir  (1173-1262).  A 
Japanese  Buddhist  theologian  and  the  founder 
of  the  Shin-Shu  (q.v.),  which  he  established 
when  expelled  from  his  monastery.  He  was  of 
noble  birth,  of  the  great  Fujiwara  clan,  and  was 
educated  in  the  monastery  of  the  Jodo  sect  of 
Buddhists  on  Hiyei  San,  near  Kioto. 

SHIN^-SHU^  (Jap.,  True  Sect,  full  name 
Jodo  Shin-Shu, True  Sect  of  the  Pure  Land).  A 
Japanese  Buddhist  sect.  As  its  title  indicates, 
it  is  a  branch  of  the  Jodo  (Pure  Land)  sect. 
Like  the  other  Buddhist  bodies  in  Japan,  the 
Jodo  derived  its  teaching  from  China.  It  be- 
lieves in  Amida  (Skt.,  Amitabha)  only,  the 
Buddha  of  Boundless  Light,  one  of  the  many 
beings  worshiped  in  the  Great  Vehicle.  (See 
Mathatana.)  Raising  himself  to  Buddhahood» 
he  vowed  to  create  a  'Pure  Land,'  to  be  glorifled 
forever  as  Buddha  of  Boundless  Light,  to  save  all 
who  should  put  their  faith  in  his  vows.  Hence 
the  object  of  faith  is  not  the  historic  Buddha, 
but  the  'vow'  of  Amitabha.  Salvation  being 
solely  by  faith  in  the  'vow,'  the  believer  needs 
neither  knowledge  nor  works.     Rites  and  cere- 


8HIK-8HX7. 


776 


SHIP. 


monies  are  without  efficacy,  though  the  believer 
as  an  expression  of  gratitude  lives  an  upright 
life  and  constantly  repeats  "Glory  to  Amida  the 
Buddha.*'  The  priest  is  simply  the  official  of 
the  sect  and  its  teacher,  all  essential  distinction 
from  the  layman  being  done  away.  The  priests 
marry,  eat  meat,  and  practice  no  austerity.  The 
sect  is  first  in  popularity  with  the  masses.  Its 
temples  are  the  most  magnificent  and  the  meet 
frequented.  At  present  it  is  the  most  progres- 
sive sect  in  the  Empire,  adopting  the  methods  of 
Christian  missions  and  sending  some  of  its  priests 
as  students  to  Europe  and  America.  In  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  it  took  part  in 
the  feudal  wars,  armed  its  priests,  and  turned 
its  monasteries  into  fortresses.  For  more  than 
a  century  it  ruled  the  great  Province  of  Kaga. 
Shin-Shu  is  Buddhist  only  in  name,  retaining 
nothing  of  the  teaching  of  Gautama  and  accord- 
ing him  no  honor.  Consult:  Nanjio,  Short  His- 
tory of  the  Twelve  Japanese  Buddhist  Beets 
(London,  1887) ;  Griffis,  The  Religions  of  Japan 
(New  York,  1896). 

BHINTby  or  SHIKTOISK  (Sinico-Jap. 
shintdf  Jap.  Kami-no-michif  the  way  of  the 
Kami  (in  Chinese  shin)  or  gods).  The  ancient 
religion  and  mythology  of  the  Japanese.  The 
history  of  the  religion  falls  into  three  periods: 
the  first  terminating  in  the  sixth  century  a.d., 
the  second  in  the  eighteenth  century  A.D.,  and  the 
third  continuing  until  the  present  time.  In  the 
first  period  the  religion  had  no  name  and  was 
perhaps  undifferentiated  from  other  rites.  It  had 
neither  dogmas,  moral  precepts,  nor  sacred  writ- 
ings. The  objects  worshiped  were  called  kami, 
'superior.'  A  late  authority  declares  that  the 
superior  representatives  of  every  class  are  kami, 
as  trees,  stones,  mountains,  birds,  animals, 
men  and  spirits,  and  denies  that  the  kami 
are  spirits  within  the  natural  objects.  In 
the  ancient  traditions  mention  is  made  of 
gods  of  the  earth,  and  of  heaven,  which  was 
simply  a  plane  a  little  above  the  earth.  Some 
gods  were  good  and  some  were  bad,  some  were 
mortal,  and  some  were  wedded  to  women.  From 
one  of  the  latter  class  of  gods  is  descended  the 
emperor.  There  were  deities  also  of  the  cauldron, 
and  kettle,  and  saucepan,  gods  of  the  kitchen,  and 
of  the  gate,  as  well  as  gods  of  pestilence,  storms 
and  heavenly  bodies.  In  fact,  there  was  no  dis- 
tinctive class  of  gods,  but  everything  was  wor- 
shiped which  excited  fear  or  admiration.  Noth- 
ing was  related  of  heaven  or  hell  as  places  of 
awards,  but  there  were  confused  and  contradictory 
accounts  of  hades  as  the  place  of  departed  beings. 
The  rites  were  purifications  by  water  from  crimes 
and  defilement:  the  offerings  were  anything  of 
value,  swords,  armor,  spears,  and  especially 
cloth,  which  has  become  the  peculiarly  cut  strips 
of  paper  called  go-hei  which  hang  before  the 
shrines.  The  prayers  were  thanksgivings  and 
lists  of  offerings.  The  shrines  were  simply  huts 
and  the  shrine-keepers  sometimes  called  'priests,' 
had  neither  sacerdotal  nor  teaching  functions. 
There  were  no  images  in  the  shrines  nor  orna- 
mentation of  any  kind,  but  in  a  few  of  them,  a 
mirror  and  a  'pillow'  for  the  god. 

The  second  period  begins  with  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, when  Buddhism  and  Chinese  civilization 
were  introduced.  Shin-to  soon  yielded  to  its 
rival,  the  native  gods  being  regarded  as  incarna- 
tions of  Buddha.     (See  K75bT5  Daishi.)  Buddhist 


priests  became  the  custodians  of  the  shrines,  and 
introduced  their  own  ornaments,  images  and 
ritual.  The  two  religions  were  united  under  the 
name  Riobu-Shintd,  the  "Shinto  of  two  kinds," 
a  mongrel  system  in  which  Buddhism  was  the 
active  partner.  The  mythology  was  written  down 
with  the  ancient  prayers.  Only  in  the  palace  of 
the  emperors,  who  were  themselves  Buddhists, 
and  at  a  few  of  the  great  shrines  were  attempts 
made  to  preserve  something  of  the  ancient  usa^ 
The  distinctively  Shin-to  'priests'  became  for- 
tune tellers  and  magicians. 

In  the  eighteenth  century  a  succession  of  great 
scholars  (Mabuchi,  1697-1769,  Motoori,  1730- 
1801,  and  Hirata,  1776-1843),  animated  by  a  love 
for  antiquity  and  a  hatred  of  all  things  forei^ 
attacked  Buddhism  and  Confucianism  and  sought 
the  reSstablishment  of  Ture  Shinto.'  They 
taught  that  its  essence  was  obedience  to  nature 
and  to  the  emperor.  They  produced  marked 
effects  in  literature  and  in  politics,  but  Shinto 
was  too  shadowy  and  ill-defined  to  gain  religious 
hold  of  the  people.  The  sentiment  aroused  was 
utilized  by  the  revolutionists  of  1865-1868,  when 
the  western  clans  overthrew  the  government  of 
the  Shogun  and  restored  the  emperor  to  the  head 
of  the  government.  At  the  restoration  Buddhism 
was  disestablished  and  Shinto  put  in  its  place. 
But  Shinto  could  not  maintain  itself,  and  be- 
came a  code  of  ceremonies  for  court  and  officials. 
At  present  it  represents  the  intense  patriotism 
of  the  people,  and  furnishes  the  rites  for  religious 
ceremonial  at  the  court,  all  officials  being  obliged 
to  observe  its  forms. 

The  origin  of  Shinto  is  unknown.  Its  legends 
are  evidently  from  diverse  sources,  and  Chinese 
influence  in  the  formation  of  some  of  them  can  be 
detected.  It  is  a  confused  mixture  of  nature  and 
ancestor-worship.  Its  mythology  also  confu<^ 
history  with  the  stories  of  the  gods,  putting  both 
into  a  continuous  narrative.  It  contributed  noth- 
ing to  the  civilization  of  the  Japanese,  though 
the  scholars  mentioned  above  established  in  mod- 
ern times  the  standard  of  pure  Japanese  litera- 
ture, as  distinguished  from  the  Sinioo-Japanese. 
Its  legends  form  the  best  source  for  the  recon- 
struction of  the  primitive  life  of  the  people.  It 
expresses  the  Japanese  nature,  in  its  patriotic 
reverence  for  the  Imperial  house,  and  in  its  ad- 
miration for  all  things  extraordinary. 

Consult:  Rosny,  La  religion  des  Japonait 
(Parib,  1881)  ;  CHiamberlain,  Translation  of  the 
Kojiki  (Yokohama,  1883)  ;  id..  Things  Japanese 
(4th  ed.,  New  York,  1902)  ;  Cobbold,  Religion  in 
Japan:  Buddhism,  Shintoism,  Christianity  (Ix>n- 
doUtf  1894) ;  Griffis,  The  Religions  of  Japan  from 
the  Daicn  of  History  to  the  Era  of  Meiji  (New 
York,  1896)  ;  Florenz,  Japanesische  Mythologie 
(Tokio,  1901 ) .  See  also  the  section  on  Bxugion 
under  Japan. 

SHIP  (AS.  soip,  soyp,  Goth,  ship,  OHG.  scif, 
scef,  Ger.  Schiff^  ship;  of  unknown  etymology). 
In  strictly  nautical  nomenclature  the  term  skip 
is  applied  to  a  large  vessel  with  three  or  more 
masts,  of  which  at  least  three  are  square-rigged. 
The  term  is  very  generally  applied  to  vessels  of 
all  kinds  which  are  larger  than  boats. 

Before  the  application  of  steam  to  marine  pro- 
pulsion the  largest  sailing  ships  rarely  exceeded 
200  feet  in  length  and  the  proportion  of  length 
to  beam  was  usually  not  far  from  4  to  1.  The 
bows  were  bluff  and  the  stem  hardly  less  so. 


SHINTOISM 


1.  SHINTOIST  PRIEST  CARRYING  QOHEI 


2.  A  SHINTOIST  SHRINE  AT  YAMADA 


SHIP. 


777 


SHIP. 


particularly  in  line-of-battle  ships.  Frigates 
and  many  merchant  vessels  were  somewhat  sharp- 
er. The  full  bows  and  relatively  great  width  of 
beam,  while  they  reduced  the  speed,  gave  great 
handiness  or  manoeuvring  power — a  most  neces* 
sary  requisite  in  battle  and  in  narrow  channels 
or  crowded  harbors.  The  advent  of  steam 
changed  the  conditions  materially.  Sailing  ves- 
sels were  no  longer  used  as  fighting  ships,  while 
in  the  merchant  service  they  had  to  compete 
with  steamers.  Furthermore^  in  entering  or 
leaving  a  port  and  usually  in  passing  through 
narrow  channels,  the  services  of  tugs  were  avail- 
able. These  conditions  led  to  changes  in  design 
which  culminated  in  the  celebrated  clipper  ships 
a  little  after  the  middle  of  the  last  century. 
These  vessels  were  intended  for  long  voyages  and 
frequently  made  such  fast  passages  as  to  rival 
the  best  steamer  speeds.  The  famous  Dread- 
naught  made  the  passage  from  Liverpool  to  New 
York  in  13  days  8  hours  and  the  Red  Jacket  in 
13  days  11  hours  and  25  minutes.  The  ordinary 
fast  mail  steamer  passage  was  then  about  ten 
days. 

The  modern  sailing  ships  are  built  on  lines 
very  similar  to  those  of  the  old  clippers  and  their 
average  speed  under  sail  is  not  greatly  inferior, 
but  they  are  designed  for  greater  proportional 
carrying  capacity,  and  the  numerous  small  and 
light  sails,  which  added  slightly  to  the  speed  and 
a  good  deal  to  the  cost  of  maintenance,  are  rare- 
ly fitted.  Even  in  sailing  ships  steam  is  now 
very  commonly  provided  to  facilitate  handling 
cargo,  hoisting  tne  sails,  operating  the  steering 
engine,  etc. 

In  the  coasting  trade  of  the  United  States 
large  schooners  (q.v.)  have  almost  wholly  dis- 
placed square-rigged  vessels.  The  large  schoon- 
ers are  greater  in  size  than  most  ships  of  a  half 
century  ago,  while  the  largest  ones  have  seven 
masts  and  exceed  in  length  ( and  probably  in  car- 
rying capacity)  any  of  the  old  square- riggers. 

The  primary  advantage  of  the  schooner  over 
its  square-rigged  rival  is  the  ease  with  which 
its  sails  are  handled,  whereby  the  necessary 
number  of  men  in  the  crew  is  greatly  reduced. 
Furthermore,  the  schooner  lies  somewhat  closer 
to  the  wind  than  the  square-rigged  ship.  The 
schooner  spreads  less  canvas  than  the  ship  of  the 
same  size,  and  is  therefore,  as  a  rule,  not  so 
speedy  a  sailer. 

The  sailing  ship  was  a  development  of  the 
galley  (q.v.),  and  it  was  not  until  the  eighteenth 
century  that  it  attained  a  form  and  character 
suitable  to  ocean  navigation  under  all  conditions 
of  weather.  The  earlier  types  were  often  pro- 
fusely ornamented  and  carefully  made,  but  clum- 
sy, slow,  and  unseaworthy.  The  stems,  and  in 
some  cases  the  bows,  were  built  high  in  the  air. 
These  awkward  excrescences  were  gradually  re- 
dueed  in  height  until  they  took  final  shape  in  the 
poop  and  topgallant  forecastle  so  common  in 
steamers  of  the  present  day.  Sailing  ships  are 
not  now  usually  built  with  raised  poop  or  fore- 
ca^le,  as  the  difference  in  level  of  the  parts  of 
the  deck  interferes  with  ease  of  handling  the 
sails.  In  their  place  deck  houses  are  often  fitted. 
These  do  not  extend  the  full  width  of  the  upper 
deck,  in  order  to  permit  of  hauling  ropes  in  the 
gangways  abreast  them. 

.The  reform  in  design  of  the  rigging  and  sails 
was  simultaneous  with  the  improvement  in  the 


hull,  the  poorly  set  and  absurdly  placed  sails  of 
the  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  and  sixteenth  centuries 
giving  way  to  the  precisely  planned  sails  and  rig- 
ging of  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth.  The  gen- 
eral adoption  of  three  masts  for  large  square- 
rigged  vessels  was  due  to  the  relation  of  length 
to  beam.  So  long  as  this  ratio  does  not  exceed 
6  to  1,  three  masts  are  found  to  be  adequate, 
though  as  the  latter  figure  is  approached  the  ad- 
dition of  a  fourth  mast  is  not  unsuitable.  Prob- 
ably no  sailing  ship  of  the  eighteenth  century 
had  a  length  greater  than  five  times  her  beam, 
and  in  many  the  proportion  was  not  much  be- 
yond three  to  one. 

A  very  large  majority  of  the  sailing  ships  of 
the  world  are  built  of  wood,  and  doubtless  for 
many  years  this  will  be  so.  But  iron  ships  are 
more  durable,  require  less  expensive  repairs,  and 
carry  more  cargo  on  the  same  exterior  dimen- 
sions; they  are  therefore  beginning  to  supplant 
the  wood-built  ship.  The  lower  masts,  and  in 
some  cases  the  upper  masts  and  yards,  are  of 
iron,  while  wire  has  almost  entirely  displaced 
hemp  for  standing  rigging  (q.v.). 

The  sails,  masts,  and  spars  of  vessels  are  ar- 
ranged in  many  different  ways — id  nautical 
language,  the  vessels  have  different  rigs — ^and 
each  particular  style  of  arrangement  has  its  own 
distinguishing  name.  The  more  common  forms 
are  ship-rig,  bark-rig,  barkentine-rig,  sloop-rig, 
yawl-rig,  cutter-rig,  and  cat-rig.  Jt  sailing  ship 
is  ship-rigged,  of  course,  but  a  steamer^  may  be 
ship-rigged,  bark-rigged,  brig-rigged,  et6.  Each 
principal  style  of  rig  has  some  variations;  thus 
we  have  four-masted  schooners,  topsail  schoon- 
ers, etc.  The  accompanying  plate  shows  in  detail 
the  rigging  of  a  modem  ship. 

For  further  information,  see  Babk}  Brig; 
Boat;  Galley ;  Mast;  Sail;  Schooner;  Frig- 
ate; Deck;  Load-Line;  Marks  of  Vessels; 
Measurement  of  Ships;  Navigation;  Navy; 
Ram,  Marine;  Ship,  Armored;  and  particularly 
Shipbuilding  and  Steam  Navigation. 

SHIP,  Armored.  The  first  real  armored 
vessels  were  floating  batteries  used  at  the  siege 
of  Gibraltar  in  1782.  The  first  proposal  to  build 
an  armored  steam  vessel  seems  to  have  been 
made  by  Colonel  John  Stevens  of  New  Jersey, 
who,  in  1812,  prepared  plans  for  such  a  craft. 
In  1841  his  son,  R.  L.  Stevens,  made  proposals  to 


BBICBSON'S  IBON-OLA1>  CUPOLA.  VEBBBL. 

the  United  States  Navy  Department  to  build  ^n 
ironclad  steamer  of  high  speed  in  whifih.  ftU  of 
the  machinery,  including  the  propellers,  should 
be  below  water^  This  vessel  was  not  built  on 
the  original  designs,  as  it  was  considered  desira- 
ble to  incTCase  the  thickness  of  armor  to  be  car- 


778 


ried  from  4.6  to  6.76  inches.    The  keel  was  not 
laid  until  1854,  only  two  months  before  the  com- 


OLOUB,  FBAKOB,  1868. 

mencement  of  the  lUnbum  batteries'  in  France, 
but  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  French  vessels  were 


WAaUOB,  BHOIaAHS,  1869. 

floating  batteries  and  not  high-speed  sea-going 
ships,  as  was  Stevens's.  The  latter,  whose  con- 
struction, after  the  death  of 
R.  L.  Stevens  (1856),  was 
continued  by  his  brother,  E. 
A.  Stevens,  was  never  com- 
pleted, and  the  French  were 
the  first  ta  produce  a  sea- 
going armorclad,  the  Oloire 
(for  description  see  Abmob 
Plate),  which  was  a  screw 
line-of-battle  ship  rebuilt  in 
1858-59  and  armored;  they 
also  commenced  the  first 
iron-hulled  armorclad  (the 
Courorme).  The  Oloire  and 
Vouronne  were  quickly  fol- 
lowed by  the  Warrior,  which 
was  laid  down  in  England 
in  1859.  In  1860  the  Ital- 
ians ordered  the  armored 
▲BMoa  OF  AH  BAKLT  frigatcs  Terribile  and  For- 
IRON-CLAD.  H.  M.  B.      midahile  in  France ;  and  in 

:£r«r?S2i?r"  «>«  l«tter  pan  of  1861  the 

Russians  changed  the  plans 

of    the    wooden     frigate    Petropavlovak,    then 

building,   and  gave   her   a   complete   water^ine 


EJZiQXniH^QI^'flnTrCTfTBK 


PBTBOPATLOTSE,  BU88IA,  1861. 

belt  and  casement  of  iron.    So  far  the  applica- 
tion of  armor  to  vessels  had  brought  about  no 


1861  the  Monitor  and  Merrimae  {Virginia)  weie 
designed.  They  dififered  from  all  previous  men- 
of-war  in  being  mastless;  each  was  completely 
armored;  one  mounted  its  guns  in  a  revolving 
turret  and  one  in  a  central  armored  battery.  If 
you  place  a  monitor's  turret  at  each  end  of  the 
Merrimac's  citadel,  make  the  sides  more  nearly 
vertical,  and  raise  the  upper  deck  sufficiently  tn 
give  seaworthiness,  you  have  the  general  featmss 
of  the  battleship  of  1903. 

In  1861,  under  an  act  of  Congress  providing 
for  armored  vessels,  the  Oalena,  the  New  Iron' 
sides,  and  the  Monitor  were  constructed.  The  Ga 
lena  was  an  armored  gunboat  of  the  ordinary 
type,  except  that  her  sides  amidships  inclined  in- 
ward (^tumbled  home')  at  an  angle  of  about 
45  degrees  and  were  covered  with  2.5  inches  of 
armor.  Her  plating  was  found  to  be  too  thin 
to  be  of  much  use  and  she  was  regarded  as  a 
failure.  She  was  completed  early  in  1862  and 
took  part  in  the  attack  on  Drewry's  Bluff  forts, 
when  her  armor  was  repeatedly  perforated.  In 
this  case,  since  the  forts  were  elevated,  the 
inclination  of  her  sides  was  a  disadvantage.  The 
New  Ironsides  was  finished  late  in  1862  and  at- 
tached to  the  blockading  fleet  off  Charleston, 
where  she  remained  for  two  years.  She  was  built 
of  wood  and  her  general  plans  were  similar  to 
those  of  an  ordinary  steam  frigate  of  her  day, 
except  that  she  had  a  ram  bow  and  a  retreating 
stem  like  that  of  many  recent  battleships.  Her 
sides  'tumbled  home'  at  an  angle  of  about  30 
degrees  from  the  vertical  for  about  two-thirds 
her  length,  and  over  this  portion  she  was  cov- 
ered by  4.5-inch  iron  plates  of  large  size  from 
some  distance  below  the  water  line  to  the  upper 
deck.  The  broadside  armor  was  joined  at  the 
ends  by  thwartship  plating  of  equal  thickness, 
the  whole  forming  a  citadel  protecting  the  bat- 
tery, boilers,  and  engines.  She  was  232  feet 
long,  58  feet  broad,  and  had  a  displacement  of 
4120  tons  at  her  designed  load  draught.  Her 
battery  consisted  of  sixteen  11 -inch  Dahlgren 
smooth-bores,  two  220-pounder  Parrot  rifles,  and 
four  24-pounder  howitzers.  She  was  the  most 
successful  armored  ship  of  her  day,  was  in  action 
more  times  than  any  other  vessel  ever  built  (so 
far  as  existing  records  show),  and  was  struck  by 
more  projectiles  than  any  other  vessel,  yet  her 
armor  was  never  pierced,  she  was  never  put  out 


MOHiTOB  Aim  loiaaiyAeL 


change  in  the  type  except  to  reduce  thf  number    of  ftsUcm,  and  she  was  never  forced  to  go  to  a 
of  decks  on  which  gun3  ware  carried.    But  in     home  port  or  depend  upon  outside  assistance. 


z 

CO 


SHIP* 


779 


SHIP. 


while  in  some  of  the  actions  in  which  she  was 
engaged  other  ironclads  were  sunk  and  several 
monitors  were  disabled  and  forced  out  of  action. 
After  the  war,  in  1866,  she  was  acddentaUj  de- 
stroyed by  fire  at  the  Philadelphia  navy  yard. 

The  third  vessel  was  the  far-famed  Monitor, 
The  contract  for  her  construction  was  signed 
October  4,  1861,  and  she  was  launched  January 
30,  1862.  Her  dimensions  were:  extreme  length, 
172  feet;  length  of  hull  proper,  124  feet;  extreme 
beam,  41.5  feet;  width  of  hull  where  it  joined 
the  overhang,  34  feet;  width  of  hull  at  bottom, 
18  feet;  depth  of  hold,  11.33  feet;  mean  draught, 
10.5  feet;  inside  diameter  of  turret,  20  feet; 
height  of  turret,  9  feet;  displacement,  987  tons. 

Ilie  Monitor  was  a  most  remarkable  vessel  in 
many  ways,  but  she  was  not  a  ship  of  war,  but  a 
floating  battery,  and  useful  only  in  smooth  water. 
She  was  fortunate  in  meeting  a  craft  equally 
unseaworthy.  She  was  not  even  the  first  tur- 
ret vessel  to  be  commenced,  nor  was  she  the 
best  when  finished.  Before  the  contract  was 
drawn  for  the  ifont^or,  Denmark  had  contracted 
with  Captain  Cowper  Coles  for  the  building  of  the 
double-turreted,  sea-going  ironclad  Rolf  Krake, 
and  her  keel  was  laid  before  the  construction  of 
the  Monitor  was  authorized.  The  Rolf  Krake 
was  a  very  successful  vessel,  and,  althoueh  she 
was  never  in  close  action  with  another  ship,  she 
several  times  silenced  Prussian  batteries  and  held 
the  whole  Prussian  fleet  in  check  in  1864. 

Ericsson,  however,*  was  probably  the  first  to 
produce  plans  of  a  practical  revolving  turret 
mounted  on  board  a  vessel,  as  there  seems  to  be 
no  design  of  one  antedating  those  he  sent  to 
Napoleon  III.  in  1854.  Ericsson's  Monitor,  also, 
was  the  first  completed  vessel  carrying  a  re- 
volving turret,  and  while  many  of  her  details 
were  faulty,  others  were  original  and  ingenious 
in  the  highest  degree. 

Whether  the  fight  between  the  Monitor  and 
the  Merrimao  was  a  drawn  battle,  as  some  assert, 
or  a  complete  victory,  the  results  are  the  same. 
The  Monitor,  as  in  some  sense  a  savior  of  the 
country,  was  accorded  an  importance  its  intrinsic 
merits  did  not  warrant.  Other  monitors  were 
built,  improved  in  some  respects,  but  embodying 
many  of  the  defects  of  the  original  and  some  of 
their  own.  Almost  eveiy  nation  in  Europe  also 
built  vessels  of  the  monitor  type,  but  having  no 
patriotic  reasons  to  revere  them,  the  evolution  of 
the  turret  ship  proceeded  rapidly,  though  the 
value  of  broadside  fire  from  numerous  guns  was 
never  quite  forgotten,  and  in  many  designs,  in  a 
modified  form,  it  displaced  the  turret.  This 
modified  form  was  of  two  types,  called  the  bow 
battery  and  central  battery,  the  latter  exemplify- 
ing the  fiillest  development  of  the  idea,  which  was 
.  to  secure  heavy  end-on  fire  without  much  sacri- 
fice of  weight  in  the  broadside. 

In  1863  the  British  converted  several  vessels 
into  turret  ships  with  four  turrets  {Royal  Sov- 
ereign class) ;  the  North  German  Confederation 


Affondatore  of  4400  tons,  and  Russia,  the  Nether- 
lands, Norway,  and  Sweden  began  the  construo- 
tion  of  numerous  monitors  of  the  American  low 


▲DMIBAJL  LA21.BBrr,  BUS8IA.  1864. 

freeboard  type.  The  reaction  against  the  turret 
ship  is  noticed  in  the  vessels  produced  in  the 
next  two  or  three  years,  which  are  mostly  central 
battery  ships.  The  long  row  of  guns  on  the 
broadside  is  given  up,  for  it  was  seen  to  be  im- 


OCBAH.  FBAlfOB,  1866-66. 

possible  adequately  to  protect  so  great  an  area 
with  armor.  The  guns  were  decreased  in  num- 
ber, but  increased  in  size,  and  gathered  in  a 
group  amidships.  To  secure  fire  ahead  and 
astern,  some  guns  were  mounted  in  the  angles 


POPOFr  8TBAM  BATTBBT  BOVdOBOD,  BVSBIA,  1878. 

of  polygonal  citadels  or  in  circular  barbette 
towers  over  the  comers  of  the  battery.  Of  the 
great  Powers,  Russia  alone  adhered  chiefly  to 


▲UDAOIOUS,  BNOXJUID,  1867. 

the  turret,  although  she  built  one  or  two  cen- 
tral battery  ships.     In  1866  Great  Britain  re- 


AFVORDATOBB,  ITALY,  1868. 


ordered  the  AmUniut,  a  turret  ship  of  1600  tons, 
similar  to  the  Rolf  Krake;  France  laid  down  a 
number  of  turret  vessels  of  about  3000  tons 
(Taureau  class) ;  Italy  laid  down  the  turret  ship 
TOL.  XV.-flO. 


DBTABTATION,  BNOLAND,  1869. 

verted  to  turret  ships  in  the  high  freeboard  Jfo»- 
arch  and  the  rather  low  freeboard  Captain.  The 
uselessness  of  sail  power  in  heavy  fighting  ships 


780 


SHIP. 


was  not  yet  appreciated;  and  the  Captain,  with 
her  very  moderate  height  of  side,  attempting  to 
carry  sail  in  heavy  weather  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay, 
capsized  and  went  to  the  bottom  with  nearly 
every  soul  on  board.  The  danger  of  masting  low 
freeboard  ships  was  then  fully  appreciated. 
France  continued  to  develop  the  barbette  ship 


MONABCU.     BMGLAHO,      1866. 

in  the  Ocean  and  Friedland  types.  Italy  only 
built  central  battery  or  bow  battery  ships  until 
1872.  Russia  built  nothing  but  turret  ships,  ex- 
cept some  armored  cruisers  (begun  in  1870). 
Great  Britain  followed  the  Monarch  and  Captain 
with  several  low  freeboard  turret  ships,  revert- 
ing again  in  1873  to  the  central  battery  in  the 


AliBZAHDBAt  B]feLl.HD,  1873. 

Alexandra,  one  of  the  last  and  best  of  this  type. 
France  built  a  few  central  battery  ships  with 
barbette  towers  in  addition,  but  continued  the 
development  of  the  barbette,  with  or  without  an 
unprotected  auxiliary  battery.  Germany  built 
chiefly  central  battery  ships  in  the  period  1865- 
73.  Italy  built  no  ships  at  this  time.  Russia 
built  three  or  four  central  battery  craft  (but 
they  properly  belonged  to  the  cruiser  class)  and 
one  heavy  turret  ship,  the  Pietr  Velikiu 

In  1873-74  a  radical  change  was  introduced  in 
the  British  and  Italian  navies.  Up  to  this  time, 
with  few  exceptions,  the  armor  belt  of  battle- 


DUILIO,  ITALY,  1878. 

ships  had  extended  from  bow  to  stem.  In  1873 
Italy  began  the  construction  of  the  turret  ships 
Duilio  and  Dandolo,  and  Great  Britain  laid  down 
the  Inflewible,     These  ships  were  remarkable  in 


nrrLKxiBLB,  bboland,  1874. 

many  ways.  They  were  of  unprecedented  size 
(almost  12,000  tons)  ;  almost  their  whole  bat- 
tery was  concentrated  in  four  enormous  guns 
behind  very  thick  armor;  the  complete  belt  was 
given  up  and  a  central  citadel,  ^tending  only  a 


pubibdx,  itrajuce,  1875. 

small  portion  of  the  length  (in  the  case  of  the 
Inflexible,  less  than  one-third ) ,  but  of  enormously 
thick  armor,  protected  the  vitals,  but  did  not 
absolutely  insure  stability  if  the  unarmored  ends 
were  destroyed;  to  assist  in  reducing  danger 
in  case  of  injury  to  the  ends,  a  submerged  ar- 
mored deck  extended  from  the  citadel  to  the  bow 


and  to  the  stem  a  few  feet  below  water;  and 
lastly,  their  turrets,  instead  of  being  on  the  mid- 
dle line  of  the  ship,  were  placed  in  'echelon/ 
tne  forward  one  close  out  to  one  aide  of  the  ship. 


AJOBAL  bavdih,  fbancb.  1878. 

and  the  after  one  close  out  to  the  other.  This 
method  of  mounting  theoretically  doubled  the  fire 
ahead  and  astern;  practically  the  principal  re- 
sult was  to  reduce  the  weight  of  fire  on  one  bow 
and  one  quarter  and  almost  destroy  fire  directly 
ahead  or  astern  because  of  interference  of  the 
upper  works.  From  this  time  on  the  develop- 
ment in  each  of  the  principal  navies  was  along 
different  lines.  The  British  next  built  two  re- 
duced copies  of  the  Inflexible;  then  some  small 
single-turret  ships  shaped  like  a  shoe— high  aft, 
low  forward;  then  two  more  modified  copies 
of  the  Inflexible,  In  the  Admiral  class  (Co2- 
lingwood,  Benbow,  etc.),  which  followed,  the 
short  belt  of  the  Inflexible  was  retained  and  made 
narrower  by  the  height  of  a  deck,  the  main  bat- 
tery was  mounted  in  barbettes  on  the  middle 
line,  one  forward,  one  aft,  and  an  auxiliary 
battery  of  6-inch  guns  provided,  though  they 
were  not  protected  by  armor.  Following  these 
came  two  more  shoe-shaped  single-turreted  ves- 
sels of  large  size  (10,500 'tons).  These  were 
the  Sanspareil  and  her  sister,  the  ill-fated  Vic- 
toria; they  carried  two  110-ton  guns  in  the 
turret  forward,  a  10-inch  gun  on  the  poop, 
and  a  battery  of  twelve  6-inch  guns,  which  was 
protected  by  thin  armor.  In  one  of  the  Admiral 
class  and  in  the  Victoria 
and  Sanspareil  the  very 
heavy  gun  reached  its  maxi- 
mum in  weight.  In  the  next 
ships  laid  down  the  weight 
was  reduced  from  110  tons 
to  67,  and  the  calibre  from 
16.26  inches  to  13.5.  These 
ships,  the  Nile  and  TrafaU  I 
gar,  were  great  improve- 
ments on  their  predecessors, 
and,  although  their  auxiliary 
batteries  were  weak,  they 
were  well  protected,  as  was  btctioh  op  uuvtk 
the  hull.  The  next  design  {Mugnmcmt  eiuB). 
was  that  of  the  Ro^al  Sover- 
eign class  of  14,150  tons,  the  first  of  which 
was  laid  down  in  1889;  in  these  vessels  the 
modem  battleship  is  foreshadowed,  but  it  was 
not  until  the  Magnificent  class  (1893)  that  the 
principal  details  were  well  settled.  These  car- 
ried 12-inch  guns  in  turrets  and  6-inch  guns  in . 
armored  sponsons.  The  later  ships  resembled 
these  quite  closely,  but  in  the  Bulwark  class 


.^rmorHanxyiaedSUel   laSSO      Hull  Steel 
OOMMOBWBALTH,  WKQlsAItD,  1901. 

(1899)  the  water-line  belt  was  carried  to  the 
bow  instead  of  merely  covering  the  vitals  amid- 
ships, and  in  the  Albion  (1898)  and  Common- 
tcealth  ( 1901 )  classes  it  was  carried  to  both  bow 
and  stem.      In  the  last  named  four  gims  of 


781 


SHIP. 


9.2-iiich  calibre  were  added  to  the  auxiliary  bat- 
tery of  6-inch  pieces,  and  the  displacement  was 
brought  up  to  16,350  tons. 

In  French  ships  the  complete  water-line  belt, 
extending  from  stem  to  stern,  was  invariably  re- 
tained. For  many  years  the  heavy  guns  of  all 
French  battleships  were  mounted  high  above 
the  water  in  barbettes,  one  in  each  (never  in 
pairs — in  order  to  prevent  the  disabling  of  two 
guns  by  one  shot).  The  arrangement  of  the 
heavy  guns  differed  from  the  practice  in  other 
navies;  one  was  placed  on  the  forecastle,  one 
each    side    amidships.      The    importance   of    an 


JKAN  O'ABO,   FBARCV,  1899. 

auxiliary  battery  of  guns  of  medium  size  was 
never  lost  sight  of  in  French  designs,  though  for 
many  years  they  were  unprotected  by  armor, 
the  BrennuSf  commenced  in  1888,  being  the  first 
in  which  armor  protection  was  afforded  them. 
In  1893  the  Charlemagne  class  was  commenced; 
in  these  vessels  the  heavy  guns  were  mounted,  as 


ITALIA,  ITALY.  1876. 

dolo  and  Duilio  of  nearly  12,000  tons,  which  have 
already  been  mentioned,  they  built  the  enormous 
nondescripts  Italia  and  Lepanto  of  over  15,000 
tons.  These  great  vessels  have  no  side  armor 
whatever,  but  in  a  large  diagonally  placed 
barbette,  19  inches  thick,  are  mounted  four  17- 
inch  guns  weighing  100  tons  each.  These  were 
followed  by  three  vessels  of  about  11,200  tons, 
also  carrying  four  100-ton  guns,  but  having  the 
water  line  protected  by  armor  for  about  half  the 
length  amidships.  The  Sicilia^  Sardegna,  and 
Re  Umberio,  of  13,300  to  13,900  tons,  begun  in 


KM   UMBKRTO,   ITALY.  1884. 

1884,  were  originally  planned  as  improved  Italias 
without  side  armor,  but  when  completed  more 
than  half  the  whole  side  from  water  line  to  up- 
per deck  was  covered  with  4inch  plating  as  a 
defense  against  small-calibrc  rapid-firing  guns, 
and  they  were  the  first  vessels  to  bo   so   pro-' 


tected.  In  the  next  designs  the  Italians  adopted 
the  8-inch  gun  as  an  intermediate  calibre,  mount- 
ing it  much  as  it  is  placed  in  American  battle- 
ships. In  their  newest  vessels  the  whole  auxil- 
iary battery  is  made  up  of  8-inch  guns  and  the 
speed  is  put  at  21.5  knots,  at  least  2.5  knots 
greater  than  that  of  any  other  battleships  built 
or  building. 

For  many  years  after  the  formation  of  the 
Empire  Germany  was  content  to  remain  in  the 
second  rank  of  naval  powers,  but  in  1889  she 
began  the  construction  of  four  battleships  of 
10,000  tons,  which  were  remarkable  from  the 
fact  that  they  carried  six  11 -inch  guns  in  pairs 
in  three  turrets  on  the  midship  line.  These  ves- 
sels in  1903  were  undergoing  alterations  with  a 
view  to  removing  the  middle  turret  and  its  guns. 
From  1889  the  building  of  battleships  proceeded 
steadily.  The  ten  succeeding  ships  are  remark- 
able for  the  smallness  of  their  principal  guns 
(9.4-inch^  a  calibre  adopted  to  secure  rapid  load- 
ing) and  the  ingenuity  of  distributing  and 
mounting  the  guns  to  secure  wide  arcs  of  fire. 
The  battleships  commenced  in  1901-02  are  of 
similar  design,  but  they  carry  11-inch  guns. 

In  the  United  States  no  armored  vessels  ex- 
cept monitors  were  built  until  the  small  battle- 
ships  Maine    and    Texas    were    begun  in  1889. 


VArmor  Compound  10,180        Hull  SUel 

TCHK8MK,   RUSSIA.  1883. 

in  American  and  British  battleships,  in  pairs  in 
turrets  forward  and  aft,  and  this  plan  has  been 
followed  in  all  subsequent  designs. 

The  Italian  navy  has  shown  greatest  origi- 
nality of  design,  though  many  of  the  ships  have 
never  been  approved  by  other  naval  authorities. 
The  Italians  early  grasped  the  fact  that  power- 
ful vessels  must  be  large  and  did  not  hesitate 
to  accept  great  dimensions.    Following  the  Dan- 


TEXAS, 


About  two  years  later  the  larger  battleships  In- 
diana, Massachusetts,  and  Oregon  of  10,280  tons 
were  commenced.  A  prejudice  still  existed 
against  'high-sided'  armorclads,  and  these  were 
designated  as  'coast-line  battleships'  and  given 
very  moderate  freeboard.  They  were  very  re- 
markable ships  for  their  day.  Their  speed  was 
rather  low  than  high — ^but  the  battery  was  pow- 


R.   OREGON. 


erful  and  included,  in  addition  to  four  13-inch 
guns,  a  powerful  auxiliary  battery  of  eight  8-inch 
and  four  6-inch  guns.  The  possession  of  8-inch 
guns  makes  them  still  formidable  foes  for  the  most 
recent  European  battleships,  for  shells  from  these 


SHIP. 


782 


SHIP. 


f^uns  will  at  battle  range  pierce  the  armor  protect- 
ing any  auxiliary  bat^ry  afloat.  Two  years  later 
juster  ideas  of  the  true  uses  of  a  naval  force  per- 
mitted the  building  of  the  loioa  (11,340  tons), 
which  was  frankly  called  a  'sea-going  battle- 
ship/ She  was  followed  by  the  Kentucky  and 
Kearaarge  of  11,525  tons.  These  vessels  em- 
bodied many  new  ideas,  the  most  talked  of  being 


in  the  next  five  ships,  the  Georgia,  New  Jersey, 
Nehraaka,  Virginia,  and  Rhode  Island  (15,000 
tons,  commenced  in  1901),  which  have  superposed 
8-inch  turrets  over  the  12-inch  guns  and  another 
pair  of  8-inch  guns  in  a  turret  on  each  side  amid- 
ships; in  addition,  a  battery  of  twelve  6-inch 
guns  is  provided.     In  the  next  two  ships,  com- 


U.  8.   8.   KEAR8i.ROE. 


the  superposed  turrets  of  the  8-inch  guns,  which 
were  placed  on  top  of  the  turrets  of  the  13-inch. 
The  second  peculiarity  is  the  arrangement  of  the 
guns  in  a  long  central  battery  (but  separated  by 
1.5-iiich  steel  screens)  behind  continuous  armor; 


ttttr 


U  8.  8.   MAINE. 

the  side  amidships  is  thus  completely  armored. 
The  third  point  of  interest  is  the  wide  applica- 
tion of  electricity — every  piece  of  auxiliary 
machinery  outside  the  engine  and  fire  rooms  be- 
ing driven  by  electric  motors.  In  the  next  ships, 
the   Alabama,   Illinois,   and    Wisconsin    (11,525 


tons — completed  1901),  and  the  Maine,  Missouri, 
and  Ohio  (12,500  tons,  completed  in  1902-03), 
the  8-inch  guns  were  omitted,  following  the 
European  practice.     This  mistake  was  corrected 


u.  8.  B.  cx>inraonouT. 


menced  about  the  end  of  1902,  the  Connecticut 
and  Louisiana  (16,000  tons),  the  8-inch  guns 
were  retained,  but  arranged  over  the  central 
superstructure,  nearly  as  in  the  Oregon;  the  four 
12-inch  guns  are  mounted  as  in  all  recent  Ameri- 
can battleships;  and  in  addition  to  the  8-inch, 
there  is  an  auxiliary  battery  of  twelve  7-ineh 
guns.  These  ships  are  much  the  most  strongly 
armed  ships  so  far  designed  for  any  navy. 

As  regards  belt  armor,  the  vessels  of  the 
Oregon  class  have  water-line  belts  extending  for 
little  over  half  the  length  amidships ;  the  loiod'a 
belt  is  proportionately  much  longer;  in  the 
Kearsarge  and  Alahama  classes  the  belt  is  ex- 
tended to  the  bow;  while  in  the  Maine,  Georgia, 
and  Connecticut  types  it  extends  to  the  stem  as 
well.  Reference  to  the  cut  in  the  article  Ship- 
BUILDING,  showing  a  midship  section  of  a  modem 
battleship,  will  illustrate  the  arrangement  of  the 
armor. 

We  have  so  far  considered  battleships  only. 
Many  ships  are  more  lightly  armed  and  armored, 
but  are  given  high  sp^  and  a  large  coal  sup- 
ply. These  are  called  armored  cruisers.  At 
first,  armored  cruisers  were  rather  small,  and 
the  armor  confined  chiefly  to  a  belt  at  the  water 
line.  While  older  vessels,  designed  as  battle- 
ships, partake  of  the  character  of  cruisers,  the 
first  armored  cruisers  designed  as  such  were  the 
Imperieuse  and  Warspite,  of  the  British  navy. 
They  were  completed  in  1886-88,  but  were  de- 
signed about  1881.  The  armor  consists  of  a 
short  water-line  belt  and  shallow  barbettes  for 
the  four  principal  guns.  The  first  innovation 
was  the  French  Dupuy  de  Ldme,  commenced  in 
1888  and  finished  about  1892.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  a  small  area  at  the  bow  her  sides  are 
completely  covered  with  4-inch  armor  from  the 
water  line  to  the  upper  deck,  and,  in  addition, 
she  has  armored  barbettes  for  her  principal  guns. 
She  was  followed  by  other  French  ships  almost 
equally  covered — the  armor  a  little  thinner— but 
later  types  in  all  navies  have  much  less  area  of 
side  covered.  In  order  to  provide  adequate  sus- 
tained speed  in  heavy  seas  and  to  carry  large  sup- 
plies of  coal,  armor,  and  armament,  the  size  of 
armored  cruisers  has  grown  until  now  many  of 
them  exceed  14,000  tons  in  displacement  and  ap- 
proach the  most  powerful  battleship  in  armament 
and   protection.      Such,   for   instance,  are  the 


i 


o 


to 

a 

lU 


SHIP. 


788 


SHIPBTriLDIKa. 


Tennea9ee  and  Washington  of  the  United  States 
Navy,  which  were  commenced  about  the  end  of 
1902.  They  are  502  feet  long,  and  have  a  dis- 
pkcement  of  14,600  tons,  while  their  battery  con- 
sists of  four  10-inch  guns,  sixteen  6'inch,  twenty- 
two  3-inch,  twelve  3-pounders,  four  l-pounders, 
and  eight  automatic  and  machine  guns. 

The  third  type  of  armorclad  is  the  coast-de- 
fense ship.  The  ordinary  type  of  armored  coast- 
defense  ship  is  the  improved  monitor,  of  some- 
what similar  design,  a  vessel  carrying  heavy 
ordnance,  and  fairly  thick  armor,  with  light 
draught  and  good  manceuvring  qualities.  Goal 
capacity,  habitability,  seaworthiness,  and  (usual- 
ly) spec^  are  sacriiSoed  to  keep  the  dimensions 
within  moderate  limits.  Many  small  countries 
have  built  coast-defense  ships  on  these  lines,  real- 
izing their  inability  to  maintain  an  adequate 
naval  force  to  assume  offensive  operations  against 
a  first-class  power.  In  the  greater  navies  the 
coast-defense  ships  are  largely  vessels  of  obso- 
lete types,  many  of  them  designed  originally  as 
sea-going  ships,  but  now  unfit  for  modem  offen- 
sive operations.  For  the  defense  of  certain 
harbors  and  channels  the  United  States  has 
recently  built  several  improved  monitors  and 
a  few  powerful  coast  defenders  have  recently  been 
completed  by  France,  Germany,  the  Netherlands, 
and  Russia.  Many  of  them  are  thoroughly  sea- 
worthy ships,  however,  and  only  regarded  as  in 
the  coast  defense  class  because  of  their  size  and 
moderate  coal  supply. 

BiBLiOGBAPHT.  For  further  information,  con- 
sult: Annual  of  the  Office  of  Naval  Intelligence 
(United  States  Navy),  particularly  for  the  year 
1889  and  subsequent  volumes;  Brassey,  Naval 
innual  ( Portsmouth,  England ) ;  Laugh  ton  (ed.), 
The  Naval  Pocket  Book  (London,  aimual) ; 
Aide-memoire  de  Vofficier  de  marine  (Paris, 
annual) ;  Ta>8chen}mch  der  deutaohen  und  der 
fremden  Kriegeflotten  (Munich,  annual)  ;  AU 
manach  fUr  die  kaiserliche  und  konigliohe 
Kriege-Marine  (Pola,  annual) ;  Brassey,  Brit- 
ish Navy,  vol.  i.,  "Shipbuilding  for  Purposes  of 
War"  (Portsmouth,  1886) ;  Proceedings  of  the 
United  States  Naval  Institute  (published  quar- 
terly at  Annapolis,  Maryland),  particularly  vol. 
iz.,  No.  3;  Army  and  Navy  Year  Book  for  1895 
and  1896  (Philadelphia) ;  Journal  of  the  Society 
of  Naval  Engineers  {yvhlifAied.  quarterly  at  Wash- 
ington) ;  the  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  No- 
vol  ArMtects  and  Marine  Engineers  (published 
annually.  New  York) ;  Nauticus  (annual,  Ber- 
lin) ;  Transactions  of  the  Institution  of  Naval 
Architects  (published  aimu9.i]y,  London)  ;  Wil- 
mot,  The  Development  of  Navies  (London,  1892) ; 
Very,  The  Navies  of  the  World  (ib.,  1880); 
King,  The  Warships  of  Europe  (Portsmouth, 
1878) ;  Bennitt,  The  Monitor  and  the  Navy  Un- 
der Steam  (Boston,  1900) ;  Buchard,  Marines 
Hrang^es  (Paris,  1891) ;  annual  reports  of  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy.  See  articles  on  Ai&mob 
Plate;  Guns,  Naval,  etc. 

SHXPBXXHiDXEra.  The  simplest  form  of 
floating  craft  designed  to  support  and  transport 
men  or  objects  is  the  log;  the  next  step  is  the 
raft;  then  the  dugout,  or  log  hollowed  out;  the 
'hollowed  out'  principle  being  established,  the 
canoe  of  bark  or  skins  stretched  upon  light 
frames  naturally  followed  when  lightness  was  a 
matter  of  importance.  To  secure  increased  size 
the  dugouts  were  split  and  additional  planks  in- 


serted between  the  sides  to  form  a  broader  bottom, 
the  next  step  naturally  being  the  construction  of  a 
vessel  of  planks  sewed  together  with  ropes,  or 
held  together  with  wooden  pins  and  braced  by 
light  interior  frames.  The  next  form  was  that 
of  a  vessel  in  which  the  planking  was  attached 
to  strong  frames  by  wooden  pins  or  metal  fast- 
enings; when  this  point  was  reached  the -larger 
craft  had  whole  or  partial  decks.  Lastly  we 
have  the  iron  or  steel  ship  of  the  present  day. 

The  earliest  Egyptian  drawings  show  boats 
constructed  of  sawn  planks  and  having  sails 
as  well  as  oars.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
Egyptian  ships  are  the  earliest  of  which  we 
have  positive  knowledge,  there  are  the  strongest 
reasons  for  believing  that  the  Egyptians  were 
but  tardy  imitators  of  real  seafaring  peoples 
— ^for  seafaring  themselves  they  were  not.  The 
Chaldeans  seem  to  have  been  navigators  and 
shipbuilders,  but  it  is  certainly  to  the  Phoeni- 
cians that  belongs  the  principal  credit  for  the 
development  of  tne  ship.  As  early  as  B.o.  900 
the  PhoBnician  war  galley  had  reached  the 
trireme  stage,  and  had  decks,  masts,  yards, 
stays,  sails,  a  ram,  etc.  The  war  galleys  dif- 
fered from  those  used  for  carrying  merchandise 
in  being  longer,  faster  under  oars,  generally 
larger,  and  probably  less  seaworthy. 

Among  the  ships  of  the  ancients  there  were 
many  of  great  size,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  they 
were  strong  enough  to  have  'gone  to  sea'  in  the 
modem  sense  of  the  expression.  They  were 
chiefly  used  for  harbor  service  or  as  house- 
boats, and,  though  some  were  fitted  as  men-of- 
war,  it  does  not  appear  that  they  were  ever  in 
action.  One  great  ship,  of  which  the  dimen- 
sions are  not  precisely  known,  was  built  for 
Hiero  II.,  King  of  Syracuse,  under  the  direction 
of  Archimedes.  Though  the  descriptions  are  not 
very  clear,  she  seems  to  have  been  copper- 
fastened  and  sheathed  with  lead  laid  over  cloths 
soaked  in  pitch.  She  was  presented  by  Hiero 
to  Ptolemy  Philopatef  soon  after  completion; 
her  further  history  is  unknown.  The  ordinary 
trireme  galley  was  probably  110  to  140  feet 
in  length  (including  the  beak),  and  had  a 
breadth  of  14  to  18  feet.  This  size  seems  to 
have  been  the  general  favorite  throughout  the 
galley  period.  As  ramming  was  one  of  the 
principal  methods  of  attack,  speed,  weight,  and 
handinees  were  of  prime  importance,  and  these 
were  better  combined  in  the  trireme  than  in  ves- 
sels of  greater  or  less  size.  With  merchant 
vessels  the  conditions  were  somewhat  different. 
Merchant  galleys  used  their  sails  much  more 
and  had  less  imperative  need  of  speed.  They 
were  therefore  broader  in  proportion  to  the 
length. 

As  the  use  of  sails  became  more  common  and 
they  were  better  fitted,  ships  began  to  increase 
in  avera^  size,  the  advantage  of  speed  and 
power  being  with  the  larger  ships.  As  soon 
as  the  sea  power  of  Venice  began  to  wane  the 
great  centres  of  shipbuilding  changed  from  the 
Mediterranean  to  the  Atlantic,  the  North  Sea, 
and  the  Baltic.  William  the  Oonqueror  in- 
vaded England  in  very  small  vessels,  but  one 
hundred  years  later  English  ships  of  consid- 
erable size  were  in  use.  King  John  established 
a  royal  dockyard  at  Portsmouth.  Early  in  the 
fourteenth  century  the  use  of  large  sailing 
ships  and  of  the  mariner's  compass  had  become 


SHIPBTTILDINa, 


784 


SHIPBTnLDIHG. 


general.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  ship  con- 
struction was  much  improved  and  ships  began 
to  take  on  much  of  the  form  which  tney  have 
preserved  to  the  present  day.  During  the  next 
lour  centuries  improvements  of  design  and  con- 
struction were  continuously  made  until  the 
wooden  sailing  ship  reached  its  culminating 
point  in  the  clipper  ship  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. 

So  long  as  ships  depended  upon  sails  for  pro- 
pulsion shipbuilding  remained  a  mechanical  art 
bound  by  rules,  traditions,  and  dogmas  which 
were  the  result  of  centuries  of  experience.  But 
with  the  advent  of  steam  came  the  general  sci- 
entific awakening  and  shipbuilding  received  its 
due  share  of  attention.  Its  theoretical  side  has 
been  given  the  name  of  naval  architecture. 

For  convenience  we  may  divide  the  subject  into 
three  principal  parts,  viz.:  (1)  Design  as  it 
affects  the  buoyancy,  stability,  steadiness,  sea- 
worthiness, etc.  (2)  Design  as  it  affects  the 
efficient  propulsion  and  manoeuvring  powers.  (3) 
Design  as  regards  the  strength,  habitability,  and 
general  structural  arrangement.  The  various 
qualities  of  a  ship  here  mentioned  are  more  or 
less  interdependent,  but  it  is  possible  to  con- 
sider each  separately  and  examine  the  effects 
of  variation  of  form  or  structure  which  differ- 
ent requirements  entail. 

A  vessel  floating  freely  in  still  water  dis- 
places a  volume  of  water  equal  in  weight  to 
its  own,  and  the  weight  is  called  the  vessel's 
displa^yement.  This  weight  is  supported  by  the 
pressure  of  water  which  acts  at  all  points  per- 
pendicular to  the  surface  of  the  ship's  bot- 
tom; but  the  sum  of  the  vertical  components 
of  the  water-pressure  at  all  points  must  balance 
the  weight  of  the  ship,  and  this  sum  is  termed 
the  buoyancy.  The  total  weight  of  a  fully 
loaded  ship  may  be  divided  into  the  weight  of 
hull  and  u>€ight  of  lading.  The  latter  repre- 
sents her  carrying  power  or  useful  displace- 
ment, and  it  is  of  course  desirable  to  make  this 
as  large  as  possible  (compared  to  the  weight  of 
the  hull)^  being  consistent  with  other  necessary 
requirements.  The  reduction  in  hull  weight  is 
the  principal  cause  of  the  substitution  of  iron 
for  wood  in  shipbuilding,  and,  in  turn,  the  dis- 
placing of  iron  by  steel. 

In  considering  ships  of  different  forms  it  is 
useful  to  know  something  definite  concerning 
their  shapes  without  exhaustive  examination, 
and  this  is  arrived  at  by  comparing  them  with 
the  parallelepipedon,  which  has  dimensions 
equal  to  the  length  (L),  breadth  (B),  and  mean 
draught  (M)  of  the  ship.  If  t?  =  the  volume 
of  the  ship,  and  V  the  volume  of  the  parallel- 

V 

epipedon,  we  have     ^   :=  G  =  coefficient  of  fine- 

^  1 — 

ness  of  the  ship.    If  d  and  D  are  the  corre-  I 

spo.nding  displacements    (i.e.  weights)    in  — \ 
tons  since  35  cubic  feet  of  sea-water  weigh 
a  ton, 

d_      rfy35_ 
^-•D      L'XBXM 

This  formula  takes  no  account  of  the  shape 
of  the  midship  section  of  the  ship,  in  which 
there  is  considerable  difference  in  vessels  of  the 
various  types.  A  bluff  vessel  might  have  a  high 
rise   of   floor,   and   a   fine-ended  ship   a   nearly 


rectangular  midship  section,  and  yet  the  co- 
efficient of  fineness  be  the  same.  To  obviate  this 
uncertainty  the  prismatic  coefficient  is  med. 
In  this  case  the  volume  of  the  ship  is  compared 
to  the  volume  of  a  prism,  whose  length  is  the 
length  of  the  ship,  but  whose  base  is  the  mid- 
ship section  of  the  ship.  If  the  area  of  the  mid- 
ship section  is  A,  we  have  prismatic  ooeffideDt, 
or  coefficient  of  water-lines  as  it  is  oommooly 

In  modem  steamships  the  midship  section 
closely  approaches  a  rectangle,  and  the  ordinary 
coefficient  of  fineness  suffices.  For  steamers  of 
exceptionally  fine  form  (particularly  those  with 
no  parallel  midship  body ) ,  the  coefficient  is  from 
40  to  50  per  cent.;  in  large  fast  steamers,  45 
to  55  per  cent.;  in  recent  battleships,  55  to  65 
per  cent.;  in  low-speed  cargo  steamers,  65  to  78 
per  cent.  The  coefficient  of  water-lines  ia 
greater  and  varies  from  about  55  to  83  per 
cent,  in  value. 

In  referring  to  the  displacement  of  a  ship  it 
is  necessary  to  specify  some  particular  condi- 
tion, as,  of  course,  the  displacement  varies  with 
the  loading.  With  men-of-war  the  condition 
commonly  used  is  that  of  normal,  or  mean  load 
draught.  That  is  supposed  to  be  the  average 
cruising  condition,  but  is  usually  somewhat 
less.  The  deep  load  condition  for  a  man-of-wnr 
is  when  her  full  supply  of  stores  are  on  board 
and  her  coal  bunkers  are  full.  For  merchant 
ships,  displacement  is  only  beginning  to  be  need, 
and  it  is  generally  given  for  a  light  load  con- 
dition— ^when  the  ship  is  practically  empty— or 
when  she  is  immersed  to  her  Plimsoll  mark 
(see  LoAD-LiNE) ;  it  may  also  be  given  for  a 
specific  mean  draught  of  water.  The  tonnage  of 
ships  is  a  measure  of  capacity  for  cargo,  and  is 
fully  treated  in  the  article  on  the  Measube- 
icENT  OF  Ships. 

After  considering  the  volume  of  displacement 
of  ships,  the  next  point  to  be  examined  is  the 
shape  of  the  volume  as  regards  stability  and 
steadiness.  These  two  expressions  are  linked 
together  in  the  minds  of  many  people  as  if  they 
were  convertible  terms.  Instead  of  being  so 
they  are  in  a  measure  antithetical,  as  we  shall 
presently  see.  When  a  vessel  is  at  rest  in  still 
water  it  is  evident  that  her  centre  of  gravity  and 
the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  volume  of  water 
she  displaces  (which 
is  called  the  centre 
of  buoyancy)  must  — 
lie  in  the  same  ver- 
tical line,  for  only 
in  that  condition 
will    the    forces    of 


T 


Fie.  L 


Fig.  3. 

weight  and  buoyancy  act  in  exactly  opposite 
directions  and  produce  equilibrium.  The  rela- 
tive positions  of  .these  points  are  shown  in  the 
accompanying  dia^rama,  in  each  of  which  G  is 
the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  ship  and  B  the  centre 
of  buoyancy. 


SSXPBtTILBIHG. 


785 


BEZPBXriLDINa. 


If  the  ship  is  made  to  roll,  the  position  of 
the  centre  of  buoyancy  will  be  displaced,-  as 
shown  in  Fig.  3.  We  haye  then  a  force  acting 
yertically  upward  at  B',  and  a  force  working 
verticaUy  downward  at  G%  producing  a  couple 


Fie.  4. 

tending  to  turn  the  ship  back  to  her  upright 
position.  Similarly,  if  the  ship  pitches,  the 
centre  of  buoyancy  is  displaced  longitudinally 
and  the  couple  acts  as  before.  In  either  case, 
if  W  is  the  weight  of  the  ship  in  tons  the  mo- 
ment of  this  couple  is  equal  to  W  X  G'H,  or 
WXG"H'.  If  a  vessel  rolls  and  pitches  at 
the  same  time  the  centre  of  buoyancy  will  be 
displaced  both  laterally  and  longitudinally,  and 
the  couple  will  then  tend  to  act  in  a  plane,  mak- 
ing an  angle  with  the  keel  which  is  ^eater  than 
0  and  less  than  90  degrees.  If  a  ship  is  pressed 
over  by  a  constant  force,  such  as  the  wind  or 
the  action  of  the  rudder,  and  the  surface  of  the 
water  is  smooth,  the  righting  moment  is  simply 
that  of  the  couple.  But  if  the  surface  of  the 
water  is  broken  by  waves  the  shape  of  the  sub* 
merged  body  is  constantly  chang- 
ing, thereby  moving  the  centre  of 
buoyancy  and  adding  to  or  sub- 
tracting from  the  righting  force 
due  to  the  couple. 

When   a   ship   is   forcibly   in- 
clined in  still  water  the  point  M 
(Fig.  3),   called  the   transverse 
metaoentre,  is  the  point  in  which 
the  vertical  line  through  B'cuts  the  line  G'M,  which 
is  vertical  when  the  ship  is  upright;  and  the  dis- 
tance G'M  is  called  the  transverse  metacentrio 
height.  Similarly  in  Fig.  4,  M'  is  the  longitudinal 
metacentre,  and  G^'M'  is  the  lotigitudinal  meta- 
centric height.    In  vessels  of  ordinary  type  G^M' 
is  so  large  that  there  is  practically  no  danger  of 
their  turning  end  over  end  unless  they  are  very 
small.    G'M,  however,  is  often  very  small,  and  its 
value  must  be  very  carefully  considered.  Being  so 
much  used,  it  is  commonly  referred  to  as  the 
metacentrio  height.    The  determination  of  it  is 
effected  by  inclining  the  ship  in  still  water.    It 


changes  for  every  change  in  the  position  of  the 
centre  of  buoyancy,  but  for  angles  not  exceeding 
16  degrees  the  change  is  slight.  The  value  of 
the  metacentric  height  usually  given  in  tables 
is,  therefore,  that  obtained  by  inclining  the  ship 
through  a  very  small  angle. 

The  roUing  of  a  ship  when  forcibly  inclined  in 
still  water  and  then  allowed  to  right  herself  is 
like  that  of  a  pendulum  which  has  been  drawn 
to  one  side  and  then  permitted  to  vibrate  un- 
til it  comes  to  rest.  Acted  upon  by  the  couple 
(the  moment  of  which  in  this  case  is  called  the 
moment  of  statical  stability),  she  rapidly  reaches 
the  upright  position  at  a  constantly  varying 
angular  velocity.  As  soon  as  this  position  is 
reached  the  couple  ceases  to  act,  while  her  mo- 
mentum causes  the  roll  to  continue;  but  be- 
yond the  upright  position  a  couple  in  the  oppo- 
site direction  is  formed  and  this  (together  with 
friction  and  wave-making)  gradually  checks  her 
roll  until  it  ends,  whereupon  the  new  couple  sets 
up  a  roU  in  the  opposite  direction  just 
as  a  pendulum  returns  in  its  vibra- 
tion. The  rolling  continues,  though 
the  arcs  are  smaller  and  smaller  each 
time,  until  the  vessel  comes  to  rest  in 
stable  equilibrium  in  the  upright  posi- 
tion. The  oscillations  of  a  pendulum 
in  vibrating  are  performed  in  equal 
periods  of  time,  irrespective  of  their 
amplitude;  and  this  is  practically  true 
of  the  ship,  though  the  wave-making  due  to  the 
high  angular  velocity  of  deep  rolls  and  the  in- 
creased friction  due  to  ^eater  area  of  immersed 
surface  cause  some  variation.  The  mean  length 
of  time  required  for  a  ship  to  make'  a  complete 
double  roll  through  a  moderate  angle  in  smooth 
water  is  called  the  stiUrwater  period.  In  rough 
water  this  period  is  modified  by  the  action  of  the 
waves,  which  gives  a  constantly  varying  value  to 
the  total  righting  moment.  If  the  waves  pass 
under  a  ship  in  such  a  way  as  to  add  to  this 
moment  when  the  ship  is  rolling  toward  the 
vertical  and  reduce  it  when  she  is  rolling  away 
from  the  vertical,  a  dangerous  condition  of  af- 
fairs is  produced  which  may  result  in  her  cap- 
sizing. This  condition  can  only  exist  when  the 
wave  period  (time  between  waves)  is  practically 
the  same  as  the  ship's  still- water  period;  when 


Fie.  S. 


DIAftBAM  BHOWIKO  USB  OW  WATEB-BAIjULBT  TAHXS  IV  4 
MERCHANT  STEAMER. 

The  shaded  portion  indicates  ballast  tanks. 

it  does  exist  the  course  of  the  ship  with  refer- 
ence to  the  waves  should  be  materially  changed. 
Since  the  righting  moment  is  the  force  which 
makes  a  ship  roll,  it  is  evident  that  if  this  force 
is  powerful  the  ship  will  roll  quickly  and  per- 
haps deeply,  neither  of  which  is  desirable.  To 
reduce  the  time  of  rolling  (i.e.  the  still- water 
period)  the  metacentric  height  may  be  reduced 
as  much  as  is  consistent  with  safety,  or  the 
weights  in  the  ship  may  be  moved  away  from 
the  midship  plane  if  practicable,  at  the  same 
time  preserving  the  same  height  of  centre  of 
gravity.    To  reduce  the  amplitude  of  the  roll. 


SSIPBTTILDIKO. 


786 


flUIF  B  U  CLDOrO. 


and  therefore  its  angular  Telocity,  the  best 
means  so  far  devised  is  the  bilge  keel  (q.v.),  or 
'rolling  chock.'  Horizontal,  Awartship  water 
chambers  with  a  central  dam,  or  several  dams, 
and  partly  filled  with  water,  are  useful  to  re- 
duce small  angles  of  roll,  but  the  noise  and  shock 
of  the  moving  water  is  so  objectionable  that  they 
have  not  been  adopted.  Vessels  are  designed 
to  have  a  certain  metacentric  height  under 
various  conditions  of  loading;  and  the  stowage 
of  cargo  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  so  arranged 
as  to  give  proper  value  to  the  righting  moment. 
Vessels  with  double  bottoms  may,  within  small 
limits,  vary  their  righting  moments  by  filling 
or  emptying  double-bottom  compartments. 

To  secure  seaworthiness,  vessels  must  not  only 
be  sufficiently  stable  at  all  moderate  angles  of 
roll,  but  they  must  be  stable  at  all  possible 
angles.  The  range  of  stability  is  independent 
of  the  force  of  the  righting  moment  and  varies 
In  different  classes  of  ships.  In  battleships  and 
large  vessels  it  usually  reaches  70  degrees  of 
inclination  on  each  side  of  the  vertical;  for 
small  vessels,  such  as  torpedo  boats,  the  range 
is  usually  greater.  Seaworthiness  further  re- 
quires a  reserve  of  buoyancy — ^that  is,  only  part 
of  the  hull  below  the  upper  deck  must  be  sub- 
merged, and  the  openings  in  the  hull  must  be 
capable  of  being  closed  in  rough  seas.  Ck>mfort 
and  health  require  that  the  sides  of  the  ship, 
and  particularly  the  bow,  should  be  high  above 
the  water;  without  high  sides  a  vessel  can  be 
kept  At  sea  for  a  short  period  only. 

The  second  part  of  the  subject  relates  to  ef- 
ficient propulsion  and  manceuvring  power.  In 
this  we  must  consider  the  shape  and  smoothness 
of  the  hull  as  regards  resistance  to  its  move- 
ment through  the  water.  The  total  resistance 
is  made  up  of  three  parts:  (a)  Frictional  re- 
sistance; (b)  eddy-making  resistance;  and  (c) 
wave-making  resistance. 

Frictional  resistance  is  due  to  friction  be- 
tween the  water  and  the  hull  of  the  ship.  It 
does  not  depend  upon  the  shape  of  the  hull  to 
any  appreciable  extent,  but  upon  its  smoothness, 
the  area  of  the  wetted  surface,  the  length  of 
the  ship,  and  the  speed.  It  forms  the  greater 
part  of  the  total  resistance  of  a  ship  moving  at 
low  speeds  and  an  important  part  of  it  at  all 
speeds,  particularly  if  the  bottom  is  rough  or 
foul.  For  any  given  ship  it  varies  about  as  the 
square  of  the  speed.  The  difference  in  resist- 
ance between  a  smooth  and  a  rough  bottom  is 
very  great.  A  smoothly  painted  bottom  has 
only  half  that  of  one  of  the  roughness  of  fine 
sandpaper,  and  only  about  a  third  of  that  of 
coarse  sandpaper.  The  difference  in  the  power 
required  to  drive  a  ship  when  her  bottom  is  foul 
and  when  her  bottom  is  clean  is  then  very  easily 
appreciated. 

Eddy-making  resistance  is  not  usually  impor- 
tant in  well-designed  ships,  and  ought  not  to 
exceed  about  8  per  cent,  of  the  frictional  re- 
sistance. Eddies  are  chiefly  to  be  found  at  the 
stem,  where  the  water  rushes  in  behind  the  ship. 
If  the  n  n  is  long  and  fine,  the  speed  moderate, 
and  the  propeller  struts,  rudder,  etc.,  well  de- 
signed, they  are  scarcely  noticeable;  but  a  ship 
with  too  short  a  run,  badly  designed  rudder, 
propeller  struts,  etc.,  leaves  at  full  speed  a  boil- 
ing, troubled,  eddying  wake  behind  her. 

Wave-making  is  in  many  respects  the  most  im- 


portant part  of  the  resistance  of  ships,  for  it  ia 
the  one  over  which  we  have  the  moet  oontrol, 
and  which  is  the  greatest  impediment  to  hi^ 
speed.  The  laws  which  govern  it  are  not  yet 
fully  understood,  but  the  character  of  the  waves 
and  the  losses  entailed  by  them  have  been  very 
carefully  examined.  A  ship  moving  through  un- 
disturbed water  puts  certain  particles  of  it  in 
motion,  canning  some  along  with  her  by  fric- 
tion and  givmg  motion  to  oQiers  in  such  a  way 
as  to  cause  them  to  rise  in  waves.  All  the  en- 
ergy taken  up  by  the  water  must  come  from  the 
propelling  machmery,  and  if  it  is  not  returned 
to  the  ship  in  pushing  her  ahead  it  is  wasted. 

The  'entrance'  of  a  ship  is  the  tapered  fore- 
body  which  extends  from  the  stem  to  the  pomt 
where  her  hull  has  obtained  the  full  dimensions 
of  the  midship  (or  maximmn)  section;  and  the 
run  is  the  corresponding  tapered  portion  of  the 
after  body.  These  two  parts  of  a  vessel  are 
termed  the  wave-making  features,  because  the 
movements  of  the  particles  of  water  forming 
waves  depend  upon  their  lengths  and  shapes. 
A  vessel  passing  through  undisturbed  water 
forms  a  double  series  of  waves  at  the  bow  and 
at  the  stem.  The  former  are  most  readily  seen, 
largely  because  the  action  of  the  screw  tends 
to  degrade  and  confuse  those  at  the  stem.  One 
set  of  waves  are  called  divergetU  because  thdr 
crests  make  an  angle  of  40  to  60  degrees  with 
the  keel;  the  other  waves  are  called  tranwene 
because  their  crests  are  perpendicular  to  the 
keel  line  of  the  ship.  Both  sets  increase  in 
height  with  the  speed,  and  this  height  is  a 
measure  of  the  energy  absorbed  by  them,  and 
indicates  the  speed  with  which  they  are  travel- 
ing. The  divergent  waves  are  thrown  off,  and, 
leaving  the  ship,  no  longer  infiuenoe  it;  but  the 
transverse  waves  move  at  the  same  speed  as  the 
ship  and  kee^  their  crests  and  hollows  at  about 
the  same  points  on  her  sides  so  long  as  the 
speed  is  constant.  Furthermore,  the  length  be- 
tween crests  is  the  same  as  between  the  crests 
of  ocean  waves  moving  at  the  same  rate  of 
speed.  It  is  found  that  if  a  wave  crest  is  main- 
tained at  about  the  middle  of  the  run  the  wave- 
making  is  decreased,  but  if  a  wave  hollow  exists 
there  the  wave-making  resistance  is  increased. 
Some  of  the  variations  in  power  required  to 
drive  vessels  at  different  speeds  may  be  due  to 
this  cause. 

A  study  of  the  behavior  of  models  and  of  full- 
sized  ships  of  different  designs  and  imder  dif- 
ferent conditions  has  shown  that  for  every  de- 
sign there  is  a  certain  critical  speed  below  which 
wave-making  resistance  increases  quite  re^- 
larly  and  moderately,  but  beyond  which  it  in- 
creases with  great  rapidity.  It  is  further  shown 
that  the  greater  the  length  of  the  entrance  and 
the  run  the  higher  is  this  critical  limiting  speed. 
It  was  at  one  time  supposed  that  of  two  designs 
of  equal  length  and  displacement  that  with 
the  least  midship  section  would  give  the  least 
resistance,  but  experiment  has  shown  that  this 
is  not  necessarily  the  case.  If  two  designs  of 
equal  length  and  displacement  are  tested,  one 
having  fair  lengths  of  entrance  and  run  and  con- 
siderable length  of  parallel  middle  body,  and 
the  other  having  no  parallel  middle  body  and  a 
much  greater  beam,  but  tapering  from  toe  mid- 
ship section  to  the  bow  and  stem,  the  latter  will 
have  the  higher  limiting  speed.    Ships,  however, 


SKIPBI7m)INO. 


787 


SSIPBI7IU)INO. 


are  buiH  to  cany  cargo.  The  depth  is  kept  as 
moderate  as  possible  on  account  of  the  shallow- 
ness of  many  harbors;  and  with  a  given  depth 
only  a  certain  breadth  is  practicable  or  the 
righting  moment  will  be  unduly  great.  There- 
fore it  is  desirable  to  increase  the  displacement 


which  pins  may  be  placed.  The  mold  of  the 
frame  is  laid  on  the  bending  slab,  and  pins  in- 
serted al<mg  its  edge.  The  hot  iron  angle  bar 
(or  channel  or  Z  bar),  which  is  to  form  the 
frame  (or  the  outer  part  of  the  frame,  if  it  is 
built  up  of  plates  and  angles),  is  then  pressed 

PI        I      I 


:ss:>35 


D' 


C 


A  X  A 

Fie.  8.  9BMKM  FLAK, 


FlO.  7.  HAIiF-BBKABTH  PLAN. 


FlO.  &  BOUT  PIiAir. 


only  by  increasing  the 
length;  this  means  that, 
after  allowing  a  suitable 
entrance  and  run,  the  re- 
mainder of  the  length  is 
applied  to  extending  the 
parallel  middle  body. 

The  designs  of  the  naval  architect  are  pre- 
pared on  paper,  and  are  occasionally  supple- 
mented by  a  wooden  model.  The  three  principal 
plans  are  the  sheer  plan  (showing  sections  of 
the  ship  made  by  vertical  longitudinal  planes), 
the  half-breadth  plan  (showing  sections  made  by 
horizontal  longitudinal  planes),  and  the  body 
plan  (showing  sections  made  by  vertical  trans- 
verse planes).  In  the  figures  the  dotted  lines  1, 
2,  3,  are  water  lines  and  are  the  intersections  of 
horizontal  longitudinal  planes,  and  the  inner  sur- 
face of  the  planking  or  plating  of  the  hull ;  lines  I, 
11,  and  III  are  bow  (forward)  and  buttock  (aft) 
lines,  made  by  vertical  longitudinal  planes;  the 
full  lines  in  the  body  plan  are  sections  A,  B,  C, 
etc.,  and  A',  B',  C,  etc.,  made  by  vertical  trans- 
verse planes,  which  are  passed  at  equal  distances 
from  each  other,  X  being  at  the  point  of  greatest 
breadth  and  called  the  midship  section.  In  the 
body  plan  the  right  half  shows  half-sections 
forwaid  of  the  mi&hip  section  and  the  left  half 
the  half-sections  abaft  it. 

In  actual  plans  many  more  water  lines,  bow 
and  buttock  lines,  etc.,  are  shown,  for  the  full 
plans  are  of  large  size.  The  plaii^dng  or  plat- 
ing, positions  of  frames,  decks,  and  much  otber 
detail  are  also  shown.  The  three  principal  plans 
are  only  a  small  part  of  the  drawings  furnished 
by  the  architect  to  the  builder.  There  must 
be  plans  for  decks,  holds,  bulkheads,  etc.;  of 
ventilating,  drainage,  lighting,  and  flushing  sys- 
tems; of  engines,  boilers,  etc.;  and  a  vast  num- 
ber of  plans  showing  details  of  construction  of 
parts  and  fittings. 

The  drawings  being  completed,  the  work  is 
taken  up  bv  the  constructive  force.  The  plans 
are  laid  off  on  the  mold  loft  floor  in  full  size. 
Wooden  molds  are  then  prepared  for  the  frames 
or  else  the  shapes  of  the  frames  are  cut  (or 
scrived)  into  a  great  piece  of  flooring  called  the 
scrive  board.  The  frames  are  heated  and  bent 
on  the  bending  slab.  This  is  a  large  floor  of 
thick  metal  with  a  great  ownber  of  holes  in 


up  against  these  pins  and  so  given  its  proper 
curvature.  A  sufficient  number  of  frames  hav- 
ing been  prepared,  the  work  of  erection  begins. 


Hem  rriodt  Berth  Eng, 


fhesr  MpuHing 

Sheer!  ) 


5kid  Beems 


6i|^  Ketlj 


wmmMMMMMM® 


^-™*.,  .^^  GartoardStrakfi'"'   Hal  Keel 


Longitudinal*'^ 


Fie.  9.  lODSHIP  8B0TIOH  OT  BATTLMmP. 

The  building  way  is  prepared  by  setting  up 
the  keel  blocks.  These  are  short  heavy  timbers 
a  foot  or  more  square  built  up  in  piles  two  or 
three  feet  apart  and  having  the  upper  surface 
shaped  to  the  keel  line  of  the  vessel.  On  these 
the  keel  is  laid«    In  nearly  all  modem  steamers 


SHIPBUILBIHO. 


788 


flUIF  B  U  ILDQrO. 


the  keel  or  keel  plate  is  a  broad  flat  plate  of 
extra  thickness.  It  is  in  sections,  riveted  together, 
and  joined  to  the  stem  and  stem  posts.  aSjqt  the 
keel  is  laid  the  midship  frames  are  erected  and 
held  in  place  by  shores  and  ribands  until  secured 
by  the  internal  vertical  keel,  the  longitudinals, 
stringers,  side  and  bottom  plating,  etc  The  large 
castings  or  forgings  forming  the  stem  and  stem 
posts  are  then  erected,  the  remainder  of  the  plat- 
ing put  on,  and  the  interior  of  the  ship  partly 
completed.  The  next  step  is  the  laimching,  and 
this  may  take  place  at  any  time  after  the  outside 
plating  is  on  and  the  interior  completed  so  far  as 
necessary  to  assure  sufficient  strength  and  stiff- 
ness. The  weight  of  the  vessel  has  so  far  been 
supported  on  the  keel  blocks  and  bilge  shores.  It 
must  now  be  transferred  to  the  launching  ways. 
These  consist  of  heavy  timber  ways  inclined  at 
about  the  same  angle  as  the  keel  blocks  (about 
five-eighths  of  an  inch  to  the  foot),  and  are  built 
up  on  each  side  of  them.  Resting  on  the  launch- 
ings  ways  are  the  sliding  bilge  ways,  also  of 
heavy  timber,  and  on  top  of  the  bilge  ways  is 
built  a  framework  that  fits  closely  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  ship.  This  is  called  the  cradle.  To 
remove  the  weight  of  the  ship  to  the  launching 
ways  wedges  are  driven  under  the  cradle,  lift- 
ing the  ship  off  the  keel  blocks.  The  under  sur- 
face of  the  bilge  ways  and  the  upper  surface  of 
the  launching  ways  having  been  well  lubricated, 
the  ship  is  ready  to  slide  into  the  water  as  soon 
as  released  by  sawing  the  tie-piece,  or  knocking 
out  the  dog-shore,  which  holds  her.  She  starts 
down  the  ways  slowly,  but  her  velocity  on  reach- 
ing the  water  is  frequently  considerable  and 
must  be  checked  by  hawsers  if  there  is  not  much 
room  for  her  to  range  astern.  As  soon  as  she  is 
water-borne  she  floats  clear  of  the  cradle.  Small 
vessels  are  usually  nearly  completed  before 
launching,  but  large  ones  are  commonly  launched . 
when  not  much  over  half  their  weights  are  on 
board.  As  soon  as  the  ship  is  in  the  water  the 
boilers  and  engines  are  installed,  and  the  interior 
and  upper  works  finished.  In  England  many  ar- 
mored  vessels  are  built  in  dry  docks.  This  saves 
the  labor  of  lifting  heavy  weights,  it  being  only 
necessary  to  lower  them;  and  the  cost  of  the 
launching  and  building  ways  is  avoided.  As  an 
offset  to  these  advantages  the  use  of  a  dry  dock  is 
lost  for  a  year  or  two. 

Comparatively  few  wooden  steamers  are  now 
built,  but  wooden  sailing  vessels  are  still  pro- 
duced in  considerable  numbers.  The  general  fea-  ' 
tures  of  wooden  shipbuilding  resemble  those  of 
shipbuilding  in  iron  and  steel,  but  there  are  of 
course  differences.  The  keel  blocks  are  laid  in 
the  same  way.  On  them  are  laid  the  heavy  tim- 
bers forming  the  keel,  which  are  sometimes  nearly 
two  feet  square.  The  different  lengths  of  tim- 
bers are  scarfed  and  bolted  together;  over  and 
across  the  keel  are  laid  the  floor  timbers  of  the 
ribs  or  frames  and  the  frames  are  thence  built 
up,  being  held  in  place  by  shores,  braces,  cross- 
spalls,  beams,  ana  ribands.  Between  the  floor 
timbers  and  extending  up  usually  to  the  princi- 
pal deck  (sometimes  to  the  rail)  the  space  is 
closely  packed  with  filling  timbers  forming  a 
structure  which  is  nearly  tight  without  planking. 
The  beams  in  wooden  ships  are  of  wood  and  they 
may  be  attached  to  the  frames  by  wooden  or  iron 
knees.  The  former  are  considered  to  give  the  best 
fastening,  but  the  iron  ksiees  save  much  room. 


The  advantage  of  having  a  copper  bottom  has 
caused  a  few  composite  vessels  to  be  boilt^  These 
are  mostly  yachts,  gunboats,  and  small  sailing 
vessels.  Composite  vessels  are  framed  much  like 
those  of  iron  or  steel.  Over  the  frames,  wood- 
planking  is  used  instead  of  metal  plating,  though 
a  good  many  plates  of  metal  are  placed  under  the 
wood  to  give  the  proper  strength  to  the  struc- 
ture in  different  parts.  JThe  wood  planking  is 
attached  to  the  frames  with  bolts  setting  up  with 
nuts  on  the  inside  and  is  covered  with  copper  to 
a  short  distance  above  water.  The  topaides  of 
many  composite  vessels  are  plated  with  steel  or 
iron  above  the  level  where  coppering  is  neces- 
sary, as  the  metal  is  stronger  and  more  durable 
than  the  wood. 

The  safety  of  a  ship  depends  upon  its  stability, 
strength,  water-tightness,  and  reserve  stability 
and  floatability,  if  injured.  The  stability  of 
ships  has  already  been  considered.  The  strcs^th 
is  due  to  the  framing  and  plating  or  plankug. 
Water-tightness  is  effected  by  calking  the  seams 
between  plates  or  planks.  The  seams  of  iron 
plates  are  calked  by  hammering  the  edge  of  the 
uppermost  plate  against  the  ope  underneath  it. 
The  seams  between  planks  are  partly  filled  with 


FlO.  10.  OSLLmLAB  DOTJBLS  BOTTOM  OP  ▲  mKBAJTT 


oakum,  which  is  forced  in,  and  the  remainder  of 
the  seam  filled  with  pitch,  marine  glue,  or  puttj. 
The  reserve  stability  and  fioatability  when  in- 
jured depend  upon  the  position  and  volume  of  the 
interior  space  which  is  flooded.  To  reduce  this 
volume  to  a  safe  point,  vessels  are  divided  into 
compartments  by  water-tight  bulkheads  which 
extend  across  the  ship  at  intervals.  In  merchant 
vessels  the  bulkheads  usually  have  no  passages 
through  them,  but  in  men-of-war  many  of  the 
bulkheads  have  openings  closed  by  water-tight 
doors.  In  addition  to  transverse  water-tight 
bulkheads  many  ships  have  longitudinal  ones — 
such,  for  instance,  as  the  one  separating  the 
engine  rooms  in  a  twin-screw  vessel.  As  a  fur- 
ther protection  against  flooding  due  to  striking 
ground,  large  vessels  usually  have  a  double  bot- 
tom extending  the  whole  or  part  of  the  length 
and  rising  at  the  sides  to  about  the  turn  of  the 
bilge  or  higher.  The  inner  bottom  thus  fitted  Is 
layed  over  tUb  inside  of  the  frames  and  secured 


t 


1-  £ 

Ml    i 
<0   > 


z 
I- 


z 

2 


2i 

O    O 

0  -o 

111  a 

1  £ 
»-   ^ 

o 


8HIPBUILDINQ. 


789 


SHIP  or  VOOLB. 


in  the  same  manner  slb  the  outside  plating.  The 
frames  in  the  double  bottoms  are  deep  enough  to 
give  considerable  space  between  the  inner  and 
outer  plating,  which  is  necessanr  to  give  access 
for  cleaning  and  painting.  Most  frames  are 
lightened  by  holes  cut  through  them,  but  about 
eveiT  fourth  or  fifth  frame  is  water-tight  and  has 
no  holes.  The  space  between  the  imperforate 
frames  forms  a  double-bottom  compartment,  ac- 
cess to  which  is  had  by  a  manhole  closed  by  a 
removable  water-tight  cover.  Most  ships  are 
fitted  with  a  water-tight  bulkhead  close  to  the 
bow,  called  the  collision  bulkhead. 


SnPBUiLonre  in  thb  Uhitbd  Statxs  fob  the  Ybab 
EHDnre  Juhb  30.  1902 

Mamber 

Tons 

Sailing  YeBsels 

581 
579 
44 

287 

97.698 

Steamers 

308.180 

Canal  boats 

4,589 
58,416 

Barwwj  , -,T -...,,.. r-- - 

Total 

1,491 

468.888 

Ibox  AiTD  Btkxl  Tohhaob  Bttilt  in  the  Unttbd  States, 
1870-1902 


TEAB 

Steamers, 
tons 

Other  ves- 
sels, tons 

Total, 
tons 

1870 

7.602 

25.588 

75.402 

167.948 

270.932 

679 
44 

4,975 
28.908 
9.480 

8.281 

1880 

25,582 

1890 

80.877 

1900 

196.851 

1903 

280.862 

IBON  AND  BTBEL  STEAM  TONNAOE  BUILT  IN  1902 

Country  Tons 

Oi^at  Britain 1.581.406 

United  States 270.932 

Germany 252,719 

France 55,345 

Norway  and  Sweden 27,572 

Denmark 12.542 

Aostriie^HiuieaiT •.<W9 

BiBUOOKAPHY.  Consult:  White,  Manual  of 
Vaval  Architecture  (Jx)ndon,  1894)  ;  Thearle, 
Naval  Architecture,  Practical  and  Theoretical 
(London  and  New  York,  1874)  ;  Rankine,  Ship- 
building, Theoretical  and  Practical  (1866); 
Reed,  Bhiphuilding  in  Iron  and  Steel  (Lon- 
don, 1869) ;  Ledieu  and  Cadiat,  Nouveau  ma- 
i&riel  naval  (Paris,  1890)  ;  Reed,  Treatise  on 
the  Stability  of  Ships  (London,  1886)  ;  Cro- 
nean.  Constructions  pratiques  des  navires  de 
guerre  (Paris,  1894) ;  Transactions  of  the  In- 
stitution of  Naval  Architects  (London,  annual)  ; 
Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Naval  Architects 
and  Marine  Engineers  (New  York,  annual). 

For  further  information,  see  articles  on 
Bilge;  Bulkhead;  Calking;  Chhistenino  a 
Ship;  Cofferdam;  Collision;  Deck;  Galley; 
Gangway;  Launch;  Launching;  Load-Line 
Masks  of  Vessels;  Measubement  of  Ships; 
Navigation;  Navies;  Ship;  Ship,  Abmobed; 
Steam  Navigation,  etc. 

SHIP  CANAL.    See  Canal. 


SHIP  FEVEB.    See  Ttphus. 

SHTPIBO,  sh6-p6a)d.  An  important  wild 
tribe  of  Panoan  stock  .(q.v.)  in  the  forest  region 
of  the  Upper  Ucayali,  Northeastern  Peru.  Very 
little  is  known  concerning  them.  They  were  first 
visited  by  Franciscan  missionaries  in  1651.  In 
1736  they  almost  destroyed  the  neighboring  and 


cognate  Setebo  in  a  bloody  battle.  In  1704,  by 
the  efforts  of  the  missionaries,  a  reconciliation 
was  effected  between  the  two  tribes,  and  the  Shi- 
pibo  were  collected  into  a  mission  settlement,  but 
three  years  later  they  massacred  all  the  mission- 
aries and  reverted  to  their  former  wild  life. 

SHIP^KA  PASS.  A  pass  in  the  Balkan 
Moimtains,  47  miles  northeast  of  Philippopolis 
(Map:  Balkan  Peninsula,  £  3).  Elevation,  4370 
feet.  It  was  made  famous  during  the  Russo- 
Turkish  War  of  1877-78  (q.v.). 

SHIPO^EY.  A  market  town  in  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  England,  on  the  Aire,  3 
miles  northwest  of  Bradford  (Map:  England,  E 
3).  The  manufacture  of  worsted  and  woolens 
is  largely  carried  on.  Population,  in  1901, 
26,670. 

SHIPMASTEB.  The  commander  of  a  mer- 
chant vessel.  In  most  countries  a  license  is  re- 
quired of  the  master  of  a  steam  vessel.  A  mas- 
ter of  a  ship  has  complete  control  of  the  navi- 
gation of  the  vessel,  and  over  all  persons  on 
board,  whether  passengers  or  crew.  He  may  re- 
sort to  extreme  measures  in  case  of  a  mutiny, 
even  to  killing  a  seaman  to  enforce  order  and 
obedience,  and  may  compel  passengers  to  obey 
reasonable  commands.  He  is  the  representative 
of  the  owners  on  a  voyaffe  and  in  foreign  ports, 
and  may  bind  the  ship  by  contracts  for  neces- 
sary supplies,  repairs,  and  so  on.  For  this  pur- 
pose he  may  even  pledge  the  cargo  in  extreme 
cases.  The  term  captain,  sometimes  applied  to  a 
master  of  a  ship,  is  not  technically  correct,  as 
that  name  denotes  the  commander  of  a  war 
vessel.  Consult  Kay,  Shipmasters  and  Seamen 
(2ded.,  London,  1894). 

SHIP-MONEY.  A  tax  levied  in  England  at 
various  times.  In  1008,  when  the  country  was 
threatened  by  the  Danes,  a  law  was  made 
obliging  all  proprietors  of  three  hundred  hides 
of  land  to  equip  a  vessel  for  the  protection 
of  the  coast.  Elizabeth,  at  the  time  of  the 
threatened  Spanish  invasion,  required  the  vari- 
ous ports  to  fit  out  a  certain  number  of 
ships  at  their  own  charge.  It  was  in  1626  that 
Charles  I.  levied  such  an  impost.  This  was  in 
time  of  actual  war.  The  first  writ  for  the  levy 
of  ship-money  in  time  of  peace  was  issued  in 
1634,  when  a  contribution  was  demanded  from 
the  coast  shires.  In  the  following  year  a  sec- 
ond writ  extended  the  tax  over  the  entire  king- 
dom. A  general  spirit  of  resistance  was  imme- 
diately aroused,  chiefiy  because  it  was  imposed 
by  the  arbitrary  authority  of  the  King  alone. 
In  1637  the  celebrated  John  Hampden  refused 
payment  of  the  impost,  an  example  in  which  he 
was  followed  by  nearly  the  entire  country.  He 
was  prosecuted  before  the  twelve  judges  of  the 
Exchequer  and  seven  of  them  pronounced  in 
favor  of  the  Crown ;  but  the  trial  had  the  effect 
of  thoroughly  arousing  the  public,  and  the  Long 
Parliament,  in  1640,  voted  ship-money  illegal  and 
canceled  the  sentence  against  Hampden.  Consult : 
Gardiner,  History  of  England  (London,  1893- 
96)  ;  id.,  Constitutional  Documents  (2d  ed.,  Ox- 
ford,   1899).    See  England. 

SHIP  OP  POOLS,  The.  A  satirical  poem  by 
Alexander  Barclay  (1509),  paraphrased  from 
Sebastian  Brant's  Narrenschiff,  ridiculing  the 
follies  of  the  day,  under  the  allegory  of  a  ship 
loaded  with  fools. 


SHipporo. 


790 


8HIPKH0  SUBSIDIEa 


SHIPPING,  Law  of.  See  Adiobaltt  Law; 
Masitime  Law. 

SHIPPING  A&TICIiES.  ArUcles  of  agree- 
ment between  the  master  of  a  ship  and  a  seaman 
serving  on  board  her  in  regard  to  wages,  length 
of  service,  character  of  service,  etc. 

SHIPPING  SUBSIDIES.  Pecuniary  aid  to 
shipping  by  public  grant.  The  terms  bounty  and 
subvention  may  be  employed  in  the  same  sense. 
The  first  direct  bounty  in  aid  of  shipping  of 
any  kind  was  granted  in  1730  by  the  3d  George  II. 
(c.  20,  §  9)0  which  provided  for  a  bounty  of 
20  shillings  per  ton  on  all  vessels  of  20  tons 
or  over  engaging  in  the  white  herring  fisheries. 
The  object  of  these  fishing  bounties  was  to  en- 
courage the  fisheries,  which  served  as  a  training 
school  for  mariners  for  the  British  war  fleet. 
The  bounty  laws  were  modified  from  time  to 
time  until  they  were  finally  repealed  in  1867.  It 
was  not,  however,  until  1839  that  the  English 
Government  began  the  policy  of  paying  subsidies 
for  'mail  service.'  In  that  year  Samuel  Cunard 
made  a  contract  with  the  British  Board  of  Ad- 
miralty, by  which  he  agreed  to  establish  a  fort- 
nightly mail  service  between  Liverpool  and  Hali- 
fax for  a  yearly  payment  of  £60,000.  The  New 
World  terminal  was  afterwards  changed  to  Bos- 
ton and  then  to  New  York.  In  1841  the  amount 
of  the  subsidy  was  increased  to  £80,000  and  the 
number  of  vessels  increased  from  3  to  7.  The 
subsidy  was  again  increased  in  1848  to  £145,000, 
but  was  reduced  to  £80,000  in  1868,  after  the 
failure  of  its  chief  competitor,  the  Collins  Line. 
Since  that  time  the  amount  of  the  annual  subsidy 
has  varied  greatly  in  different  years.  In  1870 
the  amount  of  the  subsidy  for  the  transatlan- 
tic ocean  mail  service  was  made  to  depend  upon 
the  weight  of  the  mail  matter  transported,  the 
contracts  being  given  to  the  Cunard  and  the 
White  Star  lines. 

The  subsidies  were  given  with  the  two-fold  pur- 
pose of  establishing  quicker  and  better  mail  com- 
munications with  America,  and  of  encouraging  a 
rival  to  the  American  clipper  lines,  which  were 
rapidly  driving  the  British  ships  out  of  business. 
When  the  United  States  Congress  passed  the  bill 
giving  a  subsidy  to  the  Collins  Line  in  1848,  the 
British  Government  raised  the  subsidy  to  the 
Cunard  Company  by  £65,000,  without  requiring 
any  additional  services,  showing  that  the  Brit- 
ish Government  was  not  solely  bent  on  obtaining 
a  quicker  mail  service.  The  subsidy  undoubted- 
ly gave  the  Cunard  Company  a  great  advantage 
over  its  competitors.  .Whether,  as  is  often  al- 
leged, the  subsidy  really  helped  to  establish 
steam  navigation  is  more  than  doubtful.  The 
Great  Western  Company  was  in  the  field  before 
the  subsidized  Cunard  Line.  It  is  highly  proba- 
ble that  the  subsidy  rather  retarded  than  has- 
tened improvements,  since  it  enabled  the  Cunard 
Company  to  earn  profits  without  maintaining 
the  highest  standard  of  efficiency. 

In  1868  the  Cunard  Line  received  £80,000  as  a 
fixed  subsidy,  while  the  Inman  Line  received 
£22.161,  the  North  German  Lloyd  £9,504,  and 
the  Hamburg-American  £3,343,  paid  according 
to  the  weight  of  mail  carried.  The  next  year  the 
Cunard  received  £80,000  for  its  service  twice  a 
week,  and  the  Inman  £35,000  for  a  weekly  ser- 
vice. The  contracts  were  drawn  for  seven  years. 
A  Parliamentary  commission  investigated  them 
and  recommended  that  they  be  disapproved,  but 


the  Goyenunent  did  not  act  upon  the  reeommcD- 
dation.  In  1870  the  Postmaster-General  intro- 
duced the  system  of  payment  by  we^t  through- 
out, by  which  the  English  lines  were  paid  4  shil- 
lings per  pound  for  letters  and  4d.  far  papers, 
and  the  North  German  Lloyd  2s.  4d.  f<»r  letters 
and  2d.  for  papers.  In  1887  the  rates  were  re- 
duced to  3s.  for  letters  and  3d.  for  other  mail, 
the  Cunard  and  White  Star  lines  to  carry  all 
mail  exoept  specially  directed  letters.  These 
rates  are  about  1^  times  the  international  pos- 
tal rates,  so  there  is  still  a  subsidy  of  about 
£75,000  to  the  Cunard  and  White  Star  lines,  not 
counting  the  admiralty  subventions,  amounting 
to  £42,000,  which  are  paid  for  the  privilege  of 
hiring  or  buying  certain  of  the  faster  steamers 
in  case  of  war. 

The  Peninsular  Company,  in  1837,  began  the 
carriage  of  mails  to  and  from  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal for  an  annual  payment  of  £29,600,  which  was 
soon  after  reduced  to  £20,500.  Hie  next  year 
the  company  took  the  contract  of  carrying  the 
mails  between  England  and  Alexandria  for  £34,- 
200  per  annum.  In  1842  it  became  the  Penin- 
sular and  Oriental  Company  and  took  over  the 
service  from  Suez  to  Calcutta  with  a  yearly  sub- 
sidy of  £115,000,  or  about  20s.  per  mile.  The 
service  was  soon  after  extended  to  China,  with 
an  addition  of  £45,000  to  the  yearly  subsidy 
at  the  rate  of  about  12s.  per  mile.  The  East 
India  Company  continued  to  carry  the  mails 
between  Bombay  and  Suez  for  a  yearly  subsidy 
of  £105,200,  or  30s.  per  mile.  In  1858  the  Pe- 
ninsular and  Oriental  took  over  the  service  for 
£24,700  and  rendered  a  much  quicker  and  more 
regular  service.  In  1852  the  Government  adver- 
tised for  bids  for  a  mail  service  to  Australia. 
The  Peninsular  and  Oriental  offered  to  perform 
the  Australian  service,  together  with  all  other 
contracts,  for  £199,600  per  annum,  to  be  reduced 
by  £20,000  on  the  completion  of  the  railroad 
across  the  peninsula  of  Suez.  This  gave  a  more 
extended  service  for  £76,000  less  than  was  of- 
fered by  the  only  competitor;  yet  there  was 
much  complaint  of  favoritism  shown  by  the  Gov- 
ernment to  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental. 

During  the  Crimean  War  the  British  Govern- 
ment chartered  eleven  of  the  Peninsular  and 
Oriental  vessels  for  transport  service.  This  so 
crippled  the  company's  fleet  that  they  were  com- 
pelled to  give  up  the  service  between  Australia 
and  Singapore.  After  the  war  the  contract  for 
a  monthly  service  between  Australia  and  Suez 
was  let  (1857)  to  the  European  and  Australian 
Steam  Navigation  Company  for  £185,000  per 
year,  but  the  severity  of  the  terms  and  the  in- 
efficiency of  the  management  made  the  enterprise 
an  utter  failure,  involving  the  loss,  in  one  year, 
of  the  entire  capital  of  £400,000  and  a  further 
debt  of  £270,000.  The  Peninsular  and  Oriental, 
for  a  yearly  compensation  of  £180,000,  then  took 
the  service,  including  a  service  to  Mauritius  and 
Aden.  The  latter  line  was  soon  given  up  and 
the  subsidy  was  reduced  to  £134,672.  In  1866 
the  service  was  made  semi-montiily  and  the  sub- 
sidy increased  to  £170,000,  and  four  years  later 
a  new  contract  on  all  the  Peninsular  and  Ori- 
ental lines  was  made,  with  an  annual  subsidy  of 
£450,000.  Since  that  time  the  amount  has  been 
steadily  decreased  until,  in  1898,  it  was  £330,000. 
It  is  a  disputed  question  whether  the  mails 
could  have  been  carried  for  a  lees  expenditore 


imiFl^UMQ  StmaTDTWB. 


791 


SHZFPnrO  STTBSIDZBS. 


of  money.  Certain  it  is  that  the  service  ren- 
dered by  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental  Company 
was  much  less  expensive  and  infinitely  more  effi- 
cient than  that  of  either  the  East  India  Com- 
pany or  the  Government  post-office  packets.  No 
doubt  the  company  made  substantial  profits  on 
the  Government  service,  but  that  there  was  no 
secret  connivance  with  Government  officials  to 
secure  a  monopoly  is  shown  by  the  attitude  of 
the  Government  toward  the  company  throughout. 
Eveiy  contract  was  thrown  open  to  public  com- 
petition, which  in  this  case  seems  to  have  been 
more  than  a  mere  form.  If  at  times  the  subsi- 
dies appear  to  have  been  exorbitant,  we  must  con- 
sider the  urgent  necessity  to  Great  Britain  of 
keeping  up  communications  with  her  colonies,  es- 
pecially India,  the  tremendous  difficulties  to  be 
overcome,  and  the  severe  governmental  require- 
ments. The  subsidies  gave  England  the  commu- 
nication she  needed  earlier  than  the  growth  of 


America.  No  British  ports  were  touched  by  the 
service,  and  the  amount  of  British  mail  carried 
was  almost  nothing.  The  bounty  kept  the  com- 
pany solvent  for  some  years,  but  the  trade  was 
insufficient  to  justify  such  a  service  and  eventu- 
ally the  company  failed.  The  Galway  Line  pre- 
sents another  case  of  the  tendency  of  subsidies  to 
carry  the  creation  of  facilities  for  trade  further 
than  circumstances  really  warrant.  This  com- 
pany contracted,  in  1860,  to  carry  English  mails 
from  Galway  to  Portland,  Boston,  or  New  York 
via  Newfoundland,  agreeing  to  deliver  dis- 
patches in  six  days.  They  built  four  new  vessels, 
but  none  of  them  came  up  to  the  requirements 
of  strength  and  speed,  (me  was  lost  and  two 
others  disabled.  The  company  failed  and  in- 
volved all  the  investors  in  ruin. 

The  following  table  gives  the  subsidized  lines 
and  the  amount  of  mail  subsidies  paid  by  the 
British  Government  in  1901 : 


Company 


Yearly 
payment 


DoTer  and  Calato  (dally) „ 

BrindlBi  to  Bombay  (weekly) ) 

Brindlfll  to  Shanghai  (fortnightly) V 

Brlndlst  to  Adelaide  (fortnightly) ) 

Naples  to  Adelaide  (fortnightly) 

Halifax    to    Yokohama^   Shanghai,  and    Hong   Kong 

(monthly) 

Southampton  to  West  Indlee  (fortnightly) 

Aden  to  Zanxibar  (monthly) 

Liyerpool  to  S.  America  and  Falkland  Is.  (fortnightly)... 

Southampton  to  Table  Bay  (weekly) 

Southampton  to  New  York  (one  wayonly,  semi-weekly).. 


London,  Chatham,  and  Dover  B.  B.  Co, 

Peninsular  and  Oriental  (3o 

Orient  Steam  Navigation  Co , 

Canadian  Padflc  B.  B.  Co „ 

BoyalMall 

British  India  Co 

Pacific  Stefun  Navigation  Co 

Union  Steamship  Co 

Cunard  and  White  Star  Cos.  * 

Total 


£26,000 

880,000 

86,000 

80.000 
80.000 
9,000 
82.600 
136.000 
117.666 


£874,166 


*  A  new  contract  (1902)  with  the  (Tunard  Co.  grants  a  fixed  subsidy  of  £160,000  a  year  in  place  of  the  payment 
aoeordlng  to  weight  of  mails  as  hitherto.  * 


commerce  would  warrant — a  policy  naturally  in* 
volving  expense — but  by  a  proper  watchfulness^ 
the  Post  Office  authorities  kept  the  subsidies 
within  reasonable  limits.  The  mail  business 
probably  paid  no  higher  profits  than  other  traf* 
nc,  and  at  times  it  must  have  paid  less,  for 
the  company  did  not  wish  to  renew  the  con- 
tracts, and  at  one  time  tried  to  abrogate  them. 
The  Royal  West  India  Mail  Steam  Packet 
Company  is  another  line  which  has  drawn  heavy 
subsidies  from  the  British  Government.  It  was 
founded  in  1841  and  was  granted  a  subsidy  of 
£240,000  for  traversing  a  distance  of  684,816 
miles  every  year.  There  was  no  advertisement 
for  bids,  and  no  revision  of  the  extravagant 
terms  of  the  contract  imtil  1874.  There  was  lit- 
tle freight  and  less  mail  to  be  carried,  and,  in 
spite  of  the  large  subsidy,  the  company  lost  about 
£80,000  the  first  year  through  inefficient  or  dis- 
honest management.  The  second  year  the  Gov- 
ernment reduced  the  mileage  to  392,073  miles, 
leaving  the  subsidy  as  before,  and  granting  new 
favors.  It  appears  to  be  clear  that  the  advan- 
tages secured  by  this  particular  subsidy  were  not 
commensurate  with  the  expenditure  involved. 
Without  doubt  a  better  service  could  have  been 
secured  at  much  less  expenditure.  The  service 
was  slow,  irregular,  and  unsatisfactory,  and  in 
scone  years  the  amount  paid  in  subsidies  ex- 
ceeded the  postal  receipts  of  the  line  by  £183,038. 
The  most  palpable  case  of  the  use  of  mail  sub- 
sidy to  aid  in  the  extension  of  British  commerce 
was  the  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Company, 
which  was  given  a  subsidy  in  1840  for  carrying 
the  mails  between  the  porta  of  Central  and  South 


Besides  the  above  mail  payments,  a  subsidy  of 
£40,000  per  annum  is  paid  for  the  service  to 
Jamaica,  as  the  outcome  of  the  recommendations 
of  the  West  India  Royal  Commission  of  1896-97, 
to  encourage  the  fruit  trade  of  the  West  Indies. 
This  is  the  only  example  of  a  subsidy  granted  by 
Great  Britain  expressly  to  encourage  trade. 

Opinions  differ  as  to  whether  the  British  postal 
and  Admiralty  subsidies  have  resultec^in  direct 
advantages  which  justify  the  outlay  made  by 
the  Government.  Mr.  Buxton  Forman  of  the 
British  Post  Office  gave  it  as  his  opinion  that 
this  is  not  always  the  case ;  Sir  Spencer  Walpole, 
former  Secretary  of  the  Post  Office,  thought  full 
value  is  received.  No  careful  statistical  inquiry 
with  regard  to  this  question  has  ever  been  made, 
nor  is  it  possible  to  make  one.  The  open  bidding 
on  mail  contracts  does  not  at  all  secure  service 
at  cost,  because  there  is  nothing  like  free  com- 
petition among  steamship  companies.  Careful 
observers,  however,  agree  that  the  British  postal 
and  Admiralty  subsidies  do  contain  an  element 
of  genuine  subsidy  for  the  encouragement  of  Brit- 
ish shipping.  This  belief  is  strengthened  by  the 
refusal  of  the  British  Government  to  let  the  mail 
contract  to  the  White  Star  Line  after  its  pur- 
chase by  the  Mercantile  Marine  Company  in  1902 
until  full  assurance  was  given  that  the  White 
Star  Company  would  remain  a  thoroughly  Eng- 
lish concern. 

The  policy  of  other  European  countries  is 
quite  different  from  that  of  Great  Britain.  Ger- 
many pays  an  annual  subsidy  of  4,000,000  marks 
($952,000)  to  the  North  German  Lloyd  for  its 
East  Asian  service,  and  2,800,000  marks  (|066,- 


8HIPPIN0  8TTB8n>IB& 


799 


aUXPFUlO  SUBSIDIBS. 


400)  for  its  Australian  service.  The  German 
East  Africa  company  receives  1,050,000  marks 
($392,700)  for  its  services  to  Africa,  and  the 
German  Government  pays  1,000,000  marks  to  the 
North  German  Lloyd  and  the  Hamburg- American 
lines  for  carrying  the  mails  to  America.  The 
total  mail  subsidies  to  all  lines  amount  to  about 
10,175,000  marks  ($2,421,650).  This  is  perhaps 
not  an  excessive  amount  for  the  services  rendered,, 
but  in  addition  the  Government  gives  indirect 
bounties  in  the  shape  of  exemption  from  import 
duties  on  materials  of  construction,  and  preferen- 
tial railway  rates  on  iron,  steel,  and  fuel  used 
in  shipbuilding  and  on  many  articles  exported 
in  German  ships.  These  reductions  in  railway 
tariffs  amount  to  from  36  to  66  per  cent,  of  the 
ordinary  rates.  The  Germans  generally  feel  that 
these  direct  and  indirect  bounties  have  been  a 
good  investment,  and  point  to  the  ftfct  that  Ger- 
man shipping  has  developed  very  rapidly  since 
the  beginning  of  this  policy  of  protection  in  1886. 
The  development  of  shipping  is  not,  however, 
conclusive  proof  of  the  advantages  of  the  sub- 
sidies, since  numerous  other  factors  have  con- 
tributed to  the  growth  of  the  German  mercantile 
marine. 

The  annual  postal  subsidies  voted  by  France 
in  1901  amounted  to  nearly  27,000,000  francs 
($5,211,000).  In  addition  to  this  the  Govern- 
ment paid  5,850,000  francs  ($1,129,050)  in 
bounties  for  construction  and  12,300,000  francs 
($2,373,900)  in  navigation  bounties  making  a 
grand  total  of  45,150,000  francs  ($8,713,960). 
Furthermore,  a  bounty  of  15  francs  ($2.89)  per 
100  k\los  (220  pounds)  is  given  for  machinery 
and  boilers  built  or  repaired.  There  is  no  pre- 
tense that  any  of  these  subsidies  are  given  for 
services  rendered.  It  is  the  avowed  purpose  of 
all  this  bounty  legislation  to  build  up  the  French 
merchant  marine,  but  there  is  no  evidence  that 
French  trade  has  benefited  by  this  policy. 

In  1901  Austria  paid  in  subsidies  $1,590,000, 
and  Hungary  $403,000.  Russia  pays  consider- 
able subsidies,  but  they  are  mostly  for  internal 
commerce  and  for  transport  of  troops,  etc.,  by 
the  volunteer  fleet.  Italy  began  a  policy  of 
bounties  qjfi  construction  and  navigation  in  1885. 
The  Government  in  1897  paid  out  2,044,339  lire 
($394,557)  in  navigation  bounties  and  124,973 
lire  ($20,260)  in  construction  bounties.  In  1897 
Japan  adopted  the  subsidy  policy.  In  addition 
to  heavy  bounties  on  construction  and  naviga- 
tion, the  Government  of  Japan  has  since  1900 
paid  special  subsidies  of  $1,331,600  to  the  Nippon 
Yusen  Kaisha  for  its  European  service,  and 
$325,707  for  its  Seattle  line,  and  $504,912  for  the 
Toyo  Kisen  Kaisha's  line  to  San  Francisco.  Hol- 
land, Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Norway  pay  mail 
subsidies  which  are  no  more  than  fair  compensa- 
tion for  services.  Norway  pays  in  addition  $84,- 
928  for  facilitating  steamer  communicatioi>i,  and 
it  is  claimed  that  this  enables  Norwegian  sttMim- 
ers  to  drive  British  vessels  out  of  the  trade  h^ 
tween  Norway  and  England. 

Except  for  the  bounties  granted  in  1792  to 
certain  fishing  vessels,  the  history  of  Government 
encouragement  to  shipping  in  the  United  States 
begins  with  the  act  of  March  3,  1845,  which  pro- 
vided for  the  transmission  of  the  mails  in  Ameri- 
can ships.  An  act  of  March  3, 1847,  authorized  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  to  accept  the  offers  made  by 
E.  K.  Collins  k  Company  to  carry  the  mails 
from  New  York  to  Liverpool  and  by  Mr.  Sloo  for 


a  mail  service  between  New  York  and  Chagres. 
In  1848  two  lines  were  started  under  subsidies- 
one  from  New  York  to  Bremen,  the  other  from 
New  York  to  Havre.    The  most  important  sub- 
sidized line  was  the  Collins  Line,  which  b^^an 
operations  June  1,  1850.     The  original  subsidy 
was  $385,000  per  annum  for  20  voyages,  or  at  the 
rate  of  $19,250  per  voyage.     At  this  time  the 
Cunard  Line  was  receiving  about  $30,000  per 
voyage.    In  1852  the  subsidy  to  the  Collins  Line 
was  increased  to  $33,000  per  voyage  for  26  trips, 
or  $858,000  per  annum.     The  competition  be- 
tween the  Collins  Line  and  the  Cunard  Line  was 
severe   from   the   first.     Previous   to    1850  the 
Cunard  had  a  virtual  monopoly    of    the   fast 
freight  business.    In  a  few  months  after  the  Col- 
lins Line  started  freights  fell  from  £7  10s.  a  ton 
to  £4  a  ton.     For  a  time  the  Collins  line  bad 
the  advantage  in  the  fight.    But  the  loss  of  the 
Arctic  in  1854  and  the  Pacific  a  little  more  than 
a  year  later  seriously  crippled  the  Collins  Line. 
The  Pacific  was  succeeded  by  the  Adriatic,  the 
finest  and  fastest  steamship  of  that  day,  but  it 
was  impossible  to  retrieve  such  disastrous  losses. 
In  1856  Congress  reduced  the  subsidy  to  $385,000 
per  annum  for  20  trips.     Two  years  later  all 
contracts  for  carrying  the  mails  were  abrogated 
and  the  Collins  Line  failed.     The  cost  of  this 
experiment  was  about  $4,500,000.    From  1848  to 
1858  the  United  States  Government  expended  a 
total  of  about  $15,000,000  in  subsidies  without 
any  manifest  benefit  to  the  American  merchant 
marine.    The  United  States  Government  gave  no 
further  mail  subsidies  until  1866,  when  a  line 
from  New  York  to  Rio  de  Janeiro  was  subsidized 
to  the  amount  of  $250,000  per  annum.    One  year 
later  the  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Company  was 
granted  a  subsidy  of  $500,000  a  year  for  a  month- 
ly service  to  Japan  and  China  via  Hawaii.    In 
1872  the  company  offered  to  double  the  service 
for  an  additional  $500,000  a  year.     With  some 
difficulty    a    bill    authorizing    such    a    contract 
was  passed  by  Congress  in  1873.     It  was  after- 
wards discovered  that  the  company  had  spent 
more  than  a  million  dollars  to  influence  Con- 
gressmen   to    vote    the    subsidy.      As    a    result 
of  this  disclosure  and  of  the  subsequent  failure 
of  the  company  to  comply  with  the  conditions 
imposed,    a    new    contract    was    abrogated    by 
the  Government.     The  Pacific   Mail    Cbmpany, 
during  its  ten  years  of  contract  service,  received 
$4,583,000  in  subsidies.    In  that  period  there  was 
no  increase  in  the  trade  of  the  United  States 
with  the  Orient  that  could  not  be  traced  to  other 
causes  than  subsidized  mail  service,  and  the  gen- 
eral merchant  marine  declined  steadily. 

Under  the  act  of  1891  the  United  States  pays 
for  carrying  the  mails  on  a  mileage  basis  as 
follows:  For  first-class  steamers,  $4  per  mile; 
second-class  steamers,  $2  per  mile;  third-class 
steamers,  $1  per  mile;  fourth-class  steamers, 
66  2-3  cents  per  mile.  Besides  these  contract 
prices  the  Post  Office  Department  pays  American 
vessels  carrying  mail  $1.60  a  pound  for  first- 
class  matter  and  8  cents  a  pound  for  other  mat- 
ter. Foreign  vessels  carrying  United  States 
mtMls  are  paid  the  international  postal  rates 
(44  »nts  and  4%  cents  per  pound  respectively). 
It  wiU  be  seen  that  these  payments  constitute 
a  ver;'  liberal  subsidy  to  the  mail  steamers.  In 
1898  Senator  Hanna  introduced  the  first  general 
subflid.>''  measure  designed  to  introduce  a  system 
of  direct  i^avigation  bounties.    After  numerous 


SHTPPINO  SUBSIDIES. 


793 


SHIP'S  PAPEBS. 


amendments  the  measure  passed  the  United 
SUtes  Senate,  March  17,  1902.  The  bill  as 
passed  consisted  of  four  titles:  (1)  Ocean  Mail 
Hteamera,  which  provided  for  mail  payments  on 
the  basis  of  speed  and  tonnage  of  vessels,  and  not 
for  service.  Ocean  mail  steamers  were  divided 
into  seven  classes,  according  to  speed  and  ton- 
nage. Compensation  for  100  miles  sailed  was: 
for  the  first  class,  2.7  cents  per  gross  ton;  second 
class,  2.5  cents;  third  class,  2.3  cents;  fourth 
class,  2.1  cents;  fifth  class,  1.9  cents;  sixth  class, 
1.7  cents;  and  seventh  class,  1.5  cents.  (2)  Gen- 
eral Subsidy.  This  section  was  intended  to  give 
a  bounty  of  1  cent  per  gross  ton  for  every  100 
nautical  miles  sailed  to  all  vessels  not  receiving 
mail  subsidy.  This  was  intended  as  an  offset  to 
the  alleged  greater  cost  of  construction  and  navi- 
gation of  American  ships.  (3)  Deep-Sea  Fish- 
eries. Under  this  title  it  was  proposed  to  grant 
$2  per  gross  ton  annually  as  a  bounty  on  Amer- 
ican vessels  engaged  at  least  three  months  in  the 
deep-sea  fisheries,  and  $1  per  month  to  every 
American  sailor  employed  on  such  vessel.  The 
purpose  of  this  part  of  the  bill  was  to  encourage 
an  industry  which  would,  it  was  alleged,  serve 
as  a  training  school  for  the  United  States  Na^'y. 
The  fourth  title  contained  only  general  provi- 
sions of  no  special  importance.  The  measure 
came  before  the  House  in  the  last  session  of  the 
Fifty-seventh  Congress,  but  was  reported  ad- 
versely by  the  committee  having  it  in  charge. 

SHIP  BAILWAY.  A  railway  on  which 
ships  are  transported  either  in  a  cradle  running 
on  wheels,  or  in  the  water  in  a  tank  carried  on 
a  wheeled  truck  or  car.  Such  railways  are  de- 
signed to  connect  two  navigable  bodies  of  water 
separated  by  an  isthmus,  and  thus  save  a  long 
detour  around  the  intervening  land.  They  are 
of  very  ancient  origin.  A  railway  capable  of 
transporting  vessels  149  feet  long,  16  feet  wide, 
and  drawing  8^  feet  of  water  is  said  to  have 
been  in  operation  across  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth 
as  early  as  b.c.  427.  The  Greeks  in  a.d.  831,  the 
Venetians  in  1483  at  Lake  Garda^  and  the 
Turks  at  Constantinople,  used  tramways  for  the 
conveyance  of  vessels  across  intervening  land. 
Coming  nearer  to  modem  times,  there  are  various 
canal  inclines  and  portage  railways  built  in 
England  and  in  the  United  States  in  the  early 
part  of  the  last  century.  The  railway  for  large 
vessels  was  an  extension  of  the  canal  inclines, 
and  several  very  ambitious  attempts  have  been 
made  to  construct  such  thoroughfares  at  various 
times.  None,  however,  has  ever  been  carried  to 
completion.  One  of  the  earliest  propositions  for 
a  ship  railway  to  carry  ocean  vessels  was  the 
plan  submitted  to  De  Lesseps  in  1860  for  cross- 
ing the  Isthmus  of  Suez.  This  plan  was  rejected 
by  the  famous  Frenchman^  who  afterwards  built 
the  Suez  Canal.  The  plan  for  the  Suez  ship 
railway  called  for  a  level  track  with  10  lines  of 
rails.  The  ships  were  to  be  carried  in  cradles 
running  on  this  track  at  a  speed  of  20  miles  an 
hour.  The  promoters  estimated  the  cost  of  this 
line  to  be  about  one-seventh  the  cost  of  a  canal. 
In  1872  a  similar  railway  across  Honduras  was 
proposed  to  connect  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
Oceans,  but  the  project  failed  for  lack  of  money. 
In  1879  Captain  James  B.  Eads  proposed  a  ship 
railway  across  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec. 
Various  plans  were  proposed  by  Captain  Eads  for 
this  structure,  the  earliest  being  for  ships  350 


feet  long,  of  6000  tons,  carried  in  cradles  running 
on  1380  wheels.  The  length  of  the  road  across 
the  isthmus  w^as  about  150  miles,  and  it  was 
planned  to  run  it  at  a  speed  of  from  six  to  ten 
miles  an  hour.  An  attempt  was  made  to  get 
Congress  to  grant  financial  support  to  this 
project,  but  it  failed,  and,  after  a  year  or  two 
of  precarious  existence,  the  project  died  a  nat- 
ural death.  The  most  important  project  ever 
developed  for  a  ship  railway  was  that  known  as 
the  Chignecto  Ship  Railway  in  Nova  Scotia.  A 
neck  of  land  only  15  miles  wide  separates  Chig- 
necto Bay,  an  inlet  from  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  from 
Baie  Verte,  leading  through  Northumberland 
Strait  into  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence.  It  was 
proposed  to  construct  a  ship  railway  across  this 
neck  to  enable  coasting  vessels  of  1000  tons 
register  and  2000  tons  displacement  to  avoid  a 
stormy  detour  of  500  miles  around  the  coast  of 
Nova  Scotia.  The  line  proposed  was  17  miles 
long  and  nearly  straight  throughout.  It  was 
level  for  half  its  length,  and  on  the  remainder 
the  grades  did  not  exceed  1  in  350.  The  vessels, 
235  feet  long,  56  feet  beam,  and  15  feet  draught, 
after  being  raised  out  of  water  by  hydraulic 
runs,  were  to  be  conveyed  on  steel  cradles  in  sec- 
tions 75  feet  long,  running  on  64  solid  three-foot 
wheels  on  two  lines  of  track  of  standard  gauge 
spaced  11  feet  apart,  and  laid  with  110-pound 
railss,  at  a  speed  not  exceeding  10  miles  an  hour. 
The  construction  of  this  road  was  begun  in 
1888,  and  was  about  three-quarters  completed  in 
1891,  when  work  was  abandoned  for  lack  of 
funds.  Since  the  Chignecto  railway,  no  ship 
railway  has  been  seriously  considered,  though 
many  individual  plans  for  such  roads  have  been 
proposed.  The  literature  on  ship  railways  is 
scattered  through  the  proceedings  of  the  engi- 
neering societies  and  the  volumes  of  the  various 
engineering  periodicals. 

SHIP'S  COMPAKY.  The  ship's  company  is 
the  crew  of  the  ship.  It  is  organized  in  accord- 
ance with  the  requirements  of  the  rig.  In  large, 
full-rigged  ships  the  crew  is  divided  into  fore- 
castlemen,  foretopmen,  maintopmen,  mizzentop- 
men,  and  afterguard.  Owing  to  the  increase  in 
mechanical  means  of  handling  sails  these 
divisions  are  now  less  common  than  formerly. 
In  modem  men-of-war  the  organization  of  the 
ship's  company  is  based  on  the  battery  and 
engines,  little  or  no  sail  being  carried.  The  men 
are  stationed  at  the  guns,  ammimition  rooms, 
boilers,  and  engines,  according  to  the  various 
needs. 

SHIP'S  MAGNETISM.     See  Compass. 

SHIPS  OP  WAB.  See  Frigate;  Ram;  Seops, 
Abmgbeo;  etc. 

SHIP'S  PAPEBS.  A  merchant  vessel  is 
required  to  carry  certain  documents  which  are 
termed  the  "ship's  papers."  These  consist  of: 
( 1 )  Register,  sometimes  replaced  or  accompanied 
by  (a)  Certificate  of  enrollment  (if  employed  in 
United  States  coasting  trade),  (b)  Passport  is- 
sued by  the  sovereign  authority,  (c)  Sea-  letter 
issued  by  the  local  authorities  of  the  port  of  de- 
parture. (2)  Charter  party  (q.v.)  if  chartered. 
(3)  Log-hook  (q.v.).  (4)  Bills  of  lading  (q.v.), 
or  duplicate  receipts  of  cargo  from  the  master 
to  shippers.  (5)  Invoices,  or  detailed  statements 
of  separate  lots  of  goods.  (6)  Manifest  (q.v.), 
or  general  statement  of  cargo.     (7)    Clearance 


'8 


794 


8HIBAZ. 


(q.y.),  or  permission  from  the  authorities  to 
sail.  (8)  Muster  roU,  or  list  of  crew.  (9) 
Shipping  articles  (q.v.)*  (10)  Bill  of  health 
(q.y.).  (11)  Bill  of  sale  (if  ship  has  been  sold 
by  citizens  of  one  country  to  citizens  of  another) 
together  with  consular  certificate.  (12)  Certifi' 
oate  of  inspection.  (13)  Officers'  licenses.  (14) 
P<M«en^er  Im<  (if  passengers  are  carried).  (16) 
License  to  carry  on  a  particular  trade  (fishing, 
carrying  oil,  explosives,  etc.).  The  evidence  of 
nationality  of  United  States  vessels  is  contained 
in  (a)  register  for  foreign  trade;  (b)  certificate 
of  enrollment  for  coasting  vessels;  (c)  license 
for  enrolled  vessels;  (d)  license  for  vessels  under 
20  tons;  (e)  license  for  fishing  vessels;  (f)  sea 
letter  or  passport  issued  by  a  collector  of  a  port 
to  certify  to  national  character  and  ownership 
of  vessel;  (g)  consul's  certificate  for  foreign 
vessel  purchased  abroad  by  American  citizens. 
In  foreign  countries  the  evidence  is  found  as  fol- 
lows: Austria,  in  royal  license  and  certificate 
of  registry;  Qreat  Britain,  certificate  of  regis- 
try; Brazil,  Portugal,  and  Sweden,  passport; 
Denmark,  certificate  of  nationality  and  registry; 
(jrermany  and  Norway,  certificate  of  nationality; 
Russia  and  Spain,  patent  authorizing  the  use  of 
flag.  The  register,  certificate  of  registry,  or 
equivalent  document  should  contain  the  following 
information:  Name  and  character  of  vessel, 
name  of  country  to  which  it  belongs,  dimensions 
of  vessel  (including  tonnage,  masts,  number  of 
decks,  etc.),  rig,  date  of  building,  name  of  mas- 
ter, name  of  owner  or  owners,  date  of  registry, 
number  (international  sigxud  code),  and  signa- 
tures and  seals  of  the  officials  issuing  the  docu- 
ment. 

SHXPTOVy  MoamB.  A  reputed  English 
prophetess  of  the  time  of  Henry  VIIL  The  state- 
ments concerning  her  personal  history  are  con- 
fiicting  and  of  slight  value.  Very  probably  she 
is  a  purely  fictitious  person  whose  name  was 
made  the  vehicle  of  many  supposed  prophecies. 
She  is  first  heard  of  in  1641,  when  The  Prophecie 
of  Mother  Shipton,  an  anonymous  tract,  was  pub- 
lished in  London.  Her  reputation  extended  over 
the  kingdom,  and  chap-books  and  pamphlets  pur- 
porting to  be  collections  of  her  prophecies  ap- 
peared frequently.  The  larger  number  of  these 
were  undoubtedly  inventions.  In  1862  one 
Charles  Hindley  reprinted  an  earlier  so-called 
life  of  Mother  Shipton,  inserting  some  doggerel 
verses  of  his  own,  m  which  he  described  certain 
things  that  had  happened  and  wound  up  with  the 
declaration  that  the  world  would  come  to  an  end 
in  1881.  Hindley  in  1783  acknowledged  that  the 
verses  were  a  hoax.  Consult  Harrison,  Mother 
Shipton  Investigated  (Ixmdon,  1881). 

SHIF-WOBM,  or  Tebedo.  An  aberrant  or 
much  modified  lamellibranch  mollusk  of  the  fam- 
ily TeredinidiB,  so  called  from  being  worm-like 
in  general  shape,  and  from  boring  into  the  hulls 
below  the  water  line  of  vessels.  The  animal  is 
several  inches  to  three  feet  in  length.  The  shell 
itself  is  much  reduced,  equivalve,  widely  gaping, 
and  only  covers  a  part  of  the  animal.  The  man- 
tle of  the  animal  secretes  a  calcareous  lining  to 
the  burrow.  Teredo  navaUs  is  said  to  be  cosmo- 
politan, and  is  the  most  abundant  species  on  our 
coast.  Several  species  habit  the  eastern  coast  of 
the  United  States.  The  ship-worm  besides  honey- 
combing the  logs  of  wharves,  piles,  and  injuring 
flah-pounds  and  traps,  as  well  as  lobster-pots,  has 


been  a  serious  pest  of  wooden  ships;  for  this 
reason  ships  have  had  to  be  sheathed  with  cop- 
per.   Its  mode  of  boring  has  not  been  satisfae- 


A  smpwoBM  {Tendo  jiaralis). 
TImbw  bond  hj  the  molliuk;   t,  tabe;  ab,  bImII:  r, 
valYM  of  itaell ;  <  foot;  e,  coUar ;  p,  pallets;  a,  dphoaa. 

torily  explained;  it  usually  tunnels  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  grain  of  the  wood. 

Ship-worms  are  found  in  a  fossil  state  first  in 
Jurassic  rocks,  where  their  shells  are  found  in 
burrows  made  by  the  animals  in  wood  that  ta 
now  petrified.  They  are  foimd  in  similar  situa- 
tions in  the  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  of  North 
America,  Europe,  and  Asia,  but  show  little  dif- 
ference from  modem  forms.  Consult  Gould, 
Invertebrates  of  Massachusetts  (Boston,  1870); 
Verrill,  Invertebrate  Animals  of  Vineyard  Bound 
(Washington,  1874). 

BHIPWHECK.    See  Wreck. 

SHinaUhB,  Geobge,  Jr.  ( 1832— ) .  An  Ameri- 
can jurist.  He  was  bom  in  Pittsburg,  graduated 
at  Yale  in  1853,  and  was  admitted  to  the  Penn- 
sylvania bar  in  1856.  In  1892  he  was  appoint- 
ed associate  justice  of  the  United  States  Su- 
preme Court  by  President  Harrison,  and  although 
the  nomination  was  opposed  W  the  Pennsylvania 
Senators,  it  was  confirmed.  He  retired  in  1903. 
He  was  one  of  the  Supreme  Court  justices  who 
in  1894  decided  against  the  constitutionality  of 
the  income  tax.    ^e  Income  Tax. 

SHIBAZ,  she^rftz.  The  capital  of  the  Prov- 
ince of  Farsistan,  Persia,  1 12  miles  from  the  Per- 
sian Gulf,  and  35  miles  southwest  of  ancient  Per- 
sepolis  (q.v.)  (Map:  Persia,  £  6).  It  is  built 
on  a  limestone  ridge  of  the  great  West-Persian 
mountain  system,  4750  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is 
inclosed  by  walls  nearly  4  miles  in  circumference. 
It  has  several  fine  mosques,  a  citadel,  bazaars,  col- 
leges, caravanserais,  and  other  public  buildings. 
The  houses,  which  are  chiefly  built  of  stone,  are 
superior  in  appearance  to  those  of  most  other 
Persian  towns.  The  adjoining  plain  is  well 
watered,  and  is  laid  out  in  vmeyards  and 
in  rose-gardens.  The  principal  manufactures 
are  silk,  cotton,  and  woolen  goods,  rose-water, 
glass,  and  inlaid  goods.  The  wine  of  Shiraz, 
which  is  very  strong  and  resembles  Tokay,  is 
famous  throughout  the  East.  Shiraz  carries  on 
trade  with  Yezd,  Ispahan,  and  Bushire,  receiving 
from  the  last  town  Indian  and  European  goods. 
It  contains  a  branch  of  the  Imperial  Bank  of  Per- 
sia. The  city  was  founded  in  a.d.  697,  and  from 
its  beautiful  situation  and  fine  climate  became 
a  favorite  resort  of  the  Persian  princes  and 
under  Kerim  Elian  in  1760  the  capital  of  Persia. 
Destructive  earthquakes  accompanied  by  great 
loss  of  life  in  1812,  in  1824  and  in  1853,  laid  al- 
most the  whole  town  in  ruins.  The  city  has  been 
partially  rebuilt  in  a  somewhat  inferior  style, 
and  its  population  is  now  estimated  at  from 
30,000  to  50,000.  Shiraz  is  celebrated  for  the 
number  and  eminence  of  the  scholars  and  poets  to 
whom  it  has  given  birth,  and  by  whom  its  praises 
have  been  sung. 


fiHTTCTi. 


796 


SHIBUBY. 


SHntE  (AS.  scire,  scyre,  district,  coanty,  ju- 
risdiction, business^  from  scirian,  acerian,  secon- 
dary form  of  aciran,  8ceran,  aceoran,  to  cut  off, 
shear,  OHG.  aceran,  Ger.  aoheren,  to  cut,  shear; 
connected  with  Gk.  ntpuw,  keirein,  Ldth.  akirti, 
to  cut).  A  term  which  seems  to  have  originated 
before  the  time  of  King  Alfred,  and  is  applied  to 
the  districts,  often  called  counties,  into  which 
Great  Britain  is  divided.  A  considerable  niun- 
ber  of  the  counties  of  England,  as  Kent,  Essex, 
Surrey,  Norfolk,  and  Suffolk^  were  formed  out  of 
the  petty  Anglo-Saxon  kingdoms,  which  grad- 
ually became  consolidated  into  one  kingdom.  The 
substitution  of  ealdormen  (or  earls)  for  kings 
marks  the  gradual  organization  of  the  shires. 
It  was  usually  found  convenient  to  split  up  a 
large  kingdom  into  several  shires.  The  national 
and  mili&ry  head  of  the  shire  was  the  ealdor* 
man,  whose  office  was  not  necessarily  hereditary, 
though  it  had  a  tendency  to  become  so.  Shire  is 
applied  to  dll  the  Welsh  counties  except  Angle- 
sea.  In  Scotland  the  English  tendencies  of  the 
sovereigns  from  the  time  of  Malcolm  Canmore 
and  the  tide  of  immigration  from  the  south 
brought  in,  among  other  innovations,  the  division 
into  shires.  Its  introduction  seems  to  have  be- 
gun early  in  the  twelfth  century.  Twenty-five 
shires  or  counties  are  enumerated  in  a  public 
ordinance  of  the  date  1305. 

In  England,  south  of  the  Tees,  there  was  a 
subdivision  of  the  shires  into  hundreda  (q.v.), 
which  in  some  localities  were  called  wapentakea; 
these  hundreds  or  wapentakea  were  further  sub- 
divided into  tythingay  and  it  became  incumbent 
on  every  one  to  be  enrolled  in  a  tything  and  hun- 
dred for  the  purposes  of  government.  In  some 
of  the  larger  counties  there  was  an  intermediate 
division  l^ween  the  shire  and  the  hundred. 
Yorkshire  had  and  still  has  its  ridinga  (q.v.), 
Kent  had  its  lathea,  and  Sussex  its  rapea.  The 
division  into  hundreds  and  tythings  never  pene- 
trated into  the  four  northern  counties  of  Eng- 
land, or  into  Scotland,  where  the  ward  and  quar- 
ter were  the  immediate  subdivisions  of  the 
county.  Consult  Stubbs,  ConatituHoncU  Htatory, 
vol.  i.  (6th  cd.,  Oxford,  1896).  See  County; 
Anglo-Saxons. 

8HIBE,  she^rA.  A  river  of  Southeastern 
Africa.  It  is  the  outlet  of  Lake  Nyassa,  from 
which  it  issues  in  latitude  14**  28'  South,  and 
after  a  southerly  course  of  250  miles  joins  the 
Zambesi  90  miles  from  ita  mouth.  The  naviga- 
tion of  the  upper  course  is  obstructed  by  cata- 
racts for  a  space  of  35  miles  in  the  course  of 
which  the  river  falls  1200  feet.  Below  the 
rapids  it  expands  into  a  broad,  navigable  stream, 
though  somewhat  obstructed  by  the  abundance  of 
aquatic  vegetation. 

8HIBE  HOBSE.  An  English  cart  horse.  The 
Shire  horse  has  been  describ^  as  the  final  result 
of  the  improvement  of  agricultural  horses  com- 
menced early  in  the  nineteenth  century.  Its 
breed  seems  to  be  a  cross  between  native  Lincoln- 
shire and  Dutch  stallions.  A  well-bred  Shire 
horse  is  from  16.2  to  17  hands  in  height  with  a 
girth  of  from  7  feet  6  inches  to  8  feet.  His  chest 
is  wide,  shoulders  well  thrown  back,  head  big, 
but  in  perfect  proportion,  back  short,  with  strong 
muscular  development  of  the  loin.  Ion?  quarters, 
and  a  tail  set  on  well  and  high.  The  black  Shire 
horse  is  gradually  becoming  extinct,  modem 
breeders  preferring  browns  or  bays. 
Tou  XT,-n. 


SHIBLAWy  sher^ft,  Walteb  (1838—).  All 
American  decorative,  land^cape,  and  genre  painter 
and  illustrator.  He  was  bom  at  Paisley,  Scotland, 
but  was  taken  to  America  in  1840.  After  being 
employed  for  many  years  as  bank-note  engraver 
in  Chicago,  he  took  up  painting.  While  in  Chi- 
cago he  was  one  of  the  prime  movers  in  the 
organization  of  the  Academy  of  Design.  In  1870- 
77  he  studied  at  Munich,  and  while  there  painted 
his  "Tuning  of  the  Bell"  (1874) ;  "Sheep  Shear- 
ing," exhibited  at  the  National  Academy  of  De- 
sign in  1877;  and  "Good  Moming,"  now  in  the 
Buffalo  Academy  of  Fine  Arts.  Upon  his  return 
to  the  United  States  he  became  professor  of 
the  Art  Students'  League,  New  York,  and  was 
elected  National  Academician  in  1879.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Society  of  American 
Artists,  and  its  first  president.  His  easel  paint- 
ings are  usually  genre  subjects,  showing  fine 
decorative  feeling  for  line  and  color,  with  a  ten- 
dency toward  rich  and  warm  low  tones.  Among 
them  are:  "Eager  for  the  Fray;"  the  "Goose 
Girl;"  "Jealousy;"  the  "Kiss;"  the  "Barnyard;" 
and  "In  Mischief."  His  most  important  decora*' 
tive  work  is  the  frieze  for  the  dining-room  in  the 
house  of  D.  O.  Mills,  New  York  City,  the  subject 
of  which  is  "Peace  and  Plenty." 

SHIBLEY,  sh&rai.  A  novel  by  Charlotte 
Bronte  (1849),  the  scene  of  which  is  a  Yorkshire 
mill-town.  The  action  centres  in  the  career  of 
Robert  Moore,  the  mill-owner^  frequently  in- 
volved in  riots  among  his  workpeople.  His 
brother  marries  the  heroine,  Shirley  Keeldar* 
who  waff  drawn  from  Emily  Bronte. 

SHIBLEY  (SHEBLEY),  Sir  Anthont 
(1565-C.1636)..  An  English  navigator.  He  was 
educated  at  Hart  Hall,  Oxford.  In  1501  he  ac- 
companied the  Earl  of  Essex  on  his  expedition  to 
Normandy,  and  was  knighted  by  Henry  IV. 
Queen  Elizabeth,  angered  at  his  acceptance 
of  this  honor  without  her  consent,  had  him 
imprisoned  imtil  he  gave  up  the  order  of  St. 
Michael  that  had  been  conferred  upon  him.  In 
1506  he  led  a  buccaneering  expedition  to  the 
West  Indies  and  South  America.  An  account  of 
this  cruise  was  published  by  Hakluyt  in  Voyagea 
and  Diacoveriea.  (1598).  In  1599  he  sailed  to 
Persia,  where  he  was  hospitably  received  by  Shah 
Abbas  the  Great,  who  made  him  ambassador  to 
the  Christian  courts  of  Europe.  Thoroughly  dis- 
credited at  home,  he  passed  his  last  years  in 
Madrid,  a  pensioner  of  the  King  of  Spain.  He 
died  in  poverty  some  time  after  1635.  In  1613 
he  published  Travela  Into  Peraia,  a  dull  and 
tedious  book.  Sir  Anthony  had  two  brothers.  Sib 
RoBEBT  and  Sib  Thomas,  who  were  also  adven- 
turers. The  three  brothers  were  made  the  sub- 
ject of  Travailea  of  Three  Engliah  Brothera 
( 1607) ,  a  play  written  by  John  Day  in  collabora- 
tion. Consult  The  Sherley  Brothera  (Roxburghe 
Club,  1848). 

SHIBI.EY,  James  (1596-1666).  An  English 
dramatist,  bom  in  London.  He  attended  the 
Merchant  Taylors'  School,  London  (1608-12), 
whence  he  passed  to  Saint  John's  College,  Oxford. 
He  afterwards  entered  Catharine  Hall,  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  received  the  degree  of  B.  A. 
(c.1618).  Subsequently  he  took  orders,  and  be- 
came a  minister  at  Saint  Albans.  He  gave  up 
his  living  owing  to  his  conversion  to  the  Church 
of  Rome  and  held  the  mastership  of  the  gram- 
mar  school  from  1623  to  1625.    At  the  end  of 


BHTRTiKY, 


709 


8H0A. 


this  period  he  moved  to  London  and  began  his 
career  as  playwright.  Before  the  theatres  were 
closed  the  act  of  Parliament  in  1642,  he  pro- 
duced about  forty  plays,  most  of  which  have 
survived.  He  was  befriended  by  the  Court,  for 
which  he  composed  many  masques.  He  shared 
in  the  misfortunes  of  the  Royalists  during  the 
Civil  War.  Surviving  until  after  the  Restora- 
tion, he  became  an  important  literary  figure.  He 
died  during  the  great  fire  of  1666,  and  was 
buried  in  Saint  Giles's  churchyard.  Shirley  car- 
ried on  the  traditions  of  the  Elizabethan  drama 
and  served  as  a  link  to  the  new  drama  after  the 
Restoration.  He  essayed  both  tragedy  and  com- 
edy. Of  his  plays  may  be  cited:  The  Witty  Fair 
One  (1628),  a  good  comedy;  The  Wedding 
(1626),  a  still  better  comedy;  The  Traitor 
(1631),  a  powerful  tragedy;  Hyde  Park  (1632), 
a  comedy;  The  Gamester  (1633),  a  comedy  re- 
vived by  Qarrick;  The  Lady  of  Pleasure  (1635), 
perhaps  his  most  brilliant  comedy;  and  The 
Cardinal  (1641),  a  strong  tragedy.  Of  his 
masques.  The  Triumph  of  Peace,  performed  be- 
fore the  King  and  Queen  (1634),  is  regarded  as 
the  best.  Consult:  Dramatic  Works  and  Poems, 
with  notes  by  Gilford  and  Dyce  (London,  1833)  ; 
Shirley,  selected  plays,  ed.  by  Gosse  (Mermaid 
Series,  ib.^  1888) ;  and  Ward,  English  Dramatic 
Literature  (revised  ed.,  ib.,  1899). 

SHIBLEYy  Salina  Hastings.  The  Countess 
of  Huntingdon.    See  Huntingdon. 

SHIBLEY,  Walter  (1725-1786).  An  Eng- 
lish revivalist  and  hymn- writer.  In  1746  he 
graduated  B.  A.  from  New  College,  Oxford,  and 
became  rector  of  Loughrea,  in  Galway.  Through 
his  cousin  the  Countess  of  Huntingdon  (q.v.)  he 
became  acquainted  with  Whitefield  (q.v.)  and 
the  Wesleys  (qq.v.),.  whose  opinions  he  strenu- 
ously advocated  within  the  Established  Church. 
Though  retaining  his  living,  he  made  frequent 
preaching  tours  through  England  and  Ireland. 
The  revivalist  phase  of  his  labors  is  represented 
by  Gospel  Repentance  (1760)  and  Twelve  Ser- 
mons ( 1761 ) .  He  is  now  best  known  for  several 
hymns  in  common  use,  as  "Source  of  light  and 
power  divine,"  and  *'Go,  destined  vessel,  heavenly 
freighted,  go!"  (composed  on  the  departure  of 
missionaries  to  America,  1772). 

SHIRLEY^  William  (1693-1771).  An 
American  colonial  governor,  bom  at  Preston, 
in  Sussex,  England.  After  being  called  to  the 
bar,  he  emigrated  to  Massachusetts,  where  he  was 
appointed  a  commissioner  in  the  boundary  dis- 
pute between  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island, 
and  while  discharging  his  duties  as  such  in  1741 
was  appointed  Governor  of  the  colony.  He  used 
his  influence  against  the  disastrous  financial 
policy  of  the  Legislature  and  tried  to  induce  that 
body  to  grant  him  a  regular  salary,  but  was 
unsuccessful  in  both  efforts.  On  the  outbreak 
of  King  George's  War,  he  organized  the  expedi- 
tion which  captured  Louisburg  in  1745.  Soon 
afterwards  he  persuaded  the  colonists  to  apply 
the  money  they  had  received  from  the  British 
treasury  in  reimbursement  of  their  expenses  on 
this  occasion  to  the  redemption  of  their  paper 
currency.  In  1749  he  went  to  London  to  urge 
the  settlement  of  the  boundary  disputes  between 
the  New  England  and  the  Canadian  colonists, 
and  in  1753  was  appointed  one  of  the  British 
commissioners  in  the  fruitless  negotiations  at 
Paris.    In  the  latter  year  he  was  reinstalled  as 


Governor  of  Massachusetts.  On  the  death  of 
Braddock,  in  1755,  he  was  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  British  forces  in  North  America, 
but  was  soon  called  to  England.  Shirley  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-goieral  in 
1759,  and  was  for  a  time  Governor  of  the 
Bahamas.  In  1770  he  returned  to  Massachusetts, 
where  he  died.  He  published  a  Journal  of  the 
Siege  of  Louisburg  (1745) ;  The  Conduct  of  Oen, 
William  Shirley  Briefly  Stated  (1758) ;  and  two 
or  three  pieces  of  fiction. 

SHIBWA,  sher^wa.  A  lake  in  Southeast  Cen- 
tral Africa,  on  the  boundary  between  Portugnese 
East  Africa  and  the  British  Central  African  Pro- 
tectorate, 60  miles  southeast  of  Lake  Nyassa 
(Map:  Africa,  H  6).  It  is  about  40  miles  long 
and  18  miles  wide,  is  surrounded  by  high  moun- 
tains, and  has  no  outlet,  its  water  being  brackish. 
It  is  gradually  drying  up ;  it  formerly  overflowed 
its  barriers  and  discharged  into  the  Lnjenda 
River. 

SHI^HAX  (Heb.  Shishaq).  A  king  of 
Egypt  in  the  days  of  Solomon  and  Reho£)am, 
mentioned  in  the  First  Book  of  Kings,  and  iden- 
tical with  Sheshonk,  the  first  King  of  the  22d  or 
Bubastite  dynasty.  His  name  is  found  in  the 
portico  built  by  this  dynasty  at  the  great  tem- 
ple of  Kamak,  and  on  several  statues  of  the 
goddess  Pasht,  which  probably  came  from  Luxor. 
Jeroboam  fled  to  Shishak  from  Solomon  (I. 
Kings  xi.  26-40)  ;  when  the  latter  died  he  left 
Egypt,  and  headed  the  rebellion  against  Reho- 
boam  which  resulted  in  the  division  of  the  king- 
dom of  David  into  the  two  States  of  Israel  and 
Judah  (I.  Kings  xii.).  In  the  fifth  year  of 
Rehoboam,  Shishak,  according  to  the  biblical 
account,  marched  to  Jerusalem  with  a  large 
army.  He  took  the  city,  the  treasures  of  the 
temple,  and  all  the  gold  bucklers  which  Solomon 
had  made  (I.  Kings  xiv.  25-26).  The  conquest 
of  Palestine  is  recorded  on  the  monuments  of 
Karnak,  where  Sheshonk  is  represoited  dragging 
before  the  god  Anmion  three  files  of  prisoners; 
various  names  of  places  are  mentioned,  among 
them  Rabbath,  Haphariam,  Mahaniam,  and  other 
Israelitish  towns.  In  all,  no  less  than  156  Pales- 
tinian cities  are  enumerated  by  Sheshonk.  His 
expedition,  however,  is  insignificant  when  com- 
pared with  Asiatic  campaigns  of  the  eighteenth 
and  nineteenth  dynasties.  Consult:  W.  Max 
Mflller,  Asien  und  Europa,  pp.  166  et  seq.  (Leip- 
zig, 1893)  ;  Shishak's  monument  is  pictured  in 
Lepsius,  DenkmAler   (Berlin,  1849-59). 

SHTTTTIC  WOOD  (Heb.  shittim,  for  shintah, 
Ar.  sant,  Egypt,  shant,  acacia  tree).  The  wood 
of  which  the  ark  of  the  covenant  was  made  (Ex. 
XXV.  10;  Deut.  x.  3).  It  is  generally  identi- 
fied with  the  wood  of  the  Acacia  Nilotiea,  and 
the  natfie  (shitpAh,  for  shintSh^  sanf)  is  identical 
with  the  old  Egyptian  word  for  acacia.  This 
is  the  characteristic  tree  of  the  desert  brooks  in 
the  wilderness  of  Sinai  and  around  the  Dead 
Sea;  it  grows  to  the  height  of  fifteen  to  twenty 
feet  and  has  stiff,  thorny  branches.  The  wood 
is  exceedingly  hard  and  well  suited  for  furniture. 
It  is  not  attacked  by  insects. 

GKHOA,  sh(/&.  A  division  of  Abyssinia,  south* 
east  of  Amhara.  Estimated  area,  20,000  square 
miles;  estimated  population,  1,000,000  (Map: 
Africa  H  4).  It  is  an  elevated  country  watered 
by  the  Hawash  and  the  Blue  Nile.    It  contains 


SHOA. 


797 


SHOBa 


Addis  Abeba,  the  capital  of  Abyssinia,  and  the 
town  oi  Ankobar.  Before  the  unification  of 
Abyssinia  iin<i«r  Menelek  in  1889,  Shoa  was  a 
separate  kingdom.    Se»  Abyssuoa. 

SHOALS,   sholz,   Isijcs   or»     See   Isles   or 
Shoals. 

SHOCK  (MDutch  schoch,  Dutch  achok,  OHG. 
9COC,  shock,  jolt;  connected  with  AS.  acacan, 
sceacan,  Eng.  shake),  A  sudden  depression  of 
the  vital  powers  due  to  injury  or  profoimd  men- 
tal emotions.  Through  this  depression  of  the 
nerve  centres  a  circulatory  paresis  is  induced, 
which  results  in  the  accumulation  of  the  blood 
in  the  large  abdominal  vessels,  with  a  correspond- 
ing loss  to  the  cerebral  and  peripheral  circula- 
tion. This  is  shown  by  the  lowering  of  the  sur- 
face temperature,  and  disturbance  of  voluntary 
cerebration.  Shock  may  be  slight  and  transient 
or  severe  and  prolonged,  or  it  may  be  almost  in- 
stantly fatal.  Surgical  shock  results  from  acci- 
dental injuries  such  as  extensive  bums,  gunshot 
wounds,  crushing  of  the  limbs,  blows  or  pene- 
trating wound  of  the  abdomen,  injuries  to  the 
base  of  the  skull,  with  concussion  of  the  brain. 
It  is  apt  to  follow  extensive  operations,  especially 
those  upon  the  abdominal  viscera.  Sudden  and 
profuse  hemorrhage,  and  occasionally  ansesthet- 
ics,  cause  shock.  Mental  shock  is  induced  by  sud- 
den grief,  fright,  or  other  powerful  mental  im- 
pressions. The  condition  of  shock  is  denoted  by 
a  subiionnal  temperature,  a  rapid  and  feeble 
pulse,  pinched  features,  a  skin  cold,  pallid,  and 
clammy,  or  covered  with  profuse  perspiration, 
sludlow  and  irregular  respiration,  diminution  or 
loss  of  sensibility  to  pain,  and  a  tendency  to  uri- 
nary suppression.  The  patient  is  usually  con- 
scious, replying  to  questions,  but  has  no  volition 
either  of  movement  or  speech.  Delirium  is  some- 
times present,  and,  in  children,  convulsions. 
Shock  is  increased  by  cold,  loss  of  blood,  and  age. 
Recovery  is  followed  by  a  period  of  reaction, 
which  often  lasts  for  several  hours.  This  may 
be  preceded  by  vomiting.  Beginning  reaction  is 
indicated  by  returning  color,  increased  tempera- 
ture, and  improvement  in  the  pulse,  respiration, 
and  inclination  t»  voluntary  movement.  De- 
ferred shock  is  a  curious  condition  in  which  the 
symptoms  do  not  develop  until  some  time  after 
the  occurrence  of  a  violent  mental  impression. 
This  variety  may  be  more  severe  than  that  pro- 
duced by  bodily  injury. 

The  treatment  of  collapse  is  as  follows:  The 
patient  is  placed  in  a  horizontal  position  with 
the  head  slightly  lower  than  the  rest  of  the  body, 
and  the  feet  raised.  Surface  temperature  is 
maintained  by  hot-water  bottles  and  blankets. 
Hypodermic  injections  of  brandy,  ether,  strych- 
nine, atropine,  or  digitalis  are  given  according 
to  indications.  Hot  coffee  or  brandy  may  be 
given  by  the  mouth,  the  stomach  retaining  these 
better  tiian  anything  else.  Mustard  plasters  may 
be  placed  over  the  heart,  pit  of  the  stomach,  or 
spine,  or  a  stimulating  enema  containing  turpen- 
tine may  be  given.  One  of  the  most  useful  and 
frequently  employed  measures  in  shock  is  the  in- 
jection either  through  the  veins,  rectum,  or  con- 
nective tissues  of  hot,  normal  saline  solution. 
Enormous  quantities  of  fluid  may  thus  be  taken 
into  the  circulation,  with  remarkably  quick  and 
certain  results.  In  severe  cases  bandaging  the 
limbs  in  order  to  increase  the  blood  supply  of 
the  brain  and  vital  centres  is  a  resort.    Opera- 

r 


tion  should  never  be  done  during  shock  except 
when  imperatively  necessary  to  save  life. 

SHODDY  (probably  a  variant  of  dialectic 
shode,  shedding,  separation,  from  AS.  scead, 
separation,  from  sc^adan^  Goth,  skaxdan^  OHQ. 
sceidan,  Ger.  scheiden,  to  separate;  connected 
with  Lith.  sk6dzn,  I  separate,  Lat.  scindere,  Gk. 
cx^jf  >  schieein,  Skt.  chid,  to  split).  A  term 
formerly  meaning  only  the  waste  arising  from 
the  manufacture  of  wool ;  it  now  has  a  wider  and 
much  more  important  signification,  and  is  al- 
most wholly  understood  to  mean  the  wool  of 
woven  fabrics  reduced  to  the  state  in  which  it 
was  before  being  spun  and  woven,  and  thus  ren- 
dered available  for  remanuf acture.  Woolen  rags, 
no  matter  how  old  and  worn,  are  now  a  valuable 
commodity  to  the  manufacturer ;  they  are  sorted 
into  two  special  kinds,  the  rags  of  worsted  goods 
and  the  rags  of  woolen  goods,  the  former  being 
made  of  combing  or  long-staple  wools,  and  the 
latter  of  carding  or  short-staple  wools.  The  for> 
mer  are  those  properly  known  as  shoddy-rags, 
and  the  latter  are  called  mungo.  Both  are 
treated  in  the  same  way;  they  are  put  into  a 
machine  called  a  icilly,  in  which  a  cylinder 
covered  with  sharp  hooks  is  revolving,  and  the 
rags  are  so  torn  by  the  hooks  that  in  a  short 
time  all  traces  of  spinning  and  weaving  are  re- 
moved, and  the  material  is  again  reduced  to  wool 
capable  of  being  reworked.  It  is  used  as  a  means 
of  adulteration  and  cheapening  woolen  cloths, 
and  in  making  a  class  of  light  cloths  adapted  to 
mild  climates  and  other  purposes. 

SHOEBILIiy  or  Whaubhead.  A  large  re- 
markable, heron-like,  grayish  bird  {Balamioeps 
rex)  from  the  White  Nile  in  Eastern  Africa.  It 
is  made  the  type  of  a  special  family,  the  Balseni- 
cepitidsB,  but  is  closely  allied  to  the  umbrette 
(q.v.).  The  most  peculiar  external  feature  is 
the  huge  blotched  yellow  bill,  longer  than 
the  head  and  shaped  like  a  great  shoe.  These 
birds  feed  on  fish  and  snakes,  but  also  eat  the 
viscera  of  dead  mammals,  ripping  open  the  car- 
cass with  the  stout  hook  on  the  end  of  the  npper 
mandible.  Consult  Newton,  Dictionary  of  Byrds 
(London,  1893-96),  and  authorities  there  cited. 

SHOE  BLACEIKO.    See  Blacking. 

SHOES  (AS.  sc€o,  Goth,  skohs,  OHG.  stmoh, 
Ger.  Schuh,  shoe)  and  SHOE  MAmiVAC- 
TTTBE.  The  shoe  in  its  simplest  form  was  un- 
doubtedly a  sandal  or  sole  with  straps  attached 
to  it  by  means  of  which  it  might  be  fastened 
onto  the  foot.  Such  a  shoe  was  designed  simply 
to  protect  the  bottom  of  the  foot  from  the  roiigh 
surface  of  the  ground  and  from  the  extremes  of 
temperature. 

Another  primitive  form  of  shoe  is  the  Indian 
moccasin.  It  differs  from  the  sandal  in  that  it 
extends  over  the  top  of  the  foot,  but,  unlike  the 
shoe,  the  sole  and  main  part  of  the  upper  are 
in  one  piece.  The  moccasin  is  made  of  buckskin, 
is  soft,  flexible,  and  durable;  in  fact,  one  of  the 
best  coverings  that  could  be  made  for  the  foot. 
The  peasants  of  several  European  nations  wear  a 
wooden  shoe  called  a  sdhot,  which  is  shaped  out 
of  a  single  piece  of  wood.  The  primitive  foot- 
gear of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  resembled 
the  hrogv^  still  worn  by  the  Irish  peasants.  The 
brogue  is  made  of  a  heavy  leather,  very  simply 
put  together,  and  much  larger  than  the  foot,  the 
space  between  foot  and  shoe  being  filled  with  hay. 


SHOSSd. 


798 


SROBS. 


The  clog  or  patten  is  a  shoe  with  a  wooden  sole 
and  leather  upper,  which  is  fastened  to  the  sole 
with  nails. 

In  the  United  States  the  art  of  shoemaking 
was  one  of  the  first  to  be  established,  for  we  are 
told  that  Thomas  Beard,  with  hides,  both  upper 
and  bottom^  came  in  the  Mayflower,  on  its  third 
voyage.  Massachusetts  has  continued  to  lead  in 
the  industry  thus  early  established  within  her 
borders.  For  two  centuries  the  shoemaker  was 
often  an  itinerant  workman,  who,  journeying 
from  one  farmer's  family  to  another,  tarried  in 
each  of  the  households  long  enough  to  convert 
the  farmer's  supply  of  home-tanned  leather  into  a 
stock  of  shoes  sufficient  to  meet  the  needs  of  the 
family  till  his  next  annual  visit.  His  laat  was 
roughly  whittled  out  of  a  piece  of  wood  to  suit 
the  largest  boot  in  the  family,  and  then  pared 
down  for  successive  sizes. 

The  American  shoemaker  sat  on  a  low  bench, 
one  end  of  which  was  divided  up  into  compart- 
ments where  his  knives,  awls,  hammers,  and 
rasps  were  kept  and  there  was  also  room  for 
his  pots  of  paste  and  of  blacking,  his  'shoulder- 
sticks'  for  'setting  the  edges'  of  heel  and 
sole,  and  'rub  sticks'  for  finishing  the  bottcxn; 
his  tacks,  pegs,  nails,  thread,  and  wax,  buttons, 
and  linings.  Close  by  he  kept  a  dish  called  a 
'higgin'  in  which  was  placed  the  water  to  wet 
the  soles;  a  pair  of  clamps  to  hold  the  uppers 
supported  between  his  knees,  while  he  seamed 
or  bound  them,  and  also  the  strap  which,  pass- 
ing under  his  foot,  held  the  sole  upon  the  last 
and  both  on  his  knee  while  he  stitched  on  the 
welt  or  sewed  the  upper  to  it. 

Until  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century 
all  shoes  were  made  by  sewing  them  together  by 
hand,  but  they  were  cut  and  put  together  in 
much  the  same  manner  as  now,  except  that  the 
operations  have  been  shortened  and  also  multi- 
plied by  the  introduction  of  machinery.  In  or- 
der, therefore,  that  the  uses  of  the  various  ma- 
chines may  better  be  imderstood,  the  general 
process  of  making  a  shoe  will  be  explained.  A 
shoe  consists  of  two  parts:  the  sole,  which  is 
made  of  very  heavy  leather,  and  the  upper,  which 
is  made  of  lighter  leather,  or  of  cloth.  The  up- 
per, in  turn,  consists  of  various  parts,  according 
to  the  pattern  by  which  it  is  cut,  but  in  general 
the  upper  front  part  is  the  vamp,  while  the  back 
is  called  the  quarters.  The  upper  may  be  sewed 
onto  the  sole  on  the  wrong  side  and  turned,  or 
on  the  right  side,  usually  by  means  of  a  welt. 
The  first  method  was  formerly  employed  for  all 
the  lighter,  finer  grades  of  shoes,  but  is  now 
chiefiy  confined  to  slippers.  Shoes  made  in  this 
way  are  called  turns,  A  welt  is  a  narrow  strip 
of  leather,  sewed  onto  the  lower  edge  of  the 
upper,  with  the  seam  inside,  and  then  turned  and 
sewed  fiat  onto  the  outer  edge  of  the  sole.  It  is 
now  the  almost  universal  method  for  sewing 
shoes  together.  The  last  is  a  wooden  form,  mod- 
eled after  the  general  shape  of  the  human  foot, 
on  which  the  parts  are  placed  in  putting  to- 
gether the  upper  and  sole,  and  finishing  the  shoe. 
Last-making  was  at  one  time  a  part  of  the  shoe- 
maker's trade,  but  is  now  a  separate  industry. 

In  making  a  shoe,  whether  by  hand  or  machine, 
the  leather  must  be  solidified  by  hammering  or 
rolling;  it  must  be  skived,  that  is  trimmed  down 
to  a  uniform  thickness,  and  all  imperfections  cut 
away;   the  parts  must  be  cut  out  and  the  diflfer- 


ent  portions  composing  the  upper  sewed  together. 
The  sole  consists  of  two  portions:  the  inflole  of 
soft  and  the  outer  sole  of  heavier  leather.  The 
insole,  rendered  pliant  by  soaking  in  water,  is 
first  tacked  to  the  last.  Next  its  outer  edge  a 
channel,  called  a  feather,  is  dug  about  %  inch 
deep,  along  which  holes  for  the  stitches  are 
pierced  obliquely  through  the  leather  into  the 
channel.  The  top  is  next  lasted,  an  operation 
requiring  great  skill.  The  welt  is  then  placed 
around  the  sole  as  far  as  the  heel,  and  then  the 
upper  welt  and  insole  are  sewed  together  in  one 
seam.  The  bottom  is  then  leveled  up  by  filling 
in  the  depressed  portion  formed  by  the  welt 
with  tarred  paper  or  other  material.  The  outer 
sole,  which  has  first  been  soaked  and  then  thor- 
oughly hammered  on  the  lapstone,  is  now  tem- 
porarily tacked  to  the  insole.  A  narrow  chan- 
nel is  then  cut  around  the  edge,  through  which 
the  sole  is  securely  stitched  to  the  welt  The 
heel,  built  of  several  layers,  or  lifts,  is  now  nailed 
to  the  sole,  and  the  shoe  is  ready  for  the  final 
processes  of  trimming,  polishing,  etc  Three 
other  methods  are  employed  for  fastening  the 
soles  to  the  uppers:  pegging,  nailing  or  riveting, 
and  screwing. 

Probably  the  first  piece  of  machinery  that  was 
applied  to  shoemaking  was  a  combined  lasting 
and  sole-nailing  macmne,  invented  in  England 
by  M.  J.  Brimel,  in  1810.  In  America  the  first 
invention  which  materially  changed  the  methods 
of  the  shoemaker  was  the  use  of  wooden  pess  for 
fastening  the  soles  and  uppers  together.  \Vith 
their  adoption  the  development  of  the  modem 
shoe  factory  began.  At  first  onlv  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  wonc  was  done  in  the  general  fac- 
tory, the  rest  being  performed  in  private  homes, 
or  in  shops,  as  before,  but  with  this  great  differ- 
ence, that  the  shoes  were  to  be  sold  at  whole- 
sale, 'ready-made,'  and  not  according  to  the 
orders  of  individual  customers.  Shoemaking  was 
divided  into  three  parts:  'cutting,'  'binding,' 
and  'bottoming.'  The  cutting  was  done  at  the 
central  factory;  then  the  uppers  were  sent  ont 
to  one  set  of  workmen,  often  women  and  chil- 
dren, to  be  sewed  in  their  homes,  last  of  all  the 
bottoms  and  uppers  were  sent  out  to  local  shoe- 
makers, who,  in  their  little  8X10  shops,  formed 
what  was  known  as  a  'team'  of  workmen,  who 
put  the  parts  together,  one  man  doing  the 
lasting,  another  the  pegging,  and  a  thii^  the 
trimming, 

About  1850  the  rolling  machine  was  intro- 
duced, by  which  the  sole  leather  is  thoroughly 
compressed  in  a  minute,  a  process  which  had  re- 
quired an  hour's  time  of  laborious  pounding  with 
hammer  and  lap-stone.  A  little  later  the  Howe 
sewing  machine  was  adapted  to  the  sewing  of  the 
leather  uppers.  About  the  same  time  horse- 
power, and  soon  after  steam-power,  was  applied 
to  the  running  of  shoe-making  machinery,  and 
with  the  adoption  of  the  latter  the  various 
branches  of  shoe-making  were  gathered  together 
under  one  roof.  In  1860  the  McKay  sewing  ma- 
chine, for  sewing  the  uppers  and  soles  together, 
was  introduced,  and  at  once  revolutionised  the 
business.    See  Sewing  Machine. 

An  improvement  upon  this  was  the  Goodyear 
welt  machine,  invented  in  1877,  by  means  of 
which  the  uppers  and  soles  are  secured  by  means 
of  a  welt,  as  previously  described.  In  1881  the 
invention  of  the  Reese  button-hole  machine  still 


8H0BS. 


709 


SHOOUir. 


further  narrowed  the  sphere  of  hand-sewmg  in 
the  manufacture  of  shoes. 

Of  the  other  earlier  inventions  the  more  im- 
portant are:  The  cable  screw- wire  machine  for 
fastening  uppers  and  soles  together  ( 1869 ) ; 
Bigelow's  and  McKay's  heeling  machines  (1870) ; 
and  the  edge-trimming  machines  ( 1876 ) .  During 
the  last  two  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century 
many  other  important  machines  were  invented,  in- 
cluding polishers  and  trimmers.  From  a  hun- 
dred to  two  hundred  diflferent  pieces  of  machinery 
are  now  commonly  employed  in  a  single  factory. 

The  transformation  of  the  raw  material  into  a 
finished  shoe  involves  over  a  hundred  different 
manipulations.  Boots  and  shoes  are  made  in 
twenfy-six  different  lengths,  numbered  in  two 
series  from  1  to  13.  Between  most  of  the  num- 
bers half-sizes  are  made  and  often  five  different 
widths  for  each  half  size. 

The  modem  factory  usually  consists  of  five  de- 
partments or  rooms.  In  the  first  room  the  sole 
leather  is  first  run  through  a  skiving  machine, 
which  pares  off  the  leather  to  a  uniform  thick- 
ness, rejecting  thin  and  ragged  portions.  It  is 
then  solidified  in  a  rolling  machine,  after  which 
the  soles  may  be  cut  out.  This  is  accomplished 
either  by  means  of  dies  operated  by  a  steam- 
hammer  or  by  machine-driven  knives,  which  fol- 
low rapidly  around  a  pattern  laid  on  the  leather. 
The  heels  are  also  cut  by  means  of  dies  and  vari- 
ous forms  of  machinery  in  use  for  building  them 
up.  The  cutting  of  the  uppers,  as  well  as  of  the 
soles  and  linings,  is  often  done  by  dies  or  other 
catting  machinery.  But  the  best  work  is  still 
done  with  a  knife,  by  hand,  in  order  to  make  sure 
that  the  parts  are  cut  the  right  way  of  the  grain 
and  out  of  a  portion  of  the  skin  of  uniform  text- 
ure. The  tips  are  cut  by  punching  machines  with 
many  different  dies,  according  to  shape  and  pat- 
terning. In  the  stitching  room  the  sewing  ma- 
chines are  driven  by  power  and  often  there  is  a 
separate  girl  and  machine  for  each  seam.  In 
the  bottoming  room  the  uppers  are  lasted  and 
soled  and  then  heeled. 

Different  methods  of  heeling  are  in  practice. 
By  one  the  lifts  are  nailed  together  by  a  nailing 
machine,  which  both  cuts  the  wire  off  the 
reel  and  drives  -  it  through  the  heel.  By 
another,  the  heel,  instead  of  being  built  up 
separately  and  then  secured  to  the  boot,  is 
built  up  on  the  boot,  and  when  the  top  piece  is 
on,  the  heel  is  pared  and  the  front  curve  or 
breast  formed.  The  final  shaping  of  the  heel 
usually  involves  several  manipulations.  In  the 
fifth  room  the  final  operations  of  trimming  and 
polishing  are  conducted.  The  trimming  is  ef- 
fected by  specially  adjusted,  rapidly  revolving 
wheels.  The  final  polishing  is  done  by  machine- 
driven  burnishers,  sandpaperers,  and  other  pol- 
ishing devices.  Last  of  all,  if  a  shiny  surface 
is  desired,  the  shoe  is  given  a  coat  of  liquid  pol- 
ish and  rubbed  with  a  hot  iron.  If  a  dull  finish 
is  desired,  as  in  calfskin,  the  shoe  is  rubbed 
with  grease  and  then  with  an  ebony  stick.  When 
the  shoes  are  screwed  or  riveted,  the  process  is, 
of  course,  somewhat  changed.  In  riveted  work 
no  welt  is  used.  In  screwing,  a  reel  of  stout 
wire  is  provided  with  a  screw  thread,  which  is 
driven  by  the  machine  through  the  outer  sole, 
inner  sole,  and  upper  and  then  cut  off  evenly. 
This  makes  a  strong,  durable  shoe.  A  great 
variety  of  different  leathers  are  used  in  making 


shoes,  including  alligator,  lizard,  snake,  and  mon- 
key skins,  as  well  as  the  more  common  kinds. 

Rubber  Shoes.  An  important  branch  of  shoe 
manufacture  is  the  making  of  rubber  overshoes 
and  boots,  as  a  protection  to  the  feet  from  the 
wet.  The  best  quality  of  raw  rubber  is  used, 
which,  received  at  the  factory  in  crude  lumps, 
is  ground  and  washed,  and  rolled  into  sheets. 
The  sulphur  necessary  for  vulcanization,  lamp- 
black for  coloring,  and  sometimes  other  ingredi- 
ents, are  added;  after  which  the  sheets  are 
passed  through  heated  rollers,  which  reduce  them 
to  a  thickness  of  less  than  one-third  of  an  inch. 
A  cloth  backing  is  then  applied  by  simply  laying 
the  rubber  on  the  cloth  and  then  subjecting  it 
to  great  pressure  under  a  cloth-calendering  ma- 
chine. Out  of  this  cloth  the  rubbers  are  cut,  a 
different  thickness  of  fabric  for  sole,  heel,  and 
upper,  and  the  parts  are  skillfully  joined  over 
wooden  lasts.  This  is  not  done  by  sewing,  but 
by  using  some  solvent,  as  turpentine,  which 
causes  the  edges  to  adhere.  The  shoes  are  now 
covered  with  a  coat  of  rubber  varnish  and  vul- 
canized (see  Rubber),  after  which  ihej  are 
ready  for  the  market. 

Statistics.  According  to  the  section  on  Boot 
and  Shoe  Manufacture  of  the  United  States  Cen- 
sus for  1900,  the  capital  invested  in  this  indus- 
try amounted  to  $101,795,233,  and  the  annual 
product  was  $261,028,580.  This  was  distributed 
among  1,600  establishments,  employing  142,922 
laborers,  of  whom  about  one-third  were  women. 
The  number  of  factories  or  shops  was  about  350 
less  than  it  was  in  1880,  but  that  this  is  simply 
the  result  of  consolidation  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  in  1880  the  capital  invested  was  only 
$42,994,028,  and  the  value  of  the  product, 
$166,050,354. 

In  the  manufacture  of  rubber  boots  and  shoes . 
22  establishments  were  engaged  in  1900,  an  in- 
crease of  13  since  1880.  The  capital  invested 
was  $33,667,533,  as  against  $2,425,000  in  1880. 
Tlie  value  of  the  annual  .product  was  $41,089,819, 
as  against  $9,705,724  in  1880.  The  centre  of  the 
industry,  like  that  of  the  manufacture  of  leather 
boots  and  shoes,  is  in  New  England. 

BiBLiOGBAPHT.  There  is  very  little  recent  lit- 
erature on  shoe  manufacture.  In  1889  John 
Bedford  Leno  published  in  London  a  book  on  the 
Art  of  Boot  and  Shoe  Making,  containing  a  de- 
scription of  most  of  the  modern  shoemaking 
machinery.  A  history  of  the  development  of  the 
industry  in  America  is  given  in  Depew,  One  Hun- 
dred Years  of  American  Commerce  (New  York, 
1895) ,  and  also  in  Shaler,  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica (ib.,  1894).  The  United  States  Census  for 
1900,  vol.  ix.,  part  3,  **Manufactures,"  gives  the 
history  of  the  development  of  the  industry  in  the 
United  States,  together  with  much  descriptive 
and  statistical  information.  There  is  also  a  sec- 
tion on  rubber  boots  and  shoes. 

SHOOTTN,  shO'g^JSta  ( Sinico- Jap.,  generalissi- 
mo). The  title  adopted  in  Japan  for  the  general 
commanding  each  of  the  four  divisions  of  the 
Empire  in  early  times.  In  1192  Yoritomo  (q.v.) 
was  given  the  title  Sei-I-Tai-Shogun  (Barbarian- 
quelling  great  General ) .  Afterwards,  by  degrees, 
the  Shogun  became  independent  of  the  Emperor, 
so  that  in  the  hands  of  the  Tokugawa  family 
(1603-1868)  the  shogunate  became  the  de  facto 
ruling  power  in  the  country.  After  having  been 
held  successively  by  four  great  military  clans  for 


SHOOTTir. 


800 


8H0BB. 


nearly  700  years,  the  office  was  abolished  in 
1868.  For  some  years  after  1853  the  Shogun  was 
known  to  foreigners  as  the  T^ooon. 

SKOULPTJ^  aWlkpoSr^,  The  capital  of  the 
District  of  Sholapur,  in  the  Province  of  Bom- 
bay, India,  60  miles  north  by  east  of  Bijapur 
(Map:  India,  G  5).  The  ruins  of  the  old  fort, 
dating  from  1345,  a  high  school,  two  parks,  and 
a  large  bazaar  are  noteworthy.  The  Ekrukh  res- 
ervoir and  irrigation  plant  is  three  miles  to  the 
north  of  the  city.  The  city  is  an  important  dis- 
tributing point  for  the  agricultural  products  of 
the  region,  and  manufactures  cotton  goods,  blank- 
ets, silks,  etc.  Population,  in  1901,  75,288.  In 
1818  Sholapur  was  the  scene  of  the  decisive  vic- 
tory of  the  British  forces  under  Munro  over  the 
forces  of  Baji  Rao. 

8HOOTINO  (from  ahooi,  AS.  aoeoian,  OHG. 
eoiozan,  Ger.  achiessen,  to  shoot;  ultimately  con- 
nected with  Skt.  ekand,  to  leap,  Lat.  acandere,  to 
climb).  Proficiency  and  accuracy  in  shooting  is 
the  object  of  many  associations  and  competitions 
with  the  military  rifle,  the  shotgun,  revolvers, 
and  pistols. 

MiUTABT  Rifle  Contests.  In  1868  Captain 
Wingate,  of  the  Twenty-second  Regiment,  New 
York  National  Quard,  issued  a  manual,  based  on 
the  Ei^lish  "Hythe'  system.  It  was  adopted  in 
many  States,  and  led  to  the  formation  of  'The 
National  Rifle  Association  of  America.'  The 
Legislature  of  the  State  of  New  York  authorized 
the  purchase  of  a  site  for  a  rifle  range  at  Creed- 
moor,  and  in  June,  1873,  the  first  annual  compe- 
tition was  held.  In  the  following  year  the  Irish 
team  which  had  won  the  'Echo  Shield'  in  the 
great  English  rifle  contests  at  Wimbledon  chal- 
knged  all  America  to  a  competition.  This  was 
accepted  by  the  'Amateur  Rifle  Club.'  The  Irish 
team  was  beaten  on  the  last  shot  by  a  bull's-eye. 
The  distances  were  800,  900,  and  1,000  yards. 
The  following  year  the  American  team  went  to 
Ireland,  but  were  beaten  by  967  to  929.  In  187^ 
an  American  team  successfully  defended  the 
'Palma  trophy*  against  teams  from  Ireland, 
Scotland,  Australia,  and  Canada.  In  1877  an- 
other British  team  was  beaten  at  Creedmoor  by 
3334  to  3242.  In  1880  an  American  team  went 
to  Ireland  and  won  by  1292  to  1280.  After  that 
there  were  no  further  international  contests  until 
the  year  1901,  when  a  Canadian  team  won  by 
1522  to  1491.  In  1902  a  British  team  won  it  at 
Ottawa,  by  1447  to  1373,  and  took  it  to  Eng- 
land. In  the  competition  of  1903  held  at  Bisley, 
England,  the  American  team  was  the  victor,  de- 
feating the  English  team  by  15  points,  the  score 
being:  America,  1570;  Great  Britain,  1565. 

Competitions  of  skill  in  pistol  and  revolver 
shooting  are  more  common  in  America  than  else- 
where. There  is  a  United  States  National  Revol- 
ver Association  and  an  annual  championship 
tournament  at  Sea  Girt.  It  comprises  the  mili- 
tary revolver,  twenty-five  shots  at  25,  60,  and  75 
yards;  ordinary  pistol,  fifty  shots  at  50  yards; 
revolver  team  shooting,  five  men  to  a  team,  each 
to  shoot  ten  shots  at  25,  50,  and  75  yards. 

SHOOTING  STABS.     See  ASroute;    Mb- 

TEOBS. 

SHOBE  (probably  connected  with  AS.  acefan, 
aciran,  aceoran,  to  cut  off,  Eng.  ahear,  ahire) .  The 
margin  between  the  land  area  of  the  earth  and 
the  water  area.    The  outline  and  general  charac- 


ter of  continental  shores  are  modified  chiefly  in 
two  ways.  (1)  By  the  erosive  and  transporting 
action  of  the  sea,  whose  waves,  currents,  and 
tides  are  constantly  at  work  removing  the  rock 
materials  in  one  place  and  depositing  them  in 
another.  In  this  way  the  seaward  edges  of 
strata  are  cut  back  to  form  cliffs,  sometimes 
producing  an  irregular  shore  line,  with  headlands 
and  deep  reentrants;  the  land  waste  brought 
down  by  rivers  is  distributed  over  the  ocean  flm>r, 
and  beaches  and  sand  reefs  are  built  up.  (2) 
By  secular  movements  of  the  earth's  crmt 
through  which  the  level  of  the  land,  with  re- 
spect to  the  sea,  is  changed.  Coastal  lands, 
which  have  thus  been  upraised  from  the  sea 
floor,  are  generally  formed  of  soft  strata,  but, 
owing  to  their  low  position,  they  resist  erosion  to 
a  marked  degree.  Moreover,  as  the  waters 
deepen  very  gradually  off-shore,  the  waves  beat 
up  the  sandS  from  the  bottom,  forming  long 
reefs  and  the  sediments  transported  by  rivers  ac- 
cumulate as  deltas,  so  that  such  shores  have  ad- 
ditional protection  from  the  wasting  action  of 
the  sea.  The  coastal  plain  of  Texas  affords  an 
example  of  a  shore  line  of  this  character. 
Throughout  most  of  its  length  it  is  low,  monot- 
onously level,  and  fringed  by  sand  reefs,  which 
are  so  little  interrupted  that  to  give  aceess  to 
deep-sea  vessels  Galveston  has  been  built  on  an 
outer  reef.  The  peculiar  shore  line  of  North 
Carolina,  which  is  indented  by  shallow  sounds 
and  bordered  by  reefs,  has  been  formed  by  the 
gradual  depression  of  an  uplifted  and  dissected 
sea  bottom.  Coastal  lands  that  have  been  sub- 
jected to  marked  depression  are  usually  charac- 
terized by  an  irregular  shore  line  with  rocky 
headlands,  numerous  harbors,  and  outlying 
islands,  thus  contrasting  strongly  with  the  shores 
of  uplifted  regions.  This  follows  from  the  fact  that 
the  surface  of  such  lands  is  diversified  through 
the  constantly  active  process  of  erosion,  while 
the  ocean  floor  is  comparatively  smooth  and  un- 
broken. The  western  coast  of  Norway  owes  its 
irregular  outline  to  the  depression  of  a  moun- 
tainous land  surface  by  which  the  valleys  have 
been  submerged  by  the  sea  forming  long,  deep 
reentrants,  called  fiords  (q.v.).  The  cQ«ats  of 
Great  Britain,  Maine,  and  Southern  Chile  also  ex- 
hibit these  characteristics.  See  Delta,  Beaches, 
etc. 

SHOBE,  Jane  (1445-1527).  Mistress  of 
Edward  IV.  of  England.  She  was  bom  in  Lon- 
don and  was  married  to  a  goldsmith  named  Wil- 
liam Shore.  She  met  King  Edward  about  1470. 
After  Edward's  death  she  was  accused  of  witch- 
craft by  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  afterwards  King 
Richard  III.,  and,  suspected  of  favoring  the  cause 
of  the  young  princes,  was  committed  to  the 
Tower.  Her  property  was  confiscated,  and  she 
was  sentenced  by  the  Bishop  of  London  to  do 
penance  for  her  crimes.  She  lived  until  the  ac- 
cession of  Henry  VIII.,  and  died  in  penury  and 
obscurity.  Her  life  was  the  subject  of  many  con- 
temporary and  subsequent  poems  and  a  tragedy 
by  Rowe. 

SHOBE^  Louisa  Catherine  (1824-95).  An 
English  poetess.  An  elder  sister,  Margaret  Emily 
(1819-39),  early  cut  off  by  consumption,  showed 
much  literary  talent.  With  a  second  sister,  Ara- 
bella, Louisa  published  several  volumes  of  poems: 
War  Lyrica  (1855);  Gemma  of  the  lalea,  a 
Lyrical  Poem    (1859);  Fra  DoJcmo  and  Other 


SHORE    BIRDS 


:0»vi»iCMr.  I002.  SV  OOOO,  MtAD  k  COMPAN* 


1  WILSON'S  SNIPE- (GALUNAGO  DELICATA) 

2  SPOON-BILLEDSANDPIPER-(EURYN0RHYNCHUS  PYGM/tUS) 

3  RUFF- (MACHETES  PUGNAX) 


4  PECTORALSANDPlPER-(TRINGA  MACU LATA  ); MALE 

5  TURNSTONE-  (ARENARIA  INTERPRES  ) 

6  HUDSONIAN   GODWIT  -  I  LIMOSA  Hi^MASTlCA) 


8H0BE. 


801 


8H0BTHAND. 


Poems  (1871);  and  Elegies  and  MemoriaU 
(1890).  The  last  collection  contains  from  Louisa 
beautiful  elegies  on  Margaret  Emily  and  on  a 
brother  lost  at  sea.  Louisa  published  independ- 
ently Hannibal,  a  poem  in  two  parts  ( 1861 ) .  She 
warmly  championed  the  cause  of  women.  Ck>n- 
suit  Postkumoua  Poems,  with  an  introduction  by 
Frederic  Harrison  (London,  1896),  and  the  de- 
lightful Journal  of  Emily  Shore  (ib.,  1891). 

SHOBS-BIBBSy  or  Beach-Bibds.  A  sports- 
men's tenn  for  those  birds  which  run  along  the 
beaches  of  the  sea  or  inland  bodies  of  water,  and 
pick  up  their  food  from  the.  edge  of  the  waves. 
All  are  of  the  order  Limicols  (q.v.),  and  (so 
far  as  they  interest  sportsmen)  consist  mainly 
of  sandpipers,  curlews,  stilts,  plovers,  and  their 
nearer  allies.  They  are  shot  mainly  by  hiding 
in  'blinds'  at  favorable  places,  and  setting  out 
decoys  to  attract  the  migrating  flocks.  Consult, 
in  addition  to  general  ornithologies,  any  of  many 
special  works  by  both  ornithologists  and  sports- 
men, as  Elliot,  North  American  Shore-Birds 
(New  York,  1898) ;  and  Seebohm,  Geographical 
Distribution  of  the  Family  Charadriidw  (London, 
1887),  in  which  are  described  and  largely  figured 
all  the  shore-birds  of  the  world. 

SHOBXKmrCH.  a  borough  of  London, 
England,  immediately  north  of  the  city  nucleus. 
Within  its  limits  is  the  immense  freight  depot  of 
the  Great  Eastern  Railway.  The  two  theatres  in 
London  during  Shakespeare's  time  were  in  Shore- 
ditch.  The  name  is  probably  derived  from  Sir 
John  Soersditch,  who  had  his  residence  here  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  III. ;  the  tradition  is  baseless 
that  the  name  is  derived  from  Jane  Shore,  mis- 
tress of  Edward  TV,,  who  is  said  to  have  died 
here  in  a  ditch. 

SHOBE-IiASKy  or  Hobned  Lakk.  The  only 
true  lark  {Otocoris  alpestris),  that  is,  a  lark 
of  the  family  Alaudidse,  indigenous  to  North 
America.  It  ranges  in  its  migrations  over  the 
entire  continent,  breeding  in  Canada,  Alaska,  and 
the  elevated  plateau  regions  of  the  West,  and 
appearing  ■  along  the  coasts,  about  the  Great 
Lakes,  and  southward  in  open  districts  in  win- 
ter. It  is  a  small,  handsome,  and  highly  vari- 
able bird,  the  characteristic  feature  of  which 
is  an  erectile,  narrow,  horn-like  tuft  of  length- 
ened black  feathers  on  each  side  of  the  crown. 
The  plumage  of  the  adult  consists  of  mingled 
brown  and  vinaoeous  tints  above,  with  the  lower 
parts  mainly  white,  and  bold  black  markings  on 
the  head  and  chest.  (See  Plate  of  Larks  and 
Starlings.)  Those  living  on  the  Western  plains, 
where  they  are  numerous  and  sociable,  are  far 
paler  than  the  Northern  and  Eastern  residents. 
All  make  their  nests  on  the  ground,  and  lay 
brown-speckled  eggs.  These  larks  have  a  bril- 
liant song,  which  is  often  heard  while  they  flut- 
ter high  in  the  air  like  skylarks.  Consult  Ameri- 
can ornithologies,  especially:  Coues,  Birds  of 
the  Northtcest  (Washington,  1874)  ;  Keyser, 
Birds  of  the  Rockies  (Chicago,  1902). 

SHOOBtEYy  Paul  (1857—).  An  American 
classicist,  bom  at  Davenport,  Iowa.  He  was 
educated  at  Harvard  and  at  the  University  of 
Munich.  From  1885  to  1892  he  was  professor 
at  Brjm  Mawr  College,  and  in  the  latter  year  be- 
came the  head  of  the  department  oi  Greek  in 
the  University  of  Chicago.  In  1901-02  he  was 
professor  in  the  American  School  of  Classical 


Studies  at  Athens.  Professor  Shorey's  studies 
are  chiefly  in  the  field  of  ancient  philosophy, 
particularly  Platonism.  His  published  works 
include:  De  Platonis  Idearum  Doctrina  (1884) ; 
The  Idea  of  God  in  Plato's  Republic  (1895); 
and  an  edition  of  the  Odes  of  Horace  (1898) . 

SHOBT.  A  term  used  to  denote  brokers, 
dealers,  and  speculators  in  stocks,  certificates  of 
indebtedness,  or  any  commodity  who  agree  to  sell 
or  contract  to  deliver  shares,  etc.,  which  at  the 
time  they  do  not  own,  and  who  to  do  so  are 
forced  to  borrow  the  same  for  a  consideration, 
and  eventually  to  'cover'  by  actual  purchase  or  by 
an  equitable  settlement  with  the  buyer.  If  the 
market  value  of  the  stock  or  commodity  falls  the 
short  profits  by  purchasing  the  same  at  a  lower 
price,  thus  making  the  difference,  whereas  on  a 
rising  market  he  will  lose,  as  he  is  forced  to  pay 
more  for  the  stock  or  commodity  than  he  received 
in  the  original  sale.  See  Stock  Exchange;  Cob- 
NicR;  Margin. 

BHOBT,  WiLUAu  ( 1759-1849) .  An  American 
diplomatist,  bom  at  Spring  Garden,  Surrey 
County,  Va.  In  1784  he  went  to  France  as  Sec- 
retary of  Legation  under  Jefferson.  In  1790  he 
was  appointed  a  commissioner  to  negotiate 
European  loans  for  refunding  the  national  debt. 
He  was  commissioned  Minister  Resident  in  1792, 
and  in  1792  he  and  William  Carmichael  were  ap- 
pointed commissioners  plenipotentiary  to  treat 
with  Spain  concerning  the  navigation  of  the 
Mississippi,  boundaries,  and  commerce.  Short's 
commission  was  changed  in  1794  to  Minister  Resi- 
dent at  Madrid,  where  he  remained  until  1796. 
He  did  not  return  to  America  until  1802.  His 
long  residence  abroad  and  his  intimate  relations 
with  the  French  nobility  combined  to  make  him 
extremely  unpopular  at  home.  In  1808  Jefferson 
nominated  him  as  the  first  United  States  Minister 
to  Saint  Petersburg,  but  the  Senate  refused  to 
confirm  the  nomination,  and  in  August,  1810,  he 
returned  to  the  United  States.  For  the  rest  of 
his  life  he  made  Philadelphia  his  home. 

SHOBT^B,  Clement  Kino  (1858—).  A 
London  journalist  and  critic,  editor  of  the  Illus- 
trated London  News  (1891-99),  the  Sketch  (1893- 
99),  and  the  English  Illustrated  Magazine  (1894- 
99).  In  1900  he  started  the  Sphere,  an  illus- 
trated literary  weekly.  Beyond  his  profession  he 
is  best  known  for  his  Bronte  studies,  comprising 
Charlotte  Bronte  and  Her  Circle  (1896)  and  a 
new  edition  of  Mrs.  Elizabeth  GaskelPs  Charlotte 
Bronte  (1900).  Other  books  are:  Siwty  Years  of 
Victorian  Literature  (1897);  The  Sanity  of 
Cowper  and  Other  Essays  (1900)  ;  and  selections 
from  Wordsworth  (1894)  and  the  entire  Waver- 
ley  Novels  (1898). 

SHOBTHAND.  A  common  English  word 
used  for  all  kinds  of  abbreviated  writing  other 
than  abbreviated  longhand.  It  is  not  generally 
applied  to  the  ancient  hieroglyphics,  though  these 
are  a  kind  of  short  writing,  in  which  a  single 
character  is  often  made  to  represent  a  whole  idea. 
The  name  'stenography'  is  also  given  to  short- 
hand, and  this  is  commonly  used  as  synonymous 
with  it.  It  was  so  used  by  John  Willis  in  his 
treatise  entitled  The  Art  of  Stenography,  pub- 
lished in  1602.  The  word  'phonography*  should 
be  applied  only  to  those  systems  of  shorthand  that 
are  based  strictly  upon  the  phonetic  principle, 
such   as  the  Pitmanic   system.     Variouff  other 


9H0BTHAVD. 


802 


SHOBTHAHB. 


titles  such  as  'tachygraphy.'  'cryptography,' 
'radiography,'  etc.,  have  been  used.  The  name 
'Eclectic'  has  been  used  for  two  systems:  first  by 
Elias  Longley,  because  his  system  was  a  selection 
from  various  modifications  of  the  Pitman  sjrs- 
tem;  and  later  by  J.  G.  Cross,  whose  system  is 
original  rather  than  selected.  The  name  'Light- 
line/  which  is  appropriated  by  Mr.  Gregg,  has 
also  been  used  before  by  Eames  and  by  Thornton, 
and  is  equally  descriptive  of  nearly  all  systems  in 
use  before  the  birth  of  phonography  in  1837,  as 
well  as  of  the  Pemin  and  others  since. 

The  origin  of  shorthand  writing  is  mostly  a 
matter  of  supposition. 

History  traces  the  use  of  the  art  with  definite- 
ness  back  to  the  time  of  Cicero,  about  70  B.C. 
The  invention  is  sometimes  credited  to  Cicero 
himself,  and  sometimes  to  his  secretary,  Tullius 
Tiro;  but  had  it  not  been  the  latter,  his  name 
would  never  have  been  mentioned  in  connection 
with  it,  and  the  property  of  the  slave  at  that 
time  was  always  reckoned  as  belonging  to  the 
master.  This  system  of  Tiro  was  largely  em- 
ployed when  letters  flourished  at  Rome,  and  the 
philosopher  Seneca  is  said  to  have  added  much  to 
its  efficiency.  Centuries  later  it  was  used  by  the 
Christian  Fathers,  and  Cyprian  adapted  it  spe« 
cially  to  the  theological  terms  in  use  in  his  day. 
We  have  traces  of  its  being  employed  in  the  tenth 
century  after  Christ,  and  even  at  a  later  date  in 
a  very  limited  way. 

Judging  from  the  few  specimens  of  the  system 
of  Tiro  that  have  been  preserved,  it  seems  impos- 
sible that  the  pen  could  be  made  by  it  to  keep 
pace  with  the  tongue  of  even  a  very  slow  speaker. 
The  alphabetic  signs  were  much  longer  than  those 
of  modern  systems,  most  of  them  being  only  a 
trifle  shorter  than  the  usual  Roman  character, 
which  it  often  imitated.    Thus: 

u  I X  s  6  ^«^  v*  •  k  i\  iA-#  V  9 /|down)  |i(up>'*  *  ""^ -^  "^ 
abode  f  c  hikl  m  BO  p  q  rttnTwxji 

Besides  the  clumsy  form  of  these  letters,  the 
difficulty  was  increased  both  to  learner  and 
writer  by  a  very  long  list  of  arbitrary  forms  that 
must  be  committed  to  memory;  and  to  have  all 
these  at  the  finger  ends  just  when  wanted,  without 
having  to  lose  time  in  the  effort  to  call  them  up, 
would  be  no  easy  task.  Success  with  such  ma- 
terials would  be  due  more  to  the  writers  than  to 
the  system.  Yet  we  find  Gregory  of  Nazianzus 
expressing  his  gratitude  in  his  last  days  that  so 
many  of  his  public  utterances  had  been  preserved 
by  this  shorthand.  Pliny  also  kept  a  stenographer 
at  his  side  to  record  his  observations.  Awkward 
as  Tiro's  system  may  appear  in  comparison  with 
those  of  more  modem  times,  we  recognize  in  it 
some  of  the  basic  principles  on  which  these  are 
founded,  such  as  the  shortening  of  alphabetic 
signs,  the  use  of  single  letters  to  represent  short 
and  common  words,  the  omission  of  letters  that 
are  lightly  sounded  or  not  sounded  at  all,  the 
adopting  of  a  cursive  or  running  hand,  etc. 

Nothing  seems  to  be  known  of  the  existence  of 
any  other  system  of  shorthand  during  the  Greek 
or  Roman  ascendency,  nor  for  fifteen  centuries 
afterwards.  But  at  the  end  of  the  Dark  Ages 
the  invention  of  printing  startled  the  world  from 
its  long  slumber;  and  soon  after,  what  may  be 
called  the  second  era  of  shorthand  history  came 
into  being,  and  continued  without  very  much  im- 
provement until  phonography  proper  gave  it  an 
entirely  new  impetus.    During  this  second  period 


of  some  three  centuries,  about  215  systems  were 
submitted  to  the  public,  of  which  only  about 
eight  or  nine  show  any  real  improvement.  It  is 
instructive  to  compare  the  alphabets  of  these 
leading  inventors,  and  note  the  gradual  improve- 
ment in  the  alphabetic  signs.  The  following  table 
is  arranged  for  comparison  of  the  nrominent  sys- 
tems of  this  era,  and  such  as  nmniiest  the  growth 
of  the  shorthand  idea : 


^^m»m 

Table  L 

— 

»>#t 

IHb. 

MM. 

VML      «a.       VOL 

<^ 

Mm.  Vnm. 

1 

A 

n 

/ 

• 
1 

J^ 

\ 

< 

/ 

c 

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The  two  qualities  essential  to  good  shorthand 
are  (1)  brevity,  in  order  to  secure  rapidity  in 
writing,  and  (2)  fullness  sufficient  to  make  the 
writing  legible.  By  examining  the  above  systems 
a  gain  in  the  direction  of  brevity,  so  far  as  the 
alphabets  are  concerned,  is  evident;  and  at  the 
same  time,  the  characters  being  quite  as  varied 
and  significant  as  are  the  Roman  characters,  the 
writing  retains  its  legibility.  When  other  ^ins 
are  also  taken  into  account,  such  as  better  join- 
ings of  letters,  omitting  silent  or  semi-silent  let- 
ters, the  gradual  adoption  of  a  phonetic  principle, 
pairing  of  letters  according  to  sound,  using  dis- 
tinct signs  for  combinations  of  consonants  and  for 
syllables,  substituting  written  words  for  arfoitrsiy 
signs — ^taking  all  these  into  account,  the  improve- 
ment is  very  marked. 

Timothy  Bright,  who  led  this  era,  and  whose 
treatise  was  dedicated  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  was 
very  sanguine  about  the  excellence  of  his  system. 
Modem  writers,  however,  are  prone  to  depreci- 


SHOBTHAVD. 


808 


SHOBT&AND. 


ate  the  advantages  that  he  claimed.  Each  letter 
of  hk  alphabet  could  be  written  in  four  direc- 
tions, as  follows:  IV.  .  The  first  letter  alone 
of  a  word  was  written  out ;  by  adding  to  this  dif- 
ferent terminations,  different  words  would  be  ex- 
pressed, and  each  of  these  words  was  to  be  com- 
mitted to  memory.  Thus:  >  abound,  and  C 
ahoui;  J  accept,  and  i  accuse;  J  advance,  and 
I  €M';  ^  again,  and  ^  age;  J  all,  and  U  almost; 
J  also,  and  L  although.  Three  dozen  other  wordJs 
were  made  by  giving  the  letter  the  other  slopes 
indicated;  thus:  ^  alter,  and  "am;  -■ 
amend,  and  -  anger,  etc.  In  this  way,  8M 
words  could  be  constructed  out  of  the  letters 
of  the  alphabet,  and  each  must  be  committed  to 
memoiy.  This  set  makes  up  the  author's  'Char- 
acterie  Table/  as  he  calls  it.  Then  we  have  28 
pages  of  'appellatine'  or  synon^ous  words,  with 
a  certain  snort  mark  on  one  side  of  each  letter; 
placing  this  on  the  opposite  side  reverses  the 
meaning,  giving  us  the  antonyms ;  as  i  abandon, 
but  ^  retain  or  keep.  One  sign  also  is  made  to 
stand  for  all  synonymous  words,  such  as  veracity, 
truthfulnese,  sincerity,  etc.  Following  this  list 
again  comes  a  'Table  of  English  Words,"  filling 
180  pages  more,  all  to  be  ieamed  by  heart.'  In 
1600  Peter  Bales  brought  out  a  system  similar 
in  some  respects  to  Bright's,  but  which  was  no 
easier  for  the  memory.  Bales  called  his  system 
*brachygraphy.* 

The  next  system  that  indicated  progress  ap- 
peared  twelve  years  later,  by  John  Willis,  and  was 
called  'The  Art  of  Stenography,  or  short  writing 
by  Spelling  Characterie."  That  is,  spelling  out 
the  words  and  joining  the  letters,  instead  of  mak- 
ing every  word  an  arbitrary  sign  to  be  committed 
to  memory.  This  was  the  first  real  stenographic 
alphabet  for  shorthand,  and  a  decided  advance  be- 
yond Bright.  The  advance,  indeed,  was  such 
that  the  author  sincerely  believed  he  had  reached 
the  goal,  in  spite  of  the  many  drawbacks  in  the 
cumbrous  letters,  and  in  the  large  omissions  neces- 
sary to  secure  any  degree  of  brevity,  and  the  still 
larger  number  of  indispensable  arbitraries.  The 
art  nevertheless  did  not  stand  still,  and  even 
during  his  lifetime  Edmond  Willis  had  an- 
nounced the  device  of  separating  the  vowels  from 
the  consonants,  and  placing  them  around  the 
strokes  in  different  positions,  so  that  thev  might 
be  written  or  not  according  to  need  and  oppor- 
tunity. 

During  the  following  twenty-five  years,  about 
ten  publications  appeared,  each  with  new  char- 
acteristics, but  the  only  one  that  gained  any 
lasting  reputation  was  that  of  Jeremiah  Rich 
in  1654,  entitled  Semigraphy,  or  Art's  Raritj^ 
It  is  better  known  by  a  later  title.  The  Pen*s  Dex- 
terity. Rich's  shorthand  continued  to  be  pub- 
lished with  slight  changes  for  at  least  160  years. 

There  is  no  very  striking  advance  in  Rich's 
system  beyond  some  of  the  previous  systems; 
such  awkward  forms  as  h  A,  y  y,  z  s  still  appear 
in  the  alphabet,  and  it  included  over  300  pure 
arbitraries.  The  Book  of  Psalms  and  the  whole 
of  the  New  Testament  were  engraved  at  great 
expense  in  Rich's  system.  Contemporaneous  with 
it,  some  dozen  systems  appeared,  many  of  them 
quite  different  in  the  structure  of  the  alphabet, 
but  no  new  principle  of  worth  was  evolved.  The 
best  of  these^  and  the  one  that  obtained  most 
celebrity,  was  that  of  William  Mason,  first  pub- 


lished in  1672.  The  alphabet  of  Mason's  first 
edition  follows  Rich's  alphabet  closely;  but 
that  of  the  third  edition  departs  widely  from 
it.  He  divides  his  shorthand  principles  into 
four  parts:  "(1)  Spelling  Characterie^  or  the 
writing  of  words  completely  according  to  sound; 
by  vowels  according  to  their  places  (three 
beside  the  strokes) ;  by  consonants  singly  double, 
or  treble;  or  by  prepositions  or  terminations. 
(2)  Symbolical  shortnand,  which  uses  natural 
marks  for  words  and  sentences — a  kind  of  image 
visible  to  represent  the  words.  (3)  Deficieiit 
writing,  when  some  part  of  a  word  staiids  for  the 
whole,  as  ab  for  abbreviate  or  abbreviation,  etc. 
(4)  Arbitrary  characters — small  marks  or  dots 
made  at  pleasure  for  some  words  in  frequent  use 
which  cannot  be  made  so  short  by  the  letters  of 
the  alphabet.  There  are  no  less  than  423  of 
these  symbolical  and  arbitrary  characters  to 
learn.  But  Mason's  great  discovery  was  the  use 
of  the  circle  as  a  duplicate  form  for  the  letter  s, 
which  has  been  continued  in  the  structure  of  some 
of  the  most  successful  systems  to  the  present  day. 

The  last  edition  of  Mason's  system  is  the  foun- 
dation of  the  famous  Gum^  system,  which  was 
first  published  by  Thomas  Gumey  in  1751,  and 
which  obtained  its  fame,  not  so  much  from  any 
special  merit  that  it  possessed  as  from  the  cir- 
cumstance that  Mr.  Gumey  obtained  an  appoint- 
ment from  the  Government  as  its  shorthand  writ- 
er— an  appointment  that  has  descended  with  the 
Gumey  family  to  this  day,  giving  them  a  monop- 
oly of  publishing  the  debates  of  the  Commons, 
though  much  the  larger  proportion  of  their  staff 
now  use  the  Isaac  Pitman  system. 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, and  while  these  last-named  systems  were 
in  use,  some  fifty  others  were  issued,  none  of 
which  made  any  important  place  for  itself 
in  shorthand  history  except  Byrom's,  Taylor's, 
and  Mavor's.  Byrom  (1767)  seems  to  have  had 
more  regard  for  the  ease  and  gracefulness  with 
which  his  letters  were  formed  and  united  than  for 
brevity  of  style;  and  in  order  to  attain  this  ob« 

J'ect,  he  employed  duplicate  forms  for  a  number  of 
lis  letters,  and  even  a  triplicate  in  the  case  of  I, 
as  will  be  seen  by  a  reference  to  his  alphabet  in 
Table  I.  Still  using  the  old  unphonetic  vowel 
scale,  he  represented  the  five  vowels  by  dots 
placed  in  order  beside  the  strokes,  but  arranged 
in  the  case  of  curved  horizontals  in  a  manner 
that  appears  strange  to  a  modem  writer;  thus: 
H.^*>  an,  en,  in,  on,  un.  Taylor  (1786),  appar- 
ently making  brevity  his  first  and  sole  aim, 
discarded  all  medial  vowels,  but  used  a  dot  occa- 
sionally to  indicate  the  presence  of  any  open  or 
sounded  vowel  at  the  begmning  or  end  of  a  word. 
He  says:  "Some  have  characters  to  represent  all 
the  vowels,  which  they  use  in  common,  as  in 
other  writing,  namely,  at  the  beginning,  in  the 
middle,  and  at  the  end  of  words.  But  this  kind 
of  writing  ought  not  to  come  under  the  denomi- 
nation of  shorthand,"  etc.  Taylor  also  aban- 
doned the  use  of  all  arbitrary  characters.  At 
later  dates,  Harding  and  Odell,  having  an  eye 
to  legibility  as  well  as  to  brevity,  modified  Tay- 
lor's vowel  principle;  the  former  using  a  dot  and 
a  dash  according  to  position  with  regard  to  the 
letter,  as  1  at^  1  ef,  .1  0,  1  o<,  "I  ut;  and  the  lat- 
ter employing  a  different  sign  for  each  vowel 
without  regard  to  position,  as  J  at,  ^  et,  i  it, 
*l  at,  ^  ut,  i  aut,  4  out.  In  neither  case, 
however,  were  these  vowel  signs  generally  in- 


8H0BTHAHD. 


804 


8H0BTHAHD. 


serted.  Both  Harding  and  Odell  also  used  a  few 
arbitrary  characters,  but  very  few. 

The  peculiarity  of  Mayor  (1789)  was  thaty 
with  a  consonantal  alphabet  of  his  own,  he  em- 
ployed comma  marks  for  a,  e,  and  i,  in  three  dif- 
ferent positions  alongside  the  consonants,  and 
dots  for  o,  ti,  and  y;  but  the  commas  were  found 
to  be  clumsy  and  slower  than  the  dashes.  Mayor's 
system,  however,  became  ^uite  popular,  and  sur- 
vived most  of  the  systems  in  vogue  at  the  time. 

Between  the  time  of  Mayor  and  the  rising  of 
'phonography,'  in  1837,  some  130  different  au- 
thors published  shorthand  treatises  of  greater 
or  less  value,  a  few  being  original,  others 
being  only  modifications  of  preceding  systems. 
But  it  is  needless  to  particularize  any  that  would 
not  throw  light  on  present-day  expedients  either 
as  helps  or  as  beacons  of  warning.  Two  of  this 
number  gained  considerable  repute  at  the  time 
for  methods  that  were  at  least  novel,  if  not  use- 
ful. In  1800  Samuel  Richardson  produced  an 
ingenious  contrivance,  namely,  the  use  of  dots  for 
all  letters,  which  were  distinguished  merely  by 
their  relative  position  between  the  bars  of  a 
music  staff;  this  plan  was  modified  and  ex- 
tended some  years  later  by  Hinton,  Moat,  and 
Tear.  Again,  in  1802  Richard  Roe  brought  out 
what  he  called  'radiography,'  or  easy  toriting, 
which  was  noted«  as  he  says,  "especially  by  the 
singular  property  of  the  characters  sloping  all 
one  way,  according  to  the  habitual  motion  of  the 
hand  in  common  writing."  Over  thirty  years 
after,  the  same  principle  was  taught  by  Cadman 
in  his  School  Stenography,  in  which  we  are  told 
that  "lineality  is  the  distinguishing  feature  of 
this  system,''  and  that  ''it  is  impossible  for  the 
student  to  get  away  from  the  line — he  cannot  go 
wrong."  Some  modern  systems  cling  also  to  this 
feature  of  shorthand.  It  was  during  this  period 
that  James  Henry  Lewis  made  a  name  for  him- 
self, especially  by  his  Historical  Account  of 
Shorthand,  which  is  a  work  of  considerable 
merit;  but  his  reputation  was  not  a  little  marred 
by  his  style  of  advertising  the  Ready  Writer, 
which  he  is  vain  enough  to  speak  of  as  "the  ne 
plus  ultra  of  shorthand;  the  most  easy,  exact, 
lineal,  speedy,  and  legible  method  ever  yet  dis- 
covered, whereby  more  may  be  written  in  forty 
minutes  than  in  one  hour  by  any  other  system 
hitherto  published."  And  he  adds:  ''The  un- 
parallelea  success  which  has  attended  the  dis- 
semination of  the  above  system  precludes  the 
necessity  of  descanting  on  its  peculiar  advan- 
tages; it  is  amply  sufficient  to  observe  that  it 
has  completely  superseded  all  others,  in  the 
courts  of  law,  and  in  both  Houses  of  Parliament; 
that  it  is  universally  adopted  in  every  respect- 
able seminary  of  education  throughout  the  United 
Kingdom;  and  has  passed  the  approbation  of 
both  our  universities  in  a  manner  which  can 
only  be  equaled  by  the  liberality  of  those  cele- 
brated iudges  of  literature  who  have  pronounced 
it  'the  best  they  have  ever  seen.' "  This  turgid 
style  is  continued  at  some  length  in  rhyme,  and, 
as  in  advertising  other  cheap  wares,  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  species  of  poetic  license,  others  hav- 
ing evidently  failed  to  discover  these  wonderful 
virtues  and  testimonials;  for  the  system  never 
became  popular. 

Throughout  the  past  two  eras  of  shorthand  his- 
tory, as  we  have  considered  them,  the  art  can 
hardly  be  regarded  as  anything  more  than  a  play- 
thing, being  confined  almost  entirely  in  its  use  to 


people  of  leisure.  Mayor  himself  speaks  thus  of 
it:  "I  was  in  the  constant  practice  of  writing  in 
my  system  and  of  corresponding  in  it,  with  sach 
ladies  and  gentlemen  as  did  me  the  honor  of 
submitting  their  proficiency  to  my  inspection.'* 
It  is  noticeable  that  a  few  inventors  of  systems 
at  this  time  professed  to  follow  the  sound  of 
words  rather  than  the  spelling;  still  the  practice 
was  never  established,  particularly  in  regard  to 
the  vowels,  on  a  scientific  basis  of  phonetics  until 
the  publication  of  Stenographic  Sound^Hand  in 
1837 — renamed  by  the  au&or  Phonography  about 
three  years  later.  Whatever  might  be  the  cause 
or  causes,  the  practice  of  the  art  took  a  sudden 
and  mighty  leap  at  the  same  time,  giving  reason 
to  suppose  that  phonetics  had  more  or  less  to  do 
with  this  progress.  Though  it  has  ever  con- 
tinued to  be  a  recreation,  it  now  became  much 
more.  It  came  to  be  the  handmaid  of  literatnre 
an&  industry — an  indispensable  wheel  in  the  vast 
machinery  of  the  business  world.  Isaac  Pitman's 
earlier  publications  were  very  small  and  imper- 
fect, but  they  contained  the  rudiments  of  the 
more  fully  developed  system  as  now  presented  in 
the  Twentieth  Century  Instructor,  The  first 
treatise  was  but  a  four-penny  tractate  of  12 
pages,  and  the  second  was  but  a  penny  folio 
sheet,  8  inches  by  6^.  The  author  took  every 
advantage  of  the  experience  of  thoee  who  had 
preceded  him.  He  arranged  his  alphabet  on  ap- 
proved scientific  and  phonetic  principles,  em- 
ploying the  shortest  signs,  consistent  with  dis- 
tinctness, for  the  various  sounds  of  the  language, 

Tablb  n.**, 

THB  PHONOGRAPHIC  ALPHABET. 

(BY  ISAAC  PITMAN.) 

CONSONANTS. 

CONTINUANTS. 

V  V. 

TH    ( 
Z     ) 

zuy 

NG  >^ 


BXPLODENTS. 

P  \  B  \ 

T     I  D  I 

CH  /  J  / 

K  —  G  — 


F    V. 
TH    ( 

S     ) 
SH  y 

N  -^ 

LIQUIDS.       L    /^  R     "^    '^ 

COALBSCENTS.  W  «^   Ycf^   ASPIRATE.  H  (T'  / 

VOWELS. 


NASALS.        M    ^-s 


LONG. 


SHORT. 


I.   AH 


3. 

EH 

3. 

EE 

I. 

AW 

3. 

OH 

3- 

OO 

* 

asm    UlA 

^ 

1 

• 

.,     tilK 

6 

•1 

J 

»    tea 

I 

1 

„    taw 

6 

.1 

- 

„     U>e 

a 

^ 

J 

„     U>o 

66 

J 

■  pot 

pit 

nift 

DIPHTHONGS.  v|  I      a|   OW     1  01     J  U     ^  WI 

devoting  the  most  convenient  ones  to  the  most 
frequently  recurring  sounds;  he  paired  those 
that  were  cognate  in  sound,  shading  the  stronger 
ones ;  he  made  simple  dots  and  dashes,  with  yery 
small  curves,  both  light  and  shaded,  detadied 
and  in  three  positions,  do  the  whole  servioe  tor 


SHOBTHAKD. 


805 


SHOBTHAiny. 


the  twelve  vowel  sounds  and  the  thirty  diph- 
thongs, all  being  distinct;  and  he  gave  the 
shorter  and  more  common  words  three  .positions 
with  respect  to  the  line  of  writing,  so  that,  with- 
out impairing  legibility,  these  vowel  forms  might 
be  dispensed  with  in  ordinary  cases.  Tables  II. 
and  III.  illustrate  most  of  these  points. 

The  public  were  so  captivated  with  the  new 
system  that  nine  editions  of  the  book,  each  with 
improvements,  were  demanded  within  fifteen 
years;  and  although  some  one  hundred  systems 
have  been  put  on  the  market  in  Great  Britein 
since  the  first  appearance  of  the  Isaac  Pitman 
system,  it  has  continued  te  gain  ground  very  rap- 
idly among  them  all.  An  'official'  report  made  by 
Mr.  Sterr  of  the  Times  (London)  gives  the  rela* 
tive  standing  of  the  systems  used  in  the  British 
Parliament  in  1895  as:  Isaac  Pitman,  96;  Gur- 
ney,  10;  Taylor,  11;  Janes,  1;  Duployan,  1; 
Lewis,  2.  The  popularity  of  the  system  is  also 
shown  by  the  large  amount  of  shorthand  litera- 
ture published:  Two  weekly  periodicals  with  a 
circulation  steted  to  be  35,000  each,  from  the  Bath 

Eress;  six  monthlies  of  a  general  character  pub- 
ahed  independently,  and  one  medical  journal — 
all  of  these  in  shorthand  alone,  except  The 
Phonetic  Journal,  which   is   partly  letterpress. 

Tabub  in. 


^  ^  126,000  '  ::i^  "-^  ,  \jy  !^ 


\- 


s    *%_•?      <lD 


"  If  I  wen  fifteen  yeen  old  Again,  and  wanted  to 
earn  $95,000  a  year  in  some  great  business  by  th« 
time  I  was  thirty,  I  would  study  to  become  a  good 
amanuends,  and  get  into  die  Manager's  office 
ae  a  stenographer.  There  is  no  quicker,  easier 
way  to  'barglariae'  sacetn."— 'Frederic  Irlandp 
Omgresnomal  Reporter,  Waekirngton,  D.C, 


The  catalogue  of  publications  now  issued  through 
the  four  publishing  houses  at  Bath,  London,  New 
York,  and  Toronte  conteins^  among  other  books, 
136  of  such  stendard  character  as  the  Bible,  The 
Vicar  of  Wakefield,  Tom  Brcwn'8  School  Days, 
Dickens's  Picktoick  Papers,  ete.  Grovemment 
returns  show  that,  in  the  year  1895,  91,006  youth 
Were  receiving  instruction  in  the  Pitman  short- 
hand in  the  United  Kingdom,  and  the  text-books 
of  the  system  have  now  been  adopted  exclusively 
for  the  schools  of  Greater  New  York.  Isaac 
Pitman's  services  were  recognized  by  having  a 
knighthood  conferred  on  him  in  1893,  three  or 
four  years  before  his  death. 

In  America  there  are  no  distinct  traces  of  the 
public  use  of  shorthand  until  Stephen  Pearl  An- 
drews brought  the  Isaac  Pitman  system  from 
England  in  1844,  and  planted  it  on  this  side  of 
the  Atlantic.  In  Dr.  J.  Westby-Gibson's  Bibliog- 
raphy of  Bhorthand,  he  enumerates  16  editions  of 
Andrew's  and  Boyle's  Complete  Phonographic 
Classhook  (Pitman  phonography)  as  published 
within  eight  years.    Epinetus  Webster  also  pub- 


lished an  edition  of  the  system  in  1852.  A  very 
active  propaganda  was  carried  on  at  this  time  by 
these  and  other  publishers,  and  by  Oliver  Dyer, 
who  traveled  over  a  large  part  of  the  Eastern  and 
Northern  Stetes,  and  into  Canada,  lecturing  on 
phonography  and  teaching  large  classes.  In  1853 
Benn  Pitman,  a  younger  brother  of  Isaac,  came 
to  America,  and,  with  R.  B.  Proeser,  joined  the 
propaganda  by  publishing  The  Reporter's  Com- 
panion, and,  shortly  after,  The  Manual,  So  far, 
the  system  in  America  had  kept  pace  in  altera- 
tions with  the  several  English  editions;  but  a 
year  or  two  later  Andrew  J.  Graham  commenced 
his  series  of  text-books,  in  which  he  introduced 
slight  changes  of  his  own.  His  alphabet,  as  also 
that  of  Benn  Pitman,  remains  the  same  as  the 
Isaac  Pitman  of  1856;  but  the  latter  undergoing 
a  change  in  its  tenth  edition  by  the  transposition 
of  two  light  and  two  heavy  dot  vowels,  the  Benn 
Pitman  and  the  Graham  did  not  follow;  and  that, 
with  the  change  of  the  letters  w,  y,  and  h,  which 
Isaac  Pitman  made  later^  constitutes  the  prin- 
cipal difference  at  the  present  day  between 
these    systems     and    that    of   Great    Britein. 

Tablb  IV. 


Pitmanic                     Non-Pftmanic      1 

c 

^ 

1 

C 
0 

E 

1 

c 
E 

1 

E 

-5 

< 

E 

S. 

Q. 

i~ 

0 

P 

/ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

n 

f 

c 

\ 

B 

/ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

N 

\ 

v» 

1 

/^ 

\ 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

^or^-s 

^ 

— 

D 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

v.^ 



^ 

». 

CH 

V. 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

^ 

^TN 

/ 

1 

J 

V- 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

^ 

/T* 

/ 

1 

K 

^ 

m^ 

__ 

_ 

__ 

_ 

^ 

/ 

/^ 

/ 

6 

^_ 

«_ 

.^ 

.« 

_ 

«. 

a 

i 

^,,-K 

/ 

F 

\ 

V. 

'^ 

Vs. 

V. 

V. 

^.— ^ 

J 

/ 

V 

\ 

V 

^ 

V. 

V. 

L 

^^ 

\ 

J 

/ 

FH 

( 

( 

C 

f 

( 

C 

^^ 

rvrj 

-y- 

rri 

( 

( 

( 

( 

c 

C 

y  J. 

S 

yor. 

)  0 

>  0 

^  • 

)  «< 

^  • 

■    ^^. 

v-^ 

f  J 

N— / 

Z 

U. 

)e 

)  • 

)  e 

)e 

)o 

— ^ 

>w^ 

r> 

%.^ 

SF 

r 

J 

J 

J 

J 

J 

s> 

/^ 

/ 

^ 

ZH 

^ 

J 

J 

J 

J 

y 

/^-N 

v^ 

M 

^^^ 

c 

^_^ 

N 

•>— / 

s-/ 

v.^ 

w 

N-/ 

^-^ 

, 

^ 

^"^ 

MG 

%«^ 

w*» 

^^ 

^•^ 

^.i^ 

v.'* 

— ) 

? 

•^ 

/-TN 

L 

r^(^ 

r 

r 

/^ 

r 

r 

0 

^-^ 

■^ 

H 

x«"> 

■\     y- 

s^ 

^x' 

s^ 

'\y 

^ore 

y 

w 

^ 

W 

r 

^ 

c-^ 

"S 

-\ 

-s 

.^ 

( 

9 

OtK^O 

Y 

€^ 

r 

^ 

r 

r 

r 

^ 

^ 

' 

J 

H 

c^ 

€^ 

?or^ 

<r 

<r 

¥«-V 

0 

• 

• 

J 

C 

^ 

X 

"'^ 

In  1866  James  E.  Mimson  brought  out.  his 
Complete  Phonographer,  in  which  he  adopted 
the  Isaac  Pitman  change  of  vowels,  but  re- 
tained the  old  u>  and  y,  and  he  has  a  new 
form  of  his  own  for  h,  Elias  Longley  followed 
with  his  Eclectic,  and  says  in  his  Introduction: 
"As  phonography  now  stands  before  the  public, 
in  this  country,  it  has  no  generally  recognized 
exponent.  It  is  1*0 1  here,'  and  liol  there,'  and 
nobody  knows  who  is  the  true  phonographic 


SHOBTHAin). 


806 


SHOBTHOXTSEL 


prophet."  With  the  benevolent  intention  of  re- 
storing harmony,  he  simply  adds  another  yaria- 
tion.  And  so  the  Pitmanic  systems  kept  on  mul- 
tiplying, until  now  they  number  anywhere  from 
30  to  60,  all  of  which,  however,  may  be  under- 
stood by  a  Pitman  writer  with  a  few  hours' 
study.  The  confusion  was  increased  by  the  in- 
troduction of  new  systems:  Lindsley's  Tachy- 
graphy;  the  Gabelsberger  and  the  Duployan 
(modified  and  renamed  the  Pernin),  imported 
from  Germany  and  France  respectively;  J.  G. 
Cross's  Eclectic;  C.  £.  McKee's  New  Rapid  and 
New  Standard;  J.  R.  Gregg's  Light-Line;  and 
others  less  known. 

Of  the  Pitmanic  systems,  the  Benn  Pitman 
has  a  monthly  for  its  exponent,  The  Phono- 
graphic Magazine,  which  is  partly  in  common 
print  and  partly  in  shorthand;  the  Graham  has 
The  Students'  Journal,  a  monthly,  also  partly 
in  shorthand.  Beyond  these  and  the  text-books, 
with  a  few  booklets  for  reading  exercise,  the 
American  Pitman  systems  have  no  literature.  Of 
the  non-Pitmanic,  The  Monthly  Stenographer 
represents  the  Pemin,  and  The  Oregg  Writer 
(monthly)  the  Gregg  system;  both  of  these  are 
partly  in  the  shorthand  character  of  their  respec- 
tive systems,  besides  which  they  have  published 
only  their  text-books.  The  Typewriter  and 
Phonographic  World  of  New  York,  and  The 
Stenographer  of  Philadelphia,  both  monthlies, 
are  cosmopolitan  in  their  shorthand  character, 
and  are  mostly  in  common  print.  The  English 
Isaac  Pitman  had  no  propaganda  in  America 
until  the  branch  publishing  houses  were  opened 
at  New  York  and  Toronto  in  1890,  and  it  has  no 
separate  organ  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic. 
Shorthand  publishing  of  all  kinds  in  America  is 
very  far  behind  that  of  Britain,  notwithstanding 
the  vigor  with  which  it  started  under  Andrews, 
Boyle,  Webster,  etc. 

The  systems  that  are  not  Pitmanic  differ  from 
each  other  as  much  as  they  do  from  the  Pitmanic. 
The  letters  of  the  Cross  Eclectic  alphabet  are 
constructed  upon  what  the  author  calls  the  form 
of  the  'Chirographic  Ellipse,'  or  any  ellipse  in 
five  different  directions  lacking  the  perpendicu- 
lar. (See  Table  IV.  for  the  form  of  the  let- 
ters.) His  vowel  scale  is  but  partially  phonetic, 
and  he  uses  five  positions  with  respect  to  the  line 
of  writing,  both  for  vowels  and  for  consonants; 
the  vowels,  being  strokes,  are,  of  course,  joined  to 
the  consonants.  The  Pernin  consonants  are  geo- 
metrical and  light-line,  the  paired  letters  being 
single  and  double  length  instead  of  being  light 
and  heavy,  and  the  vowels  are  mostly  connected 
and  phonetically  arranged,  but  the  diphthongs 
are  scantily  represented.  The  special  character- 
istics of  the  Gregg  system  are  thus  presented: 
"(1)  No  compulsory  thickening.  (2)  Written 
on  the  slope  of  longhand.  (3)  Position  writing 
abolished.  ( 4 )  Vowels  and  consonants  conjoined. 
(5)  Angles  are  rare."  Like  the  Pernin,  and 
other  light-line  systems,  the  heavy  sounds  of 
related  letters  are  double  length.  The  vowels  are 
phonetic,  and  four  of  them  fully  connected  with 
the  consonants;  but  the  remaining  eight,  when 
distinguished  from  the  others,  have  dots  and 
dashes  disconnected.  The  alphabet  shows  but 
four  diphthongs;  ingenious  but  somewhat  com- 
plicated expedients  provide,  however,  for  one  or 
two  more.  The  system  is  new  comparatively, 
originating  in  England  in  1889,  whence  it  was 
transferred  to  America  about  two  years  later, 


where  it  has  made  considerable  headway  since, 
esjpecially  in  the  West.  The  New  Standard,  as 
will  be  observed  by  the  tables,  is  shaded  like  the 
Pitman;  its  vowel  system  is  mostly  phonetic,  and 
composed  of  three  circles  of  different  sizes  and 
two  ellipses,  which  are  also  shaded  and  some  of 
them  accompanied  by  distinguishing  dots.  The 
words  are  all  written  on  the  line.  This  system 
is  also  comparatively  new  in  the  field* 

This  is  necessarily  but  a  meagre  descriptum 
of  what  may  be  called  the  living*  systems  of 
America  at  the  present  date  (1903).  New  ones 
are  constantly  coming  and  going.  In  1890  Julius 
Ensign  Rockwell,  with  remarkable  care  and  labor, 
collected  shorthand  statistics  for  the  Bureau  of 
Information  at  Washington ;  and  he  found  44  dif- 
ferent systems  taught  in  1310  institutions  of 
learning.  Some  extend  the  number  of  systems  in 
actual  use  in  America  to  200;  but  those  repre- 
sented in  Table  IV.  are  almost  the  only  ones  to 
be  found  doing  the  work  at  the  present  time  of 
our  press,  our  courts,  and  our  legislatures. 

As  to  the  adaptation  of  shorthand  to  different 
languages,  while  all  admit  the  truth  of  Gahels- 
bergefs  remark  that  '*the  honor  of  reducing 
shorthand  to  a  system  belongs  especially  to  the 
English  natiqn,"  yet  we  find  a  French  inventor 
as  early  as  1651 — Jacques  Oossard — and  others  a 
little  later  in  other  parts  of  Europe ;  but  in  mod- 
em times  the  names  of  Duploy6  in  France  and  of 
Gabelsberger  in  Germany  are  wat-chwords  in  the 
shorthand  circles  of  these  countries.  The  Isaac 
Pitman  firm  has,  however,  adapted  its  system  to 
the  Spanish,  French,  German,  Italian,  Dutch, 
Welsh,  Japanese,  Chinese,  and  Hindustanee  lan- 
guages. 

The  speed  with  which  shorthand  can  be  written 
is  a  miich  discussed  subject.  It  has  been  made 
abundantly  clear  that  shorthand  can  be  written 
so  as  to  keep  pace  with  ordinary  public  speakers 
at  a  rate  of  from  130  to  180  words  per  minute. 
At  higher  rates,  or  in  lengthened  reports,  it  is 
customary  for  reporters  to  work  by  relays,  thus 
relieving  each  other  every  ten  or  fifteen  minutes; 
this  is  not  only  for  the  sake  of  greater  accuracy, 
but  that  the  press  may  be  supplied  with  copy  the 
sooner.  In  England,  by  very  strict  official  tests 
of  ten  minutes'  dictation,  and  requiring  perfect 
transcripts  of  the  'take,'  many  records  of  from 
200  to  250  words  a  minute  have  been  made;  and 
it  is  claimed  both  in  England  and  in  America  that 
these  rates  have  been  considerably  surpassed,  but 
the  tests  have  not  been  equally  reliable  and  are 
generally  for  only  one  minute's  writing;  and  ex- 
perience has  shown  that  statements  on  this  sub- 
ject need  to  be  taken  eum  grano  ealie. 

For  facts,  dates,  etc.,  given  in  this  article,  the 
writer  acknowledges  indebtedness  to  Dr.  J.  West- 
by-Gibson's  Bibliography  of  Shorthand,  Julius 
Ensign  Rockwell's  Teaching,  Practice,  and  Lit- 
erature of  Shorthand,  Isaac  Pitman's  History  of 
Shorthand,  and  to  the  several  treatises  of  au- 
thors referred  to  in  the  article. 

SHOBT'HOXrSE,  Joseph  Henby  (1834-1903). 
An  English  novelist,  bom  at  Birmingham.  He 
was  e4ucated  at  private  schools.  He  passed  his 
life  as  a  chemical  manufacturer  in  his  native 
city.  In  1881  he  became  widely  known  for  his 
romance,  John  Inglesant  (previously  issued  for 
private  circulation,  new  ed..  New  York,  1903), 
which  at  once  took  a  high  rank  among  English 
historical  novels  for  the  beauty  of  its  sfyle  and 


SHOBTHOtrSB. 


807 


SHOTOtnflT. 


the  vivid  fidelity  of  its  historical  portraiture.  It 
is  a  sort  of  Anglo-Catholic  tract  written  in  a 
beautiful  style.  It  was  succeeded  by  The  Little 
Schoolmaster  Mark,  a  Spiritual  Romance  (1883- 
84)  ;  Sir  Percival,  a  Story  of  the  Past  and  the 
Present  (1886);  A  Teacher  of  the  Violin  and 
Other  Tales  (18S8) ;  The  Countess  Eve  (1888) ; 
and  Blanche,  Lady  Falaise  (1891). 

SHOBT-SiaHTEDNESS.  See  Sight,  De- 
fects OF. 

SHOSHCyKEAN  STOCK.  An  important 
group  of  cognate  tribes  originally  holding  most 
of  the  territory  from  the  central  Rocky  Mountain 
region,  across  the  interior  basin,  to  the  Sierras 
and  extending  on  the  southeast  into  the  Texas 
prairies  and  on  the  southwest  across  south  Cali- 
fornia to  the  Pacific.  At  one  time  also  they 
held  the  south  bank  of  the  Columbia,  but  were 
driven  off  by  the  invasion  of  Shahaptian  tribes 
within  the  past  hundred  years.  Their  principal 
tribes  are  the  Banak,  Comanche,  Hopi,  Kawia, 
Mission  Indians  (chiefly),  Piute,  Ute,  and 
Shoahoni  proper.  Their  general  line  of  migra- 
tion seems  to  have  been  southward  between  the 
two  great  mountain  chains,  the  Comanche  alone 
becoming  a  prairie  tribe  by  separation  from  the 
Shoshoni,  while  other  bands  of  Piute  connection 
penetrated  southern  California  by  displacing  the 
weaker  natives.  Only  the  Hopi  were  sedentary 
or  agricultural,  the  rest  being  roving  savages  de- 
pending for  subsistence  upon  himting,  fishing,  or 
the  gathering  of  roots  and  seeds.  The  Ute  and 
Banak  were  noted  for  their  fighting  temper,  but 
the  others  as  a  whole  were  rather  below  the  war- 
like standard  bf  the  eastern  tribes.  With  the 
exception  of  the  Hopi,  whose  culture  was  that 
of  the  Pueblos  generally,  the  Shoshonean  tribes 
were  characteri^  by  a  democratic  looseness  of 
organization  and  lack  of  elaborate  ceremonial. 
They  number  now  altogether  about  16,000.  It  is 
now  generally  held  by  competent  linguistic  au- 
thorities that  the  Shoshonean,  Tafioan  ( including 
Isleta,  Jemez,  and  other  Pueblos),  Piman,  and 
Nahuatlan  are  all  but  branches  of  one  great 
linguistic  stock,  which  Brinton  designates  as  the 
Uto-Aztecan.  See  Plate  of  American  Indians, 
under  Indians. 

SHOSHONE  (shd-8h</n«)  PAIXS.  A  mag- 
nificent cataract  of  the  Snake  River  (q.v.),  in 
southern  Idaho^  exceeded  in  grandeur,  in  the 
United  States,  only  by  the  Niagara  and  the  falls 
in  the  Yosemite  Valley  (Map:  Idaho,  B  4). 
After  flowing  through  a  cafion  800  feet  deep  the 
river,  here  nearly  1000  feet  wide,  first  falls  30 
feet  through  several  rocky  channels,  and  then  in 
a  single  sheet  makes  a  precipitous  plunge  of  190 
feet  into  a  deep  and  dark-green  lake  at  the  bot- 
tom of  a  gorge  over  1000  feet  deep.  The  falls 
are  formed  by  a  ridge  of  hard  rock  uncovered 
by  the  wearing  away  of  the  superimposed  lava 
beds.  The  height  exceeds  that  of  Niagara,  and 
during  the  spring  floods  the  volume  does  not  de- 
scend far  short  of  that  of  the  more  celebrated 
fall. 

SHOSHOKl,  shA-sho'nft  (probably  from 
ShUhinowits,  snake,  the  name  given  them  by  the 
Cheyenne).  The  tribe,  callinfi:  themselves  simply 
Numa,  'people,'  from  which  the  Shoshonean  stock 
(q.v.)  takes  its  name,  formerly  holding  the 
mountain  country  of  western  Wvominp  and  the 
adjacent  portions  of  Ck>lorado,  Idaho,  Utah,  and 


northeastern  Nevada.  In  common  with  their 
neighbors,  the  Banak  and  Piute,  they  have  fre- 
quently been  known  under  the  collective  term  of 
Snake  Indians,  a  name  which  seems  to  have  its . 
origin  in  a  misapprehension  of  the  tribal  sign  in 
the  sign  language,  viz.  a  waving  outward  mo- 
tion of  the  index  finger.  Although  commonly  in- 
terpreted as  *snake,' this  sign  is  said  by  some  good 
authorities  to  have  been  originally  intended  to 
indicate  a  peculiar  style  of  brush-woven  lodge 
formerly  used  by  the  Shoshoni.  They  were  di- 
vided into  several  bands  with  very  little  cohesion 
among  themselves.  The  eastern  bands  had  horses 
and  sometimes  hunted  the  buffalo,  but  usually 
were  kept  close  to  the  mountains  by  their  fear 
of  the  more  warlike  Plains  tribes.  The  more 
western  bands  depended  chiefly  upon  camas  and 
other  roots,  seeds,  nuts,  rabbits,  and  other  small 
game.  -  None  of  them  were  agricultural.  Their 
dwellings  varied  from  the  skin  tipi  in  the  east 
to  the  merest  brush  windbreak  in  the  west. 
There  was  no  head  chief  and  very  little  show  of 
authority  of  any  kind.  Physically  they  are  short- 
er and  rather  more  plump  than  the  people  of  the 
Plains  tribes.  At  the  beginning  of  the  present  cen- 
tury they  numbered  al^ut  2500,  viz.  Banak  and 
Shoshoni  of  Fort  Hall  Agency,  Idaho,  1400; 
Shoshoni  and  Sheepeater  (a  subtribe),  Lemhi 
Agency,  Idaho,  400;  Western  Shoshoni  Agency, 
Nevada,  225,  besides  others  unattached;  Shoshoni 
Agency,  Wyoming,  800. 

SHOT.    See  Ammunition  ;  Projectiles. 

SHOXaXTK.  A  term  employed  to  denote  a 
weapon  used  for  sporting  purposes  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  military  rifie,  which  is  dis- 
cussed under  Small  Arms  (q.v.),  where  the  his- 
toric development  of  firearms  will  be  found 
treated.  The  flint-lock  gun  was  used  for  sport- 
ing purposes  well  into  the  nineteenth  century, 
and  it  was  not  until  after  many  experiments  and 
failures  that  percussion  caps  replaced  the  flints 
and  priming.  It  is  to  a  Frenchman,  M.  Le- 
faucheux,  that  the  world  owes  the  sporting  breech- 
loader, and  although  it  had  but  slight  resem- 
blance to  its  successor  of  to-day,  it  nevertheless 
was  the  pioneer  of  the  principle  which  is  now 
practically  universal.  The  original  Lefaucheux 
breech-loader  made  its  appearance  in  the  year 
1836.  It  consisted  of  a  pair  of  barrels  open  at 
the  breech,  working  on  a  hinge,  with  a  strong- 
based  cartridge  containing  its  own  means  of 
ignition.  The  gun  had  a  lever  lying  under  and 
parallel  to  the  barrels  when  the  gun  was  closed, 
so  that  to  load  the  weapon  it  was  necessary  to 
place  the  hammers  at  half-cock,  move  the  lever 
horizontally  to  the  right,  and  thus  liberate  the 
barrels,  which  would  then  be  raised  at  the  breech 
end,  and  lowered  at  the  muzzle;  the  cartridge 
was  inserted  in  the  breech,  and  the  gun  closed  by 
moving  the  lever  back  to  its  original  position. 
The  cartridge  was  exploded  by  the  falling  of  the 
hammer  on  the  head  of  a  brass  pin  inserted 
through  the  upper  part  of  the  cartridge  case, 
upon  which  the  point  of  the  pin  was  driven  into 
the  percussion  cap,  and  the  explosion  followed. 
There  were  so  many  faults  in  the  system  of  pin 
fire  that  it  was  early  abandoned  in  favor  of  the 
central-fire  system.  The  first  important  improve- 
ment on  the  Lefaucheux  weapon  was  the  inven- 
tion of  an  English  gunmaker  who  strengthened 
the  breech  action,  and  devised  a  more  perfect 
method  of  securing  the  barrels  to  the  breech 


flHOTOXTV. 


808 


8H0VELER. 


action;  it  was  known  as  the  double-grip  hreeoh 
mechaiMtn,  Next  came  the  sUding  barrel  breech 
mechanism  as  first  employed  in  the  Bastin  Lepagiu 
breech-loader.  Instead  of  being  hinged,  the  iMir- 
rels  were  so  constructed  as  to  slide  backward 
and  forward  on  the  fore  part  of  the  stock*  The 
idea  was  not  very  successful  and  soon  fell  into 
disuse.  The  combination  of  the  Bastin  and  Le- 
faucheux  principles  was  seen  in  the  Dougall  lock- 
fast breech  mechanism,  in  which  the  barrels 
turned  upon  a  hinge  pin  and  were  moved  to  and 
fro  on  the  stock  sufficiently  far  to  clear  and 
make  contact  with  the  projecting  disks  attached 
to  the  standing  breech.  To  load,  the  lever  was 
depressed,  the  eccentric  hinge-pin  turned,  and 
at  the  same  time  the  barrels  moved  forward  until 
the  breech  ends  where  clear  of  the  disks,  after 
which  the  barrels  were  dropped  as  in  the  original 
Lefaucheux.  Of  all  the  different  varieties  of  the 
turn-over  breech  mechanism  which  have  been 
tried  (at  the  best  with  indifferent  success),  that 
invented  by  the  Englishman  Jeffries  in  1862 
is  about  the  best  known.  The  great  effort  of 
inventors  and  gunmakers  was  to  dispense  with 
the  drop-down  or  Lefaucheux  method  for  sport- 
ing guns,  and  the  breech  mechanism  of  Jeffries  is 
prolMkbly  the  most  satisfactory  substitute,  fail- 
ure though  it  was.  The  barrels  turned  on  a 
vertical  pivot  by  means  of  a  lever  which  was 
pivoted  vertically  imder  the  breech-action  body. 
In  America  the  Fow  shotgun  followed  the  same 
idea,  but  abandoned  the  lever.  The  needle  gun 
adopted  by  the  Prussian  Army  in  1842  was  an 
improved  type  of  the  early  central-fire  gun,  the 
breech  mechanism  of  which  formed  a  combina- 
tion of  the  sliding  and  drop-down  principles.  The 
inventor  of  the  central  fire-gun  of  this  type  was 
one  Dreyse  of  Sommerda.  A  similar  weapon  was 
Keedham's  of  1850,  in  which  the  cap  of  the  cart- 
ridge was  at  the  base.  The  Lancaster  central- 
fire  system  made  its  appearance  about  1852.  The 
barrels  followed  the  principles  of  the  Dreyse 
gun,  but  the  cartridge  case,  instead  of  being  con- 
sumed, was  withdrawn  by  an  extractor  after 
firing.  An  improved  central-fire  system,  and  one 
which  in  its  many  essentials  has  been  carried 
to  the  present  day,  is  said  to  be  the  invention  of 
M.  Pottet,  a  Frenchman.  Improvements  in  locks 
and  minor  mechanisms  came  next,  the  rebound- 
ing lock,  in  which  a  main  spring  reacts  upon  the 
tumbler,  automatically  raising  it  to  half-cock, 
having  been  introduced  about  1866.  The  Wesley 
Richards  breech-loader  dates  from  1862  and  was 
one  of  the  first  to  introduce  a  top  breech-bolt 
mechanistoi.  Hammerless  guns  date  from  the  era 
of  a  consumable  cartridge  case,  although  no  par- 
ticular claim  was  put  forth  in  their  favor.  The 
development  of  the  principle  was  interfered  with 
by  the  success  of  the  pin-fire  gun,  in  which  ex- 
ternal hammers  were  a  necessity.  There  were 
many  varieties  of  hammerless  guns,  notably  those 
of  Daw  (1862),  Greener  (1800),  and  Murcott 
( 1871 ) .  The  Murcott  weapon  was  the  first  of  the 
hammerless  variety  to  achieve  success.  The 
Anson  and  Deeley  gun  (1875)  was  a  very  popu- 
lar mechanism.  The  leverage  of  the  barrel-cock- 
ing mechanism  was  obtained  by  the  falling  of 
the  barrel.  When  the  hammerless  weapon  was 
first  introduced  in  its  modem  form  it  was  very 
strongly  opposed  by  both  sportsmen  and  gun 
manufacturers.  Other  importent  improvements 
were  in  connection  with  the  ejectinfif  mechanism; 
notably  Needham's  hammerless  ejector  gun,  in 


which  the  extractor  is  in  two  halves,  and  the 
Perkes  mechanism,  by  which  the  cartridge  cases 
were  ejected  by  a  separate  mechanism  situatol 
in  the  fore  part  of  the  gun.  Eight  years  later  the 
Deeley  ejector  mechanism  made  ite  appearance, 
in  which  locks  and  barrels  are  fitted  with  an 
ejecting  lock  mechanism  in  the  fore  end.  For  a 
long  time  England  held  the  supremacy  in  the 
manufacture  of  shotguns  and  siK>rting  firearms, 
but  it  is  generally  conceded  that  American  wea- 
pons have  now  the  preSminence.  The  leading 
American  manufacturers  of  shotguns  are  the 
Colte  Arms  Company,  Remington  Arms  Company, 
Smith  and  Wesson  Company,  istnd  the  Winchester 
Arms  Company. 

SHOUIiDEB-JOINT  (AS.  sculdor,  OHG. 
scultirra,  Ger.  Sehulter;  of  unknown  etymology). 
A  ball-and-socket  joint  formed  at  the  junction  of 
the  humerus  and  scapula.  The  large  globular 
head  of  the  humerus  is  received  into  the  shallow 
glenoid  cavity  of  the  scapula,  by  which  arrange- 
ment extreme  freedom  of  motion  is  obtained, 
while  the  apparent  insecurity  of  the  joint  is  pre- 
vented by  tne  strong  ligaments  and  tendons  which 
surround  it,  and  also  by  the  arched  vault  above 
formed  by  the  under  surface  of  the  acromion 
and  coracoid  processes.  (See  Scafuia.)  As  in 
movable  joints  generally,  the  articular  surfaces 
are  covered  with  cartilage,  and  there  is  a  synovial 
membrane  which  lines  the  interior  of  the  joint 
The  most  importent  connecting  medium  between 
the  two  bones  is  the  capsular  ligament,  which  is 
a  fibrinous  expansion  embracing  the  margin  of 
the  glenoid  cavity  above,  while  it  is  prolonged 
upon  the  tuberosities  of  the  humerus  below. 

The  morbid  affections  of  the  shoulder-joint  may 
be  divided  into  (1)  those  arising  from  disease 
and  (2)  those  dependent  on  an  accident  The 
shoulder- joint  is  not  as  liable  to  disease  as  the  other 
articulations;  it  may,  however,  become  the  seat 
of  a  synovial  inflammation,  active,  subacute,  or 
chronic,  and  less  often  of  tubercular  syphilitic 
or  rheumatic  disease.  There  may  be  fracture 
(1)  of  the  acromion  process,  or  (2)  of  the  cora- 
coid process,  or  (3)  of  the  neck  of  the  scapula, 
or  (4)  of  the  superior  extremity  of  the  humems; 
or  two  or  more  of  these  accidente  may  he  asso- 
ciated. Again,  the  head  of  the  humerus  may 
be  dislocated  from  the  glenoid  cavity  in  a  direc- 
tion above,  below,  in  front,  or  behind  this  cavity. 
The  anterior  variety  is  most  frequent  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  most  prominent  symptoms:  The 
arm  is  lengthened;  a  hollow  may  be  felt  under 
the  acromion,  where  the  head  of  the  bone  ought 
to  be;  the  shoulder  seems  flattened;  the  elbow 
sticks  out  from  the  si^e,  and  cannot  be  made  to 
touch  the  ribs ;  and  the  head  of  the  bone  can  be 
felt  if  the  limb  be  raised,  although  such  an  at- 
tempt causes  great  pain  and  weakness  from  the 
pressure  exerted  on  the  axillary  plexus  of  nerves.. 
For  a  description  of  the  symptoms  and  mode  of 
treatment  of  fractures  and  dislocations,  consult 
Park,  Surgery  by  American  Authors  (New  York, 
1901).    See  Anatomt. 

SHOVELEB  (so  called  from  the  shape  of  its 
bill).  A  cosmopoliten  fresh-water  duck  of  the 
genus  Spatula,  remarkable  for  the  expansion  of 
the  end  of  the  mandibles,  the  lamellse  of  which 
are  long  and  very  delicate.  The  legs  are  placed 
near  the  centre  of  the  body,  so  that  these  birds 
walk  much  more  easily  than  many  of  the  ducks. 
The  common  shoveler  ( Spatula  olypeata)  is  smaller 


8H0VELB&. 


809 


SHBBW. 


than  the  mallftrd,  but  rather  larger  than  the 
widgeon.  The  male  has  the  head  and  neck  fus- 
cous, glossed  with  green,  the  back  fuscous,  upper 
and  under  tail  coverts  dark  green,  lower  neck 
and  breast  white,  and  the  belly  chestnut.  The 
female  is  much  duller.  In  America  it  is  more 
common  in  the  interior  than  on  the  coast  and 
breeds  locally  from  Texas  northward.  Its  flesh 
is  very  highly  esteemed.  Several  other  species  of 
shoveler  are  known  in  Oriental  regions. 

SHOVBIX,  Sir  Clowdibley  (1660-1707).  A 
distinguished  English  admiral,  bom  in  Cocks- 
thorpe,  in  Norfolk.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1664, 
and  served  against  the  Dutch  and  the  Barl^ary 
pirates.  In  1689  he  commanded  the  Edgar  in  the 
battle  of  Bantry  Bay,  was  soon  after  knighted, 
and  was  put  in  command  of  a  squadron  in  the 
Irish  Sea.  In  the  following  year  he  was  pro- 
moted to  be  rear-admiral  of  the  blue.  Two 
years  afterwards  he  commanded  the  red  squadron 
in  the  battle  of  Barfleur,  and  by  breaking  the 
French  line  greatly  contributed  to  the  English 
victory.  In  1704  he  participated  with  the  fleet 
under  Sir  George  Brooke  in  tne  capture  of  Gibral- 
tar and  in  the  action  off  Malaga.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  made  rear-admiral  of  England.  In 
the  following  year  he  was  appointed  admiral,  and 
was  made  joint  commander  with  the  Earl  of 
Peterborough  of  the  expedition  which  captured 
Barcelona.  In  1707  he  cooperated  with  the  Duke 
of  Savoy  in  the  attack  on  Toulon,  and,  although 
the  town  was  not  taken,  Shovell  destroyed  a 
great  number  of  French  vessels.  On  the  way 
back  to  England  his  flagship  was  wrecked  on 
one  of  the  Scilly  Islands.  He  was  cast  ashore  in 
a  helpless  condition  and  was  murdered  by  a 
woman  who  coveted  an  emerald  ring  on  one  of 
his  fingers.  His  body  was  taken  to  England  and 
buried  in  Westminster  Abbey.  Consult  Clowes, 
The  Royal  Tfavy:  A  History  (6  vols.,  London  and 
Boston,  1896-1001). 

SHOWBBEAD.    See  Shewbbead. 

SHBAPISTEL.  A  form  of  projectile  used  in 
field  and  naval  guns  and  invented  by  Col.  Henry 
Shrapnel  of  the  British  Army.  It  consists  of 
a  shell  containing  a  number  of  balls,  a  bursting 
charge,  usually  of  black  powder,  and  a  combina- 
tion time  and  percussion  fuze.  (See  Fuze.)  The 
bursting  charge  may  be  located  either  in  the 
front  or  in  the  rear  of  the  shell,  whose  walls  are 
thinner  than  in  the  case  of  ordinary  shell.  The 
bursting  charge  may  also  be  contained  in  a 
central  tube,  as  is  the  case  of  navy  shrapnel, 
which  may  be  larger  than  that  used  in  field 
pieces.  Shrapnel  is  designed  for  use  against 
troops  in  open  country  or  for  clearing  covered 
spaces,  destructive  effect  over  a  considerable  area 
rather  than  penetrative  power  being  desired. 
With  this  in  view  the  fuze  is  so  adjusted  that 
the  projectile  bursts  in  close  vicinity  to  the  tar- 
get and  scatters  its  fragments  and  the  balls, 
which  may  be  placed  either  in  metal  or  wooden 
frames  or  plates  or  in  a  matrix  of  resin.  In  naval 
warfare  shrapnel  is  used  against  attack  by 
torpedo  boats  or  small  boats.  See  Pbojectiijcs, 
where  United  States  Army  3.2-inch  shrapnel  is 
illustrated ;  also  Canisteb  ;  Field  Artilleby. 

BSRAMTELy  Henbt  (1761-1842).  An  Eng- 
lish inventor,  bom  at  Bradford-on-Avon.  hi 
1784  he  began  to  study  hollow  projectiles.  He 
spent  three  years  in  Gibraltar  and  in  1803  his 


shot  case  or  shell  was  recommended  for  adoption 
into  the  service.  He  improved  the  construction 
of  howitzers  and  mortars  and  invented  the  brass 
tangent  slide.  In  1837  he  was  promoted  to  be 
lieutenant-general.    See  Pbojbotileb. 

SHBEVE,  Henbt  Milleb  (1785-1854).  An 
American  inventor  and  steamboat  builder,  bom 
in  Burlington  County,  N.  J.  He  was  reared  in 
western  Pennsylvania,  adopted  the  career  of  a 
river  boatman,  and  early  became  interested  in  the 
problem  of  steam  navigation  on  the  Ohio  and 
Mississippi.  In  1814  he  was  at  New  Orleans, 
and  with  boats  protected  by  cotton  bales  ran  the 
gantlet  of  the  British  batteries  to  carry  sup- 
plies to  Fort  Saint  Philip,  and  later  had  charge 
of  a  gun  in  the  battle  of  New  Orleans.  In  1815, 
in  the  Enterprise,  he  made  the  first  trip  ever 
accomplished  by  a  steamboat  from  New  Orleans 
to  Louisville.  Subsequently  he  constructed  a 
river  steamb<Mit  Imown  as  the  Washington,  which 
had  many  points  of  improvement  over  the  boats 
of  the  Fulton  model.  The  success  of  the  Wash- 
ington was  followed  by  lawsuits  brought  by 
Fulton  and  his  associates,  who  claimed  the  ex- 
clusive right  to  steam  river  navigation,  but  the 
cases  were  eventually  decided  in  Shreve's  favor. 
From  1826  to  1841  he  was  employed  by  the  Gov- 
ernment as  superintendent  of  improvements  on 
the  Western  rivers,  and  successfully  opened  the 
Red  River  to  navigation.  He  invented  many  im- 
provements in  s^mboat  machinery  and  con- 
struction, as  well  as  the  steam  'snag-boat'  and  a 
ram  for  harbor  defense. 

SHBEVE,  Samuel  Henbt  (1829-84).  An 
American  civil  engineer,  bom  at  Trenton,  N.  J. 
He  graduated  in  1848  at  Princeton,  and  after- 
wards studied  law  and  civil  engineering.  He 
directed  the  construction  of  numerous  railways, 
and  in  1875  was  engineer  of  tl;^  New  York 
Rapid  Transit  Commission.  Subsequently  he 
was  consulting  engineer  of  the  Metropolitan 
Elevated  Railroad,  and  chief  engineer  of  the 
Brooklyn  Elevated  Railroad.  He  published  a 
treatise  on  The  Strength  of  Bridgea  and  Roofs 
(1873). 

SHBEVE^OBT.  The  parish  seat  of  Caddo 
Parish,  La.,  170  miles  east  of  Dallas,  Texas;  on 
the  Red  River,  and  on  the  Texas  and  Pacific,  the 
Saint  Louis  Southwestern,  the  Kansas  City 
Southern,  the  Houston  and  Shreveport,  and  other 
railroads,  (Map:  Louisiana,  B  1).  Among  the ' 
noteworthy  features  of  the  city  are  the  Charity 
Hospital,  a  sanatorium,  Cooper  Building,  First 
National  Bank  Building,  the  United  States  post*, 
office,  the  court-house,  and  the  high  school  build- 
ing. Shreveport  is  in  a  rich  cotton  and  stock 
raising  region,  and  is  of  considerable  commercial 
importance.  It  carries  on  a  large  wholesale 
trade,  especially  in  groceries,  dry  goods,  and 
hardware.  In  addition  to  several  establishments 
connected  with  cotton — cotton  factory,  large  com- 
pressors, and  warehouses — ^there  are  molasses 
works,  foundries  and  machine  shops,  lumber 
mills,  etc.  The  government,  under  the  charter  of 
1898,  is  vested  in  a  mayor,  chosen  every  two 
years,  and  a  unicameral  council.  Shreveport  was 
settled  in  1833,  and  was  first  incorporated  in 
1839.  Population,  in  1890,  11,979;  in  1900,  16,- 
013. 

SHBEW  (AS.  scrSawa,  shrew;  connected  with 
OHG.  sor6tan,  Ger.  schroten,  to  cut,  gnaw,  bruise, 
AS.  scrCadian,  Eng.  shred).    A  small  nocturnal 


8HBSW. 


810 


SEBIKE. 


quadruped  of  the  family  Soricidse,  and  especially 
of  the  genus  Sorex,  which  includes  the  smalleBt 
of  all  mammals.  The  shrews  are  often  con- 
founded with  mice,  but  belong  to  an  entirely  dif- 
ferent order,  the  Insectivora  (q.v.)*  The  head  is 
very  long;  the  snout  elongated,  attenuated,  and 
capable  of  being  moved  about.  The  eyes  are 
minute,  the  ears  small,  the  tail  long,  and  both 
body  and  tail  are  covered  with  fine,  short  hair  of 
a  dark  color  without  distiTictive  vari^ations. 
They  abound  in  dry  fields,  woods,  and  gardens, 
and  some  species  are  semi-aquatic.  They  feed 
chiefly  upon  insects  and  worms,  especially  earth- 
worms; and,  as  they  are  able  to  obtain  food  at 
all  seasons  of  the  year,  they  do  not  hibernate. 
The  northern  species  are  among  the  hardiest  of 
animals,  ranging  far  toward  the  Arctic  regions, 
and  abroad  during  all  winter.  Most  species 
make  no  burrows,  but  grub  about  among  the 
roots  of  the  herbage,  make  long  runways  beneath 
the  fallen  leaves,  and  hide  in  old  stumps  and 
beneath  rotting  logs.  They  are  common  and  use- 
ful in  gardens.  The  males  are  excessively  pug- 
nacious, and  fight  fiercely  in  spring,  often  killing 
one  another.  They  form  the  prey  of  weasels, 
foxes,  hawks,  owls,  shrikes,  and  many  other  ani- 
mals, and  are  frequently  caught  by  household 
cats,  but  seldom  eaten  by  them,  probably  on  ac- 
count of  their  strong  musky  odor.  Although 
harmless,  this  animal  has  long  been  regarded 
with  dread  and  hatred  by  the  peasantry  of  Eu- 
rope, who  believe  it  to  be  poisonous,  and  attrib- 
ute to  it  other  evils.  The  numerous  American 
species  of  shrews  fall  into  three  genera,  Sorex, 
Neosorex,  and  Blarina.  The  largest  of  these 
is  the  swamp-haunting  water-shrew,  which  is  six 
inches  in  length,  including  the  tail;  it  is  found 
from  Massachusetts  to  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  northward.  Of  the  other  American  shrews, 
the  one  most  common  in  the  Eastern  United  States 
is  the  'short-tailed'  or  *mole'  shrew  {Blarina  hrevi- 
Cauda) .  This  is.  a  blackish,  stout-bodied,  ravenous 
little  animal,  which  feeds  largely  upon  fiesh  of 
every  kind,  and  often  kills  the  young  of  small 
birds.  It  takes  its  name  of  mole-shrew  on  ac- 
count of  its  unusual  habit  of  frequently  forcing 
its  way  through  the  loose  top-soil  like  a  mole. 
Perhaps  the  best  known  American  form,  how- 
ever, is  the  long- tailed  'shrew  mouse'  {Sorex 
personatus),  which  is  smaller,  lighter  in  color, 
and  most  numerous  about  marshes  and  streams. 
An  Italian  shrew  is  the  smallest  of  all  known 
mammals  having  a  body  only  an  inch  and  a  half 
in  length.  It  is  a  member  of  the  genus  Croci- 
•dura,  which  also  includes  the  largest  known 
shrew,  one  Oriental  species  of  which  is  that 
known  in  India  as  the  'muskrat'  (q.v.).  Con- 
sult standard  zoologies,  especially  Beddard,  Mam- 
malia  (London,  1902) ;  Stone  and  Cram,  Ameri- 
can Animals  (New  York,  1902). 

SHBEW-MOLE.  Any  of  the  American  moles 
of  the  genera  Scapanus  and  Scalops.    See  M01.E. 

SHBEWS03XTBY.  The  capital  of  Shropshire, 
England,  on  the  Severn,  bv  which  it  is  nearly 
surrounded,  42  miles  west  by  north  of  Birming- 
ham, and  163  miles  north-northwest  of  London 
(Map:  England,  D  4).  The  town,  irregular  in 
plan,  contains  many  ancient  timber-built  houses 
of  picturesque  appearance.  Saint  Mary's  Church 
was  founded  in  the  tenth  century.  There  are  a 
market-house  (1695),  the  shire  hall  (rebuilt 
1883),  and  the  new  market  hall   (1868).     The 


town  has  interesting  remains  of  ancient  wulls,  a 
castle,  two  monasteries,  and  a  Benedictine  abbey. 
It  has  manufactures  of  agricultural  implements 
and  linen  thread,  iron  foundries,  glass-staining 
works,  and  malting  establishments,  and  a  large 
trade  in  cattle. 

Shrewsbury,  called  by  the  Welsh  Pengwem, 
Was  named  by  the  Anglo-Saxons  Scrobhes-Byrig, 
of  which  the  modem  name  is  a  corruption.  The 
town  was  taken  by  Llewellyn  the  Great,  Prince 
of  North  Wales,  in  1215,  during  the  troubles  be- 
tween King  John  and  the  barons;  and  in  July, 
1403,  Henry  IV.  here  defeated  the  insurgent 
Percy  with  great  slaughter,  Henry  Hotspur  being 
among  the  slain.  Tlie  battle  is  described  in 
Shakespeare's  Henry  IV.  Tlie  town  was  taken 
by  the  Parliamentarians  in  1645.  Population, 
in  1891,  26,967;  in  1901,  28,400.  Consult: 
Pidgeon,  Historical  Handbook  of  Shrewsbury 
(Shrewsbury,  1857);  Phillips,  Shrewsbury  Dur- 
ing the  Civil  War  (Shrewsbury,  1898). 

SHBEWSBTTBY,  Eabls  and  Duke  of.  See 
Talbot. 

SHREWSBUBY  SCHOOL.  A  public  school 
at  Shrewsbury,  England,  founded  by  King  Edward 
VI.  in  1551  and  opened  in  1562.  Its  scope  was 
largely  increased  by  Queen  Elizabeth.  Under  the 
vigorous  administration  of  Dr.  Samuel  Butler 
( 1774-1839)  it  attained  a  great  reputation  as  a 
classical  school.  It  has  an  endowment  which  is 
now  producing  more  than  £3000  a  year.  In  1882  it 
was  removed  to  the  new  buildings  erected  on  a 
site  covering  58  acres.  The  attendance  since  its 
removal  to  the  new  buildings  has  increased  from 
170  to  more  than  300. 

SHBIKE  (AS.  scric,  Icel.  skrikja^  shrike, 
from  skrlkja,  to  shriek,  titter;  connected  with 
Gk.  Kpl^iv,  hrizein,  to  creak).  A  predatory, 
insectivorous  bird  of  the  family  Laniidee,  having 
a  short,  thick,  and  compressed  bill,  the  upper 
mandible  curved,  hooked  at  the  tip,  and  fur- 
nished with  a  prominent  tooth,  the  base  of  the 
bill  beset  with  hairs,  which  point  forward.  About 
200  species  are  known,  most  of  them  natives  of 
warm  climates. 

The  typical  shrikes  or  'butcher-birds'  are  those 
of  the  subfamily  Laniinse,  which  are  mainly  in- 
habitants of  northern  countries,  and  closely  re- 
semble one  another  in  size  (9  to  11  inches  in 
total  length),  colors  (pearl-gray  and  white,  set 
off  with  black  markings  on  the  face,  wings,  and 
tail ) ,  and  in  boldness  and  rapacity.  Two  species 
inhabit  North  America.  These  birds  prey  main- 
ly on  large  insects,  especially  grasshoppers,  in 
summer,  but  also  on  small  mammals,  birds, 
young  snakes,  frogs,  and  crayfish.  Those  they 
do  not  eat  at  once  they  impale  on  thorns,  splin- 
ters of  fences,  and  the  like;  and  in  confinement 
they  make  use  of  a  nail  for  this  purpose,  or  stick 
portions  of  their  food  between  the  wires  of  the 
cage.  The  (xerman  peasants  believe  that  nine 
such  victims  are  regularly  accumulated  by  eadi 
bird,  and  call  a  shrike  'nine-killer.'  The  prac- 
tice originated,  probably,  in  an  effort  on  the 
part  of  the  birds  to  fix  their  food  firmly  while 
tearing  it  to  pieces ;  and  it  is  not  properly  speak- 
ing a  storage  of  food,  since  in  many  cases  the 
bodies  are  not  again  touched.  Large  numbers  of 
mice  and  English  sparrows  are  killed  in  winter, 
so  that  the  bird  is  a  public  benefactor.  The 
tvpical  European  species  is  the  great  pray  or  sen- 
tinel shrike   {Lanius  ewoubiior),    .The  common 


8HR1KW. 


811 


SHUBBICS. 


or  'great  northern'  shrike  of  North  America 
{Lanius  barealis),  familiar  in  the  Northern 
United  States  in  winter,  and  breeding  northward 
in  a  rude  nest  placed  in  a  tree,  is  closely  similar ; 
while  the  ioggerhead'  shrike  of  the  Southern 
States  {Lanius  Ludovioianus)  has  much  the 
Bame  colors,  but  is  smaller. 

The  large,  bald,  and  strikingly  colored  'piping 
crows'  (q.v.)  represent  an  Australian  group 
called  Gymnorhine.  Those  of  the  subfamily 
Malaconotins  are  small,  brilliantly  dresse4«  for- 
est-dwelling birds  of  Africa  and  India,  some  of 
which  are  notable  singers.  A  third  group  (Pachy- 
cephalins)  includes  a  series  of  small  tree-dwell- 
ing, usually  yellow,  birds  of  the  Malayan  Archi- 
pelago and  Australia,  with  the  habits  of  fly- 
catchers. Better  known  are  the  East  Indian 
'wood-shrikes'  (q.v.)  of  the  subfamily  Prionopinse, 
of  which  the  graceful  and  familiar  Australian 
magpie-lark  and  the  queer  helmet-bird  of  Mada- 
gascar are  also  members. 

Consult:  Newton,  Dictionary  of  Birds  (New 
York,  1896) ;  Evans,  Birds  (London,  1900)  ;  and 
the  authorities  therein  cited. 

8HBIMP  (assibilated  form  of  scrimp,  small; 
connected  with  MHG.  schrimpfen,  Ger.  schrump- 
fen,  AS.  scrimmanf  to  shrink,  shrivel,  scrincan, 
OHG.  screnohan,  Ger.  schrankenj  Eng.  shrink). 
A  genus  (Crangon)  of  macrurous  decapod  crus- 
taceans of  the  family  Caridide,  closely  allied  to 
crayfish  and  prawns.  The  form  is  elongated, 
tapering,  and  arched  as  if  hunch-backed.  The 
claws  are  not  large,  the  fixed  finger  merely  a  . 
Bmall  tooth,  the  movable  finger  hook-shaped. 
The  beak  is  very  short,  affording  a  ready  dis- 
tinction from  prawns.  The  whole  structure  is 
very  delicate,  almost  translucent ;  and  the  colors 
are  such  that  the  creature  may  readily  escape 
ohaerration,  whether  resting  on  a  sandy  bottom 
or  swimming.  Their  quick  darting  movements, 
however,  betray  them  to  any  one  who  looks  at- 
tentively into  a  pool  left  by  the  retiring  tide  on 
a  sandy  shore.  When  alarmed,  they  bury  them- 
aelves  in  the  sand,  by  a  peculiar  movement  of 
the  fonlike  tail  fin.  The  common  shrimp  ( Cran- 
poll  vulgaris)  is  very  abundant  in  the  North 
Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  shores  both  of  America 
and  of  Europe,  wherever  the  bottom  is  sandy. 
It  is  about  two  inches  long,  of  a  greenish-gray 
color,  dotted  with  brown.  It  is  in  great  esteem 
in  Europe  as  an  article  of  food,  and  is  taken  by 
nets.  The  shrimp  industry  of  the  Southern  At- 
lantic Coast  of  the  United  States  amounts  to 
more  than  $500,000  annually,  while  that  of  San 
Francisco  Bay  alone  is  worth  half  as  much.  The 
latter  iodustry  consists  wholly  in  the  capture, 
^^jying*  and  export  to  China  of  Crangon  francis- 
oonim. 

SHBOP^ECHIBEy  or  Salop.  A  western  border 
county  of  England,  bounded  on  the  west  by  North 
Wales,  and  on  the  east  by  the  counties  of  Stafford 
and  Worcester  (Map:  England,  D  4).  Area, 
1346  square  miles.  Population,  in  1801,  236,827; 
m  1901,  239,297.  The  Severn,  the  principal  river, 
pursuing  a  southeast  course  of  70  miles  across 
the  county,  is  navigable  throughout,  and  is  joined 
^  two  considerable  tributaries,  the  Tern  and 
Teme.  To  the  north  and  northeast  of  the 
Severn  the  county  is  generally  level,  and  is  un- 
<ier  tillage;  to  the  south  and  southwest  it  is 
hilly  and  mountainous,  in  the  Clee  hills  rising 
to  an  altitude  of   1800  feet,  and  here  cattle- 


breeding  is  extensively  carried  on.  A  breed  of 
horned  sheep  is  peculiar  to  this  county.  Shrop- 
shire is  remarkable  for  its  mineral  wealth.  Coal, 
iron,  copper,  and  lead  fields  at  Coalbrookdale, 
Snedshill,  Ketly,  etc.,  are  extensively  worked  and 
there  are  important  iron  industries.  Capital, 
Shrewsbury. 

SHBOVETIDE  (from  AS.  serif  an,  to  shrive, 
prescribed  penance,  from  Lat.  scrihere,  to  write 
-j-  tid,  OHCt.  zit,  Ger.  Zeit,  time;  connected  with 
Skt.  a-diti,  boundless,  and  ultimately  with  Eng. 
time).  The  name  given  to  the  days  immediately 
preceding  Ash  Wednesday,  which  were  anciently 
days  of  preparation  for  the  penitential  time  of 
Lent ;  the  chief  part  of  the  preparation  consisted 
in  receiving  the  sacrament  of  penance,  i.e.  in  'be- 
ing shriven,'  or  confessing.  In  the  modem  disci- 
pline of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  a  trace  of 
this  is  still  preserved,  as,  in  many  countries,  the 
time  allowed  for  the  annual  confession,  which 
precedes  the  paschal  or  Easter  communion,  com- 
mences from  Shrovetide.  In  England  the 
pastimes  of  football,  cock-fighting,  bull-baiting, 
and  so  on,  were,  down  to  a  late  period,  recog- 
nized usages  of  Shrovetide ;  and  the  festive  ban- 
quets of  the  day  are  still  represented  by  the  pan- 
cakes and  fritters  from  which  Pancake  Tuesday 
took  its  name.    See  Cabnival;  Collop  Monday. 

SHBUBS  (variant  of  scrub,  from  AS.  sorob, 
shrub).  Plants  which  differ  from  herbs  in  pos- 
sessing much  woody  tissue,  and  which  differ  from 
trees  chiefly  in  height,  but  partly  also  in  the 
development  of  numerous  primary  shoots  of 
approximately  equal  value.  The  distinction  is 
largely  artiflcial,  since  many  transitions  exist 
between  these  groups. 

SHTCHEDBIN,  shtchM-r^n^  Mikhail  Tev- 
ORAFOVICH  (pseudonym  of  Coimt  Saltykoff) 
(1826-89).  A  famous  Russian  satirical  writer, 
born  in  the  Government  of  Tver.  He  studied  at  the 
lyceum  in  Tsarskoye  Selo,  and  obtained  a  Govern- 
ment position.  In  1847  appeared  his  first  sketch. 
Contradictions,  followed  in  1848  by  A  Compli- 
cated Affair.  For  these  he  was  exiled  to  Vyatka, 
where  he  was  the  chief  assistant  to  succes- 
sive Governors,  until  permitted  to  return  to  the 
capital,  upon  the  accession  of  Alexander  II.  In 
1868-60  he  was  acting  Governor  at  various 
places;  he  resigned  from  the  service  in  1862  and 
later  joined  the  editorial  staff  of  The  Conteni 
porary.  Pecuniary  straits  compelled  him  to  re- 
enter the  service  in  1864-68,  after  which  he  be- 
came co-editor  of  The  Annals  of  the  Fatherland 
with  Nekrasoff  (q.v.),  and  on  the  latter's  death 
in  January,  1878,  editor-in-chief.  Just  before 
his  death  he  wrote  the  famous  Forgotten  Words 
— his  last  message  to  the  dormant  conscience  of 
the  Russian  intelligence.  Shtchedrin  lashed  bu- 
reaucratic rottenness  as  well  as  the  idle  talk  of 
would-be  reformers.  His  characteristics  were 
brought  into  still  greater  relief  by  his  pathetic 
and  loving  treatment  of  the  common  people.  In 
his  Trifles  of  Life  and  his  Tales  { 1887)  he  reached 
a  larger  conception  of  life  than  in  his  previous 
writings.  His  best  work  is  Messrs.  Oolovlyoff, 
which  can  be  enjoyed  as  a  work  of  art  pure  and 
simple.  Consult  Pypin,  M.  Y.  Saltykoff  (Saint 
Petersburg,  1899). 

SHTJ^BICX,  WnuAH  Branford  (1790- 
1874).  An  American  naval  commander,  bom  on 
Bull's  Island,  S.  C.     In  the  War  of  1812  he 


SHUBBICK. 


812 


8HUBI. 


seired  on  the  Hornet  and  Constellation,  became 
a  lieutenant  in  1813,  assisted  in  defending  Nor- 
folk against  the  British,  and  was  attacned  to 
the  Constitution  at  the  time  she  captured  the 
Cyane  and  the  Levant  in  West  Indian  waters 
(1815).  He  took  part  in  the  Mexican  War,  com- 
manding the  naval  forces  in  the  Pacific,  and  cap- 
turing several  ports  on  the  coast.  In  1853  he 
became  chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Construction,  and 
from  1854  to  1858  served  as  chairman  of  the 
Lighthouse  Board.  In  1859  he  commanded  the 
fleet  of  nineteen  vessels  sent  to  Paraguay  to  exact 
reparation  for  firing  on  the  United  States  steam- 
er Waterimtch,  and  succeeded  in  obtaining  both 
an  apology  and  an  indemnity.  He  remained  loyal 
to  the  Union  during  the  Civil  War,  although  a 
South  Carolinian  by  birth.  He  was  retired  with 
the  rank  of  rear-admiral  in  December,  1861. 

SHTTFFLE-BOABD,  or  SHOVEL-BOABD. 

An  indoor  game  played  by  two  or  four  persons 
with  iron  weights.  These  weights  are  slid  along 
a  board  sprinkled  with  fine  sand.  The  board  is 
about  thirty  feet  long;  the  weights  or  pieces  used 
in  the  game  are  two  sets  of  four  each,  weighing 
about  a  pound  each.  The  players  are  divided 
into  opposing  sides,  each  side  using  one  of  the 
sets  of  pieces.  The  board  is  sprinkled  with  fine 
sand  and  has  lines  drawn  across  it  five  inches 
from  each  end,  one  for  the  starting  line  and  one 
for  the  finishing  line.  Each  player  in  turn  slides 
his  piece  or  pieces  along  the  board,  which  if  it 
projects  partly  over  the  edge  of  the  board  scores 
three  points  for  the  placer,  and  if  it  lie  on 
the  finish  line  or  between  it  and  the  edge  of  the 
board  it  will  score  two  points,  and  is  said  to  be 
'in;'  the  piece  nearest  the  line  scores  one.  In 
every  round  the  players  change  ends.  The  game 
is  for  twenty-one  points.  W^hen  played  on  the 
decks  of  ocean  steamers  a  figure  is  chalked  on  the 
deck  and  wooden  weights  are  used.  Instead  of 
being  pushed  by  the  hand,  a  long  staff  with  a 
curved  end  is  used,  each  player  taking  his  turn, 
but  nothing  being  scored  till  the  end  of  the 
round.  In  both  games  an  enemy's  weight  may  be 
knocked  out  of  the  game  altogether  or  a  friend's 
shoved  in  by  a  blow  from  the  succeeding  player. 
In  the  steamer  game  the  winner  must  make 
exactly  fifty  points,  all  in  excess  of  that  number 
being  subtracted  instead  of  added. 

The  origin  of  shuffle-board  is  probably  similar 
to  that  of  bowling,  quoits,  and  curling.  An  evi- 
dence of  its  strong  popularity  is  seen  in  the  fact 
that  during  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  of  England 
it  was  forbidden  by  law  because  it  turned  the 
people  from  the  practice  of  archery. 

SHT7LCHAK  ABXTCH.     See  Talmud. 

SUULLUES,  SHILLUHS,  SHILHAS,  or 
SHLTJHS.  The  name  applied  to  the  Berber 
tribes  on  the  Adrar  Mountains  in  the  Western 
Sahara  and  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Atlas 
Mountains  in  Morocco.  They  are  Hamitic,  but 
have  an  infusion  of  Semitic  and  of  negro  blood. 
In  somatic  and  cultural  respects  they  differ  so 
little  from  their  kinsfolk,  the  Haratin,  Kabyles, 
and  Tuarega  (see  Haratin;  Kabyle;  Titabeo), 
that  all  four  may  be  classed  together  as  Berber 
( q. V. )  or  Imazighen  ( q.v. ) . 

SHTJICLA,  shvmlA  (Buls;.  Sumen,  shW5'm6n). 
A  town  in  the  Principality  of  Bulgaria,  situated 
among  the  foot-hills  of  the  Balkans  about  60 
miles  west  of  Varna   (Map:   Balkan  Peninsula, 


F  3).  Its  position  at  the  converging  of  several 
roads  apd  near  some  of  the  principal  passes  over 
the  Balkans  gave  it  formerly  great  strategical 
importance,  and  it  is  still  an  important  military 
centre.  The  Turkish  quarter  of  the  town  has  a 
number  of  interesting  mosques  and  other  public 
buildings,  while  the  Christian  part  is  rather 
pMOorly  built.  The  principal  products  are  wine, 
silk,  copper  ware,  and  cloth.  Population,  in  1900, 
22,928,  of  whom  about  one-third  were  Turks. 
Shumla  fell  into  the  hands  of  Sultan  Amurath 
I.  toward  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  oentuiy.  It 
was  strongly  fortified  in  the  eighteenth  century 
and  withstood  three  attacks  by  the  Russians,  in 
1774,  1810,  and  1828.  It  was  occupied  by  the 
Russians  in  1878. 

SHUN-CHIH,  shyn^chS^  (1638-61).  The 
reign-title  (1644-61)  of  Fu-lin,  the  first  Emperor 
of  the  present  Manchu  dynasty.  He  was  the  ninth 
son  of  T'ien-tsung,  under  whom  the  Manchus 
came  into  possession  of  Peking.  T'ien-tsung  died 
in  September,  1643,  and,  his  successor  being  still  a 
child,  the  government  was  placed  in  the  hands  of 
his  uncle  as  Regent,  who  immediately  set  about  the 
consolidation  of  Manchu  power,  acting  with  great 
wisdom  until  his  death  in  1651,  when  Shun-chih 
took  the  reins  of  government  into  his  own  hands. 
He  continued  the  policy  of  conciliation,  leaving 
the  Chinese  officials  in  control  of  the  civil  admin- 
istration, and  falling  in  with  Chinese  ideas,  cus- 
toms, ceremonies,  etc.  Only  one  sign  of  servitude 
was  insisted  on — ^that  of  shaving  the  head  and 
wearing  the  queue.  Shun-chih  treated  Roman 
Catholics  with  favor,  and  continued  Adam  Schall 
in  his  position  of  President  of  the  Tribunal  of 
Mathematics.  He  died  in  1661  and  waa  succeeded 
by  his  son,  the  famous  K'ang-hi  (q.v.). 

SHTTN'T  (probably  a  variant  of  shunden,  from 
AS.  scyndan,  OHG.  sountan^  to  hasten,  urge).  A 
branch  or  a  parallel  circuit  for  the  passage  of  a 
portion  of  an  electric  current  flowing  between  two 
points  on  a  conductor.  As  the  amount  of  cur- 
rent flowing  through  the  shunt  depends  upon  its 
resistance,  it  is  so  constructed  that  this  quantity 
is  some  definite  fraction  of  the  resistance  of  the 
principal  conductor.  Thus  with  a  galvanometer, 
where  a  strong  current  would  alter  its  sensitive- 
ness or  do  other  injury,  it  is  customary  to  em- 
ploy   a    shunt    having*  J,    Ji^,    or    ^,   the    re- 


tiply  the  deflection  observed  on  the  tangent 
scale  by  10,  100,  or  1000,  in  order  to  determine 
the  deflection  that  the  entire  current  would  pro- 
duce. In  a  shunt- wound  dynamo  (See  Dynamo- 
Electric  Machinist)  there  is  a  branch  circuit 
current  through  the  field  coils  from  the  armature, 
so  that  only  a  portion  of  the  current  passes 
through  these  coils,  though  there  is  the  same  dif- 
ference of  potential  as  at  the  commutator  of  the 
armature.  Consult:  Thompson,  Elementofy  Les- 
sons in  Electricity  and  Magnetism  (rev.  ed..  New 
York,  1901)  ;  and  Kempe,  Electrical  Testing  (6th 
ed.,  London,  1000). 

SMuA.    See  Moonjah. 

SHXTBI,  or  BHTUBl,  shlSF^rS^.  The  capital 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Loo-choo  until  the  islands 
were  entirely  incorporated  into  the  Empire  of 
Japan.  (See  Loo-choo  and  Okinawa.)  It  stands 
about  3iy4  miles  inland  from  Napa  (q.v.)   (Hap: 


SHTTBL 


818 


SIAtf. 


Japan,  6  7).    It  is  a  straggling  town,  with  the        SHUYA,  8h?^y&.  A  district  town  in  the  Goy- 

castle  or  King's  palace  perched  on  a  hill  about  eminent  of  Vladimir,  Russia,  186  miles  nortaeast 

500  feet  high  in  the  centre.    Population,  in  1898,  of  Moscow   (Map:  Russia,  F  3).    It  has  exten- 

24,809.  sive  cotton  mills.    Population,  in  1897,  18,968. 


SHUSANy  sh?R^s&n.  An  ancient  city  of  Per- 
sia.   See  SuBA. 

SHUSHA,  sh?R^sha^  A  district  town  in  the 
Government  of  Yelizavetpol,  Transcaucasia,  80 
miles  south  of  Yelizavetpol  (Map:  Russia,  G  6). 
It  produces  mainly  silk  and  leather.  Population, 
in  1897,  25,656,  chiefly  Armenians. 

SHXTSH^WAF  (properly  84q-apmuq),  An 
interesting  tribe  of  Salishan  stock  (q.v.)  occu- 
pying an  extensive  territory  extending  from  the 
main  divide  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  Fraser 
River  and  from  Quesnelle  to  Shushwap  Lake, 
Southern  British  Columbia.  They  are  divided 
into  several  local  bands  or  village  communities, 
and  their  houses  were  circular  dugouts  set  about 
four  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  and 
roofed  with  logs  and  thatch  covered  with  earth. 
Their  dress  was  of  furs  or  buckskin  and  tattooing 
was  practiced  by  both  sexes,  together  with  the 
wearing  of  nose  pendants.  They  excelled  in  the 
making  of  beautiful  basketry  from  split  pine  roots 
and  mats  woven  from  rushes.  The  Shushwap 
hunted  deer  with  dogs  and  snowshoes.  They  used 
sea-shells  and  copper  bracelets  as  currency  medi- 
um, obtaining  copper  by  trade  or  from  a  digging 
within  their  own  territory.  Food  was  boiled  in 
baskets  of  water  heated  by  means  of  hot  stones, 
and  roots  were  steamed  or  baked  in  pits  in  the 
ground.  The  tribe  did  not  have  the  clan  system. 
Inheritance  was  in  the  male  line,  and  there  was  an 
order  of  hereditary  chiefs,  who  regulated  the  divi- 
sion of  labor,  decided  the  time  for  the  salmon-fish- 
ing and  parceled  out  the  fish  and  berrv  harvest, 
but  did  not  lead  in  war,  that  duty  falling  upon 
elective  war  captains.  Their  weapons  were  the 
bow,  lance,  stone  club,  and  a  sort  of  bone  sword, 
besides  which  they  had  body  armor  of  quilted  elk- 
skin  or  strips  of  wood.  In  times  of  danger  they 
sometimes  took  refuge  in  stockades.  Slaves  were 
held  by  war  and  purchase  and  were  frequently 
killed  by  the  grave  of  their  owner,  usually  being 
buried  alive  with  the  corpse.  The  mourning 
period  lasted  for  a  year,  ending  with  a  feast  at 
the  giave,  on  which  occasion  the  son  adopted 
his  dead  father's  name.  There  were  many  pecu- 
liar marriage,  puberty,  and  hunting  ceremonies 
and  tabus.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  families 
all  are  now  civilized  and  Christianized  by  the 
effort  of  Catholic  missionaries,  and  are  reported 
by  their  agent  to  be  generally  industrious,  law- 
abiding,  progressive,  healthy,  and  increasing  in 
numbers.  They  numbered,  in  1903,  from  1200  to 
1500. 

SHUSTEB,  shZR/stSr,  or  88XTSHTEB  (an- 
ciently Sostra),  A  city  in  the  Province  of  Khuzis- 
tan,  Persia,  on  the  Karun,  30  miles  southeast  of 
Dijsful  (Map:  Persia,  C  5).  It  is  poorly  built 
with  narrow  unpaved  streets,  and  houses  of 
mud  and  stone.  ■  On  an  abrupt  sandstone 
hill  above  the  city  stands  the  citadel,  partly 
in  ruins.  Among  the  mosques  is  the  im- 
posing Masjed  i  Juma.  In  the  early  part 
of  the  nineteenth  century  Shuster  was  the  capi- 
tal of  the  province  and  had  a  population  of  45,- 
000.     Population,  in  1901,  about  18,000. 

SHXTTTLE.    See  Loom;  Sewing  Machine. 


SHY^LOCX.  The  Jew  usurer  in  Shakespeare's 
Merchant  of  Venice,  the  central  figure  in  the 
play,  standing  for  the  vengeful  spirit  of  an  op- 
pressed race. 

SIALKOT,  se'&l-kOt^  or  Sealkotb.  The  capi- 
tal of  the  District  of  Sialkot  in  the  Punjab, 
India,  on  the  Aik  River,  72  miles  by  rail  north- 
east of  Lahore  (Map:  7ndia,  B  2).  Objects  of  in- 
terest are  the  ruins  of  an  old  fort,  and  the  Chris- 
tian training  school  and  mission  college.  The 
city  is  the  commercial  centre  of  a  productive 
agricultural  and  cotton-growing  section,  and 
manufactures  paper,  cotton  goods,  silks,  shawl 
trimming,  pottery,  cutlery,  etc.  Population,  in 
1901,  57,956. 

SIAJC,  sl-fim^  An  independent  kingdom  of 
Southeastern  Asia,  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Burma  and  French  Indo-China  (the  Shan 
States),  on  the  east  by  French  Indo-China,  on 
the  south  by  Cambodia,  the  Gulf  of  Siam,  and 
the  Straits  Settlements,  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Indian  Ocean  and  Burma.  Apart  from  its  long, 
narrow  arm,  known  as  Lower  Siam,  extending 
southward  in  the  Malay  Peninsula  to  the  Straits 
Settlements,  it  forms  a  compact  region,  known 
as  Upper  Siam,  lying  approximately  between 
latitudes  12<'  and  20''  40'  N.,  and  longitudes  98** 
and  lOO"*  E.  The  British  have  been  constantly 
encroaching  on  the  northwest  and  southwest  and 
the  French  on  the  east.  Area,  estimated  at  236,- 
000  sq^uare  miles,  about  one-fourth  being  in  the 
Malay  Peninsula. 

Siam  slopes  south  and  southeast  from  the 
mountainous  region  in  the  north  to  the  Gulf  and 
the  Mekong,  the  southern  part  descending  in 
three  large  terraces  to  Bangkok*  The  average 
elevation  of  the  country  is  600  feet.  In  the  west- 
em  portion  of  Upper  Siam  the  large  valley  of 
the  Menam  River  (q.v.),  with  that  of  its  great 
tributary  the  Me  Ping  from  the  northwest,  forms 
the  characteristic  feature.  The  Menam  rises  in 
the  low  mountain  district  of  the  Laos  country  in 
the  extreme  north  of  Siam  and  flows  south,  emp- 
tying into  the  Gulf  of  Siam  below  Bangkok 
This  area  abounds  with  swamps,  briny  wastes 
and  jungles,  but  the  national  wealth  and  com- 
merce are  found  here,  and  it  constitutes  the  real 
Siam,  the  bulk  of  the  population  living  along 
these  streams.  The  western  boundary  of  Siam 
marks  in  the  main  the  high  granite  backbone 
of  the  Peninsula.  The  Sal  win.  River  flows  on  the 
west,  but  forms  a  section  of  the  boundary.  The 
eastern  part  of  Siam  is  characterized  by  the  val- 
ley of  the  Nam  Mun  River.  This  stream  flows 
eastward  and  enters  the  great  Mekong,  which 
lines  the  border  from  the  north  to  the  southeast. 
The  central  portion  of  Upper  Siam  is  formed  by 
the  Korat  plateau — ^the  watershed  between  the 
Menam  and  the  Nam  Mun.  This  region — ^to  the 
northeast  of  Bangkok — is  little  known.  The  Laos 
inhabitants  in  the  north  live  usiially  in  small 
communities  on  the  river  banks.  Siam  is  in 
general  a  well-watered  land.  The  great  Tonle 
Sap  Lake  lies  in  the  southeast,  and  extends  into 
Cambodia.  The  geology  of  the  country  has  not 
been  fittingly  studied,  but  the  limestones  and 
dolomitic  formations,  the  basaltic  dlBtricts  and 


ftTAKT- 


814 


SIAX. 


metamorphic  schists,  represent  here  in  general 
a  broken  and  complicated  geological  area. 

The  climate  is  tropical,  but  not  one  of  such 
extremes  as  might  be  expected.  The  humidity, 
however,  makes  it  trying  for  Europeans,  and 
somewhat  unhealthful,  especially  in  the  wet  sea- 
son from  May  to  October.  The  rainfall  is  in 
some  sections  as  high  as  240  inches ;  at  Bangkok 
it  is  about  50  inches.  Siam  is  more  or  less  af- 
fected by  the  monsoons.  In  general  the  usual 
temperature  ranges  from  65  "^  to  90**,  the  north- 
em  and  higher  regions  being  drier  and  cooler, 
the  thermometer  at  night  there  often  falling 
below  50**.  The  cool  season  begins  in  November. 
In  the  north  the  valuable  teak  tree  abounds,  and 
oak  and  pine  grow.  Siam  furnishes  also  rose- 
wood, ebony,  and  most  of  the  tropical  woods  and 
fruits.  Elephants  roam  wild  and  play  a  famous 
and  varied  rdle  in  the  life  and  industries  of  the 
country.  The  rhinoceros,  tiger,  leopard,  the  gaur, 
water-buifalo,  flying-fox,  gibbon,  and  crorodile 
are  also  plentiful. 

The  country  is  rich  in  mineral  deposits.  Con- 
siderable tin  and  some  gold  and  copper  are  mined. 
Siam  furnishes  rubies  and  about  one-half  of  the 
world's  supply  of  sapphires.  In  Northern  Siam 
immense  forests  cover  the  land,  and  the  cutting 
of  teak  is  a  conspicuous  industry  (43,735  tons 
in  1901).  The  logs  drift  down  by  water  to  the 
capital.  The  forests  and  the  teak  industry  are 
under  British  control.  Agriculture  is  confined 
almost  wholly  to  the  river  valleys.  The  great 
alluvial  Menam  plain,  with  its  inundating  fea- 
tures and  irrigation  facilities,  is  one  of  the  rich- 
est of  agricultural  regions.  But  the  farming 
methods  are  primitive  and  progress  slow.  Chi- 
nese coolies  are  mostly  employed.  In  the  vicinity 
of  Bangkok  large  tracts  are  being  converted  into 
a  fine  farming  country  by  the  network  of  canals 
of  a  European  irrigation  company.  Rice  is  the 
staple  food  of  the  Siamese,  and  is  the  great  agri- 
cultural product.  Cotton  is  also  grown  abun- 
dantly, and  tea  and  tobacco  are  produced  for  home 
consumption.  Pepper  comes  from  Chantabon, 
nnd  sugar  cane,  cocoanuts,  etc.,  are  grown  in 
large  quantities.  Most  of  the  manufactures  and 
traffic  are  in  the  hands  of  the  Chinese,  who  are 
the  real  toilers.  The  imports  and  exports  are 
mainly  from  and  to  China,  and  are  increasing, 
the  farmer  having  amounted  to  about  $14,000,000 
in  1901,  the  latter  to  about  $21,000,000.  Cotton 
goods  form  the  leading  article  of  import,  and  rice 
represents  80  per  cent,  of  the  exports.  In  1901 
ships  with  1,090,000  tons  entered  and  cleared  the 
Siamese  ports.  A  large  trade  is  carried  on  back 
and  forth  across  the  northern  boundary  by  local 
dealers.  There  are  no  good  roads  except  near  the 
leading  towns.  The  streams  are  the  great  com- 
mercial highways.  A  railway  extends  from  the 
capital  to  Paknan  (15  miles)  and  a  line  goes  to 
Korat  (165  miles).  Bangkok  is  the  commercial 
capital. 

Sinm  has  no  national  debt.  In  1902  the  public 
treasury  contained  £2,000,000  cash.  The  annual 
revenues  and  expenditures  practically  balance, 
having  increased  to  about  £2,230,000  in  1902-03. 
The  revenues  come  mainly  from  the  opium  tax, 
customs,  and  the  lottery  and  gambling  tax,  land 
tax  and  fisheries,  the  capitation  tax,  and  the  tax 
on  spirits.  Forests,  mines,  railways,  and  post- 
oflices  are  also  taxed.  A  British  official  acts  as 
adviser  in  the  national  finances.     Bangkok  has 


several  branch  banks  which  issue  notes  independ- 
ent of  the  Government. 

The  political  r^me  has  long  been  enlightened 
and  progressive.  The  government  is  an  absolute 
monarchy,  the  succession  now  passing  from 
father  to  son.  The  executive  power  is  held  by 
the  King.  He  is  assisted  by  a  Cabinet,  whose 
members  are  the  heads  of  the  several  depart- 
ments of  national  administration:  Foreign  af- 
fairs, finance,  justice,  interior,  war,  marine, 
police,  public  works,  public  instruction,  etc. 
These  officials  are  for  the  most  part  relatives 
of  the  King.  Since  1895  there  has  been  a  Legis- 
lative Council.  It  is  formed  of  the  Cabinet  an  1 
officials,  and  twelve  other  persons  selected  by  the 
King.  Its  members  number  fifty-one.  The  pre- 
scribed object  of  this  body  is  to  perfect  national 
legislation,  and  to  see  that  the  new  laws  are  ad- 
justed and  enforced.  The  Siamese  dominions 
proper  are  divided,  under  the  general  control  of 
the  Minister  of  Interior,  into  forty-one  adminis- 
trative circles  (muntons),  each  with  a  commis- 
sioner at  its  head,  having  authority  from  the 
Cro>Mi.  The  authority  of  the  various  local 
princes  is  gradually  being  absorbed  by  that  of 
the  strong  central  Grovemment.  The  Malay 
States  of  Siam  are  governed  by  rajahs  who  are 
usually  directed  by  commissioners  with  full  pow- 
ers, sent  by  the  King.  These  States  retain  a 
certain  degree  of  independence.  The  Laos  States 
in  the  north  are  likewise  governed  as  tributary 

grovinces,  and  there  are  still  others.  All  slaves 
om  after  December  16,  1897,  are  free.  The 
number  of  slaves  is  large,  and  the  feudal  system 
still  hangs  heavy  on  the  land.  The  corvte  has 
been  superseded  by  the  poll  tax. 

There  is  now  an  international  court  in  which 
suits  of  foreigners  against  Siamese  are  brought. 
The  legal  code  is  being  modernized,  and  the  police 
force  is  being  remodeled,  extended,  and  made 
effective  under  English  guidance.  The  authorized 
unit  of  money  is  the  tical,  worth  at  the  rate  of 
17.40  ticals  to  the  £1.  The  chang  represents 
2%  pounds  avoirdupois.  The  sen  equals  .568 
of  a  mill.  The  regular  army  is  in  an  inferior 
condition  and  numbers  only  5000  men.  There  is 
no  equipped  militia.  Young  men  are  obliged 
to  serve  as  recruits  for  three  yearsj  and  after- 
wards for  three  months  in  every  twelve.  Priests, 
slaves,  and  certain  other  classes  are  exempted 
from  service.  There  are  22  ships  in  the  navy,  10 
being  over  500  tons.  The  manne  infantry  num- 
bers 15,000.  Bangkok  is  protected  by  forts  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Menam  River,  and  a  bar  here 
also  prevents  large  vessels  from  ascending  the 
stream. 

The  population  is  estimated  at  5,000.000.  con- 
sisting in  part  of  1,500,000  Siamese,  600,000  Chi- 
nese, and  6(X),000  Malays.  Bangkok,  the  capital, 
is  the  only  large  city,  dlhiengmai,  the  capital 
of  the  Laos  country,  with  over  50.000  inhabitants, 
is  the  leading  town  in  the  north,  where  the  various 
tribes  of  the  Thai  race  are  found.  In  the  ex- 
treme south  are  the  Malays.  The  natives  have 
largely  intermarried  with  the  energetic  Chinese, 
who  have  entered  the  country  in  great  numbers. 
The  Siamese  themselves  are  indolent  and  indif- 
ferent. As  the  Thai  in  the  limited  sense,  they 
form  the  most  important  civilized  section  of  the 
Thai  stock  of  Farther  India,  akin  to  the  Laotians 
and  Shan  tribes  of  the  northern  and  eastern  re- 
gions of  Siam.  The  primitive  Thai  type  has  been 
very  much  changed  among  the  Siamese  by  inter- 


gTAUff- 


816 


SIAMESE  TWZN& 


mixture  with  the  Khmers,  Kuis,  Hindus,  and 
Malays.  Physically  they  are  above  the  average 
in  stature,  with  very  brachycephalic  skulls,  olive 
complexions,  prominent  cheek-bones,  lozenge- 
shaped  faces,  and  short,  flat  noses.  Their  hair 
is  dark.  Although  polygyny  and  concubinage 
are  permitted  by  custom,  the  mass  of  the  Siamese 
are  practically  monogamous,  with  few  divorces. 
There  is  no  caste.  The  Siamese  language  is  the 
^monosyllabic,  tonic  type,'  characteristic  of  the 
more  or  less  cultured  nations  of  Farther  India, 
The  Siamese  are  generally  Buddhists  of  the 
orthodox  or  southern  school.  The  priests  have 
hitherto  had  complete  charge  of  education.  The 
Malays  are  Mohammedans.  The  missionaries 
are  either  French  Roman  Catholics  or  American 
Protestants,  and  their  efforts  have  not  met  as  yet 
with  any^  very  hopeful  results.  The  educational 
facilities' are  quite  imperfect,  but  are  in  proc- 
ess of  being  radically  modernized.  In  Bangkok 
the  Government  maintains  and  aids  in  maintain- 
ing many  schools,  among  them  a  normal  institu- 
tion, several  vernacular  schools,  a  training  school, 
and  a  home  school  with  English  instructors  for 
the  sons  and  another  for  the  daughters  of  the 
titled  families. 

HiSTOBT.  The  fabulous  history  of  Siam  goes 
back  to  the  fifth  century  B.c.  An  attempt  is 
made  to  show  the  descent  of  the  King  from 
Gautama  Buddha,  and  of  the  people  from  his 
immediate  disciples.  The  traditions  abound  in 
tales  of  Buddhist  miracles  and  of  supernatural 
interventions.  Authentic  history  begins  in  the 
middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  a.d.  Long  be- 
fore, there  were  many  immigrations  from  the 
north,  with  shifting  dynasties,  frequent  wars, 
and  uncertain  fortunes.  It  is  not  known  when 
Buddhism  became  the  religion  of  the  people.  In 
the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  King, 
who  is  known  posthumously  as  Phra  Rama  Thi- 
boda,  built  Ayuthia  on  the  site  of  an  ancient 
town  and  made  it  the  capital.  He  extended  the 
Siamese  power  southward  into  the  Malay  Penin- 
sula and  eastward  into  Cambodia.  For  two  hun- 
dred years  peace  and  prosperity  prevailed.  Ayu- 
thia became  a  large  and  nch  city.  In  the  middle 
of  the  sixteenth  century  it  was  captured  by  an 
army  from  Pegu  and  thenceforth  for  more  than 
two  hundred  years  there  were  wars  of  varying 
fortimes  with  Burma,  Pegu,  and  Cambodia.  In 
the  seventeenth  century  a  considerable  intercourse 
with  Europe,  China,  and  Japan  was  carried  on. 
In  1759  the  Burmese  captured  Ayuthia  and  after 
a  long  struggle  conquered  the  whole  country 
(1767).  They  introduced  a  king  of  their  own, 
and  upon  the  withdrawal  of  their  army  anarchy 
ensued.  A  Chinaman,  the  leader  of  a  band  of 
freebooters,  seized  Bangkok,  and,  to  the  joy  of 
the  people,  expelled  the  Burmese.  He  proclaimed 
himself  King,  as  P'ya  Tak.  He  extended  his 
power  southward  and  eastward,  but  was  assas- 
sinated in  1782  by  one  of  his  generals,  Yaut  Fa, 
who  established  the  present  dynasty,  the  ruling 
monarch  being  fifth  in  descent  from  him.  In 
1820  intercourse  with  the  West  was  renewed,  and 
in  1825  a  treaty  was  made  with  the  United 
States,  and  soon  after  similar  treaties  with  other 
nations.  In  1855  Great  Britain  made  the  treaty 
which  is  the  basis  of  the  present  relations.  It 
established  extraterritoriality,  and  put  trade  on 
a  secure  footing.  The  French  protectorate  over 
Cochin-China  delivered  Siam  from  its  ancient 
enemies  to  the  east  of  the  Mekong,  Cambodia 


having  been  previously  reduced  to  the  position  of 
a  dependency.  But  France  desired  access  to 
China  by  means  of  the  river  system  of  the  penin- 
sula^ and  it  presently  found  a  pretext  for  armed 
aggression.  It  accused  Siam  of  encroaching  on 
the  territory  of  Anam.  A  skirmish  ensued  and 
France  sent  its  fleet  to  Bangkok  (1893),  where 
it  dictated  terms  of  peace.  Cambodia  and  all 
the  territory  east  of  the  Mekong  were  to  be  inde- 
pendent of  Siam  and  under  French  protection; 
a  belt  extending  for  a  distance  of  25  kilometers 
west  of  the  Mekong  was  to  be  neutralized  and 
certain  valuable  privileges  in  trade  were  to  be- 
long to  the  French.  Since  that  time  the  French 
'sphere  of  influence'  has  been  extended  still  far- 
ther west,  and  were  it  not  for  Great  Britain, 
doubtless  France  in  time  would  absorb  the  king- 
dom. It  remains  a  'buffer  State,'  with  its  future 
dependent  upon  powerful  and  mutually  jealous 
neighbors. 

BiBUOOBAPHT.  Bastian,  Die  Volker  des  oat- 
lichen  Aaietif  vol.  iii.  (Leipzig,  1867) ;  McDonald, 
Siam:  Its  Oovemmenta,  Manners,  Cuatoma,  etc, 
(Philadelphia,  1871);  Vincent,  Land  of  the 
White  Elephant  (New  York,  1874);  Reclus, 
Nouvelle  geographic  univeraelle,  vol.  viii.,  Ulnde 
et  VIndO'Chine  (Paris,  1883)  ;  Bock,  Templea 
and  Elephants  (London,  1884) ;  Colquhoun, 
Among  the  Shana  (ib.,  1885)  ;  De  Rosny,  Ethnog- 
raphic du  Siam  (Paris,  1885)  ;  Coit,  Siam,  or 
the  Heart  of  Farther  India  (New  York,  1886)  ; 
Ch^villard,  Siam  et  lea  Siamoia  (Paris,  1889) ; 
Foumereau,  Lea  ruinea  Khmerea  (ib.,  1890)  ; 
id.,  Le  Siam  ancien  (ib.,  1895) ;  Anderson,  Eng- 
liah  Intercourae  with  Siam  in  the.  Seventeenth 
Century  (London,  1890)  ;  Grindrod,  Siam:  A 
Geographical  Summary  (ib.,  1892)  ;  Smyth,  Five 
Yeara  in  Siam^  (ib.,  1898)  ;  Young,  The  Kingdom 
of  the  Yellow  Rche  (ib.,  1898)  ;  Hesse- Wartegg, 
Siam,  daa  Reich  dea  weissen  Elefanten  (Leipzig, 
1899)  ;  McCarthy,  Surveying  and  Exploring  in 
Siam  (London,  1900)  ;  Campbell,  Siam  in  the 
Twentieth  Century  (ib.,  1902) ;  Pavie,  IndoChine 
(Paris,  1898-1902). 

SIAM,  Gulf  op.  An  arm  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Malay  Penin- 
sula, on  the  north  by  Siam,  and  on  the  northeast 
by  Cambodia  and  Cochin-China  (Map:  Siam, 
D  5).  It  is  235  miles  wide  at  its  entrance,  and 
extends  inland  in  a  northwesterly  direction  a 
distance  of  470  miles.  Four  rivers,  navigable 
for  a  considerable  distance,  the  chief  of  which 
is  the  Menam,  fall  into  the  gulf. 

SIAMANG  (Malay  ai&mang) .  The  largest  of 
the  gibbons  (q.v.),  distinguished  from  the  others 
by  the  circumstance  that  the  second  and  third 
toes  of  the  foot  are  joined  together  as  far  as 
the  last  joint  in  the  male,  and  to  the  middle  joint 
in  the  female;  hence  the  technical  name,  Hylo- 
hatea  ayndactylua.  It  stands  three  feet  high,  and  is 
glossy  black  except  for  a  whitish  beard.  The  hair 
is  comparatively  long,  and,  unlike  other  gibbons, 
grows  upward  from  the  wrist  toward  the  elbow. 
Its  home  is  Sumatra,  where  it  dwells  in  troops  in 
the  forests,  swinging  through  the  tree  tops  with 
amazing  agility.  It  is  numerous  and  frequently 
captured,  J5ut  does  not  endure  captivity  well. 

SIAMESE  TWINS  (1811-74).  A  name 
given  to  two  vouths,  Eng  and  Chang,  bom  of 
Chinese  pafents  in  Siam,  having  their  bodies 
united  by  a  band  of  flesh,  stretching  from  the 


SIAHE8E  TWIKS. 


816 


lirBERTA. 


end  of  one  breast-bone  to  the  same  place  in  the 
opposite  twin.    See  Monstbositt;  Tesatoloot. 

SIANG-TAK,  syAng^tlbi^  A  prefectural  city 
of  China  in  Hu-nan,  on  the  Siang  River,  in 
latitude  27°  62'  N.,  longitude  112"  42'  E.  (Map: 
China,  D  6).  It  is  a  small  city,  but  has  exten- 
sive suburbs  which  stretch  along  the  bank  of 
the  river  for  two  miles.  It  is  the  commercial 
centre  of  Hu-nan,  and  is  the  resort  of  merchants 
from  all  parts  of  the  country.  It  lies  on  one  of 
the  great  water  routes  from  Peking  to  Canton, 
only  30  miles  of  portage  being  necessary.  The 
navigation  of  the  river  is  now  open  to  foreign 
vessels,  and  Siang-tan  may  be  reached  by  craft 
drawing  five  feet.    Population,  100,000. 

SIAJTGh-YAKGh-FU,  sy&ng'yftng'fSS'  (the 
Baianfu  of  Marco  Polo).  A  departmental  city  of 
the  Province  of  Hu-peh,  China,  pleasantly  situ- 
ated on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Han,  about 
100  miles  north-northeast  of  I-chang  (Map: 
China,  D  5) .  It  is  in  itself  of  no  commercial  im- 
portance, its  suburb  Fan-ching  on  the  opposite 
bank  of  the  river  absorbing  all  the  business, 
which  is  very  gi-eat.  Siang-yang  and  Fan-ching 
are  both  noted  for  the  determined  resistance  they 
offered  to  the  besieging  armies  of  Kublai  Khan 
in  1268-73,  surrendering  only  when  Marco  Polo's 
father  and  uncle  came  to  the  assistance  of  the 
Mongols  with  mangonels.     Population,  50,000. 

SIBAIf6N,  se'B&lon^  A  town  of  Panay, 
Philippines,  in  the  Province  of  Antique,  situ- 
ated 9  miles  northeast  of  Buenavista.  Popula- 
tion, estimated,  in  1899,  11,675. 

SIBAWAIHI,  se^bA-vI^d.  The  current  name 
of  Abtl  Bishr  'Amu  ibn'  Uthmfln  ibn  Kaubr,  an 
Arabic  grammarian  of  the  eighth  century.  He 
was  a  Persian,  and  studied  at  Basra.  He  returned 
to  Persia  and  died  near  Shiraz  in  793  or  796.  His 
KiMb  (i.e.  book)  is  the  oldest  systematic  presen- 
tation of  Arabic  grammar,  and  remains  the  clas- 
sic study  of  the  subject.  Derenbourg  has  pub- 
lished the  text  of  his  work  in  Le  livre  de  Stha- 
waihi  (Paris,  1881-89),  and  it  has  been  trans- 
lated, along  with  Arabic  commentaries,  by  Jahn, 
in  Sihaioaih^s  Buck  iiher  die  Orammatik  (Berlin, 
1894). 

SIBBALD'S  WHALE,  or  Blue  Whale.  A 
rorqual  {BaUEnoptera  Sihhaldi),  the  largest 
known  whale,  which  reaches  a  length  of  85  feet 
or  more,  and  exceeds  in  bulk  not  only  all  other 
whales,  but  all  other  known  animals  living  or  ex- 
tinct. Like  other  rorquals,  it  passes  most  of  the 
year  in  the  open  ocean,  wandering  into  every  sea, 
but  early  in  summer  approaches  northern  coasts 
for  the  purpose  of  reproduction.  At  this  time 
its  sole  food  is  a  small  schizopod  crustacean 
(Euphausia),  similar  to  the  opossum  shrimp, 
which  swarms  in  the  North  Atlantic.  This 
whale  is  dark  bluish-gray  in  color,  with  whitish 
spots  on  the  breast  and  black  baleen.  See 
Whale. 

SIBERIA.  An  Asiatic  possession  of  Russia, 
embracing  more  than  one-half  of  the  area  of  the 
entire  Empire.  It  is  bounded  by  Russia  in 
Europe,  the  Arctic  Ocean,  the  Pacific  Ocean,  the 
Chinese  Empire,  and  Russian  Central  Asia.  The 
area  is  about  4,830,000  square  miles,  or  more 
than  one  and  one-half  times  as  great  as  that  of 
the  United  States  (exclusive  of  Alaska).  The 
region  is  divided  politically  into  Western  Siberia, 
Eastern  Siberia,  and  the  Amur  and  Maritime 


Provinoee.  While  Western  and  Eastern  Siberia 
(Siberia  proper)  have  been  in  the  posseaaion  ol 
Russia  for  some  centuries,  and  about  90  per  cent, 
of  their  population  is  of  Russian  origin,  the 
Amur  lands  and  the  southern  part  of  the  littoral 
(Pacific  coast)  were  not  detached  from  China 
till  1858,  and  include  as  yet  only  a  comparatively 
small  number  of  Russians. 

TopoGRAPHT.  Excepting  in  the  Amur  basin 
and  the  immediate  region  of  the  mountains  the 
whole  country  slopes  gently  from  south  to  north, 
carrying  the  drainage  to  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Most 
of  the  Arctic  coast  is  low  and  flat,  and,  unlike 
most  Arctic  shores,  it  is  little  intersected  with 
bays  and  fiords.  The  only  region  of  considerable 
elevation  appears  to  be  the  Taimyr  Peninsula, 
with  its  low  mountain  ranges  roughly  paralleling 
the  coast.  The  fiat  Arctic  plain  (tundra)  crosses 
the  Arctic  Circle  south  of  the  mouth  of  the  Ob 
River,  and  in  the  great  northeastern  peninsula  of 
Asia  and  everywhere  else  merges  into  the  swamp 
lands  or  the  forests  south  of  it.  No  glacial  cov- 
ering is  found  in  Arctic  Siberia,  for  the  reason 
that  the  precipitation  is  too  small  for  large  year- 
ly accumulations  of  snow.  A  peculiar  feature  is 
that  the  soil  is  perpetually  frozen  to  great  depths, 
the  frost  extending  beneath  the  surface,  near  the 
pole  of  cold,  east  of  the  Lena  River,  to  a  depth 
of  650  feet.  Intervening  in  this  frozen  soU  are 
layers  of  clear  blue  ice,  called  ground  ice.  It  is 
in  this  frozen  mass  that  the  remains  of  mam- 
moths and  other  animals  have  been  kept  intact 
probably  ever  since  the  time  of  the  great  glacial 
epoch.  The  surface  thaws  in  summer,  covering 
the  northern  regions  with  almost  impassable 
mud.  The  coast  lands  of  the  Pacific  frontage, 
on  the  contrary,  are  frin^  by  high  forest-elad 
mountain  ranges  approaching  so  near  the  sea  that 
little  opportunity  is  given  for  deep  indentations, 
and  there  are  long  stretches  of  comparatively 
straight  shore  line.  Siberia  has  only  a  few  isl- 
ands of  much  importance,  the  new  Siberian  group 
of  the  Arctic  and  the  large  Saghalien  Island  in 
the  Pacific  being  most  noteworthy.  The  sur- 
rounding seas  are  very  shallow,  usually  for  a 
long  distance  from  the  land.  South  of  the  Arctic 
region  the  Yenisei  River  divides  Siberia  into 
two  parts  whose  characteristics  differ  greatly. 
The  region  to  the  west,  or  nearly  the  whole  of 
Western  Siberia,  consists  of  vast  level  plains,  al- 
most completely  covered  in  the  northw^t  with 
one  of  the  most  extensive  swamp  r^ons  of  the 
world,  in  which  many  rivers  wind  their  slug- 
gish and  very  tortuous  courses.  The  region  of 
swampy  lands  embraces  nearly  all  of  the  Gov- 
ernment of  Tobolsk  and  the  northern  part  of 
Tomsk;  and  scattered  through  the  swamp  area 
and  thickly  sown  over  the  southern  plains  are 
thousands  of  lakes,  most  of  them  very  small, 
relics  of  the  ice  age.  The  eastern  part  of 
Tomsk  belongs  in  its  topographic  aspects  to  East- 
em  Siberia,  which  strikingly  contrasts  with  most 
of  the  region  west  of  the  Yenisei. 

As  Western  Siberia  is  a  land  of  low  swamps, 
plains,  and  lakes,  so  Eastern  Siberia  to  the  Pa- 
cific, especially  in  the  south,  is  a  land  of  low 
plateaus  sloping  gradually  to  the  Arctic  and 
surmounted  by  many  ranges  of  mountains,  most 
of  them  not  high,  but  giving  the  country  a  very 
rugged  character.  The  ranges  have  a  general 
northeast  and  northwest  direction,  following  the 
trend  of  the  backbone  or  central  feature  of  the 
region — ^the  chain  known  as  the  Yablonoi  and 


BTHEKTA 


817 


STBKTITA 


Stanoyoi  mountains^  which  extends  unbrokenly 
from  the  Chinese  border  east  of  Lake  Baikal  to 
Bering  Strait,  about  4300  miles.  In  the  far  north 
the  ranges  thin  out  and  dwindle  so  that  the  great 
low  plain  of  North  Euro- Asia  is  continued  prac- 
ticaigr  without  interruption  to  Bering  Sea.  The 
southern  part  of  the  western  plains  is  the  chief 
regian  of  agriculture  and  population.  The  east- 
em  mountains  are  the  region  of  mining,  with 
agricultural  opportimities  in  many  valleys.  The 
hi^est  mountains  are  the  Altai,  Sayan,  Yab- 
lonoi,  and  Stanovoi  moimtains,  the  culminating 
point,  outside  of  Kamtchatka,  beir-r  the  Byel- 
ukha,  in  the  Katunski-Altai,  which,  according  to 
a  recent  measurement,  has  an  elevation  of  nearly 
15,000  feet.  The  isolated  mountain  district  of 
Kamtchatka  reaches  in  numerous  peaks  eleva- 
tions of  from  10,000  to  nearly  15,000  feet. 

Htdbogbapht.  The  Arctic  rivers  flowing 
throu^  the  Siberian  lowlands  and  the  Amur  of 
the  Paciflc  have  great  length  and  very  extensive 
basins.  The  four  great  rivers,  the  Ob,  Yenisei, 
Lena,  and  Amur  (qq.v.)>  with  their  numerous 
tributaries,  afford  about  30,000  miles  of  interior 
navigation.  The  Ob  and  its  tributary  the  Irtysh 
are  the  most  important  rivers  of  Siberia,  flowing 
as  they  do  throl^gh  the  most  fertile  and  populous 
districts  in  the  southwest  of  the  country.  The 
Ob  with  its  aflSuents  supplies  more  than  9000 
miles  of  navigation.  Its  estuary  on  the  Kara 
Sea  is  very  large,  but  vessels  drawing  more  than 
12  feet  cannot  enter  it.  Its  long  tributary,  the 
Irtysh,  Ib  also  navigable.  The  Yenisei  is  navi- 
gable for  1600  miles  and  ocean  steamers  might  as- 
cend it  for  1000  miles.  The  ice-choked  northern 
sea,  however,  makes  the  Yenisei  as  well  as  the 
Ob  unimportant  in  sea  trade.  Local  trade  and 
steam  navigation  are  developing  along  the 
river,  but  its  chief  importance  is  as  a  link  in  the 
line  of  water  communication  between  Lake  Bai- 
kal in  Eastern  Siberia  and  Tiumen,  near  the  west- 
em  boundary,  a  very  important  route  more  than 
half  way  across  Siberia.  This  route  is  by  way 
of  the  ^gara  tributair  of  the  Yenisei  from  Lake 
Baikal  and  Irkutsk  oy  steamer  400  miles  to 
Bratski  Ostrog,  where  rapids  obstruct  steam  navi- 
gation, though  the  improvements  required  to 
make  steamers  available  around  the  worst  rapids 
( 1%  miles)  would  not  be  very  costly.  Thence  the 
route  is  uninterrupted  to  the  Yenisei,  down  that 
river  to  the  Kass,  whose  source  lies  near  that  of 
the  Ket  tributary  of  the  Ob.  These  rivers  were 
canalized  and  connected  by  a  canal,  so  that  boats 
pass  between  the  Yenisei  and  the  Ob  (586  miles) . 
The  route  continues  on  the  Irtysh  and  its  Tobol 
tributary  to  Tiumen,  over  3000  miles  by  water 
from  Irkutsk.  At  that  point  freight  is  trans- 
ferred between  boat  and  railroad. 

The  Lena  is  narigable  by  river  steamers  for 
1760  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  serves  consider- 
able local  traffic.  The  Yana  and  Kolima,  other 
large  Arctic  rivers,  are  still  little  known.  The 
Amur  basin  supplies  8940  miles  of  navigation  in- 
cluding the  Amur,  the  Shilka  and  Ingoda,  the 
Seya  and  its  tributaries,  the  Sungari  and  its 
tributaries,  and  the  Ussuri.  The  great  commercial 
disadvantage  of  the  Siberian  rivers  is  that  they 
are  open  to  navigation  only  from  three  to  five 
months  in  the  year.  Lake  Baikal,  the  largest 
fresh-water  lake  in  Asia,  is  in  Eastern  Siberia. 
Considerable  agriculture  is  developing  around  its 
shores  and  the  Crovemment  has  constructed  a 
number  of  ports  to  facilitate  the  lake  trade. 


Clihah:.  The  winters  are  long  and  very  se- 
vere; the  summers  are  short  and  hot.  In  the 
agricultural  districts  (the  south)  the  mean  an- 
nual temperature  is  approximately  32°  F.  in 
Eastern  and  Western  Siberia.  The  mean  sum- 
mer temperatures  are  62°  in  the  east  and  63.6° 
in  the  west;  the  mean  winter  temperatures  are 
— 0.4°  in  the  east  and  1.4°  in  the  west.  Summer 
on  the  farming  lands  of  Western  Siberia  is  as 
warm  as  in  Central  Russia.  The  temperatures 
farther  north  are  much  colder.  Verkhoyansk, 
northeast  of  Yakutsk,  the  coldest  spot  known  in 
the  world,  has  a  mean  annual  temperature  of 
3.2°  F.,  a  mean  in  January  of  — 56^  F.  and  a 
maximum  cold  of  — 90°  to  — 93°  F.  The 
rivers  are  frozen  from  160  to  200  days  in  the 
year.  The  settled  regions  of  the  south  might  be 
said  to  have  a  severe  North  European  climate,  in 
contrast  with  the  Arctic  climate  of  the  north. 
Excepting  on  parts  of  the  Pacific  coast,  the 
rainfall  is  small  and  sometimes  insufficient  to 
mature  the  wheat  crop.  The  annual  rainfall  at 
Aryan  (Sea  of  Okhotsk)  is  36  inches;  Yakutsk, 
10  inches;  Kiakhta,  8  inches;  Tobolsk,  18  inches. 

Flora.  The  treeless  northern  tundras  have 
mosses,  lichens,  and  a  little  herbage  on  their  sur- 
face. South  of  the  tundras  is  the  wide  forest 
zone,  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world.  The  wood- 
lands, from  the  Urals  to  Kamtchatka,  are  inter- 
rupted only  by  the  rivers,  peat  bogs,  marshes,  or 
narrow  ravines.  Forests  covering  all  the  moun- 
tains are  regarded  by  mining  prospectors  as  an 
evil  because  they  make  gold-hunting  difficult. 
Conifers,  the  prevailing  trees,  include  all  the  spe- 
cies common  to  Europe  besides  the  Pinus  pichtay 
peculiar  to  Eastern  Siberia.  It  is  very  tall  and 
slender,  with  little  economic  value.  The  Siberian 
cedar  {Pinus  cemhra)  is  most  useful  and  is 
largely  cut  for  furniture.  The  most  common 
and  hardy  tree  is  the  larch,  found  in  many  va- 
rieties throughout  the  forest  zone.  Many  trees 
common  to  temperate  Europe  also  occupy  large 
areas.  Forest  fires  have  desolated  large  parts  of 
the  Woodlands.  Berries  of  every  kind  supply 
food  for  men  and  animals. 

Fauna.  All  the  waters  bordering  Siberia,  as 
well  as  its  rivers  and  lakes,  abound  with  fish, 
which  are  a  large  food  resource.  The  real  incen- 
tive to  the  Russian  conquest  of  Siberia  was  the 
great  abundance  of  animals  whose  furs  in  that 
climate  have  great  softness,  warmth,  and  light- 
ness. Though,  owing  to  over-hunting,  many  of 
these  animals  have  become  extremely  rare,  Siberia 
is  to-day  the  largest  source  of  furs,  surpassing 
Canada  and  Russia.  Among  the  fur  animals  of 
the  northern  forests  are  the  polar  hare  and  fox, 
the  sable,  otter,  red  fox,  ermine,  wolf,  bear,  and 
the  gray  squirrel,  of  which  about  1,000,000  skins 
are  taken  every  year.  Burrowing  animals  are 
very  numerous  in  the  south.  The  tiger  is  still 
found  in  considerable  numbers  in  the  south  and 
southeast,  especially  abundant  in  the  Amur 
region.  The  Arctic  tribes  have  the  reindeer, 
and  the  camel  is  used  in  the  more  southerly 
parts.  The  mammoth,  whose  extermination 
seems  to  have  been  eflfected  in  a  quite  modem 
period,  may  almost  be  considered  to  be  a  part 
of  the  Siberian  fauna. 

Geology  and  Mineral  Resousces.  Most  of 
the  lowlands  are  overlaid  with  recent  deposits 
resting  upon  Paleozoic  or  Mesozoic  rocks.  The 
extreme  northeast  is  composed  chiefly  of  Paleo* 


8IBEBIA. 


818 


aTKKKTA 


zoic  rocks.  The  direction  of  the  mountain  ranges, 
chiefly  granite,  was  determined  ages  ago  by  the 
Kreat  disturbances  that  fractured,  folded,  or  up* 
heaved  the  earth's  crust.  The  high  mountains 
of  Kamtchatka  are  distinguished  by  young  erup- 
tive rocks  and  active  volcanoes.  About  two- 
thirds  of  the  gold  of  the  Empire  is  mined  in  Si- 
beria (28,276  kilograms  in  1899).  But  the  gold 
resources  have  scarcely  yet  been  touched;  the 
quartz  deposits  have  been  almost  entirely  neg- 
lected, and  the  placers  are  worked  by  antiquated 
and  expensive  methods.  The  silver  output  in 
1899  was  2737  kilograms  from  the  Altai  and 
Nertchinsk  (Amur)  mines,  and  1384  kilograms 
from  Semipalatinsk.  The  yield  of  coal  in  1901 
was  62,532  short  tons,  anthracite  and  bituminous, 
chiefly  from  mines  12  to  100  miles  from  Vladivo- 
stok. Great  hopes  are  entertained  of  the  future 
of  the  coal  industry.  Little  attention  has  yet 
been  paid  to  iron,  copper,  lead,  and  tin,  though 
these  resources  are  well  worth  developing.  Si- 
beria is  particularly  rich  in  graphite,  and  the 
best  mines  are  controlled  by  the  principal  lead- 
pencil  manufacturers  of  Germany.  For  the  dis- 
tribution of  mineral  resources,  see  Russia. 

AoBicuLTUBE.  As  to  agriculture,  Siberia  must 
be  divided  into  western  and  eastern  halves.  West- 
em  Siberia  is  more  fertile  and  more  thickly  popu- 
lated and  is  chiefly  devoted  to  agriculture  (nine- 
tenths  of  the  inhabitants  are  tillers  of  the  soil), 
while  mining  and  hunting  are  still  more  promi- 
nent in  Eastern  Siberia.  All  the  land,  with  small 
exceptions,  belongs  to  the  Crown,  which  leases  it 
to  the  separate  oommimes,  bv  which  the  land  is 
redistributed  among  the  inhabitants  from  time  to 
time.  All  the  best  farming  land  has  been  taken 
up  and  many  immigrants  are  now  trying  to  make 
homes  by  the  difficult  operation  of  clearing  tim- 
ber from  the  southern  edge  of  the  woodlands. 
Farming,  in  the  American  sense,  can  be  carried 
on  only  in  the  south  (in  the  west  up  to  latitude 
60"*  N.;  in  the  east  to  SS"*),  where  most  of  the 
ordinary  grains,  potatoes,  onions,  melons,  etc., 
are  produced.  The  agricultural  or  southern  belt 
of  Western  Siberia  extends  from  the  western  bor- 
der to  Lake  Baikal,  comprises  about  178,000 
square  miles,  three-fourths  of  which  is  good 
farming  land  with  an  alluvial  soil  (in  the  ex- 
treme west,  black  earth  land  like  that  of  the 
Russian  wheat  belt),  and  is  well  adapted  for  the 
cultivation  of  wheat,  oats,  rye,  and  barley,  as  well 
as  cattle-raising.  Nearly  9,000,000  acres  were 
under  cultivation  in  1899;  at  the  opening  of  the 
twentieth  century  the  average  annual  harvest  of 
cereals  was  nearly  3,000,000  tons  (approximately 
100,000,000  bushels)  a  year,  of  which  about 
60  per  cent,  was  wheat  and  oats,  20  per  cent, 
rye,  and  20  per  cent,  barley.  It  is  estimated 
that  300,000,000  acres  all  told  may  be  turned 
into  farming  lands,  of  which  the  Amur  and 
maritime  provinces  will  supply  69,000,000  acres. 
The  summers  in  the  east,  however,  are  not  very 
favorable  for  cereal  crops,  on  account  of  exces- 
sive moisture.  Fruit  and  vines  flourish  only  in  a 
few  sheltered  localities  on  the  Ussuri  River. 

Horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  are  behind  apicul- 
ture in  importance,  but  stock-raising  is  growing, 
particularly  in  Western  Siberia,  where  there  are 
12,000,000  head,  of  which  60  per  cent,  are  sheep. 
In  1880  no  butter  was  made  in  Siberia,  but  in 
1902  there  were  2600  butter  factories,  and  the 
production  in  that  year  in  the  governments  of 


Tobolsk  and  Tomsk  and  the  Province  of  Akmo- 
linsk  was  over  80,000,000  pounds.  The  price  of 
milk  sold  to  the  butter  factozies,  i^deh  are 
owned  and  conducted  by  huiter-tsxpa^aBg  com- 
panies, advanced  from  8  and  9  cents  a  pood  (36 
pounds,  equivalent  to  about  18  qoarta)  in  1894 
to  20  and  to  26  cents  in  1902. 

Manufactcbbs.  Previous  to  1890  the  maaa- 
facturing  industries  were  almoet  entirely  confined 
to  tanning,  tallow-boiling,  distilling,  brick-mak- 
ing, and  ore-smelting  (gold  and  silTer  ore 
treated  at  Barnaul  and  Nertchinsk).  The  build- 
ing of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railroad  has  given  eon- 
siderable  impetus  to  manufacturing  by  making 
it  easier  and  less  costly  to  import  machinery  for 
mills.  At  the  same  time  the  railroad  has  in- 
jured the  household  industries,  which  formerly 
supplied  most  of  the  clothing,  furniture,  and 
utensils,  by  enlarging  the  facilities  for  the  im- 
portation of  Russian  manufactures.  Tomsk  is 
the  largest  manufacturing  centre  and  its  mills 
and  factories  are  now  supplying  porcelain,  re- 
fined sugar,  flour,  iron  wares,  carpets,  and  other 
products  in  considerable  variety.  Other  western 
towns  also  are  growing  in  this  respect;  and  in 
the  east,  the  Amur  Province  numbered  G9  and  the 
maritime  provinces  60  factories  in  1901.  The 
chief  impediments  are  lack  of  good  workmen  and 
the  high  cost  of  fuel. 

CoMMEBCE.  No  trade  statistics  of  Siberia  are 
published.  The  enormous  distances  between  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country  have  always  ham- 
pered both  the  domestic  and  the  exterior  trade, 
but  this  situation,  mitigated  by  the  development 
of  steam  navigation,  has  been  still  further  im- 
proved by  the  Trans-Siberian  Railroad,  so  that 
a  great  deal  of  grain  is  now  sent  from  Western 
to  Eastern  Siberia,  and  more  wheat  and  live 
cattle  are  sent  to  Russia  and  other  European 
markets.  In  1900  the  railroad  carried  17,575,023 
poods  (approximately  10,000,000  bushels)  of 
cereals;  nearly  two-thirds  of  it  went  west  to 
Russia  and  other  European  markets,  and  the  re- 
mainder was  sent  east  as  far  as  Lake  Baikal 
Wlieat  represented  more  than  half  of  the  exports 
of  grain.  The  cattle  exported  numbered  9705. 
The  large  shipments  of  butter  go  to  London  and 
Hamburg;  also  to  Ck>penhagen  for  reexport.  Five 
butter  trains  left  Siberia  every  week  in  1900. 
The  railroad  also  carried  out  of  Siberia  1,594,246 
poods  of  tea  that  had  been  brought  to  Kiakhta 
from  China  by  caravan.  An  enormous  amount  of 
tea  is  still  transported  by  sledge  in  winter  and  by 
the  river  routes  in  summer.  General  manufac- 
tures, iron  and  steely  and  sugar,  practically  all 
from  Russia,  are  the  chief  imports.  The  free- 
trade  policy,  long  maintained  in  Siberia,  ended  in 
1900,  when  the  heavy  duties  levied  in  European 
Russia  were  imposed  at  the  Siberian  frontiers 
and  ports.  A  short  free  list  includes  cereals 
(Eastern  Siberia  not  raising  all  the  grain 
needed)  and  agricultural  and  mining  machinery. 
All  Chinese  products  excepting  tea  and  spiritu- 
ous liquors  are  on  the  free  list. 

TbANSFORTATION  and  COMlfflTNICATION.  In  1900 
there  were  132  steamers  of  8555  tons  on  the 
rivers  of  the  Ob  system  and  207  steamers  of 
19,257  tons  on  the  rivers  of  the  Yenisei,  Lena, 
and  Amur  systems.  On  the  Amur  proper  with 
its  tributaries  there  were  163  steamers  of  16,945 
tons.  The  Siberian  railroad  has  not  yet  greatly 
affected  the  business  of  the  river  routes,  excepting 
in  grain  transportation.  In  1900  only  one-flfth  of 


STBKKTA. 


819 


SIBEUTA. 


the  iron  and  steel,  one-tenth  of  the  refined  sugar, 
and  one-third  of  the  manufactures  imported  were 
carried  by  the  railroad. 

The  Trans-Siberian  Railroad,  however,  is  hav- 
ing a  remarkable  effect  upon  the  country.  The 
building  of  the  road  was  begun  in  1891  and  was 
completed  in  its  main  features  in  eleven  years, 
including  a  branch  across  Manchuria  to  Port 
Arthur  and  Dalny.  It  starts  from  Tchelyabinsk, 
on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Urals,  and  its  length 
to  Vladivostok,  on  the  Pacific,  is  about  4500  miles. 
The  continuous  railway  route  from  Saint  Peters- 
burg to  Port  Arthur  is  5620  miles  long.  The 
road  cost  $172,525,000.  It  is  giving  an  impetus 
to  agriculture  and  all  other  business  enterprises 
of  the  country.  The  sea  trade  is  comparatively 
small.  The  vessels  clearing  from  Vladivostok 
and  other  Pacific  ports  in  1900  were  339,  of  375,- 
000  tons.  North  of  this  port  is  Alexandrovski, 
which  Russia  has  turned  into  a  coaling  station 
for  its  warships.  A  number  of  merchant  vessels 
have  successfully  made  their  way  between  Euro- 
pean ports  and  the  mouths  of  the  Ob  and  Yenisei 
rivers  through  the  Kara  Sea  and  Arctic  Ocean, 
but  this  route  is  as  yet  of  no  practical  impor- 
tance. 

In  1898  there  were  402  schools,  1074  teachers, 
and  27,706  pupils.  There  is  a  university  at 
Tomsk.  The  predominant  religious  faith  is 
Orthodox  Greek,  as  in  Russia.  -  The  population  in 
1897  was  5,727,090,  of  whom  3,367,576  lived  in 
Western  Siberia.  The  Russians  constitute  about 
two- thirds  of  the  population.  The  Russian  im- 
migration into  Siberia  in  1901  was  128,131,  and 
in  the  seven  years  ending  in  1900  the  average 
immigration  was  150,000  Russians  a  year.  About 
one- third  of  the.  immigrants,  disheartened  by 
their  pioneering  experiences,  have  returned  to 
Russia.  The  old  Siberian  exile  system  was 
abolished  in  1900.  Next  to  the  Russians  in 
numerical  importance  are  the  Kirghizes,  Buriats, 
and  Yakuts. 

For  government  and  further  details,  see  Russia. 

Ethnologt.  The  peoples  of  Siberia  are  ethno- 
^aphically  and  linguistically  very  diverse. 
Apart  from  the  Russians,  who  number  61  per 
cent,  of  the  total  population,  several  thousand 
Poles  and  about  500  Germans,  besides  the 
Semites  and  the  Aryan  gypsies,  about  8000  and 
5000  respectively,  the  Siberians  are  mainly  Ural- 
Altaic  in  race.  The  tribes  of  Western  Siberia 
are  akin  to  the  Samoyeds  (q.v.),  who  themselves 
number  about  17,000,  through  the  western 
Finns,  while  Eastern  Siberians  belong  to  the 
Tungusic  group  (see  Tunguses),  and  there  is 
a  large  population  of  the  so-called  Pale-Asiatic 
stock.  The  Western  tribes  comprised  under  the 
name  of  Yeniseians  include  6000  Woguls,  the 
Ostiaks,  of  whom  there  are  about  3500,  and  the 
Soiots,  numbering  some  2000.  The  Tungusic 
population  amounts  to  36,500.  The  Turko-Tata 
division  of  the  Ural-Altaic  family  in  Siberia 
comprises  230,300  Yakute,  and  100,000  Tatars 
proper,  while  the  Mongolic  division  includes 
69,000  Buryats,  30,500  Chinese  and  Manchus,  and 
2000  Koreans.  The  Pale- Asiatic  division  is  repre- 
sented by  8000  Tchulstchi,  5000  Koriaks  and 
Yukaghirs,  8000  Gilyaks,  3000  Kamtchadales,  and 
an  equal  nuber  of  Aino.     See  Ural-Altaio. 

HiSTOBT.  The  history  of  Siberia,  an  episode 
in  that  of  the  Russian  Empire,  is  a  history  of 
national   expansion— of   adventure,   exploration. 


settlement,  and  development — a  process  still  go- 
ins  on  in  all  its  phases.  In  the  reign  of  Ivan 
IV.  an  enterprising  family,  the  Strogonoff,  car- 
ried on  an  active  trade  in  Eastern  Russia,  near 
the  Urals,  and,  favored  by  liberal  concessions 
from  the  Crown^  they  founded  towns  and  de- 
veloped the  country.  In  1579,  with  the  Czar's 
permission,  they  equipped  and  sent  over  the 
Urals  into  Western  Siberia  an  expedition  of 
about  eight  hundred  men,  under  the  command 
of  an  outlaw,  Vassili,  commonly  known  as  Yer- 
mak,  or  the  'millstone,'  a  Russian  who  had  joined 
the  Don  Cossacks.  With  this  force  Yermak  de- 
feated the  Tatars,  captured  Isker  or  Sibir,  the 
capital  of  Kutchum  Khan,  and  won  pardon  and 
honor  by  giving  a  new  empire  to  Russia.  In 
the  spring  of  1582  he  sent  to  Moscow  the  report 
of  his  triumph.  Yermak  was  killed  in  1584,  but 
Russia  held  the  country  he  had  won.  Tobolsk 
was  built  on  the  site  of  Sibir  and  many  forts,  or 
oatroga,  were  located  at  strategic  points.  The 
Siberian  tribes  had  neither  the  power  nor  the 
will  to  offer  any  organized  resistance  to  Russian 
absorption.  Southward  there  was  more  trouble 
from  the  warlike  tribes  of  Central  Asia,  and  this 
determined  the  direction  of  Russian  expansion 
eastward  along  the  line  of  least  resistance.  In 
1636  the  explorers  and  fur  traders  had  reached 
the  mouth  of  the  Yenisei,  in  1637  they  had  moved 
forward  to  the  Lena,  two  years  later  they  were 
on  the  shores  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  and  before 
the  close  of  the  century  the  peninsula  of 
Kamtchatka  had  been  brought  under  Russian 
authority.  As  in  all  this  region  there  was  no 
organized  government,  its  conquest  was  the  peace- 
ful work  of  the  pioneer,  interrupted  by  barbarous 
attacks  from  hostile  natives.  Siberia  extended 
then  southward  to  the  Irtysh,  the  boundary  of 
Mongolia,  and  to  the  Amur. 

When  the  Russians  under  Khabaroff  reached 
the  Amur  in  1651  they  came  into  contact  with 
the  Manchu  power,  which  had  just  conquered 
China,  and  the  long  struggle  began  for  the  control 
of  the  Amur  and  for  Manchuria.  The  advance 
on  the  Amur  was  due  to  the  energy,  foresight, 
and  administrative  ability  of  Khabaroff,  who 
successfully  withstood  the  Manchus.  In  1689, 
when  Russian  interests  were  in  less  competent 
hands,  the  Treaty  of  Nertchinsk  was  made  be- 
tween Russia  and  China,  the  first  treaty  made  by 
the  latter  Empire  with  a  Western  power.  By 
this  treaty  Russia  yielded  the  middle  and  lower 
portions  of  the  river,  and  the  struggle  for  the 
Amur  was  not  resumed  until  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  During  this  period  the  at- 
tention of  Russia  was  turned  more  to  the  west, 
whither  it  had  been  directed  by  Peter  the  Great. 
In  1847  General  Muravieff  (q.v.)  was  appointed 
Governor-General  of  Eastern  Siberia.  He  ob- 
tained authority  for  establishing  a  post  of  the 
Russian-American  Company  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Amur,  for  the  formation  of  an  effective  militaiy 
force  from  the  Cossack  settlers,  and  finally  in 
1853  for  the  occupation  of  De  Castries  Bay  on 
the  Gulf  of  Tartary  and  of  the  island  of  Sagha- 
lien.  Still  the  hostile  attitude  of  the  Asiatic 
Department  in  Saint  Petersburg  embarrassed 
Muravieff  until  the  outbreak  of  the  Crimean  War 
gave  him  his  great  opportunity.  With  a  view  to 
the  adequate  defense  of  Russian  interests  on  the 
Pacific,  he  was  empowered  to  conduct  negotia- 
tions with  the  Chinese  Government  directly, 
without  reference  to  Saint  Petersburg,  and  to 


SIBEBIA. 


820 


SIBLEY. 


open  communication  by  the  Amur  between  Kert- 
cninsk  and  the  coast  and  thence  with  the  fortified 
port  of  Petropavlovsk  in  Kamtchatka.  In  May, 
1854,  he  led  an  expedition  down  the  Shilka,  and 
thence  down  the  Amur,  which  had  been  so  long 
closed  to  Russia.  On  August  29th  an  English 
and  French  squadron  of  eight  vessels  with  236 
guns  arrived  off  Petropavlovsk  and  began  an 
attack  on  September  1st.  This  attack  was 
devoid  of  results.  It  was  renewed  on  the  24th, 
when  the  allies,  after  silencing  some  of  the  bat- 
teries by  their  fire,  were  repulsed  in  their  land 
assault  with  heavy  loss — ^about  one-third  of  the 
700  men  engaged.  Knowing  that  another  attack 
would  be  made  by  the  allies  in  greater  force, 
Muravieff  ordered  the  abandonment  of  Petro- 
pavlovsk early  in  the  spring  of  1855  and  concen- 
trated his  strength  about  the  mouth  of  the 
Amur.  Empowered  as  a  plenipotentiary  to  ar- 
range a  treaty  with  China,  he  concluded  in  May, 
1858,  the  Convention  of  Aigun,  which  made  the 
Amur  the  boundary  between  the  two  countries, 
the  left  bank  to  belong  to  Russia,  the  right  as  far 
as  the  Ussuri  to  China,  and  from  the  latter  river 
to  Korea.  Navigation  on  the  frontier  rivers  was 
to  be  open  only  to  Chinese  and  Russian  vessels, 
and  trade  on  the  rivers  was  to  be  free. 

In  1859  Russia  secured  the  country  between 
the  Ussuri  and  the  sea  and  in  1860  Vladivostok 
was  founded.  In  1872  this  was  made  the  chief 
naval  station  of  Russia  on  the  Pacific,  in  place  of 
Nikolayevsk,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Amur.  The 
earliest  means  of  communication  in  Siberia  were 
by  the  rivers.  Russian  progress  across  the  con- 
tinent was  closely  followed  by  the  great  Siberian 
post  road,  connecting  the  chain  of  towns  which 
formed  the  administrative  centres  of  the  prov- 
inces. Along  this  road  there  wns  a  regular  postal 
service,  increasing  in  frequency  with  the  develop- 
ment of  the  country.  The  work  of  Muravieff,  the 
colonization  of  the  rich  country  beyond  the 
Ussuri,  and  the  acquisition  of  an  available  Pa- 
cific seaboard,  brought  out  the  idea  of  a  great 
transcontinental  railway.  In  1878  the  Govern- 
ment took  up  the  matter  and  by  1884  had  built 
a  road  from  Perm  to  Tinmen.  Other  local 
projects  followed  and  in  1891  the  construction 
of  a  Trans-Siberian  railway  was  authorized 
and  begun.  To  keep  its  hand  upon  China  and 
hold  in  check  the  ambitions  of  the  new  Japan, 
Russia  obtained  a  foothold  in  the  Liao-tung 
Peninsula  through  intervention  after  the  war  be- 
tween China  and  Japan  in  1895,  and  there  estab- 
lished the  strong  naval  station  of  Port  Arthur 
and  the  free  port  of  Dalny.  This  is  connected  by 
the  Manchurian  Railway,  built  under  treaty  be- 
tween Russia  and  China,  with  the  Siberian  Rail- 
way in  Trans-Baikalia  and  with  Vladivostok. 

Until  1900  convicts  were  exiled  to  Siberia  in 
great  numbers  and  many  barbarities  and  abuses 
arose  from  the  system,  which  was  largely  miti- 
gated by  a  ukase  of  the  Czar  which  substituted 
imprisonment  for  exile  except  in  the  case  of  po- 
litical offenders,  for  whom  transportation  was 
retained,  though  not  necessarily  to  Siberia.  Be- 
tween 1807  and  1899  it  was  estimated  that  865,- 
000  persons  had  been  transported  to  Siberia. 

BiBLiooRAPHT.  Reclus,  OSographie  tiniveraelle, 
vol.  V.  (Paris,  1880)  ;  Seebohm,  Siberia  in  Asia 
(London,  1882);  Lansdell,  Through  Siberia 
(ib.,  1882)  ;  ladrintzef,  Sibirien:  Oeographiache, 
ethnoffraphische  und  hiatoriache  Stiidien,  from 
the   Russian    (Jena^    1886) ;    Kennan,    Siberia 


and  the  Ewile  System  (New  York,  1891);  id.. 
Tent  Life  in  Siberia  (ib.,  1893) ;  De  Windt,  Si- 
beria as  It  Is  (London,  1892) ;  id..  The  New 
Siberia  (ib.,  1896) ;  Price,  From  the  Arctic  Ocean 
to  the  YelUno  Sea  (ib.,  1892) ;  Keane,  Northern 
and  Eastern  Asia  (ib.,  1896) ;  Hedin,  Through 
Asia  (ib.,  1898) ;  Simpson,  Side  Lights  on  Sibe- 
ria (Edinburgh,  1898);  Legras,  En  Sib^rie  (Far- 
is,  1899) ;  Krausse,  Ruseia  in  Asia  (London, 
1899) ;  Colquhoun,  Overland  to  China  (New 
York,  1900)  ;  Leroy-Beaulieu,  La  rinavation  de 
VAsie-Sib^rie-China-Japan  (Paris,  1900);  Fra- 
ser.  The  Real  Siberia  (New  York,  1902) ;  Zabel, 
Durch  die  Mandschurei  and  Siberien  (Leipzig, 
1902) ;  Norman,  All  the  Russiaa  (New  York, 
1902);  Wright,  Asiatic  Ruaaia  (ib.,  1902); 
Gerrare,  Greater  Ruaaia,  the  Continental  Empire 
of  the  Old  World  (ib.,  1903). 

SIBERIAN  BATLBOAD.    See  SiBEaoA. 

SIBOiEY,  Henbt  Hastings  (1811-91).  An 
American  pioneer,  bom  in  Detroit,  Michu  He 
was  only  eighteen  months  old  when  Detroit  was 
captured  by  the  British,  and  his  family  was 
compelled  to  flee  to  Ohio.  In  1828  he  became  a 
fur  trader  and  lived  for  many  years  at  Mackinac 
and  Fort  Snelling  in  the  employ  of  the  Ameri- 
can Fur  Company.  From  1849  to  1853  be  was 
the  delegate  to  Congress  from  the  Territory  of 
Minnesota,  the  organization  of  which  at  that 
early  date  was  largely  due  to  his  efforts.  In 
1857  he  was  a  member  of  the  Constitutional  Con- 
vention, and  the  next  year  became  first  Governor 
of  the  State.  During  the  Indian  outbreak  of 
1862  he  commanded  the  troops  gathered  for  the 
defense  of  the  frontier,  and  at  Wood  Lake  won 
a  decisive  victory.  For  this  President  Lincohi 
commissioned  him  a  brigadicF-general  of  volun- 
teers. The  next  year  he  defeated  the  Sionx  in 
three  battles.  In  1865  he  was  brevetted  major- 
general,  and  in  1866  he  was  appointed  one  of  the 
commission  to  negotiate  treaties  with  the  hostile 
tribes.  Consult  Williams,  "Henry  Hastings 
Sibley,  a  Memoir,"  in  the  Collections  of  the  Min- 
neaota  Hiatorical  Society,  vol.  vi.  (Saint  Paul, 
1804). 

SIBLEY,  HBantT  Hopkins  (1816-86).  An 
American  soldier,  bom  in  Nachitochea,  La.  He 
graduated  in  1838  at  the  United  States  Military 
Academy,  and  took  part  in  the  Seminole  War. 
He  fought  through  the  Mexican  War  and  served 
in  the  Utah  and  Navajo  expeditions.  He  was 
promoted  to  be  major,  but  resigned  in  order  to 
enter  the  Confederate  Army,  in  which  he  re- 
ceived a  commission  as  brigadier-general.  Ap- 
pointed to  command  the  Department  of  Mexico, 
he  raised  a  brigade,  and  in  1862  defeated  the 
forces  under  Colonel  Canby  at  Valverde,  N.  M. 
In  1869-73  he  was  in  the  service  of  the  Khedive 
of  Egypt,  and  constructed  river  and  coast  de- 
fenses.   He  invented  a  tent^  known  by  his  name. 

SIBLEY^  HiEAic  (1807-88).  An  American 
financier.  He  was  bom  in  North  Adams,  Mass., 
was  a  millwright  and  machinist  for  a  time  at 
Lima,  N.  Y.,  and  in  1838  opened  a  banking  house 
in  Rochester.  When  telegraphy  came  into  prac- 
tical use,  he,  in  association  with  Ezra  Cornell, 
consolidated  twenty  smaller  telegraph  corpora- 
tions into  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Com- 
pany. In  1861  he  was  the  moving  spirit  in  the 
construction  of  a  transcontinental  telegraph  line 
for  the  promotion  of  which  Congress  granted  for 
ten  years  an  annual  subsidy  of  ^,000.   He  not 


8IBLBY. 


831 


STBYLLINB  OBAOLE& 


projected  a  telegraph  route  to  Europe,  by  way 
of  Bering  Strait  and  Siberia,  but  though  wires 
were  strung  in  Siberia  and  Alaska,  he  abandoned 
the  enterprise  on  the  completion  of  the  Atlantic 
cable  in  1866.  After  retiring  in  1869  from  the 
Western  tJnion  Company,  of  which  he  had  been 
president  for  seventeen  years,  he  devoted  his  at- 
tention to  railroad  building  and  land  invest- 
ments, and  thus  augmented  the  large  fortune  ac- 
quired by  the  growth  of  the  telegraph.  He  gave 
$100,000  for  a  library  building  at  Rochester 
University,  and  expended  $160,000  in  founding 
the  Sibley  College  of  Mechanical  Engineering  at 
Cornell  University. 

SEBOKQA,  86-b6ng^&.  A  town  of  Cebtl,  Philip- 
pines, situated  on  the  eastern  coast,  26  miles 
southwest  of  CebO  (Map:  Philippine  Islands,  H 
9).  Population,  estimated,  in  1899,  23,455. 

SEB^HOBP,  John  (1758-96).  An  English 
botanist,  bom  in  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  at 
Lincoln  College.  He  also  studied  at  Edinburgh, 
at  Montpellier,  at  Gottingen,  and  at  Vienna.  His 
great  work.  Flora  Owoniensis  (1794),  shows  him 
to  have  been  an  able  botanist.  Flora  Chrcpca  was 
published  posthumously  in  ten  volumes  at  an 
immense  cost   (1806-40). 

SIBYL  (Lat.  sihylla,  from  Gk.  <r{/9vXXa,  sibyl; 
eonnected  with  Lat.  per-sihus,  wise).  The  name 
m  Greek  legend  of  women  inspired  by  Apollo 
with  prophetic  power.  The  early  authorities  men- 
tion but  one,  probably  the  Erythwean  Herophile. 
Later  poets  or  local  legends  increased  the  num- 
ber, and  finally  we  hear  often, the  Erythrsean, the 
Samian,  the  Trojan  or  Hellespontine,  the  Phry- 
gian, the  Cimmerian,  the  Delphian,  the  Cumean, 
the  Libyan,  the  Babylonian,  and  the  Tiburtine, 
most  of  whom,  however,  enjoyed  only  local  fame. 
Verses  of  vague  import  were  current  which  were 
attributed  to  them.  In  Roman  religious  history 
these  oracles  played  an  important  part.  Accord- 
ing to  the  story  an  aged  woman  (the  Cumean 
Sibyl)  appeared  before  King  Tarquin  the  Proud, 
and  offered  him  nine  books  at  a  high  price.  When 
he  refused  her  demand,  she  went  away,  destroyed 
three  books,  and  offered  the  remaining  six  at 
the  original  price;  again  refused,  she  presently 
returned  with  but  three,  and  these  were  finally 
purchased  by  the  King  at  the  price  demanded  for 
the  nine.  These  were  placed  in  the  cellar  of  the 
Temple  of  Jupiter  on  the  Capitol,  and  there  re- 
mained until  they  perished  in  the  burning  of  the 
temple,  b.c.  83.  A  new  collection  was  made  by  a 
special  commission,  which  visited  all  places  where 
Sibyls  had  prophesied,  and  brought  back  about 
1000  verses.  Later,  Augustus  caused  the  col- 
lection to  be  carefully  sifted,  as  much  spurious 
material  was  thought  to  be  present,  and  the 
whole  to  be  deposited  in  a  room  in  the  Temple 
of  Apollo  on  the  Palatine.  Shortly  after  a.d.  400 
they  were  burned  by  Stilicho.  For  the  care  and 
consultation  of  the  books  were  appointed  at  first 
the  Duoviri  8acris  fadundis,  whose  number  was 
raised  in  b.c.  367  to  ten,  five  patricians  and  five 
plebeians,  and  by  Sulla  to  fifteen.  The  consulta- 
tion could  only  occur  by  express  vote  of  the 
aenate,  and  the  result  was  reported  to  that  body 
in  a  formal  document.  The  consultation  seems 
to  have  been  ordered  in  general  when  prodigies 
showed  special  need  of  conciliating  the  gods,  and 
the  established  rites  seemed  inadequate.  Natu- 
rally these  Greek  books  were  interpreted  as 
ordering  the  introduction  of  Greek  cults,  and 


they  thus  contributed  largely  to  the  Hellenization 
of  the  old  Roman  religion.  Consult:  E.  Maass, 
De  tiihyllarum  Indicibua  (Greifswald,  1879); 
Diels,  Sibylliniache  Blatter  (Berlin,  1890) ;  K. 
Schulters,  Die  Sibyllinischen  Bucher  in  Rom 
(Hamburg,  1895) ;  also  the  handbooks  mentioned 
under  Roman  Religion.  For  the  subject  of 
Christian  Sibyllists,  see  Sibylline  Obaclbs. 

BiMXXjy  Gbotto  of  the.  (1)  The  name  given 
to  one  of  the  caverns  or  cuttings  in  the  rock  on 
the  banks  of  Lake  Avernus.  It  has  a  brick  gate- 
way and  consists  of  an  extensive  hewn  passage 
ventilated  from  above  by  a  shaft.  (2)  A  cavern 
at  Cumss  supposed  to  be  the  grotto  described  by 
Vergil  in  the  sixth  book  of  the  ^neid.  It  has 
many  openings  and  subterranean  passages,  most 
of  which  are  blocked  up.  (3)  A  cavern  at  Mar- 
sala, the  ancient  Lilyha^ni,  in  Sicily.  It  con- 
tains a  spring  by  means  of  whose  waters  the 
Sibyl  was  supposed  to  give  forth  her  oracles. 

SIBYLLINE  BOOKS.    See  Sibtl. 

SIBYLLINE  OBACLES.  A  lengthy  collec- 
tion of  Greek  hexameters,  pseudonymously  as- 
cribed to  the  Oriental  Sibyl.  These  writings  be- 
long to  an  extensive  literature  first  produced 
by  the  Jews,  whom  the  early  Christians  soon 
followed  with  the  intention  of  proving  that  the 
pasan  oracles  or  the  ancient  poets  had  borne  wit- 
ness to  the  superiority  of  the  true  religion  of 
Israel  or  of  Christ,  or  had  prophesied  the  com- 
ing of  the  Kingdom  of  God.  But  few  fragments 
of  such  literature  have  survived  outside  of  these 
Sibylline  Oracles,  but  these  obtained  a  prestige 
in  the  early  Roman  Empire  and  in  the  Christian 
Church  that  has  insured  their  preservation. 

These  oracles  are  a  wild  chaos  of  barbarous 
hexameters,  and  made  up  of  disjointed  sections, 
which  are  again  full  of  interpolations,  so  that 
their  present  structure  reveals  the  manner  of 
the  origin  of  the  collection.  Any  one  might  add 
or  insert  his  own  lines,  and  they  would  be  as 
readily  accepted  by  the  credulous  public  as  were 
the  verses  he  imitated.  Through  the  older  por- 
tions there  breathes  a  fine  spirit  of  monotheism 
and  a  trenchant  scorn  for  the  vices  of  heathen- 
ism. The  collection  is  divided  into  fourteen 
books,  of  which  the  eighth,  ninth,  and  fifteenth 
are  now  lost.  The  b<x)k  containing  the  oldest 
fragments  is  the  third.  Through  its  abundant 
though  veiled  references  to  contemporary  his- 
tory (set  forth  as  prophecy),  the  oldest  sections 
clearly  belong  to  the  Maccabean  period,  and  may 
be  dated  about  B.o.  140.  Other  sections  belong  to 
the  last  pre-Christian  century.  The  fourth  l^k 
is  now  generally  attributed  to  a  Jewish  writer,  in 
the  last  quarter  of  the  first  century  a.d.  The 
fifth  is  mostly  Jewish  (according  to  some  Jewish- 
Christian),  with  Christian  interpolations,  and 
contains  material  as  late  as  Hadrian's  reign. 
One  Christian  passage  refers  to  Jesus  as  "the  noble 
man  who  came  from  heaven,  who  stretched  forth 
his  hands  on  the  fruitful  cross,  the  best  of  the 
Hebrews."  Books  vi.,  vii.,  viii.,  are  considered 
to  be  of  Christian  origin;  they  maintain  the 
polemic  against  paganism,  give  a  picture  of  the 
persecutions,  and  paint  apocalyptic  visions.  The 
remaining  books  are  mostly  Christian.  It  has 
been  thought  that  Vergil  in  his  Fourth  Eclogue, 
where  he  congratulates  Pollio  on  the  birth  of  a 
son  and  refers  to  the  Cumsean  Sibyl,  had  some 
passage  of  this  Jewish  literature  in  mind.  This 
pseudepigraphic  propaganda  was  carried  on  ad 


SIBYLLIKE  OBAGLE& 


822 


SICILY. 


nauseam,  and  produced  intense  ridicule  on  the 
part  of  the  heathen  critics;  Celsus,  Origen'g  op- 
ponent, calls  the  Christians  Sibyllists.  But  the 
argument  was  continued,  and  Lactantius  in  the 
fourth  century  still  relies  on  the  Sibyl.  For 
modem  editions  of  the  text,  consult:  Alexandre 
(Paris,  1841)  ;  Friedlieb  (Leipzig,  1852)  ;  Rzach 
(Vienna,  1891);  Geffcken  (Leipzig,  1902).  An 
English  translation  is  given  in  Terry,  SihyUine 
Oracles  (New  York,  1890)  ;  the  more  important 
fragments  are  given  in  German,  in  Kautzsch, 
A-pokryphen  und  Pseudepigraphen  (Leipzig, 
1900).  For  literature  and  general  treatment, 
consult:  Schttrer,  History  of  the  Jewish  People 
in  the  Time  of  Jesus  Christ  (Eng.  trans.,  Edin- 
burgh, 1886-90)  ;  Hamack,  Geschichte  der  alt- 
christlichen  Litteratur  (I^eipzig,  1893)  ;  Geffoken, 
Komposition  und  Entstehungszeit  des  Oracula 
Sibyllina  (ib.,  1902). 

SIG^ABD,  MoNTGOMEBT  (1836—).  An  Ameri- 
can naval  officer.  He  was  bom  in  New  York  City, 
graduated  in  1855  at  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy,  and  served  through  the  Civil  War. 
He  participated  in  the  bombardment  and  passage 
of  Forts  Jackson  and  Saint  Philip,  and  the  Chal- 
mette  batteries,  and  in  the  passage  of  the  bat- 
teries at  Vicksburg.  When  subsequently  in  the 
South  Atlantic  squadron,  he  took  part  in  the 
various  attacks  on  Fort  Fisher  (1864-65),  and  in 
the  bombardment  of  Fort  Anderson  (1865). 
From  1865  to  1869  he  was  stationed  at  the  Naval 
Academy,  from  1869  to  1871  he  was  in  the  Pacific 
fleet,  in  1870  was  promoted  to  be  commander,  and 
in  1870-78  was  on  ordnance  duty  at  New  York 
City  and  Washington.  In  1878  he  commanded  in 
the  North  Atlantic  squadron,  and  in  1879  was 
assigned  to  special  duty  at  Washington.  In  1880 
he  took  command  of  the  Boston  Navy  Yard,  and 
in  1881-90  was  chief  of  the  Ordnance  Bureau  at 
Washington  with  rank  of  captain.  He  was  for 
a  time  in  command  of  the  Brooklyn  Navy  Yard, 
afterwards  commanded  the  North  Atlantic  squad- 
ron with  rank  of  rear-admiral,  was  in  1878  ap- 
pointed president  of  the  strategy  board,  and  re- 
tired in  the  same  year. 

SIGGABD  VON  SIGGARDSBUBG,  z^^kttrt 
fdn  z^art8-b<5?yrK,  ArousT  von  (1813-68).  An 
Austrian  architect,  born  in  Vienna.  He  became 
intimately  associated  with  Eduard  van  der  NfiU 
(q.v.),  and  through  their  cooperation  the  entire 
tone  of  modem  Viennese  architecture  was  ele- 
vated. The  magnificent  New  Opera  House 
(1860-66)  was  the  principal  product  of  their 
joint  activity. 

SIGILIANA^  sA'chMyU^nA  (It.,  Sicilian).  In 
music,  a  name  given  to  a  slow  dance,  in  six- 
eighth  or  twelve-eighth  time,  peculiar  to  the  peas- 
ants of  Sicily.  It  is  danced  by  one  couple  at  a 
time.  The  man  first  chooses  his  partner  and 
then,  after  having  danced  with  her  for  a  while, 
retires,  whereupon  the  woman  selects  another 
partner.  She  in  turn  withdraws  and  so  the  dance 
continues,  a  man  and  a  woman  alternately  choos- 
ing partners.  In  many  of  the  older  sonatas  the 
Siciliana  appears  as  the  andante.  There  is  an 
excellent  example  of  a  Siciliana  in  Mozart's  Nozzi 
de  Figaro. 

SICILIAN  VESPEBS.  The  name  given  to 
the  massacre  of  the  French  in  Sicily,  which  began 
at  Palermo  on  the  day  after  Easter  (March 
30th),  1282,  while  the  bells  were  ringing  for  the 


vesper  service.  Charles  of  Anjoii  (q.v.)  had  de- 
prived the  Hohenstaufen  dynasty  of  Naples  and 
Sicily,  and  had  parceled  out  these  kingdoms  into 
domains  for  his  French  followers;  but  his  cruelty 
toward  the  adherents  of  the  dispossessed  race,  his 
tyranny  and  oppressive  taxation,  and  the  brutal- 
ity of  his  followers,  excited  among  the  Sicilians 
the  fiercest  resentment.  Authorities  dififer  as  to 
whether  the  uprising  was  spontaneous  or  had 
been  prepared  beforehand.  It  would  seem  that 
the  intrigues  of  Peter  III.  of  Aragon  had  some- 
thing to  do  with  bringing  about  the  insurrection, 
but  the  common  story  goes  that  on  the  evening  of 
Easter  Monday  the  inhabitants  of  Palermo,  en- 
raged at  a  gross  outrage  perpetrated  by  a  French 
soldier  on  a  young  Sicilian  bride,  rose  upon  their 
oppressors,  putting  to  the  sword  every  man, 
woman,  and  child  of  them,  and  not  sparing  even 
those  Italians  and  Sicilians  who  had  married 
Frenchmen.  This  example  was  followed,  after  a 
brief  interval,  at  Messina  and  the  other  towns, 
and  the  massacre  soon  became  general  over  the 
island.  Charles  of  Anjou  made  a  determined 
attempt  to  reconquer  the  island,  but  the  Sicil- 
ians summoned  to  their  aid  Peter  of  Aragon, 
who  had  himself  crowned  King  of  Sicily,  and  de- 
stroyed the  fleet  dispatched  by  Charles  for  the 
reduction  of  Messina.  The  Angevins  thus  lost 
control  of  Sicily.  Consult:  Amari,  La  guerra 
del  Vespro  Siciliano  (9th  ed.,  Milan,  1886;  Eng- 
lish translation,  London,  1850) ;  id.,  Bacoonto 
populare  del  Vespro  Siciliano  (Rome,  1882). 

SICILY,  sls^-ll  (It.,  Lat.  Sicilia,  Gk.  lauXia, 
Sikelia,  from  Lat.  Sieulus,  Gk.  JutoeXoc,  Sikelos, 
Sicilian).  The  largest  island  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  forming  part  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Italy.  It  is  southwest  of  the  Italian  Peninsula, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  narrow  Strait 
of  Messina  (Map:  Italy,  G  11).  It  is  of  tri- 
angular shape  and  has  an  area  of  about  9700 
square  miles. 

Physical  Featubes.  The  island,  like  the  main- 
land of  Italy,  is  traversed  throughout  its  entire 
length  by  a  chain  of  mountains  which  may  be 
looked  upon  as  a  continuation  of  the  Apennines 
(q.v.).  The  northeastern  part  of  the  chain,  run- 
ning southwest  from  Capo  del  Faro,  is  called  the 
Peloric  range,  which  in  Monte  Tre  Fontane  at- 
tains the  height  of  4508  feet;  the  western  and 
much  the  longer  part  is  called  the  Madonian 
range,  which,  in  the  Pizzo  dell'  Antenna,  rises 
to  an  elevation  of  6478  feet.  It  forms  the  great 
watershed  of  the  island.  Toward  the  northwest 
coast  the  chain  breaks  up  into  irregular  and 
often  detached  masses.  About  the  centre  of  the 
chain  a  range  branches  off  through  the  heart  of 
the  island  to  the  southeast,  at  first  wild  and 
rugged,  but  afterwards  smoothing  down  into 
tablelands,  which  slope  gradually  to  the  sea. 
The  Madonian  chain  sends  off  numerous  minor 
spurs  to  the  south.  Mount  Etna  (q.v.),  situated 
near  the  eastern  shore,  is  the  highest  point  of 
the  island,  rising  to  an  elevation  of  about  10,750 
feet.  On  the  north  and  east  the  coasts  are  steep 
and  well  indented,  affording  several  good  har- 
bors. On  the  west  and  south  they  are  generally 
flat  and  their  outlines  are  less  favorable  for 
navigation.  The  rivere  of  Sicily  are  mostly  short 
and  rapid,  and  some  of  them  dry  up  dunng  the 
summer.  The  principal  are  the  Alcantara,  Si- 
meto,  Salso,  Platani,  and  Belice.  There  are  few 
lakes  on  the  island,  but  there  are  a  large  number 


SICILY. 


823 


SICILY. 


of  mineral   springs.     The  sulphur  springs  were 
famous  in  ancient  times. 

Climate.  The  climate  is  typically  Mediter- 
ranean in  character.  The  temperature  is  mod- 
erate and  very  seldom  falls  below  the  freezing 
point.  The  island,  however,  is  visited  by  the 
sirocco,  with  its  intolerable  dry  heat.  Some  of 
the  lower  sections  are  subject  to  malaria,  but 
the  climate  is  on  the  whole  salubrious.  The 
summers  are  almost  rainless,  and  the  aridity  is 
aggravated  by  the  fact  that  the  interior  is  al- 
most entirely  deforested,  so  that  there  is  noth- 
ing to  retain  the  moisture  from  the  winter  and 
spring  rains.  Geologically  the  mountain  ranges 
consist  of  a  core  of  granite  and  gneiss,  which 
is  exposed  in  the  northeastern  range.  The 
western  and  southern  parts  of  the  island  are  over- 
laid with  later  stratified  rocks,  and  the  southern 
plateau  is  mainly  Tertiary.  Basaltic  and  other 
volcanic  intrusions  occur  over  large  areas,  espe- 
cially in  the  southeastern  range,  and  the  immense 
sulphur  deposits  as  well  as  the  active  crater  of 
Mount  Etna  are  further  evidences  of  the  volcanic 
nature  of  the  island. 

Industries.   The  chief  mineral  wealth  is  sul- 
phur, of  which  Sicily  is  the  principal  source  of 
the  world's  supply.    The  output  has  greatly  in- 
creased since  the  formation  of  the  Anglo-Italian 
syndicate   in    1896,   the   export  of   sulphur   for 
1899  exceeding  400,000  tons,  valued  at  nearly  $8,- 
400,000.    Other  minerals  are  rock  salt  and  asphalt. 
Agriculture  is  still  the  main  industry,  although 
the  island  no  longer  deserves  the  name  of  the 
'granary    of    Italy,'  as    its    present    output   of 
cereals  is  barely  sufficient  to  meet  the  domestic 
demands.    The  growing  of  cereals  is  confined  al- 
most exclusively  to  the  larger  estates,  which  are 
found    mostly-  in   the   interior   and    along   the 
southern  coast.   In  the  smaller  holdings  the  land  is 
devoted  principally  to  the  cultivation  of  the  vine, 
almonds,  olives,  oranges,  lemons,  beans,  siunach, 
etc.     Agricultural    methods    are    of    the    most 
primitive  kind.     The  fisheries    (tunny,  sardine, 
coral,    and    sponge)     are    extensive,    the    deep- 
sea  fisheries  alone  giving  employment  to  over 
20,000  persons.     The  making  of  wine  and'  olive 
oil,  the  canning  of  fruits  and  vegetables,  and  the 
preparation  of  citric  acid  are  extensively  carried 
on.     There  are  also  produced  some  glassware, 
metal-ware,  matches,  etc.,  in  the  larger  cities. 
Sicily  exports  sulphur,   fruits,   and   vegetables, 
sumach,  salt,  wine,  oil,  and  fish,  and  imports 
mainly  grain,  coal,  and  iron.    Almost  the  entire 
trade  is  sea-borne,   and  the  nagivation   of  the 
three  principal  ports  of  Palermo,  Messina,  and 
Catania  amounted,  in  1901,  to  nearly  5,000,000 
tons.    The  railway  lines  have  a  total  length  of 
about  1000  miles. 

Administration.  Sicily  forms,  together  with 
the  Lipari  and  i^lgadian  groups  and  a  few  other 
islands,  a  compartimento  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy, 
and  is  divided  into  the  seven  provinces  of  Mes- 
sina, Catania,  Syracuse,  Caltanissetta,  Palermo, 
Girgenti,  and  Trapani.  The  elementary  schools 
of  the  island  are  still  inadequate.  Secondary 
education  is  better  provided  for,  and  there  are 
universities  at  Palermo.  Messina,  and  Catania. 
The  population  was  2,927,901  in  1881,  and  3,629,- 
266  in  1901.  Palermo  is  the  capital.  Emigra- 
tion is  constantly  increasing.  The  number  of 
emigrants  in  1901  was  nearly  37,000,  of  whom 
over  13,000  were  temporary.  The  condition  of 
large  numbers  of  the  laboring  class,  especially 


those  engaged  in  the  sulphur  industry,  is  deolora- 
ble.  The  secret  organization  known  as  the  Mafia 
(q.v.)  frequently  interferes  with  the  execution  of 
the  law. 

History.  Sicily  was  inhabited  at  the  dawn  of 
history  by  a  people  who  bore  the  name  of  Siculi 
or  Sicani,  and  who,  according  to  tradition, 
crossed  over  into  the  island  from  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  mainland.  They  were  members  of 
the  great  Latino- Italian  family.  The  recorded  his- 
tory of  Sicily  only  begins  with  the  establishment 
of  Greek  and  Phoenician  colonies.  The  earliest 
Greek  colony,  that  of  Naxos,  was  founded  B.C. 
735;  the  latest,  that  of  Agrigentum,  about  B.C. 
680.  During  the  intervening  century  and  a  half, 
numerous  important  colonies  were  established,  in- 
cluding Syracuse,  Leontini,  Catana,  Megara  Hy- 
blffia,  Gela,  Zancle  (the  later  Messana),  Acrse,  Hi- 
mera,  Mylse,  Casmense,  Selinus,  and  Camarina. 
We  read  that  these  cities  attained  great  commer- 
cial prosperity,  and  that  their  governments  were 
at  first  oligarchies,  and  latterly  democracies  or 
'tyrannies;*  but  it  is  not  till  the  period  of  the 
'despots'  that  we  have  detailed  accounts. 
Agrigentum  and  Gela  early  acquired  promi- 
nence— ^the  former,  under  the  rule  of  Phalaris 
(q.v.),  becoming,  for  a  short  time,  probably 
the  most  powerful  State  in  Sicily,  and  the  lat- 
ter, under  a  succession  of  able  tyrants,  Clean- 
der,  Hippocrates,  and  Gelon  (q.v.),  forcing 
into  subjection  most  of  the  other  Greek  cities. 
Gelon,  however,  transferred  his  government  to 
Syracuse  (one  of  his  conquests),  which  now 
became  the  principal  Greek  city  of  Sicily — a 
dignity  it  ever  after  retained  throughout  ancient 
times.  Meanwhile,  the  Carthaginians  had  ob- 
tained possession  of  the  Phoenician  settlements 
in  Sicily.  The  first  appearance  of  the  Cartha- 
ginians in  the  island  dates  from  B.C.  536 ;  but  the 
steady  growth  of  the  Greek  cities  in  wealth  and 
power  long  confined  their  rivals  to  the  north- 
western part,  where  their  principal  colonies  were 
Panormus,  Motya,  and  Polois.  The  first  open  trial 
of  strength  took  place  in  the  great  battle  of  Hi- 
mera  in  b.c.  480,  where  the  Carthaginian  army 
was  utterly  routed  by  Gelon,  and  its  leader,  Ham- 
ilcar,  slain.  The  Gelonian  dynasty  at  vSyracuse 
fell  in  B.C.  466,  after  experiencing  various  for- 
tunes. During  the  next  fifty  years  Sicily  had 
peace.  In  b.c.  410,  however,  the  war  between  the 
Carthaginians  and  Greeks  for  the  possession  of 
the  island  was  renewed.  The  successes  of  the 
former  were  great  and  permanent.  Selinus,  Hime- 
ra,  Agrigentum,  Gela,  and  Camarina,  fell  into 
their  hands  in  less  than  five  years ;  and  it  was  not 
till  Syracuse  had  a  new  'tyrant,*  the  famous 
Dionysius  the  Elder  (q.v.),  that  fortune  began  to 
change.  Even  he,  however,  could  not  wrest  from 
the  Carthaginians  what  they  had  already  won; 
and  after  the  war  of  B.C.  383  a  peace  was  con- 
cluded which  left  Dionysius  in  possession  of  the 
eastern  and  the  Carthaginians  of  the  western 
half  of  the  island.  Timoleon  won  a  splendid 
victory  over  the  Carthaginian  generals,  Hasdru- 
bal  and  Hamilcar,  at  the  river  Crimisus.  about 
B.C.  340.  Once  more  Greek  influence  was  in  the 
ascendent,  but  the  rule  of  the  bold  and  am- 
bitious tyrant  Agathocles  (B.C.  317-289)  proved 
in  the  main  disastrous  to  Greek  supremacy. 
After  his  death  Syracuse  lost  her  hold  over  many 
of  the  Greek  cities,  which  established  a  weak 
and  perilous  independence,  that  only  rendered  the 
preponderance  of  the  Carthaginians  more  certain* 


SICILY. 


834 


SICKLEa 


FinallT,  Pyrrhua  (q.T.),  King  of  EpiruB,  was 
invited  over  to  help  his  countrymen,  and  in 
B.C.  278  he  landed  in  the  island.  The  brilliant 
adventurer  for  a  time  swept  everything  before 
him.  Panormus,  Ercte,  and  Eryx  were  captured; 
and  though  he  failed  to  make  himself  master  of 
Lilybeum,  he  might  probably  have  forced  the 
Carthaginians  to  surrender  it,  had  he  not  been 
thwarted  in  his  designs  by  the  miserable  dis- 
cords and  jealousies  of  the  people  whom  he  came 
to  save.  As  it  was,  Pyrrhus  left  Sicily  in  about 
two  years ;  and  in  all  likelihood  the  island  would 
have  sunk  into  a  Carthaginian  possession,  had 
not  a  new  power,  Rome,  appeared  to  engage  the 
Carthaginians.  In  b.c.  241,  at  the  close  of  the 
First  Punic  War,  Carthaginian  Sicily  was  given 
up  to  the  Romans,  and  in  b.c.  210,  in  the  course 
of  the  Second  Punic  War,  the  whole  island  be- 
came a  Roman  province — the  first  Rome  ever 
held.  In  b.c.  135-132,  and  again  in  B.c.  103-100, 
it  was  the  scene  of  formidable  slave  insurrections. 
Its  fertility  and  the  wealth  of  its  citizens  and 
landholders  were  powerful  temptations  to  greedy 
and  unscrupulous  Governors. 

In  A.D.  440  Sicily  was  conquered  by  the  Van- 
dals under  Genseric.  The  Vandals,  in  their  turn, 
were  dispossessed  half  a  century  later  by  the 
Ostrogoths,  in  whose  hands  it  remained  till  a.d. 
635,  when  Belisarius  conquered  it  and  annexed 
it  to  the  Byzantine  Empire.  In  827-878  the 
Saracens  made  themselves  masters  of  the  island, 
which  flourished  under  their  rule.  In  1061  the 
Normans,  under  Robert  Guiscard  and  his  brother 
Roger,  engaged  in  the  conquest  of  Sicily,  which 
was  completed  in  1090,  a  few  years  after  the 
death  of  Robert.  In  1127  Roger  II.,  Count  of 
Sicily,  was  recognized  as  Duke  of  Apulia  and 
Calabria  and  in  1130  he  assumed  the  title  of 
King  of  Sicily. 

In  1194  the  Korman  rule  was  succeeded  by 
that  of  the  House  of  Hohenstaufen  (q.v.),  whose 
dynasty  was  overthrown  by  Charles  of  Anjou  in 
1266.  In  1282,  after  the  Sicilian  Vespers  (q.v.), 
Sicily  became  independent  and  chose  for  its  King 
Pedro  III.  of  Aragon,  who  was  connected  by 
marriage  with  the  House  of  Hohenstaufen.  In 
1296  it  was  separated  from  Aragon  and  for 
more  than  a  century  was  ruled  by  a  branch  of  the 
Arago'nese  dynasty,  when  it  was  reunited  with 
that  kingdom.  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  made 
himself  master  of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples  in 
1503,  and  the  Spanish  Crown  retained  both  coun- 
tries until  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession. 
By  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  (1713),  Sicily  was 
separated  from  Naples,  and  handed  over  to  Victor 
Amadeus,  Duke  of  Savoy,  who  ceded  it  to  Austria 
seven  years  later,  receiving  in  exchange  the 
island  of  Sardinia.  In  1734-35  Don  Carlos  estab- 
lished the  Spanish  Bourbon  dynasty  in  Naples 
and  Sicily  (tne  Two  Sicilies  ),  and  down  to  1860 
Sicily  was  ruled  by  Bourbon  kings.  (See  Two 
Sicilies,  Kingdom  of  the.)  In  1860  Garibaldi's 
invasion  (see  Italt;  Garibaldi)  resulted  in  the 
annexation  of  Sicily  to  the  dominions  of  Victor 
Emmanuel,  which  in  1861  became  the  Kingdom 
of  Italy. 

BiBUOORAPHT.  Hare,  Citiea  of  Southern  Italy 
and  Sicily  (London,  1883) ;  Colajanni,  Oli  av' 
venimenti  di  Sicilia  e  le  loro  cause  (2d  ed., 
Palermo,  1896)  ;  San  Giuliano,  Le  condizioni 
presenti  delta  Sicilia  (Milan,  1896)  ;  Paton,  Pic- 
tureaque  Sicily    (New  York,    1898) ;    Capur.na, 


L'iaola  del  sole  (Catania,  1898) ;  Sladen,  In 
Sicilyy  1896-1900  (London,  1901) ;  Rumpelt,  Stci- 
lien  und  die  SieiUaner  (Berlin,  1902)  ;  Holm, 
Oeschichte  Siciliens  im  Altertum  (Leipzig,  1870- 
98) ;  Freeman,  History  of  Sicily  (Oxford,  1891- 
94) ;  Hodgkin,  Italy  and  Her  Invaders  (ib., 
1880-85) ;  Bracci,  Memorie  storicke  intomo  al 
govemo  di  Sicilia  del  1815  alia  dittatura  di  Gari- 
baldi (Salerno,  1870);  Di  Marzo,  Dn  periodo 
di  Sicilia  dal  1774  al  I860;  Patemo,  Saggio  star- 
ico  politico  della  Sicilia  dal  oomindare  del  secolo 
XIX.  fino  al  18S0  (Catania,  1848) ;  Ia  Farina, 
Storia  documentata  della  rivoluasione  di  Sicilia 
nel  18i8-k9  (Capolago,  1851). 

8ICXEL,  sik'el,  Theodob  Rttteb  toit  (1826 
— ) .  A  German  historian,  bom  at  Aken,  and  ed- 
ucated at  Halle  and  Berlin.  He  investigated  the 
archives  of  Milan  and  Vienna  for  the  French  Gov- 
ernment, and  became  professor  of  history  in  Vien- 
na in  1857.  He  was  also  director  of  the  Institute 
for  Austrian  History  at  Vienna,  counselor  in 
1876,  and  director  of  the  Austrian  Institute  at 
Rome.  Among  his  works  are :  Monumenta  Graph- 
tea  Medii  Aevi  ejo  Archivis  et  Bihliothecis  Imperii 
Austriachi  Coelesta  (1859);  Beitrage  zur  Dip- 
lomatik  ( 1861 )  ;  Zur  geschichte  des  Kronzils  von 
Trient  (1872)  ;  Kaisentrkunden  in  Ahbildungen 
(1881);  and  Das  PHvilegium  Ottos  /.  fUr  die 
romische  Kirche  ( 1883 ) . 

SICXaNGEK,  Fbanz  von  (1481-1523).  A 
celebrated  German  knight,  bom  near  Kremmach. 
Very  early  in  life  he  began  his  military  career, 
and  speedily  became  recognized  as  a  champion  of 
the  oppressed.  In  defense  of  an  injured  citizen 
he  began  a  long  feud  with  the  city  of  Worms  in 
1513,  and  besieged  the  town,  though  in  vain.  For 
similar  reasons  he  fought  the  Duke  of  Lorraine 
and  the  city  of  Metz.  He  also  participated  in 
the  war  of  the  Swabian  League  against  Ulrieh 
of  Wttrttemberg,  and  when  Stuttgart  was  taken 
in  1519  he  protected  the  great  scholar  Rench- 
lin.  Through  the  influence  of  Ulrieh  von 
Hutten,  whose  protector  he  was,  Sickingen  be- 
came an  ardent  adherent  of  Luther,  and  sought 
to  found  a  league  of  the  lesser  nobility  and  the 
cities  to  reorganize  religious  and  political  af- 
fairs in  Germany.  In  1522  he  began  war  against 
the  Archbishop  of  Treves,  but  failed  in  his 
attack  on  the  city.  He  was  besieged  in  his  own 
castle  and  mortally  wounded  in  May,  1523, 
dying  five  days  later.  Sickingen  has  become  a 
favorite  figure  in  German  legend  and  literature 
and  is  one  of  the  chief  characters  in  Goethe's 
Ootz  von  Berlichingen,  and  in  Hauff's  Lichten- 
stein.  Consult  Ulmann,  Franz  von  Sickingen 
(Leipzig,  1872). 

SICKLES,  slk^z,  Daniel  Edoab  (1825—). 
An  American  soldier  and  politician,  bom  in 
New  York  City.  He  was  educated  at  the 
New  York  Universitjr,  studied  law,  and  was 
admitted  to  practice  m  1846.  In  the  following 
years  he  sat  as  a  Tammany  Democrat  in 
the  State  Assembly.  In  1853  he  was  appointed 
corporation  counsel  of  New  York  City,  and  was 
Secretary  of  Legation  at  London  under  United 
States  Minister  Buchanan  from  1853  to  1855, 
when  he  returned  to  the  United  States  and  was 
elected  to  the  New  York  State  Senate.  From 
1857  to  1861  he  was  a  Democratic  member  of 
Congress.  During  this  period  he  shot  and  killed 
Philip  Barton  Key,  United  States  District  At> 


8ICSLE& 


825 


SIBDONSi 


torney  for  the  District  of  Columbia,  for  adultery 
with  his  wife,  but  was  acquitted  after  a  sensa- 
tional trial   lasting  twenty  days.     At  the  out- 
break of  the  Civil  War  he  raised  the  Excelsior 
(New  York)  Brigade,  becoming  colonel  of  one  of 
its  regiments,  the  Seventieth  New  York  Volun- 
teers.   He    was    appointed    brigadier-general    of 
volunteers   in  September,   1861,  and  maior-een- 
eral  in  November^  1862.     He  commanded  a  bri- 
gade in  McClellan's  Peninsular  campaign  and  at 
Antietam,  commanded  a  division  at  Fredericks- 
burg, and  was  in  command  of  the  Third  Army 
Corps  at   Chancellorsville  and  Gettysburg.     On 
the  second  day  of  the  battle  of  Gettysburg  his 
corps  sustained  the  brunt  of  the  Confederate  at- 
tack upon  the  Peach  Orchard,  on  the  Federal 
left,  and  Sickles  himself  lost  a  leg.     (See  Get- 
TTSBVBO,   Battle  of.)      He    continued    in    the 
service,  however;  was  commander  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Carolinas  in  1866-67,  was  brevetted 
brigadier-general  and  major-general  in  the  Regu- 
lar Army  for  services  at  Fredericksburg  and  (Get- 
tysburg respectively,  served  for  a  time  as  colonel 
of  the  Forty-second  Infantry,  and  on  April  14, 
1869,  was  retired  with  the  full  rank  of  major- 
general.     In  1867  he  was  sent  on  a  secret  diplo- 
matic mission  to  South  America.    He  was  United 
States  Minister  to  Spain  from  1869  until  1873, 
and  as  such  presented  the  demands  of  the  United 
States  for  reparation  for  the  execution  of  the 
captain  and  crew  of  the  Virginiits    (q.v.).     He 
was  sheriff  of  New  York  County  in  1890,  was 
again  elected  to  Congress  as  a  Democrat  in  1892, 
and  for  several  years  was  president  of  the  New 
York  State  Board  of  Civil  Service  Commissioners. 
SICYON,    sis^-6n     (Lat.,    from    Gk.    2«w&v 
SikyOn,   £e«cf6v,  SekyOn).    The  principal  city  of 
a   small    but    fertile    State    of   ancient    Greece, 
Sicyonia,  situated  in  the  north  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, havin£[  the  Corinthian  Gulf  for  its  northern 
boundary,  with  Achaia  on  the  west,  Phlius  on 
the  south,   and  Corinth  on  the  east.    Between 
the  rivers  Asopus  and  Helisson,  on  a  triangular 
plateau,  was  situated  Sicyon,  about  two  miles 
flouth  of  the  Corinthian   Gulf,  and  ten  north- 
west   of    Corinth.     Its    position    was    one    of 
great  strength.    The  earlier  city  seems  to  have 
been  situat^  at  the  foot  of  the  plateau,  to  which 
it  was  removed  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  in  B.C. 
303.    The  early  history  of  Sicyon  is  involved  in 
myths,  but  even  in  the  legends  a  connection  with 
Argoe  appears,  particularly  in  the  story  of  Adras- 
tus.    At  the  time  of  the  Dorian  invasion  it  was 
occupied,  but  tradition  said  in  a  peaceable  fash- 
ion, and  the  original  population  formed  a  fourth 
tribe  along  with  the  three  Dorian  tribes.    The 
rule  of  the  Dorian  nobles  was  overthrown  by 
Andreas,   or  Orthagoras,  a  member   of  a  non- 
Dorian  family,  who  about  B.c.  665  made  himself 
tyrant — a  position  held  by  his  house  for  about 
one  hundred  years.     Under  Clisthenes,  early  in 
the   sixth    century,    the    State    seems    to    have 
reached  a  high  degree  of  prosperity  and  warlike 
fame,  especially  through  its  part  in  the  Sacred 
War  and  establishment  of  the  Pythian  games. 
In  later  histoiy  Sicyon  regularly  appears  as  a 
dependency  of  Spar&,  until  the  rise  of  Thebes. 
After  its  rebuilding  by  Demetrius  it  again  fell 
under  the  rule  of  ^ants,  but  was  finally  freed 
and  brought  into  the  Achaean  League  (b.o.  251) 
by  Aratus*    After   the   destruction   of   Corinth 
by  the  Romans,  the  Sicyonians  for  a  time  had 


charge  of  the  Isthmian  games.  In  later  times  it 
seems  to  have  been  an  insignificant  place.  On  its 
site  is  the  modem  village  Vasilik6.  There  are 
still  considerable  remains  of  the  Roman  period, 
and  also  a  Greek  theatre,  which  has  been  exca- 
vated by  the  American  School  at  Athens.  The 
ancient  city  was  famous  from  early  times  for  its 
bronze-casting,  and  especiaUy  for  its  painting. 

SIDA  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk,  <r(8iy,  aide,  pome- 
granate, water-lily).  A  large  widely  distributed 
genus  of  annual  and  perennial  herbs  and  shrubs 
of  the  natural  order  Malvacese,  mostly  natives  of 
warm  climates,  and  generally  rich  in  mucilage. 
Some  of  the  species  have  strong  pliable  fibres, 
which  are  employed  for  cordage  and  for  textile 
purposes.  One  of  the  most  valuable  of  these  is 
8ida  rhomhifolia,  a  perennial  tropical  shrub  also 
found  in  Australia  and  the  United  States.  It  is 
also  said  to  be  cultivated  as  a  forage  plant.  8ida 
tilucfolia — ^better  known  as  Ahutilon  avioennof — 
is  an  annual  long  cultivated  in  China,  for  its 
fibre,  which  is  used  like  that  of  hemp.  In  parts 
of  the  United  States  it  is  a  common  weed  known 
as  velvetleaf. 

SIDDHABTHA,  sld-h&rt^h&  (Skt,  he  who 
has  attained  his  aim).  An  epithet  frequently 
applied  to  Gautama  Buddha  (q.v.). 

SnKDOKS,  Mrs.  Sarah  (1755-1831).  A  cele- 
brated English  actress.  She  was  the  daughter 
of  Roger  Kemble  (q.v.)  and  was  bom  at  Brecon, 
in  Wales.  As  a  mere  child  she  showed  the 
family  genius  for  the  stage,  and  during  her 
youth  she  played  as  a  member  of  her  father's 
company  in  the  provincial  towns.  She  married 
William  Siddons,  an  actor,  in  1773.  Shortly 
afterwards  she  attracted  such  great  attention 
that  Garrick  heard  her  praises  in  London  and 
offered  her  an  engagement  at  the  Drury  Lane 
Theatre,  where,  December  29,  1775,  she  made 
her  first  appearance,  acting  Portia  in  The  Mer- 
chant of  Venice.  Her  beauty  and  fine  person 
pleased  the  audience,  but  as  an  actress  she  made 
no  great  impression.  At  the  end  of  the  season 
she  was  not  reSngaged.  She  returned  to  Lon- 
don in  1782  to  enjoy  a  career  of  triiuuph  as  in- 
disputably the  greatest  actress  of  her  time,  hav- 
ing spent  the  intervening  years  on  the  stages  of 
provincial  cities.  As  Isabella  in  The  Fatal  Mar- 
riage, she  reappeared  at  Drury  Lane  on  October 
10,  1782.  In  1784  her  popularity  was  tempo- 
rarily obscured  by  a  calumny  which  charged  her 
with  pecuniary  meanness  toward  certain  of  her 
fellow  performers;  but  with  this  trivial  excep- 
tion her  efforts  were  one  long  series  of  suc- 
cesses till  on  June  29,  1812,  in  her  great  char- 
acter of  Lady  Macbeth,  she  took  her  leave  of  the 
public.  Belvidera,  Queen  Katharine,  Volumnia 
in  CoriolanuSf  which  she  played  with  her  brother, 
John  Philip  Kemble  (q.v.),  were  but  a  few  of  the 
many  parts  in  which  she  captivated  her  audiences. 
Mrs.  Siddons  is  said  to  have  been  strictly  a 
stage  genius;  elsewhere  she  seems  to  have  been 
a  woman  of  no  extraordinary  intelligence.  She 
carried  her  tragedy  manners  with  her  to  the 
drawing-room  or  the  dinner-table.  Scott  has  re- 
corded the  amusement  with  which  at  Abbotsford 
he  heard  her  stately  blank  verse  to  the  servant: 
"I  asked  for  water,  boy!  you've  brought  me 
beer;"  and  Sidney  Smith  used  to  say  it  was  never 
without  a  certain  awe  that  he  saw  her  ''stab  the 
potatoes."  In  the  practice  of  her  art,  however,  it 
was  this  concentrated  power  of  personal  presence 


SIDDOJIflL 


836 


SIBVEY. 


which  made  her  irresistible.  As  a  tragic  actress 
she  has  probably  never  been  equaled  in  Great 
Britain.  Her  picture  as  the  "Tragic  Muse"  by 
Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  is  famous. 

Consult:  Boaden,  Memoirs  of  Mrs.  Siddons 
(London,  1827;  2d  ed.  1831) ;  Campbell,  Ufe  of 
Mrs,  Siddons  (ib.,  1834) ;  Fitzgerald,  The  Kern- 
hies  (ib.,  1871);  Kennard,  MrSi  Siddons  (lb., 
1887)  ;  Baker,  Our  Old  Actors  (ib.,  1881) ;  Mat- 
thews and  Hutton,  Actors  and  Actresses  of  Oreat 
Britain  and  the  United  States  {'Sew  York,  1886) ; 
Doran,  ^nnals  of  the  Stage  (ed.  Lowe,  London, 
1888). 

SIDEBBAL  CXOCK  (from  Lat.  sidereus,  re- 
lating  to  a  star,  from  sidus,  constellation,  star ) . 
A  clock  regulated  to  indicate  sidereal  time.  (See 
Day.)  The  sidereal  clock  is  a  most  important 
aid  to  the  practical  astronomer,  and  is  one  of  the 
indispensable  instruments  of  an  observatory. 
See  (3iX)CK. 

SIDEBITE  (Lat.  sideritis,  loadstone,  from 
Gk.  ffiihiplTiit,  sid&rit€s,  relating  to  iron,  from 
Wdifpof,  sideros,  iron).  A  mineral  iron  carbonate 
crystallized  in  the  hexagonal  system.  It  has  a 
vitreous  lustre,  and  is  of  a  gray,  brown  to  red, 
and  sometimes  green  color.  It  occurs  in  gneiss, 
mica,  and  clay  slates,  and  in  other  rock  strata, 
and  also  frequently  with  metallic  ores.  It  is 
found  in  Freiberg,  Austria,  in  the  Harz,  and  in 
Greenland;  in  the  United  States  it  occurs  in 
various  places  in  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  New 
York,  and  Ohio,  and  other  localities  where  iron 
ores  are  common.  Its  iron  is  often  partly  re- 
placed by  calcium,  magnesium,  and  manganese. 
It  also  occurs  in  crystallized,  concretionary, 
massive,  and  earthy  forms. 

The  name  siderite  is  also  applied  to  a  trans- 
lucent blue  variety  of  vitreous  quartz,  which  is 
also  more  commonly  called  sapphirine, 

SID'EBOXnrLOK  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  alhf 
pot,  sideros,  iron  +  I^Xor,  xylon,  wood).  A 
genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order  Sapotace», 
with  evergreen  leaves  and  axillary  clusters  of 
flowers,  natives  of  and  widely  distributed  in 
warm  climates.  They  are  remarkable  for  the 
hardness  of  their  wood,  which  is  sometimes  called 
ironwood,  and  is,  at  least  in  some  species,  so 
heavy  as  to  sink  in  water.  A  single  species, 
BiderowyUm  Mastichodendron,  occurs  along  the 
east  coast  of  Florida,  where  it  is  known  as  mastic 
and  wild  olive. 

SIDEWALK,  Tbavelino.  See  Tbavelino 
Sidewalk. 

SIDEWINDEBb  The  local  name  in  Arizona 
for  the  homed  rattlesnake  {Crotalus  cerastes), 
which  inhabits  open  plains,  and  when  disturbed 
moves  away  sideways.  Consult  Merriam,  The 
Death  Vallej/  Expedition  (Agricultural  Depart- 
ment, Washington,  1893).  See  Rattlesnake  and 
Plate  of  Rattlesnakes. 

SnXKWICXy  Henbt  (1838-1001).  An  Eng- 
lish moralist  and  economist,  bom  at  Skipton, 
Yorkshire,  in  1838.  He  was  educated  at  Rugby 
and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  was  fellow  of 
Trinity  College  from  1859  to  1869,  and  lecturer 
from  1859  to  1875,  when  he  was  appointed  pre- 
lector of  moral  and  political  philosophy;  and  in 
1883  he  was  appointed  Knightbridge  professor 
of  moral  philosophy.  His  principal  works  are: 
The  Methods  of  Ethics  (1874;  5th  ed.  1893); 
The   Principles   of   Political   Economy    (1883); 


Outlines  of  the  History  of  Ethics  (1886;  4th  ed. 
1896) ;  and  The  Elements  of  Politics  (1891).  He 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  promotion  of  the 
higher  education  of  women  at  Cambridge,  and  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  Newnham  College.  He  was 
a  public-spirited  man,  and  was  liberal  with  his 
money.  He  helped  largely  to  support  Mind,  the 
English  philosophical  quarterly,  of  which  he  was 
co-editor.  He  resigned  his  chair.  May  1,  1900, 
on  account  of  ill  health.  His  Methods  of  Ethics 
is  a  very  noteworthy  work,  in  which  he  criticises 
in  a  remarkably  fair  spirit  the  ethics  of  intni- 
tionism  (q.v.)  and  common  sense,  of  egoistic 
hedonism  (q.v.),  and  of  utilitarianism  (q.v.), 
finally  giving  hisadherencetoa  utilitarianism  with 
an  intuitive  basis  in  the  abstract  moral  principles 
of  justice,  prudence,  and  rational  benevolence. 
He  was  a  notable  member  of  the  Society  for 
Psychical  Research,  in  regard  to  the  work  of 
which  he  maintained  a  cautious  and  conservative 
position.  See  Stephen,  "Henry  Sidgwick,**  in 
Mind  (January,  1901)  ;  James  Seth,  'The  Ethical 
System  of  Henry  Sidgwick,"  in  Mind  (April. 
1901 ) ;  Sorley,  "Henry  Sidgwick,"  in  International 
Journal  of  Ethics  (January,  1901);  Haywood, 
"The  True  Significance  of  Sidgwick's  Ethics,"  ib. 

SIDI-BEL-ABBiS,  se'dA  b^l  Ab'b&s'.  The 
capital  of  an  arrondissement  in  the  Department 
of  Oran,  Algeria,  on  the  Mekerra,  48  miles  by 
rail  south  of  Oran  (Map:  Africa,  D  1).  It  is 
comparatively  a  modem  town  and  is  surrounded 
by  walls.  It  has  a  considerable  agricultural 
trade  in  grain,  alfa,  and  cattle.  Population,  in 
1901  (of  commune),  25,739. 

SIDI  HOHAM^KED  ( 1803-73 ) .  Emperor  of 
Morocco  from  1859  to  1873.  He  succeeded  his 
father,  Muley  Abderrahman.  He  was  soon  in- 
volved in  a  war  with  Spain,  caused  by  the  ma- 
muding  expeditions  of  the  Riff  pirates,  was  de 
feated  by  the  Spanish  under  Prim  and  O'Donnell 
(1860),  and  obliged  to  pay  an  indemnity  of 
200,000,000  piasters.  His  introduction  of  re- 
forms and  the  commercial  concessions  which  he 
granted  to  foreigners  caused  several  insurrec- 
tions, in  quelling  one  of  which  he  lost  his  life. 
See  MoBocco. 

SIDMOUTH,  sid'mflth.  A  watering  place  on 
the  southern  coast  of  Devonshire,  England,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  little  river  Sid,  remarkable  for  its 
healthful  climate  and  picturesque  situation 
(Map:  England,  C  6).  The  esplanade,  protects 
by  a  sea  wall  1700  feet  in  length,  forms  an  excel- 
lent promenade.  The  interesting  parish  church 
dates  from  1259.  Sidmouth  was  the  residence  of 
Queen  Victoria  when  a  child,  and  her  father, 
the  Duke  of  Kent,  died  here  in  1820.  Population, 
in  1901,  4200. 

SIDHOUTU,  Henbt  Addington,  first  Vis- 
count (1757-1844).  An  English  statesman.  See 
Addington,  Henbt. 

SnVNEY.  The  county  seat  of  Shelby  County, 
Ohio,  40  miles  north  of  Dayton;  on  the  Miami 
River,  and  on  the  Cincinnati,  Hamilton  and  Day- 
ton, and  the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  and 
Saint  Louis  railroads   (Map:  Ohio,  B  5).    The 

Eublic  library.  Monumental  Building,  court- 
ouse,  and  Wagner's  Park  are  noteworthy  fea- 
tures. Sidney  has  considerable  industrial  impor- 
tance. The  manufactures  include  road  scrapers, 
whips,  hollow  ware,  com  shellers,  horse  collars, 
fly  nets,  poles  and  shafts,  chums,  wheels,  ear- 


SIDHBT. 


827 


SIDITBY. 


litLgBB,  aluminum  walre^  brooms,  bicycle  rims, 
newspaper  folders,  and  flour.  There  is  also  a 
large  chicken  hatchery.  The  government  is  vested 
in  a  mayor,  elected  biennially,  and  a  unicameral 
council.  The  water-works  are  owned  and  ope- 
rated by  the  municipality.  Sidney  was  settled  be- 
tween 1800  and  1810,  incorporated  about  1819, 
and  received  its  present  charter  in  1897.  Popu- 
lation, in  1890,  4850;  in  1900,  5688. 

SIDNST,  Algesnon  (c.1622-83).  An  English 
Revolutionary  statesman.  After  receiving  a  care- 
ful education  he  accompanied  his  father,  the  sec- 
ond Earl  of  Leicester,  on  embassies  to  Denmark 
and  France.  His  first  military  service  was 
against  the  rebels  of  Ireland  in  1641  while  his 
father  was  Lord  Lieutenant  there.  In  the  Civil 
War  he  fought  for  Parliament.  The  year  1647 
saw  him  lieutenant-general  of  the  Horie  in  Ire- 
land, and  the  next  year  he  became  Governor  of 
Dover,  a  position  which  he  held  for  more  than 
two  years.  In  1645  CardiflT  had  returned  him  to 
the  Long  Parliament,  and  three  years  afterwardf? 
he  was  appointed  a  commissioner  for  the  trial  of 
Charles  I.  He  absented  himself  from  the  sessions 
of  the  court,  however,  because,  as  he  explains,  he 
wished  to  keep  himself  "clean  from  having  any 
hand  in  this  business."  His  objection  to  the  trial 
of  the  King  was  that  the  House  of  Lords  had  not 
assented  to  it.  But  it  is  said  that  he  afterwards 
spoke  of  the  execution  as  '^he  justest  and  bravest 
action  that  was  ever  done  in  England  or  any- 
where else."  In  principle  a  severe  republican, 
he  resented  the  concentration  of  power  in  Crom- 
well. When  the  restored  Parliament  met  in  1659 
Sidney  was  again  nominated  to  the  Council  of 
State,  and  dispatched  to  Denmark  on  a  political 
mission.  After  the  Kestoration  he  lived  precari- 
ously on  the  Continent,  flitting  about  from  place 
to  place.  Received  with  great  honor  ;into  the  high- 
est society  of  Rome,  he  desired  to  pass  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  there;  but  as  political  ene- 
mies sought  his  life,  he  dared  not  remain  long  in 
one  place.  All  came  to  regard  him  as  the  ablest 
of  the  English  exiles,  and  the  Sing's  friends 
feared  his  great  influence;  but  in  1677  Charles 
II.  pardoned  him,  and  he  returned  to  his  native 
country. 

Holding  persistently  to  his  old  principles,  how- 
ever, he  favored  the  Duke  of  Monmouth  as  suc- 
cessor to  Charles  11.  in  place  of  the  Duke  of  York. 
To  accomplish  his  object  he  solicited  the  aid  of 
the  French  monarch,  who  is  known  to  have  sup- 
plied him  with  money  through  Barillon,  the 
French  Ambassador  to  England.  His  designs 
were  suspected,  and  when  the  Rye  House  Plot 
was  discovered  in  June,  1683,  the  opportunity 
was  seized  to  be  rid  of  a  man  felt  to  be  danger- 
ous. With  his  friend,  Lord  Russell,  and  others 
he  was  arrested  and  committed  to  the  Tower. 
His  trial  for  high  treason  began  November  21st 
before  the  brutal  JeflTreys,  who  on  the  merest 
mockery  of  evidence  found  him  guilty  and  con- 
denmed  him  to  death.  The  execution  took  place 
December  7th  on  Tower  Hill.  His  heroic  firm- 
ness in  death  awakened  the  sympathy  and  the 
indignation  of  the  public,  which,  in  recognition 
of  his  devotion  to  principle,  has  ever  since  re- 
vered him  as  a  patriot  hero  and  martyr.  In  the 
history  and  theory  of  government  Sidney  was 
more  deeply  learned  than  any  other  man  of  his 
time.  His  Diacouraes  Concerning  Government 
Vol.  XV.-«. 


were  published  in  London  in  1698,  and  his  entire 
works  appeared  in  1772. 

Consult:  Arraignment,  Trial  and  Oondemnor 
tUm  of  Algernon  Sidney,  etc.  (London,  1684) ; 
Ewald,  Life  and  Times  of  Algernon  Sidney  (Lon- 
don, 1873). 

SIDNBY^  Sir  Phiup  (1554-86).  A  celebrated 
English  writer  and  soldier.  He  was  bom  at  Pens- 
hurst  in  Kent,  and  when  ten  years  old  was  sent  to 
the  school  at  Shrewsbury,  whence,  in  1568,  he 
went  to  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  left  the  uni- 
versity without  a  degree,  but  with  a  high  reputa- 
tion for  scholarship  and  general  ability.  In  1572 
he  went  abroad  to  travel.  He  was  in  Paris  when 
the  massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew  took  place, 
but  ran  no  personal  risk,  as  he  was  under  the 
protection  of  the  English  embassy.  Thereafter 
he  visited  Belgium,  Germany,  Hungary,  and 
Italy;  wherever  he  went  he  occupied  most  of  his 
time  in  studying  languages,  literature,  current 
history,  and  politics,  but  he  also  cultivated  the 
acquaintance  of  eminent  men;  and  in  1575  he 
returned  home,  perfected  in  all  manly  accom- 
plishments. His  uncle  Dudley,  Earl  of  Leicester, 
was  at  this  time  in  the  zenith  of  his  fottunes, 
and  for  Sidney  a  career  at  Court  lay  temptingly 
open.  As  a  courtier  his  success  was  great;  with 
Queen  Elizabeth  he  was  throughout  life  an  e»- 
pecial  favorite.  In  1577  she  intrusted  him  with 
a  mission  to  Heidelberg  and  Prague,  and,  though 
he  failed  in  his  negotiations,  he  was  warmly  com- 
mended on  his  return.  Three  years  afterwards  he 
had  the  boldness  to  address  to  the  Queen  a  *re- 
monstrance*  against  her  proposed  marriage  with 
Henry,  Duke  of  Anjou,  a  union  to  which  she 
seemed  herself  not  indisposed.  It  is  significant 
of  the  high  favor  in  which  he  was  held  by  her 
that  Elizabeth,  imperious  as  she  was  in  temper, 
and  little  inclined  to  brook  such  interference,  waa 
satisfied  with  his  retirement  from  Court  for  a 
few  months.  This  interval  he  passed  in  literary 
work  at  Wilton  with  his  sister,  the  accomplished 
Countess  of  Pembroke.  For  her  entertainment 
he  wrote  his  celebrated  pastoral  romance,  Ar- 
cadia,  which  was  published  posthumously  by  hia 
sister  in  1590.  In  1583  he  consoled  himself  for 
the  marriage  of  Lady  Penelope  Devereux,  to 
whom  he  had  been  ardently  attached,  and  who 
figures  as  the  Stella  of  his  poems,  by  marrying 
Frances,  the  daughter  of  Sir  Francis  Walsing- 
ham.  In  the  spring  of  1585  he  is  said  to  have 
meditated  sailing  with  Sir  Francis  Drake  in  an 
expedition  against  the  Spaniards  in  the  West 
Indies,  but  to  have  been  forbidden  by  Elizabeth 
through  fear  'lest  she  lose  the  jewel  of  her  do- 
minions." Later  in  the  year,  however,  she  ap- 
pointed him  Grovemor  of  Flushing,  whither  he 
went  to  take  part  in  the  war  then  beini;  waced 
between  her  allies,  the  Dutch  and  the  Spanish. 
At  the  battle  of  Zutphen,  in  Gelderland,  he  reck- 
lessly exposed  himself.  A  horse  was  killed  under 
him,  and  he  received  a  musket-shot  in  the  thigh 
from  which^  after  great  suffering,  he  died  at  Am- 
heim  on  Cotober  7,  1586.  A  beautiful  trait  of 
humanity  was  noticed  in  him  while  he  was  borne 
from  the  field.  As  he  complained  of  thirst,  a  bot- 
tle of  water  was  brought  him;  but  when  he  waa 
about  to  drink,  he  was  touched  by  the  wistful 
look  of  a  mortally  wounded  soldier,  who  lay 
close  by;  and  taking  the  water  untasted  from  his 
lips,  Sidney  handed  it  to  his  fellow  in  need,  with 
the  words,  '*Thy  necessity  is  greater  than  mine." 


SIDNEY.  81 

The  esteem  in  which  Sidney  was  held  by  his  coun- 
trymen was  shown  in  the  passion  of  grief  with 
which  the  news  of  his  death  was  received.  His 
body  was  brought  to  England,  and  after  lying 
for  some  time  in  state,  was  buried  with  great 
solemnity  in  the  old  Cathedral  of  Saint  Paul's. 
The  entire  nobility  went  into  mourning.  The 
universities  of  Cambridge  and  Oxford  issued 
three  volumes  of  elegies  on  his  death,  and  Spen- 
ser, in  his  Aatrophel,  mourned  the  loss  of  his 
friend. 

The  love  and  admiration  which  Sidney  won 
from  his  contemporaries  were  a  tribute  to  the 
singular  beauty  of  his  character.  His  short  life 
was  marked  by  no  brilliant  achievement,  and  his 
literary  genius  would  scarcely  of  itself  have  suf- 
ficed to  account  for  the  regard  he  inspired.  But 
the  purity  and  nobility  of  his  nature,  and  the 
winning  courtesies  in  which  it  expressed  itself, 
took  captive  all  hearts  while  he  lived,  and  have 
since  kept  sweet  his  memory.  "Sublimely  mild, 
a  spirit  Vithout  spot,"  in  Shelley's  words,  he 
lives  in  the  history  of  his  country,  a  rare  and 
finished  type  of  English  character,  in  which  the 
antique  honor  of  chivalry  is  seen  shading  into 
the  graces  of  the  modem  gentleman.  His  Ar- 
cadia, overrun  as  it  is  with  the  fantastic  affecta- 
tions of  the  time,  may  still  be  recognized  as  a 
work  of  great  merit.  His  other  weli-known 
work,  the  Defense  of  Poeaie  (1595),  will  repay 
the  attention  of  the  reader.  Many  of  his  shorter 
poems,  more  especially  some  of  his  sonnets,  are 
also  of  rare  merit.  Consult  his  Complete  Poems, 
ed.  by  Grosart  (London,  1877)  ;  Apology  for 
Poetry,  ed.  by  Shuckburgh  (Cambridge,  1891); 
Miscellaneous  Works  (Boston,  1860;  London, 
1893)  ;  Davis,  Life  and  Times  of  Sir  Philip  Sid- 
ney (Boston,  1859) ;  Ely,  Chaucer,  Spenser,  and 
Sidney  (New  York,  1894)  ;  Symonds,  Sir  Philip 
Sidney  (London,  1886). 

SIDNEY  SUSSEX  COLLEGE.  A  college  at 
Cambridge,  Eng.  It  was  founded  in  1596  by  the 
will  of  Lady  Frances  Sidney,  Countess  Dowager 
of  Sussex.  The  college  was  founded  on  the  site 
of  the  Franciscan  or  Grey  Friars'  House,  estab- 
lished in  1240,  and  was  called  the  College  of 
Lady  Frances  Sidney  Sussex.  The  house  of  the 
Franciscans  had  been  suppressed  in  1538,  and 
the  site  given  to  Trinity  College.  Trinity  trans- 
ferred it  to  the  new  foundation.  Sidney  Sussex 
(College  was  almost  from  the  first  a  'nursery  of 
Puritanism,'  and  was  the  first  college  in  Com- 
bridge  to  admit  Scotch  and  Irish  to  membership. 
It  consists  of  a  master  and  ten  fellows,  thirty-six 
scholars,  and  about  seventy-five  undergraduates. 
It  presents  to  eight  livings.  Oliver  Cromwell 
was  a  member  of  Sidney  Sussex  College,  though 
he  did  not  take  a  degree.  His  portrait  here  is 
one  of  the  best  in  existence.  Among  the  other 
worthies  of  the  college  may  be  mentioned  Thomas 
Fuller  and  Archbishop  Bramhall. 

Sia>ON  (Heb.  Siddn,  from  sUd,  to  hunt,  to 
fish,  or  from  Sid,  name  of  a  tribal  god).  A  city 
of  ancient  Phoenicia,  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, about  25  miles  south  of  Beirut  (Map: 
Turkey  in  Asia,  F  6).  It  was  situated  on  a 
promontory  with  an  island  in  front,  and  pos- 
sessed a  double  harbor.  It  was  specially  famed 
for  its  purple  dyes  and  its  inhabitants  are  said 
to  have  discovered  the  manufacture  of  glass.  ( For 
the  ancient  history  of  the  city,  see  the  article 
Ph(ENICIA.)     Sidon  surrendered  to  the  Moslems 


S8  StBBOLD. 

in  637  or  638.  During  the  period  of  the  Cm- 
sades  it  suffered  greatly  and  passed  back  and 
forth  from  Mohammedans  to  Christians,  ulti- 
mately remaining  with  the  former.  In  the  sev- 
enteenth century  its  importance  revived;  it  be- 
came the  seaport  of  Damascus,  and  for  nearly 
200  years  had  an  important  trade.  The  present 
town  of  Saida  occupies  the  western  portion  of 
the  site  of  the  ancient  city.  It  has  about 
12,000  inhabitants,  and  is  relatively  unimportant 
as  compared  with  Beirut,  which  has  become  the 
seaport  of  the  district.  Missionary  establish- 
ments are  maintained  by  both  Protestants  and 
Roman  Catholics.  The  many  tombs  of  the  an- 
cient city  have  yielded  a  large  number  of  interest- 
ing sarcophagi,  including  that  of  Eshmunazar, 
now  in  the  Louvre,  and  the  so-called  sarcophagus 
of  Alexander,  now  in  C!onstantinople.  See  Phce- 
NiciAN  Art. 

SIDO^IAy  Ordeb  of.  a  royal  Saxon  order 
of  merit  for  women,  conferred  for  voluntary  ser- 
vices in  war  and  peace.  It  was  established  in 
1870.  The  decoration  is  an  eight-pointed  cross 
of  white  enamel,  edged  with  gold,  suspended  from 
a  crowned  wreath  inclosing  the  initial  S. 

SnySA,  Gulf  of  (Lat.  Syrtis  Maior),  A 
large,  open  arm  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  on  the 
coast  of  Tripoli  (Map :  Africa,  F  1 ) .  It  is  nearly 
300  miles  wide  at  the  mouth,  and  extends  inward 
from  75  to  125  miles.  Its  shores  are  low  and 
bordered  by  shallow  and  dangerous  waters,  af- 
fording scarcely  any  harbors.  The  Gulf  of  Sidra 
forms  the  eastern  angle  of  the  larger  rectangular 
gulf  of  the  two  Syr&s,  the  western  angle  being 
now  called  the  Gulf  of  Cabes  (q.v.). 

SIEBEKGEBIBGE,  zH^benge-heT'ge,  A  group 
of  seven  conical  heights  in  the  Rhine  Province, 
Prussia,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  22  miles 
above  Cologne  (Map:  Prussia,  B  3).  The  chief 
peaks  are  the  Oelberg  (1522  feet),  the  Lowen- 
burg,  and  the  Drachenfels  (q.v.).  TTie  scenery  is 
strikingly  picturesque,  and  the  region  is  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  history  and  legend  of 
the  surrounding  country. 

SIEBOIiD,  z§a)dlt,  Kabl  Theodob  Ebnest  von 
( 1804-85) .  A  German  physiologist  and  zodlogist, 
bom  in  Wttrzburg.  In  1840  he  was  appoint^  to 
the  chair  of  physiology  at  Erlangen,  in  1845  at 
Freiburg,  in  1850  at  Breslau,  and  in  1853  at  tbe 
University  of  Munich.  Siebold  was  the  orig- 
inator, after  Cuvier,  of  the  first  important  re- 
forms in  systematic  zoology,  and  established 
the  unicellular  nature  of  the  Protozoa,  which 
he  first  combined  into  a  phylum.  He  produced 
in  1856  an  epoch-making  work,  translated  into 
English  under  the  title  "On  a  True  Partheno- 
genesis in  Moths  and  Bees"  (1857).  This  was 
jfollowed,  in  1871,  by  a  work  in  the  same  line 
{Beitrage  zur  Parthenogenesis  der  Arthropoden) 
in  which  he  established  the  fact  of  parthenogene- 
sis in  two  wasps,  in  a  saw-fly,  in  several  moth», 
and  in  certain  phyllopod  crustaoea.  Besides 
many  papers  giving  the  results  of  special  investi- 
gations among  the  lower  animals,  he  was  the 
author  in  1848,  with  Stannius,  of  a  manual  of 
the  anatomy  of  animals,  in  which  he  established 
the  branch  of  animals  called  Arthropoda,  His 
last  general  work  was  a  volume  on  the  fresh- 
water fishes  of  Central  Europe,  in  which  he 
pointed  out  certain  of  the  hybrid  forms.  With 
K((lliker  he  founded  the  Zeits^irift  fur 


SIBBOLD. 


839 


fiXBOB. 


ichafiliehe  Zoologie,  still  the  leading  morphologi- 
cal and  anatomical  journal  of  Europe. 

SIEBOIiD,  Puiupp  Fbanz  von  (1796-1866). 
A  Bavarian  physician,  naturalist,  and  traveler, 
bom  at  WdrzDurg.  After  studying  medicine  and 
science  he  entered  the  service  of  the  Dutch  East 
India  Company  in  1822,  and  proceeded  to 
Batavia.  From  Java  he  went  in  1823  to 
Nagasaki,  as  the  leader  of  a  scientific  mission  to 
Japan.  He  quickly  mastered  the  Japanese 
language,  and  in  1826  reached  Yedo  with  the 
Dutch  Embassy,  remaining  in  that  city,  but  get- 
ting into  trouble  through  the  purchase  of  a  map, 
such  transfer  of  knowl^ge  to  an  alien  being  then 
forbidden.  He  was  imprisoned,  and  banished 
from  Japan  in  1830.  After  his  return  to  Europe 
he  spent  nearly  thirty  years  in  writing  his  great 
work,  entitled  Nippon,  Archiv  zur  Be8chreU)un'j 
von  Japan  (1832-51);  in  arranging  his  collec- 
tions at  the  museums  of  Leyden,  Munich,  and 
WOrzburg;  and  in  the  composition  of  works  on 
the  fauna,  flora,  and  bibliography  of  Japan.  In 
1859  he  revisited  Japan,  and  was  invited  to  Court 
by  the  Emperor,  and  in  1861  entered  the  Japanese 
service  as  a  negotiator  with  the  Powers,  but  diffi- 
culties arose  which  compelled  him  to  retire.  He 
returned  to  Europe  in  1862,  where  he  published 
various  papers  relating  to  Japan.  He  died  at 
Munich.  A  monument  of  him  has  been  erected 
in  Japan  by  the  Japanese.  Consult  Siebold, 
Jjeben  und  Wirken  von  P.  F,  von  Siehold 
(WOrxburg,  1896). 

SIEDIfCE,  syed^-tse.  A  government  in  the 
east  of  Russian  Poland,  between  the  Bug  on  the 
east  and  the  Vistula  on  the  west  (Map:  Rus- 
sia, B  4).  Area,  about  5540  square  miles.  It  is 
mostly  flat,  and  marshy  in  the  southeast.  Agri- 
culture is  the  principal  industry  and  is  carried 
on  by  modem  methods.  Stc9ck-raising  is  also 
important.  The  chief  manufactures  are  spirits, 
sugar,  and  gkiss.  Population,  in  1897,  797,725. 
8IEDLCE.  The  capital  of  the  (]rovemment  of 
Siedlce  in  Russian  Poland,  about  50  miles  east- 
southeast  of  Warsaw  (Map:  Russia,  B  4).  It  is 
little  more  than  an  administration  centre  of  the 
government,  and  its  economic  importance  is 
Rlight.  It  was  for  a  long  time  in  the  possession 
of  the  Czartoryskis.    Population,  in  1897,  17,300. 

8IEGBXTBG,  z6g^55rK.  A  town  of  the  Rhine 
Province,  Prussia,  at  the  meeting  of  the  Agger 
and  Sieg,  16  miles  by  rail  southeast  of  Cologne 
(Map:  Germany,  B  3).  The  Benedictine  abbey 
(1060)  is  now  used  as  a  prison.  Siegburg  is  a 
manufacturing  and  mining  town.  It  has  a  royal 
projectile  factory,  pottery  works,  lignite  mines, 
and  stone  quarries.  Population,  in  1900,  14,162. 
Siegburg  was  a  wealthy  and  prosperous  city  in 
the  Renaissance  period,  and  famous  for  the 
curious  and  artistic  'Siegburg  pitchers.' 

8IEOE  A17D  SIEGE  WORKS  (OF.  sege,  siege, 
Fr.  siege,  from  IM,  sedere,  to  sit ;  connected  with 
Ok.  €^w0iu,  hezesthai,  Skt.  sad,  OChurch  Slav. 
««8«,  Lith.  sedeti,  OHG.  sizzan,  Ger.  sitzen,  Goth. 
sitoHy  AS.  sit  tan,  Eng.  sit).  In  conducting  a 
siege,  the  enemy,  where  possible,  is  surround- 
ed and  cut  off  from  supplies  or  reinforce- 
ments, in  which  case  his  position  is  said  to 
^  invested.  The  attacking  army  in  doing  this 
usually  intrenches  itself  completely  around  and 
outside  the  works  of  the  defender.  With  plenty 
of  time  and  when  there  is  no  prospect  of  the 


arrival  of  relieving  forces,  an  effective  investment 
will  cause  the  defender  eventually  to  starve  or 
surrender.  In  many  cases,  as  in  the  siege  of 
Mafeking  and  Ladysmith,  the  prospective  ar- 
rival of  a  relieving  force  must  always  be  borne 
in  mind,  compelling  the  attacker  to  use  every 
means  at  his  command  to  force  the  issue. 
But  assuming  that  a  simple  investment  is  im- 
possible, that  assault  by  open  force  has  failed, 
or,  in  the  opinion  of  the  attacking  conunander, 
would  surely  fail,  bombardment  would  be  re- 
sorted to  and  a  continuous  fire  maintained. 
If  the  defenders  are  in  a  position  to  con- 
struct bomb-proofs  sufficient  to  enable  them  to 
hold  out  against  bombardment,  it  then  becomes 
necessary  to  resort  to  a  regular  siege.  The 
method  of  procedure  is  then  as  follows :  The  artil- 
lery having  taken  up  a  position  best  adapted  to 
enable  it  to  fire  upon  the  artillery  of  the  defense, 


FlO.  1.     BAFPIlfO. 


the  infantry  is  established  in  front  of  this  in 
intrenchments,  and  continuous  attempts  are  made 
to  hold  down  the  fire  of  the  defenders  and  to 
push  the  infantry  intrenchments  as  close  as  pos- 
sible to  the  work.  This  is  done  where  possible 
in  large  sections  of  intrenchments  parallel  to 
the  main  line  of  the  defender.  Probably  the 
method  best  adapted  to  modem  conditions  is  the 
construction  of  intrenchments  by  the  method 
known  as  flying  sap.  In  this  process,  as  soon  as 
darkness  falls  a  large  force  of  men  moves  into 
position,  carrying  gabions  or  boxes,  picks,  and 
shovels.  When  the  line  has  been  moved  as  far 
forward  as  is  deemed  advisable,  the  gabions  are 
placed  in  position,  and  the  men  start  to  dig  the 
earth  from  behind  them,  filling  first  the  gabions 
and  then  throwing  the  earth  in  front  of  them. 
When  this  is  not  practicable  the  advance  is  made 
by  pushing  trenches  forward  obliquely  by  end 
work.  These  'approaches'  are  so  inclined  that 
they  cannot  be  enfiladed  by  the  enemy.  This 
process  is  known  as  sapping.  A  position  having 
been    once   gained   is    fortified    as    strongly    as 


Fie.  a.    0A8SMATS  nr  tbinoe. 

necessary  to  enable  it  to  be  held.  By  these 
methods  the  attack  is  pushed  as  rapidly  as  pos- 
sible to  a  position  close  to  that  held  by  the  de- 
fenders. If  the  latter  are  provided  with  suffi- 
cient provisions  and  material  to  enable  them  to 
hold  out  without  surrender  on  account  of  starva- 


8IEOS. 


680 


8IEOB  oxnr. 


tion,  an  assaalt  is  delivered  by  the  attoddng 
force  on  one  of  the  weakest  points  of  the  wor£ 
The  assaulting  party  is  provided  with  explosives 
to  be  used  in  demolishing  the  palisades  and  simi- 
lar obstructions,  and  with  ladders,  planks,  wire- 
cutters,  and  other  implements  to  enable  it  to 
surmount  and  cope  with  the  obstacles  it  may 
find.  From  the  nature  of  the  case,  if  the  de- 
fender is  prevented  from  receiving  supplies,  and 
the   attacker   can   receive   such   reinforcements 


Fia^  a  CA8KMATB  IH  TRBKOH  (entrance  from  end). 

and  supplies  as  he  requires,  the  victory  should 
normally  be  with  the  attacker.  It  may,  how- 
ever, be  only  necessary  for  the  defender  to  hold 
out  until  a  relieving  force  more  formidable  than 
the  attackers  can  reach  the  place.  It  is  there- 
fore incumbent  upon  him  to  resort  to  other  means 
to  protract  the  defense.  Having  noted,  for  ex- 
ample, that  an  attack  will  probably  be  success- 
ful upon  certain  portions  of  his  line,  an  addi- 
tional line  would  be  constructed  in  rear  of  this 
portion,  and  so  fortified  that  it  can  be  held  even 
if  the  first  falls.  His  fire  is  so  directed  as  to 
delay  the  attacker's  trench  work.  His  force, 
while  not  large  enough  to  defeat  the  attacker  in 
open  combat,  may  be  large  enough  to  threaten 
him  so  frequently  as  greatly  to  diminish  his  en- 
durance.   Sorties  are  frequently  made  at  night, 


Fl«.  4.  RATTSBT  OH  «BOUin>  BLOPINO  FBOM  TBI  VOBTBB8S. 

(Orofle  aection.) 

surprising  the  operations  of  the  attacking  force, 
destroying  its  material,  its  work,  and  generally 
lowering  its  morale. 

The  construction  of  the  emplacements  for  the 
siege  batteries  is  a  work  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance. An  illustration  of  the  ingenuity  used  in 
adapting  them  to  the  accidents  of  the  ground  is 
afforded  by  the  accompanying  sections. 

Sieges  are  comparatively  few  in  a  war  as 
compared  with  the  number  of  battles  and  other 
engagements.    The  siege  of  Vicksburg  is  an  in- 


FlO.    0.     BATTBBT    Oil    OBOITKD   BLOPINO   TOWABD   TBB 

FOBTBB8S.  (Croes  Section.) 

stance  of  an  investment  carried  to  a  logical  con- 
clusion. The  Confederate  army  penned  up  in  the 
city  was  gradually  surrounded  and  cut  off  from 
its  source  of  supplies.  The  Union  army,  under 
General  Grant,  while  closing  in  oii  the  city,  con- 
structed a  line  of  intrenchments  strong  enough 
to  resist  any  possible  attack  by  other  Confed- 
erate troops  for  the  relief  of  the  city.  Although 
General  Grant  was  gradually  pressing  his  lines 
forward,  the  place  eventually  capitulated  as  the 


result  of  starvation.  During  the  Franoo-Fnu- 
sian  War  the  sieges  of  Strassburg,  Metz,  Paris, 
and  Belfort  were  carried  on  under  different  con- 


FlO.  a     B4TTBBT  OB  OBOUKD  BliOPlHO  TO  BmOl  BDa 

(Longitudinal  section.) 

ditions  and  with  different  results.  In  the  Russo- 
TurkishWar  (q.v.)  Plevna  is  notable.  GeCkTepe 
is  an  instance  where  the  lanze  but  poorly  disci- 
plined and  poorly  equipped  Turcoman  army  waa 
besieged  and  overcome  by  the  smaller  but  aggres- 
sive and  well-handled  Russian  army  under  Skobe- 
leff.  Allusion  has  already  been  made  to  Mafe- 
king  and  Ladysmith  in  the  South  African  War. 
The  siege  of  Fort  Wagner,  one  of  the  defenses 
of  Charleston,  S.  C,  by  the  Union  troops  was 
unique  in  certain  respects.  Assaults  having  been 
made  and  having  failed,  recourse  was  had  to  ad- 
vances by  parallels  and  approaches.  The  time  ar- 
rived when  it  seemed  impossible  to  make  further 
headway  by  this  method.  Mining  could  not  be 
resorted  to,  since  the  bottoms  of  the  trench» 
were  already  near  the  level  of  the  ground-water. 
The  proximity  of  the  forts  to  deep  water  en- 
abled the  Union  gunboats  to  add  their  fire  to 
that  of  the  besieging  batteries  and  so  keep  down 
the  fire  of  the  fort  that  the  besiegers  were  able 
to  advance  their  trenches  with  great  rapidity. 
In  this  way  the  works  were  carried  right  up  to 
the  fort.  The  night  before  the  Union  troops 
were  to  make  the  second  assault  tiie  Confederates 
abandoned  the  fort,  leaving  the  place  by  water. 
The  conduct  of  the  siege  received  the  following 
high  encomium  from  Major  Clarke  of  the  Englisti 
Royal  Engineers  in  his  work  on  fortifications: 
"The  difficulties  of  the  siege,  which  were  consid- 
erable, were  overcome  with  a  skill  and  readi- 
ness of  resource  which  the  most  highly  trained 
force  in  Europe  could  not  have  excelled." 

Consult:  Mercur,  Attack  of  Fortified  Placet 
(New  York,  1894) ;  Chatham  Manual  of  Military 
Engineering,  part  2,  Attack  of  Fortreesea  (Lon- 
don, 1896).  See  sJso  articles  on  Siege  Gun; 
HowiTZEB;  TAoncs,  MnjTABX;  and  Fobtifica- 

TION. 

8IEGB  QiUJSf.  A  piece  of  artillery  used  for 
reducing  permanent  or  semi-permanent  works. 
Siege  guns  may  be  light  or  heavy,  but  are  more 
powerful  weapons,  though  traveling  more  slowly 
than  the  field  guns.  Thev  accompany  armies  in 
their  field  operations,  bemg  mounted  upon  car- 
riages, which  serve  for  the  transportation  as 
well  as  a  support  for  the  pieces  while  they  are 
being  fired. 

The  modern  siege  cannon  adopted  for  the  mili- 
tary service  df  the  United  States  are  the  6-incb 
rifle,  the  7-inch  howitzer,  and  the  7-inch  mortar, 
all  breech-loading.  The  5-inch  siege  fifie  weighs 
3660  pounds,  is  12.15  feet  long,  fires  a  45-poand 
projectile  with  12^  pounds  of  powder,  and  gives 
a  penetration  in  steel  of  2%  incnes  at  3500  yards. 
The  7-inch  breech-loading  rifled  siege  howitxer 
weighs  3750  }>ounds,  and  fires  a  proJMtile  of  105 
pounds  with  10  pounds  of  powder,  giving  a  pene- 
tration in  steel  at  3500  yards  of  2.4  inches.  The 
7 -inch  rifled  siege  mortar  weighs  1715  pounds, 
and  fires  a  125-pound  projectile  with  5.6  pounds 
of  powder.    See  Osdkangb  and  ABnmsBr* 


SIEQEir. 


881 


8IEUBir& 


8IEOEK.  ze^gen.  A  town  in  the  Provinoe  of 
Westphalia,  Prussia,  on  the  8ieg,  47  miles  east 
by  south  of  Cologne  (Map:  Prussia,  C  3).  It 
has  two  castles  of  the  Princes  of  Nassau-Siegen. 
Siegen  is  an  important  iron  centre,  the  vicinity 
abounding  in  iron,  copper,  lead,  and  zinc  mines. 
In  and  about  the  town  are  numerous  puddling 
and  rolling  mills,  machine  works,  and  paper, 
cloth,  and  leather  manufactories.  Siegen,  former* 
ly  a  possession  of  the  Dutch  branch  of  the  House 
of  Nassau^  passed  to  Prussia  in  1816.  Popula- 
tion (commune),  in  1890, 18,242;  in  1900,  22,111. 

SIEGEK,  LUDWIG  VON  (e.l609-c.80).  A  Ger- 
man engraver,  bom  in  Utrecht.  In  1642  he  pro- 
duced his  first  known  mezzo-tint  engraving,  a 
portrait  of  the  Landgravine  Amalia  Elisabeth, 
Regent  of  Hesse,  inscribed  to  her  son,  the  artist's 
patron.  Siegen  did  not  fully  realize  the  possi- 
bilities of  his  discovery.  He  kept  the  process 
secret,  however,  divulging  it  only  to  Prince 
Rupert  of  the  Palatinate,  through  whom  it  be- 
came known  in  England.  The  engraver  passed 
into  the  service  of  the  Elector  of  Mainz  in  1664, 
and  died  at  Wolfenbttttel. 

SIEGE  FEBIIiOUS.  One  of  the  three  seats 
left  unoccupied  at  the  Arthurian  Roimd  Table, 
so  called  because  it  was  reserved  for  him  who 
was  to  find  the  Holy  Grail,  and  any  other  bold 
enough  to  sit  in  it  forfeited  his  life.    See  Qala.- 

HAD. 

SLEGTBIED,  zi&g^Mi,  A  music  drama  in 
three  acts  by  Richard  Wagner.  It  is  the  third  in 
the  tetralogy  of  the  Ring  des  Nihelungen  and 
was  first  produced  at  Bayreuth,  August  16,  1876. 
The  first  American  production  was  at  the  Met- 
ropolitan Opera  House,  New  York,  November 
9,  1887.    See  Ring  op  the  Nibelungen. 

8IEG7BIED,  Kabl  (1830-1903).  A  German 
Protestant  theologian,  bom  at  Magdeburg.  He 
was  called  to  the  University  of  Jena  in  1875 
as  professor  of  Old  Testament  literature.  In 
1885  he  was  appointed  to  the  Lutheran  Con- 
sistory, and  in  1892  was  made  privy  councilor  of 
that  body  {Oeheimer  Kirchenrai),  The  follow- 
ing publications  bear  his  name:  Spinoza  al8  Kri- 
iiker  und  Ausleger  des  Alien  Testaments  ( 1867) ; 
Eusehii  Canonum  Epitome  (with  H.  Gelzer, 
1884 ) ;  Lehrbuch  der  neuhebraischen  Bprache  und 
Litteratur  (with  Strack,  1884) ;  and  Hehr&isches 
Worterhuch  teum  Alten  Testament  (with  Stade, 
1893). 

SIEGLINDy  zSg^Int.  In  the  Nibelungen 
legend,  the  wife  of  Siegmund  and  mother  of 
Siegfried. 

SIEMENS,  z^mens,  Ernst  Werneb  von 
(1816-92).  A  German  electrical  engineer.  He 
was  bom  at  Lenthe,  near  Hanover,  and  was  edu- 
cated in  the  Gvmnasium  of  Lttbeck  and  in  the 
school  of  artillery  and  engineering  at  Berlin, 
becoming  an  artillery  oflicer  in  1838.  He  studied 
chemistry  and  electro-magnetism,  and  invented 
a  process  for  electro-plating  in  1841.  In  1848  he 
became  commandant  of  the  artillery  arsenal  in 
Berlin.  He  was  the  first  to  explode  a  submarine 
mine  by  electricity  (1848).  Devoting  himself  to 
electrical  engineering,  he  was  engaged  after  1849 
in  the  establishment  of  telegraph  lines,  particu- 
larly through  Russia,  Brazil,  Spain,  and  North- 
em  Germany.  In  1856  he  devised  the  improved 
shuttle  armature  which  increased  the  efficiency 
of  the  magneto-machine,   and   in   1876  demon- 


strated that  its  electro-magnets  could  be  used 
without  separate  exciters,  the  current  being  passed 
through  t^e  field  coils.  He  proposed  as  the  unit 
of  resistance  a  colimin  of  mercury  one  meter 
long  and  one  square  millimeter  in  cross-section 
at  0""  Centigrade.  This  was  known  as  the  Sie- 
mens unit.  Siemens  was  also  active  in  promot- 
ing electric  traction  in  Germany,  and  the  first 
electric  railway  was  erected  at  the  Berlin  Indus- 
trial Exhibition  of  1879  by  Siemens  &  Halske. 
His  researches  in  electricity  resulted  in  discov- 
eries and  improvements  of  great  value,  one  of 
which  was  the  determining  of  the  locations  of 
injuries  in  submerged  cables,  and  also  of  charging 
them  in  order  to  reduce  the  disturbing  influence 
of  induced  currents.  In  1884,  by  the  gift  of  about 
$125,000,  he  made  possible  the  foundation  of  the 
Imperial  Physico-Technical  Institute  (Reichs- 
anstalt),  which  has  been  an  important  factor  in 
German  scientific  research  and  manufacturing. 
(See  Labobatobt.)  He  wrote  numerous  scien- 
tific works  and  also  a  volume  of  Personal  Remi- 
niscences which  has  been  translated  into  English. 

SIEMENS,  Sir  William  (Karl  Wilhelm) 
(1823-83).  An  English  engineer  and  metallur- 
gist. He  was  bom  at  Lenthe,  Hanover,  and  was 
a  brother  of  Werner  Siemens  (see  above),  with 
whom  he  was  associated  in  many  scientific  inves- 
tigations and  commercial  enterprises.  He  was 
educated  at  Magdeburg  and  GSttingen  and  then 
entered  a  manufacturing  establishment  in  the 
former  town.  He  visit^  England  in  1843  to 
introduce  his  brother's  process  of  electro-plating, 
and  again  in  1844,  when  he  endeavored  to  dis- 
pose of  the  English  rights  of  a  chronometric 
governor  for  steam  engines  and  the  anastatic 
process  of  printing,  ^ttling  in  England,  but 
maintaining  close  connection  with  his  brother,  he 
devoted  himself  to  perfecting  a  regenerative 
steam  engine,  but  was  not  altogether  successful, 
and  tum^  his  attention  to  a  water  meter,  which 
soon  came  into  extensive  use.  His  next  and  most 
important  invention  was  the  regenerative  furnace, 
which  he  applied  to  iron  and  steel  working,  and 
to  which  from  time  to  time  he  made  important 
improvements.  (See  Ibon  and  Steel.)  He  was 
interested  with  his  brother  in  various  electrical 
enterprises  and  conducted  the  British  branch  of 
the  business,  which  in  1874  laid  the  direct  At- 
lantic cable  from  the  ship  Faraday^  a  vessel 
specially  designed  by  him  for  that  purpose. 
Sir  William  played  an  important  part  in  the 
application  of  electricity  to  lighting  and  traction 
in  England.  Besides  his  many  useful  inventions, 
among  which  were  a  pyrometer  and  the  batho- 
meter (q.v.),  apparatus  for  producing  low  tem- 
peratures (see  Refrigebation),  he  also  carried 
on  important  investigations  in  pure  science.  In 
1859  he  became  a  British  subject,  and  in  1883 
he  was  knighted.  He  received  many  honors,  in- 
cluding the  Bessemer  medal  of  the  Iron  and  Steel 
Institute  of  Great  Britain,  the  French  Legion 
of  Honor,  and  honorary  degrees  from  the  uni- 
versities of  Oxford,  Dublin,  and  Glasgow.  He 
was  president  of  the  Society  of  Telegraph  En- 
gineers, the  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers, 
the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute,  and  the  British 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  in 
addition  to  being  a  member  of  many  other  Brit- 
ish and  foreign  societies.  A  laboratory  of  elec- 
trical engineering  was  constructed  by  his  widow 
at  King's  College,  London,  as  a  memoriaL    His 


BIZXEHS. 


882       BIESS8B  80H00I.  OF  PAIHmrO. 


collected  works  were  published  in  1889.  Con- 
sult Pole,  Life  of  William  Siemena  (London, 
1889). 

SIEMEBING,  zS^me-rlng,  Rudolf  (1835~). 
A  German  sculptor,  born  at  K5nigsberg.  Having 
frequented  the  academy  there,  he  studied  after- 
wards under  Blflser  in  Berlin,  where  his  first 
important  work  was  the  marble  statue  of  King 
William,  for  the  Exchange,  and  where,  in  1882, 
he  completed  the  handsome  monument  to  Dr. 
Gr&fe,  the  famous  oculist.  This  was  preceded 
by  the  monument  of  Frederick  the  Great 
( 1877 )  at  Marienburg  and  followed  by  the  statue 
of  Luther  (1883)  at  Eisleben  and  the  *'War 
Monument*'  (1888)  on  the  Market  Square  at 
Leipzig,  his  principal  work.  Besides  the  "Wash- 
ington Memorial"  at  Fairmount  Park,  Phila- 
delphia (1883,  unveiled  1897),  there  are  to  be 
noticed  the  equestrian  statue  of  William  I. 
(1897)  at  Magdeburg,  and  in  Berlin  the  heroic 
statue  of  William  I.  (1892)  in  the  Hall  of  the 
Rulers,  at  the  Arsenal,  the  group  in  bronze  of 
"Saint  Gertrude"  (1896)  on  the  Gertraudt 
Bridge,  and  the  marble  group  of  "Frederick 
William  I."  (1900)  in  the  Sieges-All6e. 

8IE1CIBADZKI,  sy^'m^rAdz^d,  Henbtk 
(1843-1902).  A  Polish  historical  painter,  bom 
near  Kharkov,  Little  Russia.  After  frequenting 
the  Academy  of  Saint  Petersburg  he  traveled  in 
Germany,  France,  and  Italy,  and  spent  some  time 
in  Mimich.  In  1872  he  settled  in  Rome,  whence 
he  sent  home  his  "Christ  and  the  Adulteress*' 
(1873,  Alexander  Museum,  Saint  Petersburg). 
The  subjects  of  most  of  his  brilliantly  colored 
pictures  are  scenes  from  the  life  of  ancient  Greece 
and  Rome,  witness  his  first  large  composition, 
"The  Living  Torches  of  Nero"  (1876,  National 
Museum,  Cracow),  which  was  exhibited  all  over 
Europe  and  brought  him  the  decoration  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor  in  1878.  He  also  painted  "Orgy 
in  the  Time  of  Tiberius,"  "Vase  or  Woman  f 
(1878,  Kestner  Museum,  Hanover),  "Sword 
Dance"  (1880),  "Phryneat  Eleusis"  (1889,  Alex- 
ander Museum,  Saint  Petersburg),  also  themes 
from  the  New  Testament,  to  wit,  "Christ  with 
Mary  and  Martha"  (1886,  ib.),  "The  Last  Sup- 
per*'^ (Church  of  the  Saviour,  Moscow),  and 
"Christ  Pouring  Oil  on  the  Troubled  Waters" 
(Evangelical  Church,  Cracow). 

SIENA,  s^-ft'nA.  The  capital  of  the  Province 
of  Siena,  in  Tuscany,  Italy,  picturesquely  situated 
on  the  crests  of  three  hills,  over  1000  feet  above 
the  sea,  near  the  Elsa,  60  miles  by  rail  south  of 
Florence  and  only  30  miles  in  a  straight  line 
(Map:  Italy,  F  4).  It  is  a  delightful  mediseval 
city.  The  climate  is  salubrious,  the  weather, 
owing  to  the  elevation,  not  being  hot  in  summer. 
The  town  is  irregularly  built,  with  crooked,  steep 
and  narrow  streets,  and  retains  its  ancient  walls. 
The  centre  of  life  in  Siena  is  the  fine  Piazza  del 
Campo,  bordered  by  rich  palaces.  Of  these 
structures  Palazzo  Pubblico  and  the  Palazzo  del 
Govemo  are  the  most  striking.  The  former  is 
of  brick,  was  begun  in  1289,  and  combines  Gothic 
with  Renaissance  features.  The  interior  is  cov- 
ered with  mural  decorations.  The  Palazzo  del 
Govemo,  dating  from  1469,  has  an  interesting 
facade  and  holds  the  important  archives  of 
Siena.  The  fine  brick  Ck)thic  Buonsignori  Palace 
is  also  worthy  of  mention. 

Siena  is  famous  for  its  cathedral.    This  edifice, 


which  is  situated  on  the  crowning  point  of  the 
city,  dates  from  the  thirteenth  century.  It  has 
a  dome,  a  campanile,  and  is  irregular  in  shape. 
Its  facade,  begun  in  1284  and  planned  by  Gio- 
vanni Pisano,  is  a  far-famed  rival  of  that  of  the 
Orvieto  Cathedral,  and  is  composed  of  black, 
white,  and  red  marble,  varied  with  profuse  deco- 
rations. The  interior  is  also  remaxkable,  its 
pavement  ornamented  with  graffito  scenes  from 
biblical  history  being  of  exceptional  interest 
There  are  also  in  the  cathedral  a  noteworthy 
portal,  Donatello's  bronze  statue  of  John  the  Bap- 
tist, and  a  rare  pulpit  by  Niccola  Pisano  and 
others.  The  splendid  structure  containing  tbe 
cathedral  library  was  built  in  1495  and  was 
decorated  by  Pinturicchio.  The  Church  of  San 
Giovanni  is  noteworthy.  It  was  begun  in  the 
early  fourteenth  century  and  has  an  uncom- 
pleted facade.  The  Oratorio  di  San  Bernardino 
is  important  for  its  pictures  bv  Sodoma.  In  San 
Domenico  is  the  Chapel  of  Saint  Catharine  of 
Siena,  where  the  head  of  the  saint  is  supposed 
to  lie  in  a  reliquary.  In  the  Fontegiusta  Church 
is  a  splendid  high  altar. 

Siena  is  a  lively  trading  and  manufacturing 
town,  weaving  being  the  conspicuous  industry. 
Cloth,  silk,  velvet,  and  furniture  are  exported. 
The  university  was  famous  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
but  now  has  only  two  faculties — one  of  law,  and 
one  of  medicine  and  surgery.  The  Beale  Gollegio 
Tolomei  (lyceum)  deserves  to  be  mentioned.  The 
institute  of  fine  arts  is  notable  for  its  early 
Sienese  specimens.  The  Opera  del  Duomo  also 
possesses  an  art  collection.  The  school  of  arts 
and  trades  was  founded  in  1876.  The  public 
library,  dating  from  1663,  contains  75,000  vol- 
umes and  500  manuscripts.  The  population  in 
1901  was  28^365. 

HiSTOBT.  Siena  (Lat.  Sena  Julia  and  Colonia 
8eniensi8)  was  made  a  Roman  colony  in  the  time 
of  Augustus.  The  city  rose  to  great  importance 
in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  people  wrested  the 
governing  power  from  the  nobles  in  the  twelfth 
century.  The  city  became  a  Ghibelline  strong- 
hold, and  in  1260  its  citizens  defeated  the 
Guelphs  of  Florence  at  Monte  Aperto.  A  few 
years  later,  however,  it  was  forced  by  Charles 
of  Anjou  to  join  the  league  of  the  Guelph  cities 
of  Tuscany.  It  was  at  the  height  of  its  pros- 
perity at  the  time  of  the  Renaissance.  In  1557 
it  was  annexed  to  the  Florentine  dominions. 
In  the  history  of  art  from  1200  to  1500  Siena 
stands  in  the  front  rank  among  Italian  cities. 
Consult:  Andreucci,  Siena  e  la  sua  pravincia 
(Siena,  1886);  Richter,  Siena  (Leipzig,  1901); 
Douglas,  History  of  Siena  (London,  1902). 

SIElVAy  Council  of.  A  council  originally 
siunmoned  to  meet  at  Pavia  by  Pope  Martin  V., 
in  pursuance  of  the  undertaking  entered  into  by 
him  at  the  Council  of  Constance,  but  transferred 
two  months  later  on  sanitary  grounds  to  Siena, 
where  it  sat  from  July  21,  1423,  to  March  7, 
1424.  Owing  to  the  uncertainty  of  the  times 
so  soon  after  the  close  of  the  great  schism,  it  was 
unable  to  effect  much.  It  condemned  the  Wic- 
lifite  and  Hussite  doctrines,  and  took  measures 
for  a  general  suppression  of  heresy.  Before  its  ad- 
journment Basel  was  chosen  as  the  place  of  as- 
sembly for  the  next  general  council.  See  Basel, 
Council  of. 

SIENESE  SCHOOL  OF  FAXHTINa.  The 
principal  Italian  school  of  painting,  next  to  the 


SIEHESB  SCHOOL  OF  FAINTING. 


888 


SIBBBA  LEONB. 


Florentine,  in  the  later  thirteenth  and  four- 
teenth centuries ;  during  the  fifteenth  it  declined. 
As  oompared  with  the  Florentine  school  (q.v.)  it 
was  more  detailed  in  finish,  brighter  in  color,  and 
more  refined  in  sentiment,  but  inferior  in  line 
and  dramatic  action,  and  less  naturalistic.  It 
appealed  to  sentiment  rather  than  understand- 
ing; its  subjects  were  the  ideals  and  feelings  of 
the  Middle  Age,  and  ii.  retained  more  of  the  By- 
zantine elements  than  did  the  Florentine.  Its 
founder  was  Duccio  (active  1282-1339),  whose 
pupil  Simone  Martini  ranked  with  Giotto 
in  the  estimation  of  contempoi^^ries.  Among  his 
followers  the  influence  ol  the  school  of  Giotto 
makes  itself  felt,  but  while  gaining  in  re- 
ligious earnestness,  they  retained  the  essentially 
Sienese  qualities.  This  combination  appears  in 
the  brothers  Pietro  and  Ambrogio  Lorenzetti,  the 
principal  followers  of  Simone.  Others,  like  the 
Bartoli  brothers  and  Sano  di  Pietro,  carried  the 
antiquated  style  far  into  the  fifteenth  century. 
The  true  successor  of  the  Sienese  was  the  Um- 
brian  school  (q.v.),  which  expressed  the  same 
sentiment  in  the  forms  of  the  Renaissance. 

During  the  sixteenth  century  a  new  school 
arose  in  Siena,  by  Sodoma  (q.v.)  (1477-1599),  a 
pupil  of  Leonardo.  Its  art,  however,  was  a 
transplanting  of  the  Lombard  manner  rather 
than  anything  specifically  Sienese.  The  chief 
representatives  of  the  school  are  Girolamo  della 
Pacchia,  the  architect  Perruzzi,  and  Domenico 
Beecafumi.  Consult:  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle, 
History  of  Painting  in  Italy  (London,  1866)  ; 
Berenson,  Central  Italian  Painters  of  the  Renais- 
sance (New  York,  1897) ;  and  the  general  histo- 
ries referred  to  under  Painting. 

SIENKIEWICZ^  syCn-kyg'v^h,*  Henbtk 
(1846—).  A  famous  Polish  novelist,  bom  in 
Wola  Okrzeiska,  Government  of  Siedlce.  On 
graduating  from  the  Realgymnasium  at  War- 
saw he  studied  philosophy  at  the  university 
of  that  ^ity  and  made  his  literary  d^but 
in  1872  with  a  humorous  story.  Nobody  is  a 
Prophet  in  His  Own  Country.  In  1876  he  visited 
California  and  described  his  experiences  in  a 
series  of  letters  to  the  Polish  Gazette  (of  War- 
saw) under  the  pseudonym  "Litwos."  They  at- 
tracted much  attention  by  their  keen  observation, 
quaint  hiunor,  and  generally  attractive  style. 
His  drama,  On  a  Card,  dealing  with  the  party 
struggles  in  Galicia  (1879),  as  well  as  his 
stories.  From  the  Note-Book  of  a  Posen  Teacher, 
Hanja,  and  Ya/nko  the  Musician,  increased  his 
popularity.  In  1880  he  produced  the  novel  The 
Tatar  Bondage.  Its  success  induced  him  to  con- 
tinue work  in  the  same  line,  and  the  great  novel 
With  Fire  and  Sxoord  (1884),  with  its  sequels. 
The  Deluge  (1886)  and  Pan  Michael  (1887-88), 
followed.  Beyond  any  doubt  they  are  the  great- 
est novels  dealing  with  the  struggle  of  the  Poles 
and  Cossacks,  ^e  characters  are  often  untrue 
to  history,  but  the  Dumas-like  power  of  evoking 
an  historical  personage  and  surrounding  it  with 
a  halo  of  romanticism  places  Sienkiewicz's  works 
among  the  most  enjoyable  of  historical  novels. 
His  Without  Dogma  (1890)  is  a  study  in 
pathological  psychology.  The  Children  of  the 
Soil  (1894)  is  a  novel  of  contemporarv  Po- 
lish manners.  Quo  FcwZia  (1895)  brought  its 
author  greater  fame  than  all  his  previous  efforts. 
He  sagaciously  saw  and  fully  exploited  the 
dramatic  possibilities  of  the  remarkable  epoch  of 


Nero's  reign  for  an  historical  novel.  Its  success 
as  a  novel  was  enormous,  and  it  has  several  times 
been  dramatized.  His  Knights  of  the  Cross  takes 
the  reader  back  to  the  time  of  the  struggles  be- 
tween the  Poles  and  the  Teutonic  Order.  Sienkie- 
wicz  was  editor-in-chief  of  the  periodical  Blowo 
{The  Word)  for  many  years.  His  works  have 
been  translated  into  several  European  languages. 
There  are  at  least  three  different  translations 
in  English,  the  one  by  Jeremiah  Curtin  being 
sanctioned  by  the  author. 

SIEBO,  s£-&^r6.  A  town  of  Northern  Spain, 
in  the  Province  of  Oviedo,  situated  10  miles  east 
of  Oviedo.  There  are  coal  mines  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, and  the  town  has  considerable  manufac- 
tures of  leather,  as  well  as  soap  and  cloth.  Pop- 
ulation, in  1887,  22,218;  in  1900,  22,667. 

SIEBBA  LEONE,  aMr^rk  U-l/n^.  A  colonial 
possession  of  Great  Britain  on  the  west  coast  of 
Africa.  The  colony  proper  comprises  a  narrow 
strip  along  the  coast  from  the  Great  Scarcies 
River  (the  boundary  line  of  French  Guinea)  to 
the  Mano  River  (the  boundary  line  of  Liberia), 
including  also  the  islands  of  Sherbro,  Banana, 
Turtle,  the  Los  group  farther  north,  and  a  num- 
ber of  other  islets,  having  an  estimated  area  of 
about  4000  square  miles  (Map:  Africa,  C  4). 
The  protectorate  extends  inland  for  about  180 
miles.  Total  area,  about  30,000  square  miles.  The 
coast  is  low  and  marshy  and  lined  with  sand 
banks  and  lagoons.  The  peninsula  is  traversed 
by  a  range  of  hills  reaching  in  the  Sugar  Loaf 
an  altitude  of  about  3000  feet.  The  interior  is 
usually  described  as  hilly  and  rising  toward  the 
north.  The  region  is  well  watered  by  the  Great 
and  the  Little  Scarcies,  the  Rokelle,  the  Jongor 
Bampanna,  and  the  Great  Bum,  all  fiowing  into 
the  Atlantic,  and  some  of  them  navigable  in  the 
lower  course.  Sierra  Leone  has  long  been  known 
as  the  'white  man's  grave'  on  account  of  its  dead- 
ly climate.  This  characterization,  however,  is  true 
only  of  the  low  coast  region,  the  climate  of  the 
interior  being  less  unheal thful.  The  dry  season 
in  the  coast  region  lasts  from  the  beginning  of 
January  to  the  end  of  March,  and  the  real  wet 
season  sets  in  at  the  end  of  May  and  continues 
to  the  end  of  October.  The  dry  season  is  char- 
acterized by  a  persistent  dry  northeast  wind. 
The  rainfall  is  very  heavy,  ranging  at  Freetown 
on  the  coast  from  about  140  to  over  200  inches 
per  annum.  The  mean  annual  temperature  at 
Freetown  is  about  80**  F.  The  principal  products 
are  kola  nuts,  palm  kernels  and  oil,  and  gum 
copal.  The  output  of  groundnuts  and  hides  is 
gradually  declining.  The  imports  of  the  colony 
are  constantly  increasing,  while  the  exports  show 
a  slight  falling  off.  The  total  trade  in  1901 
amounted  to  over  $4,150,000,  of  which  the  im- 
ports represented  about  $2,700,000.  There  are  a 
number  of  good  roads  in  the  coast  region  and 
over  70  miles  of  railway  lines  leading  from 
Freetown  into  the  interior.  The  Colonial  Gov- 
ernor is  assisted  by  nominated  executive  and  leg- 
islative councils.  The  capital  is  Freetown.  The 
protectorate  is  divided  into  five  districts,  each  in 
charge  of  a  European  commissioner.  There  are 
about  80  primary  schools,  with  an  enrollment  of 
about  8000,  maintained  by  various  niissionary  or- 
ganizations, and  also  a  number  of  Mohammedan 
schools  maintained  by  the  (government.  The  reve- 
nue and  expenditure  of  the  colony  amounted  in 
1901  to  $910,242  and  $844,735  respectively.    The 


•IBBAALEOinB. 


884 


STBTITIA  VBVADA. 


debt  had  reached  by  1902  the  sum  of  $2,228,828. 
The  population  of  the  colony  proper,  in  1901,  was 
78,655,  of  whom  444  were  white,  and  33,618  lib- 
erated Africans  and  their  descendants.  The 
Christians  numbered  43,045,  the  pagans  24,099, 
the  Mohammedans  9504.  The  population  of  the 
protectorate  is  estimated  at  1,000,000. 

The  coast  of  Sierra  Leone  was  discovered  by 
the  Portuguese  in  the  fifteenth  century  and  set- 
tled by  the  English  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
but  soon  abandoned.  In  1787  a  colonv  of  fugi- 
tive slaves  was  soit  there  by  English  philanthro- 
pists, who  had  purchased  some  territory  from 
the  natives.  The  first  attempt  having  proved 
unsuccessful,  a  second  settlement  was  established 
in  1791,  and  in  1792  the  colony  was  augmented 
by  1200  fugitive  slaves  from  Canada  and  the 
Bahamas.  In  1807  the  company  transferred  its 
territory  to  the  Crown  and  in  1896  a  British 
ptotectorate  was  declared  over  the  hinterland. 

Consult:  Jackson,  The  Settlement  of  Sierra 
Leone  (London,  1884)  ;  Banbury,  Sierra  Leone 
(ib.,  1888) ;  Ingham,  Sierra  Leone  After  a  Hun- 
dred Years  (ib.,  1894) ;  Pierson,  Seven  Years  in 
Sierra  Leone  (ib.,  1897) ;  Crooks,  A  Short  His- 
iory  of  Sierra  Leone  (Dublin,  1901). 

8IEBBA  lEADBEy  m&MHL.  A  name  borne  in 
eommon  by  the  two  chief  mountain  ranges  of 
Mexico,  which  are  nearly  parallel  to  either  coast 
and  inclose  the  great  central  plateau  of  Anahuac 
(q.v.).  The  western  range  is  often  distinguished 
as  the  Sierra  Madre  Occidental  or  Sierra  Madre 
del  Facffico,  while  the  eastern  range  is  called  the 
Sierra  Madre  Oriental.  They  are  widely  sepa- 
rated in  the  north,  but  gradually  converge  to- 
ward the  south.  A  little  to  the  south  of  Mexico 
City  the  intervening  plateau  is  bridged  over  by 
the  range  of  lofty  volcanoes  known  as  the  Cordil- 
lera de  Anahuac,  and  farther  south  the  two 
ranges  merge  in  the  mountains  of  Oaxaca.  The 
western  or  Pacific  range  is  more  continuous  than 
the  eastern,  and  also  considerably  higher  and 
more  rugged  in  its  scenery.  Its  average  height  is 
over  8000  feet,  with  some  peaks  rising  above  10,- 
000  feet,  and  its  sides  are  cut  by  deep  and  nar- 
row cafions  with  numerous  precipitous  crags.  The 
lower  slopes  are  covered  with  grass;  higher  up 
are  forests  of  oak,  while  pine  forests  cover  the 
high  ridges.  Both  ranges  consist  of  Archaean 
crystalline  rocks,  largely  granite,  with  intrusions 
of  basaltic  and  other  volcanic  rocks.  The  sys- 
tem does  not  seem  to  be  connected  with  the 
South  American  Andes,  and  its  structural  con- 
nection with  the  Rockv  Mountains  of  the  north 
has  not  been  clearly  shown. 

8IEBBA  MADBE.  A  mountain  range  ex- 
tending along  the  eastern  coast  of  Luzon  (q.v.). 

SIEBBA  MOBENA^  m6-r&'n4.  A  mountain 
range  of  Spain  running  along  the  southern  edge 
of  the  great  central  plateau,  and  forming  the 
boundary  between  the  provinces  of  Ciudad  Real 
on  the  north  and  Jato  and  Cordova  on  the 
south  (Map:  Spain,  D  3).  It  rises  but  slightly 
above  the  plateau,  its  average  elevation  being 
about  3500  feet,  but  on  the  south  it  falls  in  a 
steep  and  imposing  escarpment  toward  the  low 
valley  of  the  Guadalquivir.  The  railroad  from 
Madrid  to  Cordova  crosses  it  through  several  tun- 
nels in  the  romantic  pajss  called  the  Puerto  de 
Dtspefiaperroe. 

SIEBBA  NEVADA,  lA-rlSfxA  (Snowy 
Range).    A  mountain  range  of  Southern  Spain, 


extending  from  the  centre  of  the  Pnivinoe  of 
Granada  about  60  miles  eastward  into  the  Prov- 
ince of  Almerfa,  its  crest  being  about  28  mileB 
from  the  Mediterranean  coast  (Map:  Spain,  D  4). 
It  forms  a  part  of  the  moimtain  system  sepa- 
rating the  valley  of  the  Guadalquivir  from  the 
southern  coast,  and  is  the  highest  elevation 
of  the  Iberian  Peninsula.  Its  greatest  height 
is  near  the  western  end,  where  the  peak  of 
Mulahac^  has  an  altitude  of  11,420  feet,  and 
that  of  Veleta  11,385  feet.  Eastward  it  meiges 
gradually  into  a  lower  plateau  region.  It  sends 
out  numerous  spurs  indosing  deep  valleys,  and 
on  the  north  falls  in  wild  and  rocky  precipice 
toward  the  Jenil  River,  on  whose  banks  lies  the 
cily  of  Granada.  The  range  consists  mainly  of 
mica  slate,  and  though  the  low  valleys  are  cov- 
ered with  a  rich  vegetation,  the  bulk  of  the  moun- 
tain consists  of  naked  rocks.  It  is  covered  with 
snow  a  great  part  of  the  year,  and  on  the  Veleta 
there  are  permanent  glaciers,  the  southernmost 
of  Europe. 

SIEBBA  17EVADA,  n^v&^d&.  A  mountain 
range  in  eastern  California,  forming  the  divide  be- 
tween the  Great  American  Basin  and  the  valley  of 
the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  rivers  (Map: 
California,  D  3).  It  is  a  tilt^  plateau  80  miles 
wide  and  extending  in  a  north-northwest  direction, 
400  or  500  miles  according  as  the  range  is  consid- 
ered to  end  at  Lassen  Peak  or  at  the  northeni 
State  boundary.  In  the  south  it  turns  westward 
and  merges  with  the  Coast  Range,  and  in  the  north 
it  is  continued  into  Oregon  as  the  Cascade  Moun- 
tains. It  consists  of  a  granitic  core  exposed  in 
the  higher  portions,  flanked  by  metamorphie 
slates,  and  .in  the  lower  western  slopes  by  later 
marine  deposits  ranging  from  Carboniferous  to 
Cretaceous.  North  of  Lassen  Peak,  in  the  north- 
em  part  of  the  State,  these  formations  disappear 
under  the  great  Oregon  lava  flow,  so  that  nere 
the  Cascade  Mountains  may  be  said  to  begin,  al- 
though the  name  Sierra  Nevada  is  often  extended 
up  to  the  State  boundary  so  as  to  include  Mount 
Snasta.  The  average  elevation  of  the  crest  is 
10,000  feet  in  the  southern  half  and  somewhat 
less  in  the  north.  The  range  falls  abruptly  on 
the  east  to  the  valley  floor  of  the  Great  Basin, 
5000  feet  below,  while  on  the  west  it  has  a  wider 
and  more  gradual  slope.  The  Sierra  Nevada, 
whose  greatest  elevation  but  slightly  exceeds  that 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  appears  much  more 
massive  and  impressive  than  the  latter  range, 
as  it  rises  from  a  much  lower  level.  The  num- 
ber of  peaks,  however,  is  not  as  great  as  in 
Colorado,  though  there  are  at  least  14 
peaks  over  12,0<K)  feet  high.  The  highest  peaks 
are  clustered  near  the  southern  end,  and 
here  Mount  Whitney,  the  highest  point  in  the 
United  States  proper,  attains  an  altitude  of 
14,898  feet.  Otiier  high  points  are  Fisherman 
Peak,  14,448  feet;  Mount  Corcoran,  14,093  feet; 
Moimt  Kaweah,  14,000  feet;  Mount  Brewer,  13,- 
886  feet;  Mount  Lyell,  in  the  Yosemite  Park, 
13,042  feet;  and  in  the  extreme  north  Mount 
Shasta,  with  an  altitude  of  14,380  feet.  The  higher 
portions  of  the  range  are  covered  with  perpetual 
snow,  and  the  northern  slopes  of  some  of  the 
peaks  are  occupied  by  glaciers.  The  snowfall  ia 
heavy  on  the  western  slope,  and  feeds  a  large 
number  of  streams  flowing  to  the  Sacramento  and 
San  Joaquin  Rivers.  These  streams  have  cut  up 
the  slope  into  deep  valleys,  some  of  which,  notably 


SIEBBA  KEVADA. 


886 


8IEYES. 


the  Yosemite  Valley^  are  remarkable  for  their 
scenery.  The  Sierra  Nevada  is  covered  to  a 
height  of  8000  feet  with  dense  forests  of  conifer- 
ous trees^  which  yield  to  deciduous  on  the  lower 
western  slope.  The  western  slope,  above  the  de- 
ciduous zone,  is  the  exclusive  habitat  of  the  'big 
trees'  {Sequoia  giganiea).  Though  it  is  a  prac- 
tically unbroken  divide,  there  are  several  passes 
leading  across  the  range  at  altitudes  of  4000  to 
7000  feet.  Of  these  the  Truckee  Pass  in  the 
north  aiid  the  Tehachapi  Pass  in  the  south  are 
traversed  by  railroads. 

SIEVBBS,  z6'v5rs,  Eduabd*  ( 1850— ) .  A  Ger- 
man  philologist,  born  at  Lippoldsber^,  Prussia. 
He  was  educated  at  Leipzig  and  Berlin,  and  be- 
came professor  extraordinarius  of  Germanic  and 
Romance  philology  at  Jena  in  1871,  receiving 
a  full  professorship  there  five  years  later.  In 
1883  he  went  to  TObingen,  and  in  1887  to  Halle, 
whence  he  was  called  in  1892  to  Leipzig.  Among 
the  numerous  contributions  of  Sievers  to  Ger- 
manic philology  may  be  mentioned  his  edi- 
tions of  Tatian  {2d  ed.  1892),  the  Heliand 
(1878),  and,  in  collaboration  with  Steinmeyer, 
Die  althochdeutachen  Oloeaeh  (4  vols.,  1879-98), 
besides  the  Oxf order  Benediktinerregel  (1887). 
His  original  works  on  Germanics  include  Der 
Heliand  und  die  angela&cheieche  Cfeneaie  (1876), 
'  Angelsdchsische  Orammatik  (3d  ed.  1898),  and 
Zum  angelsacheischen  Vokaliemua  (1900).  He 
also  made  important  contributions  to  metrics  in 
his  Altgermaniache  Metrik  (1892)  and  his  Met- 
riache  Studien  (1901-02),  dealing  with  Hebrew 
metres,  while  his  Orundziige  der  Phonetik  (5th 
ed.  1901)  is  one  of  the  standard  works  on  pho- 
netics, in  1891  he  became  an  editor  of  Paul  and 
Branne's  Beitrage  zur  Oeachiohie  der  deutachen 
Bprache  und  Liiieraiur,  and  contributed  to  Paul's 
Orundriaa  der  germaniachen  Philologie  (Strass- 
burg,  1891  et  seq.)  the  sections  on  runes,  Gothic 
language  and  literature,  and  Germanic  metre. 

SIEVEBS,  Jakob  Johann,  or  Yakoff  Yefdc- 
OTiTCH,  Count  (1731-1808).  A  Russian  states- 
man, bom  at  Wesenberg,  Esthonia.  He  served  in 
the  Foreign  Ofldoe,  was  secretary  to  the  Copen- 
hagen and  London  embassies,  and  was  in  active 
service  in  the  Seven  Years'  War.  Made  Gov- 
ernor of  Novgorod  (1764)  and  Govemor-Creneral 
of  Novgorod,  Tver,  and  Pskov  (1776-81),  he  in- 
troduce many  important  reforms.  After  eight 
years  of  retirement  he  was  appointed  (1789) 
Ambassador  to  Poland,  and  was  chiefly  instru- 
mental in  bringing  about  the  second  and  third 
partitions  of  Poland.  Recalled  in  1794,  he  lived 
in  retirement  until  Czar  Paul  made  him  Senator 
(1796),  and  in  1797  he  was  intrusted  with  the 
direction  of  water  communications.  The  canal 
he  built  (1798-1803)  between  the  Volkhoff  and 
Msta  Rivers  bears  his  name.  Consult  Blum, 
Bin  ruaaiaoher  Staaiamann,  Dea  Qrccfen  Jacob 
Johann  Sievera  Denkw&rdigkeiten  zur  Oeaohichte 
Ruaalanda  (Leipzig,  1857-58). 


SIEVEBS,  WiLHiXM  (I860-).  A  German 
geographer,  bom  at  Hamburg.  He  was  educated 
at  Jena,  GK$ttingen,  and  Leipzig,  and  was  made 
privat-docent  at  Wflrzburg  in  1887  after  exten- 
sive travels  in  Venezuela  and  Colombia.  In 
1892  he  undertook  for  the  (jleo^phical  So- 
ciety of  Hamburg  further  explorations  in  South 
America.  The  following  publications  bear  his 
name:   Reiae  in  der  Sierra   Nevada  de  Santa 


Maria  { 1888) ;  Die  Kordillere  von  Merida  ( 1888) 
and  Venezuela  (1888);  Allgemeine  Landerkunde 
(5  vols.,  1891-95) ;  and  Zweiie  Reiae  vn  Venezuela 
(1896). 

SIEVE  VESSELS.     Tube-like  elongated  cells, 
characteristic  of  the  phloem    (q.v.),  placed  end 


8»VS  YEBBKIS  OF  PUHPUK. 

to  end  and  communicating  with  one  another  by 
means  of  perforated  areas  (sieve  plates)  in  the 
walls.    See  Histology;  Wood. 

SIEYlte^  sd'&'y&s^,  Emmanuel  Joseph,  Coimt 
(1748-1836).  A  French  revolutionary  leader  and 
publicist,  generally  known  as  the  Abb6  Sieyfes. 
He  was  bom  at  Fr^jus,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Paris  with  a  view  to  enterinf^  the 
Church.  He  was  made  a  canon  in  Brittany 
(1775)  and  was  later  transferred  to  the  Ca- 
thedral of  Chartres.  He  soon  became  diocesan 
chancellor  and  vicar-general.  He  had  liberal 
opinions  on  all  social  and  political  matters,  and 
in  1789  he  issued  his  famous  pamphlet  entitled: 
Qu*e8t'Ce  que  le  iiera-4tatt  This  work,  which 
claimed  political  recognition  for  the  people,  ob- 
tained an  immense  popularity  and  procured  his 
election  as  Deputy  to  the  States-General  from 
Paris.  Mainly  through  his  urgency  and  influ- 
ence, the  representatives  of  the  people  took  the 
decisive  step  of  constituting  themselves  into  an 
independent  body,  on  June  16,  1789,  and  became 
the  National  Assembly.  In  this  body  Sieyfes 
figured  as  one  of  the  most  prominent  leaders. 
In  1790  he  was  elected  President  of  the  National 
Assembly.  By  this  time,  however,  bolder  and 
fiercer  spirits  had  passed  him  in  the  race  for 
power  and  popularity,  and  in  the  Convention  of 
1792  he  refrained  from  any  active  participation 
in  the  debates,  and  on  the  occasion  of  the  King's 
trial  he  recorded  a  silent  vote  for  death  with- 
out appeal  to  the  people.  While  Robespierre 
and  his  party  were  in  power,  he  retired  from 
Paris.  On  the  fall  of  Robespierre  he  returned  to 
the  Convention  and  resumed  his  active  interest 
in  affairs,  becoming  a  member  of  the  Council 
of  Five  Hundred.  He  was  engaged  chiefly  in 
the  Department  of  Foreign  Affairs,  and  he  went 
in  1798  as  Ambassador  to  Berlin  to  secure  the 
neutrality  of  Prussia.  He  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Directory  in  1799,  and  among  other 


8IBYB8. 


886 


BIOHT. 


measures  he  succeeded  in  closing  the  celebrated 
Jacobin  Club.  Perceiving  that  a  dictator  was 
needed  in  France,  he  became  anxious  to  secure 
the  cooperation  of  some  powerful  military 
leader,  and  on  the  return  of  Bonaparte  from 
Egypt  he  entered  into  a  league  with  him,  the  re- 
sult of  which  was  the  Revolution  of  the  18th 
Brumaire  (November  9,  1799)  and  the  institution 
of  the  provisional  Consulate,  Sieyto,  Napoleon, 
and  Roger  Ducos  being  the  first  three  consuls. 
Sieyte  and  Napoleon  differed  irreconcilably  as  to 
the  distribution  of  power,  but  the  former  had 
to  give  way,  and  finally  retired  from  the  Gov- 
ernment. As  a  reward  for  his  services  he  re- 
ceived on  his  retirement  a  sum  of  600,000  francs, 
the  estate  of  Crosne,  and  a  seat  in  the  Senate. 
The  title  of  Count  of  the  Empire  was  conferred 
upon  him.  Banished  at  the  second  Restoration 
as  a  regicide,  he  went  to  Brussels,  and  did  not 
return  to  France  till  after  the  Revolution  of 
1830,  when  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Academy.  He  died  in  Paris.  His  Reconnais- 
sance et  exposition  des  droits  de  Vhomme  et  du 
citoyen  (Paris,  1789)  undoubtedly  led  up  to  the 
famous  Declaration  of  the  Rights  of  Man.  His 
famous  constitution  is  found  explained  in  Boulay, 
"Th^rie  constitutionelle  de  Sieyfes,"  from  the 
M4moires  in^dites  of  Sieyte  (Paris,  1836).  C:k)n- 
Bult  also  Mignet,  Etude  sur  Biey^s  (Paris,  1836). 

SIGEBEBT   (sig^e-bSrt)   07  GEKBLOUBS, 

zhaN'bl55r'  (c.  1030- 11 12).  A  Flemish  chron- 
icler, born  in  Brabant.  He  worked  under  Abbot 
Obert  in  the  cloister  of  Gemblours,  from  which 
he  went  to  study  under  Saint  Vincent  at  Metz, 
and  then  returned  to  Gemblours.  His  principal 
work  is  Chronicony  a  chronicle  of  the  world  to 
1111.  Consult  Hirsch,  De  Vita  et  Bcriptis  Sige- 
herti  (Berlin,  1841). 

SIGEIi,  sS^gel,  Fbanz  (1824-1902).  A  German- 
American  soldier,  bom  at  Sinsheim,  in  Baden. 
In  1848  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  revolu- 
tionary movement  in  Baden,  and  on  the  renewed 
outbreak  of  the  insurrection,  in  the  spring  of 
1849,  commanded  the  troops  on  the  Neckar.  In 
May  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  provisional 
government  and  Minister  of  War;  later  he  be- 
came Mieroslawski's  adjutant-general,  and  after 
that  general's  retirement,  in  July,  Sigel  led  the 
remainder  of  the  revolutionary  army,  which  re- 
treated into  Switzerland.  In  1852  he  emi- 
grated to  the  United  States;  and  in  1858 
he  went  to  Saint  Louis,  where  he  taught  in 
a  German  military  institute,  and  edited  a  mili- 
tary periodical.  Gn  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War  ne  espoused  the  side  of  the  North,  and  or- 
ganized a  regiment  of  infantry  and  a  battery  of 
artillery,  which  rendered  good  service  in  the  oc- 
cupation of  Camp  Jackson.  On  July  6,  1861, 
he  was  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Carthage; 
later  he  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Dug 
Springs ;  and  after  the  death  of  General  Lyon  at 
Wilson's  Creek,  conducted  the  retreat  of  the 
army.  He  was  made  a  brigadier-general  of  vol- 
unteers, and  at  the  battle  of  Pea  Ridge,  March  8, 
1862,  he  ordefed  a  well-timed  charge  which  de- 
cided the  day.  Soon  afterwards  he  was  made  a 
major-general  of  volunteers,  and  was  placed  in 
command  of  Harper's  Ferry.  He  commanded  the 
First  0)rps  in  the  campaign  which  terminated 
with  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run,  August, 
1862,  and  in  February,   1864,  was  given  com- 


mand of  the  Department  of  West  Virginia.  He 
soon  aftervrards  led  an  expedition  into  the 
Shenandoah  Valley,  but  on  May  15th  was  de- 
feated at  New  Market  by  a  superior  force  under 
General  Breckenridge.  In  consequence  he  was 
relieved  of  his  command  by  General  Hunter, 
and  was  put  in  charge  of  the  division  guarding 
Harper's  Ferry.  In  the  following  July,  with 
about  4000  men,  he  successfully  defended  Mary-* 
land  Heights  against  General  Early  with 
14,000  men;  but  the  Administration  had  lost 
confidence  in  him,  and  he  was  relieved  of  com- 
mand. He  resigned  from  the  army  in  May,  1865, 
and  was  for  a  short  time  editor  of  the  Baltimore 
Wecker.  From  1871  until  1874  he  was  register 
of  New  York  City,  and  from  1886  until  1889  was 
United  States  pension  agent  at  the  same  place. 
He  also  lecturea,  engaged  in  the  advertising  busi- 
ness, and  for  several  years  published  the  Tfew 
York  Monthly,  a  German-American   periodical. 

SIGHT  (AS.  ge-sihp^  OHG.  ge-siht,  Ger.  6e- 
sicht,  from  AS.  s^on,  OHG.  sehan,  Ger.  sehen,  to 
see;  connected  with  Lat.  sequi,  €rk.  H-e^Sui,  A«pet- 
thai,  Lith.  sekti,  Skt.  sac,  to  follow),  Defiscts  op. 
Under  this  head  we  shall  consider  certain  af- 
fections of  the  eyesight  due  to  some  known  or 
unknown  peculiaritv  of  the  optical  apparatus 
(including  the  optic  nerve) — ^viz.  near-sighted- 
ness, far-sightedness,  double  vision,  color-blind- 
ness, night-blindness,  and  day-blindness.  Defects 
due  to  errors  of  refraction  include  the  first  two  of 
these. 

Near-sightedness,  short-sightedness,  or  myopia 
is  often  popularly  confounded  with  dim  or 
weak  sight;  but  in  reality  short  sight  applies 
exdusivelv  to  the  raAge  and  not  to  the  power  of 
sight,  and  a  short-sighted  person  may  possess 
the  acutest  power  of  vision  for  near  objects.  In 
this  affection,  the  rays  which  ought  to  oome  to  a 
focus  upon  the  retina  converge  to  a  point  more  or 
less  in  front  of  it.  The  cause  of  this  defect  prob- 
ably differs  in  different  persons.  It  nearly  al- 
ways arises  from  elongation  of  the  globe  in  its 
antero-posterior  diameter,  more  rarely  from  in- 
creased curvature  of  the  cornea,  increase  in  re- 
fractive power  of  the  lens  in  the  early  stage  of 
senile  cataract,  or  from  an  imperfect  power  of 
the  eye  to  adjust  itself  to  objects  at  various  dis- 
tances. The  distance  at  which  objects  are  per- 
ceived most  distinctly  by  the  perfectly  normal 
eye  ranges  from  16  to  20  inches;  an  eye  which 
cannot  perceive  objects  distinctly  beyond  10 
inches  may  fairly  be  regarded  as  short-sighted; 
and  in  extreme  cases  the  point  of  distinct 
vision  may  be  3,  2,  or  even  only  1  inch  from 
the  eye.  There  is  frequently  an  hereditary  ten- 
dency to  near-sightedness,  but  it  is  rarely  con- 
genital. It  is  often  acquired  by  excessive  use 
of  the  eyes  at  an  early  age  for  reading  or 
other  near  work.  Overstudy  under  unfavor- 
able circumstances  and  poor  health  favor  its 
development.  As  a  general  rule  the  inhabi- 
tants of  towns  are  much  more  liable  to  it  than 
persons  living  in  the  country,  and  students  and 
literary  men  are  the  most  liable  of  all.  The  fre- 
quency of  this  affection  in  the  cultivated  ranks 
points  directly  to  its  principal  cause — ^tension  of 
the  eyes  for  near  objects.  Prolongation  of  the 
visual  axis  is  attributed  to  (1)  pressure  of  the 
muscles  on  the  eyeball  in  strong  convergence  of 
the  visual  axis;  (2)  increased  pressure  of  the 
fluids  resulting  from  aocomolation  of  blood  in 


BIGHT. 


887 


SiOHT. 


the  eyes  in  the  stooping  position;  (3)  congestive 
processes  in  the  base  of  the  eye,  which«  leading 
to  softening,  give  rise  to  extension  of  the  mem- 
branes ;  ( 4 )  the  shape  of  the  orbit  in  broad  faces, 
causing  excessive  convergence,  the  trouble  occur- 
ring especially  in  such  persons.  That  in  increased 
pressure  the  extension  occurs  principally  at  the 
posterior  pole  is  explained  by  the  want  of  sup- 
port from  the  muscles  of  the  eye  at  that  part. 
Now,  in  connection  with  the  causes  mentioned, 
the  injurious  effect  of  fine  work  is,  by  imperfect 
illumination,  still  more  increased;  for  thus  it  is 
rendered  necessary  that  the  work  be  brought 
closer  to  the  eyes,  and  that  the  stooping  position 
of  the  head,  particularly  in  reading  and  writing, 
is  also  increased.  Hence  it  is  that  in  schools 
where,  by  bad  light,  the  pupils  read  bad  print  in 
the  evening,  or  write  with  pale  ink,  the  founda- 
tion of  myopia  is  mainly  laid.  On  the  contrary, 
in  watchmakers,  although  they  sit  the  whole  day 
with  a  magnifying-glass  in  one  eye,  we  observe  no 
development  of  myopia,  undoubtedly  because  they 
fix  their  work  only  with  one  eye,  and,  therefore, 
converge  but  little,  and  because  they  usually 
avoid  a  very  stooping  position. 

Bo  far  from  short-sightedness  improving  in  ad- 
vanced life,  as  is  popularly  believed,  it  is  too  fre- 
quently a  progressive  affection;  and  every  pro- 
gressive myopia  is  threatening  with  respect  to  the 
future.  Those  cases  in  which  the  myopia  de- 
velops slightly  in  young  persons  and  practically 
becomes  arrested  are  called  simple  or  stationary 
myopia.  Progressive  myopia  is  the  form  which 
increases  steadily  with  degenerative  changes  in 
the  choroid  and  other  deep  structures.  Persons 
with  uncorrected  myopia  of  any  severity  have  a 
characteristic  vacant  expression  from  constant 
inability  to  see  any  other  than  near  objects. 

In  the  treatment  of  myopia  the  principal  ob- 
jects are:  (1)  to  prevent  its  furtner  develop- 
ment and  the  occurrence  of  secondary  disturb- 
ances; and  (2),  by  means  of  suitable  glasses,  to 
render  the  use  of  the  myopic  eye  easier  and  safer. 

(1)  To  effect,  if  possible,  the  first  object,  the 
patient  must  look  much  at  a  distance,  but  as  we 
cannot  absolutely  forbid  his  looking  at  near  ob- 
jects, spectacles  must  be  provided  which  render 
vision  distinct  at  from  16  to  18  inches.  More- 
over, it  is  desirable  that  at  intervals  of  a  half 
hour  work  should  be  discontinued  for  a  couple  of 
minutes,  and  no  working  in  a  -stooping  position 

"  should  be  permitted.  The  patient  should  read 
with  the  book  in  the  hand,  and  in  writing  should 
use  a  high  and  sloping  desk,  with  good  out  not 
too  strong  light  from  behind.  If  the  myopia  in- 
creases, all  near  work  should  be  given  up  for  life 
out  of  doors. 

(2)  The  optical  remedy  for  short  sight  ob- 
viously consists  in  concave  glasses  of  a  focus 
suited  to  the  individual  case.  At  first  sight  it 
might  be  supposed  that  glasses  with  a  concavity 
exactly  sufficient  to  neutralize  the  defect  in  the 
eye  would  always  suffice;  and  when  the  glasses 
are  used  exclusively  for  distant  vision,  or  when 
the  affection  is  slight,  and  the  eye  is  otherwise 
healthy,  perfect  neutralization  is  admissible ;  but 
many  require  different  glasses  for  distance  and 
reading.  An  oculist  of  reputation  should  always, 
if  possible,  be  consulted  as  to  the  choice  of  spec- 
tacles. Glasses,  if  injudiciously  selected,  usually 
agfi^vate  the  evil  they  are  intended  to  remedy; 
and  in  connection  with  this  subject  may  be  men- 


tioned the  prevalent  habit  in  foreign  countries  of 
employing  a  single  eyeglass;  it  is  most  preju- 
dicial to  the  eye  which  is  left  unemployed,  and 
often  leads  to  its  permanent  injury. 

Far-sightedness,  hyperopia,  or  hypermetropia  is 
an  error  of  refraction  in  which  parallel  rays  are 
brou£;ht  to  a  focus  behind  the  retina,  usually  on 
accoimt  of  shortening  of  the  eyeball,  sometimes 
from  diminished  convexity  of  cornea  or  lens,  ab- 
sence of  the  lens,  or  changes  in  the  media.  It  is 
more  common  than  myopia,  is  congenital  and 
often  hereditary.  As  the  hyperopic  eye  is  obliged 
to  acconmiodate  for  even  parallel  rays,  it  is  con- 
stantly strained  unless  corrected  by  proper  con- 
vex glasses.  If  uncorrected  it  leads  to  symptoms 
of  asthenopia  or  eye-strain,  frontal  and  occipital 
headaches,  pain  in  the  eyes,  congestion  and  burn- 
ing sensations  in  the  lids  and  eyeballs. 

Presbyopia  (derived  from  the  Greek  words 
rp^pvt,  an  aged  person,  and  ^,  the  eye),  or 
old  sight,  is  a  change  which  naturally  occurs  in 
every  eye  between  the  40th  and  46th  year.  On  ac- 
count of  loss  of  elasticity  of  the  lens,  the  power 
of  accommodation  is  diminished.  The  stated 
time  for  the  occurrence  of  presbyopia  has  been 
arbitrarily  fixed,  as  that  is  the  period  at  which 
the  near  point,  the  nearest  point  to  the  eye  at 
which  ordinary  print  can  be  easily  read,  has  re- 
ceded to  nine  inches  and  some  discomfort  is  ex- 
perienced. The  near  point  really  begins  to  recede 
at  ten  years  of  age,  and  continues  to  do  so 
through  life.  If  uncorrected  there  is  difficulty 
in  reading,  blurring  of  print,  and  symptoms  of 
eye-strain  as  in  hyperopia.  Correction  is  secured 
by  convex  spherical  glasses,  which  bring  the  near 
print  to  a  comfortable  distance  with  respect  to 
the  person's  occupation.  Allowance  must  be 
made  for  coexisting  myopia,  hyperopia,  or  astig- 
matism, and  the  strength  increased  at  intervals. 

Double  vision,  or  diplopia,  is  of  two  kinds.  It 
may  arise  from  a  want  of  harmony  in  the 
movements  of  the  two  eyes,  the  vision  of  each 
eye  being  perfect;  or  there  may  be  double  vision 
with  one  eye  only.  The  first  form  may  occur  in 
cases  of  weakness  or  paralysis  of  one  or  more  of 
the  muscles  of  the  orbit,  which  results  in  squint- 
ing. In  cases  of  squinting  (q.v.),  the  vision  of 
the  most  distorted  eye  is  almost  always  imper- 
fect; and  it  is  well  known  that  impressions  on 
the  two  retine  are  similar  in  kind  out  dissimi- 
lar in  form.  The  mind  takes  cognizance  only  of 
the  former;  so  that  a  person  with  a  bad  squint 
sees  objects  with  the  sound  eye  only.  But  if  the 
sight  of  both  eyes  is  nearly  equal,  as  often  is  the 
case  when  the  squint  is  not  very  well  marked, 
double  vision  results  whenever  both  eyes  are  em- 

})loyed  together,  in  consequence  of  images  of  near- 
y  equal  intensity  falling  on  non-corresponding 
parts  of  the  two  retinae.  This  variety  of  double 
vision  can  be  corrected  by  suitable  glasses.  ,The 
second  form  of  double  vision — viz.  double  vision 
with  a  single  eye — is  a  much  more  rare  affection 
than  the  preceding  one,  and  depends  upon  some 
irregular  refraction  of  the  cornea  or  lens. 

Color-blindness  is  noticed  under  its  own  name. 

Night-blindness,  or  hemeralopia  (from  the 
Greek,  signifying  *day-sight'),  is  a  peculiar  form 
of  intermittent  blindness,  the  subjects  of  which 
see  perfectly  with  an  ordinary  light,  but  become 
entirely  and  almost  instantaneously  blind  as  soon 
as  twilight  commences.  It  is  seldom  encountered 
in  this  country  except  among  sailors  just  re- 


BIGHT. 


888 


BIOXBILUJID. 


turned  from  tropical  regions.  It  is  frequent 
among  the  natives  of  some  parts  of  India,  who 
attribute  it,  as  sailors  do,  to  sleeping  exposed  to 
the  moonlight.  The  most  probable  cause  of  the 
affection  is,  however,  exhaustion  of  the  power  of 
the  retina  from  the  over-excitement  of  excessive 
light,  so  that  this  organ  is  rendered  incapable  of 
appreciating  the  weaker  stimulating  action  of 
twilight  or  moonlight. 

Snow-hlindfieas  must  be  regarded  as  an  allied 
affection  to  the  preceding. 

Day-blindness,  or  nyctalopia,  refers  to  the  con- 
dition in  which  the  si^ht  is  better  in  a  feeble 
light,  as  at  dusk,  than  m  bright  light.  This  oc- 
curs in  amblyopia  (q.v.)  from  the  abuse  of  to- 
bacco, and  in  cases  in  which  there  is  defective 
vision  of  the  central  portion  of  the  visual  field. 
For  example:  if  there  is  an  opacity  of  the  central 
portion  of  the  lens  or  cornea,  the  dilatation  of 
the  pupil  which  takes  place  in  a  feeble  light  al- 
lows the  person  to  see  through  the  unobstructed 
portion  of  the  cornea  or  lens  surrounding  the 
opacity. 

Colored  vision  sometimes  occurs  either  with  or 
without  retinal  changes.  Red  vision,  erythropsia, 
occurs  after  extraction  of  a  cataract.  Xanthopsia, 
or  yellow  vision,  may  follow  the  ingestion  of  san- 
tonin, gelsemium,  digitalis,  chromic  and  picric 
acids,  and  amyl  nitrate.  Cannabis  Indica  some- 
times causes  violet  vision.  Red  or  blue  vision 
may  result  from  the  use  of  iodoform,  and  cocaine 
has  caused  colored  vision.  Phosphorus  is  said 
to  cause  sparks  and  flashes  of  light,  and  the  same 
is  said  to  be  caused  at  times  by  belladonna  and 
■antonin. 

Other  defects  of  sight  are  described  under  the 
headings  Amaubosis;  Amblyopia;  Astigma- 
tism;  Hemiopia;   Hetebophobia.    See  Vision. 

SIGHTS.  The  means  by  which  cannon  or 
small  arms  are  pointed  or  aimed.  There  are 
almost  as  many  varieties  as  there  are  varieties 
of  weapons.  With  modem 
high-power  guns,  telescopic 
sights  are  necessary  on  ac- 
count of  the  difficulty  of 
seeing  the  target  at  the  ex- 
treme long  range  of  which 
these  guns  are  capable.  The 
Scott  telescopic  sight,  the 
invention  of  an  English 
navy  officer,  with  its  va- 
rious modifications,  is  prob- 
ably the  most  generally 
used.  In  small  arms  two 
points  are  installed,  one 
near  each  end  of  the  bar- 
rel, so  that  when  the  rifle 
or  pistol  is  brought  to  the 
position  of  firing  the  sights 
come  readily  into  coinci- 
dence for  the  eye  and  en- 
able the  aim  to  be  directed 
at  the  object.  The  sights 
must  represent  the  direct 
line  in  which  the  bullet  is  projected.  It  is  evi- 
dent, therefore,  that  some  form  of  adjustment  is 
necessary  if  the  sights  are  to  be  used  at  more 
than  one  distance.  In  military  rifles  sufficient 
adjustment  must  be  given  to  enable  the  aim  to 
be  accurately  taken  at  any  range  up  to  2600 
yards.  Military  sights  are  all  variations  of  one 
general  type  and  usually  consist  of  a  leaf  either 


^r^ 


XyeRtct 


Sifk.ng  N(3t:)i 


BIGHT    OF    n.    8.    BPBINO- 
riBLD  RIFLE  (1902),  86611 

from  above. 


OLOBS  F0BB8I0HT. 


lying  flat  or  hinged  upon  a  bed  or  block  fixed  to 
the  barrel.  The  leaf  must  be  raised  to  secure  ad- 
ditional elevation,  the  distance  being  regulated  by 
a  sliding  bar,  in  the  centre  of  which  a  notch  has 
been  cut,  through  which  the  sight  is  takoi  over 
the  tip  of  the  foresight. 

The  wind  gauge  is  a  device  which  enables  the 
marksman  to  direct  his  sight  on  the  object  aimed 
at,  although  the  rifle  is 
actually  pointing  to  the 
right  or  left  of  the  mark. 
As  yet  this  device  has 
only  been  used  for  long 
distance  rifle  -  range 
matches  and  flne  shoot- 
ing. Lateral  adjustment  is  rarely  necessaiy  at 
the  distances  at  which  sporting  rifles  are  used, 
and  it  is  not  univer- 
sally advocated  as  a 
feature  of  the  military 
small  arm,  owing  to 
the  difficulty  there 
would  be  in  securing 
a  transverse  slide 
which  shall  not  be  so 
small  and  so  stiff  as 
to  be  worthless  in  the 
excitement  of  action, 
or  when  the  soldier's 
flngers  are  cold. 
Sportsmen  sometimes 
employ  a  foresight  of 
the  covered  bead,  var- 
iety, or  the  ivory  or 
copper  sight  used  by 
African  hunters.  The 
Boers,  who  rank  high 
as  practical  marks- 
men, employ  the  ivory 
foresight,  but  Euro- 
pean and  American 
sportsmen  who  have 
engaged  in  African  or 
big  game  shooting 
generally  use  the  cop- 
per sight.  Various 
forms  of  rear  sight 
are  in  use,  perhaps 
the  best  of  which  is  the  platina  bar  on  a  more  or 
less  open  V.  Another  favorite  type  is  the  platina 
pyramid,  which  is  set  below  a  very  open  V. 
Telescopic  sights  are  affixed  to  sporting  rifles, 
and  have  been  found  verv  successful  in  deer- 
stalking or  any  form  of  hill  and  mountain  hunt- 
ing where  game  is  difficult  to  locate.  See  Gu5- 
nebt;  Guns,  Naval;  Small  Abms;  Tabget 
Pbactice;  IUNGB-Fnn>EBy  etc. 

SIGKHiLA^BIA  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Lai 
sigillumy  seal).  An  extinct  genus  of  lycopodB 
that  flourished  during  the  Carboniferous  period, 
forming  a  conspicuous  element  of  the  swamp 
flora  of  that  time.  They  were  trees  that  often 
grew  to  great  heights  and  had  few  branches. 
Both  branches  and  trunk  were  crowded  with 
sword-shaped  leaves  which  were  arranged  in 
spiral  series.     See  lJEPiDODEin>BON;   Stigmabia. 

SIOISMTTND,  slj^s-mfind,  €hr.  pnm.  ti^g^ 
mvint  (c.  1368-1 437).  Holy  Roman  Emperor  from 
1411  to  1437.  He  was  the  second  son  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  IV.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1378 
in  the  Margraviate  of  Brandenburg.    In  1379  lie 


PBBP  BieHT. 


BIOIBinTHD. 


889 


8IONAL  0OBP8. 


became  affianced  to  Mary,  heiress  of  LoaiB  the 
Great,  King  of  Himgarj  and  Poland,  and  in 
1387  succeeded  to  the  Hungarian  crown.  In 
1396  he  undertook  a  crusade  against  the  Turks 
supported  by  a  large  force  of  French  and  German 
knights,  but  at  Nicopolis,  September  28th,  he  suf- 
fer^ an  overwhelming  defeat  at  the  hands  of 
Bajazet  I.  In  1401  a  formidable  uprising  drove 
him  from  the  throne,  but  he  was  restored  with  the 
aid  of  hired  troops  and  seems  henceforth  to  have 
ruled  with  wisdom  and  moderation  in  internal 
affairs.  He  waged  a  long  succession  of  wars  in 
order  to  extend  the  power  of  Hungary  over  Bos- 
.nia,  Dalmatia,  and  Servia,  but,  although  sucoesd 
at  first  attended  his  efforts,  the  Hungarian  arms 
were  kept  in  check  by  the  Venetians  and  Turks. 
He  was  elected  Holy  Roman  Emperor  in  1411  and 
was  crowned  at  Aix-la-Ghapelle  in  1414.  Ho 
now  appears  in  his  most  celebrated  rdle  as  the  au- 
thor and  protector  of  the  Council  of  Constance 
and  the  guiding  spirit  in  its  deliberations.  He 
brought  about  the  deposition  of  Pope  John 
XXIII.,  and  showed  himself  zealous  in  the  course 
of  thorough  ecclesiastical  reform.  Much  obloquy, 
however,  has  attached  to  him  for  his  desertion 
of  John  Hubs  (q.v.),  whom  he  granted  a  safe 
conduct  for  the  purpose  of  attend!uig  the  council 
and  then  allowed  to  be  burnt  at  the  stake.  In 
1419,  on  the  death  of  his  brother  Wenceslas,  the 
succession  to  the  crown  of  Bohemia  fell  to  Sigis- 
mund.  But  the  Hussites  (q.v.)  were*  already  in 
arms,  and  the  country  became  the  theatre  of  a 
lon^  and  bloody  conflict,  in  which  the  forces  of 
Sigismimd  and  the  crusading  armies  of  Germany 
met  with  terrible  defeats.  It  was  not  until  1436 
that  Sigismund  was  recognized  as  King  of  Bo- 
hemia. He  visited  Italy  in  1431  and  1433,  re- 
ceiving the  Lombard  crown  at  Milan  and  th6  Im- 
perial crown  at  Rome.  He  died  at  Znaim,  De- 
cember 9,  1437,  the  last  of  the  House  of  Luxem- 
burg. Gifted  in  mind  and  body,  kindly  in  action, 
and  sincerely  concerned  for  the  welfare  of  the 
.  Empire,  Sigismund  encountered  repeated  failure 
on  account  of  the  very  defects  of  an  amiable  and 
pleasure-loving  disposition.  Consult:  Aschbach, 
Oeschichie  Kaiser  Siegmunds  (Hamburg,  1838- 
45) ;  Creighton,  History  of  the  Papacy  (Lon- 
don, 1894). 

SIGISICTJHDI.  (1467-1548).  King  of  Poland 
from  1506  to  1648,  called  the  Great.  He  was 
the  youngest  son  of  Casimir  IV.  and  succeeded 
his  brother  Alexander  as  King  of  Poland  and 
Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania.  In  1508  Sigismund 
gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  Russians  at 
Orsha,  on  the  Dnieper.  Bogdan,  voivode  of  Mol- 
davia, was  reduced  to  submission  and  the  Tatars 
were  severely  punished.  The  Russians  were  de- 
cisively defeated  a  second  time  by  Ostrogski  in 
1514.  Subsequent  invasions  of  the  Muscovites 
were  repelled  as  before,  and  a  rebellion  of  the 
Wallachs  was  punished  by  numerous  defeats.  A 
war  with  the  Teutonic  Knights  was  terminated 
in  1525  by  the  Treaty  of  Cracow,  in  which  the 
Grand  Master  Albert,  Sigismund's  nephew,  was 
recognized  as  Duke  of  Prussia,  which  was  to  be 
held  as  a  ^ef  of  Poland.  In  1526  Sigismund 
aided  Hungary  against  Solyman  the  Magnificent, 
and  a  numerous  force  of  Polish  cavaliers  fought 
bravely  on  the  fatal  field  of  MohAcs.  An  impor- 
tant event  of  Sigismund's  reign  was  the  introduc- 
tion and  extension  of  Lutheranism  in  Poland. 
Sigismund  died  at  Cracow,  April  1,  1548,  and 


was  suooeeded  by  his  son  Sieisicum)  IL  Augus- 
tus (1548-72),  who  continued  the  tolerant  policy 
of  his  father  and  effected  the  formal  permanent 
union  of  Lithuania  and  Poland  at  the  Diet  of 
Lublin  (1569).  He  was  the  last  of  the  male 
line  of  the  Jagellons.    See  Poland. 

SiaiSMXrKDA,  8§'j68-mvn'd&.  The  heroine 
of  one  of  the  most  widely  known  tales  in  Boc- 
caccio's Deoamerone,  whose  father,  Tancred  of 
Salerno,  punishes  her  secret  love  for  the  page 
Guiscardo  by  sending  the  latter's  heart  to  the 
Princess  in  a  golden  cup.  The  story  was  para- 
phrased by  Dryden. 

SIO^KABINOEN;  a  line  of  the  elder  or 
Swabian  branch  of  the  House  of  HohenzoUem 
(q.v.). 

SIGMOID  FUSXXTBE.    See  Intestiite;  Rbo 

TUM. 

SIGNAL  COBPS,  U.  S.  Abmt.  That  branch 
of  the  army  to  which  is  assigned  the  duty  of 
maintaining  communication  between  headquarters 
and  all  branches  of  the  military  service.  In  the 
United  States  Army  this  duty  is  assigned  to  a 
special  corps,  who  are  expert  in  the  use  of  flag, 
heliograph,  pyrotechnic,  telephone,  and  tele- 
graph signals,  the  building  of  telegraph  lines 
and  ocean  cables,  the  management  of  carrier 
pigeons,  the  deciphering  of  secret  ciphers,  and 
the  devising  of  new  systems  of  cipher,  the  use  of 
balloons,  and  in  fact  every  method  of  communi- 
cation that  can  be  or  has  been  devised.  See 
Signaling  and  Telegraphing,  Miutabt. 

The  Signal  Corps  of  the  United  States  Army 
dates  officially  from  the  appointment  of  Major 
Albert  J.  Myer  in  1860  as  chief  signal  officer. 
His  system  of  military  signals  by  means  of  flags 
was  an  improvement  upon  the  semaphore  tele- 
graph, which  had  been  used  since  1790  in  Europe 
and  to  a  slight  extent  in  America.  The  Signal 
Corps  received  a  separate  and  systematic  organ- 
ization by  act  of  March  3,  1863,  and  its  members 
served  with  great  efficiency  on  all  fields  of  battle 
and  even  on  naval  vessels.  At  the  close  of  the 
war  it  was  again  reorganized  hj  the  act  of  July 
28,  1866;  but  in  a  very  unsatisfactory  manner, 
and  a  school  of  instruction  was  established  at 
Fort  Whipple,  now  Fort  Myer,  near  Washington, 
D.  C.  By  act  of  Congress,  February  9,  1870,  the 
Secretary  of  War  was  authorized  to  provide  for 
the  taking  of  meteorological  observations 
throughout  the  coimtry  and  for  the  prediction  of 
storms;  he  assigned  this  duty  to  the  chief  signal 
officer  of  the  army.  Eventually  it  became  ap- 
parent that  the  meteorological  work  was  more 
important  than  the  military  work  and  that  it 
could  be  quite  as  well  done  by  civilian  organiza- 
tion. Therefore,  on  July  1,  1891,  an  act  of  Con- 
gress took  effect  by  virtue  pf  which  a  Weather 
Bureau  (q.v.)  proper  was  organized  in  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  and  all  the  men  and 
the  duties  relating  thereto  were  transferred  to 
it  from  the  War  Department.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Signal  Corps  of  the  United  States 
Army  was  at  the  same  time  reorganized  so  as  to 
contain  ten  commissioned  officers  and  50  en- 
listed men  as  sergeants. 

Obganization.  The  Signal  Corps,  United 
States  Army,  consists  of  a  chief  signal  officer 
with  the  rank  of  brigadier-general,  1  colonel,  1 
lieutenant-colonel,  4  majors,  14  captains,  14  first 
lieutenants,    80    first-class    sezgeants,    120    ser- 


8I0HAL  OO&Pfi. 


840    SXOKAUHG  AHD  TELEa&APBIHa 


geants,  150  corporals,  250  first-class  privates,  150 
second-class  privates,  and  10  cooks. 

Duties.  The  chief  signal  ofiicer  is  charged, 
under  the  Secretary  of  War,  with  the  direction  of 
the  Signal  Bureau;  with  the  control  of  the  offi- 
cers, enlisted  men,  and  employees  attached  there- 
to; with  the  construction,  repair,  and  operati6n 
of  military  telegraph  lines  and  cables,  field  tele- 
graph lines,  balloon  trains,  and  electrical  com- 
munication for  fire-control  purposes;  with  the 
preparation,  distribution,  and  revision  of  the 
War  Department  telegraphic  code;  with  the  su- 
pervision of  such  instruction  in  military  signaling 
and  telegraphy  as  may  be  prescribed  in  orders 
from  the  War  Department;  with  the  procure- 
ment, preservation,  and  distribution  of  the  neces- 
sary supplies  for  the  Signal  Corps  and  for  the 
lake  and  seacoast  defenses.  He  has  charge  of 
all  military  signal  duties,  and  of  books,  papers, 
and  devices  connected  therewith,  including  tele- 
graph and  telephone  apparatus  and  the  necessary 
meteorological  instruments  for  target  ranges  and 
other  military  uses;  of  collecting  and  transmit- 
ting information  for  the  army  by  telegram  or 
otherwise,  and  all  other  duties  pertaining  to 
military  signaling. 

The  Signal  Department  furnishes  all  military 
posts  and  seacoast  defense  stations  with  such 
instruments  and  materials  as  mav  be  necessary 
for  the  electrical  installation  of  range-finders 
and  the  fire-control  system  for  the  purpose  of 
intercommunication.  This  includes  telephonic 
and  telegraphic  instruments,  electrical  clocks, 
megaphones,  field  glasses,  telescopes,  and  neces- 
sary meteorological  instruments,  i.e.  barometers, 
thermometers,  anemometers,  etc.  Also,  all  such 
cable  and  land  lines  as  may  be  required  to  con- 
nect contiguous  military  posts,  or  for  connecting 
the  posts  with  the  commercial  telegraph  system. 

Unifobk.  Dress  coat,  dark  blue,  facings 
orange  piped  with  white,  pipings  white.  Chev- 
rona,  first-class  sergeant:  Three  bars  and  an  arc 
of  one  bar  of  orange  piped  with  white  inclosing  a 
device  of  flags,  red  and  white,  and  a  burning 
torch  in  yellow.  Trousers:  Light  blue,  orange 
stripNe  piped  with  white  1%  inches  wide.  Cap  in- 
signia, non-commissioned  officers:  Two  crossed 
signal  flags  and  a  burning  torch  of  white  metal 
inclosed  in  a  wreath  of  gilt  metal.  The  wreath 
is  omitted  on  the  private's  cap.    See  Unifobks, 

MlUTABT;  SlGNAUNG  AND  TeIXOBAPHING,  HILI- 
TABT. 

SIGNALIKG     AND      TELEGBAPHIKG, 

MiUTABT.  The  term  militarv  signaling  usually 
refers  to  the  art  of  transmitting  intelligence  by 
visual  signals,  while  telegraphing  applies  to  the 
communication  of  messages  oy  the  electric  cur- 
rent, and  in  its  application  to  military  operations 
is  considered  here. 

From  the  beginning  of  human  existence  signals 
such  as  signs,  sounds,  gestures,  and  other  indica- 
tions were  used  by  the  individuals  of  tribes  or 
commimities  to  communicate  with  each  other. 
Sounds  came  first.  These  were  followed  by 
pictures  of  natural  objects,  the  hieroglyphics  of 
the  ancients,  and  the  other  picture  writings  of 
savage  peoples.  The  accompanying  illustration 
is  a  picture  dispatch  sent  by  North  American 
Indians  to  the  French  during  the  war  with  Eng- 
land in  Canada.  Translated  it  means  that  "they 
(the  warriors)  departed  from  MontreaP'  (repre- 
sented by  a  bird  just  taking  wing  from  the  top 


of  a  moimtain).  The  moon  and  the  buck  show 
the  time  to  have  been  on  the  first  quarter  of  the 
buck-moon,  answering  to  July. 


Fie.  1.     PIOTUBK  irSXTIKO  OP  IKDIAliS. 

While  oral  langua^  was  being  develq)ed,  a- 
means  of  communication  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
voice  was  also  undertaken  by  pantomimic  signs; 
with  the  hands  and  body  for  short  distances,  bv 
signal  fires,  smoke,  a  prearranged  display  of 
shields,  spears,  flaes,  clothing,  and  the  like  for 
longer  distances.  At  an  early  date  the  necessity 
for  a  systematic  code  of  military  signals  became 
apparent,  and  it  is  surprising  to  note  the  perfec- 
tion attained  by  the  ancients  in  the  development 
of  the  theory  and  use  of  signals  in  time  of  war. 
The  first  record  of  a  signal  corps  is  given  in 
the  writings  of  Polybius  about  b.g.  2S0.  The 
invention  of  the  system  then  used  is  ascribed  to 
Cleoxenes  or  Democritus,  but  the  development  of 
their  ideas  into  a  system  was  due  to  Polybius. 
As  the  principles  of  his  plan  underlie  the  mod- 
em systems  of  visual  and  telegraphic  signals, 
the  apparatus  and  method  of  using  are  given  in 
some  detail  below.  In  the  words  of  Poljbins 
his  system  is  described  as  follows: 

''Take  the  alphabet  and  divide  it  into  ^ve 
parts  with  five  letters  in  each.  In  the  last  part, 
indeed,  a  letter  will  be  wanting,  but  this  is  of 
no  importance.  Then  let  those  who  are  to  give 
and  receive  the  signals  write  upon  five  tablets 
the  five  portions  of  the  letters  in  their  proper 
order  and  concert  together  the  following  plan: 
That  he,  on  one  side,  who  is  to  make  the  signal, 
shall  first  raise  two  lighted  torches  and  hold 
them  erect  until  they  are  answered  by  torches 
from  the  other  side.  This  only  serves  to  show 
that  they  are  on  both  sides  ready  and  prepared. 
That  afterwards  he  again  who  gives  the  signal 
shall  raise  first  some  torches  upon  the  left  hand, 
in  order  to  make  known  to  those  upon  the  other 
side  which  of  the  tablets  is  to  be  inspected— if 
the  first,  for  example,  a  single  torch;  if  the  sec- 
ond, two;  and  so  of  the  rest.  That  then  he  shall 
raise  other  torches  also  upon  the  right,  to  mark 
in  the  same  manner  to  those  who  receive  the 
signal,  which  of  the  letters  upon  the  tablet  is 
to  be  observed  and  written.     When  they  have 


Fig.  2,    biskal  8tbtsic  of  poltbtos. 

thus  regulated  their  plan  and  taken  their  re- 
spective posts  it  will  be  necessary,  firsts  to  have 
a  dioptical  instrument  formed  with  two  holes  or 
tubes— one  for  discovering  the  right,  and  the 
other  the  left  hand  of  the  person  who  is  to  raise 
the  torches  on  the  opposite  side.  The  tablets 
must  be  pla<»d  erect  and  in  their  proper  order 


8IONALINO  AND  TBIiEOBAPHINO.     841    SIONAUHO  AND  TBIiEOBAPHIHa. 


near  the  inBtnunent;  and  upon  the  right  and 
lett  there  should  be  also  a  solid  fence  of  about 
10  feet  in  length  and  of  the  height  of  a  man, 
that  the  torches,  being  raised  along  the  top  of 
those  ramparts,  may  give  a  more  certain  light, 
and  when  they  are  dropped  again  that  they  may 
also  be  concealed  behind  them." 

Signals  are  either  transient  or  permanent: 
transient  when  each  element  disappears  upon 
completion;  permanent  when  the  signal  is  the 
combination  of  certain  arbitrary  elementary  indi- 
cations, e.g.  sounds^  colors,  forms^  etc.,  in  ac- 
cordance with  fixed  rules,  known  both  to  the 
sender  and  receiver.  The  elementary  indications 
are  called  primary  aignals.  The  signs  formed  by 
uniting  the  primary  elements  are  called  combina- 
tion signals.  A  combination  may  consist  entirely 
of  a  single  primary  signal  several  times  repeated 
the  number  of  repetitions  conveying  the  mean- 
ing, e.g.  Ill;  or  the  combination  may  be  formed 
by  uniting  several  different  primary  signals,  each 
used  one  or  more  times,  e.g.  123,  or  113,  etc. 

A  class  of  signals  is  the  term  used  to  desig- 
nate the  number  of  elements  used  to  make  the 
signals,  e.g.  131,  333,  are  signals  of  the  third 
class;  12,  21  are  signals  of  the  second  class, 
-etc.;  a  code  of  signals  is  anj  number  of  pre- 
arranged signals,  each  of  which  has  a  definite 
meaning  to  sender  and  receiver.  If  each  letter 
is  homographic  the  class  term  is  indicated  by 
a  certain  and  always  the  same  number  of  sym- 
bols; chronosemio  or  time  signals  depend  for 
their  meaning  upon  the  interval  of  time  be- 
tween successive  signals.  For  instance,  a  second 
of  time  between  two  signals  might  represent  '1,' 
and  an  interval  of  two  seconds  between  the  same 
signals  %'  etc. 

The  definition  and  examples  cited  above  are  il- 
lustrated by  the  **United  States  Army  and  Navy 
Code  Card"  below.  It  is  called  the  Myer  system, 
after  Brevet  Brigadier-General  Albert  J.  Myer,  a 
former  chief,  signal  o'fficer  of  the  United  States 
army.  It  is  a  code  of  signals  of  two  primary 
elements  (1  and  2),  the  combination  being  of 
the  first,  second,  third,  or  fourth  class. 

SiOKAL  CoBPB,  United  States  Abmt 

ABUT  OODB  CABD--THS  MTBB   ST8TBIC    rOB  UBITBD  8TATB8 

ABMT     AND    UNITBD    0TATB8     NAYT    8IONALINO 

(PBB8GBIBBD  BT  O.  O.  NO.  83,  A.  O.  C,  1896). 


A... 
B... 

c... 

D... 
E... 
F... 
0... 
H.. 
I... 
J.. 
K.. 
L... 
M.. 
N... 


M 

..2119 
...121 
...222 

12 

..2221 
..2211 
...122 

1 

..1122 
..2121 
...221 
..1221 
11 


O... 
P... 
Q... 
R.. 
S..., 
T... 
U... 
V... 

w.. 

X... 
Y... 


tlon.. 


21 

..1212 
..1211 
....211 
...212 

3 

,...112 
..1222 
..1121 
..2122 
....111 
..2222 
..1112 


NUMBBALS 

...1111      2 

...1112      4 

...1122      « 

...1222      8 

..1221      0 


ABBBBYIATION8 


a after 

b before 

c- can 

a have 

a not 

r are 


t the 

u you 

ur your 

w word 

wi with 

y yee 


COHTKNTIONAL  SittMALB 

End  of  a  word 8 

End  of  a  sentence 38 

End  of  a  meesage 388 

xz3 numerids  follow  (or)  nnmeralsend 

sigS signature  follows 

Error 12  12  8 

Acknowledgment,  or  "  I  understand  " 22  22  8 

Cease  signaling 22  22  22  888 

Walt  a  moment 1111  8 

Repeat  after  (word) 121  121 8  22  8  (word) 

Repeat  last  word 121 12188 

Repeat  last  message 121 121 121 888 

Move  a  little  to  right 211 211 8 

Move  a  little  to  left 221 221 8 

Signal  faster 2212  8 

The  Myer  system   above  is  used  by  all  the 
United  States  Army  signal  instruments  except 
the  electric  telegraph,  which  employs  the  Morse 
code  given  below : 
a  b  c  def  g  hi 


J 


1 


q 
y 


p 

X 


&c. 


Visual  Signal  Appasatits.  The  Signal  Corps 
of  the  United  States  Army  employs  two  standard 
signal  flags,  4  and  2  feet  square  respectively, 
with  white  ground  and  red  centre,  or  the  re- 
verse.    They  are  attached  to  light  jointed  rods 


..222» 
..2221 
..2211 
..2111 
..2112 


and  swung  to  the  right,  left,  and  centre  when 
signaling.  Any  other  flag,  a  piece  of  cloth,  hand- 
kerchief, or  other  object  attached  to  a  stick  may 
be  used  in  the  same  way. 


SiaHAIiZHG  AND  TSLBaBAPHZVG.     842     SIOVALZHG  AND  TBLEGBAFHIHa. 


The  aocompanying  diagram  shows  the  method 
of  signaling  with  the  flag,  which  Ib  virtually  the 
same  with  torch,  hand-lantern,  or  beam  of  the 
search  light  with  such  modifications  as  are  neces- 
sary with  these  particular  instruments.  There 
is  one  position  and  three  motions.  The  signal 
man  stands  in  the  first  position  holding  his  flag 
as  shown  in  Fig.  1,  facmg  squarely  toward  the 
station  with  which  he  desires  to  communicate. 
The  first  motion,  corresponding  to  signal  'one'  or 
1,  is  to  the  right  of  the  centre,  the  fli^  describing 
the  motion  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  second  mo- 
tion, corresponding  to 'two' or  2,  is  to  the  left  and 
is  shown  in  Fig.  3.  The  third  motion  is  down- 
ward directly  in  front  of  the  signalman  and  then 
returned  upward  to  the  first  position,  and  is 
three'  or  3.  A  combination  of  movements  is 
shown  in  Fig.  4  and  Fig.  6,  Fi^.  4  showing  the 
signals  corresponding  to  12,  wmle  Fig.  6  shows 
the  signals  corresponding  to  2121.  If  12  is  sent 
repeatedly  it  means  that  it  is  desired  to  stop  the 
sinials  from  the  sending  station. 

For  night  signaling  the  siffnal  torch  is  em- 
ployed. It  consist^  of  a  cylinder  of  copper  closed 
at  one  end,  filled  with  a  combustible  material  and 
lighted.  Cotton  strands  saturated  with  turpen- 
tine or*  kerosene  are  generally  used.    The  flying 


▲  B 

mOHT  SIQKALIKO. 

▲«  with  torch ;  B,  with  lantom. 

torch  is  attached  to  a  staff  and  used  like  the 
fiag.  The  foot  torch  is  placed  on  the  ground 
in  front  of  the  operator  and  used  as  a  point  of 
reference.  In  their  place  may  be  used  ordinary 
hand  lanterns,  the  usual  arrangement  being  one 
strapped  on  the  waist  and  one  in  e&ch  hand  for 
homographic  signals. 

Signal  flash  lanterns  using  oil  are  also  em- 
ployed, and  are  attached  to  a  tripod,  the  occult- 
ing shutters  being  placed  on  another  as  with  the 
heliograph  (see  illustration  below),  while  an 
acetylene  flash  lamp  which  occults  by  shutting 
off  the  gas  with  a  key  similar  to  the  ordinary 
telegraph  key  is  another  device  for  this  purpose. 

The  Helioobaph  {sun-writer)  is  an  instru- 
ment designed  for  signaling  by  reflected  sun 
flashes.  The  United  States  Army  'field  kit' 
contains   two   4-inch   mirrorsi   two   tripods,   a 


shutter  or  screen,  and  a  mirror  bar.  The  'station 
kit'  for  perman^it  or  semi-permanent  statioDB 
uses  8-inch  mirrors  with  provisidn  for  attach- 


0 


HSUOOBAPH   or    THS    rNITBD    STATB8    ABICT    SIOKlL 
OOBPf. 

1.  Heliograph  with  two  mlrrora,  sun  In  rear.  2.  Hello- 
graph  with  one  mirror  and  sic^htlng  rod,  snn  In  front  SL 
Scroen  mounted  on  tripod.  A,  tripod  ;  B,  tripod  head ;  C, 
•nn  mirror }  D,  station  mirror ;  B,  mirror  sapporte ;  F,  tan- 
gent ecrew  for  reroWlng  mirror  about  horisontal  axle:  0, 
mirror  bar ;  H,  tangent  screw  with  ball-bearings  for  re* 
ToMng  mirror  c^oat  yertlcal  axis;  /.  damp  ecrew  for 
attaching  mirror  bar  to  tripod ;  K,  spring  for  clamping 
mlrron  and  sighting  rod;  L,  sighting  rod  with  moTsble 
disk ;  M,  screen ;  N,  key  for  screen ;  O,  screen  spring. 

ment  to  a  post,  stimip,  or  other  firm  base  instead 
of  tripods.  In  setting  up  and  adjusting  the  posi- 
tion of  the  sun  is  the  guide  for  determining 
whether  one  or  two  mirrors  should  be  used. 
When  the  sun  is  in  front  of  the  operator,  that  is, 
in  front  of  a  plane  through  his  position,  at  right 
anj^les  to  the  line  joining  the  stations,  the  sim 
mirror  only  is  required ;  with  the  sun 
in  rear  of  this  plane  both  mirrors 
should  be  used,  although  a  single 
mirror  may  be  used  to  advantage  with 
the  sun  well  back  of  the  operator.  In 
the  former  case  the  rays  of  the  sun 
are  reflected  from  the  sun  mirror  di- 
rect to  the  distant  station;  in  the 
latter  they  are  reflected  from  the  sun 
mirror  to  the  station  mirror,  thence 
to  the  distant  observer.  Under  fa- 
vorable atmospheric  conditions  the 
range  of  the  heliograph  is  great.  The 
greatest  ranges  (100  to  126  miles) 
ever  attained  with  this  instrument 
are  credited  to  the  United  States 
Army  during  the  course  of  experi- 
ments in  April  and  May,  1890, 
Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  during 
which,  by  using  intermediate  stations, 
commtmication  was  maintained  con- 
nectedly for  about  two  weeks  between  ^JJ^l'' 
points  2000  miles  apart. 

Other  signaling  devices  are  used  in  addition 
to  the  standard  apparatus  above  described  as 
occasion  justifies,  among  which  are  disks  (singk 


uring     (  ©  ) 
tions,      \^^^ 


SIOHAUNO  AND  TELBOBAPHINO.     -648    SIOKALINO  AND  TELEOSAVHINa. 


or  double)  made  of  white  canvas  stretched  on 
ringd  or  hoops  of  wire  and  attached  to  a  li^ht 
staffs  and  semaphores  consisting  of  a  post  with 


:M.. 


a,  for  day ;  h,  for  night. 

arms  movable  by  ropes,  each  position  represent- 
ing a  letter  or  nimiber.  These  may  be  used  at 
night  bv  attaching  lanterns  to  the  arms. 

Signal  flags  on  halliards,  stationary  or  by 
motions,  are  also  frequently  used,  as  is  discussed 
under  Signals,  Mashvie. 

At  night  signals  may  be  made  by  candle  homhs, 
which  are  pasteboard  shells  charged  with  bril- 
liant stars,  fired  from  bomb  guns  or  mortars  or 
signal  rockets,  which  under  favorable  circum- 
stances can  be  used  up  to  ranges  of  about  eight 
miles.  Rockets  are  most  efficiently  employed  as 
chronosemio  or  time  interval  signals.  Signal 
composition  fires  are  pyrotechnic  compositions 
which  bum  with  great  intensity  of  light  and 
color,  generally  red,  white,  and  green.  To  observe 
all  these  visual  signals  it  is  necessary  to  employ 
powerful  and  portable  telescopes.  The  sig- 
nal telescopes  for  use  at  long  ranges  magnify 
about  30  times  and  have  a  focal  length  of  26 
inches.  The  glass  is  strong.  Binocular  glasses 
are  also  useful,  as  they  combine  a  low  magnifying 
power  with  a  large  field.  The  new  'porro  prism' 
glasses  are  now  issued  to  the  United  States 
Signal  Corps. 

CiFHEBS.  A  signal  cipher  is  a  method  of  or 
key  to  secret  signaling  understood  only  by  those 
concerned.  In  the  presence  of  the  enemy  the 
necessity  for  its  use  is  apparent,  and  in  order 
to  secure  secrecy  it  must  frequently  be  changed. 


naiTAIi  DDK. 


Naturally  there  are  countless  forms  and  systems 
of  ciphers.    Among  these  is  the  signal  disk,  which 
is  a  deviee  for  re£iily  enciphering  and  decipher- 
VoL.  XV.-«4.  ■ 


ing  a  message.  It  consists  of  a  small  disk  of 
cardboard  or  other  material,  on  which  are  writ- 
ten or  printed  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  in 
irregular  sequence  and  arranged  around  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  disk.  These  letters  are  so 
placed  that  when  the  disk  is  properly  held  all 
the  letters  are  upright.  On  this  small  disk  are 
also  printed  those  combinations  of  letters  which 
frequently  occur  in  words,  as  'tion,'  'ing,'  'ous,' 
etc.,  and  a  sign  to  mark  the  end  of  the  word.' 
On  a  larger  disk  are  written  or  printed,  arranged 
around  its  circumference  in  the  same  manner, 
either  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  or  the  symbolic 
numbers  of  signals  which  are  to  be  used.  The 
disks  are  fastened  concentrically  together  in  such 
manner  that  one  may  revolve  upon  the  other 
and  that  they  may  be  clamped  in  any  position. 
They  are  of  such  size  that  when  so  fastened  the 
letters,  etc.,  upon  the  inner  disk  will  each  appear 
close  to  and  directly  opposite  one  of  the  signal 
combinations  upon  the  outer  disk. 

The  figures  U'  and  '8'  are  sometimes  used  in- 
stead of  the  figures  '1'  and  '2'  to  symbolize  the 
elements  'one'  and  'two,'  because  the  figure  '8' 
is  upright  in  most  positions  of  the  disk.  Having 
a  disk  so  arranged  and  clamped,  it  will  be  clearly 
understood  by  any  signalist  that,  so'  provided, 
he  has  before  him  an  alphabetic  code  with  every 
letter  opposite  its  signal  symbols.  And  he  will 
comprehend  that,  by  referring  to  the  disk,  he  can 
transmit  a  message  without  the  study  of  any  par- 
ticular code  and  can  transmit  it  in  secret  signals 
or  cipher  by  moving  the  disks  upon  each  other. 

MmTABT  Teubgraph.  The  electric  telegraph 
for  the  transmission  of  signals  came  into  prac- 
tical use  about  1835.  Its  history  and  develop- 
ment will  be  found  discussed  in  the  article  Tele- 
graph. Beyond  saying  that  the  Morse  system 
makes  use  of  a  code  of  three  elements,  dot,  dash, 
and  space,  as  shown  above,  it  is  necessary  here 
to  concern  ourselves  merely  with  strictly  mili- 
tary lines.  With  the  invention  and  general  use 
of  the  telephone  came  its  application  to  warfare, 
and  this  instrument,  too,  has  been  specially 
adapted  for  this  purpose.  Military  lines  for 
telegraph  or  telephone  field  service  are  generally 
called  'flying  lines.'  They  are  Istrung  on  light 
poles  called  lances,'  2%  inches  in  diameter  and 
17  feet  long,  placed  2  feet  in  the  ground,  and 
about  40  per  mile  are  necessary.  Instruments 
and  material  are  transported  by  wagons  designed 
for  the  purpose  to  accompany  the  army  in  the 
field.  These  constitute  the  field  telegraph  train. 
For  quick  work  at  the  front  the  wire  is  on  reels, 
carried  either  on  a  man's  back  or  on  a  light  cart. 
The  wire  is  light,  strong,  and  pliable,  generally 
a  steel  core  with  copper  sheathing,  and  for  the 
lighter  lines  is  not  even  insulated.  By  the  use 
of  high  frequency  currents  this  bare  wire,  rapidly 
reeled  off  on  the  ground,  constitutes  the  conductor 
for  the  special  'vibrator'  forms  of  telegraph  and 
telephone  instruments  now  used  by  the  united 
States  Signal  Corps. 

The  special  apparatus  used  by  the  Signal  Corps 
exhibits  many  modifications  from  the  accepted 
commercial  practice.  One  of  the  most  important 
of  the  instruments  used  is  the  'buzzer,'  which  is 
constructed  in  forms  suitable  for  regular  service 
or  for  the  field.  It  consists  of  a  telephone  re- 
ceiver and  transmitter,  a^  vibrator  and  mduction 
coil,  condenser,  telegraph  key  and  switches,  and 
four  cells  of  dry  battery.  This  instrument  is 
used  for  connecting  with  rapidly  eonstructed  field 


aONAUXO  AND  nBLEaftAPmHO.     844* 


filOHALfi. 


lines  or  for  working  a  regular  wire  under  adverse 
conditions.  The  Signal  Corps  has  also  a  special 
pattern  of  service  telephone,  which  is  constructed 
so  as  to  withstand  rough  usage  in  transit.  The 
telephone  is  also  supplied  in  a  portable  form  for 
field  use,  while  for  special  use  on  telegraph  lines 
there  is  an  instrument  known  as  the  Russell  cut- 
in  telephone,  which  is  very  portable  and  can  be 
used  in  the  field  with  great  facility. 

With  the  telephone  is  used  a  special  form  of 
cart  constructed  of  bicycle  tubing  and  30- 
inch  bicycle  wheels  with  heavy  cushion  rubber 
tires.  The  cart  is  filled  with  an  auto- 
matic spooling  device  for  reeling  up  the  out- 
post cable  and  carries  five  reels  of  cable  and 
one  reel  knapsack  for  use  in  places  where  the  cart 
cannot  penetrate  owing  to  underbrush,  etc.  As 
the  extreme  width  of  the  cart,  measured  at  the 
wheels,  is  only  26  inches,  it  can  follow  any  ordi- 
nary path  through  the  underbrush.  The  weight 
of  the  cart  complete  with  spooling  device,  but 
without  reels,  is  only  63  pounds;  when  loaded 
with  reels  and  reel  Imapsack  the  total  weight  is 
157  poimds.  The  cart  is  well  balanced  upon  its 
axle  by  a  device  which  permits  the  point  of  sup- 
port to  be  changed  to  balance  the  cart  as  the 
distribution  of  weight  is  changed  by  the  cable 
being  run  out.  In  connection  with  the  reel  cart 
a  telephone  kit  is  used,  and  by  attaching  the 
double  connector  of  the  kit  to  one  on  the  frame 
of  the  cart  the  telephone  is  kept  in  circuit  and 
conversation  can  be  kept  up  with  the  home  sta- 
tion. The  cart  with  its  load  can  be  easily  drawn 
by  one  man,  and  by  its  use  it  is  possible  to  con- 
nect outposts  with  the  main  guard  or  brigade 
with  regimental  headquarters,  or  brigade  with 
division  headquarters,  in  a  few  minutes  of  time. 

Signal  balloons  now  form  a  part  of  the  equip- 
ment of  all  armies.  In  the  United  States  service 
they  are  operated  by  the  Signal  Corps.  Several 
successful  ascents  were  made  during  the  Santi- 
ago canopaign  of  the  Spanish- American  War  of 
1898.  For  reconnoitring  purposes  balloons  are 
recognized  as  a  military  necessity.  Information 
is  transmitted  from  the  captive  balloon  by  tele- 
graph or  telephone,  the  wire  being  reeled  off 
during  the  ascent.  From  balloons  photographs 
of  the  enemy's  country,  defenses,  and  communica- 
tions may  also  be  taken  by  the  use  of  telephoto- 
lenses.  Balloons  for  military  reconnaissance 
should  be  of  at  least  18,000  cubic  feet  capacity. 
Gas  for  inflation  is  generally  carried  compressed 
in  steel  cylinders.    See  Aebonautics. 

Wireless  telegraphy  is  now  an  important  sub- 
ject of  experiment  for  purposes  of  military 
signaling.  The  Signal  Corps  of  the  United 
States  Army  has  perfected  its  own  system  and 
has  in  successful  operation  stations  in  San 
Francisco  Harbor  and  elsewhere.  See  Wireless 
Telegraphy.  Consult:  Myer,  A  Manual  of 
Signals  (Washington,  Government  Printing  Of- 
fice, 1879)  ;  Instructions  for  Using  the  Helio- 
graph of  the  Signal  Corps,  U,  8.  Army  (ib., 
1894)  ;  Instruction  for  Signaling,  United  States 
Navy,  1898  (ib.,  1898).  See  Signals,  Marine; 
Army  Organization. 

SIGNALS,  International.  See  Signals, 
Marine,  and  accompanying  Colored  Plate. 

SIGNALS,  Marine.  Marine  signals  now  in 
current  use  may  be  divided  into  three  classes: 
(a)  Day  signals,  (b)  night  signals,  and  (c) 
day  and  night  signals.    Day  signals  consist  of 


set  combinations  of  flags  or  shapes,  moving  com- 
binations of  arms  or  shapes,  or  the  waving  of 
shapes  or  flags.  Hie  use  of  flags  of  various 
shapes  is  wide-spread,  and  is  of  ancient  origin; 
the  Venetians  used  such  signals,  and  there  is 
good  reason  to  believe  that  simple  signals  of  this 
sort  were  used  in  very  ancient  times.  In  1856 
the  British  Government  devised  a  system  of  sig- 
naling by  flags  which  has  been  adopted  by  all 
maritime  nations.  It  formerly  consisted  of  thir- 
teen square  flags,  five  triangular  pennants,  and  a 
swallow-tail  flag.  One  of  the  pennants  was  the 
code  pennant ;  the  other  pennants  and  flags  were 
assigned  to  the  consonants  of  the  alphabet  from 
b  to  w.  On  January,  1901,  by  international 
agreement,  a  new  code  went  into  effect.  It  con- 
sists of  nineteen  square  flags,  two  swallow-tail 
flags,  and  five  pennants  besides  the  code  or  an- 
swering pennant.  These  are  assigned  (except 
the  code  pennant)  to  the  different  letters  of  the 
alphabet.  The  flags  and  pennants  of  the  old 
code  are  retained  with  few  changes,  the  new  ones 
being  additional  to  cover  the  vowels  and  x  and  z. 
The  flags  and  pennants  are  hoisted  singly  or  in 
combinations  of  one,  two,  three,  or  four.  One-flag 
signals  are  important  in  character  and  much 
u^;  two-flag  signals  are  urgent  and  important; 
three- flag  signals  include  all  ordinary  messa^; 
four-flag  signals  signify  geographical  positions 
(seaports,  islands,  bays,  etc.),  alphabetical  spell- 
ing tables,  and  vessels'  distinguishing  numbers. 
The  signification  of  each  combination  of  flags  is 
the  same  in  all  languages,  each  combination  stand- 
ing for  a  complete  message,  a  sentence,  a  phrase, 
or  a  single  word.  A  vessel  using  a  signal  book 
printed  in  English  can  communicate  with  a  Tes- 
sel  using  a  book  printed  in  Italian  as  easily  as 
with  one  using  an  English  book. 

The  spelling  table  may  be  used  between  ves- 
sels having  books  printed  in  languages  using 
Roman  characters.  The  American  ^ition  of  the 
international  signal  code  is  published  by  the 
Hydrographic  Office  of  the  ^avy  Department, 
and  is  divided  into  three  parts.  The  first  con- 
tains urgent  and  important  signals,  signals  for 
tables  of  money,  weights,  etc.,  for  geographic 
positions  (arranged  geographically),  and  a 
table  of  phrases  formed  with  auxiliary  verbs. 
The  second  part,  which  includes  more  than  half 
the  book,  is  an  index.  It  consists  of  a  general 
vocabulary  and  a  geographical  index,  each  al- 
phabetically arranged.  The  third  part  gives 
lists  of  the  United  States  storm-warning,  11  f^ 
saving,  and  time-signal  stations,  and  of  Lloyd's 
signal  stations  throughout  the  world;  it  also 
contains  semaphore  and  distant  signal  codes  and 
the  United  States  Army  and  Navy  and  Morse  wig- 
wag codes. 

In  the  United  States  Navy  the  general  code 
consists  of  ten  rectangular  flags,  corresponding 
to  0,  1,  2,  3,  4,  6,  6,  7,  8,  and  9;  also  a  number 
of  special  flags,  pennants,  etc.  In  most  other 
navies  the  flags  of  the  international  code  are 
utilized. 

The  use  of  shapes  is  common  for  distant  sig- 
nals, as  the  colors  and  patterns  of  flags  cannot 
be  determined  with  certainty  beyond  two  or  three 
miles.  Tliese  shapes  are  cones,  balls,  and  drums, 
supplemented  with  a  square  flag  and  a  pennant 
The  placing  of  movable  arms  in  certain  positions 
is  termed  semaphore  signaling.  Devices  for  sem- 
aphore  signaling  have   been   in   use  for  some 


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SIONALS. 


845 


SION  LANOTTAOE. 


oenturies  at  least;  they  were  called  telegraphs 
and  were  placed  in  sight  of  each  other  to  form 
long  chains  of  communication  across  country. 
The  modem  semaphore  has  two  or  three  arms,  and 
its  use  is  chiefly  at  signal  stations  on  the  coast  or 
on  board  ship.  In  most  navies  a  simple  semaphore 
code  is  arranged  for  two  small  flags,  one  to  be 
held  in  each  hand  of  the  signalmen.  In  the 
United  States  and  British  navies  there  are  seven 
positions — in  the  French  navy,  eight.  These  po- 
sitions of  the  first  named  are:  Right  arm  in- 
clined downward  at  angle  of  45^ ;  same,  horizon- 
tal ;  same,  inclined  upward  at  angle  of  45^ ;  three 
of  the  remaining  positions  are  for  the  left  hand 
at  45"*  downward,  46**  upward,  and  horizontal; 
the  remaining  position  is  either  arm  held  ver- 
tically. In  the  French  code,  the  right  arm  held 
vertically  is  one  position  and  the  left  arm  held 
vertically  is  another.  In  both  codes  the  combi- 
nation of  any  two  ^itions  is  used  in  addition 
to  the  simple  positions.  In  the  United  States 
Army  and  Navy  the  signal  flag  wig-wag  code 
is  used  as  described  under  Sigitaijng  and  TKl- 

EORAPHING,  MHJTABT. 

Night  Sigitals  are  made  with  lights,  rock- 
ets, torches,  etc.  Bj  waving  a  lamp  or  torch  or 
changing  the  direction  of  the  beam  of  a  search- 
light from  side  to  side  the  wig-wag  code  may  be 
used.  In  Very's  night  signals,  which  are  visi- 
ble at  a  distance  of  ten  miles  or  more,  under  fa- 
vorable circumstances,  red  and  green  stars  like 
thoee  in  roman  candles  are  fired  from  pistols  in 
different  combinations,  four  in  each,  and  each 
combination  or  group  of  four  corresponding  to  a 
figure.  Coston's  signals,  consisting  of  differ- 
ent colored  flaming  lights,  were  formerly  used. 
Rockets  and  blue-lights  (q.v.)  are  used  to  at- 
tract attention  and  for  special  purposes.  The 
night  signals  most  in  use  in  the  navies  of  the 
world  are  the  Ardois,  the  invention  of  a  French 
officer  of  tiiat  name,  and  brought  into  general 
use  in  1885-90.  They  consist  oi  double  electric 
lamps — one-half  white  and  one-half  red — ar- 
ranged on  a  cable  extending  up  and  down  one  of 
the  masts.  In  many  foreign  navies  these  lamps 
consist  of  flve  pairs,  but  in  the  United  States  Navy 
there  are  but  four,  and  the  significations  of  the 
wig-wag  code  are  used.  The  lights  are  read 
downward  from  the  masthead,  red  corresponding 
to  1  and  white  corresponding  to  2  of  the  wig-wag 
code;  3  of  the  wig-wag  code  is  replaced  by  a 
special  combination  for  'interval'  or  end  of  a 
word.  These  lights  are  worked  by  a  keyboard, 
and  the  signaling  is  quite  rapid.  In  the  British 
Navy  and  in  some  other  foreign  services  the 
flashing  of  a  white  light  is  used  with  the  Morse 
telegraphic  alphabet,  a  long  flash  signifying  a 
dash  and  a  short  flash  a  dot,  etc. 

The  day  and  night  signals  are  sound  signals 
and  wireless  telegraph  signals.  The  former  are 
composed  of  long  and  shoH  blasts  of  a  whistle  or 
double  and  single  strokes  of  a  bell.  With  wire- 
less telegraph  systems  the  usual  telegraphic  code 
is  employed. 

Some  simple  signals  are  used  in  'Hules  of  the 
Road  at  Sea."  (See  Rules  of  the  Road.)  Sig- 
nals of  distress  are  of  various  kinds,  such  as 
hoisting  the  colors,  i.e.  the  national  flag,  upside 
down,  firing  guns,  rockets,  blue-lights,  etc.  Con- 
sult Instructions  for  Signaling,  United  States 
Tfavy  (Washington,  1898).    See  Signaling  and 

TKUCGBAPHINOy  MiLITAST;   PTBOTBCHNIOS. 


SIGNALS,  Railway. 
Railways. 


See  Block  Signals; 


SIGNATT7BE  (ML.  signatura,  from  Lat.  sig- 
nare,  to  sign,  from  aignum,  sign,  mark,  token).  In 
its  broadest  legal  sense,  the  name  of  a  person, 
written  or  printed,  or  a  sign  or  mark  intended 
to  represent  his  name,  and  either  executed  or 
affixed  by  the  person  himself  or  adopted  by 
him  as  his  own.  It  became  common  to  sign  legal 
instruments  after  the  Statute  of  Frauds,  29  Car. 
II.,  c.  3.  Previous  to  that  time  a  person  in- 
tending to  bind  himself  by  a  written  instrument 
usually  affixed  his  seal.  In  most  jurisdictions  a 
printed  name  may  be  adopted  by  a  person  as  his 
signature,  and  thereon  a  stamp  making  an 
impression  of  the  name  on  paper,  in  eith;!r 
written  or  printed  form,  may  be  employed. 
Where  a  person  wishing  to  execute  a  written 
instrument  is  unable  to  write,  it  is  customary 
to  have  some  one  write  his  name,  and  to  have 
him  make  a  cross  mark  between  his  Christian 
name  and  surname.  The  person  who  writes  the 
name  usually  writes  above  the  mark  the  word 
Tiis,'  and  below  the  word  'mark,'  and  also 
acts  as  a  witness  to  identify  the  mark.  Where 
the  illiterate  person  is  very  awkward,  the  per- 
son who  writes  the  name  may  also  make  the 
mark,  while  the  former  touches  the  pen,  but 
there  are  decisions  to  the  effect  that  this  is  not 
necessary.  In  some  jurisdictions  a  person's 
name  written  by  another  may  be  adoptea  by  the 
former  as  his  signature,  without  going  through 
the  form  of  affi^xing  a  mark.  A  signature  is 
usually  affixed  at  the  end  of  an  instrument,  but 
it  is  generally  held  in  the  absence  of  statute 
that  it  may  be  elsewhere  if  clearly  intended  as 
such.  The  mere  recital  of  a  person's  name  in 
the  body  of  an  instrument  will  not  constitute  a 
signature.  Where  a  statute  requires  an  instru- 
ment to  be  subscribed,  as  in  case  of  a  will,  the 
signature  must  be  at  the  end,  or  the  instrument 
will  be  a  nullity.    See  Seal. 

SIGNATTTBE  (in  music).    See  Key;  Time. 

SIGN  LANGUAGE.  A  system  of  intertribal 
gesture  communication  among  the  American  In- 
dians used  by  all  the  plains  tribes  in  default  of 
a  common  language,  and  practically  the  same 
from  Canada  to  the  Mexican  border.  In  many 
respects  it  forms  the  manual  counterpart  of  the 
Indian  pictograph  system  as  displayed  in 
their  buckskin  paintings  or  birch-bark  records. 
The  signs  are  so  perfectly  based  upon  natural 
ideas  or  the  things  of  eveiy-day  Indian  life 
or  custom  as  to  be  readily  interpreted  by  a 
member  of  any  of  the  tribes  using  the  sys- 
tem. Thus,  coW  is  indicated  by  a  shivering 
motion  of  the  hands  in  front  of  the  body.  By 
an  extension  of  the  idea,  according  to  the 
context  of  the  conversation,  the  same  sign 
indicates  the  cold  season,  i.e.  udnter,  and  as 
the  Indians  count  by  winters  it  may  mean 
also  a  year,  A  slow  turning  of  the  hand  upon 
the  wrist  indicates  vacillation,  doubt,  maybe. 
A  modification  of  this,  with  quicker  movement, 
is  the  question  sign.  Fatigue  is  indicated  by  a 
downward  sweep  of  the  hands,  with  index  ex- 
tended, giving  the  idea  of  collapse.  Strong, 
8tren0h,  are  indicated  by  the  motion  of  break- 
ing a  stout  stick;  had,  by  a  motion  of  con- 
temptuously throwing  away;  foolish,  by  a  cir- 
cling movement  of  the  fingers  in  front  of  the 


8ION  LAHOTJAOB. 


846 


8ICHBBEE. 


forehead,  i.e.  'rattle-brained;'  song,  singing,  by 
the  same  motion  next  the  side  of  the  head,  to 
indicate  the  shaking  of  the  rattle  which  usually 
accompanies  the  song.  As  the  song  and  rattle 
are  almost  invariable  accompaniments  of  re- 
ligious ceremonials  and  medical  conjurations, 
the  same  sign  may  also  mean  sacred,  religion, 
doctor,  medicine,  according  to  the  context. 
White  mwn  is  indicated  by  drawing  the  fingers 
across  the  forehead,  typifying  the  wearing  of 
a  hat,  and  there  is  a  special  sign  for  Indian  and 
for  each  tribe,  as  well  as  for  particular  rivers, 
mountains,  etc.  Two  fingers  extended  at  the 
side  of  the  head  indicate  a  icolf,  as  represent- 
ing the  erect  ears ;  the  same  two  extended  fingers 
drawn  across  in  front  of  the  body  indicate  the 
dog,  as  the  former  carrier  of  the  Indian  travois; 
the  same  fingers  brought  down  crossed  over  the 
extended  index  fijiger  of  the  other  hand  indicate 
the  horse,  as  the  riding  animal. 

The  signs  follow  the  regular  order  of  the 
words  in  the  Indian  sentence,  and  in  many  cases 
may  be  made  with  one  hand  or  both  at  the  will 
of  the  user.  The  general  system  is  so  perfectly 
elaborated  that  there  is  a  sign  or  combination 
for  every  idea  in  the  Indian  category,  and  so 
universally  understood  among  the  plains  tribes 
that  a  dozen  Sioux  from  Dakota  may,  and  fre- 
quently dO;  make  a  long  visit  to  the  Cheyenne 
or  Kiowa  in  Oklahoma,  making  themselves  per- 
fectly at  home  with  their  hosts,  learning  all 
the  news  and  telling  their  own,  all  through  the 
medium  of  the  sign  language,  without  having 
so  many  as  ten  spoken  words  in  common.  There 
is  also  a  system  of  long-distance  signaling  by 
means  of  smoke,  riding  in  a  circle,  waving  a 
blanket,  etc.,  in  certam  ways,  for  particular 
occasions.  Consult:  Mallery,  Collection  of  Ges- 
ture-Signs and  Signals  of  the  North  American 
Indians,  tcith  Some  Comparisons  (Washington, 
1880)  ;  Clark,  Indian  Sign  Language  (Phila- 
delphia, 1884).    See  Gesture  Language. 

SIOKOBELU,  86'ny6-r6in*,  LuQA  (1441- 
1523).  An  Italian  painter  of  the  Renaissance, 
usually  classed  with  the  Umbrian  school,  but  his 
affinities  are  rather  Florentine.  He  was  bom  at 
Cortona,  studying  first  under  Piero  della  Fran- 
cesca  at  Arezzo,  and  at  an  early  period  he  came 
under  the  influence  of  Pollajuolo  at  Florence.  His 
life  was  chiefly  spent  in  peregrinations  among  the 
hill  towns  of  Tuscany  and  Umbria,  where  most 
of  his  work  was  done.  His  first  recorded  activity 
(1470)  is  in  his  native  town,  but  at  an  early 
period  he  worked  independently  at  Florence,  ex- 
ecuting while  there  the  "Pan,"  now  in  the  Berlin 
Museum,  for  Lorenzo  de*  Medici — a  fine  example 
of  his  treatment  of  the  nude — and  a  Madonna, 
now  in  the  Uffizi.  Among  other  works  in 
Florence  belonging  to  this  early  period  is  the 
fine  portrait  of  a  man  in  the  Torregiani  Palace. 
Other  well-laiown  altar  pieces  are  a  grand  Madon- 
na with  Saints  in  the  Cathedral  of  Perugia 
(1489),  and  the  Bicci  altar-piece  in  San  Agos- 
tino,  and  Siena  (1498).  Many  of  the  small 
towns  of  Umbria,  like  Arezzo,  Citta  di  Castello, 
and  Tuscany,  possess  fine  examples  of  his  work. 

But  Luca's  principal  works  are  his  frescoes, 
which  far  transcend  his  panel  paintings.  He 
was  one  of  the  painters  selected  to  decorate  the 
Sistine  (Dhapel  with  subjects  from  the  "Life  of 
Moses,"  and  his  fresco  is  esteemed  by  some  the 


best  of  the  entire  aeries.  About  the  same  time 
he  received  a  conunission  for  the  deooration  of 
the  sacristy  of  the  Church  of  Loreto  with  sub- 
jects from  the  New  Testament,  whidi  show  the 
influence  of  Melozzo  da  Forti.  At  Siena  he  also 
painted  in  fresco  a  series  of  anti<^ue  subjects  in 
the  Petrucci  Palace,  and  in  the  neighboring  Con- 
vent of  Mont  Oliveto  (1497)  eight  large  subjects 
from  the  "Life  of  Saint  Benedict."  His  success 
in  these  commissions  led  to  his  great  master- 
piece, the  frescoes  of  the  Chapel  of  the  Madonna 
in  Orvieto  Cathedral  (1499-1509).  The  subject 
represented  is  the  "End  of  the  World;"  in  eight 

Eanels  of  the  ceiling  are  Christ  and  the  heavenly 
ierarchy,  while  eight  frescoes  of  the  wall  cul- 
minate in  the  "Last  Judgment."  Never,  psr- 
haps,  in  the  history  of  art  has  the  human  figure 
been  used  to  express  such  varied  frenzy  and 
emotion. 

Under  the  pontificate  of  Julius  II.  and  a^in 
in  1613  he  visited  Rome,  but  was  unable  to  make 
headway  against  the  rising  genius  of  Michel- 
angelo and  Raphael.  He  retired  to  Cortona, 
where  he  was  held  in  the  highest  honor,  and 
continued  at  his  craft,  his  work  in  no  wise  de- 
teriorating, until  his  death,  June  14,  1523.  His 
last  works  are  principally  in  Cortona  and  tiie 
vicinity,  like  the  "PietA"  (1502)  and  the  "Last 
Supper"  (1612)  in  the  Cathedral;  an  excellent 
example  is  the  fine  "Madonna"  with  the  Trinity, 
two  archangels,  and  saints  in  the  Uflfixi. 

Signorelli's  great  importance  in  Italian  art 
consists  in  his  having  been  the  first  to  use  the 
nude  body  as  the  chief  means  of  expression.  He 
expresses  emotion  by  means  of  muscular  move- 
ment and  construction,  the  faces  being  only  typi- 
cal of  general  emotion.  He  also  introduced  the 
use  of  the  human  body  as  a  purely  decorative 
motive,  foreshadowing  Michelangelo,  whom  he 
undoubtedly  influenced.  In  his  work  the  draw- 
ing, composition^  and  action  are  all  excellent, 
and  he  shows  also  great  strength  of  conception; 
but  the  effect  of  his  painting  is  often  marred  by 
its  crude  color.  Consult:  Vischer^  Luca  Signo- 
relli  und  die  italienische  Renaissance  (Leipzig, 
1879)  ;  the  same  author's  article  in  Dohme, 
Kunst  und  KUnstler  (Engl,  trans.,  London, 
1880) ;  and  Antwell,  Luca  Signorelli  (London, 
1899). 

SIGOTTBHEY,  slg^Sr-nl,  Lydia  [Huinur] 
(1791-1866).  An  American  poetess  and  philan- 
thropist, bom  in  Norwich,  Cionn.  She  was  one 
of  the  first  wcnnen  in  America  to  plan  for  higher 
female  education.  She  established  a  select  scnool 
for  young  ladies  at  her  birthplace  in  1809,  and 
in  1814  at  Hartford.  This  she  kept  until  her 
marriage,  in  1819,  with  Charles  oigoumey,  a 
Hartford  merchant.  Her  first  published  book 
was  Moral  Pieces  in  Prose  and  Verse  (1815). 
Altogether  she  published  over  fifty  books.  Her 
autobiographical  Letters  of  Life  appeared  post- 
humously (1866).  In  addition  to  the  long  list 
of  her  separate  works,  Mrs.  Sigoumey  edited 
numerous  juvenile  and  religious  publications, 
and  contributed  widely  to  periodicals.  Some  oi 
her  poems,  such  as  Indian  Names,  are  still  read- 
able, but  the  mass  of  her  poetry  is  characterized 
by  a  "fatal  facility." 

SIGS^EE,  Chablbs  Dwight  (1846-).  An 
American  naval  officer,  bom  at  Albany.  N.  T. 
He  graduated  at  the  Naval  Academy  in  1863, 


8I08BEE. 


847 


SIXHEL 


was  assigned  to  the  Gulf  Squadron,  and  took 
part  in  the  battle  of  Mobile  Bay.  In  1865  he 
was  transferred  to  the  North  Atlantic  Squadron, 
and  participated  in  the  bombardment  and  the 
capture  of  Fort  Fisher.  From  1874  to  1878  he 
was  employed  in  exploring  the  bottom  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  because  of  the  improve- 
ments which  he  introduced  in  this  work  re- 
ceived the  order  of  the  Red  Eagle  of  Prussia 
and  a  gold  medal.  He  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  commander  in  1882,  and  to  that  of  cap- 
tain in  1897.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  as- 
signed to  the  command  of  the  battleship  Maine, 
which,  while  still  under  his  command,  was  de- 
stroyed in  the  harbor  of  Havana,  Cuba,  on 
February  15,  1898.  On  this  occasion  he  dis- 
played great  courage  and  coolness  and  was 
widely  commended  for  his  self-restraint  in  ask- 
ing that  the  American  people  suspend  judg- 
ment until  a  careful  investigation  should  show 
where  the  responsibility  lay.  During  the  war 
against  Spain  he  commanded  the  auxiliary 
cruiser  Saint  Paul,  From  September,  1898,  to 
January,  1900,  he  commanded  the  battleship 
TexctSy  and  was  then  appointed  chief  officer  of 
naval  intelligence,  a  member  of  the  Naval  Con- 
struction Board  and  of  the  Naval  General  Board. 
He  wrote  Deep  Sea  Sounding  and  Dredging,  U.  S. 
Coast  Survey  (1880),  and  Personal  Narrative 
of  the  Battleship  Maine  (1899). 

8iaX7BD,  sS'gprd.  The  hero  of  the  Norse 
Eddas,  corresponding  to  the  German  Siegfried 
of  the  Nihelungenlied  (q.v.). 

SXaUBBSSON,  8§'ggrd-8dn,  J6n  (1811-79). 
An  Icelandic  scholar  and  politician,  bom  at  Kafn- 
sevri.  Northwest  Iceland.  For  several  years  he 
was  archivist,  and  in  1851  was  made  president 
of  the  Icelandic  Archceological  Society.  In  1845, 
when  the  Danish  Government  granted  the  refis- 
tablishment  of  the  Althing,  the  Icelandic  na- 
tional assembly,  he  was  made  its  Speaker,  and  it 
was  mainly  due  to  his  exertions  that  Iceland 
obtained  practical  home  rule  in  1874.  His  pub- 
lications include  Diplomatarium  Jslandicum, 
87^126^,  and  Lovsammling,  1096-1859,  a  col- 
lection of  laws  (17  vols.,  1853-77). 

SIGWABTy  a^vart,  Chbistoph  von  (1830 
— ).  A  German  philosophical  writer,  bom  at 
Tiibingen.  Educated  in  theology  and  philos- 
ophy, he  was  professor  in  the  seminary  at 
Blaubeuren  from  1859  to  1863,  and  in  1865  was 
made  professor  of  philosophy  at  TObingen.  His 
publications  include:  Iflrich  Zwingli:  der 
Charakter  seiner  Theologie,  mit  hesonderer  RUok- 
sicht  auf  Pious  von  Mirandola  dargestellt 
(1885) ;  Spinozas  neuentdeckter  Traktat  von 
Oott,  dem  Menschen  und  dessen  Oliickseligkeit 
(1866)  ;  the  particularly  well-known  Logik  (2d 
ed.  1888-93;  Eng.  translation  1894);  Kleine 
Schnften  (1881);  Vorfragen  der  Eihik  (1886); 
&nd  Die  Impersonalien  (1888). 

STTCA.  The  small  deer  (Cervus  sika)  of  Japan 
and  Northern  China,  having  a  spotted  coat  in 
summer  which  becomes  uniformly  brown  in  win- 
ter. The  antlers  usually  only  have  four  points,  as 
the  bez-tine  is  lacking.  These  deer  are  natives  of 
forested  hills,  and  many  specimens  have  been 
naturalized  in  European  parks.  The  *Mdnchu- 
rian*  deer  is  probably  only  a  larger  variety;  but 
two  or  three  other  valid  species  belong  to  the 
sika  group,  of  which  the  best  known  is  that  com- 


mon in  the  mountains  of  Formosa  {Oervua 
taev€Mus ) .  Consult  Lydekker,  Deer  of  All  Lands 
(London,  1898). 

SIXES,  Bill.  A  brutal,  hardened  burglar  in 
Dickens's  Oliver  TuHst,  who  murders  his  com- 
panion, Nancy,  and  is  strangled  in  an  attempt  to 
escape  pursuit. 

SIKOSIM.     A  native  State  of  India.     See 

SiKKIM. 

SIKHS,  seks  (Hind.,  from  Skt.  Hfya,  disci- 
ple). The  term  applied  to  a  religious  com- 
munity of  which  the  Punjab,  in  Northwestern 
India,  is  the  principal  seat. 

From  the  time  of  the  tenth  pontificate  the  sect 
called  itself  the  KhAlsd,  *the  property'  (of  God). 
At  first  the  Sikhs  were  merely  a  religious  sect 
affected  by  Mohammedan  influences.  Their  re- 
ligon  was  a  deism  tinctured  with  superstition. 
From  the  energy  which  they  developed  under  op- 
pression, and  their  proselytizing  enthusiasm,  the 
Sikhs  became,  by  degrees,  a  formidable  nation- 
ality. Their  founder,  Nanak,  was  bom  in  1469, 
in  the  vicinity  of  Lahore,  and  died  in  1539.  To 
him  succeeded,  in  turn,  nine  pontiffs,  each  of 
whom,  like  himself,  is  popularly  denominated 
guru,  or  teacher.  These  were  Angad,  Amardas, 
Ramdas,  Arjun,  Hargovind,  Harray,  Harkrishna, 
Teg  Bahadar,  and  finally  Govind. 

The  aim  of  Nanak  was  religious  and  humani- 
tarian, and  designed  to  combine  Hindus  and  Mo- 
hammedans into  one  brotherhood.  His  three  im- 
mediate successors  held  themselves  aloof  from 
political  complications.  Arjun,  however,  not 
content  with  signalizing  himself  as  the  compiler 
of  the  Adi  Oranih  (q.v.),  and  as  the  founder  of 
Amritsar,  the  holy  city  of  the  Sikhs,  rendered 
himself  conspicuous  as  a  partisan  of  the  rebel- 
lious prince  Khusru,  son  of  Jahangir.  Hargo- 
vind, who  succeeded  Arjun,  called  the  Sikhs 
to  arms,  led  them  in  person  to  battle,  and 
became  an  active  and  useful,  though  some- 
times refractory,  adherent  of  the  Great  MoguL 
against  whom  his  predecessor  had  plotted. 
Harray  subsequently  espoused  the  part  of 
Dara  Shukoh,  when  contending  with  his  brothers 
for  the  throne  of  India.  Harkrishna,  son 
of  Harray,  died  a 
child,  and  was  only 
nominally  a  guru. 
Teg  Bahadar  was 
executed  as  a  rebel 
in  1675.  The  chief 
motive  that  insti- 
gated his  son  Go- 
vind, the  tenth  of 
the  teachers,  was, 
with  some  probabil- 
ity, a  desire  to 
avenge  the  ignomin- 
ious death  of  his 
father.  He  resolved 
to  combat  both  the 
Mohammedan  power 
and  the  Mohamme- 
dan religion.  Hin- 
duism likewise  fell 
under  his  ban.  God 
he  inculcated,  is  not  to  be  found  save  in  humility 
and  sincerity.  In  what  measure  he  was  a  man  of 
thought  is  evinced  by  his  legacy  to  his  co-religion- 
ists, the  second  volume  of  the  Sikh  scriptures. 


SIKA  AHTLBBS. 


848 


8ILAOB. 


which  teaches  that  a  Sikh  is  to  worship  one  God, 
to  eschew  superstition,  and  to  practice  strict  mo- 
rality, but  equally  is  to  live  by  the  sword.  Govind 
was  assassinated  in  1708.  His  successor  Banda, 
after  three  cruel  massacres  of  his  Mogul  oppo- 
nents, was  himself  slain  in  1716.  After  his  death 
the  government  of  the  Khalsa  passed  into  the 
han'd  of  the  Akalis,  military  zealots  who  in  1764 
had  become  the  rulers  of  the  Punjab.  In  the  early 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century  Ranjit  Singh 
(q.v.)  built  up  a  powerful  Sikh  monarchy,  which 
in  addition  to  the  Punjab  embraced  Kashmir, 
and  which  became  a  formidable  neighbor  to  the 
British.  Six  years  after  his  death  (1839)  the 
British  engaged  in  the  First  Sikh  War  ( 1845-46) , 
in  which  their  forces  were  led  to  victory  by  Sir 
Hugh  Gough  (q.v.),  and  which  secured  to  the 
East  India  Company  the  possession  of  a  great 
portion  of  the  Sikh  territory.  The  Second  Sikh 
War  (1848-49),  in  which  Sir  Hugh  Gough  again 
commanded  the  British  forces,  terminated  in  the 
submission  of  the  Sikhs,  and  was  followed  by 
the  annexation  of  the  Punjab  to  British  India. 
The  Khalsa  ceased  to  exist.  The  Sikhs  are  now 
divided  into  different  religious  orders,  such  as 
the  Udasis,  who  renounce  the  Granth,  the  'Sons 
of  Nanak,'  the  Suthres,  'pure,'  and  the  Divine 
Sadhs,  or  'mad  saints.' 

According  to  the  census  of  1901  there  were 
then  2,195,268  Sikhs  in  India,  1,517,019  being  in 
the  Punjab.  Consult:  Malcolm,  Sketch  of  the 
Sikha  (London,  1812)  ;  Cunningham,  History  of 
the  Sikha  (ib.,  1849)  ;  Trumpp,  The  Adi  Granth 
or  the  Holy  Scriptures  of  the  Sikha,  translated 
from  the  original  Ourmukhi  (ib.,  1877)  ;  id..  Die 
Religion  der  Sikha  (Leipzig,  1881) ;  Gough  and 
Innes,  The  Sikha  and  the  Sikh  Wara  (London, 
1897). 

SI-SIANG9  Sevang',  or  West  River.  The 
most  important  river  of  Southwestern  China.  It 
rises  in  the  Province  of  Yun-nan  near  Nan-ning 
Hien  (or  Ka-ching-fu),  flows  through  a  general- 
iy  mountainous  country  in  a  tortuous  course 
through  Yun-nan,  Kwang-si,  and  Kwang-tung 
for  1650  miles  to  the  South  Sea  (Map:  China, 
D  7 ) .  It  receives  many  tributaries,  chiefly  from 
the  right,  the  most  important  being  the  YU-kiang 
or  Melancholy  River.  Near  Sam-shui  (q.v.)  the 
stream  divides,  the  smaller  portion  flowing  east 
and,  after  receiving  the  waters  of  the  Pe-kiang 
or  North  River,  being  known  as  the  Chu-kiang  or 
Pearl  River,  on  which  the  city  of  Canton  is  situ- 
ated. The  main  body  of  the  waters  of  the  Si- 
kiang  continues  its  course  west  of  the  Chu-kiang 
delta,  breaking  up  into  several  channels.  The 
estuary  is  75  miles  wide.  The  upper  courses  are 
obstructed  by  many  rapids.  From  Sam-shui  to 
Wu-chow  it  is  navigable  for  vessels  drawing  not 
more  than  eight  feet,  while  lower  down  the 
largest  vessels  may  float. 

SIKKIM  or  Snnmc,  slk^hn.  A  native 
State  in  the  northeast  of  India,  feudatory  to  Ben- 
gal. It  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  northeast  by 
Tibet,  on  the  west  by  Nepal,  and  on  the  south- 
east by  Bhutan  (Map:  India,  E  3).  Area,  2818 
square  miles;  population,  in  1891,  30,458;  in 
1901,  59,000.  It  is  on  the  southern  slope  of  the 
Himalaya  range,  Kunchinjinga  in  the  north  hav- 
ing an  altitude  of  28,000  feet.  It  is  drained 
into  the  Brahmaputra  by  the  Tista.  There  are 
valuable  forests  of  oal^  walnut,  chestnut,  and 


other  trees.  Copper  is  mined,  rice,  maize,  millet, 
cotton,  tea,  oranges,  and  ot^er  fruits  are  cul- 
tivated, and  there  is  an  increasing  trade  import- 
ing cotton  piece  goods  and  tobacco,  and  export- 
ing grain  and  general  agricultural  produce.  The 
natives  are  of  Mongolian  origin;  their  laqgnage 
is  a  Tibetan  dialect  and  their  religion  Lamaism; 
they  call  themselves  Rong,  but  are  known  to 
the  Gurkhas  as  Lepchas.  Sikkim  was  con- 
quered by  the  Gurkhas  in  1789,  but  after  the 
Nepal  war  in  1814  the  independence  of  the 
Raja  of  Silddm  was  guaranteed  for  his  coopera- 
tion with  the  British.  He  ceded  Darjiling  to  the 
British  in  1836,  and  opened  his  territory  to  their 
trade  in  1861.  His  successor,  opposing  the  Indian 
Government,  was  kept  under  surveillance  in  India, 
but  was  reinstated  in  1895,  with  a  British  oflSoer 
as  resident  and  adviser.  In  1889  the  Chinese  by 
treaty  recognized  the  British  protectorate  over 
Sikkim.    Capital,  Tumlung. 

SILAGB  (from  ailo,  Sp.  ailo,  silo,  from  Lai 
airua,  from  Gk.  aipo^,  airoa,  ffeipic,  aeiroa,  pit  for 
com),  or  Ensilage.  A  general  name  applied  to 
green  crops  packed  and  preserved  under  pressure 
in  specially  constructed  chambers  (silos)  or  in 
stacks  (stack  silos),  in  each  of  which  they  on- 
dergo  fermentation.  The  preservation  of  green 
crops  in  silos  possibly  commenced  about  the  year 
1800,  and  in  the  United  States  about  1875,  since 
when  the  use  of  silage  has  greatly  extended. 
The  first  silos  made  in  the  United  States  were 
of  stone  or  brick,  thick-walled  and  lined  with  a 
smooth  coat  of  cement.  Since  these  were  ex- 
pensive, wooden  silos  were  tried,  and  were  found 
to  give  satisfactory  results  at  much  less  cost. 
Silos  should  be  deep  with  smooth  walls,  with  as 
few  comers  as  possible,  preferably  round  or 
square,  and  to  be  more  efficient  should  be  as  near- 
ly air-tight  as  practicable.  If  made  of  wood  the 
walls  may  be  covered  with  gas  tar. 

A  cubic  foot  of  silage  under  average  condi- 
tions will  weigh  35  to  40  pounds.  Ordinarily, 
this  amount  with  other  food  is  enough  for  one 
cow's  daily  ration,  and  at  this  rate  one  cow  will 
consume  about  4  tons  in  200  days.  Allowing  for 
waste  and  emergency  conditions,  50  tons  is  con- 
sidered necessary  for  a  herd  of  10  cows  for  200 
days.  For  a  round  silo,  30  feet  deep.  King  gives 
the  following  dimensions  for  herds  of  different 
sizes,  estimating  5  square  feet  of  surface  silage 
for  1  cow: 

Feet 

80  cows,  160  squan  feet.  Inside  diameter  silo  U 

40     "     aoo  "  ••               ••           16 

60      "      250  "  ••                  ••             18 

60      "      300  "  "                  ••             199& 

70      ••      850  ••  "                  "             im 

80      "      400  "  "                  ••            3394 

90      "      460  •*  ••                  •»             91 

100      "      600  ••  "                  ••             36)4 

The  plants  most  available  for  silage  in  the 
United  States  are  Indian  com,  red  clover,  rye, 
oats,  wheat,  sorghum,  the  millets,  alfalfa,  soy 
beans,  and  cow-peas.  Com  is  considered  most 
satisfactory.  The  entire  plant  should  be  en- 
siled, the  best  time  to  cut  this  and  other  crops 
being  at  maturity  before  the  leaves  turn  brown 
or  the  water  content  begins  to  diminish.  Com 
fodder  should  be  cut  into  pieces  one  or  two 
inches  long  when  the  silo  is  filled,  otherwise  the 
stalks  do  not  pack  closely  and  are  not  convenient 
to  handle.  Silage  should  be  well  distributed  and 
well  packed  along  the  sides  and  in  the  comers. 
If  cut  in  a  yeiy  dry  season  and  not  veiy  juicy, 


StLAGB. 


849 


SILAS. 


considerable  water  should  be  poured  on  the  silage 
after  tbe  silo  is  filled.  After  filling,  some  per- 
sons prevent  waste  from  the  spoiling  of  the  top 
layer  by  feeding  at  once.  Others  place  6  inches 
to  1  foot  of  chaff  or  cut  straw  on  the  silage 
to  prevent  decay,  still  others  place  a  layer  of 
tarred  paper  smoothly  over  the  surface  before 
piling   on  the  straw. 

Wben  green  materials  are  ensiled  various 
changes  take  place.  A  portion  of  the  carbo- 
hydrates, and  to  a  less  extent  the  albuminoids 
of  tbe  plant,  are  broken  down  and  acids  and  other 
simple  bodies  are  formed.  At  the  same  time, 
oxygen  is  absorbed  and  carbon  dioxide  is  pro- 
duced. These  changes  result  in  a  loss  of  ma- 
terial which  ranges  from  4  to  40  per  cent,  of  the 
total  amount  originally  present.  The  chemical 
changes  are  accompanied  by  the  production  of 
heat,  the  temperature  sometimes  rising  as  high 
as  66""  Centigrade. 


Generally  speaking,  3  tons  of  silage  are  equal 
in  feeding  value  to  1  ton  of  hay.  Chi  this  basis 
a  much  larger  amount  of  digestible  food  can  be 
secured  from  an  acre  of  silage  com  than  from  an 
acre  of  hay.  The  food  equivalent  to  4  tons  of 
hay  c^  easily  be  produced  on  an  acre  of  land 
planted  to  com.  Crops  may  be  more  compactly 
and  economically  stored  as  silage  than  as  hay. 
A  silo  of  180  tons  capacity  will  contain  silage 
equivalent  to  54  tons  of  dry  matter  in  the  same 
space.  Less  than  23  tons  of  red  clover  hay,  con- 
taining less  than  20  tons  of  dry  matter,  can  be 
stored  in  the  same  space  in  a  bam. 

Consult:  Plumb,  Silos  and  Silage,  United 
States  Department  Agricultural  Farmers'  Bulle- 
tin 32;  Thurber,  Silos  and  Ensilage  (New  York, 
1886)  ;  Bailey,  Ensilage  (New  York,  1881) ;  Col- 
lingwood,  Conserved  Cattle  Food  (New  York, 
1892)  ;  Cook,  Silo  and  Silage,  Michigan  Experi- 
ment Station  Bulletin  90,  ser.  6;  Milk,  Silos,  En- 


CoMPosiTioK  OF  Different  Kinds  of  SiijAOB 


miD  or  BiiiAos 


Com 

Sorgfhum 

Red  clover 

Soybean 

Cowpea  Tine 

Field  pea  vine 

Mixture  of  cowpea  and  807  bean  Tines.. 
Rye- 


Barnyard  millet  and  soy  bean 

Com  and  soy  bean 

Hatnre   com,   sunflower  heads,   and   horse 
beans  (Robertson's  silage  mixture) 


Nitrogen- 

erode 
fibre 

.    Water 

Protein 

Fat 

free 

extract 

Per  cent. 

Per  ceDt. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Percent. 

79.1 

1.7 

0.8 

11.0 

6.0 

76.1 

0.8 

0.3 

16.3 

6.4 

72.0 

4.2 

1.2 

11.6 

8.4 

74.2 

4.1 

2.2 

6.9 

9.7 

79.3 

2.7 

1.6 

7.6 

6.0 

60.1 

6.9 

1.6 

26.0 

13.0 

69.8 

3.8 

1.8 

11.1 

9.6 

80.8 

2.4 

0.3 

9.2 

6.8 

79.0 

2.8 

1.0 

7.2 

7.2 

76.0 

2.6 

0.8 

11.1 

7.2 

69.7 

4.0 

1.9 

16.7 

6.1 

Ash 


Per  cent. 
1.4 
1.1 
2.6 
2.8 
2.9 
8.6 
4.6 
1.6 
2.8 

a.4 


1.6 


As  shown  hy  analysis,  the  cured  silage  does  not 
differ  materially  in  composition  from  the  green 
crop.  It  is  therefore  essentially  coarse  fodder. 
Silage  from  legumes  is  naturally  richer  in  pro- 
tein than  that  from  com  or  other  cereals.  In 
some  of  the  mixtures,  notably  Robertson's  silage 
mixture,  the  attempt  is  made  to  approximate 
more  nearly  a  balanced  ration  than  is  the  case 
with  either  material  alone.  Com  silage  has 
the  following  average  coefficient  of  digestibility: 
Dry  matter,  70.8;  protein,  56.0  j  fat,  82.4; 
nitrogen-free  extract,  76.1;  crude  fibre,  70.0;  and 
ash,  30.3.  C5ow-pea  silage :  Dry  matter,  59.6 ;  pro- 
tein, 57.5;  fat,  62.6;  nitrogen-free  extract,  72.5; 
cmde  fibre,  52.0;  and  ash,  30.3.  As  regards  di- 
gestibility silage  compares  favorably  with  the 
green  crop  from  which  it  is  made  or  the  corre- 
sponding dry  fodder. 

The  first  general  use  of  silage  as  a  stock  food 
was  -with  dairy  cattle.  The  extensive  erection 
of  silos  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States,  how- 
ever, has  resulted  in  its  adoption  by  many  feeders 
of  horses,  sheep,  and  beef  cattle.  Animals  usual- 
ly eat  sound  silage  with  a  relish,  and  reject  it 
only  when  decay  is  present.  For  milch  cattle 
it  seems  especially  well  adapted,  and  the  silo  has 
proved  an  important  and  economical  addition  to 
the  dairy  farm.  Dairy  cattle  should  be  fed  rela- 
tively small  amounts  of  silage  until  they  be- 
come accustomed  to  it.  In  changing  from  grass 
or  dry  feed  to  silage,  if  a  regular  ration  is  given, 
the  silage  will  perhaps  slightly  affect  the  taste 
of  the  milk  for  a  few  milkings,  and  if  the  change 
is  from  dry  feed  it  may  cause  too  great  activity 
of  the  bowels.  Its  use  as  a  food  for  swine  has 
not  been  found  successful  at  the  agricultural  'ex- 
periment stations. 


silage,  and  Silage  (New  York,  1895);  Woods, 
Ensilage — Its  Origin,  History,  aind  Practice  (Nor- 
wich, England,  1883)  ;  Hand  Book  of  Experiment 
Station  Work,  United  States  Department  Agricul- 
ture, Office  of  Experiment  Station  Bulletin,  No. 
15;  King,  Silage  and  the  Construction  of  Modern 
Silos,  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin 
83;  Conn,  Agricultural  Bacteriology  (Philadel- 
phia, 1901). 

SELAO,  sM&^d.  A  town  in  the  State  of  Guan- 
ajuato, Mexico,  14  miles  by  rail  from  the  city  of 
that  name  (Map:  Mexico,  H  7).  It  manufac- 
tures cotton  and  woolen  goods,  and  is  the  centre 
of  a  rich  maize  and  wheat  district.  Its  popula- 
tion, in  1895,  was  15,437. 

SIOiiAS,  or  SILVA1TTTS.  One  of  the  early 
Christians,  mentioned  as  Silas  in  the  Book  of 
Acts,  and  as  Silvanus  in  the  Epistles.  Silas  may 
be  a  contraction  for  Silvanus,  or  Silvanus  may  be 
a  Latin  form  for  the  original  Silas.  He  was 
known  as  a  'prophet'  and  leader  of  the  church 
in  Jerusalem,  and  was  one  of  those  chosen  to 
convey  the  decision  of  that  church  to  the  brethren 
in  Antioch  after  the  council  concerning  Gentile 
converts;  he  remained  in  Antioch  for  some  time 
(Acts  XV.  22,  32-33).  Later,  when  Paul  was 
about  to  begin  the  second  missionary  journey 
an^  had  disagreed  with  Barpabas  regarding 
Mark,  Silas  became  Paul's  companion  (Acts  xv. 
36-41).  He  went  with  Paul  through  Asia 
Minor,  passed  with  him  over  to  Macedonia, 
shared  his  experiences  in  Philippi,  Thessalonica, 
and  Berea  (Acts  xvi.-xvii.  15).  He  remained 
at  Berea  and  joined  Paul  on  his  return  from 
Athens  at  Corinth  (Acts  xvii.  14;  xviii.  5).  Af- 
ter the  close  of  the  second  missionary  journey 


860 


sxLSjflns. 


nothing  more  is  known  of  Silas,  unless,  as  is 

?iute  probable,  he  is  the  person  referred  to  in 
,  Pete?  V.  12,  as  the  'faithful  brother'  of  the 
writer.  Consult  McGiffert,  The  Apoatolio  Age 
(New  York,  1897). 

SILAS  MABNEB,  The  Weaver  of  RXyelob. 

A  story  of  humble  life  by  George  Eliot  (1861), 
considered  by  many  her  finest  work.  Silas,  a 
linen-weaver,  wrongly  accused  of  theft,  leads 
an  isolated,  miserable  existence,  his  one  treasure, 
the  savings  of  years,  being  stolen  by  the  Squire's 
son.  In  its  place,  a  little  child  strays  into  his 
cottage,  and  nils  his  life  with  joy. 

8ILAY,  s^li^  A  town  of  Western  Negros, 
Philippines,  situated  on  the  northwestern  coast 
9  miles  north  of  Baodlod  (Map:  Philippine 
Islands,  G  9).  Population  (estimated),  in  1899, 
14,537. 

SIIiCHEB,  zIlK^Sr,  Fbiedbich  (1789-1860).  A 
German  song-composer,  bom  at  Schnaith,  Wtlrt- 
temberg.  He  studied  with  his  father  and  Auber- 
len,  an  organist  at  Fellbach.  He  taught  music 
while  residing  at  Stuttgart  and  in  1817  received 
the  appointment  of  musical  director  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Ttibingen,  which  position  he  held  until 
within  a  few  months  of  his  death.  His 
Sammlung  deutacher  Volkalieder  contains  many 
of  his  songs,  which  have  proved  great  UkVOT- 
ites.  Among  these  are :  "Aennchen  von  Tharau," 
'Iklorgen  musz  ich  fort  von  hier,"  "Ich  weisz  nicht 
was  soil  es  bedeuten,"  "Zu  Strassburg  auf  der 
Schanz."  Among  his  other  works  are  three  books 
of  hymns,  Tiihinger  Liedertafel,  and  Harmome- 
vmd  Composiiionslehre.    He  died  at  Tubingen. 

Sn/CHESTEB.  A  village  in  Northern 
Hampshire,  England,  about  half-way  between 
Reading  and  Basingstoke.  Near  the  modem  vil- 
lage is  the  site  of  the  old  Roman  town  Calleva 
Atrehatum,  The  site  is  inclosed  by  the  remains 
of  the  old  wall  and  broad  ditch,  but  no  other 
ruins  of  the  city  are  visible  above  ground, 
and  the  place  has  long  been  under  cultivation. 
Some  slight  explorations  had  been  made  pre- 
viously, but  the  first  systematic  excavations 
were  attempted  in  1864  by  Joyce,  who  renewed 
his  efforts  from  time  to  time.  In  1890  the  So- 
ciety of  Antiquaries  took  up  the  work,  and  now 
the  greater  part  of  the  ancient  site  has  been  ex- 
plored. The  museum  at  Reading  has  been  chosen 
as  the  depository  of  such  objects  as  can  be  trans- 
ported. The  wall  forms  an  irregular  heptagon, 
of  about  1%  miles  in  circuit.  Six  gates 
have  been  found;  the  main  gates  are  on 
Roman  roads  which  traversed  the  town  from 
north  to  south  and  east  to  west.  In  the  centre 
lay  the  Forum,  an  open  space  surrounded  on 
three  sides  by  colonnades  with  shops  behind  them, 
while  on  the  fourth  was  the  Basilica,  a  hall  270 
feet  long  by  68  feet  wide.  Outside  the  whole 
block  was  a  colonnade  fronting  on  the  street. 
The  streets  divided  the  town  into  a  series  of 
blocks  {insulct) ;  the  houses  were  not  closely 
joined,  but  seem  to  have  stood  in  their  own 
gardens.  They  are  not  of  the  type  of  the  city 
house  of  Italy,  but  consist  of  rooms  opening  from 
a  long  corridor,  or  else  of  three  such  corridors 
about  a  square  court-yard.  One  house  of  large 
size,  and  with  baths  attached,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  an  inn.  Three  temples  have  been  found, 
and  apparently  an  early  Christian  church,  a 
small  building  with  a  nave,  two  aisles,  and  an 


apse,  as  well  as  side  rooms.  The  place  was  thor- 
oughly Romanized,  as  is  proved  by  the  inscnp- 
tions  and  the  art,  in  which  nothing  Celtic  is  dis- 
cernible. The  earlier  excavations  are  reported 
in  Archaologia  (London  Societ}r  of  Antiquaries), 
vols,  xl.,  xlvi.,  and  1.  Beginning  with  vol.  lii. 
(1890)  full  annual  reports  have  been  published, 
well  illustrated  by  plates  and  plans.  For  a  brief 
account  of  the  excavations  through  1898,  see 
The  Claseical  Review,  vol.  xiii.  (London,  1899). 
SILEHE,  st-lg^n6  (Neo-Lat,  from  Lat  SUe- 
nu8,  Gk.  lei'Atfvd^^  Seil^nos,  name  of  a  satyr). 
A  large  genus  of  annual  or  perennial  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Caryophyllacese ;  mostly  natives  of 
the  northern  temperate  zone.  Bladder  campion 
{Silene  Cucuhalua),  a  European  peremiial, 
grows  in  grain  fields  and  dry  pastures,  has  a 
branched  stem  a  foot  high,  bluish-gTeen  leaves, 
panicles  of  white  flowers,  and  an  inflated  calyx. 
The  young  shoots  are  sometimes  used  like  ts- 
paragus,  and  have  a  peculiar  but  agreeable 
flavor,  somewhat  resemblmg  that  of  peas.    Ihej 


^^ 


BLADDBB  OAMPIOK. 

are  best  when  blanched.  Though  recommended 
for  cultivation,  the  plant  has  not  obtained  a 
place  among  warden  plants.  Silene  atellata,  the 
starry  campion  of  the  United  States,  quite 
similar  to  the  moss  campion  {SUene  aoaulis), 
a  little  plant,  with  beautiful  purple  flowers 
growing  in  patches  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  turf, 
is  one  of  the  flnest  ornaments  of  the  higher 
mountains  of  Europe.  It  occurs  also  in  America. 
Many  species  are  popularly  called  catchfly  from 
their  viscidity. 

SILBNT  WOICAK;  The.    See  Eficcene. 

BTUSnsrUB  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Zet^^i^,  fifeOd- 
noa)»  In  Greek  mythology,  one  of  the  Sileni. 
These  are  spirits  of  the  springs,  streams,  and 
luxuriant  marshy  meadows,  companions  of  Diony- 
sus, like  Satyrs.  They  seem  to  belong  to  the 
Asiatic  worship  of  the  wine-god,  and  it  is  in 
Asia  Minor  that  we  flnd  a  or  the  SilenTis  in 
various    legends,    which,    while    showing    the 


8ILEHTJ8. 


851 


BTTiEaTA. 


dnmken,  lascivious  nature,  also  exhibit  a  nobler 
side,  in  which  he  is  the  possessor  of  supernat- 
ural wisdom.  Thus,  after  his  capture  through 
his  love  for  wine,  Silenus  reveals  to  King  Midas 
the  future  and  also  much  other  hidden  wisdom. 
80,  also,  Idarsyas  (q.v.)  appears  as  a  Silenus. 
Silenus  developed  in  the  later  legend  as  a  king 
of  Nysa,  and  as  the  foster-father  of  Dionysus, 
whom  he  accompanied  in  his  ioumeys,  borne 
upon  his  ass,  whose  bray  struck  terror  to  the 
giants  and  other  foes.  Art  represented  him  as 
an  old  man,  bald-headed,  snub-nosed,  with  a  huge 
paunch,  flabby,  wrinkled  skin,  and  usually  in  a 
state  of  jovial  or  helpless  intoxication.  He 
usually  has  beside  him  a  wine-skin,  and,  if  he 
walks,  needs  the  support  of  friendlv  satvrs, 
or  is  held  by  them  upon  his  ass.  The  Sileni 
are  usually  identified  with  those  attendants  of 
Dionysus  who  have  horses'  ears,  tails,  and  hoofs, 
or  even  legs,  and  are  common  on  the  earlier 
Attic  and  Ionic  vases. 

SHiESIA,  sMg^shl-a  (Ger.  SoMesien).  The 
largest  of  the  provinces  of  Prussia.  It  occupies 
the  southeastern  end  of  the  kingdom,  and  is 
bounded  by  the  provinces  of  Posen  and  Branden- 
burg on  the  north,  Russian-Poland  and  Galicia 
on  the  east,  Austrian  Silesia  and  Bohemia  on  the 
south  and  southwest,  and  Saxony  on  the  west 
(Map:  Prussia,  G  3).  Area,  15,568  square  miles. 
The  whole  southwestern  part  is  very  mountain- 
ous. It  is  traversed  by  chains  of  the  Sudetic 
Mountains,  the  Riesengebirge,  and  a  few  other 
ranges.  Its  highest  summits  are  the  Schnee- 
koppe  (5260  feet)  and  the  Grosser  Schneeberg 
(4665  feet).  The  extensive  coal-bearing  high- 
lands lie  east  and  west  of  the  Oder,  and  rise  in 
the  Hochwald,  west  of  the  river,  to  nearly  2790 
feet.  Silesia  is  drained  chiefly  by  the  Oder  and 
its  numerous  tributaries.  The  Vistula  takes  in  a 
small  part  in  the  north.  The  Klodnitz  Canal  is 
the  chief  artificial  waterway  of  the  province. 
There  are  many  mineral  springs. 

The  climate  is  moderate  and  healthful  in  the 
lower  parts,  but  somewhat  raw  in  the  moun- 
tainous regions.  Silesia  is  still  preeminently 
an  agricultural  country.  About  55  per  cent,  of 
the  total  area  is  arable  land,  of  which  about 
two-thirds  is  divided  into  small  holdings,  while 
the  remainder  is  made  up  of  large  estates.  The 
fertile  land  is  found  chiefly  between  the  Oder 
and  the  southwestern  mountain  chains;  most  of 
the  land  east  of  the  river  is  unfit  for  agricul- 
ture. Silesia  stands  next  to  Saxony  among  the 
grain-producing  provinces  of  Prussia.  The  chief 
cereals  are  rye,  oats,  wheat,  and  barley.  Pota- 
toes, different  kinds  of  forage  plants,  beets,  and 
hay  are  also  raised  extensively.  The  forests  are 
very  extensive,  and  cattle-raising  is  an  impor- 
tant branch  of  agriculture. 

Silesia  contains  the  richest  coal  deposits  of 
(Sermany,  and  its  coal  mines  give  occupation  to 
over  93,000  persons  in  1900.  The  output  of 
coal  for  the  same  year  was  nearly  30,000,000 
tons,  or  nearly  0.3  of  the  total  output  of 
Prussia.  The  zinc  deposits  of  Silesia,  found  in 
the  plateau  of  Famowitz,  are  among  the  richest 
in  the  world,  and  yielded  an  output  of  over  520,- 
000  tons  IB  1900.  Iron  and  lead  are  also  im- 
.  portant  mineral  products.  The  District  of  Op- 
peln  is  the  centre  of  the  iron  industry,  which 
has  reached  a  high  degrree  of  development.  The 
other  manufacturing  industries   not   connected 


with  mining  are  also  extensive,  and  the  indus- 
trial progress  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the 
I>opulation  ensaged  in  industrial  pursuits  out- 
side of  agriculture  increased  from  1,409,698  in 
1882  to  1,742,187  in  1895,  while  the  agricul- 
tural population  for  the  same  period  shows  a 
decrease  from  1,790,934  to  1,628,105.  The  tex- 
tile industry  ranks  next  in  importance  to  min- 
ing and  allied  industries,  employing  nearly  100,- 
000  people.  In  weaving  and  flax-spinning  Si- 
lesia ranks  first  among  the  Prussian  provmces. 
The  extensive  cloth,  woolen,  and  yam  manu- 
factures are  centred  in  the  districts  of  Breslau 
and  Liegnitz.  Other  important  products  are 
china  and  other  earthen  and  stone  wares,  and 
glassware,  beet  sugar,  spirits,  woodenware,  ap- 
parel, etc.  The  chief  centre  of  industrial  as 
well  as  commercial  activity  is  Breslau. 

Silesia  is  divided  into  the  three  administra- 
tive districts  of  Breslau,  Liegnitz,  and  Oppeln, 
with  Breslau  as  the  capital.  To  the  Prussian 
Landtag  Silesia  sends  65  Deputies  to  the  Lower 
House  and  55  members  to  the  Upper.  To  the 
Reichstag  the  province  returns  35  members. 
Population,  in  1900,  4,668,378,  including  about 
1,000,000  people  of  Slavic  extraction,  mostly 
Poles.    About  54  per  cent,  are  Roman  Catholics. 

HisTOBT.  Silesia  was  inhabited  in  ancient 
times  by  the  Germanic  Quadi  and  Lygii,  who 
were  succeeded  by  Slavic  tribes.  In  the  tenth 
century  it  came  under  Polish  rule  and  was  soon 
Christianized.  From  1163  the  greater  part  of 
Silesia  was  ruled  by  dukes  of  the  Polish  line  of 
Piast.  (See  Poiand.)  These  dukes,  to  repeople 
the  country,  which  had  been  devastated  by  the 
numerous  civil  wars,  encouraged  the  settlement 
of  German  colonies,  especially  in  Lower  Silesia. 
The  practice  of  division  and  subdivision  of  terri- 
tory prevailed  so  extensively  in  Silesia  that  at 
the  beginning  of  the*  fourteenth  century  it  had  no 
fewer  than  17  independent  dukes.  Famous 
among  the  Silesian  dukes  was  Henry  II.  of 
Lower  Silesia,  who  fell  in  battle  against  the 
Mongols  on  the  field  of  the  Wahlstatt  in  1241. 
In  the  course  of  the  fourteenth  century  these 
petty  rulers,  who  were  constantly  at  war  with 
each  other,  placed  themselves  under  the  over- 
lordship  of  the  King  of  Bohemia,  and  Silesia  was 
thenceforth  part  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire. 
In  1537  the  Duke  of  Liegnitz,  one  of  the  numer- 
ous Silesian  princes,  entered  into  an  agreement 
of  mutual  succession  {ErhverhrUderung)  with 
the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  on  the  extinction  of 
either  reigning  line.  The  other  ducal  lines  be- 
coming gradually  extinct,  their  possessions  fell 
to  Liegnitz  or  to  Bohemia,  or  lapsed  to  the  Em- 
peror. In  1675,  when  the  last  ducal  family, 
that  of  Liegnitz,  failed,  the  duchies  of  Liegnitz, 
Brieg,  and  Wohlau  would  have  fallen  to  Prussia; 
but  the  Emperor  Leopold  I.  refused  to  recognize 
the  validity  of  the  agreement  of  1537,  and  took 
possession  of  the  Liegnitz  dominions,  as  a  lapsed 
fief  of  Bohemia.  The  remainder  of  Silesia  was 
thus  incorporated  into  the  Austrian  dominions. 
In  1740  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia,  taking  advan- 
tage of  the  helpless  condition  of  Maria  Theresa 
of  Austria,  laid  claim,  on  the  strength  of  the 
agreement  of  1537,  to  certain  portions  of  Si- 
lesia. Without  declaring  war,  he  marched  into 
and  took  possession  of  the  province,  maintaining 
his  hold  despite  the  utmost  efforts  of  Austria  in 
the  struggles  of  1740-42  and  1744-45,  called  the 


SILESIA. 


853 


SHiIUS  ITAIiICXTS. 


first  and  second  Silesian  wars.  At  the  close  of 
the  Seven  Years'  War  (q.v.),  in  1763,  the  bulk 
of  Silesia  was  definitively  ceded  to  Prussia. 

BiBLiOGBAPHY.  Schrollcr,  Schlesien  (Glogau, 
1885-88) ;  Kosmann,  Oherachleaien^  sein  Land 
und  seine  Industrie  (Gleiwitz,  1888) ;  Adamy, 
Schlesien  nach  aeinen  phyaikalischen,  topogfxifik' 
ischen  und  siatiatiachen  Verh&ltniasen  (7th  ed., 
Breslau,  1893) ;  Partsch,  Schleaieny  eine  Land- 
eakunde  auf  tDtaaenachaftlicher  Orundlage  (Bres- 
lau,  1896)  ;  Gruenhagen,  Oeachichte  Bchleaiena 
(Gotha,  1884-86). 

SILESIA,  Austrian.  A  duchy  and  crownland 
of  the  Austrian  Empire,  bounded  by  Prussian 
Silesia  on  the  north  and  west^  Galicia  on  the 
east,  and  Moravia  on  the  south  (Map:  Austria, 
El).  Its  area  is  1987  square  miles.  The  Su- 
detic  chain  enters  Silesia  from  the  west,  and  the 
Carpathians  send  ofi"  several  spurs  into  the  in- 
terior from  the  east,  giving  the  surface  an  ex- 
tremely mountainous  character.  The  chief  rivers 
are  the  Oder  and  the  Vistula,  both  rising  in  the 
province.  The  climate  is  raw,  but,  on  the  whole, 
healthful.  Agriculture  is  carried  on  in  the  val- 
leys, where  good  crops  of  cereals  and  industrial 
plants  are  raised.  The  mountain  re^ons  are 
chiefly  utilized  for  cattle-raising.  Silesia  is  one 
of  the  chief  coal-mining  districts  of  Austria,  with 
an  annual  output  of  from  4,000,000  to  6,000,000 
tons.  Favored  by  its  abundance  of  fuel,  Silesia 
has  a  number  of  well-developed  manufacturing 
industries.  Ironware,  textiles,  beer,  and  spirits 
are  the  chief  products.  Silesia  has  a  Diet  of  31 
members,  and  is  represented  in  the  Lower  House 
of  the  Austrian  Reichsrat  by  12  members.  Pop- 
ulation, in  1900^  680,529,  of  whom  over  four- 
fifths  were  Roman  Catholic.  According  to  na- 
tionality the  population  of  1890  was  divided  as 
follows:  44  per  cent.  German,  22  per  cent.  Czech 
and  Slovak,  and  over  30  per  cent.  Polish.  Cap- 
ital, Troppau   (q.v.).     For  history,  see  Silesia. 

SILEX  (Lat.,  flint) .  A  generic  name  formerly 
used  by  mineralogists  to  designate  those  min- 
erals of  which  silica  is  the  principal  ingredient. 

SILICA,    or    Silicic    Acid.      See    Shjcon; 

QUABTZ. 

SILICIDE  OF  GABBON,  or  Carbide  of 
Silicon.    See  Carbides. 

SILICEOUS  BOCKS.  A  group  of  sedimen- 
tary rocks  characterized  by  quartz  as  the  prin- 
cipal constituent.  Sandstone,  quartz  conglom- 
erate, arkose,  novaculite,  and  chert  are  the  chief 
varieties  of  siliceous  rocks. 

SILICON  (NeoLat.,  from  Lat.  ailex,  flint),  or 
SiLiciUM.  A  non-metallic  element  discovered  by 
Berzelius  in  1823.  Among  the  ancients  minerals 
rich  in  silica  were  used  in  glass-making,  and 
Becher  contended  that  they  contained  a  pecu- 
liar kind  of  earth,  to  which  he  gave  the  name 
terra  viireacihilia.  In  the  seventeenth  century  it 
was  found  that  such  minerals  did  not  change 
when  heated  by  themselves,  and  only  formed  a 
fusible  glass  when  brought  in  contact  with  other 
bodies.  In  1660  Tachenius  showed  that  it  pos- 
sessed acid  rather  than  alkaline  properties,  as 
it  combined  with  alkalies,  but  the  true  nature 
of  silica  remained  unknown  until  Davy  demon- 
strated it  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Silicon  is  the  most  abundant  of  all 
elements  in  the  solid  earth's  crust,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  oxygen.    It  is  never  found  in  the  iso- 


lated state,  but  occurs  in  combination  with  oxy- 
gen as  silicon  dioxide  or  silica  (quartz,  flint, 
sand,  etc.),  and  in  various  minerals  in  the  form 
of  metallic  silicates.  It  is  also  found  in  mineral 
springs  and  in  sea  water.  It  was  originally  pre- 
pared by  Berzelius  by  decomposing  potassium 
silicofluoride  by  means  of  potassium  in  an  iron 
tube  at  a  red  heat.  When  allowed  to  oool,  the 
mass  was  treated  with  water,  which  dissolved 
the  potassium  fluoride,  leaving  silicon  in  the 
form  of  an  amorphous  brown  powder.  This 
method  is  still  used,  but  with  the  sub6titutia& 
of  sodium  for  potassium.  The  element  may  algo 
be  obtained  by  the  electrolysis  of  a  fused  mix- 
ture of  potassium  fluoride  and  silicofluoride.  A 
ffraphitoidal  modiflcation  of  silicon  is  recognized 
by  some,  and  may  be  produced  by  heating 
amorphous  silicon  in  a  platinum  crucible;  while 
a  third  modification,  known  as  crystalline  or 
adamantine  silicon,  is  formed  by  heating  in  an 
earthenware  crucible  a  mixture  of  three  parts 
of  potassium  fluosilicate,  one  part  of  sodium  in 
small  pieces,  and  four  parts  of  granulated  zinc. 
Silicon  (symbol  Si;  atomic  weight,  28.40), 
when  in  an  amorphous  condition,  is  a  lustrous 
brown  powder,  which  does  not  conduct  electric- 
ity and  is  fusible  in  a  non-oxidizing  atmosphere 
at  a  temperature  between  the  melting-points  of 
steel  and  cast  iron.  The  graphitoidal  modifica- 
tion consists  of  shining  metallic  scales;  while 
crystalline  silicon  is  obtained  in  the  form  of 
grayish-black  metal-like  leaflets  or  needles,  with 
a  specific  gravity  of  2.19,  and  a  melting-point 
between  llOO""  and  ISOO""  C.  Silicon  combines 
directly  with  a  number  of  the  elements,  forming 
ailicidea.  With  oxygen  silicon  combines  to  form 
only  one  oxide,  the  dioxide,  or  ailioa  (SiO,), 
which  is  an  important  constituent  of  the  solid 
crust  of  the  earth  and  may  be  artificially  pre- 

Sared  by  burning  silicon  in  air  or  oxygen.  As 
int  and  as  sand  it  has  many  applications  in  the 
arts,  as  in  the  manufacture  of  glass,  pottery,  etc. 
Silicon  unites  with  the  halogens.  Thus,  with 
fluorine,  it  forms  a  silicon  tetrafluoride,  which 
is  a  colorless  gas  that  combines  with  water, 
forming  hydrofluosilicic  acid,  which  in  turn 
unites  with  bases  to  form  salts  known  as  aUioo- 
fluorides, 

SILIPAN^  86'U-pan^  A  Malay  tribe  in 
Nueva  Vizcaya  Province,  Luzon;  speech,  Ifugao. 
See  Philippine  Islands. 

SILISTBIA,  sMls^trl-A.  A  town  of  Bul- 
garia, on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  75  miles 
below  Rustchuk  (Map:  Balkan  Peninsula,  F  2). 
In  the  vicinity  are  vineyards  and  tobacco  planta- 
tions, and  the  town  produces  flour  and  leather 
on  a  considerable  scale.  Population,  in  1900, 
12,133.  Silistria  was  called  by  the  Bomans 
Durostorum  and  was  an  important  city  of  Mcesia 
Inferior.  It  was  an  important  fortress  under 
the  Turkish  rule  and  repeatedly  baffled  the  at- 
tacks of  the  Russians. 

SILTCTS  ITAI/ICTT8,  Tibebius  Gatius  (25- 
101).  A  Latin  poet,  whose  name  appears  fre- 
quently in  Martial  and  Pliny.  He  was  probably 
a  delator  under  Nero.  In  69  he  was  coi»ul,  and 
soon  after  proconsul  in  Asia.  He  was  rich  and 
luxurious,  a  dilettante  in  literature,  art,  and 
philosophy,  being  a  member  of  the  Roman  school 
of  Stoics  and  a  friend  of  Epictetus.  He  starved 
himself  rather  than  linger  with  an  incurable  dis- 
ease. A  Homerus  Latinua,  or  Pindatw  Thebanua^ 


SILITJ8  ZTALICTJS. 


868 


8ILK. 


bean  his  name  in  acrrostic  at  beginning  and  end. 
It  is  an  epitome  of  the  Iliad,  He  is  better  known 
by  the  Punica,  an  artificial  heavy  epic  in  seven- 
teen books.  The  poem  is  edited  by  Ruperti 
(1795-98)  and  by  Bauer  (1890-92). 

SILK  (AS.  seole,  aioloo,  aioluc,  0H6.  silecho, 
silken  robe,  probably  from  OChurch  Slav.  ielkH, 
silk,  from  Lat.  aericum,  silk,  neu.  sg.  of  Sericua, 
Chinese,  from  Seres,  Gk.  Zrjpesj  Chinese;  cf. 
Mongol,  sirek,  silk,  Korean  aa,  sil,  air,  silk,  from 
Chin,  szd,  azU,  as^,  aei,  ai,  silk).  The  fibre  derived 
from  tile  cocoon  of  the  silkworm  (Bomltyx  tnori), 
or  from  some  other  form  of  caterpillar  or  spider, 
and  woven  into  many  useful  and  ornamental 
fabrics. 

Historical  Sketch.  Silk  appears  not  to  have 
been  well  known  to  the  ancients;  although  sev- 
eral times  mentioned  in  the  translations  of  the 
Bible,  the  best  authorities  deny  that  it  is  in  the 
original,  or  that  it  was  known  to  the  Hebrews. 
Among  the  Greeks,  Aristotle  is  the  first  who 
mentions  it,  and  he  only  says  that  "Pamphile, 
daughter  of  Plates,  is  reported  to  have  first  woven 
it  in  Cos;"  and  from  all  the  evidence  which  has 
been  collected,  it  would  appear  that  the  natives 
of  Cos  receiv^  it  indirectly  through  the  Ph<Bni- 
cians  and  Persians  from  China.  The  silken 
webs  of  Cos  fotmd  their  way  to  Rome,  but  it 
was  very  long  before  it  was  obtainable  except 
by  the  most  wealthy.  The  cultivation  in  Europe 
of  the  worm  itself  did  not  take  place  until  a.d. 
530,  when,  according  to  an  account  given  by 
Procopius,  the  eggs  were  brought  from  India 
(China)  to  the  Emperor  Justinian  by  some 
monks.  In  China  the  cultivation  of  silk  is  of 
the  highest  antiquity,  and,  according  to  Chinese 
authorities,  it  was  first  begun  by  Si-hng,  the  wife 
of  the  Emperor  Hoang-ti,  b.c.  2600,  and  the 
mulberry  was  cultivated  for  the  purpose  of  feed- 
ing silkworms  only  forty  years  later. 

Since  its  introduction  into  Europe  silk  culture 
has  always  formed  a  great  branch  of  industry 
in  Italy,  Turkey,  and  Greece,  and  it  has  been  car- 
ried on  to  some  extent  in  France,  Spain,  and  Por- 
tugal. In  England,  too,  from  time  to  time, 
efforts  have  been  made  to  cultivate  silk,  but  with 
limited  success. 

In  the  early  days  the  American  colonists  de- 
voted much  time  and  labor  to  the  growth  of  the 
mulberry  tree  and  the  culture  of  silkworms.  In 
1732  the  colonial  Government  of  Georgia  allotted 
a  piece  of  ground  for  use  as  a  nursery  planta- 
tion for  white  mulberry  trees.  Lands  were 
granted  to  settlers  on  condition  that  they  planted 
Too  of  these  trees  on  every  10  acres  when  cleared, 
10  years  being  allowed  for  their  cultivation.  In 
1749  the  British  Parliament  passed  an  act  ex- 
empting from  duty  all  raw  silk  which  was  cer- 
tified to  be  the  production  of  Georgia  or  Caro- 
lina. In  the  same  year  an  Italian  expert  was 
sent  to  Georgia  to  conduct  a  filature — for  reeling, 
doubling,  cleaning,  and  twisting,  or  throwing 
Bilk— and  in  1769  the  receipts  of  cocoons  at  the 
filature  exceeded  10,000  pounds,  and  the  quality 
of  the  raw  silk  was  so  good  that  it  sold 
in  London  as  high  as  three  shillings  a  pound  more 
than  that  from  any  other  part  of  the  world.  Af- 
ter 1759,  however,  the  production  of  silk  in 
Georgia  fell  off  greatly,  though  a  French  settle- 
ment at  New  Bordeaux,  on  the  Savannah  River, 
manufactured  considerable  quantities  of  sewing- 
Bilk  during  the  Revolution.    Mansfield,  Conn.,  1^ 


came,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
an  important  silk-raising  section;  and  this  con- 
tinued to  be  a  fixed  industry  in  that  locality. 
Pennsylvania  engaged  in  the  culture  about  1767, 
and  a  filature  was  established  in  Philadelphia 
in  1769  or  1770,  and  in  1771  2300  pounds  of 
cocoons  were  brought  there  to  reel.  This  State 
maintained  some  prominence  in  the  industry  up 
to  the  time  of  the  Revolution.  From  the  period  of 
the  close  of  the  Revolution  up  to  about  1825  the 
silk  manufacture  in  the  United  States  was  purely 
domestic,  families  making  small  quantities-^ 
liardly  ever  reaching  100  pounds  per  annum  in  a 
single  family.  The  importation  of  silk  goods  in 
the  meantime  had  increased  enormously,  so  that 
in  1821  it  amounted  to  $4,486,924.  It  was  felt 
that  this  costly  importation  should  be  stayed,  if 
possible,  and  several  Congressional  committees 
investigated  the  subject,  and  voluminous  reports 
were  made  upon  it.  This  brought  about  the  en- 
thusiastic culture  of  the  Morua  muUicauUa,  which 
grew  into  a  mania,  during  whose  existence  hun- 
dreds of  speculators  and  thousands  of  private 
buyers  were  ruined. 

The  result  of  this  speculative  incident,  the 
financial  depression  of  1837,  and  the  fact  that  in 
1844  a  blight  affected  all  the  mulberry  trees  in 
the  country  were  disastrous  to  silk  culture  in  the 
United  States,  and  the  effort  to  rear  silkworms 
ceased.  In  California,  in  1860-75,  the  business 
was  largely  prosecuted,  but  did  not  succeed 
financially.  In  1884  Congress  began  making 
appropriations  for  the  encouragement  of  silk 
culture  in  the  United  States,  and  these  appro- 
priations, expended  under  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  were  continued  until  1890,  when 
they  lapsed  and  were  renewed  in  1901.  In  the 
meantime  considerable  silk  was  grown  in  Utah 
under  State  bounties,  and  private  individuals 
have  raised  cocoons  and  reeled  the  silk  on  hand 
reels  for  home  weaving  in  many  other  States.  The 
climate  and  soil  of  many  parts  of  the  United 
States  seem  admirably  adapted  to  silk  culture, 
but  as  yet  there  are  no  commercial  reeling  estab- 
lishments. The  first  silk  mill  on  the  Western 
continent  was  set  up  at  Mansfield,  Conn.,  in  1810. 
The  manufacture  was  introduced  into  Philadel- 
phia about  1815;  and  as  early  as  1824  the  Jac- 
quard  loom  began  to  be  used  there.  Power- 
looms  were  next  introduced,  and  power-loom 
weaving  was  begun  about  1838.  From  1831  to 
1839  a  large  number  of  factories  were  started 
at  Windsor  Locks,  Conn.;  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.; 
in  Philadelphia,  and  elsewhere,  most  of  which 
failed.  Burlington,  N.  J.,  became  an  important 
silk-producing  locality,  beginning  about  1838. 
The  industry  included  the  culture  of  the  mul- 
berry tree  and  the  raising  of  silkworms,  as 
well  as  the  manufacture  of  silk.  Hartford, 
South  Manchester  (Conn.),  Holyoke,  North- 
ampton, and  Haydenville,  Mass.,  are  among 
the  New  England  towns  in  which  silk  has 
been  manufactured  extensively.  But  the  most 
important  centre  of  this  industry  in  America 
is  Paterson,  N.  J.  (q.v.),  where  the  water 
power  of  the  Passaic  River,  facilities  for  trans- 
portation, etc.,  seem  to  offer  the  best  pos- 
sible conditions  for  its  prosecution.  The  first 
silk  mill  in  Paterson  was  set  up  about  1838,  in 
the  fourth  floor  of  Samuel  Colt's  pistol  factory. 
This  was  followed  by  the  establishment  of  other 
factories,  until  in  the  years  immediately  succeed- 


ftJJ.Tt 


864 


8ILK. 


ing  the  Ciiril  War  Patenon  became,  and  has 
since  remained^  the  chief  seat  of  silk  manufac- 
ture in  the  United  States. 

Pbocesses  of  Manufactube.  Although  raw 
silk,  unlike  other  textile  fibres,  is  a  continuous 
thread,  and  therefore  requires  no  spinning,  yet 
its  preparation  for  the  loom  includes  many  dis- 
tinct operations.  After  the  cocoons  that  are  to 
be  saved  for  breeding  purposes  are  set  aside, 
those  to  be  used  for  their  silk  are  submitted  to 
some  treatment  that  will  kill  the  chrysalis  with- 
out injury  to  the  cocoon,  just  at  the  time  when 
the  insect  has  finished  spinning  and  is  ready  to 
force  its  way  through  its  covering.  Several 
methods  have  been  adopted  for  accomplishing 
this  end.  The  chrysalis  may  be  destroyed  in  a 
hot  oven,  or  by  placing  it  in  the  hot  sun  for 
several  days  under  glass,  or  by  a  steam-bath. 
The  last-named  method  was  invented  by  Profes- 
sor Gastrogivanni,  of  Turin.  The  cocoons  are 
placed  under  an  iron  receiver,  where  steam  is  ap- 
plied at  a  uniform  temperature  of  212^  F. 
One  objection  to  this  process  is  that  the  pupa 
sometimes  bursts,  soiling  the  silk.  It  is  said  that 
the  Chinese  reel  off  the  silks  from  the  cocoon 
while  the  silkworm  is  still  alive. 

Beelino.  In  order  to  be  able  to  remove  the 
silk  from  the  cocoon,  the  latter  is  soaked  in  warm 
water,  which  loosens  the  gummy  substance  bind- 
ing the  filaments  together.  As  a  single  fibre  has 
not  sufficient  tenacity,  from  four  to  eighteen  fila- 
ments, according  to  the  quality,  are  taken,  and 
two  threads  formed  by  passing  them  through  per- 
forated metal  or  porcelain  guides.  The  threads 
are  crossed  or  twisted  together  at  a  given  point, 
and  again  separated  and  passed  through  a  second 
pair  of  guides,  the  temporary  tw^isting  or  crossing 
causing  the  agglutination  of  the  individual  fibres 
of  each  thread.  The  thread  is  then  passed 
through  a  pair  of  distributing  guides  onto  the 
reel.  Great  care  and  skill  are  required  in  reel- 
ing silk  from  the  cocoons,  to  keep  the  thread  of 
uniform  thickness.  The  threads  of  different 
cocoons  are  not  of  uniform  length,  and  that  from 
the  inner  part  of  the  cocoon  is  finer  than  the  out- 
side, so  tne  filament  from  another  cocoon  must 
now  and  then  be  added  to  keep  the  thread  even. 
The  common  reeling  machine  is  a  simple  device 
consisting  of  a  reel  60  to  90  inches  in  diameter, 
adjusted  in  a  frame  which  contains  the  guides, 
the  water  basin,  and  means  for  keeping  the  water 
warm.  Reeled  silk  is  the  raw  material  of  the 
silk  manufacturer,  called  raw  silk.  It  is  shipped 
by  the  silk-growers  in  hanks  of  various  sizes, 
packed  in  bundles  or  bales. 

Silk  CoNDrriONTNG.  One  of  the  most  striking 
physical  characteristics  of  raw  silk  is  its  avidity 
for  moisture;  it  will  readily  absorb  30  per  cent, 
of  its  weight  in  moisture  without  the  fact  being 
perceptible.  In  order,  therefore,  to  determine 
the  amount  of  normal  silk  in  a  given  bulk,  the 
raw  silk  is  tested  in  an  apparatus  called  a  des- 
iccator. This  is  done  by  first  weighing  a  sample, 
then  drying  it  and  noting  the  loss  of  weight.  To 
the  thoroughly  dried  silk  an  allowance  of  11  per 
cent,  is  added  and  the  result  taken  as  normal 
weight.  In  the  great  centres  of  silk  manufacture 
the  testing  is  required  by  buyers  and  is  done  by 
special  houses  called  silk-conditioning  estab- 
lishments. 

Thbowino.  The  process  of  preparing  the  reeled 
silk  for  the  loom  is  technically  called  throwing. 


The  first  step  is  to  transfer  the  silk  from  the 
skeins  to  bobbins.  The  skeins,  inclosed  in  a  li^t 
cotton  bag,  are  soaked  for  several  hours  in  soapy 
water  at  110"  F.  They  are  then  dried  in  a 
hydro-extractor  and  stretched  upotn  swifts 
which  are  skeleton  reels  so  adiusted  that  they 
will  hold  the  skeins  tightly.  Thence  they  are 
wound  onto  bobbins.  The  silk  is  next  cleaned 
by  passing  it  from  one  bobbin  to  another  through 
the  cleaner,  which  consists  of  two  parallel  plates 
so  adjusted  that  there  is  just  room  for  the  thread 
to  pass  through.  Adhering  dirt  or  an  imper- 
fection in  the &read  at  onceholds  the  thread  and 
at  the  same  time  arrests  tiie  motion  of  the 
spindle  until  the  operator  removes  the  cause. 
The  best  Italian  silk  does  not  reouire  this  process 
of  cleaning,  but  for  Chinese  silk  it  is  always 
necessary. 

Ddublino  and  Twisting  is  the  next  process 
performed,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is 
done  gives  the  name  to  the  three  different 
silk  threads.  (1)  Single  silk  is  not  donbled  or 
twisted  at  all,  but  is  woven  direct  from  the  clean- 
ing process.  Cloth  produced  in  this  -way  pos- 
sesses a  softness  and  brilliancy  not  obtainable  in 
that  made  from  twisted  silk.  Pongee  is  a  famil- 
iar fabric  made  from  singles.  (2)  TVom  silk 
is  made  by  twisting  two  or  more  sin^e  threads 
which  are  then  doubled  and  slightly  twisted.  It 
is  used  for  the  woof  thread  in  weaving.  (3)  Or- 
gamine  silk  is  made  by  the  union  of  two  or  more 
single  threads,  twisted  separately  in  the  same 
direction,  which  are  doubled  and  then  re-twisted 
in  the  opposite  direction.  It  is  used  chiefly  for 
warp  threads. 

SoouBiNO  is  the  process  applied  to  thrown  silk 
to  remove  more  or  less  of  the  glue  adhering^  to 
the  silk  thread,  so  it  will  have  a  greater  lustre 
and  may  be  able  to  take  a  better  color  in  dyeing. 
According  to  the  amount  of  gum  removed  in 
scouring,  silk  is  known  as  botZed,  in  which  from 
24  to  30  per  cent,  is  removed;  9ouple^  in  which 
only  from  5  to  8  per  cent,  is  removed;  ^crw,  in 
which  not  more  than  5  per  cent,  is  removed.  The 
scouring  is  performed  in  soansuds.  The  silk  is 
now  ready  to  be  dyed,  although  for  white  or  pale 
shades  it  must  first  be  bleached  in  sulphur  fumes. 

Shaking,  Glossing,  and  Lustuno  are  sup- 
plementary processes  for  which  special  machinery 
has  been  devised,  designed  to  develop  the  lustre 
of  the  silk. 

Loading  or  Weighting  of  Silk  was,  in  the 
beginning,  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  silk  dyers  to 
make  up  for  the  loss  of  weignt,  often  amounting 
to  one-fourth,  incurred  during  the  process  of 
scouring,  by  the  use  of  certain  chemicals  ^which, 
combining  with  the  silk,  took  up  the  dye.  For  a 
time  weavers  were  satisfied  if  the  dyeing  pro- 
cess was  so  conducted  that  there  was  no  loss  of 
weight.  But  the  art  of  imparting  factitious 
weight  to  silk  was  soon  developed  to  a  ruinous 
extent.  Sugar  and  glucose  were  at  first  the 
favorite  agents  of  sophistication,  but  were  soon 
abandoned  for  more  effective  materials.  In  hlack 
silks  the  extreme  weighting  was  first  practiced, 
a  pound  of  silk  being  treated  so  as  to  weigh 
100  ounces.  The  discovery  of  the  use  of  salts  of 
tin,  however,  has  made  it  possible  to  weight  the 
white  and  colored  silks  as  neavily  as  black.  By 
this  process  the  durability  of  the  silken  fahric, 
once  its  most  prominent  eharacteristie,  is  en- 
tirely lost 


SILK 


1.  UNWINDING  THE  COCCX)NS 


2.  REELING 


8IIiK 


855 


SILK. 


Spun  Silk.  Before  winding  the  cocoona  a  flossy 
portion  has  to  be  removed.  (See  Floss  Silk.) 
After  the  filament  has  been  wound  off  another  re- 
mains like  a  compact  bag.  These,  together  with 
the  silk  from  perforated  and  double  cocoons,  and 
the  fragments  of  broken  thread  which  accumulate 
during  the  process  of  throwing,  are  collected  and 
sold  under  the  nam^  of  waste  silk.  This  waste 
is  thoroughly  cleaned  by  washing^  boiling,  and 
drying,  and  is  then  carded  and  spun  like  cotton, 
the  yam  produced  by  this  process  being  known 
as  spun  silk  or  flurt  silk.  This  greatly  econ- 
omizes the  use  of  silk,  as  the  quantity  of  silk- 
waste  always  greatly  exceeds  the  amount  of  good 
silk  reeled  off.  The  processes  employed  in  the 
production  of  silk-yam  or  floss  silk,  from  the 
waste,  differ  little  from  those  for  spinning  other 
materials.  Four  million  pounds  of  floss  silk  are 
annually  consumed  in  France  alone. 

Wild  Silk.  Many  silk-producing  moths  exist 
besides  the  Bomhyof  mori,  or  cultivated  moth, 
from  which  the  ordinary  commercial  silk  is  de- 
rived. The  one  at  present  attracting  the  most 
attention  is  that  from  which  Tussah  silk  is  manu- 
factured, much  used  in  connection  with  ordinary 
silk  and  in  the  manufacture  of  plush.  Tussah 
silk  is  the  product  of  the  moth  Antheroea  myleita, 
found  in  India.  Other  wild  silks  are  the  Eria 
silk  of  India,  the  Fagara  silk  of  China,  and  the 
Yami  mai  silk  of  Japan.    See  Silkworm. 

Otheb  Silk.  A  certain  amount  of  silk  is  spun 
by  many  insects.  The  bombycid  and  Saturaian 
moths  spin  the  largest  quantity.  There  is  a  but- 
terfly {Euoheira  socialis),  however,  whose  cater- 
pillars live  in  an  enormous  silken  nest.  Insects 
of  other  orders,  also,  have  smaller  silk  glands 
and  secrete  some  silk.  In  the  Arachnida  a  num- 
ber of  groups  produce  silk,  the  greatest  amount 
being  spun  by  the  spiders,  and  many  experiments 
have  been  made  to  place  the  production  of  spider- 
silk  upon  a  commercial  basis. 

Raw  Silk  Pboduotiok  of  tbb  World  roa  Ybab  1899 
[From  United  States  Consalar  Reports,  March,  19Q1] 


OOUNTBT  . 

Kilograms 

Pounds 

Weetem  Europe: 
France 

800,000 

8.868.000 

78.000 

376.000 

1.384.676 

Italy 

6.814.070 

Spain 

171,069 

Anstria-Huncfarjr 

606.470 

Total 

4.077,000 

8.839.075 

Lerant  and  Central  Asia : 
Anatolia 

486.000 
456,000 
S10.000 
43.000 
34.000 
810.000 

346.000 

1,071,436 

Syria 

1.005,398 
463,966 

Salonlca  (Adrlanople) 

Balkans  (Bnlgarlay./. 

93.693 

OTeece.....„....T. .'. 

74.966 

Gaocaaas 

683,436 

Persia  and  Tnrkestan  (export- 
atlons) 

543.883 

Total 

1.784.000 

8.968.007 

Far  East: 
Export  from  Bbanglial. 

6.4H.000 

3.350.000 

8.543,000 

860.000 

13,036,096 

*•           Canton 

4,960.850 

•«           Japan.  Yokohama 
•«           India.  Calcutta 

7,808.698 
771.610 

TotaL 

11.697.000 

35.666.746 

Grand  total 

17.668.000 

88.338,838 

INO.)  In  1889^  17^94  hand-looms  were  in  use  in 
Lyons,  France;  in  1899  the  number  had  fallen 
to  8637.  The  four  principal  silk  woven  textures 
are  sarcenet,  taffeta,  satin,  and  velvet. 

Statistics.  The  accompanying  table  on  the 
silk  production  of  the  world  was  compiled  by 
Consul  Hughes,  of  Coburg,  from  statistics  issued 
by  the  Merchants'  Union  Silk  Syndicate  of 
Lyons.  According  to  the  Twelfth  United  States 
Census  there  were  in  the  country  at  the  close  of 
1900  483  silk  factories,  with  a  combined  capital 
of  $81,082,201,  which  used  9,760,770  pounds  of 
raw  silk.  The  rapid  growth  of  the  industry  dur- 
ing the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  in  1850  there  were  only 
sixty-seven  silk  factories,  having  a  capital  of 
$678,300  and  a  product  of  $1,809,476. 

8lI<K    AITD   MAITTTrAOTUBBS   OP   SiLK   IlfPOBTBD    DTTO   TBI 

United  States 

[From  the  BtatlBttcal  Abstract  of  tbe  United  States  for 

Fiscal  Year  Ending  Jane  80. 1900]  • 

UHlfANUFACTUBBD— 

Goooona.  free  i  Pounde 30.004 

1.0000ns. iree  j  ^^y^g^„ 18.236 

Raw.  or  as  reeled  from  the  co-  (  pounds 11.259,810 

coons Jroe )  dollars 44.649.078 

Waste  frfifti?®""^^" 1.784,404 

^"^ '"•  j  doUars 761.868 

Total  manufactured dollars 46.839,700 

MANUFAOTUBBS    OP— 

Clothing,    ready-made,   and    other 

wearinsr  apparel dut.... dollars 1.667.641 

Dress  and  piece  goods dut....dollarR 16,426.997 

Laces  and  embroideries dut.... dollars 8,206,867 

Ribbons dut.. ..dollars 1.811.644 

Spun  silk,  ^n  skeins,  caps,  warps,  or  ( pounds 2.420.662 

on  beamb dut.  (  dollars 8.728,848 

Velvets,  plushes,  and  other  pile         j  pounds 706,864 

fabrics dut.  (  dollars 2.816.116 

All  other dut.... dollars 2.762,771 


Total  manufactures dollars.. 


.  30.894.878 


Silk  Fabrics.  The  process  of  wc  iving  silk 
does  not  differ  from  that  of  weaving  other  fabrics, 
except  that  In  Europe  for  the  finer  grades  the 
hand-loom  is  still  largely  employed.     (See  Weav- 


In  1900  there  was  a  total  of  44,430  ^ilk  looms 
in  the  United  Sta+es,  of  which  20,572  were  in 
New  Jersey,  12^94^  in  Pennsylvania^  5263  in 
New  York^  2975  in  Connecticut^  and  1040  in 
Massachusetts.  During  the  year  forty-three  silk 
mills  were  built,  and  one-third  of  the  silk  prod- 
uct of  the  world  was  consumed  in  the  United 
States.  Returns  for  the  year  1901  for  the  State 
of  New  Jersey  gave  the  total  number  of  silk 
establishments  in  that  State  as  152;  average 
number  of  men  and  women  employed  therein, 
26,046;  wages  paid,  $10,544,948;  gross  value  of 
product,  $41,199,395. 

Bibliography.  Most  of  the  recent  literature 
on  silk  manufacture  is  in  French  or  German. 
Sadtler,  Industrial  Organic  Chemistry  (Phila- 
delphia, 1900),  contains  a  brief  but  thorough  dis- 
cussion of  the  physical  processes  involved,  while 
Posselt,  Structure  of  Fibres,  Yams,  and  Fabrics 
(Philadelphia,  1890),  contains  a  concise  account 
of  the  methods  and  machinery  employed  in  the 
modem  silk  factory.  Silk-weaving  from  the 
historical  side  is  treated  in  Coles,  Ornament  in 
European  Silks  (London,  1899).  See,  also,  bibli- 
ography under  Silkworm.  See  Silkworm; 
Spinning;  Textile  Manufacturing;  Weaving. 

SILK^  Artificial.  Artificial  silk  has  been  the 
aim  of  experimenters  for  many  years.  The  Comte 
de  Chardonnet,  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1889, 
exhibited  a  most  ingenious  process  of  producing 
from  cellulose  an  artificial  fibre  resembling  in  all 
its  characteristics  and  uses  the  true  silk  of 
Bombyx  mori.  The  cellulose  experimented  with 
was  principally  of  cotton  and  tne  pulp  of  soft 


ftTT.TT 


866 


BtLKWOJOL 


woods.  In  making  artificial  silk  from  cotton 
the  lint  is  first  carded  into  wadding,  which  is  im- 
mersed in  a  mixture  of  15  parts  of  nitric  acid 
of  1.5  specific  gravity  and  85  parts  of  commercial 
sulphuric  acid.  This  process  transforms  the  cot- 
ton into  nitro-cellulose  and  continues  until  its 
color,  when  examined  with  the  microscope  and 
polarized  light,  is  a  clear  blue.  The  next  stage 
in  the  process  is  to  press  the  nitrated  cotton, 
which  is  then  waslied  to  remove  all  traces  of  the 
acid.  It  is  then  dissolved  in  a  mixture  of 
alcohol  and  ether,  forming  collodion,  which  re- 
quires aging  in  order  to  secure  the  best  results. 
This  collodion  is  placed  in  steel  cylinders  and  the 
liquid  is  expelled  by  pressure  through  capillary 
tubes  into  nitric  acid  diluted  one-half  with 
water.  The  fibres  thus  produced  are  wound  di- 
rectly upon  reels  and  are  ready  for  subsequent 
treatment.  This  involves  the  drying  of  the  fibre 
by  warm  air  and  its  denitration  in  a  bath  of 
alkaline  sulphide.  It  then  goes  through  addi- 
tional washing  and  drying  processes^  after  which 
it  may  be  spun  and  dyed  like  natural  silk.    The 

S recess  with  wood  fibre  is  quite  similar  and  there 
as  also  been  an  attempt  made  to  produce  a 
similar  fibre  by  drawing  gelatin  into  fine 
threads.  It  is  said  that  the  elasticity  of  arti* 
ficial  silk  made  by  the  process  described  is  equal 
to  that  of  the  natural  silk,  while  in  lustre  and 
brilliancy  it  is  said  to  surpass  the  latter.  It  was 
claimed  at  the  time  that  this  silk  could  be  pro- 
duced at  from  one-third  to  one-fourth  the  cost  of 
real  silk.  Consult  Sad  tier,  Industrial  Organic 
Chemistry    (Philadelphia,    1900).       See    Silk; 

SiLKWOBM. 

SILXy  Vegetable.  A  term  usually  applied  to 
the  fibre  which  surrounds  the  seeds  of  the  pods 
of  certain  plants  of  the  milkweed  family.  This 
fibre  is  soft  and  silky  and  has  been  employed  to 
mix  with  silk  and  with  wool  in  the  manufacture 
of  certain  fabrics.     See  Silk;  Silk,  Abtificial; 

SiLKWOBM. 

SILK  COTTON  TBEES.     See  Ebiodendbon. 

SIIiK  OAK.    See  Gbevillea. 

8ILKW0BK.  The  'silkworm'  of  commerce  is 
the  caterpillar  of  Bomhyx  mori,  a  moth  of  the 
family  Bombycidae^  a  group  commonly  known  as 
the  family  of  silkworm  moths.  The  caterpillars 
of  all  of  the  species  of  this  group  have  the  silk- 
glands  largely  developed,  and  many  of  them  spin 
large  quantities  of  silk  in  making  their  cocoons. 
The  BombycidflB  have  a  very  short  and  rudi- 
mentary proboscis,  live  for  a  very  short  time 
in  their  perfect  state,  and  take  little  or  no 
food;  the  body  is  thick  and  hairy;  the  wings 
are  large  and  broad;  the  antennse  are  pectinated. 
The  caterpillars  feed  on  the  leaves  and  other 
tender  parts  of  trees  or  other  plants ;  the  chrysa- 
lids  are  inclosed  in  a  cocoon  of  silk.  The  com- 
mon silkworm  is  a  native  of  either  the  northern 
provinces  of  China  or  of  Bengal.  The  perfect 
insect  is  about  an  inch  in  length,  the  female 
rather  larger  than  the  male,  the  color  whitish, 
with  a  broad  pale  brown  bar  across  the  upper 
wings.  The  females  generally  die  very  soon  after 
they  have  laid  their  eggs,  and  the  males  do  not 
survive  much  longer.  The  eggs  are  numerous, 
bluish  in  color,  about  the  size  of  a  pin's  head, 
not  attached  together,  but  fastened  to  the  sur- 
face on  which  they  are  laid  by  a  gummy  sub- 
stance, which,  when  dry,  becomes  silky.     They 


are  laid  about  the  end  of  June,  and  are  hatched 
about  the  middle  of  the  following  April,  or  at 
the  time  when  the  leaves  of  the  mulberry  unfold. 

The  caterpillar  is  at  first  small,  not  more 
than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length,  but  rapidly 
increases  in  size,  till,  when  full  grown,  it  i8 
nearly  three  inches  long.  It  is  usually  of  a  yel- 
lowish grav  color,  but  soma  varieties  are  much 
darker.  The  skin  is  changed  four  times  during 
the  growth  of  the  caterpillar.  Before  each 
change  of  skin  it  becomes  lethargic,  and  ceases 
to  eat,  whereas  at  other  times  it  is  very  vora- 
cious. When  the  skin  is  ready  to  be  cast  off, 
it  bursts  at  the  fore  part,  and  the  caterpillar 
then,  by  continually  writhing  its  body,  without 
moving  from  the  spot,  thrusU  it  backward;  but 
silkworms  frequently  die  during  the  change  of 
skin.  A  very  rapid  increase  of  siz^  takes  place 
while  the  new  skin  is  still  soft.  The  natural 
food  of  the  silkworm  is  the  leaf  of  the  white 
mulberry,  but  it  will  also  feed  on  the  leaves  of 
some  other  plants,  as  black  mulberry  and  let- 
tuce, and  in  the  United  States  it  is  frequently 
fed  on  the  Osage  orange.  When  so  fed,  howerer, 
it  produces  silk  of  inferior  quality.  The  silk- 
producing  organs  are  two  large  glands  (8eri^ 
teria)  containing  a  viscid  substance,  which  ex- 
tend along  a  great  part  of  the  body,  and  termi- 
nate in  two  spinnerets  in  the  mouth.  These 
glands  become  very  large  when  the  change  to 
the  chrysalis  or  pupa  state  is  about  to  take  place. 

When  about  to  spin  a  oocoon,  the  silkwonn 
ceases  to  eat,  and  first  produces  the  rough  fibre 
which  forms  the  outer  part  of  the  cocoon,  and 
then  the  more  closely  disposed  and  valuable  fibre 
of  its  interior.  In  this  process  the  position  of 
the  hinder  part  of  the  body  is  little  changed,  but 
the  head  is  moved  from  one  point  to  another; 
and  the  cocoon  when  finished  is  much  shorter 
than  the  body.  Each  fibre  of  silk,  when  examined 
by  a  microscope,  is  seen  to  be  double,  being 
equally  derived  from  the  two  silk-producing  or- 
gans of  the  caterpillar.  A  single  fibre  ran^? 
from  800  io  1000  yards  in  length.  The  time  of  the 
silkworm's  life  in  the  caterpillar  state  is  about 
four  weeks.  About  three  days  are  occupied  in  the 
spinning  of  the  cocoon;  after  which  about  two 
or  three  weeks  elapse  in  the  chrysalis  stage  be- 
fore the  perfect  insect  comes  forth. 

Diseases.  The  silkworm  is  liable  to  various 
diseases,  particularly  to  museardine,  purine, 
flacherie,  gattine,  and  grasserie.  Muscardinct 
commonly  known  as  silkworm  rot,  is  due  to  a 
fungous  growth  within  the  caterpillar.  A  wonn 
so  affected  becomes  of  a  dull  white  color,  slug- 
gish in  action,  and  soon  dies.  A  few  days  after 
death  it  becomes  hard,  red,  and  floury.  The 
cause  of  the  disease  was  discovered  by  an  Italian, 
Bassi,  and  the  fungus  is  called  Botrytis  Bat- 
siana,  P^brine,  which  unquestionably  is  a  bac- 
terial disease,  is  hereditary,  and  probably  is 
contagious  and  infectious  besides.  It  is  the 
most  fatal  of  silkworm  diseases.  By  1847  its 
ravages  in  France  compelled  the  French  to  get 
their  silkworm  eggs  from  Italy.  The  disease 
spread  to  Italy  and  then  the  eggs  were  procured 
from  the  Danube,  then  from  China,  and  m  1865 
healthy  eggs  could  be  got  with  safety  only  from 
Japan.  Pasteur  showed  that  selection  and  isola- 
tion of  healthy  moths  is  the  only  remedy.  With 
the  methods  of  isolation  and  care  agaust  con- 
tamination  such  as   are  at  present  practiced, 


SILKWORM 


SILKWORM  (Bombyx  morl). 

1.  Female  Moth. 

2.  Male  Moth. 

8.  Caterpillar  (Silkworm)  on  Mulberry  Leaf. 


4.  Chrysalis. 

5.  Cocoon. 


8ILKW0BX. 


857 


SILKWOBM. 


France  now  supplies  her  own  market  and  ex- 
ports 300,000  ounces  of  silkworm  eggs  annually, 
in  worms  affected  with  flacherie  the  food  fer- 
ments in  the  alimentary  tract  and  sustains  vi- 
brios and  certain  fungi.  This  disease  is  proba- 
bly induced  by  improper  care  of  the  eggs.  Gat- 
tine  is  probably  only  a  modification  of  flacherie. 
The  cause  of  grasserie  (q.v.)  is  unknown.  It  is 
the  least  fatal  of  silkworm  diseases.  To  keep 
Hilkworms  healthy  they  must  be  reared  in  a 
suitable  and  constant  temperature.  Humidily, 
ventilation,  and  cleanliness  must  also  be  strictly 
and  constantly  attended  to.  Lime  is  used  for 
Avhitewashing  the  walls  and  buildings  in  which 
the  worms  are  reared,  and  sulphur  fumes  for 
sterilizing  the  trays. 

CuLTUBE  OF  SiLKWOBMS.  The  leaf  of  the  white 
mulberry  {Morus  alha)  is  apparently  the  nat- 
ural food  of  the  domestic  silkworm.  There  are 
many  horticultural  varieties  of  this  plant,  some 
much  better  adapted  than  others  to  commercial 
silk  culture^  and  some  better  suited  to  certain 
localities.  The  Moms  moretti,  the  Morus  multi- 
caulia,  and  the  black  iQulberry  {Morus  nigra) 
are  also  used.  The  red  mulberry  {Morus  rubra) 
does  not  make  good  food,  and  the  paper  mulberry 
{Broussoneiia  papyrifera)  is  also  valueless. 
The  best  varieties  of  mulberries  are  propagated 
by  means  of  seeds  and  by  cuttings.  The  trees 
should  be  planted  well  apart  and  should  be 
pruned  so  as  to  form  a  short  trunk  and  a 
close  low  head.  Silkworm  eggs  are  kept 
through  the  winter  at  a  low  temperature, 
the  embryo  beginning  to  take  form  when 
the  temperature  rises  above  50*  F.  The  re- 
ceptacle in  which  they  are  stored  should  be 
ventilated,  the  air  should  not  be  moist,  and 
great  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  them  out  of 
the  reach  of  mice  and  insects.  The  eggs  are 
hatched  in  an  artificial  incubator  or  by  natural 
heat.  When  an  incubator  is  used  the  tempera- 
ture should  be  gradually  increased  until  73* 
F.  is  reached.  The  whitening  of  the  eggs  de- 
notes the  near  approach  of  l£e  hatching.  The 
eggs  should  then  be  covered  with  sheets  of  tulle 
or  finely  perforated  paper,  sprinkled  over  with 
finely  cut  white  mulberry  leaves.  The  young 
caterpillars  will  at  once  mount  to  the  leaves, 
and  should  be  fed  eight  to  ten  times  during 
twenty-four  hours.  After  each  feeding  the  lower 
sheet  of  perforated  paper  or  tulle  should  be  re- 
moved with  the  frass.  About  the  sixth  day  they 
will  begin  to  molt  and  pass  into  the  second  stage. 
As  the  worms  increase  in  size,  paper  in  which 
the  perforations  are  larger  should  be  used,  and 
the  same  general  directions  followed  for  each 
stage  until  the  fifth  has  been  reached. 

The  worms  have  now  grown  to  nearly  full  size, 
and  are  very  voracious,  and  it  is  very  difficult 
to  satisfy  their  appetite.  After  five  days  in  the 
fifth  sta^  th^  are  ready  to  spin.  In  making 
preparations  for  spinning,  dry  brush,  bundles  of 
straw  or  shavings  or  finely  split-up  wood  may  be 
used.  The  brush  or  straw  should  be  placed  up- 
right between  the  feeding  shelves,  in  rows,  about 
16  inches  apart,  the  tops  spread  out  to  form 
arches  and  to  allow  the  worms  plenty  of  room 
to  spin.  The  temperature  during  spinning 
should  be  75*  F.,  and  the  humidity  through- 
out the  rearing  about  65*.  The  rearing-room 
should  be  well  ventilated,  and  before  introduc- 
ing the  worms  should  be  disinfected  with  chloride 


of  lime  or  sulphur.  One  ounce  of  eggs  con- 
tains approximately  40,000,  and  the  space  re- 
quired may  be  estimated  by  allowing  one  square 
yard  for  this  amount  at  birth,  on  the  fourth  day 
two  square  yards,  for  the  second  stage  four 
square  yards,  three  days  later  eight  square 
vards,  for  the  third  stage  16  square  yards,  for 
the  fourth  stage  32  square  yards,  and  for  the 
fifth  stage  60  square  yards.  Plenty  of  space  is 
desirable,  since  when  crowded  the  worms  will 
not  be  so  robust.  A  mean  temperature  of  about 
74*  F.  is  the  best.  There  are  many  commer- 
cial varieties  of  the  silkworm  graded  ac- 
cording to  the  size,  color,  and  quality  of  the  co- 
coon. When  the  cocoons  are  completed,  which 
is  known  by  the  absence  of  any  sound  within, 
they  are  carefully  sorted,  and  a  certain  number 
are  kept  for  laying.  The  sexes  are  readily 
known  by  the  difference  of  shape  as  well  as  of 
size,  the  female  being  plumper  and  the  male, 
besides  being  much  smaller,  having  a  central  de- 
pression and  sharper  extremities.  The  French 
growers  sort  them  into  nine  varieties,  those 
which  are  less  compact,  or  in  which  the  worm 
has  died — a  fact  known  bv  external  indications 
— being  separated  from  tne  good  ones.  When 
the  sorting  is  finished,  the  cocoons  are  placed 
in  an  oven  with  a  gentle  heat,  which  kills  the 
inclosed  chrysalis,  otherwise  they  would  all  be- 
come perforated  by  the  insect  eating  through. 
The  cocoons  are  then  ready  for  the  first  stage  in 
the  manufacturing  process,  which  consists  in 
the  removal  and  winding  of  the  fibrous  cover- 
ing as  described  under  Silk. 

Other  Silkwobms.  It  is  supposed  bv  some 
entomologists  that  the  original  wild  silkworm 
from  which  descended  the  silkworm  of  commerce 
is  a  species  known  as  Theophila  Huttoni,  which 
occurs  in  Japan,  the  Northwest  Himalayas,  and 
Assam.  The  moth  is  of  the  same  size  as  that 
of  Bombyx  mori,  is  light  brown  in  color,  and  has 
the  characteristic  markings  on  the  wings.  The 
larva  almost  precisely  resembles  the  domestic 
silkworm,  but  has  a  pair  of  small  black  thorns 
on  the  back  of  each  segment  of  the  abdomen.  It 
seems  very  unlikely,  however,  that  this  species- 
could  have  been  the  ancestor  of  Bomhya  mori, 
since  it  lacks  palpi,  which  are  present  in  the 
Bombyx. 

Oriental  people  have  utilized  the  cocoons  of  a 
number  of  species  of  bombvcid  moths  in  the 
manufacture  of  silk  goods.  The  so-called  tussah, 
tusseh,  or  tusser  silkworm  is  Anthercea  paphia, 
a  species  which  occurs  in  China,  India,  and 
Ceylon.  In  Upper  India  this  silk  is  extensively 
produced,  and  the  cocoons  are  collected  in  the 
jungle  districts  by  the  Sahars  and  other  half- 
wild  castes  who  live  in  such  places.  Other  silk- 
worms which  are  said  to  be  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  tusseh  sijk  are  Anthercea  pemyi,  from 
China;  Anthercea  Assama  {SaturrUa  Perottetti 
and  Anthercea  mezankooria  are  synonyms  of  this 
species),  a  native  of  Assam,  and  there  called 
'moonga'  or  'moogha;'  Anthercea  Roylei,  from 
India ;  Anthercea  Helferi  from  Sikhim ;  Anthercsa 
jana,  from  Java ;  Anthercea  Frithii,  from  Sikhim, 
Bhutan,  and  Darjeeling;  and  Anthertea  larissa, 
from  Java.  The  very  large  and  beautiful  Attacus 
atlas,  from  India,  Ceylon,  Burma,  and  Java,  is 
also  said  to  produce  cocoons  used  in  making 
tusseh  silk. 

The  wild  silkworms  which  have  received  the 


8ILXW0BX. 


868 


BILL. 


most  attention  in  Europe,  however,  are  iLn- 
thercea  yatnamai,  from  Japan,  commonly  known 
as  the  'yamamai'  silkworm;  Anthenga  pemyi, 
from  China;  and  Philosamia  cynthia,  from 
Japan,  China,  the  Himalayas,  Assam,  and  Java, 
which  has  been  introduced  into  Europe  and 
which  has  been  acclimatized  in  the  Eastern 
United  States.  Its  larva  is  commonly  known  as 
the  ailanthus  silkworm,  while  the  yamamai  and 
pernyi  silkworms  are  commonly  Imown  as  oak 
silkworms. 

The  yamamai  silkworm  is  conunonly  raised  in 
Japan  and  its  cocoon  is  large,  heavy,  and  hand- 
some, and  of  a  yellowish-green  color.  It  is 
readily  reeled,  and  its  silk  ranks  oommerciallv 
next  to  that  of  the  domestic  silkworm.  The  silk 
is  strong  and  valuable.  It  bleaches  well  and 
may  then  be  dyed.  Fewer  threads  are  Te<}uired 
to  make  a  strand  than  with  Bamhyaf  mart,  and 
the  cocoons  unwind  with  perfect  ease  by  the  ordi- 
nary process.  The  life  of  the  worm  lasts  from 
50  to  80  days,  and  it  feeds  on  all  kinds  of  oak, 
but  prefers  those  of  the  white  oak  group. 

The  pernyi  silkworm  has  been  cultivated  in 
Europe  with  better  success  than  the  yamamaL 
It  develops  more  rapidly,  is  double-brooded,  and 
passes  the  winter  in  the  chrysalis  state.  The 
cocoon  is  not  so  valuable,  though  ranking  proba- 
bly third  best  among  the  different  silkworm 
cocoons. 

The  ailanthus  silkworm  is  utilized  extensively 
in  North  China.  It  has  been  known  in  Europe 
since  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  and  has 
been  cultivated  there  as  well  as  in  the  United 
States  with  perfect  success.  The  cocoons,  how- 
ever, cannot  be  reeled  successfully,  and  their 
silk  is  utilized  principally  by  carding  processes. 

In  the  United  States  several  species  of  silk- 
worm moths  occur,  and  their  caterpillars  spin 
an  abundance  of  silk  of  a  strong  and  durable 
quality.  The  'American'  silkworm  {Telea  Poly- 
phemua)  is  a  large  moth  of  a  buff  color,  whose 
caterpillar  feeds  upon  the  leaves  of  many  trees, 
incluaing  oak,  willow,  hickory,  maple,  apple, 
sycamore,  and  many  others.  The  cocoon  is 
formed  of  strong  silk,  which  when  unwound  has 
a  glossy  fibre.  It  is  oval  and  closed  at  both 
enoB,  dense,  and  generally  fastened  to  a  leaf 
or  leaves  with  which  it  sometimes  falls  to  the 
ground.  The  fibres  are  intermixed  and  cemented 
with  a  gummy  substance  which  when  dry  gives 
the  cocoon  a  chalky  appearance.  The  principal 
diflficulty  in  reeling  the  cocoon  is  in  the  hard 
matter  which  binds  the  threads.  This,  however, 
may  be  softened,  and  no  doubt  the  cocoon  could 
be  improved  by  a  process  of  continued  selection. 
The  insect  has  one  generation  each  year  in  the 
Northern  States  and  two  in  the  Southern  States, 
and  passes  the  winter  in  the  chrysalis  state. 

The  large  luna  moth  {TrojHBa  luna)  is  a  beau- 
tiful species  of  a  delicate  green  color,  with  long 
tails  to  the  hind  wings,  whose  larva  feeds 
on  several  forest  trees  and  whose  cocoon  is  less 
dense  than  that  of  the  polyphemus  moth.  The 
cocoons  of  these  two  species  have  the  same  gen- 
eral characteristios  as  those  of  the  yamamai  silk- 
worm. Another  native  North  American  silkworm 
{Callosamia  prometKia)  resembles  in  many  re- 
spects the  ailanthus  worm.  Its  cocoon,  like  that 
species,  is  ;'-on  and  is  in  the  same  way  difficult 
to  reel.  It  feeds  on  ash,  sassafras,  wild  cherry, 
maple,  lilac,  birch,  and  other  trees.    The  largest 


of  the  American  silkworms  is  the  larva  of  Bamis 
cecrofna,  a  beautiful  moth  of  a  grayish  brown 
color  marked  with  reddish  and  yellowish  spots 
and  bands.  The  large  green  larva,  which  bears 
six  coral-red  tubercles  on  its  thorax  and  smaller 
blue  tubercles  on  its  abdomen,  feeds  upon  the 
apple  and  other  rosaceous  plants,  as  well  as  upon 
hazel,  hickory,  maple,  willow,  and  honey-locust 
The  cocoon  is  peculiar  in  being  apparently  double. 
There  is  a  thick,  wrinkled  outer  layer  which  re- 
sembles strong  brown  paper  and  which  covers  an 
inner  oval  cocoon  composed  of  the  same  kind  of 
silk,  but  closely  woven  like  that  of  iiie  mulberry 
silkworm.  Nearly  related  to  this  species  are 
Samia  Oloveri,  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region; 
Bamia  colwnha,  of  the  North  Atlantic  States; 
and  £famta  ruhra,  from. the  Pacific  States.  In 
Mexico  there  are  several  laige  silkworm  moths  of 
the  Saturnian  group  which  produce  quantities 
of  silk,  but  it  has  not  been  commercially  utilized 
or  experimented  with.  There  is  another  group  of 
moths  belonging  to  the  family  Psychidse,  in  which 
the  larva  makes  a  large  bag  of  silk  which  it  car- 
ries about  with  it  to  protect  its  soft  body  from 
the  attacks  of  birds.  A  common  American  ex- 
ample is  the  baeworm  (q.v.)  or  basket-worm. 
This  silk  has  not  been  utilized  except  in  China. 

Bibliography.  Consult:  Riley,  Fwirth  Anaiual 
Report  State  Entomologist  of  Missouri  (Jeffer- 
son City,  1872);  Riley,  "The  Mulberry  Silk- 
worm," in  Bulletin  No,  9,  Division  of  Entomol- 
ogy, United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
(Washington,  1886) ;  Kelly,  "The  Culture  of  the 
Mulberry  Silkworm,"  in  Bulletin  No,  S9  (ib., 
1903)  ;  Villon,  La  Soie  (Paris,  1890)  ;  Verson 
and  Quajat,  II  filugeUo  e  Varte  sericola  (Padova, 
1896).    See  Silk. 

SILKWO&X  GUT.  A  material  used  by 
anglers  to  form  the  hook  end  of  a  fish-line.  Its 
advantages  are  its  extreme  tenacity  and  its  trans- 
parency or  invisibility  in  water.  It  is  prepared 
from  the  viscid  secretion  to  be  found  in  the  silk- 
worm (q.v.)  just  before  it  is  ready  to  begin  to 
spin.  The  grub  is  immersed  in  strong  vinegar 
for  several  hours  and  the  substance  which,  if  it 
had  lived,  would  have  been  spun  into  a  cocoon, 
is  forcibly  drawn  out  from  the  dead  worm.  This 
thread  is  first  soaked  in  cold  water  and  then  in  a 
caustic  solution.  This  loosens  the  outer  covering, 
which  is  next  removed.  The  silk  is  then  dried  in 
a  shady  place.  If  simply  dried  it  will  be  of  a 
yellowish  hue ;  the  pure  white  thread  is  produced 
by  bleaching  in  sulphur  fumes.  The  manufac- 
ture of  gut  strings  is  carried  on  in  Italy  and 
Greece,  and  ^  other  silk-growing  countries,  but 
particularly  in  Spain,  the  principal  market  beinj? 
Valencia.  It  takes  from  20,000  to  30,000  threads 
to  make  a  pound,  the  first  price  for  a  pound  being 
from  $25  to  $30. 

SILL^  Edwabd  Rowiand  (1841-87).  An 
American  poet  and  essayist,  bom  at  Windsor, 
Conn.  He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1861,  resided  till 
1866  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  studied  theology  at 
Harvard,  and  after  several  years  of  teaching  and 
literary  work  in  the  East,  was  made  principal 
of  the  Oakland,  Cal.,  High  School  (1871)  and 
in  1874  professor  of  English  in  the  University  of 
California.  He  returned  to  the  East  in  1882. 
He  wrote:  Hermione,  and  Other  Poems;  The 
Hermitage,  and  Other  Poems  (1867);  The 
Venus  of  Milo,  and  Other  Poems  (1882).  A 
posthumous  selection  embracing  most  of  his  bet- 


gfTT^- 


869 


8IL0AM. 


ter  verse  appeared  in  1888.  Two  yeare  later 
was  published  a  posthumous  collection  of  prose, 
"Being  Essays  in  Literature  and  Education,  and 
Friendly  Letters."  The  small  poetic  production 
of  Sill,  who  was  a  man  of  rare  temperament  and 
insight,  IB  notable  for  carefulness  of  diction,  deli- 
cacy of  feeling,  and  a  dominating  strain  of 
spiritual  optimism.  His  thoughtful  work  has 
steadily  grown  in  influence  and  seems  likely  to 
maintain  a  modest  place  in  American  literature. 

STTiTi,  Joshua  Woodbow  (1831-62).  An 
American  soldier,  bom  at  Ghillicothe,  Ohio.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1853,  was  assigned  to 
the  Ordnance  Department,  and  was  detailed  for 
duty  at  the  Watervliet  Arsenal.  From  1864  to 
1857  he  was  assistant  professor  of  geography  and 
history  at  West  Point,  and  then  was  again  on 
duty  in  the  Ordnance  Department  until  January, 

1861,  when  he  resigned  from  the  army  and  be- 
came professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Brooklyn 
Polytechnic  Institute.  In  April,  however,  he  was 
appointed  by  the  Governor  of  Ohio  assistant 
adjutant-general  of  that  State.  He  became  col- 
onel of  the  Third-third  Ohio  Volunteers  in  Au- 
gust, 1861,  and  commanded  his  regiment  in  the 
campaigns  in  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  Alabama 
during  the  next  year.  He  commanded  a  brigade 
in  the  movement  against  Nashville  in  February, 

1862,  and  the  subsequent  operations  in  northern 
Alabama,  and  at  Huntsville.  On  July  16,  1862, 
he  was  conunissioned  brigadier-general  of  volun- 
teers, and  commanded  a  division  at  the  battle  of 
Perryville,  and  in  the  pursuit  of  General  Bragg's 
army.  He  was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Stone  River, 
December  31,  1862. 

SnyiJMAN,  Benjamin  (1779-1864).  An 
American  scientist,  bom  at  North  Stratford  (now 
Trumbull),  Ck>nn.,  the  son  of  Gold  Selleck  Silli- 
man,  a  general  in  the  army  of  the  Revolution. 
After  graduating  at  Yale  in  1796  he  studied 
law,  became  a  tutor  in  Yale,  was  soon  chosen 
to  be  a  professor  of  natural  science,  and  went 
abroad  to  fit  himself  for  the  chair  in  which  he 
became  a  teacher  of  chemistry,  mineralogy, 
geology.  Slid  pharmacy.  He  held  his  professor- 
ship in  Yale  from  1802  to  1864— from  1853 
onward  as  professor  emeritus.  He  was  honored 
and  beloved  as  a  teacher,  and  acquired  even 
greater  distinction  as  a  lecturer,  especially  on 
geology.  These  courses  began  at  New  Haven  in 
1831,  and  were  so  much  appreciated  that  Silli- 
man  was  selected  to  give  twenty-four  lectures  be- 
fore the  Lowell  Institute  of  Boston,  in  its  first 
session  (1839-40).  In  1818  he  established  the 
American  Journal  of  Science  (often  quoted  as 
*Silliman's  Journal' ),  which  has  been  continued 
under  successive  members  of  his  family  to  this 
day,  and  is  still  a  leading  American  repository 
of  scientific  papers  and  intelligence.  With  Dr. 
Robert  Hare  he  constructed  the  compound  blow- 
pipe. He  published  after  his  return  from  Eng- 
land a  narrative  of  his  journey,  and  fifty  years 
later,  at  the  end  of  a  second  journey,  he  pub- 
lished a  similar  memoir.  His  Tour  to  Quebec 
(1819)  was  likewise  widely  read.  His  contribu- 
tions to  science  wero  not  numerous,  one  of  those 
most  famous  at  the  time  being  an  account  (with 
J.  L.  Kingsley)  of  a  remarkable  meteor  which 
fell  at  Weston  in  1807.  His  Life  was  written  by 
Professor  George  P.  Fisher  and  published  in  two 
volumes  (New  York,  1868).  Many  entertaining 
Toifc  XV.— 86. 


reminiscences  of  his  distinguished  contemporaries 
are  given  in  these  volumes.  During  his  long 
career  Silliman  was  an  active  participant  in  all 
the  affairs  of  Yale  College — ^the  organization  of 
the  Medical  School,  the  formation  of  a  cabinet 
of  minerals,  the  acquisition  of  (yolonel  Trum- 
bulPs  paintings,  and  the  purchase  of  the  Clark 
telescope. 

His  son,  Benjamin,  Jb.  (1816-85),  was  also  a 
chemist,  and  was  bom  in  New  Haven,  Conn.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1837,  becoming  an 
assistant  to  his  father,  and  in  1842  fitted  up,  in 
one  of  the  coU^  buildings,  a  chemical  labora- 
tory, out  of  which  grew  the  foundation  in  1847 
of  the  Yale  (now  Sheffield)  Scientific  School.  He 
was  professor  of  medical  chemistry  and  toxi- 
cology in  the  University  of  Louisville,  Ky.,  from 
1849  to  1854.  In  1854  he  succeeded  his  father 
in  the  chair  of  chemistry,  which  he  retained  until 
1870,  continuing,  however,  to  lecture  in  the 
medical  department  until  his  death.  He  gave 
popular  lectures  on  scientific  topics  throughout 
the  country,  and  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
American  Journal  of  Science.  He  was  the  au- 
thor of  First  Frinciplea  of  Chemistry  (1846; 
2d  ed.  1856)  ;  Principles  of  Physics  ( 1858 ;  .ed.  e. 
1868)  ;  and  American  Contributions  to  Chemis- 
try (1876). 

SHXIMANITE  (named  in  -honor  of  Benja- 
min Silliman).  A  mineral  aluminum  silicate  that 
has  a  vitreous  lustre,  and  is  brown  to  green  in 
color.  It  occurs  in  gneiss,  mica  schist,  and  other 
crystalline  rocks,  and  is  found  in  many  localities 
in  Bohemia,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  and  France,  and 
in  the  United  States  in  Massachusetets,  Con- 
necticut. New  York,  Delaware,  and  North  Caro- 
lina. The  fibrous  varieties  are  commonly  called 
fibrolite,  while  the  name  sillimanite  is  given  to 
those  varieties  that  are  found  in  the  form  of 
long  slender  crystals. 

SrLO.  An  air-tight  storage  room  either  above 
ground  or  below,  in  which  green  crops  usually 
cut  small  are  tightly  packed  for  future  use.  See 
Silage. 

SILO^AM  (Heb.  ShiUkih,  Shelah),  A  pool 
situated  at  the  southern  end  of  the  eastern  hill 
of  Jerusalem,  mentioned  in  Nehemiah  iii.  15 
and  John  ix.  7.  Isaiah  (viii.  6)  speaks  of  the 
"waters  of  Shiloah  that  go  softly."  The  water 
in  this  pool  is  supplied  by  the  Virgin's 
Spring  and  is  brought  to  the  pool  at  the  en- 
trance to  the  TyropoBon  valley  by  a  tunnel  over 
1700  feet  in  length.  The  tunnel  is  rather  wind- 
ing, and  about  25  feet  from  the  Siloan  end  an 
important  inscription  was  found  in  the  wall  in 
1880.  As  translated  by  Driver,  it  reads:  "(Be- 
hold) the  piercing  through,  and  this  was  the 
manner  of  the  piercing  through.  Whilst  yet 
(the  miners  were  lifting  up)  the  pick  each 
towards  his  fellow,  and  whilst  yet  tjiere  were 
three  cubits  to  be  (cut  through,  there  was 
heard)  the  voice  of  each  calling  to  his  fellow, 
for  there  was  a  fissure  in  the  rock  on  the  right 
hand.  .  .  .  And  on  the  day  of  the  piercing 
through  the  miners  smote  each  so  as  to  meet  his 
fellow,  pick  against  pick;  and  there  flowed  the 
water  from  the  source  to  the  pool  1200  cubits; 
and  100  cubits  was  the  height  of  the  rock  over 
the  head  of  the  miners."  Hence  the  cutting  was 
evidently  done  simultaneously  from  both  ends. 
In  default  of  any  date,  there  has  been  much  con- 
troversy as  to  the  age  of  the  inscription.    The 


8IL0AJL 


860 


8ILX7BIAK  SYSTEK. 


form  of  the  letters  lenda  probability  to  the  view 
that  the  tunnel  was  constructed  in  the  days  of 
Hezekiah.  The  aim  in  conducting  the  waters 
through  the  tunnel  into  a  pool  of  the  Tyro- 
poeon  valley  was  to  make  it  more  accessible 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  lower  part  of  Jeru- 
salem. Consult :  Tobler,  Die  Siloahquelle  und  der 
Oelherg  (Saint  Gall,  1852)  ;  Socin,  Die  Siloahinr 
Bchrift  (Freiburg,  1899);  Driver,  Iiote9  to  ike 
Hehreto  Text  of  Hamuel  (Oxford,  1890). 

SILPHIX7M  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  ^^^lor,  a  sort  of 
umbelliferous  plant,  the  juice  of  which  was  used 
in  food  and  medicine) .  A  genus  of  about  a  dozen 
tall,  coarse,  American  perennial  plants  of  the 
order  Composite.  They  have  a  copious  resinous 
juice,  and  large  corymbose-panicled  yellow  flower- 
ing heads.  Silpkium  laciniatum,  called  rosin- 
weed,  is  rough  and  bristly,  grows  from  3  to  6  and 
sometimes  10  feet  high,  and  has  pinnately  parted 
leaves.  It  grows  on  the  prairies  of  Michigan, 
Wisconsin,  and  southward  and  westward  and 
blossoms  in  July.  It  is  called  compass-plant 
(q.v.),  from  the  turning  of  its  lower  leaves  so 
that  their  edges  point  north  and  south.  Another 
species,  Silpkium  terehentkinaceumy  the  prairie 
burdock,  grows  from  4  to  10  feet  high,  and  has 
many  small  heads  in  a  panicle  at  the  top. 

BLLTTBIAN  SYSTEM  (from  Lat.  Silures,  a 
people  of  ancient  Britain).  A  division  of  the 
Paleozoic  group  of  rocks  established  by  Murchi- 
son  (q.v.)  to  include  the  strata  between  the 
Archsan  and  Devonian  systems.  It  was  subse- 
quently restricted  to  the  two  formations  now 
known  as  the  Ordovician  or  Lower  Silurian  and . 
Upper  Silurian.  These  two  extend  from  the  up- 
per limits  of  the  Cambrian  to  the  base  of  the 
Devonian.  Silurian  rocks  are  extensively  de- 
veloped in  both  the  United  States  and  Europe. 
The  rocks  of  the  Silurian  system  in  America  are 
divided  as  follows : 

8.  Upper  Pentamerns 
stage. 

3.  BhBlj  Limestone 
stage. 

1.  Lower  Pentamerus 
stage. 

o  n^^y.Am.»^ mm^^mm  -    f   BallDa  aod   watoF- 
a.  Onondaga  series,     j  ^^^^  ^^^^^ 


SUnrian 
Sjstem. 


8.  Lower  Helderberg 


1.  Niagara  series. 


w 


8.  Niagara  stage. 

a.  Clinton  stage. 

Medina  stage. 


The  rocks  are  largely  limestones,  but  there  are 
also  beds  of  shales  and  some  sandstones  inter- 
stratified  with  them.  While  there  was  some  dis- 
turbance at  the  end  of  the  Ordovician  era,  at  the 
same  time  it  was  not  sufficiently  extensive  in 
America  to  change  materially  or  increase  the  ex- 
tent of  the  land  surface  which  existed  in  the 
Ordovician  times.  Silurian  rocks  are  present  in 
great  thickness  in  the  Eastern  States,  especially 
along  the  Appalachian  region.  The  lowest  forma- 
tion, or  that  known  as  the  Oneida,  is  a  conglom- 
erate which  appears  in  central  New  York,  thin- 
ning toward  the  eastern  shore  line,  but  is  very 
thick  along  the  Appalachian  ranges  as  far  south 
as  Tennessee.  Owing  to  its  great  hardness,  it 
forms  many  prominent  ridges,  notably  the  Sha- 
wangunk  Mountains  of  New  York,  also  the  crests 
of  the  Kittatinny  Mountains,  and  the  ridges  at 
Delaware  Water  Gap. 

Overlying  the  conglomerate  is  a  great  deposit 
known    as   the    Medina    sandstone,    which    was 


formed  in  shallow  water  and  shows  many  rip- 
ple marks.  It  extends  from  Central  New  York 
with  decreasing  thickness  toward  Ohio,  but  in 
eastern  Pennsylvania  the  beds  aggregate  1800 
feet  Overlying  this  is  the  Clinton  shale,  which 
is  well  known  from  New  York  down  into  Georgia, 
and  westward  into  Wisconsin,  in  which  region 
it  changes  into  limestone,  indicating  that  the 
Silurian  seas  were  deeper  in  that  area  than 
they  were  further  east.  A  subsequent  deepen- 
ing of  the  water  over  a  still  greater  area  is  indi- 
cated by  the  formation  of  the  Niagara  limestone, 
which  is  well  developed  in  the  gorge  of  Niagara 
River,  and  whose  resistance  to  erosion  causes 
the  abrupt  descent  of  the  Niagara  River  at  the 
Falls.  This  formation  ranges  over  a  very  large 
territory  westward  to  Wisconsin,  and  then  south- 
ward through  Illinois  into  Missouri  and  West 
Tennessee.  Small  areas  are  also  found  in  Iowa, 
the  Black  Hills,  and  Nevada.  Following  this 
great  limestone  deposit  there  comes  a  series  of 
shallow  water  deposits  of  salt,  gypstun,  and 
shale  of  the  Salina  stage,  which  are  well  de- 
veloped in  New  York  and  Ohio,  but  thin  out  in 
Pennsylvania.  In  some  localities  an  argillaceous 
limestone  was  deposited  during  the  same  period, 
to  which  has  been  given  the  name  of  water-lime 
on  account  of  its  value  in  the  manufacture  of 
cement  On  top  of  these  beds  lie  great  beds  of 
limestones  due  to  the  deepening  of  the  water  in 
which  the  Silurian  sediments  were  being  de- 
posited. To  this  great  limestone  series  has  been 
given  the  name  of  Lower  Helderberg.  It  is  proba- 
ble that  the  depression  made  at  this  time  sub- 
merged some  areas  which  had  been  dry  land  since 
Ordovician  times,  as  in  some  cases  we  find  the 
Lower  Helderberg  rocks  resting  directly  on 
Ordovician  strata.  The  Lower  Helderberg  rocks 
are  abundant  in  New  York,  where  they  form 
the  bold  escarpment  of  the  Helderberg  Mountains 
near  Albany,  but  are  also  known  to  extend  south- 
ward through  Pennsylvania  to  Virginia,  while 
additional  deposits  are  known  in  western  Ten- 
nessee and  Maryland. 

Silurian  beds  are  well  developed  in  Europe, 
China,  Northern  Africa,  South  America,  and 
Australia,  as  well  as  in  North  America.  At  the 
termination  of  the  Silurian  there  was  a  gradual 
transition  into  the  Devonian,  so  that  it  is  often 
difficult  to  determine  the  boundary  line  between 
the  rocks  of  the  two  systems. 

The  plant  life  of  the  Silurian,  so  far  as  re- 
vealed oy  the  fossil  remains,  was  scanty.  Sea- 
weeds were  abundant,  but  land  plants  are  rarely 
found.  Among  the  animals  there  was  a  great 
development  of  invertebrates.  Sponges  were 
present  in  force,  but  the  ^aptolites  had  di- 
minished. Both  the  hydroid  corals  and  the 
true  corals  were  very  important,  the  former  be- 
ing especially  important  as  reef  builders.  Fa- 
vosites  and  Halysites  are  two  well-known  fossil 
corals  of  the  Silurian  rocks.  There  was  a 
marked  increase  of  crinoids  and  also  starfishes, 
while  even  the  sea-urchins  were  fairly  abundant 
The  trilobites  also  continued  to  flourish,  although 
not  as  numerous  as  those  of  the  Ordovician; 
among  the  common  genera  were  Calymene,  Dal- 
manites,  and  Lichas.  Some  insects  have  also 
been  found,  such  as  scorpions,  and  prove  that 
there  must  have  been  land  vegetation.  The 
brachiopods  continued  in  countless  numbers,  and 
the  genera  were  quite  difiTerent  on  the  whole 


BUAJBIAS  8Y8TEK. 


861 


8ILVEB. 


from  those  of  the  Ordovician.  The  most  im- 
portant were  Atrypa,  Spirifera,  and  Pentamenis. 
The  bivalve  moUusks  were  similar  to  those  of 
the  Ordovician,  but  other  orders  showed  more 
or  less  change.  Among  the  pteropods  a  very 
abundant  form  is  the  Tentaculites,  wnose  remains 
occur  in  great  numbers  in  certain  strata  of  the 
lower  Helderberg  series.  The  only  vertebrates 
that  are  known  to  have  existed  were  fishes  such 
as  ostracoderms  and  sharks,  but  their  remains 
are  rather  fra^entary. 

The  economic  minerals  of  the  Silurian  are 
fairly  diversified.  In  the  rocks  of  the  Clinton 
age  we  find  a  very  persistent  bed  of  the  hema- 
tite iron  ore  known  as  the  Clinton  or  fossiliferous 
iron  ore.  Wherever  the  Clinton  rocks  are  found 
this  ore  is  known  to  occur  and  forms  the  basis 
of  the  iron  industry  at  Birmingham,  Ala.,  where 
a  deposit  four  miles  long  and  from  12  to  20  feet 
thick  is  worked.  In  the  rocks  of  the  Salina  group 
we  find  the  deposits  of  gypsum  and  rock  salt, 
the  latter  material  being  of  great  economic  value 
in  the  State  of  New  York.  Many  of  the  Silurian 
rocks  are  also  excellently  adapted  for  building 
purposes,  and  of  these  the  Medina  sandstone, 
named  from  its  occurrence  at  Medina,  New  York, 
is  specially  well  known. 

Bibliography.  Murchison,  Siluria  (London, 
1859)  ;  Geikie,  Text-Book  of  Geology  (ib., 
1893)  ;  Dana,  Manual  of  Geology  (4th  ed..  New 
York,  1896)  ;  Scott,  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  Geology  (ib.,  1902) ;  and  the  following  trea- 
tises: Darton,  ''Notes  on  the  Stratigraphy  of  a 
Portion  of  Central  Appalachian,  Virginia," 
American  Geologist,  vol.  x.  (Rochester,  1892) ; 
Prosser,  'The  Thickness  of  the  Devonian  and 
Silurian  Rocks  of  Central  New  York,"  Geological 
Society  of  America  Bulletin,  vol.  iv.  (ib.,  1893) ; 
Weller,  "The  Silurian  Fauna  Interpreted  on  the 
Epicontinental  Basis,"  in  Journal  of  Geology, 
vol.  vi.  (Chicago,  1898)  ;  Clarke,  "Note  on  the 
Silura-Devonic  Boundary,"  in  Science,  new  series, 
vol.  xii.  (New  York,  1900)  ;  Schuchert,  "Lower 
Devonic  Aspect  of  the  Lower  Helderberg  and 
Oriskany  Formations,"  Geological  Society  of 
American  Bulletin,  \o\.  xi.  (Rochester,  1900).  See 
Clinton  Stage;  Salina  Stage,  etc. 

SrLTTBIDJE.  A  very  large  family  of  soft- 
rayed  fishes.    See  Catfish. 

SILVA,  sdKv&,  Antonio  Jos^  da  (1706-39). 
A  Portuguese  playwright  who  became  a  victim 
of  religious  fanaticism  and  was  burnt  at  the 
stake  by  the  Obscurantists,  October  18,  1739. 
Silva  was  the  son  of  a  converted  Jew.  His 
Operas  are  often  coarse  and  rough,  but  full  of  wit 
and  humor  of  a  popular  kind.  Consult  "Portu- 
giesische  Litteratur,"  in  GrSber,  Grundriss  der 
romanischen  Philologie  (Straasburg,  1897). 

Sill V ADMITS.  In  Latin  mythology,  a  divinity 
of  the  fields  and  forests,  the  protector  of  the 
boundaries  of  fields  and  of  cattle.  He  is  by  later 
writers  identified  with  Pan,  Faimus,  and  other 
divinities,  and  is  represented  by  the  poets  and 
in  art  as  an  old  man,  in  love  with  Pomona.  He 
is  especially  associated  with  the  cypress  and  the 
pine.  His  sacrifices  consisted  of  grapes,  com, 
meat,  milk,  wine,  and  pigs. 

SHiVANTTS.  A  leader  of  the  primitive  CJhris- 
tian  Church  in  Jerusalem.    See  Silab. 

BILTELiLy  s61-v&^,  Francisco  (1843—). 
A    Spanish    statesman,    bom    at   Madrid.      He 


studied  law,  and  in  1869  was  elected  to  the 
Cortes  as  a  Conservative.  In  1879  he  became 
Minister  of  the  Interior  (under  Campos),  and 
from  1883  to  1884  he  was  Minister  of  Justice. 
After  the  death  of  C&novas  Silvela,  as  the  head 
of  the  reorganized  Conservative  Party,  became 
Prime  Minister  in  February,  1899.  He  resigned 
in  October,  1900,  but  after  the  fall  of  Sagasta 
resumed  office,  in  December,  1902. 

SrLVEB  (AS.  seolfoTy  seoluhr,  Goth,  siluhr, 
OHG.  silahar,  silhar,  Ger.  Silher,  silver ;  probably 
from  the  Pontic  city  of 'AXiJ/Si/,  Alyhe,  where  silver 
aboimded).  A  metallic  element  that  was  known 
to  the  ancients,  and  when  'first  mentioned  is  re- 
ferred to  as  a  medium  of  exchange.  It  is  de- 
scribed in  early  Hebrew  writings  under  the  name 
Kiseph,  the  root  of  which  signifies  'to  be  pale,' 
while  among  the  Greeks  it  was  known  as  dpyvpot^ 
argyros,  signifying  'shining.'  The  alchemists 
called  it  luna  or  Diana,  and  referred  to  it  in 
their  writings  by  the  crescent  symbol.  It  occurs 
native,  and  specimens  weighing  several  hundred 
poimds  have  been  found,  although  it  usually 
occurs  in  combination,  as  given  below  in  the 
table  of  ores.  It  also  occurs  in  lead  ores,  which 
form  one  of  the  main  sources  of  its  production. 
It  is  found  in  sea  water,  and  small  quantities  of 
it,  in  the  form  of  chloride,  have  been  detected  in 
volcanic  dust.  The  metal  may  be  readily  pre- 
pared by  heating  silver  sulphide  w^ith  litharge  or 
lead  sulphate,  the  lead  being  separated  from  the 
resulting  alloy  by  cupellation.  Metallic  silver 
may  also  be  obtained  by  reducing  silver  chloride 
with  zinc,  or  by  fusion  with  carbon  and  sodium 
carbonate. 

Silver  (symbol  Ag.;  atomic  weight,  107.92) 
is  a  white  lustrous  metal  that  is  veiv  ductile  and 
malleable,  with  a  specific  gravity  of  10.57  and  a 
melting-point  of  1040**  C.  (about  1900**  F.). 
When  in  the  liquid  state  it  possesses  the  power 
of  absorbing  oxygen  from  the  air,  which  it  gives 
up  on  solidification.  When  a  mass  of  the  metal 
is  rapidly  cooled,  the  silver  solidifies  before  the 
oxygen  has  escaped  from  the  interior,  and  this 
gas  then  bursts  through  the  crusts,  driving  out 
part  of  the  fused  silver  in  globular  masses  and 
excrescences — a  phenomenon  known  as  'spitting.' 
Metallic  silver  finds  extensive  use  in  coinage, 
and,  owing  to  the  high  polish  it  takes,  for  table- 
ware and  decorative  articles;  for  silver  plating, 
the  silvering  of  mirrors,  and  to  a  slight  extent 
for  laboratory  purposes.  Silver  forms  alloys 
(q.v.)  with  many  metals,  and  that  consisting  of 
9  parts  of  silver  to  1  part  of  copper  is  the 
standard  alloy  used  for  the  United  States  coins, 
while  835  parts  silver  to  165  parts  copper  is  the 
standard  employed  in  the  Latin  Union.  An  alloy 
of  100  parts  of  aluminum  with  5  parts  of  silver 
is  used  for  making  pans  of  balances,  etc.,  as  it 
is  harder  and  more  easily  polished  than  alumi- 
num. 

With  oxygen  silver  forms  three  oxides,  an  ar- 
gentous  oxide  or  sub-oxide,  a  protoxide  or  normal 
oxide,  and  a  peroxide  or  dioxide.  Of  these  the 
protoxide  is  the  most  important.  It  is  obtained 
as  a  brown  pulverulent  precipitate  when  silver 
nitrate  is  treated  with  potassium  or  sodium  hy- 
droxide. This  compound  is  used  to  give  a  yellow 
color  to  glass,  and  finds  some  employment  in 
medicine  as  a  substitute  for  silver  nitrate.  Silver 
nitrate,  or  lunar  caustic,'  is  prepare  by  dissolv- 
ing silver  in  nitric  acid  and  evaporating  to  crys- 


8ILVS&. 


863 


8ILVS&. 


tallization,  when  large  colorless  transparent 
tablets  are  formed  which  blacken  on  exposure  to 
light  or  in  contact  with  organic  matter.  They 
may  be  fused  and  cast  into  sticks  or  pencils, 
which  form  the  silver  nitrate  used  as  a  caustic 
in  medicine.  Silver  nitrate  is  the  basis  of  many 
of  the  indelible  inks,  is  a  constituent  of  black  hair 
dyes,  and  is  largely  used  in  photography.  The 
haloid  salts  of  silver  include  the  chloride,  the 
iodide,  and  the  bromide,  all  of  which  are  found 
native,  and  may  be  prepared  by  the  action  of  a 
soluble  chloride,  bromide,  or  iodide  on  silver 
nitrate.  These  salts,  owing  to  their  sensitiveness 
to  light,  are  extensively  used  in  photography. 
Silver  sulphide,  which  is  formed  when  hydrogen 
sulphide  is  added  to  a  solution  of  a  silver  salt, 
is  the  black  tarnish  which  forms  on  silver  ar- 
ticles, and  in  order  to  produce  the  so-called  oxi- 
dized surface  on  art  objects  of  silver  they  are 
immersed  in  a  solution  of  potassium  sulphide. 

Silver  Obes.  The  following  table  gives  the 
composition  of  the  principal  silver  ores,  grouped 
in  the  order  of  their  importance: 

Thk  Important  Obss  of  Siltib 


NAMK 

Combining 
element 

Formula 

NATITK  BiLTlB. 

Ag.    Frequently 
alloyed   with 
other  metals. 

Abointitb. 

Snlphnr. 

Ag.S 
Ag=87.1% 

Proubtitb. 
(Light  nibysllTer.) 

Araenlc  and 
Sulphur. 

a|L6I.4% 

Ptbaboyritb. 
(Dark  ruby  illver.) 

Antimony  and 
Sulphur. 

Ag, Sb  S, 
Ag-W.9% 

Stbpbanitb. 
(Brittle  silver.) 

Antimony  and 
Sulphur. 

Ag. Sb  S« 
Ag-4».6% 

CBRABeTRITB. 

(Horn  Silver.) 

Chorine 

Ag(n 
Ag=76.9% 

Hbsbitb. 
(Petilte.) 

Tellurium. 

Ag,  Te  to 

(AgAu),Te 

Tbtbahbdbitb. 
(Fahl  ore.) 

A   complex  mix- 
ture of    anti- 
mony or  arsenic 
sulphides  with 
sulphides  of  sil- 
ver and    base 
metal. 

Very  complex. 

OccuBBENCE.  The  larger  number  of  the  silver 
minerals  given  in  the  above  table  occur  together 
in  many  deposits,  so  that  the  ores  received  at 
the  smelting,  leaching,  or  milling  works  usually 
consist  of  a  mixture  of  several  silver  minerals. 
Generally  native  silver  and  the  halogen  com- 
pounds (chlorides,  bromides,  or  iodides)  occur 
in  the  upper  portions  of  the  deposits,  while  the 
sulphides,  arsenides,  and  antimonides  are  found 
in  the  lower  portions.  Tetrahedrite  in  most 
cases  occurs  by  itself.  The  minerals  containing 
silver  as  an  accidental  ingredient  are  galenite 
(galena),  sphalerite,  chalcopyrite,  pyrrhotite, 
pyrite,  boumonite,  chalcocite,  bomite,  native 
arsenic,  arsenopyrite,  and  certain  nickel,  cobalt, 
and  bismuth  ores.  Galena  often  contains  silver 
up  to  1  per  cent,  in  quantity  (291  ounces  to  the 
ton ) ,  so  that  at  times  the  value  of  the  silver  in 
the  ore  is  greater  than  that  of  the  lead.  In 
Europe  the  greater  portion  of  the  silver  output  is 


derived  from  galena  ores,  and  in  the  United 
States  at  least  85  per  cent,  of  the  annual  pro- 
duction of  lead  b  obtained  from  argentiferous 
lead  ores,  which  necessitate  the  separation  of 
the  silver  from  the  lead  bullion  formed,  not  only 
to  extract  the  value  of  the  silver,  but  also  to 
render  the  lead  of  proper  purity  for  commercial 
purposes.  Copper  ores  frequently  contain  a 
considerable  percentage  of  silver,  notably  in  the 
Butte  district,  Montana,  where  every  pound  of 
copper  extracted  contains  on  the  average  an 
ounce  of  silver.  The  famous  copper  schist  of 
Mansfeld,  Ctermany,  also  carries  silver. 

Silver  ores  occur  in  the  rocks  of  various  geo- 
logic ages:  in  gneiss  and  allied  rocks,  in  por- 
phyry, trap,  sandstone,  limestone,  and  shales. 
The  veins  often  intersect  eruptive  rocks,  as 
trachyte  or  porphyry,  or  the  sedimentary  forma- 
tions in  the  vicinity  of  such  rocks,  and  have 
owed  their  existence  in  many  cases  to  the 
dynamic  processes  and  vapors  from  below  at- 
tending the  eruptions.  As  mentioned  above,  sil- 
ver ores  are  often  associated  with  those  of  lead, 
zinc,  copper,  cobalt,  and  antimony,  and  the  usual 
gangue  is  calcite  or  quartz  with,  frequently,  dolo- 
mite or  barite. 

PBODUcrnoN.  Until  recent  years  the  silver 
mines  of  Mexico  were  by  far  the  richest  on 
record,  and  in  spite  of  imperfect  methods  of 
mining  and  transportation,  Mexico  has  produced 
more  than  one-third  of  the  total  output  of 
silver  in  the  world,  one-half  of  the  production 
of  the  Republic  having  been  derived  from  the 
central  mining  districts  of  Guanajuato,  Zaca- 
tecas,  and  San  Luis  Potosf.  According  to  Hum- 
boldt, the  Veta  Madre  lode  of  Guanajuato  alone 
produced  $250,000,000  in  silver  between  1556 
and  1803.  The  total  recorded  production  of 
silver  in  Mexico  from  1521  to  1892  amounted  to 
83,170,307  kilograms,  equal  in  coinage  value 
($41.57  per  kilogram)  to  $3,457,389,662,  al- 
though in  recent  years,  owing  to  the  exhaustion 
of  the  upper  levels  in  the  mines,  the  production 
has  decreased  in  value  to  about  $30,000,000  per 
annum.  Until  1860,  Bolivia  and  Peru,  followed 
by  Chile,  were  next  to  Mexico  in  the  importance 
of  silver  production.  The  total  output  of  silver 
in  Bolivia  from  1545  to  1891,  was  42,071,231  kg., 
while  that  of  Peru  from  1533  to  1891  inclusive, 
aggregated  32,199,263  kg.,  and  that  of  Chile  from 
1545  to  1891  inclusive,  is  reported  at  4,855,571 
kg.  In  the  last  few  decades  the  remarkable 
development  of  silver-mining  in  the  western 
part  of  the  United  States  has  increased  the  out- 
put so  that  it  now  equals  that  of  Mexico,  and  at 
present  these  two  countries  supply  nearly  three- 
quarters  of  the  world's  total  annual  production 
of  this  metal.  In  Europe  Spain  has  been  the 
most  productive  country.  The  richest  mines  are 
in  the  Province  of  Guadalajara.  They  were  ex- 
tensively operated  as  late  as  1846,  but  recently 
the  quantity  of  silver  annually  produced  has  de- 
creased to  ab6ut  180,000  kg.  Austria-Hungary, 
Saxony,  and  the  Harz  Mountain  district  in  Ger- 
many have  contributed  largely  to  the  total 
output  of  Europe.  The  total  production  of  silver 
in  Germany  from  1493  to  1875  inclusive  is  re- 
ported at  7,904,910  kg.  The  silver  mines  at 
Kongsberg,  Norway,  have  long  been  famous, 
although  at  the  present  time  the  output  is 
comparatively  insignificant.  The  mines  of  Lan- 
rion,  in  Attica,  famous  in  antiquity  for  their 


BILVEBb 


868 


SILVER, 


yield  of  silver^  are  now  worked  mainly  for  other 
metals. 

The  annual  production  pf  silver  in  the  United 
States  has  increased  steadily  from  an  average  of 
about  .600  kilograms  in  1834,  to  nearly  2,000,000 
kilograms  in  1892 — ^the  aggregate  reported  pro- 
duction during  this  period  being  approximately 
85,000,000  kg.  Of  this  the  famous  Comstock 
lode  in  NevacUt  produced  approximately  5,000,000 
kg.  during  the  period  from  1859,  the  year  of  its 
discovery,  until  1891 ;  the  value  of  the  gold  pro- 
duced with  the  silver  at  the  Comstock  mmes 
amounted  to  more  than  $140,000,000  in  value. 
Classified  by  States,  the  production  of  silver  in 
the  United  States  during  1900  was:  Colorado, 
20,336,712  ounces  (derived  chiefly  from  the  lead, 
copper,  and  gold  ores  of  Lake,  Pitkin,  Mineral, 
Ouray,  Clear  Creek,  and  San  Miguel  counties)  ; 
Montana,  17,300,000  ounces  (chiefly  from  argen- 
tiferous copper  ores  of  Butte)  ;  Utah,  9,569,183 
ounces;  Idaho,  6,100,000  ounces  (from  argentif- 
erous lead  ores  of  the  Cceur  d'Alene  district)  ; 
Arizona,  1,750,000  ounces;  California,  1,170,902 
ounces;  other  States,  3,335,000,  making  a  total 
of  59,561,797  troy  ounces. 

Tbc  Pboduotioh  of  Silwb  m  thk  Wobld  uv  1901  * 


workable  metals.  For  the  production  of  silver 
and  its  use  as  money,  see  Monst;  Pbeoigus 
Metals. 

The  world's  production  of  silver  and  the  ratio 
of  silver  to  gold  since  1492  are  given  in  the  fol- 
lowing table,  compiled  from  statistics  collected 
by  Adolf  Soetbeer  and  the  United  States  Mint: 
World's  Pboductioh  of  Siltkb 


Ratio  ot; 
gold  to 

silTer, 

yalae 


COUNTBIB8 

Ounces, 
troy 

Kilograms 

Commercial 

value. 
68.96c.  perot. 

North  America: 
United  States... 
Canada 

66,316.263 
6.078.818 

66.163.840 
1.072.096 

883,661 
9.439.294 
6.772.789 
2.620.000 
84,818 
6.666,267 

1.292.681 

727.770 

884,076 

6.622.802 

1,100.764 

1.043.760 

164.986 

167,067 

8.063,606 

60,069 

480.400 

174,481 

73,690 
1.896.398 

10,848.420 

48.226 

1.717.372.8 

167.952.1 

1,716.416.0 

88.346.6 

11.930.0 
293.691.4 
179.662.4 

78,380.1 

2,638.1 

207,000.0 

40.206.0 
22.636.0 
11.946 
171.777.0 
84,287.0 
32,464.0 

6.130.0 
488.6 
94.977 

1.667 
14.942 

6.426 

2.292.0 
68.963.0 

887.420.9 

1.600.0 

182.649,842 
2,993  668 

Mexico 

Central  America 

South  America: 
Argentina 

82,612,804 
682.000 

226.109 

BoUria 

6,664.464 

Chile 

3.403,069 

Colombia 

1.486.640 

Ecuador. 

60,000 

Peru 

8.928.274 

Europe: 

Austria 

Hunirary 

762.006 
429.020 

France 

226.418 

Germany 

8.436,640 

Qreeoe 

648,904 

Italy 

683,209 

Norway 

97,229 

Russia 

92,686 

8pain 

2,000,801 

Sweden 

29,610 

Turkey. 

Unit'd  Kingdom 

Asia: 

Dutch  E.  Indies. 
Japan 

283,196 
102.839 

43,440 
1.117,337 

Australasia 

Other  countries. 

6,386,144 
28,429 

Total 

168.391.760 

6.237.626  4 

$99,031,663 

•  From  The  MineraJ  Induatry,  toI.  x.,  1902. 

It  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  forecast 
with  any  reasonable  degree  of  accuracy  the  fu- 
ture production  of  silver  in  the  world.  A  large 
part  of  the  output  is  obtained  as  a  by-product 
in  the  treatment  of  certain  copper,  lead,  and 
gold  ores,  consequently  the  total  output  of  silver, 
to  some  extent,  will  go  hand  in  hand  with  the 
increased  or  decreased  output  of  these  metals; 
yet  any  very  marked  increase  from  these  sources 
may  cause  the  price  of  silver  to  decline  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  render  unprofitable  its  direct  ex- 
traction from  ores  that  do  not  contain  other 


1493-1620. 
162M644. 
1646-1660. 
1661-1680. 
1681.1600. 
1601-1620. 
1621-1640. 
1641-1660. 
1661-1680. 
1681-1700. 
1701-1720. 
1721-1740. 
1741-1760. 
1761-1780. 
1781-1800. 
1801-1810. 
1811-1820. 
1821-1830. 
183M840. 
1841-1850. 
1861-1866. 
1866-1860. 
1861-1866. 
1866-1870. 
1871-1876. 

1876 

1877 

1878 

1879 

1880 

1881 

1882 

1888 

1884 

1886 

1886 

1887 

1888 

1889 

1890 

1891 

1892 

1898 

1894 

1896 

1896 

1897 

1898 

1899 

1900 


Mean 

Ratio  of 

annual 

sUverto 

product. 

gold. 

kilograms 

weight 

47,000 

8.1 

90,200 

12.6 

311.600 

36.6 

299.600 

48.8 

418.900 

66.8 

422.900 

49.6 

893.600 

47.4 

866,800 

41.8 

887,000 

86.4 

341.900 

31.8 

866,600 

27.7 

481,200 

22.6 

633,146 

21.7 

662.740 

81.6 

879.060 

49.4 

894,150 

60.8 

510,770 

47.2 

44;ii,r.i'.n 

82.4 

:^^^^^} 

29.4 

78(M15 

14.8 

[ilMS4l6 

4.4 

QO4.990 

4.6 

IMXA^ 

6.9 

1,839,085 

6.9 

l,9{f9.4^ 

11.8 

a.323J7fl 

14.0 

%'^^jm 

18.8 

1M\Mi 

13.7 

a.(50T,fi07 

16.0 

2.479.0^ 

16.2 

2,592.639 

16.8 

2.769.066 

18.6 

2,746.123 

19.0 

2.788,727 

18.2 

2.998,806 

18.8 

2.902,471 

18.2 

2,990,398 

18.8 

3,386.606 

21.2 

3,820,002 

21.0 

4.144,233 

28.1 

4,498,100 

28.6 

4,730.647 

80.2 

6.147.841 

21.7 

6,121,017 

18.7 

6,210.942 

17.4 

6,232,021 

17.2 

6,696.110 

16.9 

6,269,286 

12.2 

6.213.312 

11.8 

6.837.008 

18.9 

10.76 
11.26 
11.80 
11.50 
11.80 
12.26 
U.On 
146.0 
1.976 
16.00 
14.21 
16.08 
14.76 
14.73 
16.09 
16.61 
16.61 
16.80 
16.76 
16.83 
16.41 
15.29 
16.41 
16.66 
16.98 
17.88 
17.22 
17.94 
18.40 
18.06 
18.26 
18.20 
18.64 
18.61 
19.40 
20.78 
21.10 
22.00 
22.10 
19.76 
20.92 
23.72 
26.49 
82.66 
81.60 
80.69 
84.20 
86.03 
84.86 
88.38 


METALLUBOY. 

The  variety  of  processes  for  the  extraction  of 
silver  from  its  eyes  is  so  great  that  only  a  gen- 
eral review  of  the  most  important  is  possible 
here.  In  all  cases  the  silver  is  at  last  obtained 
in  union  with. lead,  zinc,  copper,  or  mercury,  or 
in  solution  from  which  it  can  be  precipitated  as 
metal  or  as  sulphide  or  chloride,  or  else  it  is 
separated  by  electrolysis  from  its  combinations. 
The  methods  of  extraction  thus  fall  into  three 
main  groups  as  follows:  .  Dry  processes,  com- 
bined dry  and  wet  processes,  and  electrolytic 
processes. 

Dry  Pbocesses.  The  extraction  of  silver  in 
the  dry  way  is  effected  by  converting  the  metal 
into  a  silver-lead  alloy  and  then  submitting  this 
to  an  oxidizing  melting  in  the  cupellation  fur- 
nace. The  production  of  the  silver-lead  alloy 
depends  upon  the  power  which  lead  possesses  of 
extracting  silver  from  its  ores  or  from  various 
products  containing  it,  the  lead  readily  alloying 


8ILVS& 


864 


8ILVS& 


with  the  silver,  and  the  process  is  carried  out 
either  by  a  simple  melting  or  by  a  combination 
of  roastii^^  and  melting.  The  silver-lead  alloy 
obtained  is  called  'work  lead/  If  the  amount 
of  silver  in  the  work  lead  is  not  great  enough 
to  make  direct  cupellation  profitable,  then  an 
intermediate  process  of  concentration  is  intro- 
duced. Therefore,  the  dry  process  in  its  most 
extended  form  comprises:  (1)  the  production  of 
work  lead;  (2)  the  concentration  of  the  silver 
in  the  work  lead;  and  (3)  the  extraction  of  the 
silver  from  the  concentrate  or  enriched  work 
lead.  In  the  production  of  work  lead  we  have  to 
distinguish  between  its  production  from  ores  and 
its  production  from  metallurgical  products;  fur- 
ther we  have  to  distinguish  between  its  produc- 
tion from  rich  ores,  from  medium  ores,  and  from 
poor  ores,  for  each  of  which  the  process  differs, 
and  its  production  from  matte,  speiss,  allocs, 
and  other  metallurgical  products,  each  of  which 
likewise  requires  a  different  process. 

These  different  processes  are  all  variations  of 
two  general  processes.  One  of  these  consists 
essentially  in  introducing  the  ore,  matte,  or 
other  product  into  a  bath  of  molten  lead  in  a 
reverberatory  furnace;  the  other  consists  in 
smelting  the  ore,  matte,  or  other  product  with 
materials  rich  in  lead  in  a  blast  furnace.  The 
result  in  either  case  is  the  production  of  a  silver- 
lead  alloy,  or  work  lead,  more  or  less  rich  in 
silver.  If  the  silver  content  is  less  than  about 
0.12  per  cent,  it  is  generally  assumed  that  it 
cannot  be  economically  treated  by  cupellation 
until  the  work  lead  is  enriched  by  concentration. 
The  two  processes  of  concentration  employed  are 
the  Pattinson  process  and  the  zinc  process.  In 
the  Pattinson  process  the  work  lead,  by  slow 
cooline  from  the  molten  state,  is  separated  into 
crystals  poor  in  silver  and  a  fluid  portion  rich 
in  silver.  If  the  richer  liquid  portion  be  sepa- 
rated, it  again  can  be  divided  into  a  poorer  solid 
portion  and  a  still  richer  liquid  alloy,  and  this 
operation  can  be  repeated  until  the  enriched  lead 
contains  2.5  per  cent,  of  silver,  when  the  maxi- 
mum is  reached.  The  Pattinson  process  is  con- 
ducted in  large  pots  of  cast  iron  or  cast  steeL 
The  crystals  are  separated  from  the  mother 
liquor  either  by  leveling  them  out  from  the  pot 
or  else  by  tapping  off  the  mother  liquor  and 
leaving  the  crystals  behind,  and  the  formation 
and  separation  of  the  crystals  is  effected  either 
by  stirring  the  cooling  mass  or  by  blowing  steam 
through  it. 

In  the  zinc  process  the  silver  is  separated  from 
the  work  leaa  in  the  form  of  It  silver  zinc-lead 
alloy;  the  lead  poor  in  silver  remains  behind. 
The  process  is  based  upon  the  fact  that  if  argen- 
tiferous lead  be  melted,  pieces  of  zinc  forming 
altogether  from  1%  to  2  per  cent,  of  the  weight 
of  the  lead  thrown  on  its  surface,  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  bath  raised  to  the  melting  point  of  the 
zinc,  and  the  whole  thoroughly  stirred  and  al- 
lowed to  cool,  a  crust  or  scum  forms  upon  the 
surface  as  the  temperature  is  lowered.  This 
scum  is  a  solidified  mixture  of  alloys  of  lead, 
zinc,  and  silver,  lighter  than  the  molten  lead 
and  containing  all  the  silver  originally  present 
in  the  lead,  and  it  can  easily  be  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  metal  forming  the  bath.  After 
separation  the  excess  of  lead  present  is  removed 
by  liquation,  a  process  based  upon  the  fact  that 
the  alloy  has  a  higher  melting  point  than  lead 
itself.    The  scimi  is  placed  in  pots  or  reverbera- 


tory fumaoea  and  heated  until  the  excess  of 
lead  melts  and  separates  from  the  solid  alloys. 
The  latter,. known  as  rich  scum,  is  next  heated 
for  the  separation  of  the  zinc  by  the  processes 
of  distillation,  oxidation,  or  treatment  with 
fluxes,  so  that  only  silver  and  lead  remain. 
The  flnal  process  of  cupelling  the  argentifer- 
ous lead  consists  of  an  oxidizing  melting  of 
the  work  lead  in  a  reverberatory  furnace.  This 
process  may  be  performed  in  stages  or  con- 
tinuously. The  work  lead  is  charged  into  the 
furnace  with  a  quantity  of  litharge  and  the  mass 
is  slowly  melted  by  an  increasing  heat.  As  the 
melting  progresses  successive  scums  are  formed 
on  the  molten  surface  which  contain  litharge 
mixed  with  the  oxides  of  lead  and  of  the  other 
impurities,  and  which  are  dipwn  off  from  time 
to  time.  The  flnal  product  remaining  is  silver 
with  about  10  per  cent,  of  impurities.  This  is 
refined  by  a  similar  oxidizing  process. 

Wet  Pbocesseb.  Of  the  various  combined 
wet  and  diy  processes  for  extracting  silver,  the 
amalgamation  process  is  the  first  which  demands 
consideration.  In  the  amalgamation  process,  the 
silver  in  ores  or  metallurgical  products  is  con- 
verted into  a  mercury  alloy,  or  amalgam,  which 
is  subsequently  distilled,  the  silver  being  left 
behind  and  the  mercury  condensed  and  used  over 
again.  The  various  amalgamation  processes  may 
be  grouped  into  three  classes:  (1)  Amalgama- 
tion with  mercury  alone;  (2)  amalgamation 
with  mercury  and  certain  reagents  without  roast- 
ing; and  (3)  amalgamation  with  mercury  and 
reagents  after  a  chlorodizing  roasting. 

(1)  Amalgamation  with  mercury  alone,  usu- 
ally called  direct  amalgamation,  is  practiced  only 
with  ores  consisting  chiefiy  of  native  silver.  It 
was  formerly  extensively  used  in  Peru,  Chile, 
and  Mexico,  and  is  yet  used  to  some  extent  in 
those  countries  where  suitable  ore  ib  available. 
The  process  consists  in  rubbing  the  crushed  ores 
with  mercury,  the  crushing  either  going  on  at 
the  same  time  or  having  been  done  previously, 
and  is  of  comparatively  limited  application. 

(2)  Amalgamation  with  reagents  and  without 
roasting  is  employed  when  the  silver  exists  in 
sulphur,  arsenic,  and  antimony  compounds,  and 
fncludes  what  are  known  as  the  Gazo,  KrQhnke, 
Patio,  and  Washoe  processes.  Of  these  the  Patio 
and  Washoe  processes  are  the  most  important 
and  they  only  will  be  described  further.  The 
Patio  process  is  extensively  used  in  Mexico,  and 
to  a  less  extent  in  South  American  countries. 
In  carrying  it  out  the  first  operation  is  to  crush 
and  grind  the  ore.  The  coarse  crushing  is  usu- 
ally performed  in  edge-runner  mills,  stamps, 
rolls,  or  rock-crushers  (see  GBiNomo  and  Csush- 
INO  Machinery),  while  the  fine  grinding  is  done 
in  special  mills  called  arrastras.  Described  brief- 
ly, the  arrastra  is  a  circular  pit,  the  sides  and 
bottom  of  which  are  paved  with  hard  stone  such 
as  quartz  or  porphyry.  In  the  centre  of  the  pit 
fioor  is  a  pyramidal  stone  with  a  hole  in  its  top 
into  which  pivots  a  vertical  post  supported  at  its 
upper  end  by  a  horizontal  beam.  This  post  car- 
ries two  or  four  horizontal  arms,  to  each  of  which 
are  attached  by  chains  or  thongs  one  or  more 
rectangular  blocks  of  porphyry  weighing  from  6 
to  12  cwt.  These  blocks  are  attached  in  such  a 
way  that  their  front  edges  are  about  two  inches 
above  the  floor  while  their  rear  edges  drag  on  the 
floor.  By  revolving  the  vertical  shaft  these  sto-^e 
blocks  are  dragged  round  and  round  the  pit,  grind- 


8ILVEB. 


865 


SILVEB. 


ing  the  crushed  ore  which  is  deposited  on  the 
floor.  Revolution  of  the  shaft  is  effected  by  horse 
power^  water  power,  or  steam  power.  Crude  as 
this  mill  appears,  it  has  been  found  that  no 
other  form  of  grinding  apparatus  serves  the 
purpose  so  well.  The  ore  is  ground  with  enough 
water  so  that  when  it  is  removed  from  the 
arrastras  it  is  in  the  form  of  a  thin  mud  which 
is  termed  lama.  The  lama  is  first  placed  on  the 
amalgamating  floor  or  patio  in  small  heaps  to 
drain  and  these  heaps  are  then  shoveled  together 
into  a  fewer  number  of  large  heaps  or  tortas. 
The  patio  is  simply  a  spacious  area  paved  with 
cement  or  some  other  material  as  impervious  as 
possible  to  mercury.  When  first  formed  the 
tortas  are  of  about  the  consistency  of  thick  mud. 
They  are  then  covered  with  a  sprinkled  layer 
of  salt  and  turned  with  a  shovel,  after  which 
th&jT  are  trod  by  mules  or  horses  driven  round 
and  round  for  several  hours.  Another  turning 
with  the  shovel  follows,  and  is  succeeded  by  an- 
other period  of  treading.  After  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  repetitions  of  these  alternate  processes, 
sulphate  of  copper  in  one  form  or  another  is 
sprinkled  over  the  tortas  and  mixed  by  a  similar 
method  of  shoveling  and  treadisg.  Mercury  is 
then  added  in  a  finely  subdivided  state  by  plac- 
ing it  in  bags  of  sail  cloth,  which  are  carried  by 
men  walking  over  the  heaps,  the  metal  fallinff 
from  the  bags  in  the  form  of  a  fine  rain  of 
globules.  This  mercury  is  in  turn  mixed  by 
turning  and  treading.  Altogether  this  treatment 
of  the  tortas  laists  from  three  to  six  weeks,  and 
is  considered  complete  when  75  per  cent,  of  the 
silver  contents  of  the  tortas  have  been  extracted. 
The  next  step  is  to  separate  the  amalgam  from 
the  other  materials,  and  this  is  accomplished  by 
agitating  the  torta  in  vats  with  water.  The 
heavy  amalgam  settles  to  the  bottoms  of  the 
vats  and  the  water  and  lighter  matter  are  drawn 
off.  The  amalgam  is  collected  and  pressed  into 
bags,  molds,  or  bottles^  and  is  then  ready  for 
distillation  in  the  manner  described  farther  on. 
The  Washoe  process  of  amalgamation  is  the 
one  most  extensively  used  in  the  United  States. 
The  ore  is  first  crushed  in  stone-breakers  and 
then  stamped  fine  in  stamp  mills  with  water. 
From  the  stamps  the  wet  powder  passes  to  the 
amalgamating  pans.  These  are  cylindrical  ves- 
sels of  cast  iron,  or  having  cast-iron  bottoms  and 
wooden  sides.  They  are  from  2  feet  to  2i/^  feet 
deep  and  from  4  feet  to  5%  feet  in  diameter.  A 
vertical  shaft  in  the  centre  of  the  pan  carries  a 
number  of  arms  extending  downward  and  having 
at  their  ends  shoes  which  bear  against  the  bot- 
tom of  the  pan.  This  agitating  and  grinding 
apparatus  is  called  a  muller.  The  ore  is  intro- 
duced into  the  pan  with  mercury,  sulphate  of 
copper,  and  salt,  and  the  contents  are  heated  by 
steam.  The  stirring  and  heating  process  con- 
tinues from  two  to  three  hours,  when  the  amalga- 
mation is  completed.  The  contents  of  the  pan 
are  then  transferred  to  another  similar  vessel 
where  they  are  agitated  with  water,  this  agita- 
tion serving  to  keep  the  lighter  material  sus- 
pended while  the  heavier  amalgam  settles.  At 
suitable  intervals  the  water  is  decanted  off  a 
portion  at  a  time  until  only  the  amalgam  re- 
mains. This  is  placed  in  canvas  bags  and  the 
excess  mercury  filtered  off,  when  it  is  ready  for 
distillation.  There  are  several  modifications  of 
the  Washoe  process  in  use,  the  two  chief  ones 
being  the  conihincMon  process,  in  which  the  ores 


are  submitted  to  a  preliminary  concentration 
before  amalgamation,  and  the  Boss  process,  in 
which  the  amalgamation  is  not  conducted  in  a 
single  pan,  but  in  a  series  of  pans  through  which 
the  pulp  fiows  continuously. 

(3) Amalgamation  with  reagents  and  with 
roasting  is  carried  out  by  three  processes,  known 
as  barrel  amalgamation,  pan  amalgamation,  and 
Tina  amalgamation.  As  a  prelhninary  to  all  of 
these  processes  the  ores  are  dried  and  crushed 
and  then  roasted  in  furnaces  generally  with  salt. 
The  Barrel  amalgamation  process  is  now  nearly 
obsolete.  By  it  the  crushed  ore  is  first  roasted 
with  salt  to  reduce  the  silver  to  chloride  and  is 
then  charged  into  rotating  barrels  with  scrap- 
iron  and  enough  water  to  make  a  thin  paste. 
After  some  hours'  rotation  mercury  and  some- 
times a  little  copper  sulphate  are  added  and  the 
rotation  continued  for  a  longer  period.  The 
barrels  are  then  filled  with  water  and  the  mer- 
cury holding  silver  in  solution  is  run  off  from 
the  bottom.  This  amalgam  is  then  distilled.  In 
the 'pan  amalgamxition  process  the  crushed  ores, 
after  being  roasted  with  salt,  are  fed  into  pans 
and  agitated  with  water  for  one  or  two  hours. 
Mercury  is  then  added,  and  the  agitation  con- 
tinued imtil  amalgamation  is  complete.  Except 
that  the  pans  are  of  wood,  their  construction  and 
operation  are  the  same  as  in  the  Washoe  process. 

In  the  Tina  process  the  pans  have  copper  bot- 
toms, the  muUers  are  of  copper,  and  the  salt  is 
added  to  the  roasted  ore  m  the  pan.  In  the 
barrel  and  pan  processes  the  brine  formed  by  the 
salt  and  water  dissolves  the  silver  chloride^  and 
the  iron,  in  the  form  of  scrap  in  the  barrel  proc- 
ess and  in  the  muller  blades  in  the  pan  process, 
reduces  this  to  metallic  silver.  In  the  Tina  proc- 
ess the  copper  of  the  pan  and  muller  serves  the 
same  purpose  as  the  iron  in  the  other  two  proc- 


Distillation  is  the  final  operation  by  which  the 
silver-mercury  alloy  or  amalgam  resulting  from 
all  the  amalgamation  processes  is  separated  into 
silver  and  mercury.  The  vessel  or  retort  in  which 
the  distillation  is  performed  varies  in  shape,  but 
the  most  common  forms  are  the  vertical  cast-iron 
cylinder  retort  used  in  Mexico  and  the  horizontal 
cast-iron  cylindrical  retort  used  in  the  United 
States.  In  all  cases  the  vessel  is  closed  except 
for  a  tube  to  carry  off  the  mercury  gas  and  con- 
vey it  to  suitable  condensers,  and  the  process 
consists  simply  in  charging  it  with  amalgam  and 
heating  it  in  a  furnace  until  the  mercury  is 
vaporized  and  only  the  silver  remains.  Silver 
absolutely  free  from  mercury  cannot  be  secured 
in  retorts  without  danger  to  these  vessels  from 
the  heat,  and  consequently  the  retort  silver,  con- 
taining from  1  per  cent,  to  1%  per  cent,  of  mer- 
CU17,  is  refined  in  small  reverberatory  furnaces 
or  in  crucibles. 

The  second  class  of  wet  processes  to  be  con- 
sidered is  that  in  which  the  silver  is  received  by 
precipitation  from  aqueous  solutions.  In  this 
process  the  silver  contained  in  ores  or  metal- 
lurgical products  is  first  converted  into  a  com- 
pound soluble  in  water  or  certain  aqueous  solu- 
tions, and  then  precipitated  as  an  insoluble 
compound  by  suitable  reagents  and  the  precipi- 
tate worked  up  for  the  metal.  The  soluble  silver 
compound  is  either  the  chloride,  which  is  soluble 
in  salt  or  sodium  thiosulphate  solution,  or  else 
the  sulphate,  which  is  soluble  in  hot  water. 
The  principal  processes  in   which   silver  is  ob- 


8ILVEK. 


866 


SILVS& 


tained  in  solution  in  the  form  of  a  chloride  are: 
the  Augustin  process,  using  brine  as  a  solvent 
and  metallic  copper  as  a  precipitant;  the  Patera 
process,  where  sodium  thiosulphate,  and  the  Kiss 
process,  where  calcium  thiosulphate  is  the  solvent, 
in  the  Russell  process  the  silver  as  metal  or 
sulphide  is  brought  into  solution  by  sodium- 
copper  thiosulphate,  and  in  the  Ziervogel  process 
the  silver  is  converted  into  a  sulphate  and  dis- 
solved in  hot  water.  The  Augustin  process  is 
now  rarely  practiced  and  need  not  be  mentioned 
further. 

The  Patera  process  is  used  in  Mexico  and  to 
some  extent  in  the  United  States.  As  car- 
ried out  in  the  best  mills  in  the  United 
States  the  process  is  briefly  as  follows:  The  ore 
is  crushed,  dried,  and  roasted  with  salt  in 
furnaces.  The  roasted  ore  is  first  treated  with 
water  in  large  vats  in  order  to  wash  out  certain 
salts  of  the  base  metals  which  are  soluble  in 
water.  After  the  water  is  drawn  off  the  vats  are 
filled  with  sodium  thiosulphate  solution,  which 
dissolves  the  silver  chloride.  The  liquor  is 'then 
run  into  other  tanks  for  precipitation.  If  there 
is  lead  in  the  liquor  this  is  first  precipitated 
by  adding  sodium  carbonate,  and  the  remaining 
liquor  drawn  into  other  vats.  Here  the  silver  is 
precipitated  by  adding  sodium  sulphide.  The 
precipitate  is  then  drawn  off  and  pressed  in  filter 
presses  to  extract  the  entrained  liquor,  when  it 
is  dried  and  cupelled  with  a  lead  bath  to  secure 
the  metallic  silver. 

In  the  Kiss  process  a  solution  of  calcium  thio- 
sulphate is  used  for  extracting  the  ores  after 
a  chloridizinc  roasting,  the  silver  beinff  precipi- 
tated from  the  liquors  by  calcium  sulphide.  In 
the  Russell  process  the  silver  present  in  the  ore 
as  metal  or  sulphides  is  dissolved  by  a  solution 
of  sodium-copper  thiosulphate  and  precipitated 
by  a  solution  of  sodium  sulphide.  The  Ziervogel 
process  is  used  in  treating  copper  ores  contain- 
ing silver.  By  careful  roasting  the  silver  in 
such  ores  is  converted  into  silver  sulphate,  and 
this  is  dissolved  out  by  treating  the  roasted  ore 
with  hot  water.  From  this  solution  the  silver 
is  precipitated  by  metallic  copper. 

Electbolttic  Pbocess.  The  electrolytic  proc- 
ess is  used  only  to  separate  the  silver  from  lead- 
silver  and  zinc-silver  alloys  produced  by  the  dry 
process,  and  is  inferior  to  the  zinc  process  of 
desilverization  previously  described.  It  has, 
therefore,  not  come  into  extensive  use.  The  silver 
alloy  is  remelted  and  cast  into  plates  which  are 
used  as  anodes  with  sheet-brass  plates  as  cath- 
odes. The  electrolyte  is  a  solution  of  lead 
sulphate  in  sodium  acetate. 

BiBLioGBAFHT.  Egleston,  The  Metallurgy  of 
Ffilver,  Gold,  and  Mercury  in  the  United  States 
(New  York,  1887-90);  Collins,  The  Metal- 
lurgy of  Lead  and  Silver  (London,  1899-1901)  ; 
Eiasier,  The  Metallurgy  of  Argentiferous  Lead 
(ib.,  1891);  Hofman,  The  Metallurgy  of  Lead 
and  the  Desilverization  of  Base  Bullion  (New 
York,  1899)  ;  Wilson.  Cyanide  Processes  for 
Gold  and  Silver  Ores  (ib.,  1896)  ;  id.,  The  Chlori- 
nation  Process  (ib.,  1897). 

BJXVEB^  Fbee  Coinage  of.  See  Bimetallisk. 

8ILVEB,  Medical  Uses  of.  Metallic  silver 
is  not  used  as  a  therapeutic  agent,  but  is  em- 
ployed in  surgery  in  the  form  of  wire  for  sutur- 
ing wounds  and  uniting  bone  fragments.  The 
silver  salts  of  the  materia  medica  are  the  nitrate, 


the  oxide,  and  the  iodide.  Nitrate  of  silver  has 
already  been  partly  considered  under  the  title 
LuMAB  Caustic  (q.v.).  Externally  the  silver 
preparations  are  astringent,  stimulating,  and 
hemostatic;  in  concentrated  solution,  caustic  Of 
laie  years  a  number  of  compounds  of  silver  and 
albumen  or  nuclein  have  been  made,  with  the  ob- 
ject of  eliminating  the  irritant  properties  of  sil- 
ver nitrate  while  preserving  its  alterative  and 
tenic  (jualities.  Argyrol  and  protargol  are  repre- 
sentatives of  this  class,  and  are  largely  replacing 
the  nitrate.  These  are  useful  in  catarrhal  con- 
ditions or  specific  infiammations  of  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  eye,  nose,  throat,  middle  ear, 
urethra,  and  vagina,  and  are  employed  as  topical 
applications  in  conjunctivitis,  chronic  pharyngi- 
tis, or  laryngitis,  in  gleet  (chronic  urethritis), 
and  inflammation  of  uie  vagina  or  cervix  uteri 
Internally  silver  salte,  principally  the  nitrate, 
are  useful  in  gastric  ulcer  in  combination  with 
hyoscyamus  as  a  pill.  In  chronic  ulceration  of 
the  colon  from  dysenteiy,  keratin-coated  pills 
( which  are  not  dissolved  in  the  stomach )  may  be 
given,  and  high  injections  of  weak  silver  solu- 
tion thrown  into  the  bowel.  Nitrate  of  silver  » 
a  remedy  of  value  in  idiopathic  or  non-syphilitic 
spinal  sclerosis,  but  it  is  otten  ineffectual.  It  has 
been  used  in  various  other  nervous  diseases,  such 
as  chorea  and  epilepsy,  but  does  little  good. 
When  the  silver  salts  are  given  for  any  leo^h 
of  time  they  are  deposited  in  the  tissues,  giving 
rise  te  a  peculiar  pale  slate-blue  color  of  the 
skin.  Argyria,  as  this  condition  is  called,  is  not 
very  amenable  te  treatment,  but  potassium  iodide 
may  help  to  eliminate  the  substance  from  the 
tissues. 

81XVEB-BELL  TBEE.  See  Snow-Dbop 
Tbee. 

BJXVEBVnir.  A  minnow  {yotropis  Whip- 
pZet),  common  in  clear  streams  of  the  northern 
interior  of  the  United  States.  It  is  four  inches 
long,  and  leaden  silvery  in  color,  with  a  large 
black  spot  on  the  upper  posterior  part  of  the 
dorsal  fin.    See  Plate  of  Dace  and  Minnows. 

BILVEB-FISH^  or  Fish-Moth.    See  Bbibtle- 

TAIL. 

.  SILVER  GBAT8.  A  name  given  in  New 
York  to  that  faction  of  the  Whig  Party  corre- 
sponding to  the  Cotton  Whigs  of  Massachusetts, 
which  considered  the  slaveiy  question  settled  by 
the  compromise  of  1850. 

8ILVEBING  GLASS.    See  Mirbob. 

SILVEB  LACE.    See  Gold  Lace. 

SILVEBSIDE,  or  Sand-Smelt.  A  slender 
fish  of  the  family  Atherinide,  which  seldom  ex- 
ceed six  inches  in  length.  The  silversides  go  in 
large  schools  in  the  tropical  and  temperate  dbore- 
waters.  A  few  are  found  in  fresh  waters.  All 
have  a  silver  band  along  the  side,  whence  their 
name.  When  large  enough  they  are  highly  es- 
teemed as  food.  See  Plate  of  Mullets  and  Al- 
lies. 

SILVEB  WEDDING.     See  Wedding  Anni- 

TEBS  ABIES. 

SILVESy  s^Kvteh.  A  town  of  Portugal,  on 
the  Sjlves  River,  115  miles  southeast  of  Lisbon. 
Cork-cutting  is  its  main  industry.  In  the  eleventh 
century  Silves  was  the  capital  of  the  Moorish 
kingdom  of  Algarve  and  was  captured  by  th<! 


8ZLVE& 


867 


8IMB0N. 


Christians  two  centuries  later.     Population,  in 
1900,  9688. 

SHi'VlSSTBEy  s^rvSe^tr',  PauitAbmand 
( 1 837- 1 90 1 ) .  A  French  novelist,  ooet,  playwright, 
and  critic,  born  in  Paris.  He  studied  at  the  Ecole 
Polytechnique,  entered  the  Government  service, 
and  was  finally  employed  in  the  Bureau  of 
Libraries  and  Archives.  His  first  verses.  Rimes 
neuvea  et  vieillea,  appeared  in  1866  with  a  pre- 
face by  George  Sand.  Other  books  of  his  poetry 
are:  Renaiasanoea  (1870);  Oloire  du  aouvenir 
(1872)  ;  Chanson  dea  heurea  (1878) ;  AiUa  d*or 
(1880)  ;  Chemin  dea  itoilea  (1886) ;  Roaes  d'octo- 
hre  (1889) ;  L'or  dea  couchanta  (1899).  Silves- 
tre  also  composed  a  great  many  Rabelaisian  tales 
for  (HI  Blaa,  His  prose  consists  mainly  of  the 
short  stories  which  he  turned  out  with  journal- 
istic facility,  graceful  and  finished  in  style,  but 
nearly  always  sensual  in  tone  and  subject.  He 
also  wrote  La  Russia,  impressions,  portraits,  pay- 
sages  (1891),  and  several  dramas,  comedies,  and 
libretti.  Among  the  latter  are  Dimiiri,  music 
by  Jonciferes  (1876);  Henry  VII I.,  with  D6- 
troyat,  music  by  Saint  SaSns  (1883) ;  Pedro  de 
Zalamea,  music  by  B.  Godard;  and  Jocelyn 
(1888). 

SnCANCAS,  s6-m&n^As  (Lat.  Septimanoa). 
A  town  of  the  Province  of  Valladolid,  in  Old 
Castile,  Spain,  20  miles  southwest  of  Valladolid, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Riauerga  River  (Map: 
Spain,  C  2).  The  town  is  situated  in  the  midst 
of  a  plain  devoted  to  the  culture  of  cereals, 
fruits,  sLn^  the  vine.  Here  an  old  Roman  bridge 
of  sixteen  arches  spans  the  river  and  there  are 
numerous  remains  of  former  walla.  In  Siman- 
cas  are  collected  the  richest  archives  of  Spain. 
The  Moorish  alcazar  was  selected  as  the  reposi- 
tory by  Charles  V.  and  the  project  received  the 
hearty  support  of  Philip  II.  These  historical 
treasures  are  still  largely  unexplored.  The  pop- 
ulation, in  1900,  was  1129.  In  934  Simancas 
was  the  scene  of  a  bloody  battle  between  the 
Christians  and  Moors. 

SIMBIBSKy  s^m-b^rsk^  A  government  of 
Eastern  Russia,  bounded  by  Kazan  on  the  north. 
Samara  on  the  east,  Saratov  on  the  south,  and 
Penza  and  Nizhni-Novgorod  on  the  west  (Map: 
Russia,  G  4).  Area,  about  19,120  square  miles. 
The  surface  is  hilly.  It  rises  to  an  elevation 
of  over  1000  feet  above  the  sea  in  the  range 
which  covers  the  eastern  part  along  the  Volga. 
The  western  part  is  depressed  and  inter- 
sected by  numerous  rivers.  Simbirsk  belongs 
to  the  basin  of  the  Volga,  and  is  watered  chiefly 
by  that  river,  which  forms  its  eastern  boundary, 
and  by  its  tributary,  the  navigable  Sura.  The 
climate  is  continental  and  severe,  and  a  large  part 
of  the  surface  is  still  covered  with  forests.  Agri- 
culture, the  leading  occupation,  is  favored  by  a 
fertile  soil  and  yields  extensive  crops  of  rye  and 
oats  for  export.  Linseed  and  hemp  are  also 
grown  extensively  and  stock-raising  is  important, 
the  government  being  noted  for  its  breed  of 
horses.  The  forests  furnish  the  material  for  the 
house  industry,  whose  chief  products  are  wagons, 
sledges,  and  wooden  vessels.  Felt  hats  and 
boots,  bags,  and  small  metal  wares  are  also  pro- 
duced in  the  villages.  The  annual  output  of  the 
manufacturing  industries  is  about  $5,000,000, 
principally  military  cloth,  flour,  and  spirits.  The 
population  in  1897  was  1,549,461,  including  over 


144,400  Mohammedans,  chiefly  Mordvins,  Tatars, 
and  Tchuvashes. 

8IMBIBSK.  The  capital  of  the  Government 
of  Simbirsk,  in  Russia,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Volga,  about  580  miles  east-southeast  of  Moscow 
(Map:  Russia,  G  4).  It  has  a  pleasant  appear- 
ance on  account  of  its  numerous  gardens  and 
elevated  position  above  the  river.  The  principal 
products  are  spirits;  a  considerable  trade  in 
horses  is  carried  on.  The  annual  fair  is  still 
of  some  importance.  The  town  was  founded  in 
1648.     Population,  in  1897,  43,298. 

SIMCOE,;  slm^d,  Lake.  A  lake  of  Ontario, 
Canada,  30  miles  long  and  18  miles  wide,  with  an 
area  of  160  square  miles  (Map:  Ontario,  D  3). 
It  is  about  130  feet  above  Lake  Huron,  into 
which  it  discharges  through  the  Severn,  Lake 
Couchiching,  and  Georgian  Bay.  In  the  winter 
it  is  so  solidly  frozen  as  to  be  a  serviceable  high- 
way. Barrie  and  Orillia  (qq.v.)  are  the  chief 
towns  along  its  densely  wooded  banks,  on  which 
are  also  situated  numerous  pleasant  Qununer  re- 
sorts and  private  residences.  The  waters  afford 
good  boating  and  fishing.  The  vicinity  was  the 
scene  of  the  great  war  between  the  Iroquois  and 
Hurons,  in  which  the  latter  were  almost  extermi- 
nated. 

BIMGOE^  John  Graves  (I752-I806).  An  Eng- 
lish soldier,  the  first  Governor  of  Upper  Canada. 
He  was  bom  at  Cotterstock,  Northamptonshire. 
After  education  at  Merton  College,  Oxford,  he 
entered  the  army  in  1771,  and  came  to  New  Eng- 
land during  the  Revolutionary  War,  raising  and 
commanding  the  Queen's  Rangers,  with  the  rank 
of  lieutenant-colonel.  He  was  woimded  at  the 
battle  of  the  Brandywine  and  at  Monmouth,  and 
surrendered  with  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown  in  1781. 
He  served  as  Governor  of  Upper  Canada  in 
1791-94;  Governor  of  Santo  Domiiu[o  in  1796- 
97;  became  lieutenant-general  in  1798,  and  in 
1806  received  the  appointment  of  commander-in- 
chief  in  India,  but  was  taken  ill  just  after  be- 
ginning the  voyage,  and  returning,  died  in  Eng- 
land. He  founded  London  (q.v.),  Ontario,  and 
Lake  Simcoe,  a  county,  and  a  town  in  Ontario 
were  named  in  his  honor.  He  published  privately 
History  of  the  Operations  of  a  Partisan  Corps 
Called  the  Queen'a  Rangera^  During  the  War  of 
the  American  Revolution  (1787);  republished 
with  **Memoir  of  the  Author"  (New  York,  1844). 

SIMEON  (Heb.  Shim'On;  of  uncertain  deriva- 
tion). A  very  commoif  Hebrew  name  (also 
Nabatean),  appearing  generally  in  English  as 
Simon  (also  Symeon) ;  also  the  name  of  a  He- 
brew tribe  and  of  its  traditional  ancestor,  the 
second  son  of  Jacob.  Of  the  patriarch  little  is 
told;  he  took  part  with  Levi  in  the  raid  upon 
Shechem  (Gen.  xxxiv.),  was  hostage  for  his 
brothers  to  Joseph  (ch.  xliii.),  and  is  cursed 
along  with  Levi  by  the  father  in  'Jacob's  bless- 
ing* (ch.  xlix.).  These  traditions  doubtless  rep- 
resent tribal  conditions  in  early  Hebrew  history. 
Upon  the  conquest  of  Canaan  Simeon  appears  as 
accompanying  Judah  in  the  conquest  of  South- 
em  Canaan  ( Judges  xi.).  In  the  allotment  of  the 
territory  Simeon  acquired  districts  in  the  west- 
ern and  southern  portions  of  Judah,  including 
the  important  towns  of  Beersheba,  Hormah,  Zik- 
lag,  Sharuhen,  yet  in  Joshua  xv.  all  Simeon's 
towns  are  included  in  Judah.  From  this  time 
Simeon  almost  disappears  from  history,  except 


SnCBON. 


86iB 


SnOLABITY. 


for  a  probably  reliable  record  by  the  Chronicler 
(I.  Chron.  iv.  24  et  seq.)  of  an  expansion  of  the 
tribe  in  King  Hezekiah's  time,  even  as  far  as  the 
land  of  Seir.  It  does  not  figure  at  the  division 
of  the  kingdom,  nor  is  there  any  reference  to 
Simeon  upon  the  return.  (An  old  tradition 
reads  Simeon  for  Shimei  in  Zechariah  xii.  13.) 
With  this  disappearance  of  the  tribe  goes  the  tes- 
timony of  its  non-mention  in  'Moses'  blessing* 
(Deut.  zxxiii. ) .  The  legends  of  patriarchal  times 
therefore  stand  for  the  historic  fact  that  Si^t^on, 
a  border  tribe,  early  lost  its  identity,  paitl/ 
through  war,  partly  through  amalgamation  with 
Judah  or  with  desert  tribes,  with  which  histoiy 
may  be  compared  the  fate  of  Dan.  Ck>n8ult: 
Graf,  Der  Btamm  Simeon  (Meissen,  1866) ; 
Steuernagel,  Einwanderung  der  iaraelitiachen 
Btamme  (Berlin,  1901). 

SIMEON,  or  SYJCEON  (?-c.927).  A  Bul- 
.garian  ruler,  son  of  the  Boris  who  introduced 
Christianity,  which  was  established  firmly  by 
Simeon.  He  was  the  first  Prince  of  Bulgaria  to 
take  the  style  of  Czar  or  Emperor  of  all  the 
Greeks  and  Bulgarians,  upon  coming  to  the 
throne  in  890.  His  greatest  fame  was  as  a  war- 
rior. He  thrice  laid  siege  to  Constantinople, 
and  in  893  concluded  a  treaty  by  which  the  city 
became  tributary  to  him,  as  Servia  also  was 
during  most  of  his  reign. 

SIMEON,  Chables  (1759-1836).  An  eminent 
evangelical  preacher  of  the  English  Church.  He 
was  born  at  Reading  in  Berkshire;  educated  at 
Eton  and  King's  College,  Cambridge,  and  was  or- 
dained a  priest  in  1783.  He  was  appointed  vicar 
of  Trinity  Church,  Cambridge,  in  the  year  of  his 
ordination,  and  held  this  office  to  the  close  of 
his  life.  As  a  preacher  Simeon  was  distin- 
guished for  an  impassioned  evangelicalism  in 
language,  sentiment,  and  doctrine,  that  at  first 
roused  against  him  a  bitter  and  protracted  oppo- 
sition. His  earnestness,  however,  met  with  its 
due  reward.  Friends  and  followers  sprang  up; 
and  in  course  of  time  Simeon  became  a  centre  of 
evangelical  influence,  that  spread  itself  over  the 
whole  Church.  His  entire  works,  including  a 
homiletical  commentary  on  the  Bible,  have  l^n 
published  (21  vols.,  London,  1840)  ;  also  selec- 
tions (2  vols.,  1854).  Consult  his  biography  by 
Carus  (London,  1847)  and  by  Moule  (ib.,  1892)  ; 
also  A.  W.  Brown,  Recollections  of  Simeon's  Con- 
versation Parties    (ib.,  1862). 

SIMEON  STTLITES.    See  Pillab  Saints. 

SIMFEROPOL^  ftftm'fft-ro'pAl-y'.  The  capital 
of  the  Government  of  Taurida,  South  Russia,  sit- 
uated in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  Crimean 
peninsula,  about  200  miles  southeast  of  Odessa 
(Map:  Russia,  D  6).  It  has  a  separate  quarter 
for  the  Tatar  inhabitants,  and  a  number  of 
mosques.  There  are  some  manufactures  of  flour 
and  tobacco,  and  an  export  trade  in  fruits  and 
wine.  Population,  in  1897,  48,821,  including 
many  Tatars.  Simferopol  occupies  the  site  of 
the  Tatar  settlement  of  Ak-metchet. 

SIMUDJE.  The  family  of  simian  or  anthro- 
poid apes.    See  Ape. 

SIMILARITY  ( from  similar,  from  Lat.  simi- 
lis,  similar,  like;  connected  with  simul,  together, 
Gk.  dfM,  hama^  together,  Skt.  soma,  like,  equal, 
same,  and  ultimately  with  Eng.  same).  In  geom- 
etry, the  theory  of  similar  systems  and  similar 


figures.    Two  systems  of  points  Aj,  Bi,  C„ 

and  A^  B^  C^ are  said  to  be  similiir  wbea 


ooxcurraio  oibcles. 


they  can  be  so  placed  that  all  lines,  AiA«,  BjB^ 
CiCs, joining  corresponding  points  form  a 


▲ITT  CIBCLE8. 


pencil  whose  vertex,  O,  divides  each  line  into 
segments  having  a  constant  ratio  r. 


▲NT  UmB-flEOMBHTS. 


In  the  figures  OA^  :  OA,  =  OBj  :  OB,  = 

=  r.     Two  figures  are  said  to  be  similar  when 
their  systems  of  points  are  similar.    The  symbol 


Ct c, 


^^^. 


WOUn  BIMILAB  TBIAHGLBB. 

zo,  for  similarity,  is  due  to  Leibnitz  and  is  de- 
rived from  the  letter  S. 

When  two  similar  figures  are  so  placed  that 
lines  through  their  corresponding  points  form  a 
pencil,  they  are  said  to  be  in  perspective,  and 
the  vertex  of  the  pencil  is  called  their  centre  of 
similitude.  The  above  figures  are  placed  in  per- 
spective, and  in  each  case  O  is  the  centre  of 
similitude.  In  similar  figures,  if  the  ratio,  r, 
known  as  the  ratio  of  similitude,  is  1,  the  figures 
are  evidently  symmetric  with  respect  to  a  centre. 


flTMTTiABITY. 


869 


SIMMONS  COLLEaE. 


Hence,  central  symmetry  is  a  special  case  of 
similar  figures  in  perspective.  The  term  centre 
of  similitude  is  due  to  Euler.  (See  Stmmetbt.) 
Some  of  the  principal  propositions  of  Similarity 


THBU  nUSLAM  nTBAHBDBA. 

are:  Two  triangles  are  similar  if  they  have  two 
angles  of  one  equal  to  two  angles  of  the  other, 
respectively.  .Mutually  equiangular  triangles  are 
similar.     If  two  triangles  have  the  sides  of  the 


THBaa  BIKILAB  QVADBILATBRALS. 

one  respectively  parallel  or  perpendicular  to  the 
sides  of  the  other,  they  are  similar.  If  two 
triangles  have  one  angle  of  the  one  equal  to  one 
angle  of  the  other,  and  the  including  sides  pro- 
portionaly  the  triangles  are  similar.  If  two  tri- 
angles have  their  sides  proportional,  they  are 
similar.  If  two  polygons  are  mutually  equi- 
angular and  have  their  corresponding  sides  pro- 
portional, they  are  similar.  Areas  of  similar 
polygons  are  proportional  to  the  squares  of  the 
corresponding  sides.  Volumes  of  similar  solids 
are  proportional  to  the  cubes  of  their  like  di- 
mensions. Ck)nsult  Beman  and  Smith,  'Netc  Plane 
and  Solid  Geometry  (Boston,  1899),  pp.  182,  364. 

SIMfUL  The  capital  of  a  district  of  the 
Punjab,  British  India,  on  a  ridge  of  the  Hima- 
layas, 7000  feet  above  the  sea,  170  miles  north  of 
Delhi  (Map:  India,  C  2).  It  may  be  termed  the 
official  health  resort  of  India,  being  the  residence 
of  the  Viceroy  of  India  and  his  staff  during  the 
hot  season.  It  is  situated  amid  magnificent 
scenery.  There  are  numerous  fine  public  build- 
ings, and  a  commodious  town  hall.  In  the  sur- 
romiding  district  European  fruits  and  vegetables 
are  cultivated,  and  there  is  an  active  export 
trade  in  fruit,  opium,  and  wool.  Population, 
in  1891,  13,836. 

BIMOCeL,  Gbobo  (1868—).  A  German  soci- 
ologist, professor  in  the  University  of  Berlin. 
His  first  book  was  Ueher  sociale  Differenzirung 
(1890),  a  suggestive  study  of  the  formation  of 
social  classes  and  groups.  In  his  Einleitung  in 
die  Moralwieeenechaft  (1892),  he  makes  an  elab- 
orate criticism  of  popular  ethical  notions.  He 
also  published  Die  Philosophie  dee  Cfeldea 
(1900).  Consult  Bougte,  Lee  sciences  sociales  en 
Allemagne  (Paris,  1896). 

SIM^MONS,  Abthvb  Thomas  (1865—).  An 
English  physicist.  He  was  bom  in  Devonport, 
England,  and  was  educated  at  Hartley  College, 
Southampton,  and  at  the  Royal  Gollege  of  Sci- 
ence in  London.  In  1888  he  became  lecturer  in 
physics  and  chemistry  at  Southport  Science  and 


Art  Institute,  and  in  1891  became  connected  with 
the  scientific  staff  at  Tettenhall  College.  His 
publications  include  many  text-books  in  chemis- 
try, physics,  and  elementary  science. 

SIMMONS,  DuANS  (1834-89).  An  American 
physician  and  scholar,  bom  at  Glens  Falls,  N.  Y., 
who  in  1859  went  to  Japan  as  a  medical  mission- 
ary, but  soon  after  entered  the  service  of  the 
Japanese  Government.  In  1862-63  he  continued 
mcNlical  study  in  Berlin.  In  1869  he  established 
the  Juzen  Hospital,  instructing  voluntaiy  classes 
of  Japanese  doctors,  and  showing  how  cholera 
should  be  treated  with  the  methods  of  modem 
sanitary  science.  In  1881,  his  health  failing, 
he  returned  to  the  United  States;  but  in  1887, 
drawn  again  to  Japan,  he  made  a  systematic 
study  of  Japanese  feudal  institutions.  His 
studies  of  the  Japanese  village  community  are  of 
the  highest  scientific  value,  and  those  on  land- 
tenure  and  social  institutions  have  been  pub- 
lished, by  Wigmore,  In  the  Tranaactiona  of  the 
Asiatio  Society  of  Japan,  vol.  xix.  (Yokohama, 
1892). 

SIMMONS,  Edwabd  EiciaisoN  (1852—).  An 
American  painter,  bom  in  Concord,  Mass.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1874  and  afterwards 
studied  in  Boston,  and  in  Paris  under  L6f6bvre 
and  Boulanger.  He  executed  his  first  mural 
decorations  for  the  Liberal  Arts  Building  in  Chi- 
cago in  1893.  This  able  and  dignified  work  was 
followed  in  1895  by  decorative  paintings  in  the 
Court  of  Oyer  and  Terminer  in  New  York  City, 
for  which  he  received  a  prize  from  the  Municipal 
Art  Society;  by  nine  paintings  in  the  Congres- 
sional Library  at  Washington,  D.  C;  and  by  a 
panel,  "The  Justice  of  the  Law,"  in  the  Appel- 
late Court,  New  York  City. 

SIMMONS,  Franklin  (1839-).  An  Ameri- 
can sculptor,  bom  in  Webster,  Maine,  and  edu- 
cated at  Bates  College.  In  1865  he  went  to 
Washington,  where  he  made  life-size  medallions 
of  Grant,  Sherman,  Sheridan,  Meade,  Farragut, 
and  Porter,  and  Secretaries  Seward  and  Chase. 
After  1868  he  lived  chiefly  at  Rome,  and  he  was 
knighted  by  King  Humbert  in  1898.  He  executed 
many  portrait  busts  in  marble;  the  monuments 
to  William  King  and  Roger  Williams  in  the 
Capitol  at  Washington;  the  equestrian  statue 
of  General  Logan  in  the  Iowa  circle  at  Washing- 
ton, and  the  Grand  Army  of  the  Republic  monu- 
ment to  General  Grant  in  the  rotunda  of  the 
Capitol  at  Washington.  His  ideal  statues  in- 
clude "The  Young  Medusa,"  "The  Seraph  Ab- 
diel,"  'Taris  and  Helen,"  and  "Grief  and  His- 
tory," on  the  Peace  Monument  at  Washington — 
one  of  his  early  works  and  one  of  his  best. 

SIMMONS  COLLEGE.  An  institution  at 
Boston,  Mass.,  incorporated  in  1899  and  opened 
in  1902.  It  was  established  in  accordance  with 
the  provisions  of  the  will  of  John  Simmons,  a 
Boston  merchant  (died  1870),  to  afford  women 
a  practical  education  in  such  branches  of  art, 
science,  and  industry  as  would  best  enable  them 
to  earn  an  independent  livelihood.  In  1903  the 
number  of  students  in  the  two  classes  that  had 
been  received  was  280,  and  the  number  of  regu- 
lar instructors  40,  in  addition  to  special  lectur- 
ers. The  first  class  numbered  146  and  the  fac- 
ulty 25.  The  departments  of  instruction  first 
organized  comprised  household  economics,  sec- 
retarial work,  library  training,  and  preparatory 
for  teaching,  for  medicine,  or  for  nursing.   Since 


SIMMONS  OOLLSaZL 


870 


SIMOH. 


then  instruction  has  been  planned  in  nurse  train- 
ing, agriculture,  and  horticulture.  The  college 
offers  a  complete  course  of  four  years,  short 
technical  courses  for  students  having  adequate 
preliminary  training,  and  partial  courses.  Grad- 
uation from  an  approved  high  school  is  a 
prerequisite  for  admission.  College  graduates 
may  ordinarily  complete  the  technical  work  in 
one  year  provided  they  have  sufficient  training  in 
the  sciences.  The  resources  of  the  college  in 
1902-03  consisted  of  an  endowment  of  $2,052,000, 
and  a  building  fund  of  $750^000  for  the  erection 
of  the  permanent  college  buildings  on  the  Park- 
way in  the  Back  Bay  Fens.  The  gross  income 
was  $112,000. 

SIMMS,  William  Gilmobe  (1806-70).  An 
American  novelist,  bom  at  Charleston,  S.  C.  He 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1827,  and  in  the 
same  year  published  two  volumes  of  poems. 
Early  Lays  and  Lyrical  and  Other  Poems,  In 
1828  he  became  editor  of  the  Charleston  City 
Gazette^  the  Union  proclivities  of  which  lost 
him  money  and  almost  brought  him  physical  ill- 
treatment  during  the  Nullification  excitement. 
Having  left  Charleston  temporarily  in  1832, 
Simms  resided  for  some  months  at  Hingham, 
Mass.,  where  he  wrote  his  longest  poem,  Atalan- 
tis,  a  Story  of  the  Sea  (1832).  The  fairly  well- 
known  lyric,  The  Lost  Pleiad,  remains  probably 
his  best  achievement  in  verse.  But  the  year  after 
the  publication  of  Atalantis  saw  him  enter  upon 
his  true  vocation.  His  Martin  Faher,  although 
in  some  respects  a  crude,  sensational  novel,  was 
full  of  a  genuine  narrative  power.  In  1834  he 
published  Ouy  Rivers,  a  tale  of  the  gold  fever  in 
Georgia,  the  first  of  a  series  of  border  romances, 
including  Richard  Hurdis  (1838),  Border  Bea- 
gles {IS^O) ,  Beauchampe  (1842),  etc.,  full  of  the 
crime  and  excitement  that  filled  the  South- 
west in  those  years  and  valuable  as  pic- 
tures of  local  conditions.  Ouy  Rivers  was  fol- 
lowed, however,  by  a  story  which  showed  Simms 
more  profitable  lines  along  which  to  walk  as  a 
disciple  of  Cooper.  This  was  his  Yemaseee 
(1835),  a  tale  of  Indian  warfare  in  colonial 
Carolina.  This  is  by  many  regarded  as  his  best 
work,  though  perhaps  equaled  in  power  and  in- 
terest by  some  of  the  series  of  Revolutionary 
romances  which  began,  in  the  same  year,  with 
The  Parisian  and  was  continued  with  Melli- 
champe  (1836);  The  Kinsmen  (1841),  which 
was  afterwards  (1854)  published  as  The  Scout; 
Katherine  Walton  (1851);  Woodcraft  (1854); 
The  Forayers  (1865);  and  Eutaw  (1856). 
These  remarkable  romances  dealing  with  the 
partisan  warfare  of  Marion  and  other  track- 
ers of  the  Carolina  swamps,  in  a  manner 
almost  worthy  of  Cooper,  are  in  the  main  rele- 
gated to-day  to  juvenile  readers,  but  display  a 
fund  of  historical  knowledge,  of  vigorous  de- 
scription, and  of  narrative  interest.  Simms  was 
the  most  representative  man  of  letters  save  Poe 
produced  by  the  South  before  the  Civil  War. 
He  wrote  many  short  stories,  the  best  of  which 
were  collected  in  two  volumes  entitled  The  Wig- 
wam  and  the  Cabin  (1846-46).  He  compiled  a 
history  of  his  native  State  and  several  historical 
monographs.  He  composed  biographies  of  the 
Chevalier  Bayard,  Capt.  John  Smith,  General 
Marion,  and  Gen.  Nathanael  Greene.  He  edited 
The  Southern  Quarterly  Review  and  compiled 
the  war  poetry  of  the  South.       He  supported 


the  secession  movement  heartily  and  lost  beavi^ 
during  the  war.  At  its  close  he  set  to  work 
bravely  to  repair  his  fortunes  by  his  pen,  but 
with  little  success.  He  was  a  man  of  strong 
personality.  For  his  life  and  many  of  his  letters, 
as  well  as  for  a  bibliography,  see  the  biography 
by  W.  P.  Trenty  in  the  "American  Men  of  Letters 
Series"  (1892).  A  full  bibliography  by  A.  S. 
Sally,  Jr.,  can  be  found  in  the  publications  of 
the  Southern  Historical  Association. 

SIMOIS^  slm^d-Is.     A  stream  of  the  ancient 
Troad,  flowmg  into  the  Scamander  (q.v.). 

SIMONy  s6'mdN',  Jules  (Juucs  FnAivgois 
Simon  Suisse)  (1814-96).  A  French  statesman 
and  philosopher,  bom  at  Lorient,  and  educated 
at  Lorient  and  Vannes.  He  occupied  positi<Nis  in 
the  lyceums  at  Rennes,  Caen,  and  Versailles,  and 
in  1839  through  the  influence  of  Victor  Cousin 
became  a  professor  of  the  history  of  philosophy 
at  the  Sorbonne.  The  popularity  of  his  lectures, 
and  the  publication  of  two  notable  works.  Etudes 
sur  la  th4odic4e  de  Platon  et  d'Aristote  (1840) 
and  Histoire  de  Vicole  d'Alewandrie  (2  vols.,  1844- 
45),  led  after  the  Revolution  of  1848  to  his  elec- 
tion to  the  Constituent  Assembly  as  a  Conserra- 
tive  Republican.  Within  a  year  he  became  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  State.  He  soon  re- 
signed his  seat  in  the  Assembly,  and  after  the 
coup  d'etat  of  December,  1851,  his  refusal  to 
take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  Napoleon's  Gov- 
ernment resulted  in  his  losing  his  chair  in  the 
Sorbonne  also.  In  the  period  of  retirement  which 
followed,  lasting  for  more  than  a  decade,  Simon 
lived  quietly  at  Nantes,  and  wrote  Le  devoir 
(1854)  ;  La  religion  naturelle  (1856) ;  La  liberty 
de  conscience  (1857);  La  liberty  politique 
(1859)  ;  La  liberty  civile  (1859)  ;  and  L'ouvriire 
(1861).  Entering  the  Corps  Lggislatif  in  1863, 
he  remained  until  the  fall  of  Napoleon  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  Republican  opposition.  He  strong- 
ly opposed  the  war  with  Germany,  and  aft«r  the 
fall  of  the  Empire  he  became  one  of  the  Commit- 
tee of  National  Defense.  In  February,  1871,  he 
became  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  in  Thiers's 
Cabinet,  retaining  his  office  until  May,  1873.  On 
leaving  the  Cabinet  he  resumed  his  position  as 
leader  of  the  Republican  Left  in  the  National 
Assembly  until  in  1875  he  was  elected  a  life  Sena- 
tor. In  the  same  year  he  was  elected  to  the 
French  Academy.  In  December,  1876,  he  was 
called  upon  by  President  Ma«Mahon  to  form  a 
Cabinet,  in  which  he  himself  was  Premier  and 
Minister  of  the  Interior.  In  May  following,  how- 
ever, Simon  resigned.  In  addition  to  the  works 
already  mentioned,  he  published:  L'Scole  (1864) ; 
Le  travail  (1866)  ;  La  po^tique  radicate  (1868)  : 
La  peine  de  mart  ( 1869) ;  La  famille  { 1869) ;  Le 
libre  6change  (1870)  ;  Le  gouvemment  de  Thiers 
(1871);  Dieu,  patrie,  liberty  (1883);  Thiers, 
Ouizot,  RSmusat  (1885);  Nos  hommes  d'etat 
(1887);  Victor  Cousin  (1887);  M^moires  da 
autres  (1889);  La  femme  du  XXMne  sOcie 
(1891) ;  Notices  et  portraits  (1893) ;  and  Quatre 
portraits  (1896). 

SIMOir,  RiCHABD  (I638-17I2).  A  French 
theologian.  He  was  bom  at  Dieppe,  studied  st 
Dieppe,  Rouen,  and  Paris,  and  entered  the  Con- 
gregation of  the  Oratory  in  1662.  His  early  pnb- 
lications  involved  him  in  controversy  with  the 
Jansenists  and  Benedictines  of  Saint  Maur  and 
made  the  great  Amauld(8ee  Abnauld,  AMTonn) 
his  enemy,  who  found  occasi<Hi  for  an  attack  in 


sncoir. 


871 


8IXbKI& 


1678  when  Simon  undertook  the  publication  of 
a  book  which  he  had  long  had  in  preparation, 
the  Histoire  critique  du  Vieux  Testament.  At 
the  instigation  of  Bossuet,  incited  by  Amauld, 
the  greater  part  of  the  edition  was  burned.  The 
book  is  a  critical  history  of  the  text,  transla- 
tions, and  expounders  of  the  Old  Testament  and 
anticipates  many  of  the  conclusions  as  well  as 
the  methods  of  modern  scholars.  Besides  his  great 
work,  already  mentioned,  Simon  published:  His- 
toire critique  du  tewte  du  Nouveau  Testament 
(1689) ;  Histoire  critique  des  versions  du  Nou- 
veau Testament  (1690);  Histoire  critique  des 
principauw  commentateurs  du  Nouveau  TestOr 
ment  (1693),  which  called  forth  Bossuet's  De- 
fense de  la  tradition  et  des  saints  p^es  (1753)  ; 
and  a  French  translation  of  the  New  Testament 
(1702).  Consult:  Bemus,  Richard  Simon  et  son 
histoire  critique  du  Vieux  Testament  (Lausanne, 
1869)  ;  id..  Notice  bihliographique  sur  R.  Simon 
(Basel,  1882). 

SncONE  DA  PESABO,  s^m</n&  dA  p&'- 
2&-r6.  A  name  sometimes  applied  to  the  Italian 
painter  Simone  Cantarini  (q.v.). 

SnCONIDES;  Bt-m5n^-dez  (Lat.,  from  Gk. 
Itfiovi^)  (B.C.  556-468).  A  Greek  lyric  poet, 
born  on  the  island  of  Ceos.  He  was  a  finished 
literary  craftsman  in  many  forms  of  verse  rather 
than  a  sublime  or  greatly  original  poet.  His 
long  life  almost  bridged  the  century  from  Pisistra- 
tus  to  Pericles,  and  in  his  multifarious  and  wide- 
ly dispersed  literary  activity  he  represents  the 
transition  from  the  earlier  parochial  isolation  of 
the  Greek  cantons  to  the  cosmopolitan  culture  of 
the  Sophistic  enlightenment.  His  poetic  career 
began  with  the  guidance  of  Apolline  choruses  in 
his  native  isle.  Thence  he  was  called  by  rich 
gifts  to  the  Court  of  Hipparchus  at  Athens,  where 
he  met  Anacreon  and  competed  with  Lasus  of 
Hermione,  the  teacher  of  Pindar.  After  the 
assassination  of  Hipparchus,  he  attached  himself 
to  the  great  ruling  families  of  Thessaly,  the  Sco- 
padse  and  the  Aleuadse.  His  dirge  in  memory 
of  Antiochus  of  Larissa  was  greatly  admired.  A 
strange  poem  in  which  he  praises  or  apologizes 
for  Scopas  by  'debasing  th^  moral  currency'  is 
analyzed  and  interpret^  in  Plato's  Protagoras, 
He  further  displayed  his  detachment  of  mind  by 
composing  an  epigram  for  the  statue  of  Harmo- 
dius  in  which  the  assassination  of  Hipparchus  is 
greeted  as  'a  great  light  rising  upon  Athens.' 

Returning  to  Athens,  now  a  democracy,  he  bore 
away  the  prize  from  JEschylus  with  an  elegy  on 
the  warriors  who  fell  at  Marathon.  Two  epigrams 
dating  drom  the  year  b.g.  476  inform  us  that 
he  won  the  prize  for  the  dithyramb  in  that  year, 
and  that  no  man  could  vie  in  powers  of  memory 
with  Simonides  at  the  age  of  eighty.  A  year 
later  we  meet  him  in  Sicily  in  the  r6le  of  a 
mediator  between  Hiero  and  Theron.  The  re- 
mainder of  his  life  was  probably  spent  chiefly 
at  the  Court  of  Hiero.  He  died  about  the  year 
468. 

Simonides  wrote  for  many  clients  in  a  great 
variety  of  forms — epigrams,  hymns,  paeans, 
skolia,  epinikia,  dithyrambs,  hyporchemes  (dance 
songs),  threnoi  (dirges).  Though  an  Ionian,  he 
used  the  modified  Doric  traditional  in  these  forms 
of  the  Dorian  chloral  lyric.  To  him,  perhaps, 
after  the  initiative  of  Ibycus,  may  be  attributed 
the  full  development  of  the  encomian  and  epini- 
cian  hymn  in  praise  of  living  men  in  which  the 


two  other  representatives  of  Hmiversal  melic* 
won  chief  fame. 

His  main  opportunity  came  with  the  Persian 
wars.  He  understood  as  no  other  how  to  crystal- 
lize the  sentiment  of  the  great  national  crisis 
into  flawless  gems  of  epigram,  fitting  memorials 
for  the  glorious  dead  of  Thermopylse,  Salamis, 
and  Plal^.  Nothing  is  more  truly  Greek  than 
these  epigrams  in  their  simple  adequacy,  their 
chaste  reserve,  their  exquisite  finish  of  form. 
Ruskin  with  pardonable  exaggeration  pronounces 
the  inscription  for  those  who  fell  at  Thermopylee 
the  most  beautiful  thing  in  the  world:  *'Go, 
stranger,  and  tell  the  Lacedsemonians  that  we  lie 
here  in  obedience  to  their  laws."  The  *tears  of 
Simonides,'  the  pathos  of  his  dirges,  were  prover- 
bial. The  English  reader  may  form  some  notion 
of  it  from  Milman's  translation  of  the  beautiful 
lament  of  Danae  exposed  to  the  waves  in  a  chest 
with  her  infant  Perseus. 

The  vicissitudes  of  human  destiny  so  amply 
exemplified  in  the  century  of  history  which  he 
witnessed  evoke  from  Simonides  a  noble  but 
somewhat  conventional  strain  of  melancholy 
moralizing.  For  this  'criticism  of  life'  Matthew 
Arnold  ranks  him  with  ^schylus,  Pindar,  and 
Sophocles  as  a  prophet  of  the  'imaginative  rea- 
son.' His  style  is  chaste,  polished,  and  unobtru- 
sively rhetorical  rather  than  profoimdly  imagina- 
tive. The  extant  remains  of  his  works  may  be 
found  in  Bergk's  Lyric  Poets  or  in  the  An- 
thologia  Lyrica  of  the  Teubner  texts. 

SnCONIDES  (orSEMONIDES)  OF  AHOB- 
008.  A  Greek  poet  who  lived  about  B.o.  660. 
He  ranked  as  second^  both  in  time  and  reputa- 
tion, of  the  three  principal  iambic  poets  of  the 
early  period  of  Greek  literature,  namely,  Archi- 
lochus,  Simonides,  and  Hipponax.  He  was  bom 
in  Samos,  whence  he  led  a  colony  to  the  island 
of  Amorgos.  His  writings  are  distinguished 
from  those  of  his  contemporary,  Archilochutf, 
by  the  fact  that  they  attacked  entire  classes 
rather  than  single  persons,  and  contained  more 
general  reflections  on  the  constant  characteristics 
of  human  nature.  Of  the  extant  fragments  of  his 
writings  the  most  important  is  TLtpX  VvvaiKQPt  a 
satire  on  women,  in  which  he  gives  a  general 
description  of  female  characters,  deriving  their 
various,  though  generally  bad,  qualities  from  the 
characteristic  qualities  of  the  animals  from 
which  he  represented  them  to  be  descended.  Con- 
sult Bergk,  Poet  as  Lyrici  Ch-(Bci  (Leipzig,  1843; 
4th  ed.  1882). 

SIMONIS,  s^^md'n^,  Eug^ite  (1810-82).  A 
Belgian  sculptor,  bom  at  Li^.  Having  first 
frequented  the  academy  there,  he  continued  his 
studies  in  Rome  (1829-36)  under  Matthias  Kes- 
sels  (1784-1836)  and  Carlo  Finelli,  and  on  his  re- 
turn won  reputation  with  some  ideal  and  genre 
figures.  Appointed  professor  at  the  academy  of 
Li^,  he  soon  removed  to  Brussels,  where  he  be- 
came director  of  the  academy  in  1863.  Of  six 
works  he  exhibited  in  1838^  especial  mention 
should  be  made  of  "Charity,"  adorning  the  mon- 
ument of  Canon  Triest  (Cathedral,  Brassels), 
and  "Innocence"  (Museum,  ib.) ;  but  his  talent 
appears  fully  developed  only  in  his  monumental 
efforts,  to  wit:  the  equestrian  statue  of  Godfrey 
de  Bouillon  y848,  Place  Royale,  Bmssels),  the 
figures  of  "Freedom  of  Public  Worship,"  and  of 
"The  Nine  Provinces  of  Belgium,"  also  the  "Two 
Lions"  (Colonne  du  Congrfes,  ib.),  the  statae  of 


SIKOHI& 


872 


sncoHT. 


Pepin  of  Heristal  (Palais  de  la  Nation,  ib.)» 
ana  that  of  the  geologist  Andr6  Dumont  (1860, 
Place  de  rUniversit^,  Li^). 

SX^MON  XAO'CABiBaTB.  One  of  the  five 
brothers  who  won  independence  for  the  Jews  in 
the  war  with  Syria,  b.o.  167-142.  (See  Macca- 
bees.) In  the  capacity  of  an  officer  and  trusted 
adviser  he  worked  with  his  brothers  Judas  and 
Jonathan.  When  the  latter  was  murdered,  b.c. 
143,  Simon,  the  last  of  the  brothers,  at  once 
stepped  into  the  vacant  position.  Simon  soon 
(B.C.  142)  secured  the  capitulation  of  the  Syrian 
garrison  in  Jerusalem  and  immunity  from  further 
tribute  to  Syria.  In  the  following  year  ( Septem- 
ber 18,  B.C.  141 )  a  popular  assembly  of  the  Jews 
voted  to  make  Simon  high  priest  and  civil  and 
military  head,  and  these  offices  were  made  heredi- 
tary in  his  family.  The  Jews  now  considered  that 
a  new  epoch  had  begun  and  dated  their  docu- 
ments accordingly.  The  reign  of  Simon,  high 
priest  and  ethnarch  (he  did  not  call  himself 
king),  was  very  prosperous.  The  Romans  recog- 
nized his  administration  and  such  opposition  as 
came  from  Syria  was  easily  repulsed.  The  aged 
ruler  was  treacherously  slain  at  Dak  by  a  son- 
in-law,  Pompey,  commander  of  the  Jericho  dis- 
trict, at  a  banquet  given  by  Pompey  in  his  honor. 
The  assassin's  scheme  for  seizing  the  supreme 
power  for  hiij^self  miscarried^  as  Simon  was  at 
once  succeeded  by  his  son,  John  Hyrcanus  I. 
(B.C.  135).  Consult:  I.  Maccabees  xiii.-xvi.; 
Schttrer,  History  of  the  Jewish  People  in  the 
Time»  of  Jesus  Christ  (Edinburgh,  1886-90) ; 
Streane,  Age  of  the  Maccabees  (London,  1898). 

SIMON  XA'GirS.  A  character  who  figures 
briefly  in  the  New  Testament,  and  at  greater 
length  in  the  writings  of  the  early  Christian 
Fathers.  According  to  the  New  Testament  ac- 
count (Acts  viii.  5-24),  he  was  a  sorcerer  of 
much  repute  in  the  city  of  Samaria  and  was  con- 
verted by  the  preaching  of  Philip.  When  the  gift 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  was  conferred  upon  the  con- 
verts in  Samaria,  through  the  imposition  of 
hands  by  Peter  and  John,  Simon  sought  to  pur- 
chase from  Peter,  by  the  offer  of  money,  a  like 
fower.  Peter  rebuked  him  sternly  and  charged 
im  to  repent;  whereupon  Simon  displayed  a 
penitent  temper,  and  the  narrative  closes  with  his 
petition  for  the  Apostle's  prayer  in  his  behalf. 
With  Justin  Martyr  the  legend  of  Simon  Magus 
takes  its  first  form  outside  the  New  Testament. 
He  says  that  Simon  Magus  was  a  Samaritan  of 
Gitta;  that  he  went  to  Rome,  worked  miracles 
there  by  magic,  and  became  so  famous  that  a 
statue  was  erected  in  his  honor,  inscribed,  **To 
Simon  the  Holy  Grod."  He  was  honored  as  €rod, 
above  all  other  power  and  authority.  He  was  the 
originator  of  heresy  and  the  source  from  which 
all  subsequent  error  was  derived.  The  details 
of  the  later  elaboration  of  the  legend  are  often 
grotesque  and  the  philosophy  at  the  basis  of 
the  heresies  is  obscure  or  absurd.  The  centre  of 
interest  is  the  conflict  between  Simon  Magus  and 
Peter  in  Rome.  The  climax  is  reached  when 
Simon  asserts  that  he  will  take  his  flight  to  (3od 
at  a  certain  time  before  them  all.  All  Rome  is 
gathered  to  witness  the  scene.  Simon  appears 
flying  over  the  city.  Peter  then  prays  and  Simon 
falls  to  the  ground  with  his  leg  shattered.  The 
people  stone  the  impostor  and  follow  Peter.  The 
legend  of  Simon  Magus  received  fresh  attention 
when  the  German  historian  Baur  asserted  that 


Simon  was  not  an  historical  charact^,  but  a 
name  of  reproach  invented  for  Sainf  Paul,  and 
that  the  conflict  between  Simon  Peter  and  Simon 
Magus  represented  in  the  legends  was  in  reality 
the  original  ocmflict  between  Peter  and  Paul. 
The  theory  has  been  worked  out  elaborately  by 
Baur,  LipsiuSy  and  Hilgenfeid,  but  is  not  main- 
tained widely  at  present. 

For  the  most  valuable  early  reference  to  Simon 
Magus,  consult  Eusebius,  Church  History,  ii.  13, 
14.  For  the  later  elaborations,  consult  the 
Apostolic  Constitutions,  vi.  7-9;  the  Clementine 
Homilies,  where  note  especially  ii.  22-26,  the  dis- 
cussions with  Peter  in  the  homilies  following,  and 
xvii.;  and  the  Acts  of  Peter  and  Paul  (in  the 
Ante-Nicene  Christian  Library,  vols.  xvi.  and 
xvii.,  Edinburgh,  1870).  The  articles  ''Simon 
Magus"  in  the  Hastings  Bible  Dictionary  (by 
Headlam)  and  the  Encydopwdia  Biblioa  (by 
Schmiedel)  represent  the  opposing  points  of  view 
mentioned  above. 

SnCONOSEKI^  8e'm6-n6-8&nc6.  A  town  of 
Japan.    See  Shimongseki. 

SIMON  PUBE.  A  Pennsylvania  Quaker  m 
Mrs.  Centlivre's  comedy  A  Bold  Stroke  for  a  Wife, 
who  has  a  letter  of  introduction  to  the  guardian 
of  an  heiress.  This  is  taken  by  Colonel  Feign- 
well,  who  personates  the  Quaker  and  marries  tht 
girl.  Simon  afterwards  proves  his  identity,  hence 
the  phrase  'the  real  Simon  Pure.' 

SIMON'S  TOWN.  The  capital  of  a  district 
of  Cape  Colony,  South  Africa,  on  Simon's  Bay,  a 
western  inlet  of  False  Bay,  20  miles  south  by  rail 
of  Cape  Town.  It  is  a  naval  station  with  forti- 
fications of  considerable  strength,  and  docks,  on 
which  large  sums  of  money  are  being  expended. 
The  town  is  under  the  headland  which  forms  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Population  (estimated), 
5000. 

8IM0NT  (ML.  simonia,  so  called  from  Bimon 
Magus,  who  attempted  to  biy  the  power  of  con- 
ferring the  Holy  Spirit).  In  English  law,  the 
giving  or  receiving  of  holy  orders  or  ecclesiasti- 
cal preferment  for  a  valuable  consideration,  or 
an  attempt  or  agreement  to  do  so.  It  was  severe- 
ly condemned  by  the  canon  law  from  the  earliest 
ages  of  the  Church,  being  considered  akin  to 
heresy.  Canon  40  of  1003  required  every  person 
appointed  to  an  ecclesiastical  preferment  to  take 
an  oath  that  he  had  not  obtained  it  simonia- 
cally.  In  addition  to  the  penalties  prescribed  hj 
the  ecclesiastical  law,  the  statute  of  31  Eliz.,  c. 
6  (1589),  imposed  fines  upon  a  person  guilty  of 
the  offense.  The  statute  also  provided  that  a 
simoniacal  presentation  should  be  void,  and  that 
the  corrupt  presentee  should  thereafter  be  dis- 
qualified to  hold  the  same  benefice,  however  ap- 
pointed. However,  to-day  it  is  not  simony  fbr 
either  a  layman  or  an  ecclesiastic  to  purchase  a 
right  to  an  advowson  or  to  make  presentation  to 
a  benefice,  provided  he  is  not  buying  for  himself, 
and  the  church  be  full.  This  is  true  even  if  there 
is  an  immediate  prospect  of  a  vacancy,  provided 
it  will  not  be  caused  as  a  result  of  a  contract  or 
arrangement  between   the   parties. 

As  there  is  no  established  Church  in  the  United 
States,  simony  is  not  recognized  as  a  civil  offense, 
and  probably  not  as  an  ecclesiastical  wrong.  Con- 
sult: Phillimore,  Ecclesiastical  Law  of  the 
Church  of  England  (2d  ed.,  London,  1895); 
Cribbs^  Law  Relating  to  the  Church  and  Clergy 


SniOHY. 


878 


SIMPSON 


(6th  ed.,  London^  1886) ;  Blackstone,  Commen- 
taries.   See  Advowson  ;  Benefice. 

SIMOOM  (Ar.  aam^m,  hot  pestilent  wind, 
from  samma,  to  poison).  A  hot  suffocating  wind, 
carrying  clouds  of  dust.  Although  these  winds 
occur  in  their  greatest  intensity  in  the  deserts  of 
Northern  Africa  and  Western  Asia,  analogous 
winds  are  found  in  India,  North  America,  and  Aus- 
tralia. Simooms  may  be  either  local  and  similar 
to  our  hot  winds,  sand  storms,  and  tornadoes, 
or  they  may  be  more  general,  like  the  blizzards  of 
North  America  or  the  bora  of  Northern  Europe. 
Owing  to  the  clear  sky  over  desert  regions  in  the 
tropics,  the  soil  and  adjacent  air  may,  become 
intensely  heated,  causing  local  ascending  currents 
and  whirlwinds.  Temperatures  of  120"*  and 
140**  F.  have  been  observed  in  the  Sahara 
and  are  not  infrequent  in  Arizona,  New  Mexico, 
and  Australia.  The  descriptions  of  the 
simoom  indicate  that  as  it  approaches  the  ob- 
server its  front  extends  at  least  from  five 
to  twenty  miles,  very  much  like  the  ad- 
vancing front  of  a  series  of  thunder  storms  on 
a  hot  afternoon;  the  clouds  of  fine  sand  and 
dust  that  are  carried  up  by  the  wind  extend  as 
a  haze  overspreading  the  sl^;  the  heavier  sands 
sre  also  transported  in  large  quantities,  and  as 
they  fall  are  collected  in  mounds  around  every 
obstacle  like  the  drifts  of  snow  in  winter.  In 
the  case  of  an  extended  simoom  the  finer  sands  are 
carried  so  high  as  to  be  drawn  into  the  general 
circulation  over  Europe.  Thus  in  the  great  storm 
of  March  10-12,  1001^  red  and  yellow  sand  and 
dust  from  the  Sahara  fell  in  nearly  every  por- 
tion of  Germany,  France,  Austria,  and  Turkey, 
and  southward  over  the  Mediterranean,  and  was 
also  reported  in  Southern  England  for  the  first 
time  on  record.  This  'dust'  is  a  mixture  of  in- 
organic particles  of  quartz,  mica,  and  clay  with 
a  considerable  admixture  of  fragments  of  fresh- 
water diatoms  entirely  similar  to  the  diatoms 
found  in  the  dust  when  the  northeast  Harmattan 
blows  from  the  same  desert  southwestward  to  the 
Atlantic  and  the  Gulf  of  Guinea. 

The  simoom  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the 
Kham^n,  which  usually  blows  for  about  fifty 
days  from  the  northeast  over  Egypt.  The 
Sirocco  is  a  hot  moist  southerly  wind,  in  Sicily 
and  Italy;  the  Samiel  is  the  similar  hot  south- 
erly wind  of  Turkey ;  the  Solano  is  the  hot  south- 
east wind  of  Spain:  these  may  all  exist  without 
any  connection  with  the  simoom,  but  on  some  oc- 
casions dry  simoom  winds  have  advanced  north- 
ward from  the  desert  and  merged  into  the  hot 
moist  southerly  winds,  the  Sirocco,  of  the  north- 
em  shores  of  the  Mediterranean. 

SIMPLE.  The  servant  of  Slender  in  Shake- 
speare's Merry  Wives  of  Windsor, 

SIMPLE  HABMOKIC  MOTION.  See  Me- 
chanics; Waves. 

SIMTLICIS^IMUS.  The  first  modem  Ger- 
man novel — Der  ahenteuerliche  Simplicissimus 
Teutseh,  das  ist:  Die  Beschreihung  des  Lebens 
eines  seltzamen  yaganten,  genani  Melchior 
Stemfels  von  FuohsKaim  (The  Venturesome 
German  Simplicissimus,  that  is:  Description  of 
the  Life  of.  a  Remarkable  Vagabond  named 
Melchior  Stemfels,  of  Fuchshaira)  (1669).  Its 
author  was  Hans  Jakob  Christoffel  von  Grim- 
melshausen  (q'.v.).  The  book  deals  realistically 
With  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 


SIMPLIGHTS,  slm-plish^-tiB.  A  Neo-Platonic 
philosopher  of  the  slxtn  century,  who  was  a  na- 
tive of  Cilicia.  He  was  teaching  at  Athens  when 
the  schools  of  philosophy  were  closed  by  the  edict 
of  Justinian,  and  was  one  of  those  philosophers 
who  found  a  temporary  asylum  at  the  Court  of 
the  Persian  King  Khosru  I.  Subsequently  he 
lived  at  Alexandria.  He  was  chiefiy  famous  as  a 
commentator  on  Aristotle.  His  complete  works 
were  edited  by  Schweighiiuser  (Leipzig,  1800). 
His  commentaries  on  Aristotle's  Categories,  Phys- 
ics, De  CcbIo,  and  De  Anima  were  edited  by 
Karsten  (1865),  and  that  on  the  Enchiridion  of 
Epictetus  by  Enk  (Vienna,  1866). 

SIM^LON,  Fr.  pron.  sftN'plftN'.  A  famous 
Alpine  mountain  pass  of  Switzerland,  6502  feet 
above  the  sea,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Canton 
of  Valais,  near  the  Piedmontese  frontier.  The 
Simplon  road,  one  of  the  greatest  engineering 
achievements  of  modern  times,  leads  over  a 
shoulder  of  the  mountain  from  Brig  in  Valais  to 
Domo  d'Ossola  in  the  north  of  Piedmont.  The 
road  was  commenced  in  1800  under  the  direction 
of  Napoleon  and  was  completed  in  1806.  It  is 
from  25  to  30  feet  broad,  and  42  miles  long.  It 
is  carried  across  611  bridges,  over  numerous  gal- 
leries cut  out  of  the  natural  rock,  or  built  of 
solid  masonry,  and  through  great  tunnels.  The 
construction  of  a  railway  tunnel  between  Brig  and 
Isella  was  nearing  completion  at  the  close  of 
1903.  It  will  have  a  length  of  about  12  miles 
and  will  be  the  longest  railway  tunnel  in  the 
world,  surpassing  the  Saint  Gotthard  by  more 
than  2  miles.  It  begins  on  the  Swiss  side  at 
an  elevation  of  about  2250  feet  and  the  opening 
at  the  Italian  end  is  about  550  feet  higher.  Con- 
sult La  ferrovia  del  Sempione  (Rome,  1900). 

SIMPSON,  Simpson,  Edwabd  (1824-88).  An 
American  naval  officer  and  author,  bom  in  New 
York  City.  He  was  appointed  a  midshipman  in 
the  navy  in  1840;  in  1846  entered  the  new  Naval 
Academy  at  Annapolis;  and  in  the  following 
year  graduated  in  the  first  class  that  ever  went 
out  from  that  institution.  In  the  Mexican  War 
he  served  on  board  the  Vixen,  and  took  part  in 
the  bombardment  of  Vera  Cruz.  In  1855  he  was 
commissioned  lieutenant,  and  in  the  following 
year  assisted  in  capturing  the  Barrier  Forts  near 
Canton,  China.  After  some  years  as  instructor 
at  Annapolis,  he  was  in  July,  1862,  commissioned 
lieutenant-commander;  and  in  command  of  the 
monitor  Passaic,  he  participated  in  attacks  on 
Fort  Wagner,  Fort  Sumter,  and  Fort  Moultrie. 
Later  he  was  fleet-captain  of  the  blockading 
squadron  before  Mobile.  He  had  risen  to  the 
rank  of  rear-admiral  when  he  was  retired  in 
1886.  His  publications  include:  Ordnance  and 
Naval  Gunnery  (1862)  ;  The  Naval  Mission  to 
Europe  (1873);  and  Modem  Ships  of  War 
(1887). 

SIMPSON,  Sir  George  (1792-1860).  A 
Canadian  statesman  and  explorer,  bom  in  Ross- 
shire,  Scotland.  In  1820  he  was  sent  to  British 
America  by  the  Earl  of  Selkirk,  the  leading 
spirit  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  In 
1821,  when  the  Hudson's  Bay  0)mpany  and 
its  rival,  the  Northwest  Company,  coalesced, 
he  was  appointed  Govemor  of  the  Northern 
Department,  and  subsequently  general  superin- 
tendent of  the  company's  affairs  in  America. 
That  position  he  filled  with  great  success 
for  thirty-five  years.      In  1828  he  crossed  th^ 


BXXPBOir. 


874 


BLKB. 


continent  to  the  Pacific^  and  did  much  explor- 
ing at  other  times,  and  alao  sent  out  several 
notable  exploring  expeditions.  In  1841  Simpson 
was  knighted,  and  in  the  same  year  he  started  on 
an  'overland'  journey  around  the  world.  He  pub- 
lished an  account  of  this  journey  under  the  title 
of  A  Narrative  of  a  Journey  Round  the  World 
During  the  Years  I84I  and  18i2.  Consult: 
Hopkins,  Canada  (Toronto,  1898-1900)  ;  and 
Macdonald,  Peace  River:  A  Canoe  Voyage  from 
Hudson's  Bay  to  the  Pacific  by  'Sir  George  Simp- 
son (Ottawa,  1872). 

SIMPSON,  Sir  James  Yowq  (1811-70).  An 
eminent  Scotch  obstetrician,  born  at  Bath^te, 
Linlithgowshire.  He  was  graduated  in  medicine 
in  1832  from  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  He 
was  elected  president  of  the  Royal  Medical  So- 
ciety in  1835;  lectured  on  pathology  in  the  uni- 
versity; and  later  succeeded  to  the  chair  of  mid- 
wifery. He  built  up  a  large  practice  very  rapid- 
ly, and  became  one  of  the  physicians  to  the  Queen 
in  1847.  In  March,  1847,  he  introduced  to  the 
world  the  discovery  of  the  ansesthetic  properties 
of  chloroform.  In  1856  the  Monthyon  prize  of 
the  Academic  des  Sciences,  amounting  to  2000 
francs,  was  awarded  to  him  in  recognition  of  his 
services  in  the  discovery  of  chloroform  ansesthesia 
and  its  introduction  into  midwifery  practice. 
Simpson  invented  acupressure  in  hemorrhage,  in 
1859.  In  1866  he  was  invested  by  Oxford  with 
the  degree  of  D.G.L.,  and  was  created  a  baronet 
in  the  following  year.  Sir  James  was  noted  as  an 
antiquaiy  of  eminence  as  well  as  a  most  skill- 
ful medical  practitioner.  It  is  claimed  that 
Simpson  anticipated  the  discovery  of  the  X- 
rays  (q.v.).  He  received  a  public  funeral  at 
Edinburgh,  in  which  city  a  maternity  hospital 
has  been  founded  to  his  memory.  His  bust  is  in 
Westminster  Abbey.  His  principal  works  are: 
Obstetric  Memoirs  (1856)  ;  Acupressure  (1864)  ; 
Selected  Obstetrical  Works  (1871);  Ancesthesia 
and  Hospitalism  (1871)  ;  Clinical  Essays {IS71) ; 
Clinical  Lectures  on  the  Diseases  of  Women 
( 1871 ) .    Consult  the  Memoir  by  Duns  ( 1873 ) . 

SIMPSON,  John  Palgbave  (1807-87).  An 
English  novelist  and  playwright,  born  in  Nor- 
wich. He  was  of  Norfolk  stock.  Having  gradu- 
ated from  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge 
(1829),  and  taken  the  master's  degree  three 
years  later,  he  lived  abroad  until  1850,  when  he 
settled  in  London.  Here  he  became  a  well-known 
figure  in  literary  society.  His  novels  comprise: 
Second  Love  (1846) ;  Oisella,  an  Hungarian  ro- 
mance (1847);  The  Lily  of  Paris  (1849);  For 
Ever  and  Never  (1884)  ;  and  a  few  short  tales. 
He  was  in  Paris  during  the  Revolution  of  1848, 
and  wrote  Pictures  from  Revolutionary  Paris 
(1849).  In  1847  he  had  published  the  equally 
brilliant  Letters  from  the  Danube,  Simpson 
composed  or  adapted  from  popular  novels  and 
French  plays  more  than  sixty  pieces  which, 
though  successful,  have  slight  literary  value. 

SIMPSON,  Matthew  (1810-84).  An  Ameri- 
can clergyman,  bom  at  Cadiz,  Ohio.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Alleghany  College,  Meadville,  Pa.,  in 
1832;  received  the  medical  degree  and  entered 
the  ministry  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
in  1833.  He  was  made  professor  of  natural  sci- 
ences at  Alleghany  College  in  1837,  president  of 
Indiana  Asbury,  now  De  Pauw  University 
(1839-41) ;  he  was  editor  of  the  Western  Chris- 


tian Advocate  in  1848;  was  elected  bishop  in 
1852;  visited  the  Methodist  missions  in  Syria 
and  the  East  in  1863,  and  the  Mexican  missions 
in  1874,  and  was  a  delegate  to  the  European  Mis- 
siimary  Conferences  in  1875.  He  was  an  inti- 
mate personal  friend  of  President  Lincoln,  and 
was  employed  by  the  Government  in  several  im- 
portant confidential  commissions.  He  died  in 
Philadelphia.  He  published:  A  Hundred  Tears 
of  Methodism  (1876) ;  Cyclopcedia  of  Methodism 
( 1878) ;  Yale  Lectures  on  Preaching  ( 1879) ;  and 
Sermons  (1885).  See  his  Biography  by  6.  R. 
Crooks  (New  York,  1890). 

SIMPSON,  Thomas  (1710-61).  An  English 
mathematician,  bom  at  Market  Bosworth,  Lei- 
cestershire. His  interest  in  celestial  phenomena 
seems  to  have  been  awakened  by  the  solar  eclipse 
of  May  11,  1724.  In  1735  he  moved  to  London, 
devoting  his  spare  time  to  the  teaching  of  mathe- 
matics. In  1740  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Stockholm  and  in  1745  s 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  In  1743  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Ro^'al 
Academy  at  Woolwich.  In  1737  he  published  A 
New  Treatise  on  Fluxions,  which,  although  it 
contained  some  obscurities  and  defects,  showed 
great  mathematical  ability  and  enhanced  his  rep- 
utation. Simpson  wrote  many  ingenious  works 
on  mathematics. 

SIMBOCX,  sim'rdk,  Kabl  Joseph  (1802-76). 
A  German  poet  and  scholar.  He  was  bom  at  Bonn, 
studied  there  and  at  Berlin,  entered  the  civil  ser- 
vice in  1826,  and  in  1827  published  a  translation 
of  the  Nibelungenlied,  which  has  become  classic 
in  more  than  fifty  editions.  He  followed  this 
with  metrical  renderings  of  Hartmann  von  Aue's 
Der  arme  Heinrich  (1830),  was  expelled  from 
the  Prussian  service  for  a  political  poem,  and 
gave  himself  wholly  to  literature,  modernizing 
the  poems  of  Walther  von  der  Vogelweide  ( 1833) ; 
the  Parzival  of  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach  ( 1842) ; 
Reineke  Fuchs  (1845)  ;  the  Edda  (1851)  ;  Gott- 
fried  von  Strassburg's  Tristan  und  Isolde  (1855) ; 
the  Old  Saxon  Helfand  (1856) ;  the  Anglo-Saxon 
BeovDulf  (1859);  Der  Wartburgkrieg  (1858); 
Brant's  Narrenschiff  (1872)  ;  and  other  less  im- 
portant works.  Simrock  wrote  many  works  on 
German  legends,  proverbs,  etc.,  and  also  pub- 
lished a  study  of  the  sources  of  Shakespeare. 
From  1850  till  his  death  he  was  professor  of  the 
Old  German  language  and  literature  at  Bonn. 
Consult  Hocker,  Kari  Simrock  (Leipzig,  1877). 

SIMS,  simz,  Geobge  Robebt  (1847—).  An 
English  journalist  and  playwright.  He  was  born 
in  London,  and  made  his  home  there,  becoming' 
almost  as  familiar  with  the  darker  sides  of  Lon- 
don life  as  was  Dickens.  He  was  educated  at 
Hanwell  College  and  at  Bonn.  On  the  death 
of  Thomas  Hood  the  younger  in  1874  he  joined 
the  staff  of  Fun  and  in  the  same  year  he  began 
writing  for  the  Dispatch,  in  which  first  appeared 
his  sketches  under  the  title  of  Social  Kaleido- 
scope, the  Three  Brass  Balls,  and  The  Theatre  of 
Life,  These  were  exceedingly  popular  and  were 
translated  into  French  and  German.  From  the 
feuilleton  he  drifted  into  light  verse,  contributing 
to  the  Referee  the  Dagonet  Ballads  (coUected  in 
1882).  Among  other  volumes  of  verse  from  his 
pen  are  Ballads  and  Poems  {IS79), -The  Land  of 
Gold  (ISSS),  and  Dagonet  Ditties  \IS93),  Turn- 
ing to  the  drama,  Sims  wrote  a  large  number  of 


unrii. 


876 


SIX80K. 


plays,  begiiming  with  farces  like  the  Crutch  and 
Toothpick  (1879),  which  was  followed  by 
Mother-in-Law  and  The  Member  for  Slocum,  His 
greatest  success,  however,  awaited  him  in  melo- 
drama. The  Lights  o*  London,  first  produced  at 
the  Princess's  Theatre  in  1881,  had  an  extraordi- 
nary run  in  London  and  afterwards  in  the 
colonies  and  in  the  United  States.  Almost 
equally  popular  was  In  the  Ranks^fiist  performed 
at  the  Adelphi  Theatre  in  1883.  Among  Sim's  other 
plays  are:  The  Romany  Rye;  The  Oolden  Ring; 
Jack  in  the  Box;  The  Harbour  Lights;  Two  Lit- 
tle Vagabofida;  In  Oay  Piccadilly;  and  A  Scarlet 
Sin,  In  these  and  other  plays  Sims  has  presented 
striking  phases  of  contemporary  London  life. 
His  How  the  Poor  Live  (1883)  and  his  various 
contributions  to  the  London  Daily  News  on  the 
housing  of  the  poor  awakened  much  attention  and 
led  to  reforms.  In  1901  and  the  following  years 
he  edited  Living  London,  Its  Work  and  Its  Play, 
Its  Humour  and  Its  Pathos,  Its  Sights  and  Its 
Scenes.  Consult  for  Sims's  early  work,  Archer, 
English  Dramatists  of  To-Day  (London,  1882). 

sues,  Jameb  Marion  (1813-83).  An  Ameri- 
can gynaecologist,  bom  in  South  Carolina.  He 
was  graduate  in  medicine  by  Jefferson  Medi- 
cal College,  Philadelphia,  in  1835,  and  entered 
upon  the  practice  of  his  profession  at  Mont- 
gomery, Ala.,  in  1836.  About  1845  he  became 
interested  in  the  hitherto  incurable  disease 
vesico-vaginal  fistula,  and  established  a  private 
hospital  for  women,  which  for  several  years  he 
supported  at  his  own  expense.  The  success  of  his 
experiments  at  closing  these  fistulse  was  due,  he 
claimed,  to  the  substitution  of  silver  wire  for  silk 
and  other  sutures,  and  he  afterwards  extended 
the  use  of  metallic  sutures  to  eeneral  surgery. 
He  published  a  full  account  of  his  operation  in 
the  American  Journal  of  Medical  Sciences  in 
1852.  He  settled  in  New  York  City  in  1853,  and 
was  instrumental  in  establishing  the  Woman's 
Hospital,  for  the  treatment  of  diseases  peculiar  to 
women.  In  1861  Dr.  Sims  went  to  Europe.  Here  in 
1870  he  organized  the  Anglo-American  ambulance 
corps,  of  which  he  took  charge,  and  which  he  ac- 
companied to  Sedan.  Sims's  operation  has  been 
of  incalculable  benefit  and  his  name  deserves  a 
place  as  an  inventive  genius  among  the  great 
surgeons  of  the  world.  Sims  published  several 
monographs  and  contributed  articles  to  medical 
journals.  He  published  the  following  volumes: 
Trismus  Nascentium  (1846);  Silver  Sutures 
in  Surgery  (1858);  On  Intra-uterine  Fibroi^i 
Tumors  (1874);  Clinical  Notes  on  Uterine 
Surgery  (1866);  Anglo-American  Ambulance 
( 1870) ;  and  The  Discovery  of  Anesthesia {IS77). 
See  The  Story  of  My  Life,  edited  by  his  son, 
Harry  Marion  Sims  (New  York,  1884) ;  also 
Austin  Flint's  In  Memoriam  James  Marion  Sims 
(New  York,  1886). 

SIMS,  Thomas  M.  (c.l829— ).  A  fugitive 
slave,  returned  to  slavery  from  Boston,  Mass.,  in 
1851.  He  escaped  from  slavery  at  Savannah, 
Ga.,  early  in  1851  and  reached  Boston  in  Feb- 
ruary on  board  a  trading  vessel,  but  on  April  3d 
was  arrested  in  pursuance  of  the  Fugitive  Slave 
Law  (q.v.),  and  was  confined  in  the  Boston 
court  house,  which,  for  protection,  was  sur- 
rounded by  chains.  His  arrest  caused  great 
excitement  in  Boston,  and  vigorous  but  unavail- 
ing efforts  were  made  by  the  Abolitionists  to 
secure  his  release,  several  large  public  meetings 

?OIi.  XT.-66. 


being  held  at  which  such  men  as  Wendell  Phil- 
lips, Theodore  Parker,  William  Lloyd  Garrison, 
Horace  Mann,  Henry  Wilson,  and  Thomas  W.  . 
Higginson  delivered  addresses.  Sims  was  tried 
before  United  States  Commissioner  George  T. 
Curtis  (q.v.),  was  surrendered  to  the  representa- 
tive of  his  master,  one  James  Potter,  and  was 
returned  to  Savannah,  where  he  was  subsequently 
sold  to  a  brick  mason  of  Vicksburg.  Unsuccess- 
ful attempts  were  made  by  people  in  the  North, 
especially  by  Charles  Devens  (q.v.),  the  marshal 
who  had  caused  his  arrest,  to  buy  and  emanci- 
pate him.  In  1863  he  escaped  to  the  besieging 
army  of  General  Grant,  about  Vicksburg,  and 
after  1877  was  for  several  years  a  messenger 
in  the  Department  of  Justice  in  Washington.  His 
return  to  slavery  did  much  to  accentuate  the 
opposition  of  people  in  the  North  to  the  Fugitive 
Slave  Law.  Consult:  Adams,  Richard  Henry 
Dana,  A  Biography  (Boston,  1891);  and  an 
article  in  the  New  England  Magazine,  vol.  ii. 
(n.  s.)    (Boston,  1890). 

sues,  WiNFiEiD  Scott  (1844—).  An  Ameri- 
can inventor,  bom  in  New  York  City.  He  served 
in  the  Civil  War  in  a  New  Jersey  regiment.  He 
experimented  with  electro-magnets  and  electro- 
motors, and  to  him  belongs  the  honor  of  hav- 
ing been  the  first  to  apply  electricity  to  the 
propulsion  and  guidance  of  torpedoes.    See  Tob- 


SIMSON^  sim'sdn,  Mabtin  Eduabd  von 
( 1 8 1 0-99 ) .  A  German  jurist  and  pari  iamentar ian, 
bom  at  K5nigsberg.  After  studying  there,  in  Ber- 
lin, Bonn,  and  Paris,  he  began  to  lecture  in  his 
native  city  in  1831,  and  became  professor  there 
in  1833.  Elected  to  the  National  Assembly  at 
Frankfort  in  1848,  he  was  successively  its  secre- 
tary, vice-president,  and  president,  and  in  1849 
headed  the  delegation  which  announced  to  the 
King  of  Prussia  his  election  as  German  Emperor. 
In  the  same  year  he  represented  K5nig8berg  in 
the  Prussian  Second  Chamber  with  rare  oratori- 
cal skill,  and  in  1850  presided  over  the  Erfurt 
Parliament.  Having  confined  himself  to  his  jurid- 
ical and.  academic  duties  from  1852  to  1858, 
he  was  again  returned  to  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives in  1859,  was  its  president  in  1860-61, 
aad  of  the  North  German  Reichstag  from  1867 
on,  in  which  capacity  he  headed  the  deputation 
which  petitioned  King  William  I.  at  Versailles, 
December,  1870,  to  accept  the  Imperial  crown, 
offered  him  by  the  German  princes.  Subsequently 
also  president  of  the  German  Reichstag,  he  de- 
clined a  reelection  in  1874,  owing  to  impaired 
health,  was  appointed  president  of  the  Supreme 
Court  at  Leipzig  in  1879,  and  retired  in  1891, 
settling  in  Berlin,  where  he  died. 

His  son,  Bebnhard  (1840),  bom  at  K5nigs- 
berg,  professor  of  history  at  Freiburg  since  1877, 
is  known  as  the  author  of  Jahrh'icher  des  Frank- 
ischen  Reichs  unter  Ludwig  dem  Frommen  ( 1874- 
76)  ;  id.  unter  Karl  dem  Orossen  (1883)  ;  of  the 
6th  volume  of  Giesebrecht's  Oeschichte  der 
deutschen  Kaiserzeit  (1895)  ;  and  of  a  biography 
of  his  father  (Leipzig,  1900). 

SIMEON,  Robebt  (1687-1768).  A  Scotch 
mathematician,  bom  at  West  Kilbride,  Ayrshire. 
He  was  educated  at  Glasgow  University  and  in 
London.  At  the  age  of  twenty-four  he  was  elected 
professor  of  mathematics  in  Glasgow  University. 
Directed  by  Halley  to  the  study  of  Greek  mathe- 


SDIESON. 


876 


SIN. 


maticB,  he  devoted  much  of  his  life  in  makiiuf 
the  early  classics  in  geometry  known  in  England, 
Jn  1761  he  retired  from  his  active  work  in  the 
university  and  devoted  the  remaining  years  of 
his  life  to  revising  his  works.  Besides  numerous 
memoirs,  Simson  published  the  following  works: 
Sectionum  Conicarum  Libri  V.  (1735,  2d  ed. 
1750;  Eng.  trans.  1804);  ApolUmii  PergoH  Lo- 
oorum  PkLnorwn  lAhri  11,  (1749;  Ger.  trans. 
1822);  Elewenta  of  Euclid  (1756,  and  many 
subsequent  editions).  His  collected  works  were 
published  at  Glasgow  in  1776. 

SIHXTLTAirEOirS      EQUATIONS.        See 

Equation. 

SIN  (AS.  synn,  OHG.  suntea,  sunta,  Ger. 
8unde;  probably  connected  with  Lat.  8<m8,  guilty, 
Gk.  driy,  aW,  mischief,  harm).  Voluntary  trans- 
gression of  a  moral  law  believed  to  possess  divine 
sanction.  All  theories  assume  a  fact  which  the^ 
presuppose  to  be  well  understood  from  the  experi- 
ential point  of  view  by  all.  The  various  mean- 
ings attached  to  this  fact  reveal  a  gradual  pro- 
gression out  of  the  crudest  physical  conceptions 
to  the  highly  individualized  views  of  modern 
ethics.  Thus  among  savages  we  do  not  find  any 
consistent  perceptions  of  right  and  wrong,  and  it 
is  doubtful  if  we  have  any  ground  for  speaking 
of  *the  sense  of  sin'  in  their  case.  The  only  ele- 
ment of  our  definition  obvious  here  is  the  vague 
apprehension  of  a  power,  higher  than  the  human, 
approving  or  disapproving,  whom  it  is  possible  to 
offend  and  therefore  wbe  to  conciliate.  Clearer 
conceptions  appear  among  the  Oriental  nations, 
whose  elaborate  ceremonial  and  mechanical  piety 
are  calculated  to  foster  the  sense  of  sin  in  the 
soul.  The  Hindus,  moreover,  extend  this  idea 
of  evil  to  the  cosmos,  which  is  conceived  of  as 
sharing  the  common  evil  of  all  existence.  The 
fatalistic  pessimism  of  the  Orient  has  made  little 
attempt  to  trace  sin  to  a  common  root  in  human 
nature. 

Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  the  idea  of  sin 
takes  on  the  more  positive  character  of  their  life 
and  temperament.  The  essential  excellence  of 
human  nature  and  the  power  of  the  human  will, 
,  unaided,  to  attain  to  a  high  standard  of  virtue, 
*  was  part  of  the  genius  of  the  Grseco-Roman  civi- 
lization. Yet  the  idea  of  moral  evil  is  not  lack- 
ing, especially  in  the  days  of  the  decline  of 
Rome.  In  the  main,  however,  sin  is  conceived 
either  as  physical  disease  or  as  ignorance. 

With  Christianity  there  came  a  change,  the  chief 
cause  of  which  was  the  teaching  of  the  doctrine 
of  a  future  life,  especially  the  dwjtrine  of  penalty 
for  sin.  This  acted  as  a  strong  deterring  influ- 
ence, which  showed  itself  still  further  in  the 
practice  of  self-accusation  and  in  the  habit  of 
affixing  personal  responsibility  for  the  smallest 
departures  from  the  divine  law.  In  their  con- 
flict with  paganism  and  Greek  philosophy  the 
early  fathers  were  led  to  define  the  nature  of 
sin  more  fully  and  precisely.  We  find  two 
broadly  divided  schools.  One  regarded  sin  as 
an  individual  affair,  as  a  voluntary  act,  as  an 
actual  reality.  The  other  regarded  it  as  a  mat- 
ter of  the  race,  as  a  matter  of  hereditary  de- 
pravity and  corruption.  The  former  school  held 
that  moral  responsibility  was  confined  to  the  in- 
dividual's own  acts;  the  latter,  that  this  respon- 
sibility is  shared  and  conditioned  by  the  race  as 
such.  Out  of  these  opposing  views  arose  the  dis- 
tinction between  actual  and  original   (q.v.)   sin. 


Later  speculation  made  much  of  the  claasificatioii 
into  mortal  (q.v.)  and  venial  (q.v.)  sins. 

In  modem  thought  sin  is  studied  for  the  most 
part  in  connection  with  theodicy,  psychological 
ethics,  and  sociology.  It  assumes  three  forms:  ( 1) 
the  inquiry  into  the  origin  of  evil;  (2)  the  ques- 
tion of  freedom  and  necessity;  and  (3)  the  rela- 
tion of  sin  to  final  causes.  As  regards  the  first,  we 
find  Descartes  and  Spinoza  practically  denying  the 
positive  character  of  sin,  being  followed  in  this 
view  by  Malebranche,  who,  however,  perceiving 
the  dilemma  of  absolute  determinism,  maintained 
that  sin  is  a  phenomenon,  through  which  God 
occasionally  acts,  as  He  might  through  any  other 
act  of  a  human  being.  For  Leibnitz,  the  author 
of  the  most  original  system  of  theodicy,  evil  is 
the  contrast  to  the  good.  The  origin  of  evil, 
therefore,  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  divine  will, 
nor  entirely  in  the  action  of  man,  but  rather  in 
the  essential  limitetions  of  matter,  which  is  the 
condition  of  realizing  the  good.  Thus  evil  ia 
merely  privation  and  has  no  true  cause.  In  re- 
gard to  the  second  question  Spinoza's  theory  of 
universal  determinism  led  him  to  attribute  free- 
dom to  God  alone,  and,  of  course,  this  caused 
him  to  deny  the  reality  of  free  agency.  Des- 
cartes's  view  that  God  creates  the  distinction  be- 
tween truth  and  falsehood,  right  and  wrong, 
tended  in  the  same  direction.  Leibnitz,  on  the 
other  hand,  while  admitting  that  God  is  the  only 
complete  and  perfect  cause,  nevertheless  eon- 
tended  that  He  has,  in  creating  man,  conferred 
upon  him  the  prerogative  of  freedom.  Now  the 
possession  of  freedom  by  man  is  not  a  limitation 
of  God's  absoluteness.  For,  first,  freedom  in  a 
finite  agent  involves  the  liability  to  errov  and 
sin;  and,  second,  the  sin  of  man  is  not  predes- 
tined or  ordained  by  God,  but  only  permitted,  so 
that  the  good  may  be  more  completely  mani- 
fested. Sin,  therefore,  cannot  defeat  the  final 
purpose  of  God,  which  is  the  completion  of  the 
system,  the  establishment  of  good  in  the  heart 
of  every  man ;  for  God  has  determined  or  chosen 
that,  on  the  whole,  the  system  shall  promote  the 
happiness  of  His  creatures,  which  is  the  only 
principle  that  has  positive  character. 

After  Leibnitz  we  do  not  find  any  original  sys- 
tems of  theodicy,  and  the  problem  of  sin  tends  to 
be  considered  in  connection  with  psychological 
ethics  and  sociology.  Ite  subjective  character 
and  ite  reflex  action  on  social  life  are  the  chief 
matters  of  interest  to  the  more  modem  mind. 
We  notice  a  disinclination  to  regard  sin  as  a 
cosmical  or  metephysical  reality,  and  a  decided 
effort  to  understand  ite  psychological  nature. 
Thus  physical  conditions  are  now  admittedly 
agreed  to  be  importent  predisposing  factors  of 
sin.  The  part  played  by  choice,  by  feelings  of  fear, 
and  by  the  primitive  passions  in  perverting  hu- 
man nature  is  also  fully  acknowledged,  especially 
in  determining  the  intention  of  the  act  of  sin  and 
ite  relation  to  the  universal  disapproval  that 
accompanies  wrongdoing  (guilt).  The  tendeni^r 
to  trace  all  sins  to  one  common  root  in  human 
nature  is  illustrated  in  Julius  Mttller*8  idea  that 
the  root  of  all  sin  is  selfishness,  i.e.  the  willful 
choice  of  the  ego  as  the  supreme  object  of  love. 
The  complex  character  of  sin  is,  however,  from 
the  psychological  point  of  view,  nearer  the  truth 
than  this  theory  of  a  single  motive.  Besides  all 
this,  the  vast  social  significance  of  the  fact  of 
sin  has  been  fully  recognized,  as  appears  in  all 
modern  systems  of  penology,  in  which  remedial 


SIN. 


877 


8IH0BBE  BBETHBEN. 


measures  are  applied  to  the  correction  of  the 
habitual  criminal.  It  is  also  seen  in  the  impor- 
tance now  attached  to  the  moral  education  of  the 
young  as  a  means  of  combating  the  liability  to 
wrong-doing  in  the  human  race. 

Consult  (besides  the  ethical  works  referred  to 
under  Ethics,  and  the  older  discussions  of  Plato, 
Aristotle,  Epictetus,  Cicero,  Descartes,  Spinoza, 
and  Leibnitz) :  MtlUer,  Die  chriatliche  Lehre  der 
8unde  (2d  ed.,  Bremen,  1888) ;  Martineau,  Typet 
of  Ethical  Theory  (London,  1885) ;  Manning,  Sin 
and  Its  Consequences  (ib.,  1892) ;  Adler,  Moral 
Education  of  Children  (New  York,  1898) ;  Ten- 
nant.  Origin  and  Propagation  of  Sin .  (London, 
1902).     See  also  Evil;  Devil. 

SOTAI,    sl^nft    or   si'nl    (Heb.   Sinai).     The 
mount  on  which  God  is  said  to  have  revealed 
Himself  to  Moses.    It  is  situated  in  the  southern 
half  of  the  so-called  Sinaitic  Peninsula,  project- 
ing into  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Bed  Sea, 
between  the  Gulf  of  Suez  on  the  west  and  the 
Gulf    of  Akabah  on  the    east.     This  part    of 
the  peninsula    consists    of  a    mass  of  granite 
and  porphyry  moimtains  which  may  be  divided 
into  three  groups:   a  northwestern,  reaching  in 
Jebel  Serbal  a  height  of  6712  feet;  a  central, 
including  Jebel  Musa    (7363    feet)    and   Jebel 
Ejiterin  (8537  feet) ;  and  an  eastern  and  south- 
em,  whose  highest  peak  is  Jebel  Umm  Shomer 
(8449  feet).    Whether  the  biblical  Sinai  is  Jebel 
Umm  Shomer  or  Jebel  Musa  is  disputed.    The 
former  has  been  advocated  by  Eusebius,  Jerome, 
Cosmas  Indicopleustes,  and  in  modem  times  by 
Lepsius  and  Ebers.    Jebel  Musa,  however,  is  pre- 
ferred by  most  authorities,  and  is  favored  by  tra- 
dition  (which,  however,  dates  only  from  Chris- 
tian times)  indicated  by  the  name  'Mountain  of 
Moses'  and  the  erection  of  a  monastery  upon  it 
which  goes  back  to  the  days  of  Justinian.    The 
northern  peak  of  Jebel  Musa,   known   as   Ras 
Safsafeh    (6540  feet),  meets  the  conditions  re- 
quired, since  there  is  an  open  space  at  its  foot 
sufficient  to  accommodate  a  large  encampment. 
Tt  should  be  noted  that  in  the  Old  Testament 
Horeb  and  Sinai  are  identical,  the  former  being 
the  term  used  for  the   holy  mountain  in  the 
Elohistic  source  and  in  Deuteronomy,  the  latter 
in  the  Yahwistic  source  (see  Elohibt  and  Yah- 
wiST)    and  in  the  Priestly  Code.      (See  Hexa- 
TEUCH.)     The  Monastery  of  Saint  Catharine  is 
situated  on  the  northeastern  slope  of  Jebel  Musa 
at  an  elevation  of  about  5000  feet.    It  is  occu- 
pied by  monks  of  the  Greek  Church,  whose  num- 
ber at  present  does  not  exceed  thirty.     It  was 
here    that    Tischendorf    discovered    the    Codew 
Sinaiticus  (see  Bible)  in  1859.    The  entire  re- 
gion was  a  favorite  abode  of  Christian  anchorites 
in  the  early  centuries  and  their  cells  and  caves 
are  very  numerous.     The  so-called  Sinaitic  in- 
scriptions are  graffiti  left  on  the  rocks  for  the 
most  part  by  heathen  Nabateans ;  a  few,  however, 
are  the  work  of  Christian  travelers.    They  date 
from  the  period  extending  from  the  first  to  the 
sixth     century.     See     Inscriptions.     Consult: 
Palmer,    The   Desert   of   the   Exodus    (London, 
1871) ;  Ebers,  Durch  Oosen  eum  Sinai  (Leipzig, 
1872) ;  Hull,  Mount  Seir,  Sinai,  etc.    (London, 
1875) ;    also,   for   a  vivid   popular   description, 
Stanley,  Sinai  and  Palestine    (ib.,   1856)  ;   and 
the  commentaries  on  Exodus  (ch.  xix.)  of  Dill- 
mann   (Leipzig,  1880)   and  Ryssel   (ib.,  1897), 


where  a  full  discussion  of  the  controversy  as  to 
the  site  of  Mount  Sinai  may  be  found. 

SINAITIC  XAKT78CBIPT.    See  Bible. 

BINAIiOA,  B^'Bk-Wk.  A  maritime  State  of 
Mexico,  bounded  by  the  States  of  Sonora  and 
Chihuahua  on  the  north,  Durango  on  the  east, 
the  Territory  of  Tepic  on  the  souUi,  and  the  Gulf 
of  California  on  the  west  (Map:  Mexico,  E  5). 
Area,  33,671  square  miles.  Tne  coast  is  low, 
and  lined  with  numerous  lagoons.  The  interior 
rises  gradually  from  the  coast  and  the  eastern 
part  is  occupied  by  the  Sierra  Madre  Moimtains. 
The  State  is  well  watered  and  some  of  the  rivers 
are  partly  navigable.  The  climate  is  hot  and 
unhealthful  on  the  coast,  but  more  moderate  in 
the  highlands.  Rains  are  abundant  in  the  moun- 
tains, and  the  mountain  slopes  are  well  wooded. 
Agriculture  is  in  a  backward  state  and  very 
few  agricultural  products  are  exported.  The 
mineral  deposits  are  extensive,  including  gold, 
silver,  copper,  iron,  and  lead,  some  of  which  are 
worked  to  some  extent.  The  chief  manufactured 
product  is  cotton  cloth.  Population,  in  1900, 
296,109,  including  many  Indians.  Capital,  Culia- 
cfin  (q.v.). 

SINCEBE  BBETHBEK  ( Ar.  IkhwAn  al-Safa 
wa'^KhullAn  al-Waf^,  the  Sincere  Brethren  'and 
True  Friends).  A  transcendental  and  scientific 
order  of  esoteric  nature  in  Islam,  existing  at 
Basra,  on  the  Lower  Euphrates,  about  1000.  ( See 
Shiites.)  Little  is  known  of  the  personality  of 
the  members,  the  leader  of  whom  may  have  been 
one  Zayd  ibn  Rifaa.  It  was  a  constituent  part 
of  their  philosophy  that  perfection  could  only  be 
reached  through  the  co5peration  of  souls,  each 
contributing  its  share  to  the  common  treasury 
of  goodness  and  knowledge;  hence  logically  their 
association  took  the  form  of  an  esoteric  society 
with  a  simple  organization  into  which  any  sin- 
cere and  helpful-spirited  man  could  enter.  •  The 
order  was  divided  into  four  ideal  grades:  the 
first  for  the  younger  members,  and  for  those  of 
practical  ability ;  the  second  for  those  over  thirty 
years,  who  could  fulfill  the  office  of  teachers ;  the 
third  for  those  over  forty,  who  could  rule  in  the 
society,  their  authority  being  one  of  mildness 
and  admonition;  the  fourth  for  those  who  were 
fit  to  attain  the  vision  of  Qod.  The  Epistles  of 
the  Sincere  Brethren  {Raaail  IkhwAn  al-8afa) 
consists  of  fifty-one  treatises  and  is  an  encyclo- 
paedia of  the  Arabic  philosophy  of  the  age, 
methodically  arranged,  and  bound  together  by 
the  philosophy  of  the  order.  This  is  based  upon 
Neo-Platonic  and  other  late  Greek  philosophies, 
with  evident  contributions  from  Oriental  mysti- 
cism, the  authors  being  Shiite.  The  doctrine 
is  that  of  an  All-Soul,  which  first  projects  mat- 
ter from  itself,  and  continuously  spiritualizes  it 
by  emanations;  on  the  other  hand,  these  soul- 
parts  naturally  yearn  for  return  to  their  origin. 
But  this  redemption  is  hampered  by  the  opposi- 
tion of  spirit  and  matter.  The  ethics  of  the 
encyclopaedia,  therefore,  inculcates  the  gradual 
self-purification  of  those  who  recognize  their 
spiritual  birthright  away  from  sense  to  God. 
But  while  ethically  dualistic,  the  encyclopaedia 
has  a  pantheistic  metaphysics,  and  is  interested 
in  all  created  things  as  being  immediately  de- 
rived from  God.  Hence  the  work  becomes  an 
encyclopaedia  of  all  knowledge.  The  work  has 
been  made  known  to  modem  Europe  through  the 
labors  of  Dieterici  in  a  series  of  translations  of 


SXHCBBB  BBETBBEN. 


.     878 


8INDHI  liAKaVAGE. 


almost  all  but  the  last  quarter  of  the  book,  pub- 
lished between  1861  and  1872  (Berlin  and  Leip- 
zig), concluding  with  a  general  survey  in  Die 
Philosophie  der  Araher  (Leipzig,  1876-79).  He 
has  also  published  as  a  translation  one  of  the 
episodes,  Der  Streit  zwischen  Mensoh  und  Thier 
(Berlin,  1858),  and  its  original  (ib.,  1879)  ; 
also  a  selection  of  the  original  texts  in  Ahhand- 
lungen  der  IchwAn  ea-8af&  (ib.,  1883-86).  Con- 
sult also:  Fliigel,  in  Zeitachrift  der  deutschen 
morgenl&ndischen  Oeaellachaftf  vol.  xiii.;  and 
Lane-Poole,  Studies  in  a  Mosque  (London,  1883). 

SINCLAIB^  Sir  John  (1754-1835).  A  Scotch 
politician  and  author.  He  was  born  at  Thurso 
Castle,  Caithness,  studied  at  Edinburgh,  Glas- 
gow, and  Oxford,  and  was  admitted  to  the  Scot- 
tish (1775)  and  English  bars  (1782).  With 
slight  interruptions,  he  sat  in  Parliament  from 
1780  to  1811;  in  1791  he  established  the  British 
Wool  Society,  and  in  1793  the  Board  of  Agri- 
culture, of  which  he  was  for  thirteen  years  presi- 
dent. In  1784  he  published  his  History  of  the 
Revenue  of  the  British  Empire,  but  his  chief 
work  is  the  Statistical  Account  of  Scotland  (21 
vols.,  1791-99).  He  published  numerous  other 
volumes,  and  many  pamphlets.  See  his  Corre- 
spondence (1831). 

SIHiyBAD    (or  SINBAD)   THE  8AIL0B. 

The  hero  of  one  of  the  tales  of  the  Arabian 
Nights.  He  is  a  wealthy  Bagdad  merchant,  who 
relates  the  story  of  his  marvelous  seven  voyages 
to  a  discontented  porter.  The  history  of  the 
third  voyage  contains  the  story  of  Polyphemus. 
In  the  fifth  he  meets  the  famous  Old  Man  of  the 
Sea  (q.v.). 

8IKBH,  SIND,  or  SCINBE.  A  region  in 
the  northwestern  part  of  British  India,  now  form- 
ing a  division  of  the  Bombay  Presidency.  It  lies 
around  the  lower  course  of  the  Indus,  and  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Baluchistan  and  the 
Punjab,  on  the  east  by  Kajputana,  on  the  south 
by  the  Great  Rann  and  the  Arabian  Sea,  and  on 
the  west  by  Baluchistan  (Map:  India,  A3).  The 
area  under  British  administration  covers  47,066 
square  miles,  and  the  total  area,  including  the 
native  State  of  Khairpur,  is  53,175  square  miles. 
Sindh  belongs  physically  to  the  Punjab  region, 
and  consists  in  part,  like  the  latter,  of  very  low, 
fiat  doabs,  or  interfiuvial  regions,  here  lying  be- 
tween the  branches  of  the  great  Indus  delta. 
These  doabs  consist  mostly  of  alluvial  clay  baked 
hard  in  the  sun,  but  toward  the  east  they  merge 
into  thcsandy  wastes  of  Raj pu tana.  The  climate 
is  very  hot  aijd  dry,  the  rainfall  being  entirely 
insufficient  for  agriculture.  The  arable  soil  con- 
sists of  the  rich  alluvium  deposited  in  the  pe- 
riodic inundations  of  the  rivers. 

Agriculture  is  dependent  almost  wholly  upon 
irrigation,  which  is  secured  through  a  system  of 
canals  leading  from  the  Indus  River  and .  the 
annual  overfiow  of  that  river.  The  extension  of 
these  canals  by  the  Government  in  recent  years 
has  increased  the  area  under  cultivation.  In  1900- 
01  the  net  area  cropped  amounted  to  3,729,433 
acres.  There  are  generally  two  harvests  per 
annum:  the  first,  or  rubbt  (spring)  harvest,  coij- 
slsts  of  wheat,  barley,  oil-seeds,  millet,  durra, 
opium,  hemp,  and  tobacco;  the  second,  or  kurtf 
(autumn)  harvest,  consists  of  those  crops  whose 
ripening  requires  much  heat,  as  rice,  sugar-cane, 
cotton,  indigo,  and  maize.    The  North  West  Rail- 


road extends  from  Karachi  northward  through 
the  region.  The  navigation  of  the  Indus  has, 
since  the  construction  of  this  line,  been  reduced 
to  the  traffic  of  the  native  boats.  Karachi  (q.v.) 
is  the  principal  port  for  the  Punjab  and  North- 
west India  region.  The  population  in  1901  was 
3,212,808,  a  gain  of  12  per  cent,  over  1891,  con- 
sisting of  a  mixture  of  Juta  (a  Hindu  race)  and 
Baluchis,  with  a  few  Afghans  in  the  northwest; 
the  greater  portion  of  them  are  Mohammedans, 
and  the  remainder  profess  Hinduism.  The  capi- 
tal of  Sindh  is  Karachi. 

From  the  early  part  of  the  eleventh  century 
Sindh  was  generally  under  Mohammedan  domina- 
tion. Among  the  mediieval  ruling  powers  were 
the  dynasties  of  Gtabni  (q.v.)  and  Ghuri  (q.v.). 
Toward  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century  it 
passed  under  the  sway  of  the  Great  Mogul.  ( See 
Mogul,  Great.)  Amid  thj  convulsions  resulting 
from  the  invasion  of  India  by  Nadir,  Shah  of 
Persia,  Sindh  became  in  1748  a  feudatory  de- 
pendency of  the  Durani  dynasty  of  Kandahar. 
A  little  more  than  a  generation  later  the  Talpur 
Baluchis,  who  had  immigrated  into  Sindh,  raised 
their  leader,  Mir  Fafh  Ali,  to  supreme  power. 
This  chief  made  large  grants  of  territory  to  va- 
rious relatives,  reserving  most  of  Lower  Sindh 
for  himself  and  his  three  brothers ;  so  that  there 
were  four  ameers  at  Hyderabad,  three  at  Khair- 
pur, and  one  at  Mirpur.  (hi  the  outbreak 
of  the  Afghan  War  in  1838,  the  British  Govern- 
ment intimated  its  intention  to  take  temporary 
possession  of  Shikarpur,  and  forced  the  ameers  of 
Hyderabad  and  Mirpur  to  agree  to  a  treaty  which 
virtually  destroyed  their  independence.  Their 
expressions  of  disapproval  provoked  fresh  de- 
mands from  the  Calcutta  Government,  to  which 
the  Hyderabad  rulers  agreed,  despite  the  clamors 
and  threats  of  their  followers,  who  attacked  the 
British  residency.  War  with  Great  Britain  broke 
out  in  1843  and  an  expedition  under  Sir  Charles 
James  Napier,  the  British  envoy,  routed  the  na- 
tive forces  at  Miani  and  soon  completed  the  sub- 
jugation of  Sindh.  The  conquered  territory  was 
divided  into  three  collectorates,  now  the  districts 
of  Hyderabad,  Karachi,  and  Shikarpur;  the 
Ameer  of  Khairpur,  by  continuing  faithful  to 
the  British,  retained  his  dominions.  Consult: 
Burton,  Sind  Revisited  (London,  1896) ;  Hughes. 
A  Gazetteer  of  the  Province  of  Scinde  (2d  ed.. 
ib.,  1876). 

SUTDHI  (s!nM«)  LANGUAGE  AND  LIT- 
EBATITBE.  The  modern  Indian  language  and 
literature  of  Sindh  (q.v.).  Sindhi  has  been  de- 
rived by  some  scholars  from  Sauraseni  Prakrit, 
especially  in  the  Abhiri  vernacular,  spoken  in 
mediaeval  times  about  the  mouth  of  the  Indus. 
Of  all  the  Indian  group  of  languages  Sindhi  \^ 
in  many  respects  the  most  interesting  linguistical- 
ly. While  it  is,  generally  speaking,  an  analytic 
language  of  the  same  type  as  English,  it  retains 
a  number  of  Prakrit  elements,  which  have  been 
discarded  elsewhere.  There  are,  as  in  Sanskrit 
(q.v.),  eight  cases,  formed  chiefly  by  postposi- 
tions, and  the  verb  has  three  simple  tenses,  po- 
tential, aorist,  and  future,  from  which  the 
various  periphrastic  tenses  are  formed  (e.g. 
dmfln^  hal&m,  *1  may  go;'  halandO  Atidm,  'I  may 
be  going;'  halid  hu&m,  'I  may  have  gone;'  halAm 
th6,  'I  go;'  halandd  Hffihiydnt,  '1  am  going;' 
halandd  hdse,  *I  was  going;'  haliuse,  1  went;' 
haliuse  the,  *l  used  to  go;'  halid  dfjihiyiUii,  1 


SINDHI  LANaiTAaE. 


879 


SINDINa. 


have  gone;'  hali6  hCse,  *1  had  gone;'  halanduse, 
'I  shall  go;'  halandd  hunduaey  u  shall  be  going;' 
haU6  hunduse,  'I  shall  have  gone').  The  past 
tenses  of  the  transitive  verb  are  lacking,  and 
their  place  is  supplied  by  the  passive  with  the 
agent  in  the  instrumental  case.  In  its  vocabu- 
lary Sindhi,  as  being  the  first  language  of  India 
to  come  under  Mohammedan  influence,  has  incor- 
porated many  Persian  and  Arabic  loan-words.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  has  borrowed  a  smaller  number 
of  Sanskrit  words  than  any  of  the  other  modem  In- 
dian languages.  Sindhi  is  divided  into  a  number 
of  dialects,  which  shade  off  imperceptibly  one 
into  another.  Of  them  the  most  important  are 
Lari,  in  the  Indus  delta;  Thareli,  in  the  Sindh 
desert;  and  the  one  which  may  be  called  the 
standard,  Sirai,  north  of  Hyderabad.  Among  the 
other  dialects  are  Jathki,  Vicholi,  Kachi,  and 
Jadgali.  The  alphabets  were  formerly  numerous, 
but  fell  into  two  classes,  the  Arabic  and  those 
derived  from  the  Sanskrit  Devanagari  script,  and 
uniformity  in  this  regard  has  not  yet  been  at- 
tained. The  distinction  in  usage  was  primarily 
religious,  Arabic  letters  being  adopted  by  the  Mo- 
hammedans, while  the  Hindus  clung  to  the  Indian 
characters.  Sindhi  literature  is  scanty,  but 
there  is  a  rich  store  of  popular  poetry,  tales,  and 
the  like  which  deserve  to  be  reduced  to  writing. 

Ck>nsult:  Gust,  Modem  Languages  of  the  East 
Indies  (London,  1878)  ;  Beames,  Comparative 
Orammar  of  the  Modem  Aryan  Languages  of 
India  (ib.,  1872-79)  ;  Stack,  English  and 
Sindhi  Dictionary  (Bombay,  1849)  ;  id.,  Oram- 
mar of  the  Bindhi  La/nguage  (ib.,  1849) ;  Trumpp, 
Chrammar  of  the  Sindhi  Language  (London, 
1872);  id.,  Sindhi  Reading-Book  (ib.,  1858); 
Gajumal,  Handbook  of  Sindhi  Proverbs  tciih 
English  Renderings  a/nd  Equivalent  Sayings 
(Karachi,  1895). 

SIKa)IA.  The  name  of  a  powerful  Mahratta 
house,  which  played  an  important  part  in  the 
history  of  India  during  the  eighteenth  and  nine- 
teenth centuries.  The  rulers  of  the  Mahratta 
Principality  of  Gwalior,  feudatory  to  the  Brit- 
ish, still  bear  the  name  of  Sindia.  The  Sindia 
family  arose  in  Gwalior,  and  was  of  low  caste. 
Its  founder  was  Ranuji  Sindia,  who  had  risen 
to  a  high  rank  in  the  Peshwa's  body-guard,  and 
after  1743  received  as  an  hereditary  fief  half 
of  the  Province  of  Malwa.  His  natural  son, 
Madhava  Rao  (or  Madhaji,  or  Mahadji)  Sindia 
(1760-94),  on  the  death  of  Mulhar  Rao  Holkar 
in  1767,  became  the  chief  of  the  Mahratta  princes, 
and  commanded  the  Peshwa's  body-guard.  Four 
years  later  he  co5pe rated  with  Tukaji  Holkar 
to  aid  the  Peshwa,  Madhu  Rao,  in  assisting  the 
Mogul  Emperor  of  Delhi,  Shah  Alam,  to  expel 
the  Sikhs  from  his  territories.  As  a  reward  for 
his  services  Madhava  Rao  was  made  virtual 
ruler  of  these  lands.  He  fought  against  the 
English  in  the  first  Mahratta  War  (1779-82), 
which  was  concluded  by  the  Treaty  of  Salbai. 
The  terms  here  agreed  upon  conferred  on 
Madhava  Rao  the  districts  won  in  Gujarat.  *He 
quickly  extended  his  power,  and  in  1784  he  cap- 
tured Gwalior,  after  which  he  seized  Delhi,  Agra, 
Alighur,  and  almost  the  entire  Doab  (q.v.),  and 
subjugated  the  Rajput  States  of  Jodhpur,  Udai- 
pur,  and  Jaipur.  Madhava  Rao's  last  years  were 
filled  with  contests  against  his  rival,  Nana  Far- 
navese,  until  his  death  in  1794.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  grand-nephew^  a  boy  of  fourteen, 


named  Daulat  Rao  (1794-1827),  who  allied  him- 
self with  the  Peshwa  and  with  the  other  Mah- 
ratta chiefs^  and  plundered  Poona  and  Indore. 
In  1802,  while  attempting  to  control  Indore 
through  the  imbecile  son  of  Tukaji  Holkar,  he 
and  the  Peshwa,  despite  French  training  and 
assistance,  were  crushed  at  Poona  by  Tukaji'0 
illegitimate  son,  Jaswant  Rao  Holkar.  In  1803 
the  second  Mahratta  War  broke  out,  in  which 
Daulat  Rao  played  a  leading  part.  His  forces 
were  defeated  in  the  same  year  at  Assaye  and 
Argaum  by  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  afterwards 
Duke  of  Wellington,  and  he  agreed  to  renounce 
all  his  claims  north  of  the  Jumna  and  west  of 
the  Chambal,  all  authority  over  the  Mogul,  and 
all  ohout  or  tribute  from  any  native  princes. 
After  this  Sindia  avoided  conflict  with  the 
English,  even  offering  to  help  them  in  1804 
against  Jaswant  Rao  Holkar^  although  he  later 
declared  for  him,  but  was  brought  to  his  senses, 
and  finally  was  given  Gwalior  in  1805,  which  was 
henceforth  his  capital.  In  1817  he  Was  caught 
in  treasonable  negotiations  with  Nepal,  and  was 
compelled  to  sign  a  treaty  by  which  the  Rajput 
States,  and  all  other  native  States  that  wished 
it,  were  taken  under  British  protection.  He  died 
in  1827  without  lefiving  a  son.  His  widow, 
Baiza  Bai,  adopted  Janokji  (or  Mugat)  Rao 
Sindia  (1827-43).  After  a  brief  civil  war  be- 
tween him  and  the  Queen  regent  in  1833,  Ja- 
nokji was  recognized  as  the  lawful  ruler  by  the 
English.  His  rule  was  weak  and  uneventful, 
and  in  1843  he  died,  leaving  no  heirs.  His  girl- 
widow,  Tara  Bai,  adopted  a  boy  of  eight  years, 
Jyaji  (or  Baji)  Rao  Sindia  (1843-86).  The 
dominions  of  Gwalior  were  in  such  a  state  of 
anarchy  that  the  British  insisted  on  guarantees 
for  the  preservation  of  tranquillity.  These  were 
rejected  and  a  war  followed,  in  which  the  Mah- 
rattas  were  routed  December  29,  1843,  by  Sir 
Hugh  Gough  at  Maharajpur,  and  on  the  same 
day  by  Major-General  Grey  at  Panniar.  The 
British  seized  Gwalior  six  days  later,  and  the 
Sindia  Crovernment  submitted  to  the  conditions 
imposed,  being  also  obliged  to  maintain  a  Sepoy 
contingent  at  Gwalior.  In  1858  Sindia  took  the 
field  at  the  head  of  his  army  against  the  Gwalior 
contingent  which  had  joined  the  Sepoy  mutiny, 
but  he  was  deserted  by  most  of  his  troops,  and 
compelled  to  fiee  to  Agra.  He  was  subsequently 
reinstated  by  Sir  Hugh  Rose,  and  received  from 
the  British  Government  numerous  tokens  of  its 
appreciation  of  his  loyalty.  In  1886  Jyaji  Rao 
was  succeeded  by  his  adopted  son,  Madhava  Rao 
Sindia.  He  was  active  in  reform  and  good 'gov- 
ernment, while  his  loyalty  to  the  English  Gov- 
ernment was  shown  in  1900,  when  he  equipped 
at  his  own  expense  and  accompanied  a  hospital 
ship  for  the  China  War.  Consult  Keene,  Mddhava 
Rdo  Sindhia  (Oxford,  1892). 

SINa>ING,  Chbistian  (1856—).  A  Norwe- 
gian composer,  born  at  Kongsberg,  Norway.  In 
1874  he  became  one  of  Reinecke's  pupils  at  the 
Leipzig  Conservatory,  and  studied  with  him  for 
three  years.  In  1880,  with  the  Royal  Scholar- 
ship, he  studied  at  Dresden,  Munich,  and  Berlin. 
He  finally  settled  as  organist  and  teacher,  at 
CThristiania.  Among  his  works  are  three  piano- 
forte quartets,  pianoforte  quintets,  a  string  quar- 
tet, a  symphony  in  D  minor,  two  violin  sonatas, 
Roraanze  for  the  violin  with  the  piano;  12 
Lieder,    ''Windrose,"   op.   28;    Gavotte;    and   3 


SIVDIHO. 


880 


8ZVOAPOBE. 


Xocturnes.  His  compoaitioiiB,  the  most  notable 
of  which  are  for  the  piano,  are  remarkable  for 
their  brilliancy  and  Norwegian  characteristics. 
Many  of  them  have  become  very  popular  in  the 
United  States. 

SINBIHG,  Otto  Ludwig  (1842—).  A  Nor- 
wegian landscape  and  genre  painter,  bom  at 
Trondhjem.  He  studied  under  Eckersberg  in 
Christiania,  under  Gude  and  Riefstahl  at  Karls- 
ruhe, and  imder  Piloty  at  Munich.  As  a  marine 
painter  of  his  own  rugged  and  rock-bound  coast 
he  attained  distinct  success  in  such  pictures  as 
the  "Lofoten  Laplanders  Greeting  the  Return 
of  the  Sun,"  which  was  exhibited  in  1891  at 
Munich.  His  fine  picture  of  "The  Surf"  (1870) 
showed  him  as  a  marine  painter  par  eeooelienoe, 
and  as  a  genre  painter  he  achieved  high  suc- 
cess in  the  "Struggle  at  the  Peasant  Wedding." 
His  "Ruth  and  Boaz"  was  awarded  a  medal  at 
the  (Centennial  Exhibition  in  Philadelphia. 

BINDING,  Stestan  (1840—).  A  Norwegian 
sculptor,  bom  at  Trondhjem.  He  began  his 
studies  under  Wolff  in  Berlin,  and  there  exhibited 
his  first  statue,  "Volund  the  Smith."  At  the 
Paris  Exposition  of  1878  he  exhibited  his  "Cap- 
tive," and  afterwards  at  Rome  he  produced  the 
"Barbarian  Woman  Carrying  the  Body  of  Her 
Son  Killed  in  Battle,"  which  established  his  repu- 
tation. By  this  group  he  proved  his  departure 
from  the  classic  school  of  Xhorwaldsen,  which 
until  that  time  had  beat  supreme  in  Scandi- 
navia. Other  examples  of  his  work  are  the  re- 
liefs of  "TTie  Pillars  of  (Christianity;"  the  sym- 
bolic figure  of  "The  Ancestress;"  a  statuette  of 
"Mercury;"  "Iphigenia;"  and  the  fine  "Terra 
Mater"  (1900). 

SINE.    See  Tbigonometbt  ;  Cubve  of  Shies. 

BINOAXAPEMZB,  z!ng'&-kft-dA-m6'.  A  fa- 
mous Berlin  choral  society  founded  in  1790 
by  Karl  Christian  Fasch  (q.v.).  The  member- 
ship Qonsisted  originally  of  about  16  persons, 
members  of  the  leading  families  of  Berlm.  On 
May  27,  1791  (when  the  first  record  of  attend- 
ance was  made),  27  singers  were  on  the  roll. 
This  is  the  date  which  is  celebrated  as  that  of 
the  foundation  of  the  Singakademie,  the  name 
subsequently  adopted  for  the  society.  They 
studied  choral  music  not  for  the  sake  of  amuse- 
ment and  pleasure,  but  with  serious  artistic 
aims.  It  is  to  the  perpetuation  of  this  spirit 
that  the  Singakademie  owes  its  position  to- 
day as  the  strongest  factor  in  the  promotion 
of  choral  culture  in  Grermany.  The  member- 
ship has  constantly  increased,  and  is  now  about 
600.  Possibly  the  greatest  achievement  of  the 
society  was  the  rescue  from  almost  total 
oblivion  of  Bach's  Passion  According  to  Saint 
Matthew,  which  Mendelssohn,  then  a  young  man 
of  twenty,  persuaded  the  society  to  perform  in 
1829. 

SI-NOAN-FTT,  sCng'an'fW,  SI-OAN-nj,  or 
SI-AN-^FU  (Chin.,  west  tranquil  city),  also 
sometimes  spelled  Hsi-an-fu.  A  departmental 
city  of  China,  capital  of  the  Province  of  Shen-si 
(q.v.),  and  noted  for  its  antiquity  as  well  as  its 
importance  as  a  commercial  centre  (Map:  China, 
C  5).  It  is  finely  situated  near  the  Wei  River, 
the  principal  affluent  of  the  Hoang-ho,  in  the 
midst  of  a  great  loess  plateau  sloping  south- 
ward from  the  high  table-lands  of  Mongolia  to 
the  Tsing-ling  range,  and  eastward  from  Kan-su 


to  the  Hoang-ho.     Its    walls    are  not  aa  high 
as  those  of  Peking,  but  the  four  great  gates 
with  their  lofty  towers  surpass  those  of  Peking 
in    magnificence.      They    are    well    built,    and 
in  1868-71  successfully  withstood  the  attacks  of 
the  Mohammedan  hosts  then  in  rebellion.    They 
have  a  circuit  of  24  miles.    The  streets  are  wide, 
well  paved,  and  clean,  and  lined  with  fine  shops 
and  warehouses.    An  immense  trade  is  carried  on 
here,  for  here  the  great  trade  routes  from  the 
northeast,  east,  and  south  through  Kan-su  to  Ili 
(2773  miles),  Yarkand  (3198),  Kashgar  (3361), 
and  other  Central  Asian  points  converge.   Popu- 
lation estimated  at  1,000,000,  including  50,000 
Mohammedans,  and  many  Tibetans,  Mongols,  etc. 
On  this  spot  or  in  its  vicinity  several  dynasties 
established    their    capital,    banning    with    the 
Chow  in  B.C.  1122.     It  is  consequently  rich  in 
objects  of  great  antiquarian  interest.     Among 
them  is  the  oldest  mosque  in  China,  built  over 
1100  years  ago,  a  very  old  temple  dedicated  to 
Lao-tse;     the    Pei-lin    or    'Forest    of    Tablets' 
belonging  to  different  dynasties,  from  R.C.   100, 
and   collected   from   many   quarters,    consisting 
of  incised  specimens  of  calligraphy,  emblematic 
animals,  historic  scenes,  etc.,  and  the  "Thirteen 
Classics"    cut   in   stone   in   the   T'ang   dynasty 
(618-960) ;    and    in   the    Manchu    City    in    the 
northwest  quarter  of  the  city  is  an  old  palace 
of   the   same   period.     Here  in   1625   was    dis- 
covered a  large   stone  tablet    (erected   in    781 
and  still  preserved),  carved  with  Chinese  and 
Syriac   writing  recording  the  establishment  of 
Christianity  in  this  neighborhood  in  the  seventh 
century  by  the  Nestorians  and  eulogizing  it  as 
the.King-Kiao  or  'Luminous  Religion.'    Si-ngan- 
fu  suffered  much  during  the  Mohammedan  Re- 
bellion of  1865-78,  but  has  now  almost  recovered. 
During  the  advance  of  the  allied  troops  for  the 
relief  of  the  beleaguered  foreigners  in   Peking 
in  1900  the  Emperor  and  Empress  Dowager  fied 
hither,  and  kept  their  Court  here  until  Novem- 
ber, 1901.     The  Tsung-tuh  or  Governor-General 
of  the  United  Provinces  of  Shen-si  and  Kan-su 
(officially  known  as  Shen-Kan)  resides  here. 

SINGAPORE,  s!o'gA-p<3r^.  An  island  belong- 
ing to  Great  Britain  and  included  in  the  colony 
of  the  Straits  Settlements.  It  lies  off  the 
southern  point  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  a  narrow  strait  from 
%  to  %  of  a  mile  wide,  and  bordered  on  the 
south  by  the  wider  Singapore  Strait  which  sepa- 
rates it  from  the  small  Dutch  islands  that  lie 
east  of  Sumatra  (Map:  French  Indo-China, 
D  7) .  It  is  situated  less  than  100  miles  north  of 
the  eauator.  The  island  is  27  miles  long  and 
11  wide;  area,  about  210  square  miles.  It  passed 
into  the  possession  of  the  East  India  Company 
in  1819,  and  in  1824  the  possession  was  ratified 
by  the  payment  to  the  Sultan  of  Johore  of 
$60,000  and  a  life  annuity  of  $24,000.  The  island 
is  well  watered  and  has  a  hot,  damp,  but  not  im- 
healthful  climate,  the ,  range  of  temperature 
being  less  than  twenty  degrees.  The  surface  of 
the  island  is  broken  by  small  hills,  varying  in 
altitude  from  300  to  400  feet,  and  densely 
forested.  There  is  no  regular  rainy  season,  but 
showers  are  scattered  throughout  the  year.  The 
principal  products  are  cocoanut  oil,  gambier, 
tapioca,  cacao,  aloes,  nutmegs,  and  a  great 
variety  of  fruits  and  vegetables.  The  fiora  and 
fauna  resemble  those  of  the  Malay  Peninsula. 


snraAPOBE. 


881 


SINOINO. 


The  population,  consisting  largely  of  Chinese, 
Malays,  and  Hindus,  in  1901,  numbered  228,665. 
The  only  important  city  is  Singapore  (q.v.). 

SINOAPOBE  (from  Skt.  Sinhapura,  Lion 
City).  The  capital  of  the  British  Straits 
Settlements  and  the  most  important  commercial 
emporium  of  Southeastern  Asia,  situated  on  the 
island  of  Singapore,  in  latitude  V  17'  N.,  and 
longitude  103*'  50'  47"  E.  (Map:  French-Indo 
China,  D  7 ) .  The  town  is  well  built,  not  merely 
in  its  Ehiropean  residence  portion,  but  also  in  the 
native  quarters.  Its  harbor  is  commodious  and 
easy  of  access.  Fbr  six  miles  along  its  water  front 
the  city  is  lined  with  quays,  wharves,  docks,  and 
shipyards.  In  the  rear  of  the  city  still  stands 
Fort  Canning,  the  fort  erected  on  a  hill  just  out- 
side the  original  settlement,  but  it  is  now  sup- 
plemented by  modem  batteries,  which  command, 
the  harbor.  The  Governor's  palace  is  a  large  im- 
pressive structure,  situated  in  the  midst  of  a 
beautiful  park  at  the  top  of  one  of  the  three  hills 
on  the  outskirts  of  the  city.  The  most  charming 
spot  of  the  city  is  the  turfed  and  shaded  espla- 
nade, fronting  on  the  outer  harbor.  In  its  midst 
is  erected  a  monument  to  Sir  Stamford  Raffles, 
the  founder  of  the  city.  The  botanical  garden 
ranks  as  one  of  the  best  in  the  world.  The  city 
hall,  the  Gothic  Cathedral  of  Saint  Andrews,  the 
Ronuin  Catholic  Cathedral,  and  the  Raffles 
Museum  and  Library  are  all  notable  buildings. 
The  greater  portion  of  the  trade  is  in  the  hands 
of  the  Chinese,  who  constitute  about  three- 
fourths  of  the  population. 

Its  geographical  position  at  the  eastern  en- 
trance to  Malacca  Strait,  about  midway  between 
Hong  Kong  and  Calcutta,  the  proximity  to  the 
islands  of  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  above  all 
the  policy  of  absolute  free  trade  have  made 
Singapore  the  centre  of  a  trans-shipping  trade 
that  is  surpassed  in  the  East  only  by  that  of  the 
Chinese  ports.  The  list  of  imports  and  exports 
comprises  cotton,  copra,  rice,  tin,  textiles,  to- 
bacco, spices,  petroleum,  sugar,  coffee,  pepper, 
opium,  gambler,  coal,  fish,  rattans,  skins,  silks, 
and  gutta-percha.  The  manufactures  are  not 
extensive,  but  comprise  the  preparation  of 
white  pepper,  tapioca,  sago,  and  gambier,  and 
the  manniacture  of  vehicles,  tools,  and  furniture, 
and  there  are  shipbuilding  establishments,  pine- 
apple canneries,  and  biscuit  factories.  The  total 
imports  for  1901  amounted  to  $254,128,315  in 
Mexican  silver,  and  the  exports  to  $213,108,826. 
The  resident  population  of  the  municipality  of 
Singapore,  in  1891,  was  155,683;  in  1900,  193,- 
089.  Of  the  latter  number  141,865  were  Chinese, 
26,230  Malays,  15,646  natives  of  India,  2748 
Europeans  and  Americans,  and  3982  Eurasians. 

Singapore  has  its  own  municipal  organization 
under  supervision  of  the  colonial  Government. 
The  founding  of  the  city  in  1819  was  due  to  the 
desire  of  Sir  Stamford  Raffles,  then  an  employee 
of  the  East  India  Company,  to  establish  an  out- 
post to  counteract  the  growth  of  Dutch  influence 
in  this  quarter  of  the  globe.  Despite  intense 
opposition  on  the  part  of  the  Dutch  and  only 
half-hearted  support  from  the  home  Government, 
he  succeeded  in  gaining  the  island  for  England, 
and  the  continuously  rapid  growth  of  the  city  of 
Singapore  has  fully  demonstrated  the  wisdom  of 
his  purpose.  After  the  formal  cession  of  the 
island  to  Great  Britain  in  1824  it  was  the  capital 
of    the    consolidated    governments    of    Penang, 


Singapore,  and  Malacca,  which  in  1867  became  a 
Crown  colony  as  the  Straits  Settlements. 

8IHGKEB,  IsAAO  Mebbitt  (1811-76).  An 
American  inventor,  bom  at  Oswego,  N.  Y.  He 
became  a  mechanic,  and  after  a  time  interested 
himself  in  the  sewing  machine.  He  constructed 
an  improved  machine  with  a  rigid  overhang- 
ing arm  to  guide  a  vertical  needle,  in  com- 
bination with  a  shuttle  and  what  was  called  a 
wheel-feed.  Singer  made  a  large  fortune  from 
the  sale  of  his  machines. 

SINaEBy  Otto  (1833-94).  A  German  Ameri- ' 
can  pianist  and  composer,  born  at  Sora,  Saxony. 
He  studied  at  Dresden,  at  the  Leipzig  Conserva- 
tory, and  subsequently  with  Liszt.  In  1867  he 
came  to  New  York,  where  he  became  a  teacher  at 
the  Mason  and  Thomas  Conservatory..  In  1873  he 
conducted  the  first  May  Festival  in  Cincinnati, 
and  was  appointed  professor  of  pianoforte  and 
theory  in  the  Cincinnati  College  of  Music.  His 
compositions  include  two  cantatas,  The  Landing 
of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  (1876)  and  the  Festival 
Ode  (1878),  symphonies,  concertos,  and  numer- 
ous pianoforte  pieces. 

SINQEB,  Paul  (1844—).  A  German  politi- 
cal agitator,  bom  in  Berlin.  Pursuing  a  mer- 
cantile career  since  1858,  he  founded  a  cloak 
factory  in  Berlin  in  1869,  joined  the  Social 
Democrats  in  1870,  and  was  elected  to  the  Reichs- 
tag in  1884.  Gaining  prominence  as  a  debater, 
he  became,  i^ext  to  Bebel,  the  principal  leader 
of  the  party. 

SINGHALESE  (or  SINHALESE)  LAN- 
aUAOE  AND  LITEBATTTB£«  See  Cetlon, 
section  on  Language  and  Literature, 

SINGHABI  (stng-h&'rd)  NTJT.    See  TsapA. 

SINOINO  (from  sing,  AS.  singan,  to  sing, 
Goth,  siggwan,  to  sing,  read,  OHG.  singan,  to 
sing,  crow,  Ger.  singen,  to  sing;  possibly  connect- 
ed with  Gk.  dfju^f  omphe,  voice,  sound).  The  art 
of  making  music  with  the  human  voice.  The 
physical  apparatus  employed  in  the  production 
of  musical  tones  consists  of  the  larynx,  which 
contains  the  vocal  cords,  the  lungs,  and  the 
muscles  of  the  chest  and  diaphragm.  To  these 
must  be  added  as  accessories  the  cavity  of  the 
mouth,  the  hard  palate,  and  the  nasal  chambers, 
all  of  which  aid  in  modifying  the  character  of  the 
tones  produced,  and  also  serve  as  sounding  boards 
to  increase  their  power.  The  tones  of  the  human 
voice,  either  in  speaking  or  singing,  are  formed 
by  the  vibration  of  the  vocal  cords.  These  are 
two  parallel  elastic  membranous  bands  situated 
in  the  larynx,  which  thus  resembles  a  reed  instru- 
ment, like  an  oboe.  The  blast  of  the  air  column 
driven  from  the  lungs  sets  these  bands  vibrat- 
ing. By  the  act  of  volition  they  are  set  to  receive 
the  impact  of  the  column  of  air  in  such  a  way  as 
to  produce  tone.  By  closing  or  opening  so  as  to 
vibrate  at  different  portions  of  their  length,  they 
give  tones  of  different  pitch. 

The  lungs  supply  the  air  and  are  operated  by 
the  muscles  before  mentioned.  The  diaphragm, 
the  use  of  which  is  often  neglected  by  singers,  is 
generally  conceded  to  be  of  great  service  in  giv- 
ing power  and  control  to  the  breathing,  which  is 
of  the  first  importance  in  singing.  Some  teach- 
ers hold  that  the  secret  of  good  tone  production 
lies  entirely  in  the  management  of  tne  breath. 
Clavicular  or  upper-chest  breathing,  such  as  is 
seen  in  women  tightly  laced,  is  regarded  as  the 


snrGiNa. 


882 


SINGIVG. 


least  satisfactory  method,  and  is  not  employed 
by  any  great  singer.  The  abdominal  method,  ad- 
vocated by  Mandl  in  1856  and  introduced  into  the 
Paris  Ck)nservatory  and  among  Italian  teachers, 
consists  in  keeping  the  chest  as  quiet  as  possible 
and  forcing  the  diaphragm  down  and  the  ante- 
rior wall  of  the  abdomen  out  in  inspiration.  The 
leading  singers  of  to-day,  such  as  Jean  da 
Reszke,  Sembrich,  and  Nordica,  advocate  the  use 
of  all  the  external  intercostal  muscles  and  the 
drawing  in  of  the  anterior  wall  of  the  abdomen 
in  inspiration.  They  hold  that  this  method  sets 
the  diaphragm  firmly,  gives  greater  mastery  of 
the  breathing  apparatus,  and  enables  the  singer 
better  to  graduate  the  power  of  the  air  column. 

The  compass  of  the  human  voice  extends  from 
the  C  below  the  bass  clef  to  the  F  above  the 
treble.  Some  exceptional  voices  have  exceeded 
this  range.  No  one  voice  has  this  compass,  of 
course,  for  the  average  human  voice  has  an  extent 
of  about  twelve  tones,  while  trained  singers 
usually  have  two  octaves.  Some  have  had  more 
than  three.  Five  general  divisions  of  singinff 
voices  are  recognized:  two  women's,  soprano  anu 
contralto,  and  three  men's,  tenor,  barytone,  and 
bass.  These  are  here  named  in  the  order  of  their 
pitch  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest.  Music  for 
sopranos,  contraltos,  and  tenors  is  written  on  the 
treble  clef,  and  that  for  the  other  voices  on  the 
bass  clef.  The  tenor  voice,  however,  produces 
tones  an  octave  lower  than  those  written. 

The  pitch  of  voices  is  the  result  of  the  length 
of  the  vocal  cords.  These  cords  are  shorter  in 
women  than  in  men  and  hence  the  former  have 
higher  voices.  The  longest  vocal  cords  are  those 
of  a  deep  bass.  Pitch,  however,  is  not  the  only 
trait  which  determines  the  title  of  a  voice,  for  the 
quality  of  the  tone  must  be  considered.  Tenor 
and  barytone  voices  of  exactly  the  same  range 
exist,  but  the  character  of  the  tones  is  different. 
The  quality  of  the  voice,  then,  is  modified  to  soma 
extent  by  the  conformation  of  the  resonance 
cavities  of  the  mouth  and  nose  and  also  by  the 
delicate  operation  of  the  muscles  of  the  larynx. 
The  resonating  chambers  also  play  an  important 
part  in  giving  power  to  the  sounds  made  by  the 
vocal  cords,  which  would  be  feeble  if  not  thus 
aided. 

Each  voice  is  divided  into  several  'registers,'  a 
term  borrowed  from  the  organ.  It  means  a  suc- 
cession of  sounds  having  similar  character,  or 
produced  by  the  same  mechanism.  Authorities 
differ  as  to  the  number  of  registers  which  exist  in 
the  human  voice,  but  the  majority  follow  Manuel 
Garcia,  the  inventor  of  the  laryngoscope  and  one 
of  the  most  famous  of  singing  teachers.  He  holds 
that  there  are  three  registers,  which  he  calls 
chest,  falsetto,  and  head.  Some  writers  have 
named  as  many  as  five  registers,  and  others  find 
that  the  voices  of  men  and  women  differ  in  their 
divisions  of  this  kind.  The  mechanical  action 
of  the  larynx  and  certain  of  the  resonating  ap- 
paratus changes  as  the  singer  ascends  the  scale, 
and  the  tendency  is  toward  modifications  in  the 
quality  of  the  tones,  so  that  the  different  regis- 
ters are  dissimilar  in  character.  Between  the 
registers,  especially  between  the  highest  and  the 
next  lower,  there  are  audible  breaks,  and  usually 
the  tones  on  either  side  of  this  are  weak  and 
uncertain.  One  of  the  most  important  labors  of 
the  teacher  is  the  equalization  of  the  registers,  so 
that  the  breaks  shall  become  unnoticeable  and 
the  quality  of  tone  homogeneous  throughout  the 


scale.  This  is  aeeomplished  by  cnltiyated  metii- 
ods  of  tone  formation,  in  which  the  air  column 
is  voluntarily  directed  toward  certain  resonators. 
These  same  methods  of  voluntary  treatment  of 
the  registers  are  employed  by  singers  to  produce 
some  of  their  most  beautiful  effects.  Male  sing- 
ers, for  example,  often  employ  head  tones  for  the 
production  of  soft,  a§rial  effects  in  the  upper 
middle  scale,  even  where  the  same  notes  could  be 
produced  in  full  voice. 

The  training  of  the  voice  for  singing  is  a  slow 
and  painstaking  process.  Most  of  the  training 
is  directed  toward  securing  correct  tone  for- 
mation, or  tone  placing  as  it  is  usually  called. 
Upon  the  correctness  of  the  placing  depend 
the  strength,  carrying  power,  smoothness,  and 
beauty  of  the  tone.  The  acquirement  of  a 
perfect  method  of  tone  formation  is  the  only 
road  to  the  strengthening  of  comparatively 
weak  vocal  organs.  No  teacher  can  make  a  big 
voice  out  of  a  little  one.  Nevertheless  it  is  un- 
deniable that  the  lungs  can  be  developed  by  the 
practice  of  deep  breathing  exercises,  and  the  dia- 
phragm and  other  expulsive  muscles  developed 
by  systematic  use.  So,  too,  the  vocal  cords  and 
the  muscles  and  ligaments  of  the  larynx  can  be 
made  stronger  by  training,  but  the  limit  of  de- 
velopment is  not  large.  The  principal  efforts  of 
wise  teachers,  therefore,  are  directed  to  giving 
their  pupils  a  firm,  round,  pure  tone,  which  will 
carry  well  without  undue  tax  upon  the  sound- 
producing  apparatus.  Tlie  correct  placing  ,of 
tone  includes  several  elements,  of  which  the  gen- 
eral management  of  the  breath  is  the  most  im- 
portant. Second  only  to  that  is  the  proper  em- 
ployment of  the  resonating  chambers. 

Every  tone  ought  to  sound  to  the  hearer  as  if 
it  were  sung  a  little  behind  the  teeth  of  the 
singer.  Of  course  it  is  not  sung  there,  nor  would 
good  results  be  achieved  throu^  trying  mentally 
to  locate  the  sound  there.  But  by  keeping  the 
tongue  depressed,  by  allowing  a  part  of  the  air- 
blast  free  passage  through  the  nasal  chambers, 
and  by  bringing  the  main  body  of  it  to  bear  upon 
the  roof  of  the  mouth  at  the  proper  point,  tones 
may  be  made  to  sound  as  if  formed  well  forward 
and  may  be  actually  projected  into  the  audi- 
torium more  sonorously  than  when  improperly 
made.  The  requirement  of  good  tone  are  that  it 
shall  be  pure,  that  is,  that  all  the  breath  must 
be  turned  into  tone  and  none  allowed  to  escape 
in  a  hissing  sound ;  that  it  shall  be  clear,  that  is, 
shall  never  sound  as  if  there  were  some  obstacle 
in  the  singer's  mouth;  and  that  it  shall  be  free, 
that  is,  not  muffled  or  squeezed  down  in  the 
throat.  A  correct  'attack'  is  the  most  important 
essential  of  good  tone  production.  The  breath 
must  strike  the  vocal  cords  at  precisely  the  in- 
stant when  they  form  the  tone,  neither  before 
nor  after.  Weak  voices  are  made  stronger  and 
good  voices  better  by  the  mastery  of  the  art  of 
tone  formation. 

To  this  must  be  added  the  requisites  of  ex- 
pression. These  are  a  perfect  legato,  command 
of  the  messa  di  voce,  perfect  vocalization  of  tbe 
vowels  and  perfect  articulation  of  the  conso- 
nants. Legato  means  'bound,'  and  in  singing  it  is 
the  passage  of  the  voice  smoothly  and  connectedly 
from  one  note  to  the  next  in  succession.  With- 
out a  command  of  the  legato  no  fiowing  melody 
can  be  sung  properly.  Variety  is  sometimes 
added  to  a  melody  by  the  use  of  the  portamento, 
which   is   a   sliding  or   carrying  of  the  voice 


SINOINO. 


888 


SINaUS  TAX 


through  the  infinitesimal  d^p-ees  of  pitch  lying 
between  two  notes.  This  is  opposed  to  the  legato 
and  is  often  so  much  abused  as  to  preclude  all 
possibility  of  singing  in  tune.  The  legato  is  the 
foundation  of  all  good  vocal  style,  and  it  was  in 
this  that  the  famous  singers  of  the  eighteenth 
century  surpassed  all  their  successors.  The  messa 
di  voce  is  the  swelling  of  a  tone  from  a  pianissimo 
to  its  full  power  and  then  diminishing  it  again  to 
the  starting  point.  This  is  accomplished  entire- 
ly by  control  of  the  breath,  though  some  mistaken 
singers  try  to  reach  the  result  by  straining  the 
muscles  of  their  throats.  The  messa  di  voce  is 
of  the  greatest  importance  in  expression,  as  it 
enables  the  singer  to  vitalize  his  song  with 
minute  dynamic  gradations  of  tone,  similar  to 
those  employed  in  speech. 

The  vowels  present  many  difficulties  to  the 
singer,  as  the  position  of  the  throat  and  tongue 
in  sounding  some  of  them,  especially  at  full 
voice,  is  inimical  to  good  tone  production.  Much 
study  is  necessary  to  learn  how  to  give  the  effect 
of  the  vowel  sounds  to  an  audience  while  preserv- 
ing the  essentials  of  good  tone.  The  articulation 
of  the  consonants,  which  is  greatly  neglected  by 
English  singers,  and  greatly  exaggerated  by  the 
Wagnerian  school  of  German  declaimers,  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  intelligible  delivery  of  the 
text.  The  problem  to  be  solved  is  how  to  enunci- 
ate clearly  consonants  which  naturally  cut  off 
the  flow  of  vowel  sounds,  on  which  alone  tones 
can  be  made,  and  yet  not  interrupt  the  fluency  of 
a  pure  legato  style.  The  problem  is  solved  by 
•  learning  how  to  separate  tne  articulative  appa- 
ratus from  the  sound-producing  mechanism  and 
to  operate  the  two  independently  without  letting 
them  disturb  each  other.  This,  like  all  the  rest 
of  singing,  requires  long  and  patient  self-study 
under  the  guidance  of  a  skillea  teacher. 

Bibliography.  Mackenzie,  Hygiene  of  the 
Vocal  Organs  (London,  1888)  ;  Bach,  The  Prin- 
ciples of  Singing  (London,  1897)  ;  Botume,  Mod- 
em Singing  Methods,  Their  Use  and  Abuse  (4th 
ed.,  Boston,  1896)  ;  Garcia,  Ecole  de  Garcia^ 
Traits  complet  de  Part  du  chant  en  deuw  parties 
(Dth  ed.,  Paris,  1893)  ;  Jadassohn,  Practical 
Course  of  Ear  Training  (trans,  from  the  German, 
Leipzig,  1899) ;  Lavignac,  L*6ducation  musicale 
(Paris,  1902)  ;  Marchesi,  Ten  Singing  Lesions 
(New  York,  1901) ;  Rockstro,  Jenny  Lind,  A  Rec- 
ord and  Analysis  of  the  Method  of  (London, 
1894) ;  Shakespeare,  The  Art  of  Singing  (ib., 
1899)  ;  Taylor,  How  to  Sing  at  Sight  from  the 
Staff  (ib.,  1897) ;  Panseron,  The  A  B  C  of  Music, 
or  Easy  Solfeggi  with  Exercises  hy  Concone 
(trans,  from  the  French,  New  York,  1865)  ;  Fer- 
rari, A  Concise  Treatise  on  Italian  Singing  (Lon- 
don, 1818).  The  exercises  of  Concone,  for  the 
various  voices,  are  probably  the  most  practicable 
for  the  student. 

SnroiNa  beaches.    See  Musical  Sand. 

SINQING  FISH.     See  Sapo. 

SINGLE  TAX.  A  tax  designed  to  meet  all  or 
the  principal  needs  of  government,  levied  upon  a 
single  object  of  taxation.  The  single  tax  on  the 
rent  of  land  was  introduced  into  general  economic 
discussion  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury by  the  Physiocrats  (q.v.),  and  was  popular- 
ized by  Henry  George  (q.v.),  particularly  in  his 
Progress  and  Poverty  (1879)  and  his  speeches  in 
the  New  York  Mayoralty  campaigns  of  1886  and 
1897>    George  advp(^ted  the  abolition  of  all  taxes 


upon  industry  and  the  products  of  industry,  and 
the  taking,  by  taxation  upon  land  values,  irrespec- 
tive of  improvements,  of  the  annual  rental  value 
of  all  those  various  forms  of  natural  opportuni- 
ties embraced  under  the  general  term  land. 

Three  classes  of  arguments  are  adduced  in  sup- 
port of  the  appropriation  by  the  State  of  eco- 
nomic rent.  ( 1)  The  ethical  argument  rests  upon  the 
theory  of  natural  rights.  Man,  it  is  asserted, 
has  an  absolute,  inalienable  right  to  life,  to 
equality  of  opportunity,  and  to  private  property. 
By  virtue  of  the  right  to  live  he  may  claim  ac- 
cess to  those  natural  opportunities — ^land — which 
are  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  life.  This 
is  an  individual  right.  But  land  differs  in  fer- 
tility and  value.  By  virtue  of  the  right  of 
equality,  then,  men  have  a  joint  claim  to  the  dif- 
ference between  the  annual  values  of  the  worst 
and  the  better  lands  in  cultivation;  this  differ- 
ential value  is  economic  rent  and  it  belongs  to 
the  community.  Finally,  man  has  an  absolute 
and  inalienable  right  to  the  property  created  by 
his  own  exertions,  and  this  property  cannot  be 
rightfully  taken  from  him  for  any  cause  whatso- 
ever. As  the  private  appropriation  of  land  was 
and  is  wrong,  Crcorge  held  that  neither  the  ac- 
tion of  the  State  nor  the  passage  of  time  could 
justify  it,  and  that  in  consequence  no  compensa- 
tion could  be  claimed  by  existing  landholders 
for  the  appropriation  of  land  values.  Single  tax- 
ers  of  course  made  frequent  use  of  the  familiar 
argument  that  economic  rent  is  created  by  the 
community,  not  by  the  labor  of  the  individual 
owner,  and  that  in  conseauence  it  cannot  in  jus- 
tice be  appropriated  by  the  owner. 

(2)  The  second  general  argument  rests  upon 
the  economic  theory  of  distribution.  With  some 
modifications  George  followed  the  Ricardlan  the- 
ory of  economic  progress.  ( See  Ricardo,  under  Po- 
litical £cx>N0MY.)  With  the  increase  of  popula- 
tion, George  held,  mankind  is  forced  to  resort  to 
poorer  and  poorer  lands  in  order  to  produce  the 
necessaiy  food  supply.  But  as  the  margin  of 
cultivation  is  thus  forced  down,  economic  rent — 
which  is  the  difference  between  the  productivity 
of  the  worst  and  the  better  lands  in  cultivation — 
increases,  and  wages  decrease,  because  wages  in 
general  are  fixed  by  the  income  which  can  be 
earned  by  the  occupiers  and  tillers  of  the  free 
land  which  pays  no  rent.  The  share  of  capital 
in  the  product  of  industry,  George  also  main- 
tained, would  follow  the  same  course  as  wages, 
capital  being  in  all  essential  respects  simply 
labor  impressed  or  congealed  into  matter.  Wage? 
and  interest,  therefore,  rise  and  fall  together, 
varying  inversely  as  rent.  Not  only  does  rent 
increase  with  the  increase  in  population,  but 
every  invention  involves  a  further  demand  upon 
the  soil  for  raw  produce,  and  thus  increases 
rent.  Everything  that  lowers  interest  de- 
presses wages  and  exalts  rent;  every  new  in- 
crement of  capital,  being  a  demand  for  land, 
has  the  same  effect;  the  accession  of  every 
new  laborer  acts  similarly;  time  that  increases 
the  population,  science  that  stimulates  invention, 
fru^lity  that  multiplies  capital,  in  short  mate- 
rial Progress  itself,  under  the  regime  of  the  pri- 
vate ownership  of  land,  is  synonymous  with 
Poverty.  Hence  the  title  of  George's  principal 
work. 

(3)  The  third  class  Grcorge  designated  as  the 
arguments  from  expediency.  Some  of  the  most 
important  may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows : 


snraiiB  tax 


884 


SnTGLE  TAX 


First,  the  appropriation  of  economic  rent  'wt>ald 
yield  sufficient  revenue  to  defray  all  the  legiti- 
mate expenditures  of  government.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  abolition  of  all  other  taxes  would  dis- 
pose of  a  large  army  of  tax  gatherers,  make  the 
government  simpler,  and  hence  purer  and  less  ex- 
pensive. Secondly,  it  would  enormously  increase 
the  productivity  of  wealth  by  removing  the  taxes 
upon  capital,  production,  and  consumption  which 
now  repress  or  discourage  industry,  and  by  forc- 
ing into  use  and  cultivation  the  lands  now  held 
idle  for  speculative  purposes.  There  could  be  no 
speculative  holding  of  land  for  a  rise  in  value  if 
this  value,  when  it  accrued,  would  be  appro- 
priated by  the  State.  Finally,  the  tax  on  rent 
could  not  be  shifted,  while  it  would  preserve  pri- 
vate property  in  everything  except  land  and  pre- 
vent socialism  or  the  public  management  and 
operation  of  land.  It  is  important  to  note  that 
single  taxers  in  the  United  States  are  in  general 
vigorously  opposed  both  to  socialism  and  land 
nationalization. 

Economists  have  opposed  with  practical 
unanimity  the  extreme  theory  upon  which  the 
single  tax  reform  is  based,  involving,  as  is  ad- 
mitted, the  confiscation  of  economic  rent  without 
compensation,  and  the  dual  proposition  that  the 
failure  to  appropriate  all  land  values,  and 
any  taxation  of  other  values,  are  both  species 
of  robbery.  Some  of  the  objections  most  fre- 
quently urged  against  the  single  tax  may  be 
summarized  as  follows :  ( 1 )  That  land  is  similar 
to  all  other  forms  of  wealth  in  respect  to  the 
fact  that  it  consists  of  indestructible  matter 
adapted  by  human  exertions  to  satisfy  human 
wants,  and  that  in  consequence  George's  distinc- 
tion between  property  in  land  and  other  forms  of 
property  is  invalid.  Moreover,  as  many  econo- 
mists have  pointed  out,  a  very  large  proportion 
of  rent  consists  merely  of  a  fair  average  return 
to  capital  and  labor  which  have  been  expended 
upon  the  land.  (2)  That  private  property  in 
land  is  permitted  and  encouraged  because  it  con- 
duces to  the  greatest  good  of  the  greatest  number, 
and  supplies  a  fund  of  wealth  from  which  the 
State  can  easily  derive  all  necessary  revenues 
by  the  ordinary  methods  of  taxation;  that,  act- 
ing in  this  belief,  we,  as  a  people,  have  encouraged 
innocent  parties  to  invest  in  lands,  or  to  settle 
the  public  domain,  clear  it,  till  it,  and  by  their 
labor  and  residence  invest  it  with  a  value;  that 
under  such  circumstances  arbitrarily  to  con- 
fiscate the  values  so  created  would  be  funda- 
mentally inexpedient  and  intolerably  imjust.  (3) 
That  the  single  tax  would  be  inelastic,  yielding 
too  much  revenue  in  some  districts  and  too  lit- 
tle in  others,  a  dangerous  surplus  in  times  of 
peace,  perhaps,  and  an  equally  dangerous  deficit 
in  times  of  war  and  public  emergency.  (4)  That 
the  error  of  George's  theory  of  distribution  is 
shown  by  the  facts,  inter  alia,  that  in  many 
communities  during  the  last  fifty  years  rentis 
have  fallen,  not  risen,  while  in  the  same  period 
wages  have  risen  with  practical  universality. 
(6)  That  the  single  tax  would  prevent  the  utili- 
zation of  the  taxing  power  for  sumptuary  purposes 
(e.g.  taxation  of  intoxicating  liquors),  for  the 
protection  of  home  industry,  and  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  present  distribution  of  wealth 
(e.g.  a  progressive  income  tax).  (6)  That  it  is 
difficult,  theoretically,  to  determine  the  value 
of  land  irrespective  of  the  improvements  upon  it, 
that  in  practice  the  assessment  of  land  is  no- 


toriously inexact^  and  that  the  single  tax  would 
intensify  the  injustice  from  this  unequal  aflsess- 
ment.  (7)  Finally,  it  is  denied  that  the  single 
tax  would  appreciably  facilitate  the  accessibility 
to  the  soil,  help  the  farmer,  reduce  overcrowding 
in  cities,  for  the  reasons  among  others  that  the 
tenant  class  would  be  in  no  beUer  position  than 
at  present,  merely  paying  rent  to  the  State  in- 
stead of  the  private  landlord,  while  the  large 
number  of  small  landowners  would  not  cmly  be 
expropriated,  but  would  in  the  future  have  to 
pay  large  rentals  to  the  State. 

While  economists  have  with  practical  unanim- 
ity rejected  the  proposition  to  tax  all  economic 
rent  and  abolish  all  other  taxes,  a  large  number 
have  advocated  measures  looking  to  the  gradual 
appropriation  by  the  State,  either  of  all  the  fu- 
ture unearned  increment  of  land,  or  of  a  larger 
share  of  this  future  unearned  increment  than  is 
taken  at  the  present  time  in  taxes.  This  idea 
has  met  with  particular  favor  in  regard  to  urban 
land.     John  Stuart  Mill  advocate  the  appro- 

Eriation  of  the  future  unearned  increment  of 
md.  Prof.  Adolph  Wagner,  the  distinguished 
German  economist,  advocates  private  ownership 
of  agricultural  land,  but  favors  public  owner- 
ship of  urban  land,  which  would,  of  course,  bring 
into  the  public  treasury  all  future  increment  in 
land  values.  The  exemption  of  improvements  for 
a  period  of  years,  especially  buildings,  has  met 
with  favor,  and,  indeed,  has  been  adopted  in 
many  European  countries.  This,  so  far  as  it 
goes,  is  in  harmony  with  the  idea  of  the  single 
tax. 

The  siujgle  tax  movement  is  world-wide  and 
probably  is  stronger  than  ever  before,  although 
its  character  has  entirely  changed  since  the  first 
Mayoralty  campaign  of  Henry  (jjeoree  in  1886. 
The  old  popular  and  political  methodis  of  agita- 
tion have  been  abandoned,  the  nuclei  of  agita- 
tion at  present  being  clubs  and  single  individuals 
prominent  in  politics,  journalism,  and  business, 
such  as  T.  G.  Shearman  of  Brooklyn,  Tom  L. 
Johnson,  Mayor  of  Cleveland,  and  Governor  Gar- 
vin of  Rhode  Island.  The  latter  two  are  the  most 
conspicuous  examples  of  politically  suooessful 
single  taxers. 

In  the  United  States  the  single  taxers  act  al- 
most altogether  with  the  Democratic  Party,  to 
which  they  are  particularly  drawn,  inasmuch  as 
the  Democratic  Farty  is  the  party  of  tariff  re- 
form, and  the  single  taxers,  in  accordance  with 
their  fundamental  idea,  are  in  favor  of  absolute 
free  trade,  regarding  it  as  contrary  to  natural 
right  to  levy  a  tax  on  imports;  on  account  of 
this  fusion  it  is  difficult  to  determine  just  how 
much  progress  the  movement  has  made  in  the 
United  States.  In  England  the  sinele  taxers  are 
adherents  of  the  Liberal  Party  and  endeavor  to 
force  it  to  espouse  their  views.  They  hold  office 
in  many  English  cities  and  make  the  claim  that 
their  adherents  control  the  city  of  Glasgow.  The 
single  tax  movement  is  less  prominent  on  the 
Continent  of  Europe  than  in  English-speakiiig 
coimtries,  and  can  scarcely  be  said  there  to  have 
gained  a  foothold. 

The  single  taxers  are  now  endeavoring  to  se- 
cure, first,  a  separation  in  the  assessments  of 
property,  of  land  values,  and  the  value  of  im- 
provements on  land,  and  second,  what  they  call 
home  rule  in  taxation,  or  the  authorization  of 
local  political  units  to  place  a  tax  upon  UbuI 


snraiiB  tax 


886 


snrjiBix 


▼alues  and  to  free  personal  property  from  taza- 
tion,  in  case  they  desire  to  do  so. 

BmuoGBAPHT.  George,  Progress  and  Poverty 
(New  York,  1879);  id..  Social  Problem  (ib., 
1896) ;  id..  The  Land  Queeiion  (London,  1883) ; 
Shearman,  Natural  Tawation  (New  York,  1895) ; 
Seligman,  Essays  in  Tarnation  (3d  ed.,  ib.,  1900) ; 
Walker,  Political  Economy  (ib.,  1883);  Spahr, 
Political  Science  Quarterly,  itol.  vi..  No.  4;  Pro- 
ceedings of  American  Social  Science  Association 
(1890).  Periodicals:  The  Single  Taw  Review 
(New  York  City);  Land  Values  (Glasgow); 
The  PuhUc  (Chicago). 

BINC^HOS,  sing'fdz.  A  people  of  Northern 
Burma  of  doubtful  racial  affinities.  Certain 
authorities  group  them  with  the  Burmese,  while 
others  class  them  as  one  of  the  divisions  of  the 
8hans. 

SIHO  SING.  The  former  name  of  Ossining 
(q.v.). 

8INQ8ING  (African  name).  An  antelope 
{Cohus  defassa)  of  Western  and  Central  Africa, 
which  differs  from  the  waterbuck  (q.v.)  in  its 
smaller  size,  the  fineness  and  softness  of  its  hair, 
a  continuous  whitish  patch  on  the  buttocks,  but 
none  on  the  throat.  See  authorities  cited  imder 
AinxLDPB;  and  Plate  of  Antelopes. 

SEHGHSUPIBL,  ^Ing^shpSl  (Gter.,  song-play).  A 
term  designating  a  kind  of  operatic  production 
in  great  favor  during  the  latter  half  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century.  The  singspiel  differed  from  the 
regular  opera  of  that  time  in  the  introduction  of 
modem  cnaracters,  and  in  the  style  of  its  music, 
which  was  a  conscious  imitation  of  the  style  of 
the  (German  folk-songs.  The  father  of  the  sing- 
spiel  was  Johann  Adam  Hiller  (q.v.),  who  wrote 
simple  airs,  imitated  from  the  style  of  folk- 
songs, for  his  bourgeois  types,  and  reserved  his 
arias  for  persons  of  rank.  The  principal  com- 
posers of  sin^piele  were  Hiller,  Neefe,  Reichardt, 
Schweitzer,  Dittersdorf,  Eauer,  Weigl,  Schenk, 
and  Haydn  (Der  hrumme  Teufel), 

SIHOTTLABIT1E8.    See  Cxtbvb. 

STNIQAaiJA,  se'n6-gftay&.  A  dty  of  Italy. 
See  SEinoALLiA. 

SI^HIIC  A  hind  mentioned  in  Isaiah  zliz.  12. 
From  the  connection  it  is  evident  that  a  country 
in  the  Far  North  or  East  is  intended;  conse- 
quently the  Phoenician  Sinim  (Crenesis  z.  17) 
cannot  be  considered.  The  oldest  Greek  version 
rendered  'the  land  of  the  Persians;'  Aquila,  Theo- 
dotion,  and  Symmachus  transliterated  the  He- 
brew as  Sinein,  the  Syriac  as  Senyam.  Jerome 
and  the  Aramaic  Targum  translated  'the  South 
Land.'  Arias  Montanus  was  the  first  to  sug- 
gest China,  and  has  had  many  followers.  But 
it  has  been  shown,  jwrticularlv  by  Terrien  de 
Lacouperie,  that  this  is  impossible.  As  the  ter- 
ritories of  Tsin  and  Thien  on  the  Hoang-ho  in 
the  north  cannot  have  been  intended,  the  name 
Tsin  for  China  can  only  be  the  designation  de- 
rived from  the  Tsin  dynasty,  which  came  upon  the 
throne  in  b.c.  255.  This  was  indeed  rendered 
£fm  by  Ptolemy  (vii.  3),  but  Syrians  and  Arabs 
always  transcribe  it  as  Ztn,  and  that  would  have 
been  the  probable  pronimciation  among  the  He- 
brews. As  this  passage  may  have  been  written 
as  early  as  b.o.  540,  the  Chinese  Tsin  cannot  have 
been  meant.  Nor  is  Shina  at  the  foot  of  Hindu* ' 
kush,  proposed  by  De  lAcouperie,  more  probable. 


Saadia  thought  of  Sin  (Pelusium  in  Egypt)  and 
he  has  been  followed  by  Bochart  and  Ewald. 
Dillmann  thought  of  the  wilderness  of  Sin  (Ex. 
zvi,  1)  and  the  moimtain  of  Sinai.  J.  D. 
Michaelis  and  Doederlein  first  proposed  and 
Klostermann,  Cheyne,  Duhm,  and  Marti  have 
adopted  the  explanation  of  'the  land  of  Sinim'  as 
Southern  Egypt  from  Syene  (Assuan,  q.v.). 
Cheyne  rea(b  Sewanim.  That  there  were  dis- 
persed Jews  in  the  region  in  b.€.  540  is,  however, 
difficult  to  prove.  "Die  Greek  version  suggests 
that  the  text  originally  had  a  name  for  Persia 
or  Media.  A  later  copyist  may  have  thought  of 
Genesis  z.  17.  Consult:  Terrien  de  Lacouperie, 
Babylonian  and  Oriental  Record  (London,  1886) ; 
and  the  commentaries  on  Isaiah  by  Dillmann 
(Leipzig,  1890),  Duhm  (GU)ttingen,  1892),  Mar- 
ti (Tttbingen  1900),  and  Cheyne  (New  York, 
1898). 

BTXrmC.  A  term  used  by  certain  ethnologists 
to  designate  the  group  of  peoples  made  up  of  the 
Chinese  proper,  the  Tibetans,  and  the  Indo-Chi- 
nese, all  of  whose  languages  have  peculiar  fea- 
tures and  such  affinities  that  they  all  point  to  one 
ancestral  stock. 

SINJIBLI,  sln'jlr-le^.  The  name  of  a  Kurdish 
villa^  in  North  Syria  imder  Mount  Amanus, 
40  miles  northeast  of  Alezandretta.  The  hill  or 
tell  on  which  the  village  lies  is  one  of  several 
hundreds  in  that  region  which  scholars  have 
recognized  as  marking  the  sites  of  ancient  cities. 
In  1883  Dr.  von  Luschan  pointed  out  the  eligi- 
bility of  this  site  for  ezcavation,  and  when  in 
1888  the  Germans  formed  their  Orient-OeselU 
sohaft,  Sinjirli  was  selected  for  the  first  opera- 
tions. In  the  same  summer  an  ezpedition  was 
sent  out,  followed  by  a  second  in  1890  and  by  a 
third  in  1890-91,  all  of  which  were  imder  the 
direction  of  Von  Luschan  ezcept  that  Dr.  Hu- 
mann  acted  as  director  in  the  beginning  of  the 
first  campaign.  Among  other  scholars  participat- 
ing were  Euting  and  Koldewey.  The  ezcava- 
tions  imcovered  the  remains  of  an  ancient  city, 
which  was  surroimded  by  two  walls,  while  the 
inner  acropolis  was  defended  by  two  or  three 
lines  of  fortification.  The  massive  character  of 
these  structures,  especially  of  the  gates  and  of 
the  sculptures,  showed  that  the  ezpedition  was 
making  the  first  ezcavation  of  a  city  originally 
Hittite,  although  almost  nothing  in  the  way  of 
inscriptions  was  found  here.  (See  Hiitites.) 
A  more  recent  part  of  the  city  was  also  discovered 
which  is  evidently  Aramaic  in  character.  The  first 
important  find  in  the  way  of  inscriptions  was  a 
monolith  of  Esarhaddon,  King  of  Assyria,  one 
of  the  largest  known,  remarkable  for  its  rich 
sculpture  and  for  details  of  religious  value,  con- 
taining an  inscription  of  fifty-nine  lines  in  which 
the  monarch  celebrates  the  triumph  of  his  second 
campaign  against  Egypt,  about  b.o.  670.  Ara- 
maic inscriptions  were  found  which  are  of  great 
value  for  the  additions  they  make  to  our  knowl- 
edge of  Syrian  politics  and  civilization.  The 
earliest  of  these  is  the  Hadad  inscription  found 
in  a  neighboring  village.  This  is  written  on  a 
cylinder  of  dolerite  of  original  height  of  4 
meters  and  of  2.5  meters  circumference,  sur^ 
mounted  by  the  bust  of  the  Syrian  god  Hadad. 
On  the  lower  part  is  an  inscription  of  thirty-four 
lines,  the  characters  of  which  are  almost  identi- 
cal with  those  of  the  Moabite  Stone;  in  it  a 
certain  Panammu,  King  of  Ja'di,  celebrates  his 


8IKJIBLL 

god.  It  is  the  oldest  Aramaic  inscription  we 
possess,  being  in  a  dialect  approaching  the 
Canaanitiflh  languages,  and  may  be  dated  about 
B.C.  800.  Another  similar  monument,  now  a 
torso,  contains  in  a  field  of  1X1.5  meters  an 
Aramaic  inscription  of  twenty-three  lines,  in 
which  a  king  of  Sham'al  records  the  history  of 
his  father^  Panammu  (different  from  the  one 
above  mentioned,  but  probably  of  the  same  dy- 
nasty). This  and  some  smaller  inscriptions  refer 
to  the  suzerainty  of  Tiglathpileser  III.  (b.c.  745- 
727),  whose  own.  monuments  also  speak  of 
8hafn*al,  so  that  we  are  able  to  date  the  monu- 
ment— a  connection  of  immense  value  to  epig- 
raphy and  philology — and  also  to  locate  the  an- 
cient State  of  Sham'al,  whose  political  and  social 
conditions  are  interestingly  described  on  this 
stone.  Consult:  Ausgrabungen  in  Sendschirli, 
in  the  Mittheilungen  of  the  Berlin  Museum; 
Craig,  in  the  Academy,  1893,  p.  441 ;  D.  H.  Mttl- 
ler,  in  the  Contemporary  Review,  April,  1894; 
Lidzbarski,  Nordsemitiacke  Epigraphik  (Weimar, 
1898). 

8IKKIHO  FUKD.  See  Debt,  Pubuc; 
Finance. 

SINOraTT,  Altbed  Pebcy  (1840-).  An 
English  journalist  and  theosophist,  bom  in  Lon- 
don. He  was  educated  at  the  London  University 
School.  In  1859  he  became  assistant  sub-editor 
of  the  Olohe  and  subsequently  leader-writer  on 
other  London  newspapers.  In  1865  he  went  out 
to  Hong  Konff  as  editor  of  the  Daily  Press.  Re- 
turning to  England  in  1868,  he  served  on  th9 
staff  of  the  Standard  till  1872,  when  he  became 
editor  of  the  Pioneer  of  Allahabad  in  India.  In 
1879  he  joined  the  Theosophical  Society  of  Lon- 
don, of  which  he  afterwards  became  president. 
His  occult  works  have  had  extensive  circulation. 
They  include:  The  Occult  World  (1881);  Eso- 
teric Buddhism  (1883)  ;  Life  of  Madame  Blavat- 
sky  (1886);  The  Growth  of  the  Soul  (1896); 
and  two  occult  romances,  Karma  (1885)  and 
United  (1886).  He  made  contributions  to  the 
published  transactions  of  the  London  Lodge  of 
the  Theosophical  Society. 

SINCVFE.  An  ancient  city  of  Asia  Minor. 
See  SiNUB. 

8INTRAM  (zWiTtm)  AND  HIS  COM- 
PANIONS. A  German  romance  by  Fouqu6, 
published  in  1814  as  the  fourth  part  of  the 
Jahreszeiten,  of  which  Undine  formed  the  first. 

SINTJB,  s6-n55b'.  A  town  in  the  Vilayet  of 
Kastamuni,  Asiatic  Turkey,  on  the  southern 
shore  of  the  Black  Sea,  185  miles  northeast  of 
Angora  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  F  1).  It  is  de- 
fended by  half -ruined  fortifications,  but  its  dock- 
yard and  naval  arsenal  have  been  closed.  The 
Hay  of  Sinub  affords  the  finest  anchorage  for 
ships  along  the  northern  coast  of  Asiatic  Turkey. 
The  town  exports  timber,  dried  fruits,  skins,  and 
silk.  Population,  in  1901,  9749.  The  ancient 
city  of  Si  nope  was  founded  by  a  colony  of 
Milesian  Greeks  in  the  eighth  century  B.C.  For 
two  hundred  years  after  the  Peloponnesian 
War  it  was  almost  the  mistress  of  the  Euxine. 
Of  its  former  splendor  there  remain  only  the 
'Castle  of  Mithridates'  and  a  few  Roman  sub- 
structures. The  Bay  of  Sinub  wan  the  scene  of  a 
naval  engagement,  November  30,  1853,  in  which  a  . 
Turkish  squadron  was  destroyed  by  the  Russian 
fleet. 


8I0TJAN  STOCK. 

SINUS  (Lat.,  bend,  hollow).  The  eella  or 
cavities  contained  in  certain  bones,  as  the  frontal, 
ethmoid,  sphenoid,  and  superior  maxillaiy,  are 
called  sinuses.  The  frontal  sinuses  are  two  ir- 
regular cavities  extending  upward  and  outward, 
from  their  openings  on  each  side  of  the  nasal 
spine,  between  the  inner  and  outer  layers  of  the 
skull,  and  separated  from  one  another  by  a  thin 
bony  septum.  They  give  rise  to  the  prominences 
above  the  root  of  the  nose  called  the  nasal  emi- 
nences. They  are  not  developed  till  after  pn- 
berty,  and  vary  considerably  in  size,  being  usn- 
ally  larger  in  men  than  in  women  and  young 
persons,  in  consequence  of  the  greater  promi- 
nence of  the  superciliary  ridges  in  the  former. 
They  communicate  on  each  side  with  the  upper 
part  of  the  nostril  by  a  funnel-shaped  opening, 
which  transmits  a  prolongation  of  mucous  mem- 
brane to  line  their  interior.  The  sphenoidal  sinus- 
es are  two  large  irregular  cavities,  formed,  after 
the  period  of  childhood,  in  the  body  of  the  sphe- 
noid bone.  They  communicate  with  the  upper 
part  of  the  nose,  from  which  they  reoeive  a 
layer  of  mucous  membrane.  Like  the  frontal 
sinuses,  they  serve  to  lessen  the  weight  of  the 
skull  and  to  add  to  the  resonance  of  the  voice. 
The  ethmoid  sinuses  or  cells  lie  in  the  lateral 
masses  of  the  ethmoid  bone.  Th^  open  into  the 
cavities  of  the  nose.  The  superior  maxillary 
sinus,  commonly  known  as  the  cmtrum  of  High- 
more  (after  the  anatomist  who  first  accurately 
described  it ) ,  is  the  largest  of  the  facial  sinuses. 
Its  uses  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  others,  and, 
like  them,  it  communicates  with  the  nasal  cari- 
ties.  The  sinuses  of  the  dura  mater  are  quite 
distinct  from  the  above  described  bony  sinuses; 
they  are  irregular  channels  for  the  transmission 
of  venous  blood.  In  surgery  the  term  sinus 
is  nearly  equivalent  to  fistula  (q.v.). 

SION,  s^'dN'  (Ger.  Sitten).  The  capital  of 
the  Canton  of  Valais,  Switzerland,  situated  on 
the  Sionne,  which  flows  through  the  town  in  an 
artificial  channel,  not  far  from  its  junction  with 
the  Rhone  and  17  miles  east  of  Saint-Maurice 
(Map:  Switzerland,  B  2).  It  is  a  little  town 
of  remarkable  picturesqueness,  with  the  ruins  of 
the  thirteenth-century  Castle  of  Tourbillon  on 
the  north  and  the  Castle  of  Valeria,  the  former 
residence  of  the  canons,  on  the  south.  The  town 
proper  contains  the  fifteenth-century  cathedral, 
the  thirteenth-century  Church  of  Saint  Catharine, 
and  the  Gothic  town  hall.  Population,  in  1900, 
6095. 

SIOTJAN  (s?R^an)  STOCK.  One  of  the  most 
widely  extended  and  important  linguistic  groups 
of  North  America,  occupying  within  the  recent 
historic  period  the  greater  portion  of  the  Plains 
area,  but  in  earlier  times  holding  also  the  coast 
and  midland  region  of  Virginia  and  the  Caro- 
linas,  with  outlying  tribes  upon  the  Gulf  coast. 
The  universal  tradition  of  the  various  tribes  of 
the  stock,  as  well  as  of  their  Algonquian  neigh- 
bors, with  historical  and  more  particularly  lin- 
guistic evidence,  establishes  the  fact  that  their 
original  home  was  east  of  the  AUeghanies  in  the 
South  Atlantic  region.  When  or  why  the  first 
emigrants  crossed  over  the  mountains  into  the 
central  region  of  the  Ohio  Vallev  is  not  known. 
It  was  probably  brought  about  by  the  pressure 
of  Iroquoian  tribes  from  the  north  and  of  Husk- 
hogean  tribes  from  the  west.  It  was  not  so  remote 
but  that  the  Osage,  Quapaw,  Omaha,  Mandan,  and 


SIOtJAN  STOCK. 


887 


SlOtJZ. 


Sioux  have  clear  traditions  of  former  residence 
upon  the  Ohio,  followed  by  a  westward  move- 
ment down  that  stream  and  then  down  the  Mis- 
sissippi or  up  the  Missouri  to  their  later  habita- 
tions. The  Ohio  itself  was  known  among  the 
neighboring  Algonquian  tribes  as  the  river  of 
the  Quapaw,  although  when  first  known  to  his- 
tory the  Quapaw  were  already  established  upon 
the  Arkansas.  The  tribal  names  Quapaw  and 
Omaha,  in  their  original  form,  denote  respectively 
the  people  who  went  down  or  up  stream  from 
the  separation  point  near  the  entrance  of  the 
Missouri.  The  Winnebago  and  Sioux  apparently 
moved  northwest  across  Illinois,  the  former  fix- 
ing themselves  about  the  lake  of  their  name  in 
southern  Wisconsin,  while  the  Sioux  continued 
on  toward  the  head  of  the  Mississippi  until  com- 
pelled to  turn  westward  by  the  pressure  of  the 
Ojibwa  advancing  from  the  direction  of  Mack- 
inaw. The  expulsion  of  the  Sioux  from  northern 
Wisconsin  and  the  head  of  the  Mississippi  by 
the  Ojibwa  and  their  consequent  emergence  upon 
the  plains  and  occupation  of  the  Upper  Missouri 
and  the  Black  Hills  are  all  within  the  historic 
period.  Several  tribes  continued  in  their  ancient 
seats,  where  they  were  known  to  the  early  col- 
onists under  the  names  of  Monacan,  Manaahoac, 
Saponi,  Tutelo,  Occaneechi,  Catawba,  Biloxi,  and 
BO  on.  All  of  these,  excepting  a  mere  handful  of 
Catawba  and  three  or  four  families  of  Biloxi, 
have  become  extinct  within  the  historic  period, 
chieffy  from  the  relentless  hostility  of  the  Iro- 
quois supplemented  by  dissipation  and  disease 
due  to  contact  with  civilization. 

The  Siouan  tribes  in  1903  numbered  a  little 
more  than  40,000,  including  about  1850  Sioux 
and  Assiniboin  in  the  Northwest  Territories  of 
Canada.  Of  the  entire  number  more  than  24,000 
belong  to  the  Sioux  nation. 

SIOTJZy  tiSS,  or  Dakota.  One  of  the  most 
important  Indian  tribes  north  of  Mexico,  being 
the  largest  in  the  United  States  with  the  pos- 
sible exception  of  the  Ojibwa.  Their  popular 
name  is  supposed  to  be  an  abbreviation  from 
Nadatffeaiwug  (corrupted  by  the  French  to  ^cuto- 
ouesioux),  'little  snakes/  i.e.  'enemies/  their 
ancient  name  among  the  Ojibwa,  as  distinguished 
from  the  Nadowe  or  Iroquois,  the  'snakes*  proper. 
They  are  now  more  usually  called  Bwinag, 
'enemies/  by  the  Ojibwa,  whence  Aaini-huanag, 
'Stone  Sioux*  of  Assiniboin.  The  Sioux  call  them- 
selves Lakota,  tJakota,  or  Dakota,  according  to 
the  respective  dialect,  the  word  meaning  'allies.' 

According  to  concurrent  linguistic,  traditional, 
and  historical  evidence  the  Sioux,  with  all  the 
cognate  tribes  of  the  Siouan  stock  (q.v.),  origi- 
nally lived  east  of  the  Alleghanies.  When  first 
known  to  the  French  in  1632  they  had  their  prin- 
cipal seats  in  northwestern  Wisconsin  and  eastern 
Minnesota,  about  the  west  end  of  Lake  Superior 
and  the  heads  of  the  Mississippi.  The  Assiniboin 
were  already  a  distinct  tribe  farther  to  the  north- 
west, by  secession  from  the  Yankton  division. 
From  this  position  the  Sioux  were  driven  by  the 
Ojibwa  advancing  from  the  east,  the  latter  being 
aided  by  the  French,  and  gradually  moved  out 
into  the  plains,  crossing  the  Missouri  and  taking 
possession  of  the  Black  Hills  and  the  Platte 
r€^on  after  driving  out  the  previous  occupants, 
the  Crows,  Cheyenne,  and  Kiowa.  In  this  migra- 
tion they  lost  the  agricultural  habit,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Santee  bands  remaining  behind 


in  Minnesota,  and  became  an  equestrian  nation  of 
buffalo  hunters.  In  1815  the  eastern  bands  made 
their  first  treaties  of  friendship  with  the  Govern- 
ment after  having  sided  with  the  English  in  the 
War  of  1812.  By  the  general  treaty  made  at 
Prairie  du  Chien  in  1825  an  end  was  made  to 
the  hereditary  war  between  the  Sioux  and  the 
Ojibwa  by  the  adjustment  of  tribal  boundaries, 
and  the  Sioux  were  confirmed  in  possession  of  an 
immense  territory  stretching  from  the  east  bank 
of  the  Mississippi  almost  to  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains and  from  about  Devil's  Lake  southward  to 
about  the  present  Sioux  City,  including  nearly 
half  of  Minnesota,  two-thirds  of  the  Dakotas,  and 
large  portions  of  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  Missouri,  and 
Wyoming.  The  headwaters  of  the  Mississippi 
were  left  to  the  Ojibwa  by  right  of  former  con- 
quest and  existing  occupancy.  In  1835  missions 
were  established  among  the  eastern  (Santee) 
bands  by  the  American  Board,  which  started 
schools  and  printed  books  in  the  language.  In 
1837  the  Sioux  sold  all  their  claims  east  of  the 
Mississippi.  In  1851  they  sold  the  greater  part  of 
Minnesota,  but  dissatisfaction  at  the  delay  of 
the  Grovernment  in  fulfilling  the  terms  of  the 
treaty  led  to  a  massacre  of  settlers  at  Spirit 
Lake  on  the  Minnesota-Iowa  border  in  1857,  fol- 
lowed a  few  years  later  by  a  second  rising  inau- 
gurated by  the  terrible  '^iinnesota  Massacre'  in 
1862,  in  which  nearly  1000  settlers  lost  their 
lives.  The  outbreak  was  put  down  by  General 
Sibley,  who  crushed  the  Indians  and  hung  39  of 
the  leaders  from  the  same  scaffold.  The  result 
was  the  expulsion  of  the  Sioux  from  Minnesota. 
From  this  time  until  1868  the  western  bands, 
together  with  the  Cheyenne,  Kiowa,  and  other 
plains  tribes  and  under  the  leadership  of  Red 
Cloud  and  other  noted  chiefs,  were  almost  con- 
stantly at  war  with  the  whites.  A  principal 
event  of  this  was  the  massacre  of  Fetterman's 
entire  command  of  about  100  men  near  Fort 
Kearney,  Neb.,  in  1866.  In  1868  a  treaty  of 
peace  was  made  which  remained  unbroken  until 
the  invasion  of  the  Black  Hills  by  the  miners, 
consequent  upon  the  discovery  of  gold,  led  to 
another  war  in  1876-77,  the  principal  event  of 
which  was  the  massacre  of  General  Custer's 
entire  command  of  nearly  300  regular  troops, 
June  25,  1876.  (See  Custeb,  Geobge  Arm- 
strong.) Sitting  Bull  (q.v.),  the  leader  of  the 
irreconcilables,  escaped  to  Canada  with  several 
thousand  followers,  but  returned  in  1881  on 
promise  of  amnesty.  After  being  held  two  years 
as  a  prisoner  of  war.  Sitting  Bull  again  took  up 
his  residence  at  Standing  Rock  Agency,  where 
he  remained  until  his  death.  In  1889  another 
treaty  was  made  by  which  the  'Great  Sioux  Res- 
ervation,' embracing  all  of  South  Dalcota  west  of 
the  Missouri,  was  reduced  by  about  one-half  and 
the  remainder  cut  up  into  five  distinct  smaller 
reservations.  The  opposition  of  a  powerfur  mi- 
nority to  this  sale,  coupled  with  dissatisfaction 
at  treaty  grievances  and  the  excitement  aroused 
by  the  reported  advent  of  an  Indian  messiah  in 
the  West,  led  to  another  outbreak  in  the  winter 
of  1800-91.  Leading  events  \pere  the  killing  of 
Sitting  Bull,  December  15,  1890,  and  the 
Wounded  Knee  Massacre,  December  29,  1890,  by 
which  about  300  Indians  lost  their  lives.  The 
outbreak  was  soon  afterwards  successfully 
brought  to  a  close  by  General  Miles. 

The  Sioux  have  seven  principal  divisions^  vis. 


8I017X. 


888 


SZFHOir. 


Mde-ioakantomoan,  'spirit  lake  village'  (Mde- 
'wakanton) ;  Waqpekut4,  'leaf  shooters;'  Waqpe^ 
tantoan,  'leaf  village'  (Wahpeton) ;  Sisitonioan, 
'swamp  villaee'  (Sisseton) ;  IhankianuDan,  'end 
village'  (YaiULton) ;  Ihanktonwanna,  'upper  end 
village'  (Yanktonais) ;  Titonwan,  'prairie  vil- 
lage' (Teton).  The  first  four  are  known  col- 
lectively as  laafiaii  or  Santee.  The  Yankton  and 
Yanktonais  resided  in  that  part  of  Dakota  east 
of  the  Missouri.  The  Teton,  constituting  two- 
thirds  of  the  whole  nation,  lived  west  of  the 
Missouri  upon  the  buffalo  plains.  The  Teton 
are  further  subdivided  into  Oqalala  (at  Pine 
Ridge),  Brule  (at  Rosebud  and  Lower  Brul6 
agencies),  Hunkpapa  (at  Standing  Rock 
Agency),  Two  Kettle,  Sans  Arc,  Miniconjou,  etc. 
There  are  three  principal  dialects,  Teton,  Yank- 
ton, and  Santee,  distinguished  chiefly  by  differ- 
ences in  the  use  of  I,  n,  and  d,  as  exemplified  in 
the  various  forms  of  the  tribal  name.  ( See  above. ) 
The  languages  have  been  much  cultivated,  an 
alphabet  having  been  adapted  to  it  by  the  mis- 
sionaries, so  that  it  now  has  a  consiaerable  lit- 
erature, including  two  small  newspapers,  while 
nearly  all  the  men  can  read  and  write  it.  It  is 
vocalic,  euphonious,  but  strongly  nasal. 

The  sedentary  and  agricultural  eastern  (San- 
tee) Sioux  were  commonly  rated  as  inferior  to 
their  western  brethren,  who  were  typical  nomad 
warriors  and  hiuiters,  the  lords  of  the  plains,  be- 
fore whom  no  other  tribe  could  stand.  Their 
great  number  and  conscious  strength  bred  a 
brave  and  haughty  manliness  which  still  remains 
with  them.  They  lived  almost  exclusively  by 
the  buffalo,  following  with  their  skin  tipis  wher- 
ever the  herds  migrated.  Beyond  what  the  buf- 
falo gave  them  of  food,  clothing,  and  shelter 
they  had  only  their  horses,  dogs,  and  weapons, 
nor  cared  for  more.  Their  greatest  ceremony 
was  the  annual  sun  dance  (q.v.),  held  under  the 
direction  of  the  warrior  societies,  and  usually 
accompanied  by  voluntary  self-torture.  The 
eastern  Sioux  have  been  civilised  and  Christian- 
iced  for  a  generation.  The  western  bands  are 
only  now  beginning  to  accept  the  white  man's 
road,  but  their  high  character  and  intelligence 
bid  fair  to  bring  them  rapidly  to  the  front.  As 
usual,  however,  the  yearly  census  shows  a  de- 
crease, largely  from  tuberculosis.  The  whole 
number  of  the  Sioux  is  now  somewhat  over 
24,000,  distributed  as  follows:  Canada  (refugees 
from  United  States),  600;  Minnesota,  930;  Mon- 
tina  (Fort  Peck  Agency),  1180;  Nebraska  (San- 
t^  Agency),  1310;  North  Dakota  (Devil's  Lake 
and  Standing  Rock  agencies),  4630;  South 
Dakota  (C!heyenne  River,  Crow  Creek,  Lower 
Brule,  Rosebud,  and  Pine  Ridge  agencies), 
15,480.  See  Colored  Plate  of  American  In- 
dians, under  Indians. 

8I0TTX  (s555)  CITY.  The  county  seat  of 
Woodbury  County,  Iowa,  156  miles  northwest  of 
Des  Moines ;  on  the  Missouri  River,  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Big  Sioux  and  the  Floyd  (Map:  Iowa, 
A  2).  Among  the  railroads  that  enter  the  city 
are  the  CJhicago,  Milwaukee  and  Saint  Paul,  the 
Chicago  and  Northwestern,  the  Chicago,  Saint 
Paul,  Minneapolis  and  Omaha,  the  Illinois  Cen- 
tral, the  Great  Northern,  and  the  Union  Pacific. 
It  is  the  seat  of  Momin^ide  College  (Methodist 
Episcopal),  opened  in  1890,  and  of  the  Sioux 
City  College  of  Medicine.  The  public  library  con- 
tains nearly  15,000  volumes.  The  high  school 
building.   Saint  Joseph's   Mercy  Hospital,  and 


the  German  Lutheran  and  the  Samaritan  hospi- 
tals are  other  prominent  features.  The  most 
noteworthy  of  the  city  parks  is  the  Floy4  Memo- 
rial, 20  acres  in  area,  along  the  river  front 
Sioux  City  is  situated  in  an  extensive  Corn- 
growing  and  stock-raising  region.  In  the  census 
year  1900  capital  to  the  amount  of  $5,691,644  was 
invested  in  the  various  industries,  which  had  an 
output  valued  at  $15,469,702.  There  are  flour- 
ing and  grist  mills,  foundries,  machine  shops, 
meat-packing  establishments^  saddlery  and  har- 
ness manufactories,  and  a  brewery.  Cudahy, 
Armour,  and  Swift  have  large  packing  plants 
here,  and  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  Saint  Paul 
and  the  Chicago,  Saint  Paul,  Minneapolis  and 
Omaha  railways  have  extensive  machine  and  re- 
pair shops.  The  city  spends  annually  for  main- 
tenance and  operation  about  $361,000,  the  prin- 
cipal items  being:  schools,  $123,000;  streets,  $42- 
000;  fire  department,  $30,000;  interest  on  debt, 
$24,000;  water-works,  $24,000;  municipal  light- 
ing, $17,000.  The  water-works  are  owned  by  the 
municipality.  Settled  as  a  trading  station  in 
1849,  Sioux  City  was  laid  out  in  1854  and  was 
chartered  as  a  city  in  1857.  During  its  early 
years  it  was  an  important  military  post,  and  was 
the  place  where  the  various  Black  Hills  expedi- 
tions were  fitted  out.  Population,  in  1890,  37,- 
806;  in  1900,  33,111. 

SIOTJZ  FALLS.  The  county  seat  of  Minne- 
haha County,  S.  D.,  90  miles  north  of  Sioux  City, 
Iowa;  on  the  Big  Sioux  River,  here  spanned  by 
four  bridges,  and  on  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and 
Saint  Paul,  the  Great  Northern,  the  Illinois  Cen- 
tral, the  (jhicago,  Saint  Paul,  Minneapolis  and 
Omaha,  and  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  and  Pacific 
railroads  (Map:  South  Dakota,  J  6).  It  has 
the  Sioux  Falls  College  (Baptist),  a  Lutheran 
Normal  School,  All  Saints  School,  and  the  State 
School  for  Deaf  Mutes.  Other  prominent  fea- 
tures are  the  State  and  Federal  Penitentiary,  Chil- 
dren's Home,  the  United  States  Government 
building,  the  court-house,  and  the  public  library. 
Sioux  Falls  is  surrounded  by  a  section  engaged 
in  farming  and  cattle-raising,  but  is  chiefly  im- 
portant as  the  centre  of  extensive  stone-quarry- 
ing and  manufacturing  interests.  There  are 
boiler  and  sheet  iron  works,  a  flouring  mill,  bot- 
tling establishments,  and  carriage  and  broom 
manufactories.  The  government  is  vested  in  a 
mayor,  chosen  biennially,  and  a  unicameral  eoun- 
cil.  Settled  in  1867,  Sioux  Falls  was  incor- 
porated as  a  village  in  1877,  and  was  chartered 
as  a  city  in  1883.  Population,  in  1890,  10,177; 
in  1900,  10,266. 

SIPHOir  (Lat.  9ipho,  from  Gk.  irf^r,  «tpAdfi, 
pipe,  tube;  perhaps  connected  with  Lat.  tibia, 
pipe,  shin-bone).  A  tube 
in  the  form  of  a  U  and 
used  in  an  inverted  posi- 
tion to  remove  a  liquid 
from  one  vessel  to  an- 
other. One  arm  of  the 
tube.  A,  is  placed  in  the 
liquid,  while  the  other,  B, 
which  must  extend  below 
th<»  level  of  the  liquid, 
is  outside  and  forms  the 
outlet.  If  now  the  air 
is  exhausted  from  the  tube,  the  liquid  will  rise 
from  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  and  will 


8IPH0K. 


880 


8IBBK. 


fill  the  tube  and  flow  through  the  lower  end.  In 
this  way  it  is  possible  to  draw  off  the  contents 
of  caskSy  tauikSy  and  other  receptacles  with  great 
facility,  unless  the  bend  of  the  tube  is  more  than 
33  feet  above  the  surface  of  water  or  a  liquid 
of  equal  density,  or  30  inches  in  the  case  of  mer- 
cury, in  which  case  the  atmospheric  pressure  is 
not  sufficient  to  support  a  column  of  liquid  of 
such  height.  The  reason  can  readily  be  seen, 
since  a  column  of  water  33  feet  in  height  weighs 
as  much  as  a  column  of  atmosphere  of  equal 
cross-section,  and  consequently  the  effective  pres- 
sure would  be  downward  instead  of  up,  that  of 
the  liquid  being  greater  than  that  of  tne  atmos- 
phere. The  lower  the  outside  tube  below  the 
surface  of  the  liquid  the  more  rapid  will  be  the 
flow,  which  will  continue  until  the  level  of  the 
liquid  either  sinks  below  that  of  the  outlet  or 
air  finds  its  way  into  the  tube.  Often  a  pump 
is  connected  with  the  siphon  to  remove  the  air,  or 
in  the  case  of  a  small  tube  such  as  would  be 
used  with  a  cask  the  suction  of  the  mouth  may 
prove  sufficient. 

BITHONOFH^ORA  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pL,  from 
6k.  fft^po^ipot,  9iph6noplu>ro8f  carrying  tubes, 
from  al^pf  9iph^,  P^P^y  tube  +  4>4ptiPy  pherevn, 
to  carry).  An  order  of  the  coelenterate  class 
Hydroaoa.  They  are  the  so-called  compound  hy- 
droids,  living  in  free-swimming  colonies,  consist- 
ing of  polymorphic  individuals,  or  'zooids' — that 
is,  organs  with  a  strongly  marked  individuality, 
but  all  more  or  less  dependent  on  one  another 
and  originating  from  a  common  coenosarcal  tube. 
In  Physalia  there  are  four  kinds  of  zooids — i.e. 
(1)  locomotive,  and  (2)  reproductive,  with  (3) 
barren  medusa  buds  (in  which  the  proboscis  is 
wanting),  which,  by  their  contractions  and  dila- 
tations, impel  the  free-swimming  animal  through 
the  water;  in  addition,  there  are  (4)  the  feeders, 
a  set  of  digestive  tubes  which  nourish  the  entire 
colony.  Ae  upper  end  of  the  coenosarcal  tube 
is  usually  closed  by  a  float,  very  large  in  Phy- 
salia. This  float  is  filled  with  air,  acts  as  a  hy- 
drostatic apparatus,  and  enables  the  colony  to 
maintain  a  vertical  position  in  the  water.  See 
PoBTUGXTESS  Han-of-Wab;  also  Colored  Plate  of 
Medusa  and  Siphonophoba. 

SHUDABYA,  sAr'dar'yft.  A  river  and  terri- 
tory of  Russian  Turkestan.    See  Stb-Dabta. 

8IBEN  (Lat.  siren,  from  6k.  o'ccpi^y,  8eir^, 
siren;  probably  connected  with  ffvpey^^  ayrinw, 
pipe,  Skt,  8vary  to  sound;  hardly  akin  to  6k. 
^eipd,  seira,  cord).  In  6reek  legend,  one  of  sev- 
eral sea-maidens  with  voices  of  such  sweetness 
that  all  who  heard  were  drawn  to  them,  only  to 
meet  death,  so  that  the  shores  of  their  lovely 
island  were  covered  with  bones  and  corpses.  In 
the  Odyssey  Circe  gives  Ulysses  advice  by  which 
alone  the  hero  passes  in  safety.  He  stopped  the 
ears  of  his  companions  with  wax,  that  they  might 
not  be  turned  from  their  rowing,  while  he  caused 
himself  to  be  firmly  bound  to  the  mast  so  that  he 
might  hear  the  songs  without  danger.  They  also 
figure  in  the  voyase  of  the  Argonauts,  who  only 
escaped  because  of  the  superior  charms  of  the 
song  of  Orpheus.  Later  legend  represented  that, 
once  successfully  resisted,  they  were  doomed.  An- 
other l^end  connected  them  with  the  rape  of 
Persephone.  Here  they  were  said  to  have  grieved 
excessively  at  the  loss  of  their  friend  and  sought 
for  her  over  land  and  sea.    In  this  aspect  they 


are  common  on  tombstones,  apparently  as  mourn- 
ers, often  with  disheveled  hair.  They  are  repre- 
sented in  art  at  first  as  birds,  with  female  heads, 
but  more  and  more  the  human  element  predomi- 
nates, until  there  is  little  of  the  bird  left  but  the 
wings  and  legs.  The  type  seems  connected  with 
the  representations  of  the  souls  of  the  dead  in 
the  form  of  birds.  Consult  Weicker,  Der  Seelen- 
vogel  in  der  alien  Liiteratur  und  Kunst  (Leipzig, 
1903). 

8IBEN.  An  instrument  for  the  production  of 
musical  sounds  in  such  a  manner  as  to  enable 
us  to  determine  the  number  of  vibrations  which 
produce  a  given  sound,  or,  in  other  words,  the 
pitch.  In  the  simplest  form  of  siren  there  is  a 
revolving  disk  which  is  pierced  with  a  series  of 
holes  arranged  in  a  circle  whose  centre  is  the 
centre  of  the  disk.  If  air  forced  through  a  tube 
from  a  bellows  or  other  source  of  pressure  strikes 
the  disk  at  a  point  which  is  passed  by  the  holes 
in  their  revolution,  a  series  of  sounds  will  be 
produced  by  the  successive  puff  of  air  escaping 
through  these  openings.  While  the  disk  revolves 
slowly,  the  ear  distinguishes  these  successive 
puffs;  but  when  the  revolutions  are  more  nu- 
merous than  about  ten  per  second,  the  successive 
puffs  cannot  be  distinguished,  and  the  recurrent 
sounds  are  merged  into  a  uniform  -note,  whose 
pitch  rises  (i.e.  it  becomes  more  and  more  shrill) 
the  faster  the  disk  revolves.  Such  an  instru- 
ment works  well  when  driven  by  water  instead  of 
air.  What  it  shows  is  that  musical  soimds  con- 
sist of  the  repetition,  at  equal  and  very  small 
intervals  of  time,  of  some  definite  noise.  By 
turning  the  vane  by  means  of  a  train  of  wheels, 
so  as  to  give  it  a  definite  rate  of  rotation,  the 
number  of  such  repetitions  per  second  necessary 
for  the  production  of  a  given  musical  note  may 
be  measured. 

The  siren  invented  by  Cagniard  de  la  Tour  in 
1810  is  better  adapted  for  such  a  purpose,  as  it 
registers  the  number  of  revolutions  per  second. 
In  principle  it  is  identical  with  the  simpler  in- 
strument just  described;  but  the  details  of  its 
construction  are  different.  It  consists  essen- 
tially of  two  circular  disks,  the  upper  of  which 


MiliiliJl! 


OBOBs  ncnoir  of  smiir. 

is  free  to  revolve  upon  the  lower,  being  pivoted  at 
A  and  5.  In  each  a  series  of  holes  is  cut,  ar- 
ranged at  equal  distances  in  a  circle  about  its 
axis.  Through  the  holes  in  the  lower  (fixed) 
plate,  streams  of  air  are  admitted  from  a  reser- 
voir, B,  connected  with  a  bellows,  and  pass 
through  the  corresponding  holes  in  the  upper 
(movable)    plate,  when  uie  pair  of  holes  are 


8IBXK, 


890 


SI8XIK. 


superpoMd;  but  are  checked  when  the  upper 
plate  is  turned  a  little,  readmitted  when  the  plate 
turns  a  little  farther,  and  so  on.  The  holes 
are  pierced  obliquely  through  the  upper  plate,  so 
that  the  issuing  stream  makes  it  turn  about  its 
axis.  The  sounds  given  by  this  instrument  are 
exceedingly  pure  (see  Acoustics),  like  those  of 
the  flute  or  tuning  fork.  The  axis  of  the  upper 
plate  carries  an  endless  screw,  S,  which  turns  a 
light  train  of  wheels,  G  and  H,  with  hands  and 
dials  resembling  those  of  a  gas  meter,  so  that 
when,  by  proper  adjustment  of  the  pressure  of 
the  bellows,  the  instrument  gives  steieuiily  some 
definite  note,  corresponding  with  that  of  an 
organ  pipe  or  tuning  fork  whose  pitch  we  desire 
to  asceitain,  we  may  observe  the  number  of 
turns  in  any  number  of  seconds  by  a  stop-watch. 
The  number  of  puffs  is  obviously  to  be  found 
from  this  by  multipljing  the  number  of  holes  in 
the  plate. 

A  large  instrument  operated  by  steam  is  used 
as  a  fog  signal,  while  mpre  complex  forms,  such 
as  Helmholtz's  double  siren,  have  been  devised 
for  investigations  in  the  more  advanced  fields  of 
acoustics.  Consult:  Tyndall,  Sound;  Muller- 
Pouillet,  Lehrhuch  der  Physik  (Brunswick, 
1897);  Helmholtz,  Tonetnpfindungen,  English 
translation  by  Ellis  (London  and  New  York, 
1896).    See  Acoustics  ;  Foo-SiONALs. 

SIBEH.  An  eel-like  batrachian  of  the  de- 
graded family  Sirenidse.    See  Mud-Puppy. 

8IBEKIA  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Lat.  9%ren, 
siren).  An  order  of  large  aquatic  herbivorous 
mammals,  of  doubtful  afSnity,  including  the  sea- 
cows,  manatees,  and  dugongs  (qq.v.).  The  early 
fossil  members  of  this  group,  found  in  the  Eocene 
deposits,  differ  from  the  modern  forms  in  show- 
ing a  slightly  less  marked  degeneration  from  the 
normal  mammalian  type.  They  have  more  primi- 
tive dentition  and  better  developed  hind  limbs. 
Their  origin  is  unknown,  for  they  appeared  sud- 
denly with  their  peculiar  characters  fully  evolved 
in  the  Eocene.  The  principal  fossil  genera  are 
Prorastomus  and  Halitherium. 

8IBIA8I8.    See  Heat-Stboke. 

SmniS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Xelfuo^^  Beirios; 
probably  connected  with  Skt,  tvi^^  to  excite, 
sparkle,  flame,  Lith.  tvisketi,  to  lighten).  A 
star  of  the  first  magnitude,  the  brightest  in  the 
heavens,  and  situated  in  the  constellation  Cania 
Major  (q.v.),  or  the  *great  dog.'  For  this  reason 
it  is  also  called  the  dog-star.  It  has  long  been 
known  to  possess  a  'proper  motion'  (i.e.  an  inde- 
pendent progressive  motion),  which  was  once  be- 
lieved to  be  uniform,  but  has  been  shown  to  con- 
sist of  an  undulatory  progressive  motion.  As 
soon  as  this  became  Known,  astronomers  recog- 
nised that  it  could  be  due  to  one  cause  only: 
Sirius  must  have  a  companion  star,  and  the  revo- 
lution .  of  both  about  their  common  centre  of 
gravity  would  place  Sirius  alternately  in  advance 
of  its  average  position  and  again  behind  it.  Saf- 
ford  (q.v.)  was  able  to  predict  the  position  of 
such  a  companion,  supposing  it  to  be  too  minute 
to  be  seen ;  and  it  was  actually  discovered  in  the 
predicted  place,  in  January,  1862,  by  Alvan 
Clark,  of  Cambridgeport,  Mass.,  while  observing 
Sirius  through  a  new  and  powerful  telescope 
which  he  had  junt  made. 

The  Egyptians  called  Sirius  'Sothis,'  and  at  one 
time  its  lieliacal  rising  (q.v.)  was  a  sure  fore- 


runner of  the  rising  of  the  Nile;  while  among  the 
Romans  it  was  considered  as  a  star  of  evil  omen. 
The  term  'dog-star'  was  also  applied  to  Procyon, 
a  bright  double  star  in  Cania  Minor^  the  souill 
companion  of  which  was  found  by  SGiiad>erle  at 
the  Lick  Observatory  in  1896.  See  Stax  for 
discussion  of  parallax  and  distance  from  the 
earth. 

SIB  JOHN  OLDCASTLE.  A  play  by  Dray- 
ton, Munday,  Wilson,  and  Hathaway,  printed  in 
1600  with  Shakespeare's  name  on  tj^e  title-page, 
afterwards  withdrawn.  It  is  founded  on  the 
story  of  Lord  Cobham,  whose  name  was  first 
used  by  Shakespeare  for  Sir  John  Falstaff. 

SIB  LAXTHCEIiOT  (]An^se-l6t)  QBEAVEB, 
The  Aoventubes  of.  A  romance  by  Smollett 
(1761)  in  imitation  of  Don  Quiitote.  The  scene 
is  the  England  of  (George  II.,  and  Sancho  Panza'a 
place  is  supplied  by  an  old  sea  captain. 

SIBOCTO  (It.,  from  Ar.  aharq,  east,  from 
aharaqa,  to  rise  [of  the  sun] ) .  A  hot  wind.  In 
the  desert  of  Sahara  the  sirocco  is  a  hot,  dry 
wind  with  clouds  of  dust,  not  so  violent  as  a 
simoom  (q.v.).  Along  the  northern  border  of 
the  Mediterranean  two  classes  of  warm  winds 
are  called  the  sirocco— the  warm,  moist,  sultry 
wind  followed  by  rain,  and  the  hot  dry  wind  from 
the  south  that  frequently  brings  a  dusty  haze. 

SIB  BOGEB  DE  COVEBLEY.  See  Covis- 
LKT,  Sir  Roger  de. 

SIBVENTES,  or  Sibvente.  A  name  applied 
to  a  class  of  poems  important  in  Provencal  lit- 
erature, usually,  in  contradistinction  from  the 
love-songs,  dealing  with  contemporary  social  or 
political  conditions,  and  frequently  of  a  satiric 
nature.    See  Provencal  Litebatube. 

SISAL.  A  fibre  obtained  from  an  American 
agave,  which  is  cultivated  in  tropical  America. 
See  Hemp,  Sisal. 

SISCO.    A  whitefish.    See  Cisoo. 

SISCOWET.  A  salmon  {Salmo  sisoowet)  of 
the  deeper  waters  of  Lake  Superior,  where  it  is 
numerous.  It  differs  so  little  from  the  land- 
locked salmon  of  other  northern  lakes,  called 
namaycush  in  Oanada,  that  some  ichthyologists 
regard  it  as  a  mere  variety  of  that  widespread 
form. 

SISENOIA,  Lucius  Ck>RNELn78  (c.l  19-67 
B.C.).  A  Roman  annalist,  considered  by  Cicero 
superior  as  an  historian  to  any  of  his  predeces- 
sors. (Brut.  64,  288.)  He  was  praetor  in  the 
year  of  Sulla's  death  (b.c.  78),  and  during  thp 
war  against  the  pirates  (b.c.  67)  was  appointed 
by  Pompey  commander  of  the  army  at  Crete.  He 
is  mentioned,  also,  as  a  friend  and  defender  of 
Verres  (Cficero,  Verr,,  ii.  45,  100).  Sisenna'-^ 
works  included  his  Hiatoriof,  in  more  than  12 
books,  which  embraced  the  history  of  his  own 
time,  and  a  Latin  translation  of  the  Mi- 
lesian tales  {UtXtfataxA)  of  Aristides.  The 
commentaries  on  Plautus  which  were  fonnerlj 
ascribed  to  Sisenna  were  probably  written  by 
another  person  of  the  same  name.  The  few  ex- 
tant fragments  of  the  HiatoruB  are  published  in 
Peter's  Historicorum  Romanorum  Frafftnenta 
(Leipzig,  1883).  Consult  Schneider,  De  Siaennas 
HiatoruB  Reliquiia  (Jena,  1882). 

SISKIN  (from  Slovenian  chizhek,  Russ.  ekiz- 
h^,  siskin;  connected  with  OPers.  agilix,  siskin). 
A  small  finch  of  the  Old  World  (SpinuBapinua), 


SISKIN. 


891 


SISTINE  CHAFXL. 


allied  to  the  goldfinch,  4%  inches  long  and  green- 
ish-gray, yellow,  and  black.  It  is  found  in  the 
temperate  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  is  often 
kept  and  bred  in  cages,  and  called  by  dealers 
'aberdevine.'  The  'siskin'  of  America  is  the  pine- 
finch  (q.v.). 

8ISLEY,  8«'sU^  Alfbeo  ( 1830-99) .  A  French 
painter,  bom  of  English  parentage,  in  Paris.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Gleyre,  but  was  little  known  until 
after  the  first  Impressionist  exhibition  of  1874. 
His  early  work  was  influenced  by  Corot;  but 
this  influence  was  afterwards  modified  by  the 
color  theories  of  the  Impressionists,  particularly 
as  practiced  by  Monet.  His  subjects  are  confined 
entirely  to  landscape,  and  generally  to  calm 
country  scenes.  He  was  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able landscape  painters  of  his  day,  and  one  whose 
bold,  honest,  and  withal  poetic  view  was  com- 
bined with  high  qualities  as  a  colorist,  and  un- 
common facility  in  rendering  the  luminous  qual- 
ity of  atmosphere.  His  numerous  works  include : 
"L'Inondation,  Marly"  (1876);  "L'Inondation, 
Bercy"  (1876);  "Le  Pont  de  Moret-sur-Loing;" 
and  "La  Seine  ft  Saint  Mammas."  There  are  sev- 
eral studies  by  him  in  the  Luxembourg. 

BISMONO)!^  Fr.  pron,  ste'm^N'dfe',  Jean 
Charles  L^onabd  Simonde  de  (1773-1842). 
A  French  historian  and  economist.  He  was 
born  at  Geneva.  The  French  Revolution 
forced  the  Sismondi  family  to  leave  Geneva 
and  take  refuge  in  England.  In  1795,  how- 
ever, they  went  to  Italy  and  bought  a  small 
farm  near  Pescia,  in  Tuscany,  where  their 
narrow  circumstances  rendered  it  necessary  for 
Sismondi  to  engage  in  farm  work  for  several 
years.  In  1798  he  began  to  collect  materials  for 
a  history  of  the  Italian  republics.  In  1803  ap- 
peared a  work  on  political  economy,  De  la 
.  richesse  commerciale,  in  which  he  appears  as  a 
follower  of  Adam  Smith,  though  at  a  later  period, 
in  his  Nouveauw  principes  d'6conomie  politique 
(2  vols.,  1819),  he  abandoned  the  views  ad- 
vanced in  his  earlier  work  and  opposed  the  ideas 
of  the  English  economists.  It  was  in  history, 
however,  that  his  best  work  was  done.  The  Eia- 
ioire  dea  r^puhliques  iialiennea  (16  vols.,  1807-18) 
placed  him  in  the  first  rank  among  contemporary 
historians,  and  brought  him  praise  from  the  most 
distinguished  men  in  France  and  Germany.  In 
1813  appeared  his  Litt4raiiire  du  mtdi  de 
VEurope,  which  has  been  translated  into  English 
and  frequently  reprinted.  In  1819  he  began  his 
best  and  greatest  work,  the  Histoire  dea  Frangaia 
(31  vols.,  1821-44),  of  which  he  published  an 
abstract  later:  Pri^cia  de  Vhiaioire  dea  Fra/n^aia 
(2  vols.,  1839).  Besides  the  works  mentioned 
above,  Sismondi  wrote  Hiatoire  de  la  renaiaaance 
de  la  liberty  en  Italie  (2  vols.,  1832)  and  Hia- 
toire de  la  chute  de  Vempire  romain  (2  vols., 
1835). 

SISTEB  DOBA.    See  Pattison,  Dobotht. 

SISTEBHOODS.  Communities  of  women  in 
the  Koman  Catholic  and  Anglican  churches,  or- 
ganized for  religious  and  charitable  purposes. 
The  origin  and  growth  of  the  principle  which 
gave  rise  to  these  organizations  has  been  de- 
scribed under  Monasticism.  The  earlier  com- 
munities for  women  were  nearly  always  out- 
growths of  an  earlier  institute  for  men,  after 
which  their  or&ranization  was  closely  modeled; 
these  'second  Orders'  for  women  exist,  for  ex- 
Tou.  XT.— (57. 


ample,  under  the  rules  of  the  Benedictine^  Cis- 
tercian, Dominican,  and  Franciscan  Orders.  They 
were,  until  the  seventeenth  century,  nearly  al- 
ways inclosed  or  cloistered  communities. 

With  the  development  of  modern  society 
and  the  increase  of  security  for  the  weak,  their 
field  of  activity  was  much  widened,  and  they 
began  to  take  energetic  part  in  active  charitable 
work  among  the  poor,  the  sick,  and  the  ignorant. 
Taking  new  foundations,  of  those  established  in 
the  sixteenth  century  13  were  active  and  10  con- 
templative, but  in  the  seventeenth  54  active  and 
only  12  contemplative  Orders  were  organized. 

The  more  important  Roman  Catholic  sister- 
hoods will  be  found  treated  under  their  own 
titles.  About  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury a  strong  movement  developed  among  non- 
Catholics,  both  in  England  and  Germany,  for 
the  organization  of  women's  work  in  the  same 
fields.  In  the  latter  country  it  developed  chiefly 
a  class  known  as  deaconesses  (q.v.)  ;  but  in  Eng- 
land the  movement,  coinciding  with  the  Trac- 
tarian  revival  of  the  older  doctrine  and  customs, 
had  assumed  a  forpi  practically  identical  with 
that  already  described.  After  one  or  two  tenta- 
tive efforts  in  London  (1845)  and  Oxford  (1847), 
the  thing  took  definite  root  with  the  foundation 
of  the  community  at  Devonport  in  1848  by  Miss 
Lydia  Sellon,  under  the  advice  of  Dr.  Pusey.  Its 
members,  known  as  Sisters  of  Mercy,  were  bound 
by  no  vows  except  one  of  obedience  to  the  su- 
perior while  they  remained  connected  with  it. 
Three  years  earlier  Dr.  Muhlenberg  had  estab- 
lished the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Communion  in 
New  York.  These  had  no  fixed  costume,  were  re- 
quired to  be  between  25  and  40  years  old,  and 
to  enter  with  the  consent  of  parents  and  guar- 
dians, and  might  leave  at  their  own  pleasure. 
This  community  was  placed  in  charge  of  Saint 
Luke's  Hospital,  which  Dr.  Muhlenberg  founded. 
Since  that  date  numerous  organizations  of  the 
kind  have  grown  up  both  in  England  and  Amer- 
ica, and  have  proved  useful  auxiliaries  to  the 
clergy  in  their  work  among  the  poor  and  de- 
graded. The  later  ones  usually  follow  the  model 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  sisterhoods,  have  the  same 
ideals  of  life,  and  follow  the  same  practices,  in- 
cluding the  daily  recitation  of  offices  at  the 
canonical  hours.  In  1903,  besides  some  com- 
munities of  deaconesses,  there  were  21  organiza- 
tions of  this  kind  in  the  United  States.  At  this 
date  there  were  118  Roman  Catholic  sisterhoods 
laboring  in  the  same  country,  many  of  them 
having  numerous  houses  in  different  sections. 
Consult:  Littledale,  Papera  on  Siaterhooda  (Lon- 
don, 1874-78)  ;  Goodman,  Siaterhooda  in  the 
Church  of  England  (ib.,  1863) ;  Potter,  Siater- 
hooda and  Deaconeaaea  (New  York,  1873)  ;  and, 
for  the  growth  of  the  Roman  Catholic  communi- 
ties, the  bibliography  under  Monasticism. 

SISTINE  CHAPEL.  The  private  chapel  of 
the  Pope  in  the  Vatican.  It  was  built  for 
Sixtus  rV.,  in  1473,  by  the  Florentine  archi- 
tect Giovanni  de*  Dolci.  The  apartment  is  133 
feet  long  and  45  feet  wide,  and  is  somewhat 
higher  than  its  width.  It  is  lighted  by  six  win- 
dows on  each  side  and  three  in  the  rear.  The 
screen  separating  the  congregation  from  the  rear 
of  the  chapel  reserved  for  the  Pope  and  cardi- 
nals is  one  of  the  best  pieces  of  marble  decora- 
tion of  the  early  Renaissance,  and  the  tribune 
of  the  singers  is  equally  good.    The  floor  is  dec- 


8I8TINS  CHAPEL. 


892 


8IT0PH0BIA. 


orated  with  beautiful  mosaics  in  imitation  of 
early  Christian  work.  The  walls  and  ceiling  are 
without  adornment  excepting  the  frescoes,  which 
form  the  chief  attraction  of  the  chapel.  The 
walls  are  a  museum  of  the  works  of  the  best 
Tuscan  and  Umbrian  painters  of  the  later  fif- 
teenth century,  and  they  contain  works  by  Botti- 
celli, Roselli,  Ghirlandajo,  Signorelli,  Perugino, 
and  Pinturicchio.  (See  these  titles.)  On  the 
left  wall  are  incidents  from  the  ''History  of 
Moses,"  while  on  the  right  are  six  corresponding 
scenes  from  the  "Life  of  Christ."  Under  these 
formerly  hung,  on  great  occasions,  the  famous 
tapestries  of  Raphael  (q.v.).  On  the  ceiling  are 
the  wonderful  frescoes  of  Michelangelo,  represent- 
ing the  "Creation,"  the  "History  of  Noah,"  and 
other  biblical  scenes,  together  with  the  celebrated 
"Prophets"  and  "Sibyls"— one  of  the  greatest 
creations  of  modem  art.  The  entire  al&r  wall 
is  covered  by  his  rather  mannered  "Last  Judg- 
ment," the  largest  fresco  in  the  world.  (See 
MiCHELAi?GELO.)  All  these  paintings  have  been 
greatly  damaged  by  time  and  incense.  The  Sis- 
tine  Chapel  is  the  scene  of  most  of  the  great  func- 
tions at  which  the  Pope  personally  assists,  and 
here  the  Papal  elections  are  held.  The  choir  of 
the  Sistine  Chapel,  an  institution  founded  by 
Qregory  the  Great,  is  composed  of  about  thirty 
priests  and  Papal  chaplains.  They  sing  without 
musical  accompaniment,  and  their  style,  the 
mesBa  di  voce,  is  of  world-wide  celebrity. 

SISTnra  XADONKA.   See  Madonna. 

SISTOVA,  sls't^vft.  A  town  of  Bulgaria, 
about  40  miles  above  Rustchuk  (Map:  Balkan 
Peninsula,  E  3).  It  has  a  considerable  trade  in 
grain  and  wine.  Population,  in  1893,  13,212. 
Sistova  is  noted  for  the  treaty  of  peace  concluded 
here  between  Austria  and  Turkey  in  1791. 

iliSUVLLJLy  shish'?^-pan&.  In  Hindu  legend, 
the  sovereign  of  Chedi,  a  country  situated  in 
Central  India.  Although  he  was  the  cousin  of 
Krishna  (q.v.),  he  was  his  enemy,  and  ultimately 
was  slain  oy  him. .  The  history  of  this  enmity 
and  the  death  of  Siiupala  form  the  subject  of 
the  SUup&lahadha  of  Magha.  This  is  a  highly 
artificial  Sanskrit  epic  in  twenty  cantos,  and 
it  dates  probably  from  the  ninth  century.  It  has 
been  edited  several  times  in  India,  notably,  with 
Mallinatha's  commentary,  by  Durgaprasad  and 
Sivadatta  (3d  ed.,  Bombay,  1902),  and  was 
translated  by  Fauche  in  the  third  volume  of  his 
T4trade  (Paris,  1863). 

SICTTPHTTS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Xfav^of).  In 
Greek  legend,  the  son  of  JEoIub  and  Enarete.  Ac- 
cording to  the  earlier  myth  he  was  married  to 
Merope,  but  later  tradition  made  him  the  father 
of  Odysseus  by  Anticlea.  From  this  the  patrony- 
mic Sisyphides  was  applied  to  the  hero  of  the 
Odyssey.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  founder 
and  King  of  Ephyra,  afterwards  Corinth,  and  be- 
came notorious  as  a  fraudulent,  avaricious,  and 
wicked  ruler.  For  this  wickedness  during  life 
he  was  pimished  in  the  lower  world  by  being  con- 
demned to  roll  from  the  bottom  to  the  summit  of 
a  hill  an  immense  boulder  which,  whenever  it 
reached  the  top,  rolled  down  again,  and  com- 
pelled him  to  begin  his  task  anew. 

SCfJl^  se'tA  (Skt.,  furrow).  In  the  Sanskrit 
epic  of  the  RAm&pana  (q.v.),  the  daughter  of 
Janaka,  a  king  of  Mithila,  and  the  wife  of  Rama. 
She  seems  to  have  been  originally  an  earth  god- 


dess, as  Sita,  the  furrow,'  is  besou^t  in  the 
Rig  and  Atharva  Vedas  (see  VAdas)  to  yield 
fertility  to  the  worshiper.  In  the  later  Hindu 
accounts  she  is  said  to  have  arisen  from  a  fur- 
row when  her  father  was  plowing  the  ground. 

SITATTTNOA^  Blt'&-tS5o'g&.  A  'harnessed' 
antelope.    See  Nakong. 

SirngA.  The  largest  tribe  of  Kolusban 
(Tlinkit)  stock,  occupying  Chicha^of,  Baranof, 
Kupreanof,  Kuiu,  and  a  part  of  the  Prince  of 
Wal^s  islands,  Southern  Alaska,  and  numbering 
with  subtribes  more  than  2,000.  The  town  of  Sitka 
derives  its  name  from  them.  From  the  enormous 
wooden  labrets  worn  by  their  women  the  Rus- 
sians called  the  tribe  Kaluah,  from  the  Russian 
kalushka,  'a  wooden  trough,  or  bowl,*  hence 
the  name  Kolushan  now  applied  to  the  stock. 
They  were  formerly  a  fierce  and  independent  peo- 
ple, but  are  now  greatly  demoralized  and  wasted 
by  liquor,  which  they  have  even  learned  to  distill 
for  themselves  from  molasses.  Their  general 
culture  is  that  common  to  the  Tlinkit  (q.v.). 

SITKA.  The  capital  of  the  Territory  of 
Alaska,  160  miles  south  by  west  of  Juneau,  and 
1200  miles  north  of  Tacoma,  Washington;  lati- 
tude 67"  3^  N.,  longitude  135«»  20'  W.  (Map: 
Alaska,  H  4) .  It  is  picturesquely  situated  on  the 
western  coast  of  Baranov  Island,  facing  Sitka 
Sound,  in  close  proximity  to  several  snow-clad 
mountain  peaks.  The  climate  of  Sitka,  in  spite 
of  its  northern  latitude,  is  comparatively  mild, 
owing  to  the  influence  of  the  warm  Japan 
Current.  Among  the  noteworthy  features  of  the 
city  are  the  Russo-Greek  church,  dating  from 
1816,  the  Church  of  Saint  Peter's  by  the  Sea, 
erected  in  1899,  and  the  Sheldon  Jackson  Mu- 
seum, connected  with  the  Presbyterian  Mission. 
The  educational  institutions  include  public 
schools  founded  by  the  United  States  Govern^ 
ment,  a  Russo-Greek  parochial  school,  and  the 
Presbyterian  Industrial  Training  School  for  na- 
tives. There  are  also  to  be  mentioned  the 
Marine  Hospital,  marine  barracks,  an  agricul- 
tural experiment  station,  the  Governor's  resi- 
dence, a  United  States  land  office,  and  the  chief 
customs  office  for  Alaska.  Salmon  fishing  and 
canning,  mining,  and  lumbering  are*  the  most 
important  industries.  In  1799  the  Russian- 
American  Company  established  a  trading  post  at 
Sitka,  which,  under  the  name  of  New  Archangel, 
was  permanently  occupied  by  the  Russians  in 
1804.  It  became  later  the  seat  of  the  Russian 
Territorial  Government.  After  the  cession  of 
Alaska  to  the  United  States  in  1867,  Sitka  was 
made  the  capital  of  the  unorganized  Territory. 
A  military  post  was  maintained  here  until  1877. 
Population,  in  1890,  1190;  in  1900,  1396. 

SI'TOPHO^IA  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  ^(Voi, 
sitoa,  food  +  -^ofila,  -phobia,  fear,  from  ^o^- 
a^l,  phoheisthaiy  to  fear).  A  dread  or  fear 
of  food,  experienced  by  insane  people,  which 
leads  them  to  refuse  to  eat.  As  it  is  a  serious 
matter  to  a  melancholiac  or  a  patient  suffering 
from  exhausting  mania  to  miss  a*  single  meal, 
such  a  patient  requires  to  be  fed.  Others  may 
be  coaxed  and  permitted  to  skip  a  few  meals. 
Some  sitophobiacs  will  eat  if  led  to  table,  seated, 
and  provided  with  spoon  and  fork.  If  this 
suggestion  fails,  the  patient  should  be  fed 
through  a  soft  rubber  stomach  tube,  passed 
through   the  mouth,   or,   preferably,  through  a 


SITOPHOBIA. 


898 


8IVA. 


nostriL  Through  this  tube  by  means  of  a  funnel, 
eggs,  beef  juice,  peptonoids,  milk,  and  strained 
gruels  may  be  introduced  into  the  stomach. 
Forced  feeding  is  usually  necessary  thrice  a  day, 
and  in  summer  it  is  also  necessary  to  give  water 
in  this  way,  between  meals.  C(nsult  Ferris,  "Case 
of  Prolonged  Feeding  with  the  Tube,"  in  Ameri- 
can Medico-Surgicdl  Bulletin,  vol.  ix.  13,  1896. 

SITTEN,  adt'ten.    A  city  of  Switzerland.    See 
Sign. 

SITTINa  BT7LL  (Tatanka  Yotanka)  (1837- 
90).  A  chief  of  the  Sioux  tribe  of  North  Ameri- 
can Indians.  He  was  bom  in  Willow  Creek  in 
the  region  which  later  became  Dakota  Territory, 
the  son  of  Chief  Jumping  Bull.  He  killed  and 
scalped  his  first  enemy  when  only  fourteen  years 
old,  and  upon  reaching  manhood  became  the 
leader  of  the  most  unruly  and  warlike  band  of 
bucks  in  the  tribe,  during  the  Civil  War  led  raids, 
and  engaged  in  attacks  upon  white  settlements 
in  Iowa  and  Minnesota,  and  in  1864  was  driven 
by  General  Sully  into  the  Yellowstone  and  Big 
Horn  valleys.  He  was  on  the  warpath  almost  con- 
tinuously from  1869  to  1876,  either  raiding  the 
frontier  posts  and  settlements  or  making  war 
on  the  Crows,  Shoshones,  and  other  friendly 
tribes.  His  refusal  to  return  to  his  reservation 
in  1876  led  General  Sheridan  to  begin  against 
him  the  campaign  in  which  General  George  A. 
Custer  (a.v.)  and  his  force  were  surprised  and 
massacrea  on  the  Little  Big  Horn,  in  June  of 
that  year.  After  the  Custer  massacre  Sitting 
Bull  and  his  braves  escaped  over  the  Canadian 
border,  remaining  there  until  1881,  when  he  re- 
ceived from  General  Miles  a  promise  of  amnesty 
and  returned.  He  continued  to  wield  great  power 
among  the  Northwestern  Indians,  and  in  1888 
he  influenced  the  Sioux  to  refuse  to  sell  their 
lands.  In  1890  during  the  prevalence  of  the 
"Messiah"  craze  among  the  Indians  of  the  West 
he  was  considered  the  principal  instigator  of  the 
threatened  uprising.  His  arrest  in  his  camp  on 
the  Grand  River  in  North  Dakota  on  December 
15,  1890,  was  followed  by  an  attempt  at  rescue 
during  which  he  was  killed.     See  Sioux. 

SniT,  sA-oot'  (Egyptian  Syowet),  or  ASSITTT. 
A  city  of  Upper  Egypt,  situated  near  the  west 
bank  of  the  Nile,  in  latitude  27**  lO'  N.,  248  miles 
south  of  Cairo.  In  very  early  times  it  was  a 
place  of  importance,  owing  to  its  favorable  situa- 
tion in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  district  at  the 
starting  point  of  the  great  caravan  route  leading 
to  the  oases  of  the  Libyan  desert  and  the  Sudan. 
It  was  the  seat  of  worship  of  the  deity  Wep-wat, 
who  is  represented  in  the  form  of  a  jackal  or 
wolf,  and  hence  in  later  times  the  city  was  called 
by  the  Greeks  Lycopolis  or  *Wolftown.*  Under 
the  Twelfth  Dynasty  the  nomarchs  of  Siut  seem 
to  have  maintained  great  state,  and  their  rock- 
hewn  tombs  in  the  vicinity  are  richly  adorned 
with  sculptures  and  paintings,  and  contain  in- 
scriptions of  great  historical  value.  Plotinus, 
the  greatest  of  the  Neo-Pla tonic  philosophers, 
was  bom  at  Siut,  and  about  a.d.  205  the  city 
and  the  adjacent  district  were  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity. Many  anchorites  took  up  their  abode  in 
the  neighboring  necropolis,  and  one  of  these, 
John  of  Lycopolis,  is  said  to  have  predicted  to 
Theodosius  his  victory  over  Eugenius  in  394.  The 
modem  town  of  Siut  is  situated  on  the  Nile 
Valley  Railway.  It  has  several  fine  mosques, 
bazaars,  good  baths,  and  well-built  houses.     It 


is  noted  for  its  pottery  and  extensive  manufac- 
tures of  the  best  pipe-bowls.  It  is  the  residence 
of  the  Governor  of  Upper  Eypt.  Population,  in 
1882,  31,675;  in  1900,  42,000.  Consult:  De- 
scription de  I'Egypte  (Paris,.  1809-1829) ; 
Lepsius,  Denkmaler  (Berlin,  1849-58) ;  Mariette, 
Monuments  of  Upper  Egypt  (London,  1877) ; 
Griffith,  The  Inscriptions  of  BiHt  and  D4r  Rtfeh 
(ib.,  1889). 

SITJ-YEN,  shyoo'yto'.  A  walled  city  of  Shing- 
king,  Manchuria,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ta- 
yang  river,  which  flows  southward  to  the  Yellow 
Sea  at  the  port  of  Ta-ku-shan,  distant  36  miles 
(Map:  China,  F  3).  It  is  famous  for  the  finely 
grained  marble  found  in  the  neighborhood,  and 
its  stone-cutting  and  polishing  industry. 

klVA,  shI'vA  (Skt.,  kindly,  auspicious).  The 
name  of  the  third  god  of  the  Hindu  Trimurti  or 
triad,  in  which  he  represents  the  principle  of  de- 
struction. The  name  Siva,  as  that  of  a  deity,  is 
unknown  in  the  Vedic  hymns,  but  is  established 
as  such  in  the  later  Brahmanic  literature,  the 
epic  poems,  the  Puranas  (q.v.),  and  the  Tantras 
(q.v.).  Thus,  in  the  MaMhharata  (q.v.),  Siva 
is  already  celebrated  as  the  one  all-containing 
god.  and  even  in  the  Upanishads  (q.v.)  he  is 
identified  with  Rudra  (q.v.),  as  the  All-god.  In 
origin  Siva  was  probably  an  indigenous  deity, 
adopted  by  the  Aryans  after  their  entrance  into 
India..  His  symbol  is  the  linga  (q.v.),  emblem- 
atic of  creation,  which  follovra  destruction. 
From  each  of  his  numerous  attributes  or  char- 
acteristics he  derives  a  name  or  epithet.  He  has 
five  heads  (hence  his  name  PaHoAna/na,  the  five- 
faced)  ;  three  eyes  (hence  his  name  Trin^tra, 
the  three-eyed).  On  his  head  he  carries  the 
Ganges,  whose  course  he  intercepted  by  his  hair 
when  this  river  descended  from  heaven.  Round 
his  neck  he  carries  a  garland  of  human  skulls, 
and  bears  a  rosary  (afterwards  adopted  by  the 
Buddhists).  In  his  hands  he  holds  a  trident,  a 
club  or  pole,  armed  at  the  upper  end  with  trans- 
verse pieces,  representing  the  breastbone  and  ribs 
adjoining,  and  surmounted  by  a  skull  and  one  or 
two  human  heads.  His  weapons  are  a  bow,  a 
thunderbolt,  and  an  axe.  As  the  destroyer  of 
the  world  he  is  also  called  Kala  (time  or  death), 
and  represented  as  of  black  color.  One  of  his 
representations  is  also  half  male  and  half  female, 
emblematic  of  the  indissoluble  unity  of  the 
creative  principle  (hence  his  name  ArahandriSa, 
half -female  lord).  He  is  clothed  in  a  deer-skin, 
or  holds  a  deer  in  one  of  his  hands,  or  he  may  be 
represented  as  sitting  on  or  clothed  in  a  tiger- 
skin.  His  sacred  animal  is  the  bull  Nandi;  his 
home  is  on  Mt.  Kailasa  in  the  Himalayas,  and 
his  principal  wife  is  Durga,  or  Uma  (q.v.)  ;  his 
sons  are  (janeia  (q.v.)  and  Karttikeya  (q.v.). 

Siva  is  the  god  of  asceticism,  but  also  of  all 
arts,  especially  of  dancing.  Later  tradition  tells 
innumerable  tales  about  him.  In  the  earlier  ac- 
counts he  is  represented  as  killing  or  maltreat- 
ing the  Vedic  gods,  and  especially  as  destroying 
Daksha,  symbolic  of  the  older  Vedic  rites,  an  in- 
timation of  the  overthrow  of  the  orthodox  re- 
ligion by  the  more  popular  cult  of  Siva.  As  a 
symbol  of  asceticism  he  is  represented  as  destroy- 
ing Kama,  the  god  of  love.  Though  Siva  has  no 
incarnations,  except  in  Southern  India,  where 
some  are  said  to  be  known,  he  is  identified  with 
various  local  gods,  especially  Bhairava  and  Vit- 
thoba.     He  has  1,000  names,  but  is  generally 


8IVA. 


8M 


8IX-^BINCIPLE  BAPTI8T& 


called  Lord^  or  Great  Lord,  Maheivara,  or  San- 
kara,  Beneficent,  or  Paiupati,  Kine-lord,  Shepf- 
herd,  or  siwply  Mahadeva,  great  ^|;od.  The  cult 
of  Siva  has  much  in  common  with  Buddhism, 
and  in  the  ait  of  c.800  a.d.  the  two  are  confused. 
To-day  the  Siva  cult  in  its  various  forms  (see 
^AiVAS)  is  the  most  universal  in  India.  See 
Siva  in  Plate  of  Hindu  Deities,  under  India. 

SIVAS,  s^Vas^  The  capital  of  the  Vilayet  of 
Sivas,  Asiatic  Turkey,  situated  on  the  Kizil 
Irmak  at  an  altitude  of  4420  feet  (Map:  Turkey 
in  Asia,  G  3) .  It  covers  a  large  extent  of  groimd, 
is  well  built,  and  has  numerous  old  mosques, 
khans,  gardens,  and  excellent  bazaars.  It  contains 
several  interesting  ruined  medresses,  or  colleges, 
beautifully  decorated.  Besides  the  Greek  churches, 
there  are  a  Roman  Catholic  and  a  Protestant 
church.  The  manufactures  include  coarse 
woolens  and  jerked  beef.  Sivas  is  built  on  the 
site  of  the  ancient  Sehastia.  It  was  formerly 
one  of  the  most  important  cities  of  Asia  Minor, 
and  in  the  fourteenth  century  had  100,000  inhabi- 
tants.   Population,  about  44,000. 

SIVASH,  s^'vftsh^  or  Putrid  Sea  (Russian 
Oniloye  More) .  A  lagoon  on  the  east  coast  of  the 
Crimea,  separated  from  the  Sea  of  Azov  by  a 
narrow  sand-bar,  the  Tongue  of  Arabat.  It  is  68 
miles  long,  from  2  to  14  miles  wide,  and  extreme- 
ly shallow,  consisting  largely  of  salt  marshes. 
The  water  is  stagnant  and  excessively  salt. 

SIVATHEBIXTH  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Skt.  Siva, 
name  of  a  Hindu  god  -f  Gk.  Btiplop,  ih&rion, 
diminutive  of  B^p,  iher,  wild  beast).  An  extinct 
giraffe,  of  much  larger  size  than  the  living  spe- 
cies, found  fossil  in  the  Siwalik  beds  of  Pliocene 
age  in  India.  The  skull  was  heavily  built  and 
provided  with  two  pairs  of  horns,  of  which  the 
anterior  pair  were  small  and  pointed,  while  the 
posterior  pair  were  large  and  slightly  palmate 
with  a  few  short  prongs.  Another  genus,  Samo- 
therium,  from  the  Pliocene  of  the  Isle  of  Samos, 
had  shorter  neck  and  limbs  than  those  of  the 
modern  giraffe,  and  the  skull  of  the  male  alone 
was  provided  with  a  single  pair  of  frontal  horns. 

SIVOBI,  s*-v6'r6,  Ernesto  Camillo  (1816- 
04).  An  Italian  violin  virtuoso,  bom  in  Genoa. 
At  the  age  of  five  years  he  commenced  his  stud- 
ies with  Restano,  after  which  he  became  a  pupil 
of  Costa  and  finally  of  Paganini,  whom  ne 
adopted  as  his  model.  In  1827  he  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  won  remarkable  success  by  his  mar- 
velous technique.  In  1829  he  toured  Italy,  Ger- 
many, and  Russia,  and  in  1846  America.  He 
composed  several  concertos  and  many  other 
works  for  the  violin.    He  died  in  Genoa. 

SIWAH,  s^wfi,  (anc.  Ammonium).  An  oasis 
in  the  Libyan  Desert  in  the  northwestern  part 
of  Egypt,  280  miles  southwest  of  Alexandria 
(Map:  Africa  G  2),  It  is  nearly  20  miles  long 
and  over  one  mile  broad,  and  has  about  25  square 
miles  of  agricultural  land.  It  lies  nearly  100 
feet  below  sea-level,  is  watered  by  numerous 
streamlets,  small  lakes,  and  marshes,  and  is  cov- 
ered with  palm  groves  and  orchards.  Population, 
about  7000,  mostly  engaged  in  the  cultivation 
of  dates,  which  form  a  very  important  item  of 
export,  amounting  to  3,000,000  pounds  annually. 
There  is  a  theological  seminary.  The  Temple  of 
Ammon  was  famous  for  its  oracle  in  ancient 
times.  In  the  vicinity  is  situated  the  celebrated 
Fountain  of  the  Sun,  mentioned  by  Herodotus. 


The  miniature  town  of  Siwah  is  compactly  bniH 
with  lofty  dwellings.  There  is  also  another 
settlement,  called  Agermi,  with  remains  of 
ancient  temples. 

SIX  ACTS,  The.  The  name  given  to  a  num- 
ber of  measures  enacted  by  the  British  Parlia- 
ment in  1819-20  aiming  at  the  repression  of  the 
growing  democratic  movement.  The  freedom  of 
speech  and  of  the  press  and  the  right  of  associa- 
tion were  greatly  restricted.  See  Great  Britai5. 

SIX  ABTICLES^  The  Statute  of.  An  Eng- 
lish act  to  preserve  uniformity  in  religious  cus- 
toms. The  appearance  of  the  Bible  in  tbe  English 
version  of  the  Reformers  gave  rise  to  the 
eager  discussion  of  religious  and  theological 
questions  among  all  classes  of  Protestants.  The 
mass  and  other  offices  of  the  ancient  Church 
were  ridiculed  or  travestied.  All  this  was 
thoroughly  hateful  to  Henry  VIII.,  who  had 
no  sympathy  with  the  Dissenters.  Accordingly 
the  reactionary  Parliament  of  1539  passed 
a  statute  for  the  enforcement  of  the  uniform 
profession  of  six  cardinal  doctrines:  (1) 
Transubstantiation,  or  the  real  presence  of  Christ 
in  the  Eucharist;  (2)  celibacy  of  the  clergy;  (3) 
communion  in  one  kind  only;  (4)  monastic 
vows;  (5)  private  masses;  and  (6)  auricalar 
confession.  So  severe  were  the  penalties  for  dis- 
obedience that  the  act  has  been  called  the  'Bloody 
Statute.'  Burning  was  the  punishment  pre- 
scribed for  denying  the  real  presence;  and  the 
same  penalty  was  enforced  for  a  second  offense  in 
the  case  of  the  other  five  articles.  Refusal  to 
confess  or  to  attend  mass  was  made  a  felony. 
Five  hundred  Protestants  in  London  alone  were 
indicted ;  and  at  least  twenty-eight  persons  were 
executed.  But,  owing  to  the  influence  of  Crom- 
well, the  enforcement  of  the  statute  was  soon 
relaxed.  Consult:  Green,  History  of  the  English 
People  (London,  1879-81);  Hallam,  Constiiu- 
tiondl  History  (new  ed.,  ib.,  1876). 

SIX  COMPANIES,  The  CnnnESE.  Six 
mutual  aid  associations  representing  six  different 
parts  of  the  Province  of  Kwang-tung,  China. 
They  are  partly  benevolent  and  partly  commer- 
cial, taking  care  of  emigrants  from  China, 
giving  advice  and  aid  when  needed,  acting  as 
their  bankers,  looking  after  the  sick,  and  for- 
warding the  bodies  of  the  dead  to  their  friends  in 
China,  for  burial  in  their  native  place.  Mem- 
bership is  entirely  voluntary,  and  they  are  in 
no  sense  secret  societies.  They  are  an  outgrowth 
of  the  conditions  prevailing  in  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  centuiy  when  coolie  labor  was  needed. 
and  was  supplied  to  contractors  in  the  United 
States  by  contractors  in  Hong  Kong,  Canton. 
Macao,  and  elsewhere,  whose  agents  were  settled 
in  San  Francisco.  In  course  of  time  groups  of 
these  agents  found  it  necessary  to  combine  for 
self -protection,  and  on  the  passing  away  of  the 
coolie  traffic  and  all  forms  of  contract  labor,  and 
the  restriction  of  immigration,  these  developed 
into  benefit  and  protection  societies,  lending 
money,  and  engaging  in  such  commercial  opera- 
tions as  may  convenience  or  enrich  their  mem- 
bers. The  Six  Companies  are:  Ning  Yeung,  the 
largest  and  most  powerful;  Hop  Wo,  Kong 
C!how,  Yung  Yo,  Sam  Yup,  and  Yang  Ying. 

SIX  NATIONS.    See  Iboquoib. 

SIX-PBINCIPLB    BAPTISTS.     See  BiP- 

TISTS. 


SIXTH.  895 

SIXTH.    See  Intebtal. 

SIX^TTJS.     The  name  of  five  popes.    SiXTUS 
or  Xystub  L,  Saint,  Pope  c.l  16-26,  under  the 
reign  of  Hadrian. — SiXTUS  or  Xystus  II.,  Saint, 
Pope   257-258.     Under  him  the  communion  be- 
tween  Rome  and  the  North  African  churches, 
broken  oflP  by  the  controversy  over  heretic  bap- 
tism   (q.v.)    under  his  predecessor  Stephen  I., 
was  restored.    He  died  a  martyr  under  Valerian, 
three    days    before    his    devoted    deacon,    Saint 
Lawrence  (q.v.), — Sixtus  III.,  Saint,  Pope  432- 
440.     To  him  is  due  the  restoration  of  the  Li- 
berian  basilica  (Santa  Maria  Maggiore),  in  which 
his  work  is  extant  to-day,  as  also  in  the  nave  of 
another  basilica  built  by  him,  the  present  Church 
of  San  Lorenzo.    He  is  said  to  have  sent  Saint 
Patrick  to  Ireland.— SiXTUB  IV.,  Pope  1471-84, 
Francesco    della    Rovere.      He    was    bom    near 
Savona    in    1414,    and    became    general    of    the 
Franciscan  Order  in  1464.    Paul  II.  made  him  a 
cardinal  three  years  later  and  was  succeeded  by 
him   as  Pope.     His  nepotism  is  the  worst  blot 
upon  the  memory  of  his  pontificate,  and  led  in- 
directly,  through   the   ambition   of  his   brother 
Girolamo,   to   unfortunate   connection  with   the 
political  affairs  of  Florence.     The  Pope's  eigh- 
teen-year-old  nephew.    Cardinal    Sansoni-Riario, 
having  been  arrested  in  connection  with  the  assas- 
sination of  Giuliano  de'  Medici  in  the  conspiracy 
of   the   Pazzi,   Sixtus   demanded   his   release   of 
Lorenzo  de'  Medici  and  satisfaction  for  the  execu- 
tion of  the  Archbishop  of  Pisa,  who  was  suspected 
of  complicity.     Interdict,  excommunication,  and 
war  followed;  but  after  Lorenzo  had  won  over 
the  Pope's  ally,  the  King  of  Naples,  peace  was 
made  in  1480,  and  the  Papal  forces  set  free  to 
act  against  the  Turks,  who  had  taken  Otranto. 
Complications  with  Venice  were  terminated  in 
favor  of  the  Republic  by  the  Peace  of  Bagnolo. 
Sixtus,  regarding  it  as  a  bitter  humiliation  and 
already  ill,  died  five  days  later.     Many  public 
works  were  furthered  by  him,  of  which  the  most 
famous  is  the  Sistine  Chapel;  the  Ponte  Sisto 
also   commemorates   his   reign.     Taxation,  both 
civil  and  ecclesiastical,  was  so  increased  to  carry 
out  these  projects  and  to  provide  for  the  Pope's 
family  that  it  contributed  not  a  little  to  dis- 
affection against  the  Church.     Consult,  besides 
the  general  histories  of  the  popes,  Frantz,  8ixtu8 
IV.    und    die    Repuhlik    Florenz     (Regensbuxg, 
1880).— Sixtus  V.,  Pope  1585-90,  Felice  Peretti. 
He  was  bom  in  1521  in  the  March  of  Ancona,  the 
son  of  a  poor  gardener.     Like   Sixtus   IV.,  he 
entered  the  Franciscan  Order  and  rose  to  high 
dignities,  becoming  Bishop  of   Santa  Agata   in 
1566  and  cardinal  in  1570.    He  had  lived  a  quiet 
and  retired  life  before  his  election  as  Pope,  and 
surprised  the  world  by  the  masterful  vigor  of  his 
reign.     He   began   by   repressing   disorder   and 
exterminating  bands   of  outlaws   in   the   Papal 
States;  reformed  the  administration  of  the  law 
and  the  disposal  of  patronage;  and  entered  on 
comprehensive  projects  for  the  moral  and  mate- 
rial improvement  of  Rome.    He  laid  down-  new 
regulations  for  the  college  of  cardinals,  restrict- 
ing its  number  to  seventy,  and   organized  the 
modern    system    of   congregations    (q.v.),    reor- 
ganizing that  of  the  Inquisition  which  already 
existed;   at  the  same  time  he  strongly  disap- 
proved the  excessive  rigor  of  the  Spanish  Inquisi- 
tion as  a  State  tribunal  under  Philip  II.     He 
published  a  new  edition  of  the  Septuagint,  and 


SKALD. 

an  edition  of  the  Vulgate  (1590)  as  ordered  by 
the  Coimcil  of  Trent,  which  contained  so  many 
errors  that  it  had  to  be  recalled  and  its  place 
supplied  by  another  under  Clement  VIII.  The 
troubles  of  the  League  in  France  and  the  growth 
of  Protestantism  in  England  and  Germany 
caused  him  great  anxiety  until  his  death  on 
August  27,  1690,  Many  of  the  popular  stories 
concerning  him  are  derived  from  the  Life  by  Gre- 
gorio  Leti  (1669),  a  thoroughly  untrustworthy 
work,  answered  by  Tempesti,  a  Franciscan,  in 
1755.  The  best  modern  Ldfe  is  by  Baron  von 
HUbner  (Leipzig,  1871) ;  consult  also  Capranica, 
Papa  Sisto   (Milan,  1884). 

SIZ£«    See  Glue,  and  Gelatin. 

SJbBEBO^  shg^ar-y',  Ebik  (1794-1828).  A 
Swedish  poet,  bom  at  Ludgo,  and  known  in  lit- 
erature as  Vitalis,  He  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Upsala,  in  which  town  he  after- 
wards lived  as  a  private  tutor  before  finally  re- 
moving to  Stockholm.  His  poems — erotic,  reli- 
gious, humorous,  melancholy,  and  satiric,  by 
turns — appeared  separately  between  1819  and 
1826,  but  were  collected  after  his  death  by  Gei- 
jer  (1828).  In  1873  there  was  a  new  edition 
by  Forselius,  entitled  Samlade  akrifter  of  Vita- 
lis, A  German  translation  was  published  at 
Leipzig  in  1843. 

SKAGEN,  ska'gen,  Cape,  or  The  Skaw.  The 
most  northerly  point  of  Jutland,  Denmark  (Map: 
Denmark,  D  1).  It  is  a  narrow,  sandy  spit  on 
which  stands  a  stone  lighthouse  148  feet  high. 
Near  the  extreme  point  of  the  cape  is  the  busy 
little  port  of  Skagen. 

SKAOEBBAE,  sk&'g^r-r&k'.  An  arm  of  the 
North  Sea  lying  between  the  south  coast  of 
Norway  and  the  peninsula  of  Jutland,  Den- 
mark, and  washing  also  the  coast  of  Sweden 
(Map:  Denmark,  CI).  It  is  the  connecting  link 
between  the  North  Sea  and  the  Cattegat,  and  is 
about  130  miles  long  by  80  miles  wide.  It  is 
shallow  near  Jutland,  where  the  coast  is  lined 
with  dangerous  sand  banks,  but  deepens  north- 
ward, being  600  feet  deep  in  the  middle  and  over 
2000  feet  deep  near  the  Norwegian  coast.  The 
latter,  as  well  as  the  Swedish  coast,  is  indented 
with  numerous  bays  affording  good  harbors.  The 
Skagerrak  is  subject  to  violent  northwest  storms. 

SKAG^WAT.  The  subport  of  entry  in  the 
southern  district  of  Alaska,  202  miles  north  of 
Sitka,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Skagway  River,  on 
Lynn  Canal  (Map:  Alaska,  J  4).  It  is  the  ter- 
minus of  the  White  Pass  and  Yukon  Railroad, 
and  of  the  Seattle  and  Skagway  steamship  lines. 
Skagway  lies  amid  attractive  scenery.  It 
has  a  public  library,  a  United  States  Govern- 
ment building,  and  three  hospitals.  An  array 
post  also  is  here.  There  are  breweries,  bottling 
works,  and  a  lumber  mill;  but  the  city  is  chief- 
ly important  as  the  distributing  point  of  supplies 
for  the  interior  and  the  Yukon  mining  district. 
The  government  is  administered  by  a  unicameral 
council,  elected  annually,  which  chooses  one  of 
its  number  as  mayor.  Skagway  was  settled  in 
1897,  and  received  its  present  charter  in  1900. 
Population,  in  1900,  3117. 

SKALD  (Icel.,  poet),  or  SCALD.  The  name 
given  in  Old  Norse  specially  to  that  class  of 
poets  who  exercised  their  art  as  a  vocation  re- 
quiring a  learned  education ;  that  is,  a  knowledge 
of  the  construction  of  verse,  and  of  the  enigmati- 


SXAIiD. 


896 


SXATIKG. 


cal  imagery,  roughly  shaped  out  of  obscure  tra- 
dition, to  which  Scandinavian  poeta  were  prone. 
The  great,  if  not  the  only  aim  of  the  Skaldio 
poets  was  to  celebrate  the  deeds  of  living  war- 
riors or  of  their  ancestors.  For  this  reason 
princes  attached  skalds  to  their  courts,  and  com- 
peted with  each  other,  by  magnificent  presents, 
for  the  possession  of  the  most  skillful  minstrels.' 

See  ICELAITDIC  LiTEBATUBE. 

SKAT.     A  game  of  cards,  the  most  intricate 
and  perhaps  the  most  scientific  of  them  all.    Its 
origin  was  in  Germany,  and  dates  from  about 
the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.     The . 
derivation  of  the  name  is  obscure. 

Thirty-two  cards  are  used,  but,  unlike  whist 
cards,  they  are  not  double-ended.  Not  only  the 
face  cards,  but  the  spot  cards  as  well,  usually 
show  fully  executed  figures.  Three  or  four  per- 
sons take  part  in  the  game,  although  but  three 
are  active  players,  one,  the  player,  playing 
against  the  other  two.  Each  player  holds  ten 
cards,  two  being  laid  aside  in  the  'skat.'  The 
use  of  these  two  cards  determines  the  two  differ- 
ent styles  of  playing.  With  the  skat,  it  is  a 
simple  game,  or  it  may  be  Toum^  (an  order 
to  turn  up  one  of  the  cards  in  the  skat ) ,  the  suit 
of  which  becomes  trumps.  Or  it  may  be  without 
the  skat,  in  which  latter  case  the  varieties  of 
the  game  are  designated  as  8olOy  Nullo,  and 
Orando,  The  four  suits  of  the  cards  are:  Eich- 
eln  (acorn),  the  equivalent  of  cluha;  Orun 
(green),  the  equivalent  of  spades;  Roth  (red), 
the  equivalent  of  hearts;  Schellen  (the  bells),  the 
equivalent  of  diamonds  in  other  cards. 

The  four  suits  have  a  graded  value,  clubs 
counting  the  best,  spades  second,  hearts  third, 
and  diamonds  lowest.  The  trumping  value  of 
the  jacks,  which  constitute  the  best  trumps,  fol- 
lows the  same  order;  after  which  come  the  ace, 
ten,  king,  queen,  etc.,  of  the  trumps  turned. 
The  nine,  eight,  and  seven  have  no  value  of 
their  own  before  the  players  bid  for  the  privi- 
lege of  playing  the  game,  the  one  offering  to 
play  in  the  highest  suit  securing  the  privilege. 
This  same  player,  however,  is  under  the  neces- 
sity of  scoring  at  least  sixty-one  points.  With 
sixty,  he  loses;  with  thirty  points  he  is  cut 
(Schneider) ;  with  no  count  at  all  he  is  black 
(Schwarz). 

Points  are  as  follows:  aces,  11;  tens,  10; 
kings,  4;  queens,  3;  jacks,  2.  After  the  jacks, 
the  ace  is  next  in  value,  followed  by  the  ten, 
king,  queen,  nine,  eight,  and  seven.  The  four 
jacks  only  are  trumps  in  Orando,  while  in  NuUo 
there  are  no  trumps  at  all.  Each  player  must 
follow  suit;  but  where  that  is  not  possible,  a 
trump  or  any  other  card  may  be  played.  The 
dealer  is  determined  by  dealing  one  card  to  each 
player,  until  a  jack  is  turned  up,  the  player 
receiving  it  dealing  the  first  round.  The  player 
to  the  right  of  the  dealer  'cuts,*  after  which  the 
cards  are  dealt  to  the  left,  five  cards  to  each  of 
the  three  active  hands  (the  dealer,  should  there 
be  four  players,  remaining  inactive,  then  two 
cards  in  the  skat,  and  another  five  cards  to  each 
player.  Calling  or  bidding  is  according  to  the 
following  rule:  The  second  hand  begins  the  bid- 
ding by  offering  a  game  to  the  first  hand ;  or,  if 
the  second  hand  elects,  the  third  hand  makes  the 
offer,  and  if  he  passes,  the  first  hand  has  the 
play.  Where  two  equally  high  games  are  bid,  the 
first  hand  has  preference  to  the  others,  and  the 


second  to  the  third.    No  player  may  play  a  gBjne 
of  less  value  than  his  declared  intention. 

SKATE  (from  loel.  skaia,  skate;  perhaps  from 
Lat.  squatus,  squatina,  sort  of  shark,  angel-fish) . 
The  name  of  certain  species  of  rays  (q.v.).  The 
commonest  as  well  as  the  smallest  species  along 
the  east  coast  of  the  United  States  is  the  tobacoo- 
box  (Raja  erinacea) ;  the  largest  is  the  barn- 
door skate  {Raja  Icevis),  four  feet  long.  The 
big  skate  of  California  is  the  largest  of  the 
American  skates,  reaching  a  length  of  six  feet, 
and  its  egg-case  is  nearly  a  foot  long.  The  flesh, 
though  coarse,  is  eaten,  especially  by  Europeans. 
See  Plate  of  Rats  and  Skates. 

SKATING  (from  skate,  from  Dutch  schaats, 
ODutch,  schaetse,  high-heeled  shoe).  One  of  the 
primitive  methods  of  man's  progression  over  the 
ice  when  it  is  free  from  snow.  The  earliest 
form  of  skate  was  a  shin  or  rib  bone  of  some 
animal,  tied  to  the  skater's  foot.  Skates  of  bone 
are  in  the  Guildhall  collection  in  London  and  in 
other  museums.  The  wooden  skate  shod  with 
iron  appeared  in  the  fourteenth  century.  With 
the  development  of  a  metal  foot  piece  bearing  a 
cutting  edge  the  art  of  progressing  without  the 
aid  of  the  stick  was  acquired,  the  blade  bein^ 
set  within  a  base  of  wood,  which  was  strapped 
to  the  foot.  Holland  is  still  the  paradise  of 
skaters,  and  skating  there,  aside  from  its  prac- 
tical uses,  is  a  national  sport.  Other  notable 
skating  countries  of  Europe  are  Russia,  Norway, 
and  Germany.  Skating  is  very  popular  in  Great 
Britain,  and  some  famous  skaters  have  been 
produced,  especially  from  the  Fens,  on  the  east- 
em  coast  of  England.  The  United  States  and 
Canada,  with  their  long,  cold  winters,  have  pro- 
duced many  fast  skaters  who  vie  with  the  best 
of  those  abroad.  Few  outdoor  sports  in  these 
countries  attract  so  many  devotees  from  the 
mass  of  the  people.  On  the  Hudson  River  have 
been  made  some  of  the  fastest  skating  records, 
although  Minnesota  and  the  Middle  West  gen- 
erally now  rank  with  it.  Montreal  is  the  centre 
of  Canadian  skating.  In  1884  a  national  ama- 
teur association  was  formed,  with  W.  B.  Curtis 
as  president,  and  this  has  held  successful  cham- 
pionships ever  since.  Afterwards  Eastern  and 
Western*  sectional  championships  were  instituted, 
and  in  1899  the  distances  were  measured  accord- 
ing to  the  meter  system,  in  accordance  with  the 
custom  abroad.  Foreign  skaters  in  the  United 
States  have,  as  a  rule,  had  to  take  second  rank 
to  the  Americans. 

The  development  of  the  skate  used  in  the 
United  States  embraces  three  distinct  periods. 
The  old-fashioned  skate  had  a  straight,  thick 
blade,  sometimes  with  a  double  edee  (gutter), 
affixed  to  a  piece  of  wood,  the  skate  neing  bound 
on  by  straps.  Then  came  the  dub-skate,  an  im- 
provement in  that  it  was  entirely  of  metal  and 
could  be  instantly  clamped  to  the  foot.  The 
blades  were  of  a  'rocker'  shape  from  end  to 
end,  which  allowed  fancy  skating,  but  which  re- 
duced the  speed  in  straightaway  skating.  Fi- 
nally the  *Hudson  River*  or  'Donoghue'  skate  was 
introduced,  which  at  once  found  favor  in  the 
West  especially.  This  was  practically  a  return 
to  the  old-fashioned  form,  the  skate  being 
straight-bladed  and  having  a  wooden  top,  with 
straps.  The  blade  is  long,  projecting  behind  and 
before  the  foot,  and  very  narrow,  and  the  'club' 
or  foot-piece,  when  properly  made  of  apple-wood, 


SKATING. 


897 


SKELETON. 


ifl  very  light.  With  it  has  oome  into  popular 
favor  the  Norwegian  skate,  the  best  skate  known, 
which  has  a  similar  blade,  fastened  permanently 
to  the  shoe  by  three  metal  pieces  screwed  to  the 
sole.  Its  weight  is  but  a  few  ounces.  The 
hockey  skate,  a  combination  of  the  club  and  the 
Norwegian  form,  namely  a  short,  thick,  and 
straight-bladed  skate  screwed  to  the  shoe,  is 
another  popular  form. 

The  style  of  skating  in  America  has  been 
not  a  little  influenced  by  the  speed-skate,  which 
by  its  nature  has  added  considerable  grace 
to  the  stroke.  The  principle  of  this  stroke 
is  a  gentle  falling  of  the  body  from  side 
to  side,  as  either  skate  takes  its  position  for 
the  beginning  of  a  stroke.  The  foot  is  pushed 
almost  straight  ahead,  the  blade  striking  the  ice 
flatly,  instead  of  beginning,  as  in  the  club-skate, 
with  the  toe,  and  ending,  at  the  finish  of  the 
stroke,  with  the  heel.  In  pushing  off,  therefore, 
with  either  foot,  the  whole  length  of  the  blade 
is  obtained  as  a  purchase  instead  of  the  toe 
only,  as  in  the  case  of  the  club-skate.  The  re- 
sult is  the  greatest  imaginable  ease  in  skating, 
while  the  length  of  the  stroke  is  two  to  three 
times  as  long,  saying  considerable  energy. 

The  competitions  in  figure-skating  in  the 
United  States  are  imder  the  control  of  the  Na- 
tional Association,  founded  in  18S5,  which  acts 
in  conjunction  with  the  Canadian  Amateur  Skat- 
ing Association,  founded  in  1888,  and  the  compe- 
titions for  the  championships  are  held  annually, 
alternately  in  New  York  and  Montreal. 

SKAW^  skft,  The.  The  most  northerly  point 
of  Denmark.    See  Skagen,  Cape. 

SKEAT,  Walter  William  (1836—).  An 
English  philologist.  He  was  bom  in  Park  Lane, 
London,  but  passed  his  boyhood  in  Sydenham,  a 
London  suburb,  then  well  in  the  country.  It 
was  here  that  he  became  familiar  with  the  Kent- 
ish dialect.  He  attended  King's  College  School, 
a  school  at  Highgate,  and  entered  Christ's  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  in  1858, 
and  two  years  later  was  elected  a  fellow. 
Ordained  to  the  ministry  in  1860,  he  held  two 
curacies,  first  at  East  Dereham  in  Norfolk,  and 
then  at  Godalming  in  Surrey;  but,  owing  to  an 
affection  of  the  throat,  he  was  compelled  to  give 
up  the  ministry.  He  returned  to  Cambridge,  and 
resumed  his  studies  in  English  philology  and  lit- 
erature. In  1873  he  helped  to  found  the  English 
Dialect  Society,  becoming  its  first  director  and 
afterwards  its  president.  He  had  already  be- 
gun editing  Middle  English  texts  for  the  Early 
English  Text  Society,  established  by  his  friend 
F.  J.  Fumivall.  In  1878  he  was  appointed  to 
the  Erlington  and  Bosworth  professorship  of 
Anglo-Saxon  at  Cambridge,  and  in  1883  he  was 
reelected  fellow  of  Christ's  College.  Among 
his  separate  publications  may  be  mentioned 
The  Songs  and  Ballads  of  Uhlandf  trans- 
lated from  the  German  (1864)  ;  Lancelot  of 
the  Laik  (1865;  revised  1870);  the  three 
texts  of  Langland's  Piers  the  Plowman  (1866- 
84;  reprinted  together  1886);  An  Etymological 
Dictionary  of  the  English  Language  (1879- 
84)  ;  A  Concise  Etymological  Dictionary  of 
the  English  Language  (1882);  Barbour's  Bruce 
(1870-77;  and  for  the  Scottish  Text  Society, 
1893-94) ;  Complete  Works  of  Geoffrey  Chaucer 
(1894) ;  The  Student's  Chaucer  (1895)  ;  A  Stu- 
dent'a  Pastime^  being  a  select  series  of  articles 


reprinted  from  tfotes  and  Queries  (1896);  The 
Chaucer  Canon  (1900);  Place  Names  of  Cam- 
bridgeshire (1901);  and  Notes  on  English 
Etymology  (1901).  Skeat  is  one  of  the  leading 
scholars  in  the  revival  of  our  older  literature, 
and  has  done  much  to  popularize  his  subject. 
To  him  more  than  to  all  others  is  due  the  very 
general  interest  in  Chaucer. 

SKELETON  (from  aK€\eT6y,  skeleton,  mummy, 
dried  body,  neu.  sg.  of  o-jceXer^f.  skeletos,  dried, 
from  axiWeiPy  skellein,  to  parch,  dry  up).  The 
framework  of  hard  structure  which  protects  and 
supports  the  soft  tissues  of  animals.  The  skele- 
ton either  lies  outside  the  soft  tissues  (exoskele- 
ton),  or  is  imbedded  within  them  (endoskeleton). 

Exoskeleton.  Exoskeletal  structures  surround 
and  shield  the  vital  organs  and  muscles  and  are 
represented  by  the  shells  or  chitinous  covering  of 
mollusks,  insects,  and  crustaceans,  the  shields  of 
turtles,  and  the  hair,  scales,  feathers,  nails,  and 
hoofs  ( qq.v. )  of  other  vertebrates ;  also  by  the  so- 
called  ^membrane  bones'  of  the  skull.  Phyloge- 
netically  the  exoskeleton  of  vertebrates  is  older 
than  the  endoskeleton,  and  its  structures  were  de- 
rived from  the  inner  layer  of  the  epidermis. 

Endoskeleton.  Endoskeletal  structures  appear 
in  a  few  invertebrates  (as  the  cuttlefishes,  certain 
annelids,  etc.),  but  are  highly  characteristic  of 
vertebrates,  in  which  arises  a  wholly  new  tissue 
— ^bone.  Endoskeletal  structures  of  vertebrates 
arise  from  two  sources,  the  endoderm  and  the 
mesoderm,  and  are  either  membranous,  cartila- 
ginous, or  bony.  In  the  lower  vertebrates  the 
conversion  of  cartilage  into  bone  takes  place 
on  the  outside  and  proceeds  inward.  In 
the  higher  vertebrates  ossification  also  takes 
place  at  certain  internal  centres.  In  the  con- 
version of  cartilage  into  bone  the  chondrin  or 
matrix  of  the  cartilage  becomes  converted  into  a 
calcified  matrix.  The  matrix  is  then  dissolved 
away  by  certain  cells  called  osteoclasts.  Around 
the  walls  of  the  cavities  thus  produced  certain 
cells,  osteoblasts,  arrange  themselves  in  a  layer 
and  secrete  about  themselves  salts  ( carbonate  and 
phosphate)  of  lime.  The  spaces  occupied  by  these 
cells  and  their  amoeboid  processes  become  much 
restricted,  but  persist  as  the  *lacun»'  and  'canali- 
culi*  of  bone.  Tliis  calcified  layer  is  in  turn  cov- 
ered over  by  another  internal  layer  of  osteoblasts, 
and  these  in  turn  by  others,  imtil  a  Haversian 
system  with  its  concentric  layers  is  p/oduced. 
Bone  is  always  thus  being  torn  down  by  the  os- 
teoclasts and  made  over  by  the  osteoblasts.  See 
Bone. 

The  skeleton  of  vertebrates  may  be  treated  im- 
der two  heads:  (1)  the  axial  and  (2)  the  ap- 
pendicular skeleton. 

Vebtebbal  Column.  The  axial  skeleton  in- 
cludes the  vertebral  column,  ribs,  sternum,  and 
head-skeleton.  The  vertebral  column,  or  4>ack- 
bone,'  first  appears  in  cyclostomes,  where  it  oc- 
curs as  fibrous  tissue,  surrounding  the  notochord, 
which  thus  comes  to  lie  as  a  rod  in  the  axis  of  the 
primitive  vertebrate  column  and  is  known  as  the 
'skeletogenous  layer.'  From  this  point  on  it  be- 
comes fi  more  and  more  important  organ,  while 
the  chorda  takes  less  and -less  part  in  the  com- 
position of  the  body  of  the  adult.  In  the  lowest 
vertebrates  the  skeletogenous  layer  is  replaced 
at  intervals  by  cartilage,  which  forms  arches 
around  the  neural  canal.  In  ganoids  and  higher 
forms  these  consist  of  five  cartilaginous  pieces  for 


SKELETON. 


898 


SXELETOV. 


each  somite,  the  fifth  or  impaired  piece  form- 
ing the  dorsal  spinous  process.  Ventral  car- 
tilaginous pieces  also  occur  ventral  to  the*  chorda. 
The  bodies  (centra)  of  the  vertebne  definitely 
appear,  and  the  chorda  becomes  constricted  in- 
trayertebrallj.  giving  the  vertebrae  an  hour-glass 
form.  The  rmgs  of  cartilage  formed  by  intra- 
vertebral  constrictions  are  biconcave  or  *amphi- 
coelous'  in  all  fishes  with  bony  vertebrae  and  in 
most  Urodela ;  also  in  a  few  fossil  and  living  rep- 
tiles (q.v.),  and  in  a  few  fossil  birds.  So  long 
as  the  separate  vertebrae  of  the  vertebral  column 
are  amphicalous  their  connection  with  one  an- 
other must  depend  upon  something  else  than  the 
bony  vertebrae  themselves.  In  the  lower  fishes 
this  union  is  effected  by  the  chorda  and  chordal 
sheath.  In  the  lower  Urodela  it  is  effected  by 
the  intervertebral,  non-ossified  cartilage.  In  the 
higher  Urodela,  the  Anura  and  almost  all  the 
reptiles,  however,  the  vertebrae  are  linked  to- 
gether by  means  of  a  ball-and-socket  joint.  The 
concavity  may  be  on  the  posterior  and  the  con- 
vexity on  the  anterior  end  ( opisthocoBlous )  or 
conversely  (procoelous).  In  crocodiles,  birds,  and 
mammals  the  opposed  faces  of  the  vertebrae  are 
approximately  plane  surfaces.  In  the  develop- 
ment of  the  vertebrae  of  man  the  phylogenetic 
stages  are  recapitulated.  The  typical  vertebra 
of  man  consists  of  a  centrum  from  which  an  arch 
arises  dorsally  to  protect  the  spinal  cord.  These 
arches  together  constitute  the  neural  canal.  Each 
half  arch  is  composed  of  the  rounded  pedicle  and 
the  broad  flat  lamina.  There  are  three  kinds  of 
processes:  (1)  the  dorsal  or  neuropophysis ;  (2) 
the  transverse  process,  serving  for  the  attach- 
ment of  the  muscles  which  keep  the  vertebrae  to- 
gether; (3)  the  forward  and  backward  articulat- 
ing processes  ( zygopophyses ) .  The  relation  of 
the  centra  to  the  somites  of  the  body  is  an  in- 
teresting one.  They  do  not  arise  one  in  the  mid- 
dle of  each  somite,  but  at  the  plane  of  separation 
of  adjacent  somites,  thus  insuring  flexibility  in 
the  column. 

The  number  of  vertebrae  in  mammals  is  highly 
variable  in  different  species.  With  one  or  two 
exceptions  all  mammals  have  seven  cervical  (non- 
rib-bearing)  vertebrae.  All  the  artiodactyls  pos- 
sess nineteen  thoracico-lumbar  vertebrae.  The 
smallest  number  (fourteen)  occurs  in  arma- 
dillos; the  largest  (thirty)  in  hyracoids.  Since 
the  number  oif  vertebra  corresponds  to  that 
of  the  somites  of  the  body,  it  seems  necessary 
to  conclude  that  the  latter  are  highly  vari- 
able in  number.  If  we  seek  for  an  inter- 
pretation of  the  differences  in  the  vertebral 
column  we  may  find  it  in  the  different  tasks 
the  parts  perform,  and  the  differentiation  of 
vertebrae  is  a  late  acquisition,  gradually  ac- 
quired with  advancing  age.  The  sacral  bones 
begin  their  fusion  only  at  sixteen  years,  and  this 
is  not  completed  until  the  age  of  thirty.  The 
sacrum  is  composed  of  four  or  five  caudal  verte- 
brae fused  together. 

Ribs.  Ribs  are  also  a  part  of  the  axial  skele- 
ton. Ventrally  they  end  in  cartilage  and  dorsal- 
ly in  two  articular  surfaces.  The  main  part  of 
the  bone  is  the  'shaft'  or  *body,'  and  its  dorsal 
articular  surface  the  ^'head;'  on  the  side  near 
the  head  is  a  second  articular  surface,  the  'tube- 
rosity;' between  this  and  the  head  there  is  a  con- 
striction, the  *neck.'  In  man  the  last  of  the  nor- 
mally twelve  ribs  is  occasionally  reduced  to  an  in- 
significant rudiment,  or  a  thirteenth  rib  may  be 


present.  The  transverse  process  of  the  seventh 
cervical  vertebra  and  that  of  the  first  thoracic 
are  quite  different.  The  ventral  arm  of  the  trans- 
verse process  of  the  seventh  vertebra  represents 
the  rib.  Similarly  it  may  be  inferred,  even  from 
the  adult  conditions,  that  all  the  cervical  and 
trunk  vertebrae  possess  ribs  or  the  rudiments 
of  ribs;  and  embryology  bears  out  this  conclu- 
sion. 

SiEBNUM.  The  sternum  or  'breast-bone'  of  man 
is  a  flat  bone  to  which  the  ventral  ends  of  the 
ribs  are  attached.  Its  anterior  part  is  known  as 
the  'manubrium,'  the  middle  part  as  the  'gladi- 
olus,' and  the  posterior  cartilaginous  tip  as  the 
'xiphoid'  or  'ensiform  appendix.'  The  middle 
part  is  composed  of  more  than  one  piece.  In 
nearly  all  the  lower  mammals  it  is  made  up  of  as 
many  bones  as  there  are  pairs  of  ribs  attadied  to 
it,  and  this  composition  may  be  plainly  seen  in 
the  sternum  of  a  child.  Moreover,  the  sternum  of 
the  young  of  many  mammals  shows  a  double 
origin,  and  it  is  plain  that  the  sternum,  if  a 
prmluct  of  the  fusion  of  the  ventral  ends  of  the 
thoracic  ribs,  was  originally  laid  down  as  a  paired 
structure.  The  sternum  of  lower  vertebrates  is 
often  closely  united  to'  the  shoulder-girdle  and 
possesses  an  accessory  bone — ^the  epistemum.  The 
sternum  of  Amphibia  is  small  and  the  ribs  do  not 
meet  ventrally.  The  sternum  of  most  carinate 
birds  is  strongly  keeled  to  permit  of  the  attach- 
ment of  powerful  muscles  of  flight.    See  Bisd. 

Skuix.  We  may  distinguish  in  the  skull  the 
cranium  or  braincase  and  the  visceral  skeleton. 
In  the  development  of  the  human  skull  three 
stages  may  be  distinguished  which  correspond 
with  phylogenetic  stages:  (1)  The  flbro-connec- 
tive  tissue  stage.  This  is  represented  in  phy- 
logeny  by  the  condition  in  Amphioxus,  where  a 
fibrous  cordal  sheath  surrounds  the  notochord 
(2)  The  cartilaginous  stage.  In  the  anterior 
region  of  adult  selachians  a  large  cartilaginous 
capsule,  open  above,  completely  surrounds  the 
brain  below  and  laterally,  deriveid  from  two  pairs 
of  cartilage  plates.  Ventral  to  the  skull  the 
visceral  skeleton  arises,  consisting  of  the  upper 
and  lower  jaws  and  the  six  branchial  arches,  the 
foremost  of  which  early  differentiated  itself  from 
the  other  five,  entered  into  connection  with  the 
lower  jaw,  and  constitutes  the  hyoid  arch.  The 
lower  jaw  arises  in  a  manner  precisely  equivalent 

Kkt  to  Skrlbton  Platk. 


1.  Frontal  bone. 

3.  Parietal  bone. 
8.  Temporal  bone. 

4.  Occipital  bone. 
6.  Malar  bone. 

6.  Superior  maxillary. 

7.  Inferior  maxillary. 

8.  Cervical  vertebraa. 

9.  Na8albone. 

10.  Stemnm. 

11.  Hnmems. 

12.  Ulna. 

13.  Radius. 

14.  Lumbar  vertebne. 

15.  Innominate  bones. 


a.  Phalanges. 

b.  Metacarpals. 

c.  Trapeslnm. 

d.  Scaphoid. 


b.  Astra«ralnt. 
i.  Galcaneum. 
/.  Metatarsus. 
k.  Phalanfces. 
/.  Entocnnelform. 


16.  Sacmm. 

17.  Head  of  femur. 

18.  Shaft  of  femur. 

19.  PateUa. 

90.  Shaft  of  tibia. 

21.  Fibula. 

22.  Greater    trochanter  of 

femnr. 
28.  Condyles  of  femur. 

24.  Tuberodty  of  tibia. 

25.  Clavicle. 

26.  Condyles  of  humenu. 

27.  Head  of  radius. 

28.  Doraal  vertebne. 

29.  Scapula. 


Hand. 


0.  Unciform. 
/.  Trapexoid. 
g.  Pisiform. 


Foot. 


HI.  Cuboid. 
n.  Navicular. 
o.  Ectocunelforra. 
p.  Mesocuneiform. 


SKELETON 


For  Key  and  Desorlptlon,  see  Text. 


SKELETON. 


899 


SKELETON. 


to  a  typical  gill-arch,  and  is  composed  of  two 
pieces  on  each  side,  the  quadrate  and  Meckel's 
cartilage.  Vex^  early  a  forward  outgrowth  from 
the  quadrate  gives  rise  to  the  upper  jaw.  (3)  The 
bony  stage  is  represented  in  the  bony  ganoids, 
where  the  frame-case  is  covered  by  enamel  plates. 
Dermal  bones  also  cover  over  the  branchial  arches 
and  gills,  forming  the  'operculum.'  Even  in  the 
Amphibia  the  bones  of  the  skull  preformed  in 
cartilage  can  be  artificially  separated  from  der- 
mal bones,  but  the  higher  we  go  in  the  vertebrate 
scale  the  more  intimate  is  the  union,  until  in 
mammals  the  two  bones  are  developed  at  the  same 
time  and  are  inseparably  fused  in  the  adult. 
With  the  loss  of  gills  goes  that  of  the  opercular 
apparatus,  and  the  cranium  becomes  more  com- 
pact. Of  the  branchial  apparatus  there  remains 
the  first,  the  mandibular,  the  second,  the  hyoid, 
and  a  part  of  the  third,  which  fuses  with  the 
hyoid.  Finally  the  axis  of  the  cranium  curves. 
The  curve  is  first  considerable  in  reptiles  and 
birds  and  reaches  its  maximum  in  man.  See 
Skuix;  for  the  anatomy  of  the  bones  of  the 
ear,  see  Eab;  Heabinq;  and  for  that  of  the 
dental  apparatus,  see  Teeth. 

The  Appendiculab  Skeleton.  Appendages  in 
vertebrates  may  be  divided  into  two  kinds:  (1) 
paired,  and  (2)  unpaired  or  median.  Paired 
appendages  are  represented  by  the  lateral  fins  of 
fishes,  and  the  legs  and  wings  of  higher  animals. 
Unpaired,  appendages  are  confined  chiefly  to 
fishes,  and  occur  in  the  sagittal  plane  dorsally, 
posteriorly,  and  ventrally.  Certain  deep-lying 
structures  which  support  the  appendages  must 
be  considered  in  connection  with  them.  The 
origin  of  the  appendages  is  a  much  disputed 
question.  Two  views,  however,  have  gained  cur- 
rency. That  of  Gegenbaur  depends  wholly  upon 
anatomical  evidences;  that  of  Balfour,  Dohrn, 
and  others  is  based  wholly  upon  embryological 
evidence.  Gegenbaur's  theory  is  that  the  shoul- 
der and  pelvic  girdles  have  each  been  derived  from 
one  gill-arch  and  that  the  appendages  are  modi- 
fied gill-rays — the  bony  processes  of  the  gill- 
arches,  supporting  the  gill-membrane.  Now  in 
such  a  gill-arch  one  frequently  finds  one  of  the 
middle  gill-rays  much  more  highly  developed  than 
the  others.  Sometimes  on  this  larger  ray  lateral 
rays  arrange  themselves.  From  this  latter  con- 
dition, which  occurs  in  Ceratodus,  may  be  de- 
rived and  explained  the  skeleton  of  the  limbs  of 
fishes  and  of  all  the  higher  vertebrates.  The 
girdles  have  been  derived  from  gill-arches.  The 
theory  of  Dohrn  rests  almost  wholly  upon  the 
evidence  afforded  by  ontogenetic  development. 
The  muscles  which  enter  the  arm  are  not  derived 
from  one  mesodermal  somite,  but  from  a  number 
(ten  to  thirty),  and  as  each  gill-arch  corre- 
sponds to  one  metamere,  the  appendages  cannot 
be  derived  from  gill-arches  and  their  rays.  More- 
over, the  muscles  of  the  appendages  are  derived 
from  the  dorsal  muscle-plates  and  those  of  the 
branchial  arches  from  the  lateral  plates  of  the 
head,  hence  the  musculature  of  the  two  are  de- 
rived from  entirely  different  sources.  Dohrn  be- 
lieves the  limbs  have  arisen  from  a  continuous 
fin,  which  is  paired  anteriorly,  but  fuses  poste- 
riorly to  form  an  unpaired  ventral  fin  that  ex- 
tends up  over  the  tail  to-the  mid-dorsal  line.  By 
a  failure  of  the  development  of  a  part  of  this 
continuous  fin  two  paired  ventral  fins  appear, 
as  well  as  median  or  impaired  ventral,  caudal, 
and  dorsal  fins.  The  evidence  for  this  Dohrn  finds 


in  the  fact  that  masses  of  muscles  are  constricted 
off  from  the  muscle-plate  in  the  interappendicular 
region  just  as  at  the  appendages;  these  muscles 
later  degenerate.  Dohrn  also  finds  muscle-masses 
given  off  in  each  somite  to  the  median  fin.  Hence 
the  median  fin  is  to  be  regarded  as  derived  from 
two  fused  lateral  fins. 

The  paired  appendages  of  vertebrates  fall  into 
two  types:  (1)  that  of  fishes,  and  (2)  that  of 
higher  vertebrates.  We  may  distinguish  in  each 
case  two  parts:  an  axial,  the  girdle,  and  a  peri- 
pheral, the  free  appendage.  It  seems  probable 
that  the  free  appendage  was  developed  first,  and 
that  the  girdle  arose  from  the  necessity  of  a  firm- 
er axial  support  for  them.  The  skeleton  of  the 
fins  of  fishes  is  composed  of  bone,  whereas  in 
selachians  it  is  cartilaginous.  The  plan  of  the 
formation  of  the  anterior  and  posterior  append- 
ages of  higher  vertebrates  is  the  same,  and  the  re- 
markable correspondence  of  their  anterior  and 
posterior  limbs  is  to  be  accounted  for  by  force  of 
similar  conditions,  for  in  none  of  the  existing 
fishes  are  the  fore  and  hind  limbs  alike.  One  of 
the  most  striking  instances  of  a  loss  of  parts,  as 
well  as  of  fusion  of  parts,  occurs  in  the  wing  of 
the  bird  (q.v.),  where  are  present  a  humerus,  a 
radius  and  ulna,  and  two  separate  carpal  bones 
only.  The  metacarpals  are  represented  by  two 
bones  fused  at  their  extremities  and  by  a  small 
bone  on  the  radial  side.  Still  distal  to  these  are 
two  rows  of  bones,  one  composed  of  two  pieces 
and  one  of  one  piece  only.  The  fossil  bird  Archse- 
opteryx  had  three  or  four  fingers.  The  fourth 
and  fifth  phalanges  have  dropped  out  entirely 
or  are  inextricably  fused  with  the  other  carti- 
lages. In  mammals  two  toes,  the  third  and 
fourth,  remain  in  artiodactyls  (ox,  etc.),  and  in 
perissodactyls  (horses)  only  one,  the  third,  per- 
sists, but  in  fossil  horses  (q.v.)  all  intermediate 
stages  from  a  five-toed  condition  have  been  dis- 
covered. In  man  a  number  of  cases  of  supernu- 
merary parts  (polydactylism)  occur.  This  is  a 
highly  inheritable  character,  regarded  by  Gegen- 
baur as  a  monstrosity,  but  by  Bardeleben  consid- 
ered as  a  case  of  atavism.  Such  a  six-fingered 
condition  is  found  in  the  adult  in  some  amphib- 
ians and  reptiles,  and  also  in  a  rodent  (Pedetes). 
The  human  carpals  are  eight  in  number,  arranged 
in  two  rows.  The  tarsal  bones  are  seven  in  num- 
ber. 

The  pectoral  girdle  arises  ontogenetically  later 
than  the  free  appendages.  In  mammals,  how- 
ever, this  part  is  characterized  by  a  reduction 
in  the  ventral  pair  of  pectoral  girdle  bones,  which 
mav  result  in  their  entire  absence.  The  coracoid 
is  lost  wherever  the  movement  of  the  arm  is  re- 
stricted to  an  ambulatory  one,  since  in  carnivores 
and  ungulates  the  clavicle  is  wanting.  In  such 
mammals  as  use  their  fore  feet  for  digging, 
flying,  or  feeding  the  clavicle  persists.  In  man 
the  outer  surface  of  the  sternum  is  provided  with 
a  prominent  ridge,  the  'spine  of  the  scapula,* 
which  runs  out  into  a  prominent  process,  the 
'acromium.'    See  Shouldeb  Gibdle;  Pelvis. 

The  human  skeleton  is  composed  of  200  distinct 
bones,  exclusive  of  the  32  teeth  and  the  ossicles 
in  each  tympanum.  It  is  divided  into  four  re- 
gions: (1)  the  skull,  composed  of  22  bones;  (2) 
the  trunk,  composed  of  54  bones;  (3)  the  upper 
extremities,  composed  of  64  bones;  and  (4)  the 
lower  extremities,  composed  of  60  bones. 

BiBLiOGBAPHY.  Besides  general  works  on  ver- 
tebrates,   anatomy,    and    paleontology,    consult: 


SKELETON. 


900 


Reynolds,  The  Vertebrate  Skeleton  (Cambridge, 
1897) ;  Flower,  Osteology  of  the  Mammalia  (Lon- 
don, 1885) ;  Parker  and  Bettanj,  Morphology 
of  the  Skull  (ib.,  1877) ;  Parker,  A  Monograph 
of  the  Shoulder  Qirdle  and  Sternum  {'Raj  Society, 
ib.,  1868) ;  Durst,  Entioickelungageschichte  dee 
Kopfea  dee  Menschen  und  der  hohem  Wirhel- 
thiere  (Tubingen,  1869)  ;  Gegenbaur,  Verglei- 
chende  Anatomie  der  Wirbelthiere  (Leipzig, 
1898). 

See  Anatomy;  Bone;  Gabtilage;  Shouldeb 
GiSDus;  Pelvis;  Foot;  Hand;  Leg,  etc. 

SKEIXIG8,  The.  A  group  of  rocky  islets 
off  the  southwestern  coast  of  Ireland.  They  be- 
long to  the  county  of  Kerry.  Great  Skellig,  in 
latitude  51^  46'  N.,  rises  714  feet,  and  has  two 
lighthouses  and  the  ruins  of  a  monastery. 

SEEL^ON,  John  (146071529).  An  English 
satirical  poet,  bom  probably  in  Norfolk.  He 
claimed  to  have  studied  at  both  Cambridge  and 
Oxford,  from  each  of  which  he  received  the  aca- 
demical honor  of  laureate.  Some  time  before  1500, 
Henry  VII.  appointed  him  tutor  to  Prince  Henry, 
afterwards  King  Henry  VIII.;  and  Erasmus,  in 
allusion  to  his  learning,  styled  him  ''a  light  and 
honour  of  British  literature."  At  this  time  Skel- 
ton  had  produced  some  translations,  and  had 
written  elegies  on  Edward  IV.  (1483)  and  the 
Duke  of  Northumberland  (1489).  He  entered 
the  Church  in  1498,  and  became  rector  of  Diss  in 
Norfolk.  Shortly  after  this  he  seems  to  have 
struck  into  that  vein  of  original  vernacular 
poetry  for  which  he  stands  by  himself  among 
our  elder  poets.  It  consists  in  a  flow  of  voluble 
verse,  unrestrained  satire  and  jocularity,  and  a 
profusion  of  grotesque  imagery  mixed  with  Latin 
and  colloquial  (East- Anglian)  phrases.  For  a 
jingling  and  ludicrous  effect,  he  employed  short 
lines,  varying  from  four  to  six  syllables  and 
running  on  rhymes  sometimes  repeated  seven 
times  over.  Caxton  said  that  Skelton  improved 
the  English  tongue.  At  times  he  has  gleams  of 
bright  fancy  and  snatches  of  pleasant  description. 
Of  this  higher  class  is  his  Phylyp  Sparowe,  a 
nun's  lament  for  the  death  of  a  pet  sparrow 
killed  by  a  cat.  Very  graceful  are  many  passages 
in  a  long  allegorical  poem  entitled  The  Oarlande 
of  Laurellf  such,  for  example,  as  the  ballad  on 
Margaret  Hussey.  Noteworthy,  too,  is  The  Bowge 
of  Court,  an  early  allegory  on  the  right  to  rations 
at  the  King's  table.  The  most  humorous  of  his 
pictures  of  low  life  are  contained  in  The  Tun- 
nynge  [or  brewing]  of  Elynour  Rummyng,  an 
ale-wife  at  Leatherhead,  in  Surrey.  This  poem 
was  highly  popular  and  was  often  reprinted  in 
black-letter,  garnished  with  a  rude  wood-cut  of 
the  fat  hostess.  His  best  satires  are  Colyn  Cloute, 
and  Why  Come  Ye  not  to  Courtef  The  former 
is  a  general  satire  on  the  clergy,  and  the  latter 
a  furious  attack  on  Cardinal  Wolsey,  from  whom 
the  poet  had  not  received  expected  preferment. 
The  angry  Cardinal  ordered  his  libeler  to  be  ar- 
rested, but  Skelton  took  sanctuary  at  West- 
minster, under  the  protection  of  Abbot  John 
Islip.  In  this  retreat  Skelton  remained  till  his 
death.  Skelton  wrote  three  morality  plays,  of 
which  only  Magnyfycence  has  survived.  In  the 
development  of  the  English  drama  it  occupies 
an  important  place.  Of  Skelton's  many  other 
lost  pieces  A  Balade  of  the  Scotyehe  Kynge  was 
discovered  in  1878.    It  was  reprinted  by  J.  Ash- 


ton  in  1882.  Skelton  was  not  the  author  of  the 
jests  and  merry  tales  which  have  circulated 
under  his  name.  His  free  verse  and  allegory 
had  marked  influence  on  Sackville,  Spenser,  and 
other  Elizabethans.  His  works  were  collected  in 
1568,  and  reprinted  in  1736.  The  standard  edi- 
tion is  by  Alexander  Dyoe  (2  vols.,  London, 
1843). 

SKELTON'  AND  BBOT^TON'.     A  manufae- 

turing  town  in  the  North  Riding  of  Yorkshire, 
England,  10  miles  southeast  of  Middlesbrough 
(Map:  England,  E  2).  It  contains  an  ancient 
and  interesting  church  of  Early  English  archi- 
tecture, and  Skelton  Castle,  the  family  seat  of 
the  Barons  de  Brus  (Bruce),  the  ancestors  of  the 
Scotch  ELings  Bruce.  Population,  in  1901, 
13,260. 

SKENE,  sk«n,  Philip  (1726-1810).  An  Eng- 
lish soldier,  bom  in  London  of  a  prominent 
Scotch  family.  He  entered  the  English  army  in 
1736,  and  participated  in  campaigns  on  the  Con- 
tinent, and  in  the  battle  of  Culloden.  In  1756 
he  came  to  America,  and  served  under  Howe  and 
Amherst  in  their  expeditions  against  Ticonderoga 
and  Crown  Point  in  the  French  and  Indian  War. 
Subsequently  he  took  part  in  the  Havana  expedi- 
tion. In  1759,  through  grant  and  purchase,  he 
acquired  a  piece  of  land  more  than  60,000  acres 
in  area  aloi{g  Lake  Champlain,  where  he  founded 
the  town  of  Skenesborough  (now  Whitehall,  N. 
Y.).  During  the  Revolutionary  War  he  was  a 
Loyalist,  and  served  with  Howe  at  New  York 
and  later  with  Burgoyne,  during  the  course  ol 
whose  invasion  Skenesborough  was  burned  by 
the  British  before  Skene's  eyes,  by  order  of  Gen- 
eral Haldim,  to  prevent  its  being  used  as  a 
base  for  the  Americans.  After  the  war  Skene 
went  to  New  York  with  the  intention  of  becom- 
ing an  American  citizen,  but  his  estates  were 
confiscated,  and  he  was  compelled  to  return  to 
England,  where  he  became  a  pensioner  of  the 
Crown. 

SKENE,  WiLUAM  FoBBBS  (1809-92).  A 
Scottish  historian,  son  of  James  Skene  (1775- 
1864)  of  Rubislaw,  near  Aberdeen.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Edinburgh  High  School,  and  studied 
in  Germany  and  at  Saint  Andrews.  Apprenticed 
to  an  unclcj  he  became  a  writer  to  the  signet 
(1832),  and  followed  his  profession  in  Edinburgh 
for  forty  years.  He  was  also  for  a  lonj^  period 
clerk  of  the  bills  of  the  Court  of  Session.  He 
was  admitted  to  many  learned  societies,  and  in 
1881  he  became  historiographer  royal  for  Scot- 
land. Skene  was  one  of  the  most  thoroughly 
equipped  Celtic  scholars  of  the  time,  and  as  an 
historian  he  ranks  amoi^;^  the  first  that  Scotland 
has  produced.  His  principal  works  are:  The 
Highlandere  of  Scotland,  Their  Originj  Hietory^ 
and  Antiquities  ( 1837)  ;  The  Four  Ancient  Books 
of  Wales  (1868)  ;  and  Celtic  Scotland  (1876-80), 
in  three  volumes,  treating  respectively  of  "His- 
tory and  Ethnology,"  "Church  and  Culture,"  and 
"Land  and  People."  Besides  these  works  and 
numerous  papers  for  the  Society  of  Antiquaries 
of  Scotland,  Skene  also  edited  The  Chronicles  of 
the  Picts  and  Scots  (1867)  ;  The  Chronicles  of 
John  Fordun  (1871);  and  Adamnan's  lAfe  of 
Saint  Columha  (1874).  Consult  his  Memorials 
of  the  Family  of  Skene  (New  Spalding  Club  of 
Aberdeen,  1887) ;  and  Proceedings  of  the  Society 
of  Scottish  Antiquaries  (Edinburgh,  1892). 


SKEPTICISM. 


901 


SKIING* 


SKEPTICISM  (from  sJeeptio,  OF.,  Fr.  aoep- 
tique,  from  Gk.  ffKewruc^j  aheptikos,  inquiring^ 
from  ffKhtrwBojL,  skepteathai,  to  consider;  con* 
nected  with  Lat.  apecere,  to  look,  OHG.  apehdn, 
Ger.  apdhen,  to  spy,  Skt.  apai,  to  look).  A  term 
applied  in  philosophy  to  any  system  which  leaves 
in  doubt  either  the  existence  of  a  world  of  reality 
transcending  experience  (metaphysical  skepti- 
cism) or  the  possibility  of  a  valid  knowledge 
(epistemolofi;ical  skepticism).  As,  however,  doubt 
as  to  metaphysical  reality  in  the  last  resort  rests 
on  suspicion  of  man's  ability  to  know  anything 
about  such  reality,  all  skepticism  is  ultimately 
epistemological ;  i.e.  it  rests  upon  views  as  to 
the  scope  and  validity  of  knowledge.  The  Sophists 
(q.v.)  of  the  fifth  century  b.o.  were  many  of 
them  skeptics,  (jorgias  (q.v.)  declared  that  all 
statements  are  false,,  and  the  reason  he  gave  was 
that  a  true  judgment  is  an  expression  of  abso- 
lute identity;  this  contention  may  be  illustrated 
by  an  insistence  that  no  man  is  good,  for  the 
simple  reason  that  every  man  is  man,  and  only 
good  is  good.  Such  a  doctrine  involving  the 
falsehood  of  all  significant  propositions  is  im- 
plicitly  at  least  a  denial  of  the  possibility  of 
all  real  knowledge.  Gorgias  even  went  further 
and  argued  that  there  is  nothing  (nihilism,  q.v.) ; 
adding  that  if  there -were  anything  it  could  not 
be  known  (skepticism),  and  even  if  it  could  be 
known,  it  could  not  be  taught.  Protagoras  of 
Abdera  (q.v.)  taught  that  all  we  could  know  is 
our  perception  of  things,  but  not  things.  Man 
is  the  measure  of  the  Knowable  Universe.  After 
the  constructive  work  of  Socrates,  Plato,  and 
Aristotle,  it  was  natural  that  skepticism  should 
by  reaction  take  a  more  definite  stand,  and  this 
it  did  in  Pyrrho  and  his  school.  Pyrrho's  main 
thesis  was  that  things  are  inaccessible  to  our 
knowledge,  and  hence  it  is  becoming  in  us  to 
suspend  judgment.  It  seems  that  the  school  of 
Pyrrho  was  the  first  to  win  the  appellation  of 
'skeptics,'  and  so  representative  was  its  skepti- 
cism that  to.  this  day  the  word  Pyrrhonism,  de- 
rived from  the  name  of  the  founder  of  the  school, 
is  used  as  synonymous  with  skepticism  of  a 
thorough -going  kind.  Timon,  Pyrrho's  pupil, 
carried  skepticism  to  its  logical  conclusion, 
which  of  course  is  contradictory  with  and  yet 
necessitated  by  the  premise  from  which  it  is 
drawn.  This  premise  is  that  equally  good  rea- 
sons can  be  given  for  any  proposition  and  for  its 
contradiction.  This  principle  applied  to  the  doc- 
trines of  skepticism  themselves  involves  the  re- 
sult that  as  good  reasons  can  be  given  for  an 
anti-skeptical  as  for  a  skeptical  view.  This  re- 
sult of  course  takes  away  all  reasonable  advan- 
tage which  the  doubter  may  claim  to  have  over 
his  opponent,  and  the  only  course  left  for  him  is 
to  give  expression  to  his  suspense  of  judgment  by 
silence  on  the  subject  of  skepticism.  The  Middle 
Academy,  of  whom  Arcesilaus  (q.v.)  and  Came- 
adea  (q.v.)  were  the  most  prominent  leaders, 
were  somewhat  less  radical  in  their  skepticism; 
they  had  the  logical  grace  to  have  some  doubts 
as  to  the  truth  of  a  skepticism  that  doubted 
everything. .  ^Enesidemus  (q.v.)  elaborated  ten 
reasons  for  skepticism,  and  called  them  tropes 
(Greek,  iropoi,  methods,  i.e.  of  proving  skepti- 
cism). Agrippa  and  Sextus  Empiricus  (q.v.) 
were  other  noted  skeptics  of  antiquity.  In  the 
Middle  Ages  Algazel  (q.v.)  in  Arabia  and  Duns 
Sootus    (q.v.)   in  Europe  joined  a  philosophical 


skepticism  with  an  unswerving  religious  faith. 
With  the  Renaissance,  the  influence  of  ancient 
skepticism  began  to  show  itself  in  the  writings 
of  such  men  as  Montaigne  (q.v.),  Sanchez, 
and  Charron  (q.v.),  but  modem  skepticism  did 
not  find  its  adequate  expression  till  Hume  (q.v.) 
wrote  his  celebrated  Treatiae  of  Human  Nature 
(1739).  In  Book  I.  of  this  work  is  to  be  found 
the  conclusion  which  Hume  draws  from  his  pre- 
vious speculations,  and  not  even  those  experi- 
ences of  life  which  have  a  practical  import  here 
escape  the  touch  of  doubt.  "In  all  the  incidents 
of  life  we  ought  still  to  preserve  our  skepticism. 
If  we  believe  that  fire  warms,  or  water  refreshes, 
'tis  only  because  it  costs  us  too  much  pains  to 
think  otherwise."  "A  true  skeptic  will  be  diffi- 
dent of  his  philosophical  doubts,  as  well  as  of  his 
philosophical  conviction;  and  will  never  refuse 
any  innocent  satisfaction,  which  offers  itself, 
upon  account  of  either  of  them."  Kant  (q.v.) 
and  Spencer  (q.v.)  are  dogmatic  skeptics  with 
regard  to  ultimate  reality.  We  know  the  phe- 
nomenal world,  but  the  world  of  things-in-them- 
selves  (Kant)  or  the  absolute  (Spencer)  is  im- 
knowable.  This  dogmatic  skepticisna  is  at  the 
present  day  called  agnosticism  (q.v.).  For  a 
criticism  of  skepticism,  see  Knowledge,  Theobt 
OF.  See  also  Janets  'rLe  scepticisme  modeme," 
in  Mattrea  de  la  pena4e  modeme  (Paris,  1883) ; 
Owen,  Eveninga  with  the  Soeptica  (London, 
1881);  Brochard,  Lea  aceptiquea  greca  (Paris, 
1887) ;  Maccoll,  The  Oreek  Sceptica  from  Pyr- 
rho to  Bextua  (London,  1869). 

SEEBOEIYVOKE.  A  dangerous  rock  in  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  12  miles  southwest  of  the  island 
of  Tiree  of  the  Inner  Hebrides.  A  large  light- 
house was  with  great  difficulty  constructed  here 
in  1838-44.    See  Lighthouse. 

SKETCH-BOOK,  The.  A  collection  of  tales 
and  sketches  of  travel,  chiefly  in  England,  by 
Washington  Irving  (1820)  under  the  name 
"Geoffrey  Crayon."  The  best  known  of  the  tales 
are  "Rip  Van  Winkle"  and  "The  Legraid  of 
Sleepy  Hollow." 

SKETGH^IiEY,  Asthttb.    See  Rose,  Gbobgb. 

SSHEN,  skSn.  A  town  of  Southern  Norway, 
on  the  Skiens  Elv^  62  miles  southwest  of  Chris- 
tiania  (Map:  Norway,  0  7).  It  has  a  handsome 
town  hall,  and  has  been  substantially  rebuilt 
since  the  last  great  fire  in  1886.  It  has  a  num- 
ber of  cotton,  flour,  and  saw  mills,  and  manufac- 
tures wood  pulp,  paper,  furniture,  and  chemicals. 
There  is  a  copper  mine  in  the  neighborhood,, and 
the  chief  exports  are  ice,  timber,  wood  pulp,  and 
copper.  Inland  tourist  steamers  depart  from 
Skien  for  the  lakes  of  Telemarken.  Skien  is  the 
birthplace  of  Ibsen.    Population,  in  1901,  11,343. 

SKUNO,  ske^ng  (from  Dan.,  Norweg.  aki, 
from  Icel.  akl^f^  snow-shoe,  billet  of  wood,  AS. 
ficftf,  OHG.  adty  Ger.  Scheit,  billet  of  wood;  con- 
nected with  Lith.  akedrdf  Lett,  akaida^  Gk.  ax^^a, 
achiza,  splinter,  Skt.  ch^,  to  split).  The  method 
by  which  the  inhabitants  of  Norway,  Sweden, 
parts  of  Russia,  and  parts  of  North  and  South 
America  propel  themselves  over  the  snow.  The 
ski  is,  in  fact,  the  Norseman's  snow-shoe,  differ- 
ing from  the  American  Indian  snow-shoe  in  hav- 
ing its  bearing  surface  of  solid  wood  and  not  a 
webbed  frame.  The  antiquity  of  the  ski  is  veiy 
great.  The  runners  are  made  of  hard  pine  or 
ash,  generally  from  six  to  eight  feet  long,  one- 


SKIING. 


902 


quarter  of  an  inch  thicks  and  as  wide  as 
tne  sole  of  the  foot.  The  toe  end  of  it 
is  sloped  gradually  upward,  to  avoid  obsta- 
cles, and  narrows  to  a  point  at  its  extreme 
limit;  those  used  by  women  are  a  trifle  shorter 
than  the  men's.  A  shallow  groove  about  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  deep  and  one  inch  wide  is  cut 
in  the  under  surface  or  palm,  as  it  is  called;  this 
forms  a  slender  ridge  in  the  snow  and  prevents 
slipping.  Sometimes  the  palm  is  left  bare,  some- 
times it  is  covered  with  skin,  the  hair  on  which 
acts  as  a  grip  in  climbing  hills;  and  sometimes 
with  horn,  which  facilitates  its  down-hill  glide. 
Midway  on  the  top  of  the  skin  is  a  strap  or  laced 
thong  called  the  binding,  with  which  the  foot  is 
held  in  position,  and  sometimes  a  heel  strap  is 
used.  Special  shoes  are  worn  made  of  thick  soft 
leather,  pointed  and  bent  upward  at  the  toes  so  as 
to  fit  the  loop  or  binding.  The  rider  carries  a  atav, 
a  strong  wooden  stick  with  a  small  wheel  at  the 
trailing  end,  by  which  he  starts  himself  and 
steers.  The  motion  differs  from  the  step  of  the 
Indian  snow-shoe;  it  is  a  glide,  zig-zagging  up 
hill,  and  a  slide  or  shoot  down  hill.  Skiing  is 
the  common  winter  method  of  locomotion  in 
Northern  Europe,  and  is  considerably  used  in 
Northwestern  America,  especially  in  the  States  of 
Minnesota  and  Wisconsin. 

Both  in  Norway  and  America  skiing  is  the  oc- 
casion of  great  gatherings  for  competitions.  In 
America  the  first  ski  club  was  formed  in  Minne- 
apolis in  1881  and  other  clubs  soon  followed. 
In  1890  a  national  association  of  clubs  was  or- 
ganized for  the  regulation  of  the  annual  tour- 
neys, called  the  Ski  Association  of  the  North- 
west. The  greatest  ski  contests  are  those  held 
at  Holmenkollen  and  FrognerssBteren,  near 
Christiania,  Norway,  in  February  each  year.  At 
these  there  are  contests  in  long  and  short  dis- 
tance skiing  runs  and  jumping.  The  long  dis- 
tance run  is  generally  about  twenty  miles,  round 
trip.  The  jump  is  from  a  take-on  erected  mid- 
way do^n  a  sloping  hillside,  and  when  the  slid- 
ing skiman  reaches  it  he  stoops,  rises  in  the 
air,  and  must,  to  be  successful,  land  on  his  feet 
and  keep  his  equilibrium  to  the  end  of  the 
course. 

SKILLY.  A  fish,  the  common  British  chub. 
See  Chub;  and  Plate  of  Carps  and  Allies. 

SKIMBACK.  A  local  name  in  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley  for  a  fish,  one  of  the  most  common 
of  the  carp-suckers  (Carpiodes  cyprinus),  other- 
wise known  as  'sailfish,'  'quillback,'  etc. 

SKIMMEB,  or  Scissorsbill.  A  sea-bird  of 
the  genus  Rhynchops,  related  to  the  gulls,  re- 
markable for  having  a  bill  of  a  straight,  com- 
pressed, unequal  form.  The  common  skimmer  of 
the  North  Atlantic  {Rhynchopa  nigra)  ^  which  oc- 
curs in  late  summer  as  far  north  as  the  Bay  of 
Fundy,  is  about  19  inches  long,  spreading  its 
wings  44  inches;  and  is  black  above  and  white 
below,  with  the  legs  and  webbed  feet  red,  and 
the  bill  orange  and  black.  It  breeds  along  coasts 
after  the  manner  of  gulls  generally,  and  is  con- 
fined to  the  tropics  in  winter.  When  feeding  the 
bird  flies  to  the  surface  of  the  ocean,  with  the 
blade-like  lower  mandible  under  water,  and  plows 
through  the  water,  skimming  up  its  food.  Two 
other  species  are  Asiatic. 

SKIM  MILK.  Milk  after  the  cream  has 
been  removed  by  skimming  or  by  the  separator 


(q.y.).  It  is  largely  lued  as  a  stock  food, 
especially  for  young  animals.  During  the  clos- 
ing decade  of  the  last  century  a  substance 
called  plasmon  was  made  from  it  and  placed 
upon  the  market.  This  is  a  flour-like  material 
which  contains  a  high  percentage  of  proteids, 
and  is  used  for  bread  and  cracker  making  and 
for  mixing  with  cocoa. 

SKIM^OLE,  Harold.  An  amateur  artist  in 
Dickens's  Bleak  House,  plausible  but  selfish,  who 
lived  on  his  friends.  He  was  supposed  to  be 
a  portrait  of  Leigh  Hunt,  but  Dickens  emphatic- 
ally denied  any  such  intention. 

SKIK  ( Icel.  skinn;  connected  with  OHG.  scinr 
tan,  scindan,  Ger.  schindeih  to  flay) .  Considered  in 
its  general  physiological  and  histological  relation, 
the  skin  is  merely  a  part  of  the  great  mucous  sys- 
tem to  which  the  mucous  membrane  and  secret^ 
ing  glands  also  belong,  and  which  consists  of  two 
essential  elements,  a  basement  tissue,  composed 
of  simple  cutaneous  membrane,  and  an  epithelium 
of  nucleated  particles  resting  on  it,  wiiile  be- 
neath the  basement  membrane  are  vessels,  nerves, 
and  connective  tissue.  (See  Epithelium  and  Mu- 
cous Membbaite.)  In  the  skin  the  hard  and 
thick  epithelium  is  termed  cuticle  or  epidermis, 
and  the  true  skin  below  it  is  termed  the  derma, 
or  corium  or  cutis  vera,  and  is  chiefly  formed 
of  modified  and  very  dense  connective  ( or  areolar 
or  cellular)  tissue. 

The  external  surface  of  the  skin  formed  by  the 
cuticle  is  marked  by  furrows  of  different  kinds. 
Some  (termed  furrows  of  motion)  occur  trans- 
versely in  the  neighborhood  of  joints,  on  the 
side  of  flexion ;  others  correspond  to  the  insertion 
of  cutaneous  muscles;  while  others,  of  quite  an- 
other kind,  are  seen  in  aged  and  emaciated  per- 
sons, and  after  the  subsidence  of  any  great  dis- 
tention of  the  integument;  and  besides  these 
coarse  lines,  most  parts  of  the  skin  are  grooved 
with  very  minute  furrows,  which  assume  various 
courses  in  relation  to  one  another.  These  minute 
furrows  are  most  distinctly  seen  on  the  palmar 
aspect  of  the  hand  and  fingers,  and  on  the  sole 
of  the  foot.  The  outer  surface  of  the  skin  also 
presents  innumerable  pores  for  the  discharge  of 
the  contents  of  the  sudoriparous  and  sebaceous 
follicles,  or  the  sweat  and  fat  glands;  and  the 
modifications  of  epidermis  known  as  hair  and 
nails  occur  on  the  same  surface.  The  epidermis 
is  composed  of  stratified  epithelial  cells  united 
to  each  other  by  a  cement  substance.  Its  entire 
thickness  varies  from  0.08  to  0.12  of  a  micro- 
millimeter.  The  outermost  layer  is  known  as  the 
stratum  oomeum,  and  is  composed  of  several 
strata  of  dry,  homy  scales,  without  nuclei.  Be- 
neath this  lies  the  stratum  lueidum,  a  thin,  clear, 
transparent  layer  of  homy  cells  with  faint  nuclei, 
and  next  beneath  this  lies  the  stratum  granulo- 
sum  (or  rete  mucosum,  or  rete  Malpighii),  which 
overlies  and  dips  into  the  spaces  between  the 
papillse  of  the  corium.  The  Malpigfaian  layer 
is  composed  of  many  strata  of  nucleated  cells, 
which  are  flattened  in  the  superficial  layers,  but 
polyhedral  in  the  deep  portion.  The  pigment  of 
the  skin  is  found  in  the  rete  Malpigkit. 

The  deep  layer  of  the  skin  consists  of  connec- 
tive tissue,  in  which  both  the  white  and  yellow 
fibrous  elements  are  considerably  modified  as  to 
the  proportions  in  which  they  occur,  and  iin- 
striped  muscular  fibre  is  present  in  no  Inconsid- 
erable quantity  in  some  parts  of  the  skin.    Where 


908 


SKIK. 


great  extensibility,  with  elasticity,  is  required, 
the  yellow   (elastic)  element  predominates;  and 
where   strength  and  resistance  are  specially  re- 
quired, as  in  the  sole  of  the  foot,  the  corium  is 
chiefly  composed  of  a  dense  interweaving  of  the 
white    (inelastic)    element.     The  thickness  and 
strength  of  this  layer  differ  greatly  in  different 
parts,  according  to  the  amount  of  resistance  re- 
quired against  pressure.    The  skin  is  thicker  on 
tne  hinder  surface  of  the  body  than  in  front,  and 
on  the  outer  than  on  the  inner  sides  of  the  limbs. 
It   is    unusually  thin  over   the   flexures  of  the 
joints.     It  is  particularly  delicate  in  the  eyelids, 
and  proportionately  so  in  some  other  situations 
where   great  mobility  is  demanded.     In  regions 
which  are  most  subject  to  external  pressure,  as 
the  soles  of  the  feet,  it  is  firmly  united  by  very 
dense   laminse  to  the  subcutaneous  fascia;    and 
the    intervals  between  these  are  provided  with 
pellets  of  fat,  forming  a  cushion,  as  an  additional 
means  of  protection  to  the  delicate  organs  it  in- 
closes and  covers.     It  is  on  the  external  surface 
of  the  cutis  that  the  tactile  papillcB,  or  true  or- 
gans   of   touch    are   developed.     The   corium    is 
divided     into    the     'reticular*     and     'papillary* 
portions,     the     latter    being    the     reddish-gray 
external    superficial    layer    which    contains    the 
upper    portion    of    the    hair    follicles    and    cu- 
taneous   glands,    and    whose    most    important 
elements  are  these  tactile  papillae.   They  are  most 
abundant  and  largest  in  the  palm  of  the  hand 
and  the  sole  of  the  foot,  while  in  the  back  and  in 
the  outer  sides  of  the  limbs  they  are  almost  en- 
tirely absent.     They  occur  as  small,  semi-trans- 
parent, flexible  elevations,  which  are  usually  con- 
ical or  club-shaped  in  form ;  but  in  certain  parts, 
as  the  palm  of  the  hand,  present  numerous  points 
(in  which  case  they  are  termed  compound  papil- 
Isb)  .     In  one  square  line  of  the  palm  of  the  hand, 
it  has  been  calculated  that  there  are  81   com- 
pound and  from  150  to  200  smaller  papillae,  ar- 
ranged in  tolerably  regular  rows. 

lie  glands  occurring  in  the  skin  are  the  sudor- 
iparaus  or  sweat  glands,  the  sebaceous  or  fat 
glands,  and  the  ceruminous  glands.  The  sweat 
glands  exist  in  almost  every  part  of  the  human 
skin.  They  lie  in  small  pits  in  the  deepest  parts 
of  the  true  skin,  and  sometimes  entirely  below 
the  skin.  Their  orifices  can  be  seen  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  cross  grooves  that  intersect  the  ridges 
of  the  papilla  on  the  hands  and  feet,  their  ar- 
rangement being  here  necessarily  regular,  while 
in  other  parts  they  are  irregularly  scattered. 
Their  size  and  number  in  different  regions  of  the 
skin  correspond  with  the  amoimt  of  perspiration 
3rielded  by  each  part;  thus  they  are  nowhere  so 
much  developed  as  in  the  axilla  or  armpit.  In 
that  part  of  the  region  which  in  the  adult  is 
more  or  less  covered  with  hair,  they  form  a  layer 
of  a  reddish  color,  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch 
thick.  They  are  soft,  and  m^re  or  less  flattened 
by  their  pressure  on  one  another,  being  imbedded 
in  delicate  connective  tissue,  and  covered  and 
permeated  with  a  network  of  capillaries.  On 
isolating  one  of  these  glands,  and  highly  magni- 
fying it,  it  is  found  to  consist  of  a  solitary  tube, 
intricately  raveled,  one  end  of  which  is  closed 
and  hidden  within  the  glandular  mass,  while  the 
other  emerges  from  the  gland.  The  wall  of  the 
tube  consists  of  an  outer  or  basement  membrane, 
with  which  the  blood-vessels  are  in  contact,  and 
an  epithelium,  lining  the  interior,  the  former 


disappearing  when  the  tube  reaches  the  surface 
of  the  papillae.  The  duct,  on  leaving  the  gland, 
follows  a  meandering  and  rather  spiral  direction 
through  the  reticular  portion  of  the  cutis  to  the 
interval  between  the  papillae,  when  it  becomes 
straight;  and  it  again  assumes  a  spiral  course 
in  perforating  the  cuticle. 

The  sebaceous  glands  are  small  whitish  glands, 
which  exist  in  almost  every  part  of  the  slun,  ex- 
cept the  palms  and  soles,  and  are  especially 
abundant  in  the  scalp,  face  (the  nose  being  par- 
ticularly rich  in  them),  and  about  the  anus. 
They  are  usually  connected  with  the  hairs,  and 
consist  of  a  duct  terminating  in  a  blind  pouch- 
like or  pear-shaped  extremity.  The  basement 
membrane  of  these  glands  is  lined  by  an  epithe- 
lium, in  the  particles  of  which  are  included  gran- 
ules of  fatty  or  sebaceous  matter,  which,  having 
become  detached,  constitutes  the  secretion.  These 
glands  are  the  seat  of  the  parasite  known  as 
Acarus  folliculorum   (q.v.). 

The  ceruminous  glands  are  brown  simple 
glands,  in  external  appearance  like  the  sudoripa- 
rous glands,  occurring  in  the  cartilaginous  por- 
tion of  the  external  meatus  of  the  ear.  They 
yield  an  adhesive  bitter  secretion,  which  protects 
the  membrane  of  the  tympanum  from  the  access 
of  dust,  insects,  etc. 

Regarded  as  a  protective  covering,  the  skin 
possesses  the  combined  advantages  of  toughness, 
resistance,  flexibility,  and  elasticity;  the  connec- 
tive framework  being  the  part  which  mainly  con- 
fers these  properties,  although  the  epidermis  co- 
operates with  it.  The  subcutaneous  layer  of  fat, 
and  the  modifications  of  epidermis  in  various 
forms,  as  hairs,  wool,  feathers,  scales,  etc.,  serve 
for  the  preservation  of  warmth,  and  occasionally 
( when  they  occur  as  claws,  talons,  etc. )  as  means 
of  offense  or  defense.  Besides  preserving  the 
warmth  of  the  body,  the  skin  has  also  the  power 
of  reducing  body  temperature  by  the  evaporation 
of  sweat.  The  skin  is  the  seat  of  a  twofold  ex- 
cretion, viz.  of  that  formed  by  the  sudoriparous 
glands  and  that  formed  by  the  sebaceous  glands. 
The  fluid  secreted  by  the  sudoriparous  glands  is 
usually  formed  so  gradually  that  the  watery  por- 
tions of  it  escape  by  evaporation  as  soon  as  it 
reaches  the  surface;  but  in  certain  conditions,  as 
during  strong  exercise,  or  when  the  external  heat 
is  excessive,  or  in  certain  diseases,  or  when  the 
evaporation  -is  prevented  by  the  application  of  a 
texture  impermeable  to  air,  as  for  example  oiled 
silk,  or  mackintosh,  or  india-rubber  cloth,  the  se- 
cretion, instead  of  evaporating,  collects  on  the 
skin  in  the  form  of  drops  of  fluid.  When  it  is 
stated  that  the  sweat  contains  urea,  lactates,  ex- 
tractive matters,  etc.,  and  that  the  amount  of  wa- 
tery vapor  exhaled  from  the  skin  is  on  an  average 
two  pounds  daily,  the  importance  of  the  sudo- 
riparous glands  as  organs  of  excretion  will  be  at 
once  manifest.  The  secretion  of  the  sebaceous 
glands  is  a  semi-fluid  oily  mass,  which  often  solidi- 
fies into  a  white  viscid  tallow-like  matter  on  the 
surface  or  in  the  glandular  ducts,  from  which  it 
can  be  removed  by  pressure,  in  a  form  resembling 
that  of  a  small  whitish  worm  or  maggot. 

The  skin  is,  moreover,  an  organ  of  absorption. 
Mercurial  preparations,  when  rubbed  into  the 
skin,  have  the  same  action  as  when  given  inter- 
nally. Potassio-tartrate  of  antimony,  when 
rubbed  into  the  skin  in  the  form  of  ointment  or 
solution,  may  excite  vomiting,  or  an  eruption  ex- 


sxnr. 


904 


fOaXVESL 


tending  over  the  whole  body,  and  many  other 
illustrationB  might  be  given.  The  effect  of  rub- 
bing is  probably  to  force  the  particles  of  the  mat- 
ter into  the  orifices  of  the  glands,  where  they  are 
more  easily  absorbed  than  they  would  be  through 
the  epidermis.  It  has  been  proved  by  experiment 
that  the  skin  has  the  power  of  absorbing  water, 
although  to  a  less  extent  than  occurs  in  thin- 
skinned  animals,  such  as  frogs  and  lizards. 
This  fact  has  a  practical  application.  In  severe 
cases  of  dysphagia — difficult  swallowing — ^when 
not  even  nuids  can  be  taken  into  the  stomach, 
immersion  in  a  bath  of  warm  water,  or  of  milk 
and  water,  may  assuage  the  thirst.  Sailors,  also, 
when  destitute  of  fresh  water,  find  their  urgent 
thirst  allayed  by  soaking  their  clothes  in  salt 
water.  Further,  the  skin  possesses  a  respiratory 
function,  giving  off  a  small  amoimt  of  carbon 
dioxide  and  talung  up  a  small  quantity  of  oxygen 
in  twenty-four  hours.  In  thin-skinned  animals 
such  as  the  frog,  the  excretion  of  carbon  dioxide 
through  this  channel  is  very  active.  When  a  frog 
is  immersed  in  oil  death  takes  place  sooner  than 
by  ligature  of  the  bronchi,  but  in  the  case  of  man 
and  the  higher  animals,  where  varnish  and  other 
impervious  substances  have  been  applied  to  the 
skin,  death  has  taken  place  from  other  causes 
than  suffocation. 

SKIN  DISEASE.  A  morbid  condition  of  the 
skin,  occurring  as  a  local  disorder  or  as  a  local 
symptom  of  a  constitutional  disease.  Skin  dis- 
eases are  classed  according  to  the  anatomical 
manifestations  or  the  pathological  relations  in- 
volved. MocuUb  include  spots  which  do  not  dis- 
appear on  pressure,  such  as  freckles,  moles,  and 
birthmarks.  Exanthemata  include  rashes  in 
which  there  are  eruptions  of  spots  variously 
grouped,  red,  inflammatory,  and  fading  on  pres- 
sure, as  in  measles,  roseola,  purpura,  and  urti- 
caria. PapulcB,  or  pimples,  are  pointed  or  round- 
ed elevations  with  or  without  change  of  color. 
Tuherclea  are  solid  elevations  of  the  cutis  of 
various  sizes,  and  include  boils,  warts,  and  lupus. 
Vesicles  are  small  blebs  containing  fluid,  such  as 
in  eczema,  miliaria,  or  varicella.  BuIUb  are  larg- 
er vesicles,  as  in  pemphigus.  Pustules  are  vesi- 
cles containing  purulent  fluid.  Furfura  is  the 
term  given  to  bran-like  scales,  easily  separable, 
as  in  dandruff.  Squamw  are  scales  of  larger 
size  than  furfura.  Scabs,  or  crusts,  are  collec- 
tions of  mottled  epidermis,  exudation,  dust,  and 
blood,  or  pus,  of  varying  tint  and  thickness.  Skin 
diseases  are  largely  grouped  upon  the  existence 
of  the  characteristics  just  named  in  classification. 
They  are  separately  treated  in  this  work. 

SKIN-GRAFTING.  In  cases  of  extensive 
destruction  of  the  skin,  leaving  large  sores  that 
do  not  heal,  and  also  in  treating  old  ulcers, 
small  particles  of  skin,  cut  from  the  patient  or 
another  person,  are  placed  upon  the  raw  surface. 
Here  they  soon  become  attached  and  grow,  form- 
ing a  number  of  small  islands  or  patches  of  skin 
over  the  surface  of  the  ulcer ;  these  in  time  spread 
till  all  is  covered.  Sometimes  small  pieces  of 
skin,  about  the  size  of  the  head  of  a  pin,  are 
used;  but  frequently  grafts  of  the  superficial 
?kin  (one-half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in 
width  and  two  to  three  inches  in  length)  are  cut 
with  a  razor  and  are  transplanted  to  the  denuded 
area  after  it  has  become  covered  with  healthy 
i^anulations.  In  this  way  some  sores  are  cured 
which    otherwise    would    never    heal.      This    is 


termed  Thiersch's  method.     See  BsmOFLksno 
Opebation. 

SKINK  (from  Lat.  soincus,  from  Gk.  ^idynt, 
skinkos,  sort  of  lizard).  A  small  lizard  {Scincus 
cffiGinalis)  of  the  sandy  deserts  of  North  Africa 
and  Southwestern  Asia.  It  is  from  six  to  eight 
inches  long,  reddish-dun  in  color,  with  darker 
transverse  bands,  a  wedge-shaped  head,  and  four 
strong  limbs  that  give  it  extraordinary  swiftness. 
It  has  been  in  great  repute  for  imaginary  medici- 
nal virtues  from  remote  times,  and  is  still  in  high 
esteem  in  the  East,  dried  skinks  finding  a  ready 
sale.  It  represents  the  pleurodont  sand-loving 
family  Scincids,  whose  genera  and  species  are 
scattered  all  over  the  world,  and  exhibit  many 
variations,  five,  four,  three,  or  two  toes  distin- 
guishing species  even  within  the  same  genus.  An 
aberrant  and  curious  form  is  the  Australian 
Trachjrsaurus,  illustrated  on  the  Plate  of 
LiZABDS.  A  few  true  skinks  of  the  genus  Ma- 
bouia  dwell  in  tropical  America;  but  the  small 
swift  lizard  frequently  so  called  in  the  Northern 
United  States  (see  Fence  Lizabd)  is  not  of  this 
family.  Consult  Gadow,  Amphibia  and  Reptiles 
(London,  1902). 

SKIN^NEB^  Chables  Montgoiiebt  (1852—). 
An  American  editor  and  author,  bom  at  Victor, 
Ontario  County,  N.  Y.  He  received  a  common 
school  education  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  and  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  and  in  1884  joined  the  staff  of  the 
Brooklyn  Eagle,  Among  his  chief  publications 
are  three  volumes  of  interesting  essays  on  nature 
subjects.  Nature  in  a  City  Yard  (1897),  Do 
Nothing  Days  (1899),  and  Flowers  in  the  Pate 
( 1900)  ;  Myths  and  Legends  of  Our  Land  ( 1896) ; 
Myths  and  Legends  Beyond  Our  Borders  ( 1899) ; 
Myths  and  Legends  of  Our  New  Possessions 
(1900);  and  Am^erican  Myths  and  Legends 
(1903). 

SKINNEB,  Chables  Rufus  (1844—).  An 
American  educator.  He  was  born  in  Oswego 
County,  N.  Y.,  and  attended  the  Mexico  Academy 
and  the  Clinton  Liberal  Institute,  From  1877 
to  1881  he  was  a  member  of  the  New  York  As- 
sembly; from  1881  to  1885  a  member  of  Con- 
gress; from  1886  to  1892  Deputy  State  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction  in  New  York;  and 
in  1896  was  appointed  State  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction. 

SKINNEB,  John  (1721-1807).  A  Scotch 
poet,  bom  at  Balfour,  in  Aberdeenshire,  where 
nis  father  was  a  schoolmaster.  He  w^as  educated 
at  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen,  and  thereafter 
passed  several  years  as  a  teacher  in  parish 
schools.  Abandoning  Presbyterian  ism,  in  which 
he  was  brought  up,  he  was  appointed  in  1742 
Episcopal  minister  at  Longside,  in  Aberdeen- 
shire, where  he  passed  his  life.  Owing  to  his 
Jacobite  sympathies  during  the  excitement  of 
1745,  his  church  was  destroyed,  and  in  1753  he 
was  imprisoned  six  months  for  preaching.  He 
published  several  theological  and  controversial 
works,  including  A  Preservative  Against  Preshy- 
tery  (1746),  A  Dissertation  on  Job's  Prophecy 
(1757),  and  an  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Scot- 
land ( 1788) .  He  is,  however,  more  widely  known 
for  his  songs,  which  were  generously  praised  bv 
Bums.  Indeed,  the  younger  poet  ranked  Tiu- 
lochgorum  as  "the  best  Scotch  song  ever  Scot- 
land saw.*'  Bums  also  liked  the  pathos  of  The 
Eivie  ivi*  the  Crookit  Horn,     Among  Skinriert 


SKINHES. 


905 


SKIBT  DANCE. 


other  songs  are  John  o'  Badenyan,  The  Marquis 
of  Huntly'8  Reel,  and  The  Old  Man*8  Song,  all 
natural  and  sincere  in  tone  and  execution.  Skin- 
ner was  also  skillful  at  LaUu  verse  in  the 
Uoratian  manner.  Consult:  Skinner's  TJieo- 
logical  Works  (3  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1809)  with 
a  biography  by  his  son,  John  Skiimer;  and  his 
Songs  and  Poems,  ed.  by  H.  G.  Reid  (Peterhead, 
1859).  Individual  songs  appear  in  collections 
like  Ward's  English  Poets, 

SKIP.  In  music,  a  term  denoting  the  progres- 
sion of  a  part  by  an  interval  greater  than  a 
second. 

SKIPJACK.  (1)  An  oceanic  fish  { Scorn- 
beresow  saurus)  of  the  family  Scomberesocidse, 
called  also  'saury'  and  'billfish/  and  in  Great 
Britain  'skipper*  and  'garonook.*  The  body  is 
elongated,  with  the  snout  drawn  out  into  a  long 
bill.  The  scales  are  minute  and  deciduous.  It 
is  18  inches  long  and  is  found  in  the  temperate 
waters  of  the  North  Atlantic.  The  sauries 
travel  in  great  schools,  and  when  pursued  by 
larger  fishes  often  leap  out  of  the  water  and 
sldm  along  the  surface  for  great  distances.  The 
flesh  is  gw)d.  See  Plate  of  Needle- Fish,  Pikes, 
ETC.  (2)  A  fish  {Pomolohus  chrysochloris)  of 
the  Mississippi  Valley,  introduced  into  the  Great 
Lakes  through  canals,  and  known  there  as  'blue 
herring.'  It  is  closely  related  to  the  alewife 
(q.v.),  is  about  12  inches  long,  and  is  a  brilliant 
blue  above,  with  the  sides  silvery.  It  is  not  good 
food,  because  excessively  bony.  It  is  also  taken 
in  deep  water  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  (3)  The 
bluefish   (q.v.).     (4)   The  cutlass-fish   (q.v.). 

SKIPJACK  or  Snafpinq  Beetle.  See  Click- 
beetle. 

SKIPPEB.  A  butterfiy  of  the  family  Hes- 
periidffi.  (See  Butterflies.)  The  skippers  are 
usually  rather  small,  but  have  stout  bodies  with 
an  especially  strongly  developed  thorax.  Their 
wings  are  rather  short,  but  very  powerful,  and 
the  butterflies  are  very  rapid  and  erratic  in 
their  movements.  Both  sexes  have  six  legs 
adapted  to  walking.    The  family  comprises  more 


8WALLOW-TAILKD  SKIPPaB. 

«,  Butterfly,  or  'bean  leaf-roller'  (Endantaa  proteaa);  2>, 
caterpillar;  e,  chrysalis  in  rolled  up  leaf. 

than  2000  species,  of  which  nearly  200  occur  in 
the  United  States.  The  caterpillars  are  cylin- 
drical and  smooth,  and  generally  possess  large 
globular  heads.  Ilie  name  'skipper'  is  also  ap- 
plied to  the  cheese  maggot  or  'cheese-hopper/ 
larva  of  Piophila  casei.    See  Cheese  Insects. 

SKIPTON.  A  market  town  in  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  England,  on  the  Aire,  15 
miles  northeast  of  Burnley  (Map:  England,  D 
3).    It  is  the  centre  of  a  large  cattle  and  sheep 


raising  district  and  has  manufactures  of  cotton 
and  woolen  goods.  It  has  an  old  castle,  a  church 
in  the  late  Perpendicular  style,  and  a  grammar 
school  of  the  sixteenth  century,  restored  in  1877. 
The  municipality  owns  its  water  and  gas  works. 
Population,  in  1901,  12,000. 

SKIRMISH  (OF.,  Fr.  escarmouche,  It  scaror 
muccia,  formerly  schermuzio,  skirmish,  from 
schertnire,  to  fence,  fight,  from  OHG.  aoirman, 
Ger.  schirmen,  to  shield,  defend,  from  OHG. 
scirm,  scerm,  Ger.  Schirm,  shield,  shelter;  prob- 
ably connected  with  Gk.  axipop,  skiron,  parasol, 
ffKiif  skia,  shadow,  Skt.  chdyd,  shadow). 
Irregular  engagements  between  small  bodies  of 
combatants  are  usually  described  as  skir- 
mishes; and  a  company  or  a  battalion  of 
infantry  extended  so  as  to  cover  a  wide  area  of 
ground  is  said  to  be  in  skirmishing  or  extended 
order.  The  art  of  skirmishing  is  one  of  the  most 
important  branches  of  the  infantry  soldiers' 
training,  as  well  as  the  most  difficult  to  acquire. 
It  enables  contact  to  be  made  with  an  enemy 
with  the  lowest  possible  percentage  of  loss. 
Skirmishing  makes  the  individual  the  irnit,  and 
consequently  much  depends  on  the  intelligence 
and  resourcefulness  of  the  individual  soldier.  In 
the  United  States  the  squad  is  the  basis  of  ex- 
tended order,  and  men  are  trained  to  regard  the 
squad  as  the  unit  from  which  they  must  never 
be  separated;  or  if  their  squad  is  broken  up,  or 
separated,  to  place  themselves  with  the  nearest 
squad  and  to  act  under  the  orders  of  its  leader. 
See  Tactics,  Military. 

SKIBBET  (probably  a  corruption  of  sugar- 
root  or  sugar-uxirt) ,  Stum  Sisarum,  A  perennial 
plant  of  the  natural  order  Urabelliferie,  a  native 
of  China  and  Japan,  long  cultivated  for  its 
tuberous,  clustered,  sweet,  succulent,  somewhat 
aromatic  roots,  which  are  used  like  salsify,  and 
also  to  make  a  spirituous  liquor.  The  plant, 
sometimes  six  inches  long,  and  three-quarters  of 
an  inch  thick,  is  propagated  either  by  seed,  divi- 
sion, or  by  small  offsets  from  the  roots.  It  is 
little  used  in  the  United  States,  but  in  Europe 
is  more  highly  esteemed. 

SKIBT  DANGF.  A  modem  spectacular  per- 
formance in  which  the  dancer  wears  a  skirt  madi: 
very  full  and  of  a  light  and  often  gauzy  material, 
so  that,  grasped  by  the  fingers,  it  may  be  waved 
in  accompaniment  to  varying  steps  and  rhythmi- 
cal motions  of  the  body.  The  dance  has  come  to 
differ,  with  the  gradual  increase  in  the  size  of  the 
skirt,  from  true  dancing  in  that  the  steps  are  of 
less  importance  than  the  movements  of  the  body, 
and  especially  of  the  arms^  which  produce  the 
swirling  effect  of  the  many  yards  of  tissue  com- 
posing the  skirt.  Often  the  performer  remains 
practically  stationary.  To  increase  the  radius 
of  the  whirls  of  tissue,  on  all  sides  and  above  the 
head,  and  thus  emphasize  the  characteristic  fea- 
ture of  the  dance,  light  sticks  of  a  few  feet  in 
length,  held  in  the  hands  and  concealed  in  the 
garment,  are  often  used  by  the  dancer.  The 
skirt  dance  was  made  popular  in  England  by 
Miss  Kate  Vaughan,  and  was  further  developed, 
there  and  in  the  United  States,  by  Miss  Sylvia 
Grey,  Miss  Letty  Lind,  Miss  Topsy  Sindon,  and 
others.  In  1897  Miss  Loie  Fuller,  famous  as  a 
danseuse  in  both  America  and  Europe,  intro- 
duced the  modification  of  the  skirt  dance  known 
as  the  serpentine  dance,  in  which  the  skirt  is 
decorated  so  as  to  give  peculiar  serpentine  ef- 


SKIBT  DANCE. 


906 


BKUA. 


fects;  and  later  she  produced  the  fire  dance,  the 
effect  of  which,  in  a  darkened  theatre,  is  gained 
by  a  brilliant  red  light  thrown  on  the  dancer 
wearing  a  light-colored  skirt.  Various  colors,  in 
succession  or  combination,  are  also  used. 

SKITTAOETAN,  sklt't&ge^tan.  A  North 
American  Indian  linguistic  family.    See  Haida. 

SKITTLES  (variant  of  skittle,  shuttle,  from 
AS.  scC'otan,  OHG.  sciozan,  Ger.  achiessen,  to 
shoot;  ultimately  connected  with  Skt.  skand,  to 
leap,  Lat.  scandere,  to  climb).  Excepting  in  the 
details  and  method  of  playing,  skittles  does  not 
differ  materially  from  American  bowling.  The 
nine  pins  are  set  in  the  same  pattern  at  the  end 
of  an  alley,  but  are  much  heavier,  weighing  nine 
pounds  each.  The  ball,  which  is  of  a  different 
pattern  from  that  used  in  American  bowling,  is 
in  the  shape  of  a  flat  cheese  rounded  at  the  edges, 
and  usually  weighs  from  twelve  to  fourteen 
pounds.  It  is  cast  at  the  pins  and  not  rolled.  It 
must  hit  a  pin  after  leaving  the  player's  hand  be- 
fore touching  the  ground,  no  hit  counting  which  is 
caused  by  a  rebound  of  the  ball  from  the  alley's 
side.  Each  skittle  fairly  downed  counts  one. 
It  is  a  game  considerably  played  in  Great  Britain 
in  the  agricultural  districts,  but  in  the  eastern 
counties  the  usual  number  of  pins  is  four,  one  at 
each  angle. 

SXOBELEFF,  sko^e-ly^f,  Mikhail  Dmitbi- 
TITCH  (1843-82).  A  Russian  general.  He  entered 
a  guard  regiment  in  1861  and  fought  with  re- 
nown against  the  Polish  insurgents  in  1863.  As 
a  member  of  the  general  staff  he  was  sent  in  1869 
to  Samarkand,  and  in  1873,  in  the  Khiva  expedi- 
tion, he  commanded  the  vanguard  of  one  of  the 
Russian  columns,  and  was  among  the  first  to 
enter  the  Khan's  capital.  Two  years  later  he 
commanded  the  cavalry  in  the  expedition  against 
Khokand,  and  after  the  city  bad  surrendered  pur- 
sued the  fleeing  Khan  and  took  him  prisoner.  He 
was  made  major-general  in  1876  and  placed  over 
the  newly  organized  Province  of  Ferghana.  As 
commander  of  a  division  in  the  Russo-Turkish 
War  he  stormed  Lovatz  (September  3,  1877), 
and  fought  bravely  around  Plevna,  which  he  oc- 
cupied on  December  10th,  after  its  evacuation  by 
Osman  Pasha.  He  led  the  Russian  advance 
over  the  Balkans,  and  on  January  9,  1878,  with 
Generals  Mirski  and  Radetzky,  captured  the 
Turkish  forces  in  the  Shipka  Pass,  proceeding 
thence  to  Adrianople.  In  1880  he  was  once  more 
in  Turkestan  as  head  of  an  expedition  to  suppress 
the  marauding  Tekk6  tribes,  and  achieved  a  bril- 
liant feat  in  the  storming  of  Ge5k-Tepe  (Janu- 
ary 24,  1881).  In  the  same  year  he  was  made 
Governor  of  Minsk  and  became  prominent  as  an 
ardent  advocate  of  Panslavism.  He  died  at  Mos- 
cow, July  8,  1882. 

SEO^A,  Joseph  (1805-81).  An  Austrian 
physician,  bom  at  Pilsen,  Bohemia.  After  study- 
ing in  Vienna  and  a  short  practice  in  Bohemia, 
he  was  detailed  to  the  Public  Hospital  in  Vienna 
in  1833,  became  primary  physician  in  1841,  pro- 
fessor at  the  clinic  in  1846,  and  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1848.  His 
Ahhandlung  iiher  die  Auskultation  und  Perkus- 
sion  (1839;  6th  ed.  1864)  created  an  epoch  in 
diagnostics,  by  demonstrating  the  principle  that 
the  physical  symptoms  observed  in  a  patient  only 
indicated  certain  physical  conditions  in  his  or- 
ganism, whereupon  it  devolved  upon  the  rational 


physician  to  draw  his  conclusions  as  to  the  real 
internal  disease  from  his  pathologic-anatomical 
experience.  This  was  in  opposition  to  the  French 
doctrine,  until  then  prevalent,  which  interpreted 
the  physical  symptoms  immediately  as  the  signs 
of  a  definite  process  of  disease. 

SKOKOMISH^  skd-ko'mlsh.  A  tribe  of  Sali- 
shan  stock  (q.v.)  formerly  occupying  both  sides 
of  Hood's  Canal  on  Puget  Sound,  Washington, 
and  now  gathered  upon  a  small  reservation  near 
Union,  within  their  own  limits.  In  primitive 
characteristics  they  resembled  the  neighboring 
Nisqualli  and  Puyallup  (qq.v.)  in  nearly  every- 
thing excepting  language.  The  women  were  ex- 
pert in  weaving  hair  cloth,  mats,  and  baskets. 
The  men  usually  went  naked  except  for  the 
G-stnng,  while  the  women  wore  a  sort  of  skirt 
of  twisted  strands.  In  war  the  men  wore  hel- 
mets of  cedar  bark  with  body  armor  of  quilted 
elkskin  or  a  sort  of  corset  of  strips  of  wood. 
Scalping  was  not  practiced.  Head-flattening  was 
universal.  The  dead  were  usually  laid  away  in 
the  grave,  and  slaves  were  sacrificed  according 
to  the  rank  and  wealth  of  the  deceased,  frequently 
being  starved  to  death  or  even  tied  to  the  corpse 
and  left  thus  to  perish.  The  great  ceremonial 
was  the  potlatch  (q.v.)  and  the  clan  system  was 
unknown.  The  Skokomish  have  now  decreased 
to  165. 

SKOPTSY,  sk6p'tsl  (Russ.,  eunuchs) .  A  Rus- 
sian religious  sect  practicing  castration.  The 
first  to  adopt  this  practice  in  Russia  was  a  for- 
eign monk,  Adrian  ( 1001) ,  and  at  least  six  other 
cases  are  on  record  among  the  higher  Russian 
clergy  up  to  Theodosius,  Bishop  of  Lutsk  (1326). 
Two  famous  trials  occurred  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, and  in  1772  Catharine  II.  severely  pun- 
ished the  leading  heretics.  The  Skoptsy  emi- 
grated in  masses,  chiefly  into  Roumania.  The 
movement  reached  its  height  in  1871  under  Lisin, 
"the  second  Redeemer  and  Tsar  Peter  III.;"  he 
was  sent  to  Siberia  in  1876,  and  prosecutions 
have  been  continued  since  then. 

SEOWHEOAN^  skou-he^gan.  The  county-seat 
of  Somerset  County,  Me.,  18  miles  north  of 
Waterville,  on  the  Kennebec  River,  here  spanned 
by  two  bridges,  and  at  the  terminus  of  the  Maine 
Central  Railroad  ( Map :  Maine,  D  6 ) .  It  has  a 
public  library  of  8000  volumes,  a  fine  court  house, 
and  Coburn  Park.  There  are  manufactures  of 
oilcloth,  woolen  and  worsted  goods,  shoes,  sash 
and  blinds,  wooden  ware,  foundry  and  machine 
shop  products,  etc.  Population,  in  1900,  4266. 
Skowhegan  was  originally  part  of  Canaan,  and 
was  incorporated  as  the  town  of  Milburn  in  1823. 
It  received  its  present  name,  the  old  Indian  name 
for  the  place,  in  1836.  Consult  Hanson,  History 
of  the  Old  Towns  of  Norridgetvock  and  Canaan, 
comprising  Skowhegan  (Boston,  1849). 

SETT^A  (Norweg.  skOa,  Icel.  abamr,  skUfr, 
skua),  or  Jaeoeb  (JrUix.  A  gull  (q.v.)  of  the 
subfamily  Stercorariin®,  in  which  the  nostrils 
open  beneath  the  edge  of  a  homy  cere  and  other 
structural  peculiarities  exist,  sufficient,  in  the 
opinion  of  some  ornithologists,  to  entitle  this 
group  to  family  rank.  These  birds  are  fierce  and 
rapacious,  habitually  attacking  and  annoying 
terns  and  small  gulls,  and  compelling  them  to 
drop  or  disgorge  fishes  they  have  already  taken. 
The  Antarctic  species  strike  down  living  birds 
as  hawks  would  do  and  feed  upon  them.    They 


SKUA. 


907 


SKUIJi. 


are  moderately  large,  about  20  inches  long  and 
about  4  feet  in  extent  of  wings.  The  plumage 
is  dusky  above  and  usually  white  below.  Con- 
sult Selous,  Bird  WatoMng  (London,  1900). 

SXITLL  (Icel.  sJoAl,  bowl,  cup;  connected  with 
AS.  acale,  fhig.  scale,  bowl,  dish  of  a  balance,  and 
with  AS.  scealu,  8ceale,  OHG.  acala,  Ger.  SchaUy 
husk,  scale,  Qoth.  akalja,  tile,  OGhurch  Slav. 
BkoUka,  mussel,  Lith.  skelti,  to  split) .  The  bony 
framework  of  the  head.  It  is  divided  into  two 
parts,  the  cranium  and  the  face.  In  human  anat- 


Fie.  1.  mm  raw  of  ruuam  skoll. 
1,  Frontal  bone;  %  parietal  bone;  S,  occipital  bone;  4« 
temporal  bone  (squamous  portion);  4*,  Do.  (mastoid  por- 
tlon);  6,  sphenoid  bone;  6,  malar  bone;  7,  nasal  bone:  8. 
snperlor  maxillary  or  Jaw  bone;  9,  Inferior  maxlUaiy  or 
law  bone. 

omy  it  is  customary  to  describe  the  former  as 
consisting  of  8  and  the  latter  of  14  bones;  the  8 
cranial  bones,  which  constitute  the  brain-case, 
being  the  occipital,  two  parietal,  frontal,  ttoo 
temporal,  sphenoid,  and  ethmoid;  while  the  14 
facial  bones  are  the  two  nasal,  two  superior  maa- 
illary,  two  lachrymal,  two  malar,  two  palate, 
two  inferior  turbinated,  vomer,  and  inferior  maa- 
illary.  The  bones  of  the  ear,  the  teeth,  and  the 
Wormian  bones  are  not  included  in  this  enumera- 
tion. At  a  very  early  period  of  foetal  existence 
the  cerebrum  is  inclosed  in  a  membranous  cap- 
sule external  to  the  dura  mater  and  in  close 
contact  with  it.  This  is  the  first  rudiment  of  the 
skull,  the  cerebral  portion  of  which  is  conse- 
quently formed  before  there  is  any  indication  of 
a  facial  part.  Soon,  however,  four  or  five  proc- 
esses jut  from  it  on  each  side  of  the  mesial 
line,  which  grow  downward,  incline  toward  each 
other,  and  imite  to  form  a  series  of  inverted 
arches,  from  which  the  face  is  ultimately  devel- 
oped. Imperfect  development  or  ossification  of 
these  rudimentary  parts  of  the  face  gives  rise  to 
the  peculiarities  Imown  as  hare-lip  (q.v.)  and 
cleft-palate,  or  in  extreme  cases  to  the  form  of 
monstrosity  termed  cyclops,  in  which,  from  ab- 
sence of  the  frontal  processes,  the  two  orbits 
form  a  single  cavity,  and  the  eyes  are  more  or 
less  blended  in  the  mesial  line.    See  MoNBTBOCh 

ITT. 

The  following  is  a  brief  summary  of  the  suc- 
cession of  events  that  occur  in  the  ordinary  or 
normal  development  of  the  skull.  Cartilage  is 
formed  at  the  base  of  the  membranous  capsule, 
which  has  been  already  described  as  thrown 
round  the  brain  and  capable  of  enlarging  with 
it.  This  is  speedily  followed  by  the  deposition 
of  osseous  matter  at  various  points  of  ^e  cap- 
TOL         -«. 


Fie.  2. 


potte- 

Butnre; 

lambdold 


Bule,  which  soon  becomes  converted  into  flakes 
of  bone,  which  afford  protection  for  the  brain, 
while  tiie  intervening  portions,  which  remain 
membranous,  permit  the  skull  to  expand  as  its 
contents  enlarge.  The  formation  of  these  bony 
flakes  on  the  convexity  of  the  cranium  is  soon 
followed  by.tiie  ap- 
pearance of  osse- 
ous nuclei  in  the 
cartilage  at  the 
base,  corresponding 
to  the  future  oc- 
cipital and  sphe- 
noid bones.  Lastly, 
the  various  bones, 
some  originating  in 
membrane  and  some 
in  cartilage  (see 
Ossification),  ap- 
proach one  another 
by  gradual  enlarge- 
ment and  become 
united    in   various 

wavfi   nn  AA  in  fnrm      ^*  Anterior  fontanel;   % 
ways,  so  as  10  lorm  ^^^  fontanel;  8.  sagittal 
a    contmuous    and  4.4.coronalBnture:5.6.1a«.w»».« 
ultimately   an   un-  suture;  6.  6,  parietal  bones;  7,  7, 
vieldiniy  hnnv  oahp  two  halves  of  the  frontal  bone,  still 
yieiomg  Dony  case  ^^mted;  8.  occipital  bone, 
admirably  adapted 

for  the  defense  of  the  brain,  for  the  accom- 
modation of  the  organs  of  special  sense,  and 
for  the  attachment  of  the  ligaments  and  muscles 
by  which  the  skull  is  supported  and  moved 
on  the  spine.  At  the  period  of  birth  most  of 
the  principal  bones  have  grown  into  apposition 
with  their  neighbors,  forming  the  sutures,  but 
one  large  vacuity  remains  at  the  meeting-point 
of  the  parietal  and  frontal  bones,  which  is  termed 
the  anterior  fontanel,  which  does  not  close  till 
the  second  year  after  birth,  and  sometimes  re- 
mains open  much  longer.  There  are  two  fon- 
tanels in  the  mesial  line,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2, 
and  two  lateral  fontanels  on  each  side. 

After  the  sutures  have  been  formed  and  the 
skull  has  acquired  a  certain  thickness  a  process 
of  resorption  commences  in  the  interior  of  the 
bones,  and  reduces  the  originally  dense  structure 
to  a  more  or  less  cellular  or  cancellated  state. 
The  interior  thus  altered  is  called  the  diploe,  and 
by  this  change  the  weight  of  the  skull  is  much 
diminished,  while  its  strength  is  scarcely  affected. 

The  growth  of  the  skull  after  the  seventh  year 
proceeds  slowly,  but  a  slight  -  increase  goes  on 
to  about  the  age  of  twenty.  The  skull  bmies  are 
freely  supplied  with  blood  from  arteries,  which 
pass  from  the  dura  mater  internally  and  the 
pericranium  externally,  through  numerous  fora- 
mina, the  blood  being  returned  by  veins  which 
take  various  directions. 

The  base  of  the  skull,  whether  seen  from  within 
or  from  below,  presents  many  objects  of  physio- 
logical interest  in  relation  to  the  nervous  system. 
As  seen  from  within  the  base  presents  on  each 
side  three  fossse,  corresponding  to  the  anterior 
and  middle  lobes  of  the  cerebrum  and  to  the 
cerebellum.  These  fossse  are  marked,  as  is  the 
whole  skull-cap,  by  the  cerebral  convolutions, 
and  they  contain  numerous  foramina  and  flssures 
which  give  passage  to  nerves  and  blood  vessels. 
The  external  or  outer  surface  of  the  base  of  the 
skull,  if  we  consider  it  from  before  backward, 
is  formed  by  the  palate  processes  of  the  superior 
maxillary   and   palate   tKmes;    the   vomer;   the 


8XXTLL. 


908 


SKULL. 


pterygoid,  and  spinouB  processes  of  the  sphenoid 
and  part  of  its  Dody;  the  under  surface  of  the 
temporal  bones;  and  the  occipital  bone.  The 
hard  palate  is  formed  by  the  palate  processes  of 
the  superior  mazillaiy  bone. 

The  anterior  region  of  the  skull,  which  forms 
the  face,  is  of  an  irregularly  oval  form,  and  the 
bones  are  so  arranged  as  to  inclose  the  cavities 
for  the  eyes,  the  nose,  and  the  mouth,  and  to 
give  strength  to  the  apparatus  for  masticating 
the  food.  The  size  of  the  face  and  the  capacity 
of  the  cranial  cavity  stand  in  an  inverse  ratio 
one  to  another,  as  may  be  readily  seen  by  com- 
paring vertical  sections  (through  the  mesial 
line)  of  human  and  other  mammalian  skuUs; 
and  if,  in  place  of  mammalian  skulls,  we  take 
skulls  of  lower  vertebrates  (the  crocodile,  for 
example),  this  ratio  is  far  more  striking.  In 
man  the  face  is  at  its  minimum  as  compared  with 
the  cranial  cavity,  chiefly  in  consequence  of  the 
facial  bones  being  arranged  in  a  nearly  vertical 
manner  beneath  the  cranium,  instead  of  project- 
ing in  front  of  it.  The  human  face  is  also  re- 
markable for  its  relatively  great  breadth,  which 
allows  the  orbits  for  the  reception  of  the  eyes  to 
be  placed  in  front  instead  of  on  the  sides  of  the 
head,  and  renders  their  inner  walls  nearly  par- 
allel, thus  contributing,  through  the  parallelism 
of  the  optic  axes,  to  that  clear,  accurate,  and 
steady  vision  which  results  from  the  ready  con- 
vergence of  the  eyes  upon  everjr  object.  Each 
orbit  is  of  a  pyramidal  lorm,  with  the  apex  be- 
hind, and  is  composed  of  seven  bones,  viz.  the 
frontal,  ethmoid,  lachrymal,  sphenoid,  superior 
maxillary,  malar,  and  palate,  the  last  contribut- 
ing very  slightly  to  the  human  orbit,  while  it  is 
an  important  constituent  in  the  orbit  of  many 
animals.  For  description  of  the  nasal  cavities, 
see  Nose. 

The  different  varieties  of  mankind  present  cer- 
tain well-marked  and  characteristic  peculiarities 
in  the  form  of  the  skull.  There  are  three  typical 
forma  of  the  skull  which  seem  to  be  well  estab- 
lished from  the  examination  and  comparison  of 
a  large  number  of  crania:  the  fn'ognathous,  the 
pyramidal,  and  the  oval  or  elliptical  cranium. 
When  the  upper  jaw  slopes  forward  the  insertion 
of  the  teeth,  instead  of  being  perpendicular,  is 
oblique.  A  skull  with  this  peculiarity  is  prog* 
nathoua  or  prognathic^  the  opposite  condition 
being  termed  orthognathoua  or  orthognathic.  The 
negro  of  the  Guinea  coast  and  the  negrito  of 
Australia  present  the  prognathous  character  in 
its  most  marked  form.  The  pyramidal  form  is 
characterized  by  the  breadth  and  flatness  of  the 
face,  which,  with  the  narrowness  of  the  forehead, 
gives  this  shape  to  the  head.  The  Mongolian  and 
Eskimo  skulls  belong  to  this  type.  The  oval 
or  elliptical  type  is  that  which  is  presented  by 
the  natives  of  Western  or  Southern  Europe,  and 
which  is  not  distinguished  by  any  particular 
feature  so  much  as  by  the  absence  of  the  longi- 
tudinal projection  of  the  first  type,  or  the  lateral 
projection  of  the  second,  and  by  a  general  sym- 
metry of  the  whole  configuration.  For  the  skull 
as  a  basis  of  classification  in  anthropology,  see 
Anthbopoicetrt. 

The  Mobpholoot  op  the  Skull  is  the  highest 
and  most  difficult  problem  of  comparative  anat- 
omy. Huxley  destroyed  the  archetypal  theory, 
previously  held  by  Owen  and  others,  and  estab- 
lished  the  newer  theory  on  sure  grounds  of  actual 
observation*    Taking  first  the  unsegmented  cra- 


nium of  a  skate  or  dogfish,  with  its  appended 
jaws  and  arches,  we  find  that  in  development, 
though  the  notochord  extends  into  the  region  of 
the  head,  the  vertebrse  stop  short  of  it;  but  that 
on  each  side  of  the  cranium  there  arise  a  pair  of 
cartilaginous  bars,  the  traheculas  or  rafters  of  the 
future  skull;  three  pairs  of  cartilaginous  cap- 
sules, nasal,  ocular,  and  auditory,  form  round 
the  developing  sense  organs;  the  nasal  cap- 
sules unite  with  the  ends  of  the  trabecule,  which 
are  meanwhile  uniting  below,  and  growing  up 
at  the  sides  to  form  the  brain-case.  The  auditoiy 
capsules  become  united  with  the  trabecule  bv 
the  appearance  of  two  new  masses  of  cartilage, 
the  parachordals.  The  first  pair  of  a  series  of 
seven  or  more  arches  develops  an  ascending  pro- 
cess, becoming  the  palato-pteiyeoid  arch  or  upper 
jaw.  The  second  pair  of  arches,  the  hyoid,  h 
modified  to  support  the  jaws,  while  the  rest  are 
modified  to  support  the  ^Is.  In  the  bony  skulls 
of  higher  vertebrates  the  chondro-cranium  and 
subjacent  arches  develop  in  the  same  way.  The 
bones  originate  in  two  distinct  ways:  either  by 
actual  ossifications  or  by  the  ossification  of  over- 
lying dermis,  known  as  cartilage  bones  and  mem- 
brane bones  respectively,  the  latter  corresponding 
to  the  dermal  bones  and  teeth  of  ganoid  and  elas- 
mobranch  fishes.  In  mammals  the  ends  of  the 
mandibular  and  hyoid  arches  lose  their  suspen- 
sory function,  are  taken  into  the  interior  of  the 
ear  capsule,  and  are  metamorphosed  into  the 
auditoiy  ossicles.    See  Skeleton. 

Feactube  of  the  Skull  may  take  place  either 
in  the  vault  or  at  the  base  of  the  skull.  In  frac- 
ture of  the  vault  the  fracture  is  usually  direct, 
the  bone  giving  way  at  the  point  at  whidi  it  was 
struck,  and  the  result  being  either  a  simple  fis- 
sure or  a  breaking  of  the  bone  into  several  frag- 
ments (a  comminuted  fracture).  Although  frac- 
tures may  be  limited  to  the  outer  or  to  the  inner 
table  of  the  skull,  they  most  commonly  extend 
through  the  whole  thickness,  and  the  broken  bone 
is  generally  driven  inward;  and  the  most  ordi- 
nary form  of  fracture  with  depression  is  that  in 
which  several  fragments  of  a  somewhat  triangu- 
lar form  have  their  points  driven  down  and 
wedged  into  each  other,  while  their  bases  remain 
on  a  level  with  the  surrounding  bone.  There  are 
no  sig[n8  by  which  we  can  in  all  cases  recognize 
the  existence  of  fracture  of  the  vault.  Fissures  in- 
volving the  whole  thickness  of  the  vault  of  the 
skull  occasionally  exist  without  ever  having  been 
suspected  during  life,  and  even  an  extensive  and 
comminuted  fracture,  with  great  depression  of 
the  fragments,  may  escape  notice  when  hidden 
under  the  temporal  muscle  or  under  a  large  ex- 
travasation of  blood.  When,  however,  the  frac- 
ture is  accompanied  by  a  wound  leading  down 
to  the  bone,  it  may,  in  general,  be  easily  detected. 
With  regard  to  treatment,  it  is  now  an  estab- 
lished rule  that  simple  fractures  of  the  skull  with 
depression  and  without  symptoms  are  to  be  let 
alone.  The  depression  may  be  so  marked  as  to 
be  easily  detected;  and  yet  so  long  as  there  are 
no  symptoms  all  operative  interference,  of  what- 
soever form,  is  carefully  to  be  avoided.  If,  how- 
ever, there  be  a  wound  leading  down  to  the  bone 
in  a  depressed  fracture  without  symptoms,  im- 
mediate operative  interference  is  called  for. 
When  a  depressed  fracture  is  accompanied  by 
primary  brain -symptoms  an  operation  for  the 
purpose  of  raising  or  removing  the  depressed 
fragments  is  usually  necessary.    If,  however,  the 


BEUIX. 


900 


SKXTNK  CABBAQB. 


fracture  is  a  simple  one  and  the  symptoms  are 
not  urgent,  an  expectant  plan  of  treatment  may 
b«  employed.  Cases  occasionally  occur  in  which 
veiy  urgent  symptoms  of  cerebral  pressure,  such 
as  unconsciousness  or  convulsions,  persist  for  a 
long  timo  and  are  relieved  at  once  on  the  pressure 
being  removed. 

Fractubes  or  the  Base  may  be  direct  or  in- 
direct, but  in  most  cases  are  indirect,  that  is 
to  say,  the  bones  give  way  at  a  point  remote 
from  the  seat  of  the  blow,  as  has  been  already 
shown.  At  certain  parts,  however,  the  bones  of 
the  base  are  so  thin  that  if  direct  pressure  be 
brought  to  bear  upon  them  they  readily  give  way. 
Thus  scissors,  slate  pencils,  knitting  needles,  etc., 
have  often  been  thrust  into  the  skull  through  the 
orbits  or  the  nostrils,  and  these  wounds  are  very 
serious,  from  the  readiness  with  which  the  brain 
may  be  thus  injured.  The  only  symptoms  that 
can  be  depended  upon  as  indicating  a  fracture  of 
the  base  of  the  skull  are  connected  either  with 
an  escape  of  the  substance  of  the  brain,  or  blood, 
or  watery  fluid,  or  with  an  injury  done  to  the 
nerves  as  they  emerge  at  the  base.  Bleeding 
from  the  mouth  or  nose  or  from  the  ear  occurs 
in  about  half  the  cases.  A  copious  watery  discharge 
from  the  ear  was,  until  very  recently,  regarded 
as  a  diagnostic  sign  of  fracture  of  the  base;  and 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  when  such  a  discharge 
of  cerebro-spinal  fluid  occurs  either  from  the  ear 
or  nostrils  it  moat  prohahly  is*  connected  with 
fracture.  Operative  interference  is  very  seldom 
required  in  these  fractures. 

8KXJKX  (from  Abenaki  aeganku,  Gree  aeecotrfc, 
skunk).  A  fur-bearing  mammal  of  the  genus 
Mephitis  (or  Chincha)  of  the  weasel  family 
(Mustelidffi),  approaching  the  badgers  in  the 
lengthened  claws  of  the  fore  feet,  in  the  planti- 
grade hind  feet,  in  dentition,  and  in  habits. 
Skunks  are  found  only  in  America,  where  they 
are  distributed  in  many  species  from  Northern 
Canada  to  Patagonia.  All  are  animals  of  mod- 
erate size  with  long  hair,  bushy  tails,  and  black 
and  white  markings.  All  have  nocturnal  habits, 
and  are  renowned  for  the  excessive  develop- 
ment of  the  anal  glands,  common  to  most  of  the 
family  (see  Baooeb,  Polecat,  etc.),  from  which 
an  acrid,  fetid  discharge  may  be  projected  to  a 
considerable  distance.  The  best-known  species 
to  which  the  name  ordinarily  refers  is  the  com- 
mon skunk  of  Eastern  North  America  {Mephitis 
mephitica),  which  is  numerous  from  New  Eng- 
land and  Canada,  nearly  as  far  northwest  as 
timber  grows,  to  Florida  and  Texas.  Its  body  is 
about  18  inches  long  and  the  tail  about  9  inches, 
but  considerable  variation  occurs,  and  females 
are  always  smaller. 

Skunks  are  wholly  terrestrial  and  live  in  dens 
and  burrows,  usually  of  their  own  excavation. 
They  are  sluggish  in  movement  and  usually  show 
little  fear  of  human  beings.  Although  chiefly 
nocturnal,  they  are  often  seen  moving  about  in 
the  daytime.  They  hibernate  only  during  the 
severest  part  of  the  winter.  Five  to  seven  young 
are  bom  in  May  in  the  Northern  States.  Their 
food  consists  largely  of  mice,  reptiles,  insects, 
and  birds'  eggs,  and  they  frequently  become  ex- 
cessively fat,  especially  when  grasshoppers  are 
abundant.  In  many  parts  of  the  United  States 
they  destroy  the  'white  grubs,'  a  'great  pest  in 
lawns  and  meadows.  They  occasionally  rob  the 
poultry  yard,  but  these  small  depredations  are 
more  than  offset  by  their  destruction  of  noxious 


n^ammals  and  insects.  Skunks  have  been  ex- 
tensively trapped  for  furs  ever  since  the  BetU»- 
ment  of  the  country  by  white  men,  and  attempts 
have  been  made  to  breed  them  in  confinement,  but, 
although  'skimk  farms'  have  been  started  in  sev- 
eral States,  the  industry  has  not  flourished.  The 
fur  is  sometimes  sold  under  the  name  'Alaska 
sable.'  (See  Fxtbs  and  the  Fdb  Trade.)  Ap- 
parently there  is  but  one  molt  in  a  year,  and 
this  occurs  in  late  summer  or  in  autumn. 

That  which  particularly  distinguishes  skunks 
from  other  animals  is  their  means  of  defense, 
consisting  of  a  characteristic  malodorous  fluid, 
which,  when  ejected,  speedily  discourages  the 
boldest  aggressor.  The  fluid  is  secreted  by  two 
anal  glands  similar  in  character  to  those  pos- 
sessed by  other  members  of  the  Mustelidss,  but 
larger  and  more  muscular.  They  lie  one  on  each 
side  of  the  rectum,  and  are  imbedded  in  a  dense, 
gizzard-like  mass  of  muscle,  which  serves  to  com- 
press them  so  forcibly  that  the  contained  fluid 
may  be  ejected  to  the  distance  of  16  feet.  Each 
sac  is  furnished  with  a  single  duct  that  leads 
into  a  prominent,  nipple-like  papilla  that  is 
capable  of  being  protruded  from  the  anus,  and  by 
means  of  which  the  direction  of  the  jet  is  gov- 
erned. This  liquid  causes  acute  distress  when 
in  contact  with  mucous  membrane,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, the  eyes.  Another  extraordhiary  feature 
of  these  animals  is  their  tendency  to  canine  rab- 
ies. It  is  popularly  believed  that  they  'go  mad' 
with  a  form  of  the  disease  peculiar  to  themselves, 
but  an  extensive  investigation  of  the  matter  by 
Dr.  Elliott  Goues  showed  that  the  disease  was 
doubtless  canine  rabies. 

The  skunks  west  of  the  plains  are  divided  into 
several  species,  that  of  the  coast  of  Great  Basin 
being  Mephitis  oocidenialis.  In  the  Southern  and 
Western  United  States  and  throughout  Mexico 
occur  also  small  'striped'  skunks  of  another 
genus  (Spilogale)  marked  with  four  narrow 
stripes  breaking  into  spots  and  cross-bars  on  the 
rump;  these  are  called  'zorillos'  in  the  Spanish- 
speaking  countries.  Still  another  well-known 
form  is  the  'conepate,'  'mapurito,'  or  white- 
backed  skunk  {Conepatus  mapurito),  which  is 
found  from  Arizona  throughout  Ccoitral  and 
South  America. 

Consult  Coues,  Fur-Bearing  Animals  (Wash- 
ington, 1874),  and  the  many  authorities  therein 
referred  to;  Merriam,  "Mammals  of  the  Adiron- 
dack Eegion,"  in  Transactions  of  the  Linnwan 
Society  of  New  York,  vol.  i.  (New  York,  1882) ; 
Howell,  "Kevision  of  the  Skunks  of  the  Genus 
Chincha,"  in  North  America/n  Fauna,  No.  20  (De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  1901) ; 
Merriam,  "Revision  of  the  Genus  Spilogale,"  in 
North  American  Fauna,  No,  4  (ib.,  1890)  ;  Stone 
and  Cram,  American  Animais  (New  York,  1902). 
See  Plate  of  Minob  Cabnivobes. 

SKUKK  CABBAGE  (so  called  because  of  the 
fetid  odor),  Symplocarpus  fcetidus.  A  plant  of 
the  natural  order  Aracese,  growing  in  bogs  and 
moist  ground  from  Nova  Scotia  to  North  Caro- 
lina and  west  to  Iowa  and  Minnesota.  The  hooded, 
shell-shaped,  rather  fleshy  variegated  purplish 
spathe  appears  in  earliest  spring  before  the 
smooth,  radical,  ovate,  heart-shaped  leaves.  All 
parts  of  the  plant,  especially  when  bruised,  emit 
a  fetid  skunkish  odor.  The  fruit,  which  ripens  in 
September,  is  a  roughened  globular  mass  2  or  8 


SXXTNK  CABBAQB. 


910 


SLADE. 


inches  in  diameter.  In  the  Northwestern  United 
States,  extending  through  Alaska  to  Japan  and 
Siheria,   is  a  related  plant    {Lyaichitum   Cam- 


nUNK  OABBAOV. 

Leaf  much  reduced  as  compared  with  spathe. 

tshatoenae),  which  from  its  resemblance  to  the 
above  is  called  skunk  cabbage. 

SXXJKX  POBFOISE.  The  bay  porpoise,  so 
called  on  account  of  its  variegated  black  and 
white  markings.  See  Pobpoise,  and  accompany- 
ing illustration. 

8XXJNX  TXJBTLE.  The  musk- turtle  (q.v.), 
BO  called  in  reference  to  its  vile  odor. 

SKTTFSHTINA^  sk\ip8h-t$^n&  (Serv.,  as- 
sembly). The  name  of  the  Servian  national  par- 
liament. See  Sebvia;  Poutical  Pabtiks,  para- 
graph on  Servia, 

SKY.    See  Atmosphebe;  Clouds;  Dust. 

SKYE^  ski.  The  second  largest  of  the  Scottish 
islands  and  the  most  northerly  of  the  inner 
Hebrides  (q.v.),  forming  part  of  the  CJounty  of 
Inverness,  from  the  mainland  of  which  it  is 
separated  by  a  narrow  channel  (Map:  Scotland, 
B  2).  Area,  636  square  mileiL  Skye  is  moun- 
tainous and  moorv,  but  contains  sonie  arable  and 
pasture  land.  The  principal  mountains  are  the 
Coolin  Hills,  which  stretch  irregularly  chiefly 
from  southwest  to  northeast,  culminating  in  the 
sharp  peaks  of  Scoor-nan-Gillean  (3167  feet) 
and  Scoor  Dearg  (3233  feet).  The  most  famous 
scene  in  this  region,  immortalized  by  Sir  Walter 
Scott  in  the  Lord  of  the  Isles,  is  Loch  Coiruisg, 
a  small  fresh-water  lake  near  the  head  of  the 
Bay  of  Scavaig.  Glen  Sligachan,  extending  from 
the  head  of  the  loch  of  that  name  about  nine 
miles  to  Caumsunary,  is  considered  the  grandest 
glen  in  the  Highlands.  The  coasts  abound  in 
herring,  cod,  ling,  and  saithe,  and  the  fisheries 
are  extensive.  Ix)bster  fishing  is  also  carried  on 
to  a  considerable  extent.  Sheep-raising  en- 
grosses almost  exclusively  the  attention  of  the 
farmers.  The  island  produces  a  well-known  breed 
of  pet  dog.  The  principal  exports  are  cattle  and 
sheep,  wool,  fish,  shell  fish,  and  eggs.  There 
are  manufactures  of  tweed  at  Portree  and  of 
whisky  at  Carabost.  The  principal  port  of  Skye 
is  Portree,  a  picturesque  village  with  a  popula- 
tion of  2798.     Among  the   famous   castles  are 


those  of  Armadale  and  Dunvegan.  The  popu- 
lation, in  1891,  was  15,706;  in  1901,  14,642, 
chiefly  Celtic,  with  a  mixture  of  the  Norse 
element.  The  common  language  is  Gaelic.  Con- 
sult: Boswell,  Tour  in  the  Hebrides  (London, 
1802)  ;  Smith,  A  Summer  in  Skye  (Edinbur^ 
1886). 

SKYE  TEBBIEB.    See  Tebbieb. 

SKYLABX.  A  European  lark  {Alauda  arven- 
sis),  the  'lark'  (q.v.)  par  excellence  of  Great 
Britain,  which,  notwithstanding  the  tameness  of 
its  brown  plumage,  is  a  universal  favorite  on 
account  of  the  sweetness  of  its  cheerful  song, 
which  it  pours  forth  while  soaring  and  floating 
in  the  air.  More  rarely  it  sings  on  the  ground. 
It  is  in  great  repute  as  a  cage-bird,  and  sings 
well  in  confinement,  fluttering  ita  wings  while 
singing,  as  if  still  desirous  of  soaring  in  the 
air.  It  abounds  chiefly  in  open  but  cultivated 
districts.  It  is  common  in  most  parts  of  Europe, 
but  from  the  more  northern  parts  it  migrates 
southward  on  the  approach  of  winter.  It  is  also 
a  native  of  Asia,  and  is  a  winter  visitant  of  the 
north  of  Africa.  It  has  been  introduced  into 
America,  and  has  become  naturalized  on  Long 
Island.  It  makes  its  nest  generally  in  an  open 
field,  and  often  under  shelter  of  a  tuft  of  herb- 
age, or  a  clod  of  earth ;  lays  four  or  five  mottled 
eggs;  And  generally  produces  two  broods  in  a 
season.  It  is  not  truly  gregarious  in  summer, 
but  in  winter  large  fiocks  assemble  together,  and 
at  this  season  multitudes  of  larks  are  taken  for 
the  table  in  the  south  of  Europe  by  various  trap- 
ping devices.  See  Plates  of  Labks  and  Stab- 
lings. 

The  crested  lark  {Alauda  cristata),  very  simi- 
lar in  size  and  plumage  to  the  common  lark,  but 
having  the  feathers  of  the  crown  of  the  head 
more  distinctly  developed  into  a  crest,  although 
a  very  common  bird  in  many  parts  of  Europe, 
has  very  seldom  been  seen  in  Great  Britain.  The 
wood  lark  {Alauda  arhorea),  a  smaller  species, 
not  unfrequent  in  some  parts  of  England,  but 
rare  in  Scotland,  is  a  bird  of  very  delightful 
song,  and  usually  sings  perched  on  the  branch  of 
a  tree.  It  frequents  wooded  districts  and  is  also 
a  favorite  cage-bird.  The  nearest  American  rep- 
resentative of  these  birds  is  the  shore-lark  (q.v.). 
C!onsult  Dresser,  Birds  of  Europe  (London, 
1879). 

SLA,  sift.    A  seaport  of  Morocco.    See  Saixee. 

SLABY,  slft'b^,  Adolf  (1849—).  A  German 
engineer.  He  was  bom  in  Berlin,  and  was  edu- 
cated there,  becoming  in  1873  instructor  at  the 
Royal  Industrial  School  in  Potsdam,  and  in  1876 
at  the  Industrial  Academy  in  Berlin.  In  1882 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  the  theory  of 
machines  and  electricity  at  the  Technical  In- 
stitute in  Charlottenburg,  and  in  1884  he  became 
director  of  the  electro-technical  laboratory  there. 
In  1902  he  was  made  professor  in  the  University 
of  Berlin.  He  wrote  Versuche  uher  Kleinmo- 
ioren  (1879),  Kalorimetrische  Untersuchungen 
Uher  den  Kreisprozess  der  Gasmaschine  (1894), 
and  Die  Neuesten  Fortschritte  auf  dem  Oehiete 
der  Funkentelegraphie  (1901). 

SLADE,  slfid,  Felix  (1790-1868).  An  English 
antiquary,  bom  in  Lambeth,  then  a  suburb  of 
London.  He  lived  mostly  at  Waleot  Place,  the 
home  of  his  father,  in  Lambeth.  On  the  death 
of  his  elder  brother,  he  inherited  the  family  es- 


SLADB. 


911 


SLANQ. 


tate  of  his  mother  in  Yorkshire,  known  as  Hal- 
steads.  In  1866  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Society  of  Antiquaries.  Slade  expended  a  large 
fortune  in  collecting  books,  bindings,  engravings, 
manuscripts,  carvings,  glass,  and  pottery,  which 
were  bequeathed  to  the  British  Museum.  He 
also  set  apart  in  his  will  £35,000  for  art  profes- 
sorships at  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and  University 
College,  London.  John  Ruskin  received  the  first 
appointment  to  the  Slade  professorship  at  Ox- 
ford. Ck)nsult  the  (hiide  to  the  Slade  Collection 
of  Prints  in  the  British  Museum  (1869)  and 
the  Catalogue  to  the  Slade  Collection  of  Glass 
(London,  1869). 

SIiAa)EN,  Douglas  Bbooke  Wheelton  ( 1856 
— ) .  An  English  verse- writer  and  man  of  letters, 
bom  in  London.  Having  studied  at  Cheltenham 
College  and  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  he  went 
out  to  Australia  (1879),  where  he  became  the 
first  professor  of  history  in  the  University  of 
Sydney.  His  principal  volumes  of  verse  (ballads, 
epics,  and  dramas)  are  Frithjof  and  Ingehjorg 
(1882);  Poetry  of  Exiles  (1883);  A  Summer 
Christmas  ( 1884)  ;  In  Cornwall  and  Across  the 
Bea  (1885)  ;  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  an  epic 
drama  (1886) ;  The  Spanish  Armada  (1888).  In 
fiction  he  wrote  A.  Japanese  Marriage  (1895)  and 
Trincolow  and  Other  Stories  (1898)  ;  in  general 
literature.  The  Japs  at  Home  (1892);  On  the 
Cars  and  Off  (1895);  Brittany  for  Britons 
(1896);  and  The  Admiral,  a  defense  of  Nelson 
and  Lady  Hamilton  (1898). 

SLAQS  (Swed.  slagg,  dross,  slag;  connected 
with  Goth.,  OHG.  slahan,  Ger.  schlagen,  to  strike, 
AS.  sUan,  Eng.  slay).  Fused  compounds  of 
silica  in  combination  with  lime,  alumina,  or 
other  bases,  resulting  as  secondary  products 
from  the  reduction  of  metallic  ores.  More  or  less 
of  the  metal  always  remains  in  a  slag;  in  the 
early  days  of  iron-smelting  the  proportion  of 
metal  thus  wasted  was  so  great  that  some  old 
slags  have  been  profitably  smelted  in  recent  times. 
Slags,  being  silicates,  are  of  the  nature  of  glass, 
and  externally  have  a  glassy,  crystallized,  or 
stone-like  character.  ^^autifuUy  crystallized 
specimens  are  occasionally  to  be  met  with  at 
smelting  works.  (See  Ieon  and  Steel;  Ce- 
HEI7T.)  Broken  slag  is  also  used  as  a  covering 
for  roads,  but  its  brittleness  and  sharpness  are 
objectionable  qualities  for  this  purpose.  Slags 
containing  large  percentages  of  phosphorus  are 
used  to  some  extent  for  fertilizers. 

8LANDEB  (OF.  esclandre,  esclaundre,  escan- 
dre,  escandle,  escandele,  scandele,  from  Lat.  scan- 
dalum,  from  Gk.  aKdpSaKow,  skandalonf  ffnav- 
MkifOpov,  skandal^thron,  stumbling-block,  snare, 
offense,  scandal;  connected  with  Lat.  scandere,  to 
climb,  Skt.  skand,  to  leap).  Defamation  which 
is  committed  by. way  of  speech;  that  is,  either 
by  vocal  sounds  or  by  the  sign  language  of  the 
deaf  and  dumb.  English  law  distinguishes  sharp- 
ly between  libel  (q.v.)  and  slander.  The  latter 
is  "actionable  only  when  special  damage  can  be 
proved  to  have  been  its  proximate  consequence, 
or  when  it  conveys  imputations  of  certain  kinds." 
An  enumeration  of  these  special  imputations,  as 
they  existed  at  common  law,  will  be  found  in  the 
article  on  Defamation.  In  England  and  in  many 
of  the  United  States  the  oral  imputation  of  un- 
chastity  to  a  female  has  been  declared  action- 
able by  statute,  without  proof  of  special  damage. 


Although  slander  is  one  of  the  few  torts  in 
which  malice  (q.v.)  is  an  essential  element,  that 
term,  in  this  connection,  means  only  that  the 
defamation  must  have  been  uttered  without  just 
cause  or  excuse.  Actual  ill  will  on  the  part  of 
the  speaker  toward  the  plaintiff  is  not  necessary, 
unless  the  occasion  of  its  utterance  was  condi- 
tionally privileged,  as  in  the  case  of  a  statement 
by  a  master  about  the  character  of  a  servant 
inade  to  one  whose  inquiries  he  may  lawfully 
answer  in  good  faith. 

Inasmuch  as  slander  consists  in  uttering  words 
to  the  injury  of  another's  reputation,  it  follows 
that  they  must  have  been  uttered  to,  or  in  the 
hearing  of,  third  persons  who  understood  them. 
It  is  not  essential  however,  that  the  speaker 
knew  of  the  presence  of  the  others.  Even  though 
they  were  concealed  from  him,  if  they  overheard 
his  slanderous  words,  a  case  of  'publication*  by 
him  is  made  out.  Nor  is  it  any  defense  to  one 
who  reports  a  slanderous  statement  that  he  gave 
the  name  of  his  informant  and  expressed  no  opin- 
ion as  to  its  truth.  Of  course,  the  truth  of  the 
defamatory  matter  may  be  set  up  as  a  defense; 
for  the  law  will  not  permit  a  man  to  recover 
damages  in  respect  of  an  injury  to  a  reputation 
which  he  ought  not  to  possess. 

It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  determine  whether 
particular  language  is  slanderous  or  whether  it 
IS  only  'fair  comment.'  This  difficulty  is  gener- 
ally one  of  fact,  however,  to  be  solved  by  the 
jury.  The  rule  of  law  on  this  topic  seems  to  be 
as  follows :  Where  a  person  has  done  or  published 
anything  which  may  fairly  be  said  to  have  in- 
vited comment,  every  one  has  a  right  to  make 
fair  and  proper  comment  thereon.  He  may  free- 
ly criticise  such  acts  or  publications;  but  his 
criticism  must  be  limited  to  their  character  and 
consequences,  and  not  directed  against  the  person- 
ality of  the  actor.  Consult :  Odgers,  A  Digest  of 
the  Law  of  Libel  and  Slander  (London,  1896)  ; 
Newell,  The  Law  of  Libel  and  Slander  (Chicago, 
1898)  ;  Pollock,  The  Law  of  Torts  (London  and 
New  York,  1901). 

SLANDEB  OF  TITLE.  The  disparagement 
of  the  property  of  another  to  his  damage  by  false 
and  malicious  statements.  This  species  of  tort 
(q.v.)  took  its  name  from  the  fact  that  for  a  con- 
siderable period  its  only  form  was  that  of  dis- 
paraging misrepresentations  of  a  person's  title 
to  real  property.  At  present  it  is  extended  to 
such  statements  copceming  any  property  interest. 
Accordingly  a  disparaging  publication  about  the 
quality  of  a  public  dinner  served  by  a  caterer,  or 
abQut  the  age  of  a  race  horse,  or  about  the  right 
to  use  a  particular  trade-mark,  if  false  and  ma- 
licious and  causing  special  damage  to  the  plain- 
tiff, is  an  actionable  slander  of  title.  It  will  be 
observed,  therefore,  that  the  name  has  ceased  to 
be  really  descriptive  of  the  tort.  The  wrong  may 
be  committed  without  slandering  any  one  and 
without  affecting  title  to  any  property. 

Not  only  must  the  malicious  statement  cause 
actual  damage,  but  it  must  be  a  statement  of  fact 
and  not  one  of  opinion  merely.  Not  being  an  ac- 
tion for  injury  to  the  person,  slander  of  title  is 
not  subject  to  the  common-law  rule  that  a  per- 
sonal action  dies  with  the  person. 

SLANQ  (of  uncertain  origin;  probably  a  cant 
use  of  the  archaic  preterite  slang,  regarded  as  a 
participle  of  sling,  AS.,  OHG.  slingan,  Ger, 
schlingen,  to  filng,  sling;   connected  with  Lith. 


SLAJTQ. 


912 


SLAJTQ. 


•Kn^^  to  creep).  Colloquial  words  and  phrases 
originating  for  the  most  part  in  the  lower  classes 
of  society  or  in  professional  jargon.  The  term  may 
also  be  applied  to  words  and  phrases  which  are 
formally  in  harmony  with  the  standard  language, 
as  sanctioned  by  what  is  regarded  as  best  usage, 
but  which  in  their  meanings  diverge  from  this 
norm  so  far  as  to  be  generally  considered  in- 
elegant and  vulgar.  The  importance  of  slang 
in  the  semasiological  development  of  language 
(see  Semasiologt)  can  hardly  be  overestimated. 
Not  only  must  a  language  be  enriched  with  new 
words,  if  it  is  to  survive,  but  it  must  be  aug- 
mented by  new  meanings  of  the  terms  which  it 
already  contains;  and  one  of  the  chief  factors  of 
this  increase  of  significations  and  applications 
of  words  is  slang.  The  condemnation  of  slang, 
therefore,  finds  no  support  from  a  linguistic  point 
of  view.  On  the  contrary,  the  use  of  slang  in  it- 
self, in  so  far  as  it  does  not  usurp  the  functions 
of  the  standard  language  to  too  great  a  degree,  is  to 
be  encouraged.  Slang  is  the  radical  counterpart 
of  conservative  purism,  and  the  two  must  exercise 
a  constant  check  on  each  other  as  a  necessary  con- 
dition to  the  existence  of  language.  It  need  hard- 
ly be  added  that  slang  which  is  vulgar  is  to  be 
condemned  unsparingly,  not  because  it  is  slang, 
but  because  it  is  low.  Slang  is  furthermore  the 
vocabularistic  side  of  dialect,  and  is  accordingly 
governed  by  the  laws  which  control  dialectic 
growth.  (See  Diaujct.)  If,  therefore,  a  given 
slang  expression,  originated  by  an  individual  or 
by  a  group  of  individuals,  is  found  for  any  rea- 
son to  supply  a  need,  as  on  account  of  its  shade  of 
meaning,  or  its  superior  convenience  over  the 
corresponding  standard  word,  it  may  be  adopted 
into  the  standard  language.  Even  then  it  is  re- 
garded at  first  with  suspicion  and  admitted  only 
on  sufferance.  The  life  of  the  average  slang  word 
is  very  short.  A  slang  term  may,  however,  ul- 
timately become  a  word  recognized  even  by  the 
most  conservative  adherents  to  a  strictly  stand- 
ard dialect,  and  thus  lose  its  character  as  a  slang 
word,  as  in  the  case  of  'blizzard'  and  'sky- 
scraper,' which,  originally  slang  words,  are  now 
standard  in  America. 

The  principal  basis  of  slang  is  metaphor  (q.v.). 
Thus  in  poker  players  cash  their  'chips'  at  the 
close  of  the  game.  From  this  comes  the  use  of  the 
phrase  'to  pass  in  his  chips,'  as  a  slang  equivalent 
for  death.  Again  a  girl  as  being  sweet,  plump,  of 
a  peach-like  complexion,  and  generally  'good 
enough  to  eat/  is  called  a  'peach;'  or  as  being 
dignified,  and  commanding  respect,  or  of  excep- 
tional beauty,  she  is  a  'queen  ;^  while  a  clumsy, 
inept,  stupid  person  is  called  a  *lobster.'  Although 
such  terms  as  thes*»  which  have  been  drawn  inten- 
tionally from  slang  unrecognized  in  literature, 
seem  at  first  sight  vulgar,  equally  violent  trans- 
fers of  meaning  have  been  made  in  course  of  time 
in  literary  usage.  For  example,  the  evolution  of 
the  French  tSte,  'head,'  from  the  Latin  testa,  'jar' 
(found  also  in  the  later  Latin  poets  in  the  sense  of 
'skull'),  is  in  itself  no  better  and  no  worse  than 
the  low*  English  'mug*  for  'face,'  yet  tite  is  con- 
sidered standard  and  'mug'  is  regarded  as  slang. 
On  the  other  hand,  certain  words  and  phrases 
which  were  formerly  regarded  as  strictly  literary 
are  now  slang,  at  least  in  certain  collocations.  As 
familiar  examples  of  this  may  be  cited  'awful,* 
'fierce,'  'devilish,*  'keen,'  'wise,'  in  such  phrases 
as  'an  awful  swell,'  'a  fierce  hat,'  'devilish  good,* 


'to  be  keen  on  something,'  or  'to  put  a  man  wise 
to  a  thing.'  Not  only  does  the  inexact  use  of 
the  word  make  it  slang,  but  frequently,  as  in 
the  case  of  'mug,'  it  seems  to  be  the  brevity  and 
commonness  of  the  term  which  renders  it  objec- 
tionable. Akin  to  this  latter  class  is  the  slang  of 
clipped  words,  as  'enthuse'  for  'make  enthusias- 
tic,' 'beaut*  for  1)eauty,'  'gent'  for  'gentleman,' 
and  the  like.  The  objection  to  this  class  of  words 
seems  justifiable  on  linguistic  as  well  as  on 
esthetic  grounds.  A  prolific  source  of  slang  is 
euphemism,  especially  that  which  is  based  on 
propriety.  Akin  to  euphemistic  slang  are  clipped 
oaths,  most  of  which  are  now  little  used,  al- 
though they  were  common  in  earlier  English. 
Examples  of  this  class  of  slan^  are:  'Zounds,' 
'od's  life,'  'by  cock  and  pie,'  and  in  modem  usage 
the  rustic  oaths  *dod  rot,*  *gol  dam,'  *I  swan,'  and 
the  low  city  oath  *hully  Gee.'  Yet  another  class 
of  slang  is  borrowed  from  foreign  languagesw 
This  enters  as  a  rule  among  the  higher  circles  of 
society,  and  is  therefore  wider  in  its  vogue  and 
more  lasting  in  its  vitality.  There  belong  such 
words  as  fin  de  sidcle,  'up  to  date,'  bon-ton,  'high 
society,'  as  well  as  translated  phrases,  as  the  ex- 
pression current  during  the  Cninese  Boxer  trou- 
bles in  1900,  'to  save  one's  face,*  that  is,  'to  re- 
tain an  appearance  of  dignity  despite  a  real  con- 
cession to  superior  circumstances.' 

Every  grade  of  society  and  almost  every  pro- 
fession has  its  peculiar  slang.  These  varieties 
frejquently  vary  so  much  as  to  be  almost  or  even 
quite  mutually  imintelligible.  The  slang  of  the 
race  course,  the  prize  ring,  the  barroom,  and  the 
variety  show  are  distinct  from  one  another,  and 
stand  in  marked  contrast  to  the  slang  of  the  cul- 
tured classes.  Here  there  are  separate  slangs  for 
the  artist,  the  actor,  the  stockbroker,  the  society 
man,  the  club  man,  and  the  university  man.  It  is 
in  the  colloquialisms  of  the  two  latter  classes,  in- 
deed, that  slang  is  found  which  is  consistent 
with  good  taste.  Intrinsically  there  is  no  reason 
why  one  slang  should  be  preferred  to  another,  and 
it  is  as  entirely  proper  to  speak  in  low  slang  of 
'winning  by  a  neck,'  or  'putting  to  sleep,'  or 
'rushing  the  growler,'  as  to  use  the  high  slang  of 
'a  slump  in  the  market,'  'slating  a  book,'  'doing  a 
turn,'  'skying  a  picture,'  or  'boning  up  with  a 
crib  for  an  exam.'  The  only  criterion  is  the  exact 
and  intelligible  expression  of  the  idea. 

Closely  connected  with  professional  slang  is 
cant,  and  the  two  often  overlap  so  as  to  be  dis- 
tinguishable only  by  some  arbitrary  rule.  Cant 
differs  from  slang  in  that  it  is  originally  de 
signedly  unintelligible  to  any  but  members  of 
the  profession,  although  it  may  of  course  spread 
and  even  become  a  part  of  the  literary  language. 
Cant,  like  slang,  is  of  all  grades.  It  ranges  from 
thieves*  cant,  as  'douse  the  glim'  for  'put  out  the 
light,'  or  'pinch  a  cove's  wad  and  ticker,'  for 
'steal  a  man's  monev  and  watch,'  through  stage- 
cant,  such  as  'see  the  ghost  walk,'  for  *get  one*s 
salary,'  'angel'  for  'patron,'  up  to  financial  cant, 
as  'to  take  .a  flyer  in  futures,'  and  artists'  jargon, 
as  'to  chic'  for  'to  sketch  from  memory,'  or  to 
sky'  for  'to  hang  a  picture  so  high  as  to  escape 
notice  in  an  exhibition.' 

Slang  has  many  minor  varieties.  Among  these 
may  be  mentioned  back  slang,  centre  slang,  and 
rhyming  slang.  Back  slang  is  founded  by  roughly 
spelling  words  backward,  sometimes  with  consid- 
erable mutilation  of  the  original  sound,  as  'gyp' 


SLAVO. 


918 


SLATBB. 


for  'bitch.'  Centre  slang  is  more  elaborate.  Ibe 
middle  vovel  of  the  word  to  be  ttimed  into  slang 
is  taken  as  the  initial  letter/foUowed  by  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  original  word.  To  this  the  first 
part  of  the  word  is  added,  often  with  extra  let- 
ters to  give  it  a  finished  sound,  as  'ockler*  for 
'lock.'  In  rhyminff  slang,  a  phrase  which  rhymes 
with  the  word  to  m  disguised  is  substituted,  as 
'apples  and  pears'  for  'stairs.'  The  lin^istic  ne- 
cessity of  Slang  is  shown  by  its  universality. 
Xot  only  is  it  current  in  all  modem  languages, 
but  it  reaches  its  acme  in  the  most  highly  de« 
veloped  tongues,  as  English,  French,  and  Ger- 
man, and  is  used  by  the  most  cultured  society, 
despite  puristic  attempt  to  suppress  it.  Further- 
more,  it  is  not  a  characteristic  of  modem  lan- 
guages alone,  but  of  ancient  ones  as  well.  Slang 
abounds  in  the  more  popular  literature  of  Greece 
and  Rome,  as  in  the  comedies  of  Aristophanes 
and  Plautus,  or  in  the  Satyria  of  Petronius. 

Consult:  Hotten,  Slang  Dictionary  (2d  ed., 
London,  1885) ;  Barr^re,  Argot  and  Slang  (ib., 
1887)  ;  Farmer  and  Henly,  Slang  and  Its  Ana- 
logues (ib.,  1890-96) ;  Maitland,  American  Slang 
Dictionary  (Chicago,  1891) ;  Barr^re  and  Le- 
land.  Dictionary  of  Slang,  Jargon,  and  Cant 
(New  York,  1893) ;  Kluge,  Deutsche  Studenten- 
sprache  (Strassburg,  1895) ;  Francisque-Michel, 
Etudes  de  philologie  compares  sur  I'argot  et  sur 
les  idiomes  analogues  paries  en  Europe  et  en  Asie 
(Paris,  1855) ;  Bigaud,  Dictionnaire  de  Vargot 
modeme  (ib.,  1885) ;  Del  van,  Dictionnaire  de  la 
langue  verte  (ib.,  1889) ;  Larchey,  Dictionnaire 
historique  de  Vargot  ( 10th  ed.,  ib.,  1887-89) ; 
Timmermans,  Vargot  parisien  (ib.,  1893). 

SLATE  (OF.  esclat,  Fr.  iclat,  splinter,  frag- 
ment, from  OHG.  sltzan^  Ger.  schleissen,  AS. 
slltan^  Eng.  slit),  A  hard,  fissile  rock  which  has 
been  produced  from  shale  or  clay  by  metamorph- 
ism.  This  process  by  means  of  heat  and  pressure 
consolidates  the  original  rock  and  obliterates  the 
original  stratification,  developing  new  lines  of 
parting  or  cleavage  planes  along  which  slate 
splits  easily  and  in  thin  layers.  Many  fine- 
grained shales  which  split  readily  along  the  bed- 
ding planes  are  erroneously  called  slate,  but 
true  slate  is  a  very  hard  and  compact  rock,  little 
likely  to  be  acted  on  by  the  weathering  agencies. 
Owing  to  its  origin,  slate  is  found  only  in  regions 
of  metamorphic  rocks,  and  therefore  its  geo- 
graphical distribution  is  somewhat  restricted. 
Its  geological  ranpie  extends  from  the  Cambrian 
to  the  Jurassic.  Slate  is  commonly  bluish  black 
or  gray  black  in  color,  but  red,  green,  purple, 
and  variegated  varieties  are  known.  In  the 
United  States  the  most  important  slate  quarries 
are  in  Maine,  Vermont,  New  York,  Pennsylvania, 
Maryland,  and  C^eorgia.  A  small  production  is 
also  made  in  California  and  Minnesota.  The  sup- 
ply of  slate  in  Europe  is  derived  mostly  from 
Wales  and  France. 

Slate  was  formerly  quarried  by  blasting,  but 
at  present  it  is  generally  extracted  in  large 
blocks  by  means  of  a  channeling  machine,  simi- 
lar to  that  used  in  quarrying  marble.  The  rock 
splits  best  when  it  is  green  or  freshly  taken  from 
the  quarry.  Slate  is  extensively  employed  as  a 
roofing  material  and  for  sinks,  washtubs,  bil- 
liard-table tops,  electrical  switchboards,  floor- 
ing, mantels,  blackboards,  school  slates,  pencils, 
and  in  acid  towers.  In  roofing  it  is  necessary  to 
lay  the  slates  in  two  thicknesses,  so  that  the  slop- 


ing joints  may  be  covered  by  the  overlap  of  the 
course  above,  and  the  third  course  must  also 
cover  the  first  by  an  inch  or  two,  to  prevent  rain 
from  penetrating.  Slate  for  interior  decoration 
is  subjected  to  a  process  called  marbling,  which 
consists  in  coating  it  with  materials  which  give 
the  surface  a  veined  appearance  like  marble. 

The  value  of  the  slate  produced  in  the  United 
States  in  1901  was  $4,787,525.  Most  of  this 
product  was  used  for  roofing  purposes.  The  ex- 
ports amounted  to  $898,262,  a  large  part  being 
shipped  to  Great  Britain. 

BiBLiOGiLiPHT.  Merrill,  Stones  for  Building 
and  Decoration  (New  York)  and  'The  Strength 
and  Weathering  Qualities  of  Boofing  Slates," 
Transactions  of  American  Society  of  Civil  Eng^ 
neers,  September,  1892,  and  I^cember,  1894; 
Dale,  ''The  Slate  Belt  of  Eastem  New  York  and 
Western  Vermont,"  in  Nineteenth  Annual  Report 
of  United  States  Geological  Survey,  pt.  iii.  For 
statistics,  see  volmnes  on  Mineral  Resources  is- 
sued annually  by  United  States  Geological 
Survey. 

See  Metamobphism;  Shaix;  BduxnrQ 
Stonb. 

SIiATEB,  John  Fox  (1815-84).  An  Ameri- 
can manufacturer  and  philanthropist,  the 
nephew  of  Samuel  Slater  (who  introduced  in 
this  country  the  business  of  cotton-spinning), 
and  grandson  of  WiUiam  Slater,  of  Belper, 
Derbyshire,  England.  John  F.  Slater  (son  of 
John  Slater)  was  born  at  Slatersville,  R.  I.,  and 
after  a  good  academic  training  took  charge  of 
his  father's  woolen  mill,  at  Hopeville,  Conn.,  and 
of  a  cotton  mill  near  by,  at  Jewett  City.  In  1842 
he  removed  to  Norwich,  Conn,  (still  retaining 
with  his  brother  William  S.  the  business  of  a 
cotton  manufacturer),  and  there  he  remained 
till  his  death.  He  was  a  liberal  benefactor  of 
local  institutions,  and  as  his  years,  advanced  he 
determined  to  set  apart  $1,000,000  for  the  edu- 
cation of  "the  freedmen."  (See  Slatkb  Fuin>.) 
Congress  voted  thanks  to  Mr.  Slater  for  his 
beneficence,  and  caused  a  gold  medal  to  be  struck 
in  commemoration  of  it.  Consult  the  ''Mem- 
orial," privately  printed  in  Norwich,  Conn. 
(1885). 

SLATEB,  Samuel  (1768-1835).  An  American 
manufacturer,  founder  of  the  cotton-spinning 
industry  in  the  United  States.  He  was  bom  in 
Derbyshire,  England.  He  acquired  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  cotton-spinning  under  Jedediah 
Strutt,  the  partner  of  Bichard  Arkwright,  and 
in  1789  emigrated  to  the  United  States  for  tiie 
purpose  of  introducing  the  industry  there.  He 
left  England  secretly  tor  fear  attempts  would  be 
made  to  prevent  him  from  carrying  his  knowledge 
and  skill  to  a  foreign  country.  In  January, 
1790,  he. proceeded  to  Pawtucket,  R.  L,  where 
he  entered  into  a  contract  to  build  and  equip  a 
mill  with  spinning  machinery  modeled  on  the 
Arkwright  system.  After  great  labor  and  sev- 
eral failures  the  machinery  was  completed  and 
the  spindles  were  set  to  work  on  December  21, 
1790.  In  1806i,  in  conjunction  with  his  brother, 
John,  he  constructed  extensive  cotton  mills  on 
the  site  of  the  present  town  of  Slatersville,  R.  I., 
and  there  accumulated  a  large  fortune.  By  1810 
there  were  in  the  United  States  100  mills  in 
operation,  all  constructed  on  the  Arkwright 
system  after  the  Slater  models.  In  .1812 
Slater  constructed  mills  at  Oxford,  Mass.,  and 


91i 


gLATJQHXBB  HOTJfDSa 


in  1815-16  erected  woolen  mills.    Consult  White, 
Memoir  of  Bamuel  Slater  (PhiUdelphia,  1836). 

8LATEB  VUTSTD.  An  endowment  established 
by  John  F.  Slater  (q.v.)  in  1882  for  the  encour- 
agement of  industrial  education  among  the 
negroes  in  the  South.  In  May,  1882,  Mr.  Slater 
transferred  $1,000,000  to  a  board  of  trustees, 
incorporated  by  the  State  of  New  York,  of  which 
President  R.  B.  Hayes  was  the  original  chair- 
man. By  good  management  this  fund  in  1903 
had  grown  to  the  amount  of  $1,500,000,  and  the 
annual  income — ^not  far  from  $60,000 — ^is  at  the 
disposal  of  the  trustees  for  the  uplifting  of  the 
blacks  in  the  Southern  States.  Bishop  Haygood, 
of  Georgia,  and  Dr.  J.  L.  M.  Curiy,  of  Richmond, 
Va.,  have  been  the  general  agents  of  this  fund. 
The  trustees  have  given  their  influence  to  the 
promotion  of  normal  and  industrial  training,  and 
have  made  large  appropriations  to  the  Hampton 
and  Tusk^ee  institutes,  and  lesser  amounts  to 
several  kindred  and  well-managed  institutions. 

8I1ATIH  PASHA,  sla^t^n  pft-sha^  RuDOU* 
Karl  (1857—).  An  Egyptian  soldier,  bom  near 
Vienna,  Austria.  He  served  for  a  time  in  the 
Austrian  army,  in  1878  entered  the  Egyptian 
service  under  General  Gordon,  and  in  1881  be- 
came Governor-General  of  Darfur.  Not  long 
after  his  appointment  to  this  post  the  Mahdi 
began  his  famous  religious  war,  and  in  1883, 
after  the  defeat  of  Hicks  Pasha,  Slatin  gave 
himself  up  as  a  prisoner.  He  became  the  servant 
of  Abdullahi,  who  afterwards  succeeded  to  power 
on  the  death  of  the  Mahdi.  After  a  captivity^  of 
eleven  years  Slatin  succeeded  in  1895  in  escaping 
to  Lower  Egypt.  Upon  reaching  Cairo  he  was 
made  a  pasha  by  the  Khedive.  Afterwards  he  took 
part  in  the  campaigns  that  resulted  in  the  com- 
plete overthrow  of  Abdullahi.  In  1900  he  was 
appointed  inspector-general  of  the  Sudan.     He 

Siblished  an  account  of  his  experiences  in  cap- 
vity  under  the  title  of  Feuer  und  Bchtoert  im 
Sudan  X 1896) .  A  translation,  Fire  and  Stoord  in 
the  Sudan,  was  brought  out  in  New  York  in  the 
same  year. 

SLAUQHTEB-HOXTSB  CASB8.  The  term 
popularly  applied  to  a  group  of  notable  cases 
decided  by  the  United  S&tes  Supreme  Court  at 
the  December  term  of  1872,  and  reported  in  the 
sixteenth  volume  of  Wallace^  Reports.  The 
cases  arose  out  of  an  attempt  of  the  L^slature 
of  Louisiana  to  place  far-reaching  restrictions 
upon  the  butchery  industry  in  the  interest  of 
the  public  health  in  the  city  of  New  Orleans. 
The  restrictions  practically  amounted  to  a  de- 
nial of  the  right  of  the  general  public  to  engage 
in  the  business,  and  suits  were  brought  to  over- 
throw the  statute  on  the  ground  that  it  was  an 
infringement  upon  the  Fourteenth  Amendment  to 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  The 
cases  were  carried  to  the  Supreme  Court,  where 
it  was  held  by  a  majority  of  5  to  4  that  it  was 
not  the  purpose  of  the  Fourteenth  Amendment  to 
deprive  the  States  of  their  police  power;  that 
this  remained  with  them  unimpaired ;  that  there 
is  a  citizenship  of  the  United  States  and  a  eiti- 
senship  of  a  State,  which  are  distinct  from  each 
other,  and  that  the  privileges  and  immunities 
belonging  to  the  latter  must  rest  for  their  se- 
curity and  protection  where  they  had  theretofore 
rested,  namely,  upon  the  States.  The  doctrine 
here  laid  down  constitutes  an  important  feature 
of  our  Federal  jurisprudence,  and  its  announce- 


ment 1^  the  Supreme  Court  was  regarded  as  the 
beginning  of  a  reactionary  movement  against  the 
tendency  upon  the  'part  of  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment, whicn  was  quite  marked  during  and  after 
the  Civil  War,  to  usurp  the  powers  of  the  States. 

SLAtrOHTEB  H0U8B8.  The  first  attempt 
to  regulate  the  conduct  of  establishments  where 
animals  are  slau^tered  for  food  probably  was 
made  during  the  reign  of  Richard  II.,  for  in  1388 
an  act  of  Parliament  forbade  the  casting  of 
oifal  and  other  refuse  of  slaughtered  animals 
into  rivers  and  other  waters.  During  the 
nineteenth  century  a  national  ^stem  of  munici- 
pal slaughter  houses  was  established  in  France 
and  Germany  and  an  agitation  for  a  similar  sys- 
tem of  public  ownership  was  under  way  in  Great 
Britain  and  had  been  established  in  many  towns. 
This  great  public  improvement  originated  with 
Napoleon,  mo  passed  a  decree  in  1807  for  the 
erection  of  public  abattoirs. 

In  Germany  each  town  council  has  authority  to 
erect  and  maintain  public  slaughter  houses  and 
to  foibid  the  slaughtering  of  meat  elsewhere.  It 
may  enact  that  fresh  meat  brought  from  outside 
this  area  for  the  use  of  restaurants  and  hotels 
shall  not  be  prepared  for  food  until  it  has  been 
inspected.  Tne  importation  of  prepared  meats 
may  be,  at  the  discretion  of  the  town  council, 
entirely  prohibited.  The  council  ma^  also  order 
that  meat  not  slaughtered  at  the  public  slaughter 
houses  shall  be  exposed  for  sale  in  a  separate 
place  1^  meat  dealers. 

In  many  of  the  German  cities,  not  only  slaugh- 
ter houses,  but  also  markets  for  the  sale  of  meat, 
usually  located  in  the  suburbs,  are  maintained 
at  public  expense. 

England  is  far  behind  Germany  in  the  regula- 
tion of  the  slaughter  and  sale  of  meat.  Inspec- 
tion has  not  been  made  compulsory  by  Parlia- 
mentary enactment,  nor  has  the  maintenance  of 
municipal  slaughter  houses  heea  authorized.  Sev- 
eral towns,  however,  have  secured  such  authority 
by  special  legislation.  Abattoirs  were  opened  in 
Edinburgh  in  1851,  and  in  Manchester  in  1872. 
Birmingham  has  a  city  market,  which  includes 
most  of  the  appliances  of  the  best  German  mar- 
kets, but  is  located  in  the  centre  of  the  city.  Its 
cost,  including  an  expensive  site,  was  $600,000. 
Throughout  Europe  the  construction  of  municipal 
abattoirs  has  been  general,  and  they  are  now 
considered  necessary  in  order,  that  not  only  the 
slaughtering  of  animals,  but  also  the  inspection 
of  meat,  may  be  concentrated  and  regulated.  In 
Berlin  two  municipal  slaughtering  establish- 
ments, erected  at  a  cost  of  nearly  $5,000,000, 
were  opened  in  1883  and  took  the  place  of  nearly 
1000  slaughter  houses  privately  owned. 

In  the  United  States,  though  there  are  no 
municipal  abattoirs,  the  consolidation  of  a  very 
large  proportion  of  the  business  of  slaughterini^ 
dressing,  packing,  and  shipping  meat  in  a  few 
immense  establishments  has  greatly  lessened  the 
number  of  private  slaughter  houses  and  cor- 
respondingly lessened  the  need  for  municipal 
slaughter  houses.  The  market  value  which  has 
arisen  for  what  were  formerly  considered  waste 
products  has  simplified  the  problem  of  dispos- 
ing of  the  offal.  (See  Packing  Iitoustby.) 
Such  regulations  as  exist  are  due  largely  to 
municipal  rather  than  State  or  national  control, 
and  therefore  vaiy  with  the  localities.  Consult: 
Parke,  on  Municipal  Authorities  and  Slaughter 
HoueeSy  read  before  the  Sanitary  Institute  at 


SLAXJQHTBB  HOXJSE& 


916 


8LAVEBT. 


Birmingham,  England,  in  1898;  also  Maltbie, 
Municipal  Functions  (New  York,  1898),  and 
Shaw,  Municipal  Oovemment  in  Continental  Eu- 
rope (ib.,  1896). 

SliAVE  COAST.  A  geographical  name  for  a 
division  of  the  coast  of  Upper  Guinea,  washed  by 
the  Bight  of  Benin.  It  owes  its  name  to  the  ao- 
tive  slave  trade  which  was  formerly  carried  on  in 
this  region.    See  Dahomet;  Benin. 

SliAVEBY  (from  slave,  from  OF.  Fr.  esclave, 
from  MEG.  slave,  sklave,  Ger.  Bklave,  slave, 
Slav;  originally  referring  to  Slavs  taken  by  the 
Germans  in  war).  Legally,  that  status  of  an 
individual  or  individuals  characterized  by  the 
perpetual  and  almost  absolute  loss  of  personal 
and  political  liberty;  socially,  an  institution  de- 
fined by  law  and  custom  similar  to  patria  potes- 
tas,  comitatus^  clientela  in  personal  dependence 
and  to  villeinage,  vassalage,  serfdom,  servitude, 
and  apprenticeship  in  personal  and  economic 
subjection  and  common  incidents,  but  distin- 
guished from  them  as  the  most  absolute  and  in- 
voluntary form  of  human  servitude. 

The  slave  is  the  property,  chattel  or  real,  of 
his  master,  and  cannot  participate  in  the  civil 
right  of  personal  freedom,  though,  except  in  strict 
Koman  law,  he  may  enjoy  limited  personal  rights. 
Slavery  represents  a  stage  in  social  or  industrial 
organization  and  development.  It  probably  coin- 
cides with  the  beginnings  of  settled  agricultural 
tribal  life,  but  xtA  ultimate  origin  is  in  depen- 
dence resulting  from  inequality  of  capacity  or 
opportunity  between  individuals  or  sets  of  indi- 
viduals brought  into  competitive  relations. 
Whether  recognized  by  common,  statutory,  or 
international  law,  slavery  is  a  developing  status 
varying  its  character  in  place  and  time  as  defined 
by  locid  law  and  custom.  Slavery,  either  by  his- 
toric contact,  slave  trade,  or  independent  origin, 
existed  anciently  among  Babylonians,  Assyrians, 
Egyptians,  Hebrews,  Persians,  Phcenicians,  Greeks, 
and  Romans,  and  in  India,  China,  and  Africa.  It  is 
interpreted  in  ancient  monuments  and  literature 
and  locally  defined  by  law.  Philosophic  justifi- 
cation of  slavery,  ancient  and  modern,  rests  his- 
torically upon  natural  subjection  and  difference 
of  race  or  creed,  or  both.  But  nationals  as  well 
as  barbarians,  heathen,  and  heretics  have  been 
enslaved  by  all  races.  Classical  philosophy,  He- 
brew and  other  ancient  religions,  Brahmanism, 
Buddhism,  Christianity,  and  Mohammedanism 
sanctioned  the  institution,  but  its  essential  sanc- 
tion rested  in  law  defining  the  status  and  its 
incidents.  Of  the  chief  sources  of  slavery  (cap- 
ture in  war,  man-stealing,  purchase,  birth  by  a 
slave  parent,  and  action  of  law),  capture  was 
most  prevalent  in  early  society.  Hebrew,  Greek, 
and  Roman  slavery,  recruited  from  all  these 
sources,  more  often  than  modem  slavery,  applied 
to  a  subject  the  equal  or  superior  of  his  master. 
An  extensive  slave  trade  with  the  Mediterranean 
islands,  Asia  Minor,  Africa,  or  Southern  Europe 
aided  to  fill  Athens,  Corinth,  ^gina,  and  Italy 
with  vast  numbers  of  slaves,  numbering  often 
thrice  the  free  men.  At  Sparta  conquered  helots, 
owned  by  the  State  but  let  to  individuals,  num- 
bered seven  to  one  Spartan. 

The  incidents  of  Greek,  Roman,  and  American 
slavery  are  strikingly  similar,  but  Rome's  war- 
like and  organizing  genius  gave  the  institution 
greater  legal  definiteness  and  harshness.  In  each 
country  the  slave  was  sold;  hired,  seized  for  debt. 


and  treated  as  his  master's  property,  chattel  or 
reaL  He  was  controlled  by  whipping,  branding, 
fetters,  exile,  or  by  the  tie  of  mutual  affection  in 
the  family  of  which  he  was  one.  He  had  cus- 
tomary limited  rights  of  marriage,  property, 
maintenance,  contract,  religion,  and  personal  se- 
curity and  sanctuary  (in  Greece).  Post-Homeric 
Greece,  the  later  Roman  Empire,  and  some  Amer- 
ican colonies  of  the  eighteenth  century  legalized 
his  right  to  life  and  limb.  Previously  Roman 
slaves  were  'things'  in  the  master's  dominioa 
potestae,  subject  to  life  and  death,  torture,  muti- 
lation, crucifixion,  gladiatorial  combat,  and  work 
in  mines  under  drivers;  but  were,  like  American 
slaves,  superior  to  Greek  in  having  greater  oppor- 
tunity to  obtain  their  freedom.  Greek  and 
Roman  freedmen  gradually  became  free  men. 
Classical  and  American  slave  labor  was  prsedial, 
domestic,  industrial,  clerical,  and  public.  Rome 
denied  slaves  civil  or  military  service.  Many 
Greek  and  Roman  slaves  entered  learned  profes- 
sions. Italian  latifundia  worked  by  slaves  de- 
stroyed free-hold  yeomanry  and  increased,  with 
harsh  treatment,  danger  of  servile  insurrection. 
Serious  revolts  occurred  in  Greece  and  Rome, 
and  later  in  the  West  Indies,  but  North  America 
suffered  only  minor  local  insurrections,  such, 
for  instance,  as  Gabriel's  Insurrection  (q.v.)  and 
Nat  Turner's  Insurrection.  (See  Tubneb,  Nat.) 
The  closing  of  Roman  conquest,  jus  naturale,  and 
Christianity,  modified  the  rigid  chattel  concep-  , 
tion  of  jus  civile  and  jus  gentium,  and  law  gave 
the  slave  personality  and  protection.  Finally 
Justinian  enlarged  the  coloni,  men  personally 
free  but  tied  to  the  soil  like  serfs.  Thereafter 
slavery,  the  chief  labor  system  since  the  Punic 
Wars,  though  practiced  by  Rome's  Teuton  con- 
querors, was  gradually  replaced  in  mediaeval 
Europe  by  feudal  vassalage,  villeinage,  or  serf- 
dom, particularly  where  German  and  Roman  life 
came  in  close  contact.  Serfdom  persisted  to 
modem  times,  surviving  in  Russia  until  1861. 
See  Sebf. 

Slavery  and  the  slave  trade,  continued  by 
medieval  Venice,  the  Saracens,  Tatars,  Turks, 
and  African  tribes,  were  freshly  extended  by  Mo- 
hammedans in  Africa  and  Asia,  who  made  sub- 
ject alike  Christians,  heathen,  whites,  and  blacks. 
Negro  slavery  was  a  long  established  African 
tribal  custom  with  debtors,  criminals,  vagrants^ 
and  captives.  The  commercial  expansion  of  Por- 
tugal incidentally  began  the  African  slave  trade 
in  modern  Europe  and  America.  Through  kid- 
napping and  from  Moorish  slavers  Prince  Henry 
of  Portugal  received  negro  slaves  in  1442,  and 
two  years  later  began  the  European  slave  trade 
from  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  For  a  half  cen- 
tury Portugal  monopolized  the  traffic,  which 
finally  embraced  the  Spanish  possessions  in 
America,  where  Indian  slavery  established  by 
Spain  was  exterminating  the  natives.  Spain  en- 
tered the  slave  trade  in  1517;  the  English  (under 
John  Hawkins)  in  1553,  and  France  in  1624; 
they  were  followed  by  Holland,  Denmark,  and 
the  American  colonies.  The  market  was  the 
West-European  coimtries  and  their  colonies  in 
America,  particularly  the  Spanish  West  Indies. 
England  finally  took  the  lead  in  the  commerce, 
granting  from  the  time  of  Elizabeth  to  1670  five 
separate  patents  for  its  monopoly  to  favored  mer- 
chants and  companies.  Between  1712  and  1749 
the  exclusive  su^jply  of  the  Spanish  colonies  was 


SLAVEBT. 


916 


SLAVEBT. 


granted  by  Spain  to  the  English  South  Sea  Gom- 
panv.  Thereafter  all  Englishmen  could  enter  this 
field  and  continue  their  former  trade  to  the  Eng- 
lish colonies.  Of  the  total  number  of  slaves 
imported  previous  to  the  American  Revolution, 
British  subjects  probably  carried  half,  employ- 
ing in  one  year  192  ships,  carrying  47,000  slaves. 
Often  a  fourth  of  the  slaves  perished  in  the  over- 
crowding of  the  'middle  passage/  Massacre  and 
the  torch  marked  the  track  of  the  kidnapping 
African  slaver  and  numbers  of  slaves  died  during 
the  process  of  'seasoning,'  or  acclimatization  in 
their  new  homes. 

Research  has  proved  that  the  first  negroes 
landed  at  Jamestown  in  1619  and  others  brought 
by  early  privateers  were  not  reduced  to  slavery, 
but  to  limited  servitude,  a  legalized  status  of 
Indian,  white,  and  negro  servants  preceding 
slavery  in  most,  if  not  all,  of  the  English  main- 
land colonies.  Statutory  recognition  of  slavery 
occurred  in  Massachusetts  in  1641,  in  Connecti- 
cut in  1650,  in  Virginia  in  1661,  and  later  in  the 
other  colonies.  Jews,  Moors,  and  Turks  were 
also  subjects  of  colonial  slavery.  Indian  slavery 
was  confined  chiefly  to  the  seventeenth  century 
with  the  English,  as  their  Indian  captives  were 
less  profitable  than  those  of  the  Spanish,  who 
were  subjected  to  more  rigorous  treatment.  Slavery 
in  the  region  now  constituting  the  United  States 
was  patriarchal.  Statutory  law  and  court  de- 
cisions added  to  such  incidents  of  servitude  as 
alienation,  whipping,  disfranchisement,  limited 
marriage,  trade,  etc.^  first  the  incident  of  per- 
petual service  and  then  a  denial  of  civil  and 
juridical  capacity,  as  well  as  of  marriage,  prop- 
erty, and  possession  of  children,  thus  creating 
slavery.  The  slave,  contrary  to  the  famous 
obiter  dicta  in  the  Dred  Scott  decision  (see  Deed 
Scott  Case),  had  some  legal  rights,  such  as 
limited  personal  agency,  security  (after  1788), 
support  in  age  or  sickness,  a  right  to  limited 
religious  instruction,  and  suit  and  evidence 
in  special  cases.  Custom  gave  numerous  rights, 
such  as  private  property,  marriage,  free  time, 
contractual  ability,  and  to  females  domestic  or 
lighter  prsedial  labor,  which,  however,  the  mas- 
ter was  not  bound  to  respect.  Barbarities  like 
mutilation,  branding,  chaining,  and  murder  were 
regulated  or  prohibited  by  law,  but  instances  of 
cruelty  were  not  infrequent  before  the  nineteenth 
century. 

It  was  a  mooted  point  in  the  courts  of  the 
former  slave-holding  States  of  the  United  States 
whether  a  slave  had  any  rights  under  the  com- 
mon law  which  the  master  was  bound  to  respect. 
There  was  very  little  precedent  in  the  English 
law,  and  under  the  early  Roman  law  a  master 
had  absolute  power  of  life  and  death  over  his 
slaves,  who  were  generally  captives  taken  in  war. 
In  1820  a  Mississippi  court  held  that  under  the 
common  law  the  wanton  killing  of  a  slave  was 
murder.  In  1851  the  Supreme  Court  of  Oeorgia 
repudiated  the  reasoning  advanced  for  the  above 
conclusion,  contending  that  a  master  had  abso- 
Inte  dominion  over  a  slave  under  the  common 
law.  The  first  legal  provision  in  America  on  this 
subject  seems  to  have  been  a  Virginia  statute  of 
1723,  making  the  willful  killing  of  a  slave  murder. 
In  1770  a  colonial  act  prohibited  the  malicious 
and  unnecessary  killing  of  slaves  by  white  men. 
However,  in  most  of  the  Southern  States,  stat- 
utes were  enacted  prohibiting  the  wanton  killing 


or  mutilation  of  a  slave,  thus  finally  disposing 
of  the  question.  Slaves  were  liable  under  the 
criminal  laws  of  the  States  in  which  they  lived. 
Most  of  the  slave  States  also  passed  statutes  se- 
curing to  slaves  certain  other  rights,  such  as  to 
be  treated  in  a  humane  manner,  to  receive  medi- 
cal attention  when  iU,  and  to  be  provided  with 
the  necessaries  of  life  when  from  old  age  or  other 
causes  they  were  unable  to  work. 

With  such  humane  provisions  recognition  of  a 
slave  as  a  person  ceased,  and  for  all  other  pur- 
poses he  was  regarded  as  a  chattel,  subject  to  the 
will  of  his  master,  and  a  thing  to  be  bought  and 
sold.  The  law  of  personal  property  was  applied 
in  governing  his  ownership.  The  children  of  a 
slave  mother  belonged  to  her  owner,  irrespective 
of  who  owned  the  father.  In  most  of  the  South- 
ern States  the  marriage  of  slaves  was  not  reoig- 
nizcd  in  law,  though  perhaps  generally  encour- 
aged by  slave-owners  from  reugious  or  moral 
principles.  The  legal  duties  and  priviliges  of  the 
marriage  relation  were  consider^  to  be  incom- 
patible with  the  duties  owed  by  the  contracting 
parties  to  their  owners.  The  question  of  the 
legal  status  and  effect  of  a  slave  marriage  has  be- 
come important  since  the  general  emancipation 
of  the  slaves  in  determining  the  descent  and  dis- 
tribution of  property  of  former  slaves.  General- 
ly, the  States  in  which  slavery  flourished  have 
enacted  statutes  providing  for  legalizing  such 
marriages  by  certain  formalities,  and  in  a  few 
States  continued  cohabitation  merely,  after  eman- 
cipation, was  held  sufficient.  '  However,  it  is 
doubtful  if  any  of  these  States  would  recognize 
as  valid  a  marriage  contracted  during  slaveiy 
and  followed  by  separation  before  emancipation. 

A  slave  could  not  hold  property,  and  anything 
acquired  by  him  belonged  to  his  master.  The 
testimony  of  a  slave  would  not  be  received  in  a 
civil  action  in  which  a  white  person  was  a  party. 
However,  slaves  could  testify  in  a  criminal  suit 
in  which  other  slaves  were  defendants,  or  in  ac- 
tions to  secure  their  freedom.  The  right  of  an 
owner  to  give  a  slave  his  freedom  was  recognized, 
and  a  free  negro  could  hold  property. 

Sentiment  against  the  increase  of  the  negro 
population  and  the  slave  trade  early  developed  in 
America.  English  colonies  by  numerous  stat- 
utes from  1695  imposed  duties  to  discourage  or 
prohibit  slave  traffic,  but  British  merchants  and 
commercial  policy  defeated  these  efforts.  The 
enforced  slave  trade  appears  in  State  oonstitu- 
tions,  and  in  the  first  draft  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  as  a  justification  of  the  American 
Revolution.  Virginia  by  protest  in  1772,  Con- 
necticut by  statute  in  1774,  and  Delaware  by  her 
Constitution  in  1776  attempted  to  stop  the  trade, 
and  Virginia,  by  an  act  of  1778,  was  the  first 
political  community  to  prohibit  it  with  efficient 
penalties.  Similar  action  in  nine  other  States 
during  1783-1789;  abolition  of  slavery  in  Massa- 
chusetts and  Pennsylvania  in  1780;  the  desire  of 
John  Jay  to  make  prohibition  a  feature  of  the 
Treaty  of. Paris  of  1783;  the  straggle  for  prohibi- 
tion- in  the  Federal  Convention,  resulting  in  the 
compromise  limiting  the  duration  of  the  trade  to 
twenty  years,  at  the  end  of  which  period  the 
United  States  passed  the  act  of  1807  abolishing 
it,  show  the  priority  and  force  of  American  sen- 
timent against  the  slave  trade.  Similar  senti- 
ment developed  in  Europe.  Denmark  by  royal 
order  prohibited  the  trade  after  1802  in  her  pas- 


SLAVEBY. 


917 


SLAVEBY. 


sessions.  France,  following  the  doctrine  of  her 
Revolution,  abolished  her  colonial  slavery  and 
slave  trade  in  1793,  but  Napoleon  soon  uncud  the 
work  of  the  Convention.  Napoleon's  decree  of 
March  29,  1815,  however,  confirmed  by  the 
Treaty  of  Paris  and  a  law  of  1818,  made  the 
trade  illegal.  In  England  Dellwyn,  Sharpe, 
Clarkson,  and  Wilberforce  began  to  organize  anti- 
slave  trade  opinion  in  1787.  In  1788  Dolben  and 
Pitt  moved  bills  for  its  regulation  or  suppression. 
But  mercantile  interests  repressed  the  movement 
until  1806,  when  the  Grenville-Fox  Ministry 
secured  the  passage  of  acts  for  the  partial  aboli- 
tion of  the  slave  trade,  which  were  followed  by 
an  act  on  March  25,  1807,  for  total  abolition. 

The  Jay-Fox  entente  of  1783  paved  the  way  for 
the  joint  pledge  of  England  and  the  United 
States,  in  1806,  to  strive  for  international  abo- 
lition. This  object  appears  in  treaties  of  Eng- 
land with  Denmark,  Portugal,  and  Sweden,  during 
1810-1814.  France  then  pledged  aid  to  British  ad- 
vocacy of  abolition  in  the  Congress  of  Vienna. 
The  Netherlands,  by  royal  decree  in  1814,  abol- 
ished the  traffic.  Spain  restricted  it,  and  Portu- 
gal in  1815  agreed  to  prohibit  it  in  the  Northern 
Hemisphere.  In  the  Treaty  of  Ghent  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  afi»in  pledged  their 
Adeavors  for  suppression.  The  United  States 
by  supplementary  acts  in  1818  and  1819  en- 
deavored to  enforce  her  prohibition.  From  this 
time  to  1840  England's  chief  efforts  were  bent 
on  establishing  an  international  right  of  search 
in  time  of  peace  to  stop  the  illicit  slave 
traffic,  which  increased  from  40,000  a  year 
in  1820  to  200,000  in  1837.  '  In  1827  Portu- 
gal and  Brazil  promised  to  abolish  the  trade  in 
1829.  A  second  time  England  interested  a  Eu- 
ropean congress,  that  of  Verona  in  1822,  against 
the  trade,  now  carried  on  with  352  ships.  Eng- 
land urged  a  declaration  in  international  law 
making  the  trade  piracy,  but  secured,  as  at  Vi- 
enna, only  a  jreneral  denunciation  of  the  traffic 
The  United  States  and  other  Powers  opposed 
right  of  search  in  time  of  peace  as  dishonor  to 
the  flag  and  a  means  of  securing  England's  naval 
supremacy.  (See  Seabch,  Right  of.)  Though 
not  a  party  at  Verona,  the  United  States  prompt- 
ly favored  international  declaration  of  the  slave 
trade  as  piracy,  and  prepared  a  trea^  with  Eng- 
land to  tnis  effect  in  1824.  But,  as  England  Was 
unwilling  to  yield  her  claim  to  search  in  Ameri- 
can waters,  the  Senate  rejected  the  treaty  and  the 
United  States  could  only  urge  the  international 
declaration.  By  1833  Sweden,  France,  Denmark, 
the  Hanse  Towns,  and  some  Italian  States  had 
agreed  in  part  to  England's  contention  for 
mutual  search,  but  slavery  had  become  such  a 
delicate  question  in  American  politics  at  this 
time  that  the  United  States  refused  England's 
proposed  concessions.  In  1842  the  United  States 
and  England  agreed  on  joint  naval  cruising  on 
the  African  coast  to  repress  the  trade.  English 
statutes  in  1824  and  1837  made  the  slave  trade 
piracy  punishable  by  death  or  life  tiransportation. 
Conferees  of  England,  France,  Austria,  and  Prus- 
sia, in  London,  in  1838,  proposed  the  Quintuple 
Treaty  of  December  29,  1841,  declaring  the  trade 
piracy  and  admitting  mutual  right  of  search. 
On  account  of  this  admission  France  refused  to 
ratify,  and  Lewis  Cass  (q.v.))  the  American 
Minister  at  Paris,  denied  ils  application  as  in- 
ternational law  to  the  United  States.    Belgitim 


joined,  in  1845,  in  the  Quintuple  Treaty,  and  the 
United  States,  though  refusing  England's  in- 
vitation to  an  international  conference  in  1860, 
completely  changed  attitude  with  the  advent  of 
Lincoln  and  Seward,  admitted  mutual  right  of 
search  in  1862,  and  imposed  the  death  penalty  on 
smugglers  of  slaves.  Suppression  was  organized, 
but  until  1866  required  a  United  States  naval 
squadron  on  the  African  coast.  The  French, 
Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  United  States  flags 
had  protected  slavers.  Northerners  sold  to  South- 
erners in  Florida,  Texas,  and  Cuba,  but  the  Con- 
federacy in  1861  declared  against  the  trade. 
The  Civil  War  and  the  Thirteenth  Amendment 
practically  and  legally  completed  the  extinction 
of  slavery  and  the  slave  trade  in  the  United 
States.  The  English,  inspired  by  Livingstone, 
sought  to  put  an  end  to  t^e  slave  trade  in  the 
SucUui,  but  the  efforts  of  Baker  and  Gordon* 
proved  ineffective  in  the  face  of  the  Mahdist  con- 
vulsions. Tewfik,  however,  prohibited  the  Egyp- 
tian slave  trade  in  1884.  The  Powers  in  the 
Berlin  Conference  in  1884-85  promised  their 
efforts  for  repression,  and  in  1890  an  act  for  this 
purpose  resulted  from  the  international  confer- 
ence, including  Turkey,  Persia,  Zanzibar,  and  the 
United  States,  invited  by  Leopold  of  Belgium. 
Enforcement  of  the  General  Act  of  Brussels  is 
encouraging  if  slow,  but  if  conscientiously  done 
will  end  a  trade  now  connived  at  even  by  officials 
of  the  Congo  Free  State. 

The  anti-slavery  sentiment  and  the  movement 
aimed  against  the  existence  of  the  institution  of 
slavery  followed  and  in  many  cases  coincided 
with,  or  were  affected  by,  those  against  the  slave 
trade  from  early  colonial  duties  and  taxes  to 
steps  for  repression  and  emancipation.  Promoted 
b^  the  same,  though  a  more  limited  and  some- 
times excitable  public,  including  distinguished 
statesmen,  auUiors,  humanitarians,  and  sectari- 
ans, the  movement  originated  and  first  rose  to 
importance  in  North  America  and  England. 
Eighteenth-century  Christian  sentiment,  particu- 
larly among  Friends,  encouraged  customary 
and  legal  manumission  and  the* mitigation  of 
slave  <K)des.  Justice  Lord  Mansfield's  decision 
in  1772  freed  slaves,  like  the  negro  Sommerset, 
brought  to  the  soil  of  Great  Britain.  English 
emancipation  societies  arose  in  1783,  and 
French  in  1788.  Slaveholders  like  Washington, 
Jefferson,  Henry,  Mason,  and  Madison,  and 
other  statesmen,  such  as  Franklin,  Hamilton, 
and  Adams,  condemned  slavery  in  principle,  and 
emancipation  was  accomplished  or  in  progress  in 
every  Northern  State  except  New  Jersey  by  1799. 
Jefferson  proposed  in  1784  to  prohibit  slavery 
in  the  Northwest  Territory,  and  he  also 
advocated  emancipation  for  Virginia  in  1779. 
Tucker  prepared  another  Virginia  emancipa- 
tion plan  in  1796,  New  Jersey  emancipated 
her  slaves  in  1804,  and  Congress  limited  the 
slave  trade  in  Louisiana.  The  movement  in  its 
first  stage  rested  chiefly  on  a  moral  or  an 
economic  basis,  but  soon  became  political. 
American  anti-slavery  organizations  began  from 
Pennsylvania  petitioning  Congress  for  Federal 
interference  with  slavery.  Congress  denied  its 
constitutional  competency  to  regulate  the  do- 
mestic institution  beyond  the  slave  trade;  but 
petitions  continued,  and  the  sentiment  of  the 
North  and  South,  united  in  the  Ordinance  of 
1787   (see  NotfrawiBtfr  Tebbttobt),  but  divided 


SLAVEBT. 


918 


SLAVEBT. 


in  the  Constitutional  Convention,  was  increas- 
ingly committed,  respectively,  to  an  anti-slavery 
and  a  pro-slavery  programme.  A  movement 
toward  united  sentiment  and  national  organiza- 
tion to  solve  the  slavery  and  free  negro  questions 
by  emancipation  and  colonization  took  tangible 
shape  in  the  American  Colonization  Society, 
1816,  and  its  affiliated  State  societies.  (See 
Colonization  Society.)  Though  patronized  by 
statesmen  and  divines,  such  as  Maoison,  Harper, 
and  Breckenridge,  by  many  slaveholders,  and  by 
the  Federal  Government,  this  movement,  which 
resulted  in  the  establishment  of  a  negro  colony 
in  Liberia,  was  viewed  by  extreme  anti-slaveiy 
men  as  a  pro-slavery  reaction. 

From  1818  to  1820  political  anti-slaveiy  senti- 
ment became  more  prominent,  opposing  particu- 
larly slavery  extension.  Dissatisfaction  in  the 
•North  with  the  Missouri  Compromise  (q.v.)  laid 
the  basis  of  abolitionism.  William  Gkxxlell  with 
his  Investigator  in  Rhode  Island,  and  Benjamin 
Lundy  (q.v.)  with  his  Oeniua  of  UniverscU 
Emancipation,  established  in  1821,  began  an 
anti-slavery  press,  while  Lundy  went  on 
lecture  tours,  and  endeavored  to  find  a  slave 
asylum  in  Texas  and  Mexico.  John  Rankin 
formed  an  abolition  society  in  Kentucky,  and 
William  Lloyd  Garrison  (q.v.),  supported  by 
Arthur  and  Lewis  Tappan,  established  the 
Liberator  at  Boston  in  1831.  The  era  of 
expansion  and  reformation,  mechanical,  moral, 
and  political,  then  beginning,  favored  the  in- 
creasing anti-slavery  societies  and  press,  such 
as  Griswold  and  Leavitt's  New  York  Evangelist 
and  Goodell's  Oenius  of  Temperance  (1830)  and 
Emancipator  (1833),  the  New  England  Anti- 
Slavery  Society,  founded  in  1832,  and  the  New 
York  City  and  the  American  anti-slavery  societies, 
founded  in  1833.  The  last  resulted  from  a  Na- 
tional Anti- Slavery  Convention  in  Philadelphia 
representing  every  Northern  State.  These  agen- 
cies distributed  broadcast  tracts,  books,  pamphlets, 
and  business  labels  denouncing  slavery.  The  abo- 
litionists denounced  slavery  and  slaveholding  as 
crimes,  demanded  immediate  and  unconditional 
abolition  without  compensation,  encouraged 
breach  of  slave  laws  and  unconstitutional  nteas- 
ures,  and  affirmed  natural  equality  of  persons. 
Garrison,  Love  joy,  Phillips,  Gerrit  Smith,  John 
Brown,  Hutchinson,  Storrs,  and  Bimey  became 
leaders.  Channing,  Emerson,  Bryant,  Whittier, 
Lowell,  and  Longfellow  gave  literary  and  moral 
support  to  reasonable  anti-slaveiy  methods,  but 
less  conservative  men  in  border  free  States  ma- 
nipulated an  'underground  railway'  to  Canada 
for  fugitive  slaves.  (See  Underqbound  Rail- 
way.) John  Quincy  Adams  and  others  fought 
for  the  right  of  petition  concerning  slavery 
and  constitutional  abolition.  Southern  apolo- 
gists, such  as  Dew,  Dabney,  Smith,  and  Fitzhugh, 
answered  the  polemics  culminating  in  Mrs. 
Stowe's  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  1852,  a  protest 
against  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law;  and  the  paper 
war  raged  till  Lincoln's  election  assured  the  anti- 
slavery  victory  and  made  actual  war  inevitable. 
President  Lincoln  issued  his  famous  emancipa- 
tion proclamations  on  September  22,  1862,  and 
January  1,  1863,  and  the  Thirteenth  Amendment 
(1865)  practically  and  legally  secured  the  suc- 
cess of  the  abolitionists  by  Federal  abolition. 

Great   Britain,   where   Clarkson   and   Wilber- 
force  had  been  the  most  prominent  leaders  in  the 


anti-slavery  movement,  pursued  a  less  radictl 
method  of  abolition,  providing  by  law  in  1833 
for  future  and  progressive  emancipation  in  her 
West  Indian  colonies  and  compensating  slave- 
holders by  purchase  and  an  apprenticeship  sub- 
sequently limited  to  1839.  In  1843  she  abol- 
ished slavery  in  India.  Sweden  followed  with 
colonial  abolition  in  1846;  France  in  1848;  Hol- 
land in  1859;  Brazil  with  progressive  enuuicijpa- 
tion  in  1871,  and  total  emancipation  in  1888; 
Spain  in  Porto  Rico  in  1873,  and  in  Cuba  in 
1880;  Great  Britain  and  Germany  in  their 
African  protectorates  in  1897  and  1901;  the 
United  States  in  the  Philippines  in  1902;  and 
Egypt  in  the  Sudan.  The  South  American  re- 
publics abolished  slavery  when  they  emancipated 
themselves  from  the  yoke  of  Spain.  - 

Mohammedan  countries  have  been  the  last  to 
feel  this  influence,  and  slavery  exists  in  Turkey, 
Persia,  Egypt,  Zanzibar,  Pemba,  Tripoli,  Moroc- 
co, and  (Antral  Africa,  but  in  almost  all  steps 
favoring' liberty  or  mitigation  of  status  have  been 
taken.  Of  100,000  slaves  in  Zanzibar  and  Pemba 
in  1897  half  that  number  were  freed  by  1903. 

Slavery  was  chiefly  a  moral  and  economic  ques- 
tion in  the  American  colonies,  but  it  appeared  as 
a  political  one  during  the  Confederation,  particu- 
larly in  the  debates  of  t^e  constitutional  anH 
ratifying  conventions,  when  the  question  of  sub- 
mitting it  and  other  States'  rights  to  Federal 
initiative  arose.  The  dictum  of  natural  equality 
and  inalienable  rights  in  the  Declaration  of  In- 
depend^ice,  even  when  reappearing  in  bills  of 
ri^ts,  could  not  be  practically  applied  accept 
in  limited  cases,  as  by  George  Wythe  in  Virginia, 
to  the  liberation  of  slaves.  But  Northern  eman- 
cipation provisions  showed  that  the  economic  and 
social  basis  in  the  North  was  to  be  increasingly 
laid  in  free  labor  and  a  farm  system  contrasting 
with  the  slavery  and  plantation  system  of  the 
South.  Economic  and  social  sectionalism  in  the 
colonial  period  rapidly  became  political  in  the 
federal.  From  1787  Mason  and  Dixon's  Line 
(q.v.)  had  political  significance;  slaveiy  as  one 
of  the  basal  elements  of  the  difference  of  sec- 
tional interests  and  sentiment  rose  from  a  local 
State  question  into  the  most  important  and 
permanent  in  national  politics.  Controlling  con- 
ditions were:  (1)  Increasing  sectionalism  from 
localization  of  industrialism  in  the  North;  (2) 
constitutional  compromise  provisions  granting 
Federal  legislation  in  regard  to  the  slave  trade 
and  fugitive  slaves,  and  representation  for 
slaves  on  the  three-fifths  basis;  (3)  a  Federal 
domain  increasing  by  cession,  purchase,  treaty, 
and  conquest  and  subject  to  Federal  organiza- 
tion and  representation  in  Congress;  (4)  the 
growth  of  political  parties  opposed  as  to  con- 
stitutional construction;  (5)  seetionalised  anti- 
slavery  sentiment,  and  (6)  development  and  ex- 
pansion of  Southern  staples  adapted  to  slave 
labor,  especially  cotton  after  the  invention  of  the 
cotton  gin  in  1793.  The  Constitution  purposely 
avoided  the  use  of  the  terms  'slave*  and  'slaveiy,' 
yet  the  baigain  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia 
with  commercial  New  England  riveted  upon  it 
recognition  of  the  institution.  Slavery  had  thus 
two  connected  phases:  (1)  As  to  its  existeaoe  in 
the  States,  a  State  right,  a  local  question,  in- 
volved in  national  politics  in  the  general  States' 
rights  struggle;  (2)  as  to  its  exist^oe  and  ex- 
tensidn  in  Fi^^al  tiHiYitoiy,  a  national  questioD, 


SEiAVEBT. 


019 


SIJLVIC  IiAHaXTAaES. 


constitutionally  subject  to  Federal  legislation.  Na- 
tional expansion  necessarily  brought  it  into  poli- 
ties. Support  of  members  from  the  slave  States 
in  Congress  secured  the  ordinances  of  1784  and 
1787,  prohibiting  slavery  in  the  Northwest  Ter- 
ritory and  preparing  the  way  for  new  free 
States.  In  1793  Congress  passed  almost  unani- 
mously a  fugitive  slave  law  to  secure  owners  in 
their  property.  (See  Fugitive  Slave  Law.) 
The  bill  abolishing  the  slave  trade  renewed 
sectional  debate  and  showed  predominant  anti- 
slavery  sentiment  in  the  North.  Between  1803 
and  1817  four  States^  two  free  (Ohio  and  Indi- 
ana) and  two  slave  (Louisiana  and  Mississippi), 
were  admitted  into  the  Union,  and  the  theory 
of  balance  of  power  between  slave  and  free  States 
was  established.  But  the  further  organization  of 
the  Louisiana  terriix)ry  in  1818-20  drew  the 
issue  sharply  on  slavery  extension.  Only  tem- 
porary political  adjustment  of  slavery  followed 
the  Missouri  Compromise  (q.v.)  prohibiting 
slavery  north  of  36*  30'  N.  latitude,  except  in 
Missouri.  From  1820  to  1830  tariff  and  public 
land  policy  were,  together  with  slavery,  the  is- 
sues conditioning  the  life  and  expansion  of  the 
Southern  and  Northern  economic  systems.  Non- 
extension  was  interpreted  as  eventual  extinction 
of  slavery.  Discussion  of  tariff  bills  in  1824  and 
1828,  dogmas  of  nullification.  State  rights,  and 
abolition,  and  the  Hayne- Webster  debate  of  1830, 
greatly  increased  the  importance  of  slavery  in 
sectional  politics  and  made  it  the  leading  ques- 
tion after  the  tariff  compromise  of  1833. 
Anti-slavery  men  who  believed  in  attaining  their 
ends  through  constitutional  methods  and  aboli- 
tionists organized  the  Liberty  Party  (q.v.),  and 
twice  in  1840  and  1844,  nominated  J.  G.  Bimey 
(q.v.)  for  President.  The  annexation  of  Texas 
in  1845,  and  the  Mexican  War  in  1846-48,  were 
pro-slavery  victories^  the  latter  adding  territory 
from  which  the  unsuccessful  Wilmot  Proviso 
(q.v.)  failed  to  exclude  slavery.  There  now 
arose  over  the  question  of  slavery  a  controversy 
destined  to  split  both  Whigs  and  Democrats,  to 
bring  about  new  party  alignments,  and  eventually 
to  hasten,  if  not  cause,  a  great  civil  conflict  be- 
tween the  North  and  the  South.  By  1848  Oregon 
(q.v.)  was  organized  without  slavery,  and  the 
Free  Soilers,  who  strove  for  the  exclusion  of 
slavery  from  the  Territories  (see  Free  Soil 
Pabtt;  Tbbbitobies),  had  taken  the  place  of 
the  Liberty  .Party.  The  anti-slavery  cause  won 
in  the  Compromise  of  1850  in  free  California, 
and  slave  trade  prohibition  in  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  but  lost  in  a  fugitive 
slave  law  federally  .executed.  (See  Comfbomibb 
Measure  of  1850.)  Douglas's  mistake  in  the 
repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  and  his  sub- 
stitution for  the  arrangement  then  effected  of 
'squatter  sovereignty*  by  the  Kansas-Nebraska 
Bill  (q.v.)  in  1854,  precipitated  a  sectional 
struggle  for  possession  of  Territories  by  coloni- 
zation and  border  warfare.  (See  Kansas.)  The 
free-State  settlers  practically  won  in  1857,  and 
the  Kepublican  Party^,  absorbing  Anti-Nebras- 
kans,  Free  Soilers,  Abolitionists,  and  Anti-slav- 
ery Whiffs  and  Democrats,  completed  the  victory, 
though  uie  Dred  Scott  decision  opened  the  Ter- 
ritories to  slavery.  Cuban  annexation,  which 
had  been  a  pro-slavery  policy  since  1841,  was 
defeated  in  1859,  and  Lincoln's  election  fol- 
lowing the  John  Brown  raid  of  1859  was  the 


signal  for  the  secession,  1860-61,  of  a  South 
jealous  of  her  State  rights,  and  resentful  of 
interference  in  slavery.     Congressional  acts  in 

1862  and  Lincoln's  emancipation  proclamation  in 

1863  (a  war  measure),  and  the  Thirteenth 
Amendment  in  1865,  legally  destroyed  the  institu- 
tion of  slavery,  while  the  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth 
Amendments  gave  freedmen  full  civil  rights.  Con- 
sult: Goodell,  Slavery  and  Anti-Slavery  (New 
York,  1863) ;  Hurd,  Law  of  Freedom  and  Bond- 
age in  the  United  States  (Boston,  1858-1862) ; 
Wilson,  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Slave  Power 
(ib.,  1872-79)  ;  Wallon,  Histoire  de  ViscUvage 
(1879);  Richter,  Die  Sklaverei  im  griechischen 
Altertume  (1886);  Ingram,  History  of  Slavery 
(London,  1895)  ;  Du  Bois,  Suppression  of  the 
African  Slave  Trade  to  the  United  States  (New 
York,  1896)  ;  Documents  relatifs  d  la  repression 
de  la  traits  des  esclaves  (Bruxelles,  1901); 
Johns  Hopkins  University  Studies  in  Historical 
and  Political  Science,  11th,  13th,  14th,  17th 
series,  and  extra  volumes  (Baltimore,  1889- 
1902)  ;  Tillinghast,  The  Negro  in  America  and 
Africa  (New  York,  1902)  ;  Ballagh,  A  History  of 
Slavery  in.  Virginia  (Baltimore,  1902);  Von 
Hoist,  Constitutional  and  Political  History  of  the 
United  States  (8  vols.,  new  ed.,  Chicago,  1889), 
which  gives  an  excellent  accoimt  of  the  history 
of  the  slavery  question  in  American  politics; 
W.  H.  Smith,  A  Political  History  of  Slavery  (2 
vols..  New  York,  f903) ;  Olmsted,  The  Cotton 
Kingdom  (2  vols..  New  York,  1861);  and  id., 
Journey  in  the  Seaboard  Slave  States  (New  York, 
1856),  which  give  an  interesting  account  of  slav- 
ery in  the  Southern  States. 

SliAVIC  IiANGUAGES.  A  branch  of  the 
Indo-Germanic  languages  (q.v.).  Among  these 
languages  Slavic  is  most  closely  connected  with 
the  Baltic  group,  which  includes  Old  Prussian, 
Lettic,  and  Lithuanian.  The  most  universally 
accepted  theory  places  the  original  home  of  the 
Slavs  within  the  borders  of  present  Russia  in 
the  region  lying  between  the  upper  course  of  the 
Don  on  the  one  hand  and  the  Baltic  Sea  with  the 
upper  course  of  the  Vistula  on  the  other.  The 
heart  of  this  country  belongs  mainly  to  the  basin 
of  the  Dnieper.  The  principal  characteristics  of 
the  Slavic  languages  are  as  follows :  ( 1 )  The  dis- 
appearance of  consonants  and  syllables  at  the 
end  of  words,  as  OChurch  Slavic  dUmii,  Tiouse;' 
Russian,  Serb^,  Bulgarian,  Slovenian,  dom;  Po- 
lish, Czechic,  dum;  Sanskrit,  damas:  Greek,  96/m'i 
Latin,  domus.  (2)  The  monopnthongization 
of  primitive  diphthongs,  as  OChurch  Slav., 
zima,  'winter;'  Russ.,  ^b,  Bulg.,  Sloven,  Pol., 
and  Czech.,  zima;  Lithuanian,  &€mA;  Gk.,  x*'/^ 
Xtifu&9 ;  Skt.,  hOmen;  Albanian,  dimen.  (3) 
Change  of  short  i  and  u  into  indistinct  sounds, 
I,  H,  in  Old  Slav,  and  their  complete  disap- 
pearance in  Modem  Slavic  languages,  as  OChurch 
Slav.,  vldova,  'widow;'  Russ.,  Czech.,  vdova; 
Serb,  udova;  Bulg.,  vdovica;  Skt.,  vidhdvd; 
Gk.,  "ifUafy  Lat.,  vidua;  Goth.,  widuwd,  (4) 
Development  of  nasal  vowels,  as  OChurch  Slav., 
p^l,  'five;'  Pol.,  pi^;  Skt.,  p&iica;  Gk.  t^w; 
Lat.,  quinque;  Lith.,  penki;  Ger.,  fUnf,  (5) 
Development  of  the  peculiar  sound  y  from  the 
primitive  «,  as  Ophurch  Slav.,  dymH,  'smoke;' 
Russ.,  Pol.,  Czech.,  dym;  Skt.,  dhUmds;  Gk., 
$vfi&f;  Lat.,  fUmus;  OHGer.,  toum;  Lith., 
dUmai.  ( 6 )  C!!hange  of  primitive  intervocalic  s  into 
ch   (kh)    as  OChurch  Slav.,  ucho^  'ear;'  Russ., 


SLAVIC  IiAHOTJAasa 


930 


SLAVIC  I1AHOTJAGB& 


Serb,  Bulg.,  Pol.,  Czech.,  ucho;  JAih.,  ausU;  Lat, 
dumy  Goth.,  auad,  (7)  Change  of  primitive  b 
to  (a)  a,  and  g,  Jf^,  and  d,  ^h  into  «,  ae  OChurch 
Slav.,  Russ.,  Serb,  Slay.,  Balg.,  Czech.,  alovo, 
'word;'  Pol^  slovoo;  Gk.,  lukurht ;  Lat.,  inclutu»j 
Olriah,  cloth;  Skt.,  irutas;  (b)  g,  OChurch 
Slav.,  enati,  'to  know;'  Rubs.,  zuat;  Pol.,  znac; 
Gk.,  yiyvfbffKeiv;  Lat.,  gnoacere;  Skt.,  yn4;  Goth., 
A^ann;  OHGer.,  knden;  Olrish,  gn&th;  Lith., 
«ind«t;  (c)  pfc,  OChurch  Slav.,  <Mf«,  *I;'  Skt., 
ahdm;  Ok,,  iyt&;  Lat.,  e^o;  Goth.,  ik,  (8) 
Palatalization  of  g,  k,  kh,  into  (a)  i,  d,  i  before 
the  palatal  vowels  e,*«,  and  b,  later  into  e,  e,  s, 
before  4  and  i  resulting  from  primitive  oi,  ot,  aa 
(a)  i,  OChurch  Slav.,  Hvii,  'alive;'  Lat.,  vivos; 
Gk.,  filof',  Olrish,  heo;  Goth.,  qiua;  Skt.,  /to^tf; 
Lith.,  g^vaa;  d,  OChurch  Slav.,  odese,  gen. 
sing,  of  ok'Oy  'eye;'  Russ.,  Serb,  Slov.,  Bidg., 
Czech.,  Pol.,  oko;  Lith.,  a/ci«;  Lat.,  oculua;  Ger., 
au^e;  j,  OChurch  Slav.,  uiesa,  nom.  pi.  of  ucho, 
'ear;'  Russ.,  Serb,  Slov.,  Bulg.,  Czech.,  Pol.,  uH. 
(h)  e,  OChurch  Slav.,  hoz^,  loc.  sing.^  and  hoei, 
nom.  pi.  of  hogii,  'God;'  c,  OChurch  Slav., 
dlovicS,  loc.  sing.,  and  6lov6ci,  nom.  pL  of 
dloi^d^tf,  'man;'  <,  OChurch  Slav.;  dutfJ,  loc. 
sing.,  and  dusi,  nom.  pi.  of  ducMk,  'soul.'  (9) 
The  preservation  of  the  primitive  free  accentua- 
tion, the  penultimate  accentuation  in  Polish  and 
the  Czechic  accent  on  the  first  syllable  being  of 
a  decidedly  late  origin. 

The  first  attempt  at  a  scientific  cbissiflcation 
of  the  Slavic  languages  was  made  by  Dobrovsky, 
who  in  his  Institutionea  LingwB  SlaviccB  Dialecti 
Veteria  (Vienna,  1822)  divided  them  into  a 
Western  and  an  Eastern  group.  A  later  division 
was  into  Eastern,  Southern,  and  Western.  The 
most  accurate  plan  would  be  to  consider  the  sev- 
eral languages  without  trying  to  reduce  them  to 
groups.  This  Miklosich  did  in  his  Vergleichende 
Orammaiik  der  alavischen  Sprachen,  where  he 
arranges  them  as  follows:  Palseo-Slovenian,  Neo- 
Slovenian,  Bulgarian,  Serbo-Horvatian  (Serbo- 
Croatian),  Little  Russian,  Russian,  Czechic,  Po- 
lish, Upper  Lusatian,  and  Lower  Lusatian.  At 
present  the  following  representatives  are  dis- 
tinguished in  the  Slavic  group:  (1)  Russian 
(with  its  Great  Russian,  Little  Russian,  and 
White  Russian  branches).  (2)  Bulgarian  (with 
its  Macedonian  dialect).  (3)  Serbo-Horvatian, 
or  Serbo-Croatian  ( Shtokavian-Servian  in  the 
South,  and  Chakavian-Horvatian  in  the  West), 
with  its  (4)  Slovenian  or  Kaykavian  dialect  in 
the  West;  (6)  Czecho-Moravian,  with  its  (6) 
Slovak  dialect;  (7)  Serbo-Lusatian  or  Serbian 
(with  the  Upper  Lusatian  and  Lower  Lusatiau 
dialects);  (8)  Polish,  with  (9)  Kashubian;  (10) 
Polabian  (along  the  Elbe),  now  extinct,  and 
(11)  Old  (^urch  Slavic.  Though  attempts  at 
a  genetic  classification  must  be  futile,  the . 
labors  of  scholars  have  ascertained  a  number 
of  phonetic  peculiarities  which  may  be  made 
the  basis  of  a  conventional  grouping,  as  be- 
ing a  common  characteristic  of  several  mem- 
bers of  the  group.  The  distinguishing  features 
of  the  groups  designated  above  as  Eastern, 
Southern,  and  Western  are  the  following:  (1) 
Treatment  of  the  sound  combinations  (/,  dj;  (2) 
presence  or  absence  of  I  in  the  treatment  of  the 
primitive  combinations  pf,  hf,  vj,  mj;  (3)  re- 
tention or  dropping  of  the  dentals  i,  d,  in  the 
combinations  tl,  dl,  fn,  dn;  (4)  treatment  of 
the  primitive  oombinations  or,  al,  er,  el;    (6) 


treatment  of  the  original  combinations  gv,  feo. 
On  the  basis  of  these  criteria  the  groups  wUl  be 
characterized  as  follows:  (1)  ij  becomes  6  in 
Eastern  Slavic,  as  aveda,  'candle,'  for  *9vii'ja;H 
in  Bulgarian,  as  av^ta,  o  in  Serb,  as  w^oa; 
Slov.,  9v^6a;  0  (=  is)  in  Western  Slavic,  as 
Czechic,  avice;  Polish,  svoieca;  dj  becomes  i  in 
Russian,  tneiOy  iMundary  line,'  for  *medja,  cf. 
Lat.  mediiu  (=  English  ;  in  Serb,  meda; 
Sloven.,  fit^/a,  id  in  Bulg.,  meida,  in  Western; 
0  in  Czechic,  mieze;  dz  in  Pol.,  miedza.  (2) 
pf,  hj,  vj,  mj,  become  plj,  hij,  vlj,  mlj  in  Rus- 
sian, ioplju,  'heat,'  infinitive  topit;  Ijuhlju 
'I  love,'  infi^tive  Ijuhit;  lovlju,  'I  seize,'  in- 
finitive lovit;  zemlja,  'earth,'  for  ^zemja;  also 
in  Southern  Slavic,  as  Serb,  toplen,  luhlen, 
lovler^,  zemlja;  Slov.  (Eastern),  topljen,  Ijuhljen, 
lovljen,  zemlja  (Western),  iopjen/ Ijubjen,  loth 
lef^  zemla;  Bulg.,  topji^  H^jf,  lovja,  zemja; 
while  in  Western  the  sound  2  is  absent,  as  Polish, 
iopi^,  luhif,  loioif,  infinitives  topi^,  luhif,  lotoi^ 
ziemia;  Czechic,  topu,  lovu,  infinitive  topiti,  loviti, 
zem9;  (3)  t  and  d  before  I  and  n  fall  in  Russian, 
as  plel,  'I  led,'  vel,  'I  wove^'  to  pletu,  'I  lead.' 
vedu,  'I  weave;'  in  Southern,  as  Serb,  pleo,  veo, 
Slov.  (Eastern),  plel,  pUo,  vel,  (Western)  pUtl, 
vedl;  but  are  retained  in  Western :  as  Czech.,  pleil, 
vedl;  Pol.,  pldtl,  wiodl;  (4)  ar,  al,  er,  el,  become 
oro,  olo,  ere,  ele  in  Russian,  as  haroda,  'beard ;'  gol- 
ova,  'head;'  hereg,  'shore;'  peleva,  'membrane;' 
re,  la,  rS,  li  in  Southern  Slavic,  as  hrada  (Serb, 
Slov.,  Bulg.),  glava  (Serb,  Slov.,  Bulg.),  hreg 
(Serb,  Bulg.),  hrSg  (Slov.),  pUva  (Serb),  pUva 
(Slov.),  pUva  (Bulg.) ;  in  Western  Slavic  ra,  la, 
re,  la  in  Czechic,  hrada,  hlava,  hfeh,  pleva;  ro,  lo, 
rze,  le  in  Polish,  hroda,  gtowa,  brzeg,  plewa;  (6) 
gv  and  kv  become  zv,  8V  in  Russian  and  Southern 
Slavic,  as  Russ.,  Serb,  Bulg.,  zv^zda,  'star;'  Slov., 
zv4zda;  cv^t,  'color,  flower,'  Russ.,  Serb,  Bnlg., 
Slov.,  but  remain  in  Western  Slavic,  as  Czechic, 
hv&eda,  kv^t;  Polish,  gwiazda,  kxoiaU  The  Slavic 
nations  do  not  all  use  the  same  alphabet  for 
writing  and  printing.  Li  the  ninth  century  two 
different  alphabets  were  introduced,  the  Olago- 
litaa  (q.v.)  and  the  Kirilliiaa  (q.v.).  After  a 
time  the  nationalities  that  accepted  Roman 
Catholicism  adopted  the  Roman  characters  for 
their  alphabet,  while  those  professing  Greek 
Catholicism  retained  the  alphabets  mentioned. 
The  Kirillitsa  in  a  modified  form  is  the  present 
alphabet  of  the  Russians,  Servians,  and  Bulga- 
rians. 

With  regard  to  the  morphology  oi  the  Slavic 
languages  the  following  table  of  the  declension 
of  o-stems  will  show  at  a  glance  how  well  the 
original  Slavic  infiecUon  has  been  preserved  in 
the  modem  members  of  the  family,  remember- 
ing that  the  vocative  has  been  lost  in  Slovenian  en- 
tirely and  in  literary  Russian  almost  completely. 

Singular:  Nominative:  OChurch  Slav.  pop«, 
'priest,'  Russ.,  Pol.,  Czech.,  Serb,  Slov.,  pop; 
genitive:  popa  for  all;  dative:  popu  for  all; 
accusative:  popa  for  all,  or  is  like  the  nomina- 
tive in  inanimate  nouns;  vocative:  OChurch 
Slav,  pope.  Little  Russ.  pope,  Russ.  Boie  (from 
Bog,  'God'),  Pol.  popie,  Czech.,  Serb.,  pope;  in- 
strumental :  OChurch  Slav,  popotfu,  Russ.  popom, 
Pol.,  Czech,  popem,  Serb,  Slov.  popom;  locative: 
OChurch  Slav.,  Russ.  pop^,  Pol.  popie,  Czech. 
pop6,  popu,  Serb,  Slov.  pop%^  Dual:  Nomina- 
tive, accusative,  vocative:  OChurch  Slav.,  Slov., 
Serb,  Lusatian,  Kashubian  popa;  genitive,  losa- 


SLAVIC  LAJ7QTJAQBS. 


921 


SLAVIC  LAKOXTAQBa 


tive:  OGhurch  Slav,  popu.  Buss,  vo-odiyu,  'with 
one's  two  eyes/  Serb  oMju,  uHju,  'with  one'a 
two  ears'  (used  as  genitiye  plural) ;  dative, 
instrumental:  OGhurch  Slay,  popoma.  Little 
Russ.  odima,  Slov.  popoma.  Plural:  Nomina- 
tive, vocative:  OGhurch  Slav,  popi,  Russ.  popy, 
for  the  rest  popi;  genitive:  OGhurch  Slav,  pop^, 
Russ.  popov,  Pol.  pop&w,  Gzech.  papuv,  Serb  popa, 
Slov.  popov;  dative:  OGhurch  Slav,  popom^, 
Russ.  popam,  Pol.  p<ypom,  Gzech.  pophm,  Serb 
popima,  Slov.  popom;  accusative:  OGhurch 
Slav,  pop,  popy,  Russ.  popov,  Pol.  pop&uo,  Gzech. 
popy,  Serb,  Slov.  pope;  instrumental:  OGhurch 
Slav,  popy,  Russ.,  Pol.  popami,  Gzech.  popy,  Sei^b 
popima,  Slov.  popi;  locative:  OGhurch  Slav. 
popichU,  Russ.,  Pol.  popuch,  Gzech.  popioh, 
popech,  Serb  popima,  Slov.  popi^. 

With  the  phonetic  laws  given  above  it  is  easy 
to  see  the  correspondence  of  the  Slavic  with  the 
Indo-Germanic  inflections. 

Singular:  Nominative:  vran-u,  'raven,'  Skt. 
vrka-s,  'wolf,'  Lat.  lup-us.  Ok.  Xdir-os;  ablative 
(coinciding  with  the  genitive  in  Slavic) :  vrarira, 
vrk-Ht,  lup'6{d) ;  accusative:  vran-H,  vfk-am, 
lup-um,  \6k-ow;  vocative:  wan^e,  vrk-a,  lup-e, 
\6k-€;  locative:  vran-i,  vrk-^,  Corinth-oi  (-1),  'at 
Gorinth,'  ofic-oi,  'at  home.'  Dual:  Nominative, 
accusative,  vocative:  vrana-a,  vrk-di-Au),  du-o, 
'two,'  X^-w.  Plural:  Nominative,  vocative: 
vran-i,  lupA,  X^k-m;  genitive:  vran-H,  vrk-<im 
i'dndm),  div'&m,  X^k-wf;  locative:  vraok-SohU, 
vrk-^tu^  X^ff-oio-t. 

In  conjugation  the  Slavic  verb  is  well  exempli- 
fied in  the  Old  Ghurch  Slavic.  (See  Old  Chxtboh 
Slavic  Language  and  Dtebatube.)  The  fol- 
lowing table  will  make  clear  the  relations  of 
the  Slavic  languages  in  this  regard,  both  to  each 
other  and  to  Sanskrit  and  Qr^k: 


Slav,  niditoge  ne  hyatl,  'nothing  happened;' 
Russ.  nikio  ne  smayet,  'no  one  knows;'  Bulg.  iija 
pari  ne  sa  ni  na  tebe,  'that  money  is  not  thine ;' 
Serb  nitko  ne  amje,  'no  one  hears;'  Gzech.  nyoz 
gemu  ne  odpotoyedye,  'he  answers  him  not;' 
Polish  nio  nie  widzem,  'I  see  nothing.'  Another 
feature  is  the  use  of  the  genitive  instead  of  the 
accusative  after  transitive  verbs  with  a  n^^a- 
tive:  OGhurch  Slav,  ne  data  jesi  kozilqte,  'thou 
didst  not  give  a  lamb;'  Russ.  ne  imeyu  knigi,  'I 
have  no  book;'  Serb  glasa  ne  iedvignu,  *he  did 
not  send  forth  his  voice.'  This  is  carried  even 
to  the  subject  of  the  negative  auxiliary  verb 
when  equivalent  to  the  English,  'there  is'  or 
'there  are:'  Serb  u  mene  viae  nema  hlaga,  'there 
is  no  greater  good  for  me.'  Another  peculiarity 
is  the  complete  substitution  of  the  genitive  for 
the  accusative  in  nouns  denoting  animate  beings 
in  the  singular  and  plural  masculine,  but  only 
in  the  plural  feminine:  pdJhurch  Slav. 
ostavlUa  korahll  i  otica  avojego,  'leaving  the 
ship  and  their  father;'  Russ.  viSu  brata  i  see- 
tru,  'I  see  a  brother  and  sister;'  but:  vizu  hratev 
i  aesier,  'I  see  brothers  and  sisters;'  Serb  imam 
majku  i  brata,  'I  have  a  mother  and  brother.' 
The  possessive  pronoun  of  the  third  person  has 
usurped  the  functions  of  .the  other  two  when 
referring  te  the  subject,  in.  Russian  invariably, 
in  Old  Ghurch  Slavic  usually:  OGhurch  Slav. 
idi  vU  dornH  avoji,  'go  unto  thine  house;'  pomaH 
glavif  avoj^  i  lice  tvoje  umyfl,  'anoint  thy  head 
and  wash  thy  face;'  Russ.  Ya  {ty)  vidSlU  avoye- 
go  brata,  'I  saw  (thou  sawest)  my  (thy) 
brother.'  In  other  respecte  the  Slavic  languages 
of  the  ancient  period  were  obviously  influenced 
by  the  syntax  of  their  Greek  originals,  while  at 
present  the  same  is  true  to  a  certain  extent  re- 
garding the  influence  of  the  modem  languages. 


Vbeb 

No. 

Bon 

Skt. 

Ok. 

0.(}biircb, 
Slav. 

fines. 

Pol. 

Giecb. 

Serb 

Bnl«r. 

SlOT. 

1 

1 

a 

8 

aa-mi 

bharAmi 

aai 

bbaraal 

asti 

bharati 

iffffi 

(Sjraciuan) 

4>4p€Lf 

i<rrl 

Jeemi 

bera 

Jeai 

berOl 

Je«tt 

beretl 

jeemi 

bwa 

jeel 

benai 

yestl 

b«retfl 

ittiai) 

ber9 

/••(old) 

/e9ta«(new) 

bericBB 

leet 

berie 

aom 

berem 

ai 

beriX 

Je6t,le 

bere 

Ue)aam 

berem 

Ue)ai 

beiei 
Je(8t) 
bera 

aHm 
ben 
at 
bera 

a)e 

berd 

adm 

b&nm 

ai 

berei 
le(Bt) 
bere 

1 

a 

8 

8Tto 

bbar&vas 

fltbas 

bbaratha0 

Btas 

bbaratas 

Jeavft 

berevd 

lesta 

bereta 

lesta.-e 

bepeta,-e 

1 

]eswa(old) 
lesta  (old) 
Je8ta(old) 

^ 

^ 

^ 

bei^va 

^ 

i<rr6w 
4>4peTO¥ 

^p€TOP 

Bt&.8tft 

berfita 

Bt&.8tft 

ber6ta 

I 

1 
a 

8 

bbarftmas 
fltba 

bbaratba 
santl 

bbarantl 

€lfU$ 

(Doric) 

i>4pofut 
(Doric) 

if>4per9 

iPTl 

(Doric) 

4>4/>om 

(Doric) 

jeemfl 

beremfl 
Jeste 

b«rete 
Bats 

b«raCI 

jesmy 

berem 
yerte 

berate 

BOtit 

berat 

(new) 

beriemy 

efsi^(old) 
eAteecie 

(new) 
beriede 

ber» 

sme 

bereme 
Bte 

berate 
8li.Ba,]eBti 

bertt 

(]e)8mo 

berem  o 
ae)8te 

berete 
(Je)Bn 

bern 

Bwe 

ber6m 
Bte 

berate 
bex^t 

snld 
berftmo 

8t6 

ber6te 
bO 

bei^ 

In  the  syntax  perhaps  the  most  striking  fea-        Gonsult:  Miklosich,  Vergleichende  Orammatih 
ture  is  the  use  of  double  negatives:   OGhurch    der  alawiachen  Sprachen  (Vienna,  1852-75;  vols. 


SLAVIC  LAKauAcuea 


933 


SLAVONIC  xusia 


i.,  iii.,  and  iv.  in  2d  ed.,  ib.,  1879,  1876,  1883) ; 
id.,  Etymologiaches  W^irterbuch  der  slawiachen 
Sprttchen  (ib.,  1886)  ;  Bemeker,  Blawiache  Chre$' 
iamathie  (Straasburg,  1902),  extracts  in  all 
Slavic  languages,  with  special  vocabularies  for 
each  section;  Jagic,  ed.,  Archiv  fur  slatoische 
Philologie  (Berlin,  1876  et  seq.).  See  also  the 
special  articles  on  the  individual  languages  and 
literatures. 

SLAVOOiriA.  The  northeastern  part  of  the 
autonomous  province  of  Croatia  and  Slavonia 
(q.v.)  in  Austria-Hungary. 

SLAVONIC  ENOCH.  A  pseudepigraphical 
work  extant  only  in  a  Slavonic  version  to  which 
this  name  has  been  given  in  order  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  Ethiopic  Enoch.  (See  Enoch.)  In 
the  manuscripts  it  bears  the  title  The  Book  of 
the  Secrets  of  Enoch.  The  existence  of  this 
work  seems  to  have  been  unknown  in  modem 
times  until  1880,  when  the  South  Russian  recen- 
sion was  published  by  Popoff.  The  more  com- 
plete version  of  Morfill  and  Charles  was  based 
on  five  manuscripts,  of  which  two  contain  the 
complete  text  in  Russian  and  Bulgarian  recen- 
sions of  the  seventeenth  and  sixteenth  centuries, 
one  is  an  incomplete  but  valuable  Servian  codex 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  two  are  fragmen- 
tary copies.  Other  manuscripts  are  known  to 
exist.  The  Bulgarian  text  contains  five  addi- 
tional chapters  on  Melchizedek. 

The  book  was  translated  into  the  Old  Church 
Slavic  from  the  Greek,  possibly  in  the  ninth 
century.  It  is  evident  that  the  author  was 
influenced  by  Hellenistic  thought.  Charles 
thinks  it  probable  that  he  lived  in  Egypt, 
since  he  believed  in  the  pre^xistence  and  innnor- 
tality  of  the  soul,  the  seven  natures  of  man,  the 
egg  theory  of  the  universe  and  such  monsters  as 
the  Phoenixes  and  Chalkadri,  cherished  no  Mes- 
sianic hope,  and  used  the  Book  of  Ecclesiasticus. 
On  the  other  hand,  Hellenixing  Jews,  Essenes, 
and  others  in  Palestine  seem  to  have  cherished 
views  similar  to  those  found  in  the  Slavonic 
Enoch.  The  conception  of  the  human  soul  as 
preSxistent  and  immortal,  the  opposition  to 
oaths,  the  indifference  to  the  sacrificial  cult  were 
characteristic  of  the  Essenes.  Many  circles  were 
evidently  untouched  by  the  political  hope  of  a 
Messiah  (q.v.).  The  idea  of  a  world-egg  had  ex- 
isted in  Syria  at  least  since  the  Persian  period, 
and  Eg3rptian  mythological  figures  found  at  all 
times  ready  entrance  there.  The  Greek  Bible 
was  unquestionably  used  by  Hellenizing  Jews  in 
Palestine  in  the  first  century  a.d.  If  the  Greek 
original  of  the  Slavonic  Enoch  had  been  known 
in  Alexandria  in  the  beginning  of  our  era  it 
would  be  very  strange  that  it  was  not  translated 
into  Ethiopic  with  the  rest  of  the  Enoch  litera- 
ture, while  its  survival  only  in  the  Slavonic 
churches  would  be  natural  if  it  found  its  way 
from  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  and  Constantinople  into 
Bulgaria.  It  is  possible  that  this  work  is  quoted 
in  the  Testaments  of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs,  but 
the  date  of  the  latter  work  is  far  from  oeitain. 
Nevertheless,  there  is  much  that  favors  a  date 
for  the  Slavonic  Enoch  earlier  than  a.d.  70,  es- 
pecially if  a  Palestinian  origin  be  assumed.  It 
IS  a  most  important  document  of  the  Judaism  of 
the  first  century,  apparently  untouched  by  Chris- 
tianity. In  it  we  have  the  most  complete  de- 
scription of  the  seven  heavens,  the  doctrine  of 
the  millennium  (q.v.),  the  conception  that  God 


requires  no  sacrifices  but  a  pure  heart  (xlv.  3), 
the  idea  that  the  souls  of  animals  as  well  as  men 
survive  the  shock  of  death  (IviiL),  and  beati- 
tudes, curses,  and  admonitions  reminding  in  a 
very  striking  manner  of  the  ethical  precepts  and 
ideals  found  in  the  Synoptic  Gospels.  Consult: 
Morfill  and  Charles,  The  Book  of  the  Secrets  of 
Enoch  (Oxford,  1896) ;  Bonwetsch,  Das  slavische 
Henoehhuoh  (G5ttingen,  1896). 

SLAVONIC  MTTSIC.  The  music  of  the  Slav 
peoples,  of  whom  those  of  importance  are  the 
Russians,  Poles,  and  Bohemians. 

Russia.  Just  as  the  hymns  of  the  Church  of 
Rome  exerted  a  powerful  influence  upon  the 
music  of  Western  Europe,  so  a  similar  influence 
was  exerted  upon  the  music  of  Eastern  Europe 
throu^  the  hymns  of  the  Greek  Church.  Al- 
though both  the  Greek  and  Roman  hymns  can 
be  traced  to  a  common  origin,  a  differentiation 
took  place  in  the  earliest  centuries  of  the  Christian 
era,  and  thenceforward  the  music  of  the  East  and 
the  West  developed  separate  characteristics.  In  the 
East  the  folk  music  became  strongly  tinged  with 
characteristics  of  the  music  of  the  Greek  liturgy, 
and  these  characteristics  have  found  their  way 
through  the  folk  music  into  the  art  music  of  the 
modem  Russian  composers.  All  the  emotions  of  the 
Russian  peasant  find  expression  either  in  songs  or 
primitive  dance  tunes,  and  every  season  of  the 
year  has  its  particular  songs.  The  return  of 
spring,  for  instance,  is  greeted  by  the  girls  and 
boys  in  the  Russian  villages  with  a  choral  dance 
known  as  the  Khorovod,  which  is  somewhat  simi- 
lar to  the  old  May-day  festivities  in  England. 
The  Dumas  were  improvisations  upon  some  epic 
subject,  and  were  recited  in  irregular  rhythm 
and  in  a  slow  monotonous  chant.  But  the  real 
folk  songs  of  Russia  are  always  metrical,  al- 
though the  poetry  does  not  rhyme.  The  words 
are  most  frequently  sung  without  any  instru- 
mental accompaniment.  In  a  general  way  the 
national  meloaies  are  either  lively  or  slow.  The 
former,  which  are  mostly  of  gypsum  origin,  are 
generally  dance  tunes  in  the  major  keys.  They 
are  sung  in  unison,  the  rhythm  being  marked  by 
the  feet.  The  latter — ^and  these  are  the  best  and 
most  popular — are  in  minor  keys,  and  are  sung  in 
harmony. 

When  during  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries  Italian  opera  practically  ruled  all  Eu- 
rope it  also  found  its  way  into  Russia.  The  few 
Russian  musicians  were  completely  under  Italian 
infiuences.  The  first  distinctly  Russian  music 
was  that  of  Glinka  (1804-57)  (q.v.).  Like  his 
predecessors,  this  master  had  been  trained  by 
€rerman  and  Italian  musicians,  but  during  a  stay 
in  the  South  of  Russia  in  1829  he  was  attracted 
by  the  national  element  in  the  music  of  his  coun- 
try. In  1834  he  met  the  famous  theorist  S.  Dehn 
in  Berlin.  Upon  his  suggestion  Glinka  began  to 
work  with  a  conscious  purpose  toward  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  national  Russian  school.  By  the 
end  of  1834  he  had  returned  to  Saint  Petersbuig 
with  the  almost  completed  score  of  the  first  opera 
written  in  Russian  upon  a  Russian  subject^  The 
Life  for  the  Czar.  The  success  of  this  work  was  in- 
stantaneous, and  to  this  day  it  is  a  standard  work 
in  the  repertoire  of  every  Russian  opera  house. 
In  1842  his  second  national  opera,  Ruslan  and 
Ludmilla,  appeared,  and  was  enthusiastically 
hailed  by  Liszt.  Two  years  later  Glinka  pro- 
duced a  number  of  his  compositions  in  Paris, 


SLAVONIC  XUSIC. 


928 


SLAVOinC  KTJ8IC. 


where  they  called  forth  the  unqualified  admira- 
tion of  Berlioz.     The  approhation  of  two  such 
men    spread   Glinka's   fame   beyond   his   native 
land.     Whereas  Glinka  wrote  in  a  naive  manner, 
in  accordance  with  a  natural  bent  of  his  genius, 
the  works  of  his  immediate  successors  show  evi- 
dence of  careful  study.  Dargomyzhsky  (1813-69) 
(q.v.)   began  his  career  under  French  influences, 
but  soon  became  an  enthusiastic  follower  of  Wag- 
ner's reforms.  The  result  was  a  national  opera  Rii- 
9alka  (1856),  which  was  followed  by  two  others. 
But  the  most  powerful  influence  Dargomyzhsky 
exerted  not  so  much  through  his  own  composi- 
tions as  through  the  interest  he  inspired  in  some 
of  the  yoimger  composers.  Five  of  these  organized 
themselves  into  a  society  called  The  Innovators, 
They  were  Cui,  Balakireff,  Mussorgsky,  Borodin, 
and  Rimsky-KorsakofT.    While  their  instrumental 
works  are  well  known,  their  national  operas  have 
not  succeeded  in  gaining  friends  outside  of  Russia. 
The  more  recent  of  the  prominent  Russian  compos- 
ers   are    Ck)unt    Yussupoff,    SokolofT,    Arensky, 
Glazunoff,  Taneyeff,  and  Rebikoff.    Among  all 
the  Russian  composers  Rubinstein  and  Tschai- 
kowsky  (qq.v.)  stand  forth  preeminent.    Russia 
has  also  produced  sound  theorists  who  have  done 
much  to  preserve  the  old  folk  music  and  to  estab- 
lish the  qualities  that  constitute  the  specific  na- 
tional characteristics  unon  a  theoretic  scientific 
basis.    Faminzin  publisned  several  collections  of 
Russian  folk  songs,  and  translated  manv  of  the 
famous  theoretical  works  of  German  authors  into 
Russian;  Arnold  showed  the  influence  exerted  by 
the  old  church  modes  upon  Russian  melodies; 
Melgunoff  published  many  Russian  folk  song|s 
with  characteristic  national  harmonization;  Li- 
senko  collected  and  edited  many  folk  songs  and 
popular  dances,  and  Shafranoff  wrote  a  valuable 
book.  The  Structure  of  Russian  Folk  Melodies, 
The  principal  characteristics  of  Russian  music 
are   archaic   harmonies  reminiscent  of  the  old 
church  modes;   peculiar  ^ace  notes;   intervals 
pertaining  to  the  pure  minor  scale  (see  Minob 
ScAu:),  which  are  expressive  of  deepest  melan- 
choly; frequent  use  of  melismas;  augmented  and 
chromatic  mtervals;  strongly  cuseented  rhythm;  a 
marked    tendencv   toward    the   employment   of 
hassi  ostinati.  Although  the  classic  masters  favor 
periodic  structures  of  an  even  number  of  meas- 
ures   (two,  four,  eight,  sixteen),  the  Russians 
manifest  a  strong  leaning  toward  periods  of  three, 
five,  or  seven  measures. 

Poland.  Much  that  has  been  said  about  the 
development  of  the  national  element  in  Russian 
music  through  the  folk  song  and  the  general  state 
of  musical  affairs  applies  to  the  art  music  of 
Poland.  But  whereas  the  older  Russian  songs  are 
mostly  melancholy,  quiet,  of  even  rhythm,  and 
regular  periodic  structure,  those  of  the  Poles  are 
more  fiery  and  passionate.  The  melodies,  which 
for  the  greater  part  are  not  remarkable  in  them- 
selves, are  rendered  effective  by  means  of  skillful 
ornamentation  and  piquant  rhythms.  Pimcult 
and  unusual  intervals  occur  with  great  frequency, 
impjarting  to  the  Polish  folk  songs  something  of 
ah  instrumental  character.  Poli&  music  during 
the  nineteenth  century  is  represented  by  the 
works  of  only  a  single  great  musician.  This  re- 
markable man  is  Fr4d6ric  Chopin  (q.v.).  In  ad- 
dition to  Chopin,  Poland  has  produced  a  few  other 
composers,  some  of  whom  devoted  their  energies 
to  the  establishment  of  a  national  Polish  opera. 
Vol  XV.— •». 


When  the  singspiel  (q.v.)  became  popular  in 
(^rmany,  Kamienski  (1734-1821)  conceived  the 
idea  of  writiuj?  similar  works  in  Polish.  Thu« 
he  wrote  the  first  Polish  opera,  Nendea  XJszesU- 
wiona  (Luck  in  Misfortune),  which  was  pro- 
duced in  Warsaw  in  1775.  This  was  followed  by 
five  others.  Eisner  ( 1769-1854 ) ,  although  a  Ger- 
man by  birth,  was  identified  with  Poland.  He 
wrote  no  less  than  nineteen  operas,  while  his 
successor  in  the  post  of  principal  conductor 
of  the  Warsaw  National  Opera,  Kurpinski 
(1786-1857),  composed  twenty-six.  Chopin's 
friend  Dobrzynski  (1807-67)  contributed  only 
one  opera,  but  wrote  chamber  music  of  sterling 
merit.  Moniuszko  (1820-72),  who  wrote  fifteen 
operas,  ranks  next  to  Chopin,  but  the  gap  that 
separates  him  from  his  great  compatriot  is  enor^ 
mous.  His  reputation  rests  chiefiy  upon  his 
Polish  songs,  which  are  full  of  local  color.  In 
1901  the  opera  Manru,  by  Paderewski  (q.v.) ,  was 
performed  in  Europe  and  America,  and  elicited 
favorable  comment. 

Bohemia.  The  folk  music  of  Bohemia  is  es- 
pecially rich  in  popular  dance  tunes,  some  of 
which,  like  the  poika,  have  also  foimd  great  favor 
in  other  countries.  The  infiuence  of  church 
music  is  pronoimced  in  many  of  the  folk  songs, 
especially  in  those  dating  from  the  fifteenth  and 
sixteenth  centuries,  where  we  find  entire  chorales 
introduced  as  middle  sections.  The  later  songs 
are  distinguished  by  a  broad  melodic  outline, 
showing  to  some  extent  Italian  influences,  and 
by  a  spirit  of  humor.  As  in  the  case  of  Russia 
and  Poland,  a  distinctive  national  trait  appeared 
in  the  music  of  Bohemia  as  soon  as  national  com- 
posers introduced  the  folk  music  into  their  seri- 
ous works.  The  first  of  these  was  Tomaczek 
(1774-1850),  who  wrote  several  Bohemian  songs 
and  also  occasionally  introduced  national  themes 
into  his  instrumental  works.  Just  fifty  years 
after  the  appearance  of  the  first  Polish  opera,  a 
Bohemian  opera  by  Franz  Skroup  (1801-62)  was 
performed  at  Prague.  This  was  a  vei^  simple 
work  in  the  style  of  the  German  singspiel.  Two 
other  and  more  serious  operas  followed,  Udalrich 
and  Bozena  (1828)  and  Lihussa's  Wedding 
(1836).  But  tJiese  attempts  for  many  years  re- 
mained the  only  evidences  of  a  national  school  of 
opera.  The  erection  of  a  new  Bohemian  National 
Theatre  in  1862  fired  t^e  ambition  of  national 
composers.  Skuhersky  (1830-92)  had  written  his 
first  two  operas,  Wladimir  and  Lora,  to  German 
texts.  He  nad  both  these  works  translated  into 
Bohemian,  and  then  they  were  produced  at  the 
new  theatre.  These  were  followed  bv  an  original 
Bohemian  opera.  The  General,  Johann  Bkroup 
(1811-92),  a  younger  brother  of  Franz,  con- 
tributed in  1867  The  Swedes  in  Prague,  In  the 
same  year  Blodek  (1834-74)  added  In  the  Well 
to  the  national  repertoire.  Schebor  (1843 — )  be- 
tween 1866  and  1878  wrote  five  Bohemian  operas; 
Bendl  (1838-97)  wrote  seven;  and  Rozkosny 
(1833 — )  ei^t.  But  all  these  men  attained  only 
local  fame.  The  first  Bohemian  musician  whose 
works  attracted  general  attention  in  Europe  was 
Smetana  (1824-84).  He  was  not  satisfied  to  ob- 
tain a  national  coloring  in  his  music  by  the  mere 
introduction  of  folk  songs  and  dances  in  their 
primitive  dress.  As  conductor  of  the  National 
Theatre  in  Prague  he  wrote  eight  national  operas^ 
which  not  only  constitute  the  stock  of  the  Bo- 
hemian national  repertoire^  but  have  also  met 


siiAvosnc  HUBia 


934 


BLEEP. 


with  great  favor  outside  of  Bohemia.  Perhaps 
the  best  known  of  these  is  The  Bartered  Brtde 
(1866).  Among  more  recent  Bohemian  compos- 
ers may  be  mentioned  HHmaly  (1842 — ),  whose 
opera  The  Enchanted  Prince  ( 1870)  scored  a  last- 
ing success,  and  Fibich  (1869 — ),  who  between 
1870  and  1898  wrote  five  operas  and  a  triloffv, 
Hippolamia  ( 1891 ) .  This  composer  is  also  prolific 
in  the  field  of  instrumental  music.  Beyond  doubt 
the  greatest  of  Bohemian  composers  is  Antonin 
Dvorak  (1841 — )  (q.v.),  who  has  done  much  for 
the  cause  of  Bohemian  music  through  his  mas- 
terly arrangement  of  national  dances  for  orches- 
tra as  well  as  pianoforte.  Consult :  Cui,  Histori- 
cal Sketch  of  Music  in  Russia,  in  "The  Century 
Library  of  Music"  (New  York,  1901)  ;  Zielinski, 
The  Poles  in  Music  ( ib. ) ;  Soubies,  Priois  de  Vhis- 
toire  de  la  musigue  russe  (Paris,  1893)  ;  Pougin, 
"Essai  historique  sur  la  musique  en  Russio/'  in 
Rivista  Musicals  Italiana,  vols.  iii.  and  iv. 
(Turin,  1896-97). 
SLAVOPHILS.   See  Panslavism;   Russian 

LiTESATUSE. 

SLAVS.  A  branch  of  the  Aryan  or  Indo- 
Germanic  family,  which  constitutes  the  great 
bulk  of  the  population  of  Europe  east  of  the  me- 
ridian of  15**  E.  as  well  as  of  Siberia.  They  are 
broad-headed,  below  the  average  Aryan  in  height, 
with  the  color  of  skin  pale  white,  swarthy,  or 
light  brown,  and  eyes  brown,  hazel,  gray,  and 
black. 

The  Slavs  comprise  the  following  groups  and 
nationalities:  Eastern  Group— Great  Russians, 
Little  Russians  or  Malo-Russians  (including  the 
Ruthenians),  White  Russians.  Western  Group — 
Poles,  Wends,  Czechs  (Bohemians  and  Moravi- 
ans), Slovaks.  Southern  Group— Slovenians, 
Serbo-Croats,  Croats,  Serbs,  Morlaks,  Uskoks, 
Herzegovinians,  Bosniaks,  Montenegrins,  Slavic 
inhabitants  of  Macedonia,  Bulgarians. 

It  has  long  been  recognized  that  in  this  vast 
complex  resulting  from  racial  mixtures  there  can 
be  found  no  *Slav  type.'  Investigations  among  the 
Slav  peoples  show  an  interblending  of  'races'  ex- 
clusive of  the  Finno-Tatar  admixture.  The  most 
persistent  physical  character  among  the  Slavs 
IS  the  head  form,  which  is  braohycephalic,  so 
that  this  uniformity,  conflicting  materially  with 
diverse  statures  in  the  various  groups,  has  led 
most  anthropologists  to  class  them  with  the 
Alpine  race,  i.e.,  short-headed  people  like  the 
Celts. 

The  country  occupied  by  the  Slavs  before  the 
time  of  the  great  migration  of  nations  appears 
to  have  been  a  region  extending  several  hundred 
miles  on  either  side  of  the  Upper  Dnieper,  reach- 
ing northward  as  far  as  the  Valdai  Hills  and 
westward  into  the  basin  of  the  Upper  Vistula. 
From  this  seat  in  the  period  from  the  third  or 
fourth  century  to  the  seventh  century  they  spread 
in  all  directions,  toward  the  Baltic,  beyond  the 
Elbe,  into  the  basin  of  the  Danube,  and  beyond 
into  the  Balkan  Peninsula.  In  the  tenth  cen- 
tury they  occupied  the  basin  of  the  Lower  Dnieper. 
From  the  tenth  century  on  the  Germans  pressed 
back  the  Slavs,  and  in  the  course  of  several  cen- 
turies region  after  region  that  had  been  occupied 
by  Slavic  tribes  again  became  German.  The  Bul- 
garian invaders  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula  were  a 
Finnic  people,  who  appear  to  have  been  akin  to 
the  Huns.  After  their  settlement  in  Bulgaria 
they  became  Slavicized.    The  Polabians,  a  Slavic 


people,  who  dwelt  about  the  Lower  Elbe  and  the 
southwestern  comer  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  have  be- 
come extinct.  The  total  number  of  Slavs  is  not 
far  from  125,000,000. 

Consult  Zograf,  Les  peuples  de  la  Russie 
(Moscow,  1895).  See  Colored  Plate  of  Wnns 
Races  of  Eubofe,  under  Europe,  Peoples  of. 

SLAVYAKSK,  slAv-yAnsk'.  A  town  in  the 
Russian  Government  of  Kharkov,  about  100  miles 
southeast  of  EJiarkov  (Map:  Russia,  E  5).  It  is 
noted  for  its  lai^  output  and  export  of  salt, 
obtained  from  the  adjacent  lakes.  Population, 
in  1897,  15,644. 

SLEDGE  DOG.  A  dog  used  for  hauling 
sledges,  especially  in  the  Arctic  regions.  Untu 
civilized  explorers,  fur  traders,  and  miners  intro- 
duced other  breeds,  the  native  dogs  of  all  north- 
em  peoples  were  little  more  than  half-domesti- 
cated wolves.  The  typical  Eskimo  dog  is  broad- 
chested,  with  powerful  shoulders,  a  short,  thick 
neck,  sharp  wolf-like  muzzle,  slanting  eyes,  short 
and  generally  erect  ears.  He  has  a  coat  of  the 
warmest  and  thickest  hair,  normally  wolf  gray, 
although  black,  black  and  white,  and  pure  white 
occur.  The  Eskimo  dog  does  not  bark  or  bay, 
but  howls  a  long  drawn  wolfish  howl.  The  Mae- 
Kenzie  River  dogs  or  ^huskies'  resemble  the 
Arctic  fox.  They  are  slenderer  and  more  grace- 
ful than  the  Eskimo  dogs,  with  sharper  noses  and 
pricked  ears.  The  'native  dogs'  are  able  to  en- 
dure a  surprising  amount  of  cold  and  work,  so 
long  as  they  are  fairly  fed.  Harnessed  to  a 
toboggan  or  a  sledge,  a  team  of  five  will  drag 
a  heavy  load  60  miles  a  day,  day  after  day.  The 
demand  for  beasts  of  burden  following  the  rush 
to  Alaska  in  1898  took  there  all  kinds  of  lai^ 
dogs.  This  incursion  and  the  havoc  wrought 
among  the  native  dogs  by  overwork  is  modif^uig 
the  breed  of  the  sledge  dog  in  Alaska. 

There  are  two  other  kinds  of  sledge  dogs,  the 
'Ostiaks'  and  *Samoyeds.'  The  Ostiaks  vary 
very  much  in  appearance,  some  being  stout, 
heavily  boned,  and  weighing  50  to  70  pounds, 
others  leggy  and  wolf-like.  In  color  they  range 
from  gray  to  dark  brown,  are  thick-coated,  pridk- 
eared,  and  more  or  less  wolf-like  in  disposition, 
especially  in  their  dealings  with  one  another. 
The  Samoyed  dogs  are  entirely  white,  with  the 
exception  of  the  nose;  the  tail  is  bushy  and 
turned  over  the  back,  and  the  ears  are  pricked. 
They  weigh  from  40  to  60  pounds  and  much  re- 
semble large  Pomeranians. 

SLEEK,  AMIKADAB.  A  hypocrite  in 
Morris  Bamett's  comedy  The  Serious  Family, 

SLEEP  (AS.  sUbp,  Goth,  sl^,  OHG.  sl&f* 
Ger.  Schlaf,  sleep,  from  AS.  sUspan,  Goth.  sUpan, 
OHG.  sldfan,  Ger.  schlafen,  to  sleep;  connected 
with  OChurch  Slav.  slahU,  lax,  Lat.  lahi,  to  slide, 
fall).  A  condition  of  the  body  in  which  the 
normal  activity  of  the  nervous  system  is  so  far 
reduced  that  self-consciousness  and  consciousness 
of  surroundings  are  entirely  wanting,  or  at  an 
extremely  low  ebb.  (On  the  question  of  dream- 
less sleep  and  the  consciousness  of  conditions  be- 
tween waking  and  sleeping,  see  Dreaics  and 
SoMNAiCBUUSM.)  It  IS,  furthermore,  a  normal 
and  rhythmic  process,  and  as  such  differentiated 
from  stupor,  unconsciousness  under  drugs,  and 
other  cases  of  abnormal  loss  of  consciousness. 
Its  most  conspicuous  physiological  features  are 
cerebral,  or  at  least  cortical,  aniemia ;  relaxation 
of  muscular  tone;  slower  and  deeper  breathing; 


925 


SLBBPIHO  SICKNESS. 


slower  and  weaker  pulse;  and  lessened  arterial 
pressure. 

There  are  three  main  types  of  sleep  theory,  the 
circulatory,  the  chemical,  and  the  histological. 
The  first  circulatory  theory  was  that  of  con- 
gestion. Sleep  was  the  result  of  pressure  upon 
the  brain  due  to  venous  congestion.  The  evidence 
for  this  view  ca^ne  from  the  analogy  between  the 
condition  of  sleep  and  that  produced  by  apoplexy, 
opiates,  and  the  lethargy  caused  by  pressure  on 
the  brain  in  cases  of  fractured  skull.  The  second 
theory  turns  to  anwmia,  the  exact  opposite  of 
congestion.  A  large  number  of  well-attested 
facts  prove  the  existence  of  a  cortical  anemia 
during  sleep.  Pressure  upon  the  carotid  arteries 
will  produce  a  dream -like  state  of  oonsciousnesflL 
In  several  instances  of  fractured  skull  direct  me- 
chanical measurements  have  demonstrated  the 
anaemia  of  sleep. 

The  chemical  theories  are  of  two  types,  accord* 
ing  as  they  are  based  on  (1)  combustion  or  (2) 
auto-intoxication.  The  comhustion  theories,  all 
of  which  are  concerned  with  the  use  of  oxygen  or 
carbonic-acid  gas,  may  be  represented  by  Pfltl- 
ger's  idea  that  the  stored  up  intra-molecular 
oxygen  is  exhausted  by  activity  (vibration  and 
explosion)  of  nerve  cells,  and  each  cell  finally 
becomes  saturated  with  carbonic  acid.  The  ex- 
plosions of  the  cells  become  less  numerous,  and 
the  condition  of  relative  cerebral  inactivity, 
sleep,  thus  results.  This  theory  is  not  buttressed 
by  sufficient  experimental  evidence,  nor  does  our 
recent  knowledge  of  the  function  of  oxygen  in 
the  body  warrant  us  in  attributing  sleep  to  its 
lack.  In  the  auto-intoxication  theories  it  is  as- 
serted that  certain  products  of  decomposition  of 


DIAGBAIC   8BOWINO   TEX    DEPTH   09    BLUP    AS    TBI    HIOHT 
ADTANCB8. 

The  abscIsBie  (0,  1...7)  represent  the  hours  elapsed  since 
the  oncoming  of  sleep;  the  ordlnates  (0, 6...26)  show  the  re- 
lative Intensity  of  stimulos  neoessary  to  arouse  the  sleeper 
In  any  given  hour. 

living  substance  influence  the  continuance  of  cell 
activity;  in  the  older  form  of  this  theory  the 
products  mentioned  were  chiefly  lactic  acid  and 
creatine;  in  the  recent  theories  the  influence  of 
modem  bacteriology  has  led  to  the  substitution 
of  certain  poisons,  such  as  the  ptomaines  and 
the  leuoomaines,  which  are  formed  more  rapidly 
than  they  can  be  oxidized  during  active  labor  of 
the  day.  During  sleep  these  poisons  are  gradu- 
ally oxidized  and  removed  from  the  blood.  An 
excessive  quantity  of  these  substances  produces 


insomnia,  which,  as  we  all  know,  is  often  char- 
acteristic of  extreme  fatigue. 

The  rapid  advance  in  histological  technique 
within  the  last  few  years  has  led  to  certain  dis- 
coveries concerning  the  nature  of  the  nerve  cell 
and  its  processes,  or  the  neurone,  which  shed 
some  light  upon  the  conditions  of  sleep.  Of  special 
interest  are  the  results  of  investigations  upon 
the  connection  of  neurone  to  neurone.  We  know 
that  each  nerve  element  is  structurally  inde- 
pendent, but  functionally  interdependent.  Mi- 
croscopic examination  has  shown  that  the  nerve 
cell  possesses  different  chemical  properties  when 
in  a  waking  or  a  sleeping  or  fatigued  condition, 
and  that  the  disposition  of  the  'contact  gran- 
ules' or  'gemmules,'  which  some  authorities  deem 
the  structural  means  for  the  interconnection  of 
neurones,  while  functioning,  varies  according  to 
the  condition  of  activity  or  rest  in  the  nervous 
system.  Upon  these  facts  various  theories  have 
been  advanced,  which  find  the  cause  of  sleep  in 
dissociations  of  the  neurones.  These  theories 
have  taken  three  principal  forms:  Dissociation 
through  amoeboid  movements  of  cell  processes, 
dissociation  through  interposition  of  neuroglia 
(non-nervous)  cells,  and  profuse  connection 
through  torpor  of  processes. 

But  no  single  theory,  whether  vaso-motor, 
chemical,  or  histological,  is  adequate  for  a  com- 
plete explanation  of  sleep.  Recent  observations  of 
the  daily  life  of  protozoa  and  other  simple  forms 
show  that  such  organisms  never  sleep,  and,  of 
course,  never  exhibit  phenomena  of  fatigue. 
Somewhere  in  the  line  of  evolution  the  phenome- 
na of  fatigue  and  sleep  must  make  their  appear- 
ance. It  seems  likely,  therefore,  that  profitable 
work  upon  the  problem  of  sleep  is  to  be  expected 
in  the  future  from  the  side  of  comparative  physi- 
ology and  psychology. 

BiBLiOGRAFHT.  Donaldsou,  The  Growth  of  the 
Brain  (New  York,  1897)  ;  American  Text  Book 
of  Physiology  (Philadelphia,  1896) ;  Errera,  8ur 
le  micanisme  du  sommeil  (Brussels,  1895)  ; 
Manao§Ine,  Sleep,  Its  Physiology,  Pathology,  Hy- 
giene, and  Psychology  (Eng.  trans.,  New  York, 
1897) ;  Michaelis,  Der  Bchlaf  nach  seiner  Bedeu- 
tung  fUr  den  gesunden  und  kr€Mken  Menschen 
(Leipzig,  1894).  For  detailed  bibliography,  con- 
sult Foster  or  Manac^ne.     See  Dbeajcs;  Som- 

NAMBUUSM. 

SLEEPEB  SHABK,  or  Nubse  Shabk.  One 
of  the  large  Arctic  sharks  of  the  family  Scym- 
nidse,  closely  allied  to  the  dogfishes  (Squalide), 
especially  Somniosis  microcephalus,  which  reaches 
a  length  of  26  feet  and  is  renowned  as  an  enemy 
of  whales,  biting  large  pieces  out  of  their  bodies. 

SIiEEPINa  BEAUTY,  The.  The  fairy-tale 
of  a  princess  who  falls  into  an  enchanted  sleep 
for  a  himdred  years  and  is  awakened  by  a  prince, 
who  penetrates  the  dense  wood  which  grew  up 
about  her  castle.  It  is  told  by  Charles  Perrault 
in  '1a  Belle  au  Bois  Dormant,"  in  Contes  du 
temps  pass4  (1697),  translated  by  Grimm  as 
Domr^schen,  and  versified  by  Tennyson  in  'The 
Day  Dream."  The  legend  in  varying  forms  is 
very  old,  found  even  in  Egyptian  and  Hindu  tales 
and  paralleled  in  the  magic  sleep  of  Brunhilda. 

SLEEPING  SICKNESS,  or  Negro  Lethabot. 
An  epidemic  disease  occurring  among  the  inhab- 
itants of  tropical  West  Africa,  characterized  by 
periods  of  Sleep  recurring  at  short  intervals. 
The  course  of  the  disease  is  from  four  months  to 


SLBBPIHa  SICKKBS8. 


996 


BLIDB  BTFLH. 


as  mtaxy  years,  and  it  is  fatal.    The  yictim  ap- 

Siars  at  first  languid,  weak,  pallid,  and  stupid, 
is  i^elids  become  puffy;  an  eruption  appears 
on  his  skin.  He  faliB  asleep  while  talking,  eat- 
ing, or  working.  As  the  disease  progresses  he  is 
fed  with  difficulty  and  becomes  much  emaciated. 
The  failure  of  nutrition  and  the  appearance  of 
bedsores  are  followed  by  convulsions  and  death. 
Some  patients  become  insane.  Manson  has  sug- 
gested Filaria  peratans  as  the  cause  of  the  dis- 
ease. (See  FiiABiA.)  In  1898  Cagigal  and 
Lepierre  of  Coimbra,  Africa,  isolated  a  bacillus 
which  they  believed  was  the  cause;  but  this 
claim  is  yet  to  be  substantiated.  Inoculations 
into  rabbits  of  a  culture  of  this  bacillus  caused 
similar  symptoms  to  those  exhibited  by  a  young 
negro  affected  with  sleeping  sickness,  from  whose 
blood  they  removed  this  bacillus  for  cultivation. 
Some  cases  of  the  disease  have  developed  in  Con- 
go negroes  seven  years  after  they  have  left  Africa 
for  a  permanent  residence  in  Europe.  A  few 
cases  of  the  disease  have  been  found  among 
negroes  in  our  Southern  States.  Consult  Man- 
son,  Tropical  Diaeaaea  (London,  1900). 

SLEEP  OF  PLANTS.  A  popular  name  for 
the  phenomenon  of  leaf  movement  in  certain 
plants,  especially  of  the  OzalideflB  and  Legumi- 
nosis,  whose  leaves  have  a  nocturnal  position 
distinct  from  the  diurnal.  Usually  the  petioles 
rise  or  fall  and  sometimes  the  leaf  blades  be- 
come folded.  The  phenomenon  is  due  to  the 
sensitiveness  of  certain  parts  to  variations  in 
the  intensity  of  the  light  reaching  them,  and 
has  no  likeness  whatever  to  the  sleep  of  animals. 
See  MoTOB  Oboans;  Movement. 

SLEEPY  HOLLOW.  A  picturesque  valley 
near  Tarrytown,  N.  Y.,  traversed  by  a  small 
stream  called  the  Pocantico  River,  famous  as 
the  scene  of  Washington  Irving's  Legend  of 
Sleepy  Hollow,  It  contains  an  old  Dutch  church, 
dating  from  1699  and  built  of  bricks  brought 
from  Holland. 

SLEEVE  DOG.  A  Japanese  breed  of  tiny 
spaniels.    See  Spaniel. 

SLEIDAN,  slI^dAn,  or  SLEIBAOnTS^  Jo- 
HANN  (c.  1506-56).  An  early  German  historian 
whose  real  name  was  Philippson.  He  was  bom 
at  Schleiden,  near  Cologne,  studied  law  at  Li^ge, 
Paris,  and  Orleans,  and,  entering  the  service  of 
Francis  I.  of  France  in  1637,  acted  as  interme- 
diary between  him  and  the  Schmalkaldic  League. 
In  1644  he  made  his  home  at  Strassburg  and 
thenceforth  was  active  as  diplomat,  pamphleteer, 
and  apologist  in  the  cause  of  the  Reformation. 
In  1551  he  represented  the  city  of  Strassburg  at 
the  0>uncil  of  Trent.  His  chief  work  is  De  Statu 
Religionia  ei  ReipuhUcas  Carolo  Quinto  Cceaare 
Commentarii  (Strassburg,  1556;  edited  by  Am 
Ende,  Frankfort,  1785-86),  the  best  contempo- 
rary account  of  the  Reformation,  for  the  history 
of  which  it  is  still  a  valuable  source.  He  also 
wrote  Summa  Doctrinae  Platonia  de  Repuhlica 
et  de  Legihua  (1548).  Consult  Baumgarten, 
Ueher  Sl&idana  Lehen  und  Briefwechael  (Strass- 
burg, 1876). 

SLEM'HEB,  Adah  J.  (1828-68).  An  Ameri- 
can soldier,  bom  in  Montgomery  County,  Pa. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1850,  served 
against  the  Seminole  Indians  in  Florida,  and 
then  for  several  years  was  stationed  in  various 
garrisons  on  the  Pacific  Ooast.  From  1865  to 
1859  he  taught  at  West  Point.     In  January, 


1861,  he  was  in  command  of  a  small  body  of 
regular  troops  in  Fort  Barrancas,  PenBaoola  Har- 
bor, Fla.  On  the  10th  of  the  month,  after  the 
surrender  of  the  Pensacola  navy  yard,  he  trans- 
ferred his  force  to  the  more  secure  position 
afforded  by  Fort  Pickens  in  the  same  harbor. 
This  fort  he  successfully  held  against  Confed- 
erate attack  until  he  was  reSnfor^d.  Promoted 
to  be  major,  he*  was  attached  to  General  Buell's 
command  and  took  part  in  the  Corinth  campaign 
and  the  advance  on  Nashville,  became  brigadier- 
general  of  volimteers  (November  29,  1862),  and 
participated  in  the  battle  of  Stone  River  (Decem- 
ber 31,  1862),  receiving  a  wound  that  incapaci- 
tated him  for  further  active  service  during  the 
war.  In  1865  he  was  brevetted  colonel  and 
brigadier-general  in  the  r^[ular  service  for  meri- 
torious conduct  and  was  commissioned  lieuten- 
ant-colonel of  the  Fourth  Infantry.  He  died 
while  in  command  of  Fort  Laramie. 

SLENDEB.  An  awkward,  foolish  country- 
man in  Shakespeare's  Merry  Wivea  of  Windaor, 
cousin  to  Shallow  and  a  suitor  of  Anne  Page. 

SLESnxnCK.    See  Schusbwig. 

SLICK,  Sam.  Thepseudonym  of  the  British- 
American  humorist  Thomas  Chandler  Halibur- 
ton  (q.v.). 

SLICXENSIDES.  The  name  given  to  the 
polished  surfaces  found  along  the  joints  and 
fault  planes  of  rocks.  Th^  are  caused  by  the  rub- 
bing together  of  the  rocks  during  faulting  or  dif- 
ferential movement  along  the  pUines  oi  fracture. 

SLIDE  (from  AS.  alidan,  to  slide;  connected 
with  Ir.,  Gael,  alaod,  slide,  Lith.  alyati,  to  slide, 
Skt.  aridh,  to  go  astray) .  A  piece  of  mechanism 
applied  to  instruments  of  the  trumpet  and  trom- 
bone family,  for  lengthening  and  shortening  the 
sounding  tube.  (See  IIiombone.)  The  term  slide 
signifies  a  diatonic  series  of  two  or  more  tones, 
either  ascending  or  descending,  one  of  which  is  to 
be  accented  and  the  others  played  as  grace-notes. 

SLIDELI/,  John  (1793-1871).  An  American 
politician,  bom  in  New  York  City,  He  gradu- 
ated at  (jolumbia  College  in  1810.  In  1819  he 
removed  to  New  Orleans  and  from  1829  to  1833 
was  United  States  District  Attorney  for  Louisi- 
ana. In  December^  1853,  he  became  United 
States  Senator^  but  resigned  upon  the  secession 
of  Louisiana  from  the  Union.  In  September, 
1861,  he  was  appointed  commissioner  of  the  Con- 
federate States  to  France,  and  ran  the  blockade 
from  Charleston,  S.  C.  At  Havana,  with  James 
M.  Mason,  commissioner  to  England,  he  embarked 
upon  the  British  mail  steamer  Trent,  whidi  was 
overhauled  on  November  8th  by  (Captain  Charles 
Wilkes  in  the  United  States  sloop  fifeui  Jacinto, 
and  the  envoys  and  their  secretaries  were  ar- 
rested and  confined  for  a  time  in  Fort  Warren, 
Boston.  Upon  the  demand  of  England  the  act 
of  Captain  Wilkes  was  disavowed  and  the  com- 
missioners sailed  for  England  January  1,  1862. 
(See  Tbent  Affaib.)  Mr.  Slidell  failed  in 
securing  the  assent  of  France  to  the  convention 
giving  to  that  nation  control  of  Southern  cotton 
if  the  blockade  should  be  broken,  but  was  per- 
mitted to  begin  negotiations  for  the  £16,000,000 
Confederate  loan.  At  the  closs  of  ths  war  Slidell 
settled  in  England. 

SLIDE  BT7LE.  An  instroment  composed  of 
sliding  scales,  and  used  to  perform  certain 
arithmetical   calculations.    The   annexed    figure 


SLIDE  BTTIiE. 


927 


SLOANE. 


shows  the  Nestler  rule.  In  using  this  scale  for  luminosity  which  his  master  learned  from  Hem- 
multiplication  the  figure  1  on  the  slide  is  made  brandt,  he  patiently  imitated  the  delicate  brush- 
to  coincide  with  one  of  th«  two  factors  on  the    -"^-''  -"-^  """  -*^'*  *" *-  ****  -«*™— ^  «,-«««•  «* 


scale,  the  product  then  being  found  opposite 
the  other  factor  as  read  on  the  slide.  In  divis- 
ion it  is  necessary  merely  to  place  the  divisor 
read  on  the  slide  above  the  dividend  read  on  the 


work  and  was  able  to  use  the  outward  manner  of 
his  teacher.  Among  his  numerous  works  (some 
of  them  dated)  are:  "Family  Group,"  in  the 
National  Gallery;  "Male  Portrait"  (1656)  and 
"Kitchen  Utensils,"  in  the  Louvre;  "Interrupted 


8UDS  BULB. 


rule,  and  the  quotient  will  be  found  on  the  rule 
below  1  on  the  slide.  For  involution  the  num- 
bers on  the  upper  scale  of  the  rule  are  the 
squares  of  the  numbers  on  the  lower  scale,  and 
the  cubes  can  be  found  by  inverting  the  slide. 
The  inverse  of  this  gives  the  square  and  cube 
roots.  On  the  reverse  of  the  slide  is  a  scale  of 
sines  and  tangents,  and  a  scale  by  the  use  of 
which  logarithms  may  be  found. 

SLI^GO.  A  maritime  county  of  the  Province 
of  Ck>nnaught,  Ireland,  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  Atlantic  and  the  Bay  of  Donegal  (Map:  Ire- 
land, C  2).  Area,  707  square  miles.  Popula- 
tion, in  1841,  189,000;  in  1851,  128,600;  in  1901, 
84,083.  The  coast  line  ii  indented  with  numer- 
ous bays  dangerous  for  navigation,  except  in 
the  Bay  of  Sligo.  The  navigable  streams  are 
the  Moy,  the  Owenmore,  and  the  Garrogue. 
The  picturesque  loughs  Arrow  and  Gill  are  in 
this  county.  The  mineral  products  consist  of 
copper,  lead,  iron,  and  manganese.  The  chief 
occupation  is  cattle-rearing.  The  sea  and  sal- 
mon fisheries  are  important,  and  there  are  manu- 
factures of  woolens,  linens,  and  leather.  Cap- 
ital, Sligo.  Consult  Wood-Martin,  History  of 
Sligoy  County  and  Tovm  (Dublin,  1890-93). 

SLIGO.  The  capital  of  County  Sligo,  Ire- 
land, on  the  Garrogue,  131  miles  northwest 
of  Dublin  (Map:  Ireland,  C  2).  It  is  well  built, 
and  contains  several  handsome  public  edifices. 
There  are  a  town  hall,  including  an  assembly 
room,  exchange,  free  library,  etc.,  and  the  ruins 
of  an  old  abbey.  Steamers  ply  regularly  be- 
tween Sligo  and  Glasgow,  Liverpool,  and  Lon- 
donderry. Sligo  had  its  origin  in  the  erection  of 
a  Dominican  iu>bey  and  a  castle  in  the  thirteenth 
century  by  Maurice  Fitzgerald,  Earl  of  Elildare. 
In  the  reign  of  James  I.  it  received  a  charter. 
Population,  in  1901,  10,862. 

SLIMEHEAD.  One  of  the  beautiful,  red, 
richly  ornamented  berycoid  fishes  of  the  genus 
Beryz,  called  by  the  French  'alfonsines.'  They 
are  foimd  in  the  deep  seas  of  all  warm  latitudes, 
and  one  species  {Beryx  splendens)  is  taken  in 
the  Gulf  Stream.  See  Plate  of  Mullets  and 
Allies. 

SLIME  MOLD.  The  common  name  of  the 
Myxomycetes   (q.v.). 

SLINGELANDT,  sllng^6-lant,  PnriEB  Cob- 
KELisz  VAN  (1640-91).  A  Dutch  painter,  bom 
at  Leyden.  He  studied  in  his  native  town  with 
Gerard  Dou.       Although  he  never  caught  the 


Music  Lesson"  (1672)  and  'Toultry  Vender** 
(1673),  in  the  Dresden  Museum;  "Tailor's  Shop," 
in  the  Old  Pinakothek,  Munich;  and  "Musical 
Party  in  a  Kitchen,"  in  the  Rijks  Museum, 
Amsterdam. 

SLIP.  A  semi-fluid  form  of  clay  with  or 
without  other  ingredients,  used  by  potters  to 
coat  a  vessel  in  order  to  obtain  a  glaze  or  other 
desired  condition  of  surface,  or  to  secure  a  decora- 
tive effect  by  applying  the  same  unevenly  or  in 
the  form  of  a  rough  pattern  in  relief.  See  Pot- 
tery. 

SLIPPED.  In  heraldry  (q.v.),  a  term  applied 
to  a  leaf,  branch,  or  flower  which  is  represented 
with  a  stalk  and  torn  from  the  parent  stem. 

SLIVEN,  sWven,  SLIVNO,  or  SELIMNL/L. 
A  town  in  Eastern  Rumelia,  situated  at  the 
important  pass  in  the  Balkan  Moimtains  known 
as  the  Iron  Gate,  65  miles  north  of  Adrianople 
(Map:  Balkan  Peninsula,  F  3) ).  Silven  is  noted 
for  its  black  wine  and  has  an  important  Govern- 
ment cloth  factory.    Population,  in  1900,  24,542. 

SLIVINSKI,  sl6-vln'skft,  Joseph  (1866—). 
A  Russian  pianist,  bom  at  Warsaw.  He  studied 
there  at  the  conservatory  with  Strobl  and  later 
took  a  four  years'  course  with  Leschetizky  at 
Vienna,  completing  his  studies  with  Anton  Ru- 
binstein at  Saint  Petersburg.  He  made  his  d6but 
in  1890,  but'  his  reputation  was  not  established 
until  his  London  appearance  three  years  later. 
His  first  American  recital  took  place  in  1893. 
He  became  well  known  for  his  technique  and  for 
his  mastery  of  intricate  phrasing. 

SLOANE,  8l5n,  Sir  Hans  (1660-1753).  An 
eminent  British  physician  and  naturalist.  He 
was  bom  in  Ireland  of  Scotch  parents,  and  was 
educated  in  London  and  in  France.  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1685, 
and  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians  in  1687. 
He  was  phjrsician  to  Christ's  Hospital  (1694- 
1724),  president  of  the  College  of  Physicians 
(1719-1735),  secretary  to  the  Royal  Society 
(1693),  foreign  associate  of  the  French  Academy 
of  Sciences  (1708),  and  succeeded  Sir  Isaac  New- 
ton as  President  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1727. 
He  had  been  created  a  baronet  and  physician- 
general  to  the  army  in  1716,  and  in  1727  received 
the  further  honor  of  bein^  appointed  royal  phy- 
sician. He  gave  a  strong  impulse  to  the  practice 
of  inoculation  by  performing  that  operation  on 
several  of  the  royal  family.  He  formed  a  museum 
of  natural  history,  antiquities,  coins,  etc.,  and  a 


8L0ANB. 


928 


SLOTH. 


library  of  50,000  volumes  and  3580  MSS.,  which 
he  directed  to  be  offered  at  his  death  to  the  na- 
tion for  £20,000,  and  which  formed  the  com- 
mencement of  the  British  Museum  (q.v.)*  He 
contributed  numerous  memoirs  to  the  PhUosophi- 
cal  Tranaactiona,  whose  publication  he  superin- 
tended for  a  number  of  years,  and  published  in 
1745  a  treatise  on  medicine  for  the  eyes. 

SLOANE,  Thouas  O'Conob  (1851—).  An 
American  writer  on  science,  bom  in  New  York 
City.  He  graduated  at  Saint  Francis  Xavier 
College  in  1869,  and  at  the  School  of  Mines  of 
Columbia  University  in  1872.  For  many  years 
he  served  as  a  gas  engineer,  inventing  a  self- 
recording  photometer,  and  was  later  professor 
of  natural  sciences  in  Seton  Hall  College.  His 
publications  include  many  books  on  popular 
science. 

SLOAKE^  WnxiAic  Miijjgan  (1850—).  An 
American  educator  and  historian,  born  at  Rich- 
mond, Jefferson  County,  Ohio.  He  graduated  at 
Columbia  College,  New  York  City,  in  1868,  and 
from  then  till  1872  was  instructor  in  classics  at 
Newell  School,  Pittsburg,  Pa.  Then  he  became 
private  secretary  to  George  Bancroft,  who  was 
ITnited  States  Minister  to  Germany,  and  while 
in  Germany  studied  history  under  Mommsen  and 
Droysen.  In  1883  he  was  made  professor  of  his- 
tory in  the  College  of  New  Jersey  (Princeton), a 
position  which  he  resigned  in  1896  to  become  pro- 
fessor of  history  at  Columbia  University.  From 
1885  to  1888  he  was  editor  of  the  New  Princeton 
Reviev),  He  published  the  Life  and  Work  of 
James  Rentoiok  Wilson  Sloane  (1888),  The 
French  War  and  the  Revolution  (1896),  Napo- 
leon Bonaparte  ( 1895-97 )»  and  Life  of  James 
McCosh  (1896). 

SLOAT,  sl6t,  John  Dbake  (1780-1867).  An 
American  naval  officer,  bom  in  New  York  City. 
He  entered  the  navy  as  a  midshipman  in  1800, 
but  after  a  year's  service  was  honorably  dis- 
charged through  operation  of  the  Peace  Establish- 
ment Act  of  1801.  In  1812,  however,  he  reentered 
the  navy  as  a  sailing-master,  and  throughout  the 
war  with  England  was  attached  to  the  frigate 
United  States,  which  in  October,  1812,  captured 
the  British  frigate  Macedonian,  In  1813  he  was 
promoted  to  be  lieutenant.  In  1823-25  he  com- 
manded the  schooner  Orampus,  which  was  one 
of  the  squadron  engaged  in  suppressing  piracy 
in  the  West  Indies.  He  became  a  captain  in 
1837,  commanded  the  Portsmouth  Navy  Yard  in 
1840-44,  and  from  1844  to  1846  was  in  command 
of  the  Pacific  Squadron,  and  took  possession  of 
Monterey  and  San  Francisco  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  Mexican  War.  He  commanded  the  Norfolk 
Navy  Yard  in  1847-51,  and  was  retired  in  1861, 
but  was  subsequently  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
commodore  in  1862  and  to  that  of  admiral  in 
1866. 

SLO'CXTM,  Henbt  Wabneb  (1827-94).  An 
American  soldier,  bom  at  Delphi,  N.  Y.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1852.  In  1856 
he  resigned  from  the  military  service  and  became 
a  coimselor-of-law  in  Syracuse,  N.  Y.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  appointed 
colonel  of  the  Twenty-seventh  New  York  Volun- 
teers, which  he  led  at  the  first  battle  of  Bull 
Run,  where  he  was  severely  woimded.  He  re- 
turned to  active  service  in  September,  1861,  with 
the  rank  of  brigadier-general  of  volunteers.    He 


rendered  conspicuous  service  at  the  battle  of 
Gaines's  Mill  (q.v.).  After  the  battle  of  Mal- 
vern Hill  (July  1,  1862)  he  was  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  major-general  of  volunteers.  He  was 
engaged  in  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run, 
and  in  the  battles  of  South  Mountain,  Antietam, 
Chancellorsville,  and  Gettysburg.  He  later  com- 
manded the  Twentieth  Army  Corps,  taking 
part  in  the  capture  and  occupation  of  Atlanta. 
In  Sherman's  march  to  the  sea  Slocum  was 
given  the  left  wing,  a  command  which  he  held 
until  after  Johnston's  surrender  at  Durham  Sta- 
tion. In  1865  he  resigned  from  the  service  and 
resumed  the  practice  of  the  law  at  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1868  and 
1870. 

SLOE  (AS.  sUL,  sl&h<B,  OHG.  sleha,  Ger. 
Bchlehe,  sloe),  or  Slob-Thobn  {Prunus  spinosa). 
A  shrub  of  the  natural  order  Rosacese,  by  some 
botanists  supposed  to  be  the  original  species  of 
some  of  the  cultivated  plums.  It  is  generally  a 
much  branched  spiny  shrub  of  4  to  10  feet  high, 
or  sometimes  a  small  tree  of  15  to  20  feet,  with 
small  snow-white  flowers,  which  generally  ap- 
pear after  the  leaves.  The  fruit,  generally  about 
the  size  of  laige  peas,  is  used  for  making  pre- 
serves, brandy,  and  gin.  An  astringent  extract, 
called  Grerman  acacia,  prepared  from  it,  was 
once  much  used  as  a  substitute  for  gum  arabic. 
The  juice  is  much  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
spurious  port  wine,  and  to  impart  roughness  to 
the  genuine.  The  sloe  is  abundant  in  European 
thickets  and  borders  of  woods,  and  in  arid  places, 
and  is  sparingly  introduced  in  the  Eastern 
United  States. 

SLONHC,  sl(/ny^m.  The  capital  of  a  district 
in  the  Government  of  Grodno,  Russia,  situated  on 
the  Shara,  a  navigable  tributary  of  the  Niemen, 
110  miles  southeast  of  Grodno  (Map:  Russia, 
C  4).  It  has  manufactures  of  cloth,  tobacco,  and 
spirits.  Population,  in  1897,  15,893,  mostly 
Jews. 

SLOOP  (Dutch  sloep,  Ger.  Schlupe,  sloop; 
probably  from  OF.  chaloupe,  from  Sp.  chalupa, 
Eng.  shcUlop),  A  small  vessel  having  a  single 
mast  and  fixed  bowsprit.  A  sloop's  saib  are 
mainsail,  gaff  topsail,  jib,  and  staysail;  spin- 
naker, club  topsail,  jib  topsail,  balloon  jib,  and 
flying  jib  are  carried  by  large  racing  sloops. 
Formerly  sloops  and  cutters  differed  considerably 
in  shape,  the  cutter  usually  being  much  nar- 
rower and  deeper,  but  at  present  the  difference 
in  form  is  very  slight.  Before  the  advent  of 
steam  a  sloop  of  war  was  a  ship-rigged  vessel, 
but  smaller  than  a  frigate;  in  the  early  days  of 
steam  men-of-war  a  sloop  of  war  was  a  war  ves- 
sel carrying  her  guns  on  a  single  deck ;  the  term 
is  now  obsolete.    See  Yachting. 

SLOP,  Doctor.  An  irascible,  enthusiastic 
physician  in  Sterne's  Tristram  Shandy,  who 
broke  the  hero's  nose  at  his  birth. 

SLOTH  (from  AS.  sUiw,  OHG.  sUo,  sl^, 
dialectic  Ger.  schl^w,  schl6,  Eng.  slow).  An 
edentate  mammal  of  the  family  Bradypodids,  re- 
markably adapted  to  an  arboreal  life,  and  repre- 
sented by  many  species,  all  residents  of  tropical 
America.  They  vary  in  size  from  that  of  a 
small  bear  to  that  of  a  cat.  They  feed  on  the 
leaves,  buds,  and  young  shoots  of  trees,  among 
the  branches  of  which  they  are  bom  and  spend 
their  entire   lives,   rarely  and   unwillingly  de- 


aLOTH. 


929 


SLOW-MATCH. 


Bcending  to  the  ground.  They  do  not  walk  upon 
the  branches,  but  cline  beneath  them,  with' the 
back  downward,  and  tney  can  progress,  if  they 
please,  with  the  agility  of  monkeys.  They  are 
chiefly  nocturnal,  resting  sleepily  during  the  day, 
from  which  circumstances,  and  from  a  misun- 
derstanding of  their  habits  generally,  the  mis- 
nomer of  'sloth'  arose. 

The  fore  legs  are  much  longer  than  the  hind 
ones,  and  the  feet  are  furnished  with  very  long 
sharp  claws,  curved  into  hooks  by  which  sloths 
hang  beneath  the  branches  even  in  sleep.  A  pe- 
culiarity of  the  group  is  the  extraordinary  num- 
ber of  dorsal  vertebrae.  The  head  is  round,  and 
the  muzzle  so  short  that  the  face  is  monkey-like. 
Although  members  of  the  order  Edentata,  sloths 
are  by  no  means  'toothless.'  There  are  no  in- 
cisor teeth,  but  sharp  canine  teeth,  and  eight 


JAWS  AND  TEETH  Of  8LOTH8. 

1,  Three-toed  sloth  (BradypBs  tridACtjrlns);  3,  collared 
sloth  (BradjpBB  inftiscataa). 

molars  in  the  upper,  six  in  the  lower  jaw.  The 
molars  are  cylindrical,  and  are  adapted  merely  for 
crushing,  not  for  grinding,  the  food.  For  this, 
however,  there  is  compensation  in  the  stomach, 
which  is  somewhat  imperfectly  divided,  by  trans- 
verse ligatures,  into  four  compartments,  for  the 
longer  retention  and  more  thorough  digestion  of 
the  food.  The  hair  is  coarse  and  shaggy,  affords 
an  excellent  protection  from  insects,  and  gives 
sloths  such  a  gray  appearance  that  they  are  not 
readily  observed  except  when  in  motion.  This 
protective  effect  is  enhanced  by  the  growth 
upon  it  of  a  minute  grayish-green  alga,  allying 
the  hair  almost  precisely  in  color  with  the  *grajr- 
beard  moss'  that  drapes  tropical  trees,  and  amid 
which  they  are  fond  of  hiding. 

The  sloth  produces  only  one  young  one  at  a 
birth,  which  clings  to  its  mother  till  it  becomes 
able  to  provide  for  itself.  The  voice  of  the  ani- 
mal is  a  low  plaintive  cry.  Less  than  a  dozen 
species  of  sloth  are  known,  grouped  in  two 
subfamilies,  according  to  the  number  of  toes  on 


JAW8  AND  TEETH  OF  TWO-TOED  SLOTH. 

the  fore  feet.  All  have  three-  toes  on  the  hind 
feef^  but  the  Choloepodinse  have  only  two  toes  on 
the  front  feet,  the  Bradypodinse  three.  The  latter 
have  nine  cervical  vertebrse  and  twenty  abdominal, 
and  of  the  latter  15-17  bear  ribs;  while  the  former 


have  only  six  or  seven  cervical  vertebrae,  and  twen- 
ty-seven abdominal,  of  which  23-24  bear  ribs. 
Of  the  Choloepodinse,  or  *unaus,'  there  are  only 
two  species,  the  two- toed  {Choloepua  didactylua) , 
which  is  common  in  Brazil,  and  a  Central  Ameri- 
can species  {Cholaspua  Hoffmanni),  which  is 
lighter  colored.  They  are  about  two  feet  long. 
Of  the  Bradypodinse  conspicuous  species  are  the 
three-toed  sloth  (  Brady  pus  tridactylus)  and  the 
collared  sloth  {Bradypua  infuscatus).  The  lat- 
ter is  the  largest  of  the  family  and  has  a  collar 
of  long  black  hair  around  the  neck,  behind  which 
is  a  patch  of  pale  orange.  Consult:  Beddard, 
Mammalia  (London  and  New  York,  1902),  and 
the  memoirs  there  cited  relating  to  anatomv  and 
classification ;  also  Lydekker,  Royal  Natural  His- 
tory, vol.  iii.  (London,  1896) ;  Alston,  "Mam- 
mals," in  Bioloffia  Centrali- Americana  (London, 
1879-82)  ;  and  Bates,  tfaturalist  on  the  Amaaons 
(2d  ed.,  London,  1892).  For  fossil  forms  of  the 
sloth,  see  Ganodonta  ;  Megatherium  ;  Mylodon  ; 
Mammaua,  Fossil. 

SLOITGH,  slou.  A  market  town  and  railway 
junction  in  Buckinghamshire,  England,  18  miles 
west  of  London,  and  2  miles  north  of  Windsor 
Castle.  Here  the  elder  Herschel  erected  his 
observatory  and  great  telescope,  and  made  many 
of  his  important  astronomical  discoveries.  Popu- 
lation, in  1901,  11,401. 

SLOnaH  OF  DESPOND.  A  bog  encountered 
by  Christian,  in  Pilgrim^s  Progress,  at  the  outset 
of  his  journey.  It  typifies  the  discouragement 
and  apprehension  cause^i  by  a  sense  of  sin. 

SLOVAKS,  siyvftks.  A  Slavic  people  of 
Northwestern  Hungary  and  Southern  Moravia. 
They  are  closely  akin  to  the  Czechs.  They  num- 
ber about  2,000,000.  Most  of  them  are  Roman 
Catholics. 

SLOVl/NIANS.  A  South  Slavic  people  of 
Austria-Hungary,  inhabiting  Camiola  (where 
they  constitute  the  great  bulk  of  the  popula- 
tion), Carinthia,  Styria,  and  other  districts. 
About  the  sixth  century  they  migrated  from 
their  original  home  in  the  Carpathian  Moim- 
tains  to  the  region  south  of  the  Danube,  where 
they  now  live.    See  Slavs. 

SLOWACKI,  sl6-vats^ft,  Juuusz  (1809-49). 
A  distinguished  Polish  poet.  He  was  bom  at 
Kremenez,  in  Volhynia^  the  son  of  a  professor  of 
literature  in  the  Universily  of  Vilna,  where  he 
received  his  education.  Because  of  the  some- 
what morbid  and  misanthropic  nature  of  his 
writings  he  received  the  name  of  the  'Satan 
of  Literature.'  Among  his  works  are  the  poems 
"Jan  Bielecki,"  "Arab,"  "Lambro,"  "Beniowski," 
"Waclaw,**  and  the  dramas  Maria  Stuart,  Ma- 
zeppa,  Balladyna,  and  LUla  Weneda.  Some  of  them 
were  translated  into  several  languages.  His  col- 
lected works  were  published  at  Leipzig  (4  vols., 
1860  and  later  ed.)  and  at  Lemberg  (4  vols., 
1880).  Consult  the  biography  by  Malecki  (Lem- 
berg,  1866). 

SLOW  LEMTTB.  A  lemur  of  the  genus 
Nycticebus  or  Loris,  noted  for  its  slow  move- 
ments, especially  the  common  Asiatic  loris,  also 
called  'sloth  monkey*  (Nycticebus  tardigradus) , 
See  LoBis;  and  Plate  of  Leicubs. 

SLOW-MATCH.  A  rope  or  cord  which  has 
been  saturated  or  steeped  in  a  solution  of  salt- 
petre, so  that  it  will  bum  slowly  and  regularly. 


8L0W-KATGH. 


980 


SMALL 


Slow-match  was  formerly  used  by  artillerists  to 
ignite  the  fuming  powder  of  girns  and  for  the 
explosion  of  blasts  and  mines.  For  the  latter 
purpose  various  improved  fuzes  or  electric  de- 
vices (see  BiASTiNO)  have  taken  its  place.  For 
igniting  fireworks  quick-match,  which  bums  more 
rapidly,  is  used.    See  Ptbotbchnt. 

SLOWWOBM  (AS.  Mtoyrm,  9l(hoerm,  slow- 
worm,  from  <^n>  Goth.,  OHG.  slahan,  Ger. 
aohlagen,  to  strike  -f-  tcyrm,  tcermy  worm;  in- 
fluenced by  popular  etymology  with  Eng.  alow). 
A  burrowing,  elongated  lizard  of  the  family 
Anguidffi.  (See  Blinoworm.)  One  species  (Op^t- 
aauru8  ventralia)  occurs  in  the  United  States 
south  of  the  Ohio  River,  and  is  sometimes 
called  'joint-snake,'  because,  on  account  of  a  loose 
articulation  of  the  vertebrae,  the  tail  easily  sepa- 
rates from  the  body.  When  the  tail  is  cast  off  a 
new  one  soon  regenerates.  Ck>mpare  Blind- 
woaic. 

SLUBBIKG.    See  Sfutniitg. 

SLUG  (from  ME.  aluggen,  Norw.,  Swed.  aldka, 
to  go  draggingly,  to  droop,  Icel.  alokr,  slouching 
fellow).  A  terrestrial  pulmonate  gastropod,  or 
snail,  in  which  the  shell  is  represented  by  an  in- 
ternal homv  plate  overlying  the  respiratory  cav- 
ity. The  Slugs  are  chiefly  of  two  families,  Lima- 
cidfB  and  Arionid«,  and  most  commonly  are  of 
the  gmus  Limax.  They  are  vegetable  eaters, 
and  often  ascend  trees  in  search  of  food,  and  then 
let  themselves  down  by  means  of  a  mucous  thread 
spun  from  a  gland  opening  on  the  anterior  edge 
of  the  foot.  In  Europe  they  ravage  garden  and 
fleld  crops  in  moist  weather;  they  do  little  dam- 
age in  the  United  States.  Their  general  economy 
is  that  of  the  snails  (q.v.) .  The  great  gray  slug, 
sometimes  four  inches  long,  is  a  European  species 
which  has  been  introduced  into  and  bcMsome  com- 
mon in  Eastern  North  America.  A  native  Ameri- 
can species,  very  common  in  the  United  States, 
is  Lima  oampestris,  a  small  species  less  than  an 
inch  long. 

SLTJTBB,  slv'tCr,  Claux  (T.c.1406).  The 
principal  Dutch  sculptor  of  the  later  Middle 
Ages.  The  earliest  record  of  his  life  is  that  in 
1339  he  became  statuary  in  ordinary  at  Dijon, 
to  Philip  the  Bold  of  Bungundy,  whose  service  he 
had  entered  a  few  years  before.  In  charge  of 
the  sculptures  for  the  Carthusian  monastery,  the 
Chartreuse  de  Champmol,  which  Duke  Philip 
had  founded  in  1383^  he  surpassed  in  ability  all 
his  predecessors  and  enjoyed  a  position  similar 
to  that  of  the  Pisani  in  Tuscany,  producing 
works  worthy  to  be  ranked  with  the  noblest  and 
most  original  creations  of  plastic  art  in  any 
epoch.  In  1398  Sluter,  aged  and  inflrm,  called 
to  his  aid  his  nephew  and  pupil,  Claux  de  Werve, 
of  Hattem,  to  whom  must  be  attributed  a  more 
or  less  important  part  in  the  execution  of 
his  uncle's  latest  productions.  The  earliest  of 
Sinter's  works  that  still  remain  on  the  site  of 
the  former  Chartreuse,  now  occupied  by  a  lunatic 
asylum,  are  the  flgures  on  the  portal  of  the 
chapel  (c.1390-94),  to  wit:  "Duke  Philip  in 
Prayer,"  "Saint  John,"  "Duchess  Marguerite," 
and  "Saint  Catherine,"  the  flrst  and  last  of  which 
are  especially  remarkable  for  the  freshness  of 
their  realism.  Next  comes  the  famous  "Moses 
Fountain"  (1395-1404)  in  the  courtyard,  a  hex- 
agonal base  with  the  life-size  flgures  of  the  "Six 
Prophets,"  admirable  specimens  of  pRychological 


individualization,  polychrome,  according  to 
mediaeval  usage.  The  Dijon  Museum  also  con- 
tains Sinter's  masterpiece,  the  Tomb  of  Philip 
the  Bold  (1404-11).  in  black  and  white  marble, 
the  mighty  sarcophagus  surrounded  with  arcad- 
ing,  through  which  passes  a  procession  of  forty 
small  alabaster  figures  of  mourners,  endowed 
with  great  dramatic  power  and  exquisitely  fin- 
ished. The  recumbent  figure  of  the  Duke  is  of 
striking  realism.  With  the  completion  of  this 
monument,  Claux  de  Werve  is  undoubtedly  to 
be  credited.  Consult:  Lfibke,  History  of 
Sculpture  (London,  1872) ;  Reber,  History  of 
Mediaeval  Art  (New  York,  1887) ;  Gonse,  Uart 
gothique  (Paris,  1890) ;  id..  La  sculpture  fran- 
caise  depute  le  XIV  sxMe  (ib.,  1894) ;  Bateliffe, 
Schools  and  Masters  of  Sculpture  (New  York, 
1894). 

SLUTSK,  slgtsk.  The  capital  of  a  district  in 
the  Government  of  Minsk,  Russia,  sitnated  123 
miles  south  of  Minsk  (Map:  Russia,  G  4).  It 
has  a  fifteenth-century  church.  Population,  in 
1897,  14,180.  Slutsk  passed  to  Lithuania  in  the 
thirteenth  century  and  attained  great  importance 
as  the  capital  of  the  Principality  of  Slutsk.  It 
came  into  the  possession  of  Russia  in  1795. 

SLY,  Chbistopher.  A  tinker  and  bear-keeper 
who,  in  the  induction  to  Shakespeare's  TaiMng 
of  the  Shrew,  is  found  drunk  by  a  lord,  taken  to 
his  house  and  made  to  believe  he  is  master,  while 
the  comedy  is  performed  before  him. 

SXAL'CALB.      A    town    of    Prussia.     See 

SOHMALKAIDBN. 

SICALCALBIG    LEAGXTB.      See    Schmait 

KALDIO  LKAGUE. 

SICALL  ABK8.  A  military  term  denoting 
the  firearms  carried  by  the  soldier,  in  contra- 
distinction to  machine  guns  and  artillery.  Under 
this  title  will  be  found  discussed  the  history  of 
the  development  of  the  modem  military  rifle, 
while  pistols  and  revolvers  are  discussed  under 
their  own  heads.  Sirearms  used  for  purposes 
of  sport  are  treated  under  SHorouif . 

The  flrst  hand  flrearms  date  from  about  the 
fourteenth  century  and  were  in  the  form  of 
hand  cannon  or  bombardello,  which  consisted  of 
a  small  bombard,  flred  from  the  shoulder  by 
means  of  a  match.  (See  ARmxEiiT  and  Obd- 
NANCE.)  The  bombard  was  welded  on  to  an  iron 
rod,  which  was  carried  suspended  from  the  neck 
of  the  soldier.  The  powder  chamber  was  smaller  in 
its  internal  diameter  than  the  bore  of  the  gun,  but 
externally  larger.  These  weapons  are  also  known 
as  hastons-a-feu  (flre-sticks).  The  hand  culverin 
was  a  small  cannon  secured  to  a  stock  by  iron 
bands,  and  had  a  bore  of  little  more  than  half 
an  inch,  but,  nevertheless,  it  was  in  general  use 
throughout  Europe.  The  Swiss  army  at  the 
battle  of  Morat  (1476)  included  about  6000 
culveriners.  The  hand  culverin  was  fired  from 
a  forked  rest  usually,  and  required  two  men  to 
work  it,  the  one  aiming  and  holding  the  weapon, 
while  the  other  discharged,  loaded,  and  assisted 
in  carrying  it.  Further  improvements  included 
an  enlarged  bore,  a  bent  stock,  and  finally  the 
placing  of  the  touch-hole  upon  the  side.  The  barrels 
were  octagonal  of  hexagonal  in  form.  I^all  cnl- 
verins  were  used  for  horseback  fighting,  and 
larger  ones  for  the  foot  soldiery.  The  first  real 
approach  to  the  modem  small  arm  was  the  early 
match-lock,  which  was  the  ordinary  gun  of  the 


SMAIiL  ABJES. 


981 


SMALL  ABMS. 


period  with  the  addition  of  a  serpentine  or  cock 
tor  holding  the  match.  The  serpentine  was  hung 
upon  a  pivot  which^  passing  through  the  stock, 
formed  a  lever  for  the  hand.  Before  the  weapon 
could  be  discharged  it  was  necessary  to  bring 
the  serpentine  in  contact  with  the  burning  match 
on  the  barrel,  until  the  former  was  ignited,  after 
which  the  lever  was  raised  and  the  serpentine 
brought  into  contact  with  the  priming  of  the 
touch-hole  and  the  gun  discharged.  The  next  im- 
provement was  to  reverse  the  position  of  the 
serpentine  and  provide  a  spring  to  hold  the 
match  away  from  the  touch-nole,  after  which  a 
certain  amount  of  pressure  brought  to  bear  upon 
the  lever  caused  the  serpentine  with  the  lighted 
match  to  fall  into  the  flash-pan. 

In  the  nature  of  things  the  e£fect  of  the  fire- 
arms of  this  period  was  more  of  a  moral  than 
a  destructive  character.  Many  strange  varie- 
ties of  firearms  gradually  came  into  use^  such 
as  combinations  of  club  and  pistol,  of  pistol 
and  battle-axe,  and  particularly  the  'holy 
water  sprinkler,'  which  latter  consisted  of  a 
strong  mace  formed  by  four  or  more  barrels  ar- 
ranged as  is  the  chamber  of  the  modem  re- 
volver. An  improved  invention  in  the  form  of 
the  wheel-lock  was  made  in  1515.  It  con- 
sisted of  a  grooved  steel  wheel,  having  a  ser- 
rated edge  connected  to  the  lock-plate  by  means 
of  a  chain  and  spring.  The  spring  power  was 
obtainf^d  by  w  Id  ding  tlie  wheel  so  that  when 
the  gun  was  cbar^jed  the  wheel  \\'Ould  be  wound 
up,  the  eovcr  of  the  flash  pan  withdrawn,  aod 
the  pyritc  which  was  held  in  the  cock  permitted 
to  eoiue  in  contact  with  the  wheel.  When  the 
trigger  was  pressed  the  ehe(?k  on  the  wheel  waa 
released,  and  sparks  proiiuced  by  the  friction  of 
the  wheel  against  the  pyrite  and  the  priming 


III.,  and  in  one  form  or  another  remained  in  use 
in  the  British  army  up  to  so  late  a  period  as 
1840. 

Crude  forms  of  repeating,  breech-loading,  re- 
volving, and  magazine  weapons  sprang  up  here 
and  there  throughout  Europe,  but  they  are  of 
interest  only  as  showing  that  these  principles 
which  form  so  important  a  part  of  our  modem 
weapons  are  not  in  themselves  modem.  It  is  in 
the  improved  methods  of  ignition  which  Forsyth 
made  possible  that  the  next  important  step  in 
the  evolution  of  small  arms  was  accompli^ed. 
His  invention  dates  from  1807,  and  is  described 
by  him  as  ''a  detonating  principle  for  exploding 
gimpowder  in  firearms^  etc."  Many  subsequent 
improvements  in  the  system  were  made  by  the 
manufacturers  whom  the  patentee  engaged  to 
make  the  guns.  The  percussion  principle  was 
applied  first  to  muzzle  loading  and  afterwards  to 
breech-loading  guns,  and,  strangely  enough^  did 
not  at  first  appeal  to  the  various  governments 
of  Europe  as  suitable  for  weapons  for  military 
purposes. 

MoDEBN  MiiiTABT  RiFLES.  Although  the  prin- 
ciple of  rifling  small  arms  dates  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixteenth  century*  it  was  not  till 
toward  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  that  the 
principle  was  employed  for  military  weapons. 
Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  rifle  could  not  be 


C9m  I  Bfc^  Sprtng 


BBEKOH  MBCHAKISM  OF  U.   8.  BPBIHemLD  BIFLB,  OALIBBB  .46  IWCB. 


ignited  the  charge.  Owing  to  its  expense,  the 
wheel-lock  gun  was  used  almost  entirely  for 
sporting  purposes,  and  soon  after  this  the  use 
of  firearms  in  the  chase  became  general. 

The  flint-lock,  which  followed  the  wheel-lock, 
seems  to  have  been  of  Spanish  origin  and  to  date 
from  early  in  the  seventeenth  century;  in  it  the 
process  of  igniting  the  charge  was  considerably 
simplified.  The  hammer  or  cover-plate  was 
forced  backward  by  the  bolt  so  that  the  flint, 
which  was  screwed  in  the  jaw  of  the  cock,  and 
the  priming  in  the  flash-pan  were  exposed  to  the 
sparks  caused  by  the  contact  of  the  flint  and  the 
hammer,  and  thus  the  charge  was  ignited.  The 
flint-lock  was.  a  long  time  coming  into  favor, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  in  its  original  form  the 
sparks  frequently  escaped  without  firing  the 
charge.  Flint-lock  muskets  were  first  intro- 
duced into  England  during  the  reign  of  William 


loaded  after  a  few  rounds  had  been  fired,  some 
method  had  to  be  found  to  obviate  the  difficulty; 
none,  however,  proved  satisfactory  until  an  Eng- 
lish gxmmaker  in  1836  devised  a  bullet  of  egg- 
shaped  construction  which  had  a  cavity  at  one 
end  to  receive  a  conical  plug  which  under  pres- 
sure of  the  gas  generated  by  the  discharge  ex- 
panded the  bullet  into  the  grooves.  The  Mini^ 
rifle  of  the  French  was  the  next  improvement  on 
this  principle;  in  that  an  iron  cup  was  utilized 
to  expand  the  cone  when  forced  home  by  the  gas. 
In  the  three-grooved  Enfield  rifle  (English)  of 
1865  a  wooden  plug  was  used  instead  of  the  iron 
cup.  Next  followed  the  Whitworth  hexagonal 
rifling,  which  made  possible  the  use  of  a  bullet 
of  a  more  elongated  design  and  which  lowered 
the  trajectory  of  the  bullet  by  ofl'ering  a  smaller 
front  to  the  resistance  of  the  air. 
The  flrst  breech-loading  small  arm  of  oonse- 


EQCAXiXj    AUTffBi 


932 


ftlTAT.T.     A-ftirg. 


quence  was  Hall's  rifle,  invented  in  1811,  and 
manufactured  in  small  quantities  about  1818  for 
the  United  States  Army;  its  chamber  rose  on  a 
hinge  at  the  rear  end  for  loading.  About  1812 
Pauly,  an  officer  under  Napoleon,  evolved  a 
breech-loader  which  is  the  progenitor  of  all  later 
guns    with    swinging    block.     Dreyse,    working 


adopted  the  Vetterli  gun,  which  was  of  the  re- 
peater or  magazine  type,  having  a  tube  under 
the  barrel  in  which  was  contained  eleven 
cartridges,  which  were  in  turn  forced  into  the 
breech  by  the  same  action  which  discharged  the 
empty  cartridge.  Russia  adopted  the  Gorloff 
gun  with  a  block  hinged  in  front  and  rising  to 


Mring 


V.  B.  MAOAUNI  (KRAO-iOBeiNSBN)  BirLE.  CAIJBBX  SO  INCH. 


under  him,  developed  a  discarded  model  of 
Pauly's  into  a  successful  breech-loading  needle 
gun,  which  is  the  forerunner  of  all  bolt-action 
guns.  In  1841  the  Prussians  adopted  their 
famous  needle  gun,  which  earned  them  many  vic- 
tories from  1848  to  1866. 

Although  crude  in  construction,  this  weapon 
marked  a  great  advance  in  military  rifles.  The 
bullet  was  conical  in  shape,  and  together  with 
the  powder  was  inclosed  in  strong  paper.  In 
the  centre  of  the  outer  surface  of  the  wad  (im- 
mediately behind  which  was  the  powder)  was  a 
detonator,  to  explode  which  the  needle  fixed  in 
the  breech  would  upon  pulling  the  trigger  be 
released  and  penetrate  the  cartridge.  The  French 
adopted  the  Chassepot  (q.v.),  an  improved  needle 
gun.  This  gun,  as  well  as  other  weapons  em- 
ployed by  European  armies,  had  the  action  now 
generally  used,  a  bolt  containing  firing  pin  and 
spiral  spring  and  sliding  axially  with  the  bore 
in  a  metal  receiver  behind,  and  fastened  to,  the 
barrel.  A  handle  fastened  to  one  side  of  the 
bolt  engages  in  front  of  a  lug  when  the  bolt  is 
run  forward  and  rotated  to  the  right,  thus  lock- 
ing the  breech. 

£ngland  converted  her  Enfield  rifles,  which 
were  of  the  three-grooved  expanding  bullet  muz- 
zle-loader type,  into  Snider  breech-loaders  by  al- 
terations at  the  breech  end  of  the  barrel.  A 
chamber  was  made  by  which  the  cartridge  could 
be  inserted  in  the  barrel,  after  which  the  block 
(worked  on  a  hinge)  was  then  closed  and  the 
space  completely  filled.  A  needle  or  striker 
passed  through  the  breech  block,  struck  the  cap 
in  the  base  of  the  cartridge  and  thus  ignited  the 
charge.  In  1869  the  Martini-Henry  rifle  was 
adopted  for  the  British  army.  It  consisted  of  a 
combination  of  the  Martini  breech  action  with 
the    Henry    barrel.     The    Italians    and    Swiss 


open.  This  is  the  principle  of  the  Springfield 
breech-loading  rifle  (calibre  .46)  adopted  for  the 
United  States  Army  in  1873,  and  retained  until 
1892  (see  illustration),  when  it  was  succeeded 
by  the  United  States  magazine  rifle,  developed 
from  the  Krag-Jdrgensen. 

The  question  of  magazine  arms  was  considered 
(1891-92)  in  the  United  States  by  a  board  which 
tested  53  different  designs,  among  which  they 
found    two    general    classes — repeaters,    which 


EOrtOtfi: 


CtH-^/ 


U.  B.  MAOASnnB  BIFLB  AND  CABBINB,  CAUBBB  SO  IMCH. 

Transverse  section  through  magasine. 

could  not  be  used  as  single-loaders  while  the 
magazine  was  charged,  and  magazine  guns 
proper,  in  which  the  magazine  could  be  charged 
and  held  in  reserve  for  an  emergency  while  IcMui- 
ing  is  done  shot  by  shot.  The  gun  selected  was 
one  of  the  latter  class— ^  bolt-action  gun  with 
magazine  under  and  rising  to  the  left  of  the 
chamber.  It  had  a  clasp  containing  5  cartridges 
placed  under  and  to  the  left  of  the  receiver;  the 
calibre  of  the  barrel  was  .30  inch.  It  was  sighted 
up  to  1900  yards,  and  had  a  firing  capacity 
(single  loading)  of  42  shots  to  the  minute.    It 


SHALL  ABMS. 


988 


SMALL  ABM& 


was  the  weapon  used  by  the  regular  troops  in  the 
war  with  Spain,  and  was  found  to  be  all  that  was 
claimed  for  it.  The  Krag-J5rgensen  bullet  had 
a  weight  of  220  grains,  and  a  velocity  of  2200 
feet  per  second.  It  had  an  inside  of  tin  and  lead 
composition,  and  an  outer  jacket  of  cupro-nickel 
steel.  Its  weight  without  bayonet  was  9.187 
pounds,  and  its  total  length  without  bayonet 
48.9  inches.  The  cartridges  are  put  in  on  the 
right  through  a  gate,  lie  side  by  side,  and  are 
pushed  sideways  across  and  up  into  the  chamber 
by  a  follower.  Partly  entering  the  magazine,  they 
are  caught  by  the  bolt  coming  forward,  forced 
on  an  inclined  path  into  the  bore,  and  supported 
behind  by  the  bolt,  which  is  locked  by  lugs  and 
the  handle  engaging  in  recesses  when  rotated. 

An  example  of  the  repeater  is  the  Austrian 
Hannlicher,  a  bolt  gun,  into  which  is  introduced 


'  V.  8.  MAGAZnrK  BIFLK  AJTD  OASBIirS,  Ci.L.  .30. 

The  same  cross  section  when  all  but  the  last  cartridge 
has  been  fired;  the  magasine  is  'on'  and  the  bolt  opened. 

from  above,  through  the  receiver,  a  metal  packet 
holding  five  cartridges.  The  packet  forms  an 
essential  part  of  the  mechanism  imtil  all  its 
cartridges  have  been  used,  when  it  falls  out. 
There  is  no  cut-off,  as  in  the  Krag-J6rgensen,  by 
which  the  magazine  can  be  held  in  reserve;  all 

Stfsfy  lack  Tfiumis^f^e^ /        ■7.'«^  ^^'f^ 


regiments,  who  were  for  the  most  part  armed 
with  the  Springfield  .45.  The  bore  of  the  origi- 
nal Mauser  as  adopted  for  the  Prussian  military 
service  was  11  millimeters  (.433  inches)  diame- 
ter, and  was  rifled  with  four  fiat  grooves.  The 
length  of  the  barrel  was  33.65  inches,  and  the 
total  length  53.16  inches. 

During  the  last  fifty  years  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  as  we  have  seen,  the  muzzle-loader  was 
superseded  by  a  single-shot  breech-loader,  and 
this  in  turn  by  a  magazine  rifle,  which  latter 
weapon  is  being  replaced  in  some  armies  by  auto- 
matic rifles  ejecting  and  loading  by  the  energy 
of  discharge.  During  this  time  there  was  a 
constant  decrease  in  the  calibre  until  1896, 
when  some  reaction  was  felt.  The  average  is 
now  about  .30  inch,  that  of  the  United  States 
gun.  It  is  a  subject  of  grave  debate  among 
military  authorities  as  to  the  wisdom  of 
arming  the  soldier  with  an  automatic  magazine 
rifle.  It  is  argued  on  the  one  hand  that  the  per- 
centage of  hits  with  repeating  fire  weapons  indi- 
cates wasteful  and  badly  directed  fire,  and  such 
an  arm  is  strongly  subversive  to  good  fire  disci- 
pline, besides  adding  considerably  to  the  already 
complex  problem  of  ammunition  supply.  On 
behalf  of  the  automatic  and  magazine  systems 
it  is  urged  that  the  soldier  is  in  a  constant  state 
of  readiness,  and  that,  notwithstanding  its  un- 
doubted tendency  to  wastefulness,  its  faults  are 
more  than  compensated  for  in  critical  moments 
when  rapid-fire  action  is  of  vital  importance.  In 
1903  the  tendency  was  to  reduce  the  length  of 
the  barrel  and  increase  the  strength  of  the 
charge;  to  increase  the  magazine  capacity,  and, 
where  such  was  not  already  employed,  to  replace 
the  detachable  magazine  with  a  clip. 

In  the  United  States  the  Springfield  magazine 
rifle,  model  1902,  has  been  adopted  as  the  military 
weapon.    It  differs  from  the  weapon  that  is  dis- 


U.  8.  SPBnfOFIILD  M AOAZnrS  BIPLB.  MODBL  1903.     LOKGITUDIHAL  SBOTION. 


^Y^  cartridges  must  be  fired  before  any  more  can 
be  put  in. 

The  Mauser  rifle  was  a  modification  of  the 
French  Ghassep6t,  constructed  for  the  use  of  the 
military  gas-check  cartridge.  It  was  first  adopted 
by  the  Prussian  Government  as  the  successor  of 
the  needle  gun,  but  it  has  been  so  frequently 
improved  that  in  1903  it  still  remained  one  of 
the  most  effective  of  modern  military  wea]>onB. 
The  Spanish  troops  were  armed  with  the  Mauser 
magazine  rifle  during  the  Spanish-American 
War,  and  derived  from  it  a  great  advantage  in 
effective  rifle  fire  over  the  .American  volunteer 


placed  in  that  it  is  centrally  fed  by  clips,  and 
the  bolt  has  two  lugs  instead  of  one.  The  barrel 
has  four  grooves,  and  a  calibre  of  0.30.  The 
bullet  weighs  220  grains,  and  is  fired  by  a  pow- 
der charge  of  a  little  over  44.5  grains,  giving  a 
pressure  of  4200  pounds  per  square  inch  and  an 
initial  velocity  of  2300  feet,  a  velocity  at  1000 
yards  of  958  feet,  and  a  muzzle  energy  of  2581.6 
foot  pounds.  The  rifling  in  the  barrel  makes 
one  turn  in  8  inches.  The  magazine  is  charged 
from  a  clip,  the  cartridges  being  forced  from 
it  directly  into  the  magazine  by  pressure  of  the 
thumb  on  the  top  of  the  cartridge.    The  clip  is 


SMALL  AUCa 


984 


SMALL  ASMS. 


ejected  by  the  forward  motion  of  the  bolt.  The  gun 
may  be  used  as  a  single  loader  with  the  maga- 
zine empty,  and  it  may  be  filled  by  the  insertion 
of  a  single  cartridge.     There  is  a  rod  bayonet. 

Section  CC  Section  DD 


▲  B 

U.  8.  8PBI50FISLO  M AGASINB    BIFLB.     MODEL  1902.     TBAHft- 
YBBBS  BKOnONS. 

▲,  Transverse  section  at  CC;  B,  transverse  section  at  DD. 

which  also  is  used  as  a  cleaning  rod.  An  inter- 
esting fact  in  connection  with  the  preliminary 
tests  of  this  weapon  before  the  examining  board 
was  the  fact  that  it  exceeded  by  9.3  per  cent, 
in  rapidity  and  18.6  per  cent,  in  hits,  the  results 
obtained  by  the  same  marksman  with  the  regular 
service  weapon.  later  tests  gave  still  more 
favorable  results. 

The  weapon  with  which  the  British  army  was 
equipped  in  1903  was  a  modification  of  the  Lee- 
Metiord  weapon.  Notwithstanding  all  that  had 
been  promised  for  the  Lee-Metford  magazine 
rifle,  with  which  the  troops  were  armed  during 
the  South  African  War,  it  was  foimd  to  be  sadly 
deficient  in  all  the  qualities  that  make  a  good 
service  weapon.  The  new  weapon  is  five  inches 
shorter  than  the  old  one,  thus  securing  an  ap- 
preciable reduction  in  weight.  In  the  old  weapon 
there  was  a  small  wooden  grip  to  protect  the 
hand  from  the  heat  of  the  barrel ;  in  the  new 
one  the  barrel  is  inclosed  in  a  wooden  casing 
throughout  its  entire  length,  to  within  an  inch 
of  the  muzzle.  This,  of  course,  has  necessitated 
a  new  method  of  fixing  and  securing  the  bayonet. 
A  separate  nose  cap  is  fitted  to  the  barrel,  to 
which  the  bayonet  is  attached.  A  greater  ve- 
locity of  the  projectile  is  secured  by  slightly 
enlarging  the  bore  from  about  ten  inches 
from  the  muzzle,  on  the  principle  that  where 
the  bore  commences  to  increase  the  force 
of  the  explosion  of  the  cartridge  has  already 
been  expended,  so  that  by  enlarging  the  bore  a 
small  fraction  of  an  inch  an  increased  velocity 
is  obtained,  because  if  the  bore  was  in  the  same 
diameter  throughout  its  entire  length  the^  tight 
barrel  would  cause  friction  and  a  consequent 
reduction  of  velocity.  The  disadvantage  of  the 
shortened  barrel  is  that  the  back  and  fore  sights 
are  brought  closer  together,  thus  demanding  a 
greater  care  in  taking  aim,  since  the  possible 
angle  of  error  is  greatly  increased.  To  obviate 
this  the  backsight  has  been  made  so  as  to  be 
capable  of  adjustment  up  to  a  considerable 
range  without  raising  the  leaf.  The  magazine  is 
concealed  within  the  stock  and  carries  ten  cart- 
ridpres,  as  did  the  former  rifle,  but  instead  of  load- 
ing the  magazine  by  hand  a  clip  similar  to  that 
of  the  Mauser  rifle  is  employed. 

The  Mannlicher  automatic  rifle  is  an  improve- 
ment on  the  ordinary  Mannlicher  model,  is  0.7 


kilograms  (1.54  pounds)  less  in  weight,  and  hat 
a  shorter  barrel  than  the  original  weapon.  It  it 
an  automatic  firearm  with  a  fixed  barrel,  thf 
bolt  mechanism  being  operated  by  powder  gases 
from  the  barrel,  which  act  on  a  piston  moving 
in  a  gas  cylinder  parallel  to  the  barrel  and  the 
bolt.  The  energy  created  by  the  gases  is  trans- 
mitted from  the  piston  to  the  breech  mechanism. 
The  gas  piston  is  driven  back  a  short  stroke  by 
the  gas,  upon  which  it  imlocks  the  bolt  and 
starts  it  toward  the  rear.  The  gas  piston  does 
not  accompany  it  the  entire  length  of  its  move- 
ments in  either  direction,  its  functions  being 
confined  to  giving  it  the  impulse  to  continue  its 
rearward  movement.  The  advantage  of  this  con- 
struction is  that  it  enables  the  breech  mechanism 
to  be  operated  with  a  very  short  and  light  brass 
cylinder  and  piston,  at  the  same  time  leaving 
the  greater  part  of  the  movement  to  the  barrel 
independent  of  the  gas  mechanism,  so  that  should 
the  opening  in  the  barrel  for  the  escaping  gas  be 
closed  the  breech  mechanism  can  still  be  op- 
erated independent  of  the  gas  mechanism,  as  u 
the  ordinary  repeating  rifle.  The  vent  is  bored 
in  the  barrel  through  which  the  ]>owder  gases 
enter  the  gas  cylinder  the  moment  the  projectile 
has  passed  beyond  the  vent,  the  gas  cylinder  being 
fastened  imdemeath  the  valve  by  means  of  a 
screw.  The  piston,  which  is  situated  in  the  gas 
cylinder,  is  constantly  pressed  forward  by  a 
spiral  spring,  and  is  forged  in  one  piece  with 
an  arm  extending  to  the  rear  and  to  the  side. 
This  arm  moves  in  a  slit  in  the  sleeve  and  en- 
gages with  the  bolt  by  means  of  a  lug.  Hie 
mechanical  process  by  which  the  rifle  is  operated 
is  that  of  all  automatic  firearms;  the  bolt  con- 
tinues its  rearward  movement  under  the  impulse 
received  (as  already  described),  the  hammer 
is  cocked  and  the  empty  shell  is  disengaged  from 
the  extractor  by  a  blow  against  the  ejector,  after 
which  the  bolt-spring  drives  the  bolt  forward 
again.  Several  impor&nt  r.dvantages  are  claimed 
for  this  weapon,  not  the  least  of  which  is  that 
the  vent  in  the  barrel  leading  to  the  gas  cylinder 
can  be  sealed  by  the  screw,  making  the  weapon 
to  all  intents  and  purposes  a  non-automatic  re- 
peating rifle.  Again,  should  the  rifle  be  operated 
automatically  and  the  bolt  spring  become  use- 
less or  break,  the  breech  mechanism  may  be 
locked  by  hand  and  the  rifle  still  remain  avail- 
able as  a  repeater. 

The  construction  of  the  Mauser  automatic  re- 
peating rifle  is  closely  similar  to  the  automatic 
pistol  of  that  name,  in  that  the  energy  required 
for  its  operation  is  supplied  through  the  reooiL 
After  firing  the  barrel  is  moved  backward  by  the 
breech.  The  same  movement  readjusts  the  spring 
and  cocks  the  hammer,  after  which  the  barrel  is 
disconnected  from  the  breech  action.  The  breedi, 
however,  continues  its  recoil  movement  by  virtue 
of  the  velocity  acquired,  and  besides  extracting 
from  the  barrel  and  ejecting  the  shell  from  the 
breech  causes  the  compression  of  a  second  re- 
cuperating spring.  The  first  spring  then  ex- 
pands and  reloads  the  chamber;  the  breech  is 
closed,  and  the  second  spring  expanding  in  its 
turn  brings  the  barrel  into  a  firing  position. 
Thus  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  press  the  trigger 
and  the  weapon  continues  to  fire  to  the  full 
extent  of  the  magazine  capacity. 

The  carbine  employed  by  all  the  nations  of 
the  world  is  the  cavalry  firearm  which  uses 
the  same  cartridge  as  the  infantry  rifle  and  with 


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986 


SMALLPOX. 


most  nations  is  constructed  on  the  same  prin- 
ciple as  the  rifle.  It  is  never,  with  one  exception 
( Italy )  y  used  with  a  bayonet.  The  different  types 
of  small  arms  in  use  in  1902  by  the  great  Powers 
of  the  world  will  be  found  specified  in  the  accom- 
panying table.  The  following  countries  were  at 
that  time  improving  or  replacing  the  weapons 
therein  specified  as  follows:  Japan,  the  Murata 
rifle,  constructed  on  the  unwieldy  flxed  maga- 
zine tube  system,  having  a  range  of  2000 
meters,  was  found  too  heavy  and  was  gradu- 
ally being  replaced  by  the  Arisaka  rifle,  which 
has  a  range  of  2500  meters,  affords  more  con- 
venience in  loading,  and  contains  5  shots  in  the 
magazine.  Portugal  was  gradually  replacing  the 
Kropatschek  rifle  by  the  Steyr,  which  weighs 
8.36  pounds,  and  has  a  calibre  of  6.6  millimeters. 
The  Mauser  was  rejected  on  account  of  its  in- 
ferior range  and  more  complex  mechanism. 
Switzerland  reduced  the  weight  of  the  Schmidt 
model  of  1889-96  by  shortening  the  breech  block. 
The  United  States,  as  already  described,  has 
adopted  the  new  Springfield  magazine  rifie,  while 
the  English  army  had  adopted  a  modified  form 
of  Lee-Metford. 

SMAL^LEY,  Geoboe  Washbttbn  (183a—). 
An  American  journalist,  bom  at  Franklin, 
Mass.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  (1853), 
studied  law  at  Harvard,  practiced  in  Boston, 
became  war  correspondent-  of  the  New  York 
Tribune  (1861),  and  in  1863  was  admitted  to 
the  editorial  staff  of  that  journal.  He  re- 
ported the  Austro-Prussian  War  (1866),  and 
after  1867  represented  the  Tribune  in  London, 
particularly  distinguishing  himself  at  the  time 
of  the  Franco-German  War,  and  at  the  death  of 
William  I.  of  Germany  (1888).  In  1895  he  re- 
turned to  America  as  correspondent  of  the  Lon- 
don Times.  He  published  London  Letters  and 
Borne  Others  ( 1890) ,  and  Studies  of  Men  ( 1895) . 

SMALLPOX,  or  Vabiola.  A  specific  con- 
tagious fever  having  a  characteristic  eruption  fol- 
lowed by  permanent  scarring.  The  first  accurate 
description  of  variola  was  given  by  Rhazes,  an 
Arabian  physician,  who  lived  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury. After  the  Crusades  it  prevailed  in  most 
of  the  southern  coimtries  of  Europe,  whence 
it  spread  into  England  and  the  more  northern 
countries  by  the  thirteenth  century.  The  Span- 
iards introduced  the  disease  into  America  in  the 
early  jears  of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  appeared 
first  m  Santo  Domingo,  three  years  later  in  Mex- 
ico, when  it  destroyed  three  and  one-half  millions 
of  people,  and  thence  spread  with  frightful 
severity  over  the  New  World.  In  1707  it  reached 
Iceland,  when  more  than  a  quarter  of  the  inhab- 
itants fell  victims,  and  in  1733  it  almost  depopu- 
lated Greenland.  In  the  seventeenth  century  a 
careful  study  was  made  of  the  disease  by  Syden- 
ham, who  introduced  many  improvements  in  its 
treatment,  but  no  means  of  preventing  its  spread 
were  devised  until  Jenner  discovered  vaccina- 
tion (q.v.)  in  1796.  An  attempt  to  mitigate  the 
severity  of  smallpox  was  made  by  reviving  the 
practice  of  inoculation  (q.v.),  and  this  was  in- 
troduced into  England  by  Lady  Mary  Wortley 
Montagu  in  1718. 

Smallpox  is  one  of  the  most  contagious  of  dis- 
eases, and  few  who  are  exposed,  unless  protected 
by  vaccination,  escape  infection.  Even  the  un- 
born child  may  be  attacked  through  the  medium 


of  the  mother,  and  may  be  bom  with  the  charac- 
teristic rash  or  pitted.  The  malady  is  particu- 
larly fatal  in  young  children  and  among  aborigi- 
nal races ;  negroes  are  especially  susceptible.  One 
attack  usually,  but  not  invariably,  protects 
against  another.  No  specific  micro-organism  has 
baen  identified  with  the  disease,  although  eagerly 
sought.  The  contagium  exists  in  the  pustules,  in 
the  fluids  of  the  body,  and  apparently  in  the  ex- 
halations from  the  lungs  and  skin.  The  dried 
scales  thrown  off  during  desquamation  are  the 
most  important  element  in  disseminating  the 
malady,  which  travels  long  distances  and  with 
great  rapidity,  through  the  medium  of  clothes, 
furniture,  or  other  articles  which  have  been  in 
contact  with  a  patient. 

The  first  symptoms  of  smallpox  make  their  ap- 
pearance after  an  incubation  period  of  about  12 
days.  The  onset  is  abrupt,  with  a  severe  chill, 
pains  in  the  back  and  limbs,  intense  headache, 
and  vomiting.  The  temperature  rises  rapidly  to 
103*  or  104°  F.,  with  loss  of  appetite,  furred 
tongue  and  the  other  accompaniments  of  high 
fever.  On  the  third  day  the  typical  rash  appears. 
This,  however,  is  in  some  cases  preceded  by  a 
preliminary  eruption  assuming  various  charac- 
ters in  different  cases.  These  initial  rashes  com- 
monly appear  on  the  second  day,  if  at  all,  and 
fade  away  before  the  full  development  of  the 
typical  eruption.  The  latter  begins  as  a  collection 
of  small  red  papules  on  the  face  and  forehead, 
spreading  rapidly  downward  over  the  whole  body. 
It  sometimes  occurs  upon  the  mucous  membranes. 
On  the  third  day  after  their  appearance  they 
develop  into  vesicles  filled  at  first  with  a  clear 
transparent  fluid,  which  becomes  purulent  in  the 
course  of  the  three  days  following,  this  change 
being  preceded  by  a  process  known  as  umbilica- 
tion.  Each  vesicle  becomes  depressed  in  the 
centre,  the  circumference  forming  a  prominent 
ring  around  it.  This  change  is  often  accom- 
panied by  great  swelling  of  the  face  so  that  the 
features  are  unrecognizable.  The  suppurative 
stage  lasts  two  or  three  days,  after  which  the 
pustules  gradually  dry  up,  leaving  in  their  place 
depressed  white  scars,  popularly  known  as  'pits.' 
After  the  initial  rise  of  temperature,  coincident 
with  the  primary  rash,  the  fever  falls  nearly  or 
quite  to  the  normal,  remaining  low  until  the 
vesicles  begin  to  mature,  when  the  secondary  or 
suppurative  fever  begins.  This  lasts  for  six  or 
eight  days,  and  is  accompanied  by  sleeplessness, 
headache,  and  perhaps  delirium.  The  fever 
subsides  with  the  drying  up  of  the  eruption,  and 
convalescence  begins. 

Several  varieties  of  smallpox  are  described. 
To  the  ordinary  or  discrete  the  above  description 
applies.  In  this  the  pustules  remain  distinct 
and  scattered.  Confluent  smallpox  is  a  severe 
form  in  which  the  rash  is  very  abundant  and  the 
pustules  exhibit  a  tendency  to  coalesce  and  form 
irregular  purulent  blebs.  The  mortality  in  this 
variety  is  very  high.  Malignant  or  hemorrhagic 
variola  is  characterized  by  small  hemorrhages 
beneath  the  skin,  and  is  also  very  fatal.  Modified 
smallpox,  often  called  varioloid,  occurs  in  per- 
sons who  have  been  vaccinated,  but  in  whom 
protection  is  incomplete  either  on  account  of  the 
lapse  of  time  or  because  vaccination  was  inef- 
ficient. This  variety  is  of  short  duration,  and 
recovery  is  the  rule.  In  the  form  of  smallpox 
produced  by  artificial  inoculation^  a  pimple  r 


SMAUiPOX. 


937 


SUEDLEY. 


at  the  Beat  of  the  operation  on  the  second  day. 
This  develops  into  a  vesicle  or  pustule,  and  is 
followed  by  modified  symptoms  of  the  disease. 
About  the  eleventh  day  the  typical  eruption  of 
variola  makes  its  appearance  and  passes  through 
its  various  stages.  The  attack  is  generally  mild, 
and  confers  immimity,  but  it  is,  on  the  other 
hand,  occasionally  fatal  and  always  contagious. 
Inoculation  is  no  longer  practiced.  Variola  may 
be  complicated  or  followed  by  destruction  of  the 
eyes,  chronic  discharge  from  the  ears,  bronchitis, 
pneumonia,  and  pleurisy. 

The  preventive  treatment  of  smallpox  at  the 
present  time  consists  almost  solely  in  vacci- 
nation and  isolation.  That  vaccination  confers 
complete  immunity  not  only  to  individuals,  but 
to  commimities,  has  been  abundantly  proved.  A 
patient  with  the  disease  should  be  placed  in  bed 
in  a  well-ventilated  room  and  should  have  an 
abundance  of  milk  and  other  easily  digested 
liquid  foods,  with  cooling  drinks  to  quench  the 
thirst.  Fever  is  kept  within  the  limits  of  safety 
by  cold  sponging.  Many  attempts  have  been 
made  to  prevent  the  occurrence  of  disfiguring 
scars  or  pits.  Painting  the  face  with  iodine  or 
nitrate  of  silver,  or  washing  it  with  various 
antiseptic  lotions,  or  anointing  it  with  carbolized 
oil,  have  all  been  tried  with  indifferent  success. 
The  best  plan  is  to  protect  the  face  from  the  light 
and  keep  it  covert  with  a  mask  of  lint  satu- 
rated with  antiseptic  solution.  But  if  the  in- 
flammatory process  goes  below  the  true  skin,  a 
pit  will  result.  Particular  attention  must  be 
paid  to  the  eyes.  They  must  be  sponged  fre- 
quently and  kept  free  of  secretion.  Beyond  these 
measures  the  treatment  is  purely  symptomatic, 
no  specific  having  been  discovered  for  the  disease. 
SMALL^XrOOD,  William  (1732-92).  An 
American  soldier,  bom  in  Kent  County,  Md. 
He  was  elected  colonel  of  a  Maryland  regi- 
ment in  January,  1776,  and  served  with 
great  gallantry  at  Long  Island,  White  Plains, 
Fort  Washington,  Germantown,  and  particu- 
larly at  Camden,  becoming  a  brigadier-general 
in  October,  1776,  and  a  major-general  in 
September,  1780.  He  refused  to  serve  under 
Baron  Steuben  in  the  South,  but  remained  in 
the  army  until  November,  1783.  In  1785  he 
was  elected  to  Congress,  and  from  1786  to  1788 
was  Governor  of  Maryland. 

SMALTITE  (from  smalt,  from  It.  smalto, 
enamel,  from  OHG.  amahsjan,  smelzan,  Ger. 
schmehsen,  to  melt;  connected  with  Gk.  itAScir, 
meldein,  to  melt,  OHG.  malz,  Ger.  Malz,  AS. 
mealt,  Eng.  malt),  A  mineral  cobalt  diarsenide 
crystalliz^  in  the  isometric  system.  It  has  a 
metallic  lustre,  and  is  white  to  steel-gray  in 
color.  It  occurs  associated  with  other  metallic 
arsenides  and  sulphides,  and  with  cobaltite  in 
veins.  It  is  found  in  Saxony;  in  Bohemia;  in 
Oomwall,  England;  in  Dauphini^,  France;  in 
Chile;  and  in  the  United  States  at  Chatham, 
Conn. ;  Franklin,  N.  J. ;  and  in  Gunnison  County, 
Colo.  It  is  one  of  the  commercial  sources  of  the 
cobalt  oxide  which  is  used  as  a  blue  coloring  mat- 
ter for  glass  and  pottery.  It  is  sometimes  called 
tin,  white  cobalt,  or  'speisskobalt.' 

SKABT,  Christopher  (1722-71).  An  Eng- 
lish poet.  He  was  bom  at  Shipboume.  Kent,  and 
was  educated  at  Cambridge  (B.A.  1742),  where 
he  took  the  Seatonian  prize  for  poetry  five  years 
in  succession.     In  1753  he  went  to  London  and 


endeavored  to  make  a  living  by  his  pen.  He 
translated  the  Psalms,  Horace,  and  Ph(edru» 
into  English  verse,  and  made  a  prose  translation 
of  Horace.  His  original  poems  show  consider- 
able talent.  Among  them  may  be  mentioned  his 
"Song  to  David."  His  works  were  published  in 
collected  form  (London,  1791).  He  became  in- 
sane through  dissipation  and  deprivations,  and 
died  in  a  debtor's  prison  in  London. 

SMABT,  Henrt  (1813-79).  An  English 
organist  and  composer,  bom  in  London.  He  held 
the  position  of  organist  at  several  churches  in 
London,  and  finally  (in  1864)  at  Saint  Pancras. 
That  year  he  lost  his  sight,  and  in  1879  received 
a  Government  pension.  Among  his  works  are  an 
opera,  Bertha,  or  the  Gnome  of  Hartzburg 
(1886)  ;  the  cantatas.  The  Bride  of  Dunkerron 
(1864),  King  Ren&s  Daughter  (1871),  The 
Fiaher  Maidens  (1871),  and  Jacob  (1873).  In 
addition  he  wrote  considerable  church  music, 
songs,  and  part  songs.  His  biography  was  written 
bv  William  Spark  (1881)  and  by  W.  D.  Seymour 
('1881). 

SHEATON,  sme^ton,  John  (I724-I792).  A 
British  engineer.  He  was  bom  at  Ansthorpe, 
near  Leeds,  and  was  educated  for  the  bar.  In 
1764  he  studied  the  canals  and  other  great  en- 
gineering works  in  Holland,  and  a  few  months 
after  his  return  was  called  to  replace  the 
second  Eddystone  lighthouse.  The  new  struc- 
ture erected  from  his  plans  (1766-69)  was  con- 
sidered a  model  of  engineering.  After  it  had 
been  standing  about  120  years  it  was  found 
necessary  to  replace  it  by  a  new  lighthouse. 
(See  Lighthouse.)  Afterwards  he  built  bridges 
at  Perth,  Banff,  and  Coldstream,  the  North 
Bridge  at  Edinburgh,  and  the  Hexham  Bridge. 
The  Forth  and  Clyde  Canal  was  the  most  im- 
portant of  his  canal  work.  He  also  made 
harbor  improvements  at  Ramsgate.  In  1769, 
after  considerable  experimental  work,  he  began 
the  construction  of  steam  engines  of  greater 
size  and  length  of  stroke  than  had  previously 
been  built,  in  which  numerous  improvements 
were  introduced.  Smeaton's  improvements  on 
Newcomen's  engine  did  much  to  increase  its 
range  of  usefulness,  and  engines  designed 
by  him  were  exported  to  the  (]k)ntinent  of 
Europe.  A  small  club  of  engineers,  founded 
by  him  in  1771,  afterwards  became  the  Institu- 
tion of  Civil  Engineers.  His  engineering  work 
is  described  in  three  volumes  of  Reports,  pub- 
lished in  1812.  A  biographical  memoir  will  be 
found  in  Smiles,  Lives  of  the  Engineers — Bmea- 
ton  and  Rennie  (London,  1861). 

SMBIVLEY,  Francis  Edward  (1818-64).  An* 
English  novelist.  He  belonged  to  a  family  of 
scholars  and  educators,  but,  owing  to  a  serious 
malformation  of  the  feet,  he  was  unable  to  attend 
public  school  and  the  university.  He  was  ac- 
cordingly educated  by  private  tutors,  and  for  a 
long  time  lived  at  Chesterton,  near  Cambridge, 
with  his  uncle,  Edward  Arthur  Smedley,  chap- 
lain of  Trinity  College.  There  he  saw  much  of 
student  life,  which  he  subsequently  tumed  to 
good  use.  To  Sharpens  London  Magazine  for 
1846-48  he  contributed  the  popular  Scenes  from 
the  Life  of  a  Private  Pupil,  afterwards  worked 
over  into  Frank  Fairleigh  (1860),  which  ranks 
second  to  Thomas  Hughes's  Tom  Brown's  School 
Days.  Of  less  merit  are  Lewis  Arundel  (1852), 
and  Harry  CoverdaWs  Courtship  (1866).    With 


SXEDLET. 


988 


8MET. 


Edmund  Tales  (q.y.)y  ^^  wrote  a  book  of  non- 
sense verses  entitled  Mirth  and  Metre  (1856). 
His  last  years  were  spent  in  retirement  near 
Marlow. 

SUEDLBY,  William  Thomas  (1858— ).  An 
American  painter  and  illustrator,  bom  in  Chester 
County,  Pa.  He  studied  at  the  Pennsylvania 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  and  under  Laurens  in 
Paris.  His  sketches,  published  in  the  standard 
magazines,  are  clever  delineations  of  modem 
life.  His  other  works  include  ''Challenged" 
(1900),  "In  a  Gallery"  (1900),  and  "Old  People 
in  a  Park"  (1900),  and  portraits.  He  was 
elected  an  associate  of  the  National  Academy  of 
Design,  and  received  the  Evans  prize  at  the 
American  Water  Color  Society  in  1890,  and  a 
bronze  medal  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1900. 

SMELL.  Sensations  of  smell  are  set  up 
through  the  stimulation  of  the  end-organs  of  the 
olfactory  nerve,  by  odorous  particles  contained 
In  the  current  of  inspired  air.  The  ultimate 
number  of  smell  qualities  is  dilBcult  to  determine. 
Like  tastes,  odors  come  to  us  highly  fused  with 
affective  qualities,  with  other  sensations,  pres- 
sure, temperature,  tickling,  or  even  pain,  and 
with  secondary  effects  such  as  drowsiness,  sneez- 
ing, or  weeping.  Compare  the  effects  of  carbon 
disulphide,  chlorine,  acetic  acid.  In  1896  Aronsohn 
suggested  a  method  of  classification  by  exhaus- 
tion. A  given  substance  is  smelled  until  entire 
fatigue  (perhaps  better, adaptation)  ensues;  other 
substances  are  then  applied  with  the  result  that 
(1)  some  remain  at  their  normal  intensity,  (2) 
others  possess  a  lessened  intensity,  and  (3) 
others  are  entirely  imperceptible.  Thus,  after  ex- 
haustion by  iodine,  cajeput  is  strong,  maoe  very 
weak,  pine  imperceptible;  after  eichaustion  by 
camphor,  cajeput  is  very  faint,  mace  strong,  pine 
very  faint.  Certain  smells  are  compensatory; 
if  given  simultaneouslv,  they  cancel  one  another. 
Compensation,  it  should  be  noted,  is  not  the  mere 
swamping  of  one  odor  by  the  sheer  intensity  of 
a  second,  which  is  often  observed  in  actual  life, 
e.g.  in  the  operating  room;  it  is  a  complete  nulli- 
fication of  olfactory  sensation,  comparable  to  the 
production  of  neutral  gray  by  the  mixture  of 
complementary  colors.  Finally,  there  are  smell 
contrasts.  Cheese  and  Bordeaux,  high  game  and 
Burgundy,  are  evidently  opposed  odors.  Ex- 
perimental investigation  shows  that  sensitivity 
to  either  one  of  the  scents  of  a  compensation-pair 
will  be  increased  by  previous  stimulation  with 
the  other. 

BiBLiooRAPHT.  Aronsohn,  Arohiv  fUr  Anat^' 
omie  und  Physiologie  (Leipzig,  1886)  ;  Oamhle, 
Jim.  Journal  of  Psychology,  x.  (1898)  ;  Kuelpe, 
Outlines  of  Psychology  (London,  1896) ;  Nagel, 
Zeitschrift  fUr  Psychologie  und  Physiologiej  xv. 
(1897);  Titchener,  An  Outline  of  Psychology 
(New  York,  1899) ;  id.,  Ewperimental  Psychology 
(ib.,  1901 ) ;  Vintschgau,  "Physiologie  des  Gemchs- 
sins,"  in  Hermann's  Handhuch  der  Physiologie, 
ill.  (1880)  ;  Zwaardemaker,  Die  Physiologie  des 
Oeruchs  {QermBU  trans.,  Leipzig,  1896).  See 
Intensity;  Nose. 

SMEL^LIE,  WiLLL^M  (1740-96).  A  Scottish 
printer  and  antiquary,  bora  in  Edinburgh.  From 
the  grammar  school  he  passed  to  an  Edinburgh 
printing  house,  where  he  performed  his  duties 
with  marked  efficiency.  Meanwhile  he  attended 
lectures  at  the  university.  In  1765  he  began 
business  as  printer,  in  conjunction  with  a  fel- 


low apprentice.  The  firm  brought  out  the  first 
edition  of  the  Encyclopcpdia  Britannioa  (1771). 
Smellie  held  important  positions  in  several 
learned  societies  of  Edinburgh.  Of  his  works  the 
most  popular  was  The  Philosophy  of  Natural 
History  (completed  by  his  son  in  1709). 

SXELT  (AS.  smelt;  perhaps  connected  with 
smeolt,  smyltf  smooth).  One  of  a  genus  (Os- 
merus)  of  fishes  of  the  family  Argentanidc, 
sometimes  included  imder  the  SaJmonids.  They 
are  merely  reduced  salmon,  from  which  they  dif- 
fer principallv  in  the  form  of  the  stomach  and 
in  their  smaller  size.  They  are  slender,  delicate 
fishes,  inhabiting  the  coasts  of  Europe  and  North 
America;  some  enter  rivers  to  spawn.  Their 
flesh  is  most  delicate  and  they  are  highly  valued 
as  food.  There  are  only  a  few  species.  The 
common  European  smelt  is  Osmerus  eperlanus, 
called  'spirling*  or  'sparling*  in  Scotland,  and 
'eperlan'  in  France.  It  grows  to  be  about  8 
inches  long,  and  is  abundant.  The  American 
smelt  {Osmerus  mordax)  is  very  closely  related 
to  the  European  species,  attains  a  len^h  of  about 
12  inches,  and  is  abundant  along  &e  Atlantic 
coast  of  the  United  States  from  Virginia  to  the 
Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence.  It  ascends  streams  to 
spawn  and  has  become  landlocked  in  lakes  in 
New  England,  where  it  thrives,  and  is  important 
not  only  for  the  markets,  but  especially  as  food 
for  salmon  and  trout.  On  the  California  coast 
and  northward  to  Alaska  occurs  an  important 
species  (Osmerus  thaleichthys)  and  a  common 
species  of  the  Far  East  is  Osmerus  Japonieus. 

See  Ck)lored  Plate  of  Philippine  Fishes;  and 
Plate  of  Whitepish,  Smelts,  etc. 

SMELTING.  See  sections  on  MetaUurgy  in 
the  articles  on  Ibon  and  Steel;  Goffeb;  Gold; 
Silver;  and  other  metals. 

SMEBa)IS  (Lat.,  from  Ok.  S^^pdct,  also 
M^pdif,  Merdis,  Babylonian  Barziya,  OPera. 
Bardiya;  connected  with  Av.  'b9r9za,  high).  A 
son  of  Cyrus.  At  his  father's  death  the  young 
prince  controlled  several  provinces  in  Eastern 
Iran,  but  he  was  soon  put  to  death  by  the  order 
of  his  elder  brother  Cambyses  II.  (q.v.).  Dur- 
ing the  absence  of  Cambyses  in  Africa  a  Magian 
named  Gaumata,  who  closely  resembled  Smerdis, 
impersonated  the  dead  man,  since  the  murder 
Was  not  generally  known.  The  rebellion  begun 
by  this  pseudo-Smerdis  in  622  became  so  danger- 
ous that,  if  the  inscription  of  I^rius  Hystaspea, 
the  earliest  record  of  these  events,  may  be 
trusted,  the  entire  Persian  Empire  was  in  com- 
motion, a  reign  of  terror  followed.  According 
to  the  classical  authors,  some  Persian  nobles 
soon  suspected  the  impostor,  and  were  convinced 
when  they  found  through  one  of  his  wives  that 
his  ears  had  been  cropped.  Seven  of  them  then 
entered  the  palace  ana  killed  the  pretender  after 
he  had  reigned  seven  months. 

SKET,  Peteb  John  de  (1801-72).  A  Roman 
Catholic  missionary  to  the  Indians.  He  was 
bom  in  Termonde,  Belgium,  was  educated  at  the 
episcopal  seminary  at  Mechlin,  and  in  1821  em- 
barked for  the  United  States.  He  was  received 
into  the  Jesuit  Order  at  Whitmarsh,  Md.,  and  in 
1828  went  to  Saint  Louis,  participated  in  the 
establishment  of  the  University  of  Saint  Louis, 
and  became  one  of  its  professors.  In  1838  he  en- 
tered upon  the  work  that  occupied  him  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life,  first  among  the  Potawatami 
Indians  and  later  among  the  Flatheads  of  the 


8MBT. 


989 


SMILES. 


Rocky  Mountains,  in  whose  behalf  he  made  several 
visits  to  Europe,  collecting  money  and  enlisting 
recruits  as  missionaries  and  teachers.  He  wrote 
Letters  and  Sketches  and  Residence  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains  (1843) ;  Oregon  Missions  and  Travels 
Over  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  1845-46  (1847); 
Western  Missions  and  Missionaries  (1863); 
Reisen  zu  den  Felsengehirgen  und  ein  Jahr  unter 
den  wilden  Indianerst&mmen  des  Oregon^Oe- 
bietes  (1865). 

SKETAHA,  sm^t&^nA,  Fbiedbich  (1824-84). 
A  Bohemian  composer  and  pianist,  bom  in  Lei- 
tomischl.  He  studied  music  under  Proksch  of 
Prague,  and  later  with  Liszt.  He  founded  a 
music  school  in  Prague,  but  in  1856  went  to 
Sweden,  where  he  became  conductor  of  the  Phil- 
harmonic concerts  at  Gothenburg.  Returning 
to  Prague  in  1866,  he  became  kapellmeister  at 
the  National  Bohemian  Theatre.  Smetana's 
works  are  thoroughly  Bohemian,  and  as  a  na- 
tional composer  he  is  of  the  greatest  importance. 
His  works  include  the  following  operas:  The 
Bartered  Bride  (1866);  Dalihor  (1868);  Two 
Widows  (1874);  The  Kiss  (1876);  The  Secret 
(1878);  Lihussa  (1881),  and  The  Devil's  Wall 
(1882);  the  symphonic  poems,  Richard  III. 
(1858);  Wallensteins  Lager  (1859);  Hakon 
Jarl  { 1861 ) ;  My  Country,  comprising  six  inde- 
pendent works  (1874-79)  ;  and  other  symphonies, 
string  quartets,  and  smaller  compositions.  He 
died  in  the  Prague  lunatic  asylum.  For  his 
biography,  consult  Wellek  (Prague,  1899). 

SMETHWICX,  sm^TH^.  A  municipal 
borough  in  Staffordshire,  England,  three  miles 
northwest  of  Birmingham  (Map:  England,  E  4). 
It  is  an  important  manufacturing  centre  with 
iron,  machine,  glass,  diemical,  and  other  works. 
The  municipality  owns  gas  and  electric  lighting 
plants,  and  garden  allotments,  and  maintains 
a  free  library  and  reading  rooms,  park,  public 
baths,  and  an  isolation  hospital.  Population, 
in  1891,  36,100;  in  1901,  54,560. 

SMEW  (probably  a  variant  of  smee,  smeath, 
perhaps  from  MDutch  smeente,  Dutch  smient, 
widgeon).  A  small  merganser  {Merganser  albel- 
lus),  which  abounds  from  Lapland  to  Kam- 
tchatka,  but  not  east  of  Bering  Straits,  and  visits 
Europe  in  winter.  It  is  a  veiy  handsome  bird, 
the  plumage  of  the  male  being  chiefly  white, 
marked  with  black  and  gray,  and  on  the  head 
with  green. 

SMICHOWy  sm^K^dv.  A  town  of  Bohemia, 
Austria,  on  the  river  Moldau,  opposite  Prague, 
of  which  city  it  is  an  important  suburb,  and  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  the  Palaky  Bridge. 
The  town  contains  a  new  municipal  building  and 
a  botanical  garden.  There  are  a  large  wagon  fac- 
tory, rattan  furniture  factories,  chocolate  and 
confectionery  establishments,  and  flour  mills. 
Population,  in  1900,  47,135,  mostly  Czechs. 

SliiKE.  A  miserable,  half-witted  drudge  at 
Squeers's  school,  in  Dickens's  Nicholas  Nicklehy, 
befriended  by  Nicholas,  and  at  last  foimd  to  be 
Ralph  Nickleby*s  son. 

SMILACEJE.  A  group  of  monocotyledonous, 
generally  climbing,  herbs  and  sub-shrubs  formerly 
considered  a  separate  order,  but  now  included 
in  the  order  Liliaceee.  Most  of  the  species 
belong  to  the  genus  smilax  (q.v.). 

SMTTiAX  (Lat.,  from  ^/uSXat.  yew).  A  genus 
of  about  200  species,  mostly  nerbs  and  woody 

Vol,.  XV.-«). 


climbing  or  trailing  plants,  of  the  natural  order 
Liliaces,  most  numerous  in  the  temperate  and 
tropical  parts  of  Asia  and  America.  In  some 
species  (the  greenbriers)  the  stems. are  often 
very  prickly.  The  roots  or  rootstocks  of  a  num- 
ber of  species,  particularly  Smilax  medioa  and 
Smilaa  papyracea  of  Central  and  South  Amer- 


oanBHBBiBm  (SmUax  rotundUbUm), 

ica,  yield  sarsaparilla.  The  fleshy,  starchy  rhi- 
zomes of  others  (Smilaw  China  of  Eastern  Asia 
and  Smilaw  pseudo-china  of  the  Southern  United 
States)  have  similar  properties  and  are  some- 
times used,  the  former  as  food,  the  latter  as  med- 
icine. There  are  at  least  a  dozen  American  spe- 
cies, the  best  known  of  which  are  the  Smilaa 
herhacea,  carrion  flower,  with  herbaceous  stems, 
and  SmiUuo  rotundifolia^  the  greenbrier  or  horse- 
brier.  The  smilax  commonly  cultivated  in  green- 
houses for  decorative  purposes  is  Aspara{iU8 
medeoloides,  a  native  of  South  Africa. 

SMILES^  Samuel  (1812—).  An  English 
writer,  bom  at  Hadding1x>n,  Scotland.  He  stud- 
ied medicine  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  At 
twenty  he  began  practice  at  Haddington  and 
later  at  Leeds.  He  subsequently  gave  up  his  pro- 
fession to  assume  the  editorship  of  the  Leeds 
Times.  In  1845  he  was  appointed  secretary  of 
the  Leeds  and  Thirsk  Railway,  and  in  1854  of 
the  Southeastern  Railway,  retiring  in  1866.  In 
recognition  of  his  services  to  letters,  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh  honored  him  with  the  de- 
gree LL.D.  (1878).  As  early  as  1838  Smiles 
published,  at  his  own  expense,  Physical  Educa- 
tion, and  in  1857  a  Life  of  George  Stephenson. 
His  Lives  of  the  Engineers  appeared  in  1861. 
He  gained  immense  success  with  Self  Help 
(1859),  practical  talks  to  young  men.  It  has 
been  translated  into  seventeen  languages.  Sim- 
ilar books  are  Character  (1871),  Thrift  (1876), 
Duty  (1880),  and  Life  and  Labor  (1886). 


BlTTTiTiTE. 


940 


SXITH. 


SMTTiTiTE,  8inm,  Geobge  Hbnbt  (1840—). 
An  American  landscape  painter.  He  was  bom  in 
New  York  City  and  was  a  pupil  of  his  father, 
James  Sn^illie,  an  engraver,  and  of  James  Hart, 
In  1862  he  opened  a  studio  in  New  York 
City,  exhibiting  at  the  National  Academy  of 
Design  in  1864.  His  principal  works  in  oil 
include  the  "Merrimac  River"  ( 1882) ,  Boston  Art 
Club ;  "Light  and  Shadow  Along  Shore,"  Union 
League  Club,  Philadelphia ;  and  a  "Gray  Day." 
In  water-colors  are  "Under  the  Pines  of  the 
Yosemite"  and  "September  on  the  New  England 
Coast." 

SMILLIE,  James  D.  ( 1833— ) .  An  American 
engraver,  etcher,  and  landscape  painter,  bom  in 
New  York  City.  He  was  the  pupil  of  his  father, 
James  Smillie,  an  engraver.  Until  1862  he 
worked  chiefly  at  bank-note  vignettes,  but  at 
times  devoted  himself  also  to  general  design  and 
illustration,  studying  at  the  schools  of  the  Na- 
tional Academy  of  Design.  From  1862  to  1864  he 
studied  in  Europe,  and  upon  his  return  to  bis 
native  city  exhibited  at  the  National  Academy 
of  Design,  of  which  he  was  made  member  in 
1876.  Paintings  in  oil  include  "Evening  Among 
the  Sierras  of  Califomia"  and  "Lifting  of  the 
Clouds  in  the  Adirondacks;"  in  water-colors  are 
the  "Scrub  Race  on  Western  Prairies"  and 
"Track  of  the  Torrent."  As  an  engraver  Smillie 
produced  original  plates  in  illustration  of  the 
various  styles  of  engraving,  for  the  department 
of  graphic  arts  at  the  Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn, 
and  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington, 
D.  C.  His  work  shows  artistic  skill  and  deftness 
in  handling  color. 

smut  if  w,  Sir  RoBEBT  (178M867).  An  Eng- 
lish architect,  born  in  London.  He  studied  imder 
Sir  John  Soaae  and  in  the  schools  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  winning  the  gold  medal  for  design  in 
1700.  After  visiting  Greece  and  Sicily  he  began 
to  practice  his  profession  as  an  architect  in 
London  in  1805.  Among  his  works  in  the  classic 
style  are  the  College  of  Physicians,  the  Post- 
Office,  the  Mint,  and  the  British  Museum,  the 
main  facade  of  which  is  his  best  known  woric. 
In  the  Gothic  style  are  his  extension  of  the  Inner 
Temple  and  restoration  of  York  Minster.  He 
published  Specimens  of  Continental  Architecture 
(1806).  His  brother,  Sidney  Smibke  (1799- 
1877),  also  an  architect,  designed  the  great  cir- 
cular reading  room  of  the  British  Museum. 

BjlLtjh,  Adam  (1723-90).  An  eminent  politi- 
cal economist.  He  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of 
political  economy  as  a  separate  branch  of  human 
knowledge.  He  was  bom  at  Kirkcaldy,  in  Fife- 
shire,  Scotland.  He  studied  at  the  University 
of  Glasgow  and  won  there  an  exhibition 
on  the  Snell  foundation,  which  took  him  to 
Balliol  College,  Oxford,  where  he  remained  seven 
years,  after  which  he  retired  for  a  time  to  his 
old  home  at  Kirkcaldy.  In  1848  he  was  in  Edin- 
burgh, where,  at  the  suggestion  of  Lord  Kames, 
he  delivered  a  course  of  lectures  upon  rhetoric 
and  belles-lettres.  These  seem  to  have  given  him 
a  reputation  as  a  scholar  and  to  have  introduced 
him  to  a  circle  of  learned  and  accomplished  men, 
of  whom  the  most  famous  was  David  Hume.  The 
friendship  thus  begun  was  an  important  one  for 
Smith,  who  remained  on  terms  of  friendly  inti- 
macy with  Hume  during  his  life.  In  1751  Smith 
was  appointed  professor  of  logic  at  the  Univer- 


aity  of  Glasgow,  and  a  year  afterwards  -was  tnuu- 
ferred  to  iSe  chair  of  moral  philosopby. 

In  1759  he  published  his  first  work.  The  The- 
ory of  Moral  Sentiments,  which  still  holds  an 
honorable  place  in  the  history  of  ethioa.  In  1763 
he  became  tutor  to  the  young  Duke  of  Buccleneh 
and  accompanied  the  latter  upon  his  trayels  in 
France.  He  spent  a  year  or  more  in  Paris,  and 
became  acquainted  with  the  more  important  men 
of  letters  of  France.  He  was  particularly  atr 
tracted  by  the  group  who  termed  themaelves 
Economistes  and  who  are  better  known  as  Physio- 
crats. Quesnay,  the  leader  of  the  school,  and 
several  of  his  more  noted  followers,  were  in  the 
circle  of  Smith's  acquaintance.  Through  them  he 
became  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  theories  of 
the  Physiocrats,  which  exercised  a  great  in- 
fluence upon  him.  In  176C  he  returned  to  Kirk- 
caldy. He  was  now  engaged  in  the  preparation 
of  his  great  work.  An  Inquiry  Into  the  Nature 
and  Causes  of  the  Wealth  of  Nations,  which  first 
appeared  in  1776.  The  work  made  a  great  im- 
pression. Five  editions  were  printed  during  the 
life-time  of  the  author,  and  before  the  close  of 
the  century  it  had  been  translated  into  the  prin- 
cipal European  languages.  (For  its  place  in 
economic  thought,  see  Politicax  Eoonomt.)  In 
1778  Smith  was  appointed  a  Commissioner  of 
Customs  for  Scotland,  and  he  took  up  hia  official 
residence  in  Edinburgh.  In  1787  he  was  elected 
Lord  Rector  of  the  University  of  Glasgow.  He 
died  in  Edinburgh,  July  17,  1790. 

Consult  MacCulloch,  "Sketch  of  the  life  and 
Writings  of  Adam  Smith,"  in  Treatises  and  Es- 
says on  Money  (Edinburgh,  1859).  A  scholarly 
and  exhaustive  biography,  The  Life  of  Adam 
Smith  (London,  1895),  was  published  by  John 
Rae.  See  also  Haldane,  Life  of  Smith  (London, 
1887) ;  Pria,  Eoonomio  Science  and  Practice 
(London,  1896). 

BMJTS,  Alexander  (1830-67).     A  Scottish 

E)et,  bom  at  Kilmarnock.  His  father  was  a 
ce-pattem  designer.  After  the  usual  education 
of  a  Scotch  boy.  Smith  took  up  the  trade  of  his 
father  at  Paisley  and  Glasgow,  whither  the  fam- 
ily in  turn  had  gone.  His  lAfe  Drafna  (1853) 
cieated  a  sensation.  It  was  both  defended  and 
ridiculed.  The  faults  of  the  book  were  obvious; 
every  page  showed  immaturity  and  extravagance; 
a  rather  narrow  reading  had  made  him  passion- 
ately fond  of  a  few  modem  poets,  as  Keats  and 
Tennyson,  and  their  peculiar  turns  of  expres- 
sion, reappearing  in  his  verse,  gave  color  to  tbe 
charge  of  plagiarism,  which  was  pushed  to  an 
absurd  length.  The  richness  and  originality  of 
imagery  in  his  verse  atone  for  its  many  sins 
against  taste  and  knowledge.  In  1864  Smith 
was  appointed  aecretaiy  to  the  University  of 
Edinburgh ;  and  in  the  following  year,  along  with 
Sydney  Dobell,  he  published  a  volume  of  Sonnets 
on  the  Crimean  War,  He  aUo  wrote  City  Poems 
(1857),  EduAn  of  Deira  (1861),  and  several  de- 
lightful prose  works,  as  Dreamthorp  (1863),  A 
Summer  in  Skye  (1865),  and  Alfred  HagarVs 
Household,  a  story  of  Scotch  life  (1866),  and  a 
sequel.  Miss  Dona  M'Quarrie,  After  his  death 
appeared  Lttst  Leaves  (London,  1868),  edited 
with  a  memoir  by  P.  P.  Alexander.  Smith's 
verse  and  prose,  though  often  admirable,  just 
pass  the  bounds  of  sanity.  He  was  classed  with 
Philip  James  Bailey  (q.v.),  Sydney  Dobell  (q.v.), 
and  Gerald  Massey  (q.T.)y  sui  ^  member  of  the 


SMITE. 


Ml 


8MITE. 


'Spasmodic'  school.  The  epithet  was  first  used 
in  Blackwood's  Magazine  for  May,  1864.  Besides 
the  memoir  cited  above,  consult  Brisbane,  Early 
Years  of  A.  Smith  (London,  1869). 

SMITH,  Andrew  Heebmance  ( 1837— ) .  An 
eminent  American  physician,  bom  in  Saratoga 
County,  N.  Y.,  and  educated  at  Union  College 
and  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  New 
York  City.  He  served  as  surgeon  of  United 
States  Volunteers  in  1861-62  and  as  assistant 
surgeon  in  the  United  States  Army  in  1862-68, 
resigning  in  the  latter  year  to  practice  medicine 
in  New  York  City.  He  served  for  many  years 
as  attending  physician  to  Saint  Luke's  and 
the  Presbyterian  Hospitals,  and  was  for  a  long 
period  a  surgeon  iii  the  throat  department  of 
the  Manhattan  Eye  and  Ear  Hospital.  He  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Association  of  American 
Physicians,  the  Philadelphia  Academy  of 
Natural  Sciences,  and  the  Berlin  Gesellschaft  f ttr 
Heilkunde,  and  was  president  of  the  New  York 
Academy  of  Medicine  and  president  of  the  Medi- 
cal  Association  of  Greater  New  York  in  1002- 
03.  Dr.  Smith's  contributions  to  our  knowledge 
of  pneumonia  were  frequent  and  notable,  and  to 
him  is  due  the  credit  of  suggesting  and  exploit- 
ing the  medical  uses  of  oxygen  (q.v.).  He  also 
published  much  original  work  upon  the  malady 
termed  by  him  caisson  disease  (q.v.),  which  he 
studied  when  serving  as  surgeon  to  the  New  York 
Bridge  Company,  during  the  construction  of  the 
Brooklyn  Bridge.  Besides  many  monographs  on 
other  medical  themes,  his  publications  mclude 
valuable  papers  on  inflammation  (q.v.),  the  ex- 
istence of  which  as  a  separate  self-perpetuating 
process,  outlasting  its  cause,  he  was  the  first  to 
deny. 

SMITH,  Anbbew  Jackson  (1815-97).  An 
American  soldier,  bom  in  Berks  Coimty,  Pa.  Ho 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1838,  served  on  the 
Southwestern  frontier  and  in  the  Mexican  War, 
and  afterwards  against  the  Indians  in  Oregon 
and  Washington  Territory.  At  the  outbreak  of 
the  Civil  War  he  was  commissioned  colonel  of  the 
Second  California  Cavalry.  He  served  as  chief  of 
cavalry  successively  in  the  departments  of  the 
Missouri  and  the  Mississippi  up  to  July,  1862; 
and  on  March  17,  1862,  was  commissioned  briga- 
dier-general of  United  States  volunteers.  He 
was  engaged  at  the  siege  of  Corinth,  in  the  Yazoo 
River  expedition  (December,  1862),  in  the  attack 
on  Arkansas  Post  (January,  1863),  and  in  the 
Vicksburg  campaign,  in  which  he  commanded  a 
division  of  the  Thirteenth  Army  Corps.  Subse- 
quently he  commanded  a  division  in  the  Sixteenth 
Army  Corps,  took  part  in  Banks's  Red  River  expe- 
dition, and  for  services  at  the  battle  of  Pleasant 
Hill,  La.,  April  9,  1864,  he  received  the  brevet  of 
colonel  in  the  Regular  Army.  He  was  commis- 
sioned major-general  of  volunteers,  May  12, 1864; 
later  in  the  year  was  engaged  in  Mississippi  and 
Tennessee,  and  participated  in  the  battle  of  Nash- 
ville, December  15-16,  1864,  receiving  for  gallant 
and  meritorious  services  in  that  struggle  the  bre- 
vet rank  of  major-general  in  the  Regular  Army. 
He  was  placed  in  command  of  the  Sixteenth  Army 
Corps  in  February,  1865,  and  took  part  with  it 
in  the  Mobile  campaign,  and  in  the  operations 
against  Montgomery.  Leaving  the  volunteer  ser- 
vice in  January,  1866,  he  was  appointed  colonel 
of  the  Seventh  Cavalry.    In  May,  1869,  he  re- 


signed from  the  army  and  was  appointed  post- 
master at  Saint  Louis,  Missouri. 

SMITH,  Benjamin  Boswobth  (1794-1884). 
An  American  prelate,  for  sixteen  years  presiding 
bishop  of  the  Episcopal  Church.  He  was  bom  at 
Bristol,  R.  I.,  and  educated  at  Brown  University, 
where  he  graduated  in  1816.  The  following  year 
he  was  ordained,  beginning  his  ministry  in  Mar- 
blehead,  Mass.  He  held  several  pastoral  charges, 
and  was  for  a  time  editor  of  The  Episcopal  Re- 
corder, an  influential  paper  in  Philadelphia.  His 
last  rectorship,  in  Lexington,  Ky.,  he  held  until 
1837,  though  in  1832  he  had  become  bishop  of  the 
diocese.  At  the  death  of  Bishop  Hopkins  in 
1868,  as  the  senior  in  consecration  he  became  pre- 
siding bishop.  The  most  important  event  of  his 
tenure  of  this  office  was  the  organization  of  the 
separatist  movement  which  became  the  Reformed 
Episcopal  Church,  under  the  leadership  of  Bishop 
Smith's  own  assistant  bishop,  George  David  Cum- 
mins. He  died  in  New  York  City,  where  he  had 
resided  after  age  and  infirmity  had  made  it  im- 
possible for  him  to  continue  active  episcopal 
work. 

SMITH,  Buckingham  ( 1810-71 ) .  An  Ameri- 
can antiquary,  bom  on  Cumberland  Island,  Ga. 
He  graduated  at  the  Harvard  College  Law 
School  in  1836,  practiced  for  a  time  in  Maine, 
but  removed  to  Florida  and  became  a  member  of 
the  Territorial  Legislature.  From  1850  to  1862 
he  was  secretary  to  the  United  States  Legation 
in  Mexico,  and  acted  as  charge  d'affaires  in  1851. 
Here  he  studied  Indian  philology  and  began  to 
collect  material  on  the  Spanish  exploration  and 
settlement  of  America.  While  secretary  of  le- 
gation at  Madrid  (1855-58),  he  collected  further 
material  from  the  Spanish  archives.  He  returned 
to  Florida  in  1859,  and  became  a  judge  and  a 
member  of  the  State  Senate.  Among  Ms  trans- 
lations and  other  publications  are:  ffarrative  of 
Alvar  NuHez  Oaheza  de  Vaca  (1861;  new  ed. 
1871 ) ;  Orammatioal  Sketch  of  the  Heve  Lan- 
quage  ( 1861 ) ;  Orammar  of  Pima  or  N4vome, 
a  Language  of  Sotwra  { 1862) ;  and  Narratives  of 
the  Career  of  Hernando  de  Soto  in  the  Conquest 
of  Florida  (1866). 

SMITH,  Charles  Emory  (1842—).  An 
American  journalist  and  politician.  He  was 
bom  at  Mansfield,  Conn.,  and  graduated  at  Union 
College  in  1861.  In  1865  he  became  editor  of  the 
Albany  Express,  and  several  years  later  of  the 
Evening  Post.  For  many  years  he  took  an  active 
interest  in  politics  as  a  Republican  and  stood 
high  in  the  party's  councils.  He  removed  to 
Philadelphia  in  1880,  and  as  editor  of  The  Press 
continued  to  take  part  in  politics.  From  1890 
till  1892  he  was  American  Minister  to  Russia,  and 
was  active  in  distributing  supplies  to  the  famine 
sufferers  in  that  country.  From  1898  till  1902 
he  was  Postmaster-General  of  the  United  States. 
An  important  measure  of  his  administration  was 
the  establishment  of  rural  mail  routes. 

SMETH^  Charles  Fesguson  (1807-62).  An 
American  soldier,  bom  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1825,  and  served  with 
distinction  through  the  Mexican  War.  During 
the  Civil  War  he  rose  to  the  rank  of  major-gen- 
eral in  the  Federal  Army,  and  was  for  some  time 
commander  of  the  District  of  Western  Kentucky. 
He  led  the  decisive  charge  at  Fort  Donelson  and 
soon  afterward  he  was  given  command  of  the 


SMITE. 


942 


SHITH. 


troops  sent  up  the  Tennessee.  During  these  moTe- 
ments  he  was  accidentally  injured,  and  died  April 
25,  1862. 

BMITH9  Ceasles  Henbt  (18261903).  An 
American  humorist,  bom  at  Lawrenoeville,  Ga. 
He  graduated  at  Franklin  College,  Athens,  6a.; 
became  a  lawyer  in  Rome,  Ga. ;  and  served  in  the 
Confederate  Army.  After  the  war  he  was  a 
planter  and  took  some  interest  in  politics.  He 
removed  to  Cartersville,  Ga.  He  was  widely  known 
for  his  newspaper  letters,  under  the  signature 
"Bill  Arp,"  which  began  in  1881,  and  with  their 
homely,  genuine  humor  cheered  the  hearts  of  the 
Southern  people.  The  letters  were  subsequently 
collected  as  Bill  Arp'8  Letters  (1868)  ;  to  which 
were  added  BUI  Arp'a  8orap  Book  (1886)  and 
other  volumes. 

SMITHyCHABLOTnc  (1749-1806).  An  English 
poet  and  novelist,  eldest  daughter  of  Nicholas 
Turner  of  Stoke  House  in  Surrey.  With  her 
marriage,  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  to  Benjamin 
Smith,  the  son  of  a  merchant  and  a  director 
in  the  East  India  Company,  misfortunes  be- 
gan which  followed  her  through  life.  She  left 
her  husband  eventually  and  supported  herself 
and  seven  children  by  her  pen.  She  gained  the 
attention  of  the  London  literary  world  with  Ele- 
giao  Sormeta  and  Other  Essays  (1784),  a  volume 
which  passed  through  many  editions.  Her  wider 
public  was  won  by  a  series  of  novels  describing 
contemporary  life.  Among  them  are  Emmeline 
(1788),  Desmond  (1792),  and  The  Old  Manor 
House  (1793).  Consult  the  memoir  and  gener- 
ous estimate  of  C.  Smith  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  in 
his  Miscellaneous  Prose  Works,  vol.  i.  (Edin- 
burgh, 1834-36). 

BMJTMf  Clement  Lawrence  (1844^).  An 
American  Latinist,  bom  at  Upper  Darby,  Pa., 
and  educated  at  Haverford  College,  at  Harvard, 
and  in  Europe.*  In  1869-70  he  was  professor  of 
Greek  and  German  at  Swarthmore,  Pa.,  and  was 
then  called  to  Harvard  as  tutor  of  Latin.  He 
became  assistant  professor  in  1873,  professor  in 
1883,  and  was  appointed  to  the  Pope  professor- 
ship in  1901.  In  1897-98  he  was  director  of  the 
American  School  of  Classical  Studies  at  Rome. 
With  Professor  Tracy  Peck  of  Yale  he  edited  the 
College  Series  of  Latin  Authors.  In  this  series 
he  edited  The  Odes  and  Epodes  of  Horace  (Bos- 
ton, 1894). 

SMITH,  David  Eugene  ( 1860— ) .  An  Ameri- 
can mathematician  and  educator,  bom  in  Cort- 
land, N.  Y.  He  was  educated  at  Syracuse  Uni- 
versity, and  was  member  of  the  New  York  bar 
(1881-84).  He  was  teacher  of  mathematics  at 
the  Cortland  (N.  Y.)  Normal  School  (1884-91), 
professor  of  mathematics  in  Michigan  State  Nor- 
mal College  (1891),  principal  of  New  York  State 
Normal  School,  Brockport  (1898),  and  became 
professor  of  mathematics  in  Columbia  University 
(1901).  He  also  delivered  several  courses  of  lec- 
tures in  the  Harvard  University  summer  courses. 
He  wrote:  'History  of  Modern  Mathematics," 
in  Merriman  and  Woodward's  Higher  Mathe- 
matics (1896);  The  Teaching  of  Elementary 
Mathematics  (1900)  ;  and  a  series  of  text-books 
(1903).  He  was  also  the  joint  author  of  a  num- 
ber of  text-books  on  elementary  mathematics. 
Smith  was  mathematical  contributor  to  the 
New  International  Encyclopcedia.  He  became 
editor  of  The  Bulletin  of  the  American  Mathe- 


matioal  Society,  and  librarian  of  the  society. 
With  Professor  W.  W.  Beman  he  translated 
Klein's  Famous  Problems  of  Geom^ry  (see 
ExEiN,  F.)  and  Fink's  History  of  Mathematiet. 

SMin^  Edoab  Fahs  (1854—).  An  Ameri- 
can chemist,  born  in  York:,  Pa.  He  graduated 
at  Pennsylvania  College  in  1874,  and  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Gdttingen,  Germany,  in  1876.  After 
filling  various  chairs  in  chemistry,  he  was  called 
to  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  and  made 
director  of  the  John  Harrison  Laboratory,  and  he 
afterwards  became  vice-provost  of  the  university. 
His  contributions  to  chemistry  have  been  consider- 
able, especially  in  the  domain  of  mineral  diem- 
istry  and  in  electrolytic  methods  of  analysis.  He 
wrote  Chemistry  of  the  Carbon  Compounds  (2 
vols.,  3d  ed.  1900),  and  E(tperiments  Arranged 
for  Students  in  General  Chemistry  (with  H.  F. 
Keller,  4th  ed.  1900). 

SMITHy  Edmuitd  Eibbt  (1824-93).  An 
American  soldier,  bom  at  Saint  Augustine,  Fla. 
He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1845.  During  the 
Mexican  War  he  was  brevetted  first  lieutenant 
for  gallantry  at  Cerro  Gordo,  and  captain  for 
bravery  at  Contreras  and  Churubuaco.  From 
1849  to  1852  he  was  assistant  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  West  Point.  He  became  first  lieuten- 
ant in  March,  1851,  captain  of  the  Second  Cavalry 
in  March,  1855,  and  major  in  January,  1861.  He 
resigned  from  the  army  April  6,  1861,  was  ap- 
pointed lieutenant-colonel  of  cavalry  in  the  Con- 
federate Army,  and  became  brigadier-genend 
June  17,  1861.  He  served  as  chief  of  staff  under 
Gen.  Joseph  E.  Johnston  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley 
during  June  and  a  part  of  July,  and  "brought  in  thie 
fresh  troops  which  decided  the  first  battle  of  Bull 
Rxm,  July  21st,  but  was  himself  severely  wound- 
ed. He  became  major-general  in  October,  1861, 
and  in  March,  1862,  was  placed  in  charge  of  the 
District  of  East  Tennessee,  and  afterwards  of  the 
Department  of  East  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  North 
Georgia,  and  Western  North  Carolina.  Here  he 
led  Uie  advance  of  General  Bragg's  army  into 
Kentucky,  defeated  General  Nelson  near  Rich- 
mond (southeast  of  Lexington),  August  30, 
1862,  gathered  men  and  supplies,  and  threatened 
Cincinnati.  On  October  9,  1862,  he  became  lieu- 
tenant-general  and  in  February,  1863,  was  as- 
signed to  the  Trans-Mississippi  Department  He 
became  general  on  February  19,  1864,  and  in 
April  bafl9ed  General  Banks's  imfortunate  Red 
River  expedition.  He  finally  surrendered  to 
General  Canby  in  May,  1865.  From  1866  to  1868 
he  was  president  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Tele- 
graph Company,  from  1870  to  1876  was  chan- 
cellor of  the  University  of  Nashville,  and  from 
1875  until  his  death  was  professor  of  mathemat- 
ics in  the  University  of  the  South,  at  Sewanee, 
Tenn. 

SMITH,  Eu  (1801-57).  A  Protestant  mis- 
sionary and  scholar.  He  was  bom  at  Northford, 
Conn.,  graduated  from  Yale  College  in  1821,  and 
Andover  Seminary  in  1826.  The  same  year  he 
was  put  in  charge  of  the  printing  establishinent 
of  the  American  Board  at  Malta,  and  remained 
there  until  1829,  barring  a  period  spent  at  Beirut 
to  study  Arabic.  In  1829  he  traveled  through 
Greece,  later  through  Armenia  and  Georgia  to 
Persia  in  company  with  H.  G.  O.  Dwight,  and 
published  the  results  of  their  observations  in 
Missionary  Reeeo/rc^iee  in  AniMnia  (1833).   Hm 


8KITE. 


948 


SXITH. 


Armenian  and  Nestorian  missions  were  shortlv 
afterwards  established  bv  the  American  Board. 
In  1833  he  settled  in  Beirut.  In  1838  and  1852 
he  aeoompanied  Edward  Robinson  (q.v.)  on  his 
tours  of  investigation  in  the  Holy  Land.  He 
ceaselessly  prosecuted  linguistic  studies  in  prepa- 
ration for  what  he  considered  his  life  work,  the 
translation  of  the  Bible  into  Arabic ;  but  he  died 
after  completing  the  New  Testament,  the  Penta- 
teuch, and  part  of  the  prophetical  books.  The 
work  was  completed  by  Dr.  Cornelius  V.  Van 
Dyck  of  the  Syrian  Mission,  and  published  in 
186667. 

SmTH^  Elizabeth  Oakes  (Pbince)  (1806- 
93).  An  American  author,  bom  at  Cumberland, 
Maine.  She  was  removed  in  infancy  to  Portland. 
There  she  married  Seba  Smith  (q.v.),  and  wrote 
much  prose  and  verse,  assisting  her  husband  in 
his  profession  of  journalism.  In  1839,  after 
financial  reverses,  she  adopted  literature  as  a 
means  of  subsistence,  and  settled  in  New  York 
in  1842,  contributing  to  periodicals  and  writing 
stories,  plays,  and  lectures.  Some  of  her  vol- 
umes are:  The  Sinless  Child  and  Other  Poems 
(1841),  Woman  and  Her  Veeds  (1851),  and 
Kitty  Howard's  Journal  (1871).  She  also  pub- 
lished two  tragedies  and  was  noted  for  her  ad- 
vocacy of  woman's  rights. 

SMITH,  Erhinnie  Adelle  (1836-86).  An 
American  ethnologist,  bom  in  Marcellus,  N.  Y., 
and  educated  at  Mrs.  Willard's  Seminary  in  Troy, 
N.  Y.  In  1855  she  married  S.  H.  Smith,  and  while 
educating  her  sons  in  Germany  studied  mineralogy 
and  other  sciences.  In  1878  :  he  became  connected 
with  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  and  was  detailed 
to  study  the  language,  customs,  myths,  and  pecu- 
liarities of  the  Iroquois  Indians,  spending  two 
summers  for  that  purpose  among  the  Tuscaroras 
of  Canada,  who  adopted  her  as  a  member. 

SMITH,  Francis  Henney  (1812-90).  An 
American  soldier,  bom  at  Norfolk,  Va.  He  grad- 
uated in  1833  at  the  United  States  Military 
Academy,  and  in  1837  was  appointed  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Hampden-Sidney  College.  In 
1839  he  was  selected  to  be  superintendent  and 
professor  of  mathematics  in  the  newly  organized 
Virginia  Military  Institute.  Soon  after  the  out- 
break of  the  Civil  War  he  was  appointed  colonel, 
and  was  stationed  at  Norfolk  and  in  command 
of  Craney  Island  Fort.  Subsequently  he  re- 
opened the  Institute^  whose  buildings  had  been 
destroyed  by  fire  during  the  war.  He  published 
The  Best  Methods  of  Conditcting  Common  Schools 
(1849),  College  Reform  (1850),  and  numerous 
text-books. 

SMITH,  Francis  Hopkinson  (1838—).  An 
American  artist,  author,  and  engineer,  bom  in 
Baltimore,  Md.  After  receiving  a  good  academic 
education  he  became  a  clerk  in  a  Baltimore  iron- 
works, subsequently  studied  engineering,  and  be- 
came a  successful  contractor.  In  this  capacity 
he  was  engaged  in  several  Government  works  of 
importance  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  including 
the  construction  of  the  sea-walls  at  Block  Island. 
Govemor's  Island  (New  York  Harbor),  and 
Tompkinsville,  the  Race  Rock  Lighthouse,  off 
New  London,  Conn.,  end  the  foundation  for  the 
Bartholdi  Statue.  At  the  same  time  he  attained 
distinction  as  an  artist,  particularly  in  water- 
colors.  Some  of  his  best  known  pictures  are: 
"The  Old  Man  of  the  Mountains"  (1874)  ;  "In 
the  Darkling  Wood"  (1876) ;    "Peggothy  on  the 


Harlem"  (1881) ;  "Under  the  Towers,  Brooklyn 
Bridge"  (18S3)  j  "In  the  North  Woods"  (1884) ; 
and  "A  January  Thaw"  (1887).  He  also  became 
well  known  for  his  work  in  charcoal  and  as  an 
illustrator.  In  recent  years,  however,  his  fame 
as  an  author  has  almost  eclipsed  that  of  the  en- 
gineer and  artist.  Among  his  published  works 
are:  Well  Worn  Roads  (1886);  Old  Lines  in 
New  Black  and  White  (1886) ;  A  Book  of  the 
Tile  Cluh  (1887) ;  A  White  Umbrella  in  Mexico 
(1889)  ;  Colonel  Carter  of  Cartersville  (1891) ; 
A  Day  at  Laguerre's  (1892);  American  Illus- 
trators (1892);  A  Gentleman  Vagabond  and 
Some  Others  (1895) ;  Tom  Oregon  (1896) ;  Gkm- 
dola  Days  (1897);  Caleb  West,  Master  Driver 
(1898);  The  Other  Fellow  (1899);  and  The 
Fortunes  of  Oliver  Horn  (1902). 

SMITH,  Sir  Francis  Pettit  (1808-74).  An 
English  inventor,  bom  in  Hythe.  In  1834  he 
constructed  a  model  of  a  steam  vessel  to  be  pro- 
pelled by  a  screw  driven  by  a  spring,  and  three 
years  afterwards  built  a  larger  boat  on  the  same 
principle,  which  he  successfully  tested  in  the 
English  Channel.  He  constructed  for  the  British 
Navy  the  screw  steamer  Archimedes  of  237  tons, 
90  horse-power,  which  he  completed  in  1840,  and 
the  success  of  which  led  to  the  rapid  introduction 
of  screw  vessels  into  the  English  Navy  and  the 
mercantile  marine. 

SMITH,  George  (1808-99).  A  Scotch- Ameri- 
can banker  and  financier,  bom  in  Aberdeenshire, 
Scotland.  He  was  educated  at  Aberdeen  College, 
emigrated  to  America,  and  in  1834  settled  in 
Chicago,  and  for  the  next  quarter  of  a  century 
was  closely  identified  with  the  industrial  and 
financial  history  of  the  Northwest.  In  1837  he 
was  granted  a  charter  for  the  Wisconsin  Marine 
and  Fire  Insurance  Company  at  Milwaukee,  which 
allowed  him  to  carry  on  a  general  banking  busi- 
ness, and  issue  notes  to  the  amount  of  $1,600,000. 
This  corporation  was  for  many  years  the  most 
stable  financial  institution  in  the  West,  and  its 
notes,  payment  upon  which  was  never  refused, 
circulated  widely,  and  were  of  great  benefit  to 
other  banks  and  to  business  houses  in  times  of 
panic.  In  1839  he  also  founded  the  house  of 
George  Smith  &  Co.,  the  first  banking  house  in 
Chicago.  Subsequently  he  became  interested  in 
banking  in  the  ^uth,  but  after  the  outbreak  of 
the  Civil  War  gradually  withdrew  from  active 
business  and  retired  to  London,  where  he  died. 

SMITH,  George  (1824-1901).  An  English 
publisher,  bom  in  London.  His  father  was  a 
Scotchman,  who  had  established  a  book-shop  in 
London  in  partnership  with  Alexander  Elder  in 
1816.  In  1843  Smith  took  charge  of  most  of  the 
firm's  publishing,  and  in  1846,  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  became  head  of  the  firm.  Under  his 
supervision  the  early  works  of  John  Ruskin  were 
puDlished,  Charlotte  Bronte's  Jane  Eyre  was 
brought  out  in  1848,  and  Thackeray's  Henry 
Esmond  in  1851.  In  1859  Smith  founded  The 
Comhill  Magazine^  with  Thackeray  as  its  first 
editor;  and  in  1865  he  established  the  Pall  Mall 
Gazette,  an  independent  evening  paper,  retaining 
control  of  it  until  1880.  He  projected  and  pub- 
lished the  great  Dictionary  of  National  Biography 
(67  vols,  with  supplement  and  index,  1885-1903), 
edited  by  Leslie  Stephen  and  Sidney  Lee. 

SMITH,  George  (1840-76).  An  English 
Assyriologist,  bom  at  Chelsea.     He  was  an  en- 


8MITK. 


944 


SMITH. 


grayer  by  trade.  Beoominff  interested  in  Aaeyn- 
ology,.  he  gave  much  of  his  leisure  time  and  spare 
money  to  the  study^  and  attracted  the  fayorable 
notice  of  Rawlinson.  In  1866  he  discovered 
a  text  relating  to  the  tribute  paid  by  Jehu 
to  Shalmaneser  II.  The  remarkable  aptitude 
which  he  showed  for  arranging  and  classify- 
ing Assyrian  documents  leid  to  his  being 
associated  with  Kawlinson  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  third  and  fourth  volumes  of  the 
Cuneiform  Inacriptiana  of  Western  Asia  (pub- 
lished 1870,  1875).  In  1867  Smith  became  of- 
ficially connected  with  the  British  Museum.  In 
1871  he  published  the  Annals  of  Assur-hani-pal, 
and  prepared  valuable  papers  on  the  Early  His- 
tory of  Babylonia  and  The  Reading  of  the  Cypri- 
ote Inscriptions.  In  1872  he  made  his  most  fa- 
mous discovery — the  Babylonian  account  of  the 
deluge,  which  had  been  found  at  Nineveh  and 
brought  to  England  by  Layard.  As  a  result  he  was 
sent  to  Nineveh  the  following  year  at  the  expenseof 
the  Daily  Telegraph  to  search  for  more  fragments 
of  the  account,  and  returned  in  a  short  time,  hav- 
ing succeeded  in  his  mission.  He  again  conducted 
excavations  at  Nineveh  for  the  British  Museum 
in  1874.  In  October^  1875,  he  started  a  third 
time  for  the  East;  after  many  difficulties  he 
reached  Nineveh,  only  to  find  that  it  was  im- 
possible to  excavate,  owing  to  the  disturbed  state 
of  the  country.  His  health  broke  down  from 
care  and  worry,  and  he  died  at  Aleppo,  August 
19,  1876.  Besides  the  works  already  mentioned, 
he  published:  Assyrian  Discoveries  (1875),  the 
account  of  his  explorations;  The  Assyrian 
Eponym  Canon  (1875);  Ancient  History  from 
the  Monuments:  Assyria  (1875) ;  The  Chaldean 
Account  of  Genesis  (1876;  edited  by  Sayce, 
1880) ;  and  papers  in  the  Transactions  of  dif- 
ferent societies.  Ancient  History  from  the  Monu- 
ments: Babylonia  (1877)  and  The  History  of 
Sennacherib  (1878)  appeared  posthumously. 

SMITH,  Geobgb  Adam  (1856—).  A  Scotch 
theologian  and  Hebraist,  bom  in  Calcutta, 
India.  He  was  educated  in  Edinburgh  at  the 
university  and  at  New  College.  In  1880  he  be- 
came assistant  at  Brechin.  From  1880  to  1882 
he  was  instructor  in  Hebrew  at  the  Free  Church 
College  in  Aberdeen;  then,  until  1892,  was  pastor 
of  the  New  Church,  Queen's  Cross,  Edinburgh; 
and  in  that  year  was  named  professor  of  Hebrew 
and  of  Old  Testament  exegesis  in  the  Free  Church 
College  of  Glasgow.  Professor  Smitb  traveled 
in  Palestine  in  1891  and  1901,  and  published  the 
valuable  Historical  Qeography  of  the  Holy  Land 
(1894;  7th  ed.  1901).  He  frequently  visited  the 
United  States,  and  in  1896  he  was  Percy  Turn- 
bull  lecturer  on  Hebrew  poetry  at  Johns  Hop- 
kins University,  and  in  1899  gave  the  Lyman 
Beecher  lectures  at  Yale  on  Modem  Criticism, 
and  Preaching  of  the  Old  Testament  (published 
1901).  Professor  Smith  was  Jowett  Lecturer 
in  London  in  1900,  and  in  the  spring  of  1903 
again  visited  America,  and  lectured  at  Union 
Theological  Seminary  and  elsewhere.  In  the 
Expositor's  Bible  he  published  a  "Commentary  on 
Isaiah"  (1888-90)  and  "The  Twelve  Prophets" 
( 1896-97) .  His  other  writings  are  The  Preaching 
of  the  Old  Testament  to  the  Age  (1893),  Histori- 
cal Atlas  of  the  Holy  Land  (1895),  and  The  Life 
of  Henry  Drummond  (1898;  6th  ed.  1902). 

SMITH^  George  Williamson  (1836—).  An 
American  clergyman  and  educator,  bom  at  Cats- 


kill,  N.  T.  He  graduated  at  Hobart  GoU^  in 
1857.  After  being  ordained  priest  in  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church  in  1864  he  was  an  as- 
sistant in  various  churches  in .  Washington.  In 
1865-68  he  was  chaplain  of  the  United  States 
Naval  Academy,  and  from  1868  to  1871  was 
chaplain  on  the  United  States  Steamship  Frank- 
lin. From  1872  to  1883  he  was  rector  of  ehurch^ 
in  Jamaica  and  in  Brooklyn,  L.  I.,  and  in  the 
latter  year  he  was  elected  president  of  Trinity 
College,  Hartford,  (Donn.,  an  office  which  he  re- 
signed in  1903. 

SMITH^  Gerabd  Fowke.  See  Fowke,  Gesabb. 

SMITH,  Gebbit  (1797-1874).  An  American 
philanthropist,  son  of  Peter  Smith,  of  Utica, 
N.  Y.,  who,  associated  in  the  fur  trade  with 
John  Jacob  Astor  accumulated  a  great  fortune 
which  the  son  greatly  increased.  Gerrit  graduated 
from  Hamilton  College  in  1818,  and,  without 
regularly  studying  law,  he  entered  upon  that  pro- 
fession and  practiced  with  distinction  in  both  the 
State  and  Federal  courts.  He  made  his  home  in 
Peterboro,  Madison  Ck)unty,  N.  Y.  Entering  Con- 
gress in  1853^  he  found  public  life  distasteful, 
and  abandoned  it  after  the  long  session  of  1854. 
At  this  time,  one  of  the  largest  landowners 
in  the  United  States,  Smith  developed  radical 
views  in  opposition  to  private  land  monopoly. 
Putting  theory  into  practice,  he  b^an  and 
during  many  years  continued  to  distribute  hold- 
ings to  poor  families — in  his  later  years  showing 
a  preference  for  negroes — in  parcels  of  fifty  acres 
each.  In  religious  matters  also  he  was  a  radical, 
and  attempted  to  build  up  an  independent  church 
both  by  money  gifts  and  his  own  preaching. 
Plunging  at  length  into  the  anti-slavery  noove- 
ment»  he  became  by  his  generosity  and  earnest- 
ness one  of  its  most  effective  agitators.  A 
stanch  and  lifelong  friend  of  John  Brown,  he 
loyally  supported  him  in  his  ELansas  raids  and 
through  his  subsequent  tribulations.  The  signing 
of  Jefferson  Davis's  bail  bond  when  the  Civil  War 
was  over,  by  Gerrit  Smith  and  Horace  Greeley, 
was  one  of  the  most  characteristic  acts  of  each 
of  those  unusual  men.  Besides  numerous 
speeches  and  pamphlets,  chiefly  on  the  slavery 
issue,  Smith  wrote  The  Religion  of  Reason 
(1864),  and  Nature  the  Base  of  a  Free  Theology 
(1867).  There  is  a  biography  by  Frothingfaiun 
(New  York,  1878)  which  the  family  attempted 
to  suppress. 

SMITH^  GoLDWiN  (1823—).  An  Anglo- 
American  publicist,  bom  at  Reading,  in  Berk- 
shire, England.  He  was  educated  at  E^n  and 
Oxford.  Elected  fellow  of  University  College  in 
1847,  he  devoted  some  time  to  tutoring,  and  was 
called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1850.  He 
never  practiced  law,  however,  but  gave  his  first 
public  efforts  to  imiversity  reform,  serving  as 
assistant  secretary  to  the  first  and  secretary  to 
the  second  Oxford  commission,  through  whose 
efforts  important  changes  were  made  in  the  uni- 
versity system.  From  1858  to  1866  he  was  regius 
professor  of  modem  history  at  Oxford.  During 
the  following  two  years  he  lectured  on  questions 
of  political  reform.  During  the  Civil  War  S^ith 
was  one  of  the  stanchest  friends  of  the  North, 
combating  in  the  Daily  News  the  pro-Southern 
views  of  the  Times,  in  an  effective  manner.  In 
1868  he  came  to  the  newly  founded  Cornell  Uni- 
versity at  Ithaca,  K.  Y.,  as  professor  of  English 


SMITH. 


945 


SMITH. 


and  oonstitutional  history.  He  resigned  this 
chair  three  years  later,  but  retained  a  non-resi- 
dent  professorship.  At  Toronto,  which  became 
his  home  after  leaving  Ithaca,  he  increased  his 
reputation  as  'scholar,  statesman,  and  philoso- 
pt^.'  As  regent  of  the  University  of  Toronto, 
as  founder  and  editor  of  the  leading  periodicals 
of  his  city — the  Canadian  Monthly,  the  Nation, 
and  the  Toronto  Week  C1884) — he  lent  his  sup- 
port to  the  cause  of  reform  and  liberty.  As 
professor  of  history  at  Oxford  he  developed  his 
philosophy  of  history,  combating  the  view  that 
history  is  governed  by  necessary  law,  claiming 
on  the  contrary  that  all  progress  comes  through 
the  efforts  of  individuals,  thus  finding  a  moral 
rather  than  a  physical  basis  for  historical  evolu- 
tion. He  believes  in  the  ultimate  union  of  Canada 
with  its  neighbor  to  the  south,  and  advocates 
reciprocity  in  trade  relations  between  the  two 
countries.  As  an  historian  he  has  thrown  much 
light  on  the  relations  of  England  and  Ireland, 
claiming  that  the  contest  is  of  historical  ori^n, 
and  primarily  a  struggle  on  the  part  of  the  Irish 
people  to  reacquire  the  ownership  of  their  soil. 
His  writings  are  so  voluminous  tiiat  only  a  few 
of  the  more  important  ones  can  be  mentioned. 
Such  are :  Lectures  on  Modem  History,  delivered 
at  Oxford,  1859-61  (1866);  Irish  History  and 
Irish  Character  (1861);  The  Empire  (1863); 
Speeches  and  Letters,  from  January,  1863,  to 
January,  1865,  dealing  with  the  American  Civil 
War  (1866) ;  A  Bhort  History  of  England,  Down 
to  the  Reformation  ( 1869) ;  The  Political  Destiny 
of  Canada  (1879) ;  Lectures  and  Essays  (1882) ; 
Dismemberment  No  Remedy  (1886),  on  Home 
Rule;  History  of  the  United  States  (1893); 
Essays  on  the  Questions  of  the  Day  (New  York, 
1894). 

SMITH,  Gbeen  Clay  (1832-95).  An  Ameri- 
ican  soldier,  legislator,  and  preacher,  bom  at 
Richmond,  Ky.  He  served  through  the  Mexican 
War  as  lieutenant  in  a  Kentucky  regiment,  grad- 
uated at  Transylvania  University  in  1850,  and  at 
the  Lexington  Law  School  in  1853,  and  settled  in 
Covington  for  the  practice  of  his  profession  in 
1858.  In  1860  he  was  elected  to  the  Kentucky 
Legislature,  where,  on  the  approach  of  thk) 
Civil  War,  he  tried  to  keep  the  State  in  the 
Union.  On  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  he  re- 
cruited and  became  colonel  of  the  Fourth  Ken- 
tucky Cavalry  (Federal),  took  part  in  the  Ten- 
nessee campaigns  of  1862,  and  in  Jime  of  that 
year  was  commissioned  brigadier-general  of  vol- 
unteers. In  the  succeeding  year,  however,  having 
been  elected  a  Unionist  member  of  the  Thirty- 
eighth  Congress,  he  resigned  his  commission.  He 
was  reelected  to  Congress  in  1864,  and  in  1866 
was  appointed  by  President  Johnson  Governor  of 
Montana  Territory.  He  retired  from  politics  in 
1869,  was  ordained  in  the  Baptist  ministry,  and 
attained  considerable  prominence  as  an  evan- 
gelist. In  1876  he  was  the  candidate  of  the  Pro- 
hibition Party  for  the  Presidency. 

SMITH,  GusTAVTJs  Woodson  (1822-96).  An 
American  soldier,  bom  in  Scott  County,  Ky.  He 
graduated  at  the  United  States  Military  Acad- 
emy in  1842,  fought  in  the  Mexican  War,  and 
was  brevetted  lieutenant  for  gallantry  at  Cerro 
Gordo,  and  captain  for  services  at  Contreras.  In 
1861  he  was  commissioned  major-general  in  the 
Confederate  service.    After  Qen,  Joseph  £.  John- 


ston was  wounded  in  the  battle  of  Seven  Pines. 
Smith  was  for  a  short  time  in  command  of  the 
Army  of  Northern  Virginia,  but  was  seized  by  a 
temporary  'attack  of  paralysis'  and  was  super- 
seded by  General  Lee.  Afterwards  he  was  in 
command  of  Richmond  and  then  of  the  Georgia 
militia.  He  published  Confederate  War  Papers 
(1883;  2d  ed.  1884). 

SMITH,  Henbt  Holunoswobth  (1815-90). 
An  American  surgeon,  bom  at  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
He  graduated  from  the  medical  department  of  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1837,  studied  two 
years  in  the  hospitals  of  London,  Paris,  and 
Vienna,  and  was  professor  of  surgery  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania  from  1865  till  1871, 
when  he  became  professor  emeritus.  When  the 
Civil  War  began  he  was  appointed  surgeon-gen- 
eral of  Pennsylvania.  He  very  thoroughly  or- 
ganized the  field  hospital  service,  introduced  the 
practice  of  embalming  on  the  field  of  battle,  and 
in  1862  resigned  to  teke  up  his  practice  and  his 
work  in  the  imiversity.  Among  his  published 
works  are:  Minor  Surgery  (1846);  System  of 
Operative  Surgery  (2  vols.,  1852) ;  The  Treat- 
ment of  Disunited  Fractures  hy  Means  of  Arti- 
ficial Limbs  (1855) ;  and  Practice  of  Surgery  (2 
vols.,  1857-63). 

SMITH,  Henbt  John  Stephen  (1826-83).  An 
eminent  English  mathematician,  bom  in  Dublin. 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford.  In  1848  he  gained 
the  Ireland  University  scholarship,  and  in  1849 
was  elected  Fellow  of  Balliol.  In  1850  he  was 
appointed  lecturer  in  mathematics  at  Balliol 
(jollege,  and  in  1851  senior  scholar  in  nuithe- 
matics.  In  1860  Smith  became  Savilian  professor 
of  geometry,  and  in  1861  was  elected  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society  and  of  the  Boyal  Astronomi- 
cal Society. 

Smith  was  the  leading  English  writer  on  the 
theory  of  numbers  and  a  disciple  of  Gauss,  whose 
writings  he  thoroughly  examined.  These  re- 
searches occupied  his  time  from  1854  to  1864, 
and  are  contained  in  his  Report  on  the  Theory 
of  Nutyibers,  presented  to  the  British  Association 
in  six  parts,  1859-65.  His  most  important  con- 
tributions were  contained  in  two  papers:  "On 
Systems  of  Linear  Indeterminate  Equations  and 
Congruences"  and  "On  the  Orders  and  Genera  of 
Ternary  (Juadratic  Forms"  (1861,  1867).  Smith 
gave  the  formula  relating  to  the  representation 
of  a  number  as  a  sum  of  five  squares,  and  /ilso  of 
seven  squares.  Jacobi  had  proved  the  cases  of 
two,  four,  and  six  squares ;  Eisenstein  had  proved 
the  case  of  three  squares,  but  left  that  of  five 
squares  without  demonstration.  This  was  supplied 
by  Smith,  but  through  an  imaccountable  oversight 
the  French  Academy  set  this  as  the  subject  of 
their  'Grand  prix  des  sciences  math^matiquesf  for 
1882.  The  prize  of  3000  francs  was  awarded 
him  two  months  after  his  death.  Smith  also 
devoted  his  attention  to  elliptic  fimctions,  the 
results  of  which  were  published  in  the  Proceed- 
ings of  the  London  Mathematical  Society. 
Smith's  published  writings  were  collected  and 
edited  by  Glaisher,  in  two  volumes  (Oxford, 
1894).  Consult:  Monthly  Notices  of  the  Royal 
Astronomical  Society,  vol.  xliv.;  and  the  Fort- 
nightly Revieic  (May,  1883). 

SMITH,  Henry  Preserved  (1847—).  An 
American  theologian  and  Orientalist,  bom  in 
Troy,  0.    He  was  educated  at  Amherst  College, 


SMITH. 


946 


SMITH. 


at  Lane  Theological  Seminary,  and  in  Berlin.  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  and  of  Old 
Testament  exegesis  at  Lane  Seminary,  1877.  In 
1891,  after  the  Briggs  heresy  case,  Professor 
Smith  in  an  address  on  Biblical  Scholarship  and 
Inspiration  urged  a  distinction  between  iner- 
rancy and  inspiration,  and,  for  his  attack  on  the 
former  doctrine  in  the  particular  case  of  parallel 
accounts  in  Chronicles  and  in  Samuel  and  Kin^ps, 
was  put  on  trial  by  the  Presbytery  of  Cincm- 
nati  in  1892.  The  trial  is  outlined  from  the  side 
of  the  defendant  in  his  Response,  Rejoinder,  and 
Argument  ( 1893 )  and  with  all  the  documents  in 
question  in  his  Inspiration  and  Inerrancy  { 1893) . 
The  sentence  of  the  court  was  suspension  from 
the  ministry  until  such  time  as  these  errors  were 
renounced.  In  1893  Professor  Smith  became 
professor  in  Andover  Theological  Seminary  and 
entered  the  ministry  of  the  Congregational 
Church.  His  chief  publications  are:  The  Bible 
and  Islam  (Ely  Lectures,  1897)  ;  A  Commentary 
on  Samuel  (in  "The  International  Oitical  Com- 
mentary," 1899)  ;  and  Old  Testament  History 
(in  "International  Theological  Library,"  1903). 

SMITHy  HoBACE.  An  English  humorist.  See 
Smith,  James  and  Hobace. 

SMITH,  James  (c.17151806).  One  of  the 
signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  bom 
in  Ireland.  He  came  to  America  with  his  father 
who  settled  on  the  Susquehanna  in  Pennsylvania 
in  1729.  He  was  educated  at  the  College  of 
Philadelphia,  studied  law,  and  settled  near  Ship- 
pensburg,  as  a  lawyer  and  surveyor,  but  soon 
removed  to  York.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the 
Provincial  Conference  to  discuss  the  state  of  the 
colonies  in  July,  1774,  raised  a  volunteer 
company,  and  wrote  an  Essay  on  the  Con- 
stitutional Power  of  Great  Britain  Over  the 
Colonies  in  America,  He  was  a  delegate  to  the 
Provincial  Convention  in  January,  1775,  to  the 
conference  in  June,  1776,  and  to  the  Constitu- 
tional Convention  in  July.  From  1775  to  1778 
he  served  in  the  Continental  Congress,  and  dur- 
ing this  time  signed  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence. In  1780  he  was  a  member  of  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  and  afterwards  returned  to  his 
profession. 

SMITH^  James  (1737-1812).  An  American 
backwoodsman,  bom  in  Franklin  County,  Pa. 
He  was  captured  by  the  Indians  in  1755  and  was 
adopted  into  the  Caughnewaga  nation,  but  es- 
caped in  1759.  He  was  the  leader  (1763)  of  the 
'Black  Boys,'  a  comjpanv  organized  to  fight  the 
Indians  in  spite  of  (juaker  opposition,  served  as 
lieutenant  in  Bouquet's  expedition  of  1764  (see 
Bouquet,  Henry),  and  in  1766-67,  with  four 
companions,  explored  the  southern  part  of  Ken- 
tucky. In  1769,  at  the  head  of  eighteen  men, 
he  captured  Fort  Bedford  and  released  several 
prisoners  there,  this  being  the  first  fort  ever 
taken  from  British  troops  by  American  colonists. 
He  served  as  captain  of  rangers  in  Lord  Dun- 
more's  War  and  sat  in  the  Pennsylvania  Assembly 
in  1776-77,  and  in  the  latter  year  was  commis- 
sioned colonel  and  assigned  to  the  frontier 
service.  In  1788  he  removed  to  Bourbon  County, 
Ky.  He  published  An  Account  of  the  Remark- 
able Occurrences  in  the  Life  and  Travels  of  Col, 
James  Smith  (1799),  considered  by  Parkman  as 
"perhaps  the  best  of  all  the  numerous  narratives 
of  captives  among  the  Indians,"  and  A  Treatise 
on  the  Mode  and  Manner  of  Indian  War  (1811). 


SMITH,  James  (1775-1839)  and  Horagb 
(1779-1849),  authors  of  the  Rejected  Addresses 
were  sons  of  a  London  solicitor.  Both  were  edu- 
cated at  a  school  at  Chigwell.  James  succeeded 
his  father  as  solicitor  to  the  Board  of  Ordnance; 
Horace  adopted  the  profession  of  stock-broker, 
and  made  a  handsome  fortune,  on  which  he  re- 
tired with  his  family  to  Brighton.  Both  were 
popular  and  accomplished  men-^James  remark- 
able for  his  conversational  powers  and  gayety, 
and  Horace  distinguished  for  true  liberality  and 
benevolence.  The  work  by  which  they  are  best 
known  is  a  small  volume  of  verse  parodies  or 
imitations,  perhaps  the  most  felicitous  in  the 
language.  On  the  opening  of  the  new  Dnuy 
Lane  Theatre  in  October,  1812,  the  committee  of 
management  advertised  for  an  address  to  be 
spoken  on  the  occasion,  and  the  brothers  adopted 
a  suggestion  made  to  them,  that  they  should 
write  a  series  of  supposed  "Rejected  Addresses." 
They  accomplished  their  task  in  six  weeks- 
James  furnishing  imitations  of  Wordsworth, 
Southey,  (Doleridge,  Crabbe,  Cc^bett,  etc.,  and 
Horace  those  of  Scott,  Byron  (all  but  the  first 
stanza),  Monk  Lewis,  Moore,  and  others.  Horace 
Smith  wrote  several  historical  novela  in  imita- 
tion of  Scott.  The  best  is  Brambletye  House 
( 1826),  dealing  with  the  Commonwealth  and  the 
Restoration.  Consult  Rejected  Addresses,  ed.  by 
Percy  Fitzgerald  (London,  1890). 

SMITH,  John  ( 1580-1631 ) .  A  famous  adven- 
turer, colonist,  and  explorer,  bom  at  Willoughby, 
Lincolnshire,  England.  He  was  left  an  orphan 
at  an  early  age.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  ac- 
companied the  sons  of  an  Englbh  nobleman  on  a 
tour  of  the  Continent,  as  a  page;  but  soon  left 
them  and  enlisted  under  the  Prc^tant  banner 
in  France.  He  served  as  a  soldier  of  fortune  in 
different  lands,  and,  according  to  the  memoirs 
which  he  published  of  his  life,  met  with  a  series 
of  wonderful  and  romantic  adventures.  The  most 
remarkable  of  these  incidents  is  his  victory  over 
three  Turics^  whom  he  asserts  he  slew  on  one 
occasion  in  single  combat  in  Transylvania. 
For  this  achievement  he  claimed  to  have  re- 
ceived from  the  prince  of  that  country  a  pen- 
sion and  a  patent  of  nobility  (which  he  pub- 
lished in  the  original  Latin),  empowering  him 
to  emblazon  upon  his  shield  the  bleeding  heads 
of  three  Turks.  He  was  taken  prisoner,  he  as- 
serts, at  the  battle  of  Rothenthurm,  was  sold 
into  slavery,  was  sent  to  Constantinople,  finally 
killed  his  master,  and  escaped  after  being  be- 
friended by  a  Turkish  lady.  Upon  his  return 
to  England  in  1605  he  was  induced  to  take  part 
in  the  colonization. of  Virginia,  and  sailed  with 
the  expedition  fitted  out  for  this  purpose  in  1606. 
He  was  named  a  member  of  the  Council  to  direct 
the  affairs  of  the  infant  community  in  the  secret 
list  prepared  before  the  departure  of  the  ships, 
but  during  the  voyage  he  was  imprisoned  on  a 
charge  of  sedition.  On  the  arrival  of  the  vessels, 
when  the  sealed  instructions  were  opened,  he  was 
not  allowed  to  take  his  seat.  He  indignantly 
demanded  an  immediate  trial,  which  was  finally 
accorded.  He  established  his  innocence,  but  the 
jealousy  of  his  comrades  still  excluded  him  from 
his  seat.  But  his  military  reputation,  and  his 
fiery  spirit,  tempered  by  prudence  and  sagacity, 
soon  made  his  infiuenoe  felt,  and  hia  advice  was 
often  sought  by  the  authorities. 

He  was  sent  on  several  ezpediti<nui  for  fonge 


SMITE. 


M7 


8MITSL 


and  discoveiy  among  the  Indians,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  the  ability  with  which  he 
conducted  them.  After  the  first  trip  of  discov- 
ery he  was,  in  June,  1607,  admitted  to  the  Coun- 
cil. It  was  on  one  of  these  occasions,  in  De- 
cember, 1607,  that  he  was  captured  by  the 
Indian  chief  Powhatan  (q.v.).  The  story  which 
he  relates  of  the  young  Indian  maiden  Poca- 
hontas, the  daughter  of  Powhatan,  who,  when 
he  was  condemned  to  death  by  the  savage  chief- 
tain, saved  his  life  by  her  interposition,  is  now 
discredited  by  perhaps  a  large  majority  of  care- 
ful historians.  (See  Pocahontas.)  After  a 
period  of  turbulence  and  disaster,  Smith's  in- 
fluence became  paramount  in  Jamestown.  Dur- 
ing another  of  his  journeys,  in  the  summer  of 
1608,  he  explored  Chesapeake  Bay  as  far  as  the 
Patapsco,  and  made  a  map  of  the  bay  and  the  ad- 
joining country.  He  was  elected  president  of 
the  Council  in  September,  1608,  and  several 
times  seems  to  have  saved  the  colony  from  ruin 
by  his  decision,  sagacity,  and  force  of  char- 
acter. In  his  dealings  with  the  Indians  he 
showed  himself  an  astute  and  unscrupulous  poli- 
tician, and  a  valiant  soldier,  who  became  at  once 
an  adept  in  all  the  peculiarities  of  Indian  war- 
fare. His  services  were  not  sufficiently  appre- 
ciated, and  upon  the  grant  of  a  new  charter  and 
the  reorganization  of  the  government,  he  re- 
turned to  England  at  the  close  of  1609,  broken 
in  health  and  poor  in  purse.  He  was  sent  out 
on  various  voyages  of  discoveiy,  and  in  1614 
made  a  fairly  complete  exploration  of  the  New 
England  coast  from  the  Penobscot  to  Cape  Cod. 
To  the  same  end  he  twice  sailed  in  1615,  the  first 
time  being  driven  back  by  bad  weather  and  the 
second  time  being  captured  by  the  French.  He 
was  given  the  title  of  'Admiral  of  New  Eng- 
land,' and  made  ineffective  efforts  to  secure 
means  to  enable  him  to  plant  a  colony  in  New 
England.  After  this  his  attention  was  directed 
chiefly  to  literary  pursuits.  He  died  in  London, 
and  was  buried  in  the  choir  of  Saint  Sepulchre's 
Church. 

His  two  really  historical  works  are  his  True 
Relation,  published  in  1608  (the  best  edition  be- 
ing that  edited  by  Charles  Deane,  Boston,  1867), 
and  his  General  Hiatorie  of  Virginia,  New  Eng- 
land, and  The  Summer  I  alee,  published  in  1624. 
Three  other  works  of  importance  are  his  Maps 
of  Virginia  (1612),  his  Description  of  New  Eng- 
land (1616),  and  his  Neio  England's  Trials 
(1620).  The  only  comprehensive  edition  of 
Smith's  Works  is  that  by  E.  Arber  (Birming- 
ham, 1884;  Westminster,  1895).  Charles  Dud- 
ley Warner  has  written  a  short  study  of  Smith's 
Life  and  Writings  (New  York,  1881). 

SMITH^  John  (1618-52).  One  of  the  founders 
of  the  Cambridge  Platonists.  See  Cambridoe 
Platonists. 

SMITH,  John  Lawrence  (1818-83).  An 
American  chemist.  He  was  bom  in  Louisville, 
Ky.,  and  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia, the  Medical  College  of  South  Carolina 
(M.  D.  1840),  in  Germany,  under  Liebig,  and  in 
Paris,  under  Pelouze.  In  1844  he  began  the 
practice  of  medicine  in  Charleston,  and  estab- 
lished the  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal  of  South 
Carolina,.  In  1846  he  was  appointed  by  the 
Turkish  Government  to  report  on  the  mineral 
resources  of  that  country.  For  four  years  he 
continued  in  that  work,  discovering  coal,  chrome 


ore,  and  the  famous  emery  deposits  of  Naxos. 
He  returned  to  the  United  States,  and  in  1852 
was  made  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Virginia.  In  1854  he  resigned  and 
settled  in  Louisville,  Ky.,  where  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  in  the  medical  department 
of  the  university.  His  specialty  was  mineralog- 
ical  chemistry;  his  collection  of  meteorites  was 
the  finest  in  the  United  States,  and  on  his  death 
passed  to  Harvard.  His  published  papers  were 
more  than  150  in  number,  and  the  more  impor- 
tant of  them  were  collected  and  published  as 
Mineralogy  and  Chemistry,  Original  Researches 
(1873,  enlarged  with  biographical  sketches, 
1884).  The  sum  of  $8000  paid  by  Harvard  for 
his  meteorite  collection  was  by  Mrs.  Smith 
transferred  to  the  National  Academy. 

SMITH,  John  Pye  (1774-1851).  An  English 
Congregational  scholar.  He  was  bom  in  Shef- 
field, and  spent  the  early  years  of  his  life  in  the 
shop  of  his  father,  a  bookseller.  In  his  22d 
year  he  entered  an  independent  academy  at  Roth- 
erham,  became  classical  tutor  in  the  Homerton 
Theological  School  (Congregational)  1800,  divin- 
ity tutor  1806,  and  held  the  position  till  1850. 
His  principal  works  are:  Scripture  Testimony  to 
the  Messiah  (1818-21;  4th  ed.  1847)  ;  The  Sac- 
rifice  and  Priesthood  of  Christ  (1828;  3d  ed. 
1847) ;  On  the  Principles  of  Interpretation  as 
Applied  to  the  Prophecies  of  Holy  Scripture 
(1829);  but  especially  Relation  Between  the 
Holy  Scriptures  and  Some  Parts  of  Geological 
Science  (1839).  Consult  his  Life  by  Medway 
(London,  1883).    . 

SKITH,  Joseph,  Jr.  (1805-44).  The  founder 
of  Mormonism.  He  was  bom  in  Sharon,  Vt., 
December  23,  1805.  Of  illiterate  and  neuropathic 
ancestry  and  dissatisfied  with  the  'clash  of 
creeds'  in  Palmyra,  N.  Y.,  whither  his  par- 
ents had  removed  in  1815,  Smith  at  fourteen 
claimed  to  receive  a  series  of  visions  concerning 
the  founding  of  a  new  Church  and  the  writing  of 
a  religious  history  of  the  aborigines  of  America. 
The  'translation'  of  this  Book  of  Mormon  began 
in  1827;  the  various  'witnesses'  to  the  book 
formed  the  nucleus  of  the  (Hhurch  of  Jesus  Christ 
of  Latter  Day  Saints,  which  wa-s  founded  in 
1830  and  of  which  Smith  was  successively  first 
elder,  prophet,  seer,  and  revelator.  (For  a  de- 
scription of  the  origin  of  the  Book  of  Mormon, 
see  Mormons.)  In  1831  Smith  moved  with  his 
followers  to  Kirtland,  Ohio,  where  he  absorbed 
the  Church  Joint  Stock  Company  of  Sidney 
Rigdon  (q.v.),  an  ex-Campbellite  minister.  The 
prophet  succeeded  in  neither  his  community 
store^house  nor  the  Kirtland  Safety  Society 
Bank,  and  fied  to  Independence,  Mo.,  where  he 
foimded  the  city  and  temple  of  Zion.  Charac- 
teristic alike  of  Smith's  activity  and  his  ambi- 
tion were  bis  putting  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
first  presidency  of  the  Church  in  1834,  his  choice 
of  his  own  adherents  as  the  Twelve  Apostles  in 
1835,  his  proselyting  in  the  East  in  1838,  his 
assisting  the  persecuted  saints  to  escape  from 
Missouri  in  1839,  and  fini^lly  his  running  for 
President  of  the  United  States  in  1844..  Ih-iven 
from  Missouri  on  the  charge  of  fostering  polyg- 
amy, Smith,  as  Mayor  of  Nauvoo,  111.,  and  head 
of  the  Nauvoo  Legion,  was  accused  of  attempting 
to  found  a  military  Church.  He  was  indicted 
for  perjury  and  adultery  and  was  murdered 
in  Carthage  jail  on  June  27,  1844.    In  spite  of 


SMITE. 


MS 


the  opposition  of  his  son,  Joseph  Smith,  third, 
he  was  succeeded  in  the  presidency  of  the  Church 
by  Brigfaam  Young  (q.v.).    See  Mobmons. 

SMITH,  Joseph  (1832—).  A  Mormon 
leader,  son  of  Joseph  Smith  (q.v.)>  founder  of 
the  Mormon  Church.  He  was  bom  at  Kirtland, 
Ohio,  and  received  a  common  school  education  at 
the  Mormon  settlement  of  Nauvoo,  III.,  but  he  did 
not  join  his  fellow-religionists  in  their  migra- 
tion to  Utah.  He  opposed  the  practice  of  polyg- 
amy, became  a  leader  among  the  Mormons  of  the 
Middle  West,  and  in  1860  was  chosen  president 
of  the  Reorganized  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of 
Latter-Day  Saints.  In  1863  he  became  editor  of 
the  Mormon  paper,  the  Saints*  Herald. 

BMJT'Ry  Joshua  Toulmin  (1816-1869) 
(known  in  letters  as  Toulmin  Smith).  An  Eng- 
lish lawyer  and  author.  He  was  born  in  Bir- 
mingham, England.  He  studied  law,  first  with 
a  local  solicitor,  and  afterwards  at  Lincoln's  Inn, 
London.  In  1837  he  came  to  the  United  States, 
settling  eventually  in  Boston,  where  he  gave  lec- 
tures on  phrenology  and  other  subjects.  His 
studies  of  the  Icelandic  sagas  resulted  in  The 
Northmen  in  "New  England,  or  America  in  the 
Tenth  Century  (1839),  said  to  be  the  earliest 
account  in  English  of  the  voyages  of  the  Iceland- 
ers to  Vineland.  He  returned  to  England  in 
1842.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  at  work 
on  a  History  of  English  Oilds,  which  was  edited 
in  1870  by  his  daughter  for  the  Early  English 
Text  Society. 

BMITH,  JuMON  (1837—).  An  American 
educator  and  missionary,  bom  at  Middlefield, 
Mass.  He  graduated  at  Amherst  in  1859,  and  at 
the  Oberlin  Theological  Seminary  in  1863,  and 
was  ordained  a  Congregational  minister  in  1866. 
He  was  professor  of  Latin  in  Oberlin  in  1866-70, 
of  ecclesiastical  history  in  the  Oberlin  Theological 
Seminary  in  1870-84,  and  was  lecturer  on  mcndem 
histoiy  there  in  1875-84.  In  1884  he  became  cor- 
responding secretary  of  the  American  Board  of 
Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions.  He  visited 
the  Board's  missions  in  Turkey  in  1888  and  those 
in  China  in  1898.  From  1882  till  1884  he  was 
editor  of  the  Bibliotheoa  Sacra,  and  was  its  asso- 
ciate editor  after  that  time.  He  published  Lec- 
tures in  Church  History  and  the  History  of 
Doctrine  from  the  Beginning  of  the  Christian 
Era  till  186i  (1881)  and  Lectures  on  Modem 
History  (1881). 

SMITH,  Melancton  (1810-93).  An  American 
naval  officer,  bom  in  New  York  City.  He  was 
appointed  a  midshipman  in  the  navy  in  1826, 
and  in  1839  on  board  the  Poinsett  cooperated  ^ith 
the  land  forces  against  the  Seminole  Indians  in 
Florida.  He  became  a  commander  in  1855,  and  in 
1861-62  commanded  the  Massachusetts  in  the 
Gulf  Blockading  Squadron.  He  was  promoted  to 
be  captain  in  1862.  He  commanded  the  naval 
forces  in  the  capture  of  Biloxi,  Miss.,  and  after 
running  by  the  Confederate  forts  took  part  in 
the  capture  of  New  Orleans.  He  attacked  and 
destroyed  the  Confederate  ram  Manassas,  but 
in  the  attack  on  Vicksburg  his  vessel,  the  Mis- 
sissippi,  ran  aground  while  attempting  to  pass 
the  Confederate  batteries,  and  had  to  be  aban- 
doned. In  the  battle  of  Mobile  Bay  he  distin- 
guished himself  particularly  in  command  of  the 
Monongahela,  and  in  both  attacks  on  Fort  Fisher 
commanded  the  Wabash.    He  became  a  commo- 


dore in  1866,  and  a  rear-admiral  in  1870,  and 
retired  in  1871. 

BMITH,  MmfBOE  (1854—).  An  Amerioan 
jurist  and  historian,  bom  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  He 
graduated  at  Amherst  in  1874,  and  at  Columbia 
Law  School  in  1877,  and  in  1880  reoeiyed  the 
degree  of  J.  U.  D.  at  Gottingen.  He  was  in- 
stmctor  in  Columbia  from  1880  to  1883,  and 
adjunct  professor  of  history  until  1891,  when 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  Roman  law  and 
comparative  jurisprudence.  He  became  an  editor 
of  the  Political  Science  Quarterly  in  1886,  wrote 
articles  on  Roman  law  and  cognate  subjects  for 
the  New  International  Encyclopcsdia,  and  con- 
tributed to  Johnson's  Universal  Encycloptsdia, 
to  Harper's  Classical  Dictionary,  to  Lalor's  Cyclo- 
p€edia  of  Political  Science,  and  to  the  American 
Historical  Review,  and  other  periodicals.  His 
separate  publications  include:  Bismart^  and 
German  Unity  (1898)  ;  "Orations  and  Essays  of 
Cicero,"  in  The  World's  Great  Books  ( 1900) ; 
and  a  chapter  on  "Germany,"  in  The  Nineteenth 
Century  (1901). 

SMITH,  Pebsifob  Fbazeb  (1798-1858).  An 
American  soldier,  bom  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.  He 
graduated  at  the  Ck>llege  of  New  Jersey  (Prince- 
ton) in  1815,  studied  law  under  Judge  Chaunoey, 
and  removed  to  New  Orleans.  As  colonel  of 
Louisiana  Volunteers  he  served  against  the 
Seminole  Indians  in  1836  and  1838.  He  was 
brigadier-general  of  Louisiana  Volunteers  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Mexican  War,  but  entered  the 
regular  service  of  the  United  States  as  colonel  of 
mounted  rifles.  May  27,  1846.  He  was  brevetted 
brigadier-general  for  gallantry  at  Monterey,  and 
major-general  for  his  conduct  at  Contreras  and 
Churubusco.  He  was  commissioner  to  arranga 
an  armistice  with  Mexico  in  August,  1847,  and 
was  placed  in  charge  of  the  Second  Division  of 
the  army.  In  October,  1847,  he  was  military  and 
civil  Governor  of  Mexico,  and  in  May,  1848,  held 
the  same  position  at  Vera  Cruz.  He  remained  in 
the  army  at  the  close  of  the  war,  became  briga- 
dier-general December  30,  1856,  and  was  sent  to 
Kansas  to  quiet  the  disturbances  there. 

BMITH,  Richmond  Mato.  An  American 
economist.    See  Mato-Smtth,  Richmond. 

BMITH,  Richard  Somebs  (1813-77).  An 
American  soldier  and  educator,  bom  in  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1834. 
He  resigned  his  conunission  in  1836  and  for  four 
years  was  engaged  in  engineering  work.  He  was 
reappointed  to  the  army  in  1840,  and  from  1840 
to  1855  was  stationed  at  West  Point,  first  as  in- 
structor and  after  1852  as  professor  of  drawing, 
but  again  resigned  in  1855,  and  became  professor 
of  mathematics  at  the  Brooklyn  Polytechnic  In- 
stitute from  1855  to  1859,  and  director  of  the 
Cooper  Institute  in  1859-61.  In  the  latter  year 
he  was  commissioned  major  in  the  Regular  Army 
(Twelfth  Infantry),  was  engaged  as  a  recruiting 
officer  in  Maryland  and  Wisconsin,  commanded 
his  regiment  in  the  operations  of  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac  in  1862,  and  a  brigade  in  the  early 
months  of  1863,  until  after  the  battle  of  Ghan- 
cellorsville.  He  resigned  from  the  army  on 
May  30,  1863,  to  become  president  of  Girard  Col- 
lege, where  he  remained  until  1868.  From  1868 
to  1870  he  was  professor  of  engineering  at  Penn- 
sylvania State  College,  and  from  1870  to  1877 
was  professor  of  drawing  at  the  Unit^  6t<ltQB 


smTH. 


M9 


SMITH. 


Naval  Academy.  He  published  A  Manual  of 
Topographical  Drawing  (1853)  and  A  Manual 
of  Linear  Perspective  (1857). 

SMITH,  Robert  (1689-1768).  An  English 
mathematician  and  astronomer,  bom  at  Lea,  near 
Gainsborough.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge.  In  1716  he  was  elected  to 
succeed  Cotes  as  Plumian  professor  of  astron- 
omy at  Cambridge,  a  position  which  he  held  till 
1760.  Besides  astronomy  he  also  lectured  on 
optics  and  hydrostatics,  and  was  a  defender  of 
Newton's  method  of  fluxions.  He  also  effected 
the  completion  of  the  observatory  over  the  great 
gate  at  Trinity  College.  In  1742  he  became 
master  of  Trinity  College  and  also  acted  as 
vice-chancellor  of  the  university  (1742-43).  He 
was  also  master  of  mechanics  to  George  II.,  and 
mathematical  preceptor  to  the  Duke  of  Cumber- 
land. Smith  was  the  founder  of  the  prizes  at 
Cambridge  which  bear  his  name.  He  wrote: 
A  Compleat  System  of  Opticka  (2  vols.,  1728; 
student's  edition,  1778)  ;  Harmonics,  or  the  Phi- 
losophy of  Musical  Sounds  (1744;  2d  ed.  1750, 
and  postscript  1762).  He  also  edited  Cotes's 
works  and  left  several  papers  on  Cotes  and  New- 
ton, which  were  later  bequeathed  to  the  college 
and  from  which  was  collected  the  Correspondence 
of  Newton  and  Cotes,  by  Edleston  (1850). 

SMITH^  Samuel  (1752-1839).  An  American 
soldier,  bom  at  Lancaster,  Pa.  He  removed  to 
Baltimore  with  his  father,  John  Smith,  a  well- 
known  merchant,  in  1759;  received  a  commercial 
education,  and  subsequently  spent  three  years 
(1772-75)  in  Europe.  He  became  a  captain  in 
Smallwood's    Maryland    Regiment    in    January, 

1776,  and  served  with  great  gallantry  at  the 
battles  of  Long  Island  and  White  Plains,  attain- 
ing the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  in  February, 

1777.  He  afterwards  participated  in  the  attack 
on  Staten  Island  and  in  the  battle  of  Brandy- 
wine,  and  from  September  26th  to  October  23d 
was  in  command  of  Fort  Mifflin  (q.v.),  repelling 
the  repeated  attacks  of  the  English,  though 
finally  dangerously  wounded.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Maryland  House  of  Delegates  in 
1792,  commanded  the  quota  of  Maryland  mili- 
tia sent  to  help  suppress  the  Whisky  Insurrection 
in  1794,  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1793  to 
1803  and  from  1816  to  1822,  was  for  a  time  in 
1801  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  was  United  States 
Senator  from  1803  to  1815,  commanded  the  State 
troops  as  major-general  of  militia  in  the  defense 
of  Baltimore  in  1812,  and  was  Mayor  of  Balti- 
more in   1835-38. 

smith;  Samttel  Fbaitcis  (1808-95).  An 
American  clergyman  and  hymn  writer.  He  was 
bom  in  Boston,  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in 
1829,  and  at  Andover.  He  was  pastor  of  the 
Baptist  Church  at  Waterville,  Me.,  and  professor 
of  modern  languages  in  Waterville  College,  1834- 
42;  pastor  at  Newton,  Mass.,  1842-54;  editor  of 
The  Christian  Review  (Boston),  1842-48,  and 
of  the  publications  of  the  American  Baptist  Mis- 
sionary Union,  1854-69.  He  wrote  **My  Country, 
Tis  of  Thee"  (first  sung  in  the  Park  Street 
Church,  Boston,  July  4,  1832),  "The  Morning 
Light  Is  Breaking"  (1832),  and  other  favorite 
hymns.  His  publications  include  a  Life  of  Rev. 
Joseph  Grafton  (1848)  and  of  William  Hague 
(1889);  Missionary  Sketches  (1879;  2d  ed. 
1883);  History  of  Newton,  Mass,    (1880);  and 


Rambles  in  Mission  Fields  (1884).  A  collected 
edition  of  his  poems  appeared  at  New  York  in 
1895. 

SMITH,  Samuel  Stanhope  (1750-1819).  An 
American  clergyman  and  educator.  He  was 
bom  at  Pequea,  Pennsylvania;  was  graduated  at 
the  College  of  New  Jersey,  Princeton,  1769;  was 
ordained  to  the  Presbjrterian  ministry  and 
preached  in  Virginia,  1774;  was  first  president 
of  Hampden-Sidney  College,  1775-79;  was  made 
professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  the  College  of 
New  Jersey,  1779;  professor  of  theology,  1783; 
vice-president,  1786;  and  president,  1795-1812. 
Among  his  publications  are:  Lectures  on  the 
Evidences  of  the  Christian  Religion  (1809); 
Lectures  on  Moral  and  Political  Philosophy 
(1812);  Comprehensive  Views  of  Natural  and 
Revealed  Religion  (1815).  Consult  the  memoir 
prefixed  to  his  Sermons  (Philadelphia,  1821). 

SMITH,  Seba  (1792-1868).  An  American 
humorist,  bom  at  Buckfield,  Maine.  After  grad- 
uating at  Bowdoin  in  1818  he  became  a  jour- 
nalist in  Portland,  Maine,  editing  three  papers, 
the  last  of  which  was  7*he  Daily  Courier,  to  which 
he  contributed,  beginning  in  1830,  the  humorous 
letters  on  local  and  national  politics  which  pur- 
ported to  be  written  by  'Major  Jack  Downing.' 
These  letters,  first  collected  in  1833,  were  im- 
mensely popular  and  are  still  readable  in  their 
Yankee  dialect.  They  are  not  to  be  confounded 
with  the  amusing  letters  of  a  second  'Major 
Downing*  published  in  1834  by  Charles  Augustus 
Davis  (1795-1867),  an  iron  merchant  of  New 
York  City.  In  1839  Smith  lost  his  property 
and  three  years  later  began  life  anew  in  New 
York.  Here  he  succeeded  at  journalism  and 
also  published  in  the  magazines  many  contribu- 
tions in  prose  and  verse.  Among  his  works  may 
be  named:  Dewdrops  of  the  Nineteenth  Century 
(1846)  ;  Powhatan,  a  Metrical  Romance  (1841)  ; 
and  Way  Down  East,  or  Portraitures  of  Yankee 
Life  (1855).  In  1859  he  parodied  the  title  of 
Senator  Benton's  great  work  by  publishing  My 
Thirty  Years  Out  of  the  Senate,  in  which  he 
collected  *Major  Downing*s'  letters  on  Afaine 
politics,  on  his  relations  with  'Old  Hickory,'  and 
with  President  Polk  in  connection  with  the  Mex- 
ican War.  This  humorous  performance  is  homely 
and  vigorous,  and  justifies  Smith's  long  continued 
popularity  as  a  good-natured  political  satirist. 

SMITH,  Sophia  (1796-1870).  An  American 
philanthropist,  founder  of  Smith  College  (q.v.). 
She  was  bom  in  Hatfield,  Mass.,  one  of  seven 
children  of  a  Revolutionary  soldier.  All  of  them 
died  before  her,  the  last  in  1861,  leaving  her  with 
a  large  fortune,  which  she  determined  to  devote 
to  charity  and  in  aid  of  education.  She  founded 
Smith  Academy  in  her  native  town  and  gave  lib- 
erally to  Andover  Theological  Seminary  and  to 
foreign  missions.  The  bulk  of  her  estate,  how- 
ever, amounting  in  all  to  about  $40  \000,  she  left 
for  the  establishment  of  the  woman's  college  at 
Northampton,  Mass.,  which  bears  her  name. 

SMITH,  Sydney  (1771-1845).  An  English 
humorist,  bom  at  Woodford,  in  Essex.  Sydney 
was  sent  to  Winchester  School,  from  which  he 
passed  to  New  College,  Oxford  (1789).  In  1794 
he  was  ordained  to  the  curacy  of  Nether  Avon, 
near  Amesbury,  in  Wiltshire.  From  1798  to 
1803  he  lived  in  Edinburgh.  During  this 
time  he  occasionally  preached  at  the  Charlotte 


SMITE. 


950 


SMITH. 


Chapel  and  published  Six  Sermons  (1800).    In 

1802  he  joined  Jeffrey,  Horner,  and  Brougham 
in  founding  the  Edinburgh  Review,  the  first 
three  numbers  of  which  he  mainly  edited.  To 
this  periodical  he  contributed  during  the  next 
25  years  about  80  articles  of  various  kinds.    In 

1803  he  gave  up  tutoring,  which  he  had  hitherto 
combined  with  preaching,  and  settled  in  London. 
He  there  gained  fame  as  preacher,  lecturer,  and 
humorist.  Church  preferment,  however,  came 
slowly.  In  1806  he  obtained  from  Lord  Erskine 
the  rectory  of  Foston-le-CIay  in  Yorkshire.  In 
1800  he  settled  at  Hesslington,  near  his  parish, 
and  in  1814  moved  to  Foston,  where  he  rebuilt 
the  rectory  and  lived  there  for  14  years.  He 
proved  an  admirable  village  parson.  In  1828,  to 
his  great  delight.  Lord  Lyndhurst,  the  Chancel- 
lor, presented  him  to  a  prebend  in  Bristol  Cathe- 
dral, and  the  next  year  enabled  him  to  exchange 
Foston  for  Combe-Florey,  a  more  desirable  rec- 
tory in  Somersetshire,  where  he  now  moved.  In 
1831  Earl  Gray  appointed  him  one  of  the  canons 
residentiary  of  Saint  PauFs;  and  this  completed 
his  round  of  ecclesiastical  preferments.  In  1839 
he  inherited  from  his  brother  £50,000  and  took 
a  house  in  Grosvenor  Square,  London. 

Smith's  writings  comprise  the  famous  Letters 
on  the  Subject  of  the  Catholics,  to  my  Brother 
Abraham,  who  Lives  in  the  Country,  by  Peter 
Plymley  (anonymous,  1807-08),  written  to  pro- 
mote the  cause  of  Catholic  emancipation,  and 
abounding  in  wit  and  irony  worthy  of  Swift; 
Three  Letters  to  Archdeacon  Singleton  on  the 
Ecclesiastical  Commission  (1837-39);  and  Let- 
ters on  American  Debts  (1843).  Though  the 
works  of  Smith  relate  mostly  to  temporary  con- 
troversies, they  yet  hold  a  place  in  our  literature 
as  specimens  of  clear  and  vigorous  reasoning, 
rich  humor,  and  solid  good  sense.  His  jokes, 
exaggeration,  and  ridicule  are  all  logical,  driv- 
ing home  his  argiunents ;  and  his  wit  is  sportive, 
untinctured  with  malice.  The  House  of  Lords, 
standing  in  the  way  of  reform,  he  likened  to 
the  excellent  Mrs.  Partington  attempting  with 
her  mop  and  pail  to  hold  back  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  in  storm.  This  story,  related  in  detail  in 
a  speech  delivered  at  Taunton  (October  11, 
1831),  is  one  of  the  humorist's  best-known  in- 
ventions. 

Consult:  Memoir  by  his  daughter.  Lady  Hol- 
land (London,  1855)  ;  Reid,  Sketch  of  Life  and 
Times  (4th  ed.,  ib.,  1896) ;  Saintsbury,  Essays  in 
English  Literature  (1st  series,  ib.,  1890);  Wit 
and  Wisdom  of  8.  Smith,  with  memoir,  by  Duyc- 
kinck  (New  York,  1856,  often  reprinted)  ;  Works 

(London,  1840;  Philadelphia,  1844);  Selections, 
ed.  by  Rhys  (London,  1892),  and  in  Elia  Series 

(New    York,    1897)  ;    Peter    Plymley' s    Letters 

(.Saintsbury's  Pocket  Library,  ib.,  1891 )  ;  and 
Bon  Mots  of  Smith  and  Sheridan,  ed.  by  Jerrold 

(New  York,  1893). 

SMITH,  Sir  Thomas  (1513-77).  An  English 
statesman  and  scholar,  bom  at  Saffron  Walden, 
in  Essex,  and  educated  at  Queen's  College,  Cam- 
bridge. He  traveled  and  studied  abroad  and  re- 
ceived honorary  degrees  from  the  universities  of 
Padua,  Cambridge,  and  Oxford.  As  a  teacher 
at  Cambridge  he  tried  to  change  the  pronuncia- 
tion of  Greek  from  the  modern  method  then  in 
use  to  the  Erasmian  system;  in  defense  of  his 
reform  he  wrote  (1542)  his  De  Recta  et  Emen- 
data    Lingucp    Orcecce    Pronuntiatione     (Paris, 


1568).  In  1544  he  became  regius  professor  of 
civil  law  in  Cambridge,  and  in  1547  received 
from  Edward  VI.  the  post  of  clerk  of  the  Privy 
Council^  and  in  1548  was  made  Secretary  of 
State.  A  zealous  supporter  of  the  Reformation, 
he  lived  in  retirement  under  Mary,  but  in  Eliza- 
beth's reign  he  became  eminent  as  a  statesman 
and  diplomatist.  In  1564  he  negotiated  the  peace 
of  Troyes  with  France.  While  in  Paris  he  wrote 
his  De  Republica  Anglorum;  The  Maner  of  Gov- 
ernment, or  Policy  of  the  Realme  of  England 
(London,  1583).  From  this  date  diplomatic 
missions  occupied  much  of  his  time.  In  1572 
he  succeeded  Burleigh  as  Secretary  of  State,  but 
in  1576  ill  health  compelled  him  to  retire.  In 
addition  to  the  works  mentioned  above  he  trans- 
lated psalms,  composed  orations  and  essays,  and 
wrote  voluminous  letters  on  official  matters. 
Especially  interesting  is  his  De  Recta  et  Emen- 
data  LingucB  Anglican  Scriptione  Dialogus  (Paris, 
1568),  a  proposed  reform  in  spelling.  Consult 
also  Stiype,  Life  of  Sir  Thomas  Smith  (Oxford, 
1820). 

SHITH,  William  (1769-1839).  Called  the 
father  of  English  geology,'  one  of  the  foremost  of 
the  earlv  workers  in  this  field.  Wliile  practicing 
the  profession  of  civil  engineering  he  became  in- 
terested in  the  study  of  rocks  and  soils.  As  a 
result  of  his  investigations  he  formulated  the 
principle  that  stratified  rocks  exhibit  a  definite 
order  of  succession  and  that  the  different  hori- 
zons in  the  stratigraphical  series  may  be  identi- 
fied by  their  included  fossils.  In  1794  he  made  a 
long  tour  through  England,  examining  the  geo- 
logical structure  of  various  regions  and  gather- 
ing evidence  in  support  of  his  theories.  &me  of 
the  data  thus  collected  were  published  in  Order 
of  the  Strata  and  Their  Embedded  Organic  Re- 
mains, in  the  Neighbourhood  of  Bath,  Ewamined 
and  Proved  Prior  to  1799  (1799).  Following 
this  he  began  the  preparation  of  a  geological 
map  of  England  and  Wales  on  a  scale  of  five 
miles  to  one  inch,  which  occupied  nearly  15 
years  of  his  life,  and  which  was  supplemented  by 
separate  maps  of  the  counties  published  in  colors 
on  21  sheets.  These  were  the  first  gieolpgical 
maps  of  England  to  be  published  and  the  first 
attempt  to  show  the  distribution  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  rock  formations  of  a  whole  country. 
His  services  were  recognized  officially  by  a  Gov- 
ernment pension,  while  the  Geological  Society  of 
London  conferred  upon  him  the  Wollaston  medal. 
Besides  his  geological  contributions  he  published 
a  treatise  on  Irrigation  ( 1806) .  For  an  estimate 
of  his  scientific  work,  consult  Geikie,  7%e  Found- 
ers of  Geology  (London,  1897). 

SMITH^SirWnxJAH  (1813-93).  An  English 
classical  and  biblical  scholar.  He  was  bom  in 
London  and  graduated  at  London  University. 
He  was  made  professor  of  Greek,  Latin,  and  Ger- 
man in  Highbury  and  Homerton  colleges,  then 
independent ;  and  when  they  were  consoUdated  as 
New  College  he  became  professor  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  languages  and  literatures.  Further- 
more he  was  classical  examiner  in  London  Uni- 
versity in  1853  and  editor  of  the  Quarterly  Re- 
view  in  1867.  He  was  knighted  in  1892.  He  was 
the  editor  of  many  valuable  works,  especially 
students'  manuals  and  dictionaries.  The  more 
important  of  these,  with  their  latest  editions, 
are  the  following:  English-Latin  Dictionary 
(1899);   Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  An- 


SMITH. 


951 


dXTTH. 


tiquitiea  (1890-91);  Dictionary  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Biography  and  Mythology  (1890) ;  Dio- 
tionary  of  Qreek  and  Roman  Geography  (1854- 
57) ;  Dictionary  of  Christian  Antiquities  (1875- 
80);  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (1863;  revised, 
1887) ;  Dictionary  of  Christian  Biography  ( 1877- 
87). 

SMITH,  WnxiAH  Fabbab  (1824-1903).  An 
American  soldier,  bom  at  Saint  Albans,  Vt. 
He  graduated  from  West  Point  in  1845,  and  from 
1846  to  1848  and  again  in  1855-56  he  was  as- 
sistant professor  of  mathematics  there.  He  was 
a  muster  officer  in  New  York  at  the  time  of 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  served  on  the 
staffs  of  Generals  Butler  and  McDowell  in  June, 
July,  and  August,  1861;  became  colonel  Third 
Vermont  Volunteers  (July  16,  1861),  partici- 
pated in  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run;  became 
brigadier-general  United  States  volunteers  (Au- 
gust 13,  1861),  and  was  in  command  of  a  division 
in  the  Peninsular  campaign  from  March  to 
August,  1862.  He  was  brevetted  lieutenant-col- 
onel United  States  Army  for  gallantry  in  the 
battle  of  White  Oak  Swamp  (June  28,  1862). 
He  became  major-general  United  States  volun- 
teers (July  4,  1862),  took  part  in  the  Maryland 
campaign,  and  was  brevetted  colonel  United 
States  Army  for  gallantry  at  Antietam.  He  com- 
manded the  Sixth  Corps  of  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac  from  November  14,  1862,  to  Februaiy 
4,  1863,  when  he  was  transferred  to  the  Ninth 
Corps,  which  he  commanded  until  March  17. 
He  was  in  command  of  a  division  of  the  Army 
of  the  Susquehanna  from  June  17  to  August  3, 

1863,  and  engaged  in  pursuit  of  the  Confederate 
army  after  the  battle  of  Gettysburg.  He  was 
chief  engineer.  Department  of  the  Cumberland, 
from  October  10  to  November  1,  1863,  and  by 
building  a  bridge  at  Brown's  Ferry  (October  26) 
prevented  the  necessity  for  retreat  from  Chatta- 
nooga. He  was  again  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
major-general  United  States  volunteers  (March 
9,  1864),  and  served  with  the  Eighteenth  Corps, 
Army  of  the  Potomac,  from  May  2  to  July  9, 

1864,  in  the  operations  before  Richmond.  He 
was  brevetted  brigadier-general  United  States 
Army  (March  13,  1865)  for  services  at  Chatta- 
nooga and  major-general  the  same  day  for  ser- 
vices in  field  during  the  war.  He  resigned  from 
the  volunteer  service  on  November  1,  1865,  and 
from  the  Regular  Army  March  7,  1867.  From 
1864  to  1873  he  was  president  of  the  International 
Telegraph  Company,  became  a  member  of  the 
board  of  police  commissioners  of  New  York  (May 
1,  1875),  and  president  December  31,  1877.  After 
1881  he  practiced  civil  engineering. 

SMITH,  William  Hexbt  (1833-96).  An 
American  journalist  and  author,  bom  in  Colum- 
bia County,  N.  Y.  He  was  taken  by  his  parents 
in  1835  to  Ohio,  and  there  received  an  academic 
education.  In  1855  he  became  editor  of  the  Type 
of  the  Times,  a  political  weekly  at  Cincinnati, 
and  in  1858  became  an  editor  on  the  staff  of  the 
Cincinnati  Gazette.  In  1863  he  was  private  sec- 
retary to  Governor  Brough  for  one  year,  and  was 
then  Secretary  of  State  until  1867,  when  he 
resigned  to  take  editorial  charge  of  the  Cindn- 
nati  Chronicle,  a  new  evening  newspaper.  In  1870 
he  became  manager  of  the  Western  Associated 
Press  at  Chicago,  and  in  1882  upon  its  consolida- 
tion with  the  New  York  Associated  Press  as  the 
American  Associated  Press  he  became  general 


manager  of  the  new  organization,  remaining  at 
its  head  until  1893.  In  1877  he  was  made  col- 
lector of  the  port  of  Chicago.  His  publications 
include:  The  Saint  Clair  Papers  (2  vols.,  1882), 
im  which  he  gathered  together  much  hitherto 
inaccessible  material  on  the  early  history  of  the 
Northwest  Territory,  and  A  Political  History  of 
Slavery  (1903),  a  narrative  of  the  anti-slavery 
struggle  and  of  the  reconstruction  period. 

SMITH,  William  Robebtson  (1846-94).  A 
distinguished  Semitic  scholar,  known  as  Robertson 
Smith.  He  was  bom  at  New  Farm,  Keig,  Aber- 
deenshire. He  was  educated  privately  by  his 
father,  a  minister  of  the  Free  Church  of  Scot- 
land, and  at  Aberdeen  University,  where  he  was 
graduated  in  1865.  Having  chosen  the  ministry 
as  his  profession  at  an  early  age,  he  entered 
New  College,  Edinburgh,  in  1866  as  a  student  of 
theology.  During  his  theological  course  he  spent 
two  summers  in  Germany,  at  Bonn  and  Gottin- 
gen,  where  he  heard  the  lectures  and  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Bertheau,  Lotze,  Ritschl,  and 
others  of  the  foremost  scholars  of  the  time.  He 
was  particularly  influenced  by  Ritschl,  who  in 
turn  bore  testimony  to  his  pupil's  ability.  While 
still  a  student  he  was  appointed  assistant  pro- 
fessor of  natural  philosopny  in  the  University 
of  Edinburgh,  and  in  1870  became  professor  of 
Oriental  languages  and  exegesis  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment in  the  Free  Church  College  at  Aberdeen. 
During  the  summer  of  1872  he  was  again  in  Ger- 
many, studied  Arabic  with  Lagarde,  and  became 
acquainted  with  Fleischer,  Wellhausen,  and  other 
prominent  Orientalists.  In  1875  he  became  a 
member  of  the  Old  Testament  revision  commit- 
tee. When  the  ninth  edition  of  the  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica  was  undertaken  in  1870  Professor 
Smith  was  chosen  as  the  contributor  of  articles 
upon  Old  Testament  subjects.  His  arti- 
cles "Angels"  and  "Bible"  (both  published  in 
1875)  aroused  suspicion  and  hostility  in  the 
Church.  A  committee  was  appointed  by  the 
General  Assembly  in  1876  to  investigate,  and, 
after  much  discussion  and  protracted  proceed- 
ings, Professor  Smith  was  dismissed  from  his 
chair  in  June,  1881.  The  case  is  a  famous  one; 
its  practical  outcome  was  to  popularize  and 
establish  the  scholarly  methods  and  most  of  the 
views  which  he  represented  in  both  Scotland  and 
England.  While  his  case  was  pending  he  spent 
two  winters  in  the  East,  visiting  Egypt,  Pales- 
tine, Syria,  and  Arabia.  From  his  dismissal 
till  1888  he  was  associated  with  Professor 
Baynes  as  editor  of  the  Britannica;  the  success- 
ful completion  of  the  work  was  due  in  no  small 
degree  to  his  efficient  management.  At  the  same 
time  he  continued  his  Semitic  studies  with  un- 
flagging zeal  and  most  valuable  results.  In  1883 
he  succeeded  Edward  Henry  Palmer  as  Lord 
Almoner's  professor  of  Arabic  at  Cambridge;  in 
1886  he  was  elected  chief  librarian  of  the  uni- 
versity, and  in  1889  he  succeeded  William  Wright 
as  Adams  professor  of  Arabic.  He  died  at  Cam- 
bridge. 

Besides  numerous  papers  in  scientiflc  period- 
icals and  his  articles  in  the  Britannica  he  pub- 
lished: What  History  Teaches  Us  to  Look  for  in 
the  Bible  (1870)  ;  The  Old  Testament  in  the 
Jewish  Church  (1881;  2d  ed.  1892)  ;  The  Proph- 
ets of  Israel  (1882;  2d  ed.  1895)  ;  Kinship  and 
Marriage  in  Early  Arabia  (1885).  In  1888-90 
he  gave  three  series  of  lectures  at  Aberdeen  (the 
Burnett  lectures)  upon  the  theme,  **The  Primi- 


SMITH. 


969 


81CITH80H. 


tive  Religions  of  the  Semitic  Peoples  Viewed  in 
Relation  to  Other  Ancient  Religions  and  to  the 
Spiritual  Religion  of  the  Old  Testament  and 
Christianity."  The  first  series  only  was  pub- 
lished under  the  title,  The  Religion  of  the 
Bemitea;  Fundamental  Inatituiiona  (1889;  2d 
ed.  1894). 

smith;  Sir  William  Sidney  (1764-1840). 
An  English  admiral,  born  at  Westminster.  From 
1790  to  1792  he  aided  the  King  of  Sweden  in  the 
war  with  Russia  and  was  knighted  by  Gustavus 
III.  for  his  services.  In  1793  he  assisted  Lord 
Hood  at  Toulon,  and  during  1795-96  was 
active  in  freeing  the  Channel  of  French  pri- 
vateers. He  was  taken  while  attempting  a 
daring  capture  in  the  harbor  of  Havre  and  was 
imprisoned  for  two  years,  when  he  escaped.  In 
1798  he  was  made  plenipotentiary  to  Constanti- 
nople, and  in  1799,  irom  March  till  May,  made 
the  famous  defense  of  Saint  Jean  d'Acre  against 
Bonaparte,  which  earned  for  him  a  permanent 
place  among  English  naval  commanders  and  drew 
from  Parliament  a  vote  of  thanks  and  an  annuity 
of  £1000.  His  customary  vanity  was  rendered 
unrestrainable  by  these  tokens  of  enthusiasm, 
and,  usurping  the  prerogatives  of  commander-in- 
chief,  he  concluded  the  untenable  Treaty  of  El- 
Arish  (January  24,  1800),  which  caused  a  re- 
newal of  the  war.  In  1805  he  was  made  a  rear- 
admiral  and  was  active  during  the  next  few 
months  in  guarding  Naples  and  Sicily,  capturing 
the  island  of  Capri  and  relieving  Gaeta.  Con- 
sult: Barrow,  Life  of  Sir  W.  8.  Smith  (1848)  ; 
Mahan,  Influence  of  Sea  Power  upon  the  French 
Revolution  and  Empire  ( 1892) . 

SMITH,  William  Soot  (1830—).  An  Ameri- 
can engineer.  He  was  educated  at  the  Ohio 
SUte  University  (1849)  and  West  Point  (1853). 
After  serving  in  the  artillery  he  resigned  from 
the  United  States  Army  in  1854,  and  became  a 
civil  engineer.  In  1857  he  made  surveys  for  the 
first  international  bridge  across  the  Niagara 
River.  Subsequently  he  was  connected  with  the 
Trenton  Locomotive  Works,  but  resigned  in  1861 
to  enter  the  United  States  Army.  He  became 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  serving  in  the 
Vicksburg  campaign  under  Grant,  and  later  in 
the  Department  of  Tennessee  under  Shermauv 
but  in  1864  was  compelled  to  resign  in  conse- 
quence of  illness.  He  returned  to  his  profession, 
settling  in  Chicago,  and  in  1865  became  actively 
engaged  as  engineer  for  various  bridge  and  tun- 
nel constructions,  including  the  bridge  across  the 
Missouri  River  at  Glasgow,  Mo.,  and  the  Hudson 
River  tunnel  at  New  York.  General  Smith  made 
many  notable  improvements  in  pneumatic  proc- 
esses for  sinking  foundations,  and  in  methods  of 
construction  of  high  buildings. 

BMITH  COLLEGE.  An  institution  for  the 
higher  education  of  women  at  Northampton, 
Mass.,  chartered  in  1871  and  opened  in  1875. 
The  college  was  founded  bv  Miss  Sophia  Smith, 
of  Hatfield,  who  bequeathed  for  the  purpose 
about  $366,000.  The  undergraduate  course  is 
partially  elective.  All  undergraduate  courses 
lead  to  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts  (after 
1904) .  The  degree  of  master  of  arts  is  conferred 
on  graduates  of  at  least  two  years'  standing, 
who  have  spent  a  year  in  advanced  study  at  the 
college,  and  on  graduates  of  three  years'  stand- 
ing who  by  printed  essays  or  other  proofs  of 
scholarly  work  give  evidence  of  at  least  one  year 


spent  in  advance  study.  A  number  of  annual 
scholarships  in  the  various  departments  provide 
incomes  of  $50  to  $250  for  needy  students.  Two 
tables  at  the  Marine  Biological  Laboratoiy  at 
Woods  Hole,  Mass.,  are  maintained  by  the  col- 
lege, t^ich  also  contributes  to  the  support  of  a 
table  at  the  zoological  station  at  Naples,  and  to 
the  classical  schools  at  Athens  and  Rome.  The 
college  buildings,  centrally  located  in  the  town, 
include  College  Hall,  containing  the  offices  of 
administration;  Seelye  Hall,  with  20  recitation 
rooms  and  a  library ;  Lilly  Hall  of  Science ;  Chem- 
istry Hall,  in  part  the  gift  of  the  class  of  1895; 
a  well-equipped  observatoxy;  Music  Hall;  the 
Hillyer  Art  Gallery,  containing  extensive  col- 
lections, with  an  endowment  of  $50,000  for  their 
increase;  the  Alumnie  Gymnasium,  and  the  Ly- 
man Plant  House,  which  with  the  botanic 
gardens  furnishes  material  for  laboratory  work 
and  opportunity  for  special  investigations. 
Home  life  is  provided  for  the  students  in  13 
dwelling  houses,  presided  over  by  a  college  offi- 
cer. In  connection  with  many  of  the  depart- 
ments clubs  are  organized  under  the  joint  man- 
agement of  teachers  and  students,  for  advanced 
or  special  work.  In  1903  the  student  enroll- 
ment was  1015,  and  the  faculty  numbered  90. 
The  endowment  was  $1,100,000,  the  grounds  and 
buildings  were  valued  at  $1,149,000,  and  the  in- 
come was  $308,000. 

BMITH^FIELB,  or  SMOOTHFIELI).  An 
historic-  cattle  market  in  London,  mentioned  as 
early  as  1150,  and  since  1868  the  seat  of  the 
Central  Meat  Market,  covering  3V^  acres.  In  the 
twelfth  century  Smoothfield  was  an  open  spot, 
which  served  the  citizens  as  a  playground  and 
promenade.  It  was  outside  the  city  walls.  Here 
Wat  lyier  met  his  death  in  1381,  and  the  place 
is  associated  with  trials  by  battle,  tournaments, 
the  burning  of  martyrs,  public  executions  during 
many  centuries,  and  a  variety  of  incidents  con- 
nected with  the  history  of  the  metropolis.  The 
most  celebrated  fair  in  England,  Bartholomew 
Fair  (q.v.),  was  always  held  in  Smithfield. 

SMITHS  PALLS.  A  town  of  Lanark,  Leeds, 
and  Grenville  counties,  Ontario,  Canada,  39 
miles  southwest  of  Ottawa.  It  has  some  manu- 
factures (Map:  Ontario,  G  3).  Population,  in 
1891,  3864;  in  1901,  5155. 

SMITH^ON,  James  (1765-1829).  Founder 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  at  Washington, 
known  in  early  life  as  James  Lewis  or  Lonis 
Macie.  He  was  bom  in  France,  the  natural  son 
of  Hugh  Smithson,  first  Duke  of  Northiunber- 
land,  and  of  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Keate  Macie,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Hungerford  family  of  Studley.  Smith- 
son  (or  Macie  as  he  was  called)  was  a  student 
at  Pembroke,  where  he  received  the  degree  of 
M.A.  in  May,  1786,  and  he  was  admitted  as  a 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  on  April  26,  1787. 
His  scientific  work  lay  in  the  main  in  the  fields 
of  chemistry  and  mineralogy,  and  he  read  28 
papers  before  the  Royal  Society,  while  he  pub- 
lished 18  in  Thomson's  AnnaU  of  Philosophy, 
He  left  in  addition  a  considerable  number  of 
unpublished  manuscripts  and  a  collection  of 
some  8000  or  10,000  minerals,  which  were  de- 
stroyed by  fire  in  the  Smithsonian  Building 
in  1865.  Smithson  passed  a  large  part  of  his 
life  on  the  Continent,  and  died  in  Genoa,  Italy, 
and  was  buried  in  the  English  cemetery  at  that 
place.   His  grave  is  marked  by  a  tablet  erected 


SMITHSOH. 


958 


SMITHSONIAN  INSTITX7TI0N. 


by  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  His  for- 
tune came  in  the  main  from  a  son  of  his 
mother  by  a  former  marriage.  Col.  Henry  Louis 
Dickinson^  with  the  exception  of  £3000  from  a 
half-sister  on  the  paternal  side,  Dorothy  Percy. 
By  his  will  he  left  to  his  nephew,  Henry  James 
Hungerford^  his  fortune,  amounting  to  $515,169, 
stipulating  furthermore  that  if  the  legatee 
should  die  without  issue,  legitimate  or  illegiti- 
mate, the  money  should  pass  to  the  United 
States  "to  found  at  Washington,  imder  the 
name  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  an  estab- 
lishment for  the  increase  and  diffusion  of  knowl- 
edge among  men."  As  Hungerford  so  died  in 
1835,  the  iMquest  reverted  to  the  United  States. 
(See  SiaTHSONiAN  Institution.)  In  the  obitu- 
ary notice  of  Davies  Gilbert,  president  of  the 
Royal  Society,  the  name  of  Smithson  is  associ- 
ated with  those  of  Wollaston,  Young,  and  Davy, 
and  he  corresponded  and  associated  with  Arago, 
Biot,  and  Klaproth.  Smithson  was  never  in 
America,  and  it  is  not  known  what  induced  him 
to  give  his  fortune  to  the  United  States,  though 
a  clue  may  be  found  in  the  following  sen- 
tences which  indicate  his  sense  of  wrong  in  the 
illegitimacy  of  his  birth.  He  wrote:  "The  best 
blood  of  England  flows  in  my  veins.  On  my 
father's  side  I  am  a  Northumberland,  on  my 
mother's  I  am  related  to  kings;  but  this  avails 
me  not."  **My  name,"  Smithson  wrote,  "shall 
live  in  the  memory  of  man  when  the  titles  of  the 
Northumberlands  and  the  Percies  are  extinct 
and  forgotten."  Consult:  Rhees,  Smithson  and 
His  Bequest  (1880);  Langley,  "James  Smith- 
son,"  in  The  Smithsonian  Institution,  1846  to 
1896,  and  the  History  of  its  First  Half  Century, 
by  George  Brown  Goode  (Washington,  1897). 

SMITHSONIAN  INSTITTJTION,  The.  An 
institution  in  Washington,  District  of  Columbia, 
created  by  an  act  of  (!k)ngres8  on  August  10,  1846, 
in  accordance  with  the  will  of  James  Smithson 
(q.v.),  who  bequeathed  the  reversion  of  an  estate 
amounting  to  $515,169  to  the  United  States  to  be 
devoted  to  the  "increase  and  diffusion  of  knowl- 
edge among  men." 

HiSTOBY.  Upon  the  death  of  Smithson's 
ne{>hew,  Henry  James  Hungerford,  in  1835,  the 
United  States  legation  in  London  was  notified 
of  the  bequest.  The  disposition  of  the  properly 
was  for  ten  years  debated  in  Congress,  but  ulti- 
mately the  trust  was  acce^jted  and  Congress  cre- 
ated an  establishment  consisting  of  the  President 
and  the  members  of  his  Cabinet  who  intrusted 
the  management  of  the  institution  to  a  board  of 
regents,  consisting  of  the  Vice-President  and 
Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States,  three  regents 
to  be  appointed  by  the  president  of  the  Senate, 
three  by  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives, and  six  to  be  selected  by  Congress,  two  of 
whom  should  be  residents  of  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia, and  the  other  four  from  different  States, 
no  two  being  from  the  same  State.  The  regents 
met  for  the  first  time  on  September  7,  1846,  and 
elected  Joseph  Henry  as  executive  officer,  with 
the  title  of  secretary,  under  whose  guidance  the 
institution  took  shape.  He  prepared  a  programme 
of  organization,  which  was  adopted  in  1847  and 
has  since  been  the  plan  under  which  the  institu- 
tion has  been  conducted.  Having  in  mind  the 
exact  statements  of  Smithson,  he  recommended  to 
increase  knowledge'  by  the  following  methods: 
(1)  To  stimulate  men  of  talent  to  make  original 


researches  by  offering  suitable  rewards  for  mem- 
oirs containing  new  truths,  and  (2)  to  appropri- 
ate annually  a  portion  of  Uie  income  for  particu- 
lar researches^  imder  the  direction  of  suitable 
persons.  To  'diffuse  knowledge'  he  proposed: 
(1)  To  publish  a  series  of  periodical  reports  on 
the  progress  of  the  different  branches  of  knowl- 
edge; and  (2)  to  publish  occasional  separate 
treatises  on  subjects  of  general  interest. 

Under  Henry  was  begun  the  construction  of  a 
building  designed  by  James  Renwick  in  the  Nor- 
man style  of  architecture,  which  has  since  been 
the  home  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  A 
library  was  formed  by  exchange  and  purchase,  and 
materials  for  a  museum  collected.  Original  re- 
search was  fostered.  One  of  the  first  subjects 
to  be  studied  under  the  direction  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  was  the  phenomena  of  storms, 
and  the  investigations  of  Espy  and  others  led  to 
the  establishment  of  a  telegraphic  weather  ser- 
vice which  subsequently  developed  into  the 
Weather  Bureau.  The  material  collected  by  the 
various  exploring  expeditions  and  the  Pacific 
railway  surveys  was  deposited  with  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  and  that  likewise  led  in  time 
to  the  formation  of  the  United  States  National 
Museum  (q.v.).  The  'diffusion  of  knowledge' 
was  inaugurated  by  the  issuing  of  various  publi- 
cations. These  include:  (1)  Smithsonian  Con- 
tributions to  Knowledge,  a  quarto  series  of  origi- 
nal memoirs  embracing  the  records  of  extended 
original  investigations  and  researches,  which  be- 
gan in  1848  with  a  monograph  by  Squier  and 
Davis,  and  now  comprises  32  volumes;  (2) 
Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections,  an  octavo 
series  of  papers  on  the  present  state  of  knowl- 
edge on  particular  branches  of  science,  which  be- 
gan in  1860,  and  now  consists  of  43  volumes;  and 
(3)  Annual  Reports  of  the  Board  of  Regents, 
which  are  also  octavo  in  form  and  consist  of  the 
reports  and  proceedings  of  the  officers  of  the  in- 
stitution, together  with  a  general  appendix  con- 
taining a  selection  of  memoirs  of  interest  to  col- 
laborators and  correspondents  of  the  institution, 
teachers,  and  others  engaged  in  the  promotion  of 
knowledge.  These  reports  b^an  m  1847  and 
have  been  published  annually  since. 

International  Exchanges.  The  publication 
of  these  different  series  led  to  an  extensive  ex- 
change with  serial  publications  and  transactions 
of  learned  societies  resulting  in  one  of  the  most 
notable  collections  of  the  world,  the  greater  por- 
tion of  which,  since  1866,  has  been  deposited  in 
the  Library  of  Congress.  In  1861  a  system  of  in- 
ternational exchanges  was  established  primarily 
for  the  circulation  of  the  Smithsonian  publica- 
tions, but  in  1867  the  duty  of  exchanging  official 
documents  for  similar  works  published  by  foreign 
departments  was  assigned  to  this  service  by  the 
Government.  The  Annual  Report  for  1902  shows 
the  correspondents  of  this  service  to  consist  of 
14,942  libraries  and  23,258  persons.  This  bureau 
is  supported  by  -an  annual  appropriation  from 
Congress. 

National  Museum.  See  United  States  Na- 
TiONAL  Museum. 

BuBEAu  OF  American  Ethnology.  Early  in  its 
history  the  Smithsonian  Institution  showed  an 
interest  in  American  anthropology,  chiefly  in  the 
branch  of  ethnology  and  with  special  reference  to 
American  Indians.  Beginning  with  1867,  various 
exploring  parties,  under  the  direction  of  John  W. 


BMITHSOKIAN  IK8TITTTTI0K. 


954 


SMITH  SOTTKI). 


Powell  (q.v.),  were  sent  out.  Especially  to  be 
mentioned  is  ttie  famous  exploration  of  the  Grand 
Cafion  of  the  Colorado.  Subsequently,  the  United 
States  Creographical  and  Geological  Survey  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  region  was  organized  under  Major 
Powell,  and  the  collections  made  were  deposited 
in  the  National  Museum.  On  the  consolidation 
of  the  various  geological  surveys  in  1879,  the 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnologv  was  established 
by  act  of  Congress,  and  plac^  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  it  has 
since  been  continued  with  annual  appropriations 
from  Congress.  It  has  for  its  principal  objects 
the  carrying  on  of  studies  in  the  ethnology, 
archseology,  pictography,  and  linguistics  of  North 
America.  It  publishes  Annual  Reports,  quarto, 
which  were  begun  in  1879,  and  a  series  of  octavo 
bulletins  begun  in  1877;  it  also  completed  tlie 
Contributions  to  North  American  Ethnology,  a 
series  of  nine  quarto  volumes  that  were  begun  in 
1877.  The  first  Director  of  the  Bureau  was 
Powell,  who  continued  in  that  office  until  his 
death  in  1902,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  William 
H.  Holmes. 

National  Zoolooigal  Pabk.  A  desire  to  pre- 
serve the  wild  animals  of  this  continent  that  were 
rapidly  becoming  extinct  led  to  the  establishment 
of  temporary  quarters  for  such  specimens  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  National  Museum.  This 
collection  grew  until  in  1890  Congress  appropri- 
ated $200,000  for  the  purchase  of  a  tract  of  land 
of  about  170  acres  in  Rock  Creek  Valley  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  Washington,  and  by  act  of  April  30th 
of  that  year  established  a  National  Zoological 
Park,  which  was  placed  under  the  direction  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution.  In  1902  a  collection  of 
nearly  one  thousand  animals  was  being  cared  for 
in  the  park. 

AsTBOFHYSioAL  Obsebvatort.  The  early  de- 
sire on  the  part  of  those  prominent  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  that  a 
portion  of  the  be^juest  should  be  devoted  to  re- 
searches in  physics  found  a  culmination  soon 
after  the  appointment  of  Langley  to  the  sec- 
retaryship of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in  the 
annual  appropriation  by  Congress,  beginning  in 
1891,  of  $10,000,  which  sum  has  since  increased 
to  $12,000,  for  the  maintenance  of  an  astropbysi- 
cal  observatory.  A  modest  building  was  erected 
in  the  rear  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and 
apparatus  of  a  value  of  more  than  $30,000  has 
been  accumulated.  Considerable  investigation 
under  the  immediate  direction  of  Langley  has 
been  carried  on,  especially  on  the  infra-red  por- 
tion of  the  spectrum,  and  the  observatory  has 
issued  a  single  volume  of  Annals  of  the  Astro- 
physical  Observatory. 

Rbseabch.  In  1891  Thomas  G.  Hodgkins  made 
a  donation  of  $200,000  to  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, of  which  the  interest  of  $100,000  is  per- 
manently devoted  to  the  increase  and  diffusion  of 
more  exact  knowledge  in  regard  to  the  nature  and 
properties  of  atmospheric  air.  In  accordance 
with  this  bequest  a  prize  of  $10,000  was  awarded 
to  Lord  Rayleigh  and  Sir  William  Ramsay  in  1895 
for  the  discovery  of  the  element  argon  in  the 
atmosphere.  A  medal  bearing  the  name  of  Hodg- 
kins, and  awarded  for  important  contributions 
to  knowledge  concerning  the  nature  and  property 
of  atmospheric  air,  or  for  practical  applications 
of  our  existing  knowledge  to  the  welfare  of 
mankind,  was  established,  and  was  awarded  to 


James  Dewar  in  1899  for  his  researches  on  tha 
liquefaction  and  solidification  of  atmospheric 
air,  and  in  1901  to  J.  J.  Thomson,  for  his  in- 
vestigation on  the  conductivity  of  gases,  especial- 
ly of  the  gases  that  compose  atmospheric  air. 
Numerous  grants  from  the  Hodgkins  fund  have 
been  made  to  students,  both  in  this  country  and 
abroad,  engaged  in  the  study  of  atmospheric  air. 
For  many  years  a  table  for  original  investigation 
in  biological  science  has  been  supported  by  the 
Institution  at  the  Naples  Zoological  Station,  and 
a  number  of  American  students  have  availed 
themselves  of  its  use  for  research. 

INTEBNATIONAL  CATALOGUE.  Subsequent  to 
a  conference  held  in  London  in  1898,  an  inter- 
national catalogue  of  scientific  literature  was  un- 
dertaken in  England  and  the  cataloguing  was 
begun  with  the  beginning  of  the  present  century. 
The  collecting  of  titles  of  American  scientific 
publications  was  accepted  by  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  and  has  since  1900  been  conducted 
under  its  supervision. 

American  Histobt.  In  1889  the  American 
Historical  Association  (q.v.)  was  incorporated 
by  act  of  Congress,  and  authorized  to  report  an- 
nually to  the  secretary  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  concerning  its  proceedings  and  the  con- 
dition of  historical  study  in  America.  In  accord- 
ance with  this  provision,  annual  reports  have 
since  been  published.  The  collections,  manu- 
scripts, books,  pamphlets,  and  other  material  for 
the  history  of  this  association  are  chiefiy  de- 
posited in  the  Smithsonian  Institution  and  in  the 
National  Museum.  Similarly,  in  1896,  the  Na- 
tional Society  of  the  Daughters  of  the  American 
Revolution  was  incorporated,  and  they  also  sub- 
mit annual  reports  to  Congress  through  the 
secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  Their 
collection  is  likewise  deposited  in  the  Naticmal 
Museum. 

Funds.  To  the  original  beouest  of  Smithson 
other  gifts  and  beques&,  including  over  $200,000 
from  ^omas  G.  Hodgkins,  have  b^n  added,  mak- 
ing a  total  of  $937,000  as  the  permanent  fund  of 
the  institution,  which  is  deposited  with  the  Treas- 
urer of  the  United  States,  and  yields  an  income 
of  6  per  cent. 

Consult:  Goode  (ed.).  The  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, 1846-1896  (Washington,  1897)  ;  Rhera 
(ed.).  The  Smithsonian  Institution,  1835-1899 
(ib.,  1901). 

SMITHSOKITE  (named  in  honor  of  James 
Smithson) .  A  mineral  zinc  carbonate  crystallized 
in  the  hexagonal  system.  It  has  a  vitreous  lustre, 
and  is  white  to  gray  and  light  green  and  brown 
in  color.  It  occurs  with  galena  and  other  zinc 
minerals,  also  with  copper  and  iron  ores  in  veins 
and  in  beds,  and  is  sometimes  produced  by  the 
action  of  zinc  sulphide  on  carbonated  waters.  It 
is  found  in  Siberia,  Hungary,  Belgium,  Greece, 
England,  and  in  the  United' States  at  the  zinc 
mines  in  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Wisconsin, 
Missouri,  and  Arkansas.  The  zinc  is  often  par- 
tially replaced  by  copper,  iron,  or  manganese. 
Smithson ite  occurs  crystallized  or  in  botryoidal 
and  stalactitic  forms,  granular  or  earthy.  The 
rich  colored  varieties  are  occasionally  cut  for 
cabinet  gems. 

SmTH  SOtrKD.  The  channel  separating 
Ellesmere  Land  from  the  Prudhoe  Peninsula  of 
Northwestern  Greenland,  and  oonnecting  BalBn 


SMITH  BOVm. 


955 


SMOKELESS  POWDBBw 


Bay  with  the  expansion  to  the  north  known  M 
Kane  Basin  (Map:  World,  Western  Hemisphere, 
B  13).  The  sound  was  discovered  bv  Bylott  and 
Baffin  in  I6I6.    For  sttbeequent  ezpIorationB,  see 

FOEJUI  BB8BAB0H. 

SMOGK^  John  Gonoveb  (1842—).  An  Ameri- 
«ian  geologist,  bom  in  Holmdel,  N.  J.,  and  edu- 
cated at  Rutgers,  where  he  graduated  in  1862. 
He  becune  professor  at  Rutgers  in  1871,  after 
haying  studied  for  two  years  at  the  Berg  Acad- 
emy and  at  the  University  of  Berlin.  From  1864 
to  1886  he  assisted  on  a  geological  survey  in  New 
Jersey,  and  in  1890  was  appointed  geologist  of 
that  State.  He  wrote  Report  on  Clay  Deposits; 
Building  Stones  in  New  York  ( 1888 ) ;  and  vol- 
umes iii.  and  iv.  of  Geological  Survey  of  State  of 
New  Jersey. 

SMOHAI/LA  (C.1820— )  (corrupted  from 
Shmoquala,  preacher,  the  name  assumed  by  him 
in  later  life).  The  originator  and  high  priest  of 
the  "Dreamer^  Indian  religion  of  the  Columbia 
River  r^on.  He  was  chief  of  the  Wanapum,  a 
small  tribe  living  about  Priests  Rapids  on  the 
Upper  Columbia,  Washington,  and  closely  re- 
lated to  Takima  (q.v.)  and  Nez  Pero6  (q.v.). 
When  about  forty  years  old,  in  a  fight  with  a 
rival  chief,  he  was  left  upon  the  ground  as  dead, 
but  regained  consciousness  and  was  brought  off 
by  some  white  men,  who  took  him  down  the  river 
in  a  boat  without  the  knowledge  of  his  people. 
Chi  his  recovery,  he  started  upon  a  journey  of 
exploration  down  through  Oregon  and  California 
into  Mexico,  then  back  through  Arizona,  Utah, 
and  Nevada  to  his  old  home,  where  he  an- 
nounced that  he  had  been  all  this  time  in  the 
spirit  world,  from  which  he  had  returned  to  de- 
Irver  a  new  revelation,  the  burden  of  which  was 
an  immediate  return  to  the  primitive  Indian  cus- 
toms. He  also  organized  a  priesthood  with  an 
elaborate  ritual  in  many  points  suggestive  of  the 
Catholic  ceremonial,  with  which  he  had  formerly 
become  familiar  at  the  Yakima  mission.  He  fell 
into  frequent  prolonged  trances,  in  which  he  was 
perfectly  insensible  to  the  most  painful  testa, 
and  from  which  he  always  emerged  with  a  fresh 
revelation  from  the  spirit  world.  He  forbade  his 
disciples  to  follow  the  white  man's  road,  to  use 
liquor  or  tobacco,  or  to  sell  their  lands.  His 
following  soon  included  nearly  all  the  Indians  of 
eastern  Washington  and  Oregon  and  western 
Idaho.  About  1870  the  matter  came  to  the 
notice  of  the  Government  from  the  refusal  of 
the  "Dreamers"  to  come  under  reservation  re- 
striction. In  1884  his  doctrines  were  made  the 
subject  of  a  special  military  investigation  in  con- 
nection with  land  troubles  on  the  Yakima  reserva- 
tion. There  were  then  two  principal  Dreamer 
churches^  at  Priests  Rapids,  where  Smohalla  re- 
sided, and  at  Union  Gap  on  the  reservation.  Be- 
sides Sunday  services  at  these,  according  to  their 
own  ritual,  the  Dreamers  had  a  memorial  lament 
for  the  dead  in  early  spring,  a  salmon  thanks- 
giving in  April,  and  a  berry  thanksgiving  in  the 
fall,  each  being  accompanied  hv  processions,  bell- 
ringing,  trance  recitals,  and  a  /east.  See  Mooney, 
The  Ohost  Dance  Religion  (Washington,  1807). 

SMOKELESS  POWDEE.  An  explosive  sub- 
stance that  bums  without  developing  much 
smoke,  and  is  used  chiefly  for  military  purposes. 
The  history  of  smokeless  powders  begins  with  the 
discovery  of  mercuric  fulminate  in  1800,  and  is 
Vol.  xv.-«i. 


eontinued  by  various  attempts  to  substituta  am* 
monium  nitrate  for  potassium  nitrate  as  the  oxi- 
dizing agent  in  gunpowder  mixtures.  Powders  of 
this  character  were  manufactured  and  sold,  but 
were  unsatisfactory,  owUig  to  the  deliquescent 
nature  of  the  ammonium  salt.  Subsequent  to 
the  discovery  of  guncotton  in  1846,  experiments 
were  undertaken  for  the  purpose  of  producing  a 
smokeless  powder  with  that  agent,  and  such  pow- 
ders were  made  by  experts  in  France,  Germany, 
Great  Britain,  the  United  States,  and  especiallv 
in  Austria,  where  Von  Lenck  is  credited  with 
having  obtained  excellent  results  with  guncot- 
ton preparations  that  were  used  with  field  guns 
in  1867  and  1868.  The  present  employment  of 
smokeless  powder  may  be  said  to  have  b^^pm  with 
the  invention  of  poudre  B,  in  France  in  1886. 
Guttmann  divides  the  smokeless  powders  into 
three  classes,  as  follows:  (1)  Powders  in  which 
guncotton,  either  the  insoluble  or  the  soluble  va- 
riety alone,  is  used,  which,  by  the  aid  of  a  solvent, 
has  been  converted  into  a  homy  substance  and 
then  is  formed  into  flakes  or  cords;  (2)  powders 
in  which  a  mixture  of  nitroglycerin  and  either 
dinitro-  or  trinitro-celluloee  is  transformed  into  a 
similar  horn-like  substance,  either  with  or  with- 
out the  aid  of  a  solvent;  and  (3)  powders  that 
contain  nitro-derivatives  of  the  aromatic  hydro- 
carbons, either  by  themselves  or  in  connection 
with  nitro-cellulose.  In  a  general  way,  the 
process  for  manufacturing  these  powders  oonsistB 
in  steeping  cellulose  in  a  mixture  of  nitric  and 
sulphuric  acids,  and  the  resulting  nitro-oellulose 
or  guncotton  is  then  brought  into  the  colloid 
condition  by  treatment  with  some  solvent  such  as 
a  mixture  of  alcohol  and  ether,  ethyl  acetic  ester, 
or  acetone.  The  solvent  chosen  depends  on  the 
character  of  the  cellulose  nitrate  used  and  the 
special  qualities  sought  in  the  product  In  cer- 
tain of  the  smokeless  powders  oxidising  agents, 
such  as  the  nitrate  of  metallic  bases,  are  added 
to  increase  the  velocity  of  the  explosive,  and 
when  the  action  of  the  explosive  is  too  violent  a 
deterrent  or  substance  rich  in  carbon  is  added. 
The  colloid  or  horn-like  substance  is  then  cut  into 
flakes  by  machines,  or  as  originally  in  Italy 
forced  through  spaghetti  machines,,  and  formed 
into  cords,  either  solid  or  perforated,  of  the  de- 
sired dimensions,  which  are  then  cut  into  grains. 
Among  the  various  smokeless  powders  aie: 
Ballistitef  invented  by  Alfred  Nobel  in  1888,  and 
made  in  England;  cordite,  invented  by  Sir  Fred- 
erick Abel  and  James  Dewar,  and  made  in  Eng- 
land; Dtt  Pont  powder,  invented  by  F.  C.  A  P. 
S.  Du  Pont  in  1893,  and  made  in  Wilmington, 
Del. ;  indurite,  invented  b^-  Charles  E.  Mimroe  in 
1880,  and  made  at  Newport,  R.  I.;  cibalite,  in- 
vented by  J.  K.  von  Falkenstein,  and  made  in 
Germany;  poudre  J.,  invented  by  Bruneau,  and 
poudre  pyrowySe,  made  by  the  French  Govern- 
ment; Troisdorf,  Von  Forster,  Walsrpde,  and 
Wetteren  powders,  made  in  Germany,  each  of 
which  varies  slightly  from  the  others  in  the 
preparation  of  the  mixture  or  proportions  of  the 
ingredients.  For  full  information  on  the  subject, 
see  the  history  of  the  development  of  smokeless 
powders  given  in  Charles  E.  Munroe's  Presi- 
dential address  before  the  Washington  Section  of 
the  American  Chemical  Society  in  1896.  Consult 
also  Longridge,  Smokeless  Powder  and  Its  In- 
fluenoe  on  Oun  Construction  (London,  1890),  and 


8K0KELB88  POWDER. 


956 


8XQLLETT. 


Quttmann,  The  Manufacture  of  Ewploeives  (Lon- 
don, 1895). 

SMOKE  EinSANCE.  Smoke  is  produced  by 
the  incomplete  combustion  of  fuel,  tiny  bits  of 
unconsumed  matter  being  wafted  into  the  air  bv 
the  gases  which  are  liberated  and  not  decomposed. 
In  order  to  effect  complete  combustion,  it  is  nec- 
essary that  all  the  constituent  g^es  be  raised  to 
a  very  high  temperature  and  mixed  with  oxygen 
before  the  temperature  falls. 

The  difference  betweeen  bituminous  and  anthra- 
cite coal  is  that  while  anthracite  is  composed  of 
almost  pure  carbon,  bituminous  contains  in  ad- 
dition to  the  fixed  carbon  a  compound  of  carbon 
and  hydrogen,  which  makes,  under  present  meth- 
ods, all  the  trouble.  When  bitummous  coal  is 
ignited  these  hydrocarbons  are  first  volatilized 
by  the  heat,  then  the  hydrogen  unites  with  the 
oxygen  of  the  air  and  the  carbon  is  set  free. 
These  free  carbon  particles  are  made  incandes- 
cent by  the  intense  heat,  and  it  is  this  which 
produces  the  bright  flame  so  characteristic  of 
bituminous  coal.  If  there  is  at  this  stage  a 
sufficient  supply  of  oxyeen  and  enough,  but  not 
too  much,  heat,  the  carbon  will  be  transformed 
into  carbonic  acid  gas  and  combustion  will  be 
complete.  If  there  is  not  enough  oxygen  some  of 
the  free  particles  of  carbon  will  escape  through 
the  chimney  as  smoke.  Smoke  will  also  be  pro- 
duced by  tne  volatilization  of  the  hydrocarbons 
at  a  heat  less  than  that  necessary  to  separate  the 
hydrogen  from  the  carbon;  or  if,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  heat  is  so  suddenly  intense  that  some 
of  the  fixed  carbon  is  carried  off  before  it  has 
time  for  combustion.  All  the  conditions  neces- 
sary for  complete  or  smokeless  combustion  may 
be  met  by  properly  constructed  furnaces  and  in- 
telligent firemen. 

In  recent  years  a  number  of  American  States 
have  authorized  some  or  all  cities  within  their 
boundaries  to  prohibit  the  emission  of  dense 
smoke  from  chimneys  and  smoke-stacks  and  to 
establish  special  departments  to  abate  the  smoke 
nuisance.  In  1903  such  departments  existed  in 
Chicago,  Saint  Louis,  and  Cleveland.  In  New 
York  the  local  Board  of  Health  has  authority  in 
this  matter.^  The  smoke  nuisance  has  also  been 
the  subject  of  general  legislation  in  foreign  coun- 
tries, notably  in  Great  Britain. 

BiBUooBAPHY.  Little  John,  article  '^Elffects  of 
Smoke  and  Fog  on  Health,"  in  the  Sanitary  Rec- 
ord (June  18,  1897;  also  November  4,  1898); 
Journal  of  the  Franklin  Jnatitute  ( Philadelphia, 
1897-98,  and  1898)  containing  the  reports  made 
to  the  committee  appointed  to  investigate  the 
subject  of  smoke  prevention  by  various  special- 
ists; "Coal  Combustion  and  Smoke  Prevention," 
in  American  Oas-Li^ht  Journal,  August  29,  1898. 

SMOKE  PIPE.  A  pipe,  usually  of  thin  iron 
or  steel,  which  serves  to  conduct  the  smoke  and 
gases  of  a  steam  boiler  to  the  open  air.  In  large 
vessels  there  are  usually  several  smoke  pipes, 
which  in  some  instances  have  a  diameter  of 
more  than  26  feet  and  a  height  of  125  feet  above 
the  furnaces.  The  area  of  the  cross-section  of 
the  pipe  depends  upon  the  amoimt  and  speed  of 
the  gases  which  are  expected  to  escape  through  it. 
The  speed  of  the  moving  gases  (i.e.  the  draught) 
is  much  accelerated  by  increasing  the  height  and 
a  due  consideration  of  this  fact  has  added  con- 
siderably to  the  length  of  smoke  pipes  in  recent 
years.     On  modem  seagoing  vessels  they  are 


usually  surrounded  by  thin  sheet-iron  casingi, 
leaving  air  spaces  between  these  and  the  smoke 
pipes  proper.  This  plan  prevents  surrounding 
objects  from  being  injured  by  the  heat  and  the 
casing  remains  at  a  temperature  sufficiently  low 
to  permit  of  its  being  kept  neatly  painted.  The 
various  steamship  companies  in  many  cases  have 
adopted  different  colored  bands  or  painting  for 
the  smoke  pipes  of  their  ships  as  distinguishing 
marks. 

8M0KT  (or  Gbeat  Shokt)  MOu^TAIHS. 
A  division  of  the  Appalachians.  See  Unaka 
Mountains. 

SMOLENSK,  smd-ly&isk^  A  government  of 
Russia,  bounded  by  Tver  on  the  north,  Moscow 
and  Kaluga  on  the  east,  Orel  on  the  southeast, 
and  Mohilev,  Vitebsk,  and  Pskov  on  the  west 
(Map:  Russia,  D  3).  Area,  about  21,640  square 
miles.  The  northern  part  belongs  to  the  central 
elevation  of  European  Russia  and  is  generally 
hilly.  In  the  south  and  the  east  the  surface  is 
mostly  level,  and  marshy  in  the  northwest.  The 
Government  of  Smolensk  is  well  watered  by  the 
Dnieper,  Dttna,  and  several  tributaries  of  the 
Volga  and  the  Oka.  The  soil  is  mostly  unfertile 
and  about  one-third  of  the  government  is  still 
covered  with  forest.  The  principal  agricultural 
products  are  rye,  oats,  and  flax.  Stock-raising 
is  in  a  state  of  decline.  The  house  industry  is 
only  slightly  developed.  Of  late  there  has  been 
a  considerable  growth  in  the  manufacturing  in- 
dustries. Oil,  textiles,  trimmed  lumber,  and 
spirits  are  the  chief  products.  The  population, 
in  1897,  was  1,551,068,  chiefly  Great  and  White 
Russians.  The  medieval  Principality  of  Smo- 
lensk is  mentioned  flrst  as  a  separate  State  in 
1054«  It  attained  great  power  in  the  twelfth 
century,  but  declined  greatly  under  the  sway 
of  the  Tatars  and  was  annexed  to  Lithuania 
at  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The 
region  was  permanently  reunited  with  Russia 
in  1654. 

8ED0LENSX.  The  capital  of  the  Government 
of  Smolensk,  Russia,  situated  on  the  Dnieper, 
260  miles  west-southwest  of  Moscow  (Map:  Rus- 
sia, D  4).  The  main  part  of  the  city  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  river  is  surrounded  by  the  rem- 
nants of  the  old  walls  and  contains  the  Uspensld 
Cathedral,  with  a  venerated  picture  of  the  Virgin. 
There  are  a  seminary  for  priests,  and  a  historico- 
philological  museum.  The  philanthropic  institu- 
tions are  numerous.  There  are  few  industries 
and  the  export  trade  is  unimportant.  Population, 
in  1897,  46,899.  Smolensk  is  one  of  the  oldest 
cities  of  Russia  and  is  mentioned  by  Nestor  as 
the  capital  of  the  Krivitches.  It  was  the  capital 
of  the  Principality  of  Smolensk  and  later  obtained 
Magdeburg  rights  and  other  privileges  from 
Lithuania.  In  1514  it  was  taken  by  the  Rus- 
sians and  in  1611  it  was  recovered  by  the  Poles, 
after  a  siege  of  twenty  months.  With  its  final 
annexation  to  Russia  in  1654  Smolensk  was  de- 
prived of  its  privileges  and  gradually  lost  its 
importance.  It  play^  a  prominent  part  in  the 
wars  of  Peter  I.  with  the  Swedes  and  is  espe- 
cially noted  as  the  scene  of  a  fierce  engagement 
between  the  French  and  the  Russians  on  August 
17,  1812,  in  which  the  Russians  were  defeated 
and  retreated  to  Mosoow. 

SKOLOiETT,  Tobias  Geobob  (1721-71).  A 
British  novelist,  descended  from  an  old  and  re- 


8M0LLBTT. 


967 


SMUOOUNO. 


spectable  Scotch  family  having  a  seat  called 
Bonhill  in  the  beautiful  valley  of  the  Leven,  near 
Dumbarton,  Scotland.  His  grandfather,  Sir 
James  Smollett,  often  sat  in  the  Scottish  Parlia- 
ment, was  a  judge  of  the  commissary  court  in 
Edinburgh,  and  helped  frame  the  articles  of  union 
(1707).  Tobias  wished  to  enter  the  army,  but 
was  thwarted  by  his  grandfather,  who  appears  in 
Roderick  Random  as  the  unamiable  Old  Judge. 
After  attending  the  Dumbarton  grammar  school, 
Tobias  was  sent  to  the  University  of  Glasgow  to 
qualify  for  medicine,  and  was  apprenticed  (1736) 
for  five  years  to  Dr.  John  Gordon,  of  Glasgow. 
Much  later  (1750)  he  obtained  ttke  degree  of 
M.D.  from  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen.  In  1730 
Smollett  went  to  London  with  a  tragedy  called 
The  Regicide,  Embittered  by  his  fruitless  at- 
tempts to  get  it  performed,  he  accepted  the  post 
of  surgeon's  mate  on  board  the  Cumberland, 
which  sailed  in  1740  to  join  Admiral  Vernon's 
fleet,  then  in  the  West  Indies,  on  the  unfortunate 
expedition  to  Cartagena.  On  the  return  voyage 
he  met  in  Jamaica  a  beautiful  Creole,  whom  he 
brought  to  London  and  afterwards  married 
(1747).  He  left  the  navy  for  good  in  1744, 
and  settled  in  London  as  surgeon.  As  his 
profession  did  not  prove  remunerative,  he 
turned  to  literature.  After  some  parodies, 
satirical  verse,  and  his  vigorous  poem,  The 
Tears  of  Scotland  (1746),  anent  the  manner  of 
crushing  the  Highland  rebellion,  he  published 
his  first  novel,  Roderick  Random  (1748),  which 
met  with  instant  success.  For  it  he  drew  largely 
on  family  history,  his  journey  from  Glasgow  to 
London,  his  troubles  over  The  Regicide,  and  his 
experiences  in  the  navy.  Here  first  appear  in 
fiction  the  real  English  tars.  As  a  result  of  a 
visit  to  Paris  (1750)  he  produced  Peregrine 
Pickle  ( 1751 ) ,  containing  the  brilliant  but  brutal 
satire  on  Mark  Akenside  and  the  notorious  "Me- 
moirs of  a  Lady  of  Quality"  (Frances  Hawes, 
Lady  Vane) .  For  the  insertion  of  these  memoirs 
written  by  Lady  Vane  herself  Smollett  is  said  to 
have  received  a  handsome  fee.  After  practicing 
medicine  for  a  short  time  at  Bath,  Smollett  re- 
turned to  London,  and  settled  at  Chelsea,  where 
he  wrote  Ferdinand,  Count  Fathom  (1763),  more 
ideal  in  motives  than  his  other  novels.  For  some 
years  he  was  engaged  in  hack  work,  translat- 
ing Don  Quiwote  (1755)  and  writing,  among 
many  other  things,  a  history  of  England  (1757- 
65).  On  the  founding  of  the  Critical  Review,  a 
Tory  organ  (February,  1756),  Smollett  became 
editor.  He  wrote  many  abusive  articles^  one  of 
which — an  attack  on  Admiral  Knowles — led  to 
a  fine  of  £100  and  imprisonment  for  three  months 
(1759).  In  the  meantime,  his  farce  Reprisal,  or 
the  Tars  of  Old  England  (1757)  was  performed 
at  Drury  Lane,  under  the  direction  of  Garrick. 
Resuming  the  novel,  Smollett  contributed  to  the 
British  Magazine  (1760-61)  The  Adventures  of 
Sir  Launcelot  Qreaves,  an  adaptation  of  Don 
Quixote.  It  is  of  bibliographical  interest  as  the 
first  English  novel  to  appear  in  a  serial.  In  1762 
he  edited  the  Briton,  a  weekly  paper  started 
to  defend  the  Tory  policy  of  Lord  Bute. 

Broken  in  health  and  sorely  grieved  by  the 
death  of  his  daughter  ( 1763) ,  Smollett  now  spent 
two  years  on  the  Continent,  where  he  wrote  his 
Travels  Through  France  and  Italy  (1766).  The 
next  few  years  were  passed  in  a  visit  to  Scot- 
land, at  Bath,  and  in  London.    The  most  note- 


worthy production  of  this  time  is  the  fleroe  politi- 
cal satire,  The  Adventures  of  an  Atom  (1760). 
Now  utterly  unnerved,  he  left  England  never  to 
return  (December,  1769).  At  a  villa  near  Leg- 
horn in  Italy  he  wrote  Humphrey  CUnker  (177lT, 
an  amusing  novel  in  letter  form,  based  upon  his 
own  vain  search  for  health  at  Bath  and  in  the 
North.  He  died  September  17,  1771,  and  was 
buried  in  the  English  cemetery  at  Leghorn.  For 
fifty  years  after  his  death  Smollett  was  ranked 
high  as  a  novelist;  but  during  the  latter  half  of 
the  nineteenth  century  his  fame  imduly  sank. 
Thackeray  was  the  last  of  the  great  novelists  to 
praise  him.  Smollett's  art  is  indeed  crude  when 
compared  with  recent  craftsmanship.  His  novels, 
constructed  after  the  type  of  Oil  Bias  and  other 
picturesque  adventurers,  possess  no  organic  unity. 
On  the  other  hand,  he  wrote  vigorous  English, 
and  created  many  admirable  characters,  as  Cap- 
tain Bowling,  Commodore  Trunnion,  Tabitha 
Bramble,  and  Lismahago.  Consult:  Chambers, 
Life  and  Selections  from  Writings  (London, 
1867) ;  Life,  by  D.  Hannay  (ib.,  1867)  and  by 
O.  Smeaton  (Edinburgh,  1897) ;  the  Memoirs,  by 
W.  Scott,  containing  a  famous  comparison  be- 
tween Fielding  and  Smollett,  prefixed  to  Smol- 
lett's novels  in  the  Novelists'  Library  (London, 
1821) ;  the  Quarterly  Review  (voL  ciii.,  1858) ; 
Works,  ed.  with  excellent  memoir  by  Saintsbury 
(12  vols.,  London,  1895);  and  Topography  of 
Humphrey  Clinker,  in  Dobson's  Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury Vignettes  (second  series,  London,  1894). 

SMOLT.  A  British  term  for  a  young  sal- 
mon (q.v.)  two  or  three  years  old,  which  has 
graduated  from  the  'parr,'  or  banded,  state  and 
become  silvery. 

SMBITIy  smr^td  (Skt.,  remembrance).  In 
Sanskrit  literature  the  technical  term  for  those 
works,  especially  the  Sutras  (q.v.)  which  deal 
with  civil  and  religious  usage,  regarded  as  based 
on  tradition  received  from  ancient  sages,  and  not 
on  divine  revelation.  Smriti  is  therefore  con- 
trasted with  Sruti,  or  revelation.    See  I§bi7TI. 

SKtJOOLINO  (from  smuggle,  JjQer.  smug- 
geln,  to  smuggle;  connected  with  Icel.  smj4ga, 
to  creep  through  a  hole,  AS.  sm^gan,  smUgan,  to 
creep,  Ger.  schmiegen,  to  cling  to,  bend,  get  into, 
OChurch  Slav,  smykati,  to  crawl,  Lith.  sm^ti, 
to  glide).  The  act  of  importing  or  export- 
ing goods  from  a  country  in  violation  of  law. 
Such  infringement  of  the  laws  is  defined  by 
the  United  States  statutes  substantially  as  fol- 
lows: To  'Tmowingly  and  willfully,  with  intoit 
to  ^defraud  the  revenue  of  the  United  States, 
smuggle  or  introduce  into  the  United  States  any 
goods,  wares,  or  merchandise  subject  to  duiy,  and 
which  should  have  been  invoiced,  without  paying 
or  accounting  for  the  duty,"  or  to  "make  out  or 
pass,  or  attempt  to  pass,  through  the  custom- 
house any  false,  forged,  or  fraudulent  invoice." 
A  person  convicted  of  either  of  above  acts  is 
''guilty  of  a  misdemeanor  and  .  .  .  shall  be  fined 
in  any  sum  not  exceeding  five  thousand  dollars, 
or  imprisoned  for  any  length  of  time  not  ex- 
ceeding two  years,  or  both."  It  is  necessary  to 
prove  intent  and  knowledge  of  the  wrongful  act 
in  order  to  convict  a  person  under  the  statute, 
and  the  defense  of  innocent  intention  is  often 
successful  in  preventing  prosecution.  Conceal- 
ment of  dutiable  articles  in  baggage  is  punish- 
able by  the  forfeiture  of  such  articles  and  tb» 


SKUOOLING. 


958 


nmtvA. 


penonB  guilty  of  the  fraud  are  liable  to  a  penalty 
of  treble  the  value  of  them.  The  court  may 
in  proceedings  other  than  criminal,  arising  un- 
der the  revenue  laws,  direct  the  defendant  to 
produce  in  court  all  bills  of  lading,  invoioesy 
books,  etc.,  relating  to  the  importation  of  the 
goods  in  question.  Smuggled  property  is  con- 
demned and  sold  and  the  proceeds,  after  payment 
of  costs  and  rewards  for  information,  if  any,  are 
paid  into  the  United  States  Treasury. 

SMTTTS  (probably  from  AS.  amiita,  OHG. 
smiz,  stain,  spbt,  smut;  connected  with  AS. 
8mitan,  to  smite,  Goth.  hi-8meitan,  OHG.  amlzanf 
Ger.  achmeissen,  to  strike,  smear).  A  group  of 
fungi  considered  parasitic  upon  cereals  and 
characterized  by  black  dust-like  masses  (spores) 
which  take  the  place  of  the  natural  seed  parts. 
There  are  many  species,  nearly  every  kind  of 
cereal  being  subject  to  the  attack  of  one  or  more. 
In  general  the  smut  spores  which,  as  a  rule,  are 
attached  to  the  grain  when  sown,  germinate  at 
the  same  time  as  the  seed,  the  fungus  entering  the 
young  plantlet  in  which  it  develops  unseen  until 
about  the  time  the  grain  is  beginning  to  head, 
when  the  flower  or  grain  becomes  filled  with  a 
mass  of  delicate  threads  which  soon  mature  their 
spores  for  the  infection  of  the  next  crop.  The 
smuts  are  of  two  classes:  the  stinking  smuts, 
so  called  from  their  disagreeable  odor,  and  the 
loose  smuts.  The  former  destroy  only  the  kernel ; 
the  latter,  which  are  dusty  and  are  blown  away, 
leaving  a  bare  stalk,  destroy  the  whole  head.  The 
amount  of  injury  done  the  cereal  crops  is  very 
great.  Hardly  a  country  is  not  more  or  lees 
ravaged  by  these  diseases.  A  conservative  esti- 
mate places  the  annual  loss  due  to  smut  on  the 
oat  crop  of  the  United  States  at  $18,000,000. 

The  smuts  of  wheat,  barley,  rye,  and  oats  can 
be  controlled  to  a  great  degree  by  treating  the 
seed  prior  to  sowing  with  various  fungicides. 
Oat  smut  {Uatilago  avencB)  may  be  controlled  by 
soaking  the  seed  for  24  hours  in  a  solution  of  one 
poimd  of  potassium  sulphide  to  twenty  gallons  of 
water,  or  for  two  hours  in  one  pound  of  formalin 
in  45  to  60  gallons  of  water.  Or  the  seed  may  be 
thoroughly  wetted  with  the  solution  and  allowed 
to  stand  for  the  same  length  of  time,  after  which 
the  grain  is  sown.  For  the  other  smuts  the  hot 
water  or  Jensen  treatment  is  recommended.  Two 
vessels  of  at  least  twenty  gallons' capacity  are  filled 
with  water,  one  at  a  temperature  of  110*-120*  F., 
the  other  at  132**-135**,  and  kept  constantly 
at  those  temperatures.  The  seed  is  placed  in 
covered  baskets  or  loose  bags  and  dippea  into  the 
first  for  one  to  two  minutes,  and  then  plunged  into 
the  second  vessel,  raised  and  lowered  several 
times  for  ten  to  fifteen  minutes,  and  then  spread 
to  dry.  In  treating  wheat  and  barley  for  loose 
smut  {Uatilago  tritici  and  Uatilago  nuda  re- 
spectively) a  preliminary  soaking  for  four  hours 
in  cold  water  is  advised.  For  the  stinking  smuts 
of  wheat  {Tilletia  foetena  and  Tilletia  tritici) 
and  the  covered  smut  of  barley  ( Vatilago  hordei) , 
soaking  seed  for  twelve  hours  in  copper  sulphate 
solution  (one  pound  to  24  gallons  of  water),  and 
dipping  a  few  minutes  into  lime  water,  is  also 
recommended.  In  all  these  treatments  the  treated 
seed  must  not  come  in  contact  with  smut  in  un- 
clean grain  bags,  bins,  or  seeding  implements. 

None  of  these  treatments  is  of  benefit  in  pre- 
ventinsr  maize  or  com  smut  i  Uatilago  maydia). 
The  black  spores  germinate  upon  the  ground,  in 


manure  or  other  suitable  locationa,  and  quickly 
develop  thin-walled  colorless  spores  that  are  car< 
ried  by  wind,  germinate  upon  the  rapidly  grow- 
ing tissues  of  the  com  plant,  which  they  may 
infect  locally  at  any  time,  and  in  a  few  weeks 
produce  boil-like  growths.  Each  smut  mass  is  be- 
lieved to  represent  a  separate  infection.  De- 
struction by  burning  all  smut  balls,  whenever 
found,  is  the  only  remedy.  Throwing  them  upon 
the  ground,  or  manure  heaps,  or  feeding  to  stock 
will  only  aid  in  spreading  the  disease.  Experi- 
ments with  cows  have  shown  that  com  smut  ia 
not  poisonous,  as  it  is  often  believed  to  be,  the 
animals  having  eaten  ten  pounds  or  more  daily 
without  any  noticeable  inoonvenienoe. 

SMYBEBT,  sml^rt,  or  SXIBEBT,  John 
(1684-1751).  A  Scotch- American  painter,  bora 
in  Edinbuig^h.  He  studied  in  London  in  Sir 
James  Thomhill's  academy,  and  in  Italy,  and 
became  a  portrait  painter  in  London.  When 
Bishop  Berkeley  received  permission  from  the 
British  Government  to  found  a  college  in  the 
Bermuda  Islands,  he  took  Smybert  with  him  to 
be  professor  of  fine  arts.  But  the  promised 
funds  were  not  forthcoming,  and  after  remaining 
in  Newport,  R.  I.,  three  years,  Berkeley  returned 
to  Europe.  Smybert  went  to  live  in  Boston,  and 
came  to  have  considerable  influence  on  the  paint- 
ers Copley,  Trumbull,  and  Allston.  His  brat 
work,  "Bishop  Berkeley  and  His  Family,"  paint- 
ed in  1729^  and  presented  to  Yale  Coll^  in 
1808,  was  the  first  group  of  the  kind  produced  in 
America.  His  other  portraits,  which  are  charac- 
terized by  a  dry  formal  style,  but  are  good  like- 
nesses, are  those  of  Jonathan  Edwards  and 
Judge  Edward  Quincy  (in  the  Boston  Art 
Museum) ;  Governor  Endicott^  Peter  Faneuil,and 
Mrs.  Smybert  (in  the  gallery  of  the  Massachu- 
setts Historical  Society) ;  and  John  Lowell  (in 
Harvard  Memorial  Hall). 

SXYBKAy  smer'n^.  The  capital  of  the  Vilayet 
of  Aidin  (or  of  Smyrna),  the  chief  city  of 
Asia  Minor  and  the  second  seaport  of  the 
Ottoman  Empire,  situated  at  the  nead  of  the 
Gulf  of  Smyrna,  in  latitude  dd"*  26'  N.  and 
longitude  27  **  9'  E.,  and  somewhat  over 
200  miles  southwest  of  Constantinople,  with 
which  it  is  now  connected  by  rail  (Map:  Turkey 
in  Asia,  B  3).  The  city  is  laid  out  partly 
on  level  land  and  partly  on  the  slopes  of  Mount 
Pagus,  and  presents  an  imposing  appearance 
from  the  sea.  It  is  divided  into  five  quarters: 
the  Moslem  Quarter,  with  its  numerous  minarets 
and  narrow  crooked  streets;  the  Jewish  Quarter, 
poor,  overcrowded  and  dirty;  the  Armenian  and 
Greek  quarters,  well  built  and  European  in  their 
cleanliness;  and,  Anally,  the  European  Quarter, 
with  its  fine  quay,  shops,  and  hotels.  The  centre 
of  archseological  interest  is  Mount  Pasus  with 
its  ruined  castle  and  portions  of  the  Acropolis 
walls,  in  which  Greek  masonry  can  be  traced.  Of 
considerable  interest  also  is  the  Caravan  Bridge, 
with  its  Greek  and  Roman  foundations,  although 
the  statement  that  the  stream  crossed  by  it  is  the 
celebrated  Meles  is  generally  discredited.  The 
mosque  called  Hissar  Jam!  is  of  some  interest. 
The  finest  Christian  churches  are  the  Greek  Cathe- 
dral of  Saint  Photini  and  the  Armenian  Cathedral 
of  Saint  Stephen.  Smyrna  contains  numerous 
schools  maintained  by  the  various  nationalities 
which  make  up  the  heterogeneous  population  of 
the  city.    A  number  of  interesting  collections  and 


SMYBKA. 


959 


8KYTH. 


libraries  are  attached  to  some  of  the  higher 
schools,  and  hospitals  and  other  benevolent  insti- 
tutions are  maintained  by  the  foreign  colonies. 
The  industries  are  limited  in  extent,  and  the 

groduct  for  which  the  town  is  most  famous, 
Smyrna  rugs,  comes  from  the  small  places  around 
the  city.  The  chief  manufactures  are  silk,  woolen, 
and  cotton  goods,  pottery,  leather,  and  some  ma- 
chinery and  iron  and  steel  products.  The  chief 
exports  are  figs,  raisins,  tobacco,  rugs,  silk, 
aponges,  hides,  cereals,  etc.  The  imports  ^re 
manufactures,  coal,  iron,  dairy  products,  etc. 
The  annual  value  of  the  trade  averages  over 
$25,000,000  and  the  value  of  the  exports  in  1001 
was  over  $20,000,000.  A  considerable  proportion 
of  the  commerce  is  with  Qreat  Britain. 

Smyrna  has  a  curious  municipal  form  of  gov- 
emment.  The  Christian  and  Jewish  communities 
have  separate  elected  councils  presided  over  by 
the  respective  religious  heads  of  the  communities. 
The  population  is  estimated  at  250,000,  of  whom 
over  one>half  are  Greek,  including  about  46,000 
Greek  subjects.  The  Mohammedans  constitute 
about  one-fourth  of  the  population. 

History.  Old  Smyrna  was  an  iGollan  colony, 
but  early  in  the  seventh  centuiy  b.c.  was  seized 
by  exiles  from  Colophon,  and  thus  brought  into 
the  Ionian  League.  Its  situation,  which  com- 
manded the  route  from  Sardis  to  the  coast,  en- 
abled it  to  develop  a  rich  commerce,  but  excited 
the  jealousy  and  aggressions  of  the  Lydian  kings. 
Gyges  was  defeated,  but  Alyattes  about  b.c.  575 
captured  and  destroyed  the  city.  Only  a  village 
remained  at  this  point  until  after  the  Macedonian 
conquest.  Antigonus  began  to  build  the  new  city 
on  the  shore  a  few  miles  southeast  of  the  old  site. 
His  death  (B.C.  301)  checked  its  growth,  but  it 
was  completed  by  Lysimachus.  It  was  laid  out 
with  great  magnificence,  and  adorned  with  several 
fine  buildings,  among  which  was  the  Homereum, 
where  the  poet  was  worshiped  as  a  hero.  The 
city  had  an  excellent  harbor  and,  from  its  admi- 
rable situation,  soon  became  one  of  the  finest  and 
most  fiourishing  cities  in  Asia.  It  seems  to  have 
been  favored  by  the  Seleucidse  and  in  B.c.  243 
was  declared  by  Seleucus  II.  sacred  and  invio- 
lable. This  position  of  neutrality  must  have  aided 
its  growth.  It  was  treated  with  consideration  by 
the  Romans,  and  when  it  suffered  severely  in  a.d. 
179  from  an  earthquake,  the  Emperor  Marcus 
Aurelius  helped  to  restore  it.  It  is  mentioned 
in  the  Apocalypse  as  the  seat  of  a  Christian 
church,  and  it  is  said  to  have  been  the  scene  of 
the  martyrdom  of  Polycarp.  Throughout  the 
greater  part  of  the  Middle  Ages  Smyrna  belonged 
to  the  Byzantine  Empire.  In  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury it  passed  into  the  possession  of  the  Elnights 
of  Saint  John.  The  Mongols  under  Tamerlane 
destroyed  it  in  1402.  Since  the  early  part  of 
the  fifteenth  century  the  town  has  belonged  to 
the  Turks. 

Consult:  Scherzer,  Smyme  (Leipzig,  1880)  ; 
Georgiades,  Smyme  et  L'Asie  Mineure  au  point 
de  vue  ^onomique  (Paris,  1885)  ;  Rougon, 
Smyrna  (ib.,  1889)  ;  Lane,  SmymcBornm  Re9 
OestcB  et  Antiquitates  (Gdttingen,  1861)  ;  and 
the  inscriptions  and  other  monuments  published 
in  the  Motw&bv  koL  /84/3Xio^«ny  r^t  e^77ffXijH^  tf'xo^^' 
(Smyrna,  1874  et  seq.). 
SmnElNA  BUGS.  See  Rugs. 
SmrTH,  smith,  Charles  Piazzt  (1819-1900). 
An  English  astronomer,  bom  in  Naples,  Italy.  He 


was  employed  in  the  observatory  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  under  Sir  Thomas  Maclear,  and  was 
astronomer  royal  of  Scotland  (1845-1888).  He 
made  elaborate  studies  of  the  Great  Pyramid  of 
Egypt,  which  he  maintained  was  built  by  divine 
inspiration  as  a  standard  of  weights  and  meas- 
ures. He  advocated  this  peculiar  theory  in 
several  books.  Smyth  was  very  eccentric  and 
became  the  hero  of  numerous  anecdotes  current 
in  astronomical  circles. 

SMYTH,  Egbebt  Coffin  (1829—).  An 
American  educator,  bom  at  Brunswick,  Me.  He 
graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in  1848,  studied 
divinity  in  the  seminary  at  Bangor,  and  entered 
the  Congregational  ministry.  In  1854  he  be- 
came professor  of  rhetoric  at  Bowdoin,  and  from 
1856  to  1863  was  professor  of  natural  and  re- 
vealed religion  there.  In  1863  he  accepted  the 
professorship  of  ecclesiastical  history  at  the  An- 
dover  Theological  Seminary.  In  1878  he  was 
chosen  president  of  the  Andover  faculty.  He 
contributed  frequently  to  current  denominational 
literature,  and  was  one  of  the  founders  and 
editors  of  the  Andover  Review.  Among  his  writ- 
ings are  a  translation  of  Uhlhom's  Conflict  of 
Chrietianiiy  toith  Heathenism  (1879),  which  he 
made  in  collaboration  with  C.  J.  H.  Ropes,  and 
Influence  of  Jonathan  Edwards  on  the  Spiritual 
Life  of  New  England  (1901). 

SMYTHy  Hebbebt  Weib  (1857—).  An 
American  classical  scholar,  bom  at  Wilmington, 
Del.  He  was  educated  at  Swarthmore  College, 
at  Harvard  University,  and  at  Crdttingen.  After 
teaching  at  Johns  Hopkins,  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  Greek  in  Bryn  Mawr  Coll^  iii 
1888,  and  in  1901  was  appointed  to  a  similar 
position  at  Harvard  University.  In  the  following ' 
year  he  was  elected  to  the  Eliot  professorship  of 
Greek  language  and  literature.  He  was  profes- 
sor in  the  American  School  of  Classical  Studies 
at  Athens  in  1899-1900.  His  most  important 
publications  are  The  Dialects  of  Greece  (1894) 
and  Greek  Melio  Poetry  (1900). 

SmrTH,  or  SMITH,  John  (M612).  An 
English  clergyman,  known  as  the  'Se-baptist.' 
He  graduated  at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  in 
1575,  became  a  fellow  of  his  college,  and  took 
orders.  He  was  publicly  rebuked  by  the  univer- 
sity authorities  for  advocating  a  Judaic  observ- 
ance of  Sunday  in  1586.  He  preached  in  Lincoln, 
1603-1605;  then  left  the  established  Church  and 
set  up  an  independent  congregation  at  Gains- 
borough in  1606.  About  1608  he  went  to  Amster- 
dam, where  he  adopted  Arminian  principles  and 
publicly  baptized  himself,  whence  ne  gained  his 
name  of  the  'Se-baptist.'  His  views  changed 
rapidly  and  in  a  short  time  he  and  those  who 
agreed  with  him  were  excommunicated  by  the 
Amsterdam  Church.  After  his  death  (at  Am- 
sterdam, 1612),  the  remnant  of  his  followers 
joined  the  Mennonites.  Smyth  wrote  several 
theological  and  controversial  treatises.  He  was 
the  author  of  some  of  the  first  expositions  of  Gen- 
eral Baptist  principles,  which  were  printed  in 
England,  and  hence  has  been  regarded  as  the 
'father'  of  the  English  General  Baptists.  (Con- 
sult Dexter,  The  True  Story  of  John  Smyth,  the 
Se-haptist  (Boston,  1881). 

SMYTH,  Samuel  Phillips  Newman  (1843 
— ).  An  American  clergyman  and  author,  bora 
in  Brunswick,  Me.  He  graduated  at  Bowdoin 
College  in  1863,  and  afterwards  serv^  as  lieu- 


81CYTS. 


9eo 


SHAKE. 


tenant  in  the  Sixteenth  regiment  of  Maine  yolnn- 
teers,  which  saw  active  service  in  Grant's  Vir- 
ginia campaigns.  After  the  close  of  the  war  he 
studied  theology  at  the  Andover  Theological 
Seminary,  graduated  there  in  1867,  and  filled 
pastorates  in  Bangor,  Me.,  and  Quinc^,  111.,  until 
1882,  when  he  was  called  to  the  pulpit  of  the 
First  Congregational  Church  in  New  Haven, 
Conn.  His  publications  include:  The  Religious 
Feeling:  A  Study  for  Faith  (1877) ;  Old  Faitha 
in  New  Lights  (1879);  The  Orthodox  Theology 
of  To-Day  (1881)  ;  The  Reality  of  Faith  (1884) ; 
Ohrietian  Facte  and  Forces  (1887);  Christian 
Ethics  (1892) ;  and  The  Place  of  Death  in  Evo- 
lution (1897). 

SMYTH,  William  Henbt  (1788-1866).  An 
English  naval  officer,  the  son  of  an  American 
loyalist.  He  was  bom  in  Westminster;  entered 
the  English  navy  from  the  merchant  marine  in 
1804;  saw  much  active  service;  and  became  a 
lieutenant  in  1813  and  a  commander  in  1816. 
During  the  next  nine  years  he  was  engaged  in 
making  a  survey  of  the  Italian,  Sicilian,  Greek, 
and  North  African  coasts,  and  constructed  charts 
that  form  the  basis  of  those  still  in  use.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Royal  Geographi- 
cal Society,  of  which  he  was  president  in  1849- 
60,  and  was  president  of  the  Royal  Astronomical 
Society  in  1845-46.  He  attained  the  rank  of 
admiral  in  1863.  Among  his  works  are:  Memoir 
.  .  .  of  the  Resources,  Inhabitants,  and  Hy- 
drography of  Sicily  and  Its  Islands  (1824) ;  The 
Cycle  of  Celestial  Objects  for  the  Use  of  ,  ,  , 
Tfavalf  Military,  and  Private  Astronomers  (2 
vols.,  1844) ;  and  The  Mediterranean:  A  Memoir, 
Historical  and  Nautical  (1854). 

SHAIL  (AS.  snofgel,  Hessian  Ger.  Schnegel, 
OHG.  snecko,  Ger.  Schnecke,  snail;  connected 
with  AS.  snacu,  Icel.  sn&kr,  sndkr,  Eng.  snake, 
from  AS.  snlcan,  to  creep,  Eng.  sneak,  and  ulti- 
mately with  Skt.  nAga,  snake).  The  name  applied 
to  many  gastropod  mollusks,  but  more  especiallv 
to  the  terrestrial  air-breathing  gastropods  (Pul- 
monata)  and  to  the  fresh- water  gastropods  such 
as  the  pond-snails  (Physa,  Limnea,  etc.).  The 
Pulmonata  are  gastropods  with  two  pairs  of  ten- 
tacles, the  nervous  ganglia  concentrated  around 
the  oesophagus,  and  fitted  to  breathe  air  through 
a  pallial  cavity  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
front  edge  of  tlie  mantle  with  the  neck  region. 
The  spiral  shell  is  either  well  developed,  or  in 
the  slugs  either  vestigial  or  absent.  The  eyes 
are  either  at  the  base  of  the  tentacles  or  situated 
at  the  end  of  the  larger  pair.  Snails  are  mostly 
nlant-eaters  or  live  on  dead  leaves,  cutting  their 
food  by  means  of  the  long  slender  rasp-like  rad- 
ula  or  'lingual  ribbon.'  The  eggs  of  the  common 
Physa  (q.v.)  are  laid  in  the  early  spring  and 
three  or  four  weeks  later  from  fifty  to  sixty 
embryos  with  well-formed  shells  may  be  found 
in  the  capsule.  After  passing  through  the  moru- 
la, gastrula,  and  trocnosphere  stages  a  definite 
veliger  stage  is  finally  attained.  Soon  the  definite 


molluscan  characters  are  assumed,  the  shell, 
creeping  foot,  eyes,  and  tentacles  appearing,  and 
the  snail  hatches  in  about  twenty  days  after 
development  bef[ins.  The  range  of  form  and  type 
of  coloration  is  shown  on  the  accompanying 
Plate. 

Use  as  Food.  In  Southern  Europe  and  France 
snails  are  everywhere  eaten,  and  snail-gardens 
(escaigotiftres)  still  exist  in  France,  also  at 
Brunswick,  Ulm,  in  Germany,  and  at  Copen- 
hagen. The  markets  at  Paris,  Marseilles,  Bordeau, 
Toulouse,  Nantes,  and  also  those  of  Algiers,  are 
chiefly  supplied  by  snails  gathered  from  the  open 
country,  and  especially  from  the  vineyards,  where 
the  'edible  snail'  {Heliw  pomatia)  abounds.  Wheo 
snails  are  eaten  directly  after  being  collected 
they  may,  from  having  fed  on  some  poisonous 
matters,  prove  harmful.  They  should  be  fed  in 
gardens  previous  to  being  eaten.  Consult:  Bin- 
ney.  Terrestrial  MoUusks  of  the  United  States 
(Boston,  1861);  IngersoU,  "In  a  Snaiieiy,"  in 
Wild  Life  of  Orchard  and  Field  (New  York, 
1902). 

SKAXB  (AS.  snacu,  OIceL  snUkr,  sndkr, 
snake,  from  AS.  stUcan,  to  creep,  Eng.  sneak; 
ultimately  connected  with  Skt.  nAga,  snake),  or 
Serpent.  A  reptile  representing  the  highly 
specialized  saurian  order  Ophidia.  Snakes  differ 
from  their  nearest  relatives  the  lizard,  primarily 
in  having  the  two  halves  of  the  lower  jaw  con- 
nected by  an  elastic  band.  They  agree  with  them 
in  many  particulars,  and  the  external  resem- 
blance is  so  close  in  some  cases  that  the  true 
relationships  were  long  confused.  Although 
snakes  as  a  whole  form  an  ascending  series,  de- 
generacy has  played  an  important  part  in  their 
phylogenetic  history.  This  degeneracy  consists 
mainly  in  the  reduction  of  the  mechanism  for 
rapid  movement,  the  shortening  of  the  tail,  and 
the  decrease  in  the  size  of  the  eye  and  mouth. 
The  most  highly  developed  are  those  with  a 
poison  apparatus^  and  among  these  the  rattle- 
snakes seem  most  advanced.  The  form  is  greatlj 
elongated  and  ordinarily  cylindrical,  but  in  the 
sea-snakes  (q.v.)  is  likely  to  be  laterally  com- 
pressed in  adaptation  to  an  aquatic  life.  The 
body  is  clothed  in  scales  (q.v.),  which  are  folds 
in  the  skin,  lacking  osteoderms  and  covered  with 
a  homy  epidermis.  Ordinarily  they  overlap,  like 
tiles  on  a  roof,  but  sometimes  are  flat  and  edge 
to  edge,  like  tiles  in  a  floor.  They  are  small  on 
the  back  and  sides  lie  in  a  definite  number  of 
equilateral  longituainal  rows,  and  frequently  are 
ridged  or  Hceeled;'  but  on  the  ventral  surface 
(except  in  the  burrowers  and  sea-snakes)  are  so 
large  as  to  reach  from  side  to  side,  forming  'ab- 
dominal scutes'  (gastroleges  in  front  of  cloaca 
and  wrosteges  behind) ,  each  attached  at  both  ends 
to  a  pair  of  ribs.  The  scales  are  often  enlarged  on 
the  head  into  plates  or  shields.  ( See  illustration.) 
The  arrangement  and  shape  of  both  the  head- 
plates  and  the  gastrosteges  are  of  great  service  in 
classification.  In  some  the  nasal  plates  are  broad- 


KST  TO  PLATS  OF  HORTH  AMBBIOAH  IITAILS. 

1.  Hellz  PenniiylTanlciis:  2. Helix  splnosa  (side  riew):  8.  Olandinadecumata;  4.  Helix grlapbyra;  6. Helix  NlcUlnlaoa: 
6,  Helix  clausa;  7,  Helix  fullfdnosA;  8,  Helix  VancouTerenels :  9,  Helix  spinoea  (showlnfr  aperture;  compare  Tifc.  6):  10, 
Helix  hireuta:  11.  Helix  Callfornien8lf> :  12.  Helix  multillneata ;  18,  Helix  appreeaa;  14.  Helix  Golvmbiana :  16.  Helix 
auricnlata ;  16.  Helix  palliata :  17.  Helix  profunda ;  18,  Helix elerata ;  19.  Helix  thyroideus :  00,  Helix  ■ubplana:  21.  Helix 
auiiculata  (varietal  form  of  Fig.  16) :  22.  Helix  alternata  (spire);  28.  Helix  altemata  (aperture):  24.  Bnlimus  dealbatue; 
26.  Glandina  truncata  (umall  form);  26.  Olandina  truncata  (typical  large  form);  27.  Bulimue faaclatue ; 28,  Glandina 
truncata  (Key  Weet  variety):  29.  Helix  Towneendiana :  80.  Ampullaria  depreeaa ;  81,  Helix  indentata :  32,  Helix  todlcu- 
lata;  88.  Helix  pllcata;  84.  Yalvata  tricarinata;  36,  Hellz  ^laris;  86.  HelLc  aspersa  (spire) ;  37,  Hellzal  bolabrie;  S8, 
Hellz  aspersa  (aperture). 


NORTH  AMERICAN  SNAILS 


eavrphntiT,  ^oi  ■>  UimB  we«i/ 1  coMt-ikn- 


jutiu*  s;cN  •  CO.  L 


Foryamr.'!fm(lJ)esrriptioiv  seeJrfJclc  'Sruiil ' 


SNASB. 


961 


SHASB. 


ened,  tiimed  up,  or  bear  curious  appendaffes,  as  in 
Herpeton  and  the  langaha  (qq.v.).  Periodically, 
usually  several  times  a  year,  the  snake  sloughs 
off  its  corneous  epidermis,  -vrhich  splits  across 


PLATK8  AJfD  SOALBS  OF  A  TTPXCAI/  INAKB. 

1,  Side  Tiew  of  head  of  a  colubrine  anake;  3,  front  ylewf 
8,  top  of  head:  4,  under  side  of  head  and  throat;  5,  vent 
and  anal  plates;  6,  side  of  a  part  of  the  body.  Nnmbers 
and  letters:  e,  eye;  n.  nostril;  1,  rostral  plate;  3,  nasal; 
8,  loreal;  4,  preocular  or  anteorbltal;  6,  postocular  or  post- 
orbital;  6,  temporal;  7,  Intemasal;  8,  prefrontal;  9,  frontal; 
10,  superciliary  or  supraocular;  U,  parietal;  13,  notch  in 
rostral  for  protrusion  of  tongue;  18,  labial;  14,  infralablals; 
15,  gular;  16.  mental;  17,  submental;  18,  abdominal  scutes 
or  gastrosteges;  19,  dorsal  scales;  30,  keeled  body  scales; 
31,  unkeeled  lateral  scales;  23,  dlrided  anal  scute  corering 
anus;  33,  wrosteges. 

the  face,  and  then  is  peeled  off  by  the  animal 
scraping  through  a  crevice  or  a  fold  of  its  own 
body;  even  the  coating  of  the  eye  is  included. 


that  they  are  capable  of  separation  to  a  great 
extent.  The  teeth  are  simple,  sharp,  curved 
backward  and  solidly  fixed  m  sockets.  When 
broken  or  lost  they  are  renewed.  There  are  typi- 
cally two  rows  on  the  upper  jaw  and  two  on  the 
palate  (maxillaries,  palatines,  and  pterygoids), 
and  each  mandible  of  the  lower  jaw  bears  a  single 
row;  but  vipers  and  rattlesnakes  have  none  in 
the  upper  jaw  except  the  poison  fangs,  which  are 
depressible  at  will  and  fold  back  out  of  the  way 
of  food  entering  the  mouth.  The  process  of  swal- 
lowing is  laborious.  With  a  large  victim  this 
process  may  last  for  hours,  the  head  and  throat 
be  stretched  to  almost  bursting,  and  the  snake 
become  nearly  exhausted  by  its  efforts.  A  great 
amount  of  saliva  is  poured  out  in  this  process, 
but  the  story  that  snakes  cover  their  prey  with 
slime  before  swallowing  it  is  a  fable. 

Most  snakes  are  carnivorous.  Small  mam- 
mals, frogs,  reptiles,  and  insects  form  the  bulk  of 
the  diet  of  ordinary  land  species.  Some  of  them 
eat  eggs,  and  a  few  species  are  fond  of 
milk.  Many  of  them  are  of  great  assistance  to 
the  agriculturist  by  devouring  the  grasshoppers, 
mice,  gophers,  and  other  pests  of  the  farm  in 
great  numbers.  The  stomach  is  long  and  nar- 
row, as  also  are  the  lobes  of  the  liver.  Snakes 
drink  much  water  when  in  active  life;  yet  they 
possess  no  urinary  bladder.  The  intestines  are 
highly  absorbent.  The  heart  is  placed  well  forward. 
The  lungs  are  elongated,  and  when  bilobed,  as 
in  boas  and  rattlesnakes,  one  lobe  is  far  larger 
than  the  other.  The  trachea  is  long,  is  provided 
with  air  sacs,  and  opens  far  forward  in  the 
mouth,  all  of  which  arrangements  guard  against 
suffocation  during  the  tedious  process  of  swal- 
lowing. The  forcible  expulsion  of  air  from  the 
trachea '  makes  the  hissing  sound  which  is  the 
serpent's  only  vocal  utterance;  but  the  bull- 
snake  has  special  tracheal  arrangements  (see 
illustration)  by  which  its  hiss  may  be  increased 
to  a  sort  of  bellow. 


NASAL  APPBNDAOSS  OW  HKBPBTOK. 

All  snakes  except  the  purely  aquatic  ones 
move  by  means  of  the  abdominal  scutes.  No 
snake  can  leap  from  the  ground,  though  the 
more  active  sometimes  hurl  themselves  from 
bough  to  bough,  or  down  to  the  ground.  The 
vertebrffi  are  ^remely  numerous,  sometimes 
nearly  300,  and  are  concave  in  front  and  convex 
behind,  connected  by  free  ball-and-socket  joints, 
and  provided  with  complicated  processes,  one 
effect  of  which  is  to  prevent  any  considerable 
vertical  motion.  Every  vertebra  except  the  atlas 
bears  a  pair  of  ribs,  articulating  by  the  capit- 
ular head  only,  and  united  at  their  ventral  ex- 
tremities (in  the  absence  of  any  sternum)  by 
cartilages  attached  to  the  gastrosteges.  The  ribs 
admit  of  n^uch  movement  and  have  an  extensive 
and  powerful  musculature.  The  bones  of  the 
skull  are  not  soldered  together  (except  those  of 
the  brain-case),  but  are  loosely  joined  by  elastic 
cartilages.  The  two  halves  of  the  lower  jaw 
are  connected  by  a  ligament  so  loose  and  elastic 


MOUTH  or  A  BNAKB. 

Open  mouth  of  the  bull  or  pine  snake  (q.v.)  showing  ths 
(black)  tongue  and  opening  of  the  windpipe :  a,  sheath  of 
the  tongue ;  b,  epiglottis ;  e,  glottis. 

Snakes  have  a  well-developed  nervous  system, 
and  are  intelligent.  Manv  may  be  tamed  and 
show  docility  and  regard  for  their  friends.  Most 
of  them  are  very  timid  and  harmless,  endeavor- 
ing to  frighten  their  enemies  by  menacing  atti- 
tudes (see  Hoonose)  or  otherwise.  Even  the 
well-armed  poisonous  ones,  though  sullen  and 
resistant,  are  rarely  aggressive.  All  have  good 
eyes,  and  some  of  the  many  nocturnal  forms  very 
large  ones ;  but  the  eyes  have  no  lids  and  are  not 
movable.  No  external  ear  is  present,  but  a  com- 
plicated internal  apparatus  exists,  so  that  snakes 
hear  very  well  and  are  affected  by  musical  sounds. 
The  sense  of  taste  is  probably  deficient,  but  that 
of  smell  is  acute,  and  many  serpents,  as  the 


SNATTR, 


969 


SNAKS-OHABMIKO. 


American  bUckanake,  hunt  largely  by  soent. 
Many  serpents  lay  eggs,  but  most  venomous  ones, 
and  many  of  our  commonest  species,  are  vivi- 
parous. The  young  are  ready  to  take  care  of 
themselves  as  soon  as  they  escape  from  the  eggi 
but  are  usually  guarded  for  a  time  by  the  mother. 
A  very  remarkable  means  of  livelihood  and  of 
defense  among  snakes  is  the  poison  apparatus 
with  which  one  large  group  (Solenoglypha)  and 
some  members  of  uSe  generally  harmless  Colubri- 


POiSOH  APPABATVl  OF  A  BATTLBSHASB. 

ji,  potoon  gland; »',  poison  duct  toadlng  to  th«  fan^  (I): 
b,  anterior  temporal  mufscle  I/,  mandibular  portion  of 
same;  e,  posterior  temporal  mnecle;  d,  dlgaetrtcns  mnscle: 
f,  sheath  of  fang:  g»  middle  temporal  muscle;  b,  external 
pterygoid  muscle. 

dflB  are  provided.  This  consists  of  a  pair  of  very 
large  labial  glands,  one  beside  each  upper  jaw, 
modified  from  parotid  salivary  glands,  and  con- 
taining saliva  imbued  with  an  alkaloid  poison, 
likely  to  be  fatal  to  all  animals  into  whose  cir- 
culation it  enters.  (See  illustration.)  These  fangs 
are  of  three  kinds.  They  may  be  the  most  for- 
ward of  the  maxillary  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw, 
immovable  and  deeply  grooved  on  the  anterior 
side,  as  in  the  cobras  and  others  of  the  Protero- 
glypha;  or  they  may  be  thus  fixed  and  grooved, 
but  posterior  in  position  (Opisthoglyplm)  ;  or 
they  may  be  lengthened  and  the  maxillary  bone 
so  hinged  as  to  dip  down,  al- 
lowing the  fangs  when  not  in 
use  to  lie  back  in  a  fold  of  the 
gum  (where  there  are  no  other 
teeth) ;  and  the  fang-groove 
may  be  closed  over  for  most  of 
its  length,  forming  a  canal 
opening  near  the  point  of  the 
A  rANo.  tooth,  as  in  vipers  and  rattle- 

Poison  tooth  of  a  snakes.  This  contrivance  in- 
rattlesnake:  a.  den.   sures    the    conveyance    of    the 

Mion^'d^S'i^;  ?<>*«>''  ^^  *^«  ^^P«^  P*'*  ^^ 
leading  into  It:  e,  the  wound.  When  the  snake 
ttie  canaliTOOve;  jg  about  to  bite,  the  mouth  is 
d. p   pea   ty.  opened  very  widely,  the  fangs 

are  unsheathed,  swung  forward  and  held  fixed 
by  muscular  contraction,  and  then  sunk  into  the 
fiesh  of  the  victim  with  a  marvelously  sudden 
and  swift  forward  and  downward  stroke.  Sec- 
ondary and  partly  involuntary  action  of  other 
muscles  presses  the  poison  out  of  the  gland  and 
through  the  duct  and  tooth.  The  venom  will 
sometimes  exude  and  drip  from  the  fangs  of  a 
snake  excited  and  ready  to  strike,  and  some  of 
this  may  be  blown  forward  by  the  forcible  ex- 
pulsion of  the  animal's  breath ;  but  the  stories  of 
'spitting  poison'  have  no  better  foundation  than 
this.  For  the  nature,  effects,  and  antidotes  of 
snake  poison,  see  Toxioology. 

The  older  families  of  snakes  are  circumtropi- 
eal,  and  none  are  found  where  a  really  cold  cli- 


mate prevails.  The  great  family  Golubridc  is 
cosmopolitan,  as  also  is  the  Boid«,  being  abaent 
only  from  New  Zealand,  which,  like  most  oceanic 
islands,  has  no  serpents  at  all,  and  from  the 
colder  latitudes.  Their  near  allies,  the  Ambly- 
cephalids,  are  altogether  Oriental  and  Malayan. 
The  Viperidfle  (including  the  crotaline  group)  are 
cosmopolitan,  but  no  true  vipers  occur  in  America, 
whereas  some  crotalines  are  found  in  Southern 
Asia,  although  all  the  rattlesnakes  proper  are 
American.  The  number  of  species  of  snakes  is 
about  1800. 

Snakes  perform  an  important  part  in  preserv- 
ing the  balance  of  life,  for  all  are  eamivorous, 
and  prey  principally  upon  insects  and  the  small 
animals,  mostly  rodents,  which  tend  to  multiply 
excessively.  They  are,  therefore,  of  great  service 
to  agriculture  in  keeping  down  the  hordes  of  in- 
jurious locusts,  mice,  gophers,  and  the  like,  which 
afflict  the  farmer.  Their  fiesh  is  white,  chicken- 
like, and  wholesome,  and  is  eaten  by  savage  peo- 
ples, and  occasionally  by  persons  in  civilization 
who  are  free  from  the  traditional  prejudice. 

Fossil  Snakbs.  About  thirty-five  species  of 
Tertiary  fossil  snakes  are  known,  and  none  of 
them  presents  any  wide  difiTerenoes  from  its 
nearest  living  allies.  They  occur  mostly  in  the 
fresh-water  Tertiary  deposits  of  Germany, 
France,  England,  and  North  America.  No  un- 
doubted sndke  remains  are  known  older  than  the 
Tertiary. 

BiBUOGBAFHT.  Dum^ril  et  Bibron,  ErpHo- 
logie  g6n4rale.  Suites  a  Bufifon,  vol.  vii.  (Paris, 
1852) ;  Jan  et  Sordelli,  Joonographie  des  ophtai- 
en9,  3  vols,  of  plates  (Milan,  1866-81)  ;  Boulen- 
ger.  Catalogue  of  Snakes  in  Briiiah  Mueeum  (2d 
ed.,  London,  1883-96) ;  Cope,  Crooodiliane,  Liz- 
ards, and  Snakes  of  North  America  (United 
States  National  Museum,  Washingtcm,  1900) ; 
Gadow,  Amphibia  and  Reptiles  (London  and 
New  York,  1900)  ;  Holbrook,  North  American 
Herpetology  (Philadelphia,  1842)  ;  Garman, 
"Ophidia  of  North  America,"  in  Bulletin  of  Mu- 
seum of  Comparative  Zo6logy,  vol.  xiii.  (Gam- 
bridge,  1888)  ;  Stejneger,  Poisonous  Snakes  of 
North  America  (United  States  National  Mu- 
seum, Washington,  1893) ;  Kreft,  Snakes  of  Aus- 
traJia  (Sydney,  1869)  ;  Fayrer,  Thanatophidia of 
India  (London,  1874)  ;  Ewart,  Poisonotis  Snakes 
of  India  (ib.,  1878) ;  Hopley,  Snakes  (ib., 
1882) ;  and  general  works.  For  fossil  snakes, 
consult  Rochboume,  "Revision  des  ophidriens 
fossiles,"  in  Nouvelles  Archives  du  Musie  d^His- 
toire  Naturelle,  ser.  ii.,  vol.  iii.  (Paris,  1880) ; 
Cope,  "Vertebrata  of  the  Tertiary  Formations 
of  the  West,"  Report  of  United  States  Geological 
Survey  of  the  Territories  voL  iiL  (Washington, 
1883). 

See  Boa;  Rattlesnakx;  Vifeb;  and  other 
names  of  the  various  groups  and  species  of  ser- 
pents; also  Plates  of  Foreign  Vbnomoub 
Serpents;  American  Harmless  Snakes;  Boas; 
Rattlesnakes. 


SNAXSBIBD. 
SNAKE-BITE. 


SeeDABTEB. 
See  Poison. 


SNAKB^CHAliinyO.  A  popular  form  of 
amusement  which  has  existed  in  £gypt  and 
throughout  the  East  from  remote  antiquity. 
There  are  several  allusions  to  serpent-charaiing 
in  the  Old  Testament,  and  many  classical  writers 
refer  to  it.    Serpent-charmers  ascribe  their  power 


FOREIGN    VENOMOUS    SERPENTS 


COmnONT,  l»OS,«V  OOOO,  MCAO  »  COM»ANT 


•  BICN  •  CO   LlTM   M 


1  BUSHMASTER  -  (LACHESIS  MUTUS) 

2  COBRA    -  (NAJATRJPUDIANS  I 

3  CARAWALA   -  (HYPNALE   NEPA) 


4-  TIC  -POLONGA  -  (  DABOlA  RUSSELLI   I 

5  CORAL   SNAKE   -  (    ELAPS   CORALLINUS) 

6  PUFF-ADDER    -    (CLOTHO    ARIETANS) 


7   EAST  INDIAN   SEA  SNAKE  -  I  HYDROPHIS  NIGRICINCTA  I 


AMERICAN    HARMLESS   SNAKES 


1.  MILK  SNAKE  (Osceola  dollata,  var.  triangula). 

2.  QARTER  SNAKES  (Eut«nla  sirtalls). 
8.  CHAIN  SNAKE  (Ophlbolus  getulus). 


4.  BLACK  SNAKE  (Zamenis  conatrlotor). 

5.  HOQNOSE  (Hetarodon  platyrhlnua). 

6.  PINE  SNAKE  (PItyophIa  Sayi). 


8K. 


a. 


968 


SNAKS-FLY. 


over  snakes  to  some  constitutional  peculiarity 
and  the  profession  is  handed  down  in  a  family 
from  one  generation  to  another.  It  is  oenerally 
supposed  that  the  poisonous  snakes  used  for  tiie 
purpose  have  had  their  fangs  and  even  the 
poison  glands  removed.  The  assertion  that  snake- 
charmers  are  immune  from  the  poison  of  sudi 
snakes  as  the  cobra  or  the  rattlesnake  is  not 
credited  by  authorities,  and  the  stories  told  about 
the  effective  use  for  this  purpose  by  American 
Indians  of  certain  herbs  are  not  credited  by  sci- 
entific observers.    See  Cobra.;  Rattlesnake. 

Certain  feats  of  the  snake-charmer  depend 
upon  his  knowledge  of  the  nature  and  peculiari- 
ties of  the  reptile.  Many  species  have  a  liking 
for  music;  to  the  sound  of  the  flute  they  will 
rise  from  the  basket  and  sway  the  upper  part 
of  the  body,  while  it  rests  upon  the  spiral 
formed  by  the  lower  half.  The  asp  has  no  ex- 
ternal ear,  and  is  certainly  deaf  as  to  whistling 
or  the  sound  of  the  pipe,  but  the  charmer  knows 
that  the  snake's  glance  can  be  attracted  to  a 
moving  object  and  will  follow  the  rhythmical 
movement.  Thus  the  snake,  while  seeming  to  be 
charmed  by  the  music,  or  to  be  ruled  by  the  eye, 
is  in  reality  swaying  to  the  moving  hand  of  the 
performer.  Exceedingly  interesting  is  the  ancient 
trick  of  spitting  down  the  snake's  mouth,  shut- 
ting it,  and  then  laying  the  snake  on  the  ground 
in  a  cataleptic  state,  or  turning  it  into  a  stick. 
Such  a  transformation  of  the  asp  (naja-haje) 
into  a  staff  is  possible  through  its  liability  to 
cramps;  when  the  muscles  of  the  neck  back  of 
the  head  are  strongly  compressed  or  water  is 
thrown  upon  them  they  become  rigid.  The  East- 
em  snake-charmer  is  reputed  to  have  the  power 
of  removing  serpents  from  gardens  and  the  vicin- 
ity of  houses  by  luring  them  out  of  their  holes 
by  means  of  magic  words  and  music. 

SNAKE  DANCE.  A  ceremony  of  the  Hopi 
(Moki,  Moqui)  Indians  of  northeastern  Arizona 
in  which  the  handling  of  live  rattlesnakes  is  a 
striking  feature.  The  ceremony  is  held  every 
two  years,  alternating  with  the  flute  dance,  and 
in  only  five  of  the  seven  pueblos,  at  a  date  near 
August  20th.  The  celebrants  are  the  Snake  and 
Antelope  fraternities,  whose  meeting-places  are 
in  separate  kivas  or  underground  cnambers  al- 
lotted to  these  societies,  llie  public  'dance'  is 
the  culmination  of  nine  days'  secret  rites  in  the 
kivas,  during  which  an  extremely  complicated 
ritual  is  carried  on,  the  chief  features  being  the 
gathering  of  snakes  from  the  world  quarters,  the 
snake-washing,  and  the  snake  drama.  On  the 
morning  of  the  eighth  day  the  Antelope  Fra- 
ternity foot  race  occurs,  and  in  the  aitemoon 
follows  the  antelope  dance,  which  is  a  counter- 
part of  the  snake  dance,  except  that  the  priests 
of  the  former  society  take  the  leading  part  and 
instead  of  snakes  a  bundle  of  green  cornstalks 
and  vines  is  carried.  The  morning  of  the  ninth 
day  is  ushered  in  with  the  snake  drama  and  race, 
the  runners  coming  to  the  pueblos  from  a  spring 
some  miles  distant  at  sunrise.  About  five  in  the 
evening  the  costumed  and  painted  dancers  file 
into  the  plaza,  at  one  side  of  which  a  small  hut 
of  Cottonwood  boughs  or  kisi  has  been  erected. 
The  dancers  march  around  the  plaza  several 
times,  each  man  stamping  on  a  small  board  sunk 
in  the  ground,  supposed  to  cover  the  entrance 
to  the  underworld,  and  throwing  sacred  meal 
upon  it.  This  action  is  for  the  purpose  of  notify- 
ing the  dwellers  of  the  underworld  that  a  cere- 


mony is  going  on.  The  Antelope  priests  line  up 
on  either  side  of  the  kisi,  which  contains  the 
snake-passer  and  the  snakes,  and  the  Snake 
priests  form  in  line  fadng  them.  A  low,  weird 
chant  begins,  growing  louder  and  marked  by  the 
rattles  in  the  hands  of  the  Antelope  chorus.  The 
lines  begin  to  sway  with  serpentine  movements 
as  the  chant  increases  in  volume,  the  dancers 
leap  forward  and  back,  the  Snake  priests  form 
in  groups  of  three  and  dance  with  a  curious 
hopping  step  around  the  plaza,  while  the  Antelope 
priests  remain  in  line  and  sing.  When  the  trios 
come  near  the  kisi  the  snake-carrier  drops  on  his 
knees  and  is  handed  a  snake,  which  he  grasps 
with  his  mouth  about  the  middle,  and,  rising, 
dances  with  his  two  attendants  around  the  plaza 
three  times,  when  he  drops  the  snake  to  the 
ground  and  secures  iinother.  One  attendant 
places  one  hand  upon  the  shoulder  of.  the  car- 
rier and  in  the  other  holds  a  wand  or  'snake 
whip'  of  eagle  plumes,  which  he  waves  in  front 
of  the  snake.  The  other  attendant,  also  armed 
with  a  feather  wand,  gathers  up  the  snakes 
dropped  by  the  carrier  and  holds  them  in  his 
hands. 

A  third  group  of  actors  in  this  ceremony  are 
women  and  girls  arrayed  in  ceremonial  costume 
and  carrying  plaques  of  sacred  meal.  Their 
office  is  to  sprinkle  the  dancers  with  meal  as  they 
pass.  When  all  the  reptiles  have  been  duly  car- 
ried around  the  plaza  there  is  a  pause  while 
a  cloud  design  in  meal  is  thrown  on  the  ground. 
Upon  this  the  snakes  are  thrown  and  a  wild 
scramble  for  them  ensues,  and  each  priest  runs 
with  his  prizes  down  the  trails  and  sets  them 
free  at  the  prescribed  places.  When  the  priests 
return  they  remove  their  trappings  and  drink  of 
a  powerful  emetic  for  the  purpose  of  purifica- 
tion. There  follows  general  feasting  by  the 
entire  pueblo.  Several  species  of  snakes  are 
used  in  the  ceremony,  though  from  the  nature 
of  the  case  the  rattlesnake  preponderates.  So 
far  as  is  known  no  dancer  has  died  from  the  bite 
of  a  snake  in  the  ceremonies;  it  is  exceedingly 
rare  that  they  are  bitten ;  the  preliminary  hand- 
ling and  the  careful  though  seemingly  fearless 
manipulation  of  the  snake  is  sufficient  to  pre- 
vent accident.  The  ceremony  is  in  effect  a  pe- 
tition to  the  nature  powers  to  give  rain  as  the 
fundamental  good  in  the  arid  region. 

Consult:  Fewkes,  Tusayan  Bnake  CeremoniaU 
(Washington,  1897)  ;  Hough,  The  Moki  Snake 
Dance  (Chicago,  1898). 

SNAXE-IXT.  A  neuropterous  insect  of  the 
family  Raphidiidse,  allied  to  the  hellgramite-flies 
(Corydalis),  and  so  called  on  account  of  the 
long  flexible  *neck.'  They  occur  in  Europe,  and 
also  on  the  Pacific  Coast  of  the  United  States,  and 
spend  their  life  upon  trees.  They  are  easily 
Imown  by  the  prolonged,  neck-like  prothorax;  and 
the  female  has  a  long  curved  ovipositor,  with 
which  it  places  its  eggs  deep  in  Imrk  crevices. 
The  cruciform  larvs  are  active  and  voracious,  de- 
veloping in  rotten  wood  and  the  dust  under  loose 
bark,  and  preying  upon  other  insects  and  their 
young.  They  are  assiduous  in  hunting  for  food, 
and  kill  great  numbers  of  larval  codling-moths 
and  other  pests  of  fruit-trees.  The  larva  makes 
no  cocoon,  but  enters  the  pupa  state  beneath  the 
shelter  of  bark,  and  begins  to  move  about  before 
it  re-transforms  to  the  imago  state.  Consult 
Howard,  The  Insect-Book  (New  York^  1901). 


8NAXE-HEADBD  FISH. 


964 


SNASB-DBUIL 


BSTAKE-HEADED  FISH,  or  Serpent-Head. 
An  East  Indian  fish  of  the  family  Ophiocephali- 
dee,  relating  to  the  climbing- fish  (q.v.)>  And  so 
called  because  of  the  long  eel-like  form  and  the 
flattened  head,  which  is  covered  with  large  scales. 

SNAKE  INDIANS.     See  Shoshoni. 

SNAKE  BTVEBy  also  called  Shoshone.  A 
large  tributary  of  Uie  Columbia  River,  flowing 
through  the  Northwestern  United  States.  It 
rises  on  the  Rocky  Mountain  Divide  in  the  south- 
em  part  of  the  Yellowstone  Park,  and  flows  first 
southeast,  turning  gradually  west  and  then 
northwest  in  a  great  curve  through  southern 
Idaho,  then  north  on  the  boundary  between  Idaho 
and  Oregon,  and  finally  westward  through  the 
southeastern  part  of  Washington,  where  it  joina 
the  Columbia  about  20  miles  above  the  Oregon 
boundary  (Map:  Oregon;  C  3).  Its  length  is 
about  900  miles.  In  the  greater  part  of  its 
course  the  river  fiows  through  a  vast  laTa- 
plateau,  the  floor  of  which  consists  of  arid  sage- 
bush  plains.  The  river  bed,  however,  has  b^n 
worn  into  narrow  cations  from  1000  to  nearly 
4000  feet  deep.  At  the  bottom  of  this  gorge 
the  stream  flows  sometimes  in  tumultuous  rapids 
extending  for  100  miles,  and  in  several  places  it 
plimges  over  rocky  ledges  in  magnificent  cata- 
racts, of  which  the  most  noted  are  the  Shoshone 
Falls  (q.v.).  The  chief  tributaries  are  the  Sal- 
mon River,  from  the  east,  and  the  Owyhee,  from 
the  west.  The  main  stream  is  navigable  for 
steamers  100  miles  to  the  Idaho  boundary,  and  in 
several  isolated  stretches  in  its  middle  course. 

SNAKEBOOT.  See  Poltoala;  Sebpentasia; 
and  Plate  of  Golden  bod,  etc. 

SNAKEWEED.  Another  name  of  bistort 
(q.v.). 

SNAKEWOOD.  Another  name  of  letter- 
wood  (q.v.).) 

SNAPDRAGON  {Antirrhinum),  A  genus  of 
about  twenty- five  species  of  annual  and  perennial 
herbs  of  the  natural  order  Scrophulariacese,  chiefly 
natives  of  the  temperate  parts  of  the  Northern 
Hemisphere.  The  English  name  refers  to  a  pe- 
culiarity of  the  corolla,  the  lower  lip  of  which, 
if  parted  from  the  upper,  so  as  to  open  the 
mouth,  shuts  with  an  elastic  spring  or  snap. 
Common  snapdragon  {Antirrhinum  majus),  a 
favorite  plant  with  many  fine  varieties  used  for 
ornamenting  beds,  borders,  and  rockeries,  is  the 
most  frequently  cultivated  species.  It  is  a 
native  of  Europe,  and  bears  racemes  of  variously 
colored  flowers.  The  plants  are  propagated  by 
seeds  sown  in  gentle  heat  early  in  spring;  the 
seedlings  are  transplanted  to  pans  or  pots,  and 
after  having  been  hardened  to  light  and  air  are 
set  out  in  the  open  ground  during  May.  Seeds 
are  often  sown  as  soon  as  they  have  ripened  in 
the  summer,  the  young  plants  being  protected  in 
cold  frames  until  they  are  transplanted  the  fol- 
lowing spring.  Choice  varieties  are  often  in- 
creased by  cuttings  made  in  the  fall  from  well- 
formed  flowerless  shoots. 

SNAPPEB.  A  name  given  to  several  active, 
marine,  carnivorous  fishes  of  the  family  Lutiani- 
dffi  (and  to  some  others)  on  account  of  their 
voracity  and  quick  biting  at  food.  They  are 
related  to  the  sea-bass  and  drum-fish.  The  name 
especially  applies  to  the  members  of  the  *pargo* 
genus  Neomsenis,  many  species  of  which  inhabit 
warm  seas,  especially  along  the  American  and 


African  shores,  and  are  highly  valued  as  food. 
The  best-known  and  most  valuable  is  the  'red' 
snapper  {Neomwnia  aya)  or  'pargo  Colorado,' 
which  is  known  on  rocky  banks  as  far  north  as 
New  York,  but  is  very  numerous  in  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  It  reaches  a  length  of  two  feet  or  more, 
and  is  one  of  the  best  of  American  food-fiahea. 
Consult  Goode,  Fishery  Industries,  sec.  i.  ( Wash- 
ington, 1884) ;  and  see  Colored  Plate  of  Food 
Fishes. 


COMMON  SlfAPDBAOOK. 

SNAPPING  TXTBTLE.  A  large  fresh-water 
tortoise  {Chelydra  serpentina)  of  the  rivers  and 
marshes  of  North  and  Central  America,  noted 
for  its  fierceness.  It  sometimes  exceeds  three 
feet  in  length,  but  ordinarily  is  about  half  that. 
Its  shell  is  too  small  to  permit  it  io  retract  either 
the  snake-like  head  and  neck  or  the  long  taiL 
The  carapace  is  covered  with  pyramidally  thick- 
ened plates,  and  the  plastron  is  reduced  to  a 
cruciform  shape.  Its  jaws  are  large  and  so 
strong  that  often  it  may  be  lifted  flrom  the 
ground  by  the  object  it  bites.  It  feeds  upon  fish 
and  all  sorts  of  small  aquatic  animals.  A  second 
species  belongs  to  the  Lower  Mississippi  Valley — 
the  'alligator-snapper'  {Macrochelys  lacertina), 
which  is  larger  ana  is  considered  for  its  size  the 
strongest  of  reptiles.  These  turtles,  early  in 
June,  seek  a  sandbank,  where  the  females  dig 
holes  with  their  hind  feet  and  bury  twenty-five  or 
thirty  small  spherical  eggs,  smoothing  the  sand 
carefully  over  them.  These  two  species  constitate 
the  family  CJhelydridae. 

SNABE-DBTJM  (from  snare,  from  AS.  Mieor, 
OHG.  snarahha,  snara,  sinew,  nerve;  connected 
with  Lat.  nervus,  Gk  ptOpsr,  neuron,  Ski.  snA- 
van,  Av.  snavar9,  sinew,  nerve  -f-  drum).  The 
ordinary  small  military  drum.    It  is  built  of  a 


SNABB-DBXTX. 


966 


8NIFBVISH. 


hollow  body  made  of  brass,  oyer  both  ends  of 
which  a  membrane  is  stretched  which  can  be 
tightened  or  loosened.  Across  the  lower  mem- 
brane are  stretched  several  strings  of  cat-gut, 
which  vibrate  and  act  upon  the  lower  membrane 
very  much  like  drum-sticks.  Thus  a  bright, 
piercing  soimd  is  produced.    See  Drum. 

SNEEE,  snak.  A  town  in  the  Province  of 
Friesland,  the  Netherlands,  to  the  west  of  the 
Sneekermeer  and  24  miles  southwest  of  Leeuwar- 
den  (Map:  Netherlands,  D  1).  There  are  a  gym- 
nasium, an  industrial  institute,  and  some  metal 
manufactures.  It  is  the  chief  trading  centre  of 
the  province  for  dairy  products.  Population,  in 
1900,  12,076. 

SKEEBWELIv  Ladt.  A  beautiful  widow  in 
Sheridan's  School  for  Scandal,  a  member  of  the 
Scandal  Club,  and  an  adept  in  slander. 

SNEETTWBEBOEN,  sn&^er-gen.  A  range 
of  mountains  in  South  Africa.    See  Cape  Colony. 

SKEEZEWOBT.    An  herb.    See  Achillea. 

SN'ET^TJ,  or  SNOF^XT.  The  name  of  the 
first  king  of  the  Fourth  Egyptian  Dynasty.  He 
reigned  about  b.o.  3000,  and  was  the  immediate 
pr^ecessor  of  Cheops  (q.v.).  Snefru  opened 
mines  for  copper  and  malachite  at  Wadi  Mag- 
hara  in  the  Sinaitic  Peninsula,  and  on  a  rock 
tablet  at  this  place  the  King  is  depicted  in  the 
act  of  slaying  an  enemy.  I^ter  accoimts  state 
that  he  defended  Egypt  from  an  invasion  of 
Asiatic  tribes.  The  tomb  of  Snefru  is  the  so- 
called  step-pyramid  of  Medum  (q.v.).  Consult: 
Wiedemann,  Aegyptische  Oeschichte  (Gotha, 
1884-88) ;  Meyer,  Geschichie  des  alien  Aegypien* 
(Berlin,  1887)  ;  Petrie,  A  Hiaiory  of  Egypt 
(New  York,  1897) ;  Budge,  A  History  of  Egypt 
(ib.,  1902). 

SNEHiETTEN^  sn&^&t'en  (Norw.,  snow 
cap).  The  highest  peak  of  the  Dovrefjeld  in 
Norway,  80  miles  southwest  of  Trondhjem 
(Map:  Norway,  C  5).    Its  altitude  is  7566  feet. 

SNEIiOJETrS,  WiLLEBBOBD  (1591-1626).  A 
Dutch  mathematician  and  astronomer.  He  was 
bom  and  educated  at  Leyden  and  succeeded  his 
father  as  professor  of  mathematics  there.  Snel- 
lius  discovered  the  law  of  refraction  of  light 
(1619),  and  the  properties  of  polar  spherical 
triangles,  and  gave  a  scientific  method  for  meas- 
uring the  arc  of  a  meridian.  His  chief  works 
are:  Eratoathenea  Batavua  (1617) ;  Cyclometrioa 
(1621). 

SNia>EBy  Jacob  (  T-1866).  An  American  in- 
ventor. He  conducted  a  wine  business  in  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  where  he  devoted  much  attention 
to  inventions  connected  with  dyeing  and  brewing, 
and  subsequently  with  the  coach-wheel  and  the 
sheathing  of  ships.  In  1859  he  went  to  England, 
where  he  endeavored  to  secure  the  adoption  by 
the  British  Government  of  a  system  of  breech- 
loading  or  converting  rifles.  But  although  he 
succeeded  in  securing  its  introduction  he  was  im- 
able  to  obtain  adequate  remuneration,  and  died 
without  having  received  the  reward  of  his  labors. 

SNTPE  (Icel.  anipa,  OHG.  anepho,  anepfo,  (5er. 
Schnepfe,  snipe;  probably  connected  with  Eng. 
anip,  anap).  A  small  limicoline  marsh-bird  of 
the  family  Scolopacidse  and  genus  Gallinago,  hav- 
ing a  very  long,  straight  bill,  with  nasal  grooves 
extending  almost  to  the  tip,  which  expands  a  little 
and  is  soft  and  veiy  sensitive,  smooth,  and  shin- 


ing in  the  living  bird,  but  soon  after  death 
becoming  pitted  like  the  end  of  a  thimble  by 
diying.  The  tip  of  the  bill  is  filled  with  the  ter- 
minals of  the  nerve- fibres  (for  which  consult  Yar- 
rell,  Britiah  Birda,  4th  ed.,  London,  1884), 
enabling  the  bird  to  detect  by  touch,  as  well  as 
by  odor,  the  hidden  worms,  and  the  like,  upon 
which  it  feeds,  and  which  it  obtains  by  probing 
mud  and  soft  soil  with  its  bill.  The  head  is 
compressed;  the  eyes  are  large  and  placed  far 
back  in  the  head.  The  feet  have  three  toes  be- 
fore, divided  to  the  base  or  very  nearly  so,  not 
edged  by  membrane;  the  hind  toe  is  short.  The 
tail  is  short  and  contains  14  to  16  feathers. 

The  common  snipe  of  Europe  (Oallinago  gal' 
linago)  is  about  11  inches  in  entire  length,  the 
bill  almost  3  inches.  The  sexes  are  alike  in 
plumage,  but  the  female  is  rather  larger  than 
the  male.  The  general  color  of  the  upper  parts 
is  blackish  brown,  finely  mixed  with  pale  brown 
and  buff;  three  pale  brown  streaks  along  the 
head  are  characteristic  of  the  whole  genus.  The 
neck  and  breast  are  pale  rust  color  mottled  with 
black;  the  belly  is  white.  It  makes  a  rude  nest 
of  a  little  dry  herbage  in  a  depression  of  the 
ground,  or  sometimes  in  a  tuft  of  grass  or  rushes. 
The  eg^  are  four  in  number,  pale  yellowish  or 
greenish  white,  the  larger  end  spotted  with 
brown.  The  snipe  is  everywhere  in  high  esteem 
for  the  table.  North  America  has  but  a  single 
species  of  Gallinago.  The  common  American  or 
Wilson's  snipe  {Oallinago  delioata)  is  about 
equal  in  size  to  the  common  snipe  of  Europe,  and 
much  resembles  it  also  in  plumage.  This  species 
is  abundant  in  summer  in  northern  parts  of  the 
United  States  and  in  Canada,  in  the  more  south- 
ern States  in  winter.  The  peculiar  cry  of  this 
bird,  'scape-scape,'  and  its  twisting  motion  in 
flight  are  highly  characteristic;  and  in  spring 
it  circles  about  in  the  air  near  its  nest  with  a 
queer  zigzag  flight,  uttering  a  curious  drumming 
or  'bleating'  noise.  This  noise  seems  produced 
by  means  of  the  vibration  of  the  peculiarly  modi- 
fied outer  tail-quills.  Consult  general  ornitholo- 
gies and  books  on  shooting,  and  'Selous,  Bird 
Watching  (London,  1900).  See  CJolored  Plate  of 
Shobe  Bibds,  and  Colored  Plate  of  Gams  Bibds, 
with  article  Gbouse. 

SNIPE-EEIi  (so  called  from  the  long  jaws). 
One  of  a  group  of  little-known  excessively  slender 
eels  forming  the  family  Nemichthids,  in  which 
the  jaws  are  excessively  prolonged  and  almost 
needle-like,  the  upper  the  longer  and  somewhat 
recurved.  Many  of  them  live  in  the  ocean 
depths,  that  one  illustrated  on  the  Plate  of  Eels, 
CoNGEBS,  AND  MoBATS  (see  Eel)  belonging  to 
the  Gulf  Stream.  The  best-known  species  is 
Nemichthya  acolopaceua,  common  in  rather  deep 
water  in  the  North  Atlantic. 

SKIPEEISH  (so  called  from  the  long  snout). 
A  fish  of  the  related  hemibranch  families  Fistu- 
lariidse  and  Macrorhamphosids,  allied  to  the 
pipefish  and  variously  known  as  *trumpet-fish,' 
*bellows-fish,'  'fiutemouth,'  etc.  Specifically  the 
term  usually  refers  to  a  small  species  of  the 
southern  European  coast,  occasionally  straying 
to  America  {Maororhamphua  aoolopaw),  remark- 
able for  the  conformation  of  the  head,  the  skull 
being  elongated  into  a  tube,  at  the  extremity  of 
which  are  the  mouth  and  jaws.  Some  related 
species  of  tropical  waters  become  from  four  to  six 
feet  in  length. 


8HIPE-TLT. 


966 


BVOW. 


SHTPE-TLT.  Any  one  of  the  small,  slender 
flies  of  the  family  Leptids.  They  have  long  legs 
and  slender  bodies,  and  are  predatory,  destroying 
other  insects.  Generally  they  have  smoky  wings 
and  velvety  bodies.  They  are  sluggish  in  habits. 
The  larvffi  are  found  in  water,  decaying  wood, 
earth,  moss,  dry  sand,  and  in  the  burrows  of 
wood-boring  beetles.  More  than  50  species  occur 
in  the  United  States. 

SNOILSKY^  snoil'sk*,  Kabl  Johan  Gustaf, 
C!ount  ( 1841 — ) .  A  Swedish  i)oet,  bom  at  Stock- 
holm and  educated  at  the  University  of  Upsala. 
He  entered  the  diplomatic  service  in  1865,  and 
held  various  secretarial  posts  until  1879,  when 
he  abandoned  diplomacy  for  literature.  His 
works  include:  Orchideer  (1862),  Dikier  (1896)  ; 
4th  ed.  1883),  Nya  dikter  (1881),  and  Dikter; 
Se  Samlingen  (1883),  Dikter:  J^e  Samlingen 
(1887).  He  also  published  in  1876  a  transla- 
tion of  Goethe's  ballads. 

SNOOK  (from  Dutch  anoek,  pike,  jack).  A 
fish:  (1)  A  barracuda  (q.v.)  of  Australian  and 
South  African  waters  (Tkyrsites  altun)^  impor- 
tant as  a  food-fish.     (2)  The  robalo  (q.v.). 

SirOR&I  STTTBLirSONy  sndr'r^  BtZR^rn?R^ 
sAn  (1179-1241).  An  Icelandic  historian  and 
statesman,  remembered  as  the  author  of  the 
Heimsktingla  or  annals  of  early  Norwegian 
Kings,  and  of  the  Younger  or  Prose  Edda. 
Snorri,  youngest  son  of  a  local  chieftain,  was 
reared  in  the  train  of  the  great  chief  Jon  Lopts- 
son.  Snorri  gained  distinction  as  a  poet  and 
lawyer,  and  in  1215  was  made  head  of  the  legisla- 
tive assembly  and  the  highest  court,  a  position 
which  he  held  at  various  times.  King  Haakon 
invited  him  to  Norway  in  1218,  and  later  he 
negotiated  a  peace  between  Norway  and  Iceland, 
rather  to  the  dissatisfaction  of  both  parties.  He 
returned  to  Iceland,  where  he  used  his  power  to 
his  own  advantage,  and  in  1239  political  and 
domestic  intrigue  compelled  his  flight  to  Nor- 
way. He  returned  in  1240  and  was,  by  King 
Haakon's  orders,  killed  by  Gissur,  Snorri's  son- 
in-law,  at  his  home  in  Reykjaholt,  September 
22,  1241.  The  Prose  Edda,  finished  in  1222, 
comprises  the  mythological  Oylfaginning,  the 
Bkdldskaparmdl,  a  sort  of  Ars  Poetica,  and 
the  Hdttatal,  a  commentary  in  102  strophes 
on  poems  in  honor  of  the  author's  Norwegian 
patrons,  King  Haakon  and  his  tutor  Skuli. 
The  Sagas  extend  from  the  mythological  kings- 
to  1177,  and  are  based  on  chronicles,  tradition, 
and  legend,  all  digested  and  fused  with  much 
critical  and  literary  ability  on  principles  ex- 
pounded in  his  preface.  The  most  important 
part  of  the  Heimskringla,  the  Olaf  Saga,  he  also 
elaborated  separately.  Snorri's  Works  have  been 
edited  by  Peringskjfild  (3  vols.,  Stockholm, 
1697);  Schoning  and  Saint  Thorlacius  (3  vols., 
Copenhagen,  1777-83)  ;  linger  (Christiania, 
1868)  5  and  best  by  Finnur  Jfinaon  (Copenhagen 
1893  et  seq.).  There  are  translations  into  Danish 
by  Grundtvig  (Copenhagen,  1818-22)  ;  Norwegian 
by  Hall  (Christiania,  1838-39)  ;  Swedish  by 
Richert  (Stockholm,  1816-29)  and  by  H.  Hilde- 
brand  (Oreboro,  1869-71)  ;  and  German  by  Wach- 
ter  (incomplete,  Leipzig,  1835-36)  ;  and  into 
English  by  Laiiig  (London,  1844  and  1889),  also 
by  M.  Morris  (ib.,  1895). 

SNOTJCK  HirBGBONJE,  snyk  h\,ir-or6n'ye, 
Chbistiaan    (1857—).     A  distinguished  Dutch 


Orientalist,  bom  in  Oosterhout,  North  Brabant* 
and  educated  at  Leyden,  where  he  studied  Arabic 
under  De  Geoje,  and  at  Strassburg  under  NSlddke. 
He  taught  Mohammedan  law  at  Leyden  in  the 
civil  service  college  for  the  Dutch  Indian  senrice, 
and  in  1884  traveled  in  Arabia.  Disguised  as  a 
native  doctor  of  the  civil  law,  he  spent  almost  a 
year  in  Meeca.  In  1888  he  was  sent  on  a  govern- 
mental scientific  expedition  in  the  Dutch  Indies, 
and  soon  afterwards  settled  in  Java,  ¥rfaere  he 
assumed  an  official  post  as  adviser  to  the  Dutch 
Governor-General  of  Batavia.  Among  his  works 
are:  Het  Mekkaansche  Feesi  (1880,  a  doctoral 
thesis) ;  Mekka  (1888-89),  with  an  atlas;  BUder 
aiis  Mekka  (1889)  ;  De  heteekenis  van  den  Islam 
voor  stijne  helijders  in  Oost-Indie  ( 1883 ) ;  Der 
Mahdi  (1885) ;  "De  Islam,"  in  De  Qids  ( 1880) ; 
and  De  AtjShers  (1894). 

SNOtJT  BEETLE,    A  weevil.    See  WnmL. 

SNOW  (AS.  stiAw,  Goth,  snaiws,  OHG.  9neo, 
Ger.  Schnee,  snow;  connected  with  Lat.  ndm,  Gk. 
(ace.)  y(0a,  nipha,  Olr.  snechta,  OChurch  Slav. 
anSgi^,  Lith.  snegas,  Lett,  snegs,  Av.  «ntif,  snow, 
Skt.  snih,  to  be  sticky  or  oily).  Minute  crystals 
of  ice  formed  in  the  atmosphere  when  the  aoae- 
ous  vapor  is  condensed  at  temperatures  below 
freezing.  These  crystals  usually  combine  to- 
gether into  groups  that  are  sometimes  large  and 
flocculent,  but  more  frequently  are  small  and  ar- 
ranged with  great  r^ularity.  The  elementary 
ioe  crystals  or  spiculse  are  prisms  of  six  sides 
whose*  ends  are  perpendicular  to  their  lengths. 
When  the  length  of  the  crystal  is  very  small  as 
compared  with  its  diameter  these  needles  become 
thin  fiat  plates.  The  early  meteorological  ob- 
servers have  recorded  the  figures  of  snow  crystals, 
as  observed  under  a  magnifying  glass,  but  later 
observers  have  secured  photographs  of  the  crys- 
tals as  seen  throu^  the  compound  microeeope. 
The  longer  rays  that  constitute  the  arms  of 
the  six-rayed  stars  are  generally  hollow  tnbes; 
they  are  evidently  built  up  by  additi<»i8  to  the 
edge  of  an  original  crystal. 

When  a  mass  of  snow  is  melted  to  water  the 
latter  occupies  much  less  volume  than  the  origi- 
nal snow.  It  is  customary  to  say  that  in  a  ^n- 
eral  way  a  depth  of  ten  inches  of  snow  is  equiva- 
lent to  a  rainfall  of  one  inch  of  water,  but  it  is 
never  safe  to  use  any  specific  ratio  for  the  eon- 
version  of  snowfall  into  rainfall,  but  in  all  cases 
the  snow  should  be  freshly  caught  and  melted 
and  the  exact  amount  of  equivalent  water  prop- 
erly measured.  The  white  color  of  snow  results 
from  the  fact  that  the  snow  crystals  are  so  mi- 
nute that  each  cell  of  the  retina  receives  a  gen- 
eral impression  produced  by  the  combination  of 
dilTerent  wave  lengths  reflected  from  innumerable 
minute  facets.  An  analogous  case  is  the  white 
light  produced  by  reflection  from  pounded  glass 
or  any  foaming  liquid  or  from  .a  surface  covered 
with  hoar  frost.  Red  snow,  and  more  rarely  oth- 
er colors,  such  as  green,  blue,  or  black  snow,  are 
produced  by  the  action  of  innumerable  fungi, 
known  as  the  Micrococcus  nivalis.  Snow  rarely 
falls  at  sea  level  south  of  the  parallel  of  30  de- 
grees north  latitude,  and  on  the  Pacific  coast  of 
North  America  it  occurs  at  sea  level  only  north 
of  47  degrees  north  latitude.  The  melting  of 
snow  on  the  mountains  adds  a  great  deal  to  the 
drainage  from  the  watershed  into  the  river  and 
the  flooding  of  the  rivers  carries  fertility  into 
all  regions. 


SNOW 


PHOTOMICROQRAPHS  OF  SNOW  CRYSTALS  SHOWING  TYPICAL  FORMS 
Photographed  by  W.  A.  B«ntl«y,  JeHcho,  Vt. 


8K0W. 


967 


8V0W-DB0P. 


The  great  accumulations  of  snow  by  sliding 
downward  in  ravines  until  they  join  together  in 
the  river  valleys  and  form  glaciers  (q.v.)>  con- 
stitute an  important  factor  in  the  study  of  phys- 
ical geography.  A  heavy  snowfall  is  not  mere- 
ly a  question  of  low  temperature,  but  of  inflowing 
and  uprising  cool  moist  air.  In  this  respect  the 
physical  processes  that  determine  the  formation 
of  snow  are  entirely  similar  to  those  that  deter- 
mine the  formation  of  rain.  The  ordinary  limits 
of  snowfall  and  glaciation  at  sea  level  are  north 
of  the  parallel  of  30''  north  and  south  of 
the  parallel  of  30**  south.  Snow  is  an  exceedingly 
poor  conductor  of  heat,  owing  to  the  non-homo- 
geneous texture  of  the  mass,  which  may  be  con- 
sidered as  composed  of  alternate  thin  layers  of  ice 
and  air.  A  covering  of  snow  on  the  ground,  or  a 
hut  hastily  built  of  blocks  of  snow,  is  a  perfect 
protection  against  the  cold  storms  from  the  north. 
The  roots  of  the  most  tender  vegetation  prosper 
under  a  covering  of  snow,  which,  ordinarily, 
maintains  them  at  a  uniform  temperature  of 
about  32**  F. 

During  the  winter  season  snow  falls  at  irregu- 
lar intervals;  sometimes  in  connection  with 
rain,  and  a  few  days  of  dry  air,  clear  sunshine, 
and  strong  wind  cause  the  snow  to  evaporate  and 
disappear.  From  an  agricultural  and  a  geologi- 
cal point  of  view  the  amount  of  snow  lying  on 
the  ground  at  any  time  is  highly  important.  The 
United  States  Weather  Bureau  publishes  monthly 
maps  showing  this  feature  of  climatology ;  a  gen- 
eral map  has  also  been  compiled  showing  the 
normal  amount  of  snowfall  for  the  whole  year  as 
a  help  to  the  study  of  the  conditions  that 
favor  the  accumulation  of  snow  and  the  pos- 
sible occurrence  of  a  glacial  period  in  North 
America. 

BiBUOQBAPHT.  The  principal  collection  of 
snow  photographs  are  those  that  we  owe  to 
Dr.  Neuhauss,  of  Berlin,  1892-93;  G.  Norden- 
skiold,  of  Stockholm;  A.  A.  Sigson,  of  Rybinsk, 
Bussia;  and,  most  important  of  all,  those  of  W. 
A.  Bentley,  of  Jericho,  Vermont.  See  articles 
in  Appleton'a  Popular  Science  Monthly,  May, 
1898,  and  in  the  Monthly  Weather  Review  for 
May,  1901. 

SHOW,  Ix)HENZO  (1814—).  An  American 
official,  president  of  the  Mormon  Church,  bom 
at  Mantua,  Portage  Coimty,  Ohio.  He  studied 
at  Oberlin  College,  in  1836  was  converted  to  Mor- 
monism,  and  in  1840-43  was  a  missionary  to 
Great  Britain.  In  1852  he  was  elected  to  the 
Utah  House  of  Representatives,  and  until  1882 
continued  as  a  member  of  either  the  House  or  the 
Council.  He  established  Brigham  City  in  Utah 
in  1855,  and  organized  there  a  system  of  co<5pe- 
rative  industry.  He  was  sent  on  missions  to 
Italy  in  1849,  and  to  the  Sandwich  Islands  in 
1864.  In  1889  he  was  elected  president  of  the 
Twelve  Apostles,  and  in  1898  president  of  the 
Mormon  Church.  His  publications  include  a 
translation  of  the  Book  of  Mormon  into  Italian, 
The  Only  Way  to  Be  Saved  (1851),  and  The 
Voice  of  Joseph  (1862). 

SHOWBAIiL  TBBS.  Another  name  for  the 
Guelder  rose  (q.v.). 

SHOWBEBBT  ( Symphorioarpos  raoemoBus ) . . 
A  bushy  deciduous  shrub  of  the  natural  order 
Caprifoliace«e,  a  native  of  northern  North  Amer- 
ica, and  common  in  shrubberies.     It  has  simple 


leaves,  small  flowers,  white  inedible  berries,  about 
the  size  of  black  currants,  remaining  on  the  bush 
after  the  leaves.  The  creepinj;  snowberrr 
{Chiogenea  aerpyllifolia)  is  a  native  of  North 
American  bogs. 

SNOW-BOtD.  Any  species  of  bird,  usually  a 
finch,  associated  with  snow.  In  the  United 
States  the  name  is  most  commonly  applied  to 
the  jimcos  (q.v.),  but  also  to  the  snow-bunting 
(q.v.).    See  Plate  of  Famiuab  Spabbows. 

SNOW-BTTNTINO^  or  Snow-Flake.  A  large 
finch  {Plectrophenaw  nivalis)  of  a  genus  dis- 
tinguished bv  the  long  lark-like  straight  claw 
of  the  hind  toe  and  a  similarity  to  the  larks  in 
habits;  there  is  a  similar  ease  and  celerity  in 
running  along  the  groimd,  and  the  song  is  very 
difTerent  from  that  of  any  of  the  true  bimtings. 
The  color  of  the  plumage  is  very  different  from 
most  fringilline  birds,  for  white  predominates. 
In  summer  plumage  the  back  and  parts  of  the 
wings  and  tail  are  black.  In  winter  plumiage 
all  the  upper  parts  are  rusty  brown.  The  len^h 
of  an  adult  is  seven  inches.  The  snow-buntmg 
abounds  in  summer  in  all  parts  of  the  arctic 
regions,  and  in  winter  migrates  into  the  north 
temperate  re^ons,  but  is  rarely  seen  even  in  the 
Northern  United  States,  except  in  severe  winters, 
and  when  snow  is  plentiful.  It  feeds  largely  on 
the  seeds  of  grasses  and  weeds,  and  is  often  seen 
in  company  with  longspurs  (q.v.).  See  Plate 
of  Buntings  and  Grosbeaks. 

SNOW-COCX.  A  name  given  by  Anglo-Indian 
sportsmen  to  two  different  birds  found  near  the 
snow-line  in  the  Himalayas.  One  is  the  Tibetan 
snow-pheasant,  a  large  and  active  species  fre- 
quenting the  stony  heights  of  all  Central  Asia. 
It  is  Tetraogallus  Himalayensis,  Other  species 
are  found  in  various  other  Asiatic  moimtain 
ranges.  Another  snow-cock  is  th<e  'jer-monal' 
{Lertoa  nivioola)  of  the  higher  Himalayas  and 
Western  China. 

SNOWDEN,  sno^d'n,  James  Ross  (1810-78). 
an  American  numismatist,  bom  at  Chester,  Pa. 
After  graduating  at  Dickenson  College,  he  settled 
in  Franklin.  Subsequently  he  was  State  Treas- 
urer (1845-47),  treasurer  of  the  United  States 
mint  (1847-50),  and  its  director  (1853-61). 
His  publications  include  many  pamphlets  on 
coins  and  his  Description  of  Coins  in  the  United 
States  Mint  (1860) ;  Coin*  of  the  Bible  (1864) ; 
and  an  article  on  the  coins  of  the  United  States 
in  the  National  Almanac  (1873). 

SNOWDON^  sn5^dan.  A  mountain  group  in 
Caernarvonshire,  North  Wales  (Map:  Wales,  B 
3).  It  is  broken  by  valleys  into  four  minor 
groups,  whose  chief  peak,  Moel-y-Wyddfa  (*tho 
conspicuous  peak'),  is  the  highest  mountain 
in  South  Britain,  being  3560  feet  above  sea- 
level. 

SNOW-DBOP  (so  called  from  the  color  of  the 
flower),  Galanthus.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Amaryllidacese!  The  bulbous  root 
produces  two  leaves  and  one  single-flowered  leaf- 
less stem.  The  common  snow-drop  (Galanthus 
nivalis)  is  foimd  chiefly  in  the  woods  and 
pastures  of  Southern  Europe.  Various  spe- 
cies are  popular  spring  flowers  in  fiower  gar- 
dens. 


8K0W-DS0P  TBEE. 


968 


SNOWY  OWL. 


SNOW-DSOP  TBEE,  or  Silveb-Bell  Tbib 
{Haleaia  tetrapiera  and  Halesia  diptera).  Two 
Bhrubs  or  small  trees  of 
the  natural  order  Styra- 
cace«,  with  large  and 
veiny  pointed  deciduous 
leaves,  and  showy  white 
flowers,  drooping  on 
slender  pedicels  in  short 
racemes  or  clusters  from 
axillary  buds  of  the 
preceding  year.  They 
are  beautiful  shrubs  for 
cultivation. 


SmCMBB  SMOWFUAKS. 


nOW-DBOP  TBKS  (J7*/«SfA 

tetraptera). 

8N0W7LAKE  (so 

called  from  the  color 
of  the  flower),  Leuco- 
jum.  A  genus  of  nine 
species  of  bulbous 
herbs  of  the  natural 
order  Amaryllidace®, 
natives  of  the  Medi- 
terranean region.  The 
spring  8nowflake(Leu- 
cojum  vemum),  the 
best  known  species,  produces  umbels  of  sweet- 
scented  flowers  in  March  or  April.  The  summer 
snowflake  {Leuco jum  cestivum)  is  a  beautiful 
rapidly  growing  and  freely  spreading  plant.  Leu- 
co jum  autumnale,  a  Portuguese  species,  produces 
drooping  flowers  in  autumn.  These  plants  make 
the  best  growth  on  rich  sandy  or  loamy  soils. 
Propagation  is  by  ofl'sets,  obtained  as  soon  as  the 
leaves  have  become  dry. 

SNOWTLOWEB.    See  Fsmos  TftEB. 

SNOW-GOOSE.  An  Arctic  goose  {Ohm  hy* 
perhorea)  seen  in  the  United  States  durinc  its 
migrations,  sometimes  in  vast  numbers.  It  is 
pure  white,  except  the  black  wing-quills,  washed 
on  the  head  with  reddish;  the  beak,  which  is 
strongly  *toothed,*  is  pink  and  the  feet  red- 
dish. An  adult  male  measures  27  inches  long, 
and  weighs  5%  pounds.  Ross's  snow-goose 
{Chen  Rossi)  is  a  miniature  of  the  other,  and 
is  known  all  over  the  Hudson  Bay  country  as 
*horned  wavey.'  Consult  Coues,  Birds  of  the 
'Northwest   (Washington,  1874). 

8N0W-LE0PABD.    The  ounce  (q.v.). 

SNOW  LINE.  The  level  on  a  mountain 
slope  above  which  snow  exists  all  the  year  round, 
or  at  least  very  nearly  so.  The  height  of  this  line 
above  sea-level  varies  greatly  both  from  year 
to  year,  and  in  different  localities;  it  moves  up 
and  down  within  a  broad  zone,  and  is  deter- 
mined principally  by  the  temperature,  moisture. 


and  average  velocity  of  the  prevailing  winds. 
The  average  height  of  the  snow  line  varies  from 
18,400  feet  in  the  tropical  Andes,  and  19,000 
feet  in  the  Himalayas,  down  to  6000  feet  in 
Patagonia,  and  2000  feet  in  Greenland.  See 
Snow;  Mountain;  and  the  articles  on  the  sepa- 
rate mountain  ranges,  as  Alps,  Hikalaya,  etc. 

SNOW-ON-THE-XOUNTAIN.  A  euphor- 
biaceous  plant.    See  Spubge. 

SNOW-PLOW.  A  machine  for  clearing  roads 
and  railways  of  snow.  The  rotary  steam  snow 
shovel  has  been  adopted  by  all  the  transcon- 
tinental lines  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
It  consists  of  a  wheel  9  feet  in  diameter  set  in  a 
round  casing  with  a  flaring  front  10  feet  square 
which  feeds  the  snow  into  Uie  wheel.  The  wheel 
contains  an  inner  and  outer  series  of  knives  piv- 
oted on  radial  pins,  with  their  surfaces  inclined 
to  one  another;  when  they  encounter  any  snow, 
they  are  canted,  or  set  so  as  to  slice  it  off  and 
feed  it  into  the  machine.  Behind  the  knives 
is  a  fan  wheel  composed  of  a  number  of  radial 
blades.  When  the  wheel  revolves  the  centrif- 
ugal force  throws  the  snow  to  the  outside  of 
the  wheel,  where-  it  meets  the  inclosing  case, 
and  is  forced  through  an  opening  just  behmd  the 
headlight.  A  hood  to  this  opening  regulates  the 
direction  in  which  the  snow  is  thrown-  The 
weight  of  the  machine  is  about  twenty  tons. 

SNOW-SHOEING.  The  original  snow-shoe  of 
America  was  a  frame  of  light  wood,  made  in  the 
shape  of  a  more  or  less  elongated  circle,  across 
which  were  criss-crossed  ligatures  of  leather,  with 
a  bow  on  the  top,  into  which  the  foot  could  be 
slipped.  Snow-shoes  are  of  four  permanent  main 
varieties.  One  is  long  and  narrow  and  sharp  at 
each  end,  swelling  only  slightly  in  the  middle, 
and  slightly  tum^  up  at  the  toe.  Another  has 
a  tumS-up  entry  which  meets  the  snow  nearly 
squarely,  and  a  trailing  pointed  after  end.  These 
are  favorite  patterns  of  all  the  far  north ;  they  are 
about  flve  feet  long  and  a  foot  wide  in  the  centre, 
made  of  white  birch  and  laced  with  flne  caribou 
skin  webbing,  except  immediately  under  the  foot 
where  there  is  an  open  bed-cording  of  thick  raw- 
hide. A  third  kind  is  broader  and  shorter,  with 
an  oval  entry  at  the  fore  end  and  a  trailing, 
though  shorter,  after  end.  The  fourth  set  are 
almost  circular,  with  a  stumpy  beaver-like  trail 
end.  The  last  two  styles  are  the  true  'Monta- 
gnais'  or  mountaineers'  shoes.  In  walking,  the 
shoe  is  slightly  raised  and  carried  partly  over 
and  ahead  of  its  fellow,  and  when  the  step  is  com- 
pleted the  swell  of  the  centre  of  the  frame  of  the 
rear  shoe  lies  close  to  the  inward  curve  of  the 
hinder  part  of  the  leading  shoe.  The  principal 
snow-shoe  clubs  of  Canada  are  those  of  Montreal 
and  (Quebec.  The  time  record  for  snow-shoeing 
is  faster  than  the  ordinary  cross-country  runs. 
The  himdred-yard  dash  is  covered  in  a  little  over 
twelve  seconds,  and  the  mile  in  five  minutes  forty 
seconds. 

SNOWY  OWL.  A  large  owl  {Nyctea  nyo- 
tea)  which  inhabits  the  circumpolar  region,  and 
appears  irregularly  in  winter  in  more  temperate 
regions  southward,  occasionally  visiting  even  tiie 
central  parts  of  the  United  States.  It  has  no 
•*homs,'  is  white  suffused  with  reddish  brown  in 
summer,  but  in  winter  is  pure  white.  Its  habits 
are  similar  to  those  of  other  large  owls  (q.v.) ; 
and   in  arctic   America  it  feeds  'mainly  upon 


8N0WT  OWL. 


969 


SOAP. 


ptarmigan.     Many   curious   superstitions    cling 
about  it  in  the  folk-lore  of  the  northern  peoples. 

SNTTFF.    See  Tobacco. 

SNXJFF-TAXEBS.    See  Conscience  Whigs. 

SNYa>EBS,  Frans  (1679-1657).    A  Flemish 

?ainter,  bom  at  Antwerp.  He  studied  under 
ieter  Brueghel  the  younger  and  Hendrick  van 
Balen.  His  talents  won  for  him  the  admiration 
of  Rubens,  who  frequently  engaged  him  to  paint 
fruit,  game,  and  other  accessories  in  his  pictures ; 
and  in  turn  Rubens  often  contributed  the  figures 
to  the  canvases  of  Snyders.  The  chief  works 
which  they  painted  together  are  "Diana's  Hunt" 
(Berlin  Museum)  and  the  "Prometheus  and  the 
Eagle"  (Oldenburg  Museum).  As  a  painter 
of  hunting  episodes,  scenes  of  violent  action^ 
and  combats  of  animals,  Snyders  stands  as  very 
nearly  the  equal  of  Rubens.  His  pictures  are 
seen  in  all  the  famous  galleries  of  Europe,  that 
of  Madrid  possessing  no  less  than  twenty-one. 
There  are  five  of  his  pictures  at  the  Stockholm 
Museum;  fourteen  at  the  Hermitage,  Saint 
Petersburg;  ten  at  Dresden;  and  seven  at 
Munich.  Among  those  at  Munich  is  his  master- 
piece, "Two  Lions  Pursuing  a  Roebuck."  A  sub- 
ject quite  similar  was  bequeathed  to  the  Metro- 
politan Museum,  New  York  City,  in  1871. 

SOANE,  s6n,  Sir  John  (1753-1837).  An 
English  architect,  bom  at  White  Church,  near 
Reading.  In  1788  he  was  appointed  architect  to 
the  Bank  of  England,  which  remains  the  best 
example  of  his  work.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Royal  Academy  in  1802,  and  became  professor 
of  architecture  there  in  1806.  While  lecturing 
he  began  the  foundation  of  the  Soane  Museum, 
which  he  left  to  the  British  nation.  It  contains 
a  valuable  collection  of  pictures,  casts,  and  an- 
tiquities. His  written  works  include  Designs  for 
Puhlio  Improvements  in  London  and  Westminster 
(1827),  and  Designs  for  Public  and  Priva4e 
Buildings  (1828). 

SOAP  (AS.  sUpe,  OHG.  seifa,  seipfa,  Ger. 
Seife,  soap;  probably  connected  with  AS.  sipan, 
MHG.  sifen,  to  drip,  trickle,  Lat.  sebum,  tallow) . 
A  term  generally  employed  in  chemistry  to  de- 
scribe the  metallic  salts  of  the  higher  fatty  acidd. 
In  commerce  it  has  a  more  limited  application, 
being  confined  to  the  potassium  and  sodium  salts 
which  are  extensively  used  as  detergents.  These 
soaps  are  also  used  in  a  linlited  way  as  bases  for 
various  dyestufTs,  and  sometimes  for  medical 
purposes.  The  sodium  compounds  of  fatty  acids, 
being  generally  efflorescent,  harden  on  exposyre 
to  air,  and  hence  are  known  as  hard  soaps.  The 
potassium  compounds,  on  the  contrary,  absorb 
water  under  the  same  conditions  and  consequent- 
ly tend  to  liquefy;  hence  they  are  called  soft 
soaps. 

The  fats  generally  used  in  soap-making  include 
various  tallows  and  greases  of  animal  origin,  lard 
oil,  palm  oil,  olive  oil,  cotton -seed  oil,  corn 
oil,  cocoanut  oil,  stearin^  red  oil  (crude 
oleic  acid),  etc.  The  alkali  lyes  are  pre- 
pared either  by  dissolving  caustic  soda  or 
potash  in  water  to  the  desired  strength,  or,  as  is 
more  often  the  case  in  large  establishments,  at 
least  with  the  caustic  soda  lyes,  they  are  made 
by  dissolving  carbonate  of  soda  in  hot  water  and 
then  adding  the  requisite  quantity  of  quicklime 
for  causticizing,  boiling  and  allowing  the  mass 
to  cool,  when  the  clear  lye  is  drawn  from  the  top. 


The  solution  thus  obtained  is  often  strengthened 
by  evaporation  or  by  addition  of  a  further  quan- 
tity of  solid  caustic  alkali. 

The  soaps  manufactured  at  present  may  be 
classified  as  follows :  ( 1 )  Rosin  or  laundry,  set- 
tled soaps;  (2)  toilet  soaps,  including  settled, 
half-boiled,  transparent,  and  floating  varieties; 
(3)  marine  soaps;  (4)  medicated  soaps;  and  (5) 
manufacturing  soaps. 

The  materials  required  in  manufacturing  set- 
tled soaps  include  tallow  (alone  or  mixed  with 
grease  and  oil),  caustic  soda  solution  (18** -22** 
Baum6),  and  pickle  (saturated  salt  solution). 
The  operation  is  carried  out  in  large  sheet-iron 
kettles,  circular  or  square  in  section,  and  heated 
by  two  steam  coils  lying  on  the  bottom  of  the 
kettle.  One  coil  is  perforated  with  small  holes 
and  delivers  free  steam  in  fine  jets  (the  'open 
coir) ;  the  other  serves  to  heat  the  contents  of 
the  kettle  but  allows  no  escape  of  steam  (the 
'closed  coil').  The  various  operations  are  known 
as  stock  change,  rosin  change,  strength  change, 
and  finish  stock  change.  The  'stock'  (i.e.  the 
fatty  material)  is  pumped  in  liquid  state  into 
the  kettle  and  partly  spent  lye  from  a  previous 
operation  is  added,  the  open  coil  bein^  used  as  a 
heater.  A  portion  of  the  stock  •  being  always 
somewhat  rancid,  it  unites  at  once  with  the  lye 
to  form  soap,  the  soap  in  turn,  with  the  aid  of 
the  live  steam,  emulsifying  the  rest  of  the 
fat.  The  open  coil  is  now  shut  and  the  closed 
coil  used.  From  time  to  time  addition  of  strong 
fresh  lye  is  made  until  the  contents  of  the  kettle 
are  homogeneous,  have  a  characteristic  gummy 
appearance,  and  run  in  long  strings  from  a 
wooden  paddle  which  has  been  dipped  in  the 
hot  liquid.  Pickle  is  now  added  until  the  soap 
becomes  insoluble  ('grained')  and  floats  on  the 
surface.  The  contents  of  the  kettle,  being  al- 
lowed to  cool,  separate  into  two  layers,  the 
granular  imperfect  soap  floating  on  the  brine. 
The  latter,  which  contains  glycerin,  is  drawn  off 
from  the  bottom  of  the  kettle  and  worked  for 
glycerin  and  salt. 

To  the  soap  remaining  in  the  kettle  is  added 
fresh  strong  lye  and  rosin  to  the  amount  of  50  to 
100  per  cent,  of  the  stock  originally  used.  This 
mixture  is  heated  by  the  closed  coil  until  the 
rosin  is  saponified  and  then  the  kettle  is  salted 
out  as  before.  On  standing,  a  lye  separates 
which  contains  a  little  glycerin  not  extracted  in 
the  previous  process;  this  lye,  too,  is  worked 
for  its  glycerin  and  salt.  The  next  operation 
(the  'strength  change')  is  introduced  in  order  to 
insure  complete  saponification.  For  this  purpose 
fresh  strong  lye  (at  least  22°  Baum6)  is  added 
and  the  mass  is  kept  gently  boiling  for  several 
hours  in  the  grained  condition,  strong  lye  having 
the  same  efl'ect  on  soap  as  pickle;  viz.  it  renders 
the  soap  insoluble.  At  the  conclusion  of  this 
operation  the  kettle  contents  are  allowed  to  cool 
and  settle,  and  the  drawn  off  lye,  which  is  not 
exhausted  as  in  the  previous  operations,  is  used  to 
start  a  new  saponification  in  the  stock  change.  The 
grained  soap  is  finally  reheated  and  enough  cold 
water  added  to  cause  it  to  pass  into  solution 
('close').  At  this  stage  the  heat  is  turned  off, 
and  the  kettle  contents  slowly  cool  down  and 
stratify  in  three  layers:  the  soap  on  top,  next 
an  impure  dark  soap  called  'nigre,'  and  finally 
a  small  quantity  of  strong  dark  lye  too  impure 
for  further  use.  The  process  of  making  settled 
soap  without  rosin  is  the  same,  except  that  the 


SOAP.                                970  SOAP. 

'rosiii  change'  operation  is  left  out.    Many  soap-  baa  evaporated:   The  bars  are  then  planed  down, 

makers,  however,  use  very  small  quantities  of  again  cut,  and  pressed  into  any  desired  shape, 

rosin  in  making  toilet  soaps,  believing  that  this  Of  late  years  it  has  been  the  custom  of  various 

tends  to  'pitch  the  nigre,'  i.e.  clarify  the  product,  manufacturers  to  introduce  some  form  of  saponi- 

Rosin  soap  is  allowed  to  cool  in  the  kettle  to  fied  rosin  into  this  class  of  soaps  to  increase  the 

about  I40<*  G.  (about  280°  F.)  and  then  run  into  lathering  quality. 

the  'crutcher' — a  horizontal  iron  cylinder  provid-  Floattng  soaps  were  originally  made  exclusive- 
ed  with  a  shaft  bearing  paddle  blades.  These  ly  from  cocoanut  oil.  At  tiie  present  time  such 
revolve  and  thoroughly  mix  the  soap,  yielding  soaps  are  extensively  made  t^  incorporating 
a  product  uniform  in  texture  and  color.  In  this  with  the  soft  warm  mass  of  any  soap  whatever 
operation  it  is  also  customary  to  make  various  enough  air  to  reduce  the  specific  gravity  below 
additions,  such  as  carbonate  of  soda  to  soften  that  of  water,  the  operation  being  usually  con- 
hard  water,  silicate  of  soda  to  harden  tiie  soap  ducted  in  a  jacketed  kettle  provided  with  a  screw 
and  prevent  too  rapid  wasting,  and  many  other  stirrer.  As  a  rule  floating  soap  is  now  made 
substances,  some  of  doubtful  utility.  After  from  a  mixture  of  tallow  and  cocoanut  oil,  'half 
crutching,  the  warm  mixture  is  run  into  large  boiled,'  with  mixed  potash  and  soda, 
iron  frames  or  molds  and  allowed  to  cool.  When  Marine  or  salt  water  soap  is  a  Hialf  boiled' 
the  soap  is  hard,  the  sides  of  the  frame  are  re-  mixture  made  from  pure  cocoanut  oil  with 
moved  and  the  soap  is  cut  into  slabs  and  bars  potash  and  soda  lye  and  a  further  addition  of 
with  a  steel  wire.  After  a  short  drying  opera-  salt  and  carbonate  of  soda.  The  United  States 
tion,  the  soap  is  pressed  and  ready  for  use.  An  Navy  specifications  call  for  a  soap  of  the  follow- 
ordinary  rosin  soap  freshly  made  has  the  follow-  ing  composition:  the  fatty  matter  shall  consist 
ing  composition:  of  pure  cocoanut  oil  only;  water  should  not  be 

Fatt^androsiiiseldiL M.M  percent.  8^*21  ^^lu'J-^^^X^*.  more  than  66  Pfr  «nt.; 

Fneftlkaii o.asperoent.  the  free  alkali  (NaOH)  shall  not  exeeed  0.6  per 

Combined alkalt «.M percent,  cent.;  carbonated  alkali   (Na,CX),)  may  be  prea- 

^^^^ 28.00  per  cent.  ^^|.  j^  quantities  varying  between  2  and  3  per 

Settled  toilet  soap  is  not  crutched,  but  run  at  <»nt. ;  foreign  mineral  matter  should  not  exceed 

once  into  frames.    When  hard  the  soap  is  cut  by  0.6  per  cent.  Such  a  soap  will  wash  freely  in  salt 

wires  into  thin  bars  which  are  dried  on  racks  in  «»  w«ll  *«  ^  ^r«9h  water,  a  peculiarity  due  to  the 

a  warm,  well  ventilated   room,   and  when  the  solubility  of  the  alkali  salts  of  lauric  acid    (a 

moisture  is  reduced  to  about  10  per  cent.,  the  ^a^tty  acid  present  in  cocoanut  oil)  in  solution  of 

slabs  are  cut  into  fine  thin  chips  or  shavings  »*!*•     The  soap,  however,  does  not   keep  well, 

and  dried  once  more.    The  required  perfume  and  decomposition  of  the  salts  taking  place  during 

coloring  matter   having  been   added,  the  chips  drying,  which  causes  a  liberation  of  free  fatty 

are  fed  into  a  roller  mill,  coming  out  in  thin  *cid  *^d  l^«nce  rancidity  of  the  soap, 

cr^pe-like    sheets.      These    are    passed    through  Soaps  made  from  olive  oil  with  soda  or  mixed 

again  and  again  until  the  mass  is  homogeneous.  *o^*  *^d  potash  by  the  Tialf  boiled'  process  are 

The  thin  sheets  then  pass  into  the  'plotter,'  a  known  as  Castile  soap,  a  recognized  standard, 

revolving  screw  press  which  is  gently  heated  and  Such  soaps,  however,  are  now  largely  adulterated 

delivers  the  soap  in  long  slender  bars.    The  bars  ^*^^  cottonseed  oil  soap. 

are  cut  into  short  lengths  and  pressed  into  cakes  Marseilles  soap  is  a  settled  olive  oil  soap  made 
by  suitable  dies.  Often  settled  and  half  boiled  with  rather  more  soda  than  necessary  for  sapon- 
soaps  are  mixed  in  the  mills,  but  as  a  rule  the  ideation  and  then  boiled  down  until  the  excess 
finest  grades  of  toilet  soaps  are  made  exclusively  'ye  "  strong  enough  to  cause  a  precipitation  of 
from  settled  soap  which  is  ratirely  free  from  *^e  soap.  The  mottled  varieties  receive  an  ad- 
glycerin,  dition  of  copperas  solution  before  boiling  down. 

'Half  boiled  soap'  is  an  evident  misnomer,  no  P«"ng  the  long  continued  boiling  operation,  the 

higher  temperature  than  that  necessary  to  melt  *™"  partially  oxidizes  and  remains  suspended  in 

the  fatty  materials    (50*   to  66'   0.  =  120"   to  ^^e  ^ot  mass,  producing  the  characteristic  blue, 

160°  F.)  being  used  in  the  process.    The  opera-  g^^^*  or  red  mottl^g. 

tion  is  usually  carried  out  in  small  cast  iron  ^<^f*  Potash  soaps  are  now  rarely  made,  the 
lacketed  kettles,  in  which  the  fat,  which  must  ^^  «oaps  found  in  the  market  being  soda  soaps 
be  of  good  quality,  and  usually  consists  of  tallow  *^^**  contain  an  excess  of  water. 
or  tallow  and  cocoanut  oil,  is  liquefied  by  heat.  Medicated  soaps  are  merely  mixtures  of  pure 
An  exactly  calculated  quantity  of  strong  lye  neutral  soaps  with  various  remedial  agents.  The 
(36^  to  40''  Baum^),  consisting  of  soda  alone  or  term  'antiseptic  soap'  is  misleading,  a  pure  set- 
mixed  with  a  small  amount  of  potash,  is  now  tied  soap  being  aseptic  by  itself  and  hardly  any- 
gradually  added,  and  the  mass  vigorously  stirred  thing  being  capable  of  improving  this  quality, 
with  a  wooden  paddle.  When  emulsification  is  Pure  olive  oil  soap  is  used  in  medicine  both  in- 
complete and  saponification  is  well  under  way,  temally  and  externally.  It  may  be  used  as  a 
the  mass  is  ladled  into  an  iron  frame  and  al-  laxative  in  the  form  of  pills,  or  as  an  enema  in 
lowed  to  stand  for  several  days,  during  which  children  for  the  same  purpose ;  or  a  plug  of  soap 
time  the  fatty  matter  is  completely  saponified,  may  be  inserted  into  the  rectum.  Soap  is  also 
cools  down  to  the  normal  temperature,  and  hard-  valuable  as  an  emergency  remedy  in  poisoning 
ens.  The  frame  may  now  be  stripped  and  the  by  the  mineral  acids.  Externally  soap  is  valu- 
soap  cut  and  pressed  in  the  usual  manner.  Ahle  as  a  stimulating  liniment  in  psoriasis,  lichen. 

Transparent  soaps  are  made  by  remelting  half  eczema,  and  other  chronic  affecticms  of  the  skin, 

boiled  soaps  with  the  addition  of  a  small  quan-  Manufacturing  soaps,  such  as  the  wool  and 

tity   of  alcohol,   some   additional   glycerin    and  silk  scouring  soap,  consist  of  neutral  compound? 

cane   sugar  or   glucose.     This   operation   leaves  of  olive  oil  with  potash.    It  is  very  essential  that 

the  soap  as  a  transparent  jelly-like  mass,  which  these  soaps  should  be  neutral  and  freely  soluble. 

is  cut  up  and  allowed  to  stand  until  the  alcohol  A  strongly  alkaline  soap  would  injure  the  deli 


SOAP. 


971 


80AFW0&T. 


cate  fibre  and  at  tbe  same  time  not  prove  bo  eifr 
eient  a  detergent. 

Theobus  of  the  Detebsivk  AcnoN  of  Soaps. 
Berzelius's  theory  formulates  the  dissociation  and 
subsequent  formation  of  an  acid  soap  which  forms 
the  suds  and  free  alkali  uniting  with  any  greasy 
matter  present.  This  is  the  generally  accepted 
theory  to-day.  On  the  other  hand,  Rotondi,  who 
made  a  careful  experimental  iuTestigation  of  the 
subject,  maintained  that  soaps  decompose  in 
solution,  not  into  acid  soaps  and  free  alkali,  but 
into  acid  soaps  and  basic  soaps,  the  latter  being 
precipitated  from  solution,  by  common  salt,  with- 
out losing  any  alkali,  while  acid  soaps  are  com- 
pletely soluble  in  hot  solutions  of  basic  soaps. 
The  bssic  soaps,  according  to  Rotondi,  have  the 
power  to  emulsify,  but  not  to  saponify  (unite 
chemically)  with  fatty  bodies,  and*  it  is  to  this 
emulsifying  po|rer  that  the  detergent  value  of 
soaps  is  due.  Recent  experiments  (1903),  con- 
ducted with  fabrics  impregnated  with  emulsifi- 
able,  but  not  saponiflable,  materials— such  as 
kerosene  oil — seem  to  confirm  Rotondi's  opinions. 

BiBLiOQRAPHT.  Sadtlcr,  Handbook  of  Indus' 
trial  Organic  Chemistry  (Philadelphia,  1900) ; 
Ghristiani,  Soaps  and  Candles  (London,  1881); 
Carpenter,  Soaps  and  Candles  (ib.,  1885) ; 
Watt,  The  Art  of  Soap  Making  (ib.,  1887); 
Cameron,  Soaps  and  Candles  (ib.,  1888); 
Gadd,  Soap  Manufacture  (ib.,  1893) ; 
Hurst,  Soaps,  A  Practical  Treatise  (ib., 
1899) ;  Thorp,  Outlines  of  Industrial  Chemistry 
(New  York,  1898) ;  Gathmann,  American  Soaps 
(Milwaukee,  1901).  See  Fats;  Oils;  Steabin; 
Palmitin;  Oleut;  Steauo  Acid;  Palmitio 
Acid;  Laubic  Acid;  etc. 

SOAFBEBBT  {Sapindus  Saponaria).  A 
West  Indian  tree  of  the  natural  order  Sapin- 
daceiB,  occurring  in  Southern  Florida.  Its  pulpy 
fruit,  which  contains  saponin,  is  used  instead  of 
soap  in  washing,  a  use  apt  to  injure  linen.  With 
the  exception  of  Sapindus  marginatus,  a  tree  30 
to  40  feet  in  height,  found  in  the  Southern  United 
States,  the  genus  is  entirely  tropical.  The  fruits 
contain  shining  black  very  hard  nuts,  formerly 
used  for  making  buttons.    See  SAPiiTDACBiB. 

SOAP  BUBBLES.  Many  important  applica- 
tions of  the  mechanics  of  liquid  surfaces  can  be 
studied  veiy  conveniently  by  means  of  soap  bub- 
bles and  soap  films.  By 
measuring  the  diametcar 
of  a  bubble  and  the  pres- 
sure upon  the  air  within 
the  elastic  strength  of  the 
film  can  be  measured. 
B  /  Naturally  the  pressure 
in  a  small  bubble  is  great- 
Pjg  ^  er  than  in  a  large  one, 

because  the  curvature 
of  the  surface  is  mater.  This  is  very  prettily 
shown  when  two  bubbles  of  different  sizes  are 
joined  as  in  Fig.  1,  when  it  will  be  observed  that 

the  partition  film 
always  con- 
into  the  larg- 
bubble  A,  be- 
ing    pushed     to 
that  form  by  the 
greater     pressure 
In  air  quiet  and  free 
may  be  rested  against 


*  b  inor 


Pie.  % 

in  the  greater  bubble  B. 
from  dust  two  bubbles 
ToL.  xy.>ea. 


each  other  as  shown  in  Fig.  2  a,  like  two  elastie 
balls,  but  if  a  stick  of  sealing  wax  be  rubbed 
to  electrification  and  brought  near  the  bubbles, 
they  will  coalesce  as  in  Fig.  2  b»    One  bubble 

may  be  blown  in- 
side of  another  as 
shown  in  Fig.  3  ck 
Then  electrifica- 
tion will  cause  it 
to  fall  through  the 
outer  bubble  to 
the  form  Fig.  3  b. 
Soap-bubble  films 
on  wire  frames  ar- 
range themselves 
in  a  manner  beautifully  to  confirm  and  illustrate 
the  laws  of  the  composition  and  equilibrium  of 
forces.    A  wire  frame,  as  Fig.  4  a,  with  a  thread 


Fie.  a. 


c-^o-^ 


Fie.  4. 

tied  upon  it  is  instructive.  If  it  is  dipped  in 
soap  solution  and  a  complete  film  put  on  it,  the 
thread  will  move  freely  about  in  the  film,  but 
if  the  film  on  one  side  of  the  thread  be  broken, 
the  film  on  the  other  side  will  pull  the  thread 
to  the  form  h.  If  the  thread  have  a  loop  in  it 
the  form  c  may  be  obtained,  and  the  open  ring 
will  move  freely  about  in  the  film.  A  good  so- 
lution is  made  of  fresh  oleate  of  soda  with  a 
little  glycerin,  or  Castile  soap  may  be  success- 
fully used.  Great  care  must  be  exercised  to 
keep  the  solution  free  from  dust,  but  it  must  not 
be  filtered.  For  complete  details,  consult:  Boys, 
Soap  Bubbles  and  the  Forces  Which  Mold  Them 
(London,  1895),  an  interesting  volume  describ- 
ing many  simple  and  instructive  experiments. 
See  Capillabttt. 

S0APPI8H  (so  called  from  the  unctuous 
skin,  due  to  smooth  scales  and  an  excessive 
fiow  of  mucus).  (1)  A  West  Indian  fish  {Ryp- 
tieus  aaponaceus),  related  to  the  sea-bass,  and 
locally  called  'jabon'  and  'jaboncillo.'  It  is  of 
small  value.     (2)   See  Lizabd-Fish. 

SOAPSTONEy  SiCATiTE,  or  Talo  Rock.  A 
rock  composed  essentially  of  the  hydrp-magnesian 
mineral  talc.  Soapetones  are  produ^  by 
weathering  a^ncies,  are  tough  and  durable,  and 
often  susceptible  of  taking  a  high  polish.  They 
are,  however,  very  soft  and  easily  marred.  Soap- 
stones  are  generally  produced  by  the  alteration, 
through  weathering,  of  the  ultra-basic  or  mag- 
nesian  igneous  rocks.  In  the  Lake  Superior 
region  and  elsewhere  dikes  of  soapstone  have 
played  an  important  r6le  in  the  concentration 
of  bodies  of  ore.  Soapstone  is  used  to  a  small 
extent  as  a  building  stone,  for  monumental  work, 
and  for  sinks,  etc.,  and  when  ground  it  is  em- 
ployed in  the  manufacture  of  toilet  powders, 
soaps,  and  as  a  lubricating  material.    See  Taic, 

SOAPWOBT  iSaponaria).  A  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Garyophyllaceie.  Saponaria 
calabrica  is  a  favorite  garden  annual.  Common 
soap  wort,  boimcing  Bet  {Saponaria  officinalis), 
is  found  on  roadsides,  in  thickets,  and  on  banks 
of  streams,  in  many  parts  of  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica.   Both  the  root  and  the  leaves  contain  sapo- 


979 


SOCIAL  COHTSACT. 


vim,im  ooueqneiice  of  which  they  are  Bometimes 
onployed  for  washing;  the  bark  of  the  root,  how- 
eyer,  ia  apt  to  redden  white  artidea.  Some 
species  of  Gypsophiia,  an  allied  genus,  are  called 
Boaproot,  and  contain  much  saponin.  Thus  the 
Egyptian  soaproot  {(^ypaophila  Struthium)  and 
the  Spanish  soaproot  or  jabonera  {Oyptophila 
Vcicoaria),  which  are  in  commerce,  have  been 
employed  for  washing  from  time  immemorial, 
and  the  roots,  not  having  a  dark  rind,  can  be 
used  upon  white  articles  and  upon  fabrics. that 
will  not  bear  the  action  of  soap. 

SOBAT,  sA-bat'.  A  tributary  of  the  Upper 
Nile.  It  is  formed  by  seyeral  headstreams  in 
British  East  Africa  in  the  regions  northwest  of 
lake  Rudolf,  and  flows  northward  till  it  joins 
the  Nile  in  about  latitude  9*"  30'  N.  (Map:  Afri- 
ca, H  4).  Its  length  is  about  700  miles,  and  it 
has  been  ascended  by  gunboats  over  200  miles. 
Several  of  its  tributaries  are  also  navigable.  At 
high  water  it  is  26  feet  deep  at  the  Nue  conflu- 
ence, and  its  volume  of  ^scharge  is  then  so 
great  that  it  forces  back  the  current  of  the  main 
fiver.  Its  whitish  water,  seen  first  in  the  main 
river  below  the  confluence,  is  supposed  to  have 
given  to  the  latter  the  name  of  Wnite  Nile. 

SOBIBSKE,  Bd'b«-«a^6,  John.  See  John  III. 

SOBIESKI. 

80BK»  or  SSB^X  (Gk.  SoCxofi  Souchoa). 
An  Egyptian  deity.  He  is  represented  either  in 
the  likeness  of  his  sacred  animal,  the  crocodile, 
or  as  a  man  with  a  crocodile's  head.  At  Ombos 
he  was  combined  with  the  sim-god  Re,  and  in  the 
Libyan  nome  he  was  regarded  as  a  manifestation 
of  Osiris,  but  it  was  in  the  Fayum  (q.v.)  that 
his  worship  especially  flourished.  There  in  a 
lake  near  tne  city  of  Crocodilopolis  dwelt  the  in- 
carnation of  the  god,  the  sacred  crocodile  Sou- 
chos,  which  was  fed  and  ministered  to  by  priests 
devoted  to  its  cult.  After  death  the  body  of  the 
sacred  reptile  was  carefully  embalmed  and  was 
laid  away  in  one  of  the  crypts  of  the  Labyrinth 
<q.v.).  The  worship  of  Sobk  extended  far  down 
Into  the  Roman  period,  and  the  god  is  mentioned 
in  Fayum  papyri  as  late  as  the  third  century 
A.D.  C!onsult:  Brugsch,  Religion  und  Mythologie 
der  alien  Aegypter  (Leipzig,  1888-00) ;  Wiede- 
mann, Religion  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians  (trans., 
New  York,  1897). 

SOCAGE  (OF.  socage,  from  AS.  s^o,  jurisdic- 
tion, inquiry,,  from  eaoan,  to  contend,  litigate, 
Goth,  eakan,  OHG.  edkhan,  to  blame,  upbraid). 
A  tenure  of  lands  in  England,  by  which  a  'ten- 
ant' or  owner  of  land  is  obliged  to  render  certain 
fixed  services,  or  pay  a  fixed  annual  rent,  to  the 
lord  of  whom  the  lands  are  held.  Some  land 
was  so  held  before  the  Conquest,  but  it  was  not 
a  common  tenure  until  about  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward I.  Originally  there  were  three  distinct 
species  of  socage  tenure:  that  'in  ancient  tenure 
or  demesne,'  base  or  copyhold  tenure,  and  frank 
tenure.  The  first  two  were  considered  'base'  ten- 
ures and  the  latter  was  called  'free  and  common' 
socage.  Its  incidents  were  usually  a  fixed  rent, 
in  money  or  certain  articles;  a  relief,  or  sum 
paid  by  an  heir  on  the  death  of  his  ancestor;  an 
oath  of  fealty  to  the  lord;  aids,  paid  to  the  lord 
for  certain  ceremonies  and  attendance  at  court. 
The  statute  of  12  Car.  II.,  c.24,  abolished  tenures 
by  knight's  service,  and  all  the  military  tenures 
of  estates  in  individuals,  except  copyholds  and 


frankalmoigne  or  ecclesiastical  tennnesy  were 
converted  into  tenures  by  free  and  common 
socage. 

The  above  incidents  are  seldom  enforced  to-day, 
or  are  made  of  trifling  nature,  as  a  nominal  rent. 
Tenure  by  free  and  common  socage  formerly  pre- 
vailed in  the  United  States,  but  has  now  been 
practically  abolished.  Consult:  Blacksto&e,  Com^ 
mentariee;  Williams,  Real  Property  (19th  ed., 
London,  1901). 

SOCIAL  BBBTHBSH  CHXJBCH^  The.    A 

religious  body,  represented  chiefly  in  the  States 
of  Arkansas,  Illinois,  and  Missouri  It  was 
formed  in  1867  by  members  of  different  churches, 
whose  views  diverged  as  to  certain  points  of  doe- 
trine  and  discipline.  Other  societies  were  added 
and  a  book  of  doctrine  and  discipline  was  pub- 
lished in  1887.  In  the  ten  articles  of  the  Con- 
fession of  Faith,  the  doctrines  of  the  Trinity,  the 
authority  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  redemption, 
and  regeneration  are  defiuMl  substantially  as 
they  are  understood  by  the  evangelical  churches. 
Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper  are  regarded  as 
ordinances  that  were  made  binding  by  Christ,  and 
were  instituted  for  believers  only.  Candidates 
are  permitted  to  choose  by  what  method  they  will 
be  baptized.  All  the  members  are  voters,  and 
their  right  to  speak  freely  is  upheld.  The  voice 
of  the  church  is  taken  on  the  admission  of  candi- 
dates to  full  membership.  In  addition  to  the 
regular  preachers,  eshorters,  stewards,  and  or- 
dained deacons  are  recognised.  Consult  Carroll, 
The  Religious  Forces  of  the  United  States  (2d 
ed..  New  York,  1896). 

SOCIAIi  GLAS8BS.    See  Socioloot. 

SOCIAL  COITTRACT,  or  SOCIAL  COM- 
PACT. Terms  used  interchangeably  by  many 
writers  and  having  reference  to  a  theory  of  the 
origin  of  human  society.  The  theory  was  first 
systematically  enunciated  by  Hobbes  in  the  sev- 
enteenth century,  but  received  its  fullest  develop- 
ment at  the  hands  of  Rousseau  toward  the  mid- 
dle of  the  eighteenth.  It  was  discussed  with 
much  force  also  by  Thomas  Hooker  and  John 
Locke.  The  theory  assumes  that  society  is  not  a 
natural  iitstitution,  but  the  result  of  convention 
among  men.  It  assumes  the  existence  of  a  pre- 
social  state,  in  which  men  were  in  a  state  of 
nature  without  rights  or  obligations  and  subject 
to  no  law  except  the  law  of  nature.  Hobbes's  view 
of  a  state  of  nature  was  that  of  a  condition  in 
which  all  men  were  at  war  with^one  another. 
Each  individual  was  entitled  to  whatever  he  could 
appropriate  and  hold  by  physical  force.  The 
idea  of  justice  had  no  place  in  such  a  state,  nor 
had  the  conception  of  property  yet  arisen.  Locke 
differed  somewhat  with  Hobbes  in  his  view  of 
the  state  of  nature,  holding  that  it  was  one  of 
perfect  freedom,  but  limited  by  the  fact  that  a 
man  must  perform  every  action  in  subservience 
to  the  law  of  nature.  He  did  not  regard  it  as  a 
state  of  license  or  a  condition  of  perpetual  war- 
fare. He  recognised  the  individual  right  of  prop- 
erty in  the  pre-social  state.  Similarly  Rousseau 
maintained  that  pre-social  men  were  not  warlike, 
but  averse  to  combat,  if  not  actually  timid.  Ac- 
cording to  any  view  of  the  nature  of  the  pre- 
social  state  the  life  of  man  was  beset  by  many 
difficulties.  To  escape  from  these  men  agreed  to 
surrender  certain  of  their  so-called  rights  and  to 
form  a  covenant  for  the   protection  of  other 


SOCIAL  CONTBAOT. 


978 


SOCIAUSX. 


rights.  Each,  therefore,  entered  into  a  contract 
with  all  hy  which  he  agreed  to  divest  himself  of 
the  natural  liberty  of  hindering  his  fellow  men 
in  their  efforts  to  obtain  the  same  right.  The 
will  of  an  inchoate  sovereign  person  or  collec- 
tion of  persons  was  substituted  for  the  individ- 
ual will  of  each.  Only  so  much  power  was  sur- 
rendered as  was  deemed  to  be  necessary  for  the 
common  good. 

The  theory  of  the  social  compact  as  a  meana 
of  accounting  for  the  origin  of  existing  institu- 
tions is  now  generally  considered  to  l^  a  legal 
fiction.  The  application  of  the  theoiy  as  the 
starting  point  in  the  evolution  of  the  State  pre- 
supposes a  highly  developed  State  life,  which  is 
never  consciously  present  in  the  minds  of  primi- 
tive individuals.  Such  a  consciousness  is  at- 
tained only  by  historical  development.  Anthro- 
pology has  proved  that  the  pre-social  savages 
described  by  the  advocates  of  the  social  contract 
theory  were  totally  incapable  of  conceiving  the 
idea  of  contract  as  a  means  of  State  organiza- 
tion. 

Gonsidt:  Hobbes,  Leviathan;  Locke,  TreatUea 
on  Oovemment;  and  Rousseau,  Contrai  social, 
and  for  a  critical  appreciation  of  this  remark- 
able essay,  Morley,  Rousseau  (London,  1873) ; 
also  Fenton,  Theory  of  the  Social  Compact  (New 
York,  1891). 

SOCIAL  DEBTOB  CLASSES.  A  term  that 
has  cq^ie  into  use  in  the  literature  of  pauperism 
and  criminology,  and  to  some  extent  in  the  litera- 
ture of  social  reform,  to  designate  all  of  those 
elements  in  a  modern  population  that  either 
prey  upon  society  or  obtain  from  its  bounty 
more  than  they  give  back  in  useful  work.  Not 
only  criminals,  paupers,  and  mendicants  are  in- 
cluded in  the  social  debtor  classes,  but  also  the 
non-self-supporting  defectives  and  degenerates, 
and  those  relatively  inefficient  members  of  th« 
wages  class  who  are  continually  being  thrown 
out  of  employment  because  of  carelessness,  in- 
difference, or  other  incapacity.'  Radical  re- 
formers who  insist  that  most  of  the  misery  of 
the  defective  and  degenerate  is  caused  by  social 
injustice  deny  that  the  classes  designated  as 
social  debtors  are  such  in  fact,  and  say  that  if 
the  term  has  any  meaning  at  all  it  can  most 
appropriately  be  applied  to  the  idle  rich  who  live 
on  accumulated  property  and  render  no  definite 
service    to    the    community.      See    Ohabities; 

CnABITT    ObGANIZATION    SoCIETT;    ]>EFEMDEMTfl; 

Defectives;  Deunqueitts ;  Degeneract;  Men- 
wcANcrr;  Social  Settxehents  ;  Sociologt;  So- 
cialism. 

SOCIAL  DEXOCBACY.    See  Socialisk. 

SOCIAL  INSECTS.    See  Insect. 

SOCIALISM  (from  social,  from  Lat.  sociaUs, 
relating  to  companionship,  or  association,  from 
socius,  oonlpanion,  associate,  from  sequi,  to  fol- 
low; connected  with  Lith.  sekti,  Gk.  hrtaOai, 
hepesthai,  Skt.  sac,  to  follow,  and  ultimately 
with  Eng.  see) .  As  the  term  is  now  used,  social- 
ism is  an  ideal  economic  system  in  which  indus- 
try is  carried  on  under  social  direction  and  for 
the  benefit  of  society  as  a  whole.  It  is  contrasted 
with  the  competitive  regime  of  existing  society. 
The  word  socialism  has  been  used  to  convey  a 
variety  of  meanings,  and  is  only  gradually  assum- 
ing a  definite  significance,  as  a  result  of  the  care- 
ful analysis  of  generations  of  socialistic  think- 


ers and  their  <!ritics.  Moreover,  the  ideal  or- 
ganization of  socialism  has  to  a  great  extent  been 
influenced  by  actual  industrial  changes. 

An  earlier  term  by  which  socialism  was  known 
is  communism  (q.v.).  Efforts  to  distinguish 
communism  from  socialism  cannot  be  said  to 
have  been  successful.  Sometimes  communism  is 
used  to  refer  to  the  voluntary  organization  of 
small  bodies  of  men  who  have  common  property, 
and  who  carry  on  production  in  common,  sharing 
among  themselves  the  fruits  of  their  toil,  as  a 
rule,  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  each  one  an  equal 
allotment  of  economic  go<^s,  but  not  of  honors 
and  consideration. 

In  this  sense  communism  may  be  distinguished 
from  socialism  in  that  the  latter  implies  a  thor- 
oughgoing reconstruction  of  society  through  po- 
litical ad^ion,  while  the  former  calls  upon  men 
to  separate  themselves  from  general  society,  and 
to  form  commimal  societies  for  themselves. 

Socialism  is  sometimes  called  collectivism. 
Those  who  employ  this  term  feel  that  their 
schemes  of  social  reform  are  more  likely  to 
secure  a  hearing  if  called  by  some  other  name 
than  socialism.  For  a  time  in  the  United  States 
the  term  nationalism,  introduced  by  Edward 
Bellamy  in  his  book  Looking  Baoku^ard,  was 
synonymous  with  socialism. 

The  origin  of  the  word  socialism  has  been  the 
subject  of  much  discussion.  It  has  been  claimed 
that  it  was  first  used  in  1840  by  a  French  writer, 
Louis  Reybaud,  in  his  Etudes  sur  les  r^forma- 
teurs  oontemporains  ou  socialistes  modemes. 
The  word,  however,  was  used  in  the  early  thir- 
ties in  England,  and  the  publications  of  the  fol- 
lowers of  Robert  Owen  show  that  it  had  become 
current  before  1840.  John  Spargo  in  the  Coni' 
fade  of  March,  1903,  traces  the  word  socialism 
back  to  1833. 

In  addition  to  the  terms  socialist  and  social- 
ism, we  have  the  terms  social  democrat  and  social 
democracy  very  commonly  used  as  synonymous. 
It  was  long  supposed  that  these  words  were  of 
German  origin,  but  at  least  as  far  back  as  1838 
they  were  coined  by  Bronterre  O'Brien,  an  early 
socialist,  who  took  part  in  the  Chartist  agita- 
tion. The  words  were  used  by  O'Brien  in  oppo- 
sition to  anv  aristocratic  socialist  schemes  and  in 
advocacy  of  democratic  socialism. 

The  constituent  elements  of  socialism  and  its 
most  essential  characteristic  must  next  be  exam- 
ined. The  lack  of  scientific  accuracy  in  popular 
writings  concerning  socialism  shows  that  this 
complex  concept  is  not  generally  understood,  al- 
though its  formulation  has  become  clear  and  pre- 
cise enough,  so  that  it  should  not  be  difficult  to 
grasp  its  essential  elements.  Socialism  implies, 
in  the  first  place,  a  changed  attitude  towards 
property.  Our  economic  life  is  dominated  at  the 
present  time  by  private  property,  and  in  all  cases, 
even  where  public  property  is  largest  in  amount, 
it  appears  as  an  exception  to  a  general  rule.  The 
world's  work  is  carried  on  under  the  domination 
of  private  property.  Socialism  means  that  this 
process  is  to  be  reversed  and  that  the  world's 
work  will  ultimately  be  dominated  by  public 
property. 

Accumulated  wealth  is  divided  by  modem  econ- 
omists and  socialists  alike  into  productive  goods 
and  enjoyment  goods.  Productive  goods,  as  the 
term  suggests,  signifies  those  kinds  of  wealth 
which  are  not  used  for  immediate  enjoyment,  but 


800IALI81L 


974 


S0CIALI81L 


which  are  used  in  producing  those  things  which 
are  consumed  and  enjoyed.  Enjoyment  goods  are 
those  which  yield  immediate  satisfaction,  such  aa 
ordinary  articles  of  consumption,  dwelling 
houses,  paintings,  and  hooks.  We  have  also  a 
further  distinction  between  accumulated  wealth 
and  income  wealth,  the  annual  product  of  toil, 
which  may  be  used  up  each  year.  Now,  as  un- 
derstood to-day,  socialism  means  that  the  instru- 
ments of  production  shall  in  the  main  be  public 
or  collective  property.  While  the  most  conserva- 
tive socialists  do  not  insist  upon  public  owner- 
ship of  all  land  and  capital,  they  consider  it  es- 
sential that  the  chief  kinds  of  capital  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  land  should  be  collective  prop- 
erty. Socialists  formerly  held  that  all  land 
should  be  owned  by  society,  but  lately  the  most 
conservative  socialists  have  been  inclined  to  make 
concessions  to  small  landowners  who  cultivate 
their  property  and  to  concede  to  them  private 
ownership  so  long  as  they  find  it  desirable.  On 
the  other  hand,  modern  socialism  has  em- 
phasized strongly  private  property  in  income.  It 
is  on  this  account  that  socialists  frequently  deny 
most  strenuously  that  they  are  opposed  to  pri- 
vate property,  and  claim  that  they  wish  to  ex- 
tend private  property.  They  refer  always  to  in- 
come. They  wish  each  one  to  have  his  income, 
and  to  have  that  under  his  control. 

The  first  constituent  element  of  socialism  may, 
therefore,  be  stated  to  be  a  substitution  of  col- 
lective property  in  the  great  material  instruments 
of  production  in  the  place  of  private  property  to 
such  an  extent  that  public  property  shall  domi- 
nate the  world's  work.  The  second  constituent 
element  is  private  property  in  income  and  pri- 
vate property  in  those  goods  which  are  used  for 
the  sake  of  enjoyment  and  not  for  the  acquisi- 
tion of  an  income  by  rent  or  hire  to  others. 

Modem  socialists  desire  to  disturb  existing  ar- 
rangementa  as  little  as  possible  in  attaining  the 
main  end  of  socialism:  the  abolition  of  the  pri- 
vate receipt  of  rent  and  interest,  the  incomes 
from  private  property.  Rent  from  land  and  in- 
terest from  capital  are  the  result  of  private  own- 
ership of  these  instruments  of  production.  With 
collective  ownership  the  income  yielded  by  land 
and  capital  must  also  become  collective.  The 
purpose  is  the  common  enjoyment  of  the  advan- 
tages yielded  by  land  and  capital,  in  order  that 
there  may  be  no  income  apart  from  personal  ef- 
fort, and  that  the  income  yielded  by  personal  ef- 
fort may  be  increased.  The  most  advanced  forms 
of  capitalistic  production  are  approved,  and  the 
extension  of  agricultural  machinery  and  farming 
on  a  large  scale  are  viewed  vfHh  favor.  The 
change  which  is  advocated  is  a  change  in  prop- 
erty, in  order  thereby  to  accomplish  the  great 
end  which  has  just  been  described.  The  social- 
ists desire  to  abolish  what  they  call  unearned 
income,  meaning  thereby  personally  unearned  in- 
come, for  the  income  which  individuals  receive 
from  property  they  conceive  to  be  unearned,  and 
a  deduction  from  the  earnings  due  to  personal 
effort.  Socialists  generally  attempt  to  justify 
this  view  theoretically  by  the  doctrine  that  all 
value  is  to  be  attributed  to  labor.  The  cruder 
forms  of  socialism  have  so  emphasized  manual 
labor  as  to  imply  an  underestimation  of  intellec- 
tual services.  With  the  rise  of  a  higher  class  of 
socialistic  thinkers,  however,  this  crude  view  has 
lost    its    prominence.     Socialists    now   generally 


fully  understand  that  intellectual  service  i«  as 
important  as  manual  labor,  and  they  find  a  place 
for  both  in  their  plans  for  a  future  society. 

Socialists  and  economists  are  alike  agreed  that 
production  has  become  largely  a  social  process, 
and  that  the  socialization  of  production  increases 
day  by  day.  W'hat  the  socialists  complain  of  is 
that,  while  production  is  a  social  process,  the 
control  of  production  is  in  the  hands  of  private 
owners.  They  discover  an  antithesis  between  so- 
cial production  and  individual  control,  and  de- 
mand accordingly  that  the  socialization  of  pro- 
duction shall  be  accompanied  by  social  or  col- 
lective management.  Modem  socialism  demands 
collective  management  of  each  industry,  and  it 
demands  that  all  the  industries  should  be  asso- 
ciated together,  in  order  thereby  to  secure  perfect 
system,  harmony,  and  unity  of  effort.  Because 
individual  producers  do  not  act  together,  but  act 
each  one  for  himself  the  socialists  reproach  pres- 
ent society  with  planlessness,  which  they  say 
gives  us  industrial  crises  and  stagnation — an 
argument  less  frequently  advanced  than  formerly^ 
owing  to  the  formation  of  combinations  and  trusts 
which  seem  to  overcome  this  weakness  in  the  ex- 
isting industrial  order. 

Finally,  socialism  means  the  distribution  of 
income  by  some  common  authority.  If  organ- 
ized society  owns  the  instruments  of  production, 
and  conducts  production,  necessarily  the  product 
of  industry  in  the  first  instance  falls  to  society, 
as  it  does  now  to  the  individual  owners  and  man- 
agers. Society  must  then  in  some  way  divide 
up  the  income  which  results  from  our  collective 
economic  efforts,  giving  to  each  one  his  due 
share.  Under  socialism  the  great  mass  of  men 
would  be  salaried  functionaries  of  society,  and 
the  aim  would  be  in  one  way  or  another  so  to 
adjust  their^salaries  that  in  *the  aggregate  they 
should  equal  the  total  wealth  produced  for  con- 
sumption. 

Formerly  there  was  a  greater  inclination  on 
the  part  of  socialists  than  there  is  now  to  ac- 
complish their  ends  by  measures  of  compulsion.  It 
was  proposed  that  every  one  should  be  forced 
into  the  system  of  collective  production  and  in 
return  receive  a  subsistence.  Modem  socialism 
does  not  propose  directly  to  force  any  one  into 
the  socialistic  scheme.  If  any  one  is  able  to  gain 
a  livelihood  by  his  private  efforts,  socialism  is 
quite  content  that  he  should  do  so.  He  will 
not  be  able  to  gain  an  income  from  ownership  of 
the  chief  instruments  of  production,  as  these 
will  be  public  property.  He  may.  however,  own 
tools  which  he  can  use  in  production,  if  he  can 
induce  men  to  purchase  his  product.  Socialism 
contemplates  a  public  provision  for  education  as 
at  the  present  time,  but  it  does  not  propose  to 
throw  any  obstacles  in  the  way  of  a  man  who  de- 
sires to  organize  private  schools.  A  public  or- 
ganization of  medicine  is  contemplated  by  social- 
ism, but  the  modem  socialist  does  not  see  any 
reason  why  a  physician  who  desires  to  engage  in 
'private  practice  should  not  do  so,  if  he  can  find 
those  who  prefer  his  services  to  those  of  the  pub- 
lic physicians.  The  modem  socialist  holds  that 
most  men  will  find  it  to  their  advantage  to  en- 
gage in  public  production,  but  does  not  insist 
upon  absolute  uniformity  in  this,  or  in  other  par- 
ticulars. 

Modem  socialism  is  international  and  cosmo- 
politan.    With  the  growth  of  the  buaineas  nnit 


SOCIALZBX. 


976 


S00IALI81L 


and  the  cheapening  of  transportation,  the  eoo- 
nomicties  binding  men  together  have  extended 
geographically  until  the  whole  world  may  be 
said  to  have  become  a  single  economic  unit.  It 
is  natural  that  socialism,  influenced  by  the  de- 
velopment of  economic  society,  should  also  have 
become  international.  A  further  reason  for  the 
international  character  of  socialism  is  to  be 
found  in  the  fact  that  the  leaders  of  socialistic 
thought,  having  called  in  (j^uestion  and  having 
rejected  the  existing  economic  order,  are  also  in 
the  mood  to  call  in  question  the  advantages  of 
the  existing  political  order.  Thev  see  few  or  no 
advantages  coming  to  the  workers  from  the 
national  boundaries  and  arrangements  which 
separate  men.  They  desire  fraternity  among 
the  toilers,  but  as  a  result  of  national  differ- 
ences they  see  the  toilers  fighting  each  other, 
and  they  make  the  claim  that  all  wars  take 
place  at  the  expense  of  the  laborer  and  for  the 
advantage  of  a  small  military  and  industrial 
class,  who  derive  therefrom  on  the  one  hand 
glory,  and  on  the  other  pecuniary  profit. 

The  internationalism  of  socialism  was  one  of  the 
leading  thoughts  of  Karl  Marx  (q.v.).  The  first 
noteworthy  result  of  this  internationalism  was 
the  organization  in  1864  of  the  International 
Workingmen's  Association  (see  Internationale), 
which  declared  in  the  by-laws  adopted  in  its  first 
meeting  that  the  emancipation  of  labor  was  a  so- 
cial problem,  requiring  the  cooperation  of  the  most 
advanced  countries.  Since  1889  the  socialists 
have  held  international  concrresses  once  in  three 
years,  and  in  1900  the  International  Bureau  of 
Socialism  was  established  at  Brussels  to  serve 
as  a  common  centre  for  socialism  of  all  countries. 

As  socialism  has  grown  in  strength  and  be- 
come a  political  power,  a  more  conservative  and 
rational  attitude  toward  nationality  has  been 
developed.  Patriotism  is  no  longer  execrated  as 
a  device  for  blinding  the  workers  to  the  evils  of 
exploitation.  Militant  socialism  is  still  far  from 
the  glorification  of  patriotism  and  does  not  seek 
anywhere  to  cultivate  it,  but  its  attitude  might 
be  described  as  at  least  neutral.  The  fraternity 
of  workers  the  world  over  is  still  the  great  dom- 
inant idea.  In  the  attitude  taken  toward  the 
nation  there  is,  however,  a  line  of  cleavage 
among  the  socialists.  In  every  country  there  is 
a  conservative,  or  right  wing,  of  socialists  who 
favor  active  participation  in  the  national  life 
and  efforts  to  bring  about  improvement  even  in 
cooperation  with  older  political  parties.  The 
Fabian  Socialists  of  England  (see  Fabian  So- 
ciety) ,  the  wing  of  the  German  Social  Democracy, 
led  by  Eduard  Bernstein  (q.v.)  of  Berlin  and  G. 
H.  von  Vollmar  (q.v.)  of  Munich,  and  the  fac- 
tion of  the  French  Socialists,  led  by  A.  Millerand 
(q.v.),  Minister  of  Commerce  in  the  French  Cabi- 
net, and  Jean  Lton  Jaurfes  (q.v.),  are  all  repre- 
sentatives of  this  tendency  and  are  the  most  con- 
servative among  all  the  active  political  socialists. 

The  attitude  of  socialism  toward  the  State 
has,  during  the  hundred  years  of  its  existence, 
undergone  a  development  in  which  we  may  dis- 
cover several  distinct  stages.  (1)  In  the  first 
stage  we  have  as  leaders  of  thought  Robert  Owen, 
Etienne  Gabet,  Count  Henri  de  Saint-Simon,  and 
Charles  Fourier  (qq.v.).  These  socialists,  with 
the  exception  of  Owen,  did  not  call  particularly 
upon  the  State  for  assistance  in  their  efforts  to 
achieve  socialism,  preferring  generally  cooperation 
baaed  upon  voluntary  principles.    They  believed 


that  by  establishing  communistic  settlements 
they  could  demonstrate  to  the  world  the  advan- 
tages of  socialism,  and  that  very  soon  all  men 
would  join  communistic  associations  which  would 
then,  in  one  way  or  another,  be  federated  to- 
gether. (2)  Louis  Blanc  (q.v.)  in  the  middle  of 
the  nineteenth  century  may  be  regarded  as  the  one 
who  more  than  any  other  founded  political  so- 
cialism. He  held  that  socialists  should  seek  to 
gain  control  of  political  power,  and  he  appealed 
directly  to  the  State  for  aid  in  the  establish- 
ment of  socialism.  He  desired  to  found  social 
workshops  with  subsidies  from  the  State,  which 
should  gradually  absorb  private  industries.  Fer- 
dinand Lassalle  (q.v.)  in  Germany  took  a  quite 
similar  position,  emphasizing  most  strongly  the 
establishment  of  cooperative  industrial  undertak- 
ings with  the  aid  of  subsidies  from  the  State.  (3) 
A  third  stage  is  found  in  the  attitude  of  the  fol- 
lowers of  Karl  Marx  and  Liebknecht.  These  look 
askance  upon  existing  governments,  and  the  or- 
thodox Marxist  is  strongly  inclined  to  oppose 
Government  ownership  and  operation  of  indus- 
tries by  the  existing  State,  which  is  condemned 
for  following  capitalistic  principles  in  the  enter- 
prises it  manages.  The  German  socialists  have, 
then,  no  special  enthusiasm  for  the  State  owner- 
ship and  operation  of  the  railroads  in  Prussia, 
and  in  the  United  States  the  municipal  ownership 
and  operation  of  public  utilities  is  very  fre- 
quently opposed  by  individual  orthodox  socialists, 
although  this  attitiide  of  antagonism  to  muni- 
cipalization has  never  received  official  indorse- 
ment, and  as  a  matter  of  fact  socialist  office- 
holders are  always  instructed  to  vote  for  muni- 
cipal ownership.  The  programme  of  the  socialists 
is,  first,  the  capture  of  the  existing  organs  of  gov- 
ernment by  the  wage-earners,  and  then  the  in- 
auguration of  public  ownership  and  operation  of 
industries.  The  special  point  to  be  noticed  is  the 
insistence  upon  complete  control  of  the  machinery 
of  government  by  the  workers  as  the  first  step. 
The  fourth  stage  is  represented  by  the  conserva- 
tive or  extreme  right  faction  of  the  social- 
ists, who  are  willing  to  codperate  with  existing 
parties  in  reforms  which  are  in  general  harmony 
with  the  socialist  programme,  such  as  municipal 
ownership  of  public  utilities  and  Government 
ownership  of  railways.  These  socialists  are 
called  opportunists,  and  in  France  possibilists. 
The  Fabian  socialists  are  the  best  illustration, 
because  they  decide  upon  action  in  each  case  as  it 
arises.  We  notice,  then,  that  it  is  only  as  a 
concession  on  the  part  of  the  most  conservative 
socialists  that  the  extension  of  public  ownership 
and  management  of  industries  is  favored  while 
the  present  State  lasts.  We  notice  also  that 
democracy  is  an  essential  part  of  political  social- 
ism. Political  socialism  is  not  merely  socialism,  it 
is  socialism  plus  democracy  with  an  inclination 
to  place  democracy  first.  Democracy  to  the  so- 
cialist does  not  mean  the  kind  of  government 
w^hich  we  have  in  the  United  States,  but  the 
kind  of  government  which  is  completely  con- 
trolled by  the  workers.  Direct  legislation  is 
favored,  and  the  initiative  and  referendum  as 
agencies  of  direct  legislation  are  very  generally 
advocated.  As  a  rule,  if  not  universally,  the  plan 
for  the  operation  of  industries  is  election  of 
foremen,  superintendents,  and  managers  by  the 
wage-earners. 
Socialism  in  its  first  phase  was  not  necea* 


BOOIAUBIL 


•76 


800XALX81L 


sarily  democratic.  Owen  and  Saini-Simon  both 
appealed  to  those  now  in  control  of  political  and 
economic  jMwer  to  take  the  leadership  in  re- 
form. Philanthropy  played  a  great  rOic  in  so- 
cialism in  this  stage,  and  it  was  hoped  that 
socialism  would  be  introduced  by  the  ruling 
classes.  Saint- Simonians  emphasized  the  natural 
inequality  of  men,  and  Saint- Simon  appealed  to 
royalty  to  assist  in  the  noble  work  of  social  re- 
form. He  had  a  place  for  the  King  in  his  so- 
cialist State,  and  the  King  was  to  be  called  the 
'first  industrial  of  his  kingdom.'  Even  Ferdi- 
nand Lassalle  was  monarchically  inclined. 

Socialists  take  a  view  of  the  State  which  in 
some  respects  suggests  the  position  of  Herbert 
Spencer  and  other  individualists.  They  hold 
that  under  socialism  the  functions  of  the  State 
along  many  lines  will  be  greatly  diminished. 
Crime,  they  think,  will  very  nearly  disappear, 
and  pauperism  will  entirely  cease.  Standing 
armies  will  be  abolished  and  a  popular  militia 
substituted  therefor.  The  functions  of  the  law 
courts  will  also  disappear,  they  maintain,  with 
the  abolition  of  private  property  in  the  instru- 
ments of  production,  which  is  the  fruitful  cause 
of  litigation.  The  chief  function  of  government 
will  he  found  in  the  administration  of  indus- 
tries. They  have,  therefore,  a  conception  of  the 
State  so  different  from  that  of  the  present  State 
that  they  .dislike  the  expression  'the  State,'  and 
abhor  'State'  socialism.  The  word  'official'  is 
also  objected  to  because  it  .suggests  present  bu- 
reaucratic ^vemments.  The  attitude  of  the  or- 
thodox socialist  toward  the  State  finds  clear 
expression  in  the  work  of  the  German  socialist 
August  Bebel,  Die  Frau  und  der  SocialUmus 
(27th  ed.,  1896). 

During  the  evolution  of  socialist  thought 
which  had  just  been  sketched  anarchism  has  be- 
oome  separated  from  socialism.  (See  Arabch- 
I8T.)  Among  early  socialists  there  were  varia- 
tions of  opinions  concerning  government,  and 
some  like  William  Godwin  (q.v.)  were  in- 
clined to  take  an  attitude  of  radical  antagonism 
to  government  as  such.  We  thus  find  anarchistic 
tendencies  in  socialism  along  with  tendencies  of 
a  very  different  and  altogether  antagonistic  sort. 
The  cleavage  gradually  became  more  pronounced. 
Pierre  Joseph  Proudhon  (q.v.)  is  frequently 
spoken  of  as  the  founder  ojf  anarchism,  and  in 
him  we  find  the  doctrines  of  anarchy  reaching 
such  a  development  that  probably  more  than 
any  one  else  he  is  to  be  designated  as  the  founder, 
although  his  views  are  not  worked  out  so  clearly 
and  systematically  as  those  of  his  followers.  For 
the  sake  of  convenience  we  may  take  Proud- 
hon's  book  What  is  Property?  and  the  date  of  its 
appearance,  1840,  as  the  beginning  of  modern 
anarchism.  The  form  of  anarchism  founded  by 
Proudhon  is  that  of  complete  individualism. 
This  type  of  anarchism  has  had  some  develop- 
ment in  the  United  States  under  the  leadership 
of  Benjamin  R.  Tucker^  who  for  some  years 
edited  an  organ  called  Liberty. 

The  anarchists  of  whom  we  hear  most  are 
of  quite  a  different  stripe,  and  their  anarchism 
is,  by  way  of  distinction,  known  as  anarchist 
communism.  This  school  of  anarchy  was  found- 
ed by  Mikhail  Bakunin  (q.v.),  and  may  be  re- 
garded as  an  outgrowth  of  the  International 
Workingmen's  Association,  to  which  Bakunin 
belonged.    Bakunin  and  Marx  for  a  time  worked 


together;  they  both  regarded  themselves  as  so- 
cialists, Marx  calling  himself  a  communist,  and 
Bakunin  describing  himself  as  a  collectivist.  So- 
cialism and  anarchism  were  not  at  first  recog- 
nized as  antagonistic  principles,  but  the  differ- 
ences between  them  developed  continuously.  The 
anarchist  communists  held  to  the  doctrine  of 
associated  effort  and  considered  themselves  as 
true  communists,  and  not  as  individualists. 
They  are  radically  opposed  to  public  authority 
and  believe  that  with  the  abolition  of  the 
State  men  will  spontaneously  form  codperative 
associations  which  will  voluntarily  form  fed- 
erations for  mutual  aid.  Like  the  socialists, 
the  anarchists  advocate  a  cooperative  common- 
wealth, but  they  differ  from  the  socialists 
with  respect  to  the  organization  of  that 
commonwealth,  and  more  especially  in  the 
methods  whereby  it  is  to  be  reached.  The  ques- 
tion of  tactics  has  been  largely  instrumental  in 
the  growth  of  hostility  between  socialists  and 
anarchists.  Anarchists  deny  that  the  State  rests 
upon  any  ethical  foundation,  and  consequently 
there  can  be  no  wrong  in  opposing  government 
and  seeking  its  overthrow.  Government  to  the 
anarchist  means  force  and  nothing  more,  and  the 

Question  of  resisting  it  is  one  of  expediency  only, 
f  the  anarchists  believe  that  they  have  a  su- 
perior force,  thqr  must  necessarily  attempt  to 
overthrow  organized  government.  Socialists,  on 
the  other  hand,  take  no  such  attitude  of  antago- 
nism toward  the  State,  although  they  may  think 
and  do  think  that  the  socialist  State  will  be 
something  different  from  the  present  State.  They 
hold,  moreover,  that  changes  must  come  about 
by  evolutionary  processes,  and  are  opposed  to 
insurrectionary  movements  where  other  means 
are  open.  Marx  and  Engels  condemned  violent 
methods  very  early  in  their  career,  and  as  so- 
cialists have  taken  a  part  in  the  work  of  govern- 
ment in  the  various  countries  of  the  civilized 
world,  they  have  increasingly  favored  the  main- 
tenance of  law  and  order,  believing  that  their 
ends  can  be  achieved  by  l^al  means,  and  that 
if  revolution  does  take  place  it  will  be  brought 
about,  not  by  them,  but  by  their  opponents. 
Some  Socialists  think  that  the  adherents  of  the 
present  social  order,  when  they  see  the  coming 
triumph  of  socialism  by  legal  means,  will  them- 
selves inaugurate  a  revolution,  but  the  more  con- 
servative hold  that  all  classes  will  gradually 
adjust  themselves  to  the  changes  leading  to 
socialism.  The  socialist  to-day  is  the  strongest 
opponent  of  anarchism.  It  was  the  socialists, 
not  the  German  Government  who  really  drove 
Johann  Most  (q.v.),  one  of  the  leaders  of  com- 
munist anarchism,  from  Germany,  and  it  is  the 
German  Social  Democrats  who  practically  ex- 
tinguished anarchism  in  their  country. 

The  attitude  of  socialism  toward  the  family 
has  varied,  but  now  it  has  become  a  definite  one 
of  neutrality.  Early  socialists  were  inclined  to 
assume  a  general  position  of  radicalism  with 
respect  to  all  institutions  of  society,  seeing  more 
quickly   and   easily   the   disadvantages   of   any 

£  resent  social  arrangement  than  its  advantages. 
Loreover,  the  early  socialists  found  the  family 
to  be  the  basis  of  the  economic  society  which  they 
attacked.  Marriage  in  its  present  form  seemed  Ui 
them  to  carry  with  it  the  oppression  of  woman. 
It  cannot  be  said  that  socialism  ever  had  a  dis- 
tinct doctrine  of  the  family,  but  until  recent 


flOOTATiTBUr, 


977 


BOCIALZBIL 


yean  it  was  inclined  to  what  would  be  termed 
at  least  lax  notions  of  the  marriage  tie,  holding 
that  the  bond  of  union  between  man  and  woman 
should  be  love  alone,  and  that  when  love  dis- 
appeared, there  disappeared  with  it  the  recipro- 
cal obligations  of  marriage.  Socialists  of  the 
present  time  do  not  see  any  reason  why  they 
should  have  a  peculiar  view  of  the  family, 
and  they  are  not  in  this  particular  distinguished 
from  o&er  people. 

The  attitude  of  socialism  toward  religion  has 
undergone  a  similar  change.  "The  Church  as  one 
of  tiie  institutions  of  existing  society  long  ap- 
peared to  the  socialist  to  be  a  bulwark  of  op- 
pression. Modem  socialism,  however,  has  sep- 
arated Uie  economic  question  from  the  religious 
question,  and  now  everywhere  regards  religion 
as  a  'private  matter.'  The  position  of  socialists 
toward  religion  the  world  over  is  much  like  that 
which  finds  expression  in  the  constitutional  sys- 
tem of  the  United  States.  Anything  like  a 
Church  State,  or  public  support  of  religion,  is  de- 
nounced, but  it  is  not  proposed  to  interfere  with 
any  individuals  who  may  desire  to  maintain  bv 
their  own  voluntary  contributions  any  church 
organization  or  religious  sect. 

Readers  of  current  socialistic  literature  fre- 
quently find  a  sharp  distinction  drawn  between 
what  is  termed  Utopian  socialism  and  scientific 
socialism.  Socialism  before  the  ascendency  of 
Marx  was  very  largely  Utopian  in  character. 
The  early  socialist  looked  upon  society  as  an 
artificial  product  and  thought  it  possible  to  de- 
velop a  scheme  of  society  which,  if  introduced, 
would  bring  with  it  a  real  earthly  paradise.  It 
was  thought  that  the  very  nature  of  man  could 
be  chang^  by  a  wisely  devised  scheme  of  social- 
ism. Owen's  most  fundamental  social  doctrine 
was  that  circumstances  form  the  character  of 
man,  and  that  right  circumstances  would  give  us 
right-minded  and  right-acting  human  beings.  In 
the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  idea 
of  society  as  a  growth  with  laws  of  its  own  had 
not  been  clearly  grasped,  and  adherents  of  pri- 
vate property,  as  well  as  communists,  believed  in 
the  possibility  of  the  most  fundamental  changes 
by  means  of  a  revolution  which  could  take  place 
over  night.'  The  result  of  this  attitude  was  the 
elaboration  of  all  sorts  of  fantastic  schemes. 
Owen  planned  his  communistic  villages  of  two 
or  three  thousand,  but  the  highest  develop- 
ment of  purely  artificial  plans  is  found  in  Fou- 
rierism  (q.v.),  with  its  phalanxes  and  phalan- 
steries. The  modem  socialist  plumes  himself 
upon  his  science,  and  has  a  lofty  scom  for  all 
Utopian  socialism.  He  may  admit  that  it  had 
its  historical  meaning,  and  have  a  certain  tolera- 
tion for  it  as  something  belonging  to  the  past, 
but  when  he  meets  it  at  the  present  time  he 
views  it  with  even  more  contempt  than  does  the 
ordinary  economist.  The  modem  socialist  studies 
the  laws  of  society,  and  is  a  careful  student  of 
English  blue  books  and  the  statistical  publica- 
tions of  the  United  States  Census  Office.  He 
despises  sentimentalism  and  desires  to  replace 
appeals  to  philanthropy  with  historical  re- 
searches and  carefully  elaborated  deductive  rea- 
soning. 

An  adequate  treatment  of  the  character  of  this 
alleged  science  which  underlies  socialism  re- 
quires at  least  a  brief  examination  of  the  socio- 
economic philosophy  of  Karl  Marx,  since  it 
occupies  a  central  position  in  the  economics  of 


socialism.  The  doctrines  of  Marx  are  still  held 
in  the  main  by  the  great  body  of  socialists,  and 
they  imderlie  the  platforms  of  socialist  parties 
throughout  the  world.  The  variations  in  so- 
cialist doctrines  appear  as  departures  from  Marx. 
Some  of  these  variations  are  radical,  but  still 
they  bear  relation  to  Marx. 

Marx  opens  his  work  on  Capital  with  an  ex- 
planation of  value.  He  finds  that  the  element 
in  economic  goods  which  gives  and  measures 
value  is  labor.  Labor  has  its  exchange  value, 
and  this  is  governed  by  the  cost  of  labor,  and  the 
cost  of  labor  is  determined  by  the  subsistence  of 
the  laborer  in  accordance  with  his  standard  of 
life.  The  employer  of  labor  pays  in  wages  the 
cost  of  labor,  but  the  laborer,  according  to  Marx, 
produces  more  than  this  cost,  and  the  difference 
between  what  the  laborer  produces  and  the  wages 
of  labor  he  designates  as  surplus  value.  This 
surplus  value  Marx  regards  as  the  source  of 
all  rent,  interest,  and  profits.  All  value,  accord- 
ing to  the  doctrines  of  Marx,  is  produced  by 
labor  and  belongs  to  labor.  Labor  receiving, 
however,  only  subsistence  wages,  Marx  holds  that 
it  is  robbed  of  surplus  value,  which,  through  the 
processes  of  production  and  exchange,  is  trans- 
ferred to  the  non-wage-eaming  classes.  Marx 
maintains  that  it  is  only  through  socialism  that 
labor  can  receive  the  full  value  which  it  pro- 
duces, so  that. surplus  value  will  disappear.  This 
doctrine,  while  still  accepted  by  perhaps  the 
majority  of  socialists,  is  rejected  by  some,  and 
generallv  receives  less  emphasis  than  formerly. 

The  tneory  of  Marx  which  just  now  is  much 
more  discussed  is  that  commonly  designated 
as  'the  materialistic  interpretation  of  history.' 
According  to  this  theory,  history  is  made 
up  of  successive  stages,  in  each  of  which 
the  social  organization  is  determined  by  the 
methods  of  production  and  exchange.  The  ideal 
factors  in  history,  such  as  religion  and  ethics, 
are  a  mere  refiection  of  the  underlying  economio 
phenomena.  Socialists  themselves  have  been 
inclined  to  qualify,  and  have  qualified  in  all 
their  agitation  this  doctrine  in  such  a  way  as  to 
give  a  large  place  to  the  will  of  man.  They 
hold  that  tiie  development  of  society  takes  place 
in  accordance  with  evolutionary  laws^  but  that 
man  himself  is  a  part  of  the  evolution  and  helps 
determine  it.  There  is  always,  however,  a  marked 
distinction  between  this  so-called  scientific  so- 
cialism and  Utopian  socialism,  inasmuch  as  sci- 
entific socialism  asserts  that  the  will  and  de- 
sires of  men  can  be  effective  only  in  so  far  as 
they  act  in  harmony  with  the  general  tendencies 
of  evolution. 

It  is  important  to  notice,  however,  that,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  teachings  of  Marx,  the  evolu- 
tion of  society  is  such  as  to  lead  inevitably  to 
monopolv.  Marx  believed  that  larce-scale  pro- 
duction nas  an  advantage  over  small  production ; 
consequently  that  the  large  producers  sooner  or 
later  must  crush  out  the  small  producers,  imtil 
each  branch  of  production  falls  under  monopo- 
listic control.  In  the  meantime  the  wage-earn- 
ers are  brought  together  in  ever-increasingly 
large  numbers;  they  are,  to  use  his  own  words, 
"schooled,  united,  and  disciplined  by  the  mechan- 
ism of  the  capitalistic  processes  of  production." 
The  inevitable  result,  he  held,  would  be  such  a 
concentration  of  productive  wealth,  and  such 
great  ^lidarity  of  the  working  classes,  that  the 
system  would  break  down  of  its  own  weight,  and 


BOOIAUBIL 


978 


BOOEALIBII. 


the  laborerB  would  gain  possessioii  of  the  meenfl 
of  production. 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  each  stan  in  eco- 
nomic development  has  its  own  place.  Feudalism 
was  once  a  suitable  social  organization,  but  in 
time  it  had  to  make  way  for  capitalistic  produc- 
tion. Capitalistic  production  has  performed  a 
service  wnich  Marx  recognized  as  clearly  as  a 
modem  economist,  but  Marx  held  that  capitalis- 
tic production  has  very  nearly  run  its  course, 
and  that  it  has  rendered  the  chief  services  of 
which  it  is  capable.  Marx  held  that  ''alons  with 
each  decrease  in  the  number  of  magnates  of  capi- 
talism there  goes  an  increasing  mass  of  misery 
and  degradation."  Belief  in  the  increasing  mis- 
ery of  the  masses  was  an  essential  part  of  so- 
cialistic doctrine  a  generation  ago ;  but  it  has  to 
a  great  extent  been  abandoned^  some  socialists, 
like  Bernstein,  going  so  far  as  to  claim  that  with 
capitalism  there  has  been  an  increase  in  the 
economic  well-being  of  the  masses.  Intelligent 
socialists  now  clearly  see  that  from  the  masses 
of  men  sunk  in  misery  there  can  come  no  able 
and  vigorous  recruits  for  socialism.  An.  impor- 
tant practical  consequence  is  that  socialists  now 
are  more  favorably  inclined  to  take  measures 
which  elevate  the  masses,  even  while  the  present 
social  order  continues,  because  they  hold  that 
thereby  men  will  become  better  prepared  for  so- 
cialism. 

Another  theory  of  Marx  finds  expression  in 
what  is  now  termed  class-consciousness.  It  was, 
according  to  him,  necessary  that  the  wage-earn- 
ers should  become  conscious  of  themselves  as  a 
class  in  the  community  having  interests  of  their 
own,  and  that  they  should  rely  upon  self-help 
and  not  upon  the  help  of  other  classes  for  their 
emancipation.  Class-consciousness  is  now  the 
chief  test,  as  it  is  the  great  rallying  cry  of  or- 
ganized socialism.  Socialists  frequently  make  a 
distinction  now  between  socialism  as  a  system 
and  socialism  as  a  principle  of  action.  This  is  a 
distinction  made  by  Sidney  Webb  (a.v.),  the 
intellectual  leader  of  the  Fabian  socialists,  and 
also  by  Edmond  Kelly.  Kelly  regards  socialism, 
or,  to  use  his  own  term,  collectivism,  as  the 
method  of  attainment  of  justice  rather  than  as  a 
condition  of  society  in  which  justice  has  been 
attained.  He  has  little  concern  with  collectivism 
as  "an  ideally  perfect  state  of  society,"  but  he 
looks  upon  collectivism  as  a  principle  of  action, 
pointing  out  a  general  line  of  growth  which 
seems  to  him  desirable,  and  which  he  believes 
can  be  aided  by  intelligent  effort.  In  other 
words,  socialism  in  the  sense  in  which  it  has 
been  defined  forms  a  goal  which  we  may  not 
succeed  in  reaching,  but  it  does  point  out  a  line 
of  action. 

Let  us  now  turn  to  the  criticism  of  socialism 
bv  economists.  First  of  all,  it  should  be  noticed 
that  no  professional  economist  is  a  socialist  un- 
less it  be  the  Italian  economist  Loria.  Socialists 
claim  that  the  opposition  of  all  economists  does 
not  signify  anything  as  to  the  correctness  of 
socialism.  They  maintain  that  economists  are 
generally  blinded  by  their  self-interest,  their 
professional  interests  requiring  them  to  keep 
aloof  from  socialism.  The  economists,  on  the 
other  hand,  maintain  that  the  rejection  of  so- 
cialism by  economists  signifies  its  rejection  by 
science  truly  conceived. 

Economists  are  not  generally  inclined  to  deny 


the  evils  in  the  existing  eoonomic  order,  but 
they  believe  that  there  is  better  prospect  of 
improvement  under  this  order  than  under  social- 
ism. They  are  social  reformers,  not  socialists. 
They  hold,  first,  that  there  is  no  law  of  evolu- 
tion canying  us  inevitably  to  socialism;  sec- 
ondly, that  the  prospects  of  social  reform  are 
sufficiently  promising  to  warrant  us  in  the 
maintenance  of  private  prop^ty  in  the  instm- 
ments  of  production  and  private  management 
of  production ;  and,  thirdly,  that  socialism  carries 
with  it  dangers  and  disadvantages  sufficiently 
grave  to  warrant  us  in  opposing  it  until  it  is 
clearly  seen  that  great  improvements  are  not 
compatible  with  the  present  social  order. 

In  its  details  the  reasoning  of  economists 
against  socialism  is  as  varied  as  the  reasoning 
of  socialists  in  its  support.  To  Marx's  labor 
theory  of  value,  economists  oppose  theories  of 
value  which  differ  in  detail,  but  which  agree  in 
placing  other  forms  of  cost  in  codrdination  with 
labor  in  the  determination  of  value.  (See 
Value.)  To  the  theory  of  class-consciousness 
and  class-action  on  the  part  of  wage-earners  as 
the  only  means  of  reform,  economists  oppose 
what  ma^  be  called  a  doctrine  of  social  solidarity. 
They  uniformly  hold  that  all  classes  in  society 
must  work  together  for  social  improvement,  and 
they  do  not  believe  that  there  is  any  such  neces- 
sary antagcmism  of  interests  among  classes  as 
this  theory  of  class-consciousness  implies. 

Modem  economists  recognize  the  evolutionary 
theory  of  society,  and  recently  they  have  grvi 
generous  recognition  to  Marx  for  his  services  in 
the  formulation  of  this  doctrine  of  evolution. 
Very  few  economists,  however,  hold  that  eco- 
nomic causes  alone  underlie  all  social  develop- 
ment, and  that  the  political  and  intellectual  his- 
tory of  nations  is  a  mere  expression  of  a  social 
organization  resultiuj^  from  the  prevailing  mode 
of  economic  production  and  exchange. 

Socialism  implies  unified  control  of  produc- 
tion, and  economists  believe  that  the  disad- 
vantages of  such  control  outweigh  the  advantages. 
Economic  theory  still  rests  upon  the  assumption 
that  competition  is  a  principle  of  progress,  and 
that  the  advantages  which  it  brings  ifi  a  society 
far  outweigh  the  disadvantages.  Economists 
seek  to  point  out  means  for  the  elevation  of 
competition  to  higher  planes  and  the  removal  of 
the  evils  which  it  carries  with  it,  while  retain- 
ing the  principle  itself. 

The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  socialization 
of  agriculture  are  emphasized  in  opposition  to 
socialism.  The  economists  claim  tiiat  socialists 
have  pointed  out  no  method  whereby  agriculture 
can  be  advantageously  carried  on,  except  by  pri- 
vate initiative  and  private  effort.  There  can  be 
little  doubt  that  when  agriculture  is  mentioned 
one  of  the  weakest  points  in  socialism  is  brought 
to  our  attention.  Even  should  manufactunng 
industries,  commerce,  and  transportation  be  car- 
ried on  as  public  enterprises,  so  long  as  agri- 
culture remains  private  industry,  based  upon 
private  property,  society  must  still  be  something 
very  different  from  socialism. 

Two  other  points  only  in  the  aivuments 
against  socialism  can  be  consi<kred  in  this  place. 
The  first  is  the  danger  to  liberty.  It  is  main- 
tained by  defenders  of  our  present  eoonomic  so- 
ciety that  private  property  and  private  enter- 
prise are  necessaiy  bulwarks  of  liberty,  and  that 


BOCIALISK. 


979 


BOCZALXSIL 


^with  these  removed  or  impaired  to  the  extent 
that  they  would  be,  even  by  the  most  conserva- 
tive socialism,  those  having  control  of  the  agen- 
cies  of   production  would  be  given   such   vast 
X>ower  that  liberty  would  be  seriously  threatened, 
and,  indeed,  overthrown  by  tyranny.    A  certain 
control  of  production  would  have  to  be  exercised 
by   individuals;     and  however   these   might  be 
selected,  they  would  have  almost  imlimited  power 
in  their  hands  over  the  destinies  of  other  hu- 
man beings.     There  seems  to  be  strong  ground 
for  the  belief  that  liberty  is  better  protected  in 
a  society  having  the  dualism  which  we  know 
now,  in  accordance  with  which  private  property 
and  private  production  on  the  one  hand,  and 
public  authority  with  limited  public  production 
on  the  other,  are  reciprocal  checks  and  restraints. 

Finally,  it  is  urged  that  under  socialism  there 
would  be  revolutionary  discontent.  In  a  world 
like  ours  men  must  necessarily  be  discontented 
with  what  they  receive  as  an  outcome  of  eco- 
nomic production  and  with  the  treatment  ac- 
corded to  them  in  the  processes  of  economic 
production.  At  the  present  time  tiiis  discon- 
tent is  directed  toward  a  great  manv  different 
persons  and  bodies.  On  the  other  hand,  socialism 
means  public  ownership  and  public  production, 
and  those  having  control  would  be  blamed  for  all 
mistakes  and  also  for  misfortunes,  even  pro- 
vided we  assume  that  they  should  do  their  best, 
and  provided  also  that  that  best  should  be  much 
better  than  anything  we  know  at  the  present 
time.  Government  would  be  blamed,  and  this 
concentrated  discontent,  it  is  held,  would  be  revo- 
lutionary in  character. 

So  much  has  been  said  about  Christian  social- 
ism, that  this  article  should  not  be  concluded 
without  at  least  a  brief  reference  to  it.  Chris- 
tian socialism  has  had  many  different  meanings. 
Where  the  leaders  of  socialism  have  been  irre- 
lijgious.  Christian  socialism  has  sometimes  simply 
signified  socialism  plus  religion.  Now  that  so- 
cialists have  come  to  place  religion  among  private 
matters  in  which  they  are  not  directly  concerned, 
less  is  heard  than  formerly  about  Christian  so- . 
cialism.  Christian  socialism  has  sometimes  sig- 
nified simply  a  recognition  of  the  principle  of 
social  solidarity,  and  a  generous  sympathy  with 
those  classes  in  society  which  are  the  least  for- 
tunately situated,  more  specifically  with  the  wage- 
earning  classes.  About  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  a  body  of  Christian  socialists 
existed  in  England  and  attracted  wide  atten- 
tion. Thejr  were  led  by  men  like  Thomas  Hughes, 
Charles  Kmgsley,  James  Ludlow,  F.  D.  Maurice, 
and  E.  Vansittart  Neale.  Theoretically  they  op- 
posed the  principle  of  competition  as  a  source  of 
evil,  and  did  so  with  great  vehemence,  and  agi- 
tated in  favor  of  cooperation  in  production  and  ex- 
change. They  attempted  to  organize  society  on  a 
cooperative  basis,  and  succeeded  in  establishing 
a  number  of  co5perative  undertakings  which 
enjoyed  only  a  temporary  prosperity,  and  finally 
disappeared.  They  entered,  however,  into  the 
cooperative  movement  in  England,  which  had 
been  theretofore  largely  supported  by  men  act- 
ing under  the  influence  of  Owen,  and  they  con- 
tributed very  much  to  the  success  of  English 
coSperation.  The  high  character  and  the  in- 
tellectual p^wer  of  these  men  were  such  that 
they  have  been  able  to  exercise  a  profound  in- 
fluence upon  English  thought,  and  to  a  less  ex- 


tent upon  the  thought  of  other  countries.  The 
outcome  of  their  efforts  is  seen  in  the  multi- 
form attempts  to  improve  social  conditions. 

Socialism  of  the  chair,  or  professorial  social- 
ism, is  frequently  mentioned,  but  this  also  is 
something  as  indefinite  as  Christian  socialism. 
It  is  not  socialism  at  all,  but  simply  a  recogni- 
tion of  grave  evils  in  existing  society,  a  deter- 
mination to  remove  these  evils,  and  the  convic- 
tion that  the  power  of  the  State  must  be  used  to 
bring  about  desirable  changes.  The  term  social- 
ism of  the  chair  originated  in  Germany,  and  was 
applied  in  ridicule  to  the  progressive  economists 
who  expressed  sympathy  with  the  aspirations  of 
the  wage-eamine  classes.  Amonf  the  leaders 
may  be  mentioned  Professors  Adolpn  Wagner  and 
Gustav  Schmoller,  now  both  of  Berlin.  These 
held  that  economics  is  an  ethical  science,  and 
opposed  the  doctrines  of  the  so-called  Manchester 
school,  which  looked  with  little  favor  upon  State 
action.  The  changes  which  have  taken  place 
among  economists  have  been  such  as  to  lessen 
the  differences  among  them  with  respect  to  eco- 
nomic improvement.  Generally  speaking,  those 
who  twenty  years  ago  were  most  inclined  to  call 
upon  the  state  for  help  have  become  somewhat 
more  conservative,  while  at  the  same  time  those 
who  most  strongly  antagonized  public  action 
have  qualified  their  opposition  thereto.  The 
course  of  events  has  convinced  practically  all 
economists  of  the  importance  of  labor  legislation 
and  of  the  necessity  of  state  intervention  at  many 
points.  Professorial  socialism,  then,  never  was 
socialism,  and  at  the  present  time  it  can  hardly 
be  said  that  it  indicates  a  line  of  cleavage  among 
economists. 

LiTEBATUBE.  The  principal  writers  on  so- 
cialism have  been  mentioned  in  the  text,  and 
their  writings  are  mentioned  in  the  articles 
dealing  with  them.  The  Communist  Manifesto 
(London,  1848)  is  perhaps  the  most  im- 
portant single  document  in  the  history  of 
socialism,  and  Marx,  Das  Kapital  (3  vols., 
Hamburg,  1862,  1865,  1894),  is  possibly  the 
most  important  single  work.  The  works  of  Rod- 
bertus  and  Lassalle  are  important  historically. 
Fabian  Essays  in  Socialism  (London,  1889) 
is  the  best  work  presenting  the  conservative,  op- 
portunist socialism.  One  of  the  Fabians,  Sidney 
Webb,  has  written  a  work  entitled  Socialism  in 
England  (2d  ed.,  London,  1893),  which  best  de- 
scribes the  advances  of  English  socialism,  as 
seen  by  a  Fabian.  Kelly,  Government  or  Human 
Evolution  vol.  i.,  on  Justice,  London,  1900; 
vol.  ii.,  on  Individualism  and  Collectivism,  Lon- 
don, 1901),  gives  the  best  presentation  by  an 
American  author  of  socialism  as  a  principle  of 
action  rather  than  as  a  system.  Hyndman,  Eoo- 
nomios  of  Socialism  (London,  1896),  is  regarded 
as  one  of  the  best  explanations  of  the  economics 
of  the  Marxist  school.  Laveleye,  Socialism  To- 
day (Eng.  trans.  London,  1885),  gives  a  sym- 
pathetic account  of  socialism  by  a  progressive 
economist.  Rae,  Contemporary  Socialism  (new 
ed.,  London  and  New  York,  1901),  is  a  more 
critical  account  of  socialism,  and,  like  the 
preceding,  has  much  historical  material.  Kirkup, 
History  of  Socialism  (new  ed.,  London,  1900), 
is  a  more  recent  work  than  Laveleye%  and 
perhaps  even  more  sympathetic,  going  so  far 
as  to  advocate  a  very  conservative  sort  of 
socialism.    Ely's   Socialism  and  Social  Reform 


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(New  York  and  London,  1804)  is  an  at- 
tempt to  analyze  socialism  carefully,  to  examine 
its  strong  and  its  weak  features,  and  to  pre- 
sent, as  opposed  to  socialism,  a  programme  of 
social  reform.  It  has  a  bibliography  of  sev- 
eral hundred  titles.  The  same  author's  French 
and  German,  Socialism  (New  York,  1883)  is  a 
brief  historical  presentation  of  socialism  in  these 
two  countries.  Consult  also  Woolsey,  Commu- 
nism and  Socialism,  Their  History  and  Theory 
(New  York,  1880). 

SOCIALIST   PABTIES. 

Politically  organized  socialism  or  social  de- 
mocracy is  a  movement  which  is  coextensive  with 
modem   industrialism.     Wherever    a    system   of 

{>roduction  is  found  which  is  perhaps  somewhat 
oosely  termed  capitalistic,  we  find  a  Social  Demo- 
cratic Party.  In  this  article,  however,  atten- 
tion will  chiefly  be  given  to  the  Social  Demo- 
cratic Party  of  Germany,  since  in  Germany  that 
party  is  more  highly  developed  and  far  more 
powerful  than  in  any  other  country,  and  has  a 
position  of  intellectual  leadership.  Influences 
from  the  Social  Democratic  Party  of  Germany, 
both  with  respect  to  theory  and  tactics,  radiate 
throughout  the  entire  industrial  world.  Social 
democracy  is  not  a  German  movement,  but  a 
world  movement,  which  has,  however,  its  highest 
development  in  Germany. 

Several  reasons  may  be  adduced  to  explain  the 
pre§minence  of  German  social  democracy.  Wage- 
earners  in  that  country  did  not  begin  to  share  in 
political  power  until  after  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  and  so,  having  formed  no  politi- 
cal affiliations,  were  more  easily  induced  to  at- 
tach  themselves  to  socialism,  which  had  already 
been  eloquently  presented  to  them  by  Ferdinand 
Lassalle.  Again,  the  hostility  of  the  Government 
to  labor  organizations  had  the  effect  of  turning 
toward  political  action  the  energy  that  might 
otherwise  have  been  expended  in  labor  agita- 
tion. The  third  reason  for  the  leadership  of 
Germany  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  great  in- 
tellectual leaders  of  socialism  have  been  Germans. 
Marx  and  Lassalle  have  already  been  mentioned, 
and  we  mav  also  mention  Rodbertus  (q.v.),  a 
man  who  belonged  to  the  landowning  class  of  Ger- 
many, and  who  did  not  take  part  in  socialist 
agitation. 

German  social  democracy  represents  an  amal- 
gamation of  two  movements,  one  starting  from 
Ferdinand  Lassalle,  the  other  from  Marx  and 
Friedrich  Engels  (q.v.).  Before  the  time  of 
Marx  and  Lassalle,  Wilhelm  Weitling  (q.v.)  had 
exercised  a  certain  influence  in  Switzerland,  Ger- 
many, and  the  United  States,  but  the  socialism 
which  he  advocated  was  of  the  French  Utopian^ 
character,  and  had  little  permanent  influence. 

The  activity  of  Marx  began  in  the  forties,  and 
was  continuous  from  that  time  until  his  death. 
In  1846  Marx  belonged  to  a  secret  international 
communistic  society  called  the  Kommunisten- 
bund.  It  was  for  this  societv  that,  with  Eneels, 
he  prepared  the  Communist  Manifesto.  In  1848 
Marx  was  active  in  Germany,  where  a  number  of 
labor  unions  had  been  established  which,  united 
into  a  federation,  came  under  socialistic  influ- 
ence. The  chief  field  of  his  activity  was  the 
Rhine  Province,  and  it  was  there  that  Marx  con- 
ducted his  celebrated  New  Rhenish  Oazette  {Neue 
Rheinische  Zeitung).  The  reaction  soon  tri- 
umphed, and  Marx  finally  found  his  way  to  Eng- 


land, where  he  made  himself,  in  1850,  the  head 
of  a  German  communistic  aowty,  whieh,  how- 
ever, was  short-lived. 

We  must  now  turn  our  attention  to  Ferdinand 
Lassalle,   who   is   to   be   regarded  as   the    real 
founder   of   the   Social   Democratic    Party^    al- 
though it  soon   passed  under  the  inflnenoe   of 
Marx  and  Kngels.       The  u;itation  of  LaasaUe 
began  in  1862.    In  1863,  under  his  influenoe,  the 
Universal  German  Laborers'  Union   (Der  allge- 
meine  deutsche  Arbeiterverein)   was  founded  in 
Leipzig.     The  membership  was  small,  and  the 
chief  demand  was  for  universal  and  equal  suf- 
frage, although  it  soon  became 'plain  tnat  this 
was  demanded  simply  as  a  step  toward  aeeialifBrii. 
Lassalle's  chief  practical  economic  demand  was 
for  Government  subsidies  to  aid  in  the  establish- 
ment   of    productive    coSperative    associations. 
Theoretically  his  aiguments  centred  about  the 
so-called  iron  law  of  wages:  that  wages  under 
the  capitalistic  system  of  production  naturally 
fall  to  a  minimum,  which  barely  supports  the  life 
of  the  laborer  and  his  family.    The  practical  de- 
mand and  the  theoretical  argument  of  Lassalle 
have  been  rejected  by  the  German  Social  Demo- 
crats, but  his  eloquence  was  instrumental  in  lay- 
ing the  foundation  of  the  party.       After  the 
death   of   Lassalle,    in    1864,   the   International 
Labor  Association   (Internationale  Arbeiteraaso- 
dation)  was  established  in  accordance  with  the 
principles  of  Marx,  and  the  Social  Democratic 
Labor  Party  ( Socialdemokratische  Arbeiterpartei) 
was   founded   in   the   same  year.     This   party, 
under  the  leadership  of  Wilhelm  Liebknecht  and 
August  Bebel  (qq.v.),  entered  into  opposition  to 
the  party  established  by  Lassalle.     The  Social 
Democratic   Labor   Party   met  in   Eisenach    in 
1869  and  became  known  as  the  Eisenach  Party. 
At  the  election  for  the  Reichstag  in  1874,  when 
about    340,000    votes    were    cast,    these    were 
divided  with  approximate  equality  between  the 
followers   of  Lassalle   and  those  of   Marx.    In 
1875  the  two  parties  imited  and  established  what 
is  known  as  tne  (Sotha  programme,  which  was  a 
compromise.    The  year  1878  witnessed  two  at- 
tacks upon  the  life  of  the  German  Emperor,  and 
then  followed  the  Anti-Socialist  Law,  which  re- 
pressed the  public  agitation  of  socialism.    While 
the  law  was  in  force  German  socialist  congresses 
were  held  on  foreign  soil,  and  their  literature  was 
largely  printed  in  Switzerland.    The  party  in- 
creased In  power,  however,  the  chief  result  of 
governmental   repression  being  the  welding  to- 
gether of  the  different  factions  into  a  compact 
party.  The  Anti-Socialist  Law  {Ausnahmeffeaetg) 
expired  on  October  1,  1890.    A  certain  tendency 
to  violence  seems  to  have  developed  during  this 
period,    for   at  one   of  the   congresses   the   ex- 
pression to  struggle  for  the  attainment  of  ends 
"with    all    legal    means"   was   changed   to   ''all 
means."      The  first  public  congress  of  the  Ger- 
man Social  Democracy,  after  tiie  expiration  of 
the    Law    of    Exception,    was    held    in    Halle, 
October  12-18,  1890.    Liebknecht  and  Bebel  domi- 
nated the  congress  and  worked  for  a  revision  of 
the  Social  Democratic  platform.    This  bore  fruit 
the  following  year  at  the  Erfurt  congress,  where 
the  Erfurt  Programme  was  adopted.  The  peculiar 
ideas  of  Lassalle  were  entirely  expunged,  and  the 
doctrines  of  Marx  gained  a  complete  triumph. 
The  Erfurt  Programme  is  at  the  present  day  the 
most  important  official  utterance  of  sodai  de- 


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mocracy,  and  has  a  world-wide  significance,  serf- 
ing  as  a  fundamental  basis  for  every  social  demo- 
cratic platform  since  adopted  throughout  the 
world.    This  programme  reads  as  follows: 

"The  economic  development  of  industrial  so- 
ciety tends  inevitably  to  the  ruin  of  small  in- 
dustries which  are  based  upon  the  workman's 
private  ownership  of  the  means  of  production. 
It  separates  him  from  these  means  of  production, 
and  converts  him  into  a  destitute  member  of  the 
proletariat,  while  a  comparatively  small  num- 
ber of  capitalists  and  great  land-owners  obtain  a 
monopoly  of  the  means  of  production. 

"Hand  in  hand  with  the  growing  monopoly 
goes  the  crushing  out  of  existence  of  these  shat- 
tered small  industries  by  industries  of  colossal 
growth,  the  development  of  the  tool  into  the  ma- 
chine, and  a  gigantic  increase  in  the  productive- 
ness of  human  labor.  But  all  the  advantages 
of  this  revolution  are  monopolized  by  the  cap- 
italists and  great  land-owners.  To  the  proleta- 
riat and  to  the  rapidly  sinking  middle  classes,  the 
small  tradesmen  of  the  towns,  and  the  peasant 
proprietors  (Bauem),  it  brings  an  increasing 
uncertainty  of  existence,  increasing  misery,  op- 
pression, servitude,  degradation,  and  exploita- 
tion (Ausbeutung).  Ever  greater  grows  the 
mass  of  the  proletariat,  ever  vaster  the  army  of 
the  unemployed,  ever  sharper  the  contrast  be- 
tween oppressors  and  oppressed,  ever  fiercer  that 
war  of  classes  between  bourgeoisie  and  prole- 
tariat which  divides  modem  society  into  two  hos- 
tile camps,  and  is  the  common  characteristic  of 
every  industrial  country.  The  gulf  between  the 
propertied  classes  and  the  destitute  is  widened 
by  the  crises  arising  from  capitalist  production, 
which  becomes  daily  more  comprehensive  and 
omnipotent. 

"Private  ownership  of  the  means  of  produc- 
tion, formerly  the  means  of  securing  his  product 
to  the  producer,  has  now  become  the  means  of 
expropriating  the  peasant  proprietors,  the  arti- 
sans, and  the  small  tradesmen,  and  placing  the 
non-producers,  the  capitalists,  and  large  land- 
owners in  possession  of  the  products  of  labor. 
Nothing  but  the  conversion  of  capitalist  private 
ownership  of  the  means  of  production — ^the  earth 
and  its  fruits,  mines,  and  quarries,  raw  mate- 
rial, tools,  machines,  means  of  exchange — ^into 
social  ownership,  and  the  substitution  of  social- 
ist production,  carried  on  by  and  for  society  in 
the  place  of  the  present  production  of  commodi- 
ties for  exchange,  can  effect  such  a  revolution 
that,  instead  of  large  industries  and  the  steadily 
growing  capacities  of  common  production  being, 
as  hitherto,  a  source  of  misery  and  oppression 
to  the  classes  whom  they  have  despoiled,  they 
may  become  a  source  of  the  highest  well-being  and 
of  the  most  perfect  and  comprehensive  harmony. 

"This  social  revolution  involves  the  emancipa- 
tion, not  merely  of  the  proletariat,  but  of  the 
whole  human  race,  which  is  suffering  under  ex- 
isting conditions.  But  this  emancipation  can  be 
achieved  by  the  working  class  alone,  because  all 
other  classes,  in  spite  of  their  mutual  strife  of 
interests,  take  their  stand  upon  the  principle  of 
private  ownership  of  the  means  of  production, 
and  have  a  common  interest  in  maintaining  the 
existing  social  order. 

"The  struggle  of  the  working  classes  against 
capitalist  exploitation  must  of  necessity  be  a  po- 
litical struggle.    The  working  classes  can  neither 


carry  on  their  economic  struggle  nor  develop 
their  economic  organization  without  political 
rights.  They  cannot  effect  the  transfer  of  the 
means  of  production  to  the  commimity  without 
being  first  invested  with  political  power. 

"It  must  be  the  aim  of  social  democracy  to 
give  conscious  unanimity  to  this  struggle  of  the 
working  classes,  and  to  indicate  the  inevitable 
goal. 

"The  interests  of  the  working  classes  are  iden- 
tical in  all  lands  governed  by  capitalist  methods 
of  production.  Ae  extension  of  the  world's 
commerce  and  production  for  the  world's  mar- 
kets make  the  position  of  the  workman  in  any 
one  country  daily  more  dependent  upon  that  of 
the  workman  in  other  countries.  Therefore,  the 
emancipation  of  labor  is  a  task  in  which  the 
workmen  of  all   civilized   lands  have  a   share. 

"The  German  Social  Democrats  are  not,  there- 
fore, fighting  for  new  class  privileges  and  rights, 
but  for  the  abolition  of  class  government,  and 
even  of  classes  themselves,  and  for  universal 
equality  in  rights  and  duties  without  distinction 
of  sex  or  rank.  Holding  these  views,  they  are 
not  merely  fighting  against  the  exploitation  and 
oppression  of  the  wage-earners  in  the  existing 
social  order,  but  against  every  kind  of  exploita- 
tion and  oppression^  whether  directed  against 
class,  party,  sex,  or  race. 

"Starting  from  these  principles,  the  German 
Social  Democrats  demand,  to  begin  with  (i.e.  of 
the  present  State) : 

"(1)  Universal,  equal,  and  direct  suffrage  by 
ballot,  in  all  elections,  for  all  subjects  of  the  Em- 
pire over  twenty  years  of  age,  without  distinc- 
tion of  sex;  proportional  representation,  and, 
until  this  system  has  been  introduced,  fresh  divi- 
sion of  electoral  districts  by  law  after  each  cen- 
sus; two  years'  duration  of  the  legislature; 
holding  of  elections  on  a  legal  day  of  rest;  pay- 
ment of  the  representatives  elected;  removal  of 
all  restrictions  upon  political  rights,  except  in 
the  case  of  persons  under  age. 

"(2)  Direct  legislation  by  the  people  by  means 
of  the  right  of  initiative  and  of  veto;  self-gov- 
ernment by  the  people  in  Empire,  State,  province, 
and  commime;  election  of  magistrates  by  the 
people,  with  the  right  of  holding  them  responsi- 
ble; annual  vote  of  the  taxes. 

"(3)  Universal  military  education;  substitu- 
tion of  militia  for  a  standing  army;  decision  by 
the  popular  representatives  of  questions  of  peace 
and  war ;  decision  of  all  international  disputes  by 
arbitration. 

"(4)  Abolition  of  laws  which  restrict  or  sup- 
press free  expression  of  opinion  and  the  right  of 
meeting  or  association. 

"(5)  Abolition  of  all  laws  which  place  the 
woman,  whether  in  a  private  or  a  public  capa- 
city, at  a  disadvantage  as  compared  with  the 
man. 

"(6)  Declaration  that  religion  is  a  private 
matter;  abolition  of  all  appropriaticms  from  pub- 
lic funds  for  ecclesiastical  and  religious  objects; 
ecclesiastical  and  religious  bodies  are  to  be  re- 
garded as  private  associations  which  order  their 
affairs  independently. 

"(7)  Secularization  of  education;  compulsory 
attendance  at  public  national  schools;  free  edu- 
cation, free  supply  of  educational  apparatus,  and 
free  maintenance  to  children  in  schools,  and  to 
such  pupils,  male  and  female,  in  higher  educi^- 


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BOOIAUBIL 


tional  institutions,  as  are  judged  to  be  fitted  for 
further  education. 

''(8)  Free  administration  of  the  law  and  free 
legal  assistance;  administration  of  the  law  by 
judges  elected  by  the  people;  appeal  in  criminal 
cases;  compensation  to  persons  accused,  impris- 
oned, or  condemned  unjustly;  abolition  of  capi- 
tal pfunishment. 

"(9)  Free  medical  assistance,  and  free  supply 
of  remedies ;  free  burial  of  the  dead. 

"  { 10 )  A  graduated  income  and  property  tax  to 
meet  all  public  expenses  which  are  to  be  raised 
by  taxation;  self-assessment;  succession  duties, 
graduated  according  to  the  extent  of  the  in- 
heritance and  the  degree  of  relationship;  aboli- 
tion of  all  indirect  taxation,  customs  duties,  and 
other  economic  measures  which  sacrifice  the  in- 
terests of  the  community  to  the  interests  of  a 
privileged  minority. 

"For  tlie  protection  of  labor,  the  German  Social 
Democrats  also  demand,  to  begin  with: 

"(1)  An  effective  national  and  international 
system  of  protective  legislation  on  the  following 
principles : 

"(a)  The  fixing  of  a  normal  working  day, 
which  shall  not  exceed  eight  hours. 

"(b)  Prohibition  of  the  employment  of  children 
under  fourteen. 

"(c)  Prohibition  of  night  work,  except  in  those 
branches  of  industry  which,  from  their  nature 
and  for  technical  reasons  or  for  reasons  of  public 
welfare,  require' night  work. 

"(d)  An  unbroken  rest  of  at  least  thirty-six 
hours  for  every  workman  every  week. 

"(e)  Prohibition  of  the  truck  system. 

"(2)  Supervisi(Mi  of  all  industrial  establish- 
ments, together  with  the  investigation  and  regu- 
lation of  the  conditions  of  labor  in  the  town  and 
country  by  an  Imperial  labor  department,  district 
labor  bureaus,  and  chambers  of  labor;  a  thor- 
ough system  of  industrial  sanitary  regulation. 

"(3)  Legal  equality  of  agricultural  laborers 
and  domestic  servants  with  industrial  laborers; 
repeal  of  the  laws  concerning  masters  and 
servants. 

"(4)  Confirmation  of  the  rights  of  association. 

"(5)  The  taking  over  by  the  Imperial  Govern- 
ment of  the  wliole  system  of  workmen's  insur- 
ance, though  giving  the  workmen  a  certain  share 
in  its  administration." 

This  is  printed  in  the  annual  reports  of  the 
Proceedings  of  the  Social  Democratic  Party  of 
Germany,  oflfice  of  the  VorwartSf  Berlin.  The 
present  translation  is  taken  from  the  *BIue  Book,' 
giving  the  report  of  the  Royal  Commission  on 
Labor  in  Germany,  published  in  London,  1893. 
For  the  sake  of  greater  accuracy,  however,  a  few 
changes  have  been  made  by  the  author. 

It  is  possible  to  state  in  a  very  few  words  the 
most  essential  facts  in  the  history  of  social  de- 
mocracy in  Germany,  since  the  adoption  of  the 
Erfurt  Programme.  One  of  the  main  subjects 
which  have  agitated  the  party  has  been  the  atti- 
tude toward  the  peasant  proprietors,  the  small 
farmers,  and  this  same  question  has  agitated 
social  democracy  in  France  and  the  United  States. 
The  support  of  the  small  proprietor  is  essential 
to  the  success  of  social  democracy.  A  programme 
of  confiscation  of  all  land  would  arouse  the  hostil- 
ity of  the  small  farmer.  The  most  conservative 
wing  of  the  party,  therefore,  advocates  conces- 
sions to  small  farmers,  proposing  to  permit  them 


to  hold  landed  property  even  under  aocialiain. 
G.  H.  von  Vollmar,  member  of  the  Reichstag  and 
a  leader  among  the  Bavarian  Social  Democrats,  is 
foremost  among  those  who  advocate  oonoessionB 
of  this  sort.  This  conservative  programme,  how- 
ever, has  never  been  officially  adopted.  Eduard 
Bernstein,  who  has  already  been  mentioned  as  a 
leader  of  the  conservative  Socialists,  was  elected 
to  the  Reichstag  from  Breslau  in  February,  1902. 

So  large  a  party  must  participate  in  practical 
politics  in  order  to  live,  and  must,  therefore,  have 
reforms  to  urge  for  the  immediate  future.  Wo 
have  thus,  along  with  the  statement  of  general 
principles,  the  so-called  immediate  demands. 
This  separation  of  the  social  democratic  plat- 
forms is  found  in  all  countries. 

Considerable  emphasis  has  been  given  to  the 
immediate  demands,  but  it  is  a  mistake  to  sup- 
pose that  the  ultimate  goal  of  complete  socialism 
has  been  at  any  time  lost  sight  of.  All  the  lead- 
ers have  this  in  mind,  but  doubtless  there  are 
many  acting  with  the  Social  Democratic  Party 
in  Germany,  as  elsewhere,  who  are  chiefly  inter- 
ested in  immediate  demands. 

The  vote  of  the  Social  Democratic  Parly,  and 
the  number  of  members  elected  to  the  Reichatag 
since  the  foundation  of  the  German  Empire  up  to 
the  present  time,  are  given  in  the  following  table, 
taken  from  Braun,  Die  Parteien  des  Deutsche^ 
Reichatages  (Stuttgart,  1893) : 


■LBOTIOH 

ur 


isn, 

1874. 
1877. 
1878. 
1881. 
1884. 
1887. 
1890. 
1893. 
1898. 
1903. 


Total  num- 
ber of 
Social 

Democratic 
votes 

Percentage 

of  total 
number  of 
Toteecast 

134.666 

3. 

851.962 

6.8 

403,388 

9.1 

437,168 

7.6 

811.961 

6.1 

648.990 

9.7 

763.138 

10.1 

1.427,298 

19.7 

1,876,738 

33.8 

2,107,076 

27.18 

3,011.114 

31.76 

9 

la 

19 
3A 
11 
SS* 

44 
6«t 

81 


*  In  the  bj-election  In  the  32d  district  of  Saxony,  held  In 
1893,  a  thir^-elxth  member  wae  elected. 

t  Later  elections  to  supply  vacanciee  ^ave  the  Social 
Democrats  two  additional  members,  making  68  in  all. 

One  or  two  comments  upon  the  vote  cast  are 
needed.  The  vote  fell  off  in  1881,  owing  to  the 
severe  repressive  measures  following  the  Anti-So- 
cialist Law.  In  1890  the  Social  Democratic  Party 
became  the  largest  in  the  German  Empire,  cast- 
ing about  20  per  cent,  of  the  votes.  With  some 
fifteen  parties  in  Germany,  this  is  less  significant 
than  in  a  country  with  two  great  parties,  but, 
nevertheless,  it  means  a  great  deal.  Another 
point  to  be  considered  is  that  the  Socialists  do 
not  have  a  number  of  representatives  in  the 
Reichstag  corresponding  with  the  number  of 
votes  cast.  This  is  due  to  the  way  the  electoral 
districts  are  arranged,  whereby  the  Conserva- 
tives ( largely  made  up  of  landed  proprietors  and 
other  favored  classes)  and  Agrarians  elect  a 
much  larger  number  of  members  relatively. 

The  official  organ  of  the  Social  Demoeratie 
Party  is  the  daily  VorwSrts  of  Berlin,  of  whidi 
also  a  weekly  edition,  called  the  8ocialdemokrui, 
is  published.  Die  neue  Zeit,  a  weekly  magaiine 
published  at  "Stuttgart,  is  the  so-called  scientifie 
organ  of  German  social  democracy,  discussing 
questions  of  principles.    Both  these  organs  rep- 


80CIAIJB1L 


988 


80GIALIS1L 


resent  the  dominant  Marxian  socialism.  The 
more  conservative  opportunism  is  represented  by 
the  8ociali8tiache  Monatahefte,  published  in  Ber- 
lin. Special  mention  may  be  made  also  of  two 
illustrated  comic  papers,  which  advocate  social 
democracy,  namely  Der  wahre  Jacob  and  Der 
siiddeutsche  Po8till(m.  In  1903  there  were  fifty- 
two  daily  papers,  nine  appearing  three  times  a 
week,  three  semi-weekly,  and  seven  weekly  papers 
all  advocating  socialism. 

Austria.  In  Austria  we  find  a  very  different 
condition  of  things  from  that  which  exists  in 
Germany.  Social  democracy  was  later  in  gain- 
ing a  foothold  in  Austria,  and  its  growth  has 
been  far  slower.  Of  late,  however,  the  party  has 
largely  increased  in  numbers  under  the  leadership 
of  Dr.  Victor  Adler,  who  is  a  Marxian  Socialist. 
The  chief  organ  is  the  daily  Wiener  Arheiter 
Zeitung,  which  claims  a  circulation  of  40,000. 
There  are  in  addition  over  twenty  Socialist  or- 
gans in  the  Empire.  In  1903  the  Socialists  had 
ten  seats  in  the  Reichsrath. 

Hungary.  A  labor  party  strongly  influenced 
by  the  followers  of  Lassalle  was  formed  in  Hun- 
gary in  1868.  The  Marxians  gained  the  upper  hand 
during  the  following  decade,  however,  but  dur- 
ing the  eighties  the  anarchists  were  a  disturbing 
factor.  They  have,  however,  been  reduced  to  insig- 
nificance, and  social  democracy  is  making  ad- 
vances in  this  kingdom  as  elsewhere.  During  the 
last  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  agita- 
tion was  extended  to  the  agricultural  classes. 

Denmark.  In  Denmark  the  influence  of  the 
social  democracy  is  comparable  to  that  of  the 
same  party  in  Germany^  but,  owing  to  the  minor 
rOle  of  Denmark  in  world  politics,  the  party  has 
attracted  little  attention.  The  social-democratic 
agitation  began  in  the  early  seventies,  but  it  was 
under  dishonest  leadership  and  the  result  was  a 
collapse  and  temporary  reaction.  During  the  past 
ten  years,  however,  there  has  been  a  very  rapid 
growth  of  social  democracy  under  Marxist  leaders. 
In  1898  the  Social  Democrats  polled  approximately 
32,000  votes,  electing  twelve  Deputies.  At  the 
election  in  1903,  the  Socialists  elected  sixteen 
members,  polled  55,479  votes,  and  almost  wiped 
the  Conservative  Party  out  of  existence.  The 
daily  organ  in  Copenhagen,  called  the  Social 
Demokrateriy  claims  a  circulation  of  45,000, 
which  is  said  to  be  larger  than  the  circulation 
of  any  other  paper  in  Denmark.  One  of  the  nota- 
ble features  of  social  democracy  in  Denmark  is 
its  participation  in  the  trades  union  and  coopera- 
tive movements,  the  latter  of  which  has  made 
very  rapid  progress. 

Norway.  The  social-democratic  agitation  in 
Norway  has  made  slow  progress,  and  it  has  not 
as  yet  played  a  prominent  part  in  political 
life.  In  1901  the  Socialist  Party  polled  some 
7000  votes  in  the  Storthing  elections.  In  the  same 
year  the  Socialists  claimed  150  organizations 
with  nearly  11,000  members.  Their  chief  polit- 
ical successes  have  been  achieved  in  municipal 
elections. 

Sweden.  In  Sweden  social .  democracy  has 
made  considerable  progress  in  recent  years  and 
has  exercised  marked  influence  upon  the  labor 
movement.  Owing  to  a  property  qualification  for 
the  suffrage,  however,  they  have  succeeded  in 
electing  only  one  member  of  the  national  Par- 
liament. The  Social  Democratic  Party  was  for- 
mally organized  in  Sweden  in  1809.    The  pro- 


gramme was  Marxist  in  character  and  closely  re- 
sembled that  of  the  German  Social  Democracy. 

Switzerland.  In  Switzerland,  owins;  to  the 
success  of  political  and  social  reforms,  the  social 
democratic  agitation  has  found  a  barren  field. 
In  1902  the  Social  Democrats  elected  six  mem- 
bers of  the  National  Council,  and  a  few  Social 
Democratic  members  have  been  elected  to  the 
cantonal  legislatures  and  municipal  councils. 
The  Social  Democrats  have,  however,  exercised 
considerable  influence  upon  other  political  par- 
ties. 

Italy.  The  poverty  and  ignorance  of  the 
masses  of  the  Italian  population  and  the  impul- 
siveness of  their  character  seemed  to  favor  at 
first  the  growth  of  anarchism  rather  than  of  so- 
cialism. Under  the  influence  of  Bakunin,  an 
anarchistic  agitation  was  started  in  1872. 

The  social  democratic  agitation  began  in  the 
seventies,  but  it  became  powerful  only  during  the 
last  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century,  having 
gradually  succeeded,  with  the  help  of  the  Grov- 
emment,  in  superseding  anarchism,  which  is  still 
a  troublesome  factor.  The  socialistic  vote  rose 
from  76,400  in  1890  to  175,000  in  1900,  and  the 
number  of  Deputies  from  5  in  1893  to  33  in  the 
last  year  mentioned.  The  Socialist  press  con- 
sists of  one  daily  newspaper,  Avanti,  and  a  large 
number  of  periodicals  appearing  less  frequently. 
A  monthly.  La  critica  aociale,  and  a  fortnightly, 
/{  8ociali9mo,  are  among  the  most  prominent 
of  these  periodicals. 

In  Italy,  as  in  so  many  other  countries,  we  find 
two  tendencies  among  the  Socialists:  the  op- 
portunist tendency,  favoring  compromise  meas- 
ures and  seeking  cooperation  of  non-socialists, 
,and  the  orthodox  Marxian  tendency,  uncompro- 
mising, pursuing  the  ultimate  goal,  and  with 
little  faith  in  reform  measures  which  imply  the 
continued  existence  of  the  present  industrial 
society. 

Spain.  Social  democracy  effected  an  organiza- 
tion in  1882.  During  the  past  ten  years  the 
Social  Democratic  Labor  Party  has  made  progress 
and  it  has  advanced,  while  anarchism,  which  first 
gained  a  foothold  in  Spain  about  1870,  has  on  the 
whole  receded.  The  number  of  votes  increased 
between  1891  and  1901  from  approximately  6000 
to  over  25,000.  No  Socialists  have  as  yet  been 
elected  to  the  Cortes,  but  in  several  cities  they 
have  succeeded  in  placing  adherents  in  the  mu- 
nicipal councils,  achieving  their  greatest  success 
in  Bilboa.  Their  principal  effort  in  recent  years 
seems  to  have  been  to  gain  control  of  the  labor 
organizations,  and  in  this  they  .have  met  with  a 
considerable  measure  of  success. 

Holland.  The  early  Socialist  agitators  in  Hol- 
land came  from  Belgium  and  founded  a  section 
of  the  International  Workingmen's  Association 
in  1868.  The  present  Socialist  activity  is  direct- 
ly connected  with  the  agitation  begun  in  1879 
by  Ferdinand  Domela-Nieuwenhuis,  who  founded 
a  socialist  society,  which  soon  fell  under  an- 
archist influence  and  showed  a  strong  inclination 
to  favor  extreme  and  violent  measures. 

The  more  conservative  Socialists  organized  a 
Social  Democratic  Party  upon  a  Marxian  basis 
in  1894,  and  this  party  has  gradually  gained 
a  dominant  position  among  Socialists,  the  old 
organization  led  by  Domela-NieuWenhuis  having 
dwindled  to  insignificance;  the  anarchistic  ele- 
n^ent  hrrs  been  practically  extinguished. 


BOCIALZBIL 


984 


80CIALIBK. 


The  SodaliBts  elected  7  members  of  Pftrliament 
in  1901.  The  Socialist  vote  was  39,000.  A  con- 
siderable number  of  Socialists  have  been  elected 
to  membership  in  municipal  councils.  Hie  So- 
cial Democratic  Party  controls  the  radical  and 
progressive  elements  in  Holland,  both  in  city  and 
in  country. 

Belgiuic.  a  socialistic  association  was  found- 
ed in  1866,  and  a  labor  party  with  a  mixed  so- 
cialistic and  anarchistic  programme  was  estab- 
lished in  1868.  The  International  Workingmen's 
Association  had  sections  in  Belgium,  but  in  1872, 
when  the  schism  between  the  Socialists  and  an- 
archists took  place,  the  Belgian  sections  joined 
the  anarchists  under  Bakunin.  The  modem 
social-democratic  movement  in  Belgium  may  be 
said  to  date  from  1876,  when  party  groups  were 
organized  under  a  physician,  Pr.  Dd?aepe,  who 
was  a  convert  from  anarchism.  The  present 
party,  called  Parti  Ouvrier  Beige,  was  formally 
established  in  1885.  In  1893  great  socialist 
demonstrations  took  place,  and  a  general  strike 
was  inaugurated  with  the  purpose  of  securing 
universal  suffrage.  This  effort  was  successful; 
and  imiversal,  but  unequal,  suffrage  was  granted 
to  all  males  over  twenty-five.  Some  of  the  voters, 
on  account  of  educational  or  property  qualifica- 
ti<Mis,  now  have  two  or  three  votes.  In  the  elec- 
tion which  took  place  in  1894  the  Socialists 
polled  335,000  votes  and  elected  32  members  of 
the  national  Parliament.  In  1902  the  number 
of  Socialist  votes  cast  was,  in  round  numbers, 
476,000  and  the  number  of  Deputies  elected  34. 
Another  general  strike  was  inaugurated  under 
Socialist  auspices  in  April,  1902,  in  order  to 
coerce  the  Qovemment  to  grant,  not  only  uni- 
versal, but  equal  suffrage.  The  demonstrations 
and  strike  were  unsuccessful. 

There  are  several  peculiarities  in  the  socialist 
agitation  in  Bel^um  which  render  this  country 
one  of  the  most  mteresting  and  important  in  the 
hist>ory  of  modem  social  democracy.  First  may 
be  mentioned  the  close  connection  with  the  trades 
union  movement.  This,  however,  is  not  such  a 
distinguishing  feature  of  Belgian  social  de- 
mocracy as  is  its  connection  with  the  cooperative 
movement.  The  Socialists  in  Belgium  have  start- 
ed numerous  cooperative  establishments  which 
have  achieved  a  remarkable  success.  More  than 
200  of  these  are  now  affiliated  with  the  Socialist 
Party,  thus  bringing  it  into  connection  with 
the  daily  economic  life  of  the  masses.  The  two 
chief  cooperative  establishments  are  the  Maison 
du  Peuple  of  Brussels  and  the  Vooruit  in  Ghent. 
The  Maison  has  a  membership  of  25,000  and 
property  exceeding  in  value  2,000,000  francs. 
These  are  great  retail  establishments,  resembling 
the  modem  department  store.  The  masses  show 
that  they  are  closely  attached  to  these  coopera- 
tive stores,  throuffh  which  the  Socialist  agitation 
is  actively  carriea  on. 

There  are  several  strong  Socialist  periodicals 
in  Belgium  having  a  large  circulation.  The  of- 
ficial paper  in  Brussels,  Le  Peuple,  claims  a  cir- 
culation of  70,000.  VEcho  du  Peuple,  an  evening 
issue  from  the  ofiice  of  Le  Peuple,  is  also  an  offi- 
cial organ.  A  monthly  review  called  UAvenir 
Social  is  published. 

France.  The  Socialist  Party  in  France  did  not 
gain  any  considerable  following  until  after  1890. 
Its  late  appearance  is  doubtless  due  to  the 
frequent  revolutions  in  that  country  and  its  dis- 


ordered and  unsettled  condition,  which  Tendered 
it  more  favorable  for  anarchistic  and  revolu- 
tionary movements.  With  the  firm  establish- 
ment of  the  Bepublic  and  the  lapse  of  a  gener- 
ation since  the  last  revolution,  the  relatively 
ordered  and  legal  means  of  modem  social  de- 
mocra<^  have  found  a  more  fruitful  soil,  and 
anarchistic  tendencies  have  been  pressed  into  the 
background.  The  early  Utopian  socialism  was 
practically  dead  in  1860.  The  International 
Workingmen's  Association  gained  some  influence 
in  France  during  the  uprising  of  the  Paris  Com- 
mune, which,  however,  was  only  partially  social- 
istic. The  International  Association  did  not, 
however,  exercise  any  considerable  influence  and 
soon  disappeared.  So  far  as  it  continued  to 
exist,  it  fell  under  anarchist  influences  under 
the  leadership  of  anarchists  like  Eliste  Reclus 
and  Prince  Krapotkin.  A  Socialist  paper  pub- 
lished by  a  group  of  students  made  its  appear- 
ance in  1876,  and  three  years  later  Jules  Guesde, 
who  formerly  had  been  anarchistically  inclined, 
founded  a  Socialist  Labor  Party  in  France.  He 
was  soon  joined  by  a  former  comrade  in  anarchv. 
Dr.  Paul  Brousse.  In  1889  the  total  Socialist 
vote  was  only  91,000  in  round  numbers  out  of  a 
total  of  6,847,000  votes ;  two  years  later  the  vote 
rose  to  549,000,  or  nearly  9  per  cent,  of  the  total 
vote  cast.  This  vote  includes  those  who  voted 
for  the  so-called  Socialist  Radicals,  who,  while 
having  strongly  socialistic  leanings  and  generally 
actinff  with  the  Socialists,  may  not  be  r^^rded 
as  full  socialists,  inasmuch  as  they  do  not  ac- 
cept the  entire  socialist  programme.  In  1893  the 
ScMcialists  increased  their  strength  in  the  French 
Assembly  threefold,  the  number  of  Deputies  ris- 
ing from  fifteen  to  fifty.  It  thus  became  in  that 
year  a  great  political  party. 

The  next  great  event  in  the  history  of  French 
socialism  was  the  appointment  of  A.  Millerand  to 
a  Cabinet  position  as  Minister  of  Commerce 
under  Waldeck-Rousseau.  in  June,  1899.  This 
was  the  first  time  in  the  world's  history  that  a 
socialist  had  attained  such  a  prominent  position 
in  govenunent.  The  acceptance  by  Millerand  of 
this  position  gave  rise  to  fierce  dissensions  with- 
in the  Socialist  ranks.  His  opponents  held  that 
he  had  placed  himself  outside  the  control  of  the 
party  by  participating  in  the  actual  administra- 
tion of  a  capitalistic  government.  Millerand's 
position,  however,  was  sustained  bv  Jean  L6on 
Jaur^s  (q.v.).  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  pro- 
posal to  censure  Millerand  for  his  acceptance  of 
a  Cabinet  position  has  not  been  indorsed  by  the 
Socialists  in  their  convention. 

There  are  four  or  five  factions  among  the 
French  Socialists.  We  have,  first,  the  Minis- 
terialists or  independents  led  bv  Jaurte  and 
Millerand;  ne)ct,  tne  Marxists  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Jules  Guesde.  The  latter  form  the  party 
called  Parti  Ouvrier  Francais.  They  constitute 
the  two  chief  divisions  and  the  other  factions 
may  be  grouped  about  them  in  their  ten- 
dencies. We  have  also  a  group  called  the 
Allemanists  from  their  chief,  Jean  Allemane, 
taking,  like  the  Ministerialists,  a  position  of  op- 
portunism. There  is,  besides,  a  small  group 
called  the  Blanquists,  of  a  more  revolution- 
ary character.  We  have  also  the  Socialist  Rad- 
icals already  mentioned,  who  act  with  the 
Socialists.  The  principal  Socialist  publication  of 
France  is  La  Petite  BiSpuhUque,  a  daily  with  an 


80CIALI81C. 


985 


SOOIALISK. 


enonnous  drculation.  It  is  an  organ  of  that 
wing  of  the  party  led  by  Millerand  and  Jaurto, 
and  aims  to  harmonize  and  unite  the  various 
Socialist  groups.  There  is  also  a  daily  paper 
L'Action,  Socialist,  anti-Ministerialist,  and  vio- 
lently anti-clerical.  It  has  a  large  circulation. 
A  iffonthly  called  La  Revtte  Socialiste  seeks  to  do 
an  educational  and  scientific  work  among  the 
French  Socialists  like  that  which  Die  neue  Zeit 
aims  to  accomplish  in  Germany.  Le  Sodaliate, 
the  weekly  organ  of  the  Parti  Ouvrier  Francais, 
and  Le  Mouvement  Socialiste,  are  also  important 
periodicals. 

Russia.  For  a  half  century  most  radical  and 
revolutionary  agitation  of  one  kind  or  another 
has  been  carried  on  in  Russia,  and  the  two  most 
familiar  names  among  the  international  leaders 
of  anarchism^  Mikhail  Bakunin  and  Peter  Kra- 
potkin,  are  those  of  Russian  exiles.  Early  in 
the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  this 
agitation  took  the  name  of  Nihilism  (q.v.), 
which  was  a  kind  of  political  anarchism  rather 
than  economic  anarchism.  One  aim  which  has 
in  the  past  been  prominent  in  Russia  among 
radical  economic  reformers  is  to  connect  social 
and  economic  reconstruction  with  the  Russian 
agricultural  village  called  the  mir  (q.v.).  It 
has  been  hoped  by  these  leaders  that  Russia  could 
pass  directly  from  the  early  stage  of  economic  de- 
velopment into  socialism,  without  passing  through 
modem  capitalism  as  an  intermediate  stage. 
During  the  past  few  years,  under  the  leadership 
of  George  PlekhanofT,  a  resident  of  Switzerland, 
Marxian  socialism  has  made  some  progress.  The 
Socialists,  having  no  field  for  ^litical  activity, 
turn  their  attention  to  labor  agitation,  and  it  is 
said  by  them  with  apparent  truth  that  the  great 
strikes  in  Russia  during  the  past  ten  years  have 
to  no  inconsiderable  degree  been  an  outcome  of 
modem  social  democracy. 

The  entire  Socialist  activity  is  secret  and  no 
names  of  Russians  living  in  Russia  can  be  men- 
tioned. The  agitation  in  large  part  proceeds 
from  foreign  countries,  and  the  socialist  litera- 
ture is  smuggled  into  Russia  and  secretly  circu- 
lated. Russia  is  regularly  represented  at  the 
International  Socialist  Congress. 

Enoiand.  While  Socialist  ideas  probably  have 
as  much  influence  in  England  as  in  any  country, 
and  possibly  even  a  greater  influence,  they  find 
expression  rather  in  a  molding  of  the  thought  of 
other  political  parties  than  in  any  distinct  so- 
cialist party.  The  chief  power  of  socialism  has 
been  seen  in  the  social  reforms  which  have  been 
accomplished  in  England  during  the  past  twenty 
years.  There  are  at  present  three  organizations 
in  England  which  may  be  regarded  as  at  once 
political  and  Socialist.  There  is  first  the  Fa- 
bian Society  (q.v.),  whose  members  aim,  not 
only  to  carry  on  a  propaganda  for  socialist 
thought,  but  to  promote  the  election  of  Socialists 
in  any  way  which  may  seem  most  feasible  at  the 
proper  time  and  place.  It  is  essentially  an  op- 
portunist organization  in  its  practical  tactics. 
There  is  next  the  Independent  Labor  Party, 
formed  in  January,  1893,  the  object  of  which  is 
"the  collective  ownership  and  control  of  the 
means  of  production,  distribution,  and  exchange." 
Finally,  there  is  the  Social  Democratic  Federa- 
tion, among  whose  adherents  H.  M.  Hyndman 
(q.v.)  and  H.  Quelch  are  prominent.  This  lat- 
ter organization  represents  Marxist  socialism  in 


England  and  is  the  oldest  body,  dating  from 
1881.  In  this  connection  special  mention  must 
be  made  of  the  Labor  Representation  Committee, 
which  seeks  to  promote  "the  representation  of 
the  interests  of  labor  in  the  House  of  Commons.*' 

The  Socialists  claim  that  they  had  about  50,- 
000  votes  in  1900.  Keir  Hardie  represents  the 
Socialists  in  Parliament  and  there  are  three  other 
members  with  Socialist  affiliations.  In  local  elec- 
tions. Socialists  have  frequently  been  success- 
ful, and  for  some  time  the  London  County 
Council  has  been  to  a  very  appreciable  extent 
under  the  influence  of  Socialists.  It  may  be 
said  that  the  greatest  trade  unions  have  to 
some  extent  been  brought  under  the  influence 
of  socialism.  This  is  seen  in  the  adoption 
by  the  Trade  Union  Congress  at  Belfast  in  1893 
of  a  resolution  demanding  collective  ownership 
and  operation  of  industries;  in  other  words, 
pure  socialism.  This  can  be  interpreted  to  mean 
more  than  it  really  does.  It  indicates  a  dis- 
appearance of  avowed  hostility  to  socialism  on 
the  part  of  trade  unionists;  it  shows  that  the 
name  socialism  is  no  longer  feared,  and  that 
it  meets  with  a  certain  sympathy.  The  trade 
luion  movement  has  in  England  become  in  the 
main  indifferent  to  active  socialism,  but  may  be 
described  as  having  mild  Socialist  inclinations. 

Hyndman  and  Quelch  have  been  mentioned  as 
leaders  of  the  Social  Democratic  Federation.  E. 
Belfort  Bax  may  also  be  mentioned  as  prominent 
in  this  group.  The  Social  Democrat,  a  monthly 
journal,  and  Justice,  a  weekly,  edited  by  Quelch, 
are  organs  of  the  Social  Democratic  Federation. 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Sidney  Webb,  G.  Bernard  Shaw 
(q.v.) ,  and  Edward  R.  Pease  are  leading  members 
of  the  Fabian  Society,  the  last  named  being  its 
secretary.  The  organ  is  the  Fabian  Netos.  Keir 
Hardie  and  J.  Ramsay  MacDonald  are  prominent 
members  of  the  Independent  Labor  Party,  the 
organ  of  which  is  the  Independent  Labor  Party 
Netos,  which,  like  the  Fabian  News,  is  a  monthly 
periodical.  Robert  Blatchford,  the  editor  of  the 
Clarion,  is  a  popular  socialist  writer  without 
special  affiliations  for  any  one  of  these  three 
groups. 

Japan.  A  Japanese  by  the  name  of  Tarui  at- 
tempted to  organize  a  Socialist  party  in  1882; 
in  1892  the  Eastern  Liberal  Party,  which  mani- 
fested an  interest  in  labor  problems,  was  founded, 
but  these  early  attempts  at  socialistic  organiza- 
tion were  of  little  importance.  The  Socialist 
Association  was  organized  in  1900,  taking  as  its 
model  the  English  Fabian  Society.  This  associa- 
tion founded  a  social  democratic  party,  which 
issued  its  manifesto  April  20,  1901,  out  was  sup- 
pressed by  the  Grovemment  the  same  day.  Fabian 
and  opportunist  socialism  seem  to  have  a 
stronger  hold  in  Japan  than  Marxian  socialisnL 

Canada.  A  Canadian  Socialist  League,  organ- 
ized in  1901,  is  the  chief  representative  of  so- 
cialism in  the  Dominion.  There  are  also  in 
Canada  several  branches  of  the  Socialist  Labor 
Party  of  the  United  States.  The  Socialist  move- 
ment, in  general,  in  Canada,  is  closely  connected 
with  the  trade  union  movement,  over  which  it 
appears  to  be  exercising  increasing  influence. 
The  Socialists  claim  a  vote  of  about  5000. 

The  United  States.  Although  communism 
(q.v.)  gained  an  early  foothold  in  the  United 
States,  it  exercised  practically  no  influence  upon 
the  movement  now  represented  by  the  Socialist 


80CZALIS1L 


986 


BOGIAIiISIL 


parties.  American  social  iam  proper  begins  with 
the  German  influence.  As  a  result  of  ttie  politi- 
cal disorders  of  1848  many  men  of  learning  and 
character  came  to  this  country  from  Germany 
as  refugees.  There  were  radicals  among  them 
who  took  the  leadership  in  the  establishment 
of  communism  of  a  new  type  in  this  country. 
Among  them  we  may  mention  Wilhelm  Weitling 
(q.v.),  a  German  tailor,  who  started  a  German 
newspaper  called  Die  Repuhlik  der  Arbeiter,  and 
organized  an  Arbeiter  Bund.  He  was  essentially 
a  Utopian  socialist,  and  had  plans  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  communistic  settlement,  and  was 
for  a  time  connected  with  one  in  Iowa.  Never- 
theless, his  thouffht  was  more  in  line  with  mod- 
em socialism.  Weitiing  lived  until  1871,  and  was 
at  the  last  somewhat  interested  in  the  Interna- 
tionale of  Marx.  Next,  mention  may  be  made  of 
the  German  gymnastic  unions  (Tumvereine), 
which,  in  the  early  days,  were  avowedly  Socialist. 
The  first  Socialist  Turnverein  was  established  in 
New  York  in  1850.  The  Tumvereine  formed  an 
organization  called  the  Socialist  Gymnastic 
Union  ( Socialistische  Turner  Bund),  and  in 
1850  the  name  Socialist  Gymnastic  Union  was 
adopted.  Since  the  Civil  War  the  socialistic 
character  of  the  Tumvereine  has  very  largely  but 
not  entirely  disappeared. 

In  1857  a  club  of  communists  was  formed.  In 
1808  the  followers  of  Lassalle  held  a  meeting, 
the  purpose  of  which  was  to  establish  a  Social 
Democratic  Party,  and  an  organization  was  ef- 
fected in  New  York  City.  In  1869  the  par^  be- 
came affiliated  with  the  International  Working- 
men's  Association.  Several  sections  of  the  In- 
ternationale were  formed  in  this  country,  and  in 
1872  the  seat  of  the  Intemationale  was  trans- 
ferred to  New  York  City.  Scattering  sections 
existed  here  and  there  for  a  few  years.  The  Na- 
tional Labor  Union  formed  a  partv  called  the 
Labor  Reform  Party  in  1868,  and  the  Socialists 
supported  this,  but  its  life  was  of  short  dura- 
tion. The  Socialists  formed  a  Social  Democratic 
Workingmen's  Party  at  a  convention  held  in 
Philadelphia  in  1874,  and  in  1877,  at  a  conven- 
tion in  New  Jersey,  they  adopted  the  name  So- 
cialist Labor  Party,  which  is  still  preserved.  The 
party  for  a  long  time  had  much  trouble  with 
the  anarchists.  The  convention  of  the  Socialist 
Labor  Party  in  1881,  in  New  York  City,  wit- 
nessed a  rebellion  of  the  anarchists  against  the 
party,  and  one  of  the  anarchist  leaders,  Justus 
Schwab,  started  a  paper  called  The  AnarehisU 
Johann  Most  came  to  this  country  in  1882  from 
London,  having  previously  been  expelled  from  the 
Social  Democratic  Party  of  Germany.  The  agi- 
tation of  Most  produced  a  crisis,  and  in  1883,  in 
the  convention  at  Baltimore,  the  Socialists  de- 
cided not  to  connect  themselves  in  any  way  with 
the  anarchists,  who  had  effected  an  organization 
at  Pittsburg  in  the  same  year. 

The  next  important  events  in  the  history  of 
the  Socialist  Labor  Party  are  connected  with  the 
candidacy  of  Henry  George  in  1886  for  the  Mayor- 
alty of  New  York  City,  and  in  1887  for  the 
Governorship  of  New  York.  George  was  nomi- 
nated by  what  was  called  the  United  Labor 
Party  and  ran  against  Abram  S.  Hewitt  and 
Theodore  Roosevelt.  The  votes  received  by  the 
three  candidates  were  as  follows:  Hewitt,  90,- 
652;  Georfire,  68,110;  Roosevelt,  60,435.  The 
Syracuse  Convention  of  the  Union  Labor  Party, 


1887,  when  George  was  nominated  for  the 
Governorship  of  New  York,  repudiated  social- 
ism. This  formed  an  epoch  in  the  history  of 
American  socialism,  and  in  1888  the  Socialist 
Labor  Party  decided  to  have  no  affiliations  there- 
after with  any  other  party,  but  to  nominate  an 
independent  ticket  and  vote  for  that  without 
compromise  and  without  any  bargains  with  other 
parties  or  factions  of  parties.  It  is  from  this 
time  that  organized  political  socialism  has  made 
progress  in  the  United  States. 

We  must  next  take  up  the  introduction  of  dis- 
tinctively American  influences  into  political 
socialism  in  the  United  States.  Dr.  Daniel  De 
Leon  has  long  been  one  of  the  most  influential 
factors  in  the  Socialist  Labor  Party.  Although 
not  an  American  by  birth,  he  was  trained 
at  Columbia  University.  Laurence  Gronlund 
(q.v.),  a  Dane  by  birth,  but  naturalized  in 
this  country,  wrote  his  Cooperative  Com' 
monioealth  in  1884,  and  this  helped  spread  so- 
cialism among  native-bom  Americans.  Edward 
Bellamy  (q.v.),  of  long  American  ancestry, 
wrote  Looking  Backward  in  1888.  Bellamy's 
socialism  was,  as  has  already  been  stated,  called 
nationalism,  and  the  clubs  organized  were  called 
nationalist  clubs.  As  a  distinctive  factor  na- 
tionalism soon  ceased  to  exist.  The  specific  work 
which  Bellamy  accomplished  was  the  American- 
ization of  socialism,  in  the  sense  that  he  helped 
the  American  people  to  understand  its  signifi- 
cance, and  won  over  a  great  many  to  its  support. 
In  1893  the  Coming  Nation  was  established  at 
Greensburg,  Ind.,  by  J.  H.  Wayland.  Wayland 
was  for  a  time  influenced  by  the  older  so-called 
Utopian  socialism,  and  helped  establish  Ruskin, 
in  Tennessee,  a  short-lived  communistic  settle- 
ment. Later  he  moved  to  Kansas,  and  there 
established  the  Appeal  to  Reason.  It  is  now  pub- 
lished at  Girard,  in  that  State,  claiming  a  cir- 
culation of  half  a  million.  The  establishment  of 
the  American  Railway  Union  in  1893,  and  the 
Pullman  strike  in  the  following  year,  are  epoch- 
making  in  the  history  of  American  socialism. 
Early  in  1897  Eu|2pene  V.  Debs  announced  his 
conversion  to  socialism,  and  he  and  Victor  L. 
Berger,  of  Milwaukee,  were  largely  instrumental 
in  establishing  the  Social  Democratic  Party. 
After  1899  there  were  dissensions  in  the  Socialist 
Labor  Party,  terminating  in  a  serious  split.  The 
socialists  who  left  the  old  party  joined  forces 
with  the  rival  party,  and  formed  what  is  now 
known  as  the  Socialist  Party,  except  in  Wiscon- 
sin and  New  York  State,  where,  for  legal  reasons 
connected  with  the  laws  concerning  the  ballot, 
it  is  still  called  the  Social  Democratic  Party.  Re- 
cently there  has  been  organized  by  Pennsylvania 
socialists  a  new  Socialist  Labor  Party,  which 
hopes  to  effect  a  union  of  all  Socialist  parties. 

It  is  interesting  to  trace  the  vote  received  by 
Socialist  parties  beginning  with  1888.  when  an 
independent  ticket  was  nominated  in  New  York 
City  and  the  resolution  was  adopted  to  form 
no  alliances  with  other  parties.  In  this  election 
the  vote  received  was  2068.  In  1890  in 
New  York  State  alone  the  party  received 
13,331  votes.  In  1892  the  socialistic  vote 
of  Connecticut,  Maryland,  Massachusetts,  New 
Jersey,  and  New  York  was  21,169.  In  1894 
the  party  extended  its  influence  to  the  Middle 
States,  and  in  Connecticut,  Iowa,  Massa- 
chusetts, Missouri,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  Pens- 


BOCIALISIL 


987 


SOCIAL  PSYCHOLOar. 


sylvania,  and  Rhode  Island  received  $d,133  votes. 
In  1896  the  number  of  votes  was  36,564.  In 
1898,  in  eighteen  States,  the  Socialist  Labor 
Party  received  82,204  votes,  and  the  Social  Demo- 
cratic Party,  which  was  organized  in  1897,  9646 
votes,  largely  in  Massachusetts,  making  a  total 
of  91,749.  In  the  Presidential  elections  of  1900 
the  Socialist  Party  received  97,730  votes  and  the 
Socialist  Labor  Party  33,460,  making  a  total  of 
131,180.  In  1902  State  and  Ck>ngressional  elec- 
tions the  Socialist  Party  received  229,762,  and 
the  Socialist  Labor  Party  received  63,763,  mak- 
ing a  total  of  283,626. 

The  Socialists  have  not  succeeded  in  electing 
any  member  of  Ck>ngress.  They  have,  however, 
met  with  some  success  in  State  and  local  elec- 
tions, in  1898  electing  John  G.  Chase  Mayor  of 
Haverhill,  Mass.,  and  James  T.  Carey  and  Louis 
M.  Scates  to  seats  in  the  Massachusetts  Legis- 
lature. In  1903  three  representatives  of  the 
Socialist  Party  were  members  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Legislature.  In  the  same  year  the  Ma/or 
of  Haverhill,  Mass.,  Parkman  B.  Flanders,  and 
several  of  the  municipal  officers  were  Socialists. 
In  Brockton,  Mass.,  Charles  F.  Coulter  was  re- 
elected Mayor.  The  greatest  victories  of  the 
Socialists  were  won  in  the  April  local  .elections 
of  1903.  Socialists  were  elected  to  office  in  at 
least  twenty  cities ;  in  five,  mayors  were  elected ; 
in  several  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  other 
municipal  officers.  The  city  of  Anaconda,  Mont., 
was  carried  by  the  Socialists. 

It  may  be  mentioned  that  W.  D.  P.  Bliss  estab- 
lished an  American  Fabian  Society  at  Boston  in 
1896.  This  society  published  the  American  Fo- 
bian,  which  continued  to  exist  for  several  years, 
but  has  disappeared.  The  'Society  of  Christian 
Socialists,'  also  under  the  leadership  of  Bliss 
more  than  any  other  man,  was  organized  ui 
Boston,  April  16,  1889.  The  tendency  in  re- 
cent years  has  been  for  the  Socialist  Party  to 
absorb  all  these  minor  organizations.  Kecently 
there  has  been  organized  a  Collectivist  Society 
in  New  York  City.  The  aim  of  this  society  is 
evidently  to  do  a  work  like  that  of  the  Fabian 
Society   in  England. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  American  socialism  is 
probably  more  Marxian  than  the  socialism  of 
the  other  great  countries  of  the  world.  There 
is  also  a  tendency  to  lay  less  emphasis  upon  the 
'immediate  demands'  or  the  reforms  which  can 
be  accomplished  while  the  framework  of  the 
existing  order  is  retained.  The  'immediate  de- 
mands' were  dropped  altogether  from  the  plat- 
form of  the  Socialist  Labor  Party  at  the  con- 
vention held  in  New  York  City  in  June,  1900. 

Political  socialism  has  little  influence  upon 
organized  labor  in  the  United  States,  but  here 
also  the  influence  is  growing  rapidly.  The 
Knights  of  Labor  (q.v.)  were  in  so  far  social- 
istically  inclined  that  some  of  the  planks  in  their 
platform  were  in  general  line  with  socialist 
thought.  So  far  as  there  was  socialism  in  the 
rank  and  file  of  the  Knights  of  Labor  it  was 
sentimental  and  impulsive  rather  than  the  re- 
sult of  deliberate  thought.  Doubtless,  however, 
the  agitation  which  the  Knights  of  Labor  have 
conducted  helped  to  prepare  the  soil  in  this 
country  for  socialism. 

Most  significant  is  the  attitude  of  the  Ameri- 
can Labor  Union  (q.v.),  which  is  avowedly  and 
unreservedly  committed  to  political  socialism. 

The  Socialists  have  the  support  of  ^  large 
Vou  xy.-«j. 


and  increasing  number  of  periodicals.  The  num- 
ber in  June,  1903,  was  probably  about  one  hun- 
dred. The  Socialist  Labor  Party  press  consists 
chiefly  of  the  daily,  weekly,  and  monthly  People, 
of  New  York  City.  The  newly  organized  Penn- 
sylvania branch  of  the  Socialist  Labor  Party  haa 
as  its  organ  the  Socialist  Standard  of  Pittsburff. 
The  principal  newspapers  supporting  the  Social- 
ist Party  are  The  Worker,  The  Comrade,  and  the 
Volkzeitung  of  New  York  City;  the  Cleveland 
Citizen,  of  Cleveland,  Ohio;  the  American  Labor 
Union  Journal,  of  Butte,  Mont.;  the  Soddl 
Democratic  Herald,  of  Milwaukee,  Wis.;  the 
Coming  Nation,  of  Rich  Hill,  Mo. ;  the  Appeal  to 
Reason,  of  Girard,  Kan. ;  and  the  Chicago  Social- 
ist. Especially  noteworthy  is  the  International 
Socialist  Review,  which  is  the  organ  of  scientific 
socialism  in  this  country. 

Literature.  The  information  concerning  the 
socialist  parties  of  the  world  must  be  sought 
in  the  periodical  press  representing  these  parties, 
and  this  has  already  received  mention.  Espe- 
cially noteworthy  as  sources  of  authoritv  are 
the  Socialistische  Monatshefte,  of  Berlin ;  tne  In- 
ternational Socialist  Review,  of  Chicago;  and 
L*Avenir  Social,  of  Brussels,  in  which  the  inter- 
national secretary  has  each  month  a  review  of 
the  'labor  movement  and  international  socialism.' 

SOCIAIi  PSYOHOLOGT.  A  term  used  to 
describe  the  branch  of  investigation  which  deals 
with  those  modifications  of  consciousness  that 
result  from  the  reciprocal  relations  of  individ- 
uals in  a  community.  As  used  at  present,  the 
term  includes  only  human  groups  or  societies. 
It  adds  few  if  any  new  menSil  processes,  but  it 
examines  a  host  of  new  functions  which  the  in- 
dividual consciousness  fulfills  by  virtue  of  its 
relation  to  other  minds  more  or  less  like  itself. 
This  branch  of  psycholo^  is  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  science  of  sociology,  which  deals  with 
the  formation,  structure,  and  development,  as 
well  as  the  practical  betterment  of  society. 
Sociology  studies  society  objectively  as  an  or- 
ganization with  certain  laws  of  growth  and 
change.  Social  psychology,  on  the  other  hand, 
regards  the  phenomena  of  society  subjectively; 
i.e.  it  studies  the  springs  of  action  which  deter- 
mine the  movements  of  society,  and  also  the 
conscious  modifications  which  individual  minds 
produce  in  one  another.  It  inquires  into  the 
state  of  mind  in  a  mob,  and  the  causes  which 
produce  it ;  the  mental  disposition  of  the  crimi- 
nal and  the  motives  which  lead  him  to  criminal 
acts;  the  mental  characteristics  of  different  peo- ' 
pies  ■  and  races ;  the  effects  of  climate  and  of 
scenery  upon  the  temper  of  a  community;  the 
analysis  of  imitation,  of  invention,  and  of  sug- 
gestion, and  the  part  that  these  factors  play  m 
developing  and  maintaining  society.  The  prob- 
lem of  social  psychology  may  be  regarded  either 
(1)  genetically  or  (2)  statically.  One  may  (1) 
trace  the  development  of  society  by  the  inter- 
pretation of  language,  religion,  myths,  customs, 
arts,  and  laws  in  various  stages  of  development 
from  the  earliest  primitive  peoples  down  to  the 
present  time.  Such  an  investigation  produces 
both  psychological  and  sociological  results.  The 
problem  which  is  of  interest  to  the  social  psy- 
chologist concerns  the  modification  of  percep- 
tion, idea,  feeling,  emotion,  sentiment,  and  ac- 
tion which  18  traceable  directly  to  the  social 
environment  and  the  reciprocal  effect  of  these 
mental   formations   upon  the  community  as  a 


SOCIAL  PSYCHOLOOT, 


988 


SOCIAL  SBTTTiKlTRNTS. 


whole.  One  may,  in  the  second  plftoe,  (2)  take 
society  as  one  finds  it  at  present  and  analyse 
the  mental  factors  which  control  the  complex 
interrelations  of  men.  See  Language;  Mtth- 
ologt;  Custom;  Law;  Socioloot. 

Consult:  Wundt,  Human  and  Animal  Psy- 
chology ^  translated  (New  York,  1894) ;  Le  Bon^ 
The  Crowd  (ib.,  1896)  ;  id..  The  Psychology  of 
Peoples  (ib.,  1898) ;  Baldwin,  Social  and  Ethical 
Interpretations  in  Menial  Development  (ib., 
1897) ;  Tarde,  Etudes  de  psychologie  sooiale 
(Paris,  1898). 

SOCIAL  SCIEKCIL    See  Sociologt. 

SOCIAL  SCIEirCB  ASSOCIATIOIT,  Aimii- 
OAN.  A  society  for  the  study  of  social  questions.  It 
was  organized  in  Boston,  Mass.,  in  1865,  and  meets 
annually  in  such  cities  as  may  be  selected.  Its 
work  is  classified  in  five  departments:  education 
and  art;  health;  trade  and  finance;  social  econ- 
omy; and  jurisprudence.  Its  membership  is 
about  1000,  of  whom  thirty  corresponding  mem- 
bers are  distinguished  sociologists  of  Kngland 
and  Continental  Europe.  The  association  pub- 
lishes the  annual  Journal  of  Booial  Science, 

SOCIAL  SERVICE,  American  Instttutb  of. 
An  American  educational  and  research  society. 
It  was  organised  in  New  York  in  1902  and  is 
the  outgrowth  of  the  League  for  Social  Service 
founded  by  Josiah  Strong  and  W.  H.  Tolman  in 
1898.  It  is  modeled  largely  after  the  Mus6e 
Social  (q.v.)  of  Paris.  Its  purposes  are:  (1) 
To  gather  facts  bearing  on  social  and  industrial 
betterment;  (2)  to  interpret  these  facts  by 
scientific  study;  and  (3)  to  disseminate  informa- 
tion freely  for  the  education  of  public  opinion 
by  means  of  monographs,  lectures,  and  various 
publications.  At  the  request  of  the  National 
Government,  the  League  prepared  for  the  Paris 
Exhibition  of  1900  an  excellent  exhibit  of  social 
economy  which  attracted  much  attention  abroad. 
Social  Service,  the  organ  of  the  League,  is  pub- 
lished by  the  Institute. 

SOCIAL  SETTLEMENTS.  The  name  given 
to  those  houses,  situated  in  the  poorer  districts 
of  certain  great  cities,  where  educated  men  and 
women  live,  that  they  may  come  into  contact 
with  the  poor  and  better  the  conditions  of  that 
class.  The  social  settlement  movement  repre- 
sents an  attempt  to  establish  closer  relations 
between  the  higher  and  lower  social  classes,  with 
the  aim  of  giving  to  the  poor  opportunities  for 
culture,  while  securing  for  the  rich  a  broader 
view  of  life  through  closer  contact  with  the 
people.  Many  settlements  have  become  outposts 
for  other  institutions,  social  observatories  and 
statistical  laboratories.  The  movement  originated 
in  the  enthusiasm  of  certain  Oxford  students,  in- 
fluenced by  the  philosophy  of  Dr.  Arnold  and 
Frederick  D.  Maurice,  and  by  Thomas  Hill  Green, 
who  felt  the  need  of  a  better  understanding  of 
the  life  of  the  people. 

In  1867  Edward  Denison,  a  wealthy  student, 
began  to  work  in  the  parish  of  Saint  Philips  in 
Stepney.  Early  death  prevented  him  from  carry- 
ing out  his  plan  of  establishing  homes  similar 
to  the  present  settlement.  In  1875  Arnold  Toyn- 
bee,  then  tutor  at  Oxford,  spent  his  summer  in 
Whitechapel,  where  he  became  a  leader  among 
workingmen.  He,  too,  met  an  early  death,  but 
his  influence  was  so  strongly  felt  that  the  first 
settlement  was  named  after  him.    Toynbee  Hall 


was  founded  in  1884  by  Rev.  Samuel  A.  Baniett, 
in  whose  parish  Toynbee  had  worked.  The  move- 
ment spread  rapidly  and  by  1890  there  were 
promising  university  settlements  in  London, 
Glasgow,  and  Edinburgh.  In  the  United  States, 
Hull  House  (Chicago)  and  the  Coll^  Settle- 
ment in  New  York  City  were  opened  in  October, 
1889.  The  Neighborhood  Guild  of  New  York,  a 
forerunner  of  the  settlement^  now  took  on  thii 
new  form  as  the  University  Settlement.  The 
revised  bibliography  (see  below)  lists  44  set- 
tlements in  Great  Britain,  101  in  the  United 
States  one  regular  settlement  in  Paris,  and  sev- 
eral institutions  with  settlement  activities,  one  in 
Berlin,  and  several  in  Holland.  The  movement 
has  even  spread  to  Japan,  India,  and  New  South 
Wales.  The  larger  settlements  are  usually 
managed  and  supported  by  r^:ularly  incorporat- 
ed associations.  A  head  worker,  who  receives  a 
salary,  is  engaged.  The  expenses  are  met  by 
money  raised  in  various  ways.  Buildings  and 
s(»ecial  equipments  are  obtained  by  gifts.  In 
order  to  create  independence,  a  nominal  fee  is 
charged  for  some  classes.  A  characteristic  fea- 
ture of  the  settlement  is  residence,  more  or  less 
temporary.  Except  the  head  woricer  and  occa- 
sionally an  assistant,  the  residents  pay  their 
expenses.  Aid  in  classes  and  a  nominal  fee  is 
charged  for  some  classes. 

The  activities  may  be  summed  up  as  follows: 
( 1 )  Physical.  Gymnasium,  baths,  military  drill, 
baseball,  basketball,  and  playgrounds  are  pro- 
vided. Efforts  are  made  to  improve  the  sanitary 
conditions  of  the  neighborhood.  Many  settlements 
have  summer  homes.  (2)  Educational.  As  aa 
educational  agency  the  settlement  maintains  cir- 
culating libraries,  reading-rooms,  and  home  li- 
braries; lectures;  musical  instruction;  art  in- 
struction; classes  for  those  who  desire  business 
training  and  law;  for  those  whose  education  has 
been  neglected,  or  for  foreigners  to  learn  English ; 
for  the  study  of  literature,  history,  and  econom- 
ics; for  industrial  training,  including  domestic 
service,  kitchen  gardening,  dressmaking,  etc.  (3) 
^Esthetic.  Special  picture  exhibits  and  concerts 
are  given  and  pictures  are  loaned.  Encourage- 
ment is  given  to  the  growing  of  plants,  and 
to  other  methods  of  beautifying  individual 
homes.  (4)  Religious.  Religious  instruction  is 
usually  avoided,  although  Sunday  talks,  con- 
certs, or  open  discussions  are  frequent.  A  few 
settlements — as  the  Chicago  Commons  or  Oxford 
House — aim  to  exert  a  i«ligious  influence.  (5) 
Philanthropic.  In  this  field  the  settlement  aims 
to  cooperate  with  existing  organizations.  Relief 
is  very  seldom  given  except  as  a  personal  mat- 
ter. A  dispensary,  a  day  nursery,  or  an  employ- 
ment bureau  is,  however,  frequently  attached 
to  a  settlement.  Flower  distributions  are  made, 
and  the  University  Settlement  in  New  York  co- 
operates with  a  model  pawnshop  and  a  legal 
aid  bureau.  (6)  Social.  Numerous  clubs  are 
established  for  adults — smoking,  debating,  ath- 
letic, and  political  clubs;  dramatic,  literary,  and 
reading  clubs;  and  all  manner  of  clubs  for  girls 
and  boys.  Women's  clubs  and  mothers'  meet- 
ings are  common. 

Additional  features  are  the  stamp  savings  bank 
for  children,  coffee  houses,  the  publication  of  a 
newspaper  or  bulletin,  and  the  promotion  of 
boarding  clubs,  especially  for  working  girls.  Some 
settlements  are  especially  interested  in  work  with 


SOCIAL  SETTLBXEKTS. 


989 


B00IETIB8. 


cbildren  or  boys;  others  try  to  reach  families  or 
men,  or  to  Americanize  a  foreign  element.  Some 
are  distinctly  homes;  others  are  institutional. 
The  settlement  workers  are  interested  in  the 
labor  problem  and  the  settlement  is  often  a 
headquarters  for  economic  discussions,  or,  occa- 
sionally, a  meeting  place  for  labor  organizations. 
Civic  interests  are  stimulated,  and  residents 
sometimes  hold  positions  on  State  and  munici- 
pal boards.  From  time  to  time  investigations 
are  made  from  the  settlement,  and  scholarships 
are  sometimes  given  to  further  such  work.  See 
Huix  House;  Social  Debtob  Class;  Totnbee, 
Abnold;  Univebsitt  Extension. 

BiBUOGBAPHT.  Montgomery,  Bibliography  of 
College,  Social,  University,  and  Church  Settle^ 
ments  (4th  ed.,  Boston,  1900)  ;  New  York  Bureau 
of  Labor  Statistics  (18th  Annual  Beport,  New 
York,  1900)  ;  Coit,  Neighborhood  Guilds  (2d  ed., 
London,  1892)  ;  Woods,  English  Social  Move- 
ments (New  York,  1891). 

SOCIAL  WAB  (Lat.  bellum  sociale),  A 
desperate  struggle  between  Rome  and  her  Italian 
allies  (socii),  which  lasted  for  two  years  (b.o. 
90-88).  The  races  of  Central  Italy,  the  Samnites 
Pelignians,  Marsians,  and  Lucanians,  had  long 
been  bound  to  Rome  by  a  forced  allegiance,  with- 
out enjoying  the  rights  of  Roman  citizenship, 
which  brought  with  them  great  social  and  polit- 
ical advantoges.  They  had  long  sought  in  vain 
an  amelioration  of  their  condition,  for  while  their 
men  fought  side  by  side  with  the  Romans  in  the 
wars  of  the  Republic,  they  were  denied  all  sem- 
blance of  equality.  The  hardy  and  vigorous 
mountaineers  chafed  under  this  oppression,  and 
when,  in  B.C.  90,  their  Roman  champion,  M. 
Livius  Drusus^  was  murdered  for  his  attempted, 
reforms,  they  broke  out  in  an  extensive  and  well- 
organized  revolution  and  aimed  at  a  confedera- 
tion of  all  Italy  to  crush  the  growing  power  of 
Rome.  It  was  the  first  dream  of  a  united  Italian 
nation.  The  union  was  to  be  called  Italia,  its 
capital  was  to  be  Corfinium,  in  the  Pelignian 
country,  under  the  new  name  of  Italica,  and  its 
government  was  to  be  a  republic  administered 
^y  two  elective  consuls,  as  at  Rome.  Their 
armies  were  very  successful  for  a  time,  and  Rome 
met  some  serious  reverses;  but  by  giving  her 
coveted  citizenship  to  those  allies  who  remained 
loyal,  and  promising  it  to  such  as  would  return* 
to  her  allegiance,  she  succeeded  in  breaking  the 
strength  of  the  revolution,  which  was  virtually 
crushed  in  b.c.  88.  But,  though  the  Italians  lost 
their  independence,  they  gained  their  original 
demands,  for  they  were  enrolled  in  eight  new 
Roman  tribes,  and  soon  became  assimilate  to  the 
Roman  body  politic.  From  the  part  borne  by 
the  Marsians  in  this  struggle  it  is  often  called  the 
Marsian   (Marsic)    War. 

SOCIETABIANS.  A  name  not  infrequently 
bestowed  on  the  followers  of  Charles  Fourier 
(see  FouBiEBisK),  whose  doctrines  taught  the 
reconstruction  of  society  on  a  mathematical  basis 
and  the  supplanting  of  wasteful  individual  effort 
(technically  'parceled*  effort)  by  associated  or 
*80cietarian'  activity.  Consult:  Compte-rendu 
de  Vewposition  du  systhne  societaire  de  Fourier 
faite  par  M.  Victor  Considirant  (Dijon,  1841); 
Pellarin,  The  Life  of  Charles  Fourier,  translated 
by  Shaw  (New  York,  1848). 


SOCIETY  DBS  C0HGEBT8  DU  C0V8EB- 
VATOIEEy  B6'syA't&  d&  k(VN's&r^  dv  kON's&r'- 
vA'twftr',  La.  (Fr.,  the  society  of  the  concerts  of 
the  conservatory).  The  foremost  concert  insti- 
tution of  France.  The  origin  of  this  society  in 
realitv  dates  back  to  the  time  of  Louis  XV.,  when 
Philidor  established  the  concerts  spirituels. 
Operatic  representations  were  forbidden  on  holi- 
days, Sundays,  and  during*  Lent.  Accordingly, 
Philidor  established  concerts  on  Sunday  nights, 
which  he  called  concerts  spirituels.  In  1828 
Habeneck  organized  an  orchestra  from  among  the 
pupils  of  the  C!onservatoire,  and  on  March  9th 
b^n  a  seriea  of  six  Sunday  concerts  on  the 
same  plan  as  those  of  the  concerts  spirituels. 
It  was  through  this  orchestra  that  Habeneck  in- 
troduced the  works  of  Beethoven  into  France. 
The  conductors  have  been  Habeneck,  Girard,  Til- 
mant,  Hainl,  Deldevez,  Lamoureux. 

SOCH^Ti  EN  GOXHANDITE,  ^n  k^'m^N'- 
d^t^  (Fr.,  limited  liability  company),  or  Lim- 
ited Pabtnebship  (q.v.).  An  expression  used 
for  at  least  two  centuries  in  France  as  the 
name  of  a  partnership  in  which  one  may  advance 
capital  without  taking  charge  of  the^  business,  or 
becoming  liable  as  a  true  partner  for  its  debts. 
The  term  owes  its  origin  to  the  old  meaning  in 
the  commercial  nomenclature  of  France  of  the 
word  command,  which  was  applied  to  one  person 
authorizing  another  to  transact  business  for  him. 
The  working  partner  had  a  commande  from  him 
who  merely  advanced  capital.  This  form  of  part- 
nership existed  in  Louisiana  while  it  was  a 
French  dependency,  and  was  continued  after  it 
became  a  part  of  the  United  States ;  but  New 
York  was  the  first  common-law  State  to  adopt 
this  institution.  That  was  done  in  1822,  and 
now  limited  partnerships  are  authorized  by  stat- 
ute in  most  of  the  States.  They  do  not  exist 
in  England. 

SOCIETIES  (Lat.  aocietas,  from  socius,  com- 
panion, associate).  Organizations  of  individuals 
for  the  attainment  of  a  common  end  through 
common  action.  Cooperation  dates  from  the 
earliest  times,  and  whether  for  the  conquest  of 
some  material  object  or  for  the  inner  improve- 
ment of  the  individual  himself,  is  met  with  in 
all  parts  of  the  world.  In  the  present  work  the 
subject  of  societies  has  received  a  twofold  treat- 
ment; general  articles  have  been  devoted  to  a 
discussion  of  various  definite  classes  of  organi- 
zations as  differentiated  by  purpose,  while  at 
the  same  time  special  articles  treat  of  the  best 
known  individual  organizations  within  such 
classes.  Here  it  is  sufficient  to  give  a  brief  in- 
dication of  how  extensive  the  subject  is  and  the 
manner  in  which  it  has  been  dealt  with.  Prob- 
ably the  oldest  forms  of  organization  are  the 
cult  societies,  which  are  found  among  many  prim- 
itive tribes,  as,  for  instance,  the  Duk-Duk  (q.v.) 
of  the  island  of  New  Britain  in  the  Pacific,  or 
the  Mumbo  Jumbo  societies  of  West  Africa. 
These  are  mainly  religious  in  character,  but  add 
certain  political  characteristics  and  possess  an 
elaborate  ritual  and  the  feature  of  secrecy.  Far 
advanced  are  the  religious  societies  of  the  classic 
world  like  the  Eleusinians  of  the  Greeks  or  the 
priestly  colleges  of  the  Romans.  Further  still 
we  have  the  various  organizations  which  arose 
with  the  Christian  Church  and  which,  aside  from 
the  purely  monastic  aggregates,  included  asso- 


BOdETTBS. 


MO 


SOCIETT. 


ciations  fonned  for  numerous  secular  purposes 
(see  Bbotuebhoods,  Rjeugious),  as  the  care  of 
the  sick  (see  Hosfitalebs),  the  building  of 
bridges  (see  Bbioge-Buildino  Bbothsbhood), 
the  protection  of  pilgrims,  and  a  combination  of 
some  of  these  duties  as  exemplified  in  the  great 
Orders  (q.v.),  such  as  the  Templars  or  the 
Knights  of  Saint  John  of  Jerusalem  (qq.v.).  Pre- 
eminent among  socieCies  formed  for  the  defense  of 
faith  stand  the  Jesuits  (q.v.)* 

Political  organizations  begin  very  early  and 
take  the  form  of  public  associations,  working  for 
their  purposes  in  the  open  (e.g.  the  Anti-Corn 
Law  League,  q.v. ) ,  or  secret  associations  wherever 
the  objects  or  the  methods  of  the  societies  are 
regarded  with  disfavor  by  governments  or  were 
even  hostile  to  government.  The  latter  type 
would  include  the  great  revolutionary  societies 
which  have  played  an  important  part  in  European 
affairs,  especially  since  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  See  Burschenschaft  ;  Ca»- 
BONARi;  Fenian  Society;  Nihilisu;  Tounq 
Italy;  etc. 

The  primitive  cult  societies  were  largely 
social  in  their  nature,  and  social  organizations 
constitute  at  the  present  day  an  important  class 
of  societies.  Such  are  clubs  (q-v.)  and  college 
fraternities  (see  Fbatebnities,  Collbqe),  where* 
in,  in  general,  there  is  no  further  aim  than  the 
bringing  into  contact  of  a  certain  number  of  in- 
dividuals of  congenial  tastes  and  character.  Or 
the  interests  of  the  association  may  centre  in 
some  one  line  of  amusement  or  some  single  pas- 
time, as  with  athletic  organizations,  sporting 
clubs,  etc.  (See  Alpine  Clubs.)  Where  the 
element  of  sociability  is  supplemented  by  some  at- 
tempt at  self -instruct  ion  in  one  of  the  various 
arts,  we  have  the  large  class  of  musical  societies, 
choral  societies,  literary  societies,  art  soci- 
eties, etc.  Noted  for  its  broadness  of  scope  in 
combining  the  social,  the  educational,  and  the  re- 
ligious elements  is  the  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association  (q.v.).  The  social  element  is  largely 
overshadowed  by  a  common  professional  interest 
in  the  class  of  organizations  known  specifically 
as  learned  societies,  embracing  every  field  of  sci- 
ence and  liberal  learning.  (See,  for  example. 
Academy;  Institute  of  Fbance;  Royal  Soci- 
ety; Historical  Associatioit,  Amebican;  etc.) 
Of  great  importance,  in  the  United  States  espe- 
cially, are  the  fraternal  organizations  combining 
the  elements  of  sociability  and  mutual  assistance 
rendered  either  in  an  informal  way,  as  among  the 
Free  Masons  (see  Masons,  Fbee),  or  in  a  more 
definite  form,  as  by  life,  sickness,  and  accident  in- 
surance, as  practiced  by  various  other  organiza- 
tions. As  typical  of  the  great  class  of  benevo- 
lent and  fraternal  societies,  see  Oddfellows; 
Pythias,  Knights  of;  Elks,  Obdeb  of;  etc 
Finally,  mention  must  be  made  of  a  class  of  so- 
cieties devoted  to  the  amelioration  of  social  condi- 
tions and  directing  their  efforts  to  the  advance- 
ment of  the  general  welfare  or  to  the  cure  of 
some  specific  evil  in  society.  For  the  one  type 
see  Chabity  Obganization  Society;  Boys' 
Clubs  ;  Wobkingwomen's  Clubs;  Working- 
men's  Clubs;  etc.  Typical  of  the  second  are  the 
various  temperance  societies  in  the  United 
States.  See  Tempebance;  Women's  Christian 
Trmpebancb  Union.  See  also  Patriotic  So- 
cieties. 


80CIETIE8   FOB   ETHIGAIi   CUJ/rXTBJ^ 

The.  The  first  Society  for  Ethical  Culture  was 
formed  in  New  York  City  in  May,  1876,  by  Prof. 
Felix  Adler  and  several  associates.  The  purpose 
of  the  movement  was  to  provide  a  centre  for  per- 
sons who  had  lost  their  attachment  to  the  tradi- 
tional creeds  and  desired  to  aid  In  seeking  what 
is  good  and  in  promoting  the  moral  development 
of  the  individual  and  of  society.  A  second 
society  was  formed  in  Chicago  in  1882;  a  third 
in  Philadelphia  in  1885;  and  a  fourth  in  Saint 
Louis  in  1886.  A  few  years  afterwards  the  first 
society  in  London  was  organized  by  Dr.  Stan- 
ton Coit.  Other  societies  have  since  been 
formed  in  England,  and  in  Germany  (where 
there  are  16),  Austria,  Switaserland,  and 
Italy.  The  most  important  of  these  societies 
are  those  in  the  United  States,  England,  and 
Germany,  and  at  Zurich,  Switzerland.  An 
Ethical  Congress  and  a  convention  of  all  the 
Ethical  Societies  in  America  were  held  in  con- 
nection with  the  tenth  anniversary  of  the  fourth 
society,  in  Saint  Louis,  in  1896.  A  congress  of 
American  and  European  societies  was  held  at 
Zurich,  Switzerland,  in  the  same  year,  when  the 
office  of  International  Secretary  was  instituted. 
The  societies  in  America  seek  less  to  gain  ad- 
herents than  to  establish  their  principles  and 
perfect  their  organization.  Not  afi^rming  any 
creeds  and  not  hostile  to  any,  the  Society  for 
Ethical  Culture  teaches  that  moral  ends  are 
supreme  above  all  human  ends  and  interests, 
and  that  the  authority  of  the  moral  law  is  im- 
mediate and  not  dependent  upon  religious  beliefs 
or  philosophical  theories.  Meetings  are  held  on 
Sundays  and  are  devoted  to  addresses,  with  ex- 
clusion   of    audible    prayer   and    all    forms    of 

'ritual.  Special  importance  is  attached  to  the 
ethical  training  of  children,  and  important 
schools  have  been  established  in  New  York  and 
other  cities.  The  New  York  Ethical  Culture 
School  was  the  first  to  introduce  manual  train- 
ing as  a  regular  branch  of  the  curriculum  in  ele- 
mental^ schools.  Young  men's  societies,  women's 
conferences,  Sunday  ethical  classes,  and  the  like 
come  within  the  sphere  of  activity  of  the  societies. 
The  New  York  society  had  900  members  in  1901» 
BiBUOGBAPHT.  The  Ethical  Record  (bi- 
monthly) and  a  'lecture  supplement,'  Ethical 
Addressee  (monthly),  are  issued  by  the  Society 

•  for  Ethical  Culture  of  New  York.  The  Inter- 
national Journal  of  Ethics  (quarterly,  Phila- 
delphia), while  not  the  official  organ  of  the  so- 
cieties, owes  its  origin  and  main  support  to 
them.  Ethics  (weekly,  London)  is  the  oigan  of 
the  English  societies,  and  Ethische  Kultur  (week- 
ly, Berlin)  represents  the  German  movement. 
Consult  the  writings  of  Felix  Adler,  such  as 
The  Moral  Education  of  Children  (New  York, 
1898) ;  Creed  and  Deed  (ib.,  1877)  ;  Life  and 
Destiny  (ib.,  1903);  W.  M.  Salter,  EtUcal 
Religion  (Boston,  1889) ;  W.  L.  Sheldon,  An 
Ethical  Sunday  School  (New  York,  1900) ;  id.. 
An  Ethical  Movement  (ib.,  1896) ;  Stanton  Coit^ 
Neighborhood  Guilds  (London,  1892). 

SOCIETT  (from  Lat.  societas,  from  soeiua^  a 
companion).  A  naturally  formed  group,  as  a 
tribe,  a  village,  a  nation,  organized  to  achieve 
the  common  good — a  community,  a  common- 
wealth. The  basis  of  society  is  mental  agree- 
ment and  pleasure  in  association.  An  entire 
population  occupying  a  defined  territory  becomes, 


SOCIETY. 


991    80CIETT  OF  AKEBICAK  AUTHOBS. 


through  developing  communication  and  assimila- 
tion, increasingly  like-minded.  Through  develop- 
ing codperation,  cultural,  economic,  legal,  and 
political,  it  becomes  highly  organised.  Such  a 
socially  developed  and  organized  population  is 
a  natural  society,  and  it  is  within  a  natural 
society  that  all  lesser  or  subordinate  societies 
appear,  as  incidents  of  its  evolution.  These  are 
of  two  broadly  distin^ished  kinds,  the  com- 
ponent and  the  constituent.  The  component 
society  is  a  group  in  which  both  sexes  and  all 
ages  dwell  together.  The  name  is  indicative  of 
the  fact  that  all  the  larger  natural  societies,  like 
modem  nations,  are  compound,  having  been  pro- 
duced by  the  federation  of  smaller  component 
groups.  The  series  of  component  societies  is,  in 
uncivilised  or  ethnic  communities,  the  family, 
the  horde,  the  tribe,  the  federation  of  tribes; 
and  in  civilized  societies,  the  family,  the  village, 
the  commune  or  city,  the  county,  the  common- 
wealth, the  federal  nation,  the  federated  em- 
pire. The  constituent  society  is  an  association  of 
selected  persons,  formed  to  carry  on  a  particular 
work.  It  represents  the  principle  of  division  of 
labor,  of  specialization.  The  name  is  expressive 
of  the  fact  that  society  as  a  whole  is  constituted 
of  such  specialized  associations.  Collectively  they 
are  the  social  constitution.  They  include  all 
societies  for  amusement,  religion,  education, 
philanthropy,  business,  the  promotion  of  justice, 
and  political  activity.    See  Sociologt. 

80CIETT.  An  assemblage  of  plants  growing 
in  a  common  habitat  under  similar  life  condi- 
tions.   See  EooLOGY. 


SOCIETY  ISLANDS,  or  Tahiti  Abchi- 
PELAGO.  A  colonial  possession  of  France  in  the 
South  Pacific,  consisting  of  an  archipelago  of 
eleven  islands,  extending  from  16*"  to  18^  south 
latitude,  and  from  148°  to  ISd"*  west  longi- 
tude (Map:  The  World,  Western  Hemisphere, 
L  6).  It  is  divided  into  the  Leeward  and  Wind- 
ward groups,  the  former  including  the  islands 
of  Raiatea,  Huahine,  Tahaa,  Bora^ra,  Maupiti, 
Tubai,  and  a  few  smaller  islets,  and  the  latter 
group  comprising  Tahiti  (q.v.),  Morea,  and  a  few 
others.  Total  area,  estimated  at  650  square  miles, 
of  which  Tahiti  covers  about  600.  The  islands  are 
volcanic,  mountainous,  and  surrounded  with 
coral  reefs  which  form  coast  lagoons.  The  high- 
est peak,  on  the  island  of  Tahiti,  has  an  ele- 
vation of  over  7,000  feet.  The  climate  is 
hot  and  moist,  but  not  unhealthful.  The 
flora  is  luxuriant  and  especially  rich  in  trees. 
Bananas  grow  in  abundance  and  are  found  in 
altitudes  of  from  3000  to  5000  feet.  The  fauna 
is  rather  poor.  The  chief  agricultural  products 
are  oocoanuts,  bananas,  sugar,  and  vanilla. 
Only  a  small  part  of  the  agricultural  land  is 
tilled,  and  the  colony  is  in  a  general  state  of 
backwardness.  The  exports  are  mainly  copra, 
mother-of-pearl,  vanilla,  and  fruits,  the  com- 
merce amounting  to  a  little  over  $1,000,000  a 
year.  Administratively,  the  group  forms  the 
chief  of  the  French  establishments  in  Oceania. 

The  discovery  of  the  Society  Islands  dates 
probably  from  1606,  when  they  were  visited  by 
the  Spaniard  Pedro  Fernandez  de  Quiros.  Al- 
though several  explorers  visited  the  group  before 
Captain  Cook,  it  is  chiefly  the  latter  who  gave 
to  the  world  the  first  detailed  description  of  the 
islands.     At  the  time  of  Cook's  visits    (1769, 


1773,  1774,  and  1777)  the  islands  were  under  the 
rule  of  a  king  who  exercised  both  civil  and  ec- 
clesiastical authority,  and  the  government  had 
more  or  less  of  a  feudal  character.  The  natives, 
who  all  belong  to  the  Christian  faith,  are  of  a 
stately  and  fine  Polynesian  type.  They  are  kind 
and  very  mild,  and  were  readily  inclined  to  adopt 
Western  civilization.  The  discoverers  foimd  that 
they  built  comfortable  dwellings  and  manufac- 
tured iron.  They  were  ruled  formerly  by  minor 
hereditary  kings,  whose  influence  was  curbed  by 
an  influential  nobility.  In  1788  the  island  of 
Tahiti  was  visited  by  the  Bounty,  and  soon 
after  became  the  place  of  refuge  for  the  muti- 
neers of  that  vessel,  some  of  whom  were  sub- 
sequently taken  to  Great  Britain  by  the  Pan- 
dora, The  first  attempt  toward  introducing  the 
Gospel  among  the  natives  was  made  by  Spain  in 

1774.  The  opposition  of  the  natives  to  the  doc- 
trines of  Christianity  was  partly  overcome  by 
the  conversion  of  the  King,  Pomare  II.,  and  the 
new  religion  soon  gained  a  firm  foothold  among 
the  natives.  The  rivalry  between  the  French  and 
English  missionaries  led  to  the  interference  of 
France  in  1838  and  to  the  subsequent  official 
annexation  of  the  group  in  1880.  Consult: 
Meinecke,  Die  Inaeln  de»  Stillen  Oceans  (Leip- 
zig, 1876-76)  ;  Brassey,  Tahiti  (London,  1882) ; 
Bftssler,  Neue  SUdseehUder  (Berlin,  1900). 

SOCIETY  OF  AHEBICAK  ABTISTS,  The. 
An  orj^nization  of  painters  and  sculptors,  rep- 
resenting rather  advanced  and  radical  ideas  in 
art,  as  opposed  to  the  more  conservative  ten- 
dencies of  the  National  Academy  of  Design 
(q.v.).  It  was  founded  in  1877  by  some  of  the 
younger  American  artists  who  had  been  trained 
abroad.  It  has  more  than  a  hundred  members 
governed  by  a  president,  a  board  of  control  made 
up  of  the  officers,  and  an  advisory  board.  An- 
nual exhibitions  are  held  in  New  York  City. 
The  work  of  both  members  and  outsiders  is 
passed  upon  by  a  committee  on  selection.  The 
Webb  prize  of  $300  for  landscape  or  marine, 
the  Carnegie  prize  of  $500  for  an  oil  paint- 
ing, portraits  excepted,  and  the  Julia  A.  Shaw 
Memorial  prize,  for  the  best  work  produced  by 
an  American  woman,  are  awarded  each  year. 
The  Shaw  Fund  of  $1500  is  devoted  to  buying 
one  or  more  works  of  art  by  American  artists. 
The  society  originally  stood  for  development  and 
breadth,  and  the  expression  of  personality,  which 
it  was  maintained  had  been  previously  hampered 
by  academic  traditions.  The  line  of  division 
between  the  Society  and  the  Academy  is  now 
less  marked.  A  number  of  artists  exhibit  at 
both,  and  belong  to  both  organizations.  The 
Society  of  the  Ten  American  Painters  is  com- 
posed of  members  of  the  Society  of  American 
Artists,  who  organized  themselves  into  an  inde- 
pendent body  in  1898.  They  hold  annual  ex- 
hibitions in  New  York  City,  the  note  of  which 
exhibitions  is  impressionistic. 

SOCIETY  OF  AMEBICAN  ATJTHOBS.    A 

society  incorporated  in  May,  1892,  in  New  York 
City,  for  the  purpose  of  assisting  authors  in 
their  dealings  with  publishers  and  generally  im- 
proving the  condition  of  the  craft.  It  is  formed 
on  the  same  basis  as,  and  is  in  close  touch  with, 
English,  French*  and  Spanish  societies  of  au- 
thors. The  society  is  also  committed  to  the  agi- 
tation for  the  transmission  of  authors'  manu- 
scripts through  the  mails  at  printed  matter  rates. 


80CIBTY  OI*  AXXBICAK  AUTH0B8.      992 


SOCIOIiOGT. 


according  to  the  arrangements  ezifiting  in  Eng- 
land and  other  countries.  It  publishes  a  bulle- 
tin, The  American  Author, 

SOCIN,  sytsin,  Albebt  (1844-99).  A  German 
Orientalist,  bom  at  Basel,  and  educated  there 
and  at  Geneva,  GUSttingen,  Leipzig,  and  Berlin. 
He  traveled  in  the  Orient  in  1868*70,  and  in 
Syria  in  1873.  In  1876  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  Semitic  languages  and  literature  at 
Tabingen,  and  in  1890  was  called  in  a  similar 
capacity  to  Leipzig.  Among  his  numerous  works 
may  be  named :  Die  Oedichte  des  'Alkama  alfahV 
(1867;  with  translation);  Arabieehe  8prich' 
warier  unA  Redensarien  (1878);  Die  In- 
achrift  des  K^ige  Meea  von  Moah  (with  R. 
Smend,  1886)  ;  Zum  arahiechen  Dialekt  von 
Marokko  (1893);  Der  arahiache  Dialekt  der 
Houwara  (with  Stumme,  1894) ;  and  Arahiache 
Orammatik  (3d  ed.  1894;  trans,  into  Eng.). 
Socin  collaborated  also  in  Kautzsch's  translation 
of  the  Old  Testament  (1890),  and  in  Gesenius's 
Handtoorterhuch  Uher  das  alte  Testament 
(Buhl's  12th  ed.  of  1895). 

SOCIOrUS.  The  Latinized  form  of  the  name 
of  two  Italian  Protestants  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, celebrated  as  the  founden  of  the  liberal 
sect  called  Socinians,  and  precursora  of  the  mod- 
em Unitarians.  Both  men  were  bora  in  the 
Tuscan  town  of  Siena,  the  elder,  Leuo  Sozzini 
(Lselius  Socinus),  in  1525,  the  younger,  Fausto 
(Faustus),  nephew  of  the  preceding,  in  1539. 
Lelio  was  destmed  for  the  profession  of  the  law, 
but  his  tastes  led  him  to  theolo^  instead.  He 
applied  himself  to  the  study  of  Greek,  Hebrew, 
and  Arabic,  that  he  might  better  underatand 
the  Scriptures.  At  the  age  of  twenty-one  he  is 
reported  to  have  joined  a  society  at  Vicenza, 
whose  aim  was  free  discussion  of  religious  sub- 
jects, but  which,  after  its  heretical  tenden^ 
had  been  discovered,  was  compelled  to  disband. 
Socinus  fled  from  Vicenza,  visited  France,  Eng- 
land, and  Holland  in  his  travels,  and  came  into 
friendly  contact  with  manv  Protestant  leaders, 
including  Calvin.  He  finally  settled  in  Zurich, 
where  he  died  at  the  early  age  of  thirty-seven 
(1562).  His  views  on  Christian  theology,  for 
the  most  part  unpublished,  were  eagerly  read  in 
manuscript  by  his  nephew,  who  became  their 
champion. — Faustus  Socinus  had  received  a 
rather  unsystematic  education,  but  a  developing 
interest  in  religious  mattera,  due  largely  to  his 
uncle's  influence,  led  him  in  manhood  to  Basel 
for  further  study,  thence  to  Transylvania,  where 
anti-trinitarians  were  already  numerous,  espe- 
cially among  the  nobility,  and  finally  (1579)  to 
Poland,  which  was  to  be  the  chief  centre  of  his 
influence.  As  a  theological  disputant,  writer, 
and  preacher,  Faustus  exhibited  both  zeal  and 
ability,  but  he  encountered  vigorous  opposition 
from  Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants  alike,  on 
account  of  his  attacks  upon  fundamental  Chris- 
tian doctrines.  His  position  was  that,  although 
the  Bible  was  authoritative  and  the  Gospel  his- 
tory miraculous,  no  doctrine  contrary  to  reason 
should  be  retained.  This  led  him  to  modify 
greatly  the  current  teaching  respecting  the  na- 
ture of  man,  sin,  and  the  deity  of  Christ.  But  he 
did  not  deny  that,  although  other  parts  of  Chris- 
tian faith  were  above  reason,  they  were  neverthe- 
less to  be  accepted,  or  that  Christ  possessed  a 
Piiperhuman  nature  and  character.  After  a  theo« 
logical  disputation  with  several  Protestant  lead- 


en, in  which  his  peculiar  tenets  were  brought 
forward,  Socinus  was  charged  with  sedition  and 
forced  for  a  time  to  withdraw  from  Craoow, 
taking  refuge  at  the  ooimtry  estate  of  a  friendly 
Polish  noble,  whose  daughter  he  married.  His 
views  finally  aroused  such  intense  antagonism 
that  popular  outbreaks  occurred,  in  which  So- 
cinus was  shamefully  handled.  His  last  days 
were  spent  in  retirement  in  the  village  of  Lucia- 
wice,  where  he  died  in  1604. 

Amon^  the  most  important  writings  of  Faus- 
tus Socmus  are  his  De  Jesu  Christo  Servatore 
and  De  Statu  Primi  Hominis  ante  Lapsum.  In 
the  former  he  discusses  the  person  and  work  of 
Christ;  in  the  latter,  the  doctrines  of  sin  and 
grace.  Both  works  were  controveraial  in  their 
origin.  The  Racovian  Catechism  (1605),  a 
formal  and  elaborate  statement  of  Socinian  the- 
ology, was  based  largely  upon  outlines  which 
he  had  made.  The  Works  of  Socinus  are  printed 
in  the  Bihliotheca  Fratrum  Polonorum,  vols.  i. 
and  ii.  (Amsterdam,  1656).  Consult  further: 
Rees,  The  Racovian  Catechism  (London,  1818) ; 
BonetpMaury,  Des  origines  du  chrisiianisme 
uniiaire  (Paris,  1882);  Fock,  Der  Socinianis- 
mus  (Kiel,  1847);  Allen,  History  of  the  Uni- 
tarians (New  York,  1804)  ;  Beard,  The  Reforma- 
tion of  the  Sixteenth  Century  in  Its  Relation  to 
Modem  Thought  (London,  1883)  ;  Harnack,  His- 
tory of  Dogma,  vol.  vii.  (Eng.  trans.,  London, 
1899) ;  Ritschl,  Justification  and  Reconciliation 
(Eng.    trans.,    Edinburgh,    1902).      See    Uni- 

TABIANISIC. 

SOCIOIiOOT  (from  Lat.  socius,  companion, 
associate  -|-  Gk.  -Xo7k,  -logia,  account,  from 
\iyup,  legein,  to  say).  The  science  of  society, 
comprehending  the  analysis  and  classification  of 
social  facts,  the  scientific  description  and  his- 
tory of  society,  and  the  explanation  of  society 
in  terms  of  simpler  phenomena.  Sociology  is 
conveniently  divided  into  general  and  special 
sociology.  General  sociology  is  the  study  of  the 
universal  and  fundamental  phenomena  of  society. 
It  investigates  the  facts  and  correlations  found 
in  all  societies,  the  types  of  society,  and  the 
stages  of  social  development.  It  seeks  to  dis- 
cover the  general  laws  and  the  causes  of  social 
evolution.  Special  sociology  consists  of  the  en- 
tire group  of  social  sciences,  including  culture, 
history,  economics,  jurisprudence,  and  politics, 
each  of  which  deals  minutely  with  some  one 
phase  of  social  organization,  social  activity,  or 
social  development.  Sociology  includes  social 
statistics,  ana  so  much  of  history  as  may  truth- 
fully be  said  to  repeat  itself,  that  is  to  say,  those 
constant  facts  of  cooperation,  institutional  life, 
and  social  welfare  which  recur  in  all  communi- 
ties and  in  all  aees.  The  methods  of  sociology 
are  inductive.  Its  chief  dependence  is  upon 
comparative  historical  studies  and  upon  statis- 
tics. It  draws  largely  upon  psychology  also  for 
data  and  for  principles  of  explanation. 

HI8T0BT. 

The  philosophy  of  social  relations  is  one  of  the 
most  ancient  parts  of  human  wisdom.  The 
sacred  books  and  the  laws  of  Egypt  and  of  Baby- 
lonia, of  Palestine  and  of  Greece,  abound  in  em- 
pirical maxims  of  domestic  and  public  economy, 
social  justice,  and  statecraft.  In  the  Republic 
and  the  Laws  of  Plato,  and  especially  in  the 
Politics  of  Aristotle,  we  have  the  beginnings  of 
a  scientific  classification  of  social  facts,  and  a 


socioiioaT. 


998 


SOCIOLOGY. 


nnmber  of  important  generalizations.  In  the 
writing  of  Aquinas  and  Dante,  of  Machiavelli 
and  V10O4  of  Bodin,  Althusius,  Spinoza,  Hobbes^ 
Locke,  Hume,  and  Rousseau,  we  have  acute  inter- 
pretations of  social  phenomena  in  terms  of  hu- 
man nature,  i.e.  of  motives.  Montesquieu  (q.v.), 
in  L'Eaprit  des  loi8,  laid  the  foimdations  of  an 
interpretation  in  terms  of  external  conditions  or 
environment,  and  this  interpretation  was  further 
developed  in  a  few  special  directions  by  the 
Physiocrats.  In  none  of  these  writing,  however^ 
were  scientific  methods  of  investigation  strictly 
followed,  and  in  none  of  them  after  Aristotle  did 
there  appear  the  conception  of  a  comprehensive 
social  science.  They  were  penetrating  studies 
of  special  phases  of  social  phenomena,  not  ex- 
planations of  society  as  a  whole. 

The  conception  of  a  comprehensive  social  sci- 
ence we  owe  to  Auffuste  Gomte,  who  invented  for 
it  the  objectionable  name  'sociology.'  Gomte 
felt  strongly  that  all  social  studies  until  his 
day  had  been  fragmentary  and  pdemical,  and 
metaphysical  rather  than  scientific.  He  regarded 
society  as  a  perfect  unity  and  protested  against 
the  attempt  to  investigate  religious,  economic, 
or  political  phenomena  apart  from  one  another, 
as  necessarily  misleading.  His  chief  interest, 
however,  was  to  include  the  study  of  society 
within  a  scheme  of  positive  philosophy,  from 
which  all  theological  conceptions  and  speculative 
methods  should  be  eliminated.  Beyond  these 
ideas  of  what  the  science  ought  to  be  Comte's 
own*  contribution  to  sociology  amounted  to  little. 

The  concept  of  a  general  sociology  left  little 
impression  upon  scientific  thought  until  Herbert 
Spencer  wrote  The  Study  of  Sociology  (1873), 
and  made  the  'principles  of  sociolo^  an  in- 
tegral part  of  his  system  of  'synthetic  philos- 
ophy.' Beyond  the  general  idea  and  the  name, 
Spencer's  sociology  has  nothing  in  common  with 
Comte's.  Spencer's  system  is  an  explanation  of 
society  in  terms  of  evolution.  He  regards  society 
as  an  organism,  which  undergoes  intc^ation  and 
differentiation.  It  has  a  sustaining  system 
analogous  to  the  alimentary  system  of  the  ani- 
mal, a  distributing  system  analogous  to  the 
circulatory  system,  and  a  regulating  system 
analogous  to  the  nervous  system.  Inis  social 
organism  conditions  the  life  of  the  indi- 
Tidual.  In  the  struggle  for  existence  social 
groups  like  individuals  come  into  conflict. 
Fear,  bom  of  conflict,  for  countless  ages  is  a 
controlling  emotion.  Dominated  by  fear  and 
its  sister  passion  vengeance,  men  precipitate 
conflicts  which  are  not  forced  upon  them 
by  necessity,  and  which  often  assume  the  pro- 
portions of  war.  Character  is  molded  to  mili- 
tarism. Cruelty  and  treachery  toward  enemies 
is  a  virtue.  Submissive  obedience  to  authority 
is  exacted,  and  the  whole  social  organization  is 
pervaded  by  coercion.  From  the  fear  of  the  liv- 
ing have  arisen  a  ceremonial  and  a  political 
control,  and  from  the  fear  of  the  dead,  growing 
out  of  the  belief  that  the  spirit,  surviving  the 
body  as  a  ghost,  continues  to  interfere  in  the 
affairs  of  the  living,  has  arisen  a  religious  con- 
trol. The  ceremonial,  political,  and  religious 
systems  are  the  regulative  mechanism  of  society. 
Captives  taken  in  war,  or  whole  populations 
reduced  to  serfdom,  constitute  the  sustaining 
system.  Militarism  consolidating  small  groups 
into  petty  States,  and  these  into  nations,  achieves 


social  integration;  but  bv  widening  the  area 
Within  which  peace  prevails  it  brings  about  its 
own  decline.  The  transition  from  militarism  to 
industrialism,  thus  made  possible  by  social  in- 
tegration, transforms  human  nature  and  social 
institutions.  These  principles  Spencer  has  ap- 
plied to  the  interpretation  of  domestic,  cere- 
monial, ecclesiastical,  political,  and  industrial 
institutions.  His  system  is  a  coherent  scientific 
whole,  yet  it  lacks  one  important  feature  of  a 
growing  science.  It  does  not  develop  and  apply 
any  distinctive  method  of  investigation. 

Such  a  method  had  already  been  contributed 
by  Quetelet,  the  Belgian  statistician.  In  his  8ur 
li  tMorie  des  probahilii^  appliqu4e8  aux  set- 
enoee  morales  et  poliiiquea  (1846),  Du  syst^me 
90c%ale  et  des  lots  qui  le  r^gissent  ( 1848 ) ,  and  8ur 
la  statistique  morale  et  les  principes  qui  doivent 
en  former  la  base  (1848)  he  set  forth  the  one 
method  of  research  by  which  the  study  of  social 
phenomena  will  in  time  be  brought  to  that 
exactness  which  characterizes  older  sciences. 

Thus  far,  however,  systematic  treatises  on  so- 
ciology have  been  devoted  almost  wholly  to  the 
further  exploitation  of  general  concepts,  and 
little  progress  has  been  made  toward  correlating 
these  with  statistical  method.  Sociological  sys- 
tems may  be  classified  as  physiographic,  biologi- 
cal, psychological,  and  ethnographic.  The  phys- 
iographic systems  attempt  to  explain  all  social 
evolution  in  terms  of  the  action  of  environment 
upon  character,  conduct,  and  institutions.  Mon- 
tesquieu's Esprit  des  lois  and  Buckle's  History 
of  Civilization  in  England  are  the  great  classics 
among  such  works.  Many  of  the  so-called  eco- 
nomic interpretations  of  history  also  belong  in 
this  group,  while  others  fall  into  a  different  class. 
If  by  economy  we  mean  the  direct  relation  be- 
tween organisms  and  their  environment,  the  sub- 
sistence of  plants,  animals,  and  men  upon  the 
bounty  of  nature,  and  the  whole  struggle  for  ex- 
istence, then  the  economic  interpretation  of  his- 
tory becomes  identical  with  physiographic  sociol- 
ogy. If,  however,  by  economy  we  mean  technical 
processes  and  industrial  organization  as  in  the 
social-economic  philosophy  of  Karl  Marx,  the 
economic  interpretation  of  history  is  an  explana- 
tion of  one  phase  of  history  by  another  phase.  In 
strictness  we  ought  to  distinguish  between  an 
organic  economy,  meaning  thereby  the  whole 
scheme  of  adjustment  between  organism  and  en- 
vironment, and  an  industrial  or  business  econ- 
omy, a  comparatively  late  development  of  human 
evolution.  Social  evolution  is  an  incident  of  or- 
ganic economy;  industrial  economy  is  an  inci- 
dent of  social  evolution.  The  writings  of  Simon 
N.  Patten,  The  Theory  of  Social  Forces  (Phila- 
delphia, 1806),  The  Theory  of  Prosperity  (New 
York,  1901),  and  Heredity  and  Social  Progress 
(New  York,  1903),  are  essays  in  the  explanation 
of  society  in  terms  of  the  organic  economy. 

What  may  be  called  the  biological-organin 
conception  of  society  presupposes  more  or  less 
of  the  physiographic,  but  it  does  not  accept  the  • 
usual  account  of  the  influence  of  environment 
upon  the  community  as  adequate.  Granting  that 
social  processes  are  in  the  last  analysis  to  be 
accoimted  for  by  the  relations  of  organism  to 
environment,  including  competing  organisms,  the 
biologists  raise  the  question  of  the  nature  of 
society  itself,  and  answer  that  society  is  a  com- 
pound organism,  having  its  own  anatomy  and 
physiology,  its  pathology  also,  and  assume  that 


SOCIOLOGY. 


994 


BOCIOLOaT. 


these  are  the  true  subject  matter  of  social  sci- 
ence. Such  conceptioxia  have  been  developed 
by  A.  Schaffle,  in  the  Bau  und  Lehen  des  aodalen 
KiHrpers  (Tubingen,  1875),  and  Quillaume  Be 
Greef,  in  his  Introduction  d  2a  sociologie  (Brus- 
sels, 1886-89),  as  well  as  by  many  lesser  writers. 

In  like  manner  the  psychological  conception  of 
society  presupposes  the  physiographic  explana- 
tions, and  it  does  not  deny  that  in  a  general 
sense  society  may  be  regarded  as  organic.  But  it 
prefers  Spencer's  wox^,  superorganic,  because 
it  insists  that  social  relations  are  essentially 
facts  of  mind.  Consequently  it  denies  that  so- 
ciety is  explained  until  we  Imow  how  the  mental 
operations  of  individuals  are  combined  in  the 
common  sentiments  and  opinions  and  expressed 
in. the  collective  will  of  the  community. 

A  psychological  conception  of  society  has  been 
elaborated  by  Lester  F.  Ward  in  his  Dynamio 
Sociology  (New  York  1883),  Psychic  Factora 
of  Civilization  (Boston,  1893),  Outlines  of  £fo- 
ciology  (New  York,  1898),  and  Pwre  Sociology 
(New  York,  1903).  The  psychological  concep- 
tion has  been  further  developed  by  Gabriel 
Tarde,  Les  lois  de  Vimitation  (Paris,  1890),  La 
logique  aociale  (Paris,  1895),  and  in  numerous 
other  writings.  Tarde  finds  the  elementary  and 
distinctive  social  fact  in  imitation.  Emile 
Durkheim,  De  la  division  du  travail  soci€el 
(Paris,  1893),  and  Le  Bon,  Psychologic  des 
foules  (Paris,  1895),  find  it  in  the  impression 
which  the  crowd  makes  upon  the  individual  or 
the  strong  personality  upon  the  crowd.  Psy- 
chological interpretations  also  are  those  found 
in  Edward  A.  Ross,  Social  Control  (New  York, 
1901). 

To  the  ethnographic  systems  of  sociology  be- 
long those  interpretations  which  emphasize  the 
ceaseless  struggles  among  tribes,  nations,  and 
races,  and  find  ultimate  explanations  of  social 
integration  and  differentiation  in  conquests  and 
absorptions  of  the  weak  by  the  strong.  A  note- 
worthy system  of  this  description  is  that  of 
Ludwig  Gumplowicz,  Der  Rassenkampf  (Inns- 
bruck, 1883),  and  Orundriss  der  Sociologie 
(Vienna,  1885).  In  these  works  the  origins  "of 
social  evolution  are  found  in  the  conflicts,  amal- 
gamations, and  assimilations  of  heterogeneous 
ethnic  groups.  To  the  same  class  of  studies  be- 
longs the  work  of  J.  Novicow,  Les  luttes  entre 
des  soci^t^s  humaines  (Paris,  1893),  in  which 
the  phenomena  of  conflict  and  alliance  are  treated 
as  fundamental. 

An  obvious  criticism  upon  the  ethnographic 
schemes  of  sociology  is  that  they  take  society 
already  existent  for  granted.  They  do  not  ac- 
count for  the  origins  of  society  as  such.  The  im- 
mediate antecedents  of  all  social  relationsT  are 
facts  of  the  psychological  order.  But  these  facts, 
of  course,  are  themselves  conditioned  by  bio< 
logical  and  physiographic  relations.  It  appears, 
therefore,  that  sociological  theories  should  start 
from  psychological  premises,  but  that  the  cor- 
•  relation  of  all  processes  with  the  character  of 
the  physical  environment  should  be  recognized 
throughout.  This  is  attempted  by  Franklin  H. 
Giddings,  Principles  of  Sociology  (New  York, 
1896),  Elements  of  Sociology  (New  York,  1898), 
and  Inductive  Sociology  (New  York,  1901).  He 
derives  all  social  phenomena  from  the  like  re- 
sponses of  a  plural  number  of  individuals  to  the 
same  or  like  stimuli.  Habitual  like  response 
constitutes  mental  and  moral  resemblance.   Those 


who  are  mentally  and  moraUy  alike  become 
aware  of  their  similarity.  Awareness  of  resem- 
blance beginning  in  mere  feeling  or  sympatby, 
but  becoming  perceptive  and  rational,  is  called 
the  consciousness  of  kind.  Those  who  share  the 
consciousness  of  kind  develop  their  like  responses 
to  stimuli  into  a  concerted  volition  which  be- 
comes a  practical  co5peration  for  useful  ends, 
and  systematic  cooperation  develops  into  the 
more  or  less  enduring  forms  of  social  organiza- 
tion. This  chain  of  processes  has  antecedents 
in  the  density  and  composition  of  the  population, 
which,  in  turn,  are  determined  by  the  character 
of  the  physical  environment.  Certain  r^ioos 
maintain  homogeneous  populations  only.  Others 
attract  heterogeneous  populations,  the  composi- 
tion of  which  determines  the  possibilities  of 
common  response  to  stimuli. 

SYSTEMATIC    SOCIOLOGT. 

Systematic  sociology  is  naturally  divided  into 
four  parts,  namelv:  (1)  The  critical  examina- 
tion of  data,  methods,  and  problems,  including 
the  delimitation  of  sociology  from  other  sciences ; 
(2)  descriptive  sociology,  an  analysis  and  clas- 
sification of  contemporaneous  social  facts,  with 
generalizations  concerning  social  processes;  (3) 
historical  sociology,  a  study  of  the  evolution  of 
society  from  animal  groupings  and  the  communi- 
ties of  primitive  men,  down  to  the  civilized  na- 
tions of  modern  times;  (4)  theoretical  or  ex- 
planatory sociology,  an  attempt  to  derive  from 
the  description  and  history  of  society,  and  from 
the  general  principles  of  evolution,  a  theory  of 
social  causation. 

Cbiticai*  ExAiniTATiON.  Some  of  the  chief 
topics  falling  within  the  first  of  these  divisions 
of  systematic  sociology  have  been  touched  on  in 
the  foregoing  account  of  the  history  of  the 
science. 

Descbiptive  Sociologt.  a  few  words  of 
analysis  of  the  subject  matter,  namely,  social 
phenomena,  may  fitly  introduce  an  account  of  the 
second  division,  descriptive  sociology.  A  fact  of 
the  phvsiographic  order  is  the  starting  point. 
Throughout  the  universe  as  known  to  man,  ob- 
jects of  like  kind  are  commonly  grouped  or 
segregated  in  space,  and  not  scattered  in  a  dis- 
orderly distribution.  This  is  more  particularly 
true  of  living  orp^anisms,  all  species  of  which 
have  their  respective  geographic  areas,  and  with- 
in these  their  favorite  habitats  or  haunts.  Plants 
of  any  given  variety  are  usually  found  massed  in 
particular  places.  Animal  organisms  are  com- 
monly found  in  swarms,  bands,  or  flocks.  Hu- 
man beings  live  in  hordes,  tribes,  and  nations. 

From  this  purely  physical  fact,  we  pass  in  the 
analysis  of  society  to  facts  correlated  with  men- 
tal activity,  and  then  to  facts  psychological.  Of 
all  the  resemblances  which  may  be  observed  in 
the  units  or  individuals  constituting  a  normal 
aggregation  of  living  creatures,  the  two  of  chief 
importance  are  (1)  morphological  and  physio- 
logical similarities  produced  by  common  descent 
and  interbreeding,  and  therefore  correlated  with 
degrees  of  kinship;  (2)  similarities  of  nervous 
organization  and  mental  activity  which  may  or 
may  not  be  closely  associated  with  degrees  of 
kinship.  On  the  functional  side  the  most  general 
phase  of  like  nervous  organization  is  a  like 
responsiveness  to  the  same  stimulus  or  to  like 
stimuli.  Under  the  same  or  like  circum- 
stances  two  or   more   animals   or   human   be- 


socioiioaT. 


995 


SOCIOLOGY. 


iiigs  of  like  neivoud  organization  behave  in  like 
ways. 

The  physical  and  mental  resemblances  of  ani- 
mals or  of  men  thus  alike  are  more  or  less  dis- 
tinctly known  to  the  resembling  individuals 
themselves.  Animals  sympathetically  feel  them. 
Human  beings  both  feel  them  and  intellectually 
perceive  them  and  reflect  upon  them.  This 
awareness  of  resemblance,  in  whatever  degree  it 
exists,  is  the  consciousness  of  kind. 

Human  beings  who  intellectually  as  well  as 
sympathetically  apprehend  their  common  nature 
find  pleasure  in  communication  and  acquaintance. 
They  discover  that,  responding  to  the  same  im- 
pulses, they  form  common  purposes  and  can 
work  together  for  oommOn  endk.  Systematic 
cooperation  thus  arising  holds  men  together  in 
those  relatively  permanent  relationships  which 
constitute  social  organization.  Social  organiza- 
tion reacts  upon  the  welfare  of  the  community, 
furthering  survival  and  individual  happiness. 

A  complete  description  of  society  should  com- 
prise the  following  parts :  ( 1 )  An  account  of  the 
social  population  regarded  as  a  physiographic 
phenomenon,  an  aggregation  of  organic  imits 
determined  by  the  situation  and  resources  of  its 
habitat.  (2)  An  account  of  the  mental  qualities 
and  the  conduct  of  the  social  population,  its  sub- 
jective resemblances  and  differences;  its  types 
of  intellect  and  character;  its  antipathies  and 
sympathies;  its  purposes,  its  choices,  its  collec- 
tive will.  These  phenomena  together  are  the 
social  mind.  (3)  An  accoimt  of  the  social 
organization  which  the  social  mind  creates,  and 
through  which  its  purposes  are  achieved. 
<4)  An  account  of  the  social  welfare  resulting 
from  the  policies  which  the  social  mind  has 
approved,  and  from  the  normal  functioning  of 
the  social  organization. 

(1)  The  Social  Population. — ^An  account  of  the 
social  population  must  always  be  prefaced 
by  a  physical  description  of  the  territory 
occupied,  although,  strictly  speaking,  this  is  no 
part  of  sociology  proper.  This  necessity  has 
been  recognized  by  the  National  Census  Bureau. 
Since  the  census  of  1800  an  account  of 
the  dominant  geographical  features  of  our  na- 
tional domain  has  been  included  in  the  reports, 
and  the  distribution  of  population  with  refer- 
ence to  these  features  and  to  altitude,  drainage 
basins,  rainfall,  and  temperature,  has  been 
shown.  Still  more  important  would  it  be  to  show 
the  distribution  of  population  with  reference  to 
natural  resources,  namely  agricultural  fertility, 
mineral  wealth,  commercial  and  industrial  op- 
portunities. 

Density  of  population  is  determined  by  the 
combination  pi  two  factors,  namely  the  birth 
rate  and  the  migration  rate.  No  community  of 
large  dimensions  is  a  purely  genetic  aggregation, 
mamtained  wholly  by  its  birth  rate.  It  is  at  the 
same  time  a  congregation,  a  group  brought  to- 
gether in  part  by  the  incoming  of  individuals  or 
families  bom  in  other  parts.  Genetic  aggre- 
gation itself  is  more  or  less  complicated  by 
variation,  and  this,  in  combination  with  the  re- 
sults of  migration,  gives  rise  to  a  composition 
of  the  population  of  elements  more  or  less  un- 
like. The  physical  differences  thus  comprised 
include  organic  variation,  differences  of  age, 
the  difference  of  sex,  and  the  degrees  of  kinship. 
The  degrees  of  kinship  include  consanguinity, 
or  the  nearest  degree  of  blood  relationship;  pro- 


pinquity, the  somewhat  remoter  degree  of  neigh- 
bonng  communities  that  have  much  intermar- 
ried; nationality,  the  kinship  of  those  who  from 
their  birth  have  been  of  the  same  speech  and 
political  association;  potential  nationality,  or 
nationality  in  the  making;  ethnic  race,  glottic 
race,  chromatic  race,  and  cephalic  race. 

These  compound  race  terms  are  used  to  avoid 
confusion.  Ethnic  race  includes  those  nearly 
related  nationalities  which  speak  closely  related 
languages  and  exhibit  common  psychological 
characteristics.  For  example,  the  Teutonic  race 
includes  the  Saxon-English,  the  Dutch,  the  Ger- 
mans, and  the  Scandinavians,  all  related  na- 
tionalities. The  glottic  race  is  a  yet  broader 
kinship  which  includes  those  related  ethnic  races 
which  at  some  remote  period  had  a  common  cul- 
ture and  spoke  the  same  language,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, the  Aryan  glottic  race,  which  includes  the 
Teutons,  the  Celts,  the  Latins,  and  the  Slavs. 
Chromatic  race  is  that  remote  degree  of  relation- 
ship which  includes  all  glottic  races  of  the  same 
general  color  ^  of  the  skin  and  type  of  hair. 
Cephalic  race  is  that  most  remote  degree  of  kin- 
ship which  is  manifested  in  peculiarities  of 
cranial  structure.  There  are  various  gradations 
from  the  dolichocephalic,  or  long  head  of  the 
negro,  to  the  brachycephalic,  or  broad  head  of 
the  Mongol. 

The  influence  of  the  physical  environment  is 
seen  in  the  degrees  to  which  a  population  is 
heterogeneous,  no  less  than  in  the  degree  j>f  den- 
sity. The  causation,  however,  is  perhaps  more  in- 
direct. Naturally  isolated  regions,  and  regions 
that  offer  no  great  temptation  to  immigration, 
remain  relatively  homogeneous.  Agricultural 
regions  remain  more  homogeneous  in  population 
than  mining  regions  or  points  of  commercial 
or  industrial  opportunity.  Regions  of  great 
agricultural  fertility  which  share  also  in  other 
advantages  have  usually  in  the  world's  history 
become  heterogeneous  in  population  through 
another  cause  also  besides  immigration.  Armed 
invasion  and  conquest  have  brought  differing, 
often  alien,  races  into  enduring  contact,  and  their 
relations  have  commonly  been  determined  more 
directly  than  has  generally  been  supposed  by  the 
physical  environment,  which  has  caused  a  scat- 
tering or  a  concentration  of  the  invaders  or  of 
the  invaded,  or  of  both.  Sooner  or  later,  what- 
ever the  admixture  of  nationalities  and  races, 
a  large  degree  of  amalgamation  tcJces  place  in 
every  population  through  intermarriage.  While 
external  influences  may  be  tending  &  make  a 
social  population  composite,  its  own  internal 
forces  work  toward  homogeneity  and  unity. 

(2)  The  Social  Mind.— The  evolution  of  the 
social  mind  is  determined  by  those  physical  facts 
of  the  density  and  composition  of  a  social  popula- 
tion which  condition  its  subjective  life.  The  more 
homogeneous  a  population  is  the  more  certainly 
will  its  individuals  be  moved  by  common  im- 
pulses. Heterogeneous  populations  have  varied 
interests,  which  is  another  way  of  saying  that 
they  respond  to  differing  stimuli.  Again,  the  va- 
riety, and  intensity  of  the  stimuli  themselves  are 
determined  partly  by  the  environment,  and  partly 
by  the   demotic  composition. 

The  like  responses  from  which  social  activities 
are  developed  are  temporary  or  habitual,  and  the 
stimuli  of  temporary  like  responses  include  near- 
ly all  of  the  initial  causes  of  association.  Where 
the  stimuli  are  persistent  and  lead  to  habitual 


SOCIOLOGY. 


996 


SOCIOLOOT. 


conduct  the  whole  nervous  organization  is  mold- 
ed accordingly.  Mental  and  practical  resem- 
blances are  created.  The  stimuli  presented  by 
external  nature  create  types  of  emotion  and  of 
intellect.  The  stimuli  of  economic  opportunity, 
leading  to  activities  of  utilization,  create  types 
of  disposition.  The  stimuli  which  impel  men 
to  adapt  themselves  to  their  environment,  when 
they  have  failed  to  adapt  the  environment  to 
themselves,  create  types  of  character.  Types 
of  emotion,  intellect,  disposition,  and  character 
in  their  various  combinations  make  up  the  vari- 
ous types  of  mind. 

The  important  types  of  intellect  are  (1)  those 
in  which  jud^ent  is  determined  subjectively,  by 
instinct,  habit,  and  auto-suggestion;  (2)  those 
in  which  it  is  objectively  determined,  by  ex- 
ternal suggestion;  (3)  those  in  which  it  is 
subjectively  determined,  by  emotion,  mood,  and 
temperament;  and  (4)  those  in  which  it  is  ob- 
jectively determined,  by  evidence.  The  types  of 
disposition  are  (1)  the  aggressive;  (2)  the  in- 
stigative  (which,  instead  of  directly  attacking, 
commanding,  or  inventing,  tries  to  achieve  the 
purposes  of  life  by  working  through  other  men 
by  suggestion,  temptation,  or  persuasion)  ;  (3) 
the  domineering  (the  disposition  of  those  who 
have  the  power  to  impress  others,  and  who  love 
to  assert  authority)  ;  and  (4)  the  creative,  the 
disposition  of  those  who  assume  responsibility 
and  convert  ideas  into  realities.  The  types  of 
character  are  (1)  the  forceful,  directly  created 
by  the  struggle  for  existence  which  eliminates 
weaklings;  (2)  the  convivial,  which  emerges 
when  the  struggle  for  existence  has  been  so  far 
successful  that  men  may  relax  their  efforts  and 
devote  themselves  to  pleasure;  (3)  the  austere, 
which  is  produced  by  reaction  against  the  ex- 
cesses of  the  convivial;  and  (4)  the  rationally 
conscientious,  which  is  produced  by  reaction 
against  the  excesses  of  the  austere.  The  types 
of  mind  are  (1)  the  ideo-motor,  the  activities 
of  which  are  for  the  most  part  instinctive;  (2) 
the  ideo-emotional,  which  is  emotional  (rather 
than  physically  active),  imaginative,  suggestible, 
instigative,  and  convivial;  (3)  the  dogmatic- 
emotional,  marked  by  an  extreme  development  of 
preferential  attention,  devotion  to  a  dominant 
idea  or  belief,  intolerance,  domineering  disposi- 
tion, and  austere  character;  (4)  the  critical- 
intellectual,  in  which  the  ideo-motor,  ideo-emo- 
tional, and  dogmatic  emotional  activities,  always 
present  in  combination,  are  habituallv  kept 
under  the  control  of  a  critical  and  vigilant  in- 
tellect, and  in  which  disposition  is  creative  and 
character  rationally  conscientious. 

These  various  mental  and  moral  types  found 
in  any  large  population  of  civilized  men  have 
been  produced  by  varying  degrees  of  responsive- 
ness to  differing  stimuli,  and  in  their  turn  they 
determine  the  degree  to  which  the  whole  popula- 
tion, or  large  sections  of  it,  can  share  a  com- 
mon impulse.  The  more  highly  differentiated  a 
population  is  into  intellectual  and  character 
types  the  fewer  are  the  stimuli  which  can  move 
all  to  common  purpose  and  action. 

Each  type  affords  the  basis  for  a  conscious- 
ness of  kind,  especially  if  the  type  is  correlated 
with  a  tie  of  kinship,  as  nationality,  or  ethnic 
or  color  race,  or  a  tie  of  local  or  class  interest. 
The  consciousness  of  kind  is  a  complex  state  of 
mind,  including  sympathy,  perceptions  of  re- 
semblance, affection,  and  the  desire  for  recog* 


nition.  The  consciousness  of  kind  is  alnuwt  as 
influential  as  the  resources  of  the  environment 
in  determining  the  ethnic  composition  of  a 
population,  llius,  for  example,  the  overwhelm- 
ing preponderance  of  Teutonic  elements  in  the 
foreign-bom  population  of  the  North  Central 
States  of  the  United  States  is  largely  to  be 
accounted  for  by  the  selective  attraction  of  kin- 
ship. 

Little  if  any  less  important  than  the  perfect 
consciousness  of  kind  is  that  consciousness  of 
potential  resemblance,  of  mental  approach,  which 
is  the  subjective  side  of  assimilation.  In  a  mixed 
population  the  different  ethnic  elements  are 
continually  undergoing  changes  which  tend  to 
break  down  their  differences,  and  to  establish 
community  of  feelings  and  ideas.  In  like  man- 
ner, differentiated  types  of  mind  and  character 
when  brought  into  close  association  tend  to  be- 
come alike,  just  as  when  under  unlike  influences 
they  tend  to  become  differentiated. 

The  causes  of  assimilation  are  conflict,  toler- 
ation, and  imitation.  Gabriel  Tarde,  as  we  have 
seen,  has  undertaken  to  derive  the  entire  social 
process  from  intitatiofL  He  recognizes  in  society, 
and  in  the  universe  at  large,  conflicts  of  action, 
as  well  as  repetitions  or  similarities,  and  in  his 
important  work.  La  logique  sociale,  he  develops 
the  social  aspect  of  a  process  of  adaptatum, 
whereby  conflicts  of  action  and  repetitions  of 
action  are  reconciled.  This  is  to  identify  all 
similarities  or  repetitions  of  action  with  imita- 
tion. It  would  seem  to  be  more  accurate  to 
recognize  both  original  (or  simultaneous)  simi- 
larities, and  repetitious  (or  sequent)  similari- 
ties, and  to  identify  imitation  with  the  latter 
only.  Moreover,  inasmuch  as  it  is  through  the 
establishment  of  sequences  of  similarity  that 
adaptation  or  adjustment  is  brought  about,  imi- 
tation must  necessarily  be  identifi^  with  adapta- 
tion. All  of  these  processes  are  seen  in  perfec- 
tion in  a  society  of  mixed  elements.  (Conflicts 
sometimes  result  in  the  subjection  of  the  weaker, 
sometimes  in  an  equilibrium  of  strength,  which 
is  the  basis  of  toleration,  and  sometimes  in  good 
feeling  and  imitation.  So  far,  then,  from  being 
an  original  social  process  (which  simultaneous 
like  response  to  stimulus  is),  imitation  is  prac- 
tically the  auxiliary  process  of  assimilation, 
whereby  conflicts  are  softened  and  unlike  ele- 
ments are  made  alike. 

Given,  now,  similarities  of  mind  and  char- 
acter in  a  population,  and  a  consciousness  of 
kind,  conditions  are  present  for  the  formation 
of  agreeing  purposes,  a  concert  of  wills,  and  co- 
operation. Together  these  processes  may  be 
called  concerted  volition.  The  degree  of  resem- 
blance, the  consciousness  of  kind,  the  character 
of  the  stimuli,  determine  the  extent  of  concerted 
action.  This  may  be  a  temporary  concerted  vo- 
lition, such  as  is  seen  in  festivals,  crusades, 
strikes,  panics,  insurrections,  and  political  cam- 
paigns, or  it  may  be  a  relatively  enduring  co- 
operation. Cooperation  grows  by  indistinguish- 
able gradations  out  of  momentary  like  responses 
which  may  begin  accidentally,  as,  for  example, 
when  bystanders  run  simultaneously  to  a  person 
hurt  or  in  trouble.  The  consciousness  of  kind 
is  necessary  to  supplement  such  beginnings  by 
making  it  evident  to  each  of  the  participating 
individuals  that  they  are  working  toward  the 
same  end,  and  that  they  are  sufliciently  alike  to 
work  together  successfully.     There  must,  how- 


SOCIOIiOGT. 


997 


BOCIOLOaT. 


ever,  be  yet  another  factor.  The  purpose 
achieved  by  the  combined  action  must  be  of 
mutual  benefit,  and  the  utility  must  be  perceived. 

Godperation  is  public  or  private.  It  is  public 
when  all  individual  members  of  an  entire  natural 
society  act  together  with  one  purpose  and  au- 
thority, either  because  all  have  the  same  desire, 
or  because  one  or  a  few  take  the  lead  and  others 
acquiesce  or  obey.  An  entire  natural  society 
viewed  as  cooperating  is  a  State.  When  only  a 
part  of  the  social*  population  responds  to  the 
same  stimulus,  and  engages  in  co(}peration  with- 
out the  participation  or  command  of  the  State, 
although  not  without  its  tacit  or  implied  con- 
sent, the  cooperation  is  private  or  voluntary. 
Cooperative  activities,  whether  public  or  pri- 
vate, are  of  four  kinds,  namely  cultural,  eco- 
nomic, moral  or  l^gal,  and  political.  The  order 
in  which  these  activities  have  been  named  is  the 
order  of  their  genesis  and  evolution.  Seemingly, 
but  not  in  reality,  this  order  denies  the  primi- 
tive, fundamental  character  of  economic  rela- 
tions. Betrayed  by  a 'misconception  of  cultural 
activities,  many  sociologists  have  placed  them 
wrongly  in  the  series.  Their  true  nature  and 
history  can  be  understood  only  when  we  remem- 
ber the  distinction  already  mentioned  between 
organic  and  industrial  economy.  The  organic 
economy  of  the  world  of  vegetation  shades  into 
the  instinctive  economy  of  animals,  and  that  in 
turn  into  the  rational  economy  of  mankind.  For 
ages  before  it  becomes  an  industrial  or  business 
economy,  the  practical  life  of  man  in  his  struggle 
with  the  forces  of  nature  is  a  ceremonial  econ- 
omy, consisting  chiefly  of  magic,  incantations, 
and  formal  rites.  Cultural  activities  are  neither 
more  nor  less  than  ideas  and  practices  of  the 
early  economies  surviving  in  an  industrial  age. 
Language  and  manners  begin  among  the  lower 
animals  as  products  of  their  efforts  to  appro- 
priate the  bounty  of  nature  and  of  their  strug- 
gles with  hostile  natural  forces  and  with  one 
another.  Animistic  ideas,  the  plastic  and  poetic 
arts,  religious  ideas  and  practices,  originate  in 
primitive  human  society,  m  attempts  to  under- 
stand and  to  master  or  propitiate  the  powers 
upon  which  man's  life  and  comfort  depend.  They 
are  all  a  part  of  the  primitive  economy. 

It  is  out  of  these  primitive  economic  activities 
that  systematic  industrial  and  commercial  activi- 
ties constituting  the  modem  business  economy 
are  developed. 

Cooperation  in  the  development  of  moral 
thought  and  activity,  including  juristic  activity, 
w^hich  is  the  public  development  of  moral  ac- 
tivity, has  antecedents  in  both  cultural  and  eco- 
nomic interests,  but  it  also  has  characteristic 
stimuli  of  its  own,  chiefly  injuries  and  wroncs. 

Political  cooperation  on  its  public  side  is  the 
governmental  activity  of  the  State.  Private  po- 
litical cooperation  includes  all  such  lawful  ac- 
tivities as  the  functions  of  political  parties,  and 
the  conduct  of  campaigns,  and  such  unlawful 
activities  as  insurrections  and  revolutions. 
Among  the  stimuli  of  political  cooperation  are 
superior  power,  to  which  enforced  obedience  is 
yielded,  tne  impressive  power  of  a  strong  per- 
sonality manifested  in  leadership,  and  danger 
from  foes.  These  are  familiar  causes  that  come 
readily  to  mind,  but  others  less  obvious  are  as 
important.  Among  them  are  those  definite  aims 
which  political  action  seeks  to  achieve.  They  in- 
clude the  preservation  of  the  group,  its  safe- 


guarding, the  maintenance  of  a  oertaSn  char- 
acter or  kind  in  the  population  (an  aim  revealed, 
for  example,  in  our  immigration  laws),  and  cer- 
tain ideals  of  the  preferred  distinction  or  attain- 
ment of  the  community,  as,  for  example,  power, 
or  prosperity  and  splendor,  or  justice,  or  lib- 
erty and  enlightenment.  Approximate  political 
ends,  or  means  to  the  attainment  of  the  remoter 
ends  just  named,  also  are  stimuli  of  collective 
action.  Among  them  are  the  permanent  pos- 
sessions of  the  community,  especially  its  terri- 
tory, and  policies  in  respect  of  population,  or  in 
respect  of  the  habits,  customs,  and  activities 
of  the  people. 

Political  cooperation  itself,  as  distinguished 
from  its  stimuli  or  causes,  is  always  a  policy 
of  some  kind.  Policies  involve  social  choices, 
and  these  involve  social  valuations.  The  various 
ends  which  political  action  seeks  to  achieve  are 
more  or  less  useful  to  the  community  and  such 
utilities  are  variously  valued.  Highest  in  value 
are  ranked  those  object?  for  which  the  society 
exists,  namely  the  concrete  living  individuals 
who  compose  the  community,  the  social  type  or 
ideal,  and  the  attainment  of  the  community. 
Lower  in  the  scale  of  values  are  placed  all  those 
political  relations  and  possessions  which  are  but 
means  to  the  attainment  of  social  ends. 

The  dominant  stimuli  of  concerted  volition 
are  of  the  utmost  importance  in  their  relation 
to  the  unity,  cohesion,  and  liberty  of  a  people. 
A  very  large  number  of  individuals  resemble  one 
another  in  only  a  few  points,  but  some  such 
points  there  always  are,  and  a  few  stimuli  are 
of  such  universal  influence  that  they  can  bind 
very  miscellaneous  elements  in  a  common  pur- 
pose and  action.  Men  differ  widely  in  their  re- 
sponse to  the  aspects  and  forces  of  nature,  which 
appeal  to  emotion  and  to  intelligence.  They  arft 
more  nearly  alike  in  their  response  to  economic 
opportunity,  although  some  natures  are  more  ap- 
pealed to  by  the  dangerous  and  exciting  oppor- 
tunities, others  by  the  safe  and  uneventful  ones. 
There  is  one  stimulus  which  above  all  acts  upon 
minds  otherwise  most  unlike.  This  is  the  im- 
pressive power  of  a  strong  personality.  The 
impassive  and  the  emotional,  the  dull  and  the 
keen,  the  dogmatic  and  the  critical,  all  yield  to 
the  man  of  daring  and  resourceful  leadership. 
Accordingly,  we  find  that  highly  miscellaneous 
aggregations  of  human  beings  are  usually  bound 
together  by  personal  allegiance  rather  than  by 
agreeing  ideas  and  sympathies.  Their  social  or- 
ganization is  authoritative  rather  than  demo- 
cratic. 

The  character  of  concerted  volition  thus  varies 
with  the  stimuli  to  which  men  most  easily  and 
in  large  numbers  respond.  It  is  instinctive  if  the 
stimuli  touch  only  the  ideo-motor  processes,  as 
in  many  of  our  responses  to  natural  forces,  to 
danger,  to  menace,  or  to  injury;  obedient  if  the 
responses  are  of  the  ideo-motor  sort  and  to  a 
power  which  it  is  useless  to  resist,  as  in  the 
relations  of  a  conouered  people  to  its  conquerors ; 
spontaneous  if  the  responses  are  cbieiiy  ideo- 
emotional  and  to  stimuli  more  or  less  sensational 
or  exciting;  deferential  or  loyal  if  the  responses 
are  dogmatically  emotional  to  authority,  to  be- 
lief, or  to  dogma;  independent  and  idealistic  if 
the  responses  are  deliberative  and  to  such  stimuli 
as  ideals  or  intelligently  made  plans. 

When  the  like  responses  of  many  individuala 
have  developed  through  the  consciousness  of  kind 


BOdOLOaY. 


998 


SOCIOLOGY. 


Into  concerted  volition,  the  total  resemblance 
thus  established  may  be  called  like-mindedness. 
According  as  instinctive,  sympathetic,  dogmatic, 
or  critical  elements  predominate  does  concerted 
volition  vary  in  character  from  an  almost  in* 
stinctive  action  up  through  impulsive  and  con- 
tagious action  to  formal  or  fanatical  action  and 
ultimately  to  deliberative  action.  Like-minded- 
ness, as  a  whole,  may  therefore  be  described  as 
instinctive,  sympathetic,  dogmatic,  or  delibera- 
tive. Instinctive  like-mindedness  is  found  only 
in  those  ignorant  populations  in  which  the  ideo- 
motor  type  of  mind  predominates.  Sympathetic 
like-mindedness,  widely  prevalent  in  all  nations, 
is  characterized  by  impulsiveness,  suggestibility, 
susceptibility  to  the  stimuli  of  emblem  and  shib- 
boleth, imitativeness,  and  contagious  emotion. 
Association  in  crowds  is  highly  favorable  to  its 
genesis.  Among  the  chief  forms  that  sympathetic 
like-mindedness  assumes  are  revivals,  panics, 
sympathetic  strikes,  riots,  and  insurrections. 
Dogmatic  like-mindedness  is  marked  bv  dog- 
matically held  belief,  deference  to  authority,  and 
fanatical  action.  It  finds  expression  in  zealous 
agitations,  strong  partisanship,  and  reliance  on 
governmental  power  to  regulate  private  conduct. 
Deliberative  like-mindedness  is  characterized  by 
inductive  research,  discussion,  freedom  of  speech 
and  of  meeting,  and  rational  action.  It  substi- 
tutes evidence  for  irrational  modes  of  proof,  and 
it  is  creative  of  the  highest  institutional  activi- 
ties. 

The  chief  social  bonds  vary  according  to  the 
situation,  size,  and  composition  of  the  popula- 
tion, its  degree  of  mental  and  moral  homo- 
geneity, and  the  dominant  stimuli  of  its  activi- 
ties. In  small  and  comparatively  isolated  popu- 
lations, ethnically  and  mentally  homogeneous, 
there  is  a  strong  consciousness  of  kind,  and  the 
community  is  held  together  largely  by  acts  of 
imitation  and  kindness.  In  the  small  and  hetero- 
geneous community,  as  a  mining  camp,  for  ex- 
ample, where  men,  strangers  to  one  another  at 
first,  congregate  in  the  pursuit  of  economic  well- 
being,  the  sympathetic  elements  of  the  conscious- 
ness of  kind,  and  imitation,  are  relatively  unim- 
portant factors.  Conflict,  sharp  and  decisive, 
between  man  and  man,  brings  about  a  general 
condition  of  toleration  and  spontaneous  justice, 
gradually  supplemented  by  good  will  and  help- 
fulness. In  such  a  community  there  is  always, 
spontaneous  allegiance  to  daring  leadership  and 
it  becomes  a  social  bond  of  great  strength.  Con- 
tagious emotion  also  is  often  a  bond  supplement- 
ing the  others. 

In  a  compound  population,  so  made  by  invasion 
and  conquest,  the  bond  that  ties  the  social  system 
is  the  power  of  the  conquerors  and  the  submis- 
sion and  obedience  of  the  conquered.  The  perma- 
nence of  this  bond  depends  upon  that  physiograph- 
ic concentration  and  practical  cohesion  of  the  con- 
querors which  insures  the  maintenance  of  their 
sovereignty.  If  the  character  of  the  country  and 
the  stimuli  of  economic  opportunity  and  of  oppor- 
tunity for  adventure  are  such  that  the  invaders 
become  dispersed,  various  personal  efforts  to 
.  establish  sovereignty  result  in  the  creation  of 
those  untrustworthy  bonds  of  intrigue  and  con- 
spiracy which  are  made  to  appear  of  universal 
importance  in  the  chapters  of  MacWavelli's 
Prince,  and  generally  in  the  records  of  turbulent 
times.  With  the  establishment  of  equilibrium 
through    conflict,    which    eliminates    excessively 


unlike  and  unequal  elements  from  the  popnla- 
tion,  conspiracy  gives  place  to  relations  of  con- 
tract, which  thenceforward  remains  an  important, 
or  even  the  chief,  social  bond.  Finally,  in  a 
complex  population  of  highly  differentiated  ele- 
ments which  are  undergoing  assimilation,  and 
which  are  already  mentally  alike  in  the  impor- 
tant respect  that  they  cherish  common  ideals, 
especially  ideals  of  liberty  and  enlightenment,  the 
chief  social  bonds  may  come  to  consist  in  fidelity, 
honesty,  and  social  service. 

Thus  it  appears  from  descriptive  sociology  that 
many  of  the  theories  of  the  origin  and  nature  of 
society  wliich  appeared  in  political  philosophy 
from  the  days  of  Aquinas  and  Dante  down  to 
those  of  Rousseau  were  within  limits  true.  The 
sympathy  or  fellowship  theories  of  the  early 
Christian  writers  are  true  of  small  homogeneous 
communities.  The  natural  justice  theories  of  the 
early  legal  writers  are  true  of  small  hetero- 
geneous ccHumunities.  The  sovereignty  theories 
which  found  full  expression  in  the  writings  of 
Bodin  are  true  of  the  c6mpound  communities 
formed  by  invasion  and  conquest.  The  intrigue 
and  conspiracy  theories  of  Machiavelli  are  true  of 
compound  populations  which  have  been  reduced 
to  disorder  by  the  disintegrating  influence  of 
chronic  conflict.  Society  in  this  condition  is  the 
'state  of  nature'  of  Hobbes,  while  the  state  of 
nature  of  Locke  and  Hooker  exists  when  the  ele- 
ments of  the  population  are  sufficiently  alike  to 
live  in  toleration,  if  not  in  sympathy.  Given 
conditions  of  toleration  and  natural  justice,  the 
creation  of  a  higher  social  order  through  good 
understanding  and  contract  may  always  be  looked 
for. 

(3)  The  Social  Organization. — The  social  or- 
ganization is  the  outcome  of  two  conditions, 
namely  ( 1 )  permanent  relations  of  dcnnicile  and 
cooperation,  and  (2)  the  approval  aud  sanction 
of  such  relations  by  the  general  will.  Social 
organization  is  therefore  an  expression  of  like- 
mindedness  in  the  population.  Peculiarities  in 
its  development  are  partly  accounted  for  by  the 
passion  of  like-minded  people  to  make  the  com- 
munity more  and  more  homogeneous  in  mental 
and  moral  qualities,  and  partly  by  a  growing  ap- 
preciation of  the  value  of  unlike-mindedness  as  a 
means  of  variation  and  progress. 

The  forms  of  organization  are  ( 1 )  the  private 
and  the  public,  (2)  the  authorized  and  the  un- 
authorized, (3)  the  unincorporated  and  the  in- 
corporated, (4)  the  component,  and  (5)  the  con- 
stituent. Authorized  forms  are  institutions,  and 
an  institution  may  be  defined  as  a  social  relation 
that  is  consciously  permitted  or  established  by 
adequate  and  rightful  authority,  that  is,  in  the 
last  resort,  by  sovereignty.  The  social  composi- 
tion is  that  grouping  of  individuals  by  dwellin}; 
place  which  makes  up  the  series  of  component 
societies  named  below.  A  chief  characteristic 
of  the  social  composition  is  the  commingling  in 
each  group  of  both  sexes  and  all  ages,  and  the 
consequent  ability  of  each  component  society  to 
perpetuate  itself  and  live  an  independent  life  if 
it  were  cut  off  from  all  the  rest  of  the  world. 

Component  societies  are  of  two  great  types,  the 
ethnic  or  tribal,  and  the  civil  or  demotic.  Ethnic 
societies  are  almost  purely  genetic  aggregations. 
A  real  or  fictitious  blood  relationship  is  their 
chief  social  bond.  Civil  societies  are  partly  ge- 
netic, but  also  largely  congregate  associations. 


SOCIOLOGY. 


999 


S0CI0L0O7. 


Each  consists  of  individuals  bound  together  by 
habitual  intercourse,  mutual  interests,  and  cooper- 
ation, emphasizing  their  mental  and  practical  re- 
semblance, and  giving  little  heed  to  their  blood 
relationships.  Ethnic  societies  may  be  metro- 
nymic or  patronymic.  A  metronymic  group 
is  one  in  which  all  relationships  are  traced 
through  mothers.  A  patronymic  group  is  one  in 
which  all  relationships  are  traced  in  the  male 
line  through  the  fathers.  The  series  of  com- 
ponent groups  in  ethnic  society  is:  family, 
horde,  tribe,  confederation.  The  horde  is  a 
small  aggregation  of  families,  usually  a  wan- 
dering camp,  comprising  twenty-five  to  a  hundred 
persons  in  all.  The  tribe  is  a  community  cre- 
ated by  the  consolidation  of  hordes,  or  by  the 
growth  and  differentiation  of  a  single  horde,  occu- 
pying a  defined  territory,  speaking  one  language 
or  dialect,  and  conscious  of  its  unity.  The  con- 
federation is  a  number  of  tribes  united  for  war 
or  other  purposes,  but  maintaining  a  social  or- 
ganization on  the  basis  of  kinship,  and  therefore 
not  developed  into  a  true  civil  State.  In  civil  so- 
ciety the  composition  series  is:  families,  hamlets, 
villages  or  parishes,  towns,  communes  or  cities, 
counties  or  departments,  kingdoms,  republics  or 
other  commonwealths,  federal  States  or  empires. 

The  combination  of  small  into  large  groups  is 
made  possible  by  the  broadening  consciousness 
of  kind  and  the  passion  to  perfecrb  a  mental  and 
moral  homogeneity  throughout  a  widening  area. 
This  passion  has  both  a  sentimental  and  a  prac- 
tical aspect,  the  latter  being  found  in  a  rela- 
tively greater  security  and  the  diminution  of  con- 
flict through  the  extension  of  mental  agreement. 

The  social  constitution  embraces  all  those  spe- 
cialized and  correlated  associations  which  carry 
on  diversified  social  activities.  Each  has  a  de- 
fined object  in  view,  and  its  members  are  selected 
with  reference  to  their  interest  in  its  purpose  and 
their  ability  to  contribute  to  its  realization.  The 
social  constitution  is  made  possible  by  the  dif- 
ferentiation of  ideas  and  habits. 

Constituent  societies,  like  component,  are  eth- 
nic or  civil.  In  tribal  communities  the  constitu- 
ent society  is  usually  not  entirely  differentiated 
from  the  component.  The  family,  or  the  tribe, 
or  a  segment  of  one  or  the  other,  does  duty  in 
discharging  some  special  function  which,  in  civil 
society,  might  be  performed  by  an  association 
quite  separate  from  the  component  group  and  spe- 
cially organized  for  the  purpose.  The  most  in- 
teresting partially  differentiated  organization  in 
tribal  society  is  the  clan.  The  clan  is  constituted 
of  those  persons  who  are  descended  from  a  com- 
mon ancestor  or  ancestral  group  in  a  single  line, 
through  the  mother  or  through  the  father.  It  is 
therefore  only  half  of  a  natural  group  of  con- 
sanguinii.  Its  functions  are  cultural,  economic, 
and  juridical.  It  preserves  traditions,  it  owns 
common  property,  and  enforces  rights  and  obliga- 
tions among  its  members,  especially  in  matters 
of  marriage  and  vengeance.  The  clan  is  known 
by  various  names  in  ethnology  and  in  history, 
more  familiarly  by  its  Roman  name  gens  (q.v.). 

Often  in  tribal  society  is  found  a  brotherhood 
of  related  clans  which  is  called,  from  its  Greek 
form,  the  phratry.  The  tribe,  primarily  a  com- 
ponent group,  is  a  military  organization,  and  the 
confederation  is  a  political  organization. 

Besides  these  component-constituent  groups 
there  are  in  tribal  society  certain  special  asso- 


ciations, almost  always  secret  in  their  organiza* 
tion  and  functions.  The  most  important  are  re- 
ligious secret  societies. 

In  civil  society  the  household,  the  incorporated 
village,  the  municipality,  the  county,  and  the 
State  are  all  component-constituent  groups.  They 
are  purposive  associations  with  definite  functions, 
each  approximately  but  not  completely  identical 
with  a  compound  group.  The  State,  for  ex- 
ample, the  supreme  political  organization,  is 
never  precisely  identical  with  the  commonwealth 
or  the  nation  regarded  as  a  component  society, 
since  the  latter  always  includes  inhabitants  who 
are  neither  voters  nor  even  citizens  in  the  State. 
As  in  ethnic,  so  in  civil  society,  the  associations 
which  are  completely  differentiated  from  the  so^ 
cial  composition  are  voluntary  organizations. 
They  include  cultural  associations,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  is  the  Church;  economic  asso- 
ciations, the  most  important  of  which  are  busi- 
ness corporations;  moral  and  juristic  associa- 
tions, the  most  important  of  which  are  philan- 
thropic organizations,  and  voluntary  boards  of 
arbitration;  and  political  associations,  the  most 
important  of  which  are  the  great  political  parties. 

The  stability  of  organization  depends  upon  a 
recognition  by  the-  community  that  organization 
must  benefit  the  organized,  and  that  in  a  highly 
specialized  social  constitution  expert  knowledge 
is  of  vital  importance. 

(4)  The  Social  Welfare.— In  studying  the 
social  welfare  we  investigate  the  social  function- 
ing. The  sum  of  the  ends  for  which  society  ex- 
is^  is  social  warfare.  Such  ends  are  approximate 
or  ultimate.  The  immediate  results  of  efficient 
social  organization  are  certain  general  conditions 
of  well-l5ing,  in  which  all  members  oi  the»com- 
munity  may  share.  They  include  the  security  of 
life  and  property  which  the  political  system 
maintains;  the  liberty  and  the  justice  which  It 
is  the  business  of  the  legal  system  to  maintain; 
the  material  well-being  which  is  created  by  the 
economic  system;  and  the  knowledge  and  the 
command  over  nature  which  are  created  by  the 
cultural  system.  Collectively  these  proximate 
ends  are  public  utilities.  The  ultimate  end  of 
society,  as  Plato  and  Aristotle  so  clearly  recog- 
nized, is  the  perfection  of  personality,  the  crea- 
tion of  the  social  man.  .  In  the  evolution  of  the 
social  personality  all  phases  of  the  life  of  the 
individual  are  affected.  Vitality,  mentality,  mo- 
rality, and  that  special  aspect  of  morality  which 
may  be  called  sociality,  are  broadened  and 
strengthened,  or  they  are  diminished,  by  the  rela- 
tions which  man  bears  to  his  fellows.  No  two- 
individuals  are  affected  by  social  conditions  in 
quite  the  same  way  or  degree,  and  therefore  the 
population  is  differentiated,  in  respect  of  these 
matters,  into  classes. 

The  primary  distribution  of  the  population 
according  to  vitality  is  into  physically  normal 
persons  and  defectives,  and  the  normal  are  con- 
veniently graded  into  the  high,  the  medium,  and 
the  low  vitality  classes.  In  the  high  vitality  ^ 
class  are  those  individuals  who  have  a  high 
birth  rate,  a  low  death  rate,  and  a  high  degree 
of  bodily  vigor  and  mental  power.  This  class 
is .  found  chiefly  in  the  well-to-do  agricultural 
sections  of  the  population.  The  medium  vitality 
class  roughly  corresponds  to  the  business  and 
professional  men  of  the  large  towns  and  great 
cities.     The  low  vitality  class  is  created  chiefly 


SOCIOLOaY. 


1000 


SOCIOLOGY. 


by  unsanitary  conditions  in  great  cities,  but  it 
is  found  also  in  an  ignorant,  uncleanly  part  of  the 
rural  population.  The  defective  include  the  blind, 
the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  the  congenitally  dA- 
formed. 

In  respect  of  mentality  the  population  is  dif- 
ferentiated into  the  normal  and  the  mentally  ab- 
normal or  defective.  In  respect  of  morality  it  is 
differentiated  into  the  moral  and  the  inunoral, 
and  in  respect  of  sociality  into  the  social  and  the 
unsocial.  The  mentally  normal,  the  moral,  and 
the  social  are  conveniently  divided  into  the  low, 
medium,  and  high  classes.  The  mentally  ab- 
normal include  the  neurotic,  e.g.  the  emotionally 
unbalanced  and  the  hysterical,  the  intellectually 
unbalanced  or  insane,  and  the  idiotic.  The  im- 
moral include  those  to  whom  the  word  is  ordi- 
narily applied,  also  the  vicious  and  the  depraved. 
Morality  is  here  used  to  mean  objectively  that 
conduct  which  the  community  as  a  whole  ap- 
proves, and  subjectively  self-respect  and  that 
desire  for  the  good  opinion  of  others  which 
Spencer  has  called  ego-altruism.  Viciousnees  is 
that  d^pree  of  variation  from  the  prevailing  prac- 
tical resemblance  in  matters  of  conduct  which 
the  community  disapproves  and  informally  pun- 
ishes. Sociality  as  here  used  means  objectively 
a  willing  and  efficient  sharing  in  the  acquaintance 
and  co5peration  of  society,  and  subjectively  al- 
truism, thoughtfulness  for  others,  sympathy, 
kindliness,  and  helpfulness.  The  opposite  of  so- 
ciality is  criminality — that  degree  of  variation 
from  the  prevailing  practical  resemblance  in 
matters  of  conduct  which  the  community  dis- 
approves and  formally  punishes.  The  low  social- 
ity class  is  composed  of  those  in  whom  the  social 
natu^  is  positive  but  undeveloped.  In  the  me- 
dium sociality  class  this  nature  is  highly  devel- 
oped. Those  who  belong  to  this  cli^s  are  so- 
cialized. In  the  high  sociality  class  the  social 
nature  is  developed  in  the  highest  degree.  Those 
who  belong  to  this  class  are  both  socialized  and 
individualized.  They  not  only  participate  in  al- 
truistic activities,  but  they  also  plan  and  lead 
them.  The  unsocial  include  the  de-individualized, 
who  contribute  nothing  to  society,  but  are  de- 
pendent upon  it;  the  desocialized,  who  have  be- 
come hostile  to  society  and  forcibly  prey  upon  it ; 
and  the  degraded,  who  are  both  de-individualized 
and  desocialized.  The  de-individualized  include 
paupers,  and  the  desocialized  include  criminals. 

The  supreme  achievement  of  society  and  the 
final  measure  of  the  success  or  failure  of  any 
State  is  its  contribution  of  great  personalities, 
great  creations  of  art,  great  thoughts  and  ideals, 
to  that  universal  society  which  embraces  all 
mankind  and  endures  through  the  ages  of  his- 
tory. Measured  by  this  standard  some  petty 
city  States,  like  Athens  and  Florence,  have  been 
among  the  supreme  examples  of  social  evolution. 

Historical  Sociouwt.  In  historical  sociology 
we  again  study  the  phenomena  of  the  social  popu- 
lation, the  social  mind,  the  social  organization, 
and  the  social  welfare,  but  on  a  larf^r  scale.  We 
inquire  into  the  evolutionary  origins  of  society 
and  we  find  that  long  before  man  appeared  upon 
the  earth  social  relations  had  become  established 
in  the  animal  world,  and  that  man  undoubtedly 
began  his  career  with  an  endowment  of  social 
instinct.  Social  relations  and  mutual  aid  in- 
fluenced natural  selection,  and  thereby  affected 
the  whole  course  of  animal  evolution.     Associa- 


tion in  its  beginnings,  therefore,  was  so^^nic. 
Through  a  further  development  of  aanoeiation, 
language,  animistic  ideas,  iLrts,  and  religions  came 
into  existence,  and  the  animal  mind  was  con- 
verted into  the  human  mind,  and  the  animal  body 
into  the  human  body.  This  stage  of  evolution  wtis 
anthropogenic.  A  higher  evolution  of  the  con- 
sciousness of  kind  created  tribal  instincts  and 
customs,  and  gradually  built  up  the  highly  com- 
plex system  of  ethnic  society.  This  was  etb- 
nogenic  association.  Finally,  through  the  recog- 
nition of  mental  and  practical  resemblance  irre- 
spective of  kinship,  civil  or  demotic  society  came 
into  existence.  The  demos  or  people,  as  distin- 
guished from  the  tribe,  appeared,  and  with  it 
civilization. 

In  animal  societies  all  the  essential  phenomena 
of  a  social  population  may  be  observed,  but  those 
of  the  social  mind  are  of  the  most  rudimentary 
sort.  There  is  no  social  organization  beyond  the 
slight  beginnings  of  family  life,  and  a  loose 
formation  of  bands  or  flocks. 

In  anthropogenic  association  the  phenomena  of 
the  social  mind  begin  to  assume  importance. 
Language  is  a  product  of  association  and  reacts 
upon  it.  Vocal  signs  become  conventionalized 
throu^  imperfect  imitation.  The  power  of  con- 
ceptual thinking,  correlated  with  the  evolution 
of  language,  is  correlated  also  with  association, 
for  every  true  concept  is  a  product  of  more  than 
one  mind.  Conceptual  thinking  and  self -con- 
sciousness enormously  multiply  the  possible  re- 
sponses to  stimuli  and  bring  into  the  conscious- 
ness of  kind  all  its  higher  reflective  elments. 

The  great  problems  of  ethnogenic  association 
are  those  of  the  genesis  of  family,  clan«  tribe, 
and  confederation ;  of  the  priority  of  relationship 
through  mothers  over  relationship  through 
fathers ;  and  of  that  gradual  disintegration  of  or- 
ganization based  on  kinship,  by  the  growth  of  an 
essentially  feudal  association  based  on  personal 
allegiance,  which  prepared  the  way  for  civiliza- 
tion. 

The  primitive  family,  we  may  now  feel  reason- 
ably sure,  was  an  unstable  pairing  arrangement, 
usually  of  short  duration.  From  this  form  were 
differentiated  polyandry  (q.v.),  polygamy  (q.v.), 
and  monogamy.  (See  Family;  Mabrtage.) 
The  steps  by  which  the  clan  was  formed  per- 
haps cannot  be  quite  clearly  traced.  Primitive 
man  counts  relationships  in  one  line  of  descent 
only.  This  fact  accounts  for  the  exclusion  from 
the  kindred  of  one-half  of  all  those  persons  who 
are  equally  near  in  blood.  The  development  of 
the  tribe  and  the  confederating  of  tribes  is  a 
consequence  chiefly  of  warfare,  which  often 
brings  weak  groups  under  the  domination  or  pro- 
tection of  the  strong,  or  leads  related  tribes  to 
combine  against  their  common  foe.  When  new 
tribes  are  formed  by  the  subdivision  of  one  that 
has  grown  too  large  for  subsistence  on  the  tribal 
domain,  families  from  each  clan  of  the  older 
tribe  may  go  into  the  new  tribe.  In  this  way  a 
cluster  of  tribes  may  be  closely  related  in  blood 
and  speak  dialects  of  a  common  language,  condi- 
tions highly  favorable  to  confederation  and  sub- 
sequent evolution  as  a  nation. 

Tribal  confederations  that  have  become  civil 
States  have  undergone  a  further  evolution,  how- 
ever, which  has  destroyed  many  of  the  charac- 
teristic features  of  tribal  organization.  To  begin 
with,  the  metronymic  system  is  superseded  by 


SOCIOLOaT. 


1001 


SOCIOLOGY. 


the  patronymic.  The  transmission  of  property 
and  office  from  father  to  son  thfts  made  possible 
leads  to  the  differentiation  of  certain  families  as 
of  superior  rank.  If  a  primitive  agriculture  has 
been  supplemented  by  pastoral  industry,  wealth 
in  cattle  becomes  one  of  the  chief  temptations 
to  engage  in  tribal  wars.  Chieftains  as  leaders 
of  successful  expeditions  receive  an  exceptionally 
large  number  of  stolen  cattle,  and  the  privil^e 
of  pasturage  on  the  border  lands  of  tribal  terri- 
tory. They  obtain  also  as  retainers  and  herds- 
men the  broken  and  ruined  men  of  other  tribes, 
whose  clans  have  been  destroyed,  and  whose  fu- 
ture position  in  society  is  secured  only  by  their 
allegiance  to  a  powerful  protector.  From  such 
begpnings  a  rude  tribal  feudalism  develops, 
which  encroaches  steadily  upon  the  earlier  kin- 
ship system.  7  Consult  Henry  Sumner  Maine, 
Lectures  on  the  Early  History  of  Institutions.) 
Evidences  of  this  stage  of  evolution  are  found  in 
various  bodies  of  barbarian  law,  but  especially 
in  the  Irish  and  Welsh  codes. 

When  a  confederation  of  tribes  becomes  thor- 
oughly consolidated  by  war  or  otherwise,  the 
chieftaincy  of  the  confederation,  having  become 
hereditary,  may  develop  into  a  kingship  through 
the  uniting  into  one  of  the  offices  of  chief  military 
leader,  supreme  judge,  and  high  priest. 

At  this  stage  the  ethnic  society  is  on  the 
point  of  passing  over  into  civilization.  If  it  is 
tempted  by  the  pressure  of  population  upon  the 
means  of  subsistence  to  migrate  to  a  mor^  pro- 
ductive region,  and  after  conquering  the  occu- 
piers of  a  coveted  territory,  reduces  them  to 
task  work,  and  establishes  itself  permanently  on 
the  soil,  it  undergoes  a  further  development  of 
feudal  organization,  and  in  the  course  of  time 
begins  to  include  as  members  of  the  settled  clans 
and  tribes  any  newcomers  who  come  to  reside 
among  them. 

Civilization  once  established  develops  through 
three  stages,  which  are  well  marked  so  far  as 
the  structure,  policy,  and  activities  of  society  are 
concerned,  but  which  to  some  extent  overlap  and 
run  into  one  another  chronologically.  The  break- 
down of  the  kinship  system,  and  the  intermin- 
gling of  men  of  diverse  origin  at  centres  of  indus- 
trial and  commercial  activity,  are  presently  fol- 
lowed by  the  beginnings  of  assimilation  and  amal- 
gamation. When  this  process  is  perceived,  the 
possibility  of  creating  a  new  ethnic  unity  on  a 
broad  scale — the  unity  of  a  people,  one  in  lan- 
guage, in  religion,  and  in  standards  of  conduct — 
is  seized  upon,  and  a  passion  for  homogeneity 
begins  to  express  itself  in  certain  great  policies. 
The  attempt  is  made  by  military  campaigns  to 
bring  into  one  political  organization  adjacent 
peoples  nearly  related  in  blood,  in  language,  and 
m  tradition,  and  to  annex  any  territory  which 
may  form  with  that  already  occupied  a  geogra- 
phic unity.  The  militarism  thus  developed  is  of 
itself  a  powerful  unifying  agency,  and  it  is  sup- 
plemented by  policies  of  religious  unilScation,  and 
by  harsh  systems  of  sumptuary  legislation  and 
of  criminal  law. 

When  the  work  of  nation-making  by  policies  of 
unification  has  been  completed,  the  first  stage 
of  civilization  yields  to  a  second,  which  is  a 
result  of  the  liberation  of  energies  no  longer  de- 
manded in  military  activity.  Commerce,  travel, 
and  learning  receive  a  new  impulse.  The  com- 
parative study  of  peoples  and  institutions  leads 


to  criticism  and  discussion.  The  authoritative 
regime  is  subjected  to  review;  it  begins  to  disin- 
tegrate under  impeachment  and  resistance.  Ra- 
tionalism and  liberalism  create  the  great  institu- 
tional products  of  civil  liberty  and  constitutional 
law.  Men  no  longer  care  as  of  old  for  perfect 
mental  agreement;  they  encourage  the  growth  of 
independence  and  variety.  This  is  the  age  of 
progress,  of  the  liberal-legal  civilization. 

Presently,  however,  wide  liberty,  divergence  of 
mental  type,  and  the  multiplication  of  differing 
interests  begin  to  threaten  social  cohesion.  Pow- 
erful and  unscrupulous  men  abuse  their  liberty, 
using  it  to  take  an  unfair  advantage  of  others 
and  to  curtail  the  liberties  of  the  weak.  Free- 
dom of  enterprise  and  of  contract  are  fol- 
lowed by  an  enormous  increase  of  wealth  and  of 
population.  But  the  wealth  is  cencentrated  in 
relatively  few  hands  and  increasingly  large  num- 
bers of  working  men  find  that  they  are  not  receiv- 
ing a  proportional  share  of  well-being.  Growing 
inequality  places  the  severest  strain  upon  the 
social  system,  and  compels  the  community  to 
limit  liberty  in  some  measure  by  equality.  Po- 
litical and  legal  equality  come  first,  but  meas- 
ures of  economic  equality  also  are  demanded,  and 
great  educational  enterprises  try.  to  achieve  an 
equality  of  cultural  opportunities.  This  is  the 
modem  democratic  movement,  and  the  third 
stage  of  civilization. 

ExpLANATOBY  SocioLOOT.  This  department  is 
as  yet  in  a  very  incomplete  state  of  development. 
So  far  as  the  physical  side  of  social  evolution  is 
concerned,  it  exhibits  the  same  phenomena  of 
integration,  differentiation,  and  increasing  defi- 
niteness  of  organization,  that  material  bodies 
undergo.  The  cause  also  is  the  same,  namely  the 
equilibration  of  energy  between  bodies  over- 
charged and  contiguous  bodies  undercharged. 
There  is  such  an  equilibration  between  a  popula- 
tion and  its  environment,  and  all  the  energy  that 
society  is  enabled  to  expend  it  derives  from  the 
bounty  of  nature,  supplemented  by  industrial 
activities.  There  is  such  an  equilibration  of 
energy  between  strong  and  weak  States  and  be- 
tween strong  and  weak  races.  The  transforma- 
tion of  the  weak  by  the  strong  can  never  cease 
until  equilibrium  is  established.  The  transforma- 
tion need  not  be  a  military  conquest,  however, 
or  even  an  economic  exploitation.  So  far  as 
physical  law  is  concerned,  it  may  equally  well  be 
an  uplifting  of  the  weak  to  higher  planes  of* 
sympathy  and  intelligence  by  the  hands  of  the 
strong.  The  extent  to  which  the  process  may 
thus  be  philanthropic  depends  upon  the  growth  of 
the  consciousness  of  kind.  Originally  limited 
to  the  kindred  of  horde  and  clan,  it  has  broad- 
ened into  tribal  and  at  length  into  a  national 
consciousness.  To-day  it  is  becoming  a  human 
consciousness.  In  all  this  transformation  every 
change  obeys  the  laws  of  parsimony.  Motion 
follows  the  line  of  least  resistance  and  human 
activities  try  to  achieve  given  results  with  the 
least  expenditure  of  effort.  In  is  only  a  corollary 
of  this  law  that  activity  is  conditioned  by  the 
consciousness  of  kind,  since  strangeness  and  an- 
tipathy are  resisting  conditions.  It  is  only  an- 
other corollary  again  that  dogmatic  like-minded- 
ness  develops  out  of  sympathetic,  and  delibera- 
tive like-mindedness  out  of  dogmatic;  for  the 
results  achieved  by  the  lower  forms  of  con- 
certed volition^  namely  the  instinctive  and  the 


SOCIOLOaT. 


1002 


B0CBATB8. 


sympathetic,  are  wastefully  accomplished  as 
compared  with  those  achieved  by  the  higher 
forms.  These  laws  are  otherwise  formulated  as 
the  great  laws  of  diminishing  and  increasing  re- 
turns, long  familiar  to  economic  science,  but 
equally  true  in  the  realm  of  social  phenomena. 
When  the  lower  forms  of  activity  are  carried  far 
they  begin  to  yield  diminishing  returns^  When 
old  channels  of  activity  are  obstructed  energies 
break  through  into  new  channels,  and  for  a  time 
new  adjustments  yield  increasing  returns.  By 
these  laws  we  account  for  the  substitution  of 
reason  for  impulse,  of  deliberation  for  mob-like 
action.  The  substitution  is  in  a  broad  sense  a 
natural  selection.  Social  activities  and  forms 
begin  unconsciously.  In  the  course  of  time  men, 
becoming  aware  of  the  social  relations  that  have 
spontaneously  developed,  try  to  perfect  them. 
They  create  institutions  and  carry  out  policies. 
The  unconscious  operations  of  nature  now  again 
assert  themselves.  Some  of  the  products  of 
man's  invention,  proving  useful,  and  promoting 
his  .welfare,  survive.  Others  perish  and  are  for- 
gotten. Those  social  forms  survive  which,  like 
organisms  successful  in  the  struggle  for  exist- 
ence, yield  on  the  whole  increasmg  returns  of 
useful  conversions  of  energy. 

BiBUOGRAPHT.    See  works  quoted  in  text. 

80CKEYE  (corruption  of  Indian  name  sou- 
qui  or  sawkeye).  One  of  the  most  prominent  of 
Pacific  salmon,  the  blueback.    See  Salmon. 

SOCLE.  A  plain  plinth,  forming  a  pedestal 
for  the  support  of  a  statue,  column,  etc. 

BOCOB^O.  A  town  of  the  Department  of 
Santander,  Colombia,  formerly  its  capital,  145 
miles  northeast  of  BogotA  (Map:  Colombia,  C 
2).  It  has  crooked  streets  and  flag  pavements. 
Its  chief  industries  are  the  weaving  of  mantles 
and  the  manufacture  of  straw  hats.  Its  popula- 
tion in  1886  was  about  20,000.  The  town  was 
founded  in  1540  and  after  its  destruction  in  1681 
moved  to  its  present  location.  In  1781  a  for- 
midable revolt  took  place  here,  and  in  1810  there 
was  issued  a  formal  declaration  of  independence 
from  Spain. 

SOGOTRA,  or  SOKOTRA,  s6-k(/tr&  or  B6k^- 
6-tr&.  An  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  at  the 
entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Aden,  about  147  miles 
east  of  Cape  Guardafui  (Map:  Africa,  K  3).  It 
is  80  miles  long  and  55  miles  broad.  Area,  1382 
square  miles.  The  centre  of  the  island  is  occu- 
pied by  the  Haghier  chain,  attaining  nearly  5000 
feet.  The  coasts  are  partly  frin^pd  by  cliffs, 
mostly  low.  There  is  a  long  plain  of  drifted 
sand  along  the  southern  shore.  The  valleys  are 
well  watered  and  rich  in  vegetation.  The  cli- 
mate is  hot  and  dry.  The  dry  season  lasts  from 
May  to  October,  during  which  time  there  is 
practically  no  rain  in  the  lower  parts  of  the 
island,  and  many  of  the  rivers  dry  up  entirely. 
The  flora  is  of  great  variety  and  abounds  in  many 
aromatic  species,  such  as  dragon's-blood,  myrrh, 
frankincense,  aloe,  etc. 

There  is  little  agriculture.  The  principal 
products  of  the  island  are  butter  and  incense 
which  are  exported  to  Bombay,  Zanzibar,  and 
Arabia.  The  natives  keep  extensive  herds  of 
goats  and  cows.  Politically  Socotra  is  a  pro- 
tectorate of  Great  Britain,  but  foreign  control 
extends  hardly  beyond  the  collection  of  taxes. 
The  population  is  estimated  at  10,000 — a  mixed 
race  of  Arabs  and  Hindus  who  are  found  along 


the  coasts,  and  the  Sokotri,  the  aborigines  of  the 
island,  who  are  also  believed  to  be  of  Arabic 
origin,  and  are  confined  principally  to  the  moun- 
tainous districts.  Socotra  was  occupied  by  the 
Portuguese  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century  and  now  forms  a  part  of  the  Sultanate 
of  Kishin. 

BOCRATEA.  A  genus  of  palms.  See 
Tbiabtba. 

SOCr&ATES  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  "Zwcpir^) 
(B.C.  469-399).  An  Athenian  philosopher.  He  lived 
through  the  age  of  Pericles,  the  Peloponnesian 
War,  and  the  tyranny  of  the  Thirty,'  and  was 
condemned  to  drink  the  hemlock  cup  by  the  re- 
stored democracy.  He  was  of  humble  but  genu- 
ine Athenian  stock.  Plato  makes  him  compare 
his  own  art  of  delivering  pregnant  minds  of  their 
conceptions  to  the  profession  of  midwife  exer- 
cised by  his  mother.  He  received  as  a  boy  only 
the  old-fashioned  elementary  education  in  music 
and  gymnastics,  but  later  familiarized  himself 
with  the  modem  education  of  the  Sophista  in 
rhetoric  and  dialectics,  with  the  speculations  of 
the  Ionic  philosophers,  and  all  the  new  culture 
of  which  Peridean  Athens  was  the  focus.  Plato 
represents  him  as  veiling  behind  an  ironical  pro- 
fession of  ignorance  an  ingenuity  and  resource- 
fulness that  made  him  more  than  a  match  for  the 
most  distinguished  specialists.  Xenophon,  while 
affirming  that  Socrates  held  the  proper  study  of 
mankind  to  be  the  moral  life  of  man,  adds  that 
he  was  by  no  means  unversed  in  the  curious 
inutilities  of  mathematical  and  physical  specu- 
lation. He  followed  at  first  the  craft  of  his 
father,  a  sculptor,  and  tradition  attributed  to 
him  a  group  of  the  three  Graces  draped,  which 
Pausanias  saw  on  the  Acropolis.  The  greater 
part  of  his  mature  life,  however,  was  spent  in 
the  market  place,  streets,  and  public  resorts  of 
Athens  in  conversation  with  all  who  cared  to 
listen,  or  whom  he  could  lure  to  render  an  ac- 
count of  their  souls  and  submit  themselves  to  his 
peculiar  style  of  interrogation.  In  Plato  and 
Xenophon  he  has  no  other  occupation,  except,  of 
course,  the  normal  civic  duties  of  every  free-born 
Athenian.  He  served  as  a  hoplite  with  con- 
spicuous bravery  at  Potidsa  (b.c.  432),  Delium 
(424),  and  Amphipolis  (422).  In  B.a  406  the 
chances  of  the  lot  made  him  a  member  of  the 
senate  of  the  500  and  presiding  prytanis  on  the 
day  when  the  illegal  motion  was  offered  to  con- 
demn to  death  by  one  vote  the  generals  who  had 
neglected  or  been  unable  to  rescue  the  wounded 
after  the  naval  battle  of  Arginusn.  He  refusted 
to  consent  to  the  putting  of  the  vote,  defying  the 
anger  of  the  mob,  even  as  a  few  years  later  he 
withstood  the  tyrants  and  refused  to  execute  the 
command  of  the  Thirty'  bidding  him  assist  in 
the  arrest  of  an  innocent  citizen,  Leon  of  Sala- 
mis.  By  his  wife,  Xanthippe,  he  had  three  sons, 
one  of  whom  was  a  lad  at  the  time  of  his 
father's  death.  The  tradition  of  Xanthippe  as  the 
scolding  wife  and  typical  shrew  is  ignored  by 
Plato,  who  merely  mentions  her  presence  in  the 
prison  on  the  last  day  before  and  after  the 
dialogue  on  immortality. 

In  the  Apology  or  defense  which  Plato  puts 
into  his  mouth  on  his  trial,  Socrates  half  seri- 
ously affirms  that  his  peculiar  way  of  life  was 
a  mission  imposed  upon  him  by  God.  The  oracle 
of  Delphi  (the  story  presupposes  that  he  was 
already  well  known),  in  response  to  the  question 


SOCBATES. 


1008 


SOCRATES. 


of  a  more  enthusiastic  than  judicious  disciple, 
had  pronounced  Socrates  the  wisest  of  men. 
Conscious  that  his  only  wisdom  was  self-knowl- 
edge, the  knowledge  that  he  knew  nothing,  he 
proceeded  to  test  those  reputed  wise  at  Auiens, 
the  poets,  the  statesmen,  the  artists.  He  found 
in  each  case  that  the  value  of  the  specialist's 
particular  talent  was  more  than  nullified  by 
his  inability  to  render  a  rational  account  of  it, 
and  the  false  conceit  of  a  larger  knowledge  not 
possessed,  and  he  inferred  that  it  was  his  divine- 
ly appointed  mission  to  force  upon  his  fellow  men 
self-knowledge  and  conviction  of  ignorance  as 
the  first  step  toward  self-betterment.  Such  a 
profession  exercised  for  thirty  or  forty  years 
amid  a  gossipy  and  jealous  population  brought 
him  more  notoriety  than  popularity. 

The  effect  was  heightened  by  the  startling  con- 
trast, to  Greek  feeling,  between  Socrates's  ex- 
terior and  the  dignified  and  impressive  demeanor 
to  be  expected  of  a  great  teacher  and  leader  of 
men.  The  ungainly  figure ;  the  protuberant  belly ; 
the  Silenus-like  masque  with  bald  head,  promi- 
nent eyes,  and  wide,  upturned  nostrils;  the  beg- 
garly garb;  the  vulgar  instances  and  homely 
parables  in  which  his  wisdom  disguised  itself; 
the  personal  oddities  of  the  man;  his  hour-long 
fits  of  staring  abstraction;  his  ingenious  art  of 
cross-examination  entrapping  the  cleverest  into 
self-contradiction;  the  mysterious  admonitions 
of  his  'Daemon'  or  inner  voice;  the  habitual  as- 
ceticism of  this  barefoot  philosopher,  content 
with  bread  and  water  and  one  garment  summer 
and  winter,  yet  able  on  occasion  to  outdrink  and 
outwatch  and  outtalk  the  boldest  revelers  and 
most  brilliant  wits  of  Athens — all  these  traits 
as  felt  by  the  inner  circle  of  disciples  and  por- 
trayed by  Plato's  art  only  add  piquancy  to 
the  demoniac  personality  thus  half  revealed  and 
half  concealed.  But  to  the  multitude  they  only 
made  up  a  figure  of  comedy.  In  the  Clouds  of 
Aristophanes  (423),  the  man  whom  we  conceive 
as  the  anthithesis  of  the  Sophistic  rhetoric  and 
•he  founder  of  moral  and  mental  as  opposed  to 
physical  philosophy  appears  as  the  master  of 
a  'thinking  shop'  in  which  pale-faced  disciples 
burrow  into  the  bowels  of  earth,  and  where  un- 
scrupulous fathers  can  have  their  sons  taught 
the  art  of  making  the  worse  appear  the  better 
reason,  while  he  himself  aloft  in  an  atrial  basket 
"treads  the  air  and  contemplates  the  sun."  The 
comedian  is  not  bound  to  make  nice  distinctions. 
For  Aristophanes,  Socrates  was  an  apt  comic 
embodiment  of  the  new  learning  which  the  con- 
servative poet  detested.  Like  the  Sophists,  he 
occupied  the  young  men  with  something  else  than 
the  care  of  healthy  bodies,  and  he  resembled  the 
Sophists  in  the  unsettling  effect  of  his  question- 
ing of  the  established  order.  Plato,  for  artistic 
reasons,  puts  these  attacks  of  comedy  as  mani- 
festations of  the  popular  prejudice  in  the  fore- 
front of  the  Apology.  The  immediate  causes  of 
Socrates's  condemnation  were  probably  the  hos- 
tility aroused  by  his  ironical  comments  on  the 
democratic  method  of  deciding  great  questions 
by  the  lot  or  the  show  of  hands,  and  the  distrust 
felt  by  the  average  man  for  the  leader  of  the 
traitor  Alcibiades,  the  tyrant  Critias,  and  the 
Philo-Laconian  Xenophon.  In  399  a  poet,  Mele- 
tus,  a  demagogue,  Anytus  (a  prominent  demo- 
cratic politician),  and  an  orator,  Lycon,  pre- 
sented a  fonfnal  charge  in  the  Court  of  the  King 
(Archon) :  "Socrat^  is  guilty  of  rejecting  the 
Toi..  XT.-e4. 


gods  of  the  city  and  introducing  new  divinities. 
He  is  also  guilty  of  corrupting  the  youth."  The 
first  charge  relates  to  the  'Dsemonion,'  or  di- 
vine something  of  Socrates  about  which  a  large 
and  unprofitable  literature  exists.  In  Plato,  it 
is  merely  the  voice  of  an  inward  spiritual  tact 
always  operating  negatively  as  a  check  to  ac- 
tions, however  trifling,  opposed  to  the  true  inter- 
ests of  the  soul.  Other  writers  have  reported 
it  with  superstitious,  psychological,  or  patho- 
logical flourishes  after  their  kind.  Corruption 
of  youth  was  the  serious  charge.  The  case  came 
before  a  jury  of  about  501  members.  Socrates 
declined  (the  story  goes)  the  professional  aid  of 
the  orator  Lysias,  and  defended  himself  in  a 
speech  of  which  the  spirit  is  preserved  in  the 
Platonic  Apology,  a  masterpiece  of  art  in  its 
seeming  simplicity.  Condemned  by  a  small  ma- 
jority, he  took  still  higher  ground  when  it  came 
to  fixing  the  penalty,  and  proposed,  so  Plato 
says,  that  it  be  maintenance  in  the  Prytaneum 
as  a  public  benefactor.  At  the  solicitation  of 
Plato,  Crito,  and  other  friends,  he  finally  pro- 
posed to  pay  a  fine.  The  jury  naturally  voted 
by  an  increased  majority  for  the  alternative 
penalty  of  death,  which  Socrates  doubtless  ex- 
pected and  was  willing  to  accept  as  an  appro- 
priate crown  of  martyrdom  and  a  release  from 
the  approaching  infirmities  of  age.  The  rest  is 
told  in  two  immortal  dialogues  of  Plato.  The 
Crito  shows  us  Socrates  in  the  interval  of  res- 
pite caused  by  a  religious  festival  and  the 
absence  of  the  sacred  ship  at  Delos,  resisting  the 
importunities  of  his  friends  that  he  should 
escape  by  bribing  his  jailers,  and  so,  as  he  says, 
in  very  deed  teaching  young  men  by  his  example 
to  violate  the  law.  The  Phcedo  depicts  *he  long 
final  day  spent  with  friends  in  conversation  on 
the  immortal itv  of  the  soul,  and  the  last  scene 
of  all,  'Tiow  bravely  and  cheerfully  the  first 
great  martyr  of  intellectual  liberty  met  his 
doom." 

The  self-control  which  he  exemplified  and  the 
self-knowledge  which  he  inculcated  are  the  key- 
note of  Socrates's  philosophy.  The  basis  of  his 
ethics  was  the  principle  or  paradox  that  all  vice 
is  ignorance,  and  that  no  man  is  willingly  bad. 
In  logic  Aristotle  tells  us  that  there  are  two 
things  which  we  may  justly  attribute  to  him: 
inductive  arguments  and  the  quest  for  general 
definitions.  But,  as  he  left  no  writings,  we  can- 
not tell  what  system  of  thought,  if  any,  he  con- 
structed on  these  presuppositions  and  by  this 
method.  We  may  divine  that  he  was  much  more 
than  the  homely  Johnsonian  moralist  of  Xeno- 
phon, and  something  less  than  the  poetic  dia- 
lecticiaiv  and  metaphysician  of  Plato.  But  we 
cannot  know.  Plato  was  a  cunning  dramatic 
artist,  and  the  seeming  simplicity  of  Xenophon's 
Memorabilia  is  no  warrant  of  its  historical  fidel- 
ity. Ten  years  of  adventure  presumably  separate 
Xenophon  from  the  conversations  which  he  pro- 
fesses to  record.  Both  the  Memorabilia  and  the 
minor  Platonic  dialogues  doubtless  contain  many 
genuine  reminiscences  of  the  'real  Socrates.'  But 
we  cannot  use  them  to  construct  a  body  of  doc- 
trine for  him.  The  tremendous  influence  of  his 
personality  remains  one  of  the  great  facts  of 
history.  Through  the  'complete  Socratic'  Plato 
and  his  pupil,  Aristotle,  he  determined  the  entire 
subsequent  course  of  speculative  thought.  The 
'imperfect  Socratics,'  the  founders  of  the  other 
schools   of  ancient  philosophy,  drew  their  in- 


80CBATB8. 


1004 


80DA. 


spiration  from  partial  aspects  of  his  character. 
The  Socrates  who  wore  one  garment  summer 
and  winter,  walked  barefoot  on  the  snow^  and 
exclaimed  at  the  fair:  ''How  many  things  there 
are  that  I  do  not  need,"  became  through  Antis- 
thenes  the  author  of  the  Cynic  way  of  life  and 
the  Stoic  philosophy.  The  Socrates  who  was  all 
things  to  all  men,  and  outdrank  Aristophanes  at 
Agathon's  banquet,  was  the  model  of  Aristippus, 
the  founder  of  the  Gyrenaic  (and  Epicurean) 
philosophy  of  experience  and  pleasure.  The  ideal 
Socrates  depicted  in  the  Platonic  Apology,  Crito, 
Chrgiaa,  and  Phcedo  became,  in  the  decay  of  the 
old  religions,  the  chief  religious  type  of  the 
ancient  world,  and  to  such  moralists  as  Epicte- 
tus,  Seneca,  Dio  Chrysostomus,  and  Marcus  Au- 
relius  the  very  embodiment  and  guide  of  the 
higher  life. 

The  best  authority  accessible  to  the  English 
reader  is  Zeller's  Socrates  and  the  Socratio 
Schools  (Eng.  trans.,  1877).  Joel's  Der  echte 
und  der  Xenophontische  Socrates  (Berlin,  1001) 
is  an  ingenious  attempt  to  extract  the  'real 
Socrates'  from  Xenophon's  Memorabilia, 

S0CBATE8,  Pbison  of.  The  name  popularly 
given  to  three  chambers  hewn  in  the  face  of  the 
hill  of  Philopappus  at  Athens.  The  chambers  are 
of  small  dimensions,  and  one  of  them  is  connected 
with  a  vaulted  rotunda,  the  circular  opening  of 
which  was  originally  closed  by  slabs.  The  ar- 
rangement in  general  is  similar  to  that  of  the  so- 
called  Treasury  of  Athens  at  Mycenie. 

SODA  (It.  soda,  soda,  saltwort,  glasswort,  con- 
tracted from  solida,  fem.  of  soluio,  from  Lat. 
aolidus,  hard,  solid;  connected  with  OLat.  sollus, 
Gk.  Skot,  holost  Skt.  earva,  whole,  entire),  or 
Sodium  Carbonate,  Na,CO..  A  white  solid  sub- 
stance having  a  strong  alkaline  reaction  and  crys- 
tallizing with  ten  molecules  of  water,  NaaCOs+ 
lOH/3.  In  commerce  it  appears  both  with  and 
without  water.  Crystallized,  hydrated  sodium 
carbonate,  also  called  'sal  soda,'  is  the  common 
washing-soda;  sodium  bi-carbonate,  or  'acid'  so- 
dium carbonate,  NaHCOs,  is  the  common  cooking- 
soda,  an  important  constituent  of  all  baking  pow- 
ders. The  ary  carbonate,  NaaCOs,  is  used  in  enor- 
mous quantities  in  the  manufacture  of  glass  and 
soap.  Native  sodium  carbonate,  or  'sodium  ses- 
quicarbonate,'  Na,00,.2NaHC0.4-2H,0,  is  found 
to  some  extent  in  all  dry  regions,  notably  in  Hun- 
gary, Egypt,  and  the  deserts  of  Africa,  Asia, 
and  North  and  South  America,  but  in  no  other 
country  does  it  occur  in  greater  quantities  than 
in  the  region  lying  east  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 
Mountains.  The  mineral  is  known  as  trona. 
Formerly  most  of  the  sodium  carbonate«of  com- 
merce was  derived  from  the  ashes  of  certain 
plants,  chiefly  barilla  and  kelp,  but  at  the  present 
time  the  quantity  derived  from  all  other  sources 
is  insignificant  when  compared  with  that  manu- 
factured from  common  salt. 

Natural  soda,  which  is  the  residue  obtained 
by  the  evaporation  of  natural  alkaline  waters 
without  the  aid  of  artificial  heat,  occurs  as  white 
incrustations  on  the  alkali  plains;  the  most  im- 
portant deposits,  however,  are  in  the  form  of 
'sinks'  or  lakes  without  outlet,  in  which  the 
leachings  and  drainings  of  the  alkali  plains  have 
been  collected  and  concentrated.  In  the  United 
States  the  waters  of  three  lakes  only,  Albert  Lake 
in  Oregon  and  Mono  and  Owens  lakes  in  Cali- 
fornia, are  estimated  to  contain  more  than  118,- 


000,000  tons  of  sodium  carbonate  and  nearly  30,- 
000,000  tons  of  sodium  bi-carbonate.  Owing  to 
the  great  distance  from  large  Eastern  markcets 
and  the  consequent  high  freight  charges,  this  im- 
mense supply  of  raw  material  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  various  sodium  salts  has  not  entered 
into  successful  commercial  competition  with  the 
brine  deposits  of  the  Eastern  States.  The  pro- 
duction of  soda  ash  (sodium  carbonate),  sal  soda 
(hydrated),  sodium  carbonate,  sodium  bi-carbo- 
nate, and  caustic  soda  (sodiimi  hydrate),  from 
50  works  in  the  United  States  during  1902,  ag- 
gregated more  than  500,000  tons,  which  involved 
in  Sie  manufacture  approximately  1,000,000  tons 
of  salt.  The  quantities  and  values  of  these 
sodium  compounos  produced  in  the  United  States 
during  1900,  according  to  the  Twelfth  Census,  are 
given  in  the  subjoined  table: 


Pounds 

Value 

Soda  ash 

Sal  Boda               

781.306.000 
126.498.000 
138,712,000 
333.666.000 

$4,8W.666 
975.24S 

Sodium  bicarbonate 

1.332.766 

Caustic  soda.            

3.170.280 

Total 

1.279.082.000 

fl0.237.9i4 

MAiajFACTUBE  OF  SoDiuic  Cabbonate.  Sodium 
carbonate  is  manufactured  commercially  by  sev- 
eral processes,  of  which  only  two  are  of  impor- 
tance— ^the  Leblanc  process  and  the  Solvay  pro- 
cess, each  named  from  its  respective  inventor. 
The  Leblanc  process  consists  of  three  stages :  ( 1 ) 
The  conversion  of  common  salt  (sodium  chloride) 
into  sodium  sulphate  by  the  action  of  sulphuric 
acid,  accomplished  by  the  aid  of  heat  in  a  rever- 
beratory  furnace.  This  stage  is  called  the  salt- 
cake  process,  'salt  cake'  being  the  technical  name 
applied  to  the  sodium  sulphate  product.  Two 
chemical  reactions  are  involved  in  this  stage, ' 
viz.: 

NaCl-fNaHS0,=Na^4+HCl. 
NaCl+H^04=NaHS04+HCl 

(2)  The  decomposition  of  the  sodium  sulphate, 
by  means  of  calcium  carbonate  and  coal,  at  a 
high  temperature  in  a  furnace,  the  result  being 
a  crude  product  known  as  ^lack  ash,'  which  con- 
sists of  sodium  carbonate,  calcium  sulphide, 
calcium  oxide,  calcium  carbonate,  and  small  quan- 
tities of  other  substances.  The  principal  reac- 
tions taking  place  in  this  sta^  of  the  process 
may  be  expressed  by  the  following  chemical  equa^ 
tions: 

5Na;SO44-10C=5Na^-fl0OO.; 
6NaJ3+7CaC50,=6Na,CO.-f5CaS-f2CaO+2CO,. 

(3)  The  extraction  of  the  sodium  carbonate  by 
treating  the  black  ash  with  water  to  dissolve  the 
sodium  salt,  which  yields  a  solution  called  tank 
liquor,'  containing  also  sodium  hydrate.  The 
crystals  of  sodium  carbonate  are  obtained  ulti- 
mately by  evaporation,  and,  when  calcined,  yield 
the  dry  sodium  carbonate  of  commerce,  technical- 
ly known  as  soda  ash.  The  calcium  sulphide  re- 
maining undissolved  in  the  residues  is  treated 
for  its  sulphur  content,  and  the  hydrochloric 
acid  produced  in  the  first  stage  of  the  Leblanc 
process  is  saved  for  use  partly  as  such,  partly  for 
making  bleaching  powder.  In  this  manner  from 
first  to  last  there  is  practically  nothing  wasted 
except  the  calcium. 

The  transformation  of  the  salt  cake  into  black 
ash  is  generally  carried  out  in  a  reverberatory 
furnace  (Fig.  1),  called  a  'black-ash'  or  ^balling 


SODA. 


1005 


SODA. 


furnace.'  Usually  100  pounds  of  salt  cake,  100 
pounds  of  calcium  carbonate,  and  60  pounds  of 
coal  dust  form  a  charge.  The  hand-worked  fur- 
nace is  a  long  reverberatory  with  a  hopper  in  the 
roof  through  which  the  charge  is  dropped  into  the 
first  hearl^  near  the  flue  where  the  heat  is  not 

t!l°PP*'"  Flue  to  Chinjney 

EvsporsUngPan 


FlQ.  1.  LOHOITUOnfAL  BBOnOH  OF  ▲  BLlflK-ABB  rUBHAOB. 

very  high;  after  thorough  drying  and  heating, 
the  materials  are  raked  down  onto  the  second  or 
*balling  hearth/  where  the  temperature  is  usu- 
ally about  1000**  C,  and  thoroughly  rabbled  until 
it  becomes  a  thick,  pasty  mass  from  which  car- 
bonic acid  gas  escapes  freely.  As  soon  as  the 
salt  cake  is  decomposed,  the  charge  begins  to 
stiffen  and  carbonic  acid  gas  (CO)  is  evolved,  as 
is  shown  by  jets  of  blue  flame  (the  carbonic  oxide 
is  produced  by  the  action  of  coal  on  the  excess  of 
calcium  carbonate  present).  The  charge  is  then 
raked  into  a  ball  and  removed  from  the  furnace 
to  an  iron  truck,  the  escaping  bubbles  of  gas 
causing  the  pasty  mass  to  become  porous.  The 
shallow  iron  pan  between  the  furnace  hearth  and 
the  flue  to  the  chimney  is  used  for  the  evaporation 
of  the  tank  liquor  obtained  by  the  lixiviation  of 
the  black  ash  in  the  third  stage  of  the  process. 
The  furnace  operation  is  quite  difficult,  and  al- 
though the  heavy  tools  are  suspended  by  chains, 
the  temperature  is  so  intense  that  the  quantity  a 
man  can.  handle  at  one  time  is  limited  to  300 
pounds.  In  order  to  eliminate  expensive  hand- 
labor  and  to  work  larger  charges,  revolving  cy- 
lindrical black-ash  furnaces  are  used;  the  com- 
mon size,  16  feet  long  and  10  feet  diameter,  can 
treat  as  much  as  two  tons  of  salt  cake  in  a  single 
charge.  The  lixiviation  of  the  black  ash  is  ac- 
complished in  a  series  of  terraced  tanks  each 
with  a  false  bottom  perforated  with  small  holes. 
The  uppermost  tank  is  charged  with  black  ash, 
and  water  added  to  cover  the  charge;  the  solu- 
tion of  sodium  carbonate* formed,  being  heavier 
than  water,  sinks  to  the  bottom  of  the  tank  and 
is  passed  through  the  perforations,  and  is  with- 
drawn by  means  of  a  pipe  which  delivers  it  to 
the  second  tank  in  the  series,  through  which  it 
passes  to  the  third  tank,  etc  The  operation  is 
continuous,  fresh  water  being  added  to  the  nearly 
exhausted  ash  in  the  uppermost  tank  to  yield 
an  unbroken  flow  of  strong  liquor.  Good  tank 
liquor  contains  approximately  23.6  per  cent,  of 
sodium  carbonate  and  sodium  hydrate. 

The  French  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1775 
offered  a  prize  for  a  method  of  making  sodium 
carbonate  from  salt.  Among  the  processes 
submitted  was  that  of  Nicolas  Leblanc,  which 
was  of  promising  merit,  and,  being  granted  a  pat- 
ent in  1791,  he  began  the  manufacture  on  a  com- 
mercial scale.  The  Leblanc  process  is  regarded 
as  the  most  important  discovery  in  the  entire 
range  of  chemical  manufactures,  and  has  fur- 
nished about  one-half  of  the  world's  supply  of 
soda.  The  fact  that  it  produces  both  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  bleaching  powder  as  by-products 
has  enabled  it  to  survive  competition,  but  the  re- 
cent introduction  of  electrolytic  processes,  which 


aL3o  yield  bleaching  powder  as  a  by-product,  is  a 
serious  menace  to  its  future. 

The  Solvay  process,  or  *ammonia-soda  process,' 
is  based  on  the  fact  that  hydrogen-ammonium 
carbonate,  (NH4)HC}0t,  is  decomposed  by  a  strong 
solution  of  common  salt,  yielding  sodium  bi-car- 
bonate  and  ammonium  chloride,  as  shown  by  the 
equation: 

(NH,)  HCO,+NaCl=NaHCO,-f  NH4CI. 

The  brine  is  first  saturated  with  ammonia  gas, 
and  the  cooled  ammoniacal  liquor  is  subsequently 
charged  in  carbonating  towers  with  carbonic  acid 
gas  under  moderate  pressure;  the  sodium  bi- 
carbonate, being  much  less  soluble,  separates  out 
and  leaves  the  more  soluble  ammonium  chloride 
in  solution,  from  which  the  ammonia  is  subse- 
quently recovered  by  treatment  with  lime.  The 
sodium  bi-carbonate  is  converted  into  sodium  car- 
bonate by  calcination,  and  the  carbonic  acid  gas 
evolved  is  again  utilized  to  carbonate  a  second 
quantity  of  ammoniacal  brine.  In  this  cycle  of 
operations  no  sulphuric  acid  is  required  and  no 
hydrochloric  acid  is  evolved. 

The  reactions  involved  in  the  ammonia-soda 
process  were  discovered  by  H.  C.  Dyar  and  T. 
Hemming  about  1838,  but  the  process  was  not  per- 
fected until  1873.  In  1863  Ernest  Silvay,  a  Bel- 
gian, constructed  the  first  successful  plant,  which 
has  led  to  an  enormous  development  of  the  indus- 
try. 

Sodium  Hydroxide,  Sodium  Hydbate,  ob  Caus- 
tic Soda,  NaOH.  This  is  of  importance  next  to  so- 
dium carbonate  only,  on  account  of  its  use  in 
enormous  quantities  in  refining  fats  and  vegetable 
oils,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  soap.  In  appear- 
ance it  is  a  white  solid,  strongly  caustic  and  high- 
ly deliquescent.  It  is  readily  soluble  in  water, 
with  evolution  of  heat,  and  by  cooling  a  concen- 
trated solution  to  8"  C,  a  deposit  of  crystalline 
sodium  hydrate  (2NaOH  +  7H,0)  is  obtained. 

Sodium  hydroxide  is  one  of  the  strongest  alka- 
lies known.  On  a  large  scale  it  is  manufactured 
by  the  action  of  nulk  of  lime  (calcium  hydrate) 
upon  a  boiling  solution  of  sodium  carbonate, 
whereby  calcium  carbonate  is  precipitated,  and 
sodium  hydrate  remains  in  the  solution.  The  re- 
action is 

Na,CO.+Ca(OH)^CaCOs+2NaOH. 
After  the  removal  of  the  solid  calcium  carbonate 
the  solution  is  evaporated,  and  finally  yields  the 
solid  sodium  hydrate.  One  of  the  chief  sources 
of  supply  is  the  tank  liquor,  produced  in  the 
manufacture  of  sodium  carbonate  by  the  Leblanc 
process  (see  above).  The  tank  liquor,  contain- 
ing essentially  sodium  carbonate  and  sodium  hy- 
drate, is  heated  to  boiling  and  an  excess  of  lime 
is  stirred  into  the  mixture.  The  sodium  sulphide 
present  in  the  tank  liquor  is  oxidized  to  sodium 
sulphate  by  the  combined  action  of  air  injected 
into  the  mixture  and  of  sodium  nitrate,  which  is 
added  for  the  purpose.  The  solid  calcium  carbo- 
nate is  separated  by  filtration.  The  action  of  so- 
dium nitrate  is  shown  by  the  following  equation : 

NaNO,+2H,0=NaOH-fNH3-f40. 
The  oxygen  set  free  reacts  upon  the  sodium  sul- 
phides present,  and  converts  them  into  the  sul- 
phate. 

In  recent  years  sodium  hydrate  has  been  manu- 
factured to  a  considerable  extent  by  the  electrol- 
ysis of  brine,  also  by  the  direct  electrolysis  of 
fused  common  salt.  The  two  most  recent  electro- 
lytic procesaw  are  the  Aussig  'bell  process'  and 


SODA. 


1006 


SODIUIL 


the  Acker  process.  The  former  has  been  nnder  diagrammatic  sketch  of  the  cell  is  shown  in  Fig.  3. 
development  at  Aussig.  The  broad  features  of  the  K  represents  the  connections  between  the  bus 
method  are  illustrated  in  Fig.  2.  In  this  dia-  bar  and  the  anodes  G,  F  the  cell  walls,  H  the 
gram,  a  represents  the  anode,  6  the  solution  of    upper  level  of  the  fused  salt  electroljie,  which 

overlies  the  molten  lead  cathode  I.  A  steam  jet 
at  the  side  of  the  cell  circulates  the  molten  lead 
cathode,  and  the  decomposition  of  the  lead-so- 
dium alloy  produced  is  accomplished  in  a  sepa- 
rate vesseL 

SODA  WATEB.  See  A£matbd  Watebs. 
SODEN;  z5'den,  Hermann,  Baron  (1852—). 
A  German  Protestant  theologian,  bom  in  Cincin- 
nati, Ohio.  He  was  educated  at  Esslingen, 
Urach,  and  Tttbingen,  and  was  a  vicar  in  various 
places  from  1875  to  1880.  From  1880  to  1882  he 
was  a  pastor  in  Dresden,  then  in  Chemnitz  ( 1882- 
80),  and  in  1887  he  took  charge  of  the  Jerusa- 
lemskirche  in  Berlin.    In  1893  he  was  appointed 

Srofessor  of  theology  in  the  University  of  Berlin, 
lis  publications  include:  Philipperbrtef  (1889)  ; 
Wa8  thut  die  evangeliscke  Kirchef  (3  eds.,  1895)  ; 
and  Pdlastina  und  seine  Geschichte  (1899).  He 
also  contributed  vol.  iii.  to  the  Handkommentar 
zum  Neuen  Testament  (1890),  of  which  he  was 
one  of  the  editors. 

Sb'DEBHAJOr,  sS'd§r-h&mn^  A  seaport  of 
Sweden  on  a  small  inlet  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia, 
135  miles  north  of  Stockholm  (Map:  Sweden, 
G  6).  It  has  flour  and  saw  mills,  iron  works, 
breweries  and  woodpulp  factories,  and  exports 
timber,  iron,  and  woodpulp  to  the  value  of  nearly 
$5,000,000  annually.  Its  harbor  has  recently 
common  brine  which  forms  the  electrolyte,  d  the    ^^°  enlarged  and  improved,  and  is  entered  each 

<      ««  ...  ...  ...  .     *      ..  .  -tTAOi*    htr    VAasAla     o  nrnn*  a<v«i  4- 1  n  <v    oKi^ii4-     QfMI  AAA     4-rkna 


•Fig.  2.     DIAGBAJIMATIO  BKBTCH  OF  THS  'BELL.'  TTPB  OF 
GBAVITY  OBLL. 


bell,  and  c  the  cathodes;  e  is  the  pipe  through 
which  fresh  brine  is  supplied  and  g  serves  to 
carry  away  the  chlorine  gas.  The  caustic  alkali 
solution  overflows  through  the  pipe  f.  A  cur- 
rent efllciency  of  from  85  to  90  per  cent,  is 
claimed  and  the  strength  of  the  alkali  solution 
varies  between  100  and  150  grams  of  caustic 
soda  per  liter. 


m 

m 


aaaa 


year  by  vessels  aggregating  about  300,000  tons. 
Population,  in  1901,  11,258. 

SODEBTELJE^  sS'dSr-t^Kye.    A  to^n  of  the 
Llln  of  Stockholm,  Sweden,  15  miles  southwest  of 
the  city  of  Stockholm,  of  which  it  is  practically 
a  suburb  (Map:  Sweden,  G  7).    The  town  is  on 
the     Sodertelje     Canal,    which    connects     Lake 
Malar   with   the   Baltic.       It  is   a   noted   sum- 
mer resort,  with  mineral  springs.    There  are 
machine  shops,  match  factories,  and  spinning 
and  weaving  mills.    Population,  in  1900,  8207. 
SODITJK   (Neo-Lat.,  from  It.  soda,  soda, 
saltwort,  glasswort).    A  metallic  element  iso- 
lated by  Sir  Humphry  Davy  in  1807.     (See 
Potassium;    Chemistry.)       Ckimpounds    of 
sodium  occur  distributed  in  large  quantities, 
especially  sodium  chloride^  which  is  found  in 
nature  as  halite  or  rock  salt,  and  in  solution 
in   sea   and  other  natural   waters.     Sodium 
.    also  occurs  in  the  form  of  nitrate  (soda  nitre, 
i   CT  Chile  saltpetre),  which  is  found  abundant- 
ly in  superflcial  deposits  in  the  rainless  dis- 
tricts of  the  Paciflc  coasts  of  Chile,  Peru,  and 
Bolivia;  as  the  sulphate  (Glauber's  salt)  or 
mirabilite;  as  the  carbonate;  and  in  numer- 
erous  minerals  of  more  complex  composition, 
such  as  cryolite,  the  various   feldspars,  in- 
cluding albite,  labradorite,  oligoclase,  and  the 
zeolites.     Sea  plants,  as  well  as  animal  or- 
ganisms, likewise  contain  sodium  salts.    The 
preparation  of  the  metal  itself  may  be  accom- 
plished by  decomposing  sodium  hydroxide  by 
electrolysis.    It  was  flrst  prepared  on  a  large 
Fig.  8.    cbo«hibction  ofjhb^  ackbb  blbctbolytio  fubhac.   ^i^  ^y  gainte-Claire  Deville,  who  reduced 

sodium  carbonate  with  coal  and  chalk  at  a 

In  the  Acker  fusion  process,  which  is  employed     white  heat,  and  collected  the  resulting  metallic 

at  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y.,  the  electrolyte  consists     sodium  under  coal  oil  in  suitable  condensers.    A 

of  fused  salt  and  the  cathode  of  molten  lead ;  a    commercial  process  now  extoisively  employed  was 


SODITTM. 


1007 


SOBOMA. 


invented  in  1886  by  Castner,  and  consists  in  re- 
ducing sodium  hydroxide  by  an  iron  carbide  pre- 
pared by  adding  finely  divided  iron  to  melted 
pitch  and  coking  the  mixture  in  large  cylinders. 
The  metal  is  distilled  over  into  condensers  and  is 
purified  by  passing  through  linen  under  petro- 
leum at  about  100*  C.  (212*»  F.). 

Sodium  (symbol,  Na;  atomic  weight,  23.05)  is 
a  very  soft  white  metal  possessing  a  silvery 
white  lustre  when  freshly  cut.  Its  specific  grav- 
ity is  9.85^  and  its  melting  point  is  95.6°  G. 
(204**  F.).  It  is  one  of  the  best  conductors  of 
heat  and  electricity,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
electro-positive  metals.  Its  vapor  is  colorless 
when  seen  in  thin  layers,  but  has  a  purple  or 
violet  tinge  by  transmitted  light  when  seen  in 
quantity.  Sodium  bums  with  a  bright  yellow 
flame  when  heated  in  the  air.  When  thrown  into 
cold  water  it  decomposes  it,  liberating  hydrogen, 
but  not  with  sufficient  heat  to  ignite  the  latter, 
unless  the  temperature  of  the  water  is  above 
60**  C.  (140**  F.).  The  metal  readily  takes 
up  oxygen,  and  in  consequence  finds  its  chief 
use  in  the  preparation  of  aluminum,  boron,  mag- 
nesium, and  silicon  by  reduction  from  the  oxides. 
Sodium  forms  alloys  with  many  metals,  and  the 
amalgam  with  mercury  is  employed  in  the  ex- 
traction of  gold.  It  combines  with  oxygen  to 
form  a  monoxide  (NajO)  and  a  peroxide 
(Na,0,),  of  which  the  former  may  be  obtained 
by  heating  sodium  hydroxide  with  sodium,  yield- 
ing a  gray  mass,  which  melts  at  a  dull  red  heat; 
while  the  latter,  which  is  a  white  solid  that 
deliquesces  in  the  air,  is  formed  by  heating 
metallic  sodium  in  oxygen. 

The  salts  of  sodium  are  among  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  commercial  chemicals.  Chief 
among  them  is  sodium  acetate,  which  is'  pre- 
pared by  treating  acetic  acid  or  vinegar  with 
sodium  carbonate,  filtering  the  solution  and  con- 
centrating to  crystallization.  Sodium  arsenate 
is  prepared  by  fusing  arsenious  acid,  sodium  car- 
bonate, and  sodium  nitrate,  dissolving  the  result- 
ing mixture  in  hot  water,  filtering,  and  crystal- 
lizing. The  colorless  crystals  thus  obtain^  are 
official  in  the  pharmacopoeia  and  are  used  in 
skin  diseases  and  as  a  substitute  for  arsenic. 
Mixed  with  sugar  this  salt  is  frequently  em- 
ployed as  a  poison  for  flies.  Sodium  bromide  and 
sodium  iodide,  which  are  prepared  by  decompos- 
ing, respectively,  ferrous  bromide  and  ferrous 
iodide  with  sodium  carbonate,  are  white  ciystal- 
line  compounds  that  find  some  use  in  medicine  as 
nervous  sedatives.  Sodium  carbonate,  which  is 
the  soda  of  commerce,  is  a  colorless  crystalline 
odorless  compound  with  a  strong  alkaline  taste, 
which  is  found  native  in  many  mineral  waters 
and  as  efflorescences  in  the  neighborhood  of  soda 
lakes.  Sodium  bicarbonate  or  *acid'  sodium  car- 
bonate is  made  by  passing  a  current  of  carbon 
dioxide  through  a  strong  solution  of  sodium 
carbonate  until  it  is  saturated  and  then  allowing 
the  mixture  to  crystallize,  yielding  a  colorless 
compound  which  finds  extensive  use  in  the  manu- 
facture of  baking  powders  and  of  artificial  min- 
eral waters,  and  also  in  medicine  as  an  antacid. 
Sodium  hypophosphite  is  prepared  by  treating 
calcium  hypophosphite  with  sodium  carbonate 
and  recrystallizing  the  resulting  product  from 
alcohol.  It  forms  small  colorless  crystals  that 
are  deliquescent  and  finds  some  use  in  medicine 
as  a  restorer  in  exhausted  conditions  of  the  nerv- 
ous system,  and  as  an  ingredient  in  the  syrup 


of  hypophosphites.  Sodium  Kyposulphiie,  or 
more  correctly  sodium  thiosulphate,  is  prepared 
by  decomposing  soluble  calcium  thiosulphate 
with  either  sodium  sulphate  or  sodium  carbonate, 
resulting  in  the  formation  of  a  colorless  crystal- 
line compound  that  is  efflorescent  in  dry  air,  and 
is  used  in  photography  as  a  solvent  for  the  imal- 
tered  silver  chloride  or  bromide  on  the  film,  and 
in  medicine  as  an  alterative  and  resolvent.  Sodi- 
um silicate  is  prepared  commercially  by  fusing 
sodium  carbonate  with  sand  and  a  small  quan- 
tity of  charcoal  in  a  reverberatory  furnace  and 
then  dissolving  by  prolonged  boiling  in  water. 
(See  Wateb-Glass.)  Sodium  sulphite  is  ob- 
tained by  passing  gaseous  sulphur  dioxide  into 
a  solution  of  sodium  carbonate  and  evaporating 
the  mixture  to  dryness  or  crystallization,  result- 
ing in  a  colorless,  transparent,  efflorescent  com-- 
pound  that  is  used  as  a  bleaching  agent  under 
the  name  of  antichlore,  in  the  manufacture  of 
paper,  for  the  purpose  of  removing  the  last  traces 
of  chlorine  from  the  bleached  pulp;  it  is  also 
employed  in  medicine  as  an  antiferment.  See 
also  Soda;  Salt;  Saltpetbe;  Glauber's  Salt; 
etc. 

SOIX>li:  (Heb.  SidCm)  and  GOHOB^AH 
(Heb.  *dm6rah).  Two  ancient  cities  near  the 
I)ead  Sea,  almost  invariably  spoken  of  together 
in  the  Bible.  With  Admah,  Zeboiim,  and  Bela 
or  Zoar,  they  formed  the  fiye  'cities  of  the  plain,' 
which  on  account  of  the  wickedness  of  their 
inhabitants  are  said  to  have  been  destroyed  by  a 
rain  of  brimstone,  perhaps  also  accompanied  by 
an  earthquake.  Lot  and  his  family  were  the 
only  ones  who  escaped.  His  wife,  however,  for 
disobedience  was  turned  into  a  pillar  of  salt 
(Gen.  xix.  1-29;  Deut.  xxix.  23;  Zeph.  ii.  9;  Isa. 
i.  9).  Some  scholars  say  the  cities  were  at  the 
northern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea,  others  at  the 
southern  end.  Names  like  Jebel  Usdum  ( Sodom ) 
and  Zoara  or  Zughar  (Zoar),  at  the  southern 
end,  point  to  a  tradition  of  the  existence  of  the 
cities  there.  The  biblical  story  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  cities  is  considered  by  many  critics 
similar  to  tales  found  among  Arabs  (and  other 
nations)  regarding  the  sudden  disappearance  of 
places.  Those  who  thus  deny  the  literal  truth- 
fulness of  the  narrative  call  attention  to  the 
weird  character  of  the  district  around  the  Dead 
Sea,  fatal  to  plant  and  animal  life,  as  naturally 
suggesting  the  thought  of  some  catastrophe.  See 
Lot. 

SODOM,  Apple  of.  A  name  sometimes  given 
to  the  fruit  of  Solanum  sodomsum.  Many  un- 
satisfactory attempts  have  been  made  to  deter- 
mine the  source  of  the  true  apple  of  Sodom  or 
mad  apple  of  the  Dead  Sea  region  mentioned  by 
Strabo,  Tacitus,  and  Josephus,  and  described  as 
beautiful  to  the  eye,  but  filling  the  mouth  with 
bitter  ashes  if  tasted.  One  explanation  is  that 
it  is  a  kind  of  gall  (q.v.)  growing  on  dwarf 
oaks.  These  beautiful,  rich,  glossy,  purplish- 
red  galls  are  about  2  inches  long  and  1%  inches 
in  diameter,  and  are  filled  with  an  intensely 
bitter,  porous,  and  easily  pulverized  substance. 

SO^DOHA,  II,  properly  Giovanni  Antonio 
Bazzi  (1477-1649).  An  Italian  painter  of  the 
High  Renaissance.  He  was  bom  at  Vercelli 
(Piedmont)  and  studied  for  six  years  with  Mar- 
tino  de  Spanzattis,  a  painter  on  glass.  He  then 
came  under  the  influence  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci, 
probably  at  Milan,  and  though  he  maintained  an 


S03X>MA. 


1008 


0OFIA. 


individuftl  quality,  his  work  took  oolor  from  that 
master.  In  1601  he  was  established  at  Siena,  the 
city  with  which  he  was  chiefly  identified  for  the 
remainder  of  his  life.  In  1507  or  1608  he  yisited 
Rome  and  was  commissioned  by  Pope  Julius  IL 
to  paint  frescoes  in  the  Camera  della  Segnatura 
of  the  Vatican.  Only  a  fresco  on  the  ceiling 
remains,  all  the  rest  having  been  remoYcd 
when  he  was  superseded  by  Raphael.  His  rela- 
tions with  Raphael  were  friendly,  however,  and 
he  thereafter  showed  traces  of  Raphael's  artistic 
influence.  Raphael  painted  Sodoma's  portrait 
beside  his  own  in  ''The  School  of  Athens."  Sodo- 
ma  visited  Rome  a  second  time,  where  he  lived 
with  Agostino  Chigi  and  painted  in  Chigi's  Villa 
Famesina  the  "Marriage  of  Alexander  and  Rox- 
ana,"  his  most  beautiful  picture  of  an  antique 
subject,  and  ''Alexander  in  the  Tent  of  Darius." 
For  his  portrait  of  the  Roman  Lady  Lucretia  he 
was  made  a  knight  by  Leo  X.  In  1616  he  re- 
turned to  Siena,  and  his  movements  for  the  suc- 
ceeding ten  years  are  but  vaguely  recorded.  From 
1626-37  he  resided  at  Siena,  where  he  died  Feb- 
ruary 16,  1649. 

Sodoma  is  to  be  seen  at  his  best  in  his  frescoes 
at  Siena,  where,  after  his  Roman  period,  he 
painted  a  large  "Flagellation"  for  San  Francesco, 
the  "Ecstasy"  and  the  "Swoon  of  Saint  Catha- 
rine" in  San  Domenico,  a  "Nativity"  in  Sant' 
Agostino,  and  a  large  altarpieoe  in  Santo  Spirito. 
In  the  Convent  of  Monte  Oliveto,  near  Siena,  is  a 
series  of  twenty-five  scenes  from  the  life  of  Saint 
Benedict,  belonging  to  the  artist's  early  period. 
His  panel  paintings  include  a  "Saint  Sebastian" 
in  the  Uffizi,  a  perfect  representation  of  "suffer- 
ing, refined  and  spiritual,  without  contortion  or 
spasm;"  an  "Ascension"  at  Naples;  a  "Sacrifice 
of  Abraham"  at  Pisa;  a  "Caritas"  at  Berlin;  and 
a  "Leda"  in  the  Borghese  Gallery,  Rome.  So- 
doma's influence  on  the  Sienese  school  was  very 
great  and  resulted  in  a  new  manner  practiced  at 
Siena.  The  popularity  of  his  work  has  increased 
with  recent  writers.  His  merits  are  the  power 
to  express  tenderness,  sensuous  grace,  and  an  ex- 
alted sweetness  and  suffering.  He  was  often  in- 
ferior in  the  composition  of  his  pictures,  weak  in 
the  handling  of  draperies,  and  uncertain  in  the 
setting-up  of  individual  figures.  Consult:  Jan- 
sen,  Lehen  und  Werke  des  Malers  (Hova$Mnt<mio 
Bazzi  von  Vercelli  (Stuttgart,  1870) ;  Frizzoni, 
in  Nuova  Antologia  (August,  1871). 

SODOXY.  The  unnatural  carnal  intercourse 
of  persons  with  each  other  or  with  beasts;  so 
called  from  the  form  of  vice  practiced  in  the 
ancient  city  of  Sodom.  It  is  punished  by  death 
or  long  terms  of  imprisonment  in  all  civilized 
countries. 

SOEHMEBIKG,  z&^mSr-ing,  Samuel  Thoi^as 
VON  (1766-1830).  A  German  anatomist  and 
physiologist  of  note,  bom  at  Thorn,  educated  at 
GSttingen,  and  chosen  professor  of  anatomy  at 
Mentz  in  1784.  He  defended  the  theory  that  the 
nerves  act  independently  of  the  brain,  and  he 
considered  the  brain  as  not  essential  to  life.  His 
division  of  the  cranial  nerves  into  twelve  pairs 
instead  of  nine  is  generally  adopted.  His  princi- 
pal works  were :  De  Bast  Encephali  et  Originibut 
Nervorum,  etc.  (G«ttingen,  1778) ;  Von  Him- 
und  R&ckenmark  (Mainz,  1788)  ;  Vom  Baue  des 
Menslichen  Kdrpera  .  ( Frankfort-on-Main,  1791 ) ; 
TJeber  das  Organ  der  Seele  (KOnigsberg,  1796) ; 
and  De  Morhis  Vaaorum  AhsdrhiinHufn  O^rffdris 


Humani,  etc.  (Frankfortron-Main,  1795).  Con- 
sult his  biography  by  Strieker  (Frankfort-on- 
Main,  1862)^  also  Lancet,  voL  iL,  p.  243  (Lon- 
don, 1830). 

SOESTy  zSst.  A  town  in  the  Province  of 
Westphalia,  Prussia,  34  miles  southeast  of  Mfin- 
ster  (Bfap:  Prussia,  C  3).  Relics  of  its  medieval 
splendors  still  survive  in  its  churches.  Of  these 
the  finest  is  the  "Meadow  Church,"  restored 
in  1860-62.  The  tenth-century  Romanesque  cathe- 
dral has  excellent  mural  paintings.  The  manu- 
factures include  machinery,  cigars,  tinware, 
bricks,  sugar,  and  lamps.  There  are  markets  for 
cereals  and  cattle.  In  the  Middle  Ages  Soest  was 
an  important  member  of  the  Hanseatic  League, 
and  had  a  population  of  over  26,000.  Its  muni- 
cipal law,  the  jus  Susatense,  was  the  oldest  in 
Germany  and  served  as  the  model  for  the  other 
Imperial  free  towns,  Ltlbeck,  Hamburg,  etc.  Pop- 
uhition,  in  1900,  16,724. 

SOETBEEB^  zSt^ftr,  Adolf  (1814-92).  A 
German  econoinist,  bom  at  Hamburg.  After 
studying  at  G5ttingen  and  Berlin  he  returned  to 
Hamburg,  where  in  1839  he  published  a  mono- 
graph on  the  customs  duties  of  that  city.  In 
1840  he  became  librarian,  and  in  1843  secretary 
of  the  Hamburg  Chamber  of  Commerce,  where 
he  laid  the  foundation  of  the  excellent  system  of 
oonmiercial  statistics  for  which  Hamburg  is  still 
noted.  In  1846  he  published  Denkschrift  uber 
Hamhurgs  Munzverh&ltnisse.  Subsequently  he 
published  a  great  number  of  monographs  and 
pamphlets,  defending  the  cause  of  gold  mono- 
metallism. Until  his  death  he  ranked  as  the  lead- 
ing defender  of  the  single  gold  standard.  The 
adoption  of  the  gold  standard  by  Germany  was 
due  in  no  small  measure  to  his  efforts.  Among  his 
most  important  works  are :  Denkschrift  betreffend 
die  EinfUhrung  der  Chldw&hrung  in  DeuiscMand 
(1866);  Zur  Frage  der  deutschen  Muwseinheit 
(1861) ;  Beitr&ge  zur  Oeschichte  des  Qeldr  und 
Mumswesens  in  Deutschland  (1862)  ;  EdelmetaU- 
production  und  Wertverhaltnis  zwischen  Oold 
und  Silher  sett  der  Entdedcung  Amerikas  bis  zur 
Oegenwart  (1879)  ;  Materialien  zur  Erlauterung 
und  Beurteilung  der  u?irtsohaftlichen  Edelfnetali- 
verhSltnisse  und  der  Wuhrungsfrage  (1886). 

SOFALAy  s6-flS/lk.  A  name  applied  formerly 
to  a  considerable  part  of  Portuguese  East  Africa 
(q.v.),  but  confined  at  present  to  a  single  district 
under  the  administration  of  the  Mozambique 
Company.  The  seaport  of  Sofala,  in  latitude 
20**  10'  S.,  has  a  population  of  about  1300. 

SOFIA,  s(/f^A,  or  SOPHLA.  (Bulg.  Sredetz). 
The  capital  of  the  Principality  of  Bulgaria,  sit- 
uated in  a  plain  between  the  Vitosha  Mountains 
and  the  main  Balkan  chain,  206  miles  southeast 
of  Belgrade  and  300  miles  northwest  of  Constan- 
tinople (Map:  Balkan  Peninsula,  D  3).  It  has 
been  largely  rebuilt  since  1878  and  presents  the 
appearance  of  a  modem  city  with  electric  light- 
ing and  street  railways  and  creditable  public 
buildings.  In  old  Sofia  are  the  ruined  Sofia 
Mosque,  the  Mosque  of  Buyuk-Jami,  now  used  as 
a  national  museum  and  library,  and  the  vast 
baths  with  hot  springs.  The  principal  modem 
buildings  are  the  palace  of  the  Prince,  the  uni- 
versity buildings,  the  new  cathedral  of  Saint 
Alexander,  the  house  of  Parliament,  and  the 
various  administration  buildings.  Sofia  has  a 
university    (founded  in   1888)    with  about  600 


SOFIA. 


1009 


son.. 


students,  colleges  for  boys  and  girls,  and  a  mili- 
tary school  and  college.  It  is  the  industrial  cen- 
tre of  Bulgaria  and  has  manufactures  of  silk, 
cloth,  tobacco,  etc.  Situated  at  the  converging 
of  the  principal  highways  of  the  principality  and 
connected  by  rail  with  Constantinople,  Belgrade, 
and  Saloniki,  the  city  is  well  adapted  for  its 
prominent  position  as  a  commercial  centre,  and 
has  an  extensive  export  trade  in  agricultural 
products,  hides,  and  attar  of  roses.  The  popula- 
tion was  30,400  in  1887  and  67,920  in  1900,  prin- 
cipally Bulgarians.  Sofia  is  identified  with  the 
Serdica  or  Sardica  of  the  Romans,  which  became 
the  capital  of  Daoia  Ripensia,  and  about  344  was 
the  seat  of  a  Church  council.  The  town  was  plun- 
dered by  the  Huns  in  the  fifth  century,  and  at  the 
beginning  of  the  ninth  century  it  was  taken  by 
the  Bulgarians.  In  1382  it  passed  to  Turkey,  and 
in  1878  it  was  occupied  by  the  Russians  under 
Gurko. 

SOFT  A  (Turk.  s6fta,  from  Pers.  sdaiah,  sUm- 
iah,  burned  [with  zeal],  p.p.  of  aUwtan,  Av.  saoc, 
Skt.  iuc,  to  bum).  The  name  applied  in  Turkey 
to  the  students  of  the  theological  schools.  They 
are  drawn  largely  from  the  lower  classes  and  are 
as  a  rule  opposed  to  Occidental  ideas.  Because  of 
this  they  have  often  opposed  the  Turkish  Govern- 
ment. From  them  are  appointed  the  MoUahs  and 
the  Ulemas  (qq.v.).  There  are  now  about  16,000 
Softas  in  Constantinople. 

SOFT  OBASS  (Holcua.)  A  small  genus  of 
grasses.  The  English  name  is  derived  from  the 
soft  and  abimdant  pubescence  of  the  two  British 
species,  creeping  soft  grass  {Holcua  mollis)  and 
woolly  soft  grass,  meadow  soft  grass,  or  velvet 
grass  {Holcua  lanatua).  The  latter  is  found 
most  abundantly  on  damp  soils,  on  which  it  is 
sometimes  sown  for  forage.  The  former  is  gen- 
erally found  on  dry,  sandy,  or  other  light  soils. 
The  roots  sometimes  extend  five  or  six  feet  in  a 
season.  These  grasses  are  seldom  planted  for 
forage,  except  in  situations  little  suited  to  more 
valuable  species. 

SOFT-GBOUND  ETCHING.  A 'species  of 
etching  in  which  the  ground  ordinarily  used  is 
softened  by  a  mixture  with  tallow.  In  ordinary 
etching  (q.v.)  the  subject  to  be  represented  is 
scratched  directly  upon  the  ground  by  means  of 
the  needle ;  but  in  soft-ground  etching  it  is  drawn 
with  a  lead  pencil  upon  a  piece  of  fine-grained 
paper  stretched  over  the  ground.  The  impres- 
sion thus  prdouced  upon  the  ground,  when  bitten, 
gives  the  eflfect  of  pencil  or  chalk  lines  in  the 
proof.  Soft-ground  etching  is  not  much  used,  be- 
cause the  same  effects  can  be  obtained  by 
lithography  and  heliographic  processes. 

SOFT-SHELLED  TT7BTLE.  Any  of  various 
fresh-water  turtles  of  the  family  Trionychidfle, 
represented  in  the  United  States  by  the  two 
genera  Amyda  and  Aspidonectes.  These  turtles 
take  their  name  from  the  characteristic  leathery 
consistency  of  the  shell,  well  seen  in  the  common 
soft-shell  {Aspidonectes  ferox),  which  is  about 
twelve  inches  long.  Another  species,  the  Heather 
turtle,'  is  Amyda  mutica.  They  are  carnivorous, 
strongly  web-footed,  and  entirely  aquatic,  with 
long  serpentine  necks.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  the 
ground  near  shore.  Times  of  drought  and  winter 
are  spent  in  the  mud  underneath  water.  The 
flesh  of  these  turtles  is  said  to  be  of  superior 
quality. 


SOGDIA^A  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  loySvnp^,  Soff- 
dyanS,  Av.  8vy9a,  OPers.  Suguda,  Pers.  Svyd). 
An  ancient  country  in  Central  Asia,  comprising 
part  of  modem  Turkestan,  bounded  on  the 
northeast  by  the  Jaxartes,  which  separated  it 
from  S<7thia,  and  on  the  southwest  by  the 
Ozus,  which  separated  it  from  Bactria. 
It  was  conquered  by  the  Persians  in  the  reign  of 
Cyrus  and  was  invaded  by  Alexander  the  Great, 
after  whose  time  it  fell  into  the  power  of  the 
Seleucidse  (q.v.). 

SOGKE  FJOBB,  sSg'n^  fyOrd.  An  inlet  in  the 
Province  of  North  Bergenhus,  in  the  eastern  part 
of  Norway.  It  pierces  the  land  for  a  distance  of 
nearly  90  miles,  and  in  some  places  has  a  depth 
of  4000  feet.  The  region  through  which  it  extends 
is  remarkable  for  its  many  glaciers  and  the  wild 
grandeur  of  its  scenery. 

SOHN,  zon,  Kabl  Ferdinand  (1805-67).  A 
German  painter  of  the  Dllsseldorf  school.  He 
was  bom  in  Berlin  and  studied  there  under 
Wilhelm  von  Schadow,  whom  he  followed  to  Dtts- 
seldorf  and  afterwards  accompanied  to  Italv. 
He  treated  principally  mythical  and  poetic  sub- 
jects of  a  highly  romantic  Character,  and  at- 
tained great  proficiency  in  color,  especially  in 
treatment  of  the  nude.  In  1832  he  was  made 
professor  in  the  Dllsseldorf  Academy,  where  he 
exercised  an  important  infiuence  in  the  develop- 
ment of  German  painting.  Among  his  best-known 
works  are:  The  "Rape  of  Hylas"  and  the  "Lute 
Player"  (1832),  both  in  the  National  Gallery, 
Berlin;  "Romeo  and  Juliet"  (1836)  ;  "Tasso  and 
the  Two  Leonoras"  (1839,  Dfisseldorf  Gallery) ; 
"Rinaldo  and  Armidy  "Loreley,"  and  '*Donna 
Diana"  (1840,  Leipzig  Museum).  His  nephew 
and  pupil,  Wilheuc  (1830-99),  bom  in  Berlin, 
painted  at  first  biblical  subjects,  such  as  "Christ 
Stilling  the  Tempest"  (1853,  Diisseldorf  Gal- 
lery), then  devoted  himself  to  genre  scenes,  mas- 
terly in  characterization  and  drawing  and  of 
great  coloristic  charm,  in  the  manner  of  the  Bel- 
gian school.  Among  these  are:  "A  Question  of 
Conscience"  ( 1864,  Karlsruhe  Gallery)  ;  "Con- 
sultation at  the  Lawyer's"  (1866,  Leipzig  Mu- 
seum) ;  and  "Warrior  of  the  Seventeenth  Cen- 
tury" (1869,  Dresden  Gallery). 

SOHO  SQTTABE.  A  square  in  London,  dating 
from  the  time  of  Charles  II.  and  once  called 
King's  Square,  from  the  name  of  its  builder.  It 
was  at  one  time  one  of  the  fashionable  quarters 
of  the  city. 

SOHBAB  AND  BTTSTXTM.  A  narrative  in 
blank  verse  by  Matthew  Arnold,  based  on  the 
Persian  legend  of  Rustem  (q.v.). 

SOIL  (OF.,  Fr.  sol,  from  Lat.  solum,  ground, 
soil,  foundation,  sole).  A  term  applied  to  the 
superficial  unconsolidated  portion  of  the  earth's 
crust  (regolith),  which  is  composed  of  broken 
and  disintegrated  (weathered)  rock  mixed  with 
varying  proportions  of  decayed  and  decaying 
organic  matter  (humus).  The  processes  by 
which  soils  are  formed  from  the  parent  rocks  are 
mechanical  and  chemical,  and  in  some  cases  biolo- 
gical. The  fertility  of  a  soil  will,  therefore,  be 
determined  to  a  considerable  extent  by  the  char- 
acter of  the  parent  rock  and  the  stage  of  its 
decomposition.  Thus  granite,  being  richer  in  the 
elements  of  plant  food,  yields  a  more  fertile  soil 
as  a  rule  than  the  siliceous  sandstones. 

According  to  the  method  of  their  formation 


SOIL. 


1010 


0OIL. 


soils  are  classed  as  sedentary  or  transported. 
When  a  soil  is  found  resting  on  the  parent  rock 
from  whose  decay  it  has  originated  it  is  spoken 
of  as  sedentary  soil.  It  may  show  a  gradual 
transition  from  the  fully  formed  soil  at  the  sur- 
face to  the  solid  rock  beneath.  With  this  class 
may  be  grouped  the  humus  or  peaty  soils  due 
to  accumulations  of  organic  matters  in  bogs, 
swamps,  and  marshes.  In  many  cases  the  residu- 
al pr^ucts  have  been  removed  from  the  place  of 
their  formation  by  the  action  of  water,  ice 
(glaciers),  and  wind  and  deposited  elsewhere  in 
the  form  of  clayey,  sandy,  or  loamy  soils,  often 
representing  the  mingling  of  material  from  sev- 
eral different  sources.  This  type  is  termed 
transported  soil,  and,  though  naturally  very  vari- 
able in  character,  includes  some  of  the  most' 
productive  soil  in  the  world.  The  most  important 
soils  of  this  class  are  the  alluvial  soils,  which 
often  form  a  broad  flood  plain  (q.v.)  bordering  a 
river  or  a  delta  (q.v.)  at  the  mouth,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Nile  and  the  Mississippi  rivers.  In 
the  northern  half  of  the  United  States  much  of 
the  soil  is  of  the  glacial  drift  type  and  repre- 
sents the  debris  ,of  decayed  rocks  of  various 
kinds  brought  down  from  the  north  during  the 
glacial  period  (q.v.). 

JEolian  soils  are  formed  by  wind  action.  They 
include:  (1)  Sand  dunes,  those  shifting,  sandy 
soils  heaped  up  by  wind  action  upon  many  ocean 
coasts  and  the  shores  of  inland  seas.  (See 
Dune;  Dune  Vegetation.)  (2)  Ash  soils,  the 
accumulations  of  ashes  ejected  by  volcanoes. 
The  deposits  are  often  of  considerable  extent  and 
are  frequently  very  fertile.  Much  of  the  highly 
productive  region  around  Mount  Vesuvius,  in 
Italy,  is  of  this  kind.  Such  soils  are  found  in 
Nebraska,  Colorado,  and  Montana,  Soils  derived 
from  disintegration  of  volcanic  lava  are  of  fre- 
quent occurrence,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  in  Idaho  and  other  Northwestern  States. 
The  loess  soils  of  China  and  other  countries  are 
of  solian  origin,  although  the  so-called  loe<?rt 
soils  of  America  are  believed  to  be  for  the  most 
part  of  alluvial  origin.  Soils  containing  an  ex- 
cess of  soluble  salts  are  found  scattered  through- 
out regions  of  deficient  or  irregular  rainfall  and 
are  known  as  alkali  soils  (q.v.). 

Humous,  peaty,  or  moor  soils  are  composed 
largely  of  organic  matter.  The  purest  types  are 
represented  by  the  accumulations  of  peat  (q.v.) 
formed  in  ponds  and  swamps;  marine  marshes, 
and  muck  soils  represent  a  less  pure  variety. 
When  properly  drained  and  aerated  and,  in  the 
cane  of  marine  marshes,  freed  from  excess  of  solu- 
ble salts,  they  often  prove  very  productive. 

In  practice  soils  are  classified  as  gravelly, 
sandy,  loamy,  calcareous,  humus,  or  peaty,  etc., 
distinctions  based  on  the  fineness  of  the  soil  par- 
ticles and  the  relative  proportions  of  sand,  clay, 
lime,  and  humus,  which  they  contain.  Soils  are 
also  frequently  classed  as  light  and  heavy,  ac- 
cording as  they  are  easy  or  difficult  to  till.  In 
this  sense  a  sandy  soil  is  termed  light'  (easy  to 
till),  although  actually  having  greater  weight 
than  a  clayey  soil,  which  is  termed  *heavy*  (dif- 
ficult to  till).  The  productiveness  of  a  soil  de- 
pends chiefly  upon  its  chemical  composition  and 
its  physical  properties.  Chemical  and  physical 
or  mechanical  analysis  separates  soil  constituents 
into  two  general  classes:  (1)  food  constituents, 
and  (2)  physical  constituents.    The  food  constit- 


uents necessary  to  plant  growth  are  nitro- 
gen, silicon,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  dilorine,  alu- 
minum, calcium,  magnesium,  potassium,  sodium, 
and  iron  in  various  forms  of  chemical  combina- 
tion. The  mechanical  constituents  include  clay, 
silt,  sand,  humus,  etc.,  which  act  as  a  physical 
support  to  plants  and  have  an  indirect  fertilizing 
value.  They  form  as  a  rule  the  large  proportion 
of  the  soil  mass,  usually  90.05  per  cent. 

Chemical  Pbofebties.  The  average  chemical 
composition  of  soils  of  humid  and  arid  regions  is 
shown  in  the  following  table  prepared  by  Kil- 
gard: 

AVBBASB  GaxifjoAL  GoMPOsmoH  or  Soils  or  HinuD 

▲JTD  AMD  RBGIOSI 


CONSTlTVCHTfl 

Humid  region 

(average  of  466 

s^s) 

Arid  region 
(averaipe  of  SIS 

Insoluble  matter 

Per  cent. 
S4.081)  „ 

Per  cent. 
70.SSS  1     .  . 

Soluble  silica 

'^;^J87.687     ,  7.^  J  76.135 

Potash    

.316 
.091 
.106 
.326 
3.131 
4.396 
.113 
.063 

729 

Soda ^ 

Mine 

.364 
1.S63 

Haf^esia. 

1.411 

IroD  oxld 

6.763 

Alumina 

7  688 

.117 

Sulphuric  acid     

041 

Garonnlc  acid 

1  316 

Water  and  organic  matter 

8.644 

4.946 

Humus 

100.178 

3.700 

6.450 

.123 

99.998 

760 

Nitrogen  in  humus... 

16  870 

Nitrogen  in  soils 

.101 

The  proportions  of  actual  fertiliring  constitu- 
ents in  soils,  viz.  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  nitro- 
gen, lime,  etc.,  are  relatively  small,  arid  soils 
showing  somewhat  larger  proportions  than  humid 
soils.  Other  mineral  constituents  are  usually 
present  in  sufficient  quantity  to  supply  the  needs 
of  plants.  Humus  (q.v.)  is  of  special  importance 
as  a  soil  constituent  not  only  on  account  of  its 
beneficial  effect  on  the  physical  properties  of 
soils,  but  'because  it  is  an  important  source  of 
nitrogen,  as  well  as  of  phosphoric  acid,  potash, 
lime,  etc.  The  proportions  of  the  latter  constitu- 
ents found  in  humus  in  the  form  of  humates 
represent  to  a  large  extent  the  amounts  available 
in  the  soil  for  plant  food.  The  nitrogen  of  hu- 
mus is  converted  into  a  form  (nitrate)  available 
for  plants  by  the  process  of  nitrification  (q.v.) . 

Physical  Pbopebties.  The  physical  proper- 
^ties  of  soils  which  are  of  special  importance  are 
color,  weight,  fineness  of  division  or  texture, 
structure  or  arrangement  of  particles,  adhesive- 
ness, and  relations  to  gases,  heat,  moisture,  and 
dissolved  solids.  Variations  in  these  properties 
determine  to  a  large  extent  the  productiveness 
of  soils.  Good  tilth  and  texture  with  their  ac- 
companiments of  good  water  conditions,  aeration, 
and  temperature  are  fully  as  essential  to  plant 
growth  as  an  adequate  supply  of  plant  food. 
Physical  properties  of  soils  are,  however,  so 
largely  dependent  upon  their  natural  character, 
and  can  be  modified  to  such  a  limited  extent  by 
man,  that  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  in 
practice  carefully  to  select  soils  with  special 
reference  to  the  suitability  of  their  physical 
characteristics  to  the  crop  to  be  grown. 

The  physical  properties  of  soils  are  determmed 
to  a  large  extent  by  the  proportions  they 


SOIL. 


1011 


SOILXNG,  SOILING  CBOPS. 


tain  of  stones,  gravel,  sand,  clay,  lime,  and  or- 
ganie  matter.  A  soil  containing  much  sand  is 
dry,  warm,  and  easy  to  work,  but  as  a  rule  is 
naturally  poor  and  has  little  absorptive  power 
for  water  and  fertilizing  matter.  A  soil  in  which 
day  predominates  is  apt  to  be  cold,  wet,  and 
difficult  to  till,  but  to  have  a  high  absorptive 
power  not  only  for  water,  but  for  fertilizing 
matter  as  well.  Clayey  soils  generally  contain 
more  plant  food  than  sandy  soils.  Humus 
makes  soils  light  in  weight  and  dark  in  color  and 
greatly  increases  their  absorptive  power.  Lime 
not  only  has  value  as  a  plant  food,  but  improves 
the  structure  of  both  clayey  and  sandy  soils 
and  corrects  acidity.  It  also  promotes  the  de- 
composition of  organic  matter  and  aids  nitrifi- 
cation. 

Mechanical  analysis,  which  separates  the  par- 
ticles of  a  soil  into  six  or  more  grades  of  fine- 
ness ranging  from  stones  and  gravel  through 
sand  and  silt  to  clay,  furnishes  a  valuable  means 
of  securing  data  for  judging  of  the  physical 
properties  of  soils.  The  productiveness  of  a  soil 
depends  very  largely  upon  its  texture  and  struc- 
ture, i.e.  the  size  of  the  particles  and  their  ar- 
rangement. These  determine  very  largely  the 
circulation  of  water  and  gases,  the  solution  and 
retention  of  plant  food,  and  the  growth  of  plant 
roots.  When  the  grains  are  single  or  separated 
the  soil  is  said  to  have  a  puddled  structure,  while 
a  compoimding  of  the  soil  grains  gives  a  floccu- 
lated structure.  The  latter  is  desirable  in  all 
good  soils,  as  it  increases  the  pore  space  and 
facilitates  the  circulation  of  air  and  water 
through  the  soil  mass.  Flocculation  may  at 
times  be  caused  by  frost  action,  but  more  fre- 
quently is  produced  by  the  action  of  lime.  Fer- 
tilizers vary  in  their  action  on  soils,  some,  like 
nitrate  of  soda,  producing  puddling,  while  others 
produce  flocculation.  The  finer  the  soil  particles 
the  greater  the  injurious  effects  of  puddling,  clay 
soils  suffering  from  this  cause  more  than  sandy 
soils.  Puddling  increases  the  water-retaining 
power,  and  thus  retards  percolation,  but  may  ac- 
celerate capillary  rise  of  water  in  the  soil  layers. 
Flocculation  of  the  particles  decreases  the  re- 
tention of  water,  aids  percolation,  and  may  re- 
tard evaporation.  Water  passes  more  easily 
from  a  coarse  to  a  fine  layer  than  from  a  fine 
to  a  coarse  one,  a  fact  taken  advantage  of  by  the 
farmer  when  he  firms  the  soil  by  rolling  and 
then  loosens  the  surface  by  harrowing,  which  de- 
stroys the  capillary  spaces  and  so  checks  the 
escape  of  water  into  the  air.  The  water  is  thus 
held  near  the  surface,  where  it  is  readily  acces- 
sible to  the  roots  of  plants.  The  action  of  the 
mulch  (q.v.)  depends  upon  this  principle.  In 
humid  regions  the  clay  particles  of  the  soil  are 
usually  washed  down  to  a  layer  several  inches 
below  the  surface,  the  surface  layer  being  called 
the  soil  proper,  and  the  lower  one  the  subsoil. 
In  arid  regions  this  difference  does  not  exist,  but 
the  fine  clay  particles  are  evenly  distributed 
throughout  the  soil  layers. 

Soils  vary  widely  in  their  absorption  power 
for  water  and  for  fertilizing  matter,  a  property 
frequently  due  in  clayey  and  humu^  soils  to  the 
presence  of  colloid  substances.  Of  the  three 
principal  fertilizing  constituents — ^nitrogen,  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  potash — soils  apparently  have 
the  least  retentive  power  for  nitrogen  (in  the 
form  of  nitrate)  and  the  greatest  for  phosphoric 
acid. 


.  The  temperature  of  soils  is  modified  by  a  va- 
riety of  conditions,  e.g.  a  dark-colored  soil  is 
usually  warmer  than  a  light-colored  one;  soils 
so  exposed  as  to  receive  a  large  amount  of  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun  are  warmer  than  those 
not  thus  exposed;  dry  soils  are  warmer  than 
wet.  The  relation  of  soils  to  water  probably 
more  than  any  other  one  factor  determines  their 
productiveness.  Water  is  not  only  necessary  as 
a  constituent  of  plant  tbsue,  but  it  performs  a 
most  important  function  as  a  solvent  and  carrier 
of  food  .in  both  soil  and  plant,  and  the  amount 
required  in  plant  growth  is  very  large — from 
250  to  600  pounds  for  each  pound  of  dry  matter 
produced  by  the  plant. 

BiBUOGBAPHT.  Shalcr,  Origin  and  Nature  of 
8oil8  (Twelfth  Annual  Report  United  States 
Geological  Survey,  1890-91,  part  i..  Geology,  pp. 
213-245)  ;  Merrill,  Rocks,  Rock  Weathering,  and 
Soils   (New  York,   1897);  King,  The  Soil   (ib., 

1898)  ;  Stockbridge,  Rocks  and  Soils  (ib.,  1895)  ; 
Hall,  The  Soil  (London,  1903)  ;  Fream,  Soils  and 
Their  Properties  (London,  1895)  ;  Warington, 
Physical  Properties  of  Soils  (Oxford,  Eng., 
1900)  ;  Ramann,  Forstliche  Bodenkunde  und 
Standortslehre  (Berlin,  1893)  ;  Brooks,  Agricul- 
ture, vol.  i.  (Springfield,  1901);  Roberts,  The 
Fertility  of  the  Land  (New  York,  1897);  Mc- 
Connell,  Elements  of  Agricultural  Geology  (Lon- 
don, 1902)  ;  Risler,  Otologic  agricole  (Paris, 
1884-96)  ;  Hilgard,  The  Relations  of  Soil  to  Cli- 
mate  (United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Weather  Bureau  Bulletin  3,  Washington,  1892)  ; 
Whitney,  Some  Physical  Properties  of  Soils  in 
Their  Relation  to  Crop  Production  ( United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Weather  Bureau 
Bulletin  4,  Washington,  1892)  ;  King,  The 
Principles  and  Conditions  of  the  Movements  of 
Oround^joater  (United  States  Geological  Survey, 
Nineteenth  Annual  Report,  pt.  ii.,  Washington, 

1899)  ;  the  reports  and  bulletins  of  the  Bureau 
of  Soils  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  especially  Bulletins  4,  10,  15,  17, 
18,  19  and  22,  and  reports  on  Field  Operations  of 
the  Bureau  of  Soils,  beginning  with  the  year 
1899. 

SOIL  AMENDMENTS.  Substances,  such  as 
lime,  gypsum,  salt,  muck,  etc.,  which  increase 
the  productiveness  of  soils  without  directly 
supplying  any  constituent  which  the  plant 
needs.  They  act  mainly  by  improving  the  physi- 
cal condition  of  soils,  collecting  and  conserving 
moisture,  setting  free  latent  plant  food,  and  cor- 
recting certain  faulty  conditions,  such  as  acidity 
and  alkalinity.  Some  of  them,  like  muck,  con- 
tain considerable  amounts  of  available  fertilizing 
ingredients.  In  all  cases,  however,  they  are  used 
mainly  for  their  secondary  or  incidental  effects. 

SOUiING,  SOILING  CBOPS.  Soiling  con- 
sists in  feeding  grazing  animals  in  inclosures  or 
in  bams  with  green  forage  grown  especially  for 
the  purpose,  instead  of  turning  them  out  to  pas- 
ture; and  soiling  crops  are  the  crops  grown  for 
this  purpose.  Soiling  is  a  feature  of  intensive 
farming  and  small  holdings,  but  it  is  also  prac- 
ticed with  profit  in  regions  where  the  agricultural 
resources  are  in  process  of  development.  Under 
European  conditions  stock  is  frequently  fed  in 
bams  the  year  round,  but  in  the  United  States 
soiling  is  usually  combined  with  pasturing,  stock 
being  less  frequently  fed  in  bams  during  the  sum- 


80ILIN0,  SOUJIf G  OBOFB. 


lois 


80LAVACEJE. 


mer.  In  some  instanceB,  however,  as  in  the  case 
of  daily  farms  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  lar^ 
cities,  complete  soiling  is  not  infrequent  and  is 
on  the  increase. 

American  farmers  begjan  to  turn  their  attention 
to  soiling  early  in  the  nineteenth  century,  and  ag- 
ricultural literature  shows  that  about  the  middle 
of  the  century  the  practice  had  become  general 
in  the  Eastern  and  Southern  States.  The  crops 
used  for  green  forage  at  that  time  were  grass, 
clover,  com,  oats,  cabbage,  and  root  crops.  In 
the  West,  where  large  tracts  of  wild  grass  land 
afford  unlimited  pasturage,  there  is  no  need  to  re- 
sort to  soiling;  but  as  soon  as  the  land  is  settled 
and  the  natural  pastures  become  confined  to  indi- 
vidual farms,  soiling  has  not  only  been  found  ex- 
pedient, but  oftentimes  necessary.  Its  advantages 
are  many.  It  requires  far  less  land  to  sustain  a 
given  number  of  farm  animals  than  under  pastur- 
ing; feeding  green  forage  in  the  bam  or  yard 
eliminates  the  expense  of  constructing  and  keep- 
ing up  pasture  fences,  at  the  same  time  greatly 
diminishing  the  waste  of  food,  and  animals  are 
assured  sufficient  feed  at  all  times.  Practically 
the  only  serious  disadvantage  is  the  extra  labor 
involved. 

Since  animals  kept  in  the  bam  seem  to  require 
exercise,  the  two  systems  of  soiling  and  pasturing 
are  often  combined  in  the  United  States.  In  such 
cases  the  soiling  crops  should  be  grown  remote 
from  the  pasture,  so  that  the  animals  may  not  be- 
come restless  and  disinclined  to  graze.  The  fod- 
der should  not  be  fed  in  open  racks,  and  the 
quantity  given  should  never  be  more  than  will  be 
eaten  at  the  time. 

Nearly  all  farm  crops  can  be  utilized  in  soil- 
ing, com  being  considered  one  of  the  best. 
The  soil,  the  climate,  and  the  kind  of  stock  to  be 
fed  naturally  determine  the  kinds  of  crops  to  be 
grown.  The  purpose  of  soiling  crops  is  to  afford 
abundance  of  succulent  forage.  This  is  best  ac- 
complished with  rapidly  growingplants  that  pro- 
duce large  amounts  of  foliage.  The  list  of  soiling 
crops  generally  grown  includes  rape,  turnips,  sor- 
ghum, kafir  com,  millet,  many  cereals  such  as 
rye,  barley,  oats,  and  many  legumes  such  as 
clover,  cow  peas,  alfalfa,  and  combinations  of  oats 
and  peas,  and  barley  and  peas.  Consult:  Peer, 
Soiling,  Soiling  Crops,  and  Ensilage  (New  York 
and  London,  1900)  ;  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  16, 

80ISS0NS,  Bwft'sON^  An  episcopal  city  and 
the  capital  of  an  arrondissement  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  Aisne,  France,  66  miles  northeast  of 
Paris,  on  the  Aisne  River  (Map:  France,  K  2). 
The  principal  building  is  the  cathedral  of  Notre 
Dame,  a  composite  of  the  Romanesque  and  Gothic 
styles  of  architecture,  founded  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
turv.  There  are  also  some  remains  of  the  great 
castellated  Abbey  of  Saint  Jean  des  Vignes,  where 
Thomas  a  Becket  found  refuge  when  in  exile.  A 
short  distance  from  Soissons  is  an  institute  for 
the  deaf  and  dumb,  which  occupies  the  site  of  the 
famous  Abbey  of  Saint  M^ard.  Other  features 
of  the  town  include  the  town  hall  with  a  library 
of  60,000  volumes  and  a  museum ;  the  mediseval 
Abbaye  Notre  Dame  (built  on  the  site  of  a  con- 
vent dating  from  660),  now  utilized  as  barracks; 
and  the  seminary  occupying  the  old  Abbaye  Saint 
Ii(^ger.  Soissons  is  in  a  region  extensively  en- 
gaged in  farming,  and  carries  on  a  large  trade  in 
grain,  haricot  beans,  live  stock,  etc.    The  princi- 


pal manufactures  are  leather,  foundry  products, 
lumber,  flannel,  and  farm  implements.  Popula- 
tion, in  1901,  13,240.  Soissons  is  one  of  the  old- 
est towns  in  France.  In  the  time  of  the  Romans 
it  bore  the  names  of  Noviodunum,  Augusta  Sues- 
sionum,  and  Suessiona,  It  is  famous  for  the  vic- 
tory obtained  in  the  vicinity  by  Clovis  in  4S6 
over  the  Roman  general  Syagrius,  which  put  an 
end  to  Roman  dominion  in  Gaul.  It  vras  the 
capital  of  the  Frankish  kingdom  of  Neustria 
Soissons.  It  has  imdergone  numerous  sieges.  On 
October  16,  1870,  after  a  bombardment  of  four 
days,  it  surrendered  to  the  Germans. 

SOISSONS,  Louis  de  Bourbon,  Cbunt  (1604- 
41).  A  French  noble,  bom  in  Paris.  Succeeding 
to  the  office  of  grand  master  of  France  and  Gov- 
ernor of  Dauphin^,  he  took  the  part  of  the  Queen 
Mother,  Maria  de'  Medici  (q.v.),  while  at  the 
same  time  making  approaches  to  the  Huguenots. 
He  conspired  against  Richelieu,  who  had  opposed 
his  marriage  to  Mile,  de  Montpensier,  ana  was 
obliged  to  flee  to  Savoy.  He  was^  however,  re- 
called by  Louis  XIII.  and  took  part  in  the  siege 
of  La  Rochelle  in  1627.  In  1636  he  again  formed 
a  plot  against  Richelieu,  and  after  its  failure  fled 
to  Sedan,  where  he  joined  an  alliance  with  the 
Duke  de  Bouillon,  Duke  de  Guise,  and  the  Span- 
iards against  Richelieu.  In  July,  1641,  they  met 
the  royal  forces  at  Marf^,  near  Sedan,  and  van- 
quished them;  but  at  the  moment  of  victory 
Soissons  was  killed. 

SOKO^O.  One  of  the  largest  States  of  Cen- 
tral Sudan,  extending  with  its  dependencies  east- 
ward from  the  Lower  Niger,  above  the  confluence 
with  the  Benue^  to  the  Kingdom  of  Bomu  and 
the  borders  of  French  Congo,  and  embracing  the 
larger  part  of  Northern  Nigeria  (see  Nigebia) 
(Map:  Africa,  E  3).  Area^  estimated  at  over 
100,000  square  miles.  Its  population  is  com- 
posed principally  of  Hausas  (see  Hausa  States), 
out  includes  also  the  Fulbe^  who  are  the  ruline 
class,  as  well  as  Tuaregs,  Arabs,  etc.  The  total 
population  is  believed  to  number  about  10,000,000. 
The  Sokoto  Empire  took  its  rise  in  the  nineteenth 
century.  It  originally  formed  a  part  of  the  great 
Fulah  Empire  established  by  Othmar  in  Central 
Sudan  at  tne  beginning  of  the  same  century.  It  re- 
mained in  the  possession  of  the  family  of  Othmar 
until  the  conclusion  of  the  commercial  treaty  with 
the  Royal  Niger  CJompany  in  1885,  since  when  the 
territory  has  gradually  come  within  the  British 
sphere  of  influence,  with  the  exception  of  Ada- 
mawa  (q.v.),  which  is  partly  within  the  German 
sphere.  The  city  of  Solcoto,  formerly  the  capital 
of  the  empire,  with  a  population  of  over  100,000, 
is  now  an  insignificant  place,  and  the  capital 
has  been  transferred  to  Wurau,  a  small  town 
about  26  miles  northeast.  The  commercial  centre 
is  Kano  (q.v.). 

SOKOTBA,  s6'k(/tr&  or  s5k^6-tr&.  An  island 
in  the  Indian  Ocean.    See  Soootba. 

SOXANA^CEJE  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Lat 
solanum,  nightshade),  or  The  Nightshade  Fam- 
ily. A  natural  order  of  mostly  offensively  smell- 
ing tropical  and  subtropical  herbs  and  shrubs, 
and  a  few  trees.  There  are  70  genera  and  about 
1600  species,  most  of  which  are  found  in  Central 
and  South  America;  a  few  in  the  temperate 
zones,  but  none  in  the  cold  regions.  The  princi- 
pal genera  are  Nicandra,  Lycium,  Atropa,  Hy- 
OBcyamus,  Physalis,  Capsicum,  Solanum,  Lyoo- 


SOLANACEA 


1018 


80LAB  XIOBOSOOPE. 


persicum,  Mandragora,  Datura,  Petunia,  Niooti- 
ana,  Salpiglossis,  and  Schizanthus. 

SOLAN  GOOSE.    See  Ganitet. 

SOLANO.     See  Simoom. 

SOLAKTJM  (Lat.,  nightshade).  A  genua  of 
widely  distributed  spiny,  downy,  or  smooth 
herbs  or  shrubs  of  the  natural  order  SolanacesB, 
containing  several  hundred  species,  particularly 
abundant  in  tropical  South  America  and  the 
West  Indies.  The  species  almost  always  contain 
more  or  less  solanin,  an  alkaloid  said  to  occasion 
distress  when  the  plants  are  eaten  too  freely.  By 
far  the  most  important  of  all  the  species  is  £fo- 
lanum  tuheroaum,  the  potato  (q.v.),  in  which 
solanin  is  found  in  considerable  quantity.  Of 
the  species  with  edible  fruit,  the  principal  is 
Solanum  melongenay  the  egg-plant.  Solanum 
Dulcamara,  the  bittersweet,  and  Bolanum  nigrum, 


BOBSB-iCETTLa  {SoJaDum  CAToUnenae). 

the  common  nightshade,  are  both  common  in 
the  United  States,  having  been  introduced  from 
Europe.  The  berries  of  Solanum  saponaceum  are 
used  as  a  substitute  for  soap,  and  in  Australia 
those  of  several  species  are  eaten  by  the  natives, 
some  with  and  others  without  cooking.  In  the 
United  States  there  are  a  dozen  or  more  indige- 
nous species,  some  of  which,  as  Solanum  Caroli- 
nense,  the  horse-nettle,  and  Solanum  rostratum, 
are  very  spiny  troublesome  weeds. 

SOLAB.  An  upper  chamber  or  loft.  The  only 
private  apartment  in  the  old  baronial  halls 
was  so  called.  It  was  placed  over  the  pantry, 
at  one  end  of  the  hall,  and  served  as  parlor  and 
sleeping  apartment  for  the  baron  and  his  family. 

SOLAB  CYCLE.    See  Period. 

SOLABI,  sMa'rd  (SOLABIO),  Andrea 
(c.1460-1515).  A  Lombard  Milanese  painter  of 
the  High  Renaissance.  He  is  frequently  called 
Andrea  del  Gobbo,  after  hia  elder  brother 
Cristoforo,  the  sculptor,  who  seems  to  have 
brought  him  up  and  whose  artistic  influence  may 
be  seen  in  Andrea's  delicate  modeling  of  the 
heads.  Together  they  went  to  Venice,  where 
Andrea  executed  many  paintings  in  the  manner 
of  Bellini.  On  his  return  to  Milan  he  fell  com- 
pletely under  the  influence  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci, 


and  his  standing  was  such  that  in  1507,  when 
Cardinal  George  d'Amboise  summoned  Leonardo 
to  Franoe,  Andrea  was  sent  in  his  stead.  He  fin- 
ished his  decorations  of  the  Cardinal's  chapel  at 
Gaillon  in  1509^  after  which  he  seems  to  have 
gone  to  Flanders.  The  latter  part  of  his  life 
was  not  passed  in  Southern  Italy,  but  probably 
at  Milan. 

In  color,  chiaroscuro,  and  subtle  modeling  of 
heads,  Solari  apnroached  nearer  Leonardo  than 
any  other  of  his  disciples.  His  portraits  display  a 
characterization  and  strength  that  su^ests  Hol- 
beiiv,  and  his  execution  is  of  great  delicacy.  His 
principal  paintings  include  the  portraits  of  a 
Venetian  senator  and  of  Longoni  (1503),  in  the 
National  Gallery  (London) ;  a  "Madonna,"  "John 
the  Baptist,"  and  "Saint  Catharine"  (1499),  in 
the  Brera  (Milan);  a  "Crucifixion"  (1503),  a 
"Male  Portrait,"  and  the  **Madonna  of  the  Green 
Cushion,"  in  the  Louvre;  a  "Riposo"  (1515) 
and  "Ecce  Homo,"  in  the  Poldi  Collection,  Milan, 
which  is  especially  rich  in  his  works;  and  the 
altarpiece  of  the  (Jertosa  at  Pavia. 

SOLABI  (SOLABIO),  Cristoforo  (called 
II  Gobbo,  the  hunchback)  (c.1470-1523).  A  Lom- 
bard sculptor  and  architect  of  the  Renaissance. 
The  events  of  his  life  are  little  known.  Of  the 
works  which  he  executed  while  with  his  brother 
Andrea  at  Venice  a  "Saint  George"  survives  in 
the  Church  of  tfie  Caritft.  In  1495  he  was  ap* 
pointed  ducal  sculptor  to  Ludovico  Sforza,  and  in 
1498  he  executed  his  masterpiece,  the  tomb  of 
Duke's  wife,  "Beatrice  d'Este,"  in  Santa  Maria 
delle  Grazie.  The  monument  was  destroyed  after 
the  fall  of  the  Duke,  but  the  recumbent  figures  of 
himself  and  wife  were  taken  to  the  (Dertosa  of 
Pavia.  They  are  charmingly  realistic,  and  thor- 
oughly in  the  style  of  the  Early  Renaissance. 
For  the  Certosa,  Cristoforo  also  executed  a 
"Pietft,"  and  probably  many  of  the  figures  of  the 
facade.  The  sculptures  which  he  executed  for  the 
cathedral  at  Milan  cannot  be  distinguished  among 
the  myriads  of  others,  but  his  statue  of  "Christ" 
in  the  sacristy  shows  the  influence  of  Michel- 
angelo. In  1519  he  was  appointed  chief  architect 
of  the  cathedral.  His  chief  architectural  work 
is  the  cupola  of  Santa  Maria  della  Passione 
(1509). 

SOLAB  mCBOSCOPE  (Lat.  solari^  relating 
to  the  sun,  from  aol,  sun;  connected  with  Gk. 
ijyiot,  h€lio8f  Skt.  aOra,  8var,  AS.  s6l,  Goth. 
aodoily  It,  8ul,  Lith.,  Lett.,  OPruss.  saule,  sun, 
and  ultimately  with  Eng.  sun).  An  instrument 
for  projecting  magnified  images  of  minute  objects 
on  a  screen,  through  the  agency  of  the  sun's  rays. 
The  microscope  consists  of  a  brass  tube  which  is 
fastened  to  the  interior  side  of  a  closed  window- 
shutter  over  a  hole  in  the  latter,  and  a  reflector  so 
placed  that  the  rays  of  sunlight  falling  on  it  are 
reflected  into  the  tube.  They  are  then  collected 
by  a  powerful  double  convex  lens,  and  brought  to 
a  focus  on  the  object,  which  is  placed  on  a  stage 
at  the  opposite  end  of  a  tube.  An  enlarged  image 
of  the  object  thus  illuminated  is  then  produced 
by  a  second  lens  or  system  of  lenses  upon  a  white 
screen.  Should  the  object  be  opaque,  the  rays  of 
light  reflected  from  the  mirror  are  concentrated 
by  the  double  convex  lens  on  another  mirror  near 
the  opposite  end  of  the  tube;  they  arc  then  re- 
flected upon  the  back  of  the  object,  and  diverge 
On  the  system  of  lenses  which  form  the  image. 


SOLAB  XICBOSOOPE. 


lOU 


BOLBIVHOVEH  STOHE. 


Instead  of  the  sun's  rays,  the  oxyhydrogen  lime- 
light and  the  electric  arc  have  been  employed, 
the  rays  being  thrown  on  the  double  convex  con- 
denser by  means  of  a  reflector. 

SOLAB  PABALLAZ.    See  Paaaixax. 

SOLAB  STSTEH.  The  planets  and  comets 
pursuing  orbital  revolutions  round  the  sim  com- 
bine with  it  to  form  a  system  to  which  is  given 
the  name  of  solar  system.  It  is  not  impossible 
that  many  stars  are  the  centres  of  somewhat  anal- 
ogous systems.  This,  however,  is  merely  a  mat- 
ter of  speculation.  No  change  of  much  magnitude 
can  take  place  in  the  elements  of  the  planets' 
orbits  without  having  effect  on  the  earth  and  its 
inhabitants,  on  account  of  the  mutual  attractions 
of  the  planets  for  each  other;  in  fact,  they  ap- 
pear as  members  of  one  isolated  family,  bound 
together  by  common  ties,  which  could  not  be  rup- 
tured in  the  case  of  one  individual  without  com- 
municating a  general  shock  to  the  others.  (See 
Astronomy.)  The  various  members  of  the  solar 
system  are  noticed  under  Planets  (and  each 
planet  under  its  own  name),  Planetoids,  Comet, 
Sun,  Moon,  Satellites,  Meteobs  ;  their  motions 
are  treated  of  under  Gravitation,  Central 
Forces,  Precession,  Orbit,  Perturbations  ;  and 
their  probable  origin  under  Cosmogony,  NebuLuS; 
.so  that  it  only  remains  here  to  give  the  more 
interesting  numerical  facts  connected  with  them: 


soldier  beetle  {ChauHognathua  PennsylvamcuB) 
is  a  common  species  in  the  £astem  United  States 
and  is,  considered  very  beneficial.  The  adults  are 
commonly  found  upon  flowers,  where  they  proba- 
bly feed  upon  the  pollen,  and  are  of  value  to  agri- 
culture as  cross-fertilizers  of  plants. 

SOLDIEB  BUG.  A  name  given  to  certain 
predatory  stink-bugs  (q.v.)  of  the  family  Penta- 
tomids,  especially  such  forms  as  Podisus  spino- 
9U8,  Stireirus  anchorago,  Nesara  hilaris,  and 
Euachistus  servus,  which  are  common  enemies 
of  caterpillars. 

SOLDIEB  FLT.  Any  one  of  the  broad,  flat- 
bodied  flies  of  the  family  Stratiomyiids,  called 
'soldier  flies'  on  account  of  the  brightly  colored 
stripes  with  which  some  species  are  marked.  As 
a  rule  they  are  dark-colored  and  smooth.  About 
1000  species  are  known,  and  200  of  these  are 
found  in  North  America. 

SOLE  (OF.,  Fr.  sole,  from  Lat  solea,  sole, 
slipper,  from  solum,  ground,  soil).  A  flatfish 
(q.v.)  of  the  family  Soleidte.  The  common  sole  of 
Europe  {Solea  vulgaris)  attains  a  length  of  from 
10  to  20  indies  and  is  highly  esteemed  for  food. 
The  American  sole  {Achirus  fasciatus),  or  liog- 
checker,'  is  only  about  six  inches  long  and  is  of 
less  value.    See  Plate  of  Flatfish  aivd  Floun- 


NAMB  OP  PLANET 


Mercarj 

Venue 

Earth 

Mara 

Planetoid  Ceree 

Jupiter , 

Baturn 

Uranus 

Neptune 


Diameter 
in  mileti 


3.030 
7.700 
7.918 
4.280 
4887 
86,600 
73.000 
31.900 
84.800 


Density, 
earth's 
being  1 


0.86? 
0.89 
1.00 
0.71 
7 
0.34 
0.13 
0.23 
0.30 


Mass, 
earth's 
being  1 


H 


818 
96 
16 
17 


Distance 

from  sun  in 

millions  of 

miles 


38.0 

67.2 

93.9 

141.5 

257.1 

483.3 

886.0 

1.781.9 

3.791.6 


Period  <a 

revolntlon. 

in  dajB 


88 


687 

1.681 

4.331 

10.769 

30,687 

60.181 


SOLDEB  {souldure,  soudere,  Fr.  soudure,  sol- 
der, from  soulder,  souderf  to  solder,  consolidate, 
from  Lat.  solidare,  to  make  firm,  ifrom  solidus, 
solid,  connected  with  OLat.  sollus,  -Gk.  ^ot,  holos, 
Skt.  sarva,  whole,  entire) .  Any  fusible  alloy  that 
may  be  used  for  joining  metals.  Solders  vary 
widely  in  composition  according  to  the  metals 
which  it  is  desired  to  unite.  Soft  solder  consists 
of  tin  1  part  and  lead  2  parts;  while  a  finer 
variety  consists  of  tin  2  "parts  and  lead  1  part. 
Spelter  solder  is  copper  2  parts  and  zinc  1  part. 
In  addition  tl*ere  are  numerous  solders  for  spe- 
cial metals,  such  as  gold,  platinum,  silver,  etc. 
(See  Alloys.)  When  solders  are  to  be  applied 
in  the  common  work  of  plumbers  and  tinmen,  a 
tool  called  a  soldering  iron  is  used,  which  is 
heated  red  hot,  and  affords  a  convenient  means 
of  applying  the  heat  direct  to  the  solder,  the 
parts  to  be  united,  and  the  flux,  which  may  be 
borax,  rosin,  zinc  chloride,  etc.  In  place  of  a 
soldering  iron  a  blowpipe  is  often  used  to  ad- 
vantage.   For  brass  soldering,  see  Brazing. 

SOLDIEB  BEETLE.  A  name  in  the  United 
States  for  any  beetle  of  the  tribe  Telephoridi 
of  the  family  Malacodermids.  The  name  is 
partly  derived  from  the  trim  appearance  and 
colorational  markings,  which  suggest  an  army 
uniform.  The  larvae  are  predatory  and  feed  ex- 
tensively upon  soft-bodied  insects,  such  as  plant- 
lice  and  small  caterpillars.     The  Pennsylvania 


SOLEILLET,  sA'lA'yA',  Paul  (1842-86).  A 
French  explorer,  bom  at  Ntmes.  In  1873-74  he 
attempted  to  find  a  route  for  a  commercial  road 
between  Algeria  and  the  Niger.  He  failed  in 
this,  but  his  explorations  convinced  him  of  the 
practicability  of  a  trans-Saharan  railroad.  He 
went  to  Senegambia  in  1878  in  the  interests  of 
this  project,  but  his  operations  were  frustrated 
by  the  Governor.  In  1881  he  went  to  Kaffa  by 
way  of  Shoa  and  laid  the  way  for  French  ap- 
proach to  the  southern  borders  of  Abyssinia.  Then 
he  was  intrusted  with  founding  the  French  colony 
of  Obok  on  the  Gulf  of  Aden.  He  died  while  on  a 
new  expedition  to  Shoa.  His  most  important 
publications  are ;  Ewploration  du  Sahara  centrai 
(1874)  ;  Voyage  d  84gou  (1878-79) ;  Voyages  e» 
Ethiopie  (1885) ;  and  Une  exploration  en  Ethia- 
pie  (1886). 

SOLEMN    LEAGTTE    AKD    COVBKAHT. 

The  agreement  between  the  Scotch  and  Parlia- 
mentarians during  the  great  Civil  War  in  Eng- 
land.   See  Covenants,  The. 

SOLENHOFEN  (ssdHen-ha'fen)  LITHO- 
GBAPHIC  STONE.  A  deposit  of  limestone  of 
Upper  Jurassic  age,  which,  on  account  of  its  fine- 
grained character  and  homogeneous  texture,  is 
admirably  adapted  for  lithographic  purposes^ 
The  most  important  quarries  occur  at  Solenhofen, 
near  Pappenheim,  in  Bavaria.    The  beds  of  ^ood 


SOI^NHOVEK  STOKE. 


1015 


80LICIT0B-0SNERAL. 


stone  aggregate  about  50  feet  in  thiekneBS  and 
are  found  in  the  lower  portions  of  the  quarries, 
many  of  which  are  100  feet  deep.  Most  of 
the  lithographic  limestone  used  in  the  world 
is   obtained   from    this   district.     See   Abcka- 

OPTEBYX. 

SOLENOID  (from  Gk  €»\iiPO€Mjs,  sdle- 
noeid^,  pipe-shaped,  grooved,  from  vuXt/jp,  861^ 
pipe,  channel  4-  cT^,  eidos,  form),  A  cylindri- 
cal coil  of  wire  used  for  producing  magnetic 
eflfects  by  electric  currents.  The  coil  when 
traversed  by  a  current  possesses  all  the  qualities 
of  a  magnet.    See  Electbicitt. 

SOLENT.  The  west  portion  of  the  strait 
between  the  Isle  of  Wight  and  the  mainland  of 
England  (Map:  England,  E  6).  It  is  17  miles 
long  by  2  to  5  miles  wide,  is  a  favorite  yachting 
ground,  and  affords  safe  anchorage.  Hurst 
Castle  guards  its  entrance  on  the  southwest. 

SOLEUBE,  sd'lSr'.  The  French  name  of 
Solothurn  (q.v.). 

SOLET,  so'll,  James  Russell  ( 1850— ) .  An 
American  jurist  and  author.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1870  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  Washington,  D.  C.  From  1872  to  1882  he  was 
professor  of  history  and  law  at  the  Naval  Acad- 
emy at  Annapolis.  From  1876  to  1890  he  was 
professor  in  the  United  States  Navy.  In  1882 
he  was  transferred  to  Washington  to  arrange  the 
Naval  Library,  and  until  1890  was  engaged  in 
preparing  the  Naval  Records  of  the  Civil  War. 
From  1890  to  1893  he  was  Assistant  Secretary 
of  the  Navy.  He  afterwards  practiced  law  in 
New  York,  and  was  coimsel  for  Venezuela  at  the 
Paris  arbitration  of  the  Venezuela-British  Gui- 
ana boundary  in  1899.  His  publications  include: 
History  of  the  Naval  Academy  ( 1876) ;  Foreign 
Systems  of  Naval  Education  (1880)  ;  The  Block- 
ade and  the  Cruisers,  in  the  "Campaigns  of  the 
Civil  War  Series"  (1883);  with  Commodore 
Schley,  Rescue  of  Oreely  (1886);  Boys  of 
1812  (1887);  and  Admiral  Porter  (1903), 
in  the  "Great  Commanders  Series."  He  also 
edited  Autobiography  jof  Commodore  Morris 
(1880),  and  contributed  to  The  Battles  and 
Leaders  of  the  Civil  War  (1887),  and  F.  Win- 
sor's  Narrative  and  Critical  History  of  America, 

SOLFATABA,  86rf&-ta^T&  (It.  solfatara, 
from  solfo,  sulphur).  A  dormant  volcano  near 
Naples.  The  word  is  used  as  a  common  name  for 
a  volcanic  vent  which  emits  only  vaporous  mate- 
rials. Volcanoes  after  periods  of  violent  activity 
frequently  pass  into  a  stage  of  gaseous  eruption 
when  steam,  sulphureted  hydrogen,  carbon  diox- 
ide, and  hydrochloric  acid  are  given  off,  usually 
without  explosive  effects.  Sulphur  and  chlorides 
are  sometimes  deposited  around  the  vents  as  sub- 
limation products.  Solfataras  are  quite  nume- 
rous in  the  old  volcanic  regions  of  Italy.  The 
Soufriftre  on  the  island  of  Saint  Vincent  is  a 
notable  example  of  a  solfatara  which  at  times 
becomes  violently  eruptive.    See  Volcano. 

SOLEEGOIO,  s61-f6d^j6.    See  Solmization. 

SOLFEBINO,  B6V{e-T^n6.  A  village  in  the 
Province  of  Mantua,  Italy,  20  miles  northwest 
of  Mantua  (Map:  Italy,  E  2).  It  is  famous  as 
the  scene  of  a  bloody  battle  on  June  24,  1859,  in 
which  the  allied  French  and  Sardinians,  under 
Napoleon  III.,  defeated  the  Austrians.  The 
Tower  of  San  Martino,  commanding  a  splendid 
view,  and  containing  a  military  museum,  com- 


memorates this  victory,  which  was  decisive  in 
securing  Italian  independence. 

SOLICITOB.  Under  the  laws  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, a  person  duly  admitted  to  practice  law  under 
the  provisions  of  the  Solicitor's  Acts,  and  who 
thereby  becomes  an  officer  of  the  Supreme  Court 
and  entitled  to  certain  privileges  and  immimities. 
Before  the  Judicature  Act  (1873)  the  term  was 
applied  only  to  persons  who  conducted  litigation 
in  the  Court  of  Chancery,  but  by  the  above  act 
all  solicitors,  attorneys,  and  proctors  authorized 
to  practice  in  any  division  of  the  High  Court  of 
Justice  are  known  as  solicitors  of  the  Supreme 
Court.  The  Incorporated  Law  Society  was  ap- 
pointed 'Registrar  of  Solicitors'  in  1843,  and  in 
1877  that  society  was  given  control  of  the  exami- 
nation of  candidates  for  admission  as  solicitors. 
Candidates  must  serve  an  articled  clerkship 
under  a  practicing  solicitor  for  five  years,  and 
pass  three  rigid  examinations,  unless  they  are 
university  graduates,  writers  to  the  signet,  or 
Scotch  solicitors  or  advocates,  in  which  cases 
three  years  is  sufficient.  A  barrister  of  five  years' 
standing  may  procure  himself  to  be  disbarred, 
and  on  passing  the  final  examination  be  admitted 
as  a  solicitor.  Colonial  solicitors  of  seven  years' 
standing  are  exempted  from  this  examination  if 
they  have  already  passed  one  in  their  own  colony. 
Each  solicitor  must  obtain  annually  a  certificate 
of  his  right  to  practice  from  the  Registrar  of 
Solicitors.  A  solicitor  can  practice  in  the  High- 
Court  of  Justice,  the  Court  of  Appeal,  the  House 
of  Lords,  Privy  Council,  and  all  inferior  courts. 
They  have  a  monopoly  on  certain  legal  business, 
as,  for  example,  the  attestation  of  documents  re- 
quired by  the  Land  Transfer  Act.  A  solicitor  has 
a  general  lien  on  his  client's  papers  for  his 
charges;  has  peculiar  and  extensive  powers  with 
reference  to  binding  his  client  in  litigation  which 
he  conducts ;  and  has  certain  personal  privileges, 
as  exemption  from  service  in  the  militia,  etc. 
The  fees  and  costs  of  solicitors  are  fixed  and  regu- 
lated by  statute  in  great  detail  and  must  be  ob- 
served. Special  provisions  are  made  for  the 
collection  of  these  statutory  fees.  They  are  held 
to  a  strict  accountability  for  reasonable  skill  in 
advice  and  the  management  of  any  matters  in- 
trusted to  them,  and  are  liable  for  any  negligence 
or  lack  of  reasonable  skill  and  learning  whereby 
a  client  is  prejudiced.  As  a  solicitor  is  an  officer 
of  the  court  the  latter  can  exercise  summary 
jurisdiction  over  him  in  case  of  a  breach  of  duty. 
A  solicitor  who  permits  another  to  practice  in  his 
name  will  be  disbarred  and  can  never  be  read- 
mitted. Where  a  solicitor  is  struck  off  the  rolls 
for  other  misconduct,  he  may  be  subsequently 
readmitted  in  the  discretion  of  the  court.  Con- 
sult, Christian,  A  Short  History  of  Solicitors 
(1896) ;  Cordery,  on  Solicitors  (1888). 

SOLIGITOB-GEHEBAL.  One  of  the  im- 
portant law  officers  of  the  English  Crown,  ap- 
pointed by  letters  patent.  He  is  always  a  mem- 
Der  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  is  ex  officio  a 
Minister  of  the  Crown  •  and  a  member  of  the 
General  Council  of  the  bar.  He  is  not,  however, 
a  member  of  the  Cabinet.  He  is  next  in  rank  to 
the  Attorney-General,  and  represents  him  in  his 
absence.  His  term  of  office  expires  with  the  fall 
of  the  Ministry  of  which  he  is  a  member.  The 
Solicitor-General  of  Scotland  is  next  in  rank  to 
the  Lord  Advocate* 


Bojjxcnm. 


1016 


SOLXIZATIOH. 


SOLIHOBV,  zyUng-en.  A  town  in  the  Bhine 
Province,  PruBsia,  18  miles  north-northeast  of 
Cologne  (Map:  Prussia,  B  3).  It  has  long  been 
famous  for  its  steel  and  ironware  manufactures, 
especially  sword  blades,  helmets,  cuirasses,  knives, 
scissors,  and  hand  bells.  Population,  including 
the  town  of  Dorp,  in  1900,  46,249. 

S0LIP8I8H  (from  Lat.  aolua,  alone,  only  + 
ipse,  self).  A  term  applied,  usually  by  opponents, 
to  any  system  of  philosophy  the  principles  of 
which  do  not  logically  warrant  the  belief  in  any 
other  being  than  the  mind  of  the  thinker.  It  is 
a  subjective  idealism  (q.v.)  which  is  so  sub- 
jective as  to  leave  no  valid  ground  for  belief  in 
objectivity.    See  Knowledge,  Theort  of. 

SOUS,  sdles',  Juan  Dias  de  (c.1470-1516).  A 
Spanish  navigator.  He  is  said,  although  without 
good  authority,  to  have  discovered  Yucatan  with 
Vicente  Yafiez  Pinzon  in  1506.  After  the  death 
of  Vespucci  in  1512  he  was  appointed  pilot- 
major  of  Spain.  In  October,  1515,  he  sailed  in 
command  of  an  expedition  in  search  of  a  south- 
west passage  to  India.  He  discovered  the  en- 
trance to  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  and  explored  the 
river  as  far  as  the  region  of  the  Charrua  tribe, 
by  whom  he  was  killed,  and  it  is  reported,  eaten, 
before  September,  1516.  His  brother-in-law, 
Francisco  de  Torres,  conducted  the  survivors  of 
the  expedition  back  to  Spain. . 

80LITAIBE,  sdl'T-tAr^  (Fr.,  solitaiy).  An 
extinct  dodo-like  bird  (Pezophaps  solitariua) ,  dif- 
fering from  the  dodos  in  a  smaller  bill  and  longer 
leg§.  It  inhabited  Rodriguez,  and  appears  to 
have  been  peculiar  to  that  small  and  lonely  isl- 
and. Francois  Leguat,  in 
his  Voyage  et  aventures 
(London,  1708),  has  left 
an  interesting  and  trust- 
worthy account  of  the  soli- 
taire. He  describes  it  as 
a  large  bird,  the  male 
sometimes  weighing  45 
pounds,  the  head  of  the 
male  without  comb  or 
crest,  that  of  the  female 
with  something  like  a 
widow's  peak  above  the 
bill;  the  wings  small,  and 
the  bird  incapable  of  fly- 
ing, but  using  the  wings 
to  flap  itself  or  to  flutter 
when  calling  for  its  mate, 
or  as  a  weapon  of  offense 
or  defense.  He  further 
describes  the  plumage  as 
very  full  and  beautiful,  but  the  tail  was  a  roimd- 
ish  mass  of  feathers.  It  became  extinct  about 
1775,  but  many  skeletons  are  preserved  in  Euro- 
pean museums.    See  Dodo;  Extinct  Animals. 

In  America  the  name  solitaire  is  given  to  the 
flycatching  thrushes  of  the  genus  Myadestes,  spe- 
cies of  which  occur  in  Jamaica,  Martinique,  and 
other  West  Indian  islands,  as  well  as  on  the 
continent.  One  species,  Myadestes  Taicnsendif 
dwells  in  the  Western  United  States  from  the 
Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Pacific.  It  is  about 
8  inches  long,  and  dull  brownish  ash  in  color,  and 
is  a  superb  singer,  as  indeed  are  all  the  members 
of  the  genus.  The  name  'solitaire'  refers  to  the 
habit  of  several  species  of  hiding  in  the  most 


TBS  BOLiTAma  (After  a 
drawing  by  Leguat). 


solitary  and  out-of-the-way  depths  <^  the  forests, 
especially  when  singing. 

SOLITAIBE.  A  game  played  by  only  one 
person.  The  date  and  place  of  its  origin  is 
not  known,  but  it  is  supposed  to  have  b^n  in- 
vented by  a  prisoner  in  the  Bastille  some 
time  during  the  sevententh  century.  It  is  played 
with  37  balls  (usually  of  glass)  on  a  circular 
board  which  has  37  hemispherical  cups  or  de- 
pressions. The  game  is  played  by  removing  one 
ball  from  the  boeird  and  then  placing  an  adjoin- 
ing ball  into  the  vacancy,  passing  over  one  inter- 
vening ball.  The  ball  passed  over  is  then  taken 
from  the  board.  This  process  is  then  continued 
till  only  one  ball  remains,  when  the  game  is  said 
to  be  won.  Should  two  or  more  balls  be  left  and 
they  more  than  one  space  apart,  and  consequentiv 
isolated  so  as  not  to  be  liable  to  capture  by  &BLai 
other,  the  game  is  lost. 

Solitaire  with  Gabds,  or  Patience.  The 
pack  or  packs  (sometimes  with  the  exception  of 
certain  cards,  which  are  laid  face  upward  on  the 
table)  are  first  shuffled.  The  player  then  takes 
the  cards,  backs  uppermost,  and  plays  them  one 
by  one,  turning  them  face  upward  as  he  does  so. 
His  object  is  to  arrange  the  cards  in  'families,' 
each  family  being  a  complete  series  from  aoe  to 
king,  although  not  necessarily  of  the  same  suit. 
They  may  he  formed  by  building  upward,  i.e. 
placing  a  higher  card  on  the  one  next  below  it, 
or  vice  versa.  The  cards  may  be  taken  from  the 
pack  in  the  player's  hand  as  already  described, 
or  thejr  may  be  taken  from  an  arrangement  of 
card-piles  on  the  table,  or  from  either.  If  the 
player  places  any  top  card  of  these  piles  (should 
he  elect  to  arrange  the  game  that  way)  on  any 
other  just  above  or  below  it  in  rank,  he  is  said 
to  be  making  a  marriage,  by  which  he  frees  the 
cards  underneath  and  utilizes  them  in  'building.' 
Cards  that  the  player  is  unable  to  use  at  the 
time  are  laid  aside  and  constitute  'stock.'  Thus 
the  stock  may  be  used  over  again  once  or  twice, 
but  must  first  be  shuffled.  There  are  several 
other  varieties  of  solitaire  played  with  cards. 

SOLLOOUB,  sdl'o-g?R5p',  Vladiiob  Alexan- 
DBOViTCH.  0>unt  (1814-82).  A  Russian  author, 
bom  at  Saint  Petersburg.  He  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Dorpat  (1834)  and  held  various 
diplomatic  and  official  positions.  He  made  his 
literary  d^but  in  1837  with  the  novelettes  Two 
Students  and  Three  Fiano^,  but  attracted  general 
attention  with  his  Story  of  Ttco  Rubber  Shoes 
(1839),  and  still  more  so  with  his  Tarantas 
(1845).  Of  his  numerous  works  for  the  stage 
the  farce  Orief  from  a  Tender  Heart  ( 1850)  and 
The  Official  (1856)  are  the  best  known.  His 
works  of  fiction  appeared  in  five  volumes  (Saint 
Petersburg,  1855-56). 

80LL  UKD  HABEK,  t6\  ynt  h&^n  (Ger., 
Debit  and  Credit).  A  noted  romance  by  Gustav 
^P^y^^g  (1855).  It  is  based  on  a  study  of  mod- 
em industrial  conditions,  and  is  a  glorification  of 
the  German  merchant  class  at  the  expense  of  the 
wom-out  nobility. 

SOLMTZATIOIT  (from  sol  +  mi,  names  of 
two  notes  of  the  gamut ) ,  or  Solfeggio.  A  peculiar 
method  in  use  for  centuries  for  teaching  musical 
intervals  and  scales  by  means  of  certain  syllables. 
The  syllables  are  ut  {or  do),  re,  mi,  fa,  sol,  la, and 
si.  The  first  six  are  the  commencement  of  the 
lines  of  an  ancient  hymn  to  John  the  Baptist^ 


80LHIZATI0H. 


1017 


SOLOMON. 


which  had  this  peculiarity,  that  the  first  syllable 
of  each  line  (with  the* exception  of  the  last)  was 
Bung  to  a  note  one  degree  higher  than  the  first 
syllable  of  the  line  that  preceded,  so  as  to  present 
the  type  of  a  scale. 

These  syllables  are  said  to  have  been  first  made 
use  of  by  Guido  of  Arezzo  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury. As  Guido  employed  a  hexachord,  six  syl- 
lables were  sufficient.  But  when  the  importance 
of  the  leading  tone  was  recognized  the  hepta- 
chord superseded  the  old  hexachord.  Then  Le 
Maire,  a  French  musician  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, added  to  them  si,  for  the  seventh  of  the 
scale.  When  applied  to  the  key  of  C,  their 
equivalents,  in  the  ordinary  musical  nomencla- 
ture, are: 

Do    re    mi    fa    sol    la    si    do 
CDEF      G      ABC. 

These  syllables  may,  however,  be  applied  to 
other  keys,  with  do  always  as  the  key-note,  so 
as  to  express,  not  the  absolute  pitch  of  a  note, 
but  its  relation  to  the  key-note. 

SOLMONA,  B61-m(/n&,  or  SULMONA,  s^- 
m(/n&.  A  city  in  the  Province  of  Aquila,  Italy 
(Map:  Italy  H  5).  Solmona  manufactures  wine, 
paper,  cloth,  and  strings  for  musical  instruments. 
Population  (commune),  in  1901,  17,988. 

SOLMS-LAUBAGH,  z5lms  lou^&G,  Her- 
mann, Count  (1842 — ).  A  German  botanist, 
bom  near  Giessen  and  educated  there  and  at  Ber- 
lin, Freiburg,  and  Geneva.  He  became  professor 
extraordinary  at  Strassburg  in  1872  and  profes- 
sor of  botany  and  director  of  the  Botanical  Gar- 
den at  GiSttingen  in  1879,  and  was  called  to  a 
similar  position  at  Strassburg  in  1888.  His 
publications  include:  Ueher den Bau und die Ent- 
toiokelung  der  Em&hrungaorgane  pardsitiacher 
Phanerogamen  (1867-68);  Corallina  (Naples, 
1881 ) ;  Herkunft,  Domestihaiion  und  Verbreitung 
des  gewohnlichen  Feigenhauma  (1882) ;  Die  Ge- 
aehlechterdifferensAerung  hei  den  Feigenbaumen 
(1886);  and  Einleitung  in  die  PalHophytologie 
(1887). 

SOLO  (It.,  alone).  In  music,  a  piece  or 
passage  for  a  single  voice  or  instrument.  In 
orchestral  compositions  'solo'  indicates  that  one 
instrument  is  to  take  the  leading  part. 

SOI/OMON  (Heb.  ShplonUih,  peaceable).  A 
son  of  David  and  Bathsheba  (II.  Sam.  xii.  24), 
successor  of  David  on  the  throne  of  Israel.  The 
date  of  his  reign  may  be  stated  approximately  as 
B.C.  977-937.  The  biblical  accoimt  of  Solomon  is 
found  in  I.  Kings,  chapters  i.-xi.,  and  its  parallel 
II.  Chronicles,  chapters  i.-ix.  The  facts  furnished 
by  these  passages  teay  be  briefly  summarized  as 
follows:  When  David  was  old,  his  son  Adonijah 
set  himself  up  as  a  pretender  to  the  throne,  but 
Bathsheba  interceded  for  Solomon.  David 
granted  her  request  and  Solomon  became  King. 
One  by  one  the  new  King  had  his  enemies,  Adoni- 
jah, Joab,  and  Shimei,  put  to  death,  so  that  he 
rested  securely  on  his  throne.  He  took  to  wife  a 
daughter  of  Pharaoh  and  at  the  time  of  his  mar- 
riage he  worshiped  in  the  'high  places.'  Solomon 
divided  Israel  into  twelve  parts  for  admini- 
strative purposes,  and  we  are  told  that  his  terri- 
tory extended  from  the  river  (Euphrates)  unto 
the  land  of  the  Philistines,  and  unto  the  border 
of  Egypt,  and  that  he  made  bondsmen  of  the 
Canaanites  who  remained  in  the  land.  He  made 
an  alliance  with  Hiram,  King  of  Tyre,  and,  in  re- 


turn for  food,  furnished  him  with  timber;  the 
ships  of  the  allies  went  out  trading  together. 
The  temple  was  built  in  great  splendor  with 
Hiram's  aid  and  dedicated  with  much  magnifi- 
cence. The  King  also  built  a  house  for  his  Egyp- 
tian wife  and  a  palace  in  the  Lebanon.  The  temple 
took  from  the  fourth  to  the  eleventh  year  of 
Solomon's  reign  for  its  completion;  the  palace  in 
the  Lebanon  from  the  seventh  to  the  twentieth 
year.  Several  cities  also  were  built  by  the  King. 
Many  strange  women  were  in  his  household,  who 
are  said  to  have  influenced  him  to  worship  alien 
gods;  and  for  this  sin  the  historian  assigns  as  a 
pimishment  Solomon's  troubles  at  the  hands  of 
enemies  in  his  lifetime,  and  the  division  of  the 
kingdom  between  Rehoboam  and  Jeroboam  after 
his  death.  (See  Jeboboam;  Rehoboam.)  Al- 
most all  other  details  about  Solomon  are  ampli- 
fications either  of  his  wisdom  or  his  splendor. 
We  are  told  that  the  Lord  appeared  to  him  in  a 
dream  and  asked  him  to  choose  a  gift,  whereupon 
Solomon  chose  neither  riches  nor  power,  but  wis- 
dom, and  as  a  reward  was  given  both  what  he 
chose  and  what  he  resigned.  A  proof  of  his  wis- 
dom immediately  follows  (I.  Kings  iii.  16-25), 
and  it  is  never  lost  sight  of  afterwards  (cf.  I. 
Kings  iv.  29  et  seq.,  where  he  is  said  to  be  "wiser 
than  all  men;"  v.  7-12;  x.  1-3,  where  Solomon 
answers  the  'hard  questions'  propounded  by  the 
(Jueen  of  Sheba,  and  x.  24) .  The  entire  narrative 
is  a  recital  of  the  magnificence  of  the  King,  es- 
pecially the  description  of  his  building  opera- 
tions (I.  Kings  iv.  22-28;  ix.  26-29;  x.  1-13,  the 
story  of  the  Queen  of  Sheba,  who  volimtarily 
pays  the  King  tribute;  x.  14-29). 

The  narrative  in  Kings  concerning  Solomon  is 
based  upon  earlier  documents,  such  as  the  ''Book 
of  the  Acts  of  Solomon"  (I.  Kings  xi.  41).  Al- 
though the  main  facts  are  authentic  in  the  opinion 
of  many  Bible  critics,  they  are  so  entwinea  with 
legendary  lore  and  colored  by  a  traditional  view 
of  Solomon  belonging  to  a  period  many  centuries 
later,  that  it  is  difficult  to  determine  the  exact 
position  to  be  assigned  to  him  in  Hebrew  history. 
This  traditional  view  is  still  more  consistently 
carried  out  in  the  narrative  in  Chronicles,  which 
has  no  independent  historical  value.  In  the  Book 
of  Kings  there  are  still  traces  of  a  conception  of 
Solomon  which  did  not  hold  him  up  in  a  favora- 
ble light.  The  extension  of  power  is  made  re- 
sponsible for  the  introduction  of  foreign  religious 
customs,  and  the  blame  for  the  rebellion  immedi- 
atelv  following  upon  the  death  of  Solomon  is  in 
part,  at  least,  put  upon  the  King.  In  (!Jhronicles, 
however,  all  these  unfavorable  features  are  sup- 
pressed and  the  King  is  held  up  as  a  marvel  of 
piety  and  wisdom,  as  well  as  a  great  ruler  under 
whom  the  kingdom  rose  to  its  highest  point  of 
glory. 

Solomon's  distinguishing  quali^  was  as  an  ad- 
ministrator. He  Kept  tne  confederacy  of  the 
Hebrew  tribes  intact  during  his  reign,  though 
not  in  such  a  condition  that  his  successor  could 
continue  his  policy.  An  important  step  was  his 
strengthening  the  fortifications  of  the  country, 
and  no  less  significant  was  his  foreign  policy, 
which  involved  alliances  with  surrounding  na- 
tions such  as  the  Phoenicians.  He  kept  the  Egyp- 
tian power  at  bay  by  becoming  the  vassal  of  the 
Egyptian  King.  Through  this  international  in- 
tercourse, an  impetus  was  given  to  commerce  in 
Solomon's  days,  which  prompted  the  tale  of  Sol- 


SOLOMON. 


1018 


SOLOMON'8-SSAL. 


omon's  personal  achievements  as  a  great  marine 
merchant.  Contact  with  other  nations  also  had 
its  result  in  a  marked  intellectual  advance,  and 
it  is  probably  safe  to  date  from  Solomon's  days 
the  beginnings  of  a  genuine  literary  activity  in 
Israel,  though  several  centuries  elapsed  before 
the  movement  assumed  important  dimensions. 
The  new  epoch  thus  marked  by  Solomon's  reign 
is  sufficient  to  account  for  the  view  taken  by  the 
later  tradition,  which  makes  Solomon  .himself  an 
author  of  high  rank  and  prodigious  fertility. 
The  books  ascribed  to  him,  Proverbs,  Canti- 
cles, and  Ecclesiastes  (qq.v.),  belong  to  vari- 
ous periods  which,  however,  are  all  considerably 
subsequent  to  his  days.  That  the  sim- 
pler sanctuary  of  former  days  was  replaced 
in  his  reign  by  a  more  ambitious  edifice 
was  a  natural  consequence  of  a  general  politi- 
cal growth,  but  the  description  of  the  new 
edifice  is  colored  by  the  desire  to  extol  the  grand- 
eur of  Solomon's  achievements,  while  the  account 
of  the  ceremonies,  including  the  prayer,  is  prob- 
ably a  post-exilic  production.  Similarly  the  visit 
of  the  Queen  of  Sheba  is  a  bit  of  folk  lore  brought 
by  tradition  into  connection  with  Solomon  as  the 
most  commanding  figure  in  the  annals  of  Hebrew 
royalty.  Consult  the  chapters  on  Solomon  in  the 
Hebrew  histories  of  Guthe,  Stade,  Kent,  Well- 
hausen,  Piepenbring,  Kittel,  and  Comill;  also 
McCurdy,  Htatory^  Prophecy,  and  the  Monumenta 
(New  York,  1894-1901). 

SOLOHOK,  Wisdom  of  (Gk.  Xo<i>la  laXofiCw^ 
ToCf  Sophia  8alom6nto8,  Lat.  Liber  Sapientiof, 
Book  of  Wisdom ) .  One  of  the  apocryphal  books 
of  the  Old  Testament,  sometimes  called  also  the 
Book  of  Wisdom.  Solomon  is  introduced  as  the 
speaker  (cf.  chaps,  vii.-ix.),  whence  the  name 
first  mentioned.  The  book  consists  of  three  parts: 
( 1 )  Chapters  i.-v.  commend  wisdom  to  rulers  and 
incidentally  attack  Greek  philosophy,  particular- 
ly the  Epicurean  school,  and  show  how  absorption 
in  worldly  affairs  leads  to  spiritual  ruin;  (2) 
chapters  vi.-ix.  teach  how  wisdom,  which  is  above 
all  other  benefits,  may  be  gained,  and  Solomon 
relates  how  he  came  to  choose  wisdom  as  his 
life's  companion;  the  section  closes  with  Solo- 
mon's prayer  for  wisdom ;  ( 3 )  chapters  x.-xix.  il- 
lustrate the  influence  of  wisdom  on  Israel's  his- 
tory, the  miracles  in  the  history  are  ascribed  to 
wisdom,  and,  by  way  of  contrast,  the  results  of 
folly  in  the  history  of  heathen  nations  are  held 
up  to  scorn. 

SOLOMON  BEN  GABIBOL,  b^n  gft'b^rdK 
A  Jewish  philosopher  and  poet,  best  known  as 
Avicebron    (q.v.). 

SOLOMON  ISLANDS.  A  group  of  islands 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  extending  in  a  direction 
from  northwest  to  southeast  between  latitudes 
5°  and  11**  S.,  and  longitudes  154°  40'  and  162* 
30'  E.  (Map:  Australasia,  J  3).  It  is  about  120 
miles  distant  from  the  Bismarck  Archipelago  on 
the  west.  Area,  estimated  at  over  16,000  square 
miles.  The  principal  islands  are  Bougainville, 
Choiseul,  New  Georgia,  Ysabel,  Malaita,  Guadal- 
canar,  and  San  Cristoval.  Most  of  the  islands 
are  oblong  in  shape,  moimtainous,  and  lined  with 
coral  reefs  along  the  coast.  Traces  of  the  vol- 
canic origin  of  the  group  are  found  in  the  shape 
of  craters,  hot  springs,  etc.  There  are  some 
active  volcanoes,  and  earthquakes  are  of  frequent 
occurrence.    The  flora  is  luxuriant  and  many  of 


the  islands  have  dense  forests  of  ebony  and  san- 
dalwood. '  The  fauna  is  essentially  Papuan  in 
character,  and  the  climate  hot,  moist,  and  un- 
healthful.  The  value  of  copra,  pear-shell,  and 
vegetable  ivory  exported  is  about  $150,000  per 
annum. 

The  population,  estimated  at  over  176,000,  be> 
long  to  the  Melanesian  division  of  the  Papuan 
Melanesian  stock.  Their  physical  type  is  not  uni- 
form, the  people  of  the  islands  on  Bougainville 
Strait  being  taller,  darker,  more  robust,  and 
more  brachycephalic,  those  of  San  Cristoval 
and  the  islands  adjacent  shorter,  lighter,  less 
vigorous,  and  more  dolichocephalic.  The  lan- 
guages of  the  islands  (very  little  intercommuni- 
cation exists  between  some  of  them)  show  great 
variation,  amounting  sometimes  to  mutual  unin- 
telligibility.  Traces  of  Malay  and  Polynesian  in- 
fluences occur  in  speech,  institutions,  etc.  Head- 
hunting, slavery,  cannibalism,  and  taboo  (here 
tambu)  are  among  the  native  institutions  now 
mostly  on  the  wane. 

With  the  exception  of  the  island  of  Bougain- 
ville and  a  few  smaller  islands,  belonging  to  Ger- 
many, in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  archi- 
pelago. Great  Britain  controls  the  group.  The 
discovery  of  the  Solomon  Islands  is  attributed  to 
the  Spanish  navigator  Mendafia  (1567).  By  an 
agreement  in  1885  the  group  was  divided  between 
Great  Britain  and  Germany  and  by  that  of  1899 
Great  Britain  acquired  a  large  part  of  the  Ger- 
man share.  Consult:  Guppy,  The  Solomon  Isl- 
ands and  Their  Natives  (London,  1887)  ;  id..  The 
Solomon  Islands,  Their  Geology,  etc.  (ib.,  1887) ; 
Woodford,  A  Naturalist  Among  the  Head  Hunters 
(ib.,  1890)  ;  Reclus,  Nouvelle  geographic  uni- 
verselle,  vol.  xiv.  (Paris,  1889). 

SOLOMON'S-SEAL  {Polygonatv^m) .  A  genus 
of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Liliacese,  differing 
from  lily  of  the  valley  chiefly  in  the  cylindrical 
tubular  perianth,  and  in  having  the  flowers  joined 
to  their  flower-stalks.  Of  several  European 
species,  the  common  Solomon's-seal  {Polygonatum 
multiflorum )  has  a  stem  about  two  feet  high,  the 
upper  part  of  which  bears  two  rows  of  large, 
ovate-elliptical,  alternate  leaves.  The  flower- 
stalks  are  generally  branched;  the  small  flowers 
white  and  drooping.  The  young  shoots  of  Po/y- 
gonatum  officinale  are  eaten  by  the  Turks  like 
asparagus.  The  root  is  white,  fleshy,  inodorous, 
with  a 'sweetish,  mucilaginous,  acrid  taste.  It 
has  been  applied  to  bruises  to  prevent  or  remove 


BOIiOMOR'S-BBAL    {FoifgOBAtBm). 

A  fniitlnfc  spray  of  Solomon's-seal,  with  a  terminal  plsee 
of  a  root-stem;  a,  showing  the  scars  or  "seals." 

discoloration  and  has  been  made  into  bread  in 
times  of  scarcity.  Among  the  -American  8])ecie9 
Polygonatum  gxganteum,  the  great  Solomon's- 
seal,  and  Polygonatum  biflorum,  smaller  Sdo- 


SOLOMON'S-SEAL. 


1019 


SOLOTHTTBH. 


mon's-seal,  occur  from  the  Atlantic  Coast  to  the 
Great  Plains  region.  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  curious  seal-like  marking  left  upon  the 
knotted  rootstocks  b^  the  fallmg  of  the  annual 
stems.  Medicinal  virtues  were  once  attributed 
to  the  dried  rootstocks  of  this  plant.    Smilaoina 


FALSS  SOLOMOM'B-SIAL  (SmllACinA  raCWiOM). 

racemosik,  an  allied  plant,  is  called  false  Solo- 
mon's-seal. 

SOLOMON'S  SONG.    See  Caittiolxs. 

SOOiON  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  26V»y)  (c.639-669 
B.C.).  An  Athenian  law-giver  and  patriot,  son 
of  Ezecestides,  and  descendant  from  the  noble 
line  of  the  Codrids.  In  his  earlier  years  Solon 
engaged  in  trade  and  in  the  course  of  his  com- 
mercial undertakings  probably  visited  the  East- 
em  M^sji,  where  he  learned  much  from  pro- 
gressive Ionia.  He  acquainted  himself  with  the 
Ionic  literature,  and  trained  himself  to  write 
verse  in  the  Ionic  dialect;  indeed,  he  was  the 
first  Athenian  to  win  renown  by  his  poetry. 
Solon's  life  fell  in  the  time  of  great  social  and 
economic  change  in  Greece.  As  a  result  of  the 
growing  importance  of  commerce,  capital  was  be- 
coming concentrated  in  the  hands  of  a  few,  while 
the  small  farmers  and  agricultural  laborers  were 
crushed  beneath  the  increasing  weight  of  debt. 
The  small  proprietors  were  deprived  of  their 
lands,  and  many  free  Athenians  who  could  not 
pay  what  they  owed  were  sold  into  slavery.  The 
law  favored  the  rich  and  powerful,  and  a  revo- 
lution seemed  imminent,  when,  in  the  year  694-3 
(or  692-1),  Solon  was  elected  archon,  probably  by 
the  more  moderate  of  both  parties,  and  given  full 
power  to  reform  the  oppressive  conditions.  He 
began  with  two  radical  measures;  he  forbade  the 
borrowing  of  money  on  the  person  of  the  debtor, 
and  also  annulled  aU  mortgages  and  debts  in 
which  the  person  of  the  debtor  had  been  pledged. 
Probably  he  reduced  debts  in  general  and  lowered 
the  rate  of  interest.  This  ^reat  reform  was  called 
the  Seisachtheia  (att^ax^^)  and  was  celebrated 
by  a  public  festival.  He  then  restored  by  general 
amnesty  all  who  had  lost  civil  rights  before  his 
archonship,  with  the  exception  of  those  who  had 
been  punished  for  murder  or  attempted  tyranny. 
The  next  remedial  measure  which  he  adopted 
was  to  forbid  the  export  of  all  products  with  the 
exception  of  oil,  thereby  securing  a  sufficient  sup- 
ply of  grain  for  Athens  at  a  m^erate  price.  He 
seems  also  to  have  limited  the  amount  of  land 
which  might  he  held  by  a  single  person.  Of 
great  importance  was  the  substitution  of  a  stand- 
ard of  coinage  closely  resembling  the  Euboean  for 
the  prevailing  ^Eginetan  standard.  Seventy  of 
the  new  drachmae  equaled  one  hundred  of  the  old. 
Vol.  XV.— 68. 


This  secured  the  poor  great  relief,  and  emanci- 
pated Athens  from  her  rivals^  -^Slgina  and  Me- 
gara,  and  gave  her  the  advantage  of  trade  with 
the  colonies  in  Sicily  and  Italy.  Solon  abol- 
ished Draco's  laws  with  the  exception  of  that 
portion  of  his  ordinances  which  referred  to  mur- 
der. In  place  .of  the  old  four  classes,  which 
had  been  based  on  the  amoimt  of  capital  pos- 
sessed, he  divided  the  citizens  into  four  classes 
on  the  basis  of  income.  The  political  offices  were 
open  only  to  the  members  of  the  first  three 
classes;  the  treasury  and  archons  were  reserved 
for  the  first.  The  fourth  class  had  simply  the 
right  to  take  part  in  the  assembly  ('EicjcXi|<T/a)  and 
the  public  law  courts.  But  the  gaining  of  this 
privilege  was  a  most  important  step  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  democracy,  for  before  the  popular 
courts  every  magistrate  might  be  accused  when 
he  laid  down  his  office,  and  in  this  way  the  people 
had  a  control  over  the  administration.  For  the 
selection  of  officials  Solon  introduced  a  peculiar 
combination  of  choice  and  lot.  The  Senate  (BovXi^) 
was  composed  of  400  members,  100  from  each 
tribe.  This  body  and  the  popular  assembly  im- 
doubtedlv  received  many  of  the  rights  formerly 
possessed  by  the  Areopagus,  which  now  retained 
jurisdiction  only  in  murder  csises,  together  with 
general  censorial  power  over  the  guardianship  of 
the  laws.  Tradition  says  that  after  his  year  of 
office  Solon  boimd  his  fellow  citizens  by  an  oath 
to  keep  the  laws  and  withdrew  from  Athens  for  a 
period  of  ten  years.  Although  many  details  of 
his  reforms  are  obscure  and  disputed,  it  is  un- 
doubted that  Solon  emancipated  the  individual 
and  took  the  first  decisive  step  toward  complete 
democracy.  It  is  true  that  after  his  year  of  office 
internal  disorder  broke  out  within  the  State,  and 
Solon  lived  to  see,  thirty  years  later,  a  tyranny 
established  at  Athens  by  one  of  his  own  kinsmen. 
(See  PisiSTRATUS.)  Consult  the  Greek  histories 
by  Grote,  Busolt,  Beloch,  Abbott,  and  Eduard 
Meyer;  also  Schumann,  Oriechische  AlterPumer 
(4th  ed.,  Berlin,  1897)  ;  Hermann,  Oriechische 
Staatsaltertumer  (6th  ed.,  Freiburg,  1889)  ;  Gil- 
bert, Oriechieche  Staatsalfertumer  (Leipzig^ 
1893;  English  trans.  London,  1896);  Busolt, 
Oriechische  Stoats-  und  RechtsalterfUmer  (Mu- 
nich, 1892). 

SOLOTHimN,.  zyid^t?S5m  (Fr.  Soleure).  A 
canton  of  Switzerland,  bounded  by  Basel  on  the 
north,  Basel  and  Aargau  on  the  east,  and  Bern 
on  the  south  and  west  (Map:  Switzerland,  B  1). 
It  is  traversed  lengthwise  by  the  main  ridge  of 
the  Jura,  reaching  a  maximum  height  of  4764 
feet.  The  northwestern  part  is  covered  by  the 
minor  Jura  ridges  and  parallel  mountain  val- 
leys, while  along  the  southeastern  boundary 
extends  the  valley  of  the  Aar.  The  climate  is 
somewhat  severe.  Almost  the  entire  area  is 
utilized  for  grain  and  stock  raising,  and  the 
output  of  cereals  is  above  the  domestic  de- 
mand. Fruit,  dairy  products,  wood,  marble, 
gypsum,  and  building  stone  are  exported.  The 
chief  manufactured  article  is  matches.  The  Con- 
stitution of  the  canton  dates  from  1876,  and,  as 
amended  in  1896,  provides  for  a  legislative  as- 
sembly elected  for  four  years  at  the  rate  of  one 
member  for  every  800  inhabitants.  The  5  mem- 
bers of  the  executive  council  are  also  elected  by 
the  people  for  the  same  period.  The  canton  re- 
turns 5  members  to  the  National  Council.    C^pi- 


SOIiOTHtJBK. 


loao 


80LTTTI0H. 


tal,  So]othurn.  Population,  in  1888,  86,621;  in 
1900,  100,762,  of  whom  the  Catholics  form  over 
three-fourths.  German  is  the  predominating 
language. 

The  history  of  the  canton  centres  chiefly 
around  its  capital,  Solothum,  which  dates  from 
pre-Ronmn  times,  and  which  in  1218  became  a 
free  Imperial  city.  The  burghers  were  associated 
with  B«m  in  the  struggles  against  the  petty 
princes  of  the  region.  Solothum  was  formally 
admitted  into  the  Swiss  Confederation  in  1481,  by 
which  time  it  had  extended  its  rule  over  the 
region  now  constituting  the  canton.  The  aristo- 
cratic regime  which  had  long  existed  in  the  can* 
ton  came  to  an  end  in  1830. 

SOLOTHTTBir.  The  capital  of  the  Canton  of 
Solothum,  Switzerland^  on  the  Aar,  about  20 
miles  north-northeast  of  Bern  (Map:  Switzer- 
land, B  1 ) .  It  is  a  walled  city  with  broad  streets 
and  numerous  churches.  The  Cathedral  of  Saint 
Ours  (the  cathedral  church  of  the  Bishopric  of 
Basel)  is  a  cruciform  structure  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  built  on  the  site  of  an  old  church  dating 
from  1060.  Other  interesting  architectural  struc- 
tures are  the  ancient  clock-tower  and  the  cloth 
hall  with  its  collection  of  weapons.  The  town 
library  contains  about  40,000  volumes.  There  is 
a  natural  history  museum  with  valuable  Eo5logi- 
cal  and  paleontological  collections.  The  environs 
of  the  town  are  exceedingly  picturesque  and 
abound  in  villas  and  resorts.  The  chief  industries 
are  watchmaking  and  stone-quarrying.  Popular 
tion,  in  1900,  10,100. 

0OLOVIE77,  s(/16-vyM',  Sebgei  Mikhail- 
OVITCH  ( 1820-79) .  An  eminent  Russian  historian, 
bom  and  educated  at  Moscow.  From  1842  to  1844 
he  was  abroad  as  tutor  in  Count  Stroganofifs 
family,  attending  the  lectures  of  Ranke,  B5ckh, 
and  Michelet.  His  thesis,  The  Relations  Between 
Novgorod  and  the  Orand  Princes  ( 1845) ,  and  his 
dissertation,  History  of  the  Relations  Among  the 
Princes  of  the  House  of  Rurik  ( 1847) ,  established 
his  reputation,  and  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
Russian  histoiy  at  Moscow.  Subsequently  he 
was  dean  of  the  Historico-Philological  Faculty 
and  rector  of  the  university  for  a  number  of 
years.  His  History  of  Russia  in  29  volumes  (7th 
ed.,  1879)  was  the  first  thorough  treatment  of  the 
subject  from  the  earliest  period  to  1774.  He 
wrote  also  a  number  of  historical  text-books,  in- 
eluding  Historical  Letters  (1858),  History  of  the 
Pall  of  Poland  (1863),  and  Political  and  Diplo- 
matic History  of  Alexander  /.  ( 1877) . 

SOLSTICE  (Lat.  solstitium,  from  sol,  sun 
+  sistere,  to  stand,  reduplication  of  stare,  to 
stand).  That  point  in  the  ecliptic  (q.v.)  at 
which  the  sun  is  farthest  removed  from  the  celes- 
tial equator,  and  where  it  is  consequently  at 
the  turning  point  of  its  apparent  course.  There 
are  two  such  points  in  the  ecliptic,  one  where  it 
touches  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  the  other  where 
it  touches  that  of  Capricorn.  (See  Tropics.) 
The  former  is  the  summer  and  the  latter  is  the 
unnter  solstice  to  those  who  inhabit  northern 
latitudes,  and  vice  versa.  The  term  is  also  em- 
ployed to  signify  the  date  at  which  the  sun 
attains  these  two  points  in  its  orbit,  viz.  June 
21st  and  December  21st. 

SOLtTBLE  GLASS.    See  Wateb  Glabb. 


SOLXmOH  (Lat.  solutio,  from  aolvera,  to 
loose,  dissolve,  from  so-,  «e-,  apart,  away  -f-  lucre. 
Ok.  X^iF,  lyein,  to  loose).  In  chemistry,  a  term 
applicable  to  any  mixture  that  can  be  formed 
by  the  interdiffusion  of  two  or  more  substances, 
gaseous,  liquid,  or  solid.  A  mixture  so  formed  is 
invariably  homogeneous,  i.e.  its  ingredients  do 
not  exist  alongside  of  one  another  in  separate 
masses,  and  therefore  cannot  be  distinguished 
separately  even  by  means  of  a  powerful  micro- 
scope. For  the  distinction  between  a  homo- 
geneous mixture  and  a  chemical  compound,  see 
the  article  Cheiostbt. 

Gaseous  Mixtubes.  The  formation  of  these 
is  not  limited  to  any  particular  set  of  sub- 
stances, as  is  the  case  with  liquids  and  solids; 
all  gases  are  capable  of  mutual  interpenetration 
by  diffusion  ana  hence  of  forming  homogeneous 
mixtures.  In  a  gaseous  mixture  the  properties 
of  each  ingredient  are  practically  unaffected  by 
the  presence  of  the  other  ingredients.  Therefore, 
provided  no  chemical  reaction  takes  place,  a  gas- 
eous mixture  obeys  the  laws  of  gases  (viz.  those 
relating  to  the  mutual  dependence  of  volume, 
pressure,  and  temperature)  as  if  it  were  an 
isolated  gaseous  substance. 

Liquid  Solutions.  These  may  be  formed  by 
liquids  with  gases,  by  liquids  with  other  liquids, 
and  by  liquids  with  solids. 

The  mass  of  any  gas  absorbed  by  any  liquid 
is  proportional  to  the  pressure  of  the  gas 
(Henry's  law)  and  diminishes  with  increasusg 
temperature.  Of  course^  even  under  the  same 
conditions  of  pressure  and  temperature  the  solu- 
bility of  different  gases  in  some  liquid  is  not  the 
same;  thus  carbonic  acid  gas  is  much  more 
soluble  in  water  than  oxygen.  The  solubility  in 
the  case  of  each  system  consisting  of  a  gas  and  a 
liquid  is  termed  by  Bunsen  the  'coefficient  of 
absorption.'  To  understand  clearly  the  meaning 
of  this  term  imagine  some  gas  in  contact  with  a 
given  liquid  and  maintained  at  some  tempera- 
ture tj  under  a  pressure  equal  to  the  normal 
pressure  oi  the  atmosphere;  imagine  that  when 
no  more  of  the  gas  is  being  absorbed,  all  the  gas 
contained  in  one  cubic  centimeter  of  the  solution 
is  driven  out  of  it,  confined  separately,  and  cooled 
off  to  0**  Cent. ;  the  volume  that  the  gas  will  then 
occupy  is  its  coefficient  of  absorption  with  re- 
spect to  the  given  liquid  at  the  temperature  t. 
In  the  case  of  gases  (such  as  ammonia,  with 
respect  to  water)  that  are  copiously  soluble,  I.e. 
whose  coefficient  of  absorption  is  very  lar^,  that 
coefficient  itself  is  variable,  not  only  with  the 
temperature,  but  also  with  the  pressure  of  the 
gas;  in  other  words,  such  gases  fail  to  obey 
Henry's  law — ^probably  because  they  enter,  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent,  into  chemical  combina- 
tion with  the  solvent  liquid.  Why  the  coefficient 
of  absorption  should  be  exactly  what  it  is, 
whether  Henry's  law  is  obeyed  or  not,  is  not  yet 
understood.  Nor  do  we  understand  clearly  the 
state  of  a  gas  when  absorbed  by  a  liquid.  Are 
its  molecules  combined  with  those  of  the  solvent 
in  the  form  of  hydrates,  or  do  they  exist  in  the 
solvent  independently?  On  the  other  hand,  it 
has  been  demonstrated  that  if  a  gaji  obeys 
Henry's  law  its  molecules  in  solution  are 
neither  dissociated  into  simpled  molecules  nor 
associated  with  one  another.  It  has  also  been 
shown  that  dilute  solutions  of  gases  in 
liquids  obey  the  laws  of  osmotic   pressure  w 


BOLtmOST. 


loai 


SOLTTTIOK. 


weU  as  do  dilute  solutions  in  general  (see  fur- 
ther below). 

Passing  now  to  solution  of  liquids  in  liquids^ 
we  find,  first  of  all^  that  some  liquids  (e.g. 
water  and  alcohol)  are  miscible  in  all  propor- 
tions, that  the  mutual  solubility  of  others  (e.g. 
water  and  ether)  is  limited,  and  that  still  others 
are  practically  insoluble  in  each  other.  There 
are  strong  reasons  for  assuming  that  the  third 
of  these  classes  is  really  identical  with  the  sec- 
ond; only  the  amounts  dissolved  are  so  small 
that  they  cannot  be  detected  by  the  analytical 
means  at  our  disposal.  One  of  the  most  im- 
portant properties  of  solutions  of  liquids  in 
liquids  is  their  vapor-tension^  which  plays  an 
important  part  in  processes  of  fractional  dis- 
tillation. (See  Distillation.)  When  two  liq- 
uids, A  and  B,  are  mixed,  the  vapor-tension  of 
either  undergoes  a  diminution :  A  in  the  solution 
is  less  volatile  than  in  the  free  state,  and  so  is 
B.  The  vapor-tension  of  each  in  the  solution  is 
termed  its  'partial  vapor -tension/  and  the  total 
vapor-tension  of  the  solution  is  equal  to  the  sum 
of  the  diminished,  partial  vapor-tensions  of  its 
ingredients.  If  A  and  B  are  mutually  soluble 
to  a  limited  extent,  two  solutions  may  be  formed 
(vis.  A  in  B  and  B  in  A) ,  of  which  the  partial  as 
well  as  the  total  va^r-tensions  are  respective- 
ly equal.  Take,  for  instance,  water  and  ether; 
if  shaken  up  in  sufiScient  relative  quantities  and 
then  allowed  to  stand  undisturbed  they  will  form 
two  distinct  liquid  layers,  the  upper  a  satu- 
rated solution  of  water  in  ether,  the  lower  a 
saturated  solution  of  ether  in  water;  the  partial 
vapor-tension  of  the  water  in  the  upper  equals 
the  partial  vapor-tension  of  the  water  in  the 
lower  solution;  the  partial  vapor-tension  of  the 
ether  in  the  upper  equals  the  partial  vapor-ten- 
sion of  the  ether  in  the  lower  solution;  and 
hence,  the  total  vapor-tension  of  the  upper  solu- 
tion equals  the  total  vapor-tension  of  the  lower. 
Analogous  relations  are  found  in  all  cases  ex- 
amined. 

The  solubility  of  solids  in  liquids  is  invariably 
limited.  As  a  rule  it  increases  with  the  temper- 
ature, but  cases  are  known  (e.g.  that  of  sodium 
sulphate,  with  respect  to  water)  in  which  an 
elevation  of  temperature  may  cause  a  decrease  in 
solubility.  A  fact  important  to  remember  is  that 
if  a  solid  is  capable  of  existing  in  two  or  more 
different  modifications  (e.g.  in  different  alio- 
tropic  formsj  in  an  anhydrous  form  and  one  or 
more  forms  containing  water  of  crystallization, 
etc),  each  modification  has  its  own  solubility, 
and  a  solution  exactly  saturated  with  the  more 
soluble  modification  is  more  or  less  'supersatu- 
rated' with  the  less  soluble  one.  Bearing  in 
mind  that  the  supersaturation  of  a  solution  is 
destniyed,  with  rapid  separation  of  the  excess  of 
dissolved  substance,  when  a  trace  of  the  latter 
is  introduced  into  the  solution,  the  following 
experiment  may  serve  to  illustrate  the  point 
under  consideration:  Let  ordinary  Glauber's 
salt,  i.e.  sodium  sulphate  containing  10  mole- 
cules of  water  of  crystallization  (Na^O4.10H,O), 
be  heated  to  boiling  with  about  one-half  its 
weight  of  water«  in  a  fiask  whose  niouth  is 
loosely  closed  with  a  plug  of  cotton  (to  keep  out 
particles  of  Glauber's  salt  that  may  be  floating 
in  the  air).  If  the  sofution  thus  obtained  be 
cooled  to  — 10*  C,  a  sodium  sulphate  containing 
■even    molecules    of    water    of    crystallization 


(NaaS04.7HsO)  will  separate  out,  and  when  the 
separation  is  complete  the  mother-liquor  will  be 
exactly  saturated  with  respect  to  this  salt. 
Now,  Na,S04.7HsO  has  a  greater  solubility  than 
Na,S04.10H.O.  Hence,  the  saturated  mother- 
liquor  of  Na,S04.7HaO  must  evidently  be  super- 
saturated with  respect  to  Na,SO4.10H«O.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  if  a  trace  of  the  latter  be  now 
introduced  into  our  mother-liquor,  a  new  crystal- 
lization will  set  in,  a  mass  of  Na^SO^JOH/)  sep- 
arating out  and  leaving  the  solution  exactly  sat- 
urated with  respect  also  to  this  form  of  the  salt. 
Such,  as  well  as  a  host  of  other  phenomena,  com- 
plicate exceedingly  the  problem  of  discovering  a 
precise  relationship  between  the  solubility  of 
substances  in  various  solvents  and  their  nature. 

SouD  Solutions.  The  existence  of  solutions 
in  the  solid  state  has  only  been  recognized  within 
recent  years.  It  was  mentioned  in  the  article  on 
difitusion  (q.v.)  that  cases  of  that  phenomenon 
have  now  been  actually  observed  in  solids.  But 
there  is  also  an  increasing  number  of  indirect 
proofs  that  many  homogeneous  solid  mixtures 
are  true  solutions,  i.e.  might  be  formed  by  the 
inter-diffusion  of  their  ingredients,  although 
actually  such  a  process  would  of  course  be  very 
slow.  Isomorphous  crystalline  mixtures,  while 
homogeneous,  may  not  be -solutions  at  all;  for  it 
is  possible  that  in  them  free  diffusion  cannot 
take  place,  the  molecules  of  either  of  the  in- 
gredients being  controlled  by  the  forces  that  de- 
termine the  crystalline  form  of  the  whole;  but 
this  is  not  certain.  Among  solid  solutions  con- 
taining fluids  may  be  mentioned  the  well-known 
case  of  metallic  palladium  and  hydrogen  g^s. 
The  two  were  formerly  supposed  to  combine 
chemically,  forming  the  compound  Pd^.  But 
the  composition  of  this  substance  has  now  been 
shown  to  vary  with  the  temperature.  Hence  it 
cannot  be  considered  as  a  chemical  compound 
(see  Chemistby),  and  as  it  is  formed  by  direct 
diffusion  of  hydrogen  into  palladium,  it  must  be 
considered  as  a  true  solid  solution. 

Osmotic  Pbessube.  It  may  be  seen  from  the 
above  that  a  theory  of  solutions  does  not  yet 
exist.  Some  of  the  most  important  questions 
with  regard  to  solutions  remain  unanswered 
and  the  known  facts  are  mostly  uncorrelated ;  in 
brief,  the  subject  is  largely  not  yet  rationalized. 

In  one  of  its  phases,  however,  the  subject  of 
solutions  has,  within  recent  years,  received  a 
development  which  must  be  counted  among  the 
most  brilliant  scientiflc  achievements  of  our  time. 
The  achievement  in  question  is  based  on  the  most 
characteristic  property  of  solutions,  viz.  the 
capacity  of  the  'solute'  (i.e.  the  dissolved  sub- 
stance) to  diffuse  within  the  solution  until  the 
concentration  of  the  latter  is  the  same  at  all  its 
points.  Let  an  aqueous  solution  of  sugar,  for  in- 
stance, be  placed  at  the  bottom  of  a  vessel,  and 
let  some  pure  water  be  introduced  over  it,  cau- 
tiously, so  as  not  to  disturb  the  solution;  the 
result  will  be  that  the  sugar  will  gradually  dif- 
fuse upward,  and  after  a  certain  length  of  time 
the  liquid  will  have  a  perfectly  uniform  com- 
position throughout.  Now,  to  cause  this  motion 
of  the  sugar  upward,  against  gravity,  there  must 
obviously  be  some  force.  An  analogous  case  that 
readily  suggests  itself  to  the  mind  is  that  of 
gases.  A  gas,  too,  will  flow  upward,  and,  like 
a  substance  in  solution,  will  distribute  itself 
evenly  within  an  available  volume.     Of  course. 


80LXTTI0K. 


1029 


SOLXTTIOH. 


when  a  gas  is  evenly  distributed  within  a  vessel, 
it  still  exercises  pressure  on  the  walls,  while  in 
the  case  of  a  substance  in  solution,  once  diffusion 
is  over,  there  would  seem  to  be  no  evidence  of  the 
existence  of  a  pressure.  Yet  there,  too,  a  pressure 
must  exist;  for  let  a  new  volume  of  pure  water 
be  placed  over  our  diluted  solution  of  sugar,  and 
diffusion  upward  against  gravity,  as  well  as  in 
all  other  directions  from  points  of  higher  to 
pointe  of  lower  concentration,  will  recommence. 

All  this  BUggeste  that,  in  general,  the  proper- 
ties of  matter  in  a  highly  dilute  stete  (i.e.  when 
a  small  mass  occupies  a  large  volume)  may  be 
the  same  whether  the  dilute  stete  is  that  of  a 
gas  or  that  of  a  substance  in  solution.  For  in 
either  of  those  atetes  matter  possesses  the  most 
importent  characteristic  of  gases,  viz.  the  ca- 
pacity for  expanding  indefinitely.  The  problem 
therefore  arises,  to  ascertein  whether  the  laws 
of  the  interrelation  of  pressure,  volume,  and 
temperature  of  substences  in  solution  are  not 
similar  to,  or  identical  with,  the  corresponding 
laws  of  gases — ^a  problem  that  can  be  solved  only 
by  experimental  inquiry.  The  volume  and  tem- 
perature are  evidently  those  of  the  solution  and 
can  be  easily  measured.  So  the  solution  of  the 
problem  depends  on  a  method  for  measuring  the 
pressure  of  the  solute.  To  measure  this  directly, 
it  is  obviously  necessary  te  employ  an  apparatus 
by  means  of  which  it  would  be  possible  to  exert 
pressure  upon  the  solute  without  at  the  same 
time  exerting  pressure  upon  the  solvent — in  other 
words,  an  apparatus  for  separating  the  solvent 
and  the  solute.  Such  an  apparatus  would  show 
the  resistence  offered  by  the  solute  alone  and 
would  thus  furnish  a  measure  of  ite  pressure. 
Let,  for  instence,  an  aqueous  solution  of  sugar  be 
placed  in  a  cylindrical  vessel  with  a  tight-fitting 
piston  just  touching  the  solution.  If  the  piston 
IS  made  of  a  solid  impermeable  material,  then 
external  pressure  upon  it  will  be  resisted  by  the 
solution  as  a  whole,  most  of  the  resistence  being 
of  course  offered  by  the  water,  which  is  highly 
incompressible.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  piston 
is  made  of  some  ordinary,  permeable,  filtering 
material,  then  external  pressure  upon  it  will 
scarcely  be  resisted  at  all,  the  solution  as  a  whole 
passing  through  it.  Evidently,  te  answer  our 
purpose  the  piston  must  be  made  of  a  eemi-per- 
meable  material^  through  which  the  water,  but 
not  the  sugar  dissolved  in  it,  could  pass  freely.  By 
means  of  such  a  piston  alone  could  we  compress 
the  sugar  without  compressing  the  water  and 
thus  ascertein  the  resisting  pressure  of  sugar 
within  the  volume  of  the  solution,  as  we  might 
ascertein  the  pressure  of  a  gas  within  an  ordinary 
vessel. 

The  best  artificial  semi-permeable  material 
thus  far  discovered,  especially  well  adapted  for 
separating  water  from  dissolved  sugar,  is  a  mem- 
brane of  ferrocyanide  of  copper,  formed  by  the 
action  of  potessium  ferrocyanide  upon  copper 
sulphate.  Pfeffer,  who  was  the  first  to  employ 
this  substance  for  measuring  the  pressure  of 
substences  in  solution,  proceeded  as  follows:  He 
filled  a  porous  clay  cylinder  with  a  solution  of 
copper  sulphate  and  immersed  it  in  a  solution  of 
potassium  ferrocyanide;  the  two  solutions,  pene- 
trating  into  the  clay  from  the  opposite  sides, 
yielded  a  precipitate  of  copper  ferrocyanide 
where  they  met  within  the  walls  of  the  cylinder, 
the  walls  serving  to  impart  to  the  precipiteted 


membrane  considerable  mechanical  reaistazioe. 
The  cylinder  was  now  filled  with  a  solution  of 
sugar,  its  upper  end  was  tightly  closed  with  a 
lid  bearing  an  ordinary  mercuiy  manometer,  and 
the  apparatus  was  placed  in  pure  water  so  that 
the  level  of  the  latter  was  precisely  the  same 
as  that  of  the  solution  within.  To  understand 
the  phenomenon  that  followed,  imagine  a  cylin- 
drical vessel  A  BCD  in  which,  say,  air  has  been 
compressed  within  the  volume 
EFCD,  while  the  space  ABFE  is 
empty;  if  we  relieve  the  piston 
EF,  it  will  be  driven  up  by  the 
expansive  power  of  the  air  until 
it  is  stopped  by  AB  or  by  some 
other  resistance;  if,  instead,  we 
hold  up  the  cylinder  in  the  air  by 
the  handle,  the  expansive  power 
of  the  compressed  air  will  cause 
the  entire  volume  ABCD  to  move 
over,  the  result  being,  again,  a 
larger  space  occupied  by  the  air. 
Precisely  analogous  phenomena 
would  be  observed  if  EFCD  were 
filled    with    a    solution    of    sugar 


and 


ABFE 

were  pure  water,  while  EF  were  a  semi- 
permeable membrane:  Either  the  piston  would 
move  upward  or  the  entire  liquid  volume  (pure 
water  plus  solution)  would  move  in  the  direc^ 
tion  of  the  dissolved  sugar;  in  either  case  the 
cause  would  be  the  expansive  power  of  the  su^ar 
and  the  result  an  increase  of  tne  volume  occupied 
by  it,  i.e.  an  addition  of  pure  water  to  the  solu- 
tion. As  a  matter  of  fact,  in  Pfeffer's  apparatus, 
the  semi-permeable  walls  being  fixed,  the  expan- 
sive power  of  the  dissolved  sugar  caused  pure 
water  to  enter  the  clay  cylinder.  The  increasing 
amount  of  liquid  naturally  caused  an  increasing 
compression  of  the  air  within  the  cylinder,  and 
finally  a  point  was  reached  when  the  expiuisive 
power  of  the  sugar  was  no  longer  capable  of  over- 
coming the  resistence  of  the  air,  the  latter  having 
grown  precisely  equal  to  it.  Then  equilibrium 
ensued,  the  mercury  manometer  showing  the  pres- 
sure of  the  air  within  the  cylinder,  and  hence 
the  equal  of  that  pressure — ^the  'osmotic  pressure' 
of  the  sugar  in  solution.  Similar  experiments 
showed  r  ( 1 )  That  the  osmotic  pressure  of  sugar 
and  other  substences  in  dilute  solutions  is  pro- 
portional to  the  concentration,  i.e.  inversely  pro- 
portional to  the  voliune  of  the  solution;  (2)  that 
the  osmotic  pressure  of  sugar  and  other  substences 
in  dilute  solution  is  proportional  to  the  absolute 
temperature  ( i.e.  the  centigrade  temperature  plus 
273  degrees) ;  (3)  that  tne  osmotic  pressure  of 
substences  in  dilute  solution  is  equal  to  the 
pressure  that  the  solute  would  exert  if  removed 
from  the  solution,  vaporized,  and  inclosed  within 
an  empty  volume  equal  to  that  of  the  solution, 
at  a  temperature  equal  to  that  of  the  solution. 
In  brief,  the  laws  of  gases,  viz.  the  law  of 
Boyle  and  Mariotte,  the  law  of  Charles  and  Gay- 
Lussac,  and  Avosadro's  rule,  hold  good  in  the 
case  of  dilute  solutions  as  they  do  in  the  case 
of  gases.  Further  experimente  have  shown,  be- 
sides, that  the  osmotic  pressure  in  solutions  is 
the  same  no  matter  what  the  solvent. 

The  importenoe  of  these  resulte  will  be  evident 
to  those  who  realize  that  the  science  of  chemistiy 
is  based  on  the  laws  of  the  gaseous  stete,  Avo- 
gadro's  rule,  which  embodies  those  laws,  being 
the  only  sure  guide  in  finding  those  comparable 


SOLXTTIOSr. 


1038 


BOICA. 


imita  of  oompounds — their  molecular  weights. 
(See  Chbmistbt;  Molecules  —  Moleguuui 
Weights;  Ayoqadbo's  Rule;  Atomic  Weights; 
Gases,  Gsnsbax  Pbopebties  of;  etc.)  Yet  a 
majority  of  compounds  are  non-volatile,  and 
therefore  our  theoretical  knowledge  of  them  re- 
mained uncertain,  and  in  many  cases  vague,  until 
the  above  results  proved  that  what  we  can  learn 
of  a  substance  by  studying  it  in  the  gaseous  state 
we  can  learn  with  equal  certainty  by  studying  it 
in  dilute  solution.  Very  few  indeed  are  the  sub- 
stances that  are  neither  volatile  nor  soluble  in 
any  liquid.  Direct  methods  for  measuring  osmotic 
pressure,  like  the  one  described  above,  have  been 
of  importance  only  in  demonstrating  the  funda- 
mental laws;  the  experimental  difficulties  in- 
volved render  their  use  for  determinations  of 
molecular  weights  practically  impossible.  But, 
on  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  shown  that  the 
depression  of  the  freezing-point  or  the  elevation 
of  the  boiling  point  cau^  by  dissolving  a  sub- 
stance in  a  given  liquid  is  proportional  to  the 
osmotic  pressure  in  the  solution;  and  so,  molecu- 
lar weights  are  now  generally  determined  by  ob- 
serving the  freezing-points  or  the  boiling-points 
of  solutions.  {See  AIolecules — Molecular 
Weights;  Fbeezing-Point ;  BoiLiNG-PomT. )  At 
first,  experimental  research  seemed  to  show 
that  compounds  of  three  important  classes,  viz. 
acids,  bases,  and  salts,  do  not  obey  the  laws  of 
osmotic  pressure;  their  osmotic  pressure  was 
found  to  be  much  higher  than  it  should  be 
theoretically.  But  Arrhenius's  theory  of  elec- 
trolytic dissociation  (see  Dissociation)  soon 
came  to  add  itself  to  the  theory  of  osmotic  pres- 
sure, and,  instead  of  disproving  it,  only  furnished 
further  proof  of  its  correctness,  just  as  the  phe- 
nomena of  chemical  dissociation,  when  correctly 
understood,  had  once  furnished  additional  proof 
of  the  reliability  of  Avogadro's  rule  for  gases. 
See  Avogadbo's  Rule. 

History.  The  history  of  our  subject  com- 
mences perhaps  with  Graham's  researches  on  the 
diffusion  of  substances  in  solution,  dating  back 
to  1851.  Ten  years  later  Graham  investigated 
the  well-known  method  of  dialysis,  based  on  the 
fact  that  many  animal  and  vegetable  membranes 
are  permeable  to  water  and  the  so-called. 'crystal- 
loids,' but  impermeable  to  'colloids'  (q.v.).  In 
1867  Traube  discovered  that  copper  ferrocyanide 
is  permeable  to  water,  but  impermeable  to  sugar, 
and  more  or  less  impermeable  to  many  other  sub- 
stances. Ten  years  later  Pfeffer  published  the 
researches  mentibned  above  {Oamotische  XJnter- 
auehtmgen,  Leipzig,  1877).  Finally,  in  1886,  on 
the  basis  principally  of  the  experimental  re- 
searches of  Pfeffer,  De  Vries,  and  Raoult,  Van't 
Hoff  worked  out  the  theory  of  dilute  solutions, 
which  has  extended  the  domain  of  rational  chem- 
istry as  few  general  ideas  had  done  before.  The 
principal  names  connected  with  the  further  de- 
velopment of  the  theory  are  those  of  Nernst,  Ost- 
wald,  and  Arrhenius.  In  this  country  Arthur  A. 
Noyes  has  made  a  number  of  original  contribu- 
tions of  recognized  importance.  For  an  account 
of  the  physiological  importance  of  osmotic  phe- 
nomena, see  Osmosis. 

SOL'WAY  FIBTH.  An  inlet  of  the  Irish 
Sea,  separating  Cumberland  from  Scotland,  and 
forming  in  its  upper  part  the  estuary  of  the 
Esk  (Map:  Scotland,  E  5).  Its  length  is  33 
miles  and  its  width  increases  gradually,  although 


irregularly,  to  upward  of  20  miles.  It  is  noted 
for  itd  spring  tides,  which  rush  in  as  a  bore  from 
three  to  six  feet  high  at  th^  rate  of  eight  to 
ten  miles  an  hour. 

SOl/YMAN  (or  SULEIKAN)  U.  (c.l496- 
1666).  Sultan  of  the  Turkish  Empire,  sumamed 
'The  Ma^ificent.'  In  September,  1520,  he  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Selim  I.  (q.v.).  He  overthrew 
the  rebellious  governor  of  Syria,  repressed  the 
Egyptian  Mamelukes,  and  concluded  a  treaty 
with  Persia.  In  1521  he  took  Belgrade,  the  key 
to  Hungary.  He  next  drove  the  Knights  of  Saint 
John  from  Rhodes  (1522)  after  a  five  months' 
siege.  In  the  succeeding  years  he  devoted  himself 
to  improvements  in  the  administration  and  to 
military  preparations  for  a  great  onslaught  upon 
Hungary.  On  August  29,  1526,  he  overwhelmed 
the  army  of  King  Louis  II.  at  MohAcs.  (See 
HuNGABT.)  In  1529  he  was  summoned  to  Hun- 
gary in  aid  of  his  prot6g4,  John  ZApolya,  Way- 
wode  of  Transylvania,  who  was  contesting  the 
crown  with  Ferdinand,  brother  of  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.  He  invaded  that  country  with  a  great 
army,  and  laid  siege  to  Vienna,  but  after  a  num- 
ber of  unsuccessful  assaults  he  was  compelled  to 
retreat.  In  1532  he  laid  Styria  waste  and  again 
advanced  to  the  neighborhood  of  Vienna,  but  his 
arms  were  baffled  by  the  resistance  of  the  little 
Hungarian  fortress  of  Gttns^  and  the  advance  of 
the  Imperial  army  under  Charles  V.  forced  him  • 
to  retreat.  Soon  after  this  the  Sultan  waged  a 
successful  war  against  Persia.  In  1536  Solyman 
concluded  with  Francis  I.  the  famous  treaty 
which  opened  the  commerce  of  the  Levant  to  the 
French  flag  alone.  By  1541  the  Turks  were  in 
permanent  possession  of  the  heart  of  Hungary. 
In  1542  the  combined  French  and  Turkish  fleets 
ravaged  the  Italian  coasts  and  pillaged  Nice. 
The  Turks  were  now  supreme  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean ;  in  1551  Tripoli  fell  into  their  hands.  A 
second  and  third  war  with  Persia^  which  was 
now  in  a  state  of  semi-subjugation,  a  brilliant 
naval  victory  (1561)  over  the  Knights  of  Malta 
and  their  aUies,  the  Spaniards,  an  unsuccessful 
siege  of  Malta  (1565),  and  a  fresh  expedition  to 
Hungary  (1566),  were  the  chief  events  of  the 
remainder  of  Solyman's  reign.  He  died  during 
this  last  expedition,  while  besieging  the  little 
town  of  Sziget  (whose  defenders  had  stayed  the 
advance  of  the  Turkish  host)  September  5,  1566. 
Solyman  encouraged  literature,  and  did  much 
for  the  improvement  of  the  laws  as  well  as  for 
the  military  organization  of  the  State.  He  was  a 
ruler  of  many  great  qualities,  and  under  him  the 
Ottoman  Empire  reached  the  height  of  its  power. 
Consult  the  works  referred  to  under  Turkey. 

SOMA  (Skt.,  from  au,  to  press).  An  Oriental 
plant  identified,  but  not  certainly,  with  the 
Sarcostemma  acidum.  It  was  at  first  deified  in 
India  on  account  of  the  intoxicating  nature  of  its 
juice,  and  was  then  identified  as  a  divine  being 
with  the  moon,  which  it  resembled  in  color 
and  in  its  swelling,  as  well  as  in  its  magical 
maddening  effect.  The  plant  is  plucked  up 
by  the  roots  by  moonlight  in  the  moun- 
tains and  is  crushed  between  two  stones, 
after  being  carried  on  a  goat-car  to  the 
place  of  sacrifice.  It  is  then  strained  through 
a  sieve  into  a  tub,  where  it  is  allowed  to  ferment ; 
and  being  thickened  with  meal  and  sweetened, 
it  is  dnmk  by  the  priests  after  being  offered  to 


SOKA. 


1024 


the  gods.  Only  the  priests  at  the  present  day 
may  drink  of  it.  The  Vedic  hrnins  (see  Veda) 
are  chiefly  concerned  with  the  Soma  cult.  In  the 
later  Vedic  hymns  the  identification  with  the 
moon  is  already  complete,  and  Soma  and  the  war- 
god  Indra  are  regarded  as  two  allied  divinities. 
The  deification  of  the  plant  had  already  begun 
before  the  separation  of  the  Indo-Iranians.  In 
the  Persian  cult«  haoma,  the  Iranian  equivalent 
of  the  Indian  soma,  is  a  god,  but  also  the  tree  of 
life.  It  is  probable  that  the  name  has  been  ap- 
plied to  different  plants  even  in  India.  Consult: 
Windischmann,  Veher  den  8oma-cultuS  der  Ariez 
(1846)  ;  Muir^  Origiinal  Sanskrit  Texts,  voL  il. 
(London,  1871) ;  Hillebrandt,  Vedische  Mytholo- 
gie,  vol.  i.  (Breslau,  1891). 

SOXABfiVA,  eO'm&-d&^v&  (eleventh  century 
A.D.)-.  A  Sanskrit  author.  Of  his  life  nothing 
is  known.  He  composed  but  one  work,  the  KathA- 
saritsAgara,  or  'Ocean  of  the  Streams  of  Story,' 
which  he  began  about  1070.  This  is  the  longest 
and  most  important  collection  of  stories  which 
h%s  been  preserved  in  Sanskrit.  It  contains  a 
series  of  tales  which  are  of  considerable  impor- 
tance to  students  of  comparative  literature.  They 
are  told  in  the  main  for  their  intrinsic  interest, 
not  to  point  a  moral.  Although  in  the  main 
Brahmanistic  in  spirit.  Buddhistic  influence  is 
frequently  apparent.  The  KathdsaritaAgara  was 
edited  and  translated  into  German  by  Brockhaus 
(Leipzig,  1839-66),  edited  by  Durgaprasad  and 
Parab  (Bombay,  1889),  and  translated  into 
English  by  Tawney  (Calcutta,  1880-87). 

SOMALI,  86-ma^«.  A  Hamitic  or  Ethiopian 
people  in  the  extreme  eastern  part  of  Africa, 
partly  in  Italian,  partly  in  British  territory. 
They  are  tall  (1.725m.),  dark-skinned,  and  doli- 
chocephalic. The  infusion  of  Negro  and  later  of 
Semitic  blood  causes  much  variation  in  color. 
Their  activities  are  the  raising  of  grains,  coffee, 
and  spices,  camel-breeding,  and  coastwise  indus- 
tries. The  chief  clothing  of  the  men  is  a  toga- 
like robe  of  cotton.  They  are  not  mechanical  nor 
artistic.  Being  always  at  strife,  they  pride  them- 
selves on  their  weapons,  which  are  of  African  pat- 
tern, lances,  edged  weapons,  and  rawhide  shields. 
Their  social  organization  is  patriarchal,  the  clans 
and  chieftains  being  innumerable.  Their  religion 
is  fanatical  Mohammedanism. 

SOMAULAKD.  A  region  on  the  east  coast 
of  Africa.  See  Bbitisu  Somauland;  French 
Somaliland;  Italian  Somatjt.and. 

SOICASCHIANS,  sft-mftsOd-anz.  A  Roman 
Catholic  congregation  of  priests  founded  by  Saint 
Jerome  Emiliani  or  Miani  (1491-1537).  The 
mother-house  of  the  congregation  was  at  Somasco, 
between  Milan  and  Bergamo,  whence  it  took  its 
popular  name.  It  was  confirmed  by  Paul  III.  in 
1540;  after  it  had  been  for  a  short  time  united 
with  the  Theatines,  Pius  V.  enrolled  it  among  the 
religious  Orders  in  1568,  assigning  it  the  rule  of 
Saint  Augustine.  From  1616  to  1647  the  French 
Doctrinaires  (see  Doctrine,  Fathers  of  Chris- 
tian) were  united  with  them.  They  have  greatly 
diminished  in  numbers  and  now  nave  only  about 
ten  houses.  Consult  Heimbucher,  Die  Orden  und 
Congregationen  der  hatholischen  Kirohe  (Pader- 
bom,  1897). 

SOMATOLOaT  (from  Gk.  aQfta,  s6fna,  body, 
-}-  'Xoyla,  -logia,  account,  from .  X^«iy,  legein,  to 


say) .  That  dirision  of  anthropology  whxA  txeata 
of  the  anatomy  and  jjhysiology  of  mankind,  es- 
pecially by  a  comparative  survey  of  different  races 
from  this  point  of  view.  Anatomical  somatolcigy 
deals  with  stature,  t^ument,  pigmentation,  meas- 
urements of  the  body,  and  the  anatomy  of  special 
portions  of  it.  Under  physiological  somatology 
are  included  discussions  of  the  functions  of  nu- 
trition, respiration,  circulation,  communication, 
reproduction,  and  the  influence  of  environment, 
as  well  as  various  problems  of  a  psychological  or 
a  pathological  nature.  Stature,  the  first  anatomi- 
cal division  of  somatology,  treats  of  the  height  of 
mankind,  and  thus  of  giants  (q.v.)  and  dwarfs 
(q.v.)  also,  while  the  tegumentary  study  con- 
cerns itself  with  the  varying  phenomena  presented 
in  the  skin  and  pelage  of  different  races.  Pig- 
mentation deals  with  the  complexion  (q.v.)  or 
color  of  the  skin,  the  colors  of  the  eyes  and  hair, 
and  with  such  deviations  from  the  normal  type 
as  the  albino  (q.v.).  One  of  the  most  important 
provinces  of  somatology  is  the  measurement  of 
the  body,  thus  affording  ratios  for  comparative 
study.  These  ratios  form  the  basis  of  the  anthro- 
pometric indexes,  of  which  the  chief  ones  are  the 
cephalic,  cranial,  nasal,  facial,  dental,  maxillary, 
and  pelvic.  The  anatomy  of  special  parts  of  the 
body  is  of  less  importance  excepting  in  the 
case  of  the  brain,  yet  there  is  scarcely  a  part 
of  the  body  which  does  not  undergo  ethnic  varia- 
tion. 

Physiological  somatology  shows  as  marked  a 
diversity  as  the  anatomical  division,  although  it 
has  been  far  less  studied.  The  fimctions  of  nu- 
trition and  the  temperature  of  the  body  show 
comparatively  slight  variations,  while  respiration 
and  circulation  are  noticeably  divergent.  The 
functions  of  communication,  including  the  ex- 
pression of  emotions,  the  acuteness  of  uie  senses, 
and  similar  phenomena,  differ  to  a  degree  which 
is  remarkable  and  important.  SusceptibUity  to 
environment  is  also  marked  by  great  variation, 
and  the  same  statement  holds  regarding  patho- 
logical features,  such  as  relative  predisposition  to 
or  immunity  from  diseases.  Psychological  diver- 
gencies, like  reproductive  variations,  while  mani- 
festly existent,  have  not  yet  been  reduced  to 
scientific  classification.  Consult:  Roberts,  Man- 
ual of  Anthropometry  (London,  1878) ;  Deniker, 
Races  of  Man  (ib.,  1900)  ;  Livi,  Anthropometria 
(Milan,  1900).    See  Anthropometby;  Index. 

80MBBEBETE,  s6m'br&-rft^t&.  A  tovm  of 
Mexico  in  the  State  of  Zacatecas,  situated  85 
miles  northwest  of  Zacatecas,  in  a  mountainous 
district  celebrated  for  its  rich  silver  mines,  from 
which  Sombrerete  derives  all  its  importance 
(Map:  Mexico,  G  6).  Population,  in  1895,  10,- 
082. 

SOMEBS,  sfim'Srz,  or  8T7MXEBS,  Sir 
George  (1554-1610).  An  English  mariner,  bom 
at  or  near  Lyme  Regis,  Dorsetshire.  He 
was  an  active  promoter  of  the  London  company 
formed  to  colonize  Virginia,  and  in  1609  he 
sailed  for  America  in  command  of  a  small  fleet. 
His  squadron  was  scattered  by  a  hurricane  and 
Somers's  vessel  was  wrecked  on  the  Bermuda 
Islands,  which  Somers  took  possession  of  in  the 
name  of  England.  He  died  there  while  on  a  sec- 
ond visit.  One  of  the  many  contemporary  ver- 
sions of  his  shipwreck  is  said  to  have  given 
Shakespeare  the  setting  for  The  Tmnpesi, 


1036 


sombbvuiLB. 


SOXEBS^  John,  Lord  (1661-1716).  An  Eng- 
lish lawyer  and  statesmaH.  He  was  bom  in  Wor- 
cester and  educated  in  private  schools  and  at 
Trinity  College^  Oxford.  He  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1676,  distinguished  himself  in  the  trial  of 
the  seven  bishops,  became  leader  in  the  negotia- 
tions of  the  discontented  nobles  with  William 
III.,  and  was  an  important  member  of  the  first 
Parliament  after  the  revolution  of  1688-89.  The 
Bill  of  Rights  was  drafted  by  a  committee  of 
which  he  was  chairman^  and  its  chief  defence 
in  Parliament  was  intrusted  to  him.  He  was 
made  Solicitor-General  in  1689,  Attorney-General 
three  years  later,  and  Lord  Keeper  in  1693,  and 
became  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Lords  a  few 
months  later.  In  1697  he  was  appointed  Lord 
Chancellor  of  England.  At  this  time  he  was 
raised  to  the  peerage.  Somers  was  closely  asso- 
ciated with  John  Locke  and  Sir  Isaac  Newton  in 
the  measures  looking  to  the  reform  of  the  coin- 
age. He  was  remov^  from  the  Chancellorship  in 
1700,  impeachment  proceedings  being  begun 
against  him,  which,  however,  were  soon  dropped. 
His  literary  reputation  is  most  closely  associated 
with  the  great  library  he  collected,  from  which 
was  afterwards  edited-  the  Somers  Tracts  by  Sir 
Walter  Scott  (13  vols.,  London,  1809-13). 

80MEBSET,  stim^er-sSt,  Edwabd  Setmoub, 
Duke  of  (c.  1506-62).    See  Setmoub. 

SOMEBSETy  FiTZBOT  Jambs  Henbt,  Lord, 
First  Baron  Raglan.    See  Raglan. 

SOHEBSETSHIBE.  a  maritime  county  in 
the  southwest  of  England,  bounded  on  the  north- 
west by  Bristol  Channel,  and  in  other  direc- 
tions by  Devonshire,  Dorsetshire,  Wiltshire,  and 
*  Gloucestershire  (Map:  England,  C  6).  Area, 
1615  square  miles.  Population,  in  1891,  484,337 ; 
in  1901,  508,104.  The  surface  is  diversified  with 
lofty  hills  and  barren  moors,  rich  vales  and 
marshy  levels,  many  thousands  of  acres  of  the 
latter  being  below  high-water  mark,  and  depend- 
ing for  security  on  sea  banks  and  sluices.  The 
hills  are  divided  into  several  ranges  running 
from  east  to  west,  the  most  conspicuous  being 
the  Mendips.  In  the  extreme  west  is  the 
wild  district  of  Exmoor  Forest  (q.v.).  The  chief 
river,  the  Bristol  Avon,  rises  in  Wiltshire  and 
for  some  miles  divides  Somersetshire  from  Glou- 
cestershire. The  wheat  and  barley  grown  around 
Bridgewater  are  famous ;  grazing  and  dairy  farm- 
ing form  the  leading  branches  of  husbandry ;  and 
the  cheese  of  Cheddar  has  a  great  reputation.  The 
hilly  districts  are  rich  in  minerals,  especially 
iron,  with  some  lead  and  freestone.  The  manu- 
factures are  woolen  cloth,  coarse  linens,  lace, 
silk,  and  gloves.  Capital,  Taunton.  British 
camps  are  numerous  on  the  hills,  and  extensive 
remains  of  stone  circles  are  visible  at  Stanton 
Drew,  near  Bristol.  Consult  Cooke,  Topography 
of  Oreat  Britain  (London,  n.  d.). 

80MEB8  (stkm^rz)  ISLANDS.  A  group  of 
islands  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean.     See  Bebmuba. 

801CEB8W0BTH,  sUm^rz-wtirth.  A  city  in 
Strafford  County,  N.  H.,  five  miles  north  of 
Dover,  on  Salmon  Palls  River,  and  On  the  Bos- 
ton and  Maine  Railroad  (Map:  New  Hampshire, 
L  8).  There  is  a  public  library.  Sommersworth 
is  chiefly  noted  for  its  manufacture  of  cotton 
cloth  and  woolen  goods,  but  has  also  important 
boot  and  shoe  interests.  The  water-works  are 
owned  and  operated  by  the  municipality.     Set- 


tled in  1729,  Sommersworth  was  incorporated  a« 
a  town  in  1754,  and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in 
1893.    Population,  in  1890,  6207;  in  1900,  7023. 

SOMEBVTLLE,  stkm'Sr-vIl.  A  city  in  Middle- 
sex County,  Mass.^  adjoining  Boston,  on  the 
Mystic  River,  here  spanned  by  two  bridges,  and 
on  the  Boston  and  Maine  Railroad  (Map:  Massa- 
chusetts, E  3).  It  is  largely  a  residential  city. 
Many  places  of  historic  interest  add  to  its  at- 
tractiveness. Broadway,  over  which  Paul  Re- 
vere passed  on  his  famous  ride;  Central  Hill, 
occupied  by  a  redoubt  during  the  siege  of  Bos- 
ton; the  old  Powder  House,  where  the  powder 
for  the  American  Army  was  stored;  Prospect 
Hill,  said  to  be  the  scene  of  the  first  unfurling 
of  the  American  fiag,  and  the  headquarters  of 
Generals  Greene  and  Charles  Lee,  are  especially 
noteworthy.  The  city  has  a  public  library  with 
56,000  volumes,  Somerville  Hospital,  Catholic 
Home  for  the  Aged,  Somerville  Home  for  the 
Aged,  a  State  armory,  and  a  fine  city  hall.  In 
the  census  year  1900  the  various  industrial  es- 
tablishments of  Somerville  had  an  invested  cap- 
ital of  $10,131,596,  and  a  production  valued  at 
$21,776,511.  Slaughtering  and  meat  packing, 
cloth  bleaching  and  dyeing,  the  distillation  of 
liquors,  and  the  manufacture  of  metal  tubing, 
desks,  pictures  and  frames,  and  jewelry  are  the 
leading  industries. 

The  government  is  vested  in  a  mayor,  chosen 
annually,  and  a  unicameral  council.  Of  the 
subordinate  officials  the  majority  are  appointed 
by  the  mayor  subject  to  the  confirmation  of  the 
council;  the  school  board,  however,  is  elected  by 
popular  vote.  The  assessed  valuation  of  real  ^nd 
personal  property  in  1902  was  $55,485,370,  and 
the  net  debt  (January  1,  1903)  $1,477,000.  The 
city  spends  annually  for  maintenance  and  op- 
eration about  $1,000,000,  the  main  items  being: 
For  schools,  $300,000;  for  streets,  $159,000;  for 
the  police  department  (including  amounts  for 
jails,  workhouses,  reformatories,  etc.),  $69,000; 
for  the  fire  department,  $68,000;  for  municipal 
lighting,  $63,000;  for  water-works,  $52,000;  and 
for  interest  on  debt,  $51,000.  The  water-works 
are  owned  by  the  municipality.  Population,  in 
1890,  40,152;  in  1900,  61,643.  Settled  about 
1631,  Somerville  was  a  part  of  Charlestown  imtil 
separately  incorporated  in  1842.  In  1871  it  was 
chartered  as  a  city.  Within  the  limits  of  the 
present  city  a  large  body  of  Hessian  prisoners 
were  quartered  in  1777-78.  Consult:  Samuels 
(editor),  Somerville ,  Past  €Md  Present  (Boston, 
1897) ;  and  Hurd,  History  of  Middlesea  County 
(Philadelphia,  1890). 

SOMEBVILLE.  A  town  and  the  county-seat 
of  Somerset  County,  N.  J.,  36  miles  west  by 
south  of  New  York  City,  on  the  Raritan  River, 
and  on  the  Central  Railroad  of  New  Jersey 
(Map:  New  Jersey,  C  2).  It  is  an  attractive 
residential  place  and  has  a  public  library.  The 
principal  manufactures  are  woolen  cloth,  cloth- 
mg,  and  brick.  Population,  in  1890,  3861;  in 
1900,  4843. 

SOMEBVILLE,  Mabt  ( 1780-1872) .  A  writer 
on  mathematics  and  physical  science,  bom  at 
Jedburgh,  Scotland.  In  1804  she  married  Cap- 
tain Greig  of  the  Russian  navy,  and  removed 
to  London.  After  three  years  of  married  life 
she  was  left  a  widow  and  free  to  devote  her- 
self to  study.  In  1812  she  married  her  cou- 
sin. Dr.  William  Somerville.     After  presenting 


80MBBVILLE. 


1096 


SONATA. 


a  suceesflfttl  paper  on  the  Magnetic  Pfx>periie8  of 
the  Solar  Spectrum  to  the  Roval  Socie^  in  1826 
Mrs.  Somerville  was  inyited  by  Lord  jSrougham 
in  the  following  year  to  try  to  popularize  for 
the  English  pw)lic  Laplace's  great  work,  the 
M4canique  C^leete,  This  was  published  as  the 
Celestial  Mechaniem  of  the  Heavens  in  1831. 
The  Connection  of  the  Physical  Sciences  was  pub- 
lished in  1834,  Physical  Geography  in  1848,  and 
Molecular  and  Microscopic  Science  in  1866.  The 
Mary  Somerville  scholarship  in  mathematics  for 
women  was  founded  at  Oxford  University  in  her 
honor.  An  autobiography,  edited  and  supple- 
mented by  a  daughter,  Martha  Somerville,  was 
published  in  1873. 

SOlCEBVILIii;  William  (1675-1742).  An 
English  poet  of  an  ancient  family,  bom  at  Gol- 
wich,  in  Staffordshire.  In  1690  he  was  sent  to 
Winchester  School,  whence  he  passed  to  New 
College,  Oxford  (1694).  He  obtained  a  fellow- 
ship, which  he  kept  till  1706,  though  he  was  for 
a  time  student  at  the  Middle  Temple  (1696). 
On  his  father's  death  (1705)  he  inherited  the 
family  estate  at  Edstone,  Warwickshire,  where 
he  settled  and  passed  his  life  with  his  books  and 
his  hounds.  Somerville  is  remembered  mainly 
for  his  blank-verse  poem  The  Chase  (1735), 
which  vividly  depicts  his  favorite  sport.  He  also 
wrote  some  good  verse  fables  (1725,  1727),  a 
burlesque  of  rural  games  entitled  Hohhinol 
(1740),  and  Field  Sports  (1742).  His  poems 
with  lAfe  are  in  the  collections  of  Johnson  and 
Chalmers.  Consult  also  The  Chase,  with  memoir 
by  G.  Gilfillan   (Edinburgh,  1859). 

SOMXEy  s6m.  A  small  river  of  Northern 
France,  entering  the  English  Channel  through  an 
estuary  which  is  navi^ble  for  ocean  steamers  to 
Saint- Valery  (Map:  France,  HI).  From  that 
point  a  lateral  canal  follows  the  river  past 
Amiens  to  Saint-Simon,  whence  two  other  canals 
communicate  with  the  Oise  and  the  Scheldt. 

SOMXE.  A  northern  maritime  department 
of  France,  boimded  on  the  north  by  the  English 
Channel,  south  by  Pas-de-Calais,  and  northeast 
by  Seine- Infgrleure  (Map:  France,  J  2).  Area, 
2443  square  miles.  Population,  in  1896,  543,- 
279;  in  1901,  537,848.  The  chief  river  is  the 
Somme,  which  traverses  the  department  from 
southeast  to  northwest.  Somme  is  mostly  level, 
but  in  'Some  parts  is  marshy.  The  department 
produces  com  and  garden  fruits.  The  raising  of 
cattle  is  carried  on  to  a  great  extent.  The  chief 
manufactures  are  velvets,  chemicals,  woolens, 
cottons,  linens,  silk,  leather,  and  tapestries.  Cap- 
ital, Amiens.  The  department  was  formed  main- 
ly out  of  the  old  Province  of  Picardy. 

BOICNAXBULISM  (from  Lat.  somnus,  sleep 
4.  amhulare,  to  walk).  A  state  intermediate  be- 
tween those  of  sleeping  and  waking,  character- 
ized by  the  performance  of  various  acts  appar- 
ently indicative  of  conscious  control,  by  absence 
of  the  usual  reaction  to  stimuli,  and  usually  by 
inability  to  recall  on  awakening  any  of  the 
thoughts  or  movements  which  have  taken  place 
during  the  abnormal  condition.  Somnambulism 
may  be  self-induced,  spontaneous,  or  idiopathic, 
or  artificially  induced,  as  in  the  hypnotic  trance. 
In  the  latter  sense,  the  term  is  popularly  used 
as  a  synonym  of  hypnosis,  but  strictly  speaking 
it  should  be  limited  in  accordance  with  its  defi- 
nition by  the  'Paris  school,'  who  apply  the  term 


only  to  the  third  stage*  of  the  hjpnoftie  staie. 
(See  Htpnotibm.)  In  this^  the  finftl  stage,  tiie 
subject  is  almost  completely  anaathetic,  obeys  or- 
ders by  movement  and  perception,  and,  when 
awakened,  has  no  memory  at  all  of  what  has 
elapsed  during  the  somnambulistic  period. 

Spontaneously  induced  somnambulism  of  a 
mild  or  imperfect  type  is  frequent.  It  la  most 
obviously,  though  perhaps  not  most  strikingly, 
manifest^  by  persons  who  walk  at  night  during 
sleep.  A  slight  stimulus,  enough  to  catch  the  at- 
tention, will  restore  the  normal  condition.  In 
its  pronounced  form,  often  exhibited  by  patients 
suffering  from  hysteria,  somnambulism  approach- 
es, if  it  does  not  cross,  the  border-line  between 
the  merely  anomalous  and  the  abnormal  or  patho- 
logical. Psychologically,  sleep-walking  is  only  a 
dream  carried  one  step  beyond  its  usual  limita- 
tions. In  dream-wallung  the  barrier  to  ezecn- 
tion  is  partially  lifted,  and  the  conditions  of  nor- 
mal connection  between  idea  and  movement  are 
fulfilled.  Somnambulism  further  differs  from 
normal  sleep  in  that,  within  certain  limits,  there 
is  in  it  cognizance  of  external  objects.  The  som- 
nambulist may  walk  the  ridge-pole  thinking  it  a 
boulevard,  but  his  actions  are  confined  to  rela- 
tively simple  acts,  which,  like  walking,  have  be- 
come automatic  by  practice. 

Consult:  Tuke,  Bleep-Walking  and  Hjfpnotigm 
(London,  1884) ;  Li^is,  De  la  suggestion  et  du 
somnambuUsme  dans  leur  rapport  avee  la  juris- 
prudence et  la  midecine  Ugale  (Paris,  1889) ;  W. 
Wundt,  Lectures  on  Human  and  Animal  Psychol- 
ogy, trans.   (New  York,  1894). 

BOlOSfATK^  s6m^nath,  or  Patan.  A  town  in 
Gujurat,  Province  of  Bombay,  India,  on  the  Kath- 
iawar  Peninsula;  38  miles  northwest  of  the 
island  of  Diu,  on  the  Arabian  Sea  (Map:  India, 
B  4).  Its  port  is  Verawal,  3  miles  to  tne  north- 
west. Of  great  antiquity  as  an  important  com- 
mercial centre  and  pilgrimage  resort,  the  town 
was  captured  by  Mahmud  of  Ghazni  in  1025  and 
its  celebrated  temple  despoiled  of  its  vast  riches. 
Population,  about  6600. 

SOM^HTXS  (Lat,  sleep).  The  Latin  sod  of 
sleep,  son  of  Night  and  twin  brother  of  I>eath, 
corresponding  to  the  Greek  Hypnos.  His  home 
was  in  the  far  west,  from  which  he  brought  sleep 
to  gods  and  men  alike.  In  art  he  is  variously 
represented,  with  eagle's  wings,  a  butterfly,  a 
poppy  stalk,  with  a  horn  from  which  he  poured 
out  slumber. 

SONATA  (It.,  sonata,  sonata,  p.p.  fem.  of 
sonare,  to  sound,  from  Lat.  sonare,  to  sound, 
from  sonus,  sound).  In  music,  an  instrumental 
compositi(Mi  in  cyclical  form,  originally  any 
instrumental  work  as  opposed  to  a  canl^ita  or 
vocal  work.  At  first  the  sonata  was  almost  iden- 
tical with  the  suite  (q.v.),  but  it  soon  aban- 
doned the  pure  dance  forms  which  the  suite 
embodied.  The  violin  sonata  attained  a  some- 
what perfected  form  before  that  of  any  of  the 
keyed  instruments.  Its  slow  introductory  first 
movement  generally  shows  traces  of  ecclesiastical 
infiuence ;  the  second  movement,  an  allegro,  which 
corresponds  to  the  first  movement  of  a  modem 
sonata,  was  derived  from  vocal  madrigals  or  part 
music;  the  third  movement,  which  is  charac- 
teristically slow,  was  evolved  from  solo  vocal 
music,  while  the  last  movement  showed  elements 
of  dance  music,  and  was  therefore  a  pure  suite 


SONATA. 


1027 


BOHGEBSH. 


movement.  Of  the  popular  danoe  forms,  the 
minuet  survived  the  longest  but  was  ultimately 
supplanted  by  the  scherzo,  while  the  gigue  and 
chaoonne,  of  which  Bach  left  so  many  examples, 
were  succeeded  by  the  finale  or  rondo.  The 
first  noteworthy  advance  is  in  a  set  of  seven 
sonatas  for  the  clavier,  Friache  Klavierfmchte 
(1703),  by  Johann  Kuhnau,  in  which  he  shows 
a  partial  recognition  of  the  relation  and  balance 
of  keys.  Johann  Mattheson  chose  the  gigue  for 
the  concluding  movement  of  his  sonatas,  and 
both  he  and  Alessandro  Scarlatti  did  much  to 
define  and  imify  the  sonata  form.  In  the  works 
of  Domenico  Scarlatti  are  foimd  the  first  traces 
of  a  distinct  secondary  subject  in  the  first  al- 
legro. The  domain  of  the  sonata  was  long  mo- 
nopolized by  writers  for  the  violin,  and  through 
the  advances  made  by  Locatelli,  Gfeminiani,  and 
Tartini  the  sonata  finally  reached  the  four-move- 
ment type.  Johann  Sebastian  Bach  wrote  many 
sonatas  for  various  instruments  and  for  com- 
binations of  instruments,  but  he  did  not  aid  in 
the  direct  development  of  the  form.  His  son, 
Philipp  Emanuel  Bach,  established  the  number 
of  movements  as  three.  Haydn  is  important 
principally  for  having  clearly  indicated  the  out- 
lines and  for  having  made  the  use  of  the 
minuet  and  the  rondo  imperative.  Mozart  adds 
to  Haydn's  unemotional  forms  symmetry,  grace, 
and  more  mature  and  elaborate  themes  and  har- 
monies. Beethoven  brought  the  sonata  to  its 
greatest  perfection.  In  the  Kreutzer  sonata,  for 
violin  and  pianoforte,  and  in  the  pianoforte 
sonatas,  in  D  minor  (Op.  31),  C  major  (Op.  63), 
F minor  (Op.  57),  B  flat  (Op.  106),  and  C  minor 
(Op.  Ill),  he  attains  to  such  a  command  of 
technical  resource  and  emotional  expression  that 
the  form  seems  incapable  of  further  develop- 
ment. 

Sonata  Fobm  is  a  term  applied  to  the  form 
of  the  first  movement  of  a  sonata,  symphony,  or 
chamber-music  composition.  The  first  movement 
of  a  sonata  or  kindred  cyclical  form  consists  of 
three  sections:  (1)  the  exposition,  (2)  the  de- 
velopment, (3)  the  repetition.  The  first  section 
begins  with  the  principal  subject  in  the  tonic 
key.  An  episode  consisting  of  some  development 
of  the  principal  subject  leads  into  the  secondary 
subject.  This  appears  in  the  key  of  the  dominant, 
if  the  movement  is  in  major.  If  the  movement  is 
in  minor  the  secondary  subject  is  announced  in 
the  key  of  the  relative  major.  Then  follows 
some  slight  development  of  the  secondary  subject. 
After  this  the  entire  exposition  section  is  re- 
peated literally.  The  second  or  development  sec- 
tion is  devoted  to  a  full  thematic  working  out 
of  either  one  or  both  the  themes  announced  in 
the  previous  section.  In  the  development  section 
episodes  built  upon  new  themes  may  also  be  in- 
troduced. The  third  or  repetition  (alsg  re- 
capitulation) section  is  a  repetition  of  the 
exposition  section,  though  composers  generally 
vary  the  instrumentation.  In  this  section  the 
secondary  subject  appears  in  the  key  of  the 
tonic.  A  more  or  less  extended  coda,  constructed 
either  upon  the  material  already  introduced  or 
upon  new  material,  closes  the  movement.  Fre- 
quently the  movement  is  preceded  by  a  shorter 
or  longer  introduction  in  slow  tempo.  (See  In- 
TBODUcnoN. )  The  essential  features  of  this  form 
have  not  been  changed  since  Beethoven's  time. 


Consult  Shedlocky  The  Pianoforte  Sonata  (Lon- 
don, 1895). 

SONATINA^  86'nA-te^nA  (It.,  little  sonata, 
diminutive  of  eonata,  sonata) .  In  music,  a  short 
sonata.  There  are  generally  two  or  three  move- 
ments, and  the  themes  are  much  lighter  in  char- 
acter than  those  of  the  regular  sonata.  Sonatinas 
are  designed  especially  for  young  players  as  a 
preparation  to  the  study  of  a  sonata. 

SOKDEBBTTITD,  zdnMSr-bynt.  A  league 
formed  in  the  fall  of  1843  by  the  Swiss  cantons 
Lucerne,  Fribourg,  Zug,  Uri,  Schwerz,  and  Un- 
terwalden  for  the  protection  of  the  interests  of 
the  Church,  then  threatened  by  a  powerful  lib- 
eral movement  in  many  cantons  of  the  Confed- 
eration. The  Canton  of  Valais  joined  the  league 
in  1845.  In  1847  the  Liberal  majority  in  the 
National  Assembly  decreed  the  dissolution  of  the 
Sonderbund,  and  this  was  accomplished  by  force 
of  arms  in  the  same  year.    See  Switzerland. 

SOKDEBBTTBG,  lAnfdSr-hSSrK,  A  town  on 
the  island  of  Alsen  (q.v.). 

BONDEBSHAITSEN,  zftn^dSrs-hou'zen.  The 
capital  of  the  Principality  of  Schwarzburg-Son- 
dershausen,  Germany,  33  miles  northwest  of 
Weimar,  on  the  Wipper  (Map:  Germany,  D  3). 
The  Prince's  castle,  in  a  beautiful  park,  contains 
a  natural  history  collection  and  a  museum  of 
antiquities.  Sondershausen  was  founded  in  525 
and  passed  to  Schwarzburg  in  1248.  Population, 
in  1900,  7054. 

80HG  (AS.  song,  sang,  Goth,  apiggtoe,  OHG. 
sang,  Ger.  Oesang,  song,  from  AS.  singan,  Goth. 
eiggtoan,  OHG.  singan,  Ger.  singen,  to  sing) .  A 
short  lyric  or  narrative  poem  set  to  music  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  music  reproduces  the 
mood  of  the  poem,  and  at  the  same  time  lends 
more  impassioned  utterance  to  the  words.  The 
term  song  should  properly  be  applied  only  to 
compositions  for  one  or  two  voices  with  instru- 
mental accompaniment.  The  art-song  (Kunst- 
lied)  was  developed  in  Germany  from  the  folk- 
song. The  form  has  been  received  with  universal 
favor.    See  Ballad;  Folk-Music;  Lieb;  Meis- 

TEBSINGBB;      MiNNESINGEB;      MuSIC;      NATIONAL 

Htkns;   Romance. 

SOHO-BIBDB.  The  song-birds  of  the  world 
belong  almost  entirely  to  the  order  Oscines, 
which  is  that  of  the  highest  organization,  and 
distinguished  as  a  group  by  the  possession  of 
vocal  organs  of  a  specialized  and  peculiar  sort. 
Yet  all  Oscines  are  not  capable  of  singing,  and 
some  birds  which  utter  melodious  notes  are  to  be 
found  in  other  groups.  The  principal  singers  are 
to  be  found  among  the  thrushes,  wrens,  warblers, 
pipits,  larks,  starlings,  and  in  the  great  family 
of  finches.  These  are  largely  birds  of  temperate 
climates,  and  the  popular  idea  that  the  birds 
of  the  tropics  are  not  singers  has  a  basis  in  fact, 
though  it  is  by  no  means  true  that  no  tropical 
birds  utter  melodious  strains. 

SOHGEESH,  s5n-gesh^  A  tribe  of  Salishan 
stock  (q.v.)  occupying  a  territory  on  the  south- 
eastern end  of  Vancouver  Island,  B.  C.  Their 
proper  name  is  Lkungen,  the  other  being  a  cor- 
ruption of  one  of  the  subtribal  names.  Their 
general  culture  is  that  of  the  coast  Salishan 
tribes.  Their  houses  are  large  communal  dwell- 
ings of  cedar  planks,  carved  and  painted  with 
symbolic  figures,  and  divided  inside  into  family 


BOHGEBffS. 


1038 


SOHKST. 


compartments  separated  by  rush  mats.  They 
wear  blankets  of  dog  and  goat  hair  and  duck 
down,  cleaning  the  material  of  grease  by  means 
of  native  white  clay,  the  spinning  and  weaving 
being  by  the  simplest  hand  process.  Cordage  for 
nets  is  spun  from  nettle  fibre.  Their  chief  de- 
pendence is  upon  fishing,  and  the  catching  and 
drying  of  salmon  constitutes  the  main  industry, 
with  the  usual  number  of  connected  taboos  and 
ceremonies.  They  have  several  clans,  each  of 
which  has  its  own  fishing  coast  and  its  own 
set  of  personal  names.  Women  are  subject  to 
many  taboos.  Head-flattening  and  tattooing  are 
practiced.  The  dead  are  laid  away  in  canoes  in 
the  forest  or  rolled  in  mats  which  are  deposited  in 
the  branches  of  the  trees.  Slaves  were  formerly 
buried  with  the  dead  chief.  They  have  the 
potlatch  custom  (q.v.)  and  two  principal  secret 
societies.  The  majority  are  now  professed  Catho- 
lics, but  the  old  customs  still  survive  among  the 
others.  No  tribal  census  is  taken,  but  their  dif- 
ferent bands  may  number  500,  and  are  known 
to  be  on  the  decrease. 

SOHGHAY,  sdo-gl^  80NBHAY,  or  BTTB- 
HAY.  A  Sudanese  Nigritian  people  numbering 
two  millions,  living  in  the  bend  of  the  Niger, 
below  Timbuctoo,  with  separate  speech.  They 
are  mixed  at  the  north  with  Moors,  and  at  the 
south  with  Fulahs,  and  are  Moslem. 

SOHGh-KO^  sdng^oi^  A  river  of  Indo- 
China.    See  Red  Riveb. 

SONG  OF  SOLOMON.    See  Canticles. 

BOHG-SPABBOW.     See  Spabbow. 

BOHG-THBUSH.  Any  of  several  thrushes 
locally  conspicuous  for  their  song.  In  the  United 
States  the  wood-thrush  (q.v.)  is  most  often  the 
one  meant.  In  Great  Britain  it  is  the  thrush 
{Turdus  musictis)  called  'mavis,'  provincially, 
and  very  often  kept  caged  for  the  sake  of  its 
melody.  It  is  a  permanent  resident  of  all  tem- 
perate Europe,  and  in  its  ground-hunting  and 
hardy  habits  resembles  its  congener,  the  American 
robin;  its  nesting  habits  are  similar,  too,  though 
it  uses  less  mud  and  its  blue  eggs  are  spotted 
with  brown.  The  adult  male  is  dark  brown  above, 
tinted  with  golden  brown;  throat  buflT;  under 
parts  yellowish  white,  closely  spotted  with  brown. 
It  is  a  most  pleasing  songster,  and  especially  a 
favorite  in  Scotland  and  Scandinavia.  See 
Thbush. 

SOKHEBEBG,  zdnV-b«rK.  A  town  and  sum- 
mer resort  in  the  Duchy  of  Saxe-Meiningen, 
Germany,  on  the  Rdthen,  13  miles  northeast  of 
Coburg  (Map:  Prussia,  D  3).  Its  principal  in- 
dustry is  the  manufacture  of  toys.  Masks, 
grindstones,  slates,  and  pencils  are  also  manu- 
factured.   Population,  in  1900,  13,317. 

SOHHENFELS,  z6n^en-f$ls,  Joseph  von 
(1732-1817).  An  Austrian  author,  bom  in  Ni- 
kolsburg.  He  served  in  the  Austrian  Army 
in  1749-64,  was  then  for  a  time  a  lawyer's 
clerk,  and  became  particularly  active  in  en- 
deavors toward  the  improvement  of  the  Vienna 
stage,  in  connection  with  which  he  wrote  the 
Brief  €  aher  die  tcienerische  Schauhuhne  (1768; 
new  ed.  1884).  His  Ahschaffung  der  Tortur 
(1776)  effectively  secured  the  abolition  of  the 
torture  throughout  Austrian  domains.  In  1763 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  political  science 
in  the  I^^niversity  of  Vienna,  and  subsequently 
received  various  posts,  including  that  of  presi- 


dent of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts.  His  col- 
lected writings  appeared  at  Vienna  in  thirteen 
volumes  (1783-87).  Consult  the  biography  by 
Mailer  (Vienna,  1882). 

SONNBirSCHEOr,  z6n^en-8hln,  WnxiAJC 
Swan  ( 1865— ) .  An  English  publisher  and  com- 
piler, bom  in  London.  He  was  educated  in  Lon- 
don at  University  College.  In  1878  he  established 
there  a  publishing  business  which  in  1895  became 
a  limited  company  with  himself  as  chairman.  He 
collected  an  important  libraiy  in  bibliography 
and  literary  history,  and  published  The  Best 
Books  (1887;  5th  ed.  1901),  a  classified  list  of 
about  50,000  available  works,  and  A  Reader's 
Guide  to  Contemporary  Literature  (1894;  2d  ed. 
1901),  supplementary  to  the  foregoing. 

SOKHENTHAL^  zdn^en-t&l,  Adou'  voir  (1834 
— ) .  An  eminent  Austrian  actor,  bom  in  Buda- 
pest. He  first  worked  as  a  ioumeyman  tailor, 
but  after  some  experience  on  the  provincial  stage 
was  engaged  at  the  Court  theatre  in  Vienna,  one 
of  whose  brightest  ornaments  he  became,  ex- 
celling equally  in  tragic  rftles  and  in  comedy. 
In  1881  he  was  knighted  by  the  Emperor.  In 
1885,  on  a  visit  to  New  York,  he  was  most  cor- 
dially received  by  the  public.  He  visited  the 
United  States  again  in  1899  and  1902.  Consult 
Eisenberg,  Adolf  Sonnenthal  (Dresden,  1896). 

SONKET  (Fr.  sonnet,  OF.,  Prov.  sonet,  song, 
diminutive  of  son,  sound,  song,  from  Lat.  aoniis, 
sound).  As  perfected  by  the  Italian  humanists, 
a  stanza  of  fourteen  hendecasyllabic  verses, 
rhyming  according  to  a  clearly  defined  plan.  The 
stanza  is  divided  into  two  unequal  parts.  The 
first  part,  called  the  octave,  is  composed  of  two 
quatrains  (or  four-line  strophes).  The  second 
part,  called  the  sestet,  is  composed  of  two  tercets 
(or  three-line  strophes).  The  octave  runs  on  two 
and  the  sestet  on  two  or  three  rhymes.  Accord- 
ing to  a  common  type^  the  rhymes  are  arranged 
thus:  abba,  abba,  ode,  ede.  This  rhyme-scheme 
may  vary  considerably,  especially  in  the  sestet. 
An  important  point  to  observe  is  that  the  four 
divisions — particularly  the  octave  and  the  sestet 
— are  kept  distinct.  In  this  most  rigid  of  all 
metrical  forms,  the  idea,  mood,  or  sentiment  of 
the  poet  is  developed  by  stages.  Stated  in  the 
first,  the  idea  is  elaborated  in  the  second  quat- 
rain; and  then,  gathering  emotional  intensi^  in 
the  first  tercet,  it  fiows  on  full  to  the  conclusion. 
The  result  in  the  hands  of  the  masters  is  absolute 
unity.  The  sonnet  was  primitively  a  lyric  sung 
with  musical  accompaniment.  Indeed,  the  Pro- 
vencal and  French  poets  employed  the  word  son 
or  sonet  to  designate  a  lyric  in  the  vernacular. 
It  is  now  generally  held  that  the  sonnet  orig- 
inated in  Sicily.  Some  philologians,  however, 
find  its  germ  in  the  Provencal  cobla  esparsa. 

The  sonnet,  widely  cultivated  in  Italy  and 
Provence  during  the  thirteenth  century,  assumed 
its  highest  ai^  under  the  hand  of  Petrarch 
(1304-74).  The  form  was  also  practiced  by 
Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  Michelangelo,  Tasso,  and 
many  others.  From  Italy  the  sonnet  spread  over 
Western  and  Northern  Europe.  In  Spain  it  was 
naturalized  by  Juan  Boscan  (c.l493-c.l542). 
Portugal  had  the  great  Cam9es  (q.v.).  The  form 
seems  to  have  b^n  introduced  into  France  by 
Mellin  de  Saint-Gelais,  and  at  once  adopted  \^ 
his  master  Marot.  It  received  an  immense  vogue 
from  the  Pteiade.     Da  Bellay  produced  nearly 


SONNXT. 


1029 


SONS  OF  lilBEBTY. 


tw^  hundred  sonnets,  and  Ronsard  more  than  nine 
hundred.  The  fashion,  after  d^ng  out  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  came  in  again  with  the  ro- 
mantics. Among  recent  French  adepts  in  the 
sonnet  are  Sully-Prudhomme  and  H6r6dia. 

The  sonnet  was  introduced  into  England  by 
the  Earl  of  Surrey  and  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt.  Their 
collection,  numbering  thirty-six  altogether,  first 
appeared  in  Tottel's  Miaoellany  under  the  title 
Songea  and  Sonnetes  (1567).  Between  1591  and 
1597  were  published,  according  to  the  conserva- 
tive estimate  of  Sidney  Lee,  more  than  two  thou- 
sand English  sonnets.  Of  the  vast  Elizabethan 
product,  the  sonnet-sequences  of  Sidney,  Daniel, 
Spenser,  and  Shakespeare  stand  out  prominently. 
The  Elizabethans  did  not  follow  strictly  the  Pe- 
trarchan type.  Spenser  and  Shakespeare,  though 
logically  developing  the  idea,  reduced  the  sonnet 
to  three  quatrains  clinched  by  a  final  couplet. 
With  rich  musical  effect  Spenser  interlaced  his 
rhymes  thus:  ahab,  bchc.cdod,  ee,  Shakespeare 
further  simplified  the  sonnet  by  employing  a  dis- 
tinct set  of  alternating  rhymes  in  each  quatrain. 
Ills  rhyme-scheme  is  ahah,  odcd,  efef,  gg.  After 
1600  the  sonnet  impulse,  though  weakened,  was 
still  a  force.  And  then  came  Milton,  with  his 
small  but  grand  group.  Scholar  as  he  was,  he 
held  very  closely  to  the  Italian  octave,  sestet, 
and  rhyme  scheme.  For  a  century  after  Milton, 
few  English  sonnets  were  written,  but  with  the 
romantic  revival  the  sonnet  returned  (about 
1750),  though  even  Wordsworth,  as  late  as  1827, 
thought  it  necessary  to  defend  the  form  against 
the  critics.  Among  the  great  English  poets  of 
the  nineteenth  century  who  practiced  the  sonnet, 
in  the  Petrarchan,  Shakespearean,  or  some  modi- 
fied form,  are  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  Keats, 
Mrs.  Browning,  and  the  Rossettis.  In  Germany, 
though  the  sonnet  appeared  as  early  as  the  sev- 
enteenth century,  with  Weckherlin  (1685-1663) 
and  Opitz  (1597-1630),  it  was  not  much  cul- 
tivated till  taken  up  by  the  romantics  and  a 
few  poets  just  preceding  them:  Bilrger,  A.  W. 
Schlegel,  Amim,  Voss,  Goethe,  Rfickert,  Eichen- 
dorff,  Heyse,  Geibel,  and  Redwitz.  Consult:  Bia- 
dene,  "Morfologia  del  Sonetto,"  in  Studj  di  Filo- 
logia  Romanza  (Rome,  1889)  ;  Welti,  Oeachichte 
des  Sonettes  (Leipzig,  1884)  ;  Schipper,  Orundriss 
der  englischen  Metrik  (Vienna,  1895) ;  Tomlin- 
son.  The  Sonnet,  Its  Originy  Structure,  and  Place 
in  Poetry  (London,  1874)  ;. Corson,  A  Primer  of 
English  Verse  (Boston,  1892) ;  Theodore  de  Ban- 
ville.  Petit  traiti  de  po^sie  francaise  (Paris, 
1891);  Lee,  A  Life  of  Shakespeare,  containing 
chapters  on  Italian,  French,  and  English  sonnets 
(London,  1898);  Vaganay,  Le  sonnet  en  J  talis 
€t  en  France  au  XVJdme  siicle  (Lyons,  1902) ; 
Noble,  The  Sonnet  in  England  (London,  1896) ; 
Main,  A  Treasury  of  English  Sonnets  (Manches- 
ter, 1880) ;  The  Book  of  the  Sonnet,  edited  with 
essays  by  L.  Hunt  and  S.  A.  Lee  (Boston,  1867) ; 
Sonnets  of  Europe,  trans.,  ed.  by  Waddington 
(London,  1886) ;  and  Herrick,  A  Century  of 
Sonnets  (New  York,  1902). 

SOKNIHO,  s6n-n^nd.  A  town  in  the  Province 
of  Rome,  Italy,  64  miles  southeast  of  the  city  of 
Rome.  Its  chief  feature  is  the  Convent  of 
Fossanova,  an  exceptionally  fine  specimen  of  early 
Gothic  architecture.    Population,  about  3000. 

80N0BA,  s6-nyr&.  A  northwestern  State  of 
Mszico,  bounded  by  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  on 


the  north,  the  Mexican  State  of  Chihuhua  on  the 
east,  Sinaloa  on  the  southeast,  and  the  Gulf  of 
California  on  the  west  (Map:  Mexico,  D  3). 
Area,  76,922  square  miles.  Along  the  coast  ex- 
tends a  low  arid  region  rising  gradually  toward 
the  interior.  In  the  east  rises  the  Sierra  Madre 
with  its  numerous  offshoots  inclosing  deep  val- 
leys. The  rivers  of  the  State  are  few,  the  Yaqui 
being  the  most  important.  The  climate  differs 
considerably  in  the  different  parts  of  the  State, 
but  the  rainfall  is  generally  scanty,  and  agricul- 
ture can  be  carried  on  only  with  irrigation.  The 
mineral  deposits  of  Sonora  are  among  the  richest 
in  Mexico,  and  include  silver,  lead,  gold,  copper, 
coal,  iron,  and  graphite.  Mining  is  carried  on  ex- 
tensively and  a  large  proportion  of  the  mineral 
products  is  exported  to  the  United  States.  So- 
nora is  crossed  by  a  railway  line  from  Guaymas, 
its  chief  port,  to  the  United  States  frontiiT. 
Population,  in  1900,  220,553.  Capital,  Hermosil- 
lo  (q.v.). 

80N0BAK  REGION.  An  American  faunal 
region  whose  bounds  are  very  widely  extended  by 
some  writers,  but  which  is  more  intelligibly  re- 
stricted to  the  high  and  dry  plateau  region  of  the 
northern  interior  of  Mexico  and  to  the  contiguoiu 
arid  region  of  the  Southwestern  United  States, 
reaching  eastward  into  Texas  and  northward  into 
Colorado,  Utah,  and  Nevada  between  the  moun- 
tain ranges.  It  is  characterized  by  a  large  vari- 
ety of  small  animals  adapted  to  a  desert  life,  and 
has  bem  most  studied  and  described  by  Merriam. 

80N8  OF  LIBEBTT.  In  American  history, 
a  name  applied  to  an  organization  extending 
throughout  all  the  colonies,  opposing  first  the 
Stamp  Act,  and  afterwards  advocating  separation 
from  Great  Britain.  When  the  Stamp  Act  (q.v.) 
was  proposed  in  1764,  loose  secret  organizations, 
chiefly  of  workingmen,  were  formed  in  the  various 
colonies  to  concert  resistance.  Col.  Isaac  Barr6 
(q.v.)  in  a  speech  in  Parliament  in  February, 
1765,  used  the  phrase  'Sons  of  Liberty,'  which 
was  at  once  adopted  by  these  societies.  With  the 
passage  of  the  Stamp  Act  they  took  the  lead  in 
opposition  to  its  enforcement,  and  prevented  its 
lexecution  Inr  force.  Committees  of  correspond- 
ence were  formed  and  each  colony  was  kept  in' 
touch  with  the  sentiment  in  the  others.  Though 
there  was  no  central  organization,  the  activity  of 
John  Lamb  (q.v.),  Isaac  Sears  (q.v.),  and  others 
in  New  York  made  the  Sons  of  Liberty  in  that 
colony  perhaps  more  important  than  in  any  other. 
With  the  repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act  in  1766,  the  or- 
ganization was  dissolved  in  some  towns,  but  in 
others  was  active  in  supporting  the  Non-Importa- 
tion Agreement.  Ab  sentiment  favoring  entire 
separation  grew  in  strength,  the  secrecy  was  dis- 
carded, and  the  name  was  given  to  the  younger 
and  more  active  patriots.  In  New  York  they  con- 
trolled the  Committee  of  Safety,  and  in  1774  the 
calling  of  a  Continental  Congress  was,  in  part, 
due  to  them.  In  Georgia  they  were  called  Liberty 
Boys,  and  finally  drove  the  royal  (jovemor  from 
the  State.  In  colonies  where  there  was  a  large 
Loyalist  element  the  organizati<»  was  efficient  m 
preserving  American  supremacy,  and  was  kept 
up  during  the  Revolution.  Afterwards  many  of 
the  leaders  were  prominent  Anti-Federalists  and 
opposed  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution.  The 
name  was  also  applied  during  the  Civil  War  to 
the  Knights  of  the  (^Iden  Circle  (q.v.)«    Con* 


SONS  OF  IiIBSBTY. 


1080 


SOPHZOLOGY. 


suit:  Leake,  Life  of  Om.  John  Lamb  (Albany, 
1850) ;  and  Dawson,  Sona  of  Liberty  in  New  York 
(Poughkeepsie,  1869). 

SONS  OF  THE  AMEBICAN  BEVOLXT- 
TION,  SociBTT  OF  THE.  An  hereditary  patriotic 
society  organized  in  New  York  City  on  Anril  30, 
1889,  by  representatives  of  the  Society  of  the  Sons 
of  the  Revolution,  and  of  the  Sons  of  Revolution- 
ary Sires.  The  latter  had  been  organized  in  San 
Francisco,  Cal.,  on  October  22,  1876,  and  after 
April  30,  1889,  became  the  California  State  So- 
ciety of  the  Sons  of  the  American  Revolution. 
Membership  in  this  society  is  restricted  to  lineal 
descendants  of  an  ancestor  who  rendered  act- 
ual service  in  the  cause  of  American  independ- 
ence, either  as  an  officer,  soldier,  seaman,  marine, 
militia,  or  minute  man  in  the  armed  forces  of 
the  Continental  Congress,  or  of  any  one  of  the 
several  colonies.  The  total  membership  was 
about  10,600  in  1903. 

SONS  OF  THE  CLEBGY  ITCrSICAL  FES- 
TIVAL. A  musical  festival  held  in  Saint  Paul's 
Cathedral.  It  was  first  organized  in  1709,  the 
proceeds  being  devoted  to  the  needs  of  the  Sons 
of  the  Clergy  Corporation.  The  Royal  Society  of 
Musicians  for  a  long  time  supplied  the  orchestra. 

SONS  OF  THE  BEVOLUTIOH.  A  patriotic 
hereditary  society  originally  organized  in  New 
York  City  on  February  22,  1876,  and  reorganized 
on  December  4,  1883.  It  admits  to  membership 
any  male  lineal  descendant  from  an  ancestor  who 
actively  assisted  in  establishing  American  inde- 
pendence during  the  War  of  the  Revolution  be- 
tween April  19,  1775,  and  April  19,  1783.  This 
society  has  been  specially  active  in  marking  his- 
toric localities  with  tablets,  especially  in  New 
York  City.  Noteworthy  among  these  monuments 
are  the  tablets  commemorating  the  battle  of  Long 
Island  and  that  marking  the  site  of  the  battle  of 
Harlem  Heights.  The  statue  of  Nathan  Hale  in 
City  Hall  Park,  New  York,  was  also  erected  by 
this  organization. 

SONS  OF  VETEBAHS.  A  patriotic  society 
organized  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  on  September  29, 
1879.  It  admits  to  membership  lineal  male  de- 
scendants of  honorably  discharged  soldiers,  sail- 
ors, and  marines  who  served  in  the  Civil  War. 
The  insignia  consists  of  a  bronze  bar  on  which  are 
the  words  Tilii  Veteranorum ;'  and  pendant 
from  this  bar  is  a  red,  white,  and  blue  ribbon  at- 
tached to  a  medallion  containing  a  monogram  of 
the  letters  'S.  V.'  in  relief  on  a  wreath  over 
crossed  cannons,  surmounted  by  a  spread  eagle. 
Of  similar  character  is  an  organization  known  as 
Daughters  of  Veterans,  which  admits  to  member- 
ship daughters  of  honorably  discharged  soldiers, 
sailors,  and  marines,  and  daughters  of  Sons  of 
Veterans,  who  are  fifteen  years  of  age  and  up- 
ward. 

SONS  OF  WAB  VETEBANB,  Societt  of; 
A  patriotic  society  founded  in  1893,  having  for 
its  objects  to  preserve  and  perpetuate  the  prin- 
ciples for  which  the  Federal  soldiers  fought  in 
the  Civil  War;  to  assist  surviving  veterans  and 
their  widows;  and  the  mutual  benefit  and  ad- 
vancement of  its  members.  It  admits  to  member- 
ship any  male  lineal  descendant  of  an  honorably 
discharged  Union  soldier,  sailor,  or  marine  who 
served  during  the  Civil  War  for  a  period  of  not 
lens  than  six  months,  part  of  which  service  must 
have  been  at  the  front. 


SOHSdHy  fl6tt-86N'.  A  town  of  the  Department 
of  Antioquia,  Colombia,  110  miles  northwest  of 
BogotA,  on  the  Sons6n  River«  at  an  altitude  of 
8300  feet  (Map:  Colombia,  C  2).  In  the  vicinity 
are  extensive  mines  of  gold,  silver,  and  salt.  The 
industries  include  weaving  of  cotton  and  woolen 
mantles,  and  the  manufacture  of  straw  hats. 
Population  about  16,000. 

80H80KATE,.  sto's6-nil'tft.  A  town  of  Salva- 
dor, situated  32  miles  west  of  San  Salvador 
(Map:  Central  America,  C  4).  It  is  the  capital 
of  a  department  of  the  same  name,  and  is  regu- 
larly built.  It  is  the  centre  of  a  rich  agricultural 
district.  Population  about  9000.  It  was  founded 
in  1524  by  Pedro  de  Alvarado. 

SONTAO,  z^n'tao,  Henbietib  (1806-54).  A 
German  operatic  soprano,  bom  at  Cobienz.  She 
was  engaged  upon  the  stage  from  her  earliest 
childhood.  In  1824  she  sang  at  Leipzig  in  Der 
Freiachiitz  and  Euryanthe,  in  which  latter  opera 
she  created  the  title  rOle.  Her  success  was  im- 
mediate and  sensational,  and  in  1824  she  ac- 
cepted a  call  to  the  Kdnigstftdter  Theater^  Ber- 
lin. Two  years  afterwards  she  sang  the  part  of 
Rosina  in  II  Barbiere  di  8evigli<i,  in  which  her 
remarkable  powers  of  coloratura  gave  her  a  dis- 
tinct triumph  over  Catalani.  In  1827  she  was 
engaged  at  the  Paris  Italian  opera,  and  a  year 
afterwards  married  Count  Rossi.  She  sang  in 
all  the  musical  centres  of  Europe,  and  in  1852 
visited  the  United  States.  In  1854  she  was  en- 
gaged for  the  Italian  opera  in  Mexico,  but  was 
stricken  with  cholera  and  died  there. 

800-CHOW,  s?R^chou^  A  town  of  China. 
See  Su-CHow. 

SOPHIA^  s(/f«-&.  The  capital  of  Bulgaria. 
See  Sofia. 

SOPHIA  DOBOTHEA  (1666-1726).  CTonsort 
of  George  I.,  King  of  England,  and  ElectcM'  of 
Hanover.  She  was  the  heiress  of  Duke  George 
William  of  Bnmswick-Luneburg-Celle,  and  mar- 
ried her  cousin,  the  Crown  Prince  of  Hanover,  in 
1682.  She  bore  her  husband  two  children,  who 
became  King  George  II.  of  England  and  Queen 
Sophia  Dorothea  of  Prussia,  mother  of  Frederick 
the  Great.  Her  life  at  the  Hanoverian  Court  was 
made  miserable  by  the  intrigues  of  her  father- 
.  in-law's  mistress,  the  Countess  von  Platen,  who 
accused  her  of  a  liaison  with  Count  Philip 
Christopher  von  K5nigsmarck.  The  Count,  a 
wealthy  young  Swedish  nobleman,  had  been  a 
page  at  her  father's  Court,  and  was  then  colonel 
of  the  guards  at  Hanover.  One  night  as  he  left  the 
Crown  Princess's  apartments  he  was  set  upon  by 
four  soldiers  stationed  there  to  arrest  him,  and  ac- 
cidentally killed.  The  body  was  hastily  concealed 
and  his  disappearance  long  remained  a  matter 
of  mystery.  Soon  afterwards  the  Crown  Princess 
was  arrested,  tried  before  a  court  appointed  for 
the  purpose,  and  her  marriage  annulled.  She 
was  then  sent  to  the  little  Castle  of  Ahlden,  where 
she  was  confined  until  her  death,  thirty-two  years 
later.  Her  guilt  or  innocence  has  long  been  a 
matter  of  controversy.  Consult  Wilkins,  The 
Love  of  an  Vncroxoned  Queen  (London,  1900). 
See  KoNiGSUABCK. 

SOPHIOLOGY  (from  Gk.  ^o^,  eophia^  wis- 
dom, from  o-o06t,  aophoa,  wise;  connected  with 
tf-a^t,  saph^s,  clear,  and  perhaps  with  Lai.  faher, 
smith  4-  .Xo7£a^  -logia,  account,  from  Xfy«y, 
legein,  to  say).    The  science  of  philosophies;  one 


SOPHXOLO0T. 


loai 


80PH0CLB8. 


of  the  principal  divisions  of  anthropology.  All 
peoples  in  eveiy  stage  of  development  produce 
philosophies,  or  general  systems  of  thought  de- 
signed to  explain  the  phenomena  coming  within 
their  observation.  To  some  extent  these  systems 
are  the  product  of  individual  minds,  yet  each 
philosophy  is  in  no  small  measure  a  collective 
product.  The  development  of  philosophic  systems 
is  outlined  in  the  article  Man,  Science  of. 

SOPHISTS  (Lat.  aophista,  from  Gk.  cw^tar-tit, 
aophistes,  wise  man,  teacher  of  arts  and  sciences 
for  money,  sophist,  from  ffo^l^^ip,  sophizeinf  to 
make  wise,  from  o-o^,  sophos,  wise).  A  class 
of  thinkers  and  teachers  who  appeared  in  the 
fifth  century  B.C.  in  Greece,  and  especially  at 
Athens.  Unfortunately,  we  have  little  informa- 
tion concerning  them  except  such  as  has  come  to  us 
from  their  opponents.  We  can  perhaps  form  a 
fair  estimate  of  the  character  and  significance  of 
their  work  if  we  keep  in  mind  the  fact  that  much 
of  what  is  said  of  them  in  extant  Greek  writings 
is  extravagant  satire.  The  change  of  political  in- 
stitutions following  upon  the  Persian  and  Cartha- 
ginian wars,  the  growth  of  democracy  with  an 
increasing  opportunity  for  the  orator,  the  inevit- 
able distrust  m  the  inviolable  character  of  social 
rules  which  were  now  seen  to  differ  in  various 
countries,  all  conspired  to  create  a  demand  for 
up-to-date  instruction  which  should  qualify  men 
for  life  under  the  new  conditions.  The  Sophists 
arose  to  meet  this  demand.  They  popularized 
the  results  of  the  investigations  of  previous  phil- 
osophers. Of  the  earlier  Sophists  some  were  Elea- 
tic,  some  Ueraclitean,  some  Pythagorean,  and 
some  atomistic  in  their  views,  but  they  laid  more 
emphasis  on  equipping  their  pupils  for  the  tasks 
of  public  life  than  for  philosophic  or  scientific 
work.  Philological  studies,  rhetoric,  and  argu- 
mentation by  which  the  worse  could  be  made  to 
appei^r  the  better  reason,  were  their  leading  inter- 
ests. In  the  history  of  philosophy  their  signifi- 
cance, apart  from  the  fact  that  their  activity 
called  forth  the  philosophical  activity  of  Socra- 
tes, and  through  nim  that  of  Plato  and  Aristotle, 
is  mainly  epistemological  and  ethical.  The  readi- 
ness with  which  all  their  arguments  were  re- 
ceived by  their  listeners  made  them  distrustful 
of  human  knowledge.  They  came  to  believe  that 
any  proposition  could  be  proved  as  satisfactorily 
as  any  other.  When  every  statement  is  demon- 
strable none  can  command  absolute  credence, 
and  skepticism  (q.v.)  is  the  foregone  conclu- 
sion. This  skepticism  found  a  theoretical  con- 
firmation in  views  then  becoming  current  as  to" 
the  origin  of  knowledge.  Against  the  older  ra- 
tionalism (q.v.),  which  distinguished  between 
sense  and  thought,  Protagoras,  the  leading  Soph- 
ist, maintained  that  sensations  were  the  sole  con- 
tent of  consciousness.  But  if  this  is  true  and 
if  sense  impressions  of  one  and  the  same  object 
vary,  there  is  no  court  to  which  appeal  can  be 
made  to  adjust  the  disputes  of  sense.  One  sensa- 
tion is  as  good  as  another;  everything  is  just 
what  it  appears  to  be  at  the  moment.  There  is 
no  ascertainable  identity  underlying  the  difl'er- 
enoes  of  appearance.  The  unity  of  {Sienomena  in 
their  laws  is  lost  sight  of,  and  each  individual 
man  becomes  the  measure  of  the  universe.  Op- 
posite conclusions  have  been  drawn  from  this 
sensationalism.  Gorgias  argued  that  nothing  is, 
inasmuch  as  everything  is  full  of  contradictions. 
EuthydemuB,  on  the  contrary,  denied  that  Uiere 


can  be  contradiction.  If  subject  and  predicate 
mean  different  things,  then  what  seems  to  be 
contradiction  is  mere  difference.  Lyoophon  went 
so  far  as  to  advise  the  omission  of  the  copula 
in  propositions,  presumably  because  all  judgments 
are  supposed  to  be  mere  unrelated  sequences  of 
words.  In  ethics  the  upshot  of  the  sophistic 
teaching  was  an  ultra-individualism  with  con- 
sequent license  in  practical  life.  But  this  re- 
sult was  only  gradually  reached.  At  first  the 
distinction  was  made  between  the  natural  and 
the  conventional  in  human  usages;  but  when  the 
distinction  was  once  made  gradually  everything 
institutional  and  social  came  to  be  regarded  as 
conventional,  with  nothing  natural  1^  except 
unscrupulous  self-seeking.  Protagoras  recognized 
the  rationality  of  justice  and  of  regard  for  so- 
cial approval  ( di8(&t ) .  But  other  Sophists 
were  not  so  conservative.  Callicles^  in  Plato,  is 
made  to  say  that  all  laws  are  created  by  the 
strong  and  enforced  on  the  weak,  while  Thrasy- 
machus  contends  that  no  man  but  a  fool  is  will- 
ingly just.  It  is  obvious  that  where  the  whole  of 
morality  is  brushed  aside  as  a  trick  whereby  the 
strong  make  the  weak  do  their  will,  religion  can- 
not stand  untouched..  Protagoras  prudently 
claimed  that  he  knew  nothing  about  the  gods, 
while  his  successors  ran  the  whole  gamut  from 
skepticism  to  avowed  atheism. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  unanimity  with 
which  Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aristotle  condemned 
the  Sophists  for  accepting  pay  for  their  teaching. 
The  reason  for  this  is  no  doubt  the  same  reason 
which  nowadays  makes  some  conservative  educa- 
tors look  with  apprehension  upon  large  endow- 
ments ^ven  by  living  benefactors  to  colleges  and 
universities.  Fear  is  expressed  that  in  such  in- 
stitutions not  what  is  true,  but  what  is  pleasing 
to  the  donor,  will  be  taught.  In  like  manner, 
Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aristotle  doubtless  had  ap- 
prehension for  the  cause  of  what,  to  use  a  mod- 
ern phrase,  we  may  call  academic  freedom.  And 
it  was  with  them  in  many  cases  something  more 
than  a  mere  apprehension.  The  truth  was  that 
by  many  of  the  Sophists  learning  was  prosti- 
tuted; and  yet  no  universal  condemnation  may 
properly  be  passed  on  the  Sophists  as  a  class,  as 
was  done  by  modem  historians  till  the  appear- 
ance of  Hegel's  History  of  Philosophy.  On  the 
other  hand,  Grote  in  his  History  of  Oreece,  vol. 
viii.,  has  gone  to  the  other  extreme  and  has  failed 
to  appreciate  the  subversive  tendency  of  much 
of  the  sophistic  activity.  Among  the  Sophists 
are  to  be  mentioned  Protagoras,  Uorgias,  Prodi- 
cus,  Hippias,  Polus,  Thrasymachus,  Euthydemus, 
Bionysodorus,  Callicles,  and  Antiphon.  Consult : 
Grote,  History  of  Oreeoe;  Sidgwick,  Journal  of 
Philology,  vols.  iv.  and  v.;  and  the  histories  of 
philosophy  by  Ueberweg-Heinze,  Windelband, 
Erdmann,  Zeller,  Gomperz,  Benn,  and  Schwegler 
(for  titles  and  dates  of  these  works,  see  article 
on  Phtlosopht)  ;  also  Schanz,  Die  Sophisten 
(GQttingen,  1867). 

SOPHOCLES^  s5f'd-kl5z  (Lat.,  from  Gk. 
2o0oicX^t,  BophokUs)  (c.406-406  B.C.).  An 
Athenian  dramatist,  bom  of  a  prosperous  family 
at  Colonus,  a  beautiful  suburb  of  Athens.  His 
long  and  happy  life  coincided  with  the  period  of 
the  Imperial  greatness  of  Athens.  His  dramas 
are  the  most  perfect  exemplars  of  Attic  art.  His 
statue  in  the  Lateran  is  the  ideal  type  of  Gredc 
manhood.    All  the  prizes  of  youth,  maturity,  and 


SOPKOOLBl. 


loaa 


8OFHOCX1S8. 


old  a^  fell  to  him  in  their  seaaon.  At  the  oele- 
bration  of  the  victory  of  Salamis  (B.a  480)  he 
was  selected  to  lead  the  chorus  of  dancing  and 
singing  youths.  His  grace  and  youthful  beauty 
in  the  rOle  of  the  Princess  Nausicaa  playing  ball 
with  her  attendant  maidens  were  long  remem- 
bered. In  another  part  he  served  as  the  model 
of  the  painter  Polygnotus  for  his  ideal  picture 
of  the  bard  Thamyris.  He  composed  the  music 
of  his  beautiful  choric  odes,  and  in  addition  to 
his  plays  wrote  many  poems,  including  a  Peaa 
to  iEscuUpius,  which  was  still  sung  in  the  third 
century  a.d.  He  served  his  coimtry  in  various 
capacities  as  ambassador,  treasurer  of  the  tri- 
bute, and  general.  He  was  noted  for  his  piety, 
held  a  minor  priesthood  in  his  old  age,  and  was 
worshiped  with  heroic  honors  after  death.  His 
cheerful  temper  and  agreeable  manners  made 
him  a  universal  favorite,  against  whom  even  the 
scurrilous  comedians  found  little  to  say.  He  was 
the  friend  of  Herodotus,  who  wrote  an  ode  in  his 
honor,  and  the  associate  and  colleague  of  Pericles, 
His  life  is  a  verification  of  the  Pericleaa  bcMWt 
that  grace  and  versatility  in  varied  service  stamp 
the  true  Athenian. 

In  the  vear  468,  at  the  ase  of  twenty-eight,  he 
produced  his  earliest  play,  the  Triptolemua,  which 
won  the  first  prize  against  the  veteran  i£schylus. 
For  the  remaining  years  of  iEschylus*s  life  the 
two  mighty  rivals  contended,  with  varying  suc- 
cess, each  learning  much  from  the  art  of  the 
other.  The  first  recorded  contest  with  Euripides 
occurred  in  the  year  438,  when  the  younger  poet's 
Alceatia  won  the  second  place.  In  the  contests  of 
the  next  thirty-two  years  Sophocles  was  gener- 
ally successful,  bearing  away  the  first  prize 
about  twenty  times  and  never  falling  below  the 
second  place. 

He  held  public  office  not  as  a  professional  poli- 
tician, but  "like  any  other  good  Athenian."  In 
the  year  440  he  was  elected  one  of  the  board  of 
generals  for  the  Samian  War  with  Pericles,  ac- 
cording to  the  legend,  because  of  the  popularity 
or  political  wisdom  of  the  Antigone.  The  great 
poet  as  general  was  the  theme  of  many  anecdotes, 
some  of  which  have  been  preserved  by  the  writer 
of  memoirs,  Ion  of  Chios,  who  met  him  in  Chian 
society  and  at  a  banquet,  where  he  debated  the 
proprieties  of  poetic  diction  with  a  pedantic 
schoolmaster  and  triumphantly  displayed  his 
'strategy'  in  the  capturing  of  a  kiss  from  a  pretty 
child.  His  old  age  is  said  to  have  been  clouded 
by  the  attempt  of  his  son,  lophon,  to  deprive 
him  of  the  management  of  his  estate  on  the 
ground  of  mental  incapacity.  The  legend  adds 
that  Sophocles  refuted  the  charge  by  reading  to 
the  jurors  the  magnificent  chorus  in  praise  of 
Colonus  from  the  &}dipu8  at  ColonuSf  his  latest 
play,  produced  after  his  death  by  his  grandson 
and  namesake.  If  the  tale  is  true  it  is  strange 
that  Aristophanes  makes  no  allusion  to  it  in  the 
Frogs  (b.c.  405).  There  the  relations  between 
father  and  son  are  so  friendly  that  Dionysus  is 
unwilling  to  bring  back  Sophocles  to  the  upper 
world  until  he  has  had  an  opportunity  to  test 
lophon's  poetic  powers  when  unaided  by  his 
father.  On  the  death  of  Euripides  in  the  spring 
of  406  Sophocles  assumed  mourning  and  ordered 
his  chorus  to  appear  without  wreaths.  A  few 
months  later  he  himself  followed  his  younger 
rival. 

The  chief  changes  In  the  external  form  of 
tragedy  attributed  to  Sophocles  are  the  raising 


of  the  number  of  members  of  the  choms  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  and  the  introduction  of  a  third 
actor,  which  made  possible  the  complication  of 
the  action  and  the  more  effective  portrayAl  of 
character  by  contrast  and  juxtaposition.  He 
also  abandoned  the  .^ischylean  fasliion  of  compos- 
ing plays  in  groups  of  three  about  a  central  myth 
or  motive  and  made  each  play  an  independent 
psychological  and  dramatic  unity.  The  chorus 
participates  very  slightly  if  at  all  in  the  plot, 
and  the  length  of  the  choric  odes  relatively  to  the 
dialogue  diminishes,  though  they  never  become 
mere  musical  interludes,  as  is  too  often  the  case 
in  Euripides.  The  Sophoclean  chorus,  is  the 
ideal  spectator  and  interpreter  of  the  ethical  and 
religious  significance  of  the  action.  The  great 
choric  odes  of  the.  Antigone  and  the  (Edipua 
unite  the  grace  of  the  Greek  lyric  to  the  moral 
earnestness  of  the  Hebrew  psabn. 

Sophocles  ooBpoaed  abont  120  plays,  of  which 
seven  an  preserved,  together  with  fragments  of 
ei^ty  or  ninety  others.  (1)  A  jaw,  brooding 
upon  the  dishonor  done  him  by  the  award- 
ing of  the  arms  of  Achilles  to  Odysseus,  is  bereft 
of  his  reason  by  Athena,  whom  he  has  offended  by 
presumptuous  speech.  In  his  frenzy  he  wreaks 
his  wrath  upon  the  cattle  of  the  Greeks.  At  this 
point  the  action  begins.  Awakening  to  the  in- 
tolerable humiliation  of  his  position,  he  slays 
himself  after  a  touching  farewell  to  his  infant  son 
and  a  noble  apostrophe  to  earth  and  sea  and  sky. 
The  debate  on  the  question  of  granting  him  honor- 
able burial,  which  fills  the  last  third  of  the  play, 
is  an  anticlimax  to  modern  feeling,  but  effectively 
displays  the  conciliatory  temper  of  the  sagacious 
Odysseus  and  the  vindictive  spirit  of  Menelans. 
(2)  The  Antigone,  perhaps  the  first  problem  play 
hi  literature,  presents  the  moral  antinomy  that 
arises  from  a  conflict  between  political  authority 
and  the  law  of  the  individual  conscience.  Anti- 
gone, in  obedience  to  Greek  religious  feeling  and 
the  dictates  of  her  woman's  heart,  bestows  the 
rites  of  burial  upon  her  rebel  brother  Polynices 
in  defiance  of  the  edict  of  King  Creon,  and  so 
brings  about  her  own  death,  and,  by  tragic  com- 
plication, that  of  her  lover,  Hsemon,  the  King's 
son.  (3)  The  Electra  corresponds  to  the  middle 
play  of  .^Ischylus's  tril<M7'  the  Oresteia,  and 
to  the  Electra  of  Euripides.  It  treats  of  the 
slajring  of  Clytemnestra  and  her  paramour, 
uEgisthus,  by  her  children,  Orestes  and  Electra, 
in  revenge  for  the  murder  of  their  father,  Aga- 
memnon. The  psychological  interest  centres  in 
the  character  of  Electra,  a  sort  of  ancient  Go- 
lomba,  nerving  her  brother  to  the  prosecution 
of  the  blood  feud.  (4)  The  (Edipus  Tyrannus  is 
the  most  ingeniously  constructed  of  Greek  plays 
and  a  typical  example  of  the  so-called  Sopho- 
clean or  dramatic  irony.  The  plot  turns  on  the 
gradual  inevitable  revelation  to  (Edipus,  through 
his  own  insistent  inquiry,  of  the  dreadful  truth, 
already  known  to  the  audience,  that  he  has  un- 
wittingly fulfilled  the  oracle  which  doomed  him 
to  slay  his  father  and  live  in  incestuous  mar- 
riage with  his  mother.  (5)  The  TrackinuB, 
named  from  the  Trachinian  maidens  of  the 
chorus,  treats  of  the  poisoning  of  Hercules  by 
the  Nessus  robe  sent  to  him  as  a  love  charm  by 
his  jealous  wife,  Deianira,  and  his  translation 
to  heaven  from  the  funeral  pyre  on  Mount  (Eta. 
(6)  The  Philoctetes  was  produced  in  409.  Phi- 
loctetes,  bitten  by  a  serpent  and  aflMcted  with  a 


BOFHOOIiBS. 


1088 


80BA. 


disguBting  wound,  had  been  abandoned  by  Shib 
Greeks  on  the  desert  shore  of  Lemnos.  After 
many  years  an  oracle  declares  that  he,  the  pos- 
sessor of  the  bow  of  Hercules,  is  indispensable 
to  the  besiegers  of  Troy.  Odysseus  and  Neoptol- 
meus,  the  son  of  Achilles,  are  sent  to  fetch  him 
if  need  be  against  hia  will.  Very  beautiful  are 
the  descripticHis  of  nature  and  the  account  of 
Philoetetes's  lonely  life.  But  the  chief  interest 
of  the  play  lies  in  the  psychological  study  of 
the  final  revolt  of  the  frank  nature  of  Neoptol- 
emus  against  the  treachery  which  Odysseus  re- 
quires him  to  practice  upon  the  imsuspecting 
Philoctetes.  (7)  The  CEdipus  at  CoUmu8  (first 
produced  in  401)  depicts  the  reconciliation  of 
(Edipus  with  destiny  and  his  sublime  and  mys- 
terious death  at  Ck)lonus  after  years  of  wander- 
ing as  a  blind  exile,  sustained  by  the  loving  ten- 
duioe  of  his  daughter,  Antigone. 

As  a  poet  Sophocles  cannot  vie  with  the  im- 
aginative sublimity  of  .^Ischylus.  As  a  thinker 
he  may  be  less  fertile  in  suggestion  than  the 
ingenious  Euripides.  But  re^rded  as  a  Greek 
artist^  shaping  Greek  legends  m  the  conventional 
molds  of  Attic  tragedy,  he  holds  the  just  and  . 
perfect  mean  between  the  titanic  symbolism  of 
the  older  poet  and  the  sentimental,  rhetorical  real- 
ism of  the  younffer.  He  is  reported  to  have  said 
that  iSSschylus  md  right  without  knowing  it,  and 
that  Euripides  painted  men  as  they  are,  while 
he  himself  represented  them  as  they  ought  to  be. 
A  slight  plot  sufiices  him  for  the  creation  of  a 
masterpiece  because  his  subtle  dramatic  art  and 
his  exhaustive  psychological  analysis  elicit 
from  a  simple  situation  a  complete  revelation  of 
character  and  destiny.  Fate,  the  prime  motive 
of  ancient  tragedy,  is  no  longer  felt  as  a  ca- 
pricious external  power,  but  as  the  inevitable 
outcome  of  character  and  the  unavoidable  con- 
dition of  life.  Tragic  pathos  is  refined  to  a 
sense  of  the  universal  human  fellowship  In 
frailty  and  suffering.  And  beauty,  the  all-per- 
vading, fpracious  serenity  of  an  unfailing  and 
unobtrusive  art,  takes  from  pathos  and  tragedy 
their  sting  and  dismisses  us  from  the  scene 
calmed,  elevated,  and  reconciled.  Sophocles  is 
the  most  truly  Hellenic  of  the  Greek  tragedians, 
and  for  those  who  have  drunk  deeply  of  the 
Hellenic  spirit  the  most  human  too. 

The  best  edition  is  that  of  Jebb,  in  seven  vol- 
umes, with  elaborate  commentary  and  English 
translation  facing  the  Greek.  There  is  a  good 
annotated  edition  by  Campbell,  and  an  excellent 
monograph  by  the  same  author.  Plumptre's 
verse  translation  is  much  esteemed.  That  of 
Whitelaw  is  perhaps  better. 

SOPHOCLES,  EvANOELmxTS  Afostolides 
(1807-83).  A  (5reek- American  scholar,  bom  at 
Tsangaranda,  near  Mount  Pelion,  in  Thessaly.  As 
.  a  youth  he  spent  much  time  in  Eg3rpt,  and  re- 
ceived his  earlier  education  at  the  Convent  on 
Mount  Sinai.  In  1829  he  emigrated  to  the 
United  States  and  continued  his  studies  at  Am- 
herst College.  He  was  tutor  at  Harvard  College, 
with  a  short  intermission,  from  1842  to  1849. 
In  this  year  he  was  appointed  assistant  professor 
of  Greek,  and  in  1860  he  became  professor  of 
Ancient,  Byzantine,  and  Modem  Greek.  His  pub- 
lications include  a  Oreek  Orammar  (1838;  3d 
ed.  1847),  First  Lessima  in  Greek  (1839),  Oreek 
Eweroiaea  (1841),  Oreek  Leeaona  for  Beginnera 
{\S43),  Catalogue  of  Oreek  Verba  (ISU) ,  Hiatory 


of  the  Oreek  Alphahet  (l^S),  Oloaaary  of  Later 
and  Byzantine  Oreek  (I860),  revised  and  pub- 
lished under  the  title,  Oreek  Leaioon  of  the 
Homan  and  Byzantine  Perioda  (1870). 

SOTHONICnSA  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Zo^^pur/Sa). 
The  daughter  of  the  Carthaginian  Hasdrubal,  son 
of  Gisco.  When  young  her  father  promised  her 
in  marriage  to  the  Numidian  prince  Masinissa 
(q.v.),  but  subsequently  gave  her  to  Masinissa's 
rival,  Syphax.  When  Masinissa  in  the  Second 
Punic  War  overthrew  Syphax,  Sophoipsba  fell 
into  his  hands  and  he  soon  made  her  his  wife,  to 
the  displeasure  of  Scipio,  who  insisted  that  he 
should  surrender  her.  In  order  to  save  her  from 
captivity,  her  husband  sent  her  poison  with 
which  she  put  an  end  to  her  life.  Her  history 
forms  the  theme  of  a  large  number  of  tragedies, 
among  them,  in  English,  those  by  Thomson 
(1729),  Nathaniel  L^  {Bophoniaha,  or  Hanni- 
hal'a  <>verthrou),  1676),  Marston,  [Sophoneaha, 
or  The  Wonder  of  Women,  1602)  ;  in  French, 
under  the  title  Sophoniahe,  by  Mairet  (1630) 
and  by  Comeille  ( 1663 ) ;  in  Italian,  as  Sofonia- 
ha,  by  Galeotto  del  Carretto  (1502),  Trissino 
(1529),  and  Alfieri  (1783). 

SO^HBON  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Zc^pwr)  OF 
SYBACTJSE  (B.C.  460-420).  A  Greek  writer 
of  mimes.  Though  from  time  immemorial  the 
Greeks  of  Sicily  had  practiced  the  mimes  at  their 
public  festival,  Sophron  was  the  first  to  reduce 
them  to  the  form  of  a  literary  composition. 
They  consisted  in  the  representation  of  scenes 
from  actual  life,  chiefiy  in  the  lower  classes, 
brought  out  by  a  dramatic  dialogue,  interspersed 
with  numerous  colloquial  forms  of  speech. 
These  pieces  of  Sophron,  which  were  in  the 
Doric-Greek  dialect  and  in  a  kind  of  eadenoed 
prose,  were  great  favorites  with  Plato,  who 
made  use  of  tiiem  for  the  dramatic  form  of  his 
dialogues  (Quint.,  i.  10,  17;  Diog.  Laert.,  iii.  13). 
It  is  said  that  Theocritus  borrowed  his  second 
and  fifteenth  idyls  from  Sophron.  Very  unsat- 
isfactory fragments  have  been  preserved.  (Don- 
suit  Botzon's  collection  (Marienburg,  1867)  and 
his  De  Sophrone  et  Henarcho  Mimographia 
(Lyck,   1866). 

80PBAH0  (It.,  treble,  high,  supreme).    The 
highest    species   of   female 
voice,  whose  range  normal- 
ly extends  from 

W^ith  the  exception  of  those  at  either  extrem- 
ity, all  the  tones  are  common  to  both  the  h«id 
and  chest  registers.  A  voice  sometimes  distin- 
guished as  intermediate  between  alto  and  soprano 
IS  the  mezzo-aoprano.    See  Mezzo. 

SO^BA.  A  city  in  the  Province  of  Caserta, 
Italy,  on  the  Garigliano,  62  miles  east-southeast 
of  Rome  (Map:  Italy,  H  6).  The  river  is  here 
spanned  by  two  bridges.  There  are  remains  of 
walls  and  castle  ruins  above  the  town.  It  manu- 
factures woolen  cloth  and  paper  and  trades  in 
wine,  oil,  fruits,  and  cattle.  Sora,  originally  a 
Volscian  town,  was  colonized  by  the  Romans  in 
B.O.  303.  Population  (commune),  in  1881,  13,- 
208;  in  1901,16,001. 

SOBA.  A  smaU  rail  (q.v.);  especially,  in  the 
Middle  States,  the  Carolina  rail  {Porzana  Caro- 
Una) ,  which  is  very  abundant  in  the  marshes  of 
the  Atlantic  Coast  in  the  early  fall  and  gives 
fine  sport  and  a  welcome  delicacy.  It  is  eight 
or  nine  inches  long,  olive  brown  above  varied 


80BA. 


1084 


SOBBONKE. 


with  black  and  white,  and  beneath  (in  the  fall) 
it  is  plain  brownish.  In  breeding  plumage  the 
face  and  throat  are  black,  the  other  under  parts 
slate-gray.  The  sora  breeds  from  the  li&ddle 
States  northward  to  Hudson  Bay,  and  winters 
from  the  Carolinas  southward  to  South  America. 
The  nest  is  of  grass  on  the  ground  in  swamps 
and  the  eight  to  fifteen  eggs  are  buffy,  spotted 
with  brown.    See  Plate  of  Rails^  bto. 

80KATA,  B6-r%fik,  or  Illamfu.  The  highest 
mountain  of  Bolivia  and  one  of  the  highest  of 
the  South  American  continent  (Map:  Bolivia^ 
D  7 ) .  It  is  situated  in  the  Bolivian  Department 
of  La  Paz,  about  16  miles  east  of  lAke  Ti'ticaca, 
and  reaches  an  altitude  of  21,500  feet.  It  was 
first  ascended  by  Sir  William  Martin  Conway 
in  1898. 

SOKAXr,  z</rou.  A  town  in  the  Province  of 
Brandenburg,  Prussia,  on  the  Sorebach,  60  miles 
south-southeast  of  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  (Map: 
Prussia,  F  3).  It  has  an  old  castle  (now  a 
prison)  and  a  new  castle  (the  seat  of  the  magis- 
tracy). There  are  important  bleach-fields,  print- 
works, color-works,  iron  foundries,  and  manu- 
factories of  cloth^  machinery,  glass,  porcelain, 
tubing,  waxwares,  wooden  shoes,  and  glazed 
bricks.  In  the  neighborhood  are  deposits  of 
lignite.  Sorau,  the  oldest  town  of  Lusatia^  re- 
ceived municipal  privileges  in  1260.  It  was 
ceded  by  Saxony  to  Prussia  in  1815.  Papula- 
tion, in  1900«  15,945. 

SOKAXTEB,  zyrou-Sr,  Paul  (1839-).  A 
German  botanist,  bom  at  Breslau.  In  1871  he 
became  director  of  the  experiment  station  at  the 
Proskau  Pomological  Institute,  and  in  1892  he 
was  made  professor.  In  1893  he  went  to  Berlin 
as  secretary  of  the  International  Phytopathologi- 
cal  Commission.  He  became  distinguished  for 
his  investigations  in  the  diseases  of  plants,  and 
founded  the  Zeitschrift  f&r  Pflanzenkrankheiten 
(Stuttgart),  besides  writing  such  books  as: 
D(M  Handhuoh  der  Pflanzenkrankheiten  (ed. 
1886;  its  atlas,  1887-93);  Die  OhathaiMnkrank- 
heiten  (1879) ;  Die  SohSden  der  einheimischen 
Kulturpflanzen  durch  Schmaroizer,  etc.  (1888) ; 
Populare  Phyeiologie  fUr  CfHrtner  ( 1891 ) ;  Pflan- 
zenachutz  (with  Frank,  1892  and  1896). 

SOBBONNE,  sdrl)6n^  La.  An  institution  of 
learning  in  Paris,  founded  by  Robert  de 
Sorbon.  Robert  was  bom  October  9,  1201, 
in  Sorbon,  near  the  town  of  Retbel,  not  far 
from  Rheims.  During  the  subsequent  cen- 
turies and  even  to  the  present  day,  the 
place-name  of  this  man  has  been  attached 
to  the  focus  of  intellectual  activity  in  France. 
Robert  pursued  his  studies  in  Paris,  look- 
ing forward  to  the  priesthood.  He  became  a 
priest,  a  doctor  of  theology,  and  a  canon,  first  in 
the  Cathedral  of  Cambrai,  and  then  in  that  of 
Paris.  By  his  eloquence  and  piety  he  soon  won 
renown  and  was  presently  made  chaplain,  and 
perhaps  confessor  to  King  Louis  IX.,  known  as 
Saint  Louis.  Impressed  by  the  importance  of 
theological  science  and  by  the  necessities  of  poor 
young  men  who  might  need  support  while  engaged 
in  the  study  of  theology,  Robert  de  Sorbon  es- 
tablished a  society  of  secular  ecclesiastics.  The 
King  and  some  of  the  ecclesiastical  dignities 
favored  this  enterprise;  and  in  the  year  1257  a 
site  was  secured  by  royal  boimty  for  the  home  of 


the  society.  It  was  near  the  Palais  des  llLeniies, 
in  the  heart  of  what  has  long  home  tiiie  name  of 
the  Latin  Quarter.  There  were  other  similar 
associations  or  colleges,  but  this  was  destined  to 
perpetuity  and  distinction.  The  founder  called 
the  establishment  La  Communaui^  dee  pauvree 
maitree  etudiant  en  tlUologie;  but  the  public 
shortened  this  long  phrase,  and  before  the  close 
of  the  century  the  college  was  called,  from  its 
founder's  name.  La  Sorbonne,  which  it  has  borne 
amid  aU  the  changes  of  social  and  intellectual 
life  from  that  day  to  the  present.  Its  Latin 
title  was  Domus  Sorbonn».  Tlie  House  was  a  hall 
of  residence  and  of  study — not  a  place  for  sys- 
tematic instruction  and  lectures.  For  the  work 
of  Robertus,  the  Papal  approbation  was  secured 
in  1268.  Several  years  later,  to  this  theological 
seminary  tiie  founder  added  a  college  for  the  hu- 
manities and  philosophy,  and  he  died  soon  after- 
wards, at  Paris,  sevenly-three  years  old  (1274). 

His  life  is  full  of  interest  and  may  be  read  in 
a  niemoir  by  Jadart,  published  at  Rheims,  in 
1880.  The  principal  incidents  are  well  presented 
in  the  Biographie  ffenerale,  and  by  Baroux  in 
La  Grande  cyclopidie  (vol.  xxx.).  The  early 
muniments  of  this  foundation  may  be  found  in 
Denifle's  masterly  compendium  of  Documente 
rilatife  d  VUnivereiU  de  Paris  (Paris,  1883), 
and  in  the  Oartularium  Univereiiatia  Parieienaia, 
tom.  i.,  (Paris,  1889). 

From  its  origin  imtil  the  present  time  the  Sor-. 
bonne  has  been  the  centre  of  intellectual  activity, 
and  until  the  French  Revolution  it  was  recog- 
nized as  especially  the  seat  of  theological  learn- 
ing. The  Faculty  pronounced  their  opinions  on 
the  most  important  questions  and  their  decisions 
were  recognized  as  of  great  authority.  The  read- 
er need  only  consult  the  History  of  France  by 
Henri  Martin  to  discover  many  illustrations  of 
this  statement.  The  Faculty  intervened  in  the 
trial  of  Jeanne  d'Arc;  it  condemned  the  views  of 
Luther  and  showed  great  hostility  toward  re- 
formers; censured  many  noteworthy  books  and 
writers;  opposed  the  Cartesian  philosophy;  and 
addressed  the  Czar  in  r^;ard  to  a  reunion  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  churches.  Among  the  books 
which  it  condemned  were  the  treatise  of  Hel- 
vetius,  De  VEsprit,  the  fourth  volume  of  Buffon's 
Natural  History,  and  Rousseau's  Emile,  Among 
the  glories  of  the  Sorbonne  was  its  encourage- 
ment of  printing  in  France,  by  giving  quarters- 
for  their  presses  to  Ulric  Gering  and  other  early 
printers. 

The  buildings  of  the  Sorbonne  were  recon- 
structed at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury by  Richelieu,  who  merits  the  distinction 
of  a  second  founder.  The  church  which  he 
caused  to  be  built  as  the  college  chapel  is  one 
of  the  celebrated  monuments  of  ecclesiastical 
architecture  in  Paris.  His  tomb  is  there,  not  far 
from  the  tomb  of  Robert  de  Sorbon.  The  Sor- 
bonne was  given  to  the  city  of  Paris  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  the  con- 
struction was  begun  of  a  magnificent  building 
for  the  departments  of  science  and  letters.  This 
edifice,  called  La  Nouvelle  Sorbonne,  was  com- 
pleted in  1889,  and  it  is  perhaps  the  finest  uni- 
versity building  in  the  world.  Its  lecture-rooms 
and  laboratories  are  well  equipped,  ai^d  the 
mural  decorations  (especially  the  great  picture 
of  Puvis  de  Chavannes)  are  of  great  beauty.  In 
the  transition  from  tiie  old  to  &e  new  Sorbonne 


SOBBOHKB. 


1085 


8OB0HXT1L 


'-??, 


M.  Qrterd  published  a  noteworthy  pamphlet,  en- 
titled Nob  adieua  d  la  vieiUe  Sorhonne, 

The  changes  in  the  interior  administration  due 
to  the  progress  of  science  and  to  the  increase  of 
funds  are  too  complex  for  presentation  here.  The 
most  radical  are  the  disappearance,  after  the 
French  Revolution,  of  the  Faculty  of  Theology, 
which  was  once  the  sole  authority,  so  that  a  Sor- 
bonnist  was  of  course  a  theologian;  the  conse- 
quent supremacy  of  literature  and  science, 
evinced  by  the  organization  of  the  Ecole  dee 
Hautes  Etudes,  and  by  the  founding  of  libraries 
and  seminaries;  and  likewise  by  the  establish- 
ment, in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  schools 
of  medicine  and  law.  The  faculties  of  Science 
and  Letters  of  the  University  of  Paris  are  in- 
stalled in  the  New  Sorbonne  and  Minerva  for 
1901-02  reports  that  their  libraries  oonUin  263,- 
590  volumes. 

At  a  recent  date,  connected  more  or  less  closely 
with  the  New  Sorbonne,  there  were  10,000  stu- 
dents, 100  professorships,  and  many  accesso^ 
positions  for  associates  and  assistants.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  works  above  named,  consult  Franklin, 
La  Sorbonne  dea  originea,  sa  hihliotheque,  etc. 
(Paris,  1875). 

80BCEBY.    See  Witchcraft. 

SOBDEI/LO.  An  Italian  troubadour  of  the 
thirteenth  centuiy  who  wrote  in  Provencal.  He 
was  a  native  of  Goito,  Mantua.  The  earliest 
mention  of  him  has  reference  to  a  tavern  brawl, 
which  took  place  about  1220,  and  the  last  docu- 
ment in  which  his  name  appears  is  dated  1269. 
While  living  at  the  Court  of  Richard  of  San 
Bonifazio,  he  carried  off  his  master's  wife, 
Cunizza,  at  the  instigation  of  her  brother,  Ezzo- 
lino  da  Romano.  Soon  afterwards  he  fled  to 
Provence,  where,  with  the  exception  of  visits  to 
Spain  and  Portugal,  he  seems  to  have  spent  the 
greater  part  of  his  life.  Here  he  took  part  in 
important  public  events,  his  name  appearing 
as  that  of  a  witness  in  various  treaties  and 
other  documents.  In  his  old  age  he  returned 
to  Italy  as  a  Imight  in  the  train  of  Charles 
of  AnjoUj  and  received  from  him  several  castles 
in  Abruzzo  as  a  reward  for  his  services.  As 
a  poet  he  rises  little  above  mediocrity.  His 
political,  moral,  and  personal  sirventes  show 
vigor  and  spirit^  but  his  love  songs  are  purely 
conventional,  and  his  didactic  poem  Doeumentum 
Honoris  has  no  unusual  merit.  His  great  reputa- 
tion depends  upon  Dante's  treatment  of  him  in 
Purgaiorio,  vi.  and  vii.,  where  he  becomes  a  type 
of  high-minded  nobility  and  patriotism.  This 
conception  Is  founded  upon  a  sirvente  on  the 
death  of  Blacatz,  in  which  Sordello  imagines  his 
patron's  heart  divided  among  the  various  princes 
who  need  its  virtues.  Dante  has  put  into  the 
mouth  of  his  shade  in  Purgatory  a  similar  in- 
vective. The  poem  of  Browning  which  bears  his 
name  has  but  the  slightest  historical  foundation. 
Consult:  Cesare  de  Lollis,  Vita  e  poeHe  di  Sor- 
dello  di  Goito  (HaUe,  1896). 

80BEI/.  The  capital  of  Richelieu  County, 
Quebec,  Canada,  on  the  Richelieu  River  at  its 
mouth  in  Lake  Saint  Peter,  and  on  the  Montreal 
and  Sorel  Railroad,  45  miles  northeast  of  Mon- 
treal (Map:  Quebec,  C  4).  It  has  large  ship- 
building and  manufacturing  interests.  It  derives 
its  name  from  the  captain  of  a  French  regiment, 
TOL.  XV.-««. 


who  established  a  fort  here  in  1666.    Population, 
in  1891,  6669;  in  1901,  7057. 
80BEL.    A  river  of  Canada.  See  Richelieu. 

80BEL,  AoNES.  Mistress  of  Charles  VII.  of 
France.    See  Agnes  Sobel. 

SOBELj,  Albebt  (1842—).  A  French  author, 
bom  at  Honfleur.  He  became  professor  of  diplo- 
matic history  in  the  School  of  Political  Sciences 
at  Parb  in  1872.  In  1896  he  was  made  member 
of  the  French  Academy.  Some  of  his  works  are 
La  grande  falaise  (18y1),  Histoire  diplomatiqite 
de  la  guerre  franoo-allemande  (1875),  La  queS' 
Hon  d'Orient  au  XVIII.  sUole  (1878),  VEwrope 
et  la  r^olution  frangaiae  (1885),  Montesquieu 
{ 1887) ,  Madame  de  Stael  ( 1890) ,  and  Bonaparte 
et  Hoohe  en  1797  (1896). 

SOBEL,  Chables  (c.1599-1674).  A  French 
burlesque  romancer,  of  whose  life  little  is  known. 
In  1622  appeared  anonymously  his  Histoire  co- 
mique  de  Francion,  first  in  seven,  later  ( 1641)  in 
eleven  books.  This  work,  reprinted  more  than 
forty  times  in  the  seventeenth  century,  made 
merry  with  the  pastoral  and  chivalric  romances 
then  so  popular.  In  Le  herger  extravagant 
( 1621 ) ,  an  imitation  of  Don  Quixote,  Sorel  like- 
wise mocked  the  'ideal'  romance.  His  Polyandre 
(incomplete,  1648)  portrays  the  well-to-do 
Parisian  bourgeoisie  with  some  accuracy.  Con- 
sult Karting,  OescMchte  des  franzdsischen  Ro- 
mans im  XV IL  Jahrhundert  (Leipzig,  1885) ,  and 
Roy,  La  vie  et  les  oeuvres  de  Sorel  (Paris,  1853). 

SOBGHUM  (Neo-Lat.  sorghum,  sorgum,  from 
Sp.  sorgo,  ML.  surgum,  surcum,  suricum,  Indian 
millet,  sorghum,  probably  of  Oriental  origin). 
Sorghum  vulgare  or  Andropogon  sorghum,  var. 
saocharatus,  A  tall,  earless  maize-like  grass 
with  a  terminal  head  of  small  seeds.  It  is  sup- 
posed to  be  a  native  of  Africa,  but  has  long  been 
cultivated  in  Southern  Europe  and  China  as  a 
forage  plant  (see  below) ,  and  for  the  syrup  made 
from  its  sweet  juice,  which  does  not  yield  a  profit- 
able quantity  of  sugar.  See  Sugab,  paragraph 
Manufacture, 

SoBOHUM,  NON-SAOOHABINE.  A  grouD  of  varie- 
ties of  sorghum,  deficient  in  sugar,  llie  plimts, 
which  are  very  leafy,  grow  from  4  to  8  feet  high 
and  are  cultivated  for  food  and  forage.  All  va- 
rieties are  closely  allied  and  belong  to  the  above- 
named  species.  The  most  common  varieties  are 
Kafir  com,  millo  maize,  durra,  Egyptian  rice 
com,  Jerusalem  com,  and  broom  com  (q.v.). 
They  are  extensively  erowa  in  Africa,  India,  and 
China  for  the  seed^  which  forms  a  staple  human 
food.  In  Europe  they  are  sometimes  planted, 
but  they  do  not  ripen  seed  in  regions  remote  from 
the  Mediterranean  countries.  In  the  United 
States  they  are  grown  as  forage  plants  in  the 
semi-arid  Western  States,  where,  owing  to  their 
drought-resisting  qualities,  they  have  become  im- 
portant crops.  Soil,  climatic  requirements,  and 
cultural  methods  are  practically  the  same  for  all 
varieties. 

Kafir  com,  the  most  important  variety  for  the 
American  farmer,  was  introduced  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  about  1885  and 
widely  distributed.  It  has  become  a  valuable  and 
important  crop  in  California,  Kansas,  and  Okla- 
homa. It  succeeds  on  a  variety  of  soil^,  but  the 
best  returns  are  obtained  on  rich  soila  suitable 
for  com.     Profitable  yields,  however,  are  often 


80BOHT71L 


1086 


S0BOHU1L 


obUined  on  land  too  poor  for  com.  The  prepara- 
tion of  the  soil  consists  in  deep  plowing  and  fine 
surface  pulverization  to  insure  best  conditions 
for  the  young  plants,  which  are  at  first  feeble  and 
slow  to  grow.  The  seed  is  sown  broadcast  in  hills 
or  drills  after  the  soil  becomes  warm.  When  it 
is  grown  in  hills  or  drills  it  is  treated  like  com, 
when  broadcasted  like  hay  crops.  As  soon  as  the 
grain  is  ripe  the  plants  are  cut  by  hand  or  with 
a  com  harvester,  put  up  in  shocks,  and  left  to 
cure.  When  the  curing  process  is  completed  the 
heads  are  Uireshed  for  the  seed  and  the  stalks 


When  m  good  condition  it  is  an  excellent  f  eeduig 
stuff.  Tm  seed  is  a  concentrated  feed,  and  quite 
similar  in  composition  to  shelled  com,  though  re- 
garded as  somewhat  inferior  in  feeding  valae. 
When  sorghum  is  grown  for  making  syrup  the 
seed  heads  are  often  fed  whole;  otherwise  they 
are  frequently  left  on  the  stalk  and  fed  as  forage. 
It  is  believed  that  grinding  increases  the  diges- 
tibility of  the  seed.  Since  Kafir  com  is  the  most 
important  non-saccharine  soighum,  and  since 
other  varieties  resemble  it»  it  is  taken  as  a  type 
of  the  group.     (See  table.) 


Ooif  POSITION  OF  KAIIB  Ck>BV  PBODUCTS 


Water 

Protein 

Fat 

Nitrogen 
fiee  extract 

Grade 
fibre 

Ash 

Whole  plant,  green 

Percent. 
76.1 
10.9 

9.0 
16.3 

9.8 

Percent 

Percent, 
0.6 
3.5 
1.7 
3.9 
8.0 

Percent. 
11.7 
47.4 
48.3 
66.3 
74.9 

Per  cent. 

7.8 
80.4 
80.1 

6.8 

1.4 

Percent. 

Cnrad  fodder,  whole  plant 

Stover  curad  fodder  (withoat  heads) 

Heads  (mature) 

Seed 

and  leaves  used  as  fodder.  Frequently  the  entire 
plants  are  used  for  feeding.  From  35  to  50  bush- 
els of  seed  per  acre  and  from  5  to  10  tons  of  fod- 
der are  obtained  under  ordinarily  favorable  con- 
ditions. 

Millo  maize  requires  a  longer  season  of  ^owth 
then  Kafir  com,  and  is  therefore  liable  to  injury 
b^  frost  in  many  localities.  Durra,  also  some- 
times called  Egyptian  com,  grows  vigorously  and 
stools  profusely.  The  heads  are  heavy,  short,  and 
thick  and  hang  downward  from  a  short  curve  in 
the  upper  pait  of  the  stalk.  The  name  is  often 
written  dhoura  or  doura.  Egyptian  rice  com 
differs  from  the  other  varieties  in  stooling  very 
little  and  having  a  smaller  amount  of  foliage. 
The  seeds  are  white,  large,  and  sweet.  Jerusalem 
com  produces  heavy  yields  of  grain.  Its  seeds  are 
nearly  free  from  husk  and  shatter  easily.  None 
of  these  varieties  are  materially  affected  by 
either  plant  diseases  or  insects.    See  Smut. 

The  saccharine  sorghums  are  favorably  re- 
garded for  silage  and  soiling  purposes  and  for 
forage.  Growing  animals  thrive  upon  them,  and 
dairy  cattle  produce  a  large  flow  of  excellent 
milk.  The  ba^se  or  refuse  from  the  press  in 
syrup-making  is  also  fed  advantageously.  Ac- 
cording to  experiments  40  per  cent,  of  the  protein, 
71  per  cent,  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  42 
per  cent,  of  the  crude  fibre  of  sorghum  forage 
is  digestible. 

The  average  composition  of  sorghum  products 
follows: 


In  composition,  the  Kafir  com  products  closely 
resemble  similar  products  of  maize.  Studies  at 
the  Kansas  Experiment  Station  have  shown  that 
as  the  plant  ripens  there  is  a  decrease  in  albumi- 
noids, but  an  increase  in  the  percentage  of  other 
constituents  and  in  the  total  weight  of  the  seed. 
It  is  believed,  therefore^  that  the  best  time  to 
harvest  Kafir  com  is  when  the  crop  is  ripe  or 
nearly  so.  The  stover,  which  has  practically  the 
same  feeding  value  as  corn  stover,  should  be 
run  through  a  cutting  machine  to  obtain  the  best 
results.  It  has  been  found  an  excellent  coarse 
fodder  for  cattle.  The  seeds  have  also  given  very 
satisfactory  results,  though  it  has  not  &en  found 
in  tests  at  the  experiment  stations  to  be  quite 
equal  to  com,  as  is  sometimes  claimed.  To  obtain 
the  best  results  the  grain  should  be  ground,  as 
otherwise  the  small  hard  seeds  are  not  thoroughly 
masticated  and  pass  through  the  animal  undi- 
gested. According  to  the  Kansas  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, a  bushel  of  Kafir  com  will  produce  10 
pounds  of  pork,  a  bushel  of  com  12  pounds,  an 
acre  of  the  former,  however,  producing  more  pork 
than  an  acre  of  the  latter.  Animals  tire  of  Kafir 
corn  alone  more  quickly  than  they  do  of  com 
alone.  DigeBti<»  experiments  with  chickens  have 
shown  that  about  88  per  cent,  of  the  total  organic 
matter,  53  per  cent,  of  the  protein,  and  96  per 
cent,  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract  of  whole  Kafir 
corn  is  digestible.  Similar  values  have  been  ob- 
tained for  the  ground  grain.  In  experiments  with 
Kafir  com  stover  fed  to  sheep  about  42  per  cent. 


AvKBAOB  Goifpoeinoir  or  BoBOHVit  PBonncre 


Whole  plant  fresh.. 
Whole  plant  cured, 

Sorgrhum  ellage 

Sorgrhum  seed , 

Sorghum  bagaeae.. 


Water 


Percent. 
72.7 
48.6 
76.6 
12.8 
11.8 


Protein 


Per  cent. 
1.4 
8.9 
1.6 
0.1 
8.4 


Fat 


Per  cent. 
1.7 
8.8 
1.9 
8.6 
1.4 


Nitrogen 
free  extract 


Per  cent. 
16.  a 
26.8 
11.9 
09.8 
60.6 


Crude 
fibre 


Percent. 

7.4 
90.2 

8.0 

2.6 
80.6 


Pireent. 
1.6 
8.3 
1.9 
2.1 
2.9 


Although  sorghum  furnishes  excellent  pastur- 
age for  all  stocky  it  is  especially  valuable  for 
sheep  and  pigs,  but  until  the  animals  become  ac- 
customed to  it  they  should  have  only  small 
amounts.  It  is  best  adapted  for  fall  and  early 
winter  feeding,  since  it  does  not  keep  as  well  as 
many  other  coarse  fodders.  Sorghum  silage  has 
a  greater  tendency  to  develop  acidity  than  corn. 


of  the  protein,  67  per  cent,  of  the  nitrogen-free 
extract,  and  64  per  cent,  of  the  crude  fibre  was 
digested. 

Flour,  which  is  said  to  be  especially  good  for 
pancakes  and  has  also  been  used  for  bread,  is 
ground  from  Kafir  com,  which  is,  however,  not 
extensively  used  as  food  in  the  United  States. 
The  seeds  of  the  closely  related  durra  are  mueh 


SOSGHiniC. 


1087 


80BBXNT0. 


eaten  by  the  Abjaeinian  and  other  African  races, 
and  those  of  oUier  non-saccharine  sorghums  in 
India  and  China.  Kafir  com  flour  or  meal  has 
the  following  percentage  composition:  Water, 
'  16.8;  protein,  d.%;  fat,  3.8;  nitrogen-free  extract, 
69.5;  crude  fibre,  1.1;  and  ash,  2.2. 

Consult:  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  37  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture ;  Hand- 
hook  of  Ewperiment  Station  Work,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  (Washington,  1893). 

SOBIA,  s(/r«-&.  The  capital  of  the  ProTince 
of  Soria,  Spain,  110  miles  northeast  of  Madrid, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Duero  (Map:  Spain, 
D  2).  The  town,  still  surrounded  by  thick 
walls,  and  dotted  with  many  ancient  palaces,  pre- 
sents a  medieval  appearance.  The  church  of 
San  Pedro,  its  principal  structure,  has  a  Latin 
portal  of  the  twelfth-century  style.  The  bridge 
over  the  Duero  is  a  solid  medisBval  structure. 
The  town  has  manufactures  of  chocolate,  leather 
goods,  and  linens.     Population,  in   1900,  7296. 

80BITES  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  ffwpelrifty  86reit4B, 
vupirrp^  adritea,  logical  sophism  formed  of  an 
accumulation  of  arguments,  from  ffwpedeip, 
aUreuein,  to  heap,  from  o-vp^t,  s^iroa,  heap).  A 
logical  term  with  a  two-fold  meaning.  It  is  the 
name  of  a  series  of  syllogisms  so  arranged  that 
the  suppressed  conclusion  of  each  preceding  syl- 
logism is  a  premise  of  the  succeeding;  e.g.  A  is  B, 
B  is  C,  C  is  D,  D  is  E,  and  therefore  A  is  E. 
The  term  sorites  is  also  used  to  designate  a 
fallacy  wherein  it  is  argued  that  as  the  addition 
of  each  single  object  to  a  collection  of  objects 
does  not  change  the  character  of  the  collection 
up  to  a  certain  point,  therefore  such  addition 
can  be  made  indefinitely  without  altering  the 
character  of  the  collection. 

SOBIiEYy  sOr^I,  William  Ritchie  (1855—). 
An  English  educator,  bom  in  Selkirk,  Scotland. 
He  was  educated  at  Edinburgh  University  and  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  held  a  fellowship 
in  both  places.  From  1888  till  1894  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  logic  and  philosophy  at  University  Col- 
lege, Cardiff;  from  1894  till  1900  professor  of 
moral  philosophy  in  Aberdeen;  and  in  1900  be- 
came Knightbridge  professor  of  moral  philosophy 
in  the  University  of  Cambrid^.  His  works  in- 
clude Hulaean  Eaaay  on  Jeunah  Christiana  and 
Judaism  (1881),  Shaw  Fellowship  Lecturea  on 
the  Ethica  of  Naturalism  (1885),  and  Mining 
Royalties,  a  Report  of  an  Inquiry  Made  for  the 
Toynbee  Trustees  (1889). 

SOBICA,  z6r^m&,  Agnes  (Agnes  Mtto  von 
MiNOTTO)  (1865 — ).  A  German  actress,  bom  in 
Breslau.  She  appeared  first  in  children's  r6les, 
at  the  age  of  fourteen,  at  the  Stadttheater  in 
Breslau.  From  1880  to  1882  she  played  succes- 
sively in  G5rlitz,  Posen,  and  Weimar,  and  in 
1882  was  engaged  by  the  management  of  the 
Deutsches  Theater  at  Berlin.  During  the  spring 
of  1897  Sorma  visited  the  United  States,  where 
she  appeared  with  success  in  Hauptmann's 
Veraunkene  Olocke,  and  as  Nora  in  Ibsen's  DolVa 
Houae.  In  the  following  year  she  made  a  second 
visit. 

SOBOCABA,  s(^'rd-k&^.  A  town  of  the 
State  of  Sfto  Paulo,  Brazil,  53  miles  west  of  the 
city  of  that  name,  with  which  it  has  railway 
communication  (Map:  Brazil,  H  8).  Coffee  and 
sugar  are  produced,  but  the  main  interest  cen- 
tres in  a  live-stock  fair,  when  the  sale  of  horses 


and  mules  sometimes  reaches  70,000.   PopulKtioD, 
about  12,000. 

SOBOKI,  s6-ryk^  The  capital  of  a  district 
in  the  Government  of  Bessarabia,  Russia,  situated 
on  the  Dniester,  116  miles  north  of  Kishinev. 
It  contains  the  ruins  of  an  old  castle  and  rem- 
nant of  the  Genoese  settlement  of  Olchionia, 
which  stood  there  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries.  There  are  numerous  vineyards  in  the 
surrounding  country.  Population,  in  1897,  15,- 
800,  chiefly  Jews  and  Moldavians. 
•  SOBOSIS  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  <r»p6f,  a^oa,  a 
heap).  The  first  woman's  club  in  America, 
organized  with  twelve  members  in  March,  1868, 
by  Mrs.  Jane  Cunningham  Croly,  in  New  York 
City,  and  incorporated  in  January,  1869.  Its  ob- 
ject is  to  further  the  educational  and  social  ac- 
tivities of  women,  and  to  bring  together  for  mu- 
tual helpfulness  representative  women  in  art, 
literature,  science,  and  kindred  pursuits.  The 
first  officers,  Mrs.  James  Parton  (Fanny  Fern), 
Mrs.  J.  C.  Croly  (Jennie  June),  and  Miss  Katie 
Field,  with  Madame  Botta  and  the  Misses  Alice 
and  PhoBbe  Cary  as  members,  gave  the  club  a  lit- 
erary tone,  but  the  83  members  enrolled  during 
its  first  year  included,  besides  authors  and  edi- 
tors, artists,  teachers,  physicians,  and  philan- 
thropists. Meetings  occur  once  or  twice  a  month 
and  are  conducted  by  two  of  the  ten  working  com- 
mittees. 

SOBBEL  (OF.  aorel,  Fr.  aurelle,  from  OF.  aur, 
sour,  from  OHG.,  AS.  aUr,  Ger.  aauer,  sour ;  con- 
nected with  OChurch  Slav,  ayrik,  rough,  harsh, 
Lith.  aUraa,  salty,  perhaps  akin  to  Gk.  (vp6t, 
ODuroa,  aour),  Rumew,  A  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Polygonaoeie.  C]!ommon  sorrel 
{Rumew  acetoaa)  is  a  perennial  herb  with  erect 
stems  one  to  two  feet  high  and  arrow-shaped 
leaves,  found  in  meadows  and  pastures  through- 
out Europe.  Its  leaves  are  used  in  soups  and 
sauces,  as  a  salad,  and  as  a  pot-herb,  for  which 

Purposes  it  is  cultivated.  French  sorrel,  or 
Loman  sorrel  {Rumeof  acutatua),  a  native  of 
France  and  Italy,  has  broader  and  blunter  leaves, 
and  is  more  frequently  cultivated  than  common 
sorrel,  being  considered  of  finer  flavor.  Sheep's 
sorrel  (Rumea  acetoaella)  is  a  smaller  similar 
plant  with  widely-spreading  roots,  on  account  of 
which  it  often  becomes  a  troublesome  weed  in 
dry  soils.  Cultivation  and  the  addition  of  lime 
and  other  fertilizers  to  the  soil  quickly  eradicate 
it.    Compare  Oxalis;  Hibisous;  Dock. 

SOBBEL  TBEE  (Owydendrum  arhoreum).  A 
tree  of  the  natural  order  Ericacese,  remarkable 
for  its  size,  which  contrasts  with  its  small 
shrubby  relatives.  It  grows  chiefly  from  Vir- 
ginia to  Georgia,  attains  a  height  of  50  feet,  a 
trunk  diameter  of  12  to  15  inches,  and  bears 
peach-like  acid  leaves,  which  are  sometimes  used 
for  dyeing  wool  black.  The  principal  use  of  the 
tree  is  as  an  omamental.  Its  wood  is  of  little  or 
no  use. 

SOBBEN^O.  A  town  in  the  Province  of 
Naples,  Italy,  situated  on  a  promontory  on  the 
southeast  side  of  the  Bay  of  Naples,  16  miles 
south-southeast  of  Naples  (Map:  Italy,  J  7). 
Its  beautiful  situation  and  mild,  dry  climate 
have  made  it  a  much  frequented  resort.  It  has 
a  cathedral,  a  seminary,  and  a  marble  statue 
of  the  poet  Tasso,  who  was  bom  here.  There 
is  a  trade  in  the  famous  wine  of  Sorrento,  and 


80BBBHT0. 


1088 


SOTTBVILLE-LE8-BOT7XV. 


in  olive  oil  and  fruits.  Sorrento  was  originally 
a  Grecian  colony.  It  was  called  Surrenium  by 
the  Romans^  who  embellished  it  with  temples, 
the  ruins  of  which  still  remain.  Population 
(commune),  in  1901,  8933. 

80BB0WS  OF  WEBTHEB  (Ger.  Leiden  det 
fungen  Weriher) .  A  romance  by  Goethe  ( 1774) , 
embodying  some  of  the  author's  own  experi- 
ences. Just  previous  to  the  time  of  its  produc- 
tion Goethe  was  battling  against  his  unrequited 
love  for  Charlotte  Buff,  and  was  greatly  affected 
by  the  suicide  of  a  young  man,  Jerusalem,  who 
committed  suicide  because  of  an  unfortunate 
love  affair  and  a  fancied  slight.  The  recognition 
of  the  possible  results  in  his  own  similar  case 
led  to  the  creation  of  Werther  ( representing  him- 
self)  and  Jerusalem,  and  of  Lotte,  typifying  the 
object  of  the  love  of  each.  The  romance  at  once 
created  a  sensation  and  established  Goethe's 
fame.  Its  influence  on  sentimental  natures  was 
profound  and  led  some  to  follow  the  hero's  ex- 
ample, so  that  Goethe  was  obliged  in  a  subse- 
quent edition  to  add  a  warning  note. 

80BSOCH3k,  sdr'sd-gOn^  A  province  of  the 
Philippine  Islands,  occupying  the  extreme  south- 
eastern portion  of  the  island  of  Luzon  (Map: 
Philippine  Islands,  H  7).  Area,  675  square 
miles.  It  is  surrounded  by  water  on  three  sides, 
and  almost  cut  into  halves  by  the  large  Bay 
of  Sorsog6n.  It  is  traversed  lengthwise  by  a 
forest-covered  mountain  range  culminating  in 
the  volcano  of  Bulusan.  Sorsogdn  is  a  mat 
hemp-producing  province.  Its  export  of  hemp 
in  1899  amounted  to  14,014,639  pounds.  Copra 
is  also  a  staple  product.  The  province  was  cre- 
ated by  the  Philippine  Commission  in  1901,  hav- 
ing previously  been  a  district  of  the  Province  of 
Albay.  Population,  estimated,  in  1901,  98,660, 
belcmging  to  the  Vicol  tribe.    Capital,  Sorsog6n« 

80B80CH3k.  The  capital  of  the  Province  of 
Sorsog6n,  Southern  Luzon,  Philippines.  It  is 
situated  at  the  head  of  the  Bay  of  Sorsogdn,  30 
miles  from  the  southeastern  extremity  of  the 
island  (Map:  Philippine  Islands,  H  7).  The 
bay,  which  measures  6  by  12  miles,  is  entirely 
land-locked,  with  a  narrow  entrance  from  the 
Visayan  Sea;  it  is  one  of  the  best  harbors  in 
the  archipelago,  and  is  very  favorably  situated 
near  the  Strait  of  San  Bernardino  on  the  route 
from  Manila  to  the  United  States.  Population, 
estimated,  in  1899,  10,720. 

80BTES    (s(Vr^tSz)    VEB'GILIAarA     See 

SoBTiizac. 

SOBTHiEGE  (ML.  soriilegium,  divination  by 
lot,  from  Lat.  sora,  lot  -j-  legere^  to  read).  The 
casting  of  lots.  This  method  of  division  was  an 
ancient  way  of  distributing  shares  among  several 
claimants.  At  the  bottom  is  a  religious  idea. 
The  choice  of  lots  was  performed  in  the  presence 
of  a  deity,  as  represented  by  his  image,  and  was 
accompanied  with  prayer  and  sacrifice,  being 
often  accomplished  in  the  temple  and  by  a  priest. 
It  was,  therefore,  presumed  that  the  god  deter- 
mined the  order  in  which  the  lots  would  fall 
and  was  responsible  for  the  decision.  The  com- 
mon practice  was  to  use  slips  of  wood,  pebbles, 
potsherds,  or  arrows,  which  were  drawn  from 
a  helmet,  quiver,  or  pail,  and  in  order  that  they 
should  be  mdicative,  they  were  usually  marked 
in  some  manner.  A  favorite  mode  of  forecasting 
was  to  open  at  random  a  sacred  book  and  mark 


the  passage  on  which  the  eye^  first  rested,  ihe 
significance  of  which  would  serve  as  a  token  of 
the  destiny  awaiting  the  inouirer.  As  Vergil's 
^neid  came  so  to  Im  used,  tne  consultation  was 
called  Sorter  VergiHatug.  The  Scriptures  were 
so  employed  by  Christians,  while  the  Arabs  use 
the  Koran  and  the  Persians  the  poems  of  Hafiz. 

80SIA.  In  the  Amphitruo  of  Plautus,  a  ser- 
vant of  the  title  character.  He  is  made  doubtful 
of  his  own  identity  by  Mercury,  who,  assuming 
Sosia's  form,  plays  the  part  of  his  double. 

SOSTENUTO,;  ste't&-n?K^td  (It.,  sustained). 
A  term  used  in  music  to  indicate  a  sustained 
tone  or  a  uniform  rate  of  decreased  speed. 

80THEBY,  stlTH'bl,  William  (1757-1833). 
An  English  translator,  educated  at  Harrow  and 
at  the  military  academy  at  Angers  in  France. 
He  was  in  the  English  army  for  a  short  period, 
but  retired  on  his  marriage  in  1780.  Henceforth 
he  followed  the  career  of  a  man  of  letters,  divid- 
ing his  time  between  his  London  house  and  Fair 
Mead  Lodge  by  Epping  Forest.  In  original  com- 
position Sotheby  left  nothing  of  value.  His 
numerous  volumes  of  poems  and  his  twelve  his- 
torical tragedies  have  long  since  been  forgotten. 
He  survives  as  the  transmtor  of  Vergil's  C^eor- 
gics  (1800).  With  less  success  he  turned  into 
English  heroic  verse  the  Iliad  (1830-31)  and  the 
Odyssey  (1834).  Of  some  interest  is  his  early 
translation  (1798)  of  Wieland's  O&erofi. 

SOTH^BN,  Edwabd  Askew  (1826-81).  An 
English  comedian.  He  was  bom  in  Liverpool, 
and  was  educated  for  the  Church,  but  the  stage 
was  more  congenial  to  his  tastes,  and  he  made 
his  d^ut  in  Jersey  in  1849.  In  1852  he  came  to 
the  United  States  and  appeared  at  the  National 
Theatre  of  Boston  in  the  character  of  Dr.  Pan- 
gloss.  In  1854  he  joined  Wallack's  company  and 
afterwards  that  of  Laura  Keene.  In  the  charac- 
ter of  Lord  Dundrearv  in  Tom  Taylor's  comedj 
Our  American  Cousin  (1858)  he  made  his 
great  success.  In  1864  he  appeared  in  David 
Oarriok,  which  ^as  r^arded  as,  next  to  Dun- 
dreary, his  best  part.  His  other  chief  successes 
were  in  Brother  Sam,  written  for  him  by  Oxen- 
ford  (1865),  Sidney  Spoonbill  in  Byron's  Hor- 
neVs  Nest,  and  Fitzaltamont  in  The  Crushed 
Tragedian,  with  which  he  appeared  in  London  in 
1878,  soon  after  his  return  from  a  prolonged 
tour  in  America.  Consult:  Pemberton,  Memoir 
of  E,  A.  Sothem  (London,  1890) ;  Scott,  The 
Drama  of  Yesterday  and  To-day  (ib.,  1899). 

SOTHEBlTy  Edwabd  H.  (1859—).  An  Ameri- 
can actor«  the  second  son  of  E.  A.  Sothem. 
He  was  bom  in  London,  England.  In  1879  he 
made  his  d^but  as  an  actor  with  his  father  in 
New  York.  His  first  real  success  was  in  One  of 
Our  Girls  at  the  Lyceum,  New  York,  in  1885. 
This  was  followed  in  1887  by  his  success  in  The 
Highest  Bidder,  and  later  he  was  popular  in 
many  romantic  plays.  In  1900  he  appeared  in 
Hamlet.  He  married  in  1896  the  actress  Vir- 
ginia Hamed.  Consult:  McKav  and  Wiijeate, 
Famous  American  Actors  of  To-day  (New  York, 
1896)  ;  Strang,  Famous  Actors  of  the  Day  m 
America  (Boston,  1900). 

SOTTEVILLE-Lte-BOirEN,  86t'v61^  U  WRT- 
&17^.  A  town  in  the  Department  of  Seine-In- 
f^rieure,  France,  one  mile  south  of  the  city  of 
Rouen,  of  which  it  is  a  suburb  (Map:  Friunea^ 
H  2).    Population,  in  1901,  18,686. 


sou. 


1089 


SOUIf. 


80n>  iSSC  (OF.  9(m,  sol.  It.  soldo,  from  ML. 
soUdus,  sort  of  coin,  Lat  solidus,  Bolid,  firm ) .  A 
former  French  coin^  originally  of  gold,  subse- 
quently of  silver,  and  then  of  copper;  toward  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  century  large  numbers 
were  struck  in  bell  metal.  At  various  times 
there  were  fourth  (Hard),  half,  two,  and  three 
sou  pieces.  The  value  of  the  sou  was  12 
deniers,  or  one-twentieth  of  a  livre  tournois  or 
one-twenty-fifth  of  a  livre  parisis.  The  copper 
sou  of  the  eighteenth  century  weighed  12.238 
ffrains,  and  while  its  nominal  value  remained 
12  deniers,  it  was  actually  worth  only  about  two. 
The  coinage  of  the  sou  ceased  upon  the  adoption 
of  the  present  decimal  monetary  svstem,  but  the 
word  sou  is  popularly  applied  to  the  five-centime 
piece,  which  is  one-twentieth  of  a  franc  and 
worth  about  one  cent. 

SOXJBISEy  s^RTb^z^.  An  ancient  French  family 
which  became  extinct  in  the  male  line  in  1666, 
the  female  survivor  marrying  in  1575  Vi- 
comte  Ren6  II.  de  Rohan.  Two  sons  were  the 
offspring  of  this  marriage,  of  whom  the  elder 
was  Henri,  Due  de  Rohan  (q.v.),  a  celebrated 
leader  of  the  Huguenots.  The  yoimger  son,  Ben- 
jamin^ Sieur  de  Soubise  ( 1583-1642) ,  served  under 
Maurice  of  Nassau  in  the  Netherlands,  joined  his 
brother  in  the  leadership  of  the  Huguenots,  and 
gained  his  greatest  distmction  in  the  defense  of 
La  Rochelle  (1627-28)  against  Richelieu.  He 
died  without  issue  and  the  title  passed  to  Fran- 
cois de  Rohan«  of  whose  descendants  the  best 
known  was  Charles  de  Rohan,  Prince  de  Soubise 
( 1715-87) .  He  served  in  the  War  of  the  Austrian 
Succession  and  was  made  lieutenant-general  in 
1748.  In  the  Seven  Years'  War  he  held  impor- 
tant commands  and  was  at  the  head  of  the 
French  and  Imperial  forces  in  the  disastrous 
battle  of  Rossbach  (1757).  He  was  made  a 
field-marshal  in  1758.  In  the  following  year 
he  became  a  Minister  of  State.  After  the  Peace 
of  Paris  he  retired  from  active  participation  in 
military  affairs.  He  had  the  favor  of  Mme. 
de  Pompadour  and  afterwards  that  of  Mme.  du 
Barry.  He  died  July  4,  1787,  the  last  of  the 
line  of  Soubise-Rohan.    See  Rohan. 

SOUDAN,  sST-d&n^  A  region  in  Northern 
Africa.    See  Sudan. 

SOUFFLOT,  sTKTfly,  Jacqxtes  Gebmain 
(1713-80).  A  French  architect,  bom  at  Irancy 
(Yonne).  In  1734  he  went  to  Rome  as  a  pen- 
sioner of  the  Academy.  After  studying  in  Italy 
and  Asia  Minor  he  returned  to  Lyons,  where  he 
soon  gained  distinction.  At  this  period  he  either 
constructed  or  collaborated  in  the  design  of 
every  building  of  importance  that  was  under- 
taken in  Lyons.  In  1740,  having  become  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Architecture,  he 
removed  to  Paris.  In  1772  he  was  appointed 
controller  of  the  monuments  and  embellishments 
of  Lyons,  and  in  1776  controller  of  the  buildings 
of  Paris.  He  is  chiefly  noted  as  the  architect  of 
the  Pantheon,  one  of  the  largest  and  finest  cupo- 
las in  existence.  Among  his  other  works  are  the 
sacristy  of  the  Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  and  the 
Ecole  de  Droit  in  Paris,  the  Hotel  Dieu  in 
Lyons,  the  Hotel  de  Ville  in  Bordeaux,  and  the 
Cathedral  of  Rennes. 

SOTTTBlilBEy  sSS^r^-ftr^,  La.  A  volcano 
situated  near  the  northern  end  of  the  island  of 
Saint  Vincent   (q.v.)   in  the  West  Indies.     Its 


height  is  3700  feet.  It  has  had  three  violent 
eruptions  within  the  last  two  oenturies.  In  1718 
there  was  a  terrific  explosive  eruption  which 
covered  the  whole  island  with  debris.  In  1812 
another  devastating  outbreak  took  place  in  which 
a  new  crater  was  formed  immediately  beside  the 
old  one.  During  the  next  ninety  years  the  vol- 
cano was  dormant,  the  old  crater  being  occupied 
by  a  lake.  On  May  7, 1902,  there  occurred,  simul- 
taneously with  the  eruption  of  Mont  Pelfie  (q.v.) 
in  Martinique,  a  violent  outburst  in  which  im- 
mense clouds  of  steam  charged  with  hot  vol- 
canic dust  rushed  down  the  sides  of  the  moun- 
tain in  all  directions  with  the  velocity  of  a 
hurricane,  while  large  quantities  of  red-hot 
stones  were  showered  over  the  northern  part  of 
the  island.  The  entire  northern  third  of  the 
island  was  devastated,  all  v^petation  being  de- 
stroyed and  the  ground  covered  with  dust  and 
rocks  to  the  depth  of  from  1  to  25  feet  Two 
villages  were  annihilated  and  1500  persons  killed. 
On  September  3d  there  was  another  outburst  al- 
most as  violent  as  the  first. 

SOTTL  (AS.  sdtol,  satoul,  Goth,  saiwala,  OHG. 
sSula,  8€la,  Ger.  Seele,  soul;  possibly  connected 
with  Lat.  sceculum,  generation,  age).  A  term 
which  is  used  for  at  least  three  conceptions.  In 
the  most  primitive  sense  the  soul  is  conceived 
as  a  refined  and  intangible  material  being,  often 
as  a  sort  of  diaphanous  double  of  the  physical 
body.  In  a  later  sense  the  term  designates  the 
human  spirit,  conceived  to  be  an  immaterial 
(and  usually  an  immortal)  being,  which  is  the 
source  of  human  life,  intelligence,  and  person- 
ality. In  a  third  sense  it  is  used  by  psycholo- 
gists to  designate  the  totality  of  psychical  phe- 
nomena connected  with  one  individual  or  one 
body.  In  this  sense  the  soul  is  equivalent  either 
to  consciousness  considered  as  a  whole  or  to  those 
factors  of  consciousness  which  may  be  said  to 
constitute  the  ego.  It  is  not,  however,  asserted 
to  have  any  existence  outside  of  or  apart  from 
consciousness. 

By  primitive  man  the  soul  was  not  carefully 
distinguished  from  the  body ;  the  conception  was 
probably  the  result  of  observing  the  phenomena 
of  death.  A  man  is  alive,  he  dies,  and  his 
body,  which  has  still  the  same  appearance,  has 
suddenly  lost  all  power  of  motion  and  feeling. 
The  soul  has  gone  out  of  it  like  a  breath  of  air, 
or  a  phantom  or  a  dream,  or  like  a  subtle  es- 
sence pervading  things.  Beyond  this  primitive 
man  does  not  seem  to  have  gone  in  defimng  what 
soul  means.  Advance  is  shown  among  Oriental 
peoples.  Thus  the  Hindus  teach  in  their  Vedas 
that  the  human  soul  is  a  portion  of  the  Supreme 
Being,  which  fills  all  things.  Being  pantheists, 
most  Oriental  people  fail  in  their  conceptions  of 
individual  personality.  Hence  the  Hindus  hold 
that  all  finite  differentiations  of  Brahma  are 
ultimately  absorbed.  There  is,  therefore,  only 
a  negative  belief  in  the  soul. 

Among  the  Egyptians  transmigration  provides 
a  background  for  more  distinct  ideas.  According 
to  this  theory  the  soul  lives  primarily  in  the 
body  of  an  animal  and  passes  from  it,  after 
wandering  for  3000  years  through  all  the  species 
of  animals,  into  a  human  body,  unless  the  priests 
shorten  this  period.  In  the  Book  of  the  Dead 
a  vague  belief  in  immortality  is  foreshadowed; 
but  it  is  doubtful  if  this  belief  is  dissociated 
entirely  from  the  corresponding  idea  of  the  sur- 
vival of  the  body.    We  find  traces  of  this  uncer- 


80TTL. 


1040 


SOUL. 


tAinty  and  oonfiuion  specially  in  the  earlier  tra- 
dition of  the  Hebrews.  In  the  later  tradition* 
and  especially  under  the  influence  of  prophet- 
ism,  more  refined  conceptions  followed  the 
preaching  of  ethical  monotheism.  A  trichotomy 
of  body,  soul,  and  spirit  appears  among  the  later 
Jewish  and  early  Christian  thinkers,  in  which 
'body'  (o-w/ui)  is  the  material,  'soul'  (^vxi^)  and 
'spirit'  (rpwfta)  the  spiritual  part  of  the  human 
personality;  but  the  tendency  is  to  resolve  this 
threefold  division  into  a  dualism  in  which  body 
and  soul  are  joined  against  the  spirit.  The 
whole  weight  of  Christianity  was  thrown  on  the 
side  of  the  soul  conceived  of  as  that  part  of 
man  that  is  imder  divine  law.  This  part  was 
regarded  as  having  absolute  worth,  inasmuch  as 
it  is  the  seat  of  the  divine  spirit,  and  is  opposed 
to  the  'flesh'  (^df^),  i.e.  to  human  nature  in 
estrangement  from  the  divine.  The  salvation 
of  the  soul  is  negatively  its  deliverance  from 
bondage  to  the  'flesh'  in  this  broad  signification, 
and,  positively,  union  and  commimion  with  God^ 
the  essence  of  the  soul's  life. 

We  find  a  similar  gradual  distinction  between 
body  and  soul  in  the  history  of  Qreek  thought. 
In  Homer  the  soul  is  a  kind  of  image  of  the 
body  (ddmXop),  which  escapes  in  death  through 
the  mouth  or  through  an  open  wound.  All 
natural  objects  are  supposed  to  have  souls.  The 
Ionic  philosophers,  incapable  of  making  this 
distinction  clear,  sought  for  some  physical  prin- 
ciple to  define  what  they  meant  by  the  soul,  and 
found  it  in  water,  air,  fire,  or  the  'infinite' 
(hylozoism)  ;  and  when  later  reflection  added 
to  this  the  notion  of  reason  it  was  only  as  'think- 
ing air*  that  the  soul  was  conceived  even  then. 
Nor  did  Parmenides  with  his  absolute  unity,  or 
the  Pythagoreans  with  their  doctrine  of  num- 
bers, attain  a  clear  differentiation  of  body  and 
soul;  and  Democritus  is  openly  materialistic, 
maintaining  that,  inasmuch  as  matter  is  eternal, 
there  is  no  need  to  distinguish  body  from  that 
which  moves  it.  Anaxagoras  (bom  b.c.  499) 
was  the  first  of  the  Greek  thinkers  to  formulate 
the  distinction  in  question  in  his  theory  of  in- 
telligence (poOfV  which,  he  contended,  is  difl'er- 
ent  from  body  oecause  it  is  simple,  mixes  with 
nothing,  is  never  passive,  is  infinite,  and  has 
absolute  power  over  matter.  Though  this  can- 
not be  taken  as  a  clear  definition  of  the  soul  as 
an  individualized  thinking  substance,  it  is  an 
advance  in  thought.  Socrates  added  to  this 
theory  of  Anaxagoras  the  idea  of  the  good,  which 
he  regarded  as  equivalent  to  the  absolute  or  God, 
and  from  it  derived  the  soul  of  man  as  a  small 
part,  clearly  recognizing  the  distinction  between 
it  and  the  body,  together  with  the  implication  of 
immortality,  which,  on  his  h3rpothesis  of  the 
good,  was  contained  in  it.  The  deeper  reflection 
of  Plato  and  Aristotle  naturally  discloses  more 
satisfactoiy  evidence  of  positive  ideas.  Plato  in 
particular  was  much  influenced  by  his  general 
metaphysical  theory.  Thus  in  the  TimcBtu  he 
teaches  that  the  soul  is  one  of  many  modes  of 
'the  one  and  the  many,'  by  which  he  means  the 
absolute  mind  and  the  phenomenal  world  of  re- 
lated things  ruled  by  the  demiurgus.  The  high- 
est of  these  incarnations  is  in  the  stars,  the  next 
in  man  {Philehua),  The  soul  of  the  world  is 
created  intelligent  by  God,  and  it  is  this  soul  that 
is  in  our  bodies.  As  such  it  has  the  principle  of 
movement  in  itself:  it  is  self -moved;  has  reality 
(•^(a),    and    partakes    of    the    harmony    and 


beauty  of  the  world  as  created  by  God,  and  also 
leads  to  all  true  knowledge.  According  to  Aris- 
totle the  soul  is  the  formal,  efficient,  and  final 
cause  {iwrekixfta  wpil^)  of  the  body 
{De  ArUma),  the  unity  of  three  kinds  of  causal- 
ity; and  he  distinguishes  three  kinds  of  soul,  the 
vegetable,  the  sensitive,  and  the  intellectaal, 
which  respectively  represent  the  spiritual  life 
of  plant,  animal,  and  human  beinffs.  As  the 
'flnal  cause'  of  the  body,  man's  soul  cannot  be 
indeterminate;  it  must  have  individuality  to 
organize  it,  direct  its  movements,  and  lead  it  to 
its  true  end.  Here  we  approadi  very  near  to 
the  modem  conception  of  the  soul  as  an  individ- 
ualized, self-conscious,  self -determining  reality; 
but  not  quite,  for  this  idea  was  not  fully  at^ 
tained  by  Greek  thought. 

Among  the  early  Christian  philosophers  we 
find  a  mixture  of  Greek  and  Christian  ideas. 
The  characteristics  of  this  period  show  the  tre- 
mendous hold  which  the  spiritual  ideas  of  Chris- 
tianity had  taken  on  the  strongest  minds.  The 
^viitings  of  the  Apologists,  the  Church  Fathers, 
particularly  Clement  of  Alexandria  and  Origen, 
while  they  do  not  reveal  any  systematic  doctrine 
of  the  soul,  are  replete  nevertheless  with  the 
keenest  insight.  The  profound  analysis  of  Augus- 
tine, however,  made  positive  contributions  to  the 
problem.  Anticipating  Descartes,  he  maintained 
that  it  is  impossible  for  thought  to  be  an  at- 
tribute of  that  which  does  not  think;  even  if  I 
doubt,  the  doubt  itself  must  be  an  act  of  the 
soul  and  therefore  a  real  fact  of  spiritual  sig- 
nificance. If  the  soul  were  corporeal,  its  func- 
tions would  be  limited  to  the  perception  of  body; 
but  now  it  has  the  power  of  reflection,  of  knowl- 
edge, of  love,  and  is,  above  all,  conscious  of  itself, 
and  therefore  cannot  be  an  attribute  of  extended 
substance  merely  {De  Trimtate).  The  theories 
developed  imder  Scholasticism  are  for  the  moat 
part  adaptations  of  the  later  Greek  ideas  to  the 
necessities  of  Church  doctrine  and  authority. 
Hence  we  find  some  inclining  to  take  the  view 
of  Plato  that  the  finite  soul  is  part  of  a  world- 
soul,  as  that  idea  was  developed  in  Stoicism  and 
later  Jewish  Hellenism;  others  incline  to  Aris- 
totle's teleological  conception  of  the  soul  as  a 
cause  realizing  itself  in  the  different  grades  of 
reality. 

It  was  Descartes  who  brought  reflection  back 
from  the  region  of  scholastic  metaphysics  to  the 
subjective  side  of  the  problem.  Descartes  dis- 
covered, as  Augustine  and  William  of  Auvergne 
had  discovered  before  him,  that  to  doubt 
the  existence  of  the  soul  is  to  contradict 
one's  self;  for  doubt  is  a  mental  fact,  and  as 
such  has  reality.  I  that  doubt,  think;  I  may 
imagine  that  I  have  no  body,  but  as  long  as 
I  think  I  have  real  existence;  I  think,  there- 
fore I  am  {cogito  ergo  sum).  If  it  be  replied 
that  my  thinking  does  not  imply  reality  then 
the  reply  is:  G^  cannot  deceive  us,  and  His 
omnipotence  can  realize  everything  we  conceive; 
therefore  every  clear  and  distinct  idea  we  have 
must  be  real,  and  since  I  have  a  clear  and  dis- 
tinct idea  of  myself  and  of  my  body  in  their 
distinction,  it  follows  that  soul  and  body  are  dis- 
tinct and  may  exist  without  each  other.  Thought 
and  extension  are  two  attributes,  and  it  is 
thought  alone  which  it  is  impossible  for  us  to 
doubt.  Thus  body  and  soul  are  left  opposed  to 
each  other,  so  far,  at  any  rate,  as  man  is  on- 


SOUL. 


1041 


80TTLT. 


oemed.  Spinoza  sought  to  obtain  a  unity  of  the 
two  (thought  and  extension)  and  formulated  the 
conception  of  an  underlying  soul-substance  which, 
as  God,  differentiates  itself  in  infinite  and  eter- 
nal modes  or  attributes  which  are  characterized 
under  the  categories  of  thought  and  extension. 
Thus  body  and  soul  are  ultimate  realities  of  one 
and  the  same  substance,  the  ever-changing  coun- 
terparts of  each  other,  and  yet  the  modes  of  one 
infinite  reality.  Leibnitz,  not  satisfied  with  the 
pantheism  of  Spinoza,  sought,  in  his  theory  of 
atoms  or  monads,  to  retain  the  rights  of  unite 
personality  and  things  and  yet  to  avoid  the 
crude  dualism  of  D^artes.  All  things  have 
souls  according  to  Leibnitz;  the  world  consists 
of  an  infinite  number  of  them,  in  all  degrees  of 
perfection.  If  we  ask  for  the  nature  of  their 
life,  inner  experience  reveals  to  us  an  active, 
real  force,  namely,  our  souls,  and  this  is  the 
type  of  all  substance;  so  that  in  the  world  both 
kinds  of  reality,  thought  and  extension,  consist 
of  perceiving  soul-life.  With  this  view  may  be 
compared  that  of  Berkeley,  who  carried  idealism 
to  its  extreme  expression  in  his  dictum  that  the 
being  of  things  is*in  their  being  perceived  {e88e 
=  percipi). 

The  Empiricists,  Hobbes,  Locke,  Hume,  and 
Mill,  developed  their  views  of  the  soul  along 
the  lines  laid  down  by  Bacon.  Hobbes  is  openly 
materialistic;  but  he  is  offset  by  the  cautious 
psychology  of  Locke,  who  finds  that  inner  feel- 
ing undoubtedly  gives  us  the  consciousness  of 
self,  though  not  the  substance  which  underlies 
it,  which  is  an  imknown  quantity  whose  real  ex- 
istence we  can  neither  dogmatically  afiirm  nor 
deny.  These  ideas  Hiune  carried  to  their  logical 
conclusion  by  denying  any  existence  to  the  soul 
as  a  real  or  permanent  subject:  the  only  reality 
we  know  is  the  phenomenal  stream  of  impres- 
sions and  ideas.  It  was  the  merit  of  this  analy- 
sis of  Hume  that  it  finally  woke  up  Kant,  whose 
views  have  greatly  infiuenced  recent  thought. 
By  an  analysis  of  the  human  reason  Kant  sought 
to  show  that  the  real  significance  of  the  soul  con- 
sists in  the  moral  or  practical  activity,  which  an 
accurate  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  thought  could 
do  nothing  successful  to  overthrow.  If  the  sys- 
tem of  Kant  caused  a  theoretical  schism  be- 
tween the  reason  as  the  knowing  activity  and 
the  will  as  the  moral  activity,  the  reflections  of 
Fichte,  Schelling,  and  Hegel,  together  with  the 
labors  of  the  modem  school  of  psychology,  have 
done  much  to  heal  the  breach.  On  the  whole, 
therefore,  we  may  say  that  the  hypothesis  of  a 
soul  seems  to  be  demanded  both  as  a  ground  of 
the  unity  of  self-consciousness  and  also  of  the 
universe.  It  seems,  moreover,  to  be  justified, 
with  sufficient  reason,  as  the  real  principle  of 
the  harmony  of  the  subjective  and  the  objective. 
It  seems  also  to  be  required  as  the  subject  of 
the  changing  states  of  thought,  feeling,  and  voli- 
tion, revealed  in  the  phenomena  of  conscious- 


SOTTLE^  B^\,  GiDEOir  Lane  (1796-1870).  An 
American  educator,  bom  at  Freeport,  Me.  He 
studied  at  Phillips  Exeter  Academy  from  1813 
to  1816,  and  then  entered  Bowdoin  College,  where 
he  graduated  in  1818.  Nearly  all  of  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  was  passed  at  Exeter  as 
teacher  and  principal.  This  latter  office  he  held 
from  1838  until  within  three  years  of  his  death. 
The  school  under  his  management  took  a  high 
sank  among  American  fitting  schools.     OonsiSt 


an  article  in  the   Unitarian  Review,  vol.  xii. 
(1879). 

SOXTLE,  Joshua  (1781-1867).  A  bishop  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  bom  at 
Bristol,  Me.  He  began  to  preach  at  the  age  of 
seventeen,  and  was  admitted  to  the  New  England 
Conference  in  1799.  He  was  elected  book  agent 
in  1816,  and  during  his  incumbency  founded  and 
edited  the  Methodtat  Magasine,  since  developed 
into  the  Methodist  Review.  He  became  bishop 
in  1824.  When  the  Church  divided  in  1845  he 
adhered  to  the  {Southern  section  and  continued 
in  the  bishopric. 

BOXTLk,  eiSSlk',  Piebbe  (1802-70).  A  French- 
American  statesman,  bom  at  Castillon,  France. 
He  was  trained  for  the  priesthood  at  Toulouse, 
and  afterwards  studied  at  Bordeaux.  He  was  in- 
volved in  a  conspiracy  against  the  Bourbons  in 
1817,  and  for  some  time  took  refuge  in  B^ara. 
Later  he  was  permitted  to  return  to  France,  but 
in  1852  was  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  arti- 
cles in  a  radical  newspaper  reflecting  on  the  min- 
istry. He  escaped  and  settled  in  New  Orleans. 
There  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  In  1847  he 
was  appointed  to  the  United  States  Senate  to  fill 
a  vacancv,  and  was  elected  for  the  full  term  in 
1849.  He  represented  extreme  Southern  views, 
and  was  prominent  in  the  debates  on  the  com- 
promise measures  of  1850.  President  Pierce  ap- 
pointed him  Minister  to  Spain  in  1853.  At  Ma- 
drid he  became  notorious  for  fighting  several 
duels,  one  with  Turgot,  the  French  Ambassador. 
He  favored  the  insurrection  in  Madrid  in  1854 
and  united  with  Buchanan  and  Mason  in  the  Os- 
tend  Manifesto  (q.v.)  of  October  of  the  same  year 
relating  to  the  annexation  of  Cuba.  He  returned 
to  the  United  States  in  1855.  He  at  first  opposed 
the  secession  of  Louisiana,  but  afterwards  joined 
the  secessionists,  and  was  arrested  in  1862  for 
disloyalty  and  imprisoned.  He  was  released  on 
condition  of  leaving  the  coimtry,  but  ran  the 
blockade  at  Charleston,  and  for  a  short  time 
served  on  the  staflf  of  General  Beauregard.  la 
1863  he  went  to  Havana,  but  after  the  close  of 
the  war  he  returned  to  New  Orleans,  where  he 
died. 

BOJTLik,  ass^jkf,  Melchiob  ¥v±atxio  { 1800- 
47).  A  French  dramatist  and  novelist,  bom  at 
Foix.  He  was  expelled  from  the  law  school  in 
Paris  on  account  of  his  radicalism.  In  1824  be 
published  a  volume  of  poems,  Amours  franifaie, 
and  in  1828  his  drama  RomSo  et  Juliette  was  pro- 
duced at  the  Odton.  In  1832  his  play  Clotilde 
was  performed,  and  this  was  followed  by  several 
other  successful  pieces,  the  best  known  of  which 
is  perhaps  La  closerie  dee  genite  (1846). 
Among  his  many  novels  may  be  cited  especially 
his  first.  Lea  deux  cadavrea  (1832),  Memoires  du 
diahle  (1837-38),  Le  maitre  d'^cole  (1839), 
Eulalie  Pontois  (1842),  and  Satumin  Fiehst 
(1847-48).  Consult  Champion,  F.  8ouli4,  ea  vie, 
see  ouvragee  (Paris,  1847). 

SOTTLOUQIJE,  silSS'lSfikf.  Emperor  of  Haiti 
See  Faustin  I. 

SOITLT,  s?K)lt,  Nicolas  Jean  de  I>iEn,  Duke 
of  Dalmatia  ( 1769-1851 ) .  A  French  marshal.  He 
was  born  at  Saint- Amans-la-Bastide,  Department 
of  Tarn.  He  entered  the  army  as  a  private  in 
1785,  rose  by  his  soldierly  qualities,  and  in  1794 
was  made  a  general  of  brigade  for  his  conduct  at 


SOTTIiT. 


1042 


SOXnrD,  SOUHBINO. 


Fleurus.  From  1794  to  1799  he  was  employed 
on  the  eastern  f rontier^  and  in  the  retreat  after 
the  defeat  of  Stockach  (March  25,  1799)  he 
prevented  the  annihilation  of  the  French  army. 
Appointed  seneral  of  division  (April  21,  1799), 
and  put  imder  Mass^na,  whom  he  ably  seconded 
in  Switzerland  and  Italy,  he  was  afterwards  ap- 
pointed by  Napoleon  to  one  of  the  four  colonelships 
of  the  consular  guards  and  became  an  ardent  sup- 
porter of  the  First  (Ik)n8ul.  He  was  created  mar- 
shal of  France  in  1804.  He  justified  his  ap- 
pointment by  his  brilliant  achievements  in  the 
subsequent  campaign  against  the  Austrians, 
especially  at  the  battle  of  Austerlitz  (December 
2,  1806),  which  he  decided  by  piercing  the  Rus- 
sian centre.  He  did  good  service  in  the  Prussian 
campai^  of  1806,  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Eylau  in  1807,  and  in  the  latter  year  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  Berlin  and  created  Duke  of 
Dalmatia.  Soult  was  next  placed  at  the  head 
of  the  Second  (Dorps  in  Spain,  pursued  the  re- 
treating British  forces  imder  Sir  John  Moore, 
attacked  them  at  Corunna  (January,  1809),  and, 
though  repulsed,  forced  them  to  abandon  their 
baggage  and  munitions  of  war.  He  then  oocu- 
pi^  Oporto  and  Northern  Portugal,  but  the 
sudden  arrival  of  Wellesley  made  him  retreat 
rapidly  to  Galicia.  In  September,  1809,  he  be- 
came commander-in-chief  in  Spain,  gained  a  bril- 
liant victory  at  Ocafia  on  November  19th,  and  at 
the  commencement  of  the  following  year  subdued 
Andalusia.  In  attempting  to  succor  Badajoz, 
which  he  had  captured  and  garrisoned,  he  was 
defeated  by  Beresford  at  Albuera  (May  10, 
1811).  After  the  battle  of  Salamanca  and  the 
advance  of  the  British  on  Madrid,  Soult,  on  the 
rejection  of  his  plans  for  transferring  the  theatre 
of  war  to  Andalusia,  demanded  and  obtained  his 
recall.  In  1813  he  fought  in  Germany,  but 
when  the  news  of  the  defeat  of  the  French  at 
Vitoria  reached  Napoleon  Soult  was  restored  to 
the  command  of  the  army  of  Spain.  It  was  not 
in  Spain,  however,  but  in  France,  that  the  con- 
test had  to  be  waged;  and  the  advantages  were 
all  on  the  enemy's  side;  nevertheless,  by  a  sys- 
tem of  military  tactics  which  has  been  universally 
admired,  he  neutralized  the  strategy  of  Welling- 
ton, and  reduced  the  campaign,  during  the  seven 
months  it  lasted^  to  a  mere  trial  of  strength. 
He  continued  the  struggle  after  the  entry  of 
the  Allies  into  Paris,  unsuccessfully  opposing 
Wellington  at  Toulouse  on  April  10,  1814.  He 
became  an  ardent  royalist  after  the  abdication 
of  Napoleon,  and  was  made  Minister  of  War ;  but 
on  the  return  of  the  Emperor  from  Elba  he 
abandoned  Louis  XVIII.  and  joined  the  Imperial 
army.  After  Waterloo  he  was  banished  and  not 
recalled  till  May,  1819.  He  was  finally  restored 
to  his  honors,  and  took  an  active  part  in  politics. 
In*  1827  he  was  created  a  peer  of  France,  and 
under  Louis  Philippe  he  repeatedly  held  high 
State  offices.  In  1845  he  retired  from  active 
duty,  and  in  1847  he  was  honored  with  the  ap- 
pointment of  marshal-general  of  France.  Soult 
passed  the  rest  of  his  days  at  his  residence  of 
Soultberg,  near  Saint-Amans.  His  M4moires 
were  published,  in  part,  bv  his  son  (3  vols.,  Paris, 
1864).  Consult  also  Sall6,  Vie  politique  du 
fnar^chal  Soult  (Paris,  1834). 

SOTTKD.    See  Acoustics. 

BOTHSfV,  Becobdino  of.    See  Phonoosaph. 


SOTTBD,  SOmiDIHG  (OF.,  Fr.  aonder,  prob- 
ably from  Lat.  8uh,  under  -j-  undare,  to  undulate, 
from  undo,  wave;  less  plausibly  from  AS.,  loeL 
8und,  Ger.  Bund,  sound,  strait).  The  operation 
of  ascertaining  the  depth  of  water.  In  shallow 
waters  (less  than  20  fathoms)  the  depths  are 
ascertained  with  the  lead  and  line  (see  Lead, 
Sounding)  ;  in  greater  depths  the  deep-sea  lead 
and  line  are  used  or  else  a  sounding  machine. 
Beyond  a  depth  of  200  fathoms  soimdings  are  not 
useful  for  the  purpose  of  navigating  vessels;  but 
'deep-sea'  soundings  are  taken  in  all  depths  in 
order  to  ascertain  the  shape  and  character  of  the 
ocean  bottom  and  its  organisms,  living  and  dead. 
See  Beep-Sba  Exploration. 

Few  attempts  to  ascertain  the  depth  of  the 
ocean  were  made  before  the  b^^inninf  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  and  it  was  not  untu  toward 
the  middle  of  it  that  the  investigations  were  at 
all  systematic.  The  disadvantges  under  whidi 
the  earlier  expeditions  labored  were  such  as  to 
preclude  not  only  rapid  but  reliable  work.  For 
the  lines  rope  of  orainary  character  was  used, 
and  the  sinkers  employed  were  j^erally  too  light. 
The  weight  of  the  rope  after  it  became  water- 
soaked  was  very  great,  and  its  bulk,  together 
with  that  of  the  reels,  very  troublesome.  The 
inadequate  sinkers  caused  the  line  to  run  out  very 
slowly,  and  the  reeling  in  was  both  laborious  anq 
tedious.  Owing  to  the  difficulty  of  holding  a  large 
sailing  ship  in  a  fixed  position  for  the  requisite 
time  and  tne  amplitude  of  her  movements  on  tiie 
waves,  many  of  the  soundings  were  made  from 
boats,  which  still  further  reduced  the  speed,  es- 
pecially that  of  preparing  to  cast  and  of  reeling 
in.  The  first  attempt  (so  far  as  known)  to  use 
wire  for  the  line  was  that  of  the  well-known  'ex- 
ploring expedition'  sent  out  by  the  United  States 
Navy  Department  in  1838.  The  wire  was  of  copper, 
about  3-32  of  an  inch  in  circumference,  with  sol- 
dered and  twisted  splices.  Owing  to  lack  of 
proper  appliances  for  handling,  it  always  broke 
at  500  to  1000  fathoms,  and  its  use  was  aban- 
doned. In  August,  1894,  Captain  Bamet,  R.  N., 
made  a  sounding  in  2000  fathoms  with  iron  wire. 
This  also  broke,  and  no  more  attempts  with  it 
were  made.  Three  months  later,  Lieut.  J.  C. 
Walsh,  U.  S.  N.,  in  the  United  States  schooner 
Taney,  tried  to  use  steel  wire,  but  his  efforts 
were  unsuccessful,  the  wire  being  too  large  and 
the  sinkers  too  small.  He  reported  soundings  of 
6700  fathoms  and  no  bottom,  but  the  depth  was 
actually  less  than  half  as  great. 

Much  work  continued  to  be  done  with  rope 
lines  both  before  and  after  these  experimento, 
but  more  especially  afterwards.  In  1840  Cap- 
tain James  F.  Ross  first  noted  time  intervals  in 
sounding;  he  also  used  very  heavy  sinkers,  and 
his  results  were  exceedingly  accurate  for  those 
days.  The  question  of  time  intervals  was  taken 
up  and  perfected  by  Lieutenant  (afterwards  Ad- 
miral) Taylor,  and  other  officers  of  the  United 
States  Navy,  and  their  observations  were  of  great 
importance  in  determining  the  accuracy  of  deep-sea 
work  before  the  invention  of  the  Thomson  sound- 
ing machine.  For  a  time  the  United  States  Navy 
Department  abandoned  the  use  of  both  wire  and 
rope,  and,  at  the  instance  of  Lieutenant  Maury, 
adopted  waxed  flax  twine,  weighing  only  nine 
pounds  to  the  statute  mile.  Between  1861  and 
1853  much  of  the  Atlantic  was  explored  bj 
United  Stetes  vessels  and  hundreds  of  soundings 


SOUND,  80UNDINGK 


1048 


SOUSA. 


taken  (using  the  twine  mostly)  with  fairly  aoeu- 
rate  results,  though,  as  no  specimens  of  the  bot- 
tom were  obtained,  they  were  open  to  question. 
In  1863-54  Passed  Midshipman  J.  M.  Brooke,  U. 
S.  N.,  brought  out  his  cup  and  detachable  sinker, 
which  enabled  specimens  of  the  bottom  to  be  ob- 
tained while  usmg  a  heavy  weight  to  keep  the 
line  taut  when  running  out.  Brooke  also  devel- 
oped his  table  of  'standard  casts'  utilizing  the 
time  interval  and  weight  of  line  out,  and  he  much 
improved  the  sounding  apparatus. 

The  Civil  War  put  an  end  to  the  deep-sea  work 
of  the  United  States  Navy  for  many  years,  but  it 
was  carried  on  most  successfully  by  the  British, 
especially  by  Captain  (afterwards  Admiral)  F.  P. 
Shortland,  who  improved  the  Brooke  sounding 
machine,  and  was  one  of  the  first,  if  not  the  first, 
to  enunciate  the  important  rule  in  regard  to  ten- 
sion on  the  line,  viz.,  "A  sounding  line  should  not 
be  permitted  to  run  free,  but  should  be  resisted 
by  a  force  equal  to  the  weight  in  water  of  a 
length  of  the  line  equal  to  the  depth  to  be  deter- 
mined." The  success  of  the  Brooke  device  and 
its  modifications  in  bringing  up  specimens  of  the 
bottom  and  its  orsanisms  attracted  the  attention 
of  naturalists  ana  geologists,  and  their  curiosity 
caused  dredging  in  great  depths  to  be  attempted. 
The  results  of  the  early  (1867-69)  work  of  Count 
Pourtales  under  the  direction  of  the  United  States 
Coast  Survey  brought  about  renewed  interest  by 
showing,  as  Pourtales  says,  "that  animal  life 
exists  at  ffreat  depths  in  as  great  an  abimdance 
as  in  shallow  water."  In  1872  the  British  Gov- 
ernment fitted  out  the  celebrated  Challenger  Ex- 
pedition (q.v.)  for  investigating  everything  con- 
nected with  tiie  ocean  depths.  .  Strange  to  say, 
although  Sir  William  Thomson  had  invented  his 
sounding  machine  and  submitted  it  to  the  British 
Admirally  several  months  before  the  Challenger 
was  ready,  it  was  rejected  for  imperfections 
which  might  have  been  easily  corrected,  and  the 
Challenger  sailed  with  her  antiquated  outfit  of 
sounding  material,  whereby  a  vast  amount  of 
time  was  lost  as  well  as  space  for  supplies  and 
specimens.  The  United  States  ship  Tuaoarora 
under  Captain  Belknap  sailed  from  San  Francisco 
only  four  months  after  the  Challenger,  but  the 
United  States  Navy  Department  was  wise  enough 
to  supply  her  with  one  or  more  Thomson  ma- 
chines in  addition  to  the  ordinary  rope  outfit. 
The  new  machines  were  not  entirely  satisfactory 
at  the  start>  but  were  easily  brought  into  work- 
ing shape  by  the  Tu8oarora*8  officers,  and  after 
very  few  trials  entirely  superseded  the  old  ap- 
paratus. Since  that  time  all  deep-sea  work  has 
been  done  by  machines,  and  thousands  of  sound- 
ings have  been  taken  to  determine  the  location 
of  the  submarine  cables  which  have  now  become 
so  numerous. 

The  Thomson  sounding  machine  is  of  two  types, 
deep-sea  and  coasting.  The  latter  is  now  used 
by  nearly  all  large  steamers  and  by  many  small 
ones.  It  consists  of  an  iron-braced  wooden  frame- 
work or  casing  which  incloses  a  steel  drum  about 
18  inches  in  diameter  and  three  inches  thick.  The 
disks  forming  the  sides  of  the  drum  project  be- 
yond the  circumference,  forming  a  broad  deep 
groove  for  carrying  the  wire  (3-8tranded  galvan- 
ized wire  rope  is  now  generally  used).  On  each 
side  are  cranks  for  winding  in,  and  on  one  side 
there  is  a  friction  brake  and  clutch,  while  on  the 
other  there  is  a  dial,  showing  the  number  of 


fathoms  (0  to  200)  out,  which  is  operated  by 
gearing  from  the  axle  of  the  drum.  The  sinker 
consists  of  a  lead  of  the  usual  shape,  weighing 
about  22  pounds,  through  which  is  thrust  an  iron 
rod,  the  whole  sinker  being  46  inches  long  from 
bottom  of  lead  to  top  of  rod.  The  wire  rope  is 
made  fast  to  a  fathom  or  two  of  small  soft  line, 
which  is  secured  at  the  other  end  to  an  eye  in  the 
upper  end  of  the  sinker  rod.  The  manner  of  ob- 
taining the  depth  is  independent  of  the  length  of 
wire  outy  and  the  depth  is  registered  by  means 
of  a  Thomson  chemical  tube,  a  Tanner-Blish  tube, 
or  the  depth  recorder.  The  Thomson  tube  is  a 
slender  glass  tube,  about  two  feet  long,  closed  at 
one  end,  and  filled  with  chromate  of  silver.  It 
is  placed  in  a  slightly  larger  brass  tube,  which 
has  holes  in  it  to  admit  the  sea  water  freely  and 
is  lashed  to  the  sinker.  The  machine  is  installed 
near  the  stem  or  on  the  ship's  rail.  To  sound, 
the  sinker  is  lowered  over  the  stem,  the  line 
dropped  in  a  fair  leader  to  insure  free  running, 
and  when  all  is  ready  the  brake  is  tripped  by  a 
movement  of  the  crank.  The  sinker  drops  rap- 
idly to  the  bottom  and  the  moment  it  reaches  it 
the  line  slacks  perceptibly  and  the  reel  is  stopped. 
The  line  is  then  reeled  in.  If  the  Thomson  tube 
is  used,  it  is  removed  from  the  brass  receptacle 
and  laid  against  a  special  scale.  The  sea  water 
has  forced  itself  in  the  open  end  to  a  distance 
depending  upon  the  pressure  (i.e.  the  depth) ; 
as  far  as  it  reaches  the  chemical  in  the  tube  is 
discolored,  and  this  point  falls  abreast  the  divi- 
sion of  the  scale  which  corresponds  to  the  depth 
of  water.  Since  the  measurement  is  independent 
of  the  amount  of  wire  out,  the  sounding  may 
be  taken  with  the  ship  going  at  full  speed  if 
the  depth  is  not  too  great.  The  Tanner-Blish  is 
similar  to  the  Thomson  tube,  except  that  it  con- 
tains no  chemical.  If  the  tubes  are  kept  care- 
fully dried  the  distance  the  water  has  risen  is 
easily  noted;  and  by  redrying  the  tubes  th^ 
may  be  used  over  and  over  again.  The  depth 
recorder  works  on  a  similar  principle,  and  is  at- 
tached to  the  sinker  in  the  same  way.  The 
pressure  of  the  water  acts  against  a  piston  which 
compresses  a  spring  and  carries  a  sliding  index. 
When  the  pressure  is  slacking  the  piston  returns 
to  its  initial  position  under  pressure  of  the 
spring,  but  the  index  remains  at  the  point  of 
the  scale  to  which  it  is  pushed,  so  that  the  depth 
is  read  off  at  once. 

The  Thomson  sounding  machine  for  great 
depths  is  similar  to  the  small  one,  but  has  a 
special  form  of  brake  which  adjusts  the  tension 
in  accordance  with  Captain  Shortland's  rule,  and 
has  of  course  a  much  greater  length  of  line. 
The  Sigsbee  machine  is  much  used  in  the  United 
States  Navy.  It  differs  from  the  Thomson 
chiefly  in  having  an  automatic  spring  governor 
to  ease  the  strain  on  the  wire  due  to  the  motion 
of  the  ship;  though  there  are  other  points  of 
dissimilarity.  It  is  the  invention  of  Captain 
C.  D.  Sigsbee,  of  the  United  Stetes  Navy,  who 
has  done  much  deep-sea,  depth,  and  current  work 
in  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  of  Mexico.  See  Ddep- 
Sea  Exploration;  Ocean ;  Ooeanogbapht. 

S0T7SA,  *5'zA,  John  Philip  ( 1854- ) .  An 
American  bandmaster  and  composer.  He  was 
bom  in  Washington,  D.  C,  and  was  educated 
there.  He  held  the  position  of  bandmaster  of 
the  United  States  Marine  Corps  at  Washington 
from  1880  until  1892,  and  during  that  period 


SOTXSA. 


1044 


mtJTH  AFBIOA. 


made  the  organization  one  of  the  finest  militair 
bands  in  America.  In  1892,  in  conjunction  with 
David  Blakely^  he  formed  the  organization  now 
known  as  Sousa's  Band.  His  compositions,  both 
operatic  and  instrumental,  have  been  eminently 
successful.  His  ability  as  a  composer  of  marches 
soon  secured  for  him  the  popular  title  of  'the 
March  King.'  His  compositions  include  the  fol- 
lowing operas:  The  Smugglers  (1879),  DMrSe 
(1884),  T^e  Queen  of  Hearts  (1886),  El  Capitan 
(1893),  The  Bride  Elect  (1897),  The  Charlatan 
(1898);  marches:  'The  Washington  Post," 
"High  School  Cadets,"  "The  Liberty  Bell," 
"Manhattan  Beach,"  "Directorate,"  "King  Cot- 
ton," "El  Capitan,"  "Bride  Elect,"  "The  Stars 
and  Stripes  Forever."  His  collection  of  arranged 
"National,  Patriotic,  and  Typical  Airs  of  All 
Countries"  hsjs  been  officially  adopted  by  the 
United  States  Navy  Department,  and  is  in  the 
collection  of  service  bands  throughout  the  civ* 
ilized  world. 

S0T7SA,  sd^z&,  or  S0X7ZA,  Mabtim  Affoitso 
DE  (c.  1500-64).  A  Portuguese  colonizer  and  ad- 
ministrator, bom  at  Braganca,  Province  of  Tras- 
os-Montes.  In  1530  he  was  dispatched  with  five 
ships  and  a  force  of  400  to  explore  the  coast  of 
New  Lusitania  (Brazil),  of  which  he  was  ap- 
pointed Governor,  and  to  found  there  a  colony 
and  distribute  land.  It  has  been  said  that  he 
was  the  discoverer  of  the  bajr  which  he  entered 
on  January  1,  1531,  and  which,  supposing  it  to 
be  a  river«  he  named  Rio  de  Janeiro.  He  sur- 
veyed the  coast,  and  on  Januarv  22,  1532,  founded 
on  Sfto  Vicente  Island,  near  the  present  Santos, 
the  first  Portuguese  colony  in  Brazil.  The  colony 
of  Piratininga,  the  present  Sao  Paulo,  on  the 
bank  of  the  Piratininga  River,  was  founded  under 
his  direction.  In  1533  he  returned  to  Portugal, 
where  he  received  Sfto  Vicente,  the  foremost  of 
the  captaincies  into  which  Brazil  was  divided. 
This  he  ruled  as  absentee  proprietor. 

SOUTH^  Sir  James  (1785-1867).  An  English 
astronomer,  bom  in  South wark.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  College  of  Surgeons  and  displayed 
great  professional  abilities,  but  later  inclined  to 
astronomy.  In  conjunction  with  the  younger 
Herschel  (q.v.)  he  undertook  a  series  of  observa- 
tions which  were  presented  to  the  Royal  Society 
in  a  memoir  containing  micrometrical  measure- 
ments of  380  double  stars,  and  confirming  the 
elder  Herschel's  inferences  regarding  orbital  mo- 
tion. For  this  he  was  awarded  the  gold  medal 
of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society  in  1826.  In 
1835  he  removed  his  observatory  to  Passy,  near 
Paris.  Here  he  made  a  series  of  observations  on 
458  compound  stars,  of  which  160  were  new,  and 
convinced  Laplace  of  the  reality  of  revolving 
stars.  South  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Astronomical  Society  and  its  first  president. 
He  was  knighted  in  1830.  He  observed  Encke's 
comet  (1828  and  1838),  Mauvais's  (1844),  and 
Vico's  (1845) .  His  observing  a  sharp  occultation 
by  Mars  of  a  small  star  in  Leo  disproved  the  ex- 
istence of  an  extensive  Martian  atmosphere. 

SOUTH,  Robert  (1634-1716).  A  famous 
preacher  of  the  Church  of  England,  bora  at 
Hackney.  In  1651  he  became  a  student  of  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  and  was  ordained  in  1658.  In 
1660  he  was  made  domestic  chaplain  of  the  Lord 
Chancellor  (Harendon.  In  1663  he  was  promoted 
to   a    prebendal    stall    nt    Westminster,   and    in 


1670  became  a  canon  of  Christ  Chnrch,  Oxford. 
The  reetory  of  Islip^  in  Oxfordshire,  was  later 
conferred  upon  him,  and  he  was  chaplain  in 
ordinary  to  Charles  U.  When  the  revolution  of 
1688  was  accomplished  he  gave  his  adhesion  to 
it,  but  refused  perferment.  A  stanch  adherent 
of  the  Church  of  England,  he  continued  to  wage 
unsparing  war  from  the  pulpit  and  with  his 
pen  against  Puritanism  and  every  other  form 
of  dissent^  occasionally  occupying  himself  with 
discussion  more  strictly  theological.  He  is  now 
chiefly  remembered  by  his  sermons;  tiiey  are 
masterpieces  of  vigorous  sense  and  sound  Eng- 
lish, and  abound  in  lively  and  witty  matter.  The 
best  edition  of  his  sermons  is  that  by  W.  G.  T. 
Shedd  (New  York,  1866-71),  with  a  memoir. 

SOITTHy  Univebsitt  of  the.  An  institution 
of  learning  at  Sewanee,  Tenn.,  founded  in  1857 
by  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  South. 
A  tract  of  nearly  10,000  acres  was  secured  as  a 
site,  $500,000  was  subscribed  for  an  endowment 
fund,  and  the  cornerstone  of  the  central  building 
was  laid  when  the  Civil  War  broke  out.  At  the 
end  of  the  war  the  pledges  of  an  endowmoit 
could  not  be  realized.  Funds  were  secured  to  be- 
gin the  institution  on  a  small  scale,  largely 
through  the  efforts  of  Bishop  C.  T.  Quintard 
of  Tennessee,  and  it  was  opened  in  1868  with  a 
grammar  school  and  an  academic  department. 
A  theological  department  was  opened  about  1878, 
a  medical  department  in  1892,  and  a  law  depart- 
ment in  1893.  The  college  domain,  mostly  cov- 
ered with  original  forest,  is  situated  on  a  plateau 
of  the  Cumberland  Mountains,  about  1000  feet 
above  the  surrounding  valleys.  The  permanent 
buildings,  eight  in  number,  stand  in  a  domain 
of  1000  acres,  and  are  valued  at  $350,000.  The 
college  year  is  divided  into  three  terms — ^Trinity, 
Advent^  and  Lent.  The  vacation  is  taken  from 
December  to  March.  The  academic  department 
embraces  15  schools,  a  certificate  and  diploma 
being  given  in  each  school.  The  degrees  con- 
ferred are  B.A.  (60  courses),  M.A,  and  M.S. 
(15  courses  of  an  advanced  character),  and  C.E. 
The  work  is  mostly  prescribed.  In  theology  the 
degrees  of  B.D.  and  Graduate  in  Divinity  are 
given;  in  law,  LL.B.;  in  medicine,  M.D.  A 
school  of  pharmacy,  with  the  degree  of  Graduate 
of  Pharmacy,  and  a  training  school  for  nurses 
are  connected  with  the  medical  schooL  All 
members  of  the  professional  schools  and  such 
academic  students  as  have  passed  a  certain 
number  of  university  examinations  and  have  suf- 
ficient maturity  in  age  and  character  are  formed 
by  the  goveming  board  into  an  order  of  Gowns- 
men. These  are  distinguished  by  the  academic 
dress  (the  Oxford  cap  and  gown)  and  enjoy  cer- 
tain privileges  and  immunities.  In  1903  the 
faculties  numbered  41,  and  the  student  body 
556,  divided  as  follows:  theological,  26;  medical, 
227;  law,  17;  academic,  122;  preparatory,  164. 
The  library  contained  41,000  Volumes. 

SOUTH  A7BICA.  The  part  of  Africa  south 
of  the  Zambezi  River;  physically  it  is  a  distinct 
geographic  unit.  With  an  area  of  1,100,000 
square  miles  and  a  seaboard  of  more  than  3000 
miles,  it  is  commercially  a  single  trade  region. 
Its  collective  commerce  is  known  technically  as 
the  'Cape  trade.'  The  'business  interests  of 
every  part  of  it  are  closely  related  to  or  Inter- 
woven with  those  of  the  other  parts,  and  the  best 
means  of  introducing  civilization  and  commerce 


SOUTH  ATBZOA. 


1046 


SOUTH  ATBZOA. 


into  tropical  Africa  is  through  the  gateways  that 
oojuiect  the  equatorial  regions  with  the  wide 
regions  which  white  men  are  developing  in  South 
Africa.  The  colonies  and  protectorates  which 
are  wholly  or  in  part  in  South  Africa  are:  Portu- 
guese East  Africa  (q.v.),  German  Southwest  Af- 
rica (q.v.),  Cape  Colony,  Orange  River  Colony, 
Transvaal  Colony,  Natal  (including  Zululand 
Province),  Southern  Khodesia,  Basutoland,  and 
Bechuanaland  Protectorate,  all  except  the  first 
two  belonging  to  Great  Britain. 

TopooRAPHT.  The  coasts,  like  those  of  the 
rest  of  Africa,  are  chiefly  straight  and  unbroken. 
They  are  deficient  in  good  harbors  and  girdled  by 
a  tempestuous  ocean  with  a  never-ceasing  surf. 
The  west  shore  is  very  different  in  aspect  from 
the  south  and  east  coasts.  Nearly  the  whole  of 
the  west  coast  is  low  and  sandy  and  the  lands 
behind  the  shore  line  are  barren  and  dismal.  The 
south  and  east  shores,  however,  though  on  the 
whole  as  regular  and  unbroken  as  the  west  coast, 
are  attractive  instead  of  repellent  in  appearance, 
with  their  evergreen  slopes,  picturesque  bays, 
and  wooded  kloofs.  All  the  ports  of  the  west 
coast  are  roadsteads  excepting  Saldanha  Bay,  a 
splendid  natural  harbor  still  undeveloped,  and 
Cape  Town,  which,  at  enormous  expense,  has  been 
made  safe  for  shipping.  None  of  the  ports  on 
the  south  coast  is  naturally  good,  but  those  of 
Port  Elizabeth  and  East  London  have  been  made 
available  for  large  trade  by  artificial  improve- 
ments. The  east  coast  has  in  Delagoa  Bay  the 
only  first-class  harbor  in  Africa,  and  one  of  the 
finest  in  the  world.  The  port  of  Durban  on  this 
coast  has  been  rendered  good  artificially,  and 
the  port  of^Beira  and  the  Chinde  branch  of  the 
Zambezi  delta  are  also  available  for  large  ship- 
ping. Most  of  the  interior  of  South  Africa  con- 
sists of  high  plateaus,  elevated  so  far  above  the 
sea  level  that  the  influences  of  the  temperate 
zone  are  extended  hundreds  of  miles  to  the  north 
of  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn.  Johannesburg  enjoys 
a  temperate  climate,  while  Rio  de  Janeiro,  in 
nearly  the  same  latitude,  is  a  tropical  city.  The 
hi^h  elevation  of  the  most  of  South  Africa  is  the 
chief  element  in  its  geographic  unity.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  the  area  of  the  region  which,  in  re- 
spect of  temperature,  is  well  adapted  to  become 
a  home  of  the  white  race,  is  one-fifth  as  large  as 
the  area  of  the  United  States  (exclusive  of 
Alaska). 

The  entire  coastal  plain  is  only  20  to  60  miles 
wide  excepting  where  it  broadens  to  100  miles  or 
more  in  the  neighborhood  of  Beira  and  the  Zam- 
bezi. Behind  the  plain  the  land  begins  to 
ascend  in  terraces.  In  the  extreme  south  the 
coastal  plain  rises  to  600  feet  above  the  sea. 
Just  north  of  it  in  Cape  Colony  are  the  Southern 
Karroo  and  the  Bokkevelt,  1000  to  2000  feet 
high.  Next  come  the  Great  Karroo  with  an 
average  altitude  of  3000  feet ;  then  the  loftiest  of 
the  Cape  plateaus,  the  Northern  Karroo,  from 
2700  to  6000  feet;  then  the  diamond  fields  coun- 
try and  the  wide  plains  of  the  Orange  River 
Colony,  from  4000  to  6000  feet;  the  still  more 
extensive  plateau  of  the  Transvaal,  from  6000 
to  7000  feet;  and  the  more  diversified  uplands  of 
the  Matabeleland  and  Mashonaland  region  at  a 
little  lower  level,  sloping  gradually  to  the  plain 
of  the  Zambezi.  In  the  west  the  irregular  nigh- 
lands  of  Damaraland  and  Namaqualand  rise 
steeply  from  the  'Atlantic  coast  plain,  and  merge 


indefinitely  with  the  vast  central  plains  of  Be- 
chuanaland and  the  dreary  expanse  of  the  Kala^ 
hari  Desert,  once  the  fioor  of  an  inland  sea 
and  now  about  4000  feet  above  the  sea  level.  In 
the  east  and  southeast  the  lowlands  of  Portu- 
guese East  Africa  and  the  coast  plain  and  plateau 
of  Natal  are  skirted  inland  precipitously  by  the 
mighty  rampart  of  the  Drakensberg  and  other 
ranges  that  wall  in  the  lofty  interior  plateaus. 
Many  of  the  mountains  lining  the  periphery 
of  the  plateaus  or  rising  within  them  have  an 
altitude  of  6000  to  10,000  feet.  The  culminat- 
ing points  appear  to  be  the  Montaux  Sources, 
Champagne  Castle,  and  Mount  Hamilton,  all 
three  probably  upward  of  10,000  feet  in  eleva- 
tion, and  the  last  perhaps  not  much  short  of 
12,000  feet. 

Htdbogbapht.  The  Zambezi  alone  is  impor- 
tant for  navigation.  Most  of  the  rivers  are  small 
and  their  mouths  are  hopelessly  blocked  by  sand 
and  rocks,  excepting  the  Buffalo  River,  which 
with  great  difficulty  has  been  made  available  for 
ocean  steamers  to  East  London,  near  its  mouth. 
The  Zambezi  is  navigable  for  about  260  miles 
from  the  sea.  The  north  central  portion  of  the 
region  is  an  area  of  interior  drainage,  the  waters 
disappearing  in  many  so-called  salt  pans,  where 
evaporation  leaves  an  incrustation  of  salt  on  the 
surface. 

Climate.  There  are  only  two  seasons:  sum- 
mer (October  to  March)  and  winter  (April  to 
September).  Except  in  the  south  and  east 
coastal  r^ons  the  low  average  of  atmospheric 
humidity  is  a  marked  characteristic.  Pulmonary 
invalids  from  Europe  prolong  their  lives  in  the 
dry,  bracing  air  of  the  plateaus.  January  is 
usually  the  hottest  month,  with  average  maxi- 
mum temperatures  of  82*  to  100**  F.  July  is 
usually  the  coldest  month,  with  temperatures 
ranging  from  20*  to  10*  F.  The  Transvaal  Colo- 
ny, although  partly  within  the  tropics,  stands  so 
high  above  the  sea  that  the  mean  annual  tem- 
perature is  only  68.64*  F.,  or  only  about  6.30* 
above  the  mean  summer  temperature  of  England. 
Although  entirely  within  the  tropics,  the  annual 
temperature  range  in  Matabeleland  and  Ma- 
shonaland is  from  36*  to  86*,  so  that  these  re- 
gions are  by  no  means  tropical.  The  Zambezi 
Valley  and  Portuguese  East  Africa  are  low, 
moist,  and  very  unhealthful.  More  than  half  of 
South  Africa  is  deficient  in  rainfall.  The  semi- 
arid  region  includes  the  entire  western  half  of 
the  country,  which  is  dry  because  South  Africa 
depends  for  rain  upon  the  winds  of  the  Indian 
Ocean,  and  the  east  coastlands  and  highlands 
receive  the  larger  part  of  the  precipitation,  as 
the  winds  move  westward.  The  Great  Karroo 
and  Great  Namaqualand  have  less  than  6  inches 
of  rain  in  the  year.  With  the  exception  of  the 
Portuguese  coastlands  and  the  Zambezi  belt, 
South  Africa  is  one  of  the  most  healthful  and 
salubrious  regions  in  the  world. 

Flora.  The  veldt  and  the  karroo  are  the  dis- 
tinctive features  of  South  Africa.  The  word 
veldt  (=  field)  is  applied  to  the  enormous  areas 
of  rolling  pasture  lands  found  in  Cape  Colony, 
the  Orange  River  Colony,  the  Transvaal  Colony, 
and  parts  of  Bechuanaland,  covered  with  rough 
scrubby  grass,  mimosa,  acacia,  and  other  bushes; 
also  to  the  herbage  itself,  as  the  sweet  veldt  and 
the  sour  veldt.  The  name  karroo  is  taken  from 
the  little  karroo  plant,  relished  1^  sheep  and 


80UTH  AnUECA. 


1046 


SOUTH  ATBZOA. 


goats  and  the  best  kind  of  bush  for  the  domesti- 
cated ostrich.  The  largest  tract  of  karroo  is  a 
region  about  two-thirds  as  large  as  Scotland, 
in  the  interior  of  Cape  Colony.  All  South  Afri- 
can plains  and  plateaus  that  are  intermediate 
between  the  grass  and  bush-covered  veldt  and 
absolute  desert  are  karroos.  Both  the  karroo 
and  the  Kalahari  desert  need  only  the  rain  that 
sometimes  falls  on  them  to  be  quickly  clothed 
with  grass  and  shrubs.  The  plant-life  common 
to  deserts,  and  the  vegetation  of  the  veldt  and 
the  karroo,  are  the  distinctive  features  of  the 
flora;  to  which  are  to  be  added  the  tropical 
vegetation  which  girdles  South  Africa  along 
its  low,  hot  northern  and  eastern  fringes,  and 
the  belt  of  European  flora,  including  the  northern 
cereals  and  the  vine,  across  the  south  end  of 
Africa. 

Fauna.  The  animal  life  is  perhaps  match- 
less, and  is  certainly  unsurpassed.  It  includes 
the  lion,  elephant,  hippopotamus,  rhinoceros 
(black  and  white),  bufi'alo,  zebra,  numerous  va- 
rieties of  antelope,  the  giraffe,  wart  hog,  hysena, 
and  jackal.  The  slaughter  of  wild  animals  has 
been  reckless  and  ruthless  all  over  the  settled 
parts  of  the  country,  but  there  are  still  wide 
areas  that  are  known  as  'sportsmen's  paradises.' 
In  Cape  Colony  nearly  all  the  domesticated  os- 
triches in  the  world  (260,672  in  1899)  are 
herded  on  large  ostrich  farms  (dry  veldt). 

Gboloot  and  Mineral  Resources.  The  dis- 
covery of  diamonds  and  gold  had  a  profound 
effect  upon  the  condition  and  prospects  of  South 
Africa,  upliftinff  the  country  in  a  few  years 
from  obscurity  into  universal  notice.  Gold  and 
diamonds  are  the  foundation  of  the  country's 
prosperity.  Many  millions  of  dollars  have  been 
disbursed  in  wages  and  local  expenses  at  the 
mines.  (For  geology,  gold,  and  diamonds,  see 
Capb  Colont,  Transvaal  Colont,  Kimberlet, 
etc.)  The  copper  mines  of  Namaqualand  are  un- 
surpassed in  richness  of  yield.  The  principal 
silver  mine  worked  is  50  miles  east  of  Johannes- 
burg, 6  miles  from  coal  fields,  but  indications  of 
silver  have  been  found  in  many  parts  of  South 
Africa.  Enormous  deposits  of  coal  and  iron  have 
been  discovered  in  Cape  Colony  and  Natal  in  close 
proximity.  Coal  is  also  mined  in  the  Transvaal 
and  the  Orange  River  colonies,  and  extensive  coal 
measures  have  also  been  found  in  Rhodesia, 
near  the  Zambezi.  Platinum,  plumbago,  man- 
ganese, and  the  finest  of  marble,  building  stone, 
and  lime  are  also  among  the  mineral  resources. 

Aorioulture.  Farmers  have  already  followed 
the  miners  far  toward  the  Zambezi.  Scotchmen 
and  Englishmen  in  Mashonaland  and  Matabele- 
land  are  producing  the  food  supplies  required 
by  the  settlements  and  mining  camps.  The  soil 
is  extraordinarily  productive  wherever  rainfall 
is  sufficient;  but  the  chief  interest  is  stock- 
raising,  the  country,  as  a  whole,  being  better 
suited  for  pastoral  pursuits  than  for  agricul- 
tural operations.  Wood  is  the  staple  source 
of  wealth,  the  grasses  of  the  veldt  and  the  pas- 
ture plants  of  the  karroos  being  well  suited 
for  growing  the  finest  wools.  Many  millions  of 
sheep  are  pastured  in  the  Cape,  Natal,  Orange 
River  Colony,  the  Transvaal  Colony,  Bechuana- 
land,  etc.  Angora  goats  (mohair)  and  cattle 
also  abound.  The  'Cape  horse'  is  not  handsome, 
but  is  hardy  and  keeps  in  good  condition  on  the 
veldt.  Across  the  south  end  of  the  country  is  a 
strip  of  fine  farming  land,  where  wheat,  maize 


(mealies),  and  all  the  crops  of  the  temperate 
zone  are  very  successful.  The  best  wheat  is 
grown  along  the  southern  border  of  Orange  Biver 
Colony.  (For  vine-growing,  ostrich  fanninSy  and 
tobacco,  see  Cape  Colont.)  It  is  to  the  advan- 
tage of  South  Africa  that  its  great  Taiiety  of 
climate  enables  it  to  grow  nearly  every  cultivated 
crop.  Sugar-cane  and  tea-planting  in  Natal  have 
passed  beyond  the  experimental  stage.  Sugar  is 
now  exported,  and  the  tea  is  of  excellent  flavor. 
(Doffee  and  arrowroot  also  thrive  on  the  moist 
coastlands. 

Manufactures.  Little  attention  has  been 
given  to  the  manufacturing  industries,  chiefly  on 
accoimt  of  the  sparsity  of  the  white  population. 
A  large  quantity  of  Cape  wine  and  brandy  is 
produced,  but  they  are  of  inferior  quality  and 
are  consumed  chiefly  by  the  black  natives.  The 
chief  centres  of  the  manufacturing  industries 
are  in  Cape  Colony,  where,  in  1891,  there  wrere 
2230  industrial  establishments  employing  32,735 
persons,  flour  mills,  tobacco  factories,  tanneries, 
diamond-washing  and  gold  and  copper  reduction 
works  being  most  prominent;  and  in  the  Trans- 
vaal Colony,  where  before  the  war  there  were 
69  establishments,  including  saw-mills,  brick  and 
lime  works,  and  machine  shops. 

Commerce.  Prominent  among  the  takers'  of 
the  country  are  still  the  traders  who  load  their 
heavy  wagons  carrying  three  to  four  tons  with 
all  kinds  of  goods  desired  by  the  black  popula- 
tion, and  trek  from  tribe  to  tribe,  returning  to 
town  or  port  after  many  months  to  dispose  of 
the  ivory,  horns,  skins,  and  feathers  received  in 
exchange  for  their  wares.  The  trekking  trade  has 
been  the  means  of  diverting  most  of  commerce, 
even  of  the  Zambezi  region,  to  the  southern  ports. 
The  circulation  of  goods  is  to  and  from  the  sea- 
coast,  there  being  little  trade  between  town  and 
town,  as  all  are  supplied  from  the  seaport 
centres.  Except  durmg  the  recent  war  the 
'Cape  trade'  Ims  been  steadily  growing.  The 
annual  import  and  export  traffic  of  the  region 
south  of  the  Zambezi  is  now  over  $200,000,000 
a  year.  Great  Britain  controlling  nearly  all  the 
exports,  those  which  reach  other  countries  be- 
ing mainly  through  British  channels.  Gold,  dia- 
monds, and  wool  are  the  great  export  staples, 
with  hides,  mohair,  wine,  and  ostrich  feathers 
next  in  importance.  Many  of  the  imports  (gen- 
eral manufactures,  machinery,  etc.)  come  from 
countries  other  than  Greiit  Britain.  In  1902 
the  imports  from  the  United  States  amounted  to 
over  $26,000,000,  while  the  exports  to  it  were  less 
than  $1,000,000. 

Transportation  and  Communication.  In 
the  more  settled  districts  there  are  fairly  good 
roads  with  substantial  bridges  across  the  rivers. 
Mail  carts,  coaches,  and  in  some  cases  bullock 
wagons,  ply  between  the  railroad  stations  and 
all  the  larger  towns  that  are  not  on  the  rail 
lines.  There  is  now  rail  connection  between  all 
the  important  ports  of  the  south  and  east  coasts 
and  the  larger  interior  towns  and  mining  dis- 
tricts. One  may  travel  by  rail  from  Cape  Town 
to  Salisbury,  in  Mashonaland,  and  thence  to 
the  port  of  Beira.  It  is  confidently  expected 
that  before  many  years  the  railway  system  of 
South  Africa  will  be  connected  with  that  of 
Egypt.  Regular  communication  is  maintained 
with  Burope,  America,  and  Australia. 

PopriATiON  AND  HiSTORY.  The  population  ii 
only  about  6,000,000,  of  whom  only  about  760,- 


SOUTH  AnUEOA; 


1047 


S0X7TH  A7BI0AN  WAB. 


000  ar«  white.  For  exploration  and  history,  see 
Afbioa,  Boebs,  Ni^TiiU  iBAiraTAAi*  and  Bottth 
Afbigan  Wab. 

80XJTH  APBICA  COHFANT,  Bbitibh.  See 
Rhodes,  Cecil;  Rhodesia. 

SOUTH  AFBICAN  BEPUBLIC.  A  former 
republic  of  South  Africa.    See  Transvaal. 

SOXTTH  AFBICAN  WAB.  The  conflict  for 
supremacy  in  South  Africa  between  Great  Britain 
and  the  Boer  republics  of  the  Transvaal  and  the 
Orange  Free  State  in  the  years  1899-1902.  The 
causes  that  led  up  to  the  struggle  and  the  diplo- 
matic negotiations  that  preceded  its  outbreak 
are  treated  under  Transvaal.  The  following 
account  will  deal  exclusively  with  the  history  of 
military  operations  and  the  terms  of  peace  that 
ended  Uie  war.  On  the  outbreak  of  war,  October 
11,  1899,  the  British  strength  in  South  Africa 
comprised  a  body  of  about  twelve  thousand  men 
in  Natal;  a  second  force  (2500)  at  Kimberley, 
on  the  western  frontier  of  the  Orange  Free  State; 
a  third  ( 1000)  at  Maf eking,  on  the  Bechuanaland 
border;  and  about  1000  men  on  the  Rhodesian 
frontier.  The  railway  crossings  on  the  Orange 
River  and  the  northern  part  of  Cape  CJolony  were 
guarded  by  some  5000  men.  The  numper  of 
Boers  mobilized  on  the  Natal  frontier  in  the  early 
days  of  October  was  about  20,000.  On  the  day 
following  the  declaration  of  war  the  forces  of 
the  Transvaal  and  the  Orange  Free  State  entered 
Natal.  Laing's  Nek  and  Ingogo  Heights,  in  the 
extreme  northern  part  of  the  colony,  were  seized, 
and  the  Boers  pressed  down  the  Durban  Railway 
and  attacked  the  British  line  extending  from 
Ladysmith  to  Dundee.  On  October  20th  the 
British  drove  a  Boer  force  from  Talana  Hill, 
near  Dundee,  and  on  the  following  day  they 
routed  the  Boers  at  Elaandslaagte,  but  on  Octo^ 
ber  30th  they  met  with  a  serious  reverse  at 
Nicholson's  Nek,  and  by  November  2d  the  Boers, 
imder  Petrus  Joubert  (q.v.),  had  succeeded  in 
completely  investing  Ladysmith,  which  was  held 
by  about  10,000  troops  under  Sir  George  White. 
At  the  same  time  Kimberley  was  besieged  by  a 
Boer  force  of  6000  under  Prinsloo,  and  1000 
British  under  Col.  Baden-Powell  were  locked  up 
in  Maf  eking  by  Cronje  (q.v.)  at  the  head  of  6000 
men.  The  imfortunate  beginning  of  the  war 
aroused  great  alarm  in  Great  Britam,  and  prepa- 
rations were  made  for  carrying  on  a  struggle 
which  it  now  became  apparent  was  to  be  of  a 
nature  far  more  serious  than  had  been  anticipa- 
ted. Large  reinforcements  were  dispatched  to 
South  Africa  under  the  command  of  Sir  Redvers 
Buller,  who,  at  the  head  of  16,000  men,  was  in- 
trusted with  the  task  of  relieving  Ladysmith, 
while  Lord  Methuen  with  0600  was  to  make  his 
way  to  Kimberley  from  the  south,  and  a  force  of 
some  5000  men  under  .General  French  and  4500 
men  under  General  Gatacre  were  sent  to  operate 
against  the  Boers  in  the  north  of  Cape  Colony. 
(m  November  23d  Lord  Methuen  defeated  the 
Boers  at  Belmont,  and  on  the  25th  he  won  a 
victory  at  Ens!  in  or  Graspan,  but  on  the  28th  he 
suffered  severely  in  his  attempt  to  cross  the 
Modder  River  near  its  jimction  with  the  Riet, 
and  on  December  11th  was  decisively  defeated  by 
Cronje  in  an  attempt  to  storm  the  Boer  position 
at  Magersfontein.  On  December  10th  General 
Gatacre  met  with  a  serious  setback  at  Storm- 
berg  Junction,  in  Cap«  Colony.    The  most  obsti- 


nate fighting,  however,  occurred  around  Lady- 
smith, and  at  Colenso  on  December  15th  the 
British  encountered  a  severe  reverse  at  the  hands 
of  the  Boer  riflemen. 

This  succession  of  disasters  spurred  on  the 
British  authorities  to  greater  exertions.  In  the 
latter  part  of  December  Lord  Roberts  of  Kan- 
dahar was  ordered  to  Africa  as  commander-in- 
chief,  with  Lord  Kitchener  of  Khartum  as  his 
chief  of  staflT.  The  fighting  thus  far  had  re- 
vealed on  the  part  of  the  British  officers  great 
ignorance  of  the  nature  of  the  country  and  of 
the  enemy.  The  Boers  were  all  excellent  marks- 
men and  many  of  them  were  mounted,  thus  com- 
bining the  rapidity  of  cavalry  with  the  stability 
of  infantry.  The  British,  on  the  contrary,  were 
handicapped  by  the  absence  of  cavalry,  and  for 
want  of  adequate  transport  facilities  were  com- 
pelled to  cling  to  the  lines  of  railway,  thus  nar- 
rowing greatly  their  field  of  operations.  Before 
the  end  of  January,  1900,  the  English  forces  in 
South  Africa  were  estimated  at  about  130,000 
men.  Lords  Roberts  and  Eatchener  arrived  at 
Cape  Town  on  January  10th,  and  a  month's  time 
was  devoted  to  or^ianizing  the  newly  landed 
troops  and  establishing  the  transport  and  train 
on  an  adequate  basis.  The  cavalry  was  made  an 
important  arm  and  much  attention  was  devoted 
to  the  mounted  infantry,  composed  of  volunteers 
from  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  Canada.  The 
new  plan  of  campaign  provided  for  .the  invasion 
of  the  Orange  Free  State  by  the  main  army  under 
Lord  Roberts,  which,  after  relieving  Kimberley, 
was  to  advance  upon  Bloemfontein.  At  the  same 
time  three  smaller  forces  setting  out  from  Cape 
Colony  were  to  advance  northward  across  tne 
Orange  River  and  to  converge  on  Bloemfontein. 
The  Boer  forces  thus  crowded  up  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  Orange  Free  State  were  then  to  be 
driven  across  the  Vaal  and  cooped  up  in  the 
mountains  of  Eastern  Transvaal,  where  the  united 
English  strength  might  easily  crush  them.  No 
attempt  was  made  greatly  to  reinforce  the  troops 
operating  around  Ladysmith,  for  it  was  thought 
that  a  successful  advance  on  Bloemfontein  and 
Pretoria  would  compel  the  Boers  to  raise  the 
siege  of  that  town.  At  Ladysmith,  meanwhile, 
desperate  fighting  had  taken  place  during  the 
month  of  January.  On  the  6th  the  Boers  made 
a  fierce  assault  on  the  redoubts  to  the  south  of 
the  town,  but  were  repulsed.  On  the  11th  Sir 
Redvers  Buller  began  a  great  flanking  movement 
westward  along  the  Tugela  River,  with  the  object 
of  compelling  the  Boers  to  abandon  their  position 
on  the  north  side  of  the  stream  and  south  of 
Ladysmith.  On  the  18th  a  division  under  Gen- 
eral Warren  crossed  the  Tugela,  and  on  the  night 
of  the  23d-24th  stormed  Spion  Kop,  which  was 
considered  the  key  of  the  enemy's  position.  While 
encamped  on  the  hill,  however,  the  British  were 
exposed  to  a  murderous  flre  from  the  surrounding 
hills,  and  on  the  evening  of  the  24th  were  com- 
pelled to  abandon  the  position,  with  the  loss  of 
1700  men.  On  the  27th  General  Warren  recrosaed 
the  Tugela. 

Lord  Roberts's  advance  on  Kimberley  began 
on  February  11th.  He  had  under  him  alMut 
23,000  infantry,  11,000  mounted  men,  and  98 
guns.  On  the  13th  of  February  the  cavalry  un- 
der General  French  forced  the  passage  of  the 
Modder  River,  and  on  the  15th  entered  Kim- 
berley.    Cronje,    who   was   now   in   duiger   of 


SOUTH  ATBZCAN  WAB. 


1048 


SOUTH  AFBIOAN  WAK. 


being  cut  cQ  from  Bloemfontein,  aba&dcmed  his 
position  at  Magersfontein,  and  retreated  rabidly 
to  the  northeast.  He  was  pursued  by  the  British 
cavalry  and  mounted  infantry,  and  from  the  10th 
to  the  18th  carried  on  a  fierce  rear-guard  fight. 
On  the  19th  he  was  finally  brought  to  a  stand- 
still at  Paardeberg,  on  the  Modder  River.  There 
the  Boers  intrenched  themselves  in  the  bed  of  the 
stream.  From  the  19th  to  the  27th  the  Boer 
position  was  bombarded  by  the  British  artillery, 
and  Cronje's  men  found  shelter  largely  by  bur- 
rowing into  the  banks  of  the  river.  The  British 
lines  were  finally  advanced  within  eighty  yards 
of  the  Boer  position,  and  on  the  morning  of  the 
27th  Cronje  surrendered  with  400  men  and  six 
guns.  The  British  advance  on  Bloemfontein  was 
quickly  be^un,  the  cavalry  and  mounted  infantry 
operating  m  advance  and  on  the  wings,  the  in- 
fantry holding  the  centre.  On  the  flat  level  of 
the  veldt  the  British  superiority  in  numbers  was 
decisive,  and  the  Boers  could  make  no  effective 
stand.  On  March  7th  they  offered  battle  at  Pop- 
lar Qrove,  some  60  miles  west  of  Bloemfontein, 
but  were  outflanked  and  driven  from  behind  their 
intrenchments.  On  March  10th  a  hard  fight 
occurred  at  Driefontein,  about  30  miles  from 
Bloemfontein.  On  March  13th  Roberts  entered  the 
capital.  President  Steyn  having  fled  on  the  preced- 
ing day  to  Kroonstadt.  For  more  than  a  month 
and  a  half  Lord  Roberts  remained  at  Bloemfon- 
tein before  resuming  the  advance  upon  Pre- 
toria, the  chief  reason  being  the  lack  of  horses 
for  the  mounted  troops.  The  Boers  for  a  time 
made  no  attempt  at  any  demonstration  in  force, 
but  contented  themselves  with  carrying  on  an 
active  guerrilla  warfare  which  inflicted  consider- 
able loss  on  the  British.  On  May  1st  the  British 
began  the  advance  on  Pretoria.  On  May  12th 
they  entered  Kroonstadt  after  encountering  the 
Boers  under  Qeneral  Louis  Botha  (q>^0  on  the 
Vet  River  May  5th,  and  on  the  Zand  River  on  the 
10th.  From  Kroonstadt  the  British  army  ad- 
vanced in  the  form  of  a  crescent  forty  miles 
across,  driving  the  Boer  forces  before  them.  The 
Vaal  River  was  crossed  between  the  24th  and 
27th  of  May,  Johannesburg  was  entered  on  Mav 
3 1st,  and  on  June  6th  Pretoria  was  occupied. 
President  Kruger  fled  to  Machadodorp,  while 
General  Botha  with  about  eight  thousand  men 
took  up  a  strong  position  fifteen  miles  east  of  the 
capital.  On  June  11th- 12th  he  was  attacked  by 
the  British  advance  guard  and  slowly  driven 
back.  On  July  23d  Lord  Roberts  set  out  from 
Pretoria  for  the  final  campaign. 

In  Natal,  meanwhile.  General  Buller,  on  Feb- 
ruary 5th,  had  made  a  third  attempt  to  cross 
the  Tugela  and  to  break  through  the  Boer  lines. 
He  failed,  and  on  the  7th  was  driven  back 
across  the  river.  On  the  14th  the  fourth  and 
final  dash  for  Ladysmith  was  begun.  The  Boer 
positions  at  Horsar  Hill,  Cingolo,  Monte  Cristo, 
Hlongwane,  and  Colenso  were  taken  between  the 
14th  and  the  20th ;  the  Tugela  was  crossed  on  the 
21st;  Peter's  Hill,  the  key  of  the  enemy's  posi- 
tion, was  taken  on  the  27th ;  and  on  the  following 
day  the  British  cavalry  entered  Ladysmith.  Gen- 
eral Buller's  forces  advanced  northward  into  the 
Transvaal,  where  they  cooperated  with  Lord 
Roberts  in  the  final  campaign.  On  May  18th 
Mafeking,  the  last  of  the  three  towns  invested 
by  the  Boers  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  was 
relieved. 


In  the  Eastern  Transvaal  the  main  Boer  foroe 
under  General  Botha  was  rapidly  driven  into 
the  mountains  bordering  on  the  Portuguese 
frontier.  The  Boers  made  a  desperate  stand  at 
Bergendal,  August  27th,  but  were  driven  from 
their  position  by  General  Buller.  At  Spitzkop, 
southeast  of  Lydenberg,  General  Botha  fought  the 
last  set  battle  of  the  war  on  September  8th.  The 
Boers  were  defeated,  and  the  greater  part  of 
them,  about  3000  in  number,  crossed  into  Portu- 
guese territory  on  September  14th  and  surren- 
dered to  the  authorities  there.  On  October  19th 
President  Kruger  sailed  for  Holland  from  Lou- 
rengo  Marques  on  a  Dutch  man-of-war. 

From  this  time  until  the  termination  of  the 
war  in  May,  1902,  the  struggle  on  the  part  of 
the  Boers  took  on  the  form  of  a  desperate  re- 
sistance waged  by  the  guerrilla  bands  against  im- 
mensely superior  forces  and  inevitable  defeat. 
It  was  the  task  of  the  British  under  Lord  EJtch- 
ener,  who  succeeded  Lord  Roberts  in  the  com- 
mand of  the  British  forces,  November  29,  1900,  to 
pacify  the  country  they  had  overrun,  and  to 
this  purpose  was  employed  a  plan  of  campaign 
adapted  to  the  conditions  under  which  the  eon- 
fiiet  was  now  to  be  fought  out.  Flying  colunms 
traversed  the  Orange  Free  State  and  the  Western 
Transvaal  in  an  effort  to  himt  down  the  Boer 
commandos,  which,  under  leaders  like  Christian 
De  Wet  and  Jacob  Hendrik  De  la  Rey  (qq.v.), 
displayed  sufficient  abilil^  to  cause  the  British 
forces  much  annoyance^  if  not  actual  harm.  De 
Wet  especially  evinced  splendid  talents  as  a 
partisan  leader,  and  his  astonishing  rapidity  of 
movement,  boldness  in  attack,  and  marvelous 
good  fortune  in  eluding  capture  served  to  make 
the  end  of  the  South  African  War  dramatic 

The  activity  of  the  Boers  was  limited  to  the 
repeated  capture  of  isolated  outposts  or  of 
comparatively  small  detachments  of  the  enemy, 
whom,  however,  they  were  invariably  compelled 
to  release  for  absolute  lade  of  facilities  to  keep 
them  captive.  At  times,  indeed,  the  danger  of 
a  rising  among  the  Dutch  inhabitants  of  Cape 
Colony  seemed  imminent,  as  when  a  number  of 
Boer  commandos  entered  Cape  Colony  in  the 
winter  of  1900-01,  and  threw  the  inhabitants 
of  Cape  Town  into  alarm,  but  probably  the  lead- 
ing motive  that  actuated  the  Boer  leaders  in 
continuing  their  resistance  was  the  hope  of  for- 
eign intervention  as  the  result  of  some  untoward 
event.  To  a  less  degree  they  may  have  depended 
on  the  strong  sentiment  of  opposition  to  the  war 
which  prevailed  among  a  large  portion  of  the 
English  people.  The  struggle  ultimately  resolved 
itself  into  a  campaign  ofso-called  'attrition'  on 
the  part  of  the  English,  a  process,  that  is,  of 
steadily  weeding  out  the  enemy  by  the  unceasing 
pursuit  and  capture  of  one  Boer  commander  after 
another.  The  task  of  the  British  was  made 
more  difficult  by  the  active  assistance  rendered 
the  Boers  by  the  non-bell  i^rent  population,  and 
because  of  this  concentration  camps  were  estab- 
lished in  the  Transvaal,  Cape  Colony,  and  the 
Orange  River  Colony,  into  which  were  gathered 
all  Boer  non-combatants,  as  well  as  those  British 
loyalists  who  desired  the  protection  of  the  au- 
thorities. The  high  rate  of  mortality  that  pre- 
vailed among  the  children  in  the  concentration 
camps  arous^  bitter  criticism  of  British  methods 
in  tne  foreign  press. 

The  uselessness  of  protracting  the  struggle  was 
recognized  by  a  number  of  the  Boer  iMtders  be- 


SOUTH  AVBIOAK  WAB. 


1049 


80TTTHAMFT0N. 


fora  the  beginning  of  1902,  and  negotiations  for 
peace  were  b^un  in  January  of  that  year.  The 
British  Government  declined  to  take  into  con- 
sideration the  question  of  the  independence  of 
the  Boer  States^  and  the  articles  of  peace  as 
signed  at  Pretoria  on  May  30th  were  substantial- 
ly those  offered  by  the  Government  in  1901.  By 
tne  terms  of  the  treaty  the  Boers  in  the  field 
asreed  to  lay  down  their  arms  and  to  acknowl- 
eage  Edward  VII.  as  their  lawful  sovereign,  on 
condition  that  no  burgher  should  be  deprived  of 
his  liberty  or  property,  or  be  subjectea  to  civil 
or  criminal  proceedings,  for  acts  committed  dur- 
ing the  war.  It  was  provided  that  the  Dutch  lan- 
guage be  taught  in  the  public  schools  and  the 
use  of  it  permitted  in  the  courts.  Military  ad- 
ministration in  the  colonj  was  to  be  succeeded 
by  civil  rule  at  the  earliest  opportunity,  to  be 
followed  by  the  ultimate  establishment  of  repre- 
sentative government.  No  special  tax  was  to 
be  imposed  on  landed  property  to  defray  the  ex- 
penses of  the  war.  The  number  of  Boers  who 
surrendered  after  the  conclusion  of  peace  was 
more  than  20,000. 

Figures  issued  by  the  War  Office  showed  that 
the  English  forces  engaged  in  South  Africa  dur- 
ing the  war  numbercMl  nearly  450,000,  of  which 
number  9940  were  in  South  Africa  on  August  1, 
1899.  The  reinforcements  after  that  date  dis- 
patched to  South  Africa  from  Great  Britain  in- 
cluded nearly  247,000  regular  troops  and  110,000 
volunteers,  militia  and  yeomanry.  The  number 
of  volunteers  from  the  British  colonies  was  near- 
ly 31,000,  and  more  than  62,000  men  were  raised 
in  South  Africa.  The  casualties,  as  given  by  the 
War  Office,  were  1072  officers  and  20,973  men 
dead  or  missing,  and  3116  officers  and  72,514  men 
sent  home  as  invalids.  The  cost  of  the  war  in 
money  was  placed  by  the  authorities  at  £206,- 
224,000.  The  Boer  enlistment  from  first  to  last, 
according  to  estimates  made  by  the  Red  Cross 
Society,  did  not  exceed  75,000.  Their  casualties 
were  placed  at  3700  killed  or  dead  of  wounds^ 
and  32,000  prisoners. 

BiBLiOGRAFHY.  Amcry  (ed.),  Times  History 
of  the  War  in  South  Africa,  1899-1902  (vols,  i., 
ii.,  London,  1900 — ) ;  De  Wet,  Three  Tears'  War 
(New  York,  1902) ;  Viljoen,  Die  Transvaaler  im 
Krieg  mit  England  (Munich,  1902) ;  Amtliohe 
Berichte  des  Generals  J.  H.  de  la  Rey — soune  an- 
deren  Urkunden  Uber  den  Sudafrikanischen  Krieg 
(ib.,  1902)  ;  Hillegas,  The  Boers  in  War  (New 
York,  1900)  ;  Estorff  and  Gemeth,  Der  Buren- 
krieg  in  SUdafrika  (Berlin,  1901)  ;  Mahan,  The 
War  in  South  Africa — to  the  Fall  of  Pretoria 
(New  York,  1900)  ;  Danes,  CasselVs  History  of 
the  Boer  War,  1899-1901  (London,  1901) ;  Doyle, 
The  Great  Boer  War  (New  York,  1902) ;  Davitt, 
The  Boer  Fight  for  Freedom  (ib.,  1902) ;  Ogden, 
The  War  Against  the  Dutch  Republics  in  South 
Africa  (Manchester,  Eng.,  1901)  ;  Gunliffe, 
History  of  the  Boer  War  (London,  1901)  ;  Hiley 
and  Hassell,  The  Mobile  Boer  (New  York,  1902) ; 
Davis,  With  Both  Armies  in  South  Africa  (ib., 
1900) ;  Steevens,  From  Capetown  to  Lady  smith 
(ib.,  1900) ;  Burleigh,  Ifatal  Campaign  (London, 
1900)  ;  Churchill,  London  to  Lady  smith  ina  Pre- 
toria  (New  York,  1900)  ;  Kinnear,  To  M odder 
River  with  Methuen  (Bristol,  Eng.,  1900)  ; 
Ralph,  Towards  Pretoria  (New  York,  1900)  ;  id., 
An  American  with  Lord  Roberts  (ib.,  1901); 
Goldmann,  With  General  French  and  the  Cavalry 


in  South  Africa  (ib.,  1902) ;  Nevinson,  Lady- 
smith,  the  Diary  of  a  Siege  (ib.^  1900) ;  Ashe, 
Besieged  by  the  Boers  in  Kimberley  (ib.,  1900) ; 
Young,  The  Relief  of  Maf eking  (London,  1900) ; 
Wilkinson,  Lessons  of  the  War  (ib.,  1900). 

SOUTH  AMBOY^  A  borough  in  Middlesex 
County,  N.  J.,  on  the  Raritan  laver  and  Bay, 
directly  opposite  Perth  Amboy,  and  on  the  Penn- 
sylvania, the  Central  of  New  Jersey,  and  the 
Raritan  River  railroads  (Map:  New  Jersey,  D 
3).  A  long  drawbridf^e  connects  it  with  Perth 
Amboy.  The  borough  is  important  as  the  centre 
of  a  region  containing  large  quantities  of  sand 
and  clay.  Pottery,  terra-cotta,  asphaltum,  and 
brick  are  the  most  important  manufactures. 
Coal  is  extensively  shipped  from  this  port  by 
the  Pennsylvania  Railroad.  The  government  is 
vested  in  a  mayor,  elected  biennially,  and  a  uni- 
cameral council.  South  Amboy  was  incorporated 
in  1898.  Population,  in  1890,  4330;  in  1900, 
6349. 

SOXTTH  AMEBIOA.    See  Amebiga. 

SOUTHAHPTON,  sIlTH-h&mp'ton.  A  civic 
county,  mimicipal  and  Parliamentary  borough, 
and  seaport,  in  the  south  of  Hampshire,  Eng- 
land, 79  miles  southwest  of  London  (Map:  Eng- 
land, E  6).  The  town  occupies  a  peninsula  at 
the  head  of  Southampton  Water,  between  the 
estuary  of  the  Test  or  Anton  on  the  west  and 
south  and  the  mouth  of  the  Itchen  on  the  east. 

The  Domus  Dei,  or  God's  house,  dates  from  the 
end  of  the  twelfth  century,  and  is  one  of  the 
oldest  hospitals  in  England.  In  the  vicinity 
are  the  picturesque  ruins  of  Netley  Abbey,  a 
Cistercian  foundation  of  the  thirteenth  centuiy, 
and  the  Netley  Military  Hospital,  accommodat- 
ing 1,000  patients.  Southampton  was  incorporat- 
ed by  Henry  I.,  and  received  several  privileges 
confirmed  by  subsequent  monarchs.  Henry  VI. 
constituted  the  town  a  county  in  itself,  and  its 
area  included  a  little'  place  called  Portsmouth. 
The  guild  merchants  controlled  affairs  and  the 
municipal  transactions  are  recorded  in  the  fa- 
mous 'oak  book,'  the  most  treasured  object  in  the 
town  archives.  The  Mayor  is  Admiral  of  the 
Port  and  chairman  of  the  town  council's  twenty 
committees.  The  town  has  owned  its  markets 
since  its  incorporation,  and  the  water  supply 
since  1420,  and  its  slaughter  houses  since  1698. 
It  receives  a  fine  revenue  from  corporate  prop- 
erty and  harbor  dues,  and  owns  Southampton 
Common,  300  acres  in  extent.  The  borough's 
boundaries  were  extended  in  1895,  since  when 
much  economic  progress  has  been  made.  Artisans' 
dwellings  and  a  municipal  lodging  house  have 
been  built,  sewage  and  draining  works  carried 
out,  and  an  electric  lighting  plant  and  street 
railways  acquired.  The  town  maintains  a  large 
isolation  hospital,  fine  public  baths,  a  free  public 
library,  a  cemetery,  and  extensive  parks,  and 
makes  abundant  provision  for  technical  instruc- 
tion. 

Yacht  and  ship  building  and  engine-making 
are  actively  carried  on,  and  there  is  an  exten- 
sive general  trade.  Southampton  is  a  fash- 
ionable summer  resort.  It  owes  its  importance 
to  its  sheltered  harbor  and  to  the  phenomenon 
of  double  tides,  which  prolong  high  water  for 
three  hours.  (See  English  Channel.)  There  is 
considerable  traffic  between  Southampton  and  the 
Channel  Islands  and  French  coast,  and  also  a 


80UTHAXPT0K. 


1060 


SOUTHABD. 


large  cattle  trade  with  Spain  and  PortogaL  Its 
do<3u  include  five  large  dry  dockSy  two  tidal, 
basins  (16  and  18  acres  in  area),  and  a  closed 
dock.  An  average  of  11,500  vessels  enter,  and 
clear  a  gross  tonnage  of  6,441,000  annually. 

Southampton  supplanted  the  ancient  Clath 
eentum,  which  stood  one  mile  to  the  northeast, 
and  its  foundation  is  ascribed  to  the  Anglo- 
Saxons.  A  great  part  of  it  was  burned  by  the 
combined  French,  Spanish,  and  Genoese  fleets  in 
1338,  and  in  the  following  year  its  defenses  were 
strengthened.  Population,  in  1901,  105,000. 
Consult  Davis,  History  of  Southampton  (South- 
ampton, 1883). 

SOTJTHAMPTOK.  Another  name  for  the 
English  county  of  Hampshire  (q.v.). 

SOUTHAICPTOK,  Henbt  Wbiotheslxt, 
third  Earl  of  (1573-1624).  An  English  sUtes- 
man  and  the  patron  of  Shakespeare.  He  was 
bom  at  Gowdray  House,  near  Midhurst,  was  edu- 
cated at  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge,  and 
studied  law  at  Gray's  Inn.  He  was  early  at- 
tached to  Queen  Elizabeth's  suite,  and  received 
the  dedications  of  various  poets,  including 
Shakespeare,  who  in  1693  addressed  to  him  his 
poem  Venus  and  Adonis,  and  the  following  year 
The  Rape  of  Lucrece,  Southampton  is  also  sup- 
posed by  some  to  be  the  anonymous  patron  of 
Shakespeare's  Sonnets,  He  was  a  friend  of  the 
Earl  of  Essex,  whom  he  accompanied  in  the 
expedition  to  Cadiz  and  afterwards  to  Ireland. 
He  took  part  in  Essex's  insurrection,  and,  though 
he  asserted  his  innocence  of  any  design  asainst 
the  life  of  the  (Jueen,  was  attainted  and  con- 
demned to  death.  Elizabeth  commuted  the  sen- 
tence to  imprisonment  for  life,  and  the  penalty 
was  reversed  by  Parliament  early  in  the  reicn 
of  James  I.  In  1605  he  became  active  in  the 
colonization  of  America^  and  was  Governor  ol 


the  Virginia  Company  from  1620  until  its  dis- 
solution in  1624.  In  1621  he  was  impiiaoned 
in  the  Tower  for  his  opposition  to  the  arbitraiy 
measures  of  Charles  I.  After  his  release  he  com- 
manded a  raiment  in  the  fight  for  Dutch  inde- 
pendence against  the  Spanish,  and  both  he  and 
his  son  died  of  fever  contracted  in  the  Nether- 
lands. 

SOXTTHAICFTON   XHBXnEtSECTIOHT.     See 

TuBNKB,  Nat. 

SOTTTHABD,  stkTH^grd,  Samuel  Lewis  (1787- 
1842).    An  American  legislator  and  Cabinet  of- 
ficer, bom  at  Basking  Ridge,  N.  J.  He  graduated 
at  Princeton  in  1804,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1809.     In  1811  he  settled  in  Flemington, 
N.  J.    From  1814  to  1819  he  was  a  justice  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  New  Jersey,  and  in  1821  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  Scaiate.  In  that  body 
he  was  in  1821  a  member  of  the  joint  committee 
on  the  Missouri  Compromise.  In  1823  he  resigned 
his   seat  in   the   Senate  to  accept   the    post  of 
Secretary  of  the  Navy,  and  he  continued  at  the 
head     of    the     Navy     Department     throughout 
Adams's  administration.    In  1830  he  was  elected 
Attorney-General  of  New  Jersey,  and  in  1832  was 
chosen    Governor.      From    1833    until    about   a 
month  before  his  death,  he  was  again  a  member 
of  the  United  States  Senate.    He  attained  high 
rank  in  the  Senate,  and  was  looked  upon  as  one 
of  the  most  influential  Whig  leaders  in  the  na- 
tion.   In  the  27th  Congress  (1841-43)   until  his 
resignation  he  was  president  pro  tempore,  and 
he  presided  over  the  body  after  the   death  of 
William     Henry    Harrison     had    called     Vice- 
President  Tyler  to  the  Presidential  chair.     He 
published     Reports     of     the     Supreme     Court 
of    New    Jersey    1816-20     (1820);     Centennial 
Address  (1832) ;  and  Discourse  on  WUUam  Wirt 
(1834). 


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